WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES
Onondaga Lake Study
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY • WATER QUALITY OFpiCE
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WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES
The Water Pollution Control Research Series describes the
results and progress in the control and abatement of pollution
in our Nation's waters. They provide a central source of
information on the research, development, and demonstration
activities in the Water Quality Office, Environmental Protection
Agency, through inhouse research and grants and contracts with
Federal, State, and local agencies, research institutions, and
industrial organizations.
Inquiries pertaining to Water Pollution Control Research Reports
should be directed to the Head, Project Reports System, Office
of Research and Development, Water Quality Office, Environmental
Protection Agency, Room 1108, Washington, D.C. 20242.
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ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
Onondaga County
Onondaga County Office Building
Syracuse, New York 13202
for the
WATER QUALITY OFFICE
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Project #11060 FAE 4/71
April 1971
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EPA Review Notice
This report has been reviewed by the
Environmental Protection Agency and
approved for publication. Approval does
not signify that the contents necessarily
reflect the views and policies of the
Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products
constitute endorsement or recommendation for
use.
* U.S. GOVtINMtNT PUNTING OFFICE : 1*71 0-41I-)IO
EOT sale by the Superintendent of Document!, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price J4.50
Stock Number 5501-0099
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ABSTRACT
Physical, chemical, biological and geochemical investigations
were conducted to determine the trophic status of Onondaga
Lake, a saline lake on the edge of Syracuse, New York. En-
gineering evaluations were made to determine effects future
pollution abatement facilities will have on the lake.
Major circulation patterns were determined from thermal tran-
sects of the lake, and distributions of chemical species
within the lake with respect to time. The lake was found to
be vertically stratified, but well-mixed horizontally. The
lake is dimictic in that it undergoes two major periods of
circulation per year.
The lake supports a wide variety of phytoplankton, zooplankton
and fish, which is surprising in light of the lake's unusual
chemistry.
Mineral-water equilibria studies showed phosphate bearing
minerals form throughout the year in all zones of the lake.
Calcite, which is prevalent throughout most of the year,
constitutes most of the lake's sediments. It was determined
projected waste treatment facilities will not significantly
reduce formation of the above minerals in the lake.
Projected waste treatment facilities will result in signifi-
cant increases in dissolved oxygen (DO) in the epilimnetic
waters of the lake, and phosphate reductions in the lake.
DO's in the upper waters are expected to be well above the
New York State minimum classification for swimming and other
recreational uses.
A recommended monitoring program is intended to lend insight
into physiological factors to enable future projections of
phyto- and zooplankton and to measure the effects of projected
facilities on the lake.
This Report is part of a Federal Water Quality Administration
(FWQA) Research and Development Grant (11060 FAE) to Onondaga
County, New York.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
1 Conclusions 2
2 Recommendations 4
3 Introduction j>
Location °
Impetus of Study 6
Study Objectives 7
Organization of Study °
4 The Basin and Its Features 9
General *
Geologic Setting 9
Major Tributaries 12
Water Quality 12
5 Water Pollution - Sources 14
General 14
Historical Review 14
Sources of Pollution Considered 16
Waste Discharge Survey 18
Results I9
6 Literature Review 26
General 26
Early History ^°
Previous Reports(1920-1955) 29
Additional Studies (1955-1970) 32
7 Sampling and Analyses 37
General 37
Open Water Sampling 37
Waste Discharge Survey 39
Coring 41
Temperature Gradients 44
Biological Studies 44
8 Gross Physical Features 4j!
General 45
Seismic Studies 46
Results 46
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TABLE OF CONTENTS - (Cont'd)
Section
9 Other Physical Considerations -
Temperature and Transparency
General
Temperature
Thermal Transects
Summary of Transects
Transparency
10 Chemical Considerations
General
Lake Stratification vs "Overturn"
Significance of Chlorides
Horizontal Mixing
Lake Buffering Capacity
Statistical Routines
11 Biological Considerations
General
Sampling
Phytoplankton - Results
Zooplankton - Results
Fish - Results
12 Geological Considerations
General
Basis of Mineral Equilibrium Model
Treatment of Chemical Data
Sources and Magnitude of Benthic
Chloride Concentrations
Sources and Magnitude of Dissolved
Sulfide Concentrations
Sediment Characteristics
Heavy Metals
13 Engineering Considerations
General
Lake Assimilation Capacity (LASCAP)
Calculation of LASCAP
Pertinent Phosphorus Studies
Phosphorus Interactions in
Onondaga Lake
50
50
50
51
53
55
56
56
56
58
59
60
63
64
64
65
65
67
68
70
71
70
77
80
81
86
88
88
88
91
92
94
iii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS - (Cont'd)
Section Page
14 Engineering Evaluations & Recommendations 96
General 96
Impact of New Metropolitan Sewage
Treatment Facilities - Presently
Under Design 97
Storm Water Overflows 97
Phosphorus Reductions 101
15 Summary 104
Statement on Mercury HI
Acknowledgments 112
References 115
Glossary 128
APPENDICES
Appendix
A Daily Accounts of Thermal Transects 131
14 May 1968 132
28 May 1968 132,
12 July 1968 32
10 October 1968 ]«
15 October 1968 '33
22 October 1968 133
30 October 1968 I33
22 November 1968 I34
3 December 1968 134
18 February 1969 I35
7 March 1969 I35
18 March 1969 156
14 May 1969 136
13 June 1969 137
22 August 1969 137
29 August 1969 137
4 December 1969 138
iv
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TABLE OF CONTENTS - (Cortt'd)
Appendix
(Copper and Chromium)
(Iron, Manganese, Zinc)
Chemical Considerations
Alkalinity
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Chlorides
Carbon Dioxide
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
PH
Sulfates - Sulfides
Dissolved Oxygen
Calcium
Sodium
Potassium
Magnesium
Conductivi ty
Trace Elements
Trace Elements
Fluori de
Silicon Dioxide
Solids
Escherichia Coli
Statistical Analysis
Biological Considerations
Phytoplankton Investigations
Previous Studies
Methods
Results & Discussions - 1969
Major Species
Other Species
Environmental Factors
Relationship of Phytoplankton to
Water Chemistry
Grazing
Bioassays
Current State of Onondaga Lake with
Respect to the Phytoplankton
Zooplankton Investigations
Methods
Results
Interpretation
149
153
156
159
163
166
174
178
181
186
189
191
194
197
200
204
21'2
219
221
223
228
231
311
312
312
314
317
328
343
351
354
358
358
358
361
361
361
381
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TABLE OF CONTENTS - (Cont'd)
Appendix page
C Biological Considerations (Cont'd)
Fish Survey of Onondaga Lake 385
Introduction 385
Methods 385
Species Composition 387
Distribution 391
Benthos 391
Summary & Recommendations 393
D Geological Considerations 436
E Engineering Considerations 459
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TABLE OF CONTENTS - (Cont'd)
FIGURES
Fig. No. Page
1-1 Aerial View of Onondaga Lake 1
1-2 Onondaga Lake Sampling Locations Pocket
4-1 Geologic Map, Onondaga Lake Basin 10
4-2 Onondaga Lake Contours and
Drainage Basin 11
5-1 Air Pollutants During Ice Cover 17
7-1 Benthos Core 42
9-1 Infra-Red Imagry 54
A-l Thermal Transects of Onondaga Lake
14 May 1968 140
28 May 1968 140
Thermal Cross Section of Onondaga Lake
28 May 1968 139
A-2 Thermal Transects of Onondaga Lake
12 July 1968 141
10 October 1968 142
15 October 1968 141
22 October 1968 142
A-3 Thermal Transects of Onondaga Lake
30 October 1968 143
22 November 1968 144
3 December 1968 143
18 February 1969 144
A-4 Thermal Transects of Onondaga Lake
7 March 1969 145
18 March 1969 146
14 May 1969 145
13 June 1969 146
A-S Thermal Transects of Onondaga Lake
22 August 1969 147
29 August 1969 148
4 December 1969 148
vi i
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TABLE OF CONTENTS - (Cont'd)
pig. No. Page
B-l Line Plot Temp. - Stations 1 & 2 234
B-2 Alkalinity - Stations 1 & 2 236
B-3 Biochemical Oxygen Demand -
Stations 1 & 2 238
B-4 Chloride - Stations 1 & 2 240
B-5 Carbon Dioxide - Stations 1 & 2 242
B-6 Organic Nitrogen - Stations 1 & 2 244
B-7 Ammonia Nitrogen - Stations 1 £ 2 246
B-8 Line Plot, Nitrate - Stations 1 fi 2 248
B-9 Line Plot, Nitrite - Stations 1 & 2 250
B-10 Total Phosphorus - Stations 1 & 2 252
B-ll Ortho-Phosphorus - Stations 1 $ 2 254
B-12 pH - Stations 1 & 2 256
B-13 Sulfates - Stations 1 & 2 258
B-14 Sulfides - Stations 1 & 2 260
B-15 Dissolved Oxygen - Stations 1 & 2 262
B-16 Calcium - Stations 1 & 2 264
B-17 Sodium - Stations 1 & 2 266
B-18 Potassium - Stations 1 & 2 268
B-19 Magnesium - Stations 1 & 2 270
B-20 Conductivity - Stations 1 & 2 272
B-21 Copper - Stations 1 & 2 274
B-22 Chromium - Stations 1 & 2 276
B-23 Iron - Stations 1 & 2 278
vi ii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS - (Cont'd)
Fig. No. Page
B-24 Manganese - Stations 1 & 2 280
B-25 Zinc - Stations 1 & 2 282
B-26 Fluorides - Stations 1 & 2 284
B-27 Silicon Dioxide - Stations 1 & 2 286
B-28 Suspended Solids - Stations 1 & 2 287
B-29 Dissolved Solids - Stations 1 & 2 289
B-30 Secchi Disk - Stations 1 & 2 291
B-31 E. coli - Stations 1 & 2 293
B-32 Wind Velocity - Station 1 295
B-33 Nine Mile Creek - USGS Flow Data 296
B-34 Contour Plot - Temperature 297
B-35 Contour Plot - BOD 298
B-36 Contour Plot - Ortho-Phosphorus 299
B-37 Contour Plot - Dissolved Oxygen 300
B-38 Contour Plot - Chlorides, Station 1 301
B-39 Contour Plot - Chlorides, Station 2 302
B-40 Overnight Plot - Dissolved Oxygen
June 10, 11", 1969 303
B-41 Overnight Plot - Dissolved Oxygen
July 29, 30, 1969 304
B-42 Overnight Plot - Carbon Dioxide
June 10, 11, 1969 305
B-43 Overnight Plot - pH - June 10, 11, 1969 306
B-44 Overnight Plot - Alkalinity
June 10, 11, 1969 307
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TABLE OF CONTENTS - (Cont'd)
Fig. No. Page
B-45 Overnight Plot - Temperature
June 10, 11, 1969 308
B-46 Overnight Plot - Conductivity
June 10, 11, 1969 309
B-47 Overnight Plot - Silicon Dioxide
June 10, 11, 1969 310
C-l Biological Sampling Locations 395
C-2 Biomass 396
C-3 Phytoplankton Diversity Index 397
C-4 Chlamydomonas (Tube Samples) 398
C-5 Chlamydomonas (Surface Samples) 399
C-6 Distribution of Chlamydomonas sp. 400
C-7 Diatoma tenue (Tube Samples) 402
C-8 Diatoma tenue (Surface Samples) 403
C-9 Distribution - Diatoma tenue 404
C-10 Chlorella vulgaris (Tube Samples) 407
C-ll Chlorella vulgaris (Surface Samples) 408
C-12 Distribution - Chlorella vulgaris 409
C-13 Scenedesmus obliquus (Tube Samples) 413
C-14 Scenedesmus obliquus (Surface Samples) 414
C-15 Distribution - Scenedesmus obliquus 415
C-16 Scenedesmus quad. (Tube Samples) 417
C-17 Scenedesmus quad. (Surface Samples) 419
C-l8 Distribution - Scenedesmus quad. 420
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Fig. No. Page
C-19 Aphanizomenon flos-agUae (Tube Samples) 421
C-20 Aphanizomenon fIPS-aquae (Surface Samples) 422
C-21 Distribution - Aphanizomenon fIPS-aquae 423
C-22 Polycystis aeruginosa 427
C-23 Anabaena circinalis
Ffagllafla crotolTensis 428
C-24 Melosira granulata (Tube Samples) 429
C-25 Melosira granulata (Surface Samples) 430
C-26 Distribution - Melosira granulata 431
C-27 Euphotic Zone Determination 433
C-28 Onondaga Lake Zooplankton 434
D-l Typical Distributipn of Dissolved
lions and lion Pairs 436
D-2 Stability Diag. for Hydroxyapatite 437
D-3 Stability Diag. for Fluorapatite 438
D-4 Stability Diag. for Fluorite 439
D-5 Calcite-Water Equilibrium Model 440
D-6 Fluoride Activity 441
D-7 Stability Diag. for Potassium Minerals,
Kaolinite and Gibbsite - 20° C 442
D-8 Stability Diag. for Potassium Minerals,
Kaolinite and Gibbsite - 10° C 443
D-9 Stability Diag. for Kaolinite - Ca-
Montmorillonite 444
xi
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TABLE OF CONTENTS - (Cont'd)
Fig. No. Page
D-10 Least Squares Linear Regressions for
Onondaga Lake Water 445
D-ll Least Squares Linear Regressions for
Sediment Enclosed Waters 446
D-12 Sediment Profiles of Benthic Cores 447
E-l Onondaga Lake Stabilization Zone 459
E-2 Lake DO vs BOD Input 460
xii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS - (Cont'd)
TABLES
Table No. Page
4-1 Major Tributaries of Onondaga Lake 13
5-1 Air Pollution Parameters - Average
Annual Values 16
5-2 Waste Discharge Survey - Average
Concentration mg/1 22
5-3 Waste Discharge Survey - Average
Pounds per Day 23
5-4 Waste Discharge Survey - Percent
of Total Pounds Per Day 24
5-5 Waste Discharge Survey - Lake
Residence Equivalents mg/1 25
7-1 Onondaga Lake Analyses 37
7-2 Pore Water Analyses 41
7-3 Biological Analyses Stations 44
8-1 Annual Residence Time of
Onondaga Lake 49
10-1 Comparative Water Densities 57
12-1 Minerals Tested 72
14-1 Comparison of Future Waste Loads
to Onondaga Lake
98
B-l Statistical Parameters - Depth
Synoptic Data 151
Frequency Distributions
B-2 Alkalinity - Station 1 155
B-3 Biochemical Oxygen Demand - Station 1 158
B-4 Chloride - Station 1 162
B-5 Carbon Dioxide - Station 1 165
B-6 Total Nitrogen - Station 1 169
xiii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS - (Cont'd)
Table No. Page
B-6A Nitrogen Concentrations 167
B-7 Organic Nitrogen - Station 1 170
B-8 Ammonia Nitrogen - Station 1 171
B-9 Nitrite - Station 1 172
B-10 Nitrate - Station 1 173
B-ll Total Phosphorus - Station 1 176
B-12 Ortho Phosphate - Station 1 177
B-13 pH - Station 1 180
B-14 Sulfide - Station 1 183
B-15 Sulfate - Station 1 184
B-16 Sulfate - Station 2 185
B-17 Dissolved Oxygen - Station 1 188
B-18 Calcium - Station 1 190
B-19 Sodium - Station 1 193
B-20 Potassium - Station 1 196
B-21 Magnesium - Station 2 198
B-22 Magnesium - Station 1 199
B-23 Conductivity - Station 2 202
B-24 Conductivity - Station 1 203
B-25 Copper - Station 2 208
B-26 Copper - Station 1 209
B-27 Chromium - Station 2 210
B-28 Chromium - Station 1 211
xiv
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TABLE OF CONTENTS - (Cont'd)
Table No. Page
B-29 Iron - Station 1 215
B-30 Manganese - Station 2 216
B-31 Manganese - Station 1 217
B-32 Zinc - Station 1 218
B-33 Fluoride - Station 1 220
B-34 Silicon Dioxide - Station 1 222
B-35 Total Solids - Station 1 225
B-36 Suspended Solids - Station 1 226
B-37 Dissolved Solids - Station 1 227
B-38 E^ coli - Station 2 229
B-39 ii coli - Station 1 23°
B-40 Correlation and Regression Analysis-
Depth Synoptic Data 232
C-l Dominant Species in 1967 312
C-2 Occurrence of Polycystis
aeruginosa in 1969 339
C-3 Periods of Occurrence of 14 Species
of Phytoplankton in 1969 348
C-4 Concentrations of Synura uvella
in Surface Samples 350
C.-5 Onondaga Lake Zooplankton -
Abundant Species 363
C-6 Onondaga Lake Zooplankton -
Mean Number per 100 Liters &
Each Station 368
xv
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TABLE OF CONTENTS - (.Cont'd)
Table No. Page
C-7 Coefficients of Variation,
Major Species 376
C-8 Summary of Fishery Research
Activities 385
C-r-9 Age and Growth of White Perch RQ
in Onondaga Lake
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PAGE NOT
AVAILABLE
DIGITALLY
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1
AERIAL VIEW - ONONDAGA LAKE
FIGURE H
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SECTION 1 - CONCLUSIONS
Greater than 90% of the chlorides now present in Onondaga
Lake can be accounted for by surface discharges entering the
lake. While chloride diffusion from the bottom sediments is
currently only a minor factor, early historical accounts do
not clearly indicate that the lake proper was at one time
considered either fresh or saline. Based on the geochernical
nature of waters enclosed within the lake sediments and of
the drainage basin itself, the lake might always have had a
high mineral content. However, knowledge of the exact nature
of the saline vs fresh-water nature of the lake may never be
known.
The major portions of calcium, chloride, chromium, iron,
nitrate, potassium and sodium entering the lake result from
discharges along the western shore of the lake, not including
Harbor Brook. The major portions of all other materials en-
tering the lake, including BOD and phosphorus, emanate from
the southeast shore of the lake.
Presently, the major BOD discharges emanate from the Ley Creek
and Metropolitan Sewage Treatment Plants.
Significant BOD discharges emanate from the Ley Creek stream
bed and/or leaching from the sanitary landfill operations in
the vicinity of the Ley Creek discharge.
BOD and phosphorus discharges resulting from the combined sewer
overflows will not significantly impair the quality of lake
waters if the combined sewer system is operated in accordance
with recommendations outlined in the 1961 O'Brien & Gere Report
on the Main Intercepting Sewer. Bacterial concentrations in
the open waters of the lake fall below limits prescribed by
the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation for
swimming. However, the occurrence of combined sewer overflows
precludes these observations as a guarantee of public safety,
when waters are used for such recreation.
The largest thermal inputs entering the lake are the "East
Flume", Nine Mile Creek and the Metropolitan Sewage Treatment
Plant discharges.
Onondaga Lake is a dimictic lake in that it undergoes two
periods of circulation per year, with the major circulation
occurring in the fall. Chemical contributions to the density
structure of the lake tend to impede the rate of mixing of
lake waters during overturn. Lake waters are well stratified
vertically during summer and winter, but are well mixed along
horizontal planes.
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High concentrations of chemicals within the lake, with the
exception of copper and chromium, are not adverse to a wide
variety of biological species. Concentrations of principal
nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrates and calcium compounds
are not limiting nor inhibitory to algal growth in the lake,
at this time. Copper and chromium concentrations in the lake
may sometimes approach levels inhibitory to certain algae.
In general, the lake supports a community of zooplankton
typical for a saline lake at this latitude.
The lake supports a very diverse fish fauna typical of many
warm-water lakes in central New York State. Sixteen species
were identified and except for a large population of white
perch, species composition does not appear to have changed
appreciably from that shown in surveys of the lake in 1927
and 1946. The epilimnion is the primary habitat for fish
in the lake and in general, waters proximate to discharges
entering the lake are not preferred by the fish.
High calcium concentrations, primarily resulting from the Nine
Mile Creek discharge, are a major factor in the year-round
formation of phosphate bearing minerals, such as hydroxyapatite
and fluroapatite, throughout the lake. These concentrations
also favor the precipitation of calcite throughout the lake
for all but a few months out of the year.
The mineralogical content of bottom sediments (0-approx. 4
meters deep) is largely calcite with an average organic com-
position of 10% by weight. Oxygen demand attributable to the
bottom sediments is negligible at this time and phosphorus
concentrations related to these same sediments are confined
to the hypolimnetic waters of the lake.
The operation of the new Metropolitan Sewage Treatment Facili-
ties is expected to result in a DO saturation within the
epilimnion of the lake of greater than 50%, as opposed to
present minima of 10%. Consequently, it is anticipated that
projected DO concentrations in the lake will be above the
minimum allowable limits for New York State Class "B" waters.
The relative density of the discharge from these facilities
will fall within the density range of the hypolimnetic waters
of the 1ake .
The removal of other chemicals by the above facilities will
not affect significantly the formation of phosphate-bearing
minerals or calcite within the lake. These facilities will
significantly reduce phosphorus discharges to the lake. Other
studies have shown that the effluent phosphorus concentration
of the new Metropolitan Sewage Treatment Plant will be equal
to or less than 1.0 mg/1 in total phosphorus in accordance
with New York State Policy.
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SECTION 2 - RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recommended:
1. That the new treatment facilities at the Metropolitan
Sewage Treatment Plant be constructed as presently
planned, to effect significant reductions in BOD and
phosphorus.
2. That the effluent from the new Treatment Plant be
discharged to the surface of the lake, thus increasing
the mixing of this discharge with lake waters.
3. That additional measures be taken to reduce the BOD
discharges now emanating from Ley Creek. Programs
presently being undertaken, such as dredging of the
creek bottom and sealing areas of the creek where
portions of leachate enter the creek, will result in
reductions. Further measures may need to be taken
pending evaluations subsequent to these programs.
4. That the improvements now underway for the Syracuse
Interceptor Sewer System be made to ensure the proper
operations of all intercepting and overflow devices.
5. That measures be taken to prevent bacterial contamination
of any lake waters from the Syracuse combined sewer over-
flows that periodically discharge to Onondaga Creek and
Harbor Brook. This will require investigations of methods
more economical than have been proposed for this inter-
ceptor system to date.
6. That measures be taken to prevent Cu and Cr concentrations
in the lake from exceeding 0.04 and 0.02 mg/1 respectively
by monitoring and controlling the appropriate flows.
7. That the bottom sediments not be disturbed by any
artificial means until such time as they may show
adverse effects on the overlying waters.
8. That a monitoring program of Onondaga Lake be conducted
for the continual measurement of chemical and biological
parameters to define the physiological factors pertinent
to lake biota and projections of the same.
9. That the above program include measurements of major
discharges entering the lake for those parameters related
thereto in order to assess the effects of improved waste
treatment facilities on the lake, and to assist in water
quality management of the lake.
4
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10. That consideration be given to further study and man-
agement of fish populations commensurate with the
anticipated improvement of water quality in the lake.
The latter may result in intensive fishing in the lake,
further necessitating a fish management program.
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SECTIONS-INTRODUCTION
Location
Onondaga Lake (20.5 meters maximum depth) is a waterbody si-
tuated at the northern edge of the City of Syracuse in Central
New York State. Although the lake is only 11.7 sq. kms. (4-1/2
sq. mi.) in area, the drainage basin is 600 sq. kms. (240 sq.
mi.), contains approximately 325,000 people, and essentially
all of Onondaga County's 140 industries. The lake flows from
southeast to northwest and ultimately discharges to the Seneca
River. The confluence of the Seneca and Oneida Rivers form
the Oswego River which discharges at the southeastern shore
of Lake Ontario, 64 km. (40 mi.) north of the lake. The lake
was once considered the major recreational asset of the
metropolitan area. However, at the present time, recreation
is primarily confined to picnicking along the upper northern
edges of the lake.
Impetus of Study
Interest in Onondaga Lake can be related directly to the
present public awareness of environmental pollution, an
awareness that has become more acute in the last several
years. In the case of Onondaga Lake, this can best be il-
lustrated by the following popular comments:
- The lake has been used for years as a receptacle
for municipal and industrial wastes
- Extensive organic bottom deposits impair the
quality of lake water
- It has one of the highest salinities and solids
content of lakes in the northeast United States
- Periodic algal blooms are objectionable
- The lake is not suitable for swimming or fishing
- The aesthetic qualities leave much to be desired
- The "lake's potential for multiple use is not
realized to capacity.
Some of these comments have been substantiated by limited
technical investigations, while others are based primarily
on cursory observations of the lake. In answer to the
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growing concern, Onondaga County adopted a comprehensive
pollution abatement program to improve conditions in the
watershed. In 1967, the Onondaga County Department of Public
Works applied for, and obtained, a Federal Water Quality Ad-
ministration Research and Development Grant (11060 FAE) to
determine the feasibility of a cooperative municipal-industrial
approach to the wastewater problems.
Study Objectives
A study of Onondaga Lake was an essential part of the above
program. The major objectives of this study were to:
- Ascertain the present trophic status of the lake.
- Evaluate the impact of engineering programs.
- Provide baseline data for ongoing evaluations.
- Establish a program for continuous monitoring
of the lake.
The Study entailed measuring physical, chemical, geological
and biological variables important to the above considerations.
The most important objective of the Study was to evaluate
the impact of various pollution abatement programs with
respect to the best uses of the lake. The "best uses" of the
lake are dependent upon the extent to which the "benefited"
public is willing to finance improvement programs in conjunc-
tion with the availability of State and Federal Funds.
Evaluations of programs focused on:
1. The extent to which the lake's bottom deposits affect
the overlying waters.
2. The impact that the new Metropolitan Sewage Treatment
Facilities, now under design, would have on the lake.
3. The extent to which interceptor sewer overflows affect
the lake.
4. Identification and analyses of major wastewater flows
into the lake.
On the basis of the above evaluations, engineering recommenda-
tions with respect to additional pollution abatement facilities
were to be made.
It is anticipated that a monitoring program will be conducted
following the sampling phase of this Study. The fund of
information collected and processed herein will serve as the
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basis and "plane of reference" for succeeding data, thus al-
lowing for a cohesive managerial program for the lake. Such
a monitoring program, in conjunction with the Study, will no
doubt be a valuable contribution to the field of limnology and
be of benefit to the abatement of lake pollution in general.
Organization of Study
In order to permit an orderly development of the sampling and
analytical program, the Study was divided into two sections,
namely, preliminary and detailed phases. All lakes are unique
and require a distinct program of sampling and analysis for
their evaluation. The objective of the preliminary phase was
to determine what sampling and analytical techniques should be
employed to assess the trophic status of the lake. More spe-
cifically, this phase included the following:.
- Review of the literature dealing directly with Onondaga
Lake, including processing of previously collected data
- Determination of gross physical features of the lake
such as: areas, volume, general benthic characteristics
and flow volumes of the lake's major tributaries.
- The collection of physical, chemical, geological and
biological data in various forms and at assorted loca-
tions for the purpose of establishing permanent sampling
locations.
The Literature Review concentrated on those studies dealing
directly with Onondaga Lake. This information is reviewed in
detail under Section 6 of this Report. The major portion of
data, processed under this phase, was collected by Onondaga
County and covered the period 1959 to 1967. Under this Study,
measurements were begun in April of 1968, many parameters being
gradually introduced as results dictated.
The preliminary phase was continued until December 1968, at which
time the detailed phase began. The latter extended to December
1969.
During this phase, emphasis was placed on sampling those locations
most representative of the major portion of the lake and hence
reflecting changes of a relatively long duration.
Locations representative of the deepest portions of the lake were
found to reflect the lake proper. During this phase consistency
was maintained for sampling locations, parameters measured and
frequency of measurement. The development of engineering recom-
mendations, as well as the establishment of a basis for continu-
ous monitoring of the lake was part of this phase.
8
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SECTION 4 - THE BASIN AND ITS FEATURES
General
Onondaga Lake is the largest lake totally within the boundaries
of Onondaga County, that is also situated in the Lake Ontario
Plain. The average annual precipitation for the period of
record, 1931 to 1960 inclusive was 95.5 cm. (37.6 inches). The
average maximum and minimum annual temperatures for the same
period were measured at 13.8° C (56.9° F) and 4.0° C {39.2° F)
respectively. The average annual snowfall for the same period
was calculated to be 315 cm (124 inches) (US Weather Bureau,
Syracuse, N. Y.). As part of the New York State Barge Canal
System, the water surface elevation of Onondaga Lake is con-
trolled at 363.0 NYS Barge Canal Datum, by a dam on the Oswego
River at Phoenix, New York, approximately 15.7 km. (4.8 mi.)
downstream from the lake outlet. During the period from 1930
to 1968, the lowest elevation of the lake was 362.8 Barge
Canal Datum, (USGS Datum equal to NYS Barge Canal Datum plus
1.444). The maximum level of the lake occurred in 1936 when
a flood level of 113 m (371.6 ft.) Barge Canal Datum, was
recorded.
Geologic Setting
Onondaga Lake and lower Nine Mile and Onondaga Creek discharges
lie within the southern Ontario lowlands province. The lake
lies in the Limestone Belt, which travels east-west and is
bounded on the south by the highlands of the northern Appala-
chian Plateau and on the north by the Lake Ontario Plain.
The Helderberg group rocks, mostly limestones and dolomites,
form the moderately steep north-facing scarp, the Onondaga
Lake Drainage Basin disects the northern plateau upland. The
longitudinal axis of the lake runs from the southeast to the
northwest.
The lake and its watershed are situated upon upper Silurian
to upper Devonianage sedimentary rocks which include shale,
siltstone, sandstone, limestone, dolomite and gypsum beds
(Figure 4-1). In general, rock units dip very gently south-
ward beneath sequentially younger strata. The regional east-
west strikes of broadly expolsed rock groups and the similarity
of rock exposure patterns to the elevation shown, (Figure 4-2).
A more detailed discussion of the geological characteristics
of the lake and its basin appears in Section 12.
-------
SKANEATELES
LAKE
Dha
N, »-*--ONONDAGA LAKE
\ WATERSHED
J BOUNDARY
GEOLOGIC GROUP
AND FORMATION
BOUNDARIES
IOOO CONTOURS ONLY
ITHACA, CORNELL,
SHERBURNE, GENESEE,
Q TULLY FORMATIONS
8 HAMILTON GROUP
Dh
n
HELDERBERG GROUP
Ss
SALINA GROUP
lOmiles
10
GEOLOGIC MAP
ONONDAGA LAKE BASIN
O'BRIEN S GERE
CONSULTIM CMtlNCCRS ft LAND SUDVEVOII3
ii*KU*l. «• rout
4-1
-------
iaei&S-SS&S'tfirie mff* "C'Ki
BELOW 600'
600' TO 1200'
1200' TO 1800'
ABOVE 1800'
*. DRAINAGE BASIN BOUNDARY
SCALE = MILES
ONONDAGA LAKE
CONTOURS
AND DRAINAGE BASIN
O'BRIEN a GERE
CONSULTING ENGINEERS ft LAND SURVEYORS
SYRACUSE, NEW VOHK
4-2
-------
Major Tributaries
The major tributaries to Onondaga Lake, in the order of their
total flow contribution, appear in Table 4-1. Flows represent
records through the years 1965, 1967 and 1968. These are the
only years in which recqrds of all the major tributaries were
available. However, the average annual rainfall of these
three years was 96 cm (36.2 inches), approximating a 57-year
average of 90 cm (36.6 inches). Thus, the average flows
illustrated in Table 4-1 are quite representative of lake
inflows.
Water Quality
The major tributaries, as well as the lake itself, have been
classified by the New York State Department ^f Environmental
Conservation. The major tributaries have been classified as
"D" waters, with the exception of Bloody Brook, which has been
classified as "B" waters. The pH of Class "D" waters is
specified as ranging between 6.0 and 9.5 while that of "B"
waters ranges from 6.5 to 8.5. The DO concentrations are
specified as not less than 3 ppm for Class "D" waters, and
for Class "B" waters 5.0 ppm for trout waters and 4.0 ppm
for non-trout waters. Toxic wastes, oil, deleterious sub-
stances, colored or other wastes or heated liquids are
limited in accordance with the "best usage" of waters as
classified. "B" waters are suitable for bathing while Class
"D" waters are confined primarily to agricultural uses. The
waters of Onondaga Lake have two classifications ranging from
"C" at the southeastern end of the lake; to "B" for the
northwestern portion of the lake. The southeastern portion
of the lake is classified as "C" which is unfit for bathing,
but otherwise similar to "B" specifications. Lake classifica-
tions are illustrated in Figure 1-2 (pocket foldout).
The high concentration of chlorides (500-3000 ppm) in the lake
is a unique condition in this part of the country. Due to
the fact that this lake receives the discharges from a rela-
tively large population and numerous major industrial operations,
there have been large accumulations of both organic and inorganic
materials in the lake. It has been stated that Onondaga Lake
receives more nutrients than any other lake in the basin.
(FWQA Report on Lake Ontario and St. Lawrence River Basin, 1968).
While some of these statements may be valid, none are based
on an extensive and comprehensive sampling program of the
lake; and it was the purpose of this Study to conduct such a
program.
12
-------
TABLE 4-1
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
Major Tributaries of Onondaga Lake
Watershed
Tributary
Nine Mile Creek -
including Otisco Lake
drainage area
Onondaga Creek
Ley Creek
Harbor Brook
Bloody Brook
Seneca River
0 "'
(mi2)
124.8
102.5
26.2
13.2
4.5
CO n
(Km2)
323.0
265.0
68.8
34.2
11 .7
Mai nstream
Length
Mi) (Km
34.3 55.2
27.5 44.2
9.5 15.3
7.5 12.1
2.2 3.5
Outlet
Annual
Flow
(cfs) (M3/sec)
88.4 2.5
145.4 4.1
62.7 1.8
17.4 0.5
Negligible
No Gauging Station
+ New York State Department of Health, 1951
* USGS, Annual Reports to Onondaga County, Department of Public Works
1965, 67 and 68.
The average annual rainfall for the years 1965, 67 and 68 was determined
to be 92 cm (36.22 inches) as compared to 90.4 cm (35.6 inches) from
1931 to 1968.
-------
SECTION 5 - WATER POLLUTION - SOURCES
General
Although it was not within the scope of this Study to deter-
mine the cause-effect relationships that brought Onondaga Lake
to its present condition, a cursory review of the historical
events that have taken place can serve as a guide in deter-
mining what the lake's future condition will be. This Section
deals with pertinent events that have taken place during the
"period of record" and reviews the present status of pollutants
discharging into the lake. Before embarking on a review, it
is necessary to define some basic terms as they are used in
this text. A complete glossary for this Study may be found
following the Bibliography.
Lakes are classified in many ways. One such classification
is by their trophic (food or nourishment) level which gives a
rough measure of their productivity or their actual capacity
to produce. An oligotrophic lake is a lake low in nutrients
while a eutrophic lake is rich in nutrients. Onondaga Lake
is very rich in nutrients and thus is highly eutrophic. The
trophic nature and productivity of a lake depend on many
factors, the most important of which are nutrients received
from the environment in which the lake resides. Other factors
such as color, depth, surface area, latitude rainfall and
temperature, play additional but usually secondary roles.
Eutrophication is defined herein as the process of enrichment
by nutrients (Stewart and Rohlich, 1967) and was considered
originally as limited to phosphorus and nitrogen. Such
limitation may be too restrictive for some lakes but the basic
definition should still be kept in mind.
Historical Review
In 1812, the Syracuse area began to develop industrially by
taking advantage of salt or brine deposits located along the
southern edge of Onondaga Lake. Exploitation of this resource
resulted in this area becoming the major salt supplier of the
nation during the 1800's reaching a peak in 1862. It was this
industry that prompted the construction of the Erie Canal
System which was then the major mode of transportation to as
far west as Ohio (Wright, R. 1969). In the late 1800's other
industries located in this area and began manufacturing such
products as soda ash, steel, vehicular accessories and pottery,
In the first four decades of the 1900's this area witnessed
the development of major pharmaceutical, air conditioning,
general appliance and electrical manufacturing facilities.
14
-------
The metropolitan area of Syracuse has developed from a popu-
lation of 110,000 in 1900 to a metropolitan area with a pre-
sent population in excess of a half million people.
Onondaga Lake has served as the receptacle for major portions
of the domestic and industrial waste discharges of this area.
In common with many large cities, Syracuse constructed combined
sewer systems which resulted in discharges to the tributaries
of Onondaga Lake. Industries and suburban villages outside the
City of Syracuse constructed sewer systems that discharged
directly to Onondaga Lake.
In 1899 real concern was expressed about pollution in Onondaga
Lake. Interest was focused on the fate of the Onondaga Lake
white fish, a one-time delicacy, which was never recorded
after the first decade of the twentieth century.
The Syracuse Intercepting Sewer Board was established in 1907
under State Law for the primary purpose of improving stream
conditions through the City by the construction of intercept-
ing sewers. Under a subsequent ammendment to the act, the
Board was authorized to construct sewage treatment works. Two
main interceptors were constructed, and in 1922 an outfall
sewer was constructed to convey the sewage directly into
Onondaga Lake, approximately 518 meters (1700) feet off the
southern shore. In 1925 the first sewage treatment plant
operated by the City of Syracuse was constructed at the southern
end of the lake just west of the present Onondaga Creek dis-
charge location. The sewage was chlorinated and pumped to
sedimentation tanks and then discharged into the lake by the
outfall sewer. This condition continued until 1960, with the
exception of the period from 1950 to 1953, at which time a
change in the location of sludge disposal resulted in untreated
sewage being discharged via the outfall sewer. In 1960 the
present Metropolitan plant was put into operation and included
more sedimentation basins which were equipped for chemical
coagulation.
The domestic and industrial sewage from the Ley Creek drainage
basin has been discharged to Ley Creek and thereto the lake
with little or no treatment. The Ley Creek drainage area now
comprises a major portion of the Metropolitan Syracuse indus-
tries, some of which discharge wastes with a very high BOD.
Although the first (1940) treatment plant was doubled in 1949
the plant is unable to produce an effluent which is acceptable
for discharge into the dilution afforded by Ley Creek. The
1952 O'Brien & Gere report recommended pumping the Ley Creek
Treatment Plant effluent to the Seneca River in conjunction
with the Metropolitan Plant effluent. Neither force main was
constructed. In 1961 a force main was constructed from the Ley
Creek Treatment Plant to the Metropolitan Plant, in order to
effect some additional treatment at the Metropolitan Plant and
15
-------
in anticipation of the ter-tiary facilities being designed for
the latter. The Metropolitan Plant now treats 48 mgd plus 14
mgd from the Ley Creek Treatment Plant for a total of 62 mgd.
Sources of Pollution Considered
The sources of lake pollutants considered can be catagorized
under three main headings, namely:
1. Air pollutants
2. Benthic Deposits
3. Stream and wastewater discharges
The first two are discussed under this subsection.
Air Pollutants
In October 1966 Onondaga County sponsored a County Air Pollu-
tion Survey conducted by the Syracuse University Research
Corporation for the purpose of defining the nature, extent
and causes of air pollution in the County. By using such
equipment as the Dustfall Jar, the Lead Peroxide Candle and
the High Volume Air Sampler, critical air pollution parameters
were measured, namely; settleable particulate matter, sulfates
derived from rates of sufation, and suspended particulate
matter. Three sampling locations located proximate to the
lake were used to determine the significance of air pollution.
Suspended particulate matter was not considered. Table 5-1
shows the annual average values for the parameters measured:
TABLE 5-1
AIR POLLUTION PARAMETERS
AVERAGE ANNUAL VALUES
PARAMETER VALUE UNIT
Total Settleable
Particulate Matter 0.67 mg/cm'/SO
Volatile Settleable
Particulate Matter 0.23 mg/cm2/30 days
Sulfates 0.24 mg/cm2/30 days
16
-------
-•
AIR POLLUTANTS DURING ICE COVER
FIGURE 5-1
-------
Volatile settleable participate matter (VSPM) was considered
as a BOD input source and to be 100% degradable. On the
basis of 0.23 mg/cm^/SO days, the total quantity correspond-
ing to the surface area of the lake (4.5 sq. mi., 11.7 sq.
km.) per 30 days is equal to 58,500 1bs. or 26,700 kilograms.
On the basis of a lake volume of 37.08 X 109 gallons (140 X
109 liters) this is equivalent to a concentration throughout
the entire lake of 0.191 mg/1 . If VSPM accumulate over a 150
day period, approximately the residence time of the lake, the
resulting concentration would be 0.97 mg/1. The corresponding
sulfate concentrations are nearly the same -- 1.05 mg/1.
Figure 5-1 demonstrates air pollutants on the lake.
Benthic Deposits
Benthic deposits are evaluated with respect to mineral compo-
sition, gas development and interfacial chemistry in Section 12
Approximations of oxygen demand rates are included under
Section 13.
Wastewater Discharge Survey
In order to assess the total input of chemical species from
the major tributary streams as well as major waste discharges,
a sampling program was initiated in June of 1969. Eight major
discharges, shown in Figure 1-2, were monitored for some 24
chemical parameters, as outlined in Section 7. Samples were
taken at two-week intervals allowing a total of 19 sampling
days thoughout the period. Tables 5-2 through 5-5 illustrate
the results.
Staff gauge readings for the major tributaries were recorded
by the Onondaga County Department of Public Works at the time
of discharge sampling and interpreted by the United States
Geological Survey. Flows for Bloody Brook were estimated from
its drainage area in relationship to that of Nine Mile Creek.
Industrial discharge flows entitled "East Flume" and "Steel
Mill" were estimated from water consumption figures through
correspondence with the respective industries. Metropolitan
Sewage Treatment Plant flows were available from daily records,
Table 5-2 shows averages of individual concentrations of each
chemical species measured. Table 5-3 shows average pounds
derived from concentrations and corresponding flows at the
time of each measurement. Percentages of materials discharged
were calculated from average pounds and are shown in Table 5-4
In order to compare chemical species discharged to those con-
centrations in the lake, values from Table 5-3 were multiplied
by the calculated residence time of the lake in 1969 of 150
days and divided by the estimated volume of the lake of
18
-------
37.078 X 103 million gallons. The results, herein referred
to as Lake Residence Equivalents (LRE), are shown in Table
0 ™ 0 •
It should be pointed out that the "East Flume", Nine Mile
Creek and "Steel Mill" discharges contain quantities of coolant
waters derived from the southwestern portion of the lake, and
in the vicinity of sampling Station No. 1. The soda ash
manufacturing plant utilizes approximately 110 mgd of lake
water and discharges 80 and 30 mgd to the "East Flume" and
Nine Mile Creek discharges respectively. The entire flow of
the former is purportedly coolant water. Approximately 5.3
mgd of the 6.5 mgd discharged by the "Steel Mill" represents
coolant waters.
The above discharges were corrected for chemical quantities
resident in the lake by subtracting the average of the epilim-
nion and hypolimnion means for Station No. 1, shown in Table
B-l, (Appendix B) multiplied by the appropriate flows. Hence
Tables 5-2 to 5-5 reflect net amounts discharged.
Results
The southeastern end of Onondaga Lake receives the major domes-
tic and industrial waste discharges of the metropolitan area,
with the exception of a major soda ash producer and a major
specialty steel manufacturer bo^th discharging off the western
shore of the lake.
Table 5-4 shows that greater than 85% of the total BOD,
OP04 and T-P can be accounted for by the combined discharges
of Ley Creek, Onondaga Creek, Harbor Brook and the Metropolitan
Sewage Treatment Plant. It should be pointed out that starting
in October 1969, the Ley Creek Treatment Plant discharge was
pumped to the Metropolitan Treatment Plant, thus reducing the
chemical constituents measured in Ley Creek. Concentrations
reflected this condition on five of the nineteen sampling
dates. Comparison was made of data collected before and after
the Metropolitan Plant received the Ley Creek Plant discharge
(not shown). All chemical species measured in Ley Creek
showed only slight reductions with the exception of BOD.
Whereas the BOD from Ley Creek represented 54.8% of the total
measured as of the end of the Study, Ley Creek accounted for
76.0% during the period when the Ley Creek Treatment Plant
entered the stream. The Metropolitan Treatment Plant discharged
18.0% prior to receiving the additional plant flow, whereas
it now shows 39.1% of the BOD discharged to the lake. This
indicates little additional BOD reduction through the Metropo-
litan Facilities. However, it is anticipated that significant
reductions in both the Metropolitan and Ley Creek discharges
will result when the upgraded Metropolitan Treatment facilities
go into operation.
19
-------
Although nitrogen analyses were performed on only three of
the nineteen sampling dates, the results were consistent,
and showed that Ley Creek was the major contributor of both
ammonia and organic nitrogen. An unusually high organic
nitrogen concentration (6.9 mg/1 - 19 mgd) was measured on
August 25, 1969. The source of this nitrogen was not determined
Separate chemical analyses were conducted on a stream emanating
from an extensive landfill operation located just north of the
Ley Creek discharge. These analyses showed high BOD and nitro-
gen concentrations. It was noted that amounts discharged by
Ley Creek substantially exceed amounts discharged from the
Ley Creek Treatment Plant in many cases. These differences
could be accounted for by leaching of this landfill operation.
The flow from the landfill stream was not gauged and thus
amounts discharged could not be determined.
Nine Mile Creek is the major contributor for many of the
inorganic chemical species in Onondaga Lake. This stream
discharges the major portion of calcium, chloride, sodium,
iron and potassium in that order. Table 5-5 illustrates that
the LRE values of calcium and chloride are 724.4 and 846.3
mg/1 respectively. The LRE value for sodium from this creek
is 480.2 mg/1. The LRE values of chloride and sodium for
Nine Mile Creek closely approximate and, in the case of calcium
exceed the mean concentration observed in the Lake. Although
these results cannot be interpreted as meaning Nine Mile Creek
is solely responsible for the presence of these species in
Onondaga Lake, it does indicate the relative impact this creek
has on the lake with respect to the other discharges. The
fact that the LRE value of calcium exceeds the observed mean
concentration in the lake can be explained on the basis of
precipitation of calcite (CaCOs). This is in accordance with
results of the geochemical studies.
A major steel manufacturer contributed major portions of the
chromium and nitrate. Thirty nine and one half percent
(39.5%) of the chromium measured can be accounted for by this
discharge, equivalent to an LRE value of 0.01 mg/1. High
nitrate values were also measured in this discharge, possibly
owing to the use of nitric acid (HNOs) in their pickling
operations. Approximately five percent (4.8) of the total
copper measured was attributable to this discharge having an
LRE value of 0.01 mg/1.
Table 5-4 shows that Onondaga Creek is a major contributor
of magnesium, total phosphorus, organic nitrogen and ortho-
P04 in that order. The high percentages of total phosphorus
and OP04 appears to be related to the interceptor overflows
into Onondaga Creek as was determined by a comparison of
Onondaga Creek and the Metropolitan Treatment Plant concen-
trations on individual sampling dates, and corresponding
20
-------
rainfall data (not shown-). Although one would expect similar
relationships for BOD values, Onondaga Creek shows a small
percentage in relation to the Metropolitan Plant due to the
high BOD additions of Ley Creek measured for the last five
sampling dates.
High magnesium values are a result of extremely high concen-
trations measured on the 3rd and 17th of November of 271 and
341 mg/1 respectively. Unusually high concentrations of
calcium (409 and 1,810 mg/1), and sodium (823 and 1,500 mg/1)
were also observed on these days. The cause of these high
concentrations was not determined.
Harbor Brook and Onondaga Creek receive the storm water
overflows from the City of Syracuse. These overflows are
reviewed in greater detail under Section 14, entitled,
"Engineering Evaluations".
Although the "East Flume" flow ostensibly represents coolant
water only, significant quantities of several chemicals were
measured in this discharge. Relatively low percentage con-
tributions, (Table 5-4), may be attributable to actual lake
concentrations or local conditions higher than accounted for
by the "mean" corrections applied to the "East Flume" data.
The bottom sediments of the flume discharge are similar to
those which were observed for Nine Mile Creek and would indi-
cate discharge of some materials in the coolant waters. With
regard to chromium however, the coolant water intake is lo-
cated approximately 762 m (2,500 ft.) north of the "Steel
Mill" discharge. Hence the high percentage contributions of
chromium from the "East Flume" may be attributable to the
intake of portions of the "Steel Mill" discharge. Such a
condition is in accordance with observed photographs of
these discharges.
21
-------
TABLE 5-2
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY - WASTE DISCHARGE SURVEY
Average Concentrations (mg/1)
ro
ro
Parameter
Alkalinity
BOD 5
Chloride
Ammon Nitr
Org Nitr
Nitrate
Nitrite
Total Phos
OP04
Sulfate
Diss Oxy
Calcium
Sodium
Magnesium
Potassium
Copper
Chromium
Iron
Manganese
Zinc
Fluoride
Silicate
Ley
Creek
274.0
198.7
252.0
7.5
4.0
0.5
36.0
5.7
3.2
312.1
2.5
217.8
379.8
37.0
20.5
0.1
0.1
1 .4
0.4
0.5
2.2
12.4
Bl oody
Brook
156.7
0.0
655.7
0.3
0.1
0.5
0.0
1.8
0.6
163.5
6.0
178.7
53.2
25.6
13.6
0.1
0.1
1.0
0.4
2.4
4.2
6.7
Onondaga
Creek
217.7
5.7
446.7
0.5
1 .6
0.9
34.0
3.7
0.6
189.2
9.5
282.5
380.7
65.2
7.3
0.1
0.0
0.6
0.8
0.2
2.1
8.2
Harbor
Brook
227.7
19.3
1916.2
3.2
3.5
1 .8
52.8
4.7
1 .9
358.1
6.2
389.3
1306.7
67.1
13.4
0.1
0.0
0.7
1 .1
0.2
2.3
10.3
East
Flume
34.8
0.0
805.9
0.9
1 .5
0.4
0.0
1 .1
0.3
40.1
15.1
252,3
355.8
5.2
18.5
0.2
0.1
0.8
0.0
0.5
1 .0
1 .6
Steel
Mill
16.3
13.4
1158.1
0.0
1 .0
10.9
0.0
1 .0
0.1
107.7
4.4
623.3
830.9
38.6
48.4
0.3
2.6
14.0
0.0
0.5
3.1
2.4
Nine
Mile
Creek
147.
2.7
3282.3
0.0
0.0
0.2
53.1
1 .0
0.1
221 .4
5.3
2227.2
1490.0
28.2
21 .1
0.1
0.0
1.8
0.0
0.1
1 .5
5.2
Metro
Plant
214.2
90.1
838.7
8.8
1 .4
0.4
64.0
11 .4
3.5
182.5
1 .1
183.2
367.8
32.0
23.7
0.1
0.1
0.9
0.1
0.1
1 .1
14.0
-------
TABLE 5-3
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY - WASTE DISCHARGE SURVEY
Average Pounds Per Day
ro
GO
Parameter
Al kal i ni ty
BOD5
Chloride
Ammon Nitr
Org Nitr
Nitrate
Nitrite
Total Phos
OP04
Sulfate
Diss Oxy
Cal ci urn
Sodium
Magnesium
Potassium
Copper
Chromium
Iron
Manganese
Zinc
Fluoride
Silicate
Ley
Creek
82266
53576
67869
1286
686
93
26041
1760
961
101619
974
73189
127891
12338
5697
42
28
427
140
174
385
3993
Bloody
Brook
4770
0
25997
5
2
10
1-
73
24
5422
212
5844
1787
859
281
4
2
34
15
96
117
235
Onondaga
Creek
138725
3614
271905
210
561
305
52538
2434
405
112524
6361
217596
284165
46851
5897
90
23
409
472
145
1151
5383
Harbor
Brook
13636
1300
171611
110
184
118
11685
308
119
20604
422
25248
115551
3774
976
9
4
43
70
16
163
586
East
Fl ume
23219
0
537687
603
994
298
22
703
200
26768
10084
168321
237371
3457
12356
105
80
533
0
329
661
1074
Steel
Mill
882
726
62779
0
54
590
1
55
6
5839
236
33787
45045
2090
2623
18
142
756
0
25
166
132
Nine
Mile
Creek
90801
1506
1744830
0
0
104
71779
732
116
138734
2938
1493598
990170
21169
14134
73
28
942
0
122
492
3183
Metro
Plant
86716
38503
350058
3097
537
160
32090
4883
1374
73567
420
76640
151892
13267
10015
35
52
354
41
56
399
5542
Total
441015
99230
3232736
5311
3018
1678
194157
10948
3205
485077
21647
2094223
1953872
103805
51979
376
359
3498
738
963
3534
20128
-------
TABLE 5-4
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY - MASTE DISCHARGE SURVEY
Percent of Total Pounds Per Day
Parameter
Ley
Creek
Bloody
Brook
Onondaga
Creek
Harbor
Brook
East
F1 ume
Steel
Mill
Nine
Mile
Creek
Metro
Plant
ro
Alkalinity
BOD5
Chloride
Ammon Nitr
Org Nitr
Nitrate
Nitrite
Total Phos
OP04
Sulfate
Diss Oxy
Calcium
Sodium
Magnesium
Potassium
Manganese
Zinc
Fluoride
Copper
Chromium
Silicate
Iron
18.7
54.8
2.1
24.2
22.7
5.5
13.4
16.1
30.0
20.9
4.5
3.5
6.5
11 .9
11 .0
19.0
18.1
10.9
11 .2
7.7
19.8
12.2
1.1
0.0
0.8
0.1
0.1
0.6
0.0
0.7
0.7
1 .1
1.0
0.3
0.1
0.8
0.5
2.1
10.0
3.3
1.0
0.6
1.2
1 .0
31 .5
3.7
8.4
4.0
18.6
18.1
27.1
22.2
12.6
23.2
29.4
10.4
14.5
45.1
11 .3
63.9
15.1
32.6
24.0
6.5
26.7
11 .7
3.1
1 .3
5.3
2.1
6.1
7.1
6.0
2.8
3.7
4.2
2.0
1 .2
5.9
3.6
1 .9
9.5
1 .7
4.6
2.4
1 .0
2.9
1.2
5.3
0.0
16.6
11 .3
32.9
17.8
0.0
6.4
6.2
5.5
46.6
8.0
12.1
3.3
23.8
0.0
34.2
18.7
27.9
22.4
5.3
15.2
0.2
0.7
1 .9
0.0
1.8
35.2
0.0
0.5
0.2
1 .2
1,1
1 .6
2.3
2.0
5.0
0.0
2.6
4.7
4.8
39.5
0.7
21 .6
20.6
1 .5
54.0
0.0
0.0
6.2
37.0
6.7
3.6
28.6
13.6
71 .3
50.7
20.4
27.2
0.0
12.6
13.9
19.4
7.8
15.8
26.9
19.7
39.1
10.8
58.3
17.8
9.5
16.5
44.6
42.9
15.2
1 .9
3.7
7,8
12.8
19.3
5.6
5.8
11 .3
9.3
14.6
27.5
10.1
-------
TABLE 5-5
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY - WASTE DISCHARGE SURVEY
Lake Residence Equivalents (mg/1)
ro
tn
Parameter
A1 k a 1 i n i ty
BOD 5
Chloride
Ammon Nitr
Org Nitr
Nitrate
Nitrite
Total Phos
OPO*
Sulfate
Diss Oxy
Calcium
Sodium
Magnesium
Potassium
Copper
Chromium
Iron
Manganese
Zinc
Fluoride
Sil icate
Ley
Creek
39.9
26.0
32.9
0.6
0.3
0.0
12.6
0.9
0.5
49.3
0.5
35.5
62.0
6.0
2.8
0.02
0.01
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
1 .9
Bloody
Brook
2.3
0.0
12.6
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.6
0..1
2.8
0.9
0.4
0.1
0.00
0.00
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
Onondaga
Creek
67.3
1 .8
131 .9
0.1
0.3
0.1
25.5
1 .2
0.2
54.6
3.1
105.5
137.8
22.7
2.9
0.04
0.01
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.6
2.6
Harbor
Brook
6.6
0.6
83.2
0.1
0.1
0,1
5.7
0.1
0.1
10.0
0.2
12.3
56.0
1 .8
0.5
0.00
0.00
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.3
East
Flume
11 .3
0.0
260.8
0.3
0.5
0.1
0.0
0.3
0.1
13.0
4.9
81 .6
115.1
1 .7
6.0
0.15
0.04
0.3
0.0
0.2
0.3
0.5
Steel
Mill
0.4
0.2
30.4
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.8
0.1
16.4
21 .8
1 .0
1 .3
0.01
0.07
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
Nine
Mile
Creek
44.0
0.7
846.3
0.0
0.0
0.1
34.8
0.4
0.1
67.3
1 .4
724.4
480.2
10.3
6.9
0.04
0.01
0.5
0.0
0.1
0.2
1 .5
7
,7
42.1
18.7
169.8
1 .5
0.3
0.1
15.6
2.4
0
35
0.2
37.2
73.7
6.4
4.9
0.02
0.02
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.2
2.7
-------
SECTION 6 - LITERATURE REVIEW
K. M. Stewart
General
This Section deals with a review of historical records, news-
paper articles, reports and studies related to and describing
Onondaga Lake and its environs. Although the historical
records and newspaper articles are not in all cases scientific
in approach, they represent the major sources of information
prior to 1920. Although previous reports and studies in many
cases do not deal with an analysis of lake waters in their
entirety, collected data provide the only means of comparison
with existing lake conditions.
Early History
Perhaps the earliest recording of Onondaga Lake and its salt
springs was by a Jesuit. Missionary, Father Simon LeMoyne.
LeMoyne visited the lake in 16531.
"... with a party of Huron and Onondaga Chiefs,
as an envoy to ratify a treaty of peace bet-
ween the two nations, in which the French of
Canada were interested,..." (Clark, 1849).
LeMoyne's account of the lake, which at that time was called-
Ganentaha by the Onondaga Indians, was:
"We arrive at the entrance of a small lake in
a large half dried basin; we taste the water
of a spring that they (the Indians) durst not
drink, saying that there is a demon in it,
which render it fetid. Having tasted it, I
found it a fountain of salt water; and, in
fact, we made salt from it as natural as that
from the sea, of which we carried a sample
to Quebec." (Geddes, 1860)
Geddes (1860) gave the date of this first visit
as 16 Aug. 1654.
26
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A detailed history concerning the gradual utilization of salt
by the Indians, the white man's influence in the development
of a salt industry and the eventual takeover of the lands
around the lake to the exclusion of the Indians, is provided
by Geddes (1860) and Clark (1859). The latter author also
related some interesting features of the shoreline of
Onondaga Lake as follows:
"The shores of the Onondaga Lake, at an early
period of the settlement of the Country, were
composed of soft, spongy bog, into which a
pole could be thrust to an almost interminable
depth. Since the clearing up of the hills in
the .neighborhood, sand gravel and other sub-
stances, have been washed down, and by the
action of the waves, have become so solid that
loaded teams can now be driven along the beach,
without making scarecely any indentation, while
but forty years ago, the same ground could only
be traversed by flat bottomed boats."
Schultz (1810). in a portion of his travelogue which concerned
Onondaga Lake, 2 described the local belief that the lake was
bottomless and that the lower waters were extremely saline.
Schultz examined these local beliefs by having some boatmen
row him around to different areas of the lake in an attempt
to find an area where the bottom could not be found. However,
most of their soundings produced only 9.2 m to 15.1 m of water
with one final sounding giving them 19.5 m of water3. Schultz
also lowered a bottle in such a manner that he could withdraw
a cork when it arrived at the bottom, then drew it up, and
"found the water a little cooler, but not otherwise different
from that on the surface". This implies that the lake did
not have a deep saline layer in those early years as was
mistakenly believed.
An important event in the lake's history occurred in 1822 at
which time the level of the lake was lowered.
"Four thousand five hundred dollars was appro-
priated for the purpose of lowering Onondaga
Lake. The Canal Commissioners were instructed
to cut a channel, of such width and depth as
in their opinion would be necessary to permit
the waters of the lake to subside to a level
with the Seneca River. This operation was consi-
dered quite an improvement in the navigation
Called Onondaga or Salt Lake at that time.
Geddes (1860) mentioned soundings in the early years
of 16.7 and 19.8 m.
27
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of the Onondaga River, and in laying bare a
wide surface of the salt marsh, which at high
water was innundated." (Clark, 1849)
The exposed shoreline occupied 20% of the former lake surface
(as determined by planimetry of a map of Sweet, 1874, which
outlined the original and modified shoreline). The new land
was subdivided into lots and used by the salt works. It may
be that the lowering of the lake is recorded in the sediments,
and thus it might provide evidence for the rate sedimentation
since that time.
The Whitefish
In the late 1800's and early 1900's, newspaper articles
discussed the rise and fall of the whitefish population.
For example, The Post Standard (1894) of Syracuse, N. Y.,
described the huge numbers of whitefish in Onondaga Lake at
that time as follows:
"There are whitefish in our lake without number.
Never having been disturbed to a very great
extent, they have propagated in such numbers
until now it is almost impossible to estimate
the q u a n t i ty .. ."
The article also describes the efforts to elude the law and
take as many whitefish as possible by seine or gill net.
This may have lead to overfishing, for example,
"With the market value at $.25/lb. the poacher
can well afford to stand guard over his hidden
net with a 44 caliber rifle"...
and further,
"A gentleman told a Standard Reporter yesterday
that every Sunday morning a wagonload of white-
fish is carried away from the shores of Onondaga
Lake. They average from two to three and one-
half pounds in weight."
If this heavy fishing pressure increased each year during
the spawning season, it is possible that the whitefish
population was depleted severely.
Shortly thereafter, the whitefish disappeared from the lake.
The Sunday Herald (Syracuse, N. Y. newspaper, 1901) mentions
that the whitefish disappeared four years earlier from the
previous November (therefore putting it at 1896) at which
28
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time, "Foxey", a famous fish pirate was unable to obtain even
one fish...for a "bottle of grog". Newspaper articles are
frequently misleading, but it is of note that a most sought
after fish in 1894 was not even caught in 1896, merely two
years later!
The question is raised, why did the whitefish disappear when
they did? Was the heavy and illegal overfishing at the time
of spawning too much for the development of a survivable
year class? Were the increased sewage and low oxygen condi-
tions beginning in those early years? Was the decrease a
result of competition from other fish for food or spawning
areas? Were the whitefish subject to predation by other
fish? Did disease, or parasites or a fungal infection wipe
them out? All these questions may never be answered but it
appears that a combination of reasons, important among which
are the probable overfishing and rapidly increasing human
population around the lake, with the latter's discharges into
the lake, being responsible for the demiss of the famous
Onondaga Whitefish.
Salt Water
Two squid were caught alive in Onondaga Lake, each by nets and
each by a different person in 1902 (Clarke, 1902). They were
found, supposedly, where the first salt springs were discovered
Clarke wondered if the squid could have been remnants from some
bygone era when the lake was believed in some way connected to
Lake Champlain and the St. Lawrence Valley or whether they were
put in as "fakes", or whether they developed from eggs off
marine oyster and clam shells that were thrown in the lake
from a hotel on the shore. Whatever the reason, the fact that
they survived to be caught attests to the relative salinity
of the lake.
Previous Reports (1920-1955)
Metcalf & Eddy Report (1920)
By far the most comprehensive report to date on the condition
of Onondaga Lake as well as upon the treatment and disposal
of sewage at Syracuse was the Metcalf and Eddy Report. One
of their engineering conclusions was: The condition of the
Barge Canal Harbor, with its decomposing solids and bubbles
rising to the surface is poor and is a consequence of the
Harbor acting as a settling basin for the discharge of the
main intercepting sewer into Onondaga Creek.
Metcalf and Eddy recommended that the City's sewage be trans-
ferred from the Barge Canal, screen it, provide settling to
29
-------
remove solids and then discharge it out in Onondaga Lake. It
was felt that by treating the sewage in this manner and then
discharging it at a point out in the lake (396 m from shore
and 6.1 m deep), that the lake would have sufficient assimi-
lation capacity to prevent nuisance or objectionable conditions
for at least 20 years. Besides, the City of Syracuse would
save $1,500,000 by not having to improve the quality of
effluent more than the minimal amount recommended. Since few
fish were thought to be in the lake at the time of this 1920
report and since the lake was not used for pleasure boating
or bathing, a lake condition of dubious quality was already
implied. In retrospect this action seems to have had an ad-
verse affect on the water quality of the lake.
The concentrations of dissolved oxygen that were measured in
April of 1920 were 9.3 mg/1 and 7.5 mg/1 in the lower waters
of the northwest and southwest basins at 19.2 and 13.7 to 21.3
meters respectively.
Metcalf and Eddy gave much discussion to the rate of depletion
of oxygen in the lake but there were actually few data from
which to make these judgments. In fact, most of the calcu-
lations for the comparisons used the few April values of
dissolved oxygen. Thus, the relatively high values of spring
were used to justify subsurface sewage discharge year-round
into Onondaga Lake.
In all fairness to the Metcalf and Eddy (1920) Report, it must
be remembered that although the greatly increased present day
knowledge allows us to criticize earlier decisions, at that
time the combined lake study engineering approach was ahead of
its time. The report did recommend municipal primary treat-
ment for Syracuse, whereas most industries discharging to the
lake had no treatment whatsoever. Furthermore, most other
municipalities around the State had little to no treatment.
In addition, the New York State Department of Environmental
Conservation approved the plan of Metcalf and Eddy. Therefore,
although their data was inadequate from today's standpoint and
the lake probably suffered accordingly, the Report was believed
to be in the best interest of the community.
The first major hydrographic map of Onondaga Lake was produced
by Metcalf and Eddy (1920). Their maximum soundings were
from 20.2 to 20.7 meters in the northwest basin and 22.2 to
22.8 meters in the deeper southeastern basin.
30
-------
Syracuse Intercepting Sewer Reports
Although each of the annual reports of the Syracuse Inter-
cepting Sewer Board described activities of the year, most
of these do not consider direct effects of the sewage on the
lake nor are data from Onondaga Lake generally included.
The sixteenth report (Holmes, 1922) is an exception. Follow-
ing some recommendations of the 1920 Metcalf and Eddy Report,
the concentration of dissolved oxygen was measured at 5 to 6
locations along the longitudinal axis and the percent satu-
ration of those concentrations was plotted and presented by
Holmes (1922).
When comparing the oxygen data of 1920, 1921 and 1922, at
the time of spring circulation with those of 1968 and 1969,
the degradation of oxygen conditions is apparent. Unfortu-
nately, samples acquired for 1920, 1921 and 1922 were only
taken at three depths, the surface, mean depth and near the
bottom. Therefore, for the six stations, the mean depths
are not the same. Just a slight raising or lowering of the
sampling bottle at the mean depth could result in a pronounced
shift in the positions of the lines drawn. The exact depth
of the sampling bottle is also unknown and would influence
the results plotted. Nevertheless, the report of Holmes is
informative. There is a depletion of dissolved oxygen as
the summer season progresses.
New York State Department of Health (1951)
The most complete report summarizing the sources of municipal
and industrial pollution to each tributary of Onondaga Lake,
as well as the direct discharge of waste to the lake, is that
of the NYSDH. Onondaga Lake is listed here as P154. the 154th
pond and/or lake in the Oswego River System. IncTuded in this.
report on the lake are data from the New York State Conservation
Department (1947), the Agar-Sanderson Report (1947) and the
Syracuse City Engineers Office (1949). The former two reports
include information on fish, chemical and coliform conditions.
The data from the Agar-Sanderson Report and the Conservation
Department indicate poor oxygen conditions in 1946 and 1947 in
Onondaga Lake. Summarizing the fish conditions, the latter
report states,
"Pike-perch, catfish, sunfish and suckers are
fairly common in late season and an occasional
northern perch, northern pike, silver bass and
bass are found. This may represent migration
into the area from the Canal and Seneca River."
31
-------
The Conservation Department Report also suggests that nothing
is known about fish in the winter when critical conditions
may exist owing to suspected low oxygen conditions.
O'Brien & Gere (1952)
In an extensive report by O'Brien & Gere many features con-
cerning the development of sewage treatment facilities for the
Syracuse area were described. Topics considered were:
Population growth, the sewage system of the City of Syracuse,
sewage flows, composition of sewage, the DO, BOD and MPN in
Onondaga Lake, the oxygen balance, recreational aspects,
consideration of the Seneca River* development along the park-
way, existing garbage and rubbish plants, alternative sewage
treatment facilities and design and construction of plants.
This Report brings together, for the first time, multiple
considerations with respect to the sewage treatment and it
summarizies some of the data of Onondaga Lake.
Although untreated sewage was discharged into the lake for
the first time in 1922 (O'Brien & Gere, 1952) no serious
effects were noticed at that time. This assumes that the
relative sampling depths, discussed by O'Brien & Gere,
were accurate. However, by 1946-47, anaerobic conditions
had developed in the lower waters of the lake during summer
stratification. It is not clear from page 6-3 of the O'Brien
& Gere Report just how the samples of the lower water were
obtai ned, e.g.,
"All samples taken in deep water sections of the
lake were cross sections of the top 30 (9.2 m)
feet of water; in the more shallow sections, the
samples were taken from top to bottom as the
sampling device was being lowered and raised."
Could this sampling device have been merely a flushing sewage
sampler which would not have given precise measurements of DO
at any particular depth? The data on sulfides described in
this Report also indicate that anaerobic conditions in the
lower waters were present from 1946 through 1952. O'Brien &
Gere also indicate, from fairly meager data, that the sludge
deposits were non-existent to slight in the 1920's and 1930's.
Additional Studies (1955-1970)
Unpublished data collected by the Onondaga County Department
of Public Works since 1959, represent one of the largest stores
of chemical data for the lake. These data, taken at 10 sta-
tions on Onondaga Lake at the surface and/or 6.1 m (20 ft.)
32
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depths, cover a period wtien major developments were affecting
the lake. Variations in the BOD data of Onondaga County were
analyzed statistically (not shown) in this present (1970)
Report to determine statistical variation at several sites
on the lake. Although there were some marked year to year
differences, the trends for the years represented were
somewhat similar and indicated a slight decrease in BOD from
1957 to 1968.
Webber (1960), in an Engineering Study, tried to analyze the
factors effecting the concentration of dissolved oxygen in
Onondaga Lake. He concluded that,
"The DO content is theoretically equal to the
quotient of the BOD exertion rate divided by
the re-aeration coefficient",
and that the re-aeration through the surface of the lake was
the most important method of supplying dissolved oxygen to
the water. He regarded the thermocline depth in Onondaga Lake
as constant. His interpretation is open to question as he
determined the thermocline depth indirectly from the plotted
data on H2S from a major soda ash manufacturer. Webber also
estimated that theoretical detention time in the lake as 180
days for 1946.
Probably the most widely distributed published work on the
unusual chemical composition of Onondaga Lake was that of
Berg (1963). When compared to other lakes in New York, the
ionic composition of Onondaga Lake was strikingly higher.
In a separate study of Onondaga Lake in 1964 and 1965 (SURC,
1966) several conclusions were drawn. They were as follows:
"1. Present chemical factors have undergone only
minor chemical changes since the O'Brien &
Gere Report of 1952.
2. Little beneficial effect on the quality and
general composition of the south end of
Onondaga Lake would be achieved by a force
main as proposed originally by O'Brien &
Gere. The concentration .of inorganic salts
would undoubtedly rise if the M.S.T.P. flow
were diverted.
3. The inorganic salt concentration of the lake,
especially sodium-calcium ratio is approaching
that of the effluent of Nine Mile Creek below
Route 690 Bridge.
33
-------
4. Although the algal population of the Lake has
shown an increase since 1962, it has not
reached troublesome levels.
5. If the M.S.T.P. effluent were diverted from
Onondaga Lake, the consequences of increased
algal productivity might be more severe down-
stream than in the lake, particularly since
the factors which limit algal bloom in the
lake at the present time may not be effective
in the downstream system.
6. A yearly study of the chemical composition and
algal population should be carried out to serve
as a warning indicator of adverse changes in
the lake."
Statement No. 3_ above and the text of this Report suggests
that Onondaga Lake is becoming increasingly saline as a con-
sequence of the soda ash manufacturer's activities. It is
noteworthy that this (SURC, 1966) report, after examining one
historical reference of Beck (1826), regarded the lake as
originally having a dense submerged layer of brine. Schultz
(1810) had disspelled this notion earlier but the local belief
must have persisted.
The Report also mentions that the oxygen conditions, predicted
to be poor by O'Brien & Gere (1952), may indeed have followed
predictions. Unfortunately, only surface and bottom samples
were taken in 1965 for verification. Complete oxygen profiles
need to be made systematically for more meaningful checks.
In addition, the SURC Report also describes some bioassay
experiments which indicate inhibition of growth with increasing
salinity. This suggests that any possible lessening of algal
blooms might be due to the relatively high saline conditions of
calcium chloride or sodium chloride. Jackson (1968) also
discusses this later in this literature review.
In another unpublished report (Brennan, et.al., 1968), con-
sideration was given to the restoration of Onondaga Lake.
Among many aspects discussed, of particular interest were the
possibilities of electrolytic treatment (since Onondaga Lake
is somewhat saline) and lime precipitation of wastes. Another
feature of the Report concerned the benthic deposits (sludge)
and what to do with them. The old question was raised, how
can the deposits be improved in place or where will they be
put if sucked off the bottom?
Brennan et.al., (1968) observed much Enteromorpha. the
saltwater form of algae, in Onondaga Lake in 1965 and 1966.
In part of the Report, the retention time of the lake was
34
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calculated to be 270 days with a volume of 151,416,472 m3
(40 X 109 gallons). This contrasts with Webber's (I960)
calculation of 180 days.
Some of the more interesting data concerning Onondaga Lake
are to be found in the unpublished reports of Allied Chemical
Corporation (Anonymous, 1968). These data include information
on water chemistry, thermal profiles, and some biological
measurements. Of primary 1imnological interest are the data
concerning the concentrations of dissolved oxygen and hydrogen
sulfide in the lower waters of Onondaga Lake. The O'Brien &
Gere Report of 1952 indicated that oxygen conditions were
satisfactory in the lower waters back in the early 1920's.
However, in a 1945 memorandum from the soda ash manufacturer,
it was reported that the hydrogen sulfide was strongly
evident in the mill water as far back as 22 August 1910.
This unpublished reference questions the possibility that
there was dissolved oxygen in the lower waters at that time
of the year, even back that far.
The soda ash manufacturer was concerned with the buildup of
hydrogen sulfide owing to the costs of treating the lake-water
with large amounts of chlorine to prevent scaling of their
equipment. The unpublished separate reports of the latter
also indicate that the concentrations of hydrogen sulfide
appear to be increasing in the lower waters in more recent
years. If these reports are true, that is, if the concen-
trations of H2S have increased and the concentrations of
dissolved oxygen are decreasing, it would seem that the lake
is experiencing a worsening condition. Addition items of
interest include the large concentration of organic matter,
about 40% or higher, from the bottom muds.
Jackson (1968) gives a brief geographical, morphometric, and
historical review of Onondaga Lake. Owing to the relative
salinity of Onondaga Lake and the high concentrations of
chlorides, it is Jackson's opinion that the lake is meromic-
tic. This opinion has since proven to be incorrect but with
the^early notions about the lower "brine" layer of the lake,
it is not difficult to see how it could develop.
In bio-assay tests with 25 algal cultures, Jackson, (1968),
found that unfiltered lake water alone would not support
the blue-green algal cultures in his experiment. He stated
that this was consistent with his observations of three
years. Only diluted lake water would support the culture
of blue-green algae. Therefore, he felt that the lake should
35
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be worse than it is and that perhaps the "saline and polluted"
nature of the lake has kept the algal conditions from
worsening.4
In another study, Jackson (1969) described attempts to
evaluate the rate of primary productivity of phytoplankton
in Onondaga Lake. Fourteen respiratory and fourteen
photosynthetic measurements were made on each sample collected
on six different occasions from the months of May through
October. His results indicate that although the same genera
of algae were dominant at the southeastern portion of the lake
as well as the northwestern portion, the average number of
algal cells at the southeastern end of the lake was 96.3 vs
6.5 for the northwest end. The photosynthetic rates (expressed
as microliters of oxygen per hour per mg/1 ash-free dry weight)
always exceeded the respiration rate. He observed no blue-
green algae during the 1967 sampling period except for some
small coccoid forms. Green algae, Chiamydomonas and Scenedesmus
were dominant in May, June and July and Chlorella in August.
The diatoms Cyclotella and Stephanodiscus were dominant in
September. Jackson questions whether the proposed sewage plant
improvement would benefit the lake, i.e., would the improved
effluent from the plant decrease the relative salinity with a
consequent increase in algal production?
More recent and systematic observations of algal growth
in Onondaga Lake have shown that blue-green algae can
be prominent during the late summer. Evidence for the
latter is discussed further in this Report.
36
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SECTION 7 - SAMPLING & ANALYSES
General
The purpose of this Section is to outline the methods of
sampling and analyses for the Onondaga Lake Study. The sam-
pling was carried out in two phases. The preliminary phase,
which extended from April 1968 through December 1968,
established sampling points and determined the parameters
and their frequency of measurement.
During the detailed study, which extended from January 1969
to December 1969, lake water and bottom sediments were sampled
and analyzed in those locations and for those parameters which
proved to be the most significant during the preliminary phase.
Open Water Sampling
The major open water sampling program, in whicH variations of
chemical and biological concentrations with depth were monitored,
was designated as depth synoptic sampling. Depth synoptic
stations were located in the two deep pools of Onondaga Lake;
namely, Station 1 at the south-deep and Station 2 at the north-
deep (Figure 1-2).
Samples were collected at three meter intervals from the surface
to the bottom by a two liter PVC VanDorn sampling bottle. Depth
synoptics were run on a bi-weekly schedule during the preliminary
phase and on a weekly schedule during the detailed phase.
The following is a list of the parameters measured and the
equipment used:
TABLE 7-1
Onondaqa Lake Analyses
PARAMETER METHOD OF ANALYSIS
Alkalinity *Sulfuric Acid Titration Method
BOD Weston-Stack Oxygen Meter Standardized
by Winkler Method
Carbon Dioxide *Sodium Hydroxide Titration Method
Chlorides Argentometric
37
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Conductivity
Dissolved Oxygen
Fluorides
E. coli
Ammonia Nitrogen
Organic Nitrogen
Nitrite Nitrogen
Nitrate Nitrogen
Orthophosphorus
Total Phosphorus
PH
Silica Dioxide
Total Solids
Suspended Solids
Sulfides
Sulfate
Temperature
Transparency
Calci urn
Magnesi urn
Potas'si urn
Sodium
Copper
Chromium
Iron
Beckman Conductivity Meter
*Winkler Method - Azide Modification
Orion Specific Ion Electrode
Millipore Filter Technique
*Direct Nesslerization Method
*Direct Nesslerization Method
*Direct Nesslerization Method
*Direct Nesslerization Method
*Stannous Chloride Method
*Stannous Chloride Method
*Photovolt pH Meter
Molybdo Silica Method
*Gravimetric
*Gravimetric
Orion Specific Ion Electrode - For
further details on this procedure
see Appendix D
*Gravimetric
Atkins or Whitney (to.l°C)
Thermometer Probe
Secchi Disk (20 cm. dia. - all white)
Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
(Perki n-Elmer)
38
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Manganeze Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
(Perkin-Elmer)
Zinc " " "
Biological See Section 11
During the summer months of 1969, duplicate samples were taken
at each of the two stations. One sample was filtered using a
Millipore filter to remove any suspended particulate matter,
and the other was left unfiltered. The filtered sample was
then used in a mineral-water equilibria study to determine the
mineral stability in the lake.
During the winter months, when the lake was partially covered
with ice, no parameters were measured in the field other than
temperature and Secchi Disk. During the summer months, the
following parameters were measured in the field on a routine
basis; temperature, pH, alkalinity, COz, sulfides and Secchi
Disk. Dissolved oxygen samples were fixed in the field for
later determination in the lab.
Overnight Sampling
During the Study three overnight samplings were conducted to
determine the variations in those parameters that reflect the
respiration of phytoplankton as well as their photosynthetic
activity. Parameters were measured at Station 1 at 3 meter
intervals, 3 times during the Study, namely, Oct. 10, 1968,
June 10, 1969 and July 29, 1969. The following parameters
were measured: temperature, pH, alkalinity, COg. DO, con-
ductivity and Silicon dioxide (Si02).
Waste Discharge Survey
A sampling program of the major tributaries and discharges
entering Onondaga Lake was carried out from June 1969 through
December 1969. The following were sampled.
In accordance with Standard Methods
39
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Harbor Brook
East Flume (Soda Ash Manufacturer)
Steel Manufacturer Discharge
Nine Mile Creek
Bloody Brook
Ley Creek
Onondaga Creek
Sanitary Landfill System
*Sawmill Creek
*Seneca River
*Measured November - December 1969
These discharges were sampled on a bi-weekly schedule. Sam-
ples were collected with a DO sewage sampler as prescribed
by Standard Methods. Due to the shallowness of the creeks,
all samples were taken at, or very near, the surface.
All parameters measured for the depth synoptic sampling were
also measured for the creek samples with the exception of BOD,
total solids, suspended solids, conductivity and C02- With
the exception of the latter two parameters, these analyses
were performed by the Onondaga County Department of Public
Works under their lake analysis program. The following
parameters were measured in the field; pH, alkalinity and
temperature. The dissolved oxygen samples were fixed in the
field for later determination in the laboratory.
Tributary Sampling
During June 1969, samples were taken at various upstream points
(not shown) on Geddes Brook, Onondaga Creek, Nine Mile Creek
and Harbor Brookfor the purpose of assessing the natural
contribution of the streams to the waters of the lake.
Grab samples were collected with a bucket and filtered through
the Millipore Filter. The analyses run on these samples were
the same as those run for the discharge sampling.
40
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Coring
Core samples were taken to enable analysis and observation of
the bottom sediments. Three separate types of cores were
taken throughout the Lake Study; namely, Alpine, Benthos and
Jenkins cores. Benthos cores were taken of the tributaries
to assess the "natural" contribution. A Benthos corer is
illustrated in Figure 7-1.
Benthos Coring
The Benthos coring apparatus is a "gravity" device which takes
a core 6.6 cm - I.D. Cores of up to 2.14 m (7 ft.) in length
were taken with this core. Forty cores of this type were
taken during the preliminary phase and 21 cores were taken
during the detailed phase. Locations of core samples taken
in 1969 are illustrated in Figure 1-2.
Once the core sample was obtained and was on board the sampl-
ing boat, sediments were extracted from both the top and the
bottom of the core sample. These were then placed in a
Mi I'll pore filter apparatus and the water contained in the
sediment (pore water) was forced out with air pressure.
Analyses of the pore water performed on board the boat
included pH, alkalinity and sulfides. Sufficient water from
the sediments was taken back to the laboratory where the
analyses shown in Table 7-2 were performed.
Following the extraction of pore water, cores were extracted
from the tubing while on board. Each core was split in half
and visually examined. A written description of each core
was then made describing the layering and texture of the
core material.
TABLE 7-2
Pore Water Analysis
PARAMETERS
Calcium Potassium
Magnesium Manganese
Sodium Iron
Chlorides pH
Sulfates Alkalinity
Zinc Orthophosphorus
Copper Silicon Dioxide
Chromium Sulfides
41
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BENTHOS CORER
FIGURE 7-1
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Alpine Coring
The Alpine corer is a "piston" type apparatus which takes a
core 3.5 cm in diameter. During the sampling of the Lake
bottom, cores of up to 12 feet in length were taken with the
Alpine corer. During the summer of 1969, eleven cores were
taken at various locations as illustrated in Figure 1.2.
Sediment samples were extracted from the bottom and the top
of each core. Water was forced from these sediment samples
in the same manner as it was with the Benthos corer. Suffi-
cient pore water again was obtained for further laboratory
analysis as shown in Table 7-2. The sediments were saved for
further observation as study such as carbon dating, pollen
analysis and X-ray analyses. Cores were carefully stoppered
to prevent air leakage and placed in cold storage for future
possible investigation.
Jenkins Coring
The Jenkins corer enabled the gathering of an undisturbed sam-
ple of the bottom sediments, enclosed waters, and overlying
waters. Core tubing is 7.25 cm in diameter and 51 cm long.
Sediments were enclosed to a depth ranging from 10 to 20 cm;
the remainder of core length consisted of overlying and
undisturbed Lake water. Fifteen cores were taken at various
locations in the Lake as illustrated in Figure 1-2. Analyses
of the interstitial waters, performed on board, included pH,
alkalinity and sulfides. Water was also obtained for other
analysis in the laboratory, as shown in Table 7-2.
In each location duplicate cores were taken. One core was
preserved in its natural state, while the other core was drained
of the Lake water above the sediment, and replaced by deionized
water. The analyses shown in Table 7-2 were run on the water
samples withdrawn from each core at two week intervals for a
period of 2-1/2 months. The deionized water in each of the
treated cores was replaced every two weeks. The purpose of the
deionized water" cores was to determine the ultimate effect the
bottom sediments would have on the overlying waters.
At the conclusion of the above investigations, the DO content of
the overlying waters in the untreated cores was measured. Oxy-
genated, deionized water was added, when necessary, until the
DO concentration stabilized, in order to determine the oxygen
demand of the undisturbed sediments.
This procedure was repeated for the same samples following
mixing of the upper 2 cm of sediments. The latter was done in
an effort to simulate lake turnover conditions. Oxygen demand
values were utilized in the Lake Assimilation Capacity Calculation
43
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Creek Coring
Cores were taken at the mouth of the following tributaries:
Nine Mile Creek, Bloody Brook, Ley Creek, Harbor Brook and Saw
Mill Creek. These cores were taken by hand using the tubing
from the Benthos gravity corer. The purpose of this coring was
to determine the sediments accumulated by these tributaries.
The analysis run on these cores is shown in Table 7-2.
Gas samples were collected at Station 1 during the months of
August and September. Five samples were collected using a
sampler fabricated in our laboratory. The gas samples were
examined for their composition by gas chromatography.
Temperature Gradients
Temperature gradients were run on the Lake to give an overall
temperature picture at any one time within the Lake. Thermal
transects were run along the centerline of the Lake extending
from the inlet at Onondaga Creek to the outlet at the Seneca
River. The number of stations contained in the transect varied
from 10 to 15 depending upon wind and wave conditions. At each
station the temperature was recorded at half meter intervals
from the surface to the bottom using the Atkins or a Whitney
(+ 0.1° C) probe.
Biological Studies
Biological studies were conducted to determine the significance
of: a) algae populations, b) zooplankton populations, and
c) fish populations.
TABLE 3
LOCATION
Biological Analysis Stations
SAMPLING METHOD
Ley Creek
Nine Mile Creek
Lake Outlet
Sta. I & II
Surface; horizontal net
Surface; horizontal net
Surface; horizontal net
Horizontal & vertical net; 0, 3, 6,
& 12 meter samples & tube samples
For an account of the fish survey and details of the biological
studies, see Section 11.
44
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SECTION 8 - GROSS PHYSICAL FEATURES
General
The initial step in a limnological investigation should
entail the determination of gross physical features such as,
nature and extent of lake bottom strata, lake volume,
tributary flows and lake residence times. The origin of the
lake bottom has been the source of much discussion and widely
varying speculation, particularly in relation to the source
of chlorides in the lake. For example, the following exerpt
by Spencer, a former Superintendent of the Salt Works (as
published by Geddes , 1860).
"Eminent geologists, who devoted much time in
investigating this subject, have I believe,
uniformly arrived at the conclusion that the
source from which our brine is derived is very
deep beneath the mountains or hills south of
us, and is conveyed to the points where we
find it, by subterrainian currents of water,
which have passed through the soliferous
material and dissolved it.
I am strongly inclined to the opinion that
there is deposited, immediately beneath the
Onondaga Lake, a solid mass of salt rock,
which is being gradually dissolved, and flows
to the points where we find our brine. This
salt rock is overlaid by heavy sedimentary
basin which forms the bottom of the lake and
which prevents the salt from coming in contact
with its waters.
All the borings show that the valley is filled
with drift and sedimentary matter, and timber
is found at various depths down to 134 feet.
The salt water rises in all the tubes, to
about the level of the lake, and is strongest
when the lake is highest. Does in increased
pressure of deep water force the strong brine
from its source outward, where the tubes
reach it?"
The upward diffusion of chlorides is discussed in Section 12.
45
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Seismic Studies
In an effort to determine the nature of, and the extent to
which deposition has taken place in Onondaga Lake, the firms
of E G & G, Inc., Mystic Oceanographic Company and Weston-
Geophysical Engineers, Inc., were employed to conduct seismic
surveys of the lake bottom. Seismic sub-bottom profiling
employs acoustic (sound) pulses, electronic signal reception
and processing and graphic recording to obtain profile records
of the sub-bottom layers indicating their depth and configura-
tions. These surveys can be conducted by employing either the
method of reflection or refraction.
In the reflection technique, the seismic signal originates
from a boomer transducer which emits repetitive acoustic pulses
in the water. The sound pulses are reflected by the various
sub-bottom layers and are detected by an acoustic receiving
system also under tow. The incoming signals are processed
electronically and transmitted to a ship-board, strip chart
graphic recorder resulting in a profile record displaying the
geological findings in their corresponding relationships,
depths and geographic conditions. Depending upon the concen-
tration of bottom deposits, various sound sources, ranging
from a high frequency pinger probe to a low frequency boomer,
can be employed. High frequency systems, with accompanying
high resolution are employed for shallow penetration studies,
whereas low frequency, low resolution systems are employed
for deep penetration studies. Refraction studies rely upon
low frequency intermittent signals such as dynamite charges
which result in high penetration. The refracted signals,
sensed by a trailing cable with sensing probes, are electro-
nically recorded. The primary disadvantage of the latter is
its inability to obtain a continuous recording.
Results
In the early spring of 1968, E G & G conducted a survey
employing a boomer transducer emitting a sound signal with
a frequency of 2 kcs. , in an effort to delineate the major
geologic strata in the lake. When this system failed to
yield results, a 200 kc signal was employed; however, no
improved results were obtained. A grid system covering the
entire lake was made. During the seismic survey, contours
of the lake bottom were recorded, and are illustrated in
Figure 1-2. The lack of penetration and sub-bottom defini-
tion was attributed to the high gaseous content absorbing
acoustical energy. In an effort to minimize the influence
of gaseous production, consideration was given to conducting
a similar survey during the late fall, just prior to ice
cover.
46
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In the fall of 1968, Mystic Oceanographic Company offered to
employ their equipment in an effort to obtain positive re-
sults. A fish transducer was used, which emitted acoustical
sounds ranging from 1 to 10 kcs. A 1-day survey was conduc-
ted in the northern basin of the lake where gas production was
considered minimal; however, no positive results were obtained
In a final effort to profile sub-bottom layers, consideration
was given to the refraction technique. Therefore, in the
spring of 1969, shortly after the ice melted, Weston Geophy-
sical Engineers, Inc. offered to conduct a survey, again on a
conditional basis. Of the three studies conducted, the re-
sults of the latter were the most informative. Charges as
high as 9.1 kg (20 Ibs.) were set off and a trailing cable was
employed at those locations illustrated in Figure 1-2. A
summary of the results of this survey follows:
1. "Depths to bedrock were determined both on the
shore and opposite these lines in the lake; these
vary from 149 feet (45.4 m) on the shore to over
170 feet (51.8 m) in the lake;
2. Where the above measurements were made, the velo-
cities measured were 5,000 ft/sec (1520 m/sec)
from the lake bottom to the bedrock surface—these
velocities are indicative of water saturated
materials or predominantly clayey overburden;
3. No "high" velocity materials were measured
between lake bottom and bedrock surface which
might indicate a dense glacial till or weathered
bedrock existing above hard bedrock;
4. Although seismic measurements were made for the
entire length of the lake, bedrock determinations
were possible only on the north end due to the
existence of gaseous or man-dumped silty
materi als;
5. The presence of gaseous materials extended for
nearly the entire length of the lake and, for
the most part, were of considerable thickness
(usually greater than 15 to 20 feet or 4.57 m
to 6.1 m). This is evidenced by the quality of
the seismograms, the material erupted by the
seismic shots and release of gases from these
materials.
It has been our experience that gaseous materials
such as were encountered have very low seismic
velocities (as low as 200 to 600 ft/sec, or 61
m/sec to 183 m/sec), however, they are "masked" by
the water velocity of 5,000 ft/sec (1520 m/sec).
47
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Consequently, their thickness could not be
determined quantitively. Because of this, the
extensiveness of the gaseous materials and the
fact that these gaseous materials could not be
controlled by bedrock, it was decided to ter-
minante the seismic survey with the results
obtained after two days."
Lake Volume and Net Deposition
Bottom contour plots recorded by the E G & G survey were used
to determine the volume of the lake. This calculation was
based on a water surface of 363.0 USGS datum. The lake ele-
vation is controlled at approximately 362.4 to 363.0 USGS
datum, for this section of the Barge Canal System. The lake
volume was determined to be 1.405 X 10b cubic meters (37,078
million gallons or 37.078 X 109 gallons).
Water depths recorded in 1913 by the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers were used in order to estimate the net deposition
that has taken place in the last 56 years. The water level
of the lake at that time, was recorded as 363.0 to 363.5.
A total of 8.03 X 106 cubic meters (10.5 X 10& cubic yards)
was estimated.as the net deposition. This is equivalent to
an average deposition over the surface area of the lake of
.69 m (2.25 ft.).
Residence Times
Residence times in the lake were calculated for those years
in which creek flow data were available. It was assumed
that on an annual basis, rainfall and evaporation were equal
and opposite in their effect on the lake. Table 8-1 illus-
trates total annual precipitation, major inflows and
corresponding residence times for the years of record. It
should be noted that the 1964 residence time reflects a total
precipitation of 68.8 cm (27.10 inches), which was the second
lowest annual precipitation recorded since 1912, the lowest
being 68.5 cm (26.98 inches) in 1939. The 1968 calculation
reflects an annual precipitation of 112 cm (44.23 inches),
which is the 5th highest precipitation since 1912, the highest
being 122 cm (48.17 inches) as recorded in 1922. Thus the
calculated residence times are approximately representative
of a 56-year return period.
Residence times were calculated for; a) mixing of inflows
throughout lake depth (total), and b) confinement of inflows
to epilimnion (0-9 m). The plausibility of the latter condi-
tion is discussed under Section 10, Chemical Considerations.
48
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TABLE 8-1
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
ANNUAL RESIDENCE TIME OF ONONDAGA LAKE
Total Annual
Precipitation
Year
1963
1964
1965
1 Qfifi
1967
1968
1969
(inches )
27.81
27.10
28.39
.- _ 31 1 A
36.02
44.23
32.05
(cm)
70.7
68.8
72.0
7Q Q
/ y . o
91.5
112.3
81.4
Average Daily
*Flow
(mgd)
198
189
196
276
376
248
(m3 X 106)
0.90
0.86
0.89
Lake
Residence Time
(days)
Total Epilimnion Only
238
250
240
insufficient data-
1.26 158
1.77 99
1.13 150
154
161
154
102
64
98
* Accounts for major inflows namely; Ley Creek, Onondaga Creek, Harbor Brook,
Nine Mile Creek and Metropolitan Syracuse Treatment Plant.
Average annual precipitation -- 1912-1968 = 90.4 cm (35.60 inches).
Assumptions:
Rainfall - Evaporation = 0
Inflow travels through all
lake depths
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SECTION 9 - OTHER PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS -
TEMPERATURE AND TRANSPARENCY
K. M. Stewart
General
One of the most valuable variables for limnological investi-
gations is temperature. Thermal profiles relate directly to
physical stratification and indirectly to chemical and
biological stratification as well. When temperatures are
measured in depth systematically over long periods of time,
additional knowledge is gleaned concerning vertical mixing
and the circulation of nutrients.
The clarity of a lake is a popular index of a "clean" lake
by laymen and scientific investigators as well. Clarity,
transparency and opacity are all terms used to describe or
discuss the ease with which light penetrates water. The
penetration of light is a complex function of scattering and
absorption. The turbidity of water, natural discoloration,
plankton and bacterial populations and detrital composition
all affect how far and which wavelengths of light penetrate
the water.
Temperature
For this Study, temperatures were measured systematically
(with a thermistor- thermometer) at preselected depth inter-
vals in Onondaga Lake. Two major periods of circulation
(overturn) are apparent for each year, (Figure B-34). These
two periods represent the vernal and autumnal circulation.
Lakes in this category are termed dimictic (Hutchinson, 1957).
An expected feature of lakes with similar latitudinal and
climatic regimes is the rapid increase of temperatures at
most levels following the break-up of ice. Following this
there is a continued rise of temperature in the upper waters
but the temperatures in the lowest water increase relatively
little.
After the summer maxima of temperature and density differences
there is a cooling with loss of stability and stratification.
The entire lake cools irregularly to some temperature below
4° C after which time, and particularly near or at freezing,
an inverse stratification begins. The inverse stratification
holds during the winter and, following the loss of ice in the
spring, the cycle is repeated with attendant annual modification
from solar energy, winds, air temperatures and occasional influ-
ential contributions of cold or warm water from tributaries.
50
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The picture for Onondaga Lake is roughly the same and the
lake should be termed dimictic also. However, there are some
noteworthy discrepancies in Onondaga Lake which affect the
normally smooth transition from partial autumnal circulation
to complete and uniform mixing. These discrepancies are
visualized most easily in the figures for, and in the more
detailed discussion of, thermal transects in Appendix A. It
is sufficient to state here that chemical contributions to
the density structure alter the circulation so that during
late fall, Onondaga Lake cools in a pronounced (2 to 5° C
difference from top to bottom) inverse (warmest water at the
bottom) manner rather than what might be expected (.01 to
0.5° C difference) in less "saline" or more "normal" lakes.
Chemical considerations related to the above are discussed in
Section 10.
The "saline" nature of Onondaga Lake has led one investigator
(Jackson, 1968) to the incorrect opinion that the lake is
meromictic. Meromixis implies that some lower area of the
lake is effectively and usually permanently sealed off from
vertical mixing with the upper waters. Meromictic lakes have
lower waters with essentially constant temperature. Such is
not the ;case with Onondaga Lake as the detailed measurements
of temperature in Figure B-l will attest. Nor are the lower
waters permanently sealed off from the upper waters.
In 1969 the temperatures in the lower Waters rose more rapidly
than they did the previous year. Whether this is a function
of differential insulation, more heat contributed by indus-
trial or municipal effluents, greater internal turbulence
allowing far more heat transfer across the density gradient,
or some other combination of effects is not clear at this time.
Thermal Transects
Owing to the relative salinity of Onondaga Lake as compared
to other lakes, and following early thermal measurements which
indicated that there were unusual lens of warm and cold water
in the lake, thermal transects were run along the longitudinal
axis of the lake to provide information as to the possible
source, or fate of these features.
In addition to studying the distribution of unusual warm and
cold temperatures within Onondaga Lake, it was felt that the
thermal transects could also provide information on the tilting
of the thermocline and some aspects of circulation. Therefore,
several thermal transects were, undertaken during the course of
this Study to make these evaluations.
In addition to the "natural" flow into the lake from the
various tributaries such as Nine Mile Creek, Bloody Brook,
Harbor Brook, Ley Creek and smaller tributaries, Onondaga Lake
51
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has several unnatural contributions such as the effluent of
the Syracuse Metropolitan Sewage Plant, the sewage and indus^-
trial discharges from Ley Creek, the thermal discharge from
the soda ash manufacturing plant and the relatively dense
material coming in from Nine Mile Creek contributed by the
overflow from the soda ash waste beds.
Onondaga Lake's inflows and outlet are illustrated in the
upper left of Figure A-l. It is well to keep these in mind
when examining the thermal transects as they help explain the
distribution of some isotherms.
Note that the approximate path of the thermal transects is not
directly over the subsurface (6.1 m 20 feet) discharge from
the Syracuse Metropolitan Sewage Plant. Furthermore, owing to
winds of varying velocity and direction and effects of the
earth's rotation, there is little likelihood that any one
"parcel" or slug flow of water will travel in a fixed direction
for very long. Another consideration is that the largest
natural annual inflow is from Onondaga Creek while the flow
from Nine Mile Creek (augmented from the drainage off the soda
ash waste beds) However, the most significant thermal inflow,
observed in several transects, is from the cooling water discharge
of the soda ash manufacturing plant. As this latter flow repre-
sents water that has been extracted from the lake, heated and
then discharged at the surface, its slightly decreased density
allows it to flow out over the surface of the lake at the
southeast end.
Specific storms can influence one local watershed, draining
into Onondaga Lake, more easily than others (Onondaga Lake
Drainage Basin, 1951; Sixteenth Annual Report of the Syracuse
Intercepting Sewer Board, 1922). Under conditions of relatively
low inflow, water from the Seneca River may back in the outlet
and further complicate the picture. The latter condition has
been observed before (O'Brien & Gere, 1952). Thus, any one of
the inflows or the outlet may, on occasion, be responsible for
a clear or confusing picture of water movement into the lake.
Cooling water or thermal discharge from the soda ash manufac-
turer can' be observed and measured easily at the site of
discharge into the southeastern end of Onondaga Lake. The
location can also be observed from a distance under certain
atmospheric conditions. For example, when the air is very
cold with respect to the water, and the relative humidity is
high, a local vapor of "steam" or sea fog appearance can be
noted rising over the area of discharge. This "steam" is
visible from across the lake on the Thruway and is not
uncommon in the late months of the year in the early morning
hours.
Water from the Seneca River may back into the outlet of the lake
at its northwest end and bring in a tongue of warmer or cooler
water.
52
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Both of the above conditions, i.e., the cooling water discharge
and the backing of water into the lake from the Seneca River
(Figure 9-1), have been recorded by still photography and
special Infra-red5 photographic technique. The infra-red
technique senses the true thermal image of the lake, and helps
interpret what is measured and observed at the surface of the
lake and its part in a more synoptic overview than separate
prints provide.
Summary of Transects
The transects discussed one at a time in Appendix A are sum-
marized below. The transects illustrate, with varying degrees
of clarity, two main features:
1. The first is the growth and decay of the
thermal structure of the lake.
2. The second is the external contributions
of water of different temperature and
their dispostion within the lake.
The influence of these thermal contributions from industries,
creeks and the Metropolitan Treatment Plant may be observed
indirectly by taking vertical measurements of temperature
across the lake.
The main thermal discharge is from the soda ash manufacturing
plant, where approximately 416 X 103 m3/day (110 mgd) of water
from the lake is used for cooling and then discharged at the
surface in the southeast end of the lake. Percentagewise,
the second most significant thermal discharge is from Nine
Mile Creek.
The subsurface discharge from the Metropolitan Plant appears
at times to flow down the slopes of the lake into the southeast
basin and at other times seems to spread out and form lens of
cooler or warmer water at approximately the depth of discharge.
It is likely that the oxygen demand of this latter spreading
effluent causes an uneven oxygen gradient in Onondaga Lake and
accelerates the rate at which any available dissolved oxygen is
reduced. Improved treatment of sewage should reduce this
influence -- if the gains are not counter-balanced by an increase
of population equivalents.
Dr- J- W. Whipple of the USGS in Albany, N. Y., carried out
the IR (infra-red) study.of Onondaga Lake, 1969.
53
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NORTH END OF ONONDAGA LAKE
INFLUENCE OF SENECA RIVER
NOTE:
DEGREE OF LIGHT
CORRESPONDS TO
DEGREE OF HEAT
SOUTH END OF ONONDAGA LAKE
"EAST FLUME" THERMAL DISCHARGE
FIGURE 9-1
-------
It is readily apparent from the transects that there are
chemical contributions to the density structure which create
some abnormalities within the normal thermal profile. This
is most striking during late autumn and is considered further
in Section 10.
Transparency
Several photometric devices are used to measure the penetra-
tion of light. Some are extremely complex and expensive while
others are simple and inexpensive. One of the oldest, but
most commonly used instruments is a simple flat, white disk
( 20 cm dia.) called a Secchi Disk. The depth at which this
disk just disappears from view is called the Secchi Disk
transparency. Such a disk was used during this Study to mea-
sure the clarity of Onondaga Lake.
Seasonal and more rapid changes are plotted in Figure B-30.
Two gross features are apparent from the graph. The first
is that the general clarity of Onondaga Lake is low (mean
value of 1.0 meter) when compared (Berg, 1965) to many
other lakes in New York. The second feature is the repeatable
(1968-1969) sequence of increased clarity (discussed elsewhere
in the biological section) in August that appears to result
from a collapse of the phytoplankton population. This late
summer clearing has been observed frequently by local resi-
dents ( personal communication with Cy Wilson who has worked
periodically on the lake for many years).
The generally low transparency in Onondaga Lake probably
reflects the high nutrient content and associated significant
quantities of phytoplankton. Water of varying discoloration
from the tributaries and industrial and municipal inflows can
also induce local differences. However, with some exceptions,
the transparency of water at both stations in the lake is
quite similar.
55
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SECTION 10 - CHEMICAL CONSIDERATIONS
M. C. Rand, et. al.
General
This Section discusses the major effects certain chemicals
have on the structure of lake waters as well as chemical
interactions that render it a unique lake with respect to
many other fresh-water lakes. Individual chemical species
and their distribution within the lake are discussed in
Appendix B.
A most important characteristic of Onondaga Lake is the high
average chloride concentration (1>690 mg/1), and the source
and distribution of these chlorides within the lake. The
chloride distribution plays a significant role in the stra-
tification, distribution and mixing of lake waters. Despite
stratification in depth, lake waters are well mixed horizon-
tally with respect to most chemical species.
High concentrations of cations such as calcium play a
significant role in the buffering capcity and mineral-water
equilibria in lake waters. The latter is discussed in
greater detail in Section 12.
Lake Stratification vs "Overturn"
Lake overturn is attributable to minimal density differences
with the lake with attendant wind and inflow conditions fav-
orable to a mixing of lake waters. Such conditions occur
annually during the spring and fall seasons. Chemical
gradients can result in differential densities that
effectively impede the mixing process.
In 1969 stratification of lake waters began in April, shortly
after the ice thaw (Figure B-l). All chemical data for the
interim period illustrate only weak, incomplete mixing of
lake waters.
Table 10-1 shows water densities and density differentials
resulting from temperature and major ion concentrations re-
presentative of the 1969 lake "overturn". Ranges for each
parameter, with the exception of temperature, represent
approximate maximum and minimum values immediately prior
to lake "overturn". These values are illustrated in Appendix
B Figure B-l, B-4, B-10, B-ll , B-16 and B-17. The temperature
range is representative of lake waters prior to an iso-thermal
condition in the lake. The distinction between temperature
and ions was necessary since an iso-thermal condition appeared
56
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to precede briefly the autumnal period of "overturn" in
1968 and 1969.
TABLE 10-1
COMPARATIVE WATER DENSITIES
Parameter
Range Prior to
1969 Overturn
mg/1
Absolute
Densi ty
@ 12° C
gm/cm3
Density
Difference
@ 12° C
gm/cm3
Cl
2,300
1 ,700
1.0030
1.0021
.0009
Ca
1 ,200
1 ,100
1 .0023
1.0023
Negligi ble
Na
1 ,100
850
1.0019
1 .0015
.0004
Temp.
10° C
12° C
16° C
24° C
0.9997
0.9995
0.9989
0.9973
0.0002
0.0006
0.0016
Prior to iso-thermal
conditions observed
the
in 1969, water
waters to 12° C
tem-
in
peratures ranged from 14° C in the upper waters to 12° C in
the lower waters. This temperature differential corresponds
to a density change of 0.0002 gm/cm3. Immediately prior to
the period ov overturn in Onondaga Lake a density difference,
in the order of 0.0009 gm/cm3 also can be expected from ion
concentrations. Therefore, absolute densities resulting from
ion concentrations are approximately 400% higher than those
resulting solely from temperature. Since molecular diffusion
takes place at a relatively slow rate, the ion concentrations,
especially chloride, are significant in modifying the type
of overturn.
57
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The moderate response of bottom sediments to density changes
and overturn is best illustrated by the contour plots of BOD,,
ortho-phosphate and DO for Station No. 1, Figures B-35, B-36
and B-37 respectively.
During the periods of overturn, concentrations of DO and BOD
tend to increase as the concentrations of ortho-phosphates
tend to either remain the same or decrease. Increases in the
hypolimnetic waters, with little or no attendant increases in
the epilimnetic waters, occurred during the 1968 autumnal over-
turn (Figure B-35). Lake waters were similarly affected by the
spring overturn in 1969. However, the autumnal overturn of 1969
showed no appreciable increases in the hypolimnetic waters.
Due to the inability to differentiate the demands on, or con-
tributions of the lower anaerobic waters from the anaerobic
sediments, laboratory tests were conducted to determine the
maximum BOD and ortho-phosphate concentrations yielded by the
sediments.
In the case of the latter, surficial sediments were stored and
then shaken in cylinders with ion-free water. Desorption of
phosphorus as P was in the order of 0.026 mg/centimeter depth
of sediment. Results are further discussed in Section 12.
The ultimate oxygen demand of the surficial sediments or ben-
thic deposits was estimated from an undisturbed core sample
and found to be 100 Ibs. for a bottom surface equivalent to
the surface area of the lake. This is further discussed in
Section 13. In general, Figures B-35 and B-36, as well as
Table B-l , illustrate the tendency of BOD and ortho-phosphate
respectively to be confined in the hypolimnetic water of the
lake. The "trapping" of materials within the lower waters of
the lake is not an uncommon occurrence.
Significance of Chlorides
It is apparent from Table 10-1 that chloride concentrations
play a significant role in the stratification of lake waters.
Absolute densities as well as density changes attributable
to chemical concentrations are primarily the result of calcium
and sodium chlorides. Approximately 54% of the chloride input
measured under the Waste Discharge Survey is attributable to
Nine Mile Creek. Other major sources are the "East Flume"
(16.6%) and the Metropolitan Sewage Treatment (10.8%) discharges-
Other sources of chloride in the Vak-e «re cHscuss'e'd in Section
12.
During the entire sampling period, the mean and geometric mean
concentrations of chloride in the hypo!itnnion exceeded those
of the epilimnion by approximately 30%. Higher chloride con-
centrations in the hypolimnion persisted even at those times
when the lake was isothermal and sufficient mixing occurred to
carry dissolved oxygen to all depths.
58
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The gradients observed ca-n be explained by considering effects
of temperature and solute concentrations in the lake proper
as related to inflows throughout an annual cycle.
During the winter months when the temperature difference from
the lake surface to the bottom is only a few degrees, the
chloride concentrations generally increased with depth; there
is no sharp division between the hypolimnion and the epi1imnion.
Influent discharge water tends to descend to a level determined
by its density. The consistency of higher chloride concentra-
tions in the hypolimnion is attributable to chemically con-
centrated discharges residing in these waters despite temperature
fluctuati ons.
As the Spring thaw takes place, the epilimnetic waters of the
lake warm more rapidly than the hypolimnetic waters. At the
same time, the warm runoff from streams is relatively dilute
with respect to all dissolved species, including chlorides.
Therefore, the streams, owing to their relative densities, tend
to reside in the epilimnion. Thus, the chloride concentrations
in the epilimnetic waters of the lake tend to be reduced by
inflows during the early spring months. This is in accordance
with observations illustrated by the chloride line plots,
Figure B-4. This influence on lake waters tends to diminish
through the summer as input volumes and the-i r dilution effect
decreases .
Horizontal Mixing
Although lake waters are stratified with respect to depth
throughout the major portion of the year, all chemical data
indicate good horizontal mixing throughout the year. Table
B-l shows mean and geometic mean values for all parameters
measured on the lake and the differences between Stations 1
and 2. Negative differences reflect a higher value in
Station 2. With the exception of BOD, nitrite, chromium and
Escherichia coll (E. coli). all differences are less than 20%
with the majority of differences below 10%. It should be
noted that higher BOD, carbon dioxide, E. coil and nitrogen
forms at Station No. 1 are attributable to the major pollu-
tional discharges that are along the southeastern end of the
lake, and the unstable nature of the constituents.
Observations with respect to chloride, calcium and sodium
data illustrate the degree of horizontal mixing within
Onondaga Lake. Measurements made under the Waste Discharge
Survey (Table 5-4) show that.the combined discharges of Nine
Mile Creek and the "East Flume" represent 70.6% of the
chlorides, 79.4% of the calcium and 61.1% of the sodium.
Although Nine Mile Creek discharges into the lake approxi-
mately two-thirds the distance up from the southeastern end,
differences for these three chemical species in the lake are
59
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in all cases less than 2%. This represents a significant
amount of horizontal mixing. Wind data show that the predo-
minant winds originate from the west and west-northwest
direction, thus aiding the distribution of waters from Nine
Mile Creek to the southern end. It should also be pointed
out that there are substantial shifts in wind direction and
velocity throughout the day which contribute to the mixing
of lake waters. Seiche generated currents probably augment
the horizontal distribution of variables, particularly in
the hypolimnion.
Calcium and sodium values show variations with depth and
relationships with runoff similar to those observed for
chloride. As calcium and sodium represent the major cations
in Onondaga Lake, such similarities are reasonable. A most
interesting observation is the fluctuation of chlorides,
calcium and sodium with time, irrespective of depth (Figures
B-4, 16, 17). The chloride fluctuations correspond closely
to those observed for conductivity (Figure B-20). The above
chemical species showed increasesbeginning in May 1969, with
"0-9 meter" waters increasing at a more rapid rate than
lower waters. Observations of runoff data for Nine Mile
Creek, Figure B-33, show that increases in chemical concen-
trations correspond with decreases in runoff. The relatively
rapid rate of response of the upper waters to runoff
variations indicates that the epilimnion is a more dynamic
region than the hypolimnion.
Some major parameters showing values higher in the northern
end, (Station No. 2) than in the southern end, were dissolved
oxygen, total phosphorus, ortho-phosphate and nitrite. Con-
tributions of dissolved oxygen and phosphorus may result from
Seneca River waters backing into Onondaga Lake. Figure 9-1
illustrates the influence of Seneca River on Onondaga Lake.
Higher nitrite values at Station 2 presumably result from the
greater availability of oxygen for oxidation of nitrogen.
Higher chromium values in the hypolimnion of Station No. 2
may be the result of the "Steel Mill" discharge which dis-
charged approximately 39% of the total chromium measured.
Lake Buffering Capacity
Calcium plays a significant role in the pH-alkalinity rela-
tionship, as described under "pH" in Appendix B, through the
following reaction:
++
Ca + HC03- -«— ^ Ca
60
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The relatively high Ca++ concentrations in both the epilimnion
and hypolimnion drive the above reaction toward the formation
of CaCOa (calcite). This can best be shown by illustrating
the position of equilibrium from a calculation of the solu-
bility product (Ksp).
Since 25° C nearly represents the maximum temperature recorded
in Onondaga Lake (28° C) during the sampling phase, the Ksp
at that temperature can be used to illustrate the influence
of Ca++ on the precipitation of CaCOs.
Ksp of CaC03 (25° C) = 4.7 X lO'8 =
[C03-]
Since alkalinity is almost entirely in the form of HC03 at a
pH less than 8.3, HCOs is nearly equal to the alkalinity
measured. Values below are for the hypolimnion of Station 1
Values in parentheses () represent minimum concentrations
observed.
Parameter
Geometric
Mean
mq/1
Gram
Molecular
Weight
[Moles/Liter]
HC03
827.6
(122.0)
196.2
( 84.0)
40
61
20.6 X TO'3
(3.05 X 10"3)
3.22 X 10'3
(1.38 X 10'3)
[20.6 X 10-3] [3.22 X 10"3] = 66.4 X 10'6
[(3.05 X 10-3)][(1.38 X 10-3)] = ( 4.2 X TO'*)
66.4 X lO'6
( 4.2 X 10-6)
4.7 X 10-8
4.7 X 10"8
This precipitation of CaCOs occurs even in the case of mini
mum concentrations. The above illustrates the predominant
influence of Ca++ ions on the precipitation of CaC03. Its
ionic concentration varies from 6.4 to 2.2 times the ionic
concentration of alkalinity as HCOs".
The precipitation of CaCOs occurred throughout the period
April 1968 to December 1969 for all zones of the lake
61
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measured. This condition is unique in that many lakes show
a precipitation of CaCOs in the epilimnion, but a dissolution
of CaCOs in the hypo!imnion, as illustrated below.
To Atmosphere and
Utilization by Photosynthesis
t
C02 +
ft
Epi1imnion
t*
HC03-
Production by Bacterial Decomposition
I __
~T°3
H2C03"~5^H+ + HC03~ Hypolimnion
|tt
Ca + HC03 ^_ >CaC03 + H +
However, consistent precipitation of Ca3C03 occurs in Onondaga
Lake as illustrated by the dotted arrows. Increased C02 in
the hypolimnion reduces the rate at which CaC03 is formed but
does not reverse the reaction.
Overnight Measurements
Results of overnight samples are plotted in Figure B-40
through B-47. Figure B-40 illustrates variations in DO at
all depths for Station 1. Surface and 3 meter readings show
the greatest variations with time since they are representa-
tive of the photic zone of the lake. As expected, DO con-
centrations at these depths decreased with decreasing daylight
reaching an apparent minimal condition at approximately 6:00
a.m. the following day. DO concentrations in the deeper
portions of the lake remained relatively constant. Figure B-41
illustrates DO variations on July 29, 1969, when an algae
die-off condition was observed in the lake. Even under these
conditions there was a decrease in DO concentration with
decreasing daylight. A minimal condition for the surface
waters was reached at 4:00 a.m. the following day. In
62
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general, DO fluctuations were not as great as was expected
from the intense algae production of the lake. Figures
B-42 through B-47 represent C02» pH, alkalinity, temperature,
conductivity and Si02. Values of C02 were relatively constant
with respect to time. Apparently the respiration and photo-
synthetic activity of phytoplankton was not significant enough
to influence the carbonate equilibria in the lake. Other
parameters, with the exception of alkalinity, show only slight
variations with respect to time. Fluctuations in alkalinity
are not explainable from the results of this Study.
Statistical Routines
Depth synoptic data were subjected to three general types of
statistical routines, namely; 1) distribution plots, 2) corre-
lation analysis and 3) multiple regression analysis. Statis-
tical routines in conjunction with visual representations pro-
vided the basis upon which chemical interrelationships were
derived. Results of these routines and an account of the
varous interrelationships observed appear in Appendix B.
63
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SECTION 11 - BIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
J. M. Kingsbury
General
Attention was given to the algae or phytoplankton, the zoo-
plankton, and the fish in Onondaga Lake. Phytoplankton
studies began in April of 1968 and extended to December 1969.
Zooplankton and fish studies were conducted from January to
December 1969. This Section is a summary of the above studies
Details of the phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish studies can
be found in that order in Appendix C.
Previous studies of the algae of Onondaga Lake are few
(summarized in the Appendix), and the observations on algae
reported in them were often obtained incidentally to other
purposes. Important parameters such as time or location
frequently are not stated in these studies. In no case
(except for Hohn's study of diatoms) is determination made
to the species level; algae in previous literature are
identified only to genus. This is a serious deficiency.
Identifying phytoplankton as "flagellates" instead of by genus
and species is similar to identifying "salt" instead of NaCl .
Identifying Scenedesmus for Scenedesmus obiiquus is like
reporting "a chloride" for NaCl.
Nearly concomitantly with this Study, a study of algal
productivity, using enrichment of lake water, was conducted
in D. F. Jackson's laboratory at Syracuse University. The
results became available toward the end of our Study and are
discussed in the Appendix. They agree with results reported
here or with inferences derivable from the O'Brien & Gere
Study in many particulars, although the approaches were
different.
Previous published and unpublished studies of Onondaga Lake
give, in summary, an impression of a eutrophic lake, rich in
numbers of algae, but poor in species, with few or no blue-
green algae. This fits the idea put forth by ecologists that
given an unusual environment, the few organisms well adapted
to its peculiarities will be able to exploit it to the vir-
tual exclusion of other, less well adapted forms.
The purpose of the phytoplankton study was: a) to provide a
quantitative account of the species of phytoplankton in the
lake through a 12-month period, utilizing enough collecting
techniques to ensure a detailed characterization of the lake's
64
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phytoplankton; b) to calculate the volume of an average
individual for each important phytoplankter, and to derive
from this and the counts an estimation of the photosynthetic
biomass in the lake against time; c) to compare the populations
of phytoplankton found in the lake as they changed in time with
changes in other measured characteristics of the lake with a
view toward discerning limiting or controlling factors; and
d) to isolate into unialgal culture a number of the most impor-
tant species of phytoplankton so that an investigation may be
undertaken in the coming year of their individual physiology as
it relates to ecologically significant parameters.
Sampling
Methods are discussed in detail in Appendix C. The summer and
fall of 1968--Prel iminary Phase of Study—were used to test
collecting techniques, laboratory techniques and feasibility
of collecting under varied conditions, and also to determine
the number of stations and frequency of collecting needed to
provide an adequate record. The program adopted for collecting
employed two principal stations (identical with the two stations
employed for the major chemical and physical observations)
augmented by collections at 3 other stations. Sampling locations
are illustrated in Figure C-l. Collections were made weekly
through the growing season. Various techniques involving nets
and ultrafiltration were used to concentrate organisms for
examination. Collecting was by a combination of water-bottle
point samples and horizontally or vertically integrating
sampling techniques. All results expressed quantitatively
have been derived from water of known volume and location.
Identifcations have been by means of standard taxonomic
authorities. In comparison with many similar studies, this
Study has resulted in an unusually large number of collections
for its duration and the size of the body of water involved.
Results
Findings can be discussed under two major headings: 1)
organisms and 2) their relationship to the environment.
Both the variety of species and the abundance of certain
species of algae in Onondaga Lake is impressive. As listed
in the Appendix, approximately 100 species were identified
in 1968-9. The dominant phytoplankters show the expected
succession for a shallow, nutrient-rich lake: diatoms and
flagellates in the spring, green algae of the Chlorococcales
in the early summer, blue-green algae later in the summer
and an association of flagellates and diatoms in the fall.
A seasonal pattern can be described for a number of moderately
common species. The lake also supports a surprising number of
rare species which appear occasionally in the collections.
65.
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The finding of a high diversity of species was unexpected in
light of the lake's unusual chemistry and the earlier reported
observations.
Phytosynthetic biomass (Figure C-2) follows a seasonal pattern
with greatest abundance in June, July and August when the
water may be noticeably colored by blooms of green or blue-
green algae. Observations from the preliminary phase in 1968
were adequate in retrospect to conclude that in 1969, blooms
of algae were less intense than in 1968. During the late
summer of 1968, masses of blue-green algae were washed ashore
and the bloom persisted through September. Such conditions
were absent in 1969. On the basis of previous literature,
blooms of blue-green algae were unexpected. The organisms
involved, (Polycystis aeruginosa and Aphani zomenon f1os-aquae)
are among the common troublesome kinds!Both have records of
toxicity to animals.
Onondaga Lake is unusually saline, with a salinity approxi-
mately one-tenth that of the ocean. Three types of algae
typical of marine environment were found in the lake: First,
the variety and total number of centric diatoms (Centrales)
is intermediate between a typical freshwater environment and
an oceanic condition, and dinof1agellates are abundant in
the lake. Most of the dinoflagellates and centric diatoms
in Onondaga Lake are freshwater species from genera in which
the majority of species are marine. Secondly, a rare species
of the diatom Chaetocerbs was found. This species may have
been previously undescribed. All species of Chaetoceros
described to date are exclusively marine. Thirdly, the
typically intertidal, attached green seaweed Enteromorpha
intestinal is, one of the commonest algae along most of
the coasts of North America, occurs around the shores of the
lake, sometimes abundantly.
The distribution of light is important in the environment
of phytoplankton. During the growing season in Onondaga
Lake, calculations show that the depth of the euphotic zone
(that in which, per 24 hr., light is pres<
\ \* i t \* \f ill iTiiiwiiy b/^*« b_ i i i i • y i i ^ i • v i^« LJlCwCIll* III O U ) I I >•* I C I I U
amounts for photosynthesis to balance or exceed respiration)
is significantly less than half the depth of the epilimnion
(surface to thermocline). This means that such things as
presence or absence of turbulence, degree of turbulence,
motility of organisms, and rate of sinking of non-motile
organisms will play a significant role in determining whether
a given cell will spend sufficient time in the euphotic zone
for a successful positive balance between photosynthesis and
respiration. Unlike most other algae, typical bloom-forming
blue-green algae including those found in Onondaga Lake
float at the surface. They thus markedly change the charac-
teristics of light penetration into the water and affect the
growth of other phytosynthetic organisms in the water column.
66
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Turbulence tends to destroy surface blooms. The increase of
the heavy walled, readily-sinking diatom Melosira granulata
in September, for example, appears to be related to the
increased turbulence in the epilimnion at that time.
The concentrations of phosphates, nitrates and potassium
compounds, in lake water throughout the year, compared with
what published minima exist, and the amounts of these compounds
used in culture media for algae lead to the conclusion that
these principal nutrients are never limiting to algal growth
in the lake, nor do any of them appear to be of such great
concentration as to be inhibitory to algal growth. Silica
(Si02) is depleted in proportion to the blooms of diatoms, but
may not reach low enough concentrations to become seriously
limiting to diatom growth. The concentrations of certain other
elements, however, may be limiting or may approach limiting
levels for one or more species of phytoplankton. The elevated
concentrations of chromium and copper in particular approach
levels at which algal inhibition may be expected. In general,
conditions in the lake appear to be capable of supporting
larger populations of algae than those in 1969. If the level
of a metal is acting as a check, its removal or reduction may
lead to greater blooms .than presently occur.
The level of dissolved oxygen in a natural body of water is
critically important to those organisms, fish expecially,
which depend on it for respiration. A catastrophic dimunution
of dissolved oxygen may occur in lakes as an algal bloom
disappears, when oxygen is rapidly removed from the water to
meet the demands of decomposition of dead algal cells and of
the respiration of those remaining. According to observations
of the County (C. Wilson, personal communication) it is usual
for Onondaga Lake to "clear" of visible algal growth for a
brief period some time during the summer months and for "clearing"
to be associated with a marked drop in dissolved oxygen. This
phenomenon was not observed in 1968, but in 1969, at the end of
July, the phytoplankton disappeared suddenly and almost completely
from the lake, and the dissolved oxygen content of the water
dropped to approximately 2 ppm at the surface. Chlorella
vulgaris was the only common phytoplankter at the time. The
sudden death of this species may have occurred as a natural
process in the cycle of growth and decay of a population, or
it may have been brought about by a change in some, not obvious,
environmental parameter.
Zooplankton - Results
Systematic surveys of the zooplankton of Onondaga Lake have
not previously been reported. The few observations in earlier
reports are scattered, and organisms were not identified to
species. Previous literature is summarized in Appendix C.
67
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Sampling for zooplankton was performed at the same times and
at the same stations as the sampling for phytoplankton.
Collecting was by nets hauled horizontally and vertically,
the latter for tows of known length. Organisms were identi-
fied as critically as possible (dependant in part on stage
of growth), and results expressed quantitatively per unit of
water against time for a 12-month period. Details of the
methods employed are presented in the Appendix.
Seventeen species in ten genera were identified. The dominant
forms include 3 rotifers, 1 copepod, and 3 cladocera. Because
the numbers involved were relatively small, they were examined
statistically for standard deviation as a measure of their
reliability. Variations in counts per unit volume of lake
water against time as expressed in line plots were examined to
detect possible correlations of peaks and valleys with signi-
ficant changes in chemical, physical or biological character-
istics of the environment.
It was not possible to establish that fluctuations in counts
were or were not related to specific chemical parameters,
although the shape of some curves individually and collectively
suggests the possibility that both limiting events and
inhibitory events were sometimes at work in determining the
density of populations of zooplankters. Some populations may
have been held back from attaining maximum density occasionally
by fish predation, but evidence of close control of zooplankton
populations by this means, or of any control by changes in food
source or levels (algal populations) is lacking, except perhaps
in winter when all populations were low. Similarly, although
algal cells were often seen within the digestive tracts of some
zooplankters, the zooplankton populations seemed to have little
or no effect in controlling the density of populations of
phytoplankton.
One rotifer and one daphnid identified from Onondaga Lake are
normally associated with saline environments.
In general, Onondaga Lake supports a community of zooplankton
which is typical for a saline lake at this latitude.
Fish - Results
A survey of the fish in Onondaga Lake was conducted during the
summer of 1969 by members of th.e Department of Conservation,
Cornell University, utilizing techniques proven in other lakes
of upstate New York. The objectives of the study were to
determine the species composition of the fish population and
its general condition.
68
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Methods included overnight laying of gillnets to collect
adult fishes, collecting of pelagic fish fry by plankton net,
collecting of pelagic fish by midwater trawl, collecting of
pelagic fry by trawl towed near the surface, and shore seining
for small fish. Ekman dredge samples were taken at gillnet
stations to sample the benthos at these locations. Location
of stations, time of sampling and composition of catches are
given in detail in Appendix C.
Onondaga Lake supports a fairly diverse fish fauna, typical
of many warm water lakes in Central New York State. Sixteen
species were identified in adult or juvenile condition.
Except for a large population of white perch, species compo-
sition has not changed appreciably from that reported in
surveys of the lake in 1927 and 1946. Despite the unusual
chemical and physical characteristics of Onondaga Lake,
growth of most game and panfish compared favorably with the
published growth rates for fish in other waters of the north-
east. Reproduction appeared to be very limited in 1969, but
the few young taken were of good size and condition.
Distribution of fish in the lake is not uniform. Conditions
along the northeast shoreline are favorable to a large and
varied fish fauna. Adult fish are scarce in the southernmost
part of the lake and young are not found along the northwest
shore. These distributions probably reflect the inflow of
low quality water at the south end of the lake and from Nine
Mile Creek. The level of dissolved oxygen in the hypolimnion
is lower than that necessary to sustain populations of fish
presently in the lake which must therefore live in the
epilimnion at least some of the time to survive. Levels of
oxygen in the epilimnion are sometimes marginal. Even though
adult fish may be able to survive under these conditions, the
reproduction of these species may be limited by them. The
reproduction of some fish species may be limited by the
quality of the substrate in the littoral area.
Management of the existing fish population, mainly panfish,
could provide recreation for area youth and intercity resi-
dents were are unable to travel to more distant waters. A
comparison of taste and acceptability of fillets from fish
taken in Onondaga and Oneida Lakes was conducted with ten
participants who were not informed of the source of the fillets.
Although some could detect differences in flavor in some species
of fish, walleyes especially, none found the Onondaga fish
objectionable. If the condition of the southern half of Onon-
daga Lake can be improved to that currently existing in the
northern half, the southern basin should be capable of
supporting populations of fish similar to those now present in
the northern half. At least this much improvement in the lake
would be necessary to support increased fishing pressures than
now exist, and further management might be required in the
light of changes in the condition of the lake as they occur.
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SECTION 12 - GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
J. C. Sutherland
General
This Section deals with mineral water equilibria in the open
waters of Onondaga Lake as well as the interstitial waters
of the lake sediments. Dissolved sulfide and chloride concen-
trations are discussed with respect to their relationship with
concentrations observed in the interstitial waters. The
sources of these chemical species are also considered. In
particular, chloride data are reviewed to determine the
possibility of concentrations emanating from the lake bottom.
Sediment characteristics such as age, consistency, and gases
related thereto are also discussed under this Section. Lab-
oratory tests to determine maximum chemical contributions
from the sediments are reviewed.
Basis of Mineral Equilibrium Model - Treatment of
Chemical Data
Introduction
Chemical analyses from Onondaga Lake are compared to models
for saturation (equilibrium) involving common minerals. Th'e
treatment may be compared to considerations of dissolved
oxygen concentrations (DO). The measured value of DO is
compared to a value representing equilibrium with oxygen of
the atmosphere. In the mineral equilibrium treatment, solids
such as silicates, phosphates, fluorides, carbonates, sulfates,
sulfides, etc., rather than oxygen, are "tested" to learn if
they have roles as chemical regulators of lake water.
In the DO example given, one asks if water is in equilibrium
with the atmosphere. Formally,
02 (g. , atm. ) Oa (aq. ) ??
A question so formulated about the mineral, calcite, would be,
CaC03 ^ > Ca + + (aq.) + C03= (aq.) ??
That is, "Is the lake in equilibrium with calcite"?
It is desirable to learn about chemical self-regulation in
Onondaga Lake because:
70
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1. A lake in equilibrium with minerals tends to resist
the imposition of chemical changes (natural or man-
made), by dissolving or precipitating of the mineral(s)
i nvolved.
2. Change in the concentration of one species tends to
promote spontaneous change in other concentrations.
For example, if a lake in which the equilibrium re-
action prevailed, CaS04. 2^0 ^=^ Ca++(aq .) + $04=
(aq.) + 2H20, were treated to remove calcium, then
the reaction would tend to advance to the right, and
perhaps result in undesirably high concentrations of
sulfate ion.
3. Changes in the concentration of other chemical species
could follow: In the above example, the increased
concentration of sulfate could lead to increases in
the concentration of dissolved copper, through forma-
tion of the ion pair, CuS04° (aq.).
4. When oversaturation of a lake with common minerals
takes place, the rate of introduction of the involved
chemicals is rapid relative to the rate of precipi-
tation of minerals.
Equilibria involving dissolved chemicals, including ion pairs,
may be very important. For instance, in a lake containing
millimolar quantities of Kg++ and 504= ions, up to 0.2 milli-
molar amounts of MgS04° (aq.) "molecule" may be present.
Typical percentages of dissolved ion pairs in Onondaga Lake
are given in Figure D-l (Appendix D).
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TABLE 12-1
Minerals Tested
Carbonates
Calcite
Dolomi te
Siderite
Malachi te
Rhodochros ite
Sulfates
Gypsum
CaC03
CaMg(C03)2
FeC03
MnC03
CaS04'2H20
Phosphates
Hydroxyapatite Ca]g(P04)6(OH)2
Fluorapatite Ca10(P04)6(F)2
Octacalcium
Phosphate
Ca4H(P04)3
Silicates, aluminosi1icates, etc.
Kaolinite
Muscovi te
K feldspar
Amorphous
s,i 1 i c a
A12Si205(OH)4
KAl3Si3Oio(OH)2
KAlSi308
Si02-nH20
Oxides
Cuprite
Hemati te
Pyrolusite
Manganite
Fluorides
Fluori te
Sulfides
Pyrite
Covellite
Chalcocite
Alabandite
Na montmoril-
lonite NaA17Si1103Q(OH)6
Ca montmoril-
lonite CaA114Si22060{OH)12
Cu20
Fe203
Mn02
Mn203
CaF2
FeS2
CuS
Cu2S
MnS
Gibbsite
A12(OH)6
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Basis for Selecting the Minerals for Equilibrium
Model Treatment
Silicate minerals, the alkaline earth metal carbonates, gypsum,
and fluorite, are minerals common or observed in the rocks of
the Onondaga Lake watershed. These minerals react with
ground water, with streams that carry them in suspension and
with Onondaga Lake in which they may reside as suspended or
as settled (bottom sediments) particles.
Minerals of iron, copper and manganese, although ordinarily
slow to react with natural waters, might form in the lake
(authigenically) by precipitation if the metal ions are suf-
ficiently concentrated. The phosphate minerals also form
authigenically if concentrations of dissolved orthophosphates
are high enough.
Treatment of Data
All calculations and most tests for equilibrium were per-
formed by computer with programs written expressly for the
Onondaga Lake Study.
The thermochemical activities (or, simply, activities) of
dissolved chemical species are calculated from lake chemical
analyses, from temperature data and from experimental energy
data. The chemical activities, related to concentrations,
are then tested in models for equilibrium involving the
pertinent minerals.
Tests for equilibrium are illustrated in two examples:
A. The reaction of calcite with lake water may be written:
CaC03 ^=± Ca++(aq.) + C0s=(aq.)
At equilibrium, the product of the activities of dissolved
species,
|ca+-j]
Keq.
where Keq. is a temperature-dependent equilibrium constant,
and where brackets denote activities.
Should the activity product calculated from a sample of water
exceed Keq., then the mineral , calcite, is stable, and would
tend to form in the water by precipitation of the chemicals.
If the activity product is less than Keq. the water is under-
saturated with calcite, calcite is unstable and, if present
in suspension, would tend to be dissolved.
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B. Equilibria involving reciprocal mineral-water relation-
ships are tested with equations like the following:
1/2 Al2Si'205(OH)4 + 5/2 H20 = 1/2 Al2(OH)6 +
kaolinite gibbsite
silicate acid
At equilibrium,
^48104] = Keq.,
an equilibrium constant for this reaction. If kaolinite and
gibbsite are in equilibrium in the lake, removal of silicic
acid by processes external to reaction (consumption by
siliceous plants, for example) will be accompanied by a
tendency for the reaction to proceed to the right, forming
gibbsite and silicic acid.
C. Reactions involving oxidation reduction are compared to
an oxidation potential calculated from values of pH and
DO in the epilimnion, and from dissolved hydrogen sulfide,
S04=, and pH in the hypol imnion. Comparisons are made in
order to determine the. stable form of a heavy metal of
interest at different levels in the lake. For example,
iron could be stable as one of the mineral oxide, sulfide
or carbonate forms, or in the aqueous phase, but in
general only in one of these forms.
Results
Phosphates
Onondaga Lake is oversaturated with hydroxyapati te and fluor-
apatite, and is undersaturated with other orthophosphate
compounds .
Given existing values of calcium concentration and pH, the
phosphate oversaturation factor with respect to hydroxyapatite
is approximately 16 (15° C) , 10 (0° C), and 100 (25° C).
Oversaturation of the lake wi th f luorapati te is even greater.
Some large lakes with water detention times of two years and
longer, Lake Erie for example, remain undersaturated with the
apatite minerals except locally where rivers rich in phosphate
discharge. But oversaturation in Lake Erie, for example, is
uncommon. Data from many analyses suggest that equilibrium is
approached from the side of undersaturation and that precipi-
tation of OH-apatite acts to limit concentrations of dissolved
orthophosphate.
74
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Into Onondaga Lake, however, streams discharge large amounts
of orthophosphate and too rapidly for reactions,
10Ca++ + 6P04 = + 20H" - ^hydroxyapati te , and
+ + 2F~ - ^-fluorapatite,
to keep levels of orthophosphate concentration in the low
parts-per-bil lion range.
Related to orthophosphate and apatite minerals is the
observation that concentrations of fluoride diminish with
depth in the epilimnion (surface to 9 meters). As seen in
a plot of data taken June 18 to July 16, (Figure D-4),
fluoride concentrations diminish by a factor of four within
that depth. Because the waters in the deeper epilimnion
have existed for a longer time in the lake than have surface
waters, notwithstanding mixing attributable to wind cur-
rents, the former have been reacting as lake waters for
longer times than have the latter. Being "older", the
deeper waters have had longer exposure to conditions of
oversaturation with respect to fluoride minerals. The
foregoing observations are consistent with the hypothesis
that a fluoride mineral is forming in the lake. Fluorapa-
tite, with which the lake is greatly oversaturated , would
be the most likely precipitating mineral.
The precipitation of f luorapati te, Cai QF?(P04)fi , might
remove the equivalent of 4.0 mg/1 orthophosphate phosphorus
from hypolimnetic waters over a period of time, less than
one year. A close estimate of this period would be
extremely helpful in determining the rate of P removal.
Carbonates
In most months, the lake is oversaturated with calcite and
dolomite. The degree of oversaturation of the lake with
respect to calcite is a remarkably uniform function of the
pH (Figure D-5) :
Log10 SATURATION FACTOR = pH - 7
Only in middle and late winter, when pH ' s fall below 7, is
Onondaga Lake undersaturated with these minerals,
The reaction,
(calcite)
75
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represents the existing oversaturation of Onondaga Lake with
calcite. Differences exist in the degree of oversaturation,
surface waters being more oversaturated than deeper waters with
a persistent trend. The degree of oversaturation shows stronger
relationship to the pH than to temperature, which is somewhat
unexpected in view of the significant temperature-dependency
of the equilibrium constant.
However, the pH-dependency of oversaturation is consistent
with other chemical observations involving the dissolved
carbonate species, namely: Concentrations of dissolved carbon
dioxide, H+, and bicarbonate ion, are higher in deeper waters
than in overlying waters.
These observations are consistent with results that would be
expected from increased, or greater, bacterial oxidation of
organic matter in the hypolimnion than in the epilimnion.
The reaction,
— *>H2C03,
leads to higher concentrations of H+ and HC03~ upon dissocia-
tion of H2C03,
- »- HC03" + H+.
The increased H+ concentration results in removal of carbonate
ion, through the reaction,
C03= + H+ - »>HC03-,
and the decreasing amounts of carbonate ion cause a lowering
or diminishing of the degree of oversaturation in the hypolim-
nion, relative to the epilimnion.
Fl uorides
Measurements of the activity of fluoride ion were made for four
months in June 1969. During this time, the lake was slightly
undersaturated with fluorite, except for an occasional sample
of water very near equilibrium with the mineral.
In Figure D-4, data are plotted in a stability diagram for
fluorite. Data plot close to the fluorite - lake water
equilibrium boundary which suggests that formation of fluorite,
Ca++ + 2F~ - *• CaF2,
may limit the concentrations of fluoride ion to values less than
2 mg/1 (10-4 mol./l.) (see Figure D-6) , at present levels of
calcium.
76
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Others
With respect to sulfates, Onondaga Lake is undersaturated with
gypsum.
Concerning oxides, hematite, and, occasionally, cuprite and
pyrolusite are stable in the epilimnion.
With respect to sulfides, pyrite is stable in the hypo!imnion.
Sulfides of other heavy metals are unstable.
Concerning silicates, kaolinite is stable in nearly all samples
of water analyzed (Figures D-7 and D-8). In samples with
concentrations of dissolved silica at high levels, equilibrium
between kaolinite and Ca montmorillonite is approached,
(Figure D-9).
Sources and Magnitude of Chloride Concentrations
High concentrations of major dissolved chemical species,
chloride, Na, C, Mg, and K, are present in the enclosed water
of lake bottom sediments (Figure D-12). In most sediments
taken by piston coring, concentrations of several tens of
thousands of mg/l's of sodium and chloride are measured at
depths of 4 m. in the sediments. In sediments taken with
gravity cores, occasional values exceeding 10,000 mg/1 are
found at depths of less than one-half m, (Table D-3).
These extraordinary concentrations might be the result of
several processes:
1. in situ dissolving of chloride salts.
2. j_n_ s_i_t_u_ desorption of particle-adsorbed ions
accompanying aging in sediments.
3. Entrapment of water from a much saltier Onondaga
Lake of the past.
4. Natural ultrafi1tration (ion filtering) with
upward expulsion of "fresher" water, accompanying
compaction of sediments.
5- Ultrafiltration resulting from filter-pressing
enclosed water from sediments on board the sampling
boat.
6- Changes in ion-exchange properties of sediments
with warming, during on-board extraction of water.
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Introduction of dissolved salts from natural
saline ground waters by salt diffusion, by
upward displacement of such water during
compaction of sediments, and by mass channel
flow of subsurface water into shallow
sediments.
Di scuss ion
Chloride crystals are not seen in the sediments, nor would
such salt crystals, if introduced from surface discharges,
survive in the undersaturated waters of the lake. The sedi-
ments are prevalently inorganic or crystalline carbonates and
silicates. The capacity of such sediments to exchange or ad-
sorb ions is small, at most, amounting to several tens of
milli equivalents (meq.) of cations/100 gms sediment, and
much smaller amounts of chloride and other simple anions. It
is, therefore, unlikely that large amounts of chlorides are
removed from lake water by adsorption and ion exchange
processes. It is more difficult to imagine large-scale de-
sorption of chloride and sodium under the relatively mild
physical and chemical conditions in the sediments. In the
historical literature of Onondaga County, there is no
suggestion that Onondaga Lake was once a much saltier lake
than it is today. The opposite, in fact, is suggested.
Natural compaction of sediments could lead to reverse osmosis
in which sediments act as semi-permeable membranes. Where
effective, compacting sediments would expel "fresher" water
upward, retaining saltier water within them. But in Onondaga
Lake, sediment load pressures do not seem adequate to account
for the high concentration differences observed between lake
water and water at 4 m depth in the sediments, for example.
The pressure difference, fr , which is also the osmotic
pressure, is, at most, one atmosphere. This pressure is
adequate to account for total concentrations higher by only
2.0 M, and even at much shallower depths. Controlled studies
by others suggest that for significant ultrafi1tration to
take place during pressure treatment of sediments, pressures
of several hundred psi are required. In the present studies,
maximum pressures of approximately 90 psi were employed.
Recent work (Biscoff, Greer, ejt a_l_. , 1970) confirms that
water pressed from marine sediments on board ship or in a
warm laboratory is enhanced in concentration of some
chemicals and has reduced concentrations in others, relative
to values at cold temperature. But the differences are very
small relative to differences seen in the Onondaga Lake
situation.
Other observations indicate strongly that chemicals in waters
of the sediments have been added from salty subsurface waters
78
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In Figures D-10 and D-ll, straight lines of regression are
plotted for Na, Ca and Mg against chloride, both for randomly
selected data upon the lake waters and for the piston core
sediment data.
In Onondaga Lake:
1. Ca is present in nearly exact simple proportion
to Cl , with the ion ratio, Ca/Cl = 0.39.
2. Na is present in less perfect proportion with Cl.
3. Mg shows a weak inverse correlation with Cl, de-
creasing with increasing concentrations of Cl.
These results are expected because of the surface discharges
of large quantities of Na, Ca and Cl into the lake, (see
Section 5). The negative relationship of Mg, a relatively
dilute major ion, with Cl (and, therefore, with Ca) is not
inconsistent with the lake's great oversaturation with calcium
magnesium carbonate minerals.
The large proportionality constant relating Ca and Cl indi-
cates a source of calcium chloride, specifically. Such
proportionality is very rare in natural waters, except ocean
water, because of the near absence of calcium chloride
minerals. The phenomenon in Onondaga Lake is an artifact of
industry.
In the enclosed waters of sediments:
1. Concentrations of all major cations and of
chloride are higher than in the lake. Con-
centrations of Na+ and Cl~ commonly exceed
10,000 mg/1 and, occasionally, Cl exceeds
50,000 mg/1.
2. No persistent relationship of concentration
to depth is. seen. Even shallow sediments (1 m.)
may contain thousands of mg/1 of salts.
3. Sodium is present in nearly exact simple pro-
portion with Cl~. Na/Cl = 1.07.
4. Calcium covariation with Cl is very weak.
5. Magnesium varies in fairly close proportion
to Cl.
These observations suggest additions of natural saline
underground water derived from natural regional deposits of
79
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rock salt. The high correlations of Na and Mg with Cl are
expected because of the presence of Na and Mg chloride in
commercial brines around Onondaga Lake. The weak correlation
of Ca with chloride is consistent with the absence of Cad2
crystals in the Syracuse salt formation. The salt could
enter the shallow sediments by diffusion, by upward displace-
ment of salty water attending compaction of sediments, and
by less uniform processes including random channel flow of
saline water into shallow levels of sediments. The last
alternative may explain the existence of extremely salty
water in sediments less than 1 "m" in depth.
An underground head of pressure very likely exists to apply
positive upward pressure of subsurface water, around and
beneath the lake. Kantrowitz, 1964, remarking about the
saline water in wells and seeps in the region of Onondaga
Lake, suggests that subsurface water in the rocks above
the Hilderberg escarpment, 15-20 miles south of Onondaga
Lake, probably penetrates the Syracuse salt formation
(elevation = 320 feet below sea level). The water would
then migrate northward through fractures and solution
channels in the salt and gypsiferous rocks. The salty
Bishop spring and spring-fed salty ponds on the east side
of the lake could obtain their pressure by this mechanism.
Static Diffusion Calculations
An estimate of the maximum effect of ionic diffusion from
sediments into the lake was made. A calculation made for
the chloride ion indicates that the quantity of chloride
diffusing from the sediments into the lake is rather small
amounting to no more than 45 mg/1 into the lower one meter
of water during five months time. The calculation is made
using the first Pick law of diffusion and a diffusion coef-
ficient equal to 10"6 and maximum concentrations of chloride
of 63,000 mg/1 measured at a depth of 1-2/3 meters in the
sediment. Attempts to make empirical estimates of rate of
diffusion through the use of Jenkins samples Table D-2 led
to large and unrealistic results. Readings indicated a
rapid loss of chlorides from the interstices within a short
period of time. The "rate" of Cl loss was not discernable
from the readings taken of the overlying waters.
Sources and Magnitude of Dissolved Sulfide Concentrations
Sulfide concentrations were measured in the water at stations
No. 1 and 2 from the middle of June through the month of
October. The content of dissolved sulfide in enclosed waters
of sediments was also measured. Sediment depths varied
from 0.10 to 4 m. The following are the results.
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1. Sulfide in the surface water occasionally exceeded
30 mg/1. Values decreased downward to the thermo-
cline at 9 meters (Figure B-14).
2. Sulfides at depths 6 to 9 meters were negligible.
3. The amount of dissolved sulfide in the enclosed
waters of sediments was found to be less than
that found in deepest lake waters.
4. The highest contents of dissolved sulfide were
measured in the deepest lake water and reached
80 mg/1 in early September.
Perhaps the most peculiar observation made was the high sul-
fide concentrations in the upper epilimnion. This may be
attributable to the treatment given water samples before they
were analyzed for sulfide. The water samples were made very
basic (pH 14). In such a solution, any copper or iron
sulfides present as particles in the water would probably
dissolve. Introduction of airborne sulfide particles preci-
pitating on the lake could account for the high measured values
of sulfide in the surface waters and also for their decreasing
concentration with depth in the epilimnion. Also, sulfide
released from decaying organisms might produce such values.
From the observation of negligible concentrations of dissolved
sulfide within the region of 6 to 9 meters, it can be con-
cluded that no significant quantities of sulfide in the form
of gases or in the form of turbulent water, are reacting with
hypolimnetic waters.
Concentrations of sulfide in sediment enclosed waters were
less than those observed in the deepest lake water, suggesting
that the high concentrations of sulfide in the hypolimnion are
generated therein, i.e., through the action of sulfate reduc-
ing bacteria. However, reactions of sulfide minerals at the
interface of the sediments and water cannot be discounted as
a possible source of high sulfide in the hypolimnion.
Sediment Characteristics
Sediment Shaking Tests
Undesirable chemicals could be added to the lake from bottom
sediments in several ways. Upward diffusion through enclosed
water and mechanical resuspension are two possible means.
In order to estimate quantities of chemicals that could be
added to the lake from the sediments, rinsing tests were
conducted in which sediment was shaken (equipoise shaker,
Precision Scientific Co.) with water in a tube. The amount
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of chemicals released was determined by analysis of the
filtered water.
In order to compare the possible effects of sediments separa-
ting upon present lake water and upon potentially cleaner
water of the future, surface lake water and deionized water
were used upon duplicate sediment samples. Sediments from
all parts of the lake bottom were tested.
The discussion to follow concerns dissolved phosphate only and
is based upon the results listed in Appendix D, Table D-5.
Sediments rinsed with deionized water yielded larger amounts
of phosphate than did those shaken with lake water: The
average of 34 tests using deionized water is 0.225 ppm ortho-
phosphate (as P) released from one-half gram of sediments into
approximately 40 ml of water.
Reasonable values for the porosity of sediments and density
of particles being close to 50% and 2.8 gm/cm3, respectively,
then one cm3 of sediments yielded roughly 0.026 mg of easily
removed P.
A cleaner Onondaga Lake will be affected by the existing sedi-
ments for an indefinite time. The sediment shaking tests
permit some predicitons to be made upon phosphate effects:
Assuming that during a period of five years (approximately 9
detention periods) sediments will yield, at a maximum, easily
rinsed phosphate equivalent to that contained in an average
10 cm thick layer of sediments, than 0.26 mg of P/cm2 of the
bottom will have been released by the sediments. If only the
hypolimnion (9 m deep) is affected by this addition of P,
then a steady state average concentration of P of approxi-
mately 0.026 mg/1 will occur in the hypolimnion.
These effects appear to be small, and yet are the maximum to
be expected. Therefore, phosphate in the present lake
sediments is not expected to be an important factor in future
lake water.
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Gases in Sediments
Four aspects of sediment gases are considered, namely; 1) the
inferred (presence of gases, 2) observation of gases made di-
rectly, 3) collection of gases and 4) the results of gas
analyses. The presence of gases in the sediments was strongly
inferred by repeated failure to make a map of the sub-bottom
profile of the lake using geophysical methods of percussion and
explosion seismometry. On summer days during which the water
of the lake was calm, bubbles were often seen breaking the water
surface. That the sediments are a source of a percentage of the
gas bubbles was strongly inferred from observation of bubbles
exceeding 3 cm in length in the upper meter or more of collected
sediments. The bubbles were clearly visible between the sedi-
ments and the transparent butyrate liner used for coring. A
second observation of gases in the sediments was afforded by the
Jenkins sampler. The Jenkins sampler is used to take an essen-
tially undisturbed portion of sediments from near the sediment
water interface. The sampler is transparent and allows obser-
vation of the upper most section of sediment together with
approximately 30 cm of immediately overlying water. Upon
bringing the sampler aboard, bubbles effused from within the
sediment into the water immediately overlying them. Although
the cause of this strong outgasing is mechanical disturbance
and expansion accompanying reduction in pressure upon the
sediments, it can be surmized that gas bubbles are present in
the lake sediments and that they eventually pass into the above
water.
In addition to the above, gases were collected at a level
approximately 1 meter above the bottom of the lake in the south
and north deeps. A large plastic inverted funnel was suspended
one meter above the sediments in order to trap gases bubbling
up from below. During the period of sampling (the third week
in August until the middle of September) it was found that
from 24 to 48 hours time was required to collect sufficient
samples for analysis. The most abundant gases found were
nitrogen and methane, with trace quantities of hydrogen sulfide
present. Carbon dioxide was not detected in any of the samples
owing to the solubility of this gas in relation to the techni-
que employed. Values of nitrogen varied from 20 to 53% and
values of methane ranged from 47 to 80%. Although it may be
assumed that these gases are representative of the sediments,
it should be noted that the gases were collected from within
the deep waters and one meter above the bottom. Pertinently,
on August 29th, a water sampler was taken from a depth near
that of the gas sampler and was analyzed for nitrate, nitrite,
ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and other relevant chemicals. It is
interesting to note that the water and gas are in equilibrium
with each other and with respect to nitrogen and hydrogen
sulfide. Thus the latter gases measured are representative in
part of the deep water environment.
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Consistency of Sediments
The sediments of Onondaga Lake have two pronounced and per-
vasive characteristics:
1. They are very fine grained, clay sized and
mostly lacking in grittiness.
2. They are rich in carbonate minerals, primarily
calcite, to the extent that violent evolution
of carbon dioxide gas results from applying a
drop or two of weak hydrochloric acid to a
sample of the sediments.
The sediments have three predominant colors, namely black,
brown and grayish white. Sediment characteristics and their
distribution within the lake are illustrated in Figure D-12.
Black sediments were ordinarily the first encountered at the
lake bottom and had a greasy feel and an oily odor. From
inspection of samples taken with the Jenkins corer, the upper
part of these black sediments had a felted coarse and floccy
aspect. When suspended rather quickly, the upper few centi-
meters of sediment settled from suspension leaving the water
clear. The porosity of the sediments within this upper felted
few centimeters approached 75 to 80%. But at depths of
approximately 1/2 meter these black sediments became tacky
and rather greasy, and uniformly fine grained.
Brown sediments occurred in three different modes in cores
taken within 1,000 feet or so of shore, namely, an occasional
thin brown silty layer, brown sediments in an irregular
mottling pattern with black sediments, and discrete layers
of brown sediments within a column of black sediments. Brown
sediments, except for those scarce, thin silty layers des-
cribed above, were identical to the black sediments in
texture and minerology. The brown color suggests that these
sediments are somehow oxidized. A possible mechanism for
oxidation of sediments at the sediment water interface may be
attributable to lake overturn during which time oxygen laden
waters are brought into contact with the bottom sediments. The
oxidation of only trace amounts of iron, for example, would
change the color of black sediments to brown.
Grayish white sediments were frequently encountered in the
shallower near shore regions and especially in the north
basin of the lake. These same sediments sometimes appeared
beneath a thin veneer of black sludgy material, for a thick-
ness of approximately one meter of black material, or as the
first sediment encountered on the bottom. In the same regions*
black sediments were observed to grade very gradually downward
into white sediments below. A common name for the white
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sediments is lime mud or marl. These white sediments were
composed primarily of the mineral calcite.
The fine grained nature of sediments in general deserves some
comment. The scarcity of sandy material in the lake is due
to the absence of significant sources of sand in the lower
reaches of streams except perhaps in times of infrequent and
heavy flooding. The fact that in most months of the year the
lake was oversaturated in calcium carbonate is important.
The pervasive fine grained nature of the sediments and their
richness in calcareous material (marl) suggests that the
significant component of these sediments is calcite that is
precipitated directly from solution in the lake.
In addition to the carbonate minerals, calcite and dolomite,
the black and brown sediments contain silicate minerals.
These are quartz, kaolinite, montmori11ionite , chlorite,
micas and feldspars. Sediments were analyzed for organic
composition, which was found to be in the order of 10%.
Very little of the recent history of sedimentation in Onondaga
Lake can be inferred from historical accounts. Published
reports from the 19th Century indicate that the bottom of the
lake at that time was composed mostly of the grayish white
marl referred to above. However, there is no account of
samples of the lake bottom taken from environments other than
near shore. Thus we must assume that the marly bottom of
Onondaga Lake as reported in the historical literature, is
that bottom seen at and near the shore through whatever
thickness of water was transparent at the time of observation.
At any rate, the white marl observed in this study is the only
sediment in the lake that bears a relationship to the marl
reported in the 19th Century.
Presently there are thicknesses of black sediments overlying
the marl, ranging from a few centimeters to 4 meters or more.
The thicknesses of black sediments were not penetrated in the
deeper axial portions of the lake.
Dating of Sediments
Dating of sediments was attempted with techniques utilizing
pollen and radio carbon analysis. Dr. M. Faust, previously
with Natural Sciences Dept., Syracuse University, N. Y. has
studied the pollen contant of several long cores collected
during this study. Although for most pollens no definite age
determining pattern is apparent, Dr. Faust reports the pre-
sence of pollen of the sour gum, or pepperage plant at depths
below 180 centimeters in the saddle of the lake and the disap-
pearance of the pollen at the 180 centimeter level.
85
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Dr. Wi11iam M. Marlowe
that the black tuploe
Onondaga Lake and that
plant was used to conv
the Onondaga Historica
advertisements in Syra
pepperage. The local
pepperage may have cea
that time pepperage wa
Swamp near Oneida Lake
pollen in the lake, it
meters or so of black
deposited since 1875 o
of Syracuse University^ informs us
(pepperage) grew in the swamps of
the hollowed stem or trunk of this
ey salt brine. Mr. Richard Wright of
1 Association ,7 calls our attention to
cuse newspapers of 1875 to 1880 for
supply (swamps of Onondaga Lake) of
sed to be of economic value and from
s obtained possibly from the Cicero
Thus from the evidence of pepperage
can be surmised that the upper two
sediments, in the lake have been
r 1880.
Heavy Metals
Analyses of heavy metals in the enclosed waters of sediments
were conducted upon samples taken from gravity and piston
cores. In general, concentrations of all metals are several-
fold higher than in the lake waters, and there are not per-
sistent relationships of concentration to depth of sediments.
For the metals, manganese, zinc, chromium, copper and iron,
the highest observed values are, respectively, 5.6 mg/1 , 0.6
mg/1, 0.17 mg/1, 0.35 mg/1 and 139 mg/1.
Values measured for Mn, Zn and Cr, indicate that mineral
dissolution and/or desorption of ions takes place in the
sediments: neither the oxides nor other minerals are stable
in the reducing, nearly neutral sediment environment. Cuprous
sulfide or chalcocite (CU2S) is probably colloidal, perhaps
in the form of pyrite.
The low concentrations of metals suggest:
1. That diffusion of heavy metals into overlying
waters is slight.
2. That sediments would be only mildly reactive,
with respect to these metals, if mixed with, or
in contact with typical hypolimnion waters.
Private conversation
Wood Products, N. Y.
New York.
with Dr. William
State College of
M. Marlowe, Dept. of
Forestry, Syracuse,
Private conversation with Mr. Richard Wright, Director,
Onondaga Historical Association, Syracuse, New York.
86
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If mixed with, or in contact with oxygenated waters, reaction
would result in lower concentrations of Mn and probably
copper, due to the formation of oxide minerals. Because of
some percentage of the observed concentrations involved metals
paired with other ions in solutions, mixing with the present
hypolimnion waters, having much lower ionic strength than the
sediment enclosed waters, would result in lower concentrations.
87
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SECTION 13 - ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS
General
This Section deals with an evaluation of parameters of major
significance with respect to lake pollution. Considerations
focused on two parameters, namely:
1. Dissolved oxygen, since it is the most widely
used and accepted indicator for assessing the
condition of receiving'waters .
2. Phosphorus, since it has been widely accepted
as a readily controllable nutrient in efforts
to limit the eutrophication of waters.
A calculation of the assimilation capacity of Onondaga Lake
was made to relate the DO content of the lake to Total Oxygen
Demand (TOD) of the input loadings. Mineral-water equilibria
relationships developed in this Study were used to estimate
the mechanisms of phosphorus removal as they are related
to phosphorus input loadings.
Lake Assimilation Capacity (LASCAP)
The dissolved oxygen content of water bodies is dependent upon
many interrelated physical, chemical and biological factors.
The influence of these factors, however, can be encompassed
essentially in two variables, namely:
1. The TOD exertion rate.
2. The oxygen reaeration coefficient.
TOD is used herein as the total of carbonaceous and nitroge-
nous oxygen demand. Twenty-day tests were conducted to
determine total oxygen demand exerted in lake waters. These
tests indicated that nitrifying bacteria were present in
sufficient concentrations within the lake to exert a signi-
ficant oxygen demand within the first 5-day period of the
conventional BODij test, as outlined in "Standard Methods", 12th
Edition. For this reason, results of the BOD5 test for lake
waters are herein referred to as TOD5.
Conversely, however, it was assumed that streams, which were
relatively polluted with raw and partially treated wastes and
other discharges into the lake did not contain sufficient
nitrifying bacteria to exert a significant oxygen demand
within the first 5-day period, hence the 6005 test results
88
-------
were essentially a reflection of carbonaceous oxygen demand.
In order to account for the nitrogeneous oxygen demand (NOD)
of lake discharges, it was assumed that the NOD is equal to
28% of the BOD (anonymous, 1969). The addition of the latter
was applied to BOD5 results, for streams, yielding a TOD5
value comparable to the lake TODs values measured.
A measurement of these variables provides the basis upon
which dissolved oxygen concentrations can be calculated for
projected BOD inputs. Factors required to determine these
variables are:
1. Lake hydromechanics, e.g., lake structure,
turbulence and water currents.
2. Deoxygenation rate, e.g., rate of TOD
exerted insitu in the lake.
3. Reaeration rate, e.g., rate of surface
aeration at known water conditions.
Lake Hydromechanics
Lake structure and water currents are the two most important
factors that determine the distribution of TOD inputs in that
they control the limits of the "stabilization zone" of the
lake -- that volume effectively stabilizing the major input
TOD's. These factors also determine the degree of mixing
within this zone and hence the rate at which TOD is distri-
buted throughout.
Chemical data collected throughout this Study show that lake
waters are well mixed in the horizontal plane. Whereas line
plots and statistical distributions show distinct differences
in concentration with respect to depth, very little difference
was observed between Stations 1 and 2 for all but a few
chemical parameters, Table A-l; exceptions: BOD, E-coli, N02
Cr and Cu. Initial observations made on County data, col-
lected since 1959 (not shown) also illustrated good horizontal
mixing within the lake waters.
Line plots for conductivity and the major ions, chloride,
calcium and sodium, illustrate the tendency of epilimnetic
waters (0-9 meters) to respond to runoff variations,
whereas the hypolimnion tends to be more conservative. This
is due to the density difference between influent streams and
lake waters as described in Section 10. With the exception
of Nine Mile Creek flows, discharges entering the lake are
usually less dense chemically than lake waters, and thus would
tend to reside in the epilimnion of the lake.
89
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Surface water currents for Onondaga Lake were estimated by
Webber, (1960) to be approximately 3.5% of the observed wind
speed. A net water current for the epilimnetic depths of
Onondaga Lake were estimated by this same author to be 0.6
X the surface water current. On the basis of an 8 mph wind,
this would result in a water current in the epilimnetic
waters of 0.17 mph, (Webber, 1960). If this water current
were aligned with the longitudinal axis of the lake,
approximately 7,330 meters (24,000 ft., ) a volume of water
could traverse the entire lake in approximately 27 hours.
All to often, however, wind directions shift frequently
throughout the course of a day. A "critical" condition
would arise under conditions of minimum water currents thus
causing input BOD's to remain within some limits of the lake.
It was on this basis that the assimilation capacity of
Onondaga Lake was determined.
Deoxygenation Rate
TOD exertion rates depend upon the specific characteristics
of the waste material and the receiving body of water. For
the purposes of this calculation, a rate of 0.21 per day at
20° C was used. This is a rate normally applied to domestic
sewage, and was found to be the approximate value for Onondaga
Lake waters. This rate was adjusted for temperature varia-
tion when necessary.
TOD inputs considered for the LASCAP included:
A. Air pollutants
B. Benthic demand
C. The in-lake generated TOD, e.g., algae,
zooplankton
D. Waste discharges.
As shown in Section 5.03, air pollutants can contribute as much
as 58,500 Ibs. (26,700 kilograms) of VSPM or an ultimate BOD
of 42,500 Ibs. (19,400 kilograms) over a 30-day period. This
reduce.s to a UOD of 1,420 Ibs. (650 kilograms) per day.
An approximation of the oxygen demand of the benthic deposits
was made by measuring the total dissolved oxygen depletion
from overlying waters of a Jenkins Core sample, (see Section 7)-
In accordance with Davison, (1969), the upper two centimeters
of the sediments were disturbed in order to determine the UOD
under simulated "overturn" conditions. The UOD's measured for
the undisturbed and disturbed Jenkins Core were 2.4 and 3.4
90
-------
mg/sq. meter respectively. Corresponding values for the
surface area of the lake are 61 and 100 1bs. respectively.
One of the most difficult factors to take into account in
determining the assimilation capacity of the lake is the in-
lake TOD. Algae can contribute significant quantities of oxy-
gen via photosynthesis and can represent significant TOD,
thereby complicating the application of a TOD input-lake DO
relationship.
During this Study, a condition occurred in the lake which
enabled a minimization of the signficance of algae in the
LASAP. On July 30, 1969, a "die-off" condition followed a
period of intense photosynthetic activity as illustrated by
the contour plot of dissolved oxygen, figure B-37. Following
the "die-off", the DO conditions in the epilimnetic waters
continued to decrease reaching an apparent minimal condition
at the end of September. A period of 10 days following this
time was chosen as the critical period, figure B-37, for
which the assimilation capacity of the lake was made.
BOD inputs from waste discharges are outlined in Section 5.
The major BOD discharges are along the southern shore of the
lake. Referring to Table 5-3, the summation of the pounds of
average 6005 of all major discharges, with the exception of
Nine Mile Creek, is equal to 99,230 Ibs. (45,000 kilograms).
On the basis of the above figures, the contribution of BOD
from air pollution and from the benthic deposits can be
considered negligible for the present time.
Calculation of LASCAP
The calculation of a lake assimilation capacity outlined in
Appendix E, was made in the following manner:
BOD inputs were determined from the Waste Discharge Survey
conducted as part of this Study and from the findings of the
Onondaga County Air Pollution Survey.
A "critical" period of 10-days was determined from line plots
of bio-mass, Figure C-2, and a DO contour plot for Station
No. 1, Figure B-37. This period represented a minimal DO
condition and thus a period of minimal photosynthetic activity.
An average DO concentration during this period for 0 to 9 meter
depths was determined by measuring areas on the contour plot.
Similarly, average TODs and temperature were determined for
the same period. Using a TOD exertion rate of 0.21 at 20° C
adjusted for temperature, the daily TODs input (BODs X 1.28)
was integrated to determine the 10-day resident TODs in the
lake. This value was then divided by the average 10-day TODs
91
-------
measured in the epilimnion of the lake to determine the volume
of epilimnetic waters representing the TOD input. This vol-
ume represents the "stabilization zone" of the lake and is
shown in Figure E-l. The corresponding surface area was
determined and TOD attributable to benthic demand and air
pollution were determined; they can be considered negligible
for the "critical period" also.
On the basis of a dynamic system whereby reaeration is equal
to the oxygen depletion necessary to maintain a zero TOD at
the end of any 10-day period, the rate of reaeration (l<2) was
calculated as a function of the dissolved oxygen deficit and
the first day TOD input demand." The calculation is shown in
Appendix E.
Projected DO Concentrations
The stabilization zone, as calculated above, should be rela-
tively independent of changes in TOD inputs, since its limits
are determined by the relationship of input flows to the
hydromechanics of the lake. Thus the surface area of the lake
through which reaeration occurs should also be independent of
TOD inputs. Since lake DO concentrations greater than that
used in the above calculation would result in larger l<2 rates,
0.0285/day represents a minimum reaeration rate, with which cori
servative projections of DO concentrations in the lake, on the
basis of reduced TOD inputs can be made. Accordingly, various
TOD inputs were assumed, results plotted in Figure E-2.
Pertinent Phosphorus Studies
This Section is primarily concerned with the relationship of
incoming phosphorus (P) quantities and forms, to the P quan-
tities observed in the lake and the mineral forms which
precipitate and/or adsorb phosphorus. Inorganic phosphates
can be classified into two very general groups, namely; the
orthophosphates and the condensed phosphates. Condensed
phosphates cover the pyro, meta, poly and ultra phosphates.
The pyro phosphate and tripolyphosphate are the principal
condensed phosphates found in the normal sewage and originate
primarily from the detergent industry. Schroid (1968) showed
that approximately 80% of the total phosphates manufactured
are sold in the production of synthetic detergents.
Condensed phosphates hydrolyze to the uncondensed ortho form
in aqueous solution. Van Wazer, (1958) listed the major
environmental factors in what is believed to be their decreas-
ing order of effectiveness as, temperature, pH, enzymes,
colloidal gels, complexing cations, concentration and ionic
environment in solution. Approximate effects on rate of
92
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reversion range from 10^ faster for temperature to "a several
fold change" for ionic environment in solution. Solutions of
condensed phosphates in the mg/1 concentration range will
undergo very rapid hydrolysis due to the action of phosphatase
liberated by micro organisms, (Karl-Kroph, E., 1957). Sawyer,
(1952) conducted a study on reversion of complex phosphates in
sewage at 5 and 20° C. After 24 hours, a mixture of sewage
and tripolyphosphates (NasPaOio) showed a 9% reversion to
orthophosphate at 5° C, and 20% reversion at 20° C. A mixture
of tetra sodium pyrophosphate (Na4P?07), for this same period,
showed 30 and 60% reversion at 5 and 20° C, respectively.
During the more photosynthetically active periods in Onondaga
Lake, as illustrated by the DO line plots (Figure B-15), lake
temperatures range from 16° to approximately 26° C. The
relative abundance of organisms in this lake represents a
large source of phosphatase. Based on the above findings, we
can conclude that the time required for reversion of condensed
phosphates to orthophosphates, during the more active periods
in the Jake, is in the order of days. It is assumed for the
following considerations, that the major difference between
total phosphorus and "ortho" phosphorus measured in the lake
is "condensed" phosphorus owing to detergent laden domestic
discharges. Organic phosphorus will represent a portion of
the difference, but also will hydrolyze within a matter of
days.
Schmid, (1968) conducted extensive studies to determine the
mechanisms for phosphorus removal by lime treatment. He con-
cluded that the most important precipitate formed in the
removal of orthophosphates is the apatite, (CacOHfPO^) .
Although the solubility product reported for this precipitate
varies over a wide range, studies by Clark, (1955) showed the
solubility product at 25° C to be 10-115. At the pH and ion
concentrations encountered in Onondaga Lake, this precipitate
is very insoluble. The stability of the apatite in Onondaga
Lake, Figure D-2, was determined through geochemical studies
reported in Section 12.
Based on investigations on phosphate adsorption phenomena,
Schmid found that at a pH of 7.0 and a Ca++ concentration
of 200 mg/1, a calcium polyphosphate floe adsorbed ortho-
phosphate and some polyphosphate. He does not define the
molecular structure of the calcium polyphosphate. He also
found, at the same calcium concentrations, that at a pH of
9.5, polyphosphate adsorbs to the orthophosphate floe
(hydroxyapatite). At pH 10.0, the polyphosphate adsorbs to
calcium carbonate floe.
93
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Phosphorus Interactions in Onondaga Lake
Based on the above findings, the following can be expected
to occur in the lake:
a. Hydrolysis of condensed phosphates to the ortho-
phosphorus form within a matter of days.
b. The removal of orthophosphates by the precipi-
tation of hydroxyapatite, and fluorapatite.
c. The formation and precipitation of a calcium
polyphosphate floe.
d. The adsorption of polyphosphate phosphorus to
the calcium polyphosphate floe.
Although pH conditions are less than 9.5, there may be some
minor adsorption of polyphosphate onto hydroxyapatite and/or
calcium carbonate due to the prevalence of these minerals on
the lake.
Phosphorus concentrations for the various zones of the lake
are shown in Table B-l. The average (mean) for total phos-
phorus of all zones in the lake is 2.73 mg/1. Table 5-5,
Section 5, shows the Lake Residence Equivalents for major
discharges. The total LRE for total phosphorus is 6.8 mg/1.
This indicates a removal of approximately 4.1 mg/1 throughout
the lake by either precipitation within, or passage through
the lake. The former possiblity is the most undesirable in
that the precipitated phosphorus would represent a storage
of this nutritive element within the lake environs. Due to
the "backflow" condition observed at the lake outlet and the
lack of a control channel at this location that would other-
wise enable measurement of outflow volumes, phosphorus dis-
charged from the lake could not be calculated. Consideration
is given herein to precipitation within the lake as the major
source of removal, since it represents the most undesirable
condition with respect to eutrophication.
Mineral equilibrium investigations (Section 12) show that
Onondaga Lake is oversaturated with the minerals, hydroxy-
apatite (Ca5OH(P04)o) and fluorapatite (Ca]QF2(P04)fi). The
lake i-s also oversaturated with calcite (CaCOo) throughout
the year except in the middle and late winter when pH's fall
below 7. The lake was found to be undersaturated with other
orthophosphate compounds.
On the basis of the above, it can be assumed that the removal
of phosphorus within the lake is attributable to precipitation
and/or adsorption by the above mentioned minerals. If it is
assumed that all incoming phosphorus is removed within the
lake, this means the equivalent of 4.1 mg/1 throughout the
94
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lake is precipitated and/or adsorbed. Figure B-ll, in conjunc'
tion with Table B-l, illustrates significantly higher values
for the hypolimnion than in the epilimnion, indicating a
phosphorus "trap" phenomena.
It is interesting to note the wide range of total phosphorus
values, Appendix B, 0.32 - 20.0 mg/1 , as compared to the range
of orthophosphorus, 0 - 2.8 mg/1. Since hydrolysis of total
phosphorus to orthophosphorus likely occurs in a matter of
days within Onondaga Lake, the above range differential pro-
bably reflects storage of phosphorus during the photosynthe-
tically active period of the lake.
95
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SECTION 14 - ENGINEERING EVALUATIONS
General
This Section deals with the effects of present pollution
abatement programs on Onondaga Lake and an evaluation of the
significance of other pollutants not presently being abated.
Sources of pollution, discussed in Section 5, are considered
in terms of parameters of major significance; namely, dis-
solved oxygen and phosphorus. While other factors are also
important, their significance in a lake environment can be
related either directly or indirectly to dissolved oxygen
or nutrient levels.
It has been stated that organic carbon, in addition to
exerting an oxygen demand on receiving waters, may represent
the most significant source of carbon as carbon dioxide in
eutrophic waters (Kuentzel, 1968). Hence abatement of
organic pollution may prove to be a significant factor in
limiting the algae growth of Onondaga Lake.
In addition, humic acid, an end product of decomposition, has
been shown recently to be a most important factor in the
development of blue-green algae (Lange, 1970). Bioassay
studies performed by Keenan (1970), strongly indicate increased
biological activity as a result of increased organic loading.
These studies included laboratory measurements of biomass
(nephelometry) and rate of primary production for lake water
volumes mixed with various percentages of lake tributary
volumes. Results for Ley Creek showed values for biomass
and primary productivity consistently higher than for the
Metro Sewage Treatment Plant, Onondaga Creek and other
tributaries. Whereas most parameters measured {Table 5-4)
were higher for the Metro Plant and/or Onondaga Creek than
for Ley Creek, the latter represented the highest organic
(BOD) input of all discharges. These results indicate the
significance of organic carbon as described above.
Phosphorus is treated as a "critical" nutrient insofar as it
has been successful in controlling nuisance organisms,
(Karanik, J.N., Nemerow, N.L., 1965). This does not preclude
the limiting effect on biota of other chemical species not so
apparent at this time. This Study, in conjunction with the
Onondaga Lake Monitoring Program now in progress, may in fact
lend insight to other potentially limiting chemical species.
This Section also deals with the concentration of metals in
the lake with respect to abatement programs.
96
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Impact of New Metropolitan Sewage Treatment Facilities -
Presently Under Design
New facilities are to consist of biological contact stabi-
lization following primary sedimentation, followed by chemical
precipitation which will utilize the waste bed overflows from
the soda ach manufacturing plant as a source of lime. These
facilities will treat wastes emanating from the existing Ley
Creek Treatment Plant, the waste bed overflow from the soda
ash manufacturing plant, and the sewered areas tributary to
the existing Metropolitan Sewage Treatment Plant.
Table 14-1 illustrates BQD$ and corresponding TOD5 values
for each of the discharges. Predicted future loadings were
determined from anticipated reductions due to the new
Metropolitan Sewage Treatment Facilities. It should be
noted that data taken for Ley Creek after the Ley Creek
Treatment Plant discharge was diverted to the Metropolitan
Plant, showed a decrease of TOD with time. This can be
attributed to stabilization of benthic demand. The predicted
values for TOD5 represent stabilized conditions although
higher values could result periodically due to the disturbance
of otherwise latent conditions.
Storm Water Overflows
Much of the material discharged to the lake by Harbor Brook
and Onondaga Creek is the result of interceptor overflows
from the combined sewage system of Syracuse. A study of this
system was conducted by the firm of Camp, Dresser & McKee, as
part of the Onondaga County Comprehensive Study. On the basis
of hydraulic considerations in relation to rainfall and runoff
data, the frequency and duration of overflows were determined.
The Report states that the City of Syracuse includes a land
area of about 16,000 acres, 13,400 acres of which are served
by intercepting sewers which discharge to the Metropolitan
Sewage Treatment Plant. An estimated 9,000 acres of sewered
areas are tributary to combined sewers. The remainder of
the City is served by sewers discharging to the Ley Creek
Treatment Plant. It was assumed that there are no significant
overflows tributary to the Ley Creek Plant.
The Study enumerated 67 overflows to Onondaga Creek and 27 to
Harbor Brook, which discharge to the respective streams by
means of intercepting chambers, overflow relief chambers,
bypass chambers, and others. It was determined that 7.8
overflow events per month, with a total duration of 21 hours
occur for the months of June through November. The average
12-month values are 8.8 per month and 23-1/2 hours respectively,
The latter values are equivalent to approximately a 3% time
97
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TABLE 14-1
CO
Metro Plant Effluent
Ley Creek Plant Effluent™]
Ley Creek
Onondaga Creek
Harbor Brook
Storm Mater Overflows
Nine Mile Creek
Steel Mill
Air Pollution
Benthic Demand
TOTAL
ONONOAGA
Existing Loadings
BOD5
38
-53
3
1
8
1
,503
,576
,600
,300
,400
,506
7.46
950
100
BODULT NOD
57,755 16,171
80,364 22,501
5,400 1,512
1,950 546
12,600 3,523
2,259 633
1.1
19 313
1,420
1
00
LAKE STUDY
(Lbs/day)
TOD
73,926
102,865
6.912
2,496
16,123
2.882
1,432
1,420
100
Predicted Future Loadings (Lbs/dav)
TOD5
48,791
67,891
4,562
1,647
10,750
1,902
945
950
100
B005
-2,850
10.560
3.600
1,300
8,400
1,506
746
950
100
BOOuLT
4,275
15,840
5,400
1,950
12,600 '
2,259
1,119
1,420
100
NOD TOD
7,850 12,125
4,435 20,275
1,512 6,912
546 2,496
3,523 16,123
633 2,882
313 1,432
1,420
100
TODg
8,100
13,3818
4,562
1,647
10,750
1,902
945
950
100
108,681 162,967 45,199 208,156 137,538 30.012 44,963 18,812 63,765 43.337
8 Reflects recent data subsequent to diversion of Ley Creek
Treatment Plant Effluent to the Metro Plant. This does not
reflect any decrease due to channel dredging which Is
for cowuAetion \nA91Q.,
-------
occurrence. All the above values were In close accordance
with those reported in the 1961 O'Brien & Gere Report on the
main Intercepting Sewer System. The Camp, Dresser & McKee
Report refers to studies of other large cities to establish
that the liquid portion of sewage overflowing over a given
year ranges from 3 to 4% of the annual sewage production.
The solids portion of sewage, discharged through combined
sewer overflows, is estimated to range from 20 to 30% of
the annual production.
Storm water overflows are dependent upon the design and main-
tenance of the sewer systems through which they flow. Whereas
figures related to design derived from other areas are somewhat
applicable, the maintenance of systems can be a source of
significant variance from one area to another. The 1961
O'Brien & Gere Report concluded that a major cause of overflows
was the lack of maintenance of the systems, i.e. cleaning of
intercepting chambers.
In an effort to determine what the percentage of overflow to
the creeks was as compared with the Metropolitan Plant
influent, a comparison was made between rainfall conditions
and BOD's discharged to Onondaga Creek and Harbor Brook.
These results (not shown) showed that BOD's equivalent to
approximately 10% of the BOD's entering the Metro Plant,
resulted from a 4-day period of little or no rainfall.
Results of 4-day periods showing rainfall varied considerably
with a range from 4 to 33%. The latter results were neither
sufficient nor consistent enough to warrant any conclusions.
For the purposes of this Study, it was assumed that the
maximum overflow condition would cause a BOD discharge equal
to 30% of the BOD tributary to the Metro Plant. The average
BOD5 of the Metropolitan Treatment Plant from January -
October 1969, without the Ley Creek Treatment Plant discharge
was 22,755 Ibs/day, (10,300 kg/day)9 - not shown.
Assuming this represents 50% of the influent BOD (in accor-
dance with BOD measurements at the Metro Plant), the average
influent BOD5 is equal to 45,500 Ibs/day (20,600 kg/day).
Thus the maximum overflow condition could result in as high
as 13,300 Ibs/day (6,000 kg/day) BODs discharged directly to
the creeks. Based on the results of Table 5-3, but replacing
values shown for Onondaga Creek and Harbor Brook with 13,300
This figure represents an annual average whereas Table 5-3
is representative of grab samples and includes the Ley
Creek Sewage Treatment effluent.
99
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Ibs., overflows could increase the "average" condition to a
BOD5 input of 108,681 or a TODc of 137,538 Ibs/day (62,400
kg/day). Referring, to Figure E-2, this loading corresponds
to an approximately zero dissolved oxygen saturation.
Based on reductions as shown on Table 14-1, the corresponding
future loading that could occur after the new Metro Facilities
are installed is 43,337 Ibs/day TOD5 (19,600 kg/day), which
corresponds to a 50% DO saturation value or 4.7 mg/1 DO
under "critical" lake conditions.
Further significant reductions of BOD discharging to the lake
could result from either abating,storm water overflows or
discharges presently emanating from Ley Creek, exclusive of
the Ley Creek Treatment Plant discharge. Table 5-3 shows a
discharge of 53,576 Ibs/day discharged by Ley Creek, whereas
data obtained from Onondaga County showed 32,600 Ibs/day
(14,800 kg/day) attributable to the Ley Creek Treatment
Plant. This is a difference of approximately 21,000 Ibs/day
(9,500 kg/day) discharging to the lake via Ley Creek.
Analyses made on Ley Creek, after the Ley Creek Treatment
Plant effluent was pumped to Metro, indicated BOD discharges
as high as 51,000 Ibs/day (not shown). Such discharges
are likely attributable to stabilization of the benthic demand.
However, following the first of the year, TODs discharges had
averaged 13,381 Ibs/day (6,060 kg/day) as of August 1970.
Two present sources of pollution in Ley Creek are deposits
on the creek bed, and the landfill operation.
Provision is presently being made by Onondaga County to
dredge the creek bed. The landfill operation, however, will
require further sampling to determine the significance of
this source.
Bacterial Concentrations
The New York State Public Health Law Sec. 12.05, states
"Organisms of the coliform group or any other organism from
from wastes of animal or human origin shall not exceed the
following prescribed standards for usage of the classified
waters of the State Sources of water for bathing,
fishing, boating and any other usages except shellfishing
for market purposes in tidal salt waters: For such sources,
the monthly median coliform value for one hundred ml of sample
shall not exceed two thousand four hundred from a minimum of
five examinations, and, provided that not more than twenty
percent of the samples shall exceed a coliform value of five
thousand for one hundred ml of sample, and, provided further
that surface waters receiving treated sewage discharges which
pass through residential communities where there is a potential
exposure of population to the surface waters shall be protected
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by the requirement that all effluents from sewage treatment
plants shall be adequately disinfected prior to discharge
into the surface waters in order that the monthly median
coliform value for one hundred ml of sample shall not exceed
two thousand four hundred from a minimum of five examinations
and provided that not more than twenty percent of the samples
shall exceed a coliform value of five thousand for one hun-
dred ml of sample."
Bacterial analysis was performed by the Millipore Filter
Technique and measured Escherichia coli, the indicator coli-
form commonly used to determine bacterial pollution. Table
B-l shows values for the four major lake zones sampled.
Appendix B shows the statistical distribution of data for
Station 1 which in all cases showed higher concentrations
than in Station 2. A level of 5,000 per 100 ml is illus-
trated on the statistical distributions.
Bacterial data show that the major waters of Onondaga Lake
meet State requirements for bathing and other recreational
uses. Localized conditions proximate to pollution discharges
were not determined.
In accordance with the above State specifications, any dis-
charge carrying wastes of animal or human origin should be
adequately disinfected to assure compliance in local or
littoral regions as well as the major waters of the lake.
This would require that all discharges carrying the above
wastes be disinfected, including overflows.
Phosphorus Reductions
Considerations for phosphorus removal are based on total
phosphorus for the reasons given in Section 13. Attention is
given to the effect of treatment facilities on phosphorus and
the mineral stability of the lake. The latter is a factor in
determining the availability of phosphates for algae growth.
Table 5-3 shows total phosphorus values which total 10,948
Ibs/day (4,960 kg/day). In addition to major discharges from
the Metropolitan Sewage Treatment Plant and Ley Creek,
Onondaga Creek represents a major discharge. Upon inspection
of the individual data it was found that prior to the time
that Ley Creek Treatment Plant discharge was pumped to the
Metropolitan Plant, 613.3 Ibs (278 kg) of P was discharged
via Onondaga Creek in lieu of 2,434 Ibs shown in Table 5-3.
As a result of the current operation of the Metropolitan
Sewage Treatment Plant, the additional flows now pumped
through this plant from the Ley Creek Sewage Treatment Plant
may have resulted in additional overflows along the main trunk
to the Metropolitan Plant. These overflows are not expected
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to occur after the new Metropolitan facilities are installed.
In order to estimate the phosphorus overflow to the creeks
following the operation of the new Metropolitan facilities,
a percentage (30%) overflow commensurate with that which was
assumed for BOD was considered.
If it is assumed that a maximum overflow condition results in
a discharge to the creeks of 30% of the phosphorus tributary
to the Metropolitan Plant, and if we assume a 10% reduction
of phosphorus through the plant, then, (2,570 Ibs. •* 0.90)
(.30) = 850 Ibs/day (385 kg/day) represents the maximum
phosphorus discharge to the creeks.'0 Upon inspection of the
individual data (not shown) comprising the average figures
shown in Table 5-3, it was determined that the 850 Ibs/day
figure more accurately reflects a continuous discharge.
If 850 Ibs. for Onondaga Creek and Harbor Brook are used in
lieu of the figures shown in Table %-3, the adjusted total
is 10,948 - 1,892 Ibs/day or 9,056 Ibs/day (4,100 kg/day).
It is expected that the new treatment facilities will remove
6,280 Ibs/day (2,850 kg/day) or approximately 70% of the
phosphorus now being discharged under a maximum overflow
condition. This is equivalent to an 85-90% removal within
the new treatment plant. On the basis of the present sur-
charge conditions, the above removal represents (6,280/
10,948) 58% of the total phosphorus discharged to the lake.
Following the operation of the new Metropolitan facilities
the remaining phosphorus discharged to the lake, (9,056 -
6,280), 2,776 Ibs/day represents a LRE of 1.34 mg/1 as compared
to the present input LRE of 4.4 mg/1. This concentration will
be reduced by any precipitation or adsorption on the minerals
formed in the lake. Thus the resultant concentration availa-
ble to algae and other aquatic organisms will be something
less than 1.34 mg/1. Hence the stability of such minerals
as fluorapatite, hydroxyapatite and calcite, after the
operation of the new Metropolitan facilities, will be signi-
ficant. The design of the new Metropolitan facilities was
investigated and it was concluded that all major chemical
species affecting phosphate bearing minerals, with the
exception of phosphorus, will be reduced by less than 4% of
the total present input. The most significant soft metal is
calcium in that it is the constituent common to all of the
above minerals and is the single most important factor in
2,570 Ibs. represents Metro Plant discharge shown in
Table 5-3 minus Ley Creek T.P. discharge (not shown)
102
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causing precipitation of these minerals through the hypolim-
nion of the lake. It was determined from the above reductions
that the pertinent minerals will continue to precipitate in
the lake waters. Presuming that the rate of precipitation of
these minerals is dependent upon concentration gradients of
the related chemicals, the reduction of phosphorus may signi-
ficantly decrease the rate of formation of these minerals.
Kinetic studies were not conducted to determine the latter
effect.
Productivity of a group of 17 Wisconsin lakes suggest a
concentration of 0.01 mg/1 of inorganic phosphorus as a
maximum value permissible without the danger of supporting
undesirable growths. In order to reduce the LRE concentration
within the lake to less than .01 mg/1, the total phosphorus
input would have to be reduced to 16 Ibs/day. However, the
effect of this phosphorus level on algae growth in Onondaga
Lake is not presently known.
Existing knowledge of the physiology of algae is far too
inadequate to allow projections with respect to algae growth
in Onondaga Lake. This task is further complicated by the
unique characteristics of the lake, i.e. chloride concentra-
tions. Reductions in COg concentration and humic acid, both
of which are the direct result of organic pollution, may very
well be a significant factor in limiting nuisance algae growth
The Onondaga Lake Monitoring Program now in progress will
provide "baseline" data from which future projections for
Onondaga Lake, as well as lakes in general, can be made.
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SECTION 15 - SUMMARY
The following is a summary of results. Conclusions and Recom-
mendations of this Report can be found in Sections 1 and 2 of
this Report respectively.
Physical, chemical, biological and geochemical investigations
were conducted to determine the trophic status of Onondaga Lake,
as well as to study some basic dynamics of the lake itself.
Engineering evaluations were made to determine the effect
future pollution abatement facilities will have on the lake.
A Waste Discharge Survey was conducted to determine the major
pollutional discharges. Greater than 85% of the total Bio-
chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), ammonia nitrogen and phosphorus
can be accounted for by the discharges of Ley Creek, Onondaga
Creek, Harbor Brook and the Metropolitan Sewage Treatment
Plant. Nine Mile Creek discharged the major portions of
calcium, chloride, sodium, iron and potassium in that order.
A major steel manufacturer discharged major portions of
chromium and nitrate. Onondaga Creek accounted for signi-
ficant portions of most chemical species measured reflecting
the combined sewer overflows it receives, and to some extent
natural drainage.
Seismic studies were conducted to determine the subbottom
sediment profile of the lake. Although these were largely
unsuccessful, an up-to-date map of lake depths resulted,
permitting new determinations of volume and lake residence
times. Calculated annual residence times for the period 1963
to 1969 varied from 99 to 250 days. Water depths recorded in
1913 were compared to present data to determine that deposition
equivalent to approximately 0.69 m (2.25 ft.) over the surface
area of the lake has taken place since that date.
Thermal profiles were taken at preselected intervals over
periods of a few hours to determine significant sources of
thermal pollution and the degree to which thermal layers are
affected by wind and other daily fluctuations. The most
significant thermal inflow is from the cooling water of the
soda ash manufacturing plant. The second and third most
significant thermal discharges are from Nine Mile Creek and
the Metropolitan Sewage Treatment Plant respectively. It
was readily apparent from the results that chemical contri-
butions to the density structure created abnormalities within
the thermal profiles.
Onondaga Lake is an unusual lake with respect to its chemistry,
chemical stratification and the stability of minerals in the
lake. Statistical analyses performed on chlorides and the
104
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major cations calcium sodium and magnesium, showed high
correlation of sodium with chloride in the sediment enclosed
waters of the lake and high correlation of calcium with
chloride in the open waters of the lake. The latter rela-
tionship is primarily the result of the calcium-chloride
discharged by a soda ash plant, whereas the former relation-
ship is attributable to invasions of water derived from
natural regional deposits of rock salt. Surface discharges
account for greater than 90% of the chlorides in the lake.
Chloride contributions from the lake bottom, although minor
with respect to the stream inflows, do contribute slightly to
the lake. The relatively slow rate of diffusion of chlorides
from the bottom, under present conditions, suggests that the
waters of the lake had a lower mineral content at one time
(1810) than the present chemistry indicates.
Chloride concentrations appear to modify the standard thermal
picture ,of density more than any other ion. This feature is
most apparent during the autumnal circulation.
Although lake waters are vertically stratified throughout the
major portion of the year, chemical data indicate good hori-
zontal mixing throughout the same period. Measurements made
under the Waste Discharge Survey show that the combined
discharges of Nine Mile Creek and the "East Flume" represent
70.6% of the chlorides, 79.4% of the calcium and 61.1% of the
sodium. Although Nine Mile Creek discharges into the lake
approximately 2/3 of the distance from the southwest end,
spatial differences for these three species are in all cases
less than 2%. Predominant winds ranging from the west and
northwest directions, encourage the distribution of Nine Mile
Creek waters to the southern end. Variations of major ionic
species with time, irrespective of depth, indicate that
epilimnetic waters of the lake respond to runoff variations
whereas hypolimnetic waters are not affected appreciably.
Calcium plays a significant role in the pH-alkalinity
relationship. Due to the relatively high calcium concentra-
tions in the lake, dissolution of calcium carbonate in the
hypolimnetic waters, as is the case in many other lakes, does
not take place. The production of C02 in the lower waters,
resulting in the release of hydrogen ions through the disas-
sociation of bicarbonate ion, may only slow the rate at which
cal cium-rcarbonate is precipitated.
Statistical routines such as multiple regression and correlation
analyses were performed on the chemical data. -
Biological studies were conducted to determine the genera and
species of phytoplankton and zooplankton. These studies
included a fish survey of Onondaga Lake. Whereas phytoplankton
were monitored for the entire sampling period of the Study,
zooplankton and fish studies were confined to 1969.
105
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Approximately 100 species of phytoplankton were identified.
The variety of species and the abundance of certain species
of algae was impressive. The finding of a high diversity of
species was unexpected in light of the lake's chemistry and
the earlier reported observations. The dominant phytoplankters
showed the expected succession for a shallow nutrient-rich
lake: diatoms and flagellates in the spring, green algae,
chlorococcales, in the early summer, blue-green algae later in
the summer and, in association, flagellates and diatoms in
the fall. The lake also supports a surprising number of rare
species which appear occasionally in the collections. A rare
species of the diatom Chaetoceros was found. Enteromorpha
i ntesti nalis, a common alga along-most of the coasts of North
America, occurs around the shores of the lake, sometimes
abundantly. In general, the variation and total number of
centric diatoms (Centrales) is intermediate between typical
fresh-water environment and an oceanic condition.
Concentrations of principal nutrients such as phosphorus,
nitrates and ammonia compounds were neither observed to be
limiting nor inhibitory to algae growth in the lake. However,
the elevated concentrations of chromium and copper may approach
levels at which algal growth is inhibited.
In 1969, an algae "die-off" occurred in the lake waters at which
time there was a marked decrease in biomass and a visible
clearing of the lake waters. According to previous observa-
tions, this is an expected phenomenon for Onondaga Lake.
Chlorella vulgaris was the only common phytoplankter at the
time of "die-off" in 1969. Although there are some indications
that high ammonia nitrogen and accompanying pH conditions
might have caused, or contributed to, such a "die-off", the
condition may also have reflected either a natural process or
some less obvious environmental parameter.
Zooplankton studies suggested the possibility that both
limiting and inhibitory events sometimes determined the density
of populations of zooplankters. There was some indication that
fish predation may have occasionally limited zooplankton den-
sities. Zooplankton populations seem to have little or no
effect in controlling the density of phytoplankton populations.
In general, the lake supports a community of zooplankton typi-
cal for a saline lake at this latitude. Fish studies showed
that the lake supports a very diverse fish fauna typical of
many warm water lakes in central New York State. Sixteen
species were identified and except for a large population of
white perch, species' composition has not changed appreciably
from that shown in surveys of the lake in 1927 and 1946.
Despite the unusual chemical and physical characteristics of
Onondaga Lake, growth of most game and pan fish compared
favorably with the published growth for fish in other waters
106
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of the northeast. However, the horizontal and vertical distri'
bution of fish in the lake is not uniform. Most fish were
caught from the epilimnetic waters. Adult fish were found to
be scarce in the southernmost portion of the lake and young
fish were not found along the northwest shore, possibly re-
flecting the inflow of low quality water in the south end, and
flows emanating from Nine Mile Creek respectively. Water
quality in the littoral regions may also limit fish life.
Following taste studies conducted on the fish taken from
Onondaga Lake, it was concluded that the fish were not
objectionable.
Mineral-equi1ibria investigations determined that several
minerals are stable in lake waters throughout the year.
Minerals such as hydroxyapatite and fluorapatite, containing
orthophosphate, were found to be stable throughout the entire
period of sampling. Calcite was found to be stable through-
out most of the sampling period with the exception of the
middle and late winter periods when pH values were less than
7. The degree of over-saturation with respect to calcite was
found to be a remarkably uniform function of pH. Other
minerals such as hematite, cuprite and pyrolusite were found
to be stable in the epilimnion only. The only sulfide bearing
mineral found to be stable was pyrite, and only in the
hypolimnion. With respect to silicate, kaolinite was found
to be stable in nearly all samples.
Gas analyses performed on samples collected approximately one
meter above the bottom of the lake in the south and north
deeps showed nitrogen ranging from 23 to 50%, methane ranging
from 47 to 80% and hydrogen sulfide in trace quantities.
Carbon dioxide was not detected with the technique employed.
Sulfide concentrations measured in the sediment enclosed
waters were less than those observed in the deepest lake water
suggesting that the high concentrations of sulfide in the
hypolimnion are generated therein, i.e. through the action of
sulfate reducing bacteria. High sulfide concentrations
measured in the epilimnetic waters of the lake indicate the
possibility of airborne sulfide particles precipitated in the
lake. From the observation of negligible concentrations of
dissolved sulfide within the reach of 6 to 9 meters, it can
be concluded that no significant quantities of sulfide in the
form of turbulent water are being transported upward across
the thermocline.
Laboratory tests conducted on the sediments of the lake indi-
cate that the expected maximum orthophosphorus contribution of
sediments to the hypolimnion is equivalent to approximately
0.026 mg/1. The higher phosphorus concentrations observed in
the hypolimnion indicate the sediment source and/or the preci-
pitation of phosphate bearing minerals, and illustrate the
confinement of these phosphates to the hypolimnion.
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The sediments of Onondaga Lake are rich in carbonate minerals,
primarily calcite. Tests conducted to determine the percentage
of organic material present in the sediments yielded approxi-
mately 10% by weight. The sediments are relatively fine
grained and in general contain little or no grit. Sediments
appeared in three basic forms; namely, black, brown and grayish
whi te.
Black sediments were ordinarily the first encountered in the
lake bottom and had a petroliferous odor, most likely owing
to the organic decomposition occurring at the sediment-water
interface. Brown sediments occurred as an irregular mottled
pattern with black sediments or as-discrete layers of brown
sediments within the column of black sediments. The brown
sediments were identical to the black sediments in texture and
mineralogy. This suggests that these sediments are somehow
oxidized, possibly as a result of overturn di.r1ng which time
oxygen laden waters are brought into contact with the bottom
sediments. Grayish white sediments were encountered frequently
in the shallow, near-shore regions, especially in the northern
basin of the lake, beneath a layer of black sediments. The
thickness of black sediments was not penetrated in the deeper
axial portions of the lake. The scarcity of sandy material in
the lake was related to the absence of significant sources of
sand in the lower reaches of streams, except perhaps in times
of infrequent and heavy flooding.
Dating of sediments consisted of pollen and radio carbon analy-
ses. Whereas the latter was largely unsuccessful, some indi-
cation of age of sediments was arrived at from pollen analyses
in combination with historical accounts of the black tuploe
(Pepperage) tree. The latter plant grew in the swamps of
Onondaga Lake and its hollowed trunk was used to convey salt
brine. Pollen from this plant was observed at the 180 cm
level in the south deep sediments of the lake. Newspaper
accounts indicate that the supply was depleted in the years
1875 to 1880. The absence of pepperage pollen above 180 cm
may be related to the local absence of this plant.
Engineering considerations focused on dissolved oxygen, since
it is the most widely used and accepted indicator for assessing
the condition of receiving water, and phosphorus, since it has
been widely accepted as the most readily controllable nutrient
in efforts to limit the eutrophication of waters. This does
not preclude the limiting effect on biota of other chemical
species not so apparent at this time.
A calculation for the lake's assimilation capacity was developed
The sources of BOD input considered in this calculation were:
air pollution, benthic demand in lake BOD, i.e. algae, zoo-
plankton, and waste discharges. It was determined from the
County Air Pollution Survey that air pollutants can represent
108
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as much as 646 kg/day (1,420 Ibs/day) as volatile, settleable
particulate matter on the surface of the lake. An approxima-
tion of the oxygen demand of the benthic deposits was made by
measuring the total dissolved oxygen depleted from overlying
waters of an undisturbed core sample. The ultimate oxygen
demand that the benthic deposits represent, following simu-
lated overturn conditions, was measured to be 100 Ibs. An
important factor in determining the BOD input - lake DO
relationship is the influence of algae generated within the
lake. On July 30, 1969, a "die-off" condition followed a
period of intense photosynthetic activity. Following the
"die-off", the DO conditions in the epilimnetic waters con-
tinued to decrease, reaching an apparent minimal condition at
the end of September. A period of 10 days following this
time was chosen as the period upon which the assimilation
capacity calculation was based. On the basis of known BOD
concentrations within the lake, the volume effectively sta-
bilizing BOD inputs was determined. A reaeration rate (K£)
attributable to the related surface area was then calculated.
The above Kg value represents a minimum reaeration rate,
with which conservative projections of DO concentrations in
the lake, on the basis of reduced BOD inputs, were made.
Assuming a maximum storm water overflow condition, the present
TODc input was calculated to-be 62,400 kg/day (137,540 Ibs/
day). This corresponded to a dissolved oxygen saturation ap-
proaching Q%. Based on reductions resulting from the new
Metropolitan Sewage Treatment Facilities, the future TOD5
input, assuming the same maximum overflow conditions as above,
would be 19,700 kg/day (43,340 Ibs/day) which corresponds to
a 53% DO saturation value. New facilities will represent
a 51% reduction of the total present TOD5 input to the lake.
Following the installation of the new treatment facilities,
significant TODs discharges will result from Ley Creek and the
storm water overflows, in that order. Discharges emanating
from Ley Creek presently average approximately 6,060 kg/day
(13,380 Ibs/day) exclusive of the Ley Creek Treatment Plant.
These discharges are most likely attributable to deposits in
the creek bed and leaching and draining from the sanitary
landfill located just east of the mouth of Ley Creek. Storm
water overflows can result in TODs discharges as high as 6,020
kg/day (13,300 Ibs/day), occurring approximately 3% of the
time. T.he above discharges have been included in the calculation
of future DO concentrations in the lake.
On the basis of bacterial concentrations specified in the NYS
Public Health Law, Section 12.05, concentrations measured in
the deeps of Onondaga Lake fall well below the allowable
limits for Class "B" waters. The latter are suitable for swim-
ming and other recreational uses. Bacterial analyses performed
by the Millipore Filter Technique showed mean E. coli
109
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concentrations of 1200/100 ml in the hypolimnion of Station 1.
Corresponding values for Station 2 were less than 50% of the
above values.
On the basis of previous studies, it was determined that the
majority of condensed phosphorus would convert to ortho-
phosphate in a matter of days, owing to such factors as pH,
temperature and the existence of phosphatase. Mineral-water
equilibria investigations showed that Onondaga Lake is over-
saturated with the phosphate minerals, hydroxyapatite and
fluorapatite throughout the sampling period, and is over-
saturated with calcite, except in the middle and late winter
when pH's fall below 7. The lake was found to be under-
saturated with respect to other orthophosphate minerals.
Present phosphorus discharges as P total 4,500 kg/day
(presently 9,056 Ibs/day). This includes a maximum overflow
condition resulting in a discharge of 385 kg/day (850 Ibs/day).
The LRE of the present discharge is 4.4 mg/1 as compared to a
mean concentration measured in the lake of 2.75 mg/1. The
inferred difference is attributable to either precipitation
within the lake or mass removal from the lake. Based on
reductions resulting from the new Metropolitan Sewage
Treatment Plant Facilities, the present phosphorus input will
be reduced by approximately 70% resulting in a net input of
2,776 Ibs/day equivalent to a LRE of 1.34 mg/1. On the basis
of the present relationship of LRE to actual concentrations
in the lake, we can assume that the actual concentration in the
lake will be something less than 1.35. Upon investigation of
the effect of the new facilities on the removal of chemicals
effecting the mineral stability of the lake, it was determined
that the greatest reduction, with the exception of phosphates,
will be for calcium, in the order of 4%. Thus we can conclude
that minerals now forming in the lake will continue to form
after the new facilities are installed, until phosphate
concentrations become limiting.
Since the availability of C0£ and humic acid within the lake,
both of which are end products of organic decomposition, will
be reduced substantially by the treatment facilities, they may
represent a limiting factor in the growth of nuisance algae
growth.
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MERCURY
In the Spring of 1970 various State and Federal Authorities
discovered substantial discharges of mercury to several lakes
throughout the Country emanating from soda ash and chlorine
manufacturing plants. The soda ash manufacturing plant,
located on the western shore of Onondaga Lake, was found to
be discharging in the order of 21 Ibs/day. The New York
State Department of Environmental Conservation reports that
this discharge is presently less than 1 Ib/day. However,
there remains unanswered questions concerning the quantity of
mercury deposited in Onondaga Lake, which is available for
incorporation into the aquatic life cycle, and the mercury
that is now present in the lake in the form of methyl mercury,
e.g. as in fish.
In order to ascertain the concentration of mercury in lake
waters, samples of the lake and major discharges to the lake
will be collected and analyzed as part of the Onondaga Lake
Monitoring Program (January 1970 - December 1970), and
presented in the 1970 Report on Lake Monitoring. Core
samples, collected during the baseline study (April 1968 to
December 1969), will be analyzed during the Monitoring Pro-
gram in order to determine the mercury quantities in the
sediments that are available to the aquatic life cycle. In
addition to these analyses, samples of fish as well as other
aspects of Onondaga Lake are being analyzed for mercury by
the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation.
Ill
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The following have been associated with the Project as
members of O'Brien & Gere:
Samuel W. Williams, Jr
Frank J. Drehwing
Peter E. Moffa
Michael D. LaGrega
Ralph E. McClurg
Cyreneus Wilson
Joseph M. Vecchio
James J. McDonell
MaryLee Gates
Partner
Principal Engineer
Research & Development
Division
Project Engineer
Research & Development
Di vi sion
Assist. Project Engineer
Research & Development
Division
Field Investigator
Research & Development
Division
Laboratory
Research & Development
Division
Laboratory
Research & Development
Divi sion
Computer Section
Typist & Proofreader
112
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ADVISORS
The following have been associated with the Project as
Advisors to O'Brien & Gere and have directly contributed to
this Report:
Dr. John Forney
Dr. John M. Kingsbury
Richard Noble
Philip Sze
George Waterman
Dr. Myrton C. Rand
Dr. Kenton M. Stewart
Advisory
Capacity
Affi1iation
Ichthyology Cornell University,
Ithaca, N.Y.
Phycology
Cornell University,
Ithaca, N.Y.
Ichthyology Cornell University,
Ithaca, N.Y.
Phycology
Cornell University,
Ithaca, N.Y.
Zooplankton Cornell University,
Ithaca, N.Y.
Chemistry
Syracuse University,
Syracuse, N.Y.
Limnology & State University of
Coordinator New York at
of Advisors Buffalo
Dr. Jeffrey C. Sutherland Geochemistry State University of
Pennsylvania
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The following have offered their advice and cooperation
upon request:
Dr. James R. Kramer
Dr. John C. Nees
Dr. Janice Whipple
Dr. Mildred E. Faust
Mr. R. Wright
Mr. S. Schiavo
McMasters University,
Toronto, Canada
University of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wisconsin
U. S. Geological Survey,
Albany, New York
Syracuse University,
Emeritus
Onondaga Historical Association
Director
U. S. Geological Survey,
Albany, New York
Onondaga County Dept. of Public Works, Div. of Parks and
Conservation
Onondaga County Dept. of Public Works, Div. of Drainage
& Sanitation
N. Y. State Department of Transportion, Waterways Maintenance
114
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Allen, M.B. 1952
"The Cultivation of Myxophyceae", Arch. Mikrobial
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Allen, M.B. 1955
Studies on the Nitrogen-fixing Blue-green Algae II. The
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Anderson, B.6. 1944
"The Toxicity Thresholds of Various Substances Found in
Industrial Wastes as Determined by the Use of Daphnia
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Anderson, B.G. 1946
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Anderson, B.G. 1948
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Jahoda, W.J. 1948
"The Evaluation of Aquatic Invertebrates as Assay Orga-
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Anderson, G.C. 1958
"Seasonal Characteristics of Two Saline Lakes in
Washington", Limnol. Oceanogr. 3: 51-68
Anderson, G.C., G.W. Comita, and V. Engstrom-Hed 1955
"A Note on the Phytoplankton-Zooplankton Relationship in
Two Lakes in Washington", Ecology 36: 757-759
Anon. 1947
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125
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127
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GLOSSARY
assimilation capacity
quantity of oxygen available to
satisfy oxygen demands
authigeni c
bi omass
adj. , formed in pi ace
the total amount of organic matter
present in a lake per unit area
or unit volume
"critical" period
as used in this Study - period of
time in which minimal DO concen-
trations were observed following
die-off
die-off
d i m i c t i c
as used in this Study - sudden
clearing of lake owing to disap-
pearance of algae
adj., pertaining to a lake
undergoing two major periods of
circulation per year
epi1imnion
the upper layer of water in a lake
being warmer and less dense than
the lower waters. Defined as 0-9
m depth for Onondaga Lake
eutrophi c
ajd., pertaining to waters rich
in nutrients, well nourished
hypolimnion
lower waters of a lake. Defined as
12 m to bottom for Onondaga Lake
interstitial
adj., between or enclosed by
128
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Lake Residence
Equivalent (LRE)
as used in this Study - an equi-
valent concentration in the lake
resulting from a corresponding
input per unit time divided by an
assumed detention or residence
time of the lake
1i ttoral
adj., pertaining to
region of a lake
the shoreward
meromictic
adj., pertaining to a lake having
permanent stratification of water
masses
mi neral
a naturally occurring inorganic
sol id
mottling
ol igotrophi c
irregular mixture of colors
adj., pertaining to waters with
low concentrations of nutrients
overturn
a circulation of mixing of lake
waters owing to minimum water
densities with attendant wind and
inflow conditions; occurring
during the spring and fall seasons
negative logarithm to the base 10
i.e. pH = negative logarithm to
the base 10 of the activity of
hydrogen ion concentration
petroliferous
phytoplankton
seiche
adj., of or pertaining to petroleum
plankton consisting of plant life
free oscillation of water within
a lake
129
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thermocline -- the horizontal zone within a lake
throughout which a maximum tem-
perature gradient exists
TOD -- ultimate carbonaceous and ultimate
nitrogenous oxygen demand (as cal-
culated from BOD5 measurements) ~
1.5 BOD5 + (1.5) (1.28) BOD5
TOD5 -- BOD5 + 1.28 BOD5
trophic -- adj., refers to the nutrient
status of a lake
zooplankton -- plankton consisting of animal
life
130
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APPENDIX A
DAILY ACCOUNTS OF THERMAL TRANSECTS
by
K. M. Stewart
for
14 May 1968
28 May 1968
12 July 1968
10 October 1968
15 October 1968
22 October 1968
30 October 1968
22 November 1968
3 December 1968
18 February 1969
7 March 1969
18 March 1969
14 May 1969
13 June 1969
22 August 1969
29 August 1969
4 December 1969
131
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ACCOUNT OF THERMAL TRANSECTS
14 May 1968
On this date the isotherms were tilted slightly to the north-
west corner of the lake under the influence of winds. There
was a concentration of warm water in the southwestern end of
the lake with a small bit of warm water in the extreme
southeastern end of the lake, the latter probably from the
local thermal inputs. In addition, in the deeper southern
basin, there were two or three unusual lens of cool and warm
water. These were probably thermal contributions from the
subsurface Metropolitan sewage discharge.
28 May 1968
One longitudinal and one transverse transect were run on
this date. The transverse run was made from the inlet of
Nine Mile Creek across the lake to the Marina base. The
isotherms of the transverse run indicate a lateral tilting
of the thermocline. The temperature of Nine Mile Creek was
considerably higher than any in the lake on this date, whereas
later on 12 July (although complete transverse measurements
were not made) the temperature of the creek was measured and
found to be colder than that of the lake surface.
There are two apparent "lens" of water near the path of the
transverse transect, the upper of which is cooler than the
lower one. It may be speculated that these, in some way, are
the results of the warmer but more dense discharge from Nine
Mile Creek moving down the slopes of the lake, reaching an
equilibrium level, and then moving out where a portion of some
cooled entrained water was observed. However, the data for
that date are inconclusive at this point.
The warmer upper waters at the northwest end of the lake may
be the result of a slight piling up of warmer water from the
modest southeast winds at the time of sampling and/or from
some warmer water backing in the outlet from the Seneca River.
12 July 1968
The lake has taken on much heat since the previous transects.
Many of the isotherms are rather uniform. There seems to be
no general tilting of the body of water as noted before
Features of interest in this transect are the relatively warm
water that appears to be coming in at the southeastern end
132
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of the lake and the deeper warm and cold lens in the southern
basin. As before, these warm and cold lens may reflect some
thermal contributions and/or induced turbulence from the
Syracuse Metropolitan Sewage Treatment Plant subsurface
outfall (which extends out into the lake about 520 m from
the southeastern shore). The warmer surface waters in the
southeastern corner may reflect some thermal input from the
soda ash manufacturing plant cooling water.
10 October 1968
The loss of heat from the lake since the last transect has
modified the picture although an item of similarity is the
warm water lens at about 10 meters in the southeast end of
the lake. Another item of interest is the relatively cold
water at the southeastern and northwestern end of the lake at
about 6 and 8 meters respectively. The origin of the cooler
water in the southeastern end may represent a relatively cool
discharge from the Metropolitan Sewage Plant. The source of
"cooler" water in the northwestern depths is less clear.
15 October 1968
A lens of relatively cool water extends through most of the
lake. The surface waters are only slightly warmer until the
northwestern area. Waters from the Seneca River may be
backing into the lake to create this difference or there may
be some "spilling" from the southeasterly winds.
22 October 1968
The temperature of the surface waters in the southeastern end
may reflect a discharge of the soda ash manufacturer and/or
Onondaga Creek. One characteristic of this transect is the
more rapid cooling of the upper waters than the lower waters.
This feature is even more obvious in later transects. On
this particular date, the cold water lens of 12 days earlier
has essentially disappeared but appears to be replaced, at a
slightly lower level, by a relatively warm water lens at
depths of about 8 to 11 meters. There was a slight tilting
of isotherms at this time also probably associated with modest
winds in the direction of the longitudinal axis.
30 October 1968
As evidenced by this transect, the lake has continued to lose
heat (as we might expect) during partial autumnal mixing.
The surface waters are slightly cooler with the area of warmest
133
-------
water appearing as a warm water lens in the middle of most of
the length of the lake. From these fall transects it is
becoming apparent that the lake is not following a "normal"
type of autumnal circulation. In the normal situation the
lake cools gradually from the surface, erodes away the
thermocline and other areas of density differences, and then
continues to cool as a body with only minute differences of
temperature from top to bottom until shortly before the surface
freezes. In the case of Onondaga Lake, however, there is a
density difference exceeding that which is normally created
by thermal differences. Therefore, there must be some chemical
stratification which is influencing the thermal pattern observed
On 30 October 1969, cold water was entering the southeastern
end of the lake as indicated by the 9, 10, 11 and 12° C
isotherms. This probably reflects cold water from some of the
streams more than any other contribution. It would be expected
that the streams are cooling more rapidly than the body of the
lake owing to their smaller heat budget.
22 November 1968
This particular transect shows, even more clearly than the
previous two or three transects, the influence of the chemical
gradient on the thermal profile of the lake. The coldest
water of about 6° C is at the top of the lake and the warmest
water of about 10° C is at the bottom of the lake. Thermally,
this situation is hydrostatically unstable. The reason the
lake can hold this "apparent" instability is a function of an
increased density of the lower waters owing to a slight
chemical gradient. Thus, the thermal differences are countered
and the lake cools but does so inversely. The slight tilting
of the isotherms probably reflects the effects of the resultant
winds on the lake.
3 December 1968
The lake is continuing to lose heat at all levels but the
thermal inversion remains. There are three areas of relatively
cool water in the upper regions of the lake, particularly in
the northwestern basin. There are also areas of cooler water
at the saddle between the north and south deeps. The origin
of the latter cooler water is speculative but may reflect
some cool water running down the slopes of the lake. Another
item of interest is the pronounced warm water at the surface
in the southeastern end of the lake. This most probably is
the result of the discharge from the soda ash manufacturer
extending out into the lake.
134
-------
Tributary streams in the southeastern end of the lake would
be discharging cold water at this time of the year relative
to the heated discharge from the soda ash manufacturer.
Furthermore, it is not likely that this warm water is from
the Syracuse Metropolitan Sewage Plant because most of
the discharge of the latter would exit at about 6.1 meters
and there is no evidence, from the distribution of isotherms,
that warm water is rising.
18 February 1969
The thermal measurements on this date
to inadequate facilities for sampling
water when the transect was run. The
taken during winter when the lake was
covered, were assisted by the use of
(SAV), a small six-wheeled vehicle wh
and snow. The closed body of the veh
tires provide flotation in the event
occupants break through the ice. The
from a boat.
were incomplete owing
from the ice to open
transect and others
partially! ice
a "Go Anywhere Vehicle"
ich can travel over ice
icle and its six rubber
the vehicle and its
open water was sampled
The isotherms in this transect are fairly uniform. There
is a slight tendency for the isotherms to "climb the slopes"
as the mud usually has a higher temperature than the water
immediately over it. The southern basin has two lens of
relatively warm water at about four meters of depth. Additional
thermal profiles toward the southeastern end of the lake might
have provided more clues as to the source of warm water lens.
7 March 1969
The distribution of isotherms in
markedly since 18 February 1969,
of the isotherms suggests a flow
of the southeast end of the lake
this transect has changed
and is more complex. A plot
of warm water down the slopes
to about five or six meters
The lake is rarely completely frozen as the thermal dis-
charge of 80 MGD from the soda ash manufacturer creates an
open area, the size of which fluctuates with the severity
and duration of cold spells. Note, it is also likely that
the open water created by this thermal pollution causes the
lake ice to break up at an earlier date than otherwise expected
135
-------
before spreading out. This suggests water descending until
it reaches a level of an equilibrium density, after which it
fans out into the Lake. The remaining isotherms are complex
and illustrate several warm and cool lens or cells of water.
The tilting of the isotherms in this case must be assumed to
be a function of density differences and not a result of winds,
as we might expect when the lake is free of ice. The relatively
cool water below the warm thermal input at the southeast end of
the lake, and the cool water which is at about the same depth
or less in the northwestern basin, represents a departure from
a "normal" winter profile for lakes. This may also indicate
some slight chemical additions, possibly from both the surface
and subsurface discharge of the Metropolitan Sewage Plant.
18 March 1969
The lake still retains a layer of ice which covers a portion
of its surface. In the open area of the lake, the warm water
at the surface extends close to the ice. In addition, the
warm water extends for some distance beneath the ice towards
the northwestern end. It is rather surprising that such
relatively warm water and ice can co-exist without a rapid
disappearance of the ice. The relatively sharp thermal
gradients imply little vertical mixing in those portions
of the lake.
The ice, immediately at the frozen, open water interface was
of poor quality, but upon traveling about 100 meters onto the
ice, it was possible to stand in some spots. Further distance
from the interface increased the safety.
Immediately below the warm layers of water the temperature
drops rapidly, is relatively cool in the middle depths of the
lake and gradually increases as the bottom is approached.
One exception to this occurs in the south deep. Between 18
and 20 meters there is an unexpected decrease of water tempera-
ture above the mud. This feature persists through several
stations.
Noteworthy also is the relatively high temperature between the
surface anf two meters in the extreme southeast end of the
lake. The latter thermal increase is most likely a function
of the surface discharge from the soda ash manufacturer.
14 May 1969
Some warm water is entering the southeastern corner of the lake
near the surface. This water also appears to be a consequence
of the thermal discharge from the soda ash manufacturer. The
136
-------
overall picture of isotherm distribution presents a fairly
stable condition, however, there is some tilting of the
isotherms toward the southeast as indicated by upwelling in
the northwestern area.
13 June 1969
The distribution of isotherms suggests a rather uniform
stratification. As in some of the previous transects, there
are some areas of thermal anomalies present in the lake,
specifically across the middle area of the lake at about 4
meters in depth. These anomalies may reflect, in part, the
subsurface discharge from the Metropolitan Sewage Treatment
Plant.
22 August 1969
Another "cell" or lens of water near mid-lake indicates a
slight thermal anomaly on this date also. The depth of
the "cell" corresponds to the depth of the subsurface
discharge of the Metropolitan Sewage Treatment Plant, but
the location of the "cell" makes it appear that the dis-
charge from the Nine Mile Creek may have played the role
in its formation. The general accumulation of warmer
Wj»ters in the southeast portion of Onondaga Lake may
reflect slight westerly winds and thermal contribution
industrial discharges.
29 August 1969
By now the cooler air temperatures, reduced solar radiation
°f the late summer and winds'have caused more mixing of_the
JPPer waters than seen in previous transects. In .addition,
there is a stronger gradient of temperatures at nnd-deptns,
^s indicated by close spacing of isotherms. The general_
1niPression this transect gives is much more typical of lakes
137
-------
with less salinity. No pronounced thermal discharges are ap-
parent from the temperatures measured on this particular date
4 December 1969
This transect, run approximately one year after the transect
of 3 December 1968, illustrates some of the same features as
the latter. The thermal inversion is present again. The
isotherms for both years are irregular but this time are ex-
tremely uneven owing to the strong winds on the latter date.
There is a cool layer of water coming in at the surface of
the southeast end of the lake. This layer, although cooler,
is less dense than the lake water and therefore may reflect
some discharge from one or all of the three streams in the
southeast end of the lake. There is no relatively hot efflu-
ent apparent on this date from the cooling water of the soda
ash manufacturing plant. One feature difficult to explain is
the relatively cold Water "pocket" in the northwest basin.
Whether this is some reflection of a cooled and more dense
discharge from Nine Mile Creek, a possible intrusion of water
from the outlet of the lake which has backed in and flowed
down the slope, or some other source is only conjecture at
this time.
138
-------
OUTLET INTO
SENECA RIVER
SCALE- KILOMETERS
ONONDAGA LAKE
INFLOWS-OUT LET
LOCATION OF SUKUIFACE
DISCHARGE OF METROPOLITAN
SYRACUSE SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT
• SOUE SURFACC (HSCHM6C
FKOM MCTItafOLITAN (VRACU9C
SEWAttE tWATUENT PLANT
TWO ouTLtTt ro*
THCMUU. OUCHMU
Of
IOOA ASM
HMWFACTUmM PLANT
OMONMU CREEK
THIUNM. CM»S KCTKM OF ONOMMrU LAKE
n wr IMC
TMK I««C
139
-------
H 1 1 1-
H 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
*«..
THERMAL TRANSECT OF ONONOAGA LAKE
14 MAY I9U
TEMP IN 'C
RESULTANT WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED -
SE - IU KM/HR
H h
H - 1
1
H 1-
H 1 1 1 h
H 1 1 H
H h-
H H
THCOHAL TRANSECT Of OWONDAdA LAKE
t* HAY ItM
it» IN *e
WtULTANT WIND DmCCTMH AND 1TICD-
EHC- IJ.5 KM/HR
1 1 1 1
H 1 1 1 1 H
I I
140
-------
-+ 1 1-
_, 1 1 I 1 (-
H. .
THERMAL TRANKCT OF OMCMWW
12 JULY KM
ItW> M 'C
ww OIIICCTION »w snco-
wm» - n HU/MR
H 1 1 1-
-f-
H 1-
0.
s.
TKMKCT Of ONONIMS* LHC
13 OCTOMR I*H
TEMP IN >c
»w DUfcrim >m mcD-
M - 11 KM/Mt
1 I 1 1
141
-------
THERMAL TRANSECT OF ONONDAOA LAKE
10 OCTOBER 1*6*
TEMP IN -C
RESULTANT WMD DIRECTION AND SPEED -
SE - 10.1 KMSHR
H I 1 1 1 H
H 1
-I h
H 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 h
1 1 1 1-
t. .
§
u 10.
THERMAL TRANSECT OF ONONDAM LAKE
22 OCTOBER IM*
TEW IN -C
RESULTANT WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED -
ME - 74 KM/MR
1 1 1 1 1 1 I
FIG. A-Z
-i 1 h
142
-------
I 1 1 1
I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
I 1 1 1 1
THERMAL TRANSECT Of ONONOAOA LAKE
90 OCTOBER !»««
TEMP IN *C
AE9ULTANT WIND DIRECTION AND tTCCO-
WNW - 14.1 KM/HO
torn ii.t tl.4 IOB
I 1 1 1 1 1
THERMAL TRANIICT Of ONONOAM LAKE
5 MCIUKK N)M
TEMI! IN «C
RltULTANT WIND DWKCTKM AND VCEB-
(W - M KM/MR
143
-------
TEMP IM 'C
•E&ATUIT WWD HteCTION UtO SfEID-
WSW- 25.4 KM/W
-t 1 1 1 1 ^
H 1 1 1
H 1 1 (-
THERMAL HUMECT V OHOMDMJI L*M
it n**uun itu
TEMF IN >C
MtULTUIT VIM HtttTlW WO BtE6-
•HW- M IH/HR
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 h
H 1 1 1-
144
-------
THERMAL TRANSECT OF ONONDASA L«£
T MARCH 1961
TEMP IN -
NW- 7« KH/HK
1 1-
145
-------
H 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 h
H 1 1 1-
THERMAL TOANSCCT OF ONONOAOA LAKE
IS MARCH lit*
TEMP IN *C
RESULTANT WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED -
WHO- 4.2 KM/ H*
THEIIMAL TMNIECT OF ONONOAOA LAKE
13 JUNE MM
TEMI> IN *C
MIULTANT WIND DIRECTION AND IPEED-
1W - «.i KM/HR
1-
I I 1 (-
146
-------
T-HtlMML inuBCCT OF CMONOMU L*»C
!2 AUOUJT
TCMR IN *C
"ESULUHT WIND DIRICTIM «HO WOO-
W - 3.T KM /MM
147
-------
THERMAL TRANSECT OF ONONDAOA LAKE
2* AUGUST IH9
TEMR IN >C
RESULTANT WIND DIRECTION AND 8KCO-
W - 9.8 KUSHR
H I-
-H 1-
H 1 1 1 1 1-
I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
I 1 1 1 1 1 1
THERMAL TUIMECT OF ONONDAtA LAKE
4 OCCENaER IMt
TEMR IN «C
NCKH.TANT WIND omccTim AND IFCCD -
•NW- i.4 KM/HR
FIG. A'
H h
H h
148
-------
APPENDIX B
CHEMICAL CONSIDERATIONS
This Section includes a detailed review of the chemical para-
meters measured in the lake waters using three major groups of
illustrations, namely:
1. Histograms or statistical distributions of
data for each parameter, included with the
detailed review. A summary of these results
is shown in Table B-l .
2. Depth synoptic line plots, Figures B-l to B-32.
3. Depth synoptic contour plots, Figures B-34
to B-39.
The results of waste discharge measurements were cited from
Section 5 of this Report when considered pertinent.
Data from Stations No. 1 and 2 are illustrated in Table B-l.
!n those cases where magnitude of values and data distribution
for a parameter were nearly equal for both Station No. 1 and
Station No. 2, histogram illustrations are shown for Station
J°» 1 only. However, if there were significant differences
Between the two Stations, additional comments and histograms
We»"e appended.
General considerations for all chemical species are derived
Primarily from two references; namely, 1) McKee and Wolf,
Water Quality Criteria", State of California, 1963; and 2)
Anonymous, "Report of the Committee on Water Quality Criteria",
Federal Water Quality Administration, 1968.
C°nstant reference is made to the epilimnion and hypolimnion
r the Section entitled, "Existing Conditions". In all cases,
epilimnion represents depths 0, 3 and 6 meters, whereas
m hypolimnion represents depths 12, 15 and 18 meters. The 9
"later depth was not used since this was observed to be the ^
UpPer limit of the thermocline, and would tend to de-emphasize
JCcurrences in the warmer more active depths of the Lake;
conversely it would tend to highlight changes in the colder
inactive depths of the lake.
statistical parameter most widely used for comparing data
the geometric mean, since it approximates a "most frequent
e. Arithmetic mean values are also compared; however,
149
ue.
-------
this parameter is sometimes significantly affected by extreme
values and hence was not used as frequently as the geometric
mean.
This geometric mean becomes 0 if any 0 measurements are
included. In such cases, 0 readings were not included in the
calculation of geometric mean, in order to enable its use as
a "most frequent" value.
Other statistical routines such as correlation and regression
analysis were performed on the chemical data in an attempt to
arrive at a clearer understanding of chemical inter-
relationships. These results, in conjunction with visual
representations, provide the basis upon which statements in
this Appendix are made. Table B-40 summarizes the results of
the more pertinent correlation and regression analysis
performed.
150
-------
TABLE B-1
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
PARAMETER
SYMBOL
UNITS
Temperature Temp
Alkalinity ALK
Biochemical Oxygen Demand BOD
Chloride CL
Carbon Dioxide C02
Organic Nitrogen ORG-N
Ammonia Nitrogen NH3-N
Nitrite N02
Nitrate NOa
Total Phosphorus T-P
Ortho Phosphate 0-P04
PH PH
Sulfate S04
Sulfide S
Dissolved Oxygen DO
Calcium CA
Sodium NA
Potassium K
Magnesium MG
Conductivity COND
Copper CU
Chromium CR
Iron FE
Manganese MN
Zinc ZN
fluoride F
Silicon Dioxide Si02
Suspended Solids SS
Dissolved Solids DS
Secchi Disk SECCI
is^hjeHchia coli ECOLI
Wind WIND
Wlnd Direction DIR
Temperature AIR
mg/1 as CaCOa
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1 as
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
as
as
as
as
mg/1 as .
-logi0[H+]
mg/1
-logioCS=]
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
umhos
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
mg/1
meters
Number per 100 ml
10-day averages of
daily resultant
(vector sum) speed
10-day periods-mph
Directions corres-
ponding to resul-
tant speeds
°C
151
-------
en
ro
TABLE B-1
ONOKDASA LAKE STUDY
STATISTICAL PARAMETERS - DEPTH SYNOPTIC DATA
MEAN
Line
Plot
Symbol
T
ALK
BOD
CL
C02
ORG-N
NH3-N
N03
N02
T-P
0-P
pH
S04
S
DO
CA
NA
K
MS
CONO
CU
CR
FE
MN
ZN
F
Si02
SS
DS
SECCI
ECOLI
Epil
Mean
13.91
170.39
6.21
1458.41
5.16
1 .96
2.14
0.39
0.06
2.34
0.94
7.64
182.35
6.63
4.79
639.37
554.54
17.17
30.38
4625.83
imnion
Geo.
Mean
10.27
168.20
4.85
1403.63
4.05
1.72
1.62
0.22
0.02
K75
0.83
7.63
180.43
5.26
3.79
505.10
528.05
15.18
29.80
4533.71
0.05 0.04
0.02
0.02
0.07
0.07
4.43
4.89
17.75
3200.22
1 .09
1199.61
0.02
0.17
0.06
0.06
4.43
4.45
13.77
3087.96
0.98
39}. 57
Hypo)
Mean
8.13
198.55
12.40
1930.23
10.87
1.48
4.31
0.13
0.08
3.77
1 .57
7.39
184.41
3.50
1 .53
849.05
669.75
17.79
30.99
5810.36
0.05
0.02
0.26
0.20
0.07
4.56
8.16
15.90
3896.25
250.86
fmnion
Geo.
Mean
7.12
195.23
9.02
1914.56
10.03
1.11
3.79
0.04
0.00
2.51
1 .46
7.39
182.60
3.18
1 .20
827.57
658.53
16.42
30.51
5745.89
0.04
0.02
0.22
0.17
0.06
4.56
7.92
12.13
3818.21
--
95.65
EpH
Mean
13.73
165.90
4.85
1474.95
4.26
1.76
1 .90
0.41
0.08
2.60
0.97
7.69
177.56
6.41
5.78
651.41
558.61
16.72
29.89
4715.11
0.05
0.02
0.20
0.08
0.07
4.46
4.73
16.23
3305.49
1.22
406.58
iranion
Geo.
Mean
9.96
164.33
3.89
1437.03
3.48
1 .50
1 .47
0.26
0.02
1.71
0.80
7.68
175.09
5.61
4.60
518.23
530.74
15.03
29.17
4624.93
0.04
0.02
0.18
0.06
0.06
4.46
4.31
12.10
3174.52
1 .07
83.97
Hypo!
Mean
7.98
196.37
13.44
1886.88
10.26
1.42
4.08
0.13
0.14
2.80
1 .49
7.42
185.78
3.46
1.56
841.00
660.32
18.75
31 .48
5869.31
0.04
0.03
0.27
0.20
4.65
7.60
15.94
3910.62
--
119.92
imni on
Geo.
Mean
6.77
194.52
9.28
1864.64
9.56
1 .06
3.50
0.05
0.01
2.31
1 .36
7.42
184.77
3.30
1 .22
821.41
650.67
15.88
30.99
5808.83
0.04
0.02
0.24
0.17
0.07
4.65
7.42
11.53
3807.28
_-
82.27
Epi 1 imni on
Diff .
.13
449.
1 .36
- 16.54
.90
.20
.24
.02
.02
.26
.03
.05
4.79
.22
.99
- 12.04
- 4.07
.45
.49
- 89.98
.00
.00
.00
.01
.00
.03
.16
1.52
-105.27
.13
793.03
%
Diff.
.9
2.6
21 .9
- 1.1
17.4
10.2
11 .2
- 5.1
-33.3
-11.1
- 3.2
- .6
2.6
3.3
- 2.1
1,9
.7
2.6
1.6
- 3.8
--
--
--
14.3
--
- .7
3.3
8.6
- 3.3
-11.8
56.1
Hypol imni on
Diff.
.15
2.68
- 1.04
43.35
.61
.06
.23
.00
.06
.37
.08
.03
- 2.37
.04
.03
8.05
9.43
.96
.49
-141 .05
.01
.01
.01
.00
.00
.09
.56
.04
- 24.37
—
130.94
%
Diff.
1.8
1.1
- 8.4
2.0
5.6
4.1
--
-75.0
11.7
5.1
- .4
- 1.3
1.1
- 2.0
.9
1.4
5.4
1.6
2.4
20.0
50.0
3.8
--
--
- 2.0
6.9
- .2
- .6
__
5.2
-------
ALKALINITY
General Considerations
"Alkalinity is not a specific polluting substance but rather
a combined effect of several substances and conditions. It
is caused by the presence of carbonates, bicarbonates , hydro-
xides and to a lesser extent by borates , silicates, phosphates
and organic substances. The major buffering system in natural
waters is th carbonate system. This system not only neutralizes
acids and bases to reduce the fluctuation in pH , but also forms
an indispensibl e reservoir of carbon for photosynthesis; this
is due to a decided limit in the rate at which carbon dioxide
can be obtained from the atmosphere to replace that in the
water which becomes fixed by the plants. The addition of
mineral acids pre-empts the carbonate buffering capacity and
the original biological productivity is reduced in proportion
to the degree that such capacity is exhausted. It is as
necessary, therefore, to maintain the minimum essential
Buffering capacity as to confine the pH of the water within
tolerable limits. In regards to fish and other aquatic life,
none of the strong alkalies, such as calcium, potassium and
podium hydroxide has been shown clearly to be lethal to fully
Developed fish in natural waters when the concentration is
"^sufficient to raise the pH well above 9.0. Interference with
normal development and other damage to fish life sometimes may
jjccur, however, at low pH values. When caused almost entirely
°y bicarbonates, alkalinity does not seem to have any harmful
fffect upon plankton and other aquatic life," (McKee and
Wolf, 1963).
Jt has been reported that high alkalinity is antagonistic
towards the toxicity of copper sulfate to fish. The relative
r°xicity of 25 mg/1 of copper sulfate to brown trout varied
Aversely with the alkalinity with all fish dying in 2.5 hours
wnen the alkalinity was only 6.0 mg/1; whereas some fish
after 12.5 hours when the alkalinity was 248 mg/1,
et al . , 1949).
is generally recognized that the best waters for support of
versified aquatic life are those with pH values between 7
d 8, having a total alkalinity of 100 to 120 mg/1 or more.
uet, M., 1941; Barrett, P.H. 1952). This alkalinity serves
s a buffer to help prevent any .sudden change in pH deleterious
° fish or other aquatic life. Diurnal photosynthetic activity
T the aquatic plants in productive waters may result in a
.inversion of bicarbonate to carbonate, or in extreme cases,
He conversion of carbonate to hydroxide. Either of these
Tfects results in a rise of pH. Because these high pH levels
153
-------
prevail for only a few hours, they do not exert the harmful
effects of continuous high levels due to the presence of
strong alkalies.
Existing Conditions
Alkalinity values in the epilimnion are distributed in an
almost normal distribution with a mean of 170 mg/1 and a
geometric mean of 168. This distribution (Figure B-2)
reflects the relatively constant values of alkalinity for
the epilimnion throughout the year. Some of the variation
around the central values can be attributed to seasonal
trends. However, much of the variation seems to be fairly
randon.
The distribution of data for the hypolimnion is skewed consi-
derably toward high values. A comparison of the line plot is
helpful. Figure B-2 illustrates similar values of alkalinity
from mid-December 1968 to mid-June, 1969, after which time
the values increase with depth. Following this period, values
in the epilimnion continue to be stable although slightly lower
than the previous month, while the values in the hypolimnion
become distinctly higher accounting for the skewed distribution.
The distinct change in values of alkalinity between epilimnetic
and hypolimnetic waters fades during periods of extensive
vertical mixing, particularly during 1968. This would be
expected as thermal and other density differences diminish.
It can be understood further by examining the breakdown in
the stratification of temperature (Figure B-34) and oxygen
(Figure B-37).
The higher values of alkalinity in the summer and early fall
months were noteworthy. This may be attributable to a high
production of COg in these waters and the metastable dissolution
of carbonate resulting in a reduction of the rate of removal
of bicarbonates through precipitation of carbonate minerals.
154.
-------
UK
STAT 1 4/17/68 - 12/18/69 EPILIMNION
HT*Ti (4.66601 «ir= Ft*.666ft) AM»H • ITo.SHIT
MEOUENCVo i _ a » i 2 7 14 27 »o 31 is n is 9
0121
II
30
29
2« ~~
27
26
21
24
23 _
22 "
21
30
11
U
17
16 ~—
11
14
11
12
11
10
t
I
7
6
*
4
1
2
I
• • • • «~
• * * •
t 2
10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 IT 1C 19 20
"IN • 109.00001 BS5(i 28*. 00004
NONl . o.OOOOOE 00 HOHZ 'i"~ 0.901 IOE 03 KOH3 i" "0. JJ!97t
II-MCTH "i
STB6W5 - J6.0U44 - BWECTTS - Ht.»»Z -
. 0.2AUOr 'flT ')KfB~i'~OV12420E "OOKUirT~5 — 0.3iritE BI~
-- .'KEQUENCY 0 J 0 0 0 1 26 231, _ 16 27 22 IT 2* '10 9 » 111
«NtE»v»L
9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 It II 19 20
TABLE B-2
155
-------
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
General Considerations
"As in a test for alkalinity, acidity, color, turbidity or
specific conductance, the determination of biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) does not reveal the concentration of a specific
substance but rather the effect of a combination of substances
and conditions," (McKee and Wolf, 1963). BOD is in essence
an indirect measure of the amount of oxygen that will be
utilized as a result of bio-degradation of material. High
BOD's are undesirable in natural waters as their presence
depresses the dissolved oxygen content to levels that may be
inimical to fish life and other beneficial uses. Furthermore,
the exertion of high BOD's can result in septic conditions
and cause the development of anaerobic bacteria and saprophytic
conditions which inturn degrade the quality of water further.
The ability of water bodies to satisfy the BOD is dependent
upon water velocity, surface area with respect to depth,
turbulence and sunlight penetration, all of which can be
related to the reaeration rate and/or to oxygen production
via photosynthesis. Most lakes can be likened to a sluggish,
nonturbulent stream with a relatively small surface area with
respect to depth. In the case of eutrophic lakes, the oxygen
production via phytosynthesis may be offset by the BOD of the
algal eel 1s .
Existing Conditions
In both the epilimnion and hypo!imnion, the data show a highly
skewed distribution, the most frequent values being in the lower
end of the range with decreasing frequencies as the BOD values
increase. In the epilimnion, the geometric mean is 4.8 mg/1,
while in the hypolimnion it is 9.0 mg/1, nearly twice as great.
The geometric mean in the epilimnion probably reflects constant
organic Inputs into the lake rather than algal blooms, which
are predominant only approximately 25% of the time, June
through September. The period of active production by algae
is illustrated most clearly by the DO line plots, Figure B-15.
The occasional higher BOD values are reflections of either
unusually high input loadings and/or algal blooms. The times
at which algal blooms exert a significant demand on the lake
can best be illustrated by the dissolved oxygen and BOD contour
plots, Figures B-37 and B-35 respectively.
High values in the hypolimnion represent the settleable BOD at-
tributable to inflows, dying phyto and zooplankton, bacteria and
156
-------
benthal demand. According to laboratory tests outlined in
Section 13, the BOD attributable to the latter is only minor,
The changes in BOD at all levels, with respect to time, can
best be illustrated by the BOD contour plot, Figure B-35.
157
-------
BOO
STAT i
4/1T/68 - 12/18/69 EPILIMNION
KIN
0.00000 MAX •
30.80000 AMEAN •
""5719996sTBBE
NOM1 » O.OOOOOE 00 NON2 • ~6~. 19474E 02 MOMS • 0.15691E 03 MOM* . 0.33738E 04 SKEK •""
-------
CHLORIDES
General Considerations
Chlorides are found in practically all natural waters. They
May be of natural mineral origin, or derived (A) from salts
spread on fields for agricultural purposes (B) from human or
animal sewage (C) from underground springs or (D) from indus-
trial effluents. Chlorides in water may impart a salty taste
at concentrations as low as 100 mg/1. (Anonymous, Water
Quality and Treatment, 1950; Anonymous, Standards of Water
Quality and Factors Affecting Quality, 1947). For average
individuals, the taste threshold is about 400 mg/1. Regarding
fish and aquatic life, the following concentrations of chloride
nave been reported, by McKee and Wolf, to be harmful to fish:
Concentration Type of Fish
mg/1
400 trout
4000 bass, pike, perch
4500 - 6000 carp eggs
8100 - 10500 small bluegills
Chlorinity is closely related to the total salinity and its
effects on osmosis; hence most fresh water fish cannot tolerate
excessive changes in salinity and most salt water fish may be
Affected adversely by waters of low salinity. "The Aquatic
Life Advisory Commission of ORSANCO concluded that it is
1|Tipossible to generalize on the effects of chloride concentrates
°n aquatic life, for each mixture of chloride with other salts
must be evaluated separately." (McKee and Wolf, 1963)
!j"iile Onondaga Lake has often been referred to as a saltwater
!ake, historical records dating back as far as the late 1700's
1ndicate strongly that the water at that time was fresh water
d'though salt springs existed along the southern and south-
eastern shores of the lake. This apparently led to the
J|jestionable conclusion that the lake itself was salty. Al-
though we cannot define quantitatively for those earlier years,
tne terms "fresh" or "salty", the lake appears to have increased
•"ts "saline" nature and decreased its "fresh" nature as judged
°v data of this century.
tiparison of present data with those collected by Metcalf and
(1920) show a significant increase in concentrations of
159
-------
chlorides at both the surface and near bottom waters in the
past 50 years. Values ranged from 818 mg/1 at the surface
to 1009 at the bottom in that portion of the lake designated
as the south deep in this Study. Comparable chloride concen-
trations for approximately the same period, April 1968 and
April 1969, and the same temperatures observed by Metcalf and
Eddy, 8-9°C., ranged from 1100 to 2200 mg/1.
Existing Conditions
In the epilimnion, chloride values tend towards a normal
distribution with a geometric mean of 1404 mq/1 with random
deviations from that value. Distribution of data for the
hypolimnion is considerably different, approaching a bimodal
distribution with the modes near 1700 and 2200 mg/1.
The mean and geometric mean concentration of chloride in the
hypolimnion exceeded those of the epilimnion by approximately
30%. Referring to the line plots of chloride data (Figure
B-4), the chloride concentrations of the upper waters are
obviously lower than those in lower waters.
It is rather remarkable that this tendency exists even at
those times when the lake is isothermal or nearly so, and when
sufficient mixing has occurred to carry dissolved oxygen to
all depths. The persistence of this concentration gradient
and others, indicates that even when mixing occurs, it is not
strong enough to distribute major chemical species as rapidly
as they enter.
The gradients observed can be explained further by consider-
ing the effects of temperature and solute concentrations upon
the water density, both in the Lake proper and from the inflows.
During the winter months, when the temperature difference from
the lake surface to the bottom is only a few degrees, chloride
concentrations generally tend to increase ith depth but there
is no sharp divergence between the hypolimnion and the epilim-
nion. Since the lake maintains a degree of stratification at
this time of year, it follows that the density of the lake
water increases with depth. Influent discharge water tends
to descend to a level determined by its density. The density
of most influent water is influenced by its concentration of
dissolved matter, and by its temperature. Despite fluctuations
in these factors, attributable to weather and other effects,
there is a general tendency for the more concentrated inputs
to sink deeper in the lake. This reasoning is consistent with
the distribution of chloride concentrations found in the lake
during the winter months, as illustrated in the line plots,
Figure B-4.
As the spring thaw took place, the epilimnetic waters of the
lake warm more rapidly than the hypolimnetic waters. Summer
160
-------
stratification established quickly, the spring isothermal
period, (1969 - the only instance covered by the sampling
program), was so brief as indicated by the chemical data
that only weak, incomplete mixing took place.
Input streams derive from water bodies which are relatively
shallow with respect to the lake, and consequently warm
quickly. Therefore the discharges, owing to their relative
densities tend to reside in the epilimnion. In the spring,
the stream runoff is relatively dilute with respect to all
dissolved species, including chlorides. Thus the chloride
concentrations in the epilimnetic waters of the lake are re-
duced by inflows during the early spring months. This
influence on lake waters tends to diminish through the summer
as input volumes and their dilution decreases.
A second observation was made by comparing the distribution
of data of the epilimnetic waters with that of the hypolim-
netic waters, that the range of values in the upper waters
is considerably more narrow. If the epilimnion were more
uniformly mixed throughout the year, one would expect a
narrower distribution if the chloride input were relatively
constant. The highest chloride input into Onondaga Lake was
found to be a major soda ash producing industry representing
'2% of the chloride input during the sampling period
June 1969 to December 1969. The operation of this plant was
relatively constant over the sampling period. This indicates
an active epilimnetic region as contrasted to a relatively
stagnant hypolimnetic region in the lake.
figures B-38 and B-39, also illustrate a significant increase
ln chlorides in the epilimnion from the months of June 1969
to October 1969. From data on the stream flow (monitored
daily at Dorwin Avenue on Onondaga Creek) it can be seen
that beginning in the month of June through the month of
October, there was a significant decrease in runoff reflect-
1|rig the low rainfall during that period. Assuming a constant
chloride input, a lower runoff could account for the increased
chloride concentration since the flushing action on the lake
^ould be relatively less than under higher runoff conditions.
7Ul"in.g the summer of 1968 there was little or no consistent
.^crease of chloride concentration. This can again be explained
bV the stream flows, which were significantly higher than those
Recorded the following year.
J,n each calendar year, the chloride concentration in the
hypolimnion tended to hold relatively constant. Only at times
of fall mixing do progressive changes with time appear. The
c°ncentration range maintained in any year could be considered
a Deflection of the previous years condi ti ons but the data only
*u9gest and do not fully substantiate this concept. The dif-
nce between 1968 and 1969 could account for the bimodal
stribution seen in the histograms.
161
-------
CL
ST»T I
4/1T/68 - 12/ie/»4
Hin • UT. 00003 RS5Ti 2300.00649
"MOlSt V— 57060~60"e 66 H«i?~~o;it49»r06~MOH3 • -0.2«0«e'0«'HOH4
I20.166»f
- J5*.05n)Z - MEilTB - KB3.6l«3 -
O.M862E 11 SKEW • O.M599E 00 KURT . 0.44343C 01
FREQUENCY
IS 20 32 32 21 23
11
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
11
1*
IT
16
H •
T • • • •
5 • • • • •
CL SI»T 1 4/I7/A8 - 12/11/69 HYPOL1MNI
i
1
|
ON
~ " * '• '" "i" — " J "
* * * * ' ' ' ' - - '
HOMl - O.OOOOOE 00 MOM} • 0.60443E 0
INTERVAL LENGTH " • 70.33334
FREQUENCY 0 2 2 4 T 2
29
28
27
26
2»
24
23
22
z»
20
19
II
IT
16
19
14
13
12
It
10
1 «
« <
6 • «
4 • • l
J MOMJ • 6.408UE 6T MOM* .~ 0.*t«4E 10 SKEW • A.2T464C 00 KURT - 0.2IU4E 01
J 12 24 19 10 18 12 21 12 6 4 1 4 0 1
• • * ^___
• • « •
• !•••• » • »• ~ -- —
• ••••• I «- ( - ' , ' ' . f ... . -
T 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 IS 1* 17 IB 19 20 -
" ' '
1 TABLE a-4
>>-
-•- •• • ''•
/. /w
162
-------
CARBON DIOXIDE
General Conditions
Carbon dioxide (COg) is a colorless, odorless, noncombus ti bl e
gas, constituting about .04% of normal air, and highly soluble
in water. The source of free C0£ in water is mostly a product
of aerobic or anerobic decomposition of organic matter which
is intimately bound in the complex carbonate equilibria.
"An excess of "free" CO? (as distinguished from that present
as carbonate and bicarbonate) may have adverse effects on
aquatic animals. These effects range from avoidance reactions
and changes in respiratory movements at low concentrations, to
interference with gas exchange at higher concentrations and
to narcosis and death if the concentration is increased still
further." (Anonymous, Water Quality Criteria, 1968)
Migrating fish tend to respond to slight gradients in C02
pension and to avoid concentrations of 1.0 to 6.0 mg/1. It
"•s doubtful that fresh water fish normally survive throughout
the year in water with an average C02 content as high as 12
m9/l , and concentrations of 20 mg/1 will quickly prove fatal
to the more sensitive species. When the content of DO drops
to 3 to 5 mg/1, the effects of low C02 concentrations may be
"lore detrimental. However, the presence of C02 may, in some
circumstances, have a beneficial effect in so far as fish are
concerned. It has been shown by several investigators that
^2 lowers the pH and consequently the unionized ammonia in
certain waters. Thus, it has been reported that 30 mg/1 of
c^2 reduced the toxicity of ammonia to trout by lowering
tne pH value. (McKee and Wolf, 1963)
listing Conditions
Values for the epilimnion range from 1.0 to 17.6 mg/1 in
^ondaga Lake. Such a wide range can be attributed primarily
£° biological production and consumption of C0£. The most
Trequent values of C02 concentrations range from 1.9 to 7.4
JJ9/1 with a mean and geometric mean of 5.16 and 4.05 mg/1
respectively (Figure B-5). These values are approximately 25%
er than those for the corresponding zone at Station 2.
data for Stations 1 and 2 are similar only in that they
show tendencies towards three or more sets of values.
he range of values for Station 2 is 1.0 to 9.7 mg/1. The
j^ger values at Station 1 are 'most likely associated with
fhe proximity of this Station to the inflows with major BOD
'Jadings. Variations and relatively low values for both
atio ive hotosnthesis. This is
are related to active photosynthesis. This is
• 'lustrated by Figure B-5. The lowest values occur most
^quentl at the surface and three meters.
163
-------
In general, values in the hypolimnion run slightly higher than
those in the epilimnion at Stations 1 and 2. This may be
attributable to the higher degree of biological decomposition
in the hypolimnion and the fact that the photosynthetic activity
in the epilimnion, which serves as a sink for C02» is not
present in the hypolimnion.
The data of the hypolimnion are similar for both Stations and
show nearly equal values with means and geometric means of
approximately 10 mg/1. It can be surmised that the predominant
mechanisms controlling C0£ are biological activity and carbo-
nate precipitation rather than input BOD since the latter
might indicate a greater difference between Stations 1 and 2.
164
-------
CO2 ST*T t 4/17/68 - 12/1 i/69
HIN
iTT600"o6
'*N • 9756B5B
0 10 3 4 6 11312Tf2110000OII
— «
11
• «0
9
•— »
T
«
5
• -_ »
•
•
iir —
ii — nr — is- — if ..... IT
_C02. ST»JLl 4/17/68 - 12/18/69 MTPOIIHNION
"It - 1.96030 M«X~
"Si i~i o;bo6ooE~o6~Mnfi3
10.67996 StOOEV • 474Ol?I 5H«R~- IB76JOAJ
"5Z «0«4~:~ onSiiZE" 0< jKfM'S" 0.»67
-------
NITROGEN
General Considerations
Nitrogen is an essential constituent of protein in all living
organisms, and is present in many mineral deposits as nitrate.
Nitrogen in organic matter undergoes changes from complex
proteins through amino acids to ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates
The inorganic forms are resynthesized into organic compounds by
plant and animal forms. The so-called nitrogen cycle in nature
is generally dependent upon bacterial action for completion
and upon photosynthesis for reconstitution of organic matter.
The total concentration of nitrogen is highly important when
considering trophic aspects of the Lake. The specific forms
of nitrogen are of importance when considering specific
physiological requirements of various primary producers.
Organic nitrogen and amino acids may inhibit biological growth
whereas ammonia and nitrates often stimulate production by
phytoplankton. It has been reported that the critical
concentration of inorganic nitrogen below which algal growths
were not troublesome was 0.30 mg/1 provided that inorganic
phosphorous was kept below 0.015 mg/1, (Sawyer, 1957). Sawyer
also reported that the optimum N-P ratio appeared to be about
30:1. For other algae, ratios of 15-18:1 were observed.
According to many references shown by McKee and Wolf, 1963,
the toxicity of ammonia and ammonium salts to aquatic animals
is directly related to the amount of undissociated ammonium
hydroxide in the solution, which, in turn is a function of pH
as explained under the Section entitled pH. Thus a high
concentration of ammonium ions in water at a low pH may not
be toxic, but if the pH is raised, toxicity will probably
increase (Doudoroff, P & Katz, M., 1950). It has been reported
by Ellis, 1937 that the toxicity of a given concentration of
ammonium compounds toward fish increased by 200% or more
between pH 7.4 and 8.0.
Existing Conditions
A cursory examination of the nitrogen and phosphorus concen-
trations (Figures B-6 and B-10) indicates that neither of
these two seem to be limiting if the reported values of
Sawyer (1957) apply. In general, the total Kjeldahl, organic
and ammonia forms of nitrogen data show wide variation in
magnitude with respect to depth and time. Higher values of
organic nitrogen were observed in the epilimnion than in the
hypolimnion, whereas the opposite was true in the cases of
166
-------
ammonia and total Kjeldahl nitrogen. The above trends, as well
as the tendency of these data toward a normal distribution, can
be accounted for by combinations of input discharges, and the
complex nitrogen cycle.
Concentrations of nitrite nitrogen are quite low (mean - 0.06
and 0.08 mg/1) and skewed toward low values in both the epi-
limnion and the hypolimnion. A value of 0.06 mg/1 seems to
represent a "base" value with higher concentrations occurring
^regularly.
Nitrate values in the epilimnion tend to concentrate at the
lower end of the scale. The most frequent value was 0.07 mg/1
with a decreasing tendency towards higher values. However,
the nitrate values in the hypolimnion are distributed in much
the same way as the nitrites with skewness toward lower values
and a most frequent and "base" value in the vicinity of 0.06
tog/1. A predominance of relatively low values in the hypolim-
ni'on is a reflection of the reduction of nitrates throughout
of this zone.
mean and geometric means of total Kjeldahl nitrogen exceed
]n all cases, with the exception of the mean value in the hypo
Pronion, the concentration of 0.6 mg/1 which has been reported
(McKee and Wolf, 1963) as a "critical" concentration.
In regard to the N:P ratios for algae growth, if we assume a
critical P concentration of 0.01 mg/1 as P, total Kjeldahl
JUrogen values in the epilimnion yield ratios of 382:1 and
Sl°:l- Nitrate nitrogen values yield ratios from 22:1 to
9:1. These ratios are shown in Table B-6A.
TABLE B-6A
(Nitrogen Concentrations) N:P ratios with
Geometric Mean Mean P = 0.01 mg/1 as P
(TKN)
3.82 4.10 382:1 410:1
HvPolimnion 5.44 5.79 544:1 579:1
Pilimnion 0.22 0.39 22:1 39:1
0.04 0.13 4:1 13:1
NO
Al i
1 values in mg/1 as N.
d on the high algal production that now occurs in Onondaga
• one can assume that neither nitrate nor total nijrogen
Citing and that the high concentrations of total Kjeldahl
167
-------
reaffirms that nitrogen is not limiting the growth of
phytoplankton.
The ammonia form (NH3) of nitrogen, however, may be inimical
to aquatic organisms at high pH conditions as reported above.
This may explain the sudden die-off of algae observed on
July 30, 1969. Whereas a gradual accumulation of ammonia
(NH3) beginning in early summer, may have contributed to the
high growth levels of phytoplankton observed, Figure B-3, the
peak concentrations of ammonia nitrogen measured in the 9-15
meter waters, prior to and including July 30th, and the
generally high pH conditions (peak ~ 8.8) observed during this
period, Figures B-7 and B-12, may have contributed to the
collapse of algae in the lake.
168
-------
t" " 1,01000 HAX • I.MOOO AH(A»( • "" ' 4,|0m ' tfQOIV • MUM CNIAN « 1>I?JM ' ''
• "s.ooiooe oo NO»I,I • o.iitin at unto • o.io4tic 01 *o«» • o>ifi*if o» IKCM • Oii*»*Ti oo KUKT • o(>t**>< or
NCY Q 2 a 11 » 21 10 »._..!• . I*._.l0 .4 -Z-—^*^L;_._?^ —T-—- °_ - -° ' l
in
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TABLE -
8-6
169
-------
0.11000 MAX
QHG-N tT*T I 4/IT/»» - 12/16/69 EPIUMNION
T^MTl ITBOEVS-
*. 9*000 (MEAN
0.95*OT ENF T7TZ5TJ
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01'
F«oueNCY_ _____ o __ * ____ n __ I».II.IT »i * » 1° » i » 2 i
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OOC-N ST4T I »/17/6« - I2/U/69 HT POL I UNION
0.1)000 MAX • T720000 *ME*M • T7V8269 STODEV • 1.179*1 CNfXITi 1.11115
02~SKEW W~"TS; 162981 "OT liUHT'V- (T.T4224E 01
IT 3T 25 I*. .? 4_ T 10 21 3 0 _|_ 0 _l _ 0 0_ ,0 1
.» .» » T .•___« 10 II ,12 M 14 l» U IT^ li 1«_.28
170
-------
NHJ-N ST«IJ
VlNV OTOOOiO HAX i~~».«006 tMe*N"i 2". 1401 f STOO€V"1 I71U82SMHtTi"17*2*71
. 9.00000E 00 HOM.T . '0.171*06 01 MOM} . "0.71647E 00 MON4 • 0.609206 01 SKEU •" 0.32261E 00 KURT* • 0.20240E OF"
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12*456T»« tO It I? 13 14 15 16 IT U 19 JtO
NM3HN SUT_ 1 i/ij/6»_-_ll/18/69 _K»l>PL.IH(y.°!!l
57JJOOO MSiS~ HI."86000 OttM • 4TS'lll'T "STOOC?~i 27B89BJ CTt»ir» 177WTI
"ONI . O.OOOOOE 00' MOMS V * 0.4367IE 01 MOMJ • 0.10879E 02 MOM4 • 0.10408E 03" SKEW • ' 0.11919E 01 KURT • "0;54S6Se"Or
INTERVAL IENOIM"" o.'693ta ~~
0 4 1 11 _ 20 2« IS 1* . _•• ?. ' ? \ J_ l \ 8 l ° J
2» " " * ........
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la
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TABLE B-8
171
-------
0.04054 5TOOCV"- 0.04071 — GHEAN » 0.00000"
«.'U9T»e-«j HOMV i-onfliioE-o*'SKey •"oiiTMjr n KWT •
INTt27«2E-Ot SKEW • O.Jfl2*C Ot *U*T • O.J)lT»t 01
HOB I . O.OOOOOE BO
I1UKVU IENGIH •
TABLE B-9 _
172
-------
NQ3 STA? I */I7/6« - 12/18/69 iPUIMNION
0.00000 MAX • HTtOOO DIE AN • 07"JISTS rT66EV«STTO'&'ISCMEASTi D70QOWT
""b7000"dOE~60~NW!2 • 07»4164£-bf"llOMj~i b711«50£-0t I
•070T6»»~
* J 6 » I* 6 12 12. 6 J 2 I I 0 0 I
$T«l..l 4/IT/ta - U/U/69 HYPOLIMNION
o.ooooo"n»x • o.i6o »ME»N
OOOOOE 00 HOH.T • O.H&12E-OL MOM3 .' 0.1J727E-02 MOM* .' 0. 12667 1-02 SK€W • 0.19)1*8 01 KURT •" 0".S'l«6«C"0'
173
-------
PHOSPHORUS
General Considerations
Phosphorus is an essential element for aquatic life as well
as for all forms of life and has been considered an important
nutrient to control in efforts to limit eutrophication of
water. Evidence indicates that high phosphorus concentrations
are associated with eutrophication. There are growth promoting
factors which influence the welfare of organisms in lakes and
streams. It has been generally acknowledged that although the
ortho-phosphate form of phosphorus is directly utilized in
most aquatic life, all forms of phosphorus represent a poten-
tial source of nutrients as a result of such functions as
biodegradation and hydrolysis which readily occur within a
lake environment.
Phosphates may occur in surface or ground waters as a result
of leaching from minerals or ores and natural processes of
degradation or from agricultural drainage, as one of the
stabilized products of decomposition of organic matter, as a
result of industrial wastes, and as a major element of municipal
sewage with its synthetic detergents.
The discharge of excessive amounts of phosphates to streams or
lakes may result in an over-abundant growth of algae with
concomitant odors and detrimental effects on fish. In them-
selves, however, phosphates seldom exhibit toxic effects upon
fish and other aquatic life and may in fact be beneficial to
fish culture under some circumstances, by increasing algae and
zooplankton.
In regards to undesirable aquatic growths such as algal blooms,
critical phosphorus concentrations will vary with other water
quality characteristics. Turbidity, for instance, may inhibit
the algal-producing effects of phosphorus in some waters. When
waters are detained in a lake, the resultant soluble phosphorus
concentration is reduced to some extent over that in the in-
fluent streams through uptake by organisms and/or chemical preci'
pitation and adsorption through the formation of stable
minerals. In the former case, decomposition and hydrolysis
recirculate the phosphates back into lake waters whereas in the
latter case, the minerals may deposit themselves on the bottom
of the lake until such time that physical forces effectively
recirculate and dissolve these minerals in the lake waters
(fall or spring overturn).
Studies of the productivity of a group of 17 Wisconsin lakes
suggest a concentration of 0.01 mg/1 of inorganic phosphorus
174
-------
as a maximum value permissible without the danger of supporting
undesirable growths.
In August of 1969 the State of New York issued a policy an-
nouncement regarding phosphorus removals in treatment facilities,
especially those related to eutrophication of Lake Erie and
Ontario. The major objective was to effect phosphorus removals
in treatment plants to the extent that po such discharge shall
have a total phosphorus content exceeding the range of 0.5 -
1.0 mg/1 as phosphorus at all municipal plants with flows of 1
or greater.
Existing Conditions
In the epilimnion the geometric mean of total phosphorus is 1.7
tog/I with predominant values ranging from 1.4 to 3.6 at
decreasing frequencies, followed by a few scattered values of
"igher concentrations. The data shows a mean value of 2.3 mg/1
with higher values, possibly owing to high inputs. The geometric
Mean of ortho-phosphate in the same region in the lake was
found to be 0.8 mg/1 with fairly frequent values up to 1.5 mg/1,
and only scattered observations of high concentrations. The
distribution of these data resembles a normal curve skewed in
the direction of lower concentrations. The mean value of ortho-
Phosphates in the epilimnion was found to be 0.94, approximately
'/2 that of total phosphorus.
|n the hypolimnion, the geometric mean for total phosphorus
jj» 2.5 mg/1, substantially higher than that of the epilimnion.
jhe geometric mean of ortho-phosphorus in the hypolimnion is
'•5 mg/1, also substantially higher than the corresponding
value in the epilimnion.
Referring to the line plots of total phosphorus and ortho-
Phosphate, (Figures B-10 and B-ll respectively), concentrations
°f both parameters tend to be fairly constant with deviant
values in the period from July to October 1969. Values range
*j> high as 23 and 4.2 mg/1 for total phosphorus and ortho-
Phosphate respectively. In general, the highest values occurred
Jn waters 9 to 18 meters in depth for both parameters. These
yalues could represent the sedimentation of dying algal masses
0|r the precipitation of phosphate bearing minerals.
175
-------
ST«T | 4/17/68 - 12/11/69 (HIIMN10H
0.12400 H»S~iJO.OOOOO iMCiN •
I.-*»!«» EHEIM .
HONI • " O.OOOOOE" 00 NOfC • ' 0.421HE 01HOHI"- 0.64116E 61 NOM4 « O.IOOHE 04 SKCll • «.4I1I}( 01 KIMT • 0.2J942E 01'
"i.09>oo " ~ " "' "" ' — ~'-
0 TJ 5O31 tTM~r~~~4777'/Va - lT/'r«/6~9~~MYJoVfHNl6V~ ~~ ~ _J"JJ ~
j »IN • 0.81530 Si-T^ 22.60000 IHltN • jTTffi? 5TOOrv~" ITlTiiT £Mt»N~i ITfrtJi"
I'HOK) 1~"0712072E"~(H'HOH4"<"'0.!0294E 04" SnEil •"" fl.)9«9JE'41 KU*T • 6.2I919E Of"
jyewtNCT o 74 »a as 7 5 » 200 i o o o p ^i 2 p _ o _ I
E«tH « EQU*H 2 POIXTS
74
12
70
_ — ^
62
61
54 _____
52 ~ "
^
46
44
42
40
•)»
J4 _______
__ W
___!&
22
ZO
It
16
14
12
2
~T«iTl«y»C f"~~I J"~~» » 4 T • 9" ' I0"~ll ' U "II ' 14 " "IS ''It" IT' 1« l» "10
_ „. . TABLE B-ll
176
-------
• •"«..«,
OP04
STAt I " 4/17/&8-11718/69 EPH'lMli'lbir
Ttrir
0.00030 NAX-
or.oooooe oo NON
NTEHVA"C"[ENCTH"S~
J
U~*~ O.i
~67V»*«~
2.SOOOO ANEAN •
~079TinSTDOfTV
0.4191S CNEIN
0.00000
239276 00 NOM3 *- O.IS360E 00 NON4 • 0.28062E 00 SKEW -~ O.I3123E OITCURT .'OVMOUr Oi-
IT 2) 2» 3S It I*
10
ls
17
16"
l»
V*
13
12""
11
10
_•>
S
" 6~
* • . ... . . . . .
^ ^-j f- , 0 t- - —f f m m j . ._-
3 • .
I ..
JNJEIWAL I 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 H 12 13 14 IS It 17 10 19 20
1' '•' 'OPO4 .STAT A 4/17/68 - >?/18/69 HYPOHMNIOH " '"" ' ' "^_'J " '
"IN • 0.600.50 MAX~i 4T20000 AMEA«T^ ITSTiTJ JTOOEV~S 5762"*2"< Eft'Oft 17*«5"JT
MOHl '« "oioOOOOE 00 MOMS "•" 0.39093E '00" MOH3 • "0.28667E"00 NOM4 •" 0.6469!E 00" SKIK'i" "0.11728E 01 "HURT'V—OV4*M2f~OT"
INTERVAL LENGTH"- 0.20000 " " " " ~ '
.'»EQUENCY 0 ...*_... I* 30 31 24 19 13 » 7 f««1200001
, .
30~
It
is"
27
26
21
24
!3_
22
21
JO
19
H
tt-
1ft
11 •_ . _ . _ . _«
14 •''•'""•"'»"'• '
13 . . ... .
12 . . . * . . ~"~ ~~
io1" i i i 1 i i —
9 • ..... .
a ' • . . . —* . .
7 • ..... • •
6 - , t- t-~ -m -- f m j -,- .
1_ . . ...... . . . .
4 ' ; j -,- , , ^ j ; 5 » i f —
3 .•__• • •_ • • _ • • :• • * » »
j "'• ~' • '"' . ' " .' "• i" "'. ~". .'" ". '. '".~ f * "•"•
I | _« . .. . . . . . _. _. . ...
ilSSm i i i • i > i g « 19 11 «» i* I*'i* "u "IT n~* >9 10
- '-tABLtH-!*
177
-------
General Considerations
The symbol "pH" is used to designate the logarithm (base 10)
of the reciprocal of the hydrogen-ion concentration. An
excessive concentration of hydrogen ions may affect water
adversely in several ways. The pH is related intimately to
the concentration of many other substances, in that it reflects
the degree of dissociation of the substances. Since the
undisassociated compounds are frequently more toxic than the
ionic forms, pH may be a significant factor in determining
limiting or threshold concentrations. Such is the case, for
example, in regard to ammonia, i.e., a high concentration of
ammonium ions in water at a low pH may not be toxic, but if
the pH is raised, toxicity may result owinq to the increase
in undissoci ated ammonium hydroxide (NH4.0H) and ammonia (NH3)
as illustrated below. This reaction proceeds towards the left
under high pH or hydroxyl ion (OH~) concentrations.
NH3 + H£0 " NH40H _ - NH4+ + OH"
Owing to their origin in municipal water supplies, most
domestic sewages are neutral or slightly alkaline. Many
industrial wastes, on the other hand, are so strongly alka-
line or acidic that they have a marked effect upon the pH
of receiving waters.
The Aquatic Life Advisory Committee of the Ohio River Valley
Water and Sanitation Commission (1955) concluded that direct
lethal effects of pH on aquatic life are not produced within
a range of 5 to 8.5 for most species of importance. However,
natural productivity is most easily maintained within the
range of about 6.5 to 8.2.
The effects of rapid pH changes on fish have been investigated
A majority of the species tested tolerated rapid changes in
pH from 7.2 to 9,6, and from 8.1 to 6.0, (Wiebe, 1959).
Existing Conditions
The pH data in the hypolimnion of Onondaga Lake at Station 1
approximates a normal distribution, but somewhat more skewed
toward higher values than are the data in the epilimnion.
Mean and geometric mean values range from 7.4 to 7.7 for all
zones. The epilimnion of each station shows a maximum value
of 8.8 on July 30, 1969, Figure B-12, owing to periods of
active photosynthesis as implied in Figures B-35 and B-37.
178
-------
The slightly lower values in the hypolimnion can be attributed
to the production of C(>2 and the inability of this gas to escape
to the atmosphere, or be utilized in photosynthesis as occurs in
the epilimnion. Thus the accumulation of C02 in the lower layers
results in a reduced pH and in an increased alkalinity. The
increased alkalinity is a partial function of the reduced rate
of calcium carbonate (CaCOa) precipitation at lower pH values
and lower concentration of dissolved oxygen. The following
equations illustrate the cause of increased alkalinity:
1. C02 + H20
2. H2C03
3. Ca++ + HCOa"
The length of arrows indicate the direction of the predominant
reaction. Although there is precipitation of CaCC^, (3), the
rate is less than that of the epilimnion.
179
-------
M1N • 4,55000 MAX • 8.«OOOQ
RONI . 0.06000«00 MOM* T~ O.llt74e 00~
oTiiiob ——
r<6425t SIOBEV •
• «.T*«»«<-OI
I.OiJUV
• o.tuiof o« KIMT • a.ti«i» 01
JRfOUENCV
12 SO 24 24 20 25 10
24
28
27
26
25
24
23
ZZ
21
20
"19
18
IT~
16
12
Ti~
10
-- 15
IT
STAT 1 4/17/6* - 12/11/69 HYPOLIMMION
6.45000 MAX • 7.90000 AMEAN • 7.39761 STDDfV • O.ZZTt? GMEiN •
- OTOOOOOS 60 HdSiTT^"o;5i)TS«-OJ"«0«J"r-;ffiTmTE^1>Z~KOM+^" 0.1)526E-ar5KtW • 0.6S471E 00 KURT • 0.538211 01
FRtQUENCT
10 28 J4 23 14 24 22
6 10
34
33
32
31
30
29
21
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19 «
18 • <
IT - - - .
16 •
15 •
14 • I
13 • <
If . <
11 • •
* • • •
3 • • • <
INTERVAL 1 2 1 4 1 * 7 8 9 10 11 1J
—*
_.^—
• _'„..
• •
• • • .
• • •
• • • *•
• •••••
• ••••••
13 1* 15 16 IT II IV 20
TABLE ••-•
180
-------
SULFATES-SULFIDES
General Considerations
Sulfides in water are a result of the natural processes of
decomposition, their concentrations being enhanced greatly
by anaerobic conditions. Sewage and industrial wastes con-
tribute sulfides, as well as some air pollutants. The
presence of sulfides may in some cases be attributable to
the action of sul fate-reducing bacteria in the presence
of abundant sulfates, whereas sulfates may be the result
of sul fide-oxidizing bacteria forms which are restricted
to locations where hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is present and
oxygen is available. Hence both sulfides and sulfates are
Generally found in areas where one body of water with adequate
°xygen content borders on another which supplies the H2S,
(McKee and Wolf, 1963).
reducing, Desul fovibrio , bacteria are most common
and important in flood water systems . They are obligate
anaerobic (facultative) autotrophic organisms with an optimum
9fowth pH of 7, but a growth range of 5.5 to 8.5. Optimum
temperature range is 24° to 43° C. , but they are found to
exist at 0° - 100° C. They can grow in fresh water or brines
°f up to 30% sodium chloride, (McKee and Wolf, 1963). It has
been reported that sulfides in the Thames Estuary are believed
to be formed mainly by sul fate reducing bacteria rather than
°y the breakdown of sulfur containing organic compounds by
Sulfhydryl splitting bacteria, (Gameson, A.L.H., 1958)
October 1966 through November 1967 Onondaga County con-
Ducted an air pollution study through Syracuse University
^search Corporation in which measurements of rates of sul-
fation were made by lead peroxide sampling. From the
Rations monitored it was estimated that the monthly deposi-
tion of sulfate could be as high as 0.24 mg/cm^. This is
based on a washout of the sulfates covering the surface area
?f the lake. At a residence time of 150 days estimated for
'•he year 1969, this is equivalent to a concentration of 1.3
Ppm throughout the entire Lake.
listing Conditions
SULFATE
in both the epilimnion and hypolimnion tend toward a
mal distribution. Geometric mean values were 180 and
I?2 mg/1 for the epilimnion and hypolimnion respectively.
he geometric mean of the hypolimnion of Station 2 is 185
The epilimnion of Station 2 shows slightly less
181
-------
values with a geometric niean of 175 mg/1. In general, however,
there is little variation of sulfate values with depth except
for the period August through October of 1969 in which 12 to
18 meter waters showed somewhat lower values, Figure B-13.
Lower values may be due to conversion of sulfate to sulfide
via sulfate reducers.
TOTAL DISSOLVED SULFIDES
Histograms, as well as Depth Synoptic (OS) plots of this
parameter, portray the negative log to the base 10 of concen-
tration in moles per liter. This was necessary in order to
accommodate the wide range of total dissolved sulfide
concentrations. Data distribution in the epilimnion tends to
be tri-nodal, with a geometric mean of 5.26 or a concentration
of 0.18 mg/1. The mean value of the epilimnion is 6.63 or a
concentration of 0.007 mg/1.
Referring to the line plot of this parameter, Figure B-14,
higher concentrations were observed in the hypolimnion than
were observed in the epilimnion. In some cases, however,
concentrations decreased from the surface waters to a depth
of 6 meters. This could be attributable to sulfate reducers
and/or air-borne sulfide particulate matter.
Concentrations in the hypolimnion showed more of a tendency
towards normal distribution, with a geometric mean of 3.18
or a concentration of 21 mg/1. The mean of the hypolimnion
values was 3.5 or a concentration of 10 mg/1. The higher
values in the hypolimnion are due to the greater activity of
sulfate reducing bacteria under anaerobic conditions.
182
-------
t'f11ti,i"_^_\i>11/6* (>11 HN i ON
BTBBOBIT
0.USHE
060 4 _*_ 1O S_ 0_ 10 _T 0 I I O O _0 _ 0 t I
10
-•
I
... .^ „_....__...._........._^ ^—M-~n 12 -'ij n~--is u- IT—is—19—10
ST»T^1 4/17/66 ^ 12/U/6?_MYJ>OUM«(ION
NOM| . o.onooOE 00 NOH,? • 0.2«8?JE'Ol *OM1 • O.D643E 00 MOH4 • 0.**fclJE 02 SKEH • 0.212I2E'00 KURT • 0.616»flE~Or
LENOtH " n.5IJ« ~~~ ~~
_FllEQUfNC» 0 ..4. _..0. _..0 0 I « U_ 11 V...2 ' • ' * .9...° ° 01
_. 16 " " * " * ——• —--
15 "-
..I*
It
.12
It
-• lo _
•J "'
B
T
6
5
I
INtEHVAL~~ 1 3 "S * f 4 ^7 * 9~~I6 it (f I* U 'IS 14 IT 1"» T* JCT
TABLE..e^
183
-------
SHI 1 4/IT/6I - U/18/69
1 — •• --
; H1N • tOl.OOOO*. NIX • l«f.00406 »MJ»N
j Soiil 1 "S7oo<)o6l"o6"liotti~."~o;TjTI»"l 01 woNl"i~~
"
• Tu:i*'iJ6" — jfflofvv }-r;'i 77 at eH(ur> " ifo.**iMM"*~
OiiiiTae oi'ttOH* •«•• o.tfi44E OT sue w •** o.uaoti 01 XOIIT*- o.io«iu 02
i FNTCMVAL LENGTH * 13* 1666A
•i MIWENCT 0 1 » » II 71 41 40 21 2 SO 1 000000 1
! 4|
; 40
, 11
IT
' 16
14
•'• 11
17
11
: 10
?•»
79
ii
If
24
71
70
11
IT
16
If
' 11
.17 •
11 •
10 •
t
•
i INIfftVll | 2 1 4 » 6 T ( » 10 II 12 U'"l4 ii U *"l»**l« l» "lO
j SO* JT»I 1 4SIT/61 - 12/11/69 ' HvrOLIIHIION
M1N • »0. 00031 HAX - 269.00006 AN
E~*N .
-" a.oooooe bo «OHS - o.*omr~orM 11
TABLE H-lft
S 19 29 12 * 2 1 2 0 t
• * ...,.,...
• « * • ' • "" •"" "• """"" ""•'
12 13 I* 15 16 IT 11 IV 20
184
-------
50*
STAT 2
1/17/68 - 12/18/69 EPRIMNION
68.00031 HS3~
o.oooooC 66 *6»tS
2T*7Z305I AHEtN 177.S41SS STODEY"-
~o776~66ee os HB« . -o.Ziiirc os «f 2 */l 7/68'-"12/18/69 ~HVPOLiMmON "
10
ToiTboool RS5T
356.66666 ffiftm l86.T»i6 JTB6EV~s~
11.02901 WfOTi It*.77099
TfOMi •~"^WMOTT^HO«5~ir'"O.TM6ir'03'T(OllJ"I~8ni»
-------
DISSOLVED OXYGEN
General Considerations
Perhaps the most widely used chemical parameter for assessing
the condition of natural waters is dissolved oxygen (DO).
Oxygen enters the water chiefly by diffusion from the air and
by the photosynthetic activity of plants. The content of DO
in water at equilibrium with a normal- atmosphere is a function
of the temperature and salinity of the water, the ability of
water to hold oxygen decreasing with increases in temperature
or dissolved solids. Increases in temperature also increase
the respiratory rate of aquatic organisms, thereby decreasing
the DO content of the water. Therefore natural waters, being
something more than a container of distilled water, are
seldom at equilibrium with, or saturated by, dissolved oxygen.
Temperatures are changing and physical, chemical and biologi-
cal activities are utilizing or liberating oxygen. The
concentration of DO can also be an indirect indicator of the
presence of other substances, i.e., low DO's may be accompanied
by the presence of excessive carbon dioxide, ammonia sulfides
and in some cases, cyanide, zinc, lead, copper or phenols.
The presence of these toxic substances accents the lethal effect
of low DO concentrations on aquatic life.
In nature, oxygen often varies with depth of water, especially
in lakes and stagnant ponds. For this reason, fish may avoid
the deeper cooler waters and be forced to remain in shallow
water areas. Concentrations of DO near the bottom muds of the
lakes and sluggish rivers, may approach zero. Under such
conditions, the hatching of fish eggs has been delayed or
prevented. The fish, hatching such eggs, may also be deformed.
In an effort to guarantee desirable fish populations, the New
York State Classification System has set standards of not less
than 5 mg/1 for trout waters, and not less than 4 mg/1 for
non-trout waters for all classes of water with the exception
of "D", the lowest class water, which is specified as not less
than 3 mg/1. There is no provision within these classifications
to allow for diurnal or seasonal fluctuations at any or all
depths of the lake. Presently, Onondaga Lake falls under two
classifications, namely, "B" and "C", as shown in Figure 1-2.
Existing Conditions
The geometric mean at Station 1 for the epilimnion is 3.8 mg/1
with fairly frequent values down to 3.5 mg/1, and higher values
with decreasing frequency. Comparable values were higher for
Station 2 owing to the stabilization of input BOD in the
186
-------
southern basin of the lake. The values above 10 mg/1 in the
epilimnion at Station 1 occur in the summertime and are
attributable to photosynthetic oxygenation.
Except during the winter months (Dec. through Feb.), DO was
entirely absent most of the time in considerable parts of the
hypo!imnion. The geometric mean is 1.1 mg/1. Less frequent
values occur below 1 mg/1 and scattered values representing
higher concentrations range up to a maximum of 7 mg/1. These
higher values are relatively infrequent. Even when oxygen
did occur in the hypolimnion, values in excess of 1 mg/1 were
rare, (Figure B-37).
On the basis of laboratory tests conducted during this Study,
the depletion of oxygen by the bottom sediments of the lake
is negligible. The BOD contour plot (Figure B-35) shows high
BOD values in the hypolimnion prior to the 1968 "Period of
Overturn". However, during this entire "Period", BOD values
decrease at an increasing rate, toward the lake bottom. No
increase in BOD in the lower waters is apparent during the
vernal and autumnal "Periods" of 1969. In general, the contour
plot indicates that little BOD was contributed to the overlying
waters during periods of overturn when the maximum effect of
benthic demand was expected.
Thus the major portion of BOD observed in the hypolimnion
"[lust be due either to materials discharged to the lake or
in-lake generated BOD, i.e*, algae and zooplankton. However,
sulfides exert a significant oxygen demand. BOD tests were
calculated so as to reflect true biochemical oxygen demand
and not immediate oxygen demand resulting from hydrogen
sulfide or other gases emanating from the bottom sediments.
Sulfides are discussed further in this Appendix and again
under "Gases in Sediments" in Section 12.
187
-------
STAT I 4/17/68 - 12/18/69 EP1LIMN10N
KIN • 0.40000 HAX • 15.00000 ANEAN • "" 4.7941J" ~ $TbO(\T> 2.9JOII~~ CMEAN • "' " 1.T4T60 " "
• "oiOOOObe'OO" HOH3 • O.eszrot 01 MOM3 • 0.19319£ 02 MOM* • 0.24018E 03 S«* • O.TTT4«E 00 KURT • 0.330ITE 01
"orsiiii " "* - -
_18 }_•» IV _24 24 27 11 8 J3 T 8 3 4 T 0 1 0 0 1
_27
26
~24
_23
22
_21
20
41
__1T
16
"T4
13
"12
11
"10
•• • •" '• • • • "•" " ' ' —-- -
• • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • i i • •
• •••••••*•• •
" » " » • * "~"« i»" ~ '• • " » •""'•'"" '"" « • ' " '"
5 m ' • * "• « •" •" i • • • • • " •" " "
1 •»«»«»»»•»«»«• • . _
INIEHVAL I 2 3 4 16 T 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 19 16 IT 18 19 20
I""." op ItAt'l ' 4/1T/6B - 12/18/69 HYPOIIMNION
MIN • 0.00000 HAX • TTlOOOO AHfASTi OT9646~1 StOOEV~i"" '(.65113 GMfAN • 0.00000"" " ""
MOH1 -^ 6r00006r66'HOM2 "• 0.27262E 01 HOM3"i" 0.90998E 01 HOH* • 0.48325E 02 SKEW - 0.20211C 01 KUkf • 0.630I9E 01
"TNTEI«VAl"VENOTH • 0.39444 ~~ "
FREQUENCY 0 111 IT 14 8 1 6 8 3 3 6 4 I 1 0 0 S3 II
EACH » EQUALS 3 POINTS
114
111
108
102
99
96
93
90
*8T'
84.
81
T8
71
72
69
66
63
60
57
14
51
48
41
42
s?
36
33
30
_27
24
' 21
18
_ tj
12
6
3 • • • «»«»•• • •
INTERVAL I 2 3 4 » 6 T 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 II 16 IT 18 19 20
TABLE B-17
188
-------
CALCIUM
General Considerations
Calcium salts and calcium ions are among the most commonly
encountered substances in water. They may result from the
leaching of soils and other natural sources or they may be
contained in sewage and many types of industrial wastes,
(McKee & Wolf, 1963).
Calcium in water reduces the toxicity of many chemical compounds
to fish and other aquatic fauna. For example, mature fish have
been killed by 0.1 mg/1 of lead in water containing only 1 mg/1
of calcium but have not been harmed by this amount of lead in
water containing 50 mg/1 of calcium. A concentration of 50
rog/1 of calcium has cancelled the toxic effect upon some fish
of 2 mg/1 of zinc and 0.7 mg/1 of lead, (Jones, J.R.E., 1938).
Fish have been reported to survive (calcium chloride) concen-
trations of 2,500 to 4,000 mg/1 of calcium, (Doudoroff &
Katz, 1953).
Many calcium compounds precipitate and/or absorb phosphorus
compounds. Some of the more significant minerals that do so
are hydroxyapati te , calcite and f luorapati te . These minerals
are discussed in detail in Section 12.
Existing Conditions
The data for both the epilimnion and the hypolimnion tends
towards a normal distribution. The geometric mean for the
epilimnion is 605, whereas in the hypolimnion it is 828 mg/1;
Concentrations of calcium for the hypolimnion are significantly
Sweater than that of the epilimnion; the mean of the epilimnion
being 639, whereas the mean of the hypolimnion is 849. Calcium
and sodium represent the major cations in Onondaga Lake and
"ence one can expect similarities with chlorides, the major
anion in the lake. Thus the higher concentrations in the
ePilimnion and progressively greater concentrations with depth,
(Figure B-16) are not reasonable.
close similarities between Stations 1 & 2 in the epilimnetic
any hypollmnetic zones respectively in regards to the distri-
bution of data, mean, and geometric mean values are quite
Interesting in that the Nine Mile Creek discharge contributed
71% of the Ca measured during the sampling period. Similar ob-
servations were made for Cl in which Nine Mile Creek contributed
J4% of the Cl measured. Fluctuations of all calcium values with
time irrespective of depth, correlate closely with the chloride
d*ta. The runoff data are related inversely as well. The
Significance of Ca in the pH-alkalinity relationship is described
1" Section 10.
189
-------
*"'
tTAT I 4/17/68 - 12/18/69 EPILIMNION
HI* . 260.000O6 MAX • 1120.00024 AMEAN • 619.1702~4~STDOtV • }0~9.50<92BMEM •""
~~Mn*f"i~ O.OOOOOE~bO~NOM:>~V~"0.4189«~0»~ MOHJ~i "" 0.42607E 07 MOM4 "i" 0.614S8E~I6 "SKEM~i O.J7207E' 00 KURT •O.M899E 01
"INTERVAL" LEMGTH"""5fl.8»e«9 "
0 9 T
**__>*._>»
I698642$41001
10
"
17
16
U
II
12
II
I 2 S 4 * "6" .7" 8 9 10 "ll" 12 "" 11 ~ 14" " IS" 16'" "17" '18 19 "20
iTAT 1 4/17/68 - 12/18/69 HYPOLIHN10N
KIN • 1*4.80031 MAX • 1)40.00024 AMEAN • "849.05*78 STDDEV • 1B2.72424 fiMEAlTi 8217*7458
"MOMl~i er.OOOddl~00~MbM3 T" 0.333«6E Oi MOM"i""o7l869Se "07"MOH4"V' 0.41409E 10 SKEW ." Oi J064M~00 KURt "V " 0. J7146E~Ol~
"INTERVAL LENOTHV Mrrtiii " — —•
_f«fOgt«(CV 0 1 O 0^ .0 0 0 6 17 .26 ...21. 26 9 12 10 6 9 1 I l_
28
27"
.26.
24
21
.22
21
20
I?
18
17
16
II
12
II
10
9~
• * •
INTERVAL I J J < J « 7 t 1 ^10 II"" 12" U~'|4~U 16 ' 17 '
TABLE B-18
20
190
-------
SODIUM
General Considerations
This very active metal does not occur free in nature. Owing
to the fact that most sodium salts are extremely soluble in
water, any sodium that is leached in soil or discharged to
streams by industrial wastes will remain in solution, (McKee
& Wolf, 1963). Sodium chloride in water may be of natural
origin, or may be introduced as a component of sewage,
industrial wastes, salt and brine works, oil wells, dairies,
or spent irrigation waters. Sodium and chloride ions in
natural waters are common but normally they do not dominate
there as they do in sea water. Onondaga Lake with its high
values of sodium and chloride is pressing that distinction,
(McKee & Wolf, 1963).
The threshold concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl) in
natural waters reported for immobilization of some Daphni a
and other fish-food organisms range from 2,100 to 6,143 mg/1 ,
(Anderson, E.G., 1946). The resistance of Daphnia magna to
appears to vary with the oxygen tension. At 6 .4 mg/1
of dissolved oxygen the threshold toxicity level of NaCl was
5,093 mg/1, but at 1.48 mg/1 of DO, the threshold for NaCl was
only 3,170 mg/1, (Fairchild, E.J., 1955). Many small Crustacea
and fishfry are immobilized by concentrations above 3,100 mg/1,
(Anderson, E.G., 1948). In general concentrations of NaCl
that have been found to immobilize or kill fresh-water fish
range from a low of 1,270 to a high of 50,000 mg/1.
On the other hand, NaCl has been found to decrease the relative
toxicity of some metalic compounds toward fish, (Jones, J.R.E.,
1940). NaCl is antagonistic to the toxicity of calcium and
Potassium chlorides, (Garrey, W.C., 1916). A concentration
°f 50 mg/1 of NaCl has greatly increased the antagonistic
effect of sodium nitrate toward copper sulfate poisoning of
Jish, (Cole, A.E., 1941). The toxicity of NaCl toward fish
nas been found to be decreased by calcium chloride, (Garrey,
W.C., 1916). NaCl is less toxic to fish than the chlorides
°f potassium, magnesium and calcium.
Existing Conditions
The data for Stations 1 & 2 in both the epilimnion and the
nypolimnion tend towards a normal distribution with some
skewness toward lower values.
191
-------
Values in the epilimnion (mean equal to 555 mg/1) are less
than those of the hypolimnion (mean equal to 670 mg/1). The
chloride distribution in the lake follows a similar pattern.
The Nine Mile Creek discharge represents 51% of the total Na
measured. All values of sodium, irrespective of depth, also
vary much in the same manner as the chloride data, and can
be inversely related to runoff.
192
-------
_ - s V*T. 1 4/lT/ta - 12/le/69,._t.P111HNI ON
I71.0QOJJ
« si*V3»*«> StbWv •
«O"1 • "" O.OOOOOE 00 MOH.l". 0.32354E~05'HOH3 • OV606J9E 07 MOM4 * 0.41622E 10 SKEW". ~0.104I1C 01~ KIMT • 0.39T40E Ol~
~"|t|IE»m LENGTH • 51.0*55* " " '
_mtW.W ..*...! .. i *. 1*. Z* . *• ...**..._.!> • ...7. .* ...*_..*. '. * I * .0 _.„!..
IS
~" 27
_ 24 _
~' 25
22
21
20 _
_._ }•
- It
lV~
-. .. »*
II
to
, -
T t . « i i « i l
6 •___• _* _• * • * ? •_
J— —." -V i '. «—. t . • . > i i
2 « » i t • i . t • . t f • • *
l i i ; i i^ i i i; } . 2 . : i i i i s-
>U tT«T 1 4/U/68 - t2/l>/»> HYPOtrHNlON
~TiTJT~" VplToooo* (f*S~« [Too~;d[j(5J* TNe~*S~s fOTTSWO STDDEV • L24.39aTS SHE1BTS {5171(117'
~HCWl «" b.OOOaOE"00"HOM2~i"" O.I6743E 05 MOH1 . 0."i«0*6E 07 HOM4 • " 0.1120«E '10 SKEW «"~ 0.129S*E JH~K.WT'i~ T>;
"INTE*V»L tENCTH • 307055*5 ""
. MIOUENCV 0 1 .1 S 21 25 I* 2S U tO 4 4 3 J t 4 1 1 1 2
21
•22" -
21
20
11
1!
16
U
I)
12 '
II
"10
» « 1 t • • • • 4 •
1 t . . t . . . . . t • .
2 •»""««-" '. • i • • • i • • i «—
X •_•_•'• • • • •_• • '_•_* * • • * ? •
I I 1 4 t t T 8 9 10 11 12 11 14 IS 16 IT li 19 20
193
-------
POTASSIUM
General Considerations
Potassium (K) is one of the most active metals and reacts
vigorously with oxygen in water. For that reason it is not
found free in nature but only in the ionized or molecular
form. K resembles sodium in many of its properties, and K
salts can be substituted for sodium salts in many industrial
applications, (McKee & Wolf, 1963). It has been reported
that the threshold concentrations of K for fish in different
kinds of water are about 400 mg/1 when potassium chloride
(KC1), nitrate, or sulfate are used, (McKee & Wolf, 1963).
Of the chlorides of sodium, calcium, potassium and magnesium,
KC1 is most toxic to fish, (Brandt, H.J., 1946). While
calcium and sodium chlorides tend to nullify the effect of
KC1, KC1 has no antagonistic affect upon the toxicity of the
others, (Garrey, W.C., 1916).
The threshold concentration of KC1 for immobilization of
Daphnla magna is reported to be 373 to 432 mg/1, (Anderson,
B.G., 1944). In Lake Erie water at 20 to 25° C the threshold
concentration for Daphnia magna was found to be 430 mg/1,
(Anderson, B.G., 1948).Perch have been found to survive
concentrations as high as 1,360 mg/1 of KC1 for an exposure
period of three days, (Young, R.T. , 1923).
It has been observed that K stimulates plankton growth, (Lackey
& Sawyer, 1945). The content of K in lakes in Germany, Austria
and Skandanavian countries is reported to vary from 0.4 to
1.5 mg/1 in oligotrophic and mesotrophic lakes, and as high
as 5-6 mg/1 in very eutrophic lakes, (Hoell, K., 1951).
Existing Conditions
The distribution of data on K for both the epilimnion and the
hypolimnion tend towards normalcy. The mean and geometric
mean for both zones are nearly equal, approximately 17.0
mg/1. This parameter does not appear to be as related to
chloride distribution as much as calcium and sodium, in that
potassium concentrations in the hypolimnion are not significantly
greater than those in the epilimnion and the concentrations of
potassium are relatively the same between the epilimnion and
the hypolimnion.
Greater than 27% of the K discharged to the lake is from
Nine Mile Creek. The fact that the distribution of data is
similar from epilimnion to hypolimnion as well as from
194
-------
Station 1 to Station 2 indicates a mechanism effectively
mixing this chemical species.
Similarities from epilirnnion to hypolintnion may be attribu-
table to mineral stability relationships, whereas horizontal
mixing from Stations 1 & 2 is more than likely attributable
to the hydromechanics of the lake such as lake currents.
195
-------
"" *IH • 0,48230 HAS • M.Mtoft ANIAH • VTT17IH — S10i>tV • iTSTWT
MOM • o.oooooe 66 dONA • o.}«i22t o> MOHi • 6.16JUE 0* MOM* • 0.14STX 4» SrfN •
FUEOUftCr t 0 1 11 2J 31 27 IT 11 4 1 3 6 1 2
33 •
32 •
Jl •
10 •
21) •
29 . "" -
27 • «
2» •
2» •
23 • •
2t • •
20 • « « " • ••"•—"«""••—
19 i * •
IT ....
16 «... ,. .._...,
15 . . . .
11 • • » • •
to • - - • • —
8 • i • < »" ">
6 . , , , , , , ,
4 • • . . • 4 <- "I 1 1 1
IMTEHV»L 1 2 3 4 f 6 T a 9 10 II 12 13 1* 19
K JTAT'I 4M7/48 - 1Z/U/A4 HV^OHHtllOH" "
MIN • 3.4)4.10 MAX> M.T)26A AHEA^- 1T.T4411 STDHEV - T.UI2A
MONI • O.OOOOOE 00 MOM.-! • O.SS476E 02 MOM1 • 0.665366 03 HOM4 • 0.2207*6 OS SKtW •
INTERVAL LfNCTH » 2.T4322
EACH • E9UALS 2 POINTS
56 .
54 •
« •
4« .
44 .
40 •
36 •
»» ' ' " • •"" — '
32 •
30 •
28 •
fS •
24 •
z? • •
zo
16 • •
12 • •
1O • • • "' " ' "
- — jr"~* « • — • — • » •" » < — i — i — i — i — i
TABLE B-20
OHEAN • is.iBMi — '
O.UIJIE 01 KUHT • B.i*T!l( 01" ""
„—
«
* ^^__
16 IT 16 19 20
CMEAN • U,*IOW — • '~~~"
O.U102C 01 KURT • O.TI729C 01
I 0 0 0 1
^^_
.—
__^
^_
^^^.
-^
_^
,
^—
-~
196
-------
MAGNESIUM
General Considerations
Because magnsium (Mg) is very active chemically, it is not
found in the elemental state in nature. With the exception
of the hydroxide at high pH values, magnesium salts are very
soluble. At pH 7, Mg ions theoretically can be present to
the extent of 28,800 grams/1, but at pH 10 the maximum possi-
ble concentration of Mg ions would be 28.8 mg/1 , and at pH
"I only 0.288 mg/1. In general, the pH values in Onondaga
Lake have ranged from 6.0 to 9.0. Minerals such as dolomite
can significantly affect the presence of Mg in water.
It has been found that magnesium chloride (MgCl) added to
Water decreased the toxicity of calcium and potassium
chlorides toward fresh water fish, and that calcium chloride
decreased the toxicity of MgCl, (Garrey, W.C., 1916). Con-
centrations of MgCl that have been reported to have killed
fresh water fish range from 476 to 20,000 mg/1 at various
exposure times.
Some fish food organisms, such as Daphnia and other cladocerans
are less tolerant of MgCl from 740 to 3,500 mg/1, (Anderson,
B.G. , 1948).
Existing Conditions
The distribution of data from epilimnion to hypolimnion at
Station 1 is similar, resembles that of K, and indicates a
90od distribution of this chemical species with depth.
The mean and geometric mean for both zones are also nearly
equal indicating little relationship to chloride distribution.
Jt is interesting to examine the distribution of Mg data in
the light of Onondaga Creek as the major source of Mg (45%).
Upon close inspection of the creek data (not shown), it was
found that concentrations Mg in Onondaga and Nine Mile Creeks
Were relatively equal in magnitude with the exception of two
Measurements in November of 1969, in which Onondaga Creek
showed concentrations of 9 to 10 times higher than was otherwise
Observed. Line plots of Mg, (Figure B-19), show a clear lack
f stratification of this species with depth. However, varia-
ons in magnitude with time are pronounced. These variations
be inversely related to runoff. Since Onondaga and Nine
e Creeks represent the two largest sources of Mg discharged
o the lake, it follows that this chemical species would be
"'ost sensitive to runoff effects.
197
-------
NG
STAT 2 »/iT/t8"-"'i'2/'ia/ty""EPiiTUNibS"
29.89256 STOOEV • S72TS9J5SETJT;29.17401
02 MON4 •" 0.70132E O4 SKEW - 0.27099E 00 HUM • 0,
MIN • - 7. 70000 - S»j
~HbMl~- 6.00000E 00 H'0*i;!'
INTERVAL LENGTH "•
48.20000 - ANEAN •
"biJ»MM"Oi"HON»~- O
4«1T«E
FREQUENCY 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 9 17 10 2
2!
24
23
22
21
20
19
u -- .. -
17
16
1!
14
13
12
U
10 •
I 2
'
" "
— •
— . —
— -
1 •
. . _ - - - .....__....._.„ . ....—• "
. . . ..... .. . . .._ .._ ... . '"
INTERVAL
10 II 12 13 14 IS 1* 17
19 20
______ MO ________ STAT 2
4/l7/6» - 12/H/69 HYPOLINNION
MIM~- 22.95000 MAX • 4&V«0000 AMEAN* SI.48840" STOOEV"-" V.TfcJTTT 6MIAN'»'
MON1 • 0.000006 00 HOM3 . O.J3220E 02 MOH3 • 0.151*16 03 MOH4 • 0.36279E 0* SKEH • 0.7»1»4§
INTERVAL LENGTH'i iVioa»~
30.99147 ~
00 KURT • 0.32i74E 01
_F«EguENC_Y_
_ !*_
14
13
11
13
12
11
"10
9
a
7
INTEIWM.
TABLE B-21
10 II lit _13 14 15 16 IT 18 19 20
198
-------
HG
_SJ*LJL V'tT>l«"-"jit/Tt/69 EPUIHHIDN
GNEMI - - z
^^
~iNTE«V*l~il«N6?H~5
FREQUSHCV 0 I 0 0 4 11 I 16 21
4 646 1 7 0 J 0 1
ia
17
16
11
i*
_V>_
12
11
10
1
e
7
10 H ___ 1Z __ 13
1*
IT
• **'
'- "u/i »/>»
Mtir; 4i.40000 «Sf*N . J"o7mi9~~StDbr«~. *7««IT~~«.M«(~S SB.5U9I
HQN1 . O.OOOOOE 00 NONI • 0.11616C 02 NON) •" O.IMMI 01 MOM • 0.1SIHE 04 SKCK • O.II«4«C 00 KlAT • 0.1SI4IK 01
LENGTH'* 1.4T1U
199
-------
CONDUCTIVITY
General Considerations
Natural inland waters usually contain, in solution, relatively
small quantities of mineral salts, but in waters exposed to
natural brine deposits and/or various chemical wastes, the
salt concentration may rise to levels harmful to living
organisms because of the increase in osmotic pressure. Con-
ductivity reflects the total ion concentration of water. It
is reported as specific electrical conductance, the reciprocal
of the resistance in ohms of a column of solution one centimeter.
in depth at a specified temperature, (McKee & Wolf, 1963),
24° C in the case of Onondaga Lake
All substances in solution in the water collectively exert
osmotic pressure on the organisms living in it, and the
aquatic life is adapted to the conditions imposed upon the
water by its dissolved constituents. Most species can tolerate
some changes in the relative amounts of salt normally present
if the total concentration is not exceeded. However, wide
variations in the total salinity, or in the concentrations of
individual salts, can have far-reaching effects upon stream
fauna, (McKee & Wolf, 1963). It has been stated that a
specific conductance of 4,000 X 10~6 mhos at 25° C is approxi-
mately the upper limit of ionizable salts tolerated by fish
in mixtures of sodium, magnesium and calcium compounds in gas
well waters, (Ellis, M.M., 1943).
Existing Conditions
The distribution of data for the epilimnion of Station 1 is
noticeably different than that of the hypolimnion. Whereas
the distribution is skewed towards higher values in the
epilimnion, the distribution tends more towards normalcy in
the hypolimnion, with relatively frequent occurrence of high
values. The mean and geometric mean of the epilimnion, 4,625
and 4,533 mg/1 respectively are markedly less than the corres-
ponding values in the hypolimnion of 5,810 and 5,746 mg/1.
Since the parameters Cl, Ca, and Na represent the major ionic
species in the lake, it is not surprising to find that
conductivity values are higher in the hypolimnion; and that
conductivity increased progressively with increasing depth.
The chemical species above act in the same way in these aspects.
In comparison to Station 2, the magnitude of mean and geo-
metric mean for the epilimnetic waters are approximately the
same, as well as the corresponding values for the hypolimnetic
200
-------
Waters. However, the distribution of data for the epilimnetic
waters is noticeably different from Station 1 to Station 2.
The difference in epilimnetic waters may be attributable to
direct flow of portions of Nine Mile Creek to the lake outlet,
which would influence the values of Station 2 but not that of
Station 1. It should be noted however* that a similar dis-
tribution was not observed for the Cl data.
The trends of conductivity tend to mimic those of chlorides,
fixcept tha the former increased in magnitude at a greater rate
jn the hypolimnetic waters from June to October of 1969,
(Figure B-20). The above are related to runoff as in the
Cl data.
201
-------
conn
ST*T 2 4/1T/6J - I1/I6V69 ePUIHHION
HIM
1400.00024 MM ' 6100.0009*AHEM > 471».11231 STDO£V~Si*TTf606* 6~MfAN •
~Scm ~~ OTOOOOOt 00 "NWS • b.TlT6a«~biTllOH» «""=6r*6*<»>E"M"MOH4~« - 0.18412E 13 SKEW • O.Ut34E" 00
INTERVAL LENGTH - 261.11114
HUM
«.JS»Mf 01
FUEQUgHCr
i
14 13 12
11
12 IT 19 16 16
11
37
36
3»
3*
33
32
31
30
29
2a
2T
26
2*
24
23
22
21
20
19
ia
IT
16
1*
14
13 • •
12 ... .
" :::::;
: ' ' CONn STAT 2 4/1T/6* - l2/l«/4« HTPOLIHNION
_
• • » •
Ifc IT It U 20
- — •
*200.00(M« HS5TS T600.066** *H{*U « 5»4^7JT*« STdBW^ »«.107TI
-' o.Tio*tif^6-ni)m-=~y.W2*t-a-yiiOMy~-~-ovn*iti'n s«w . -S.I«»TO£- ea nuit-.--ii.Monr or
HOMl -O.OOOOOE 00
~l¥lfRV»l LENGTH •
» 20 I* 29 * 9 11 1 I 4 9 10 11
z*
24
21
22
21
20
19
18
IT
16
15
14
n
it
10
9
8
T
6
...._. .. , ,„ j ^ ^ . ^ _^ » - •- «
,
i """"""«
..-
•
•
*
10 It 12 l» 14 19 1* IT 18 14 20 -
"TABLE B-23
202
-------
C0*(>
STAI I WU/68 - 12/18/69 iPIUHNION
TflBT* 22*0.00049 MAX . J46d;65098 rtflN": roTTHJTOneofV3i"Tl.4*m GBfJITV-
"0~.bOOOb£~~OO~»tO«S~»"~o;7»028£"'b6: MOHl~«™07JO**7f~0* HOM*~« O.I
1917*44*8
1111.71192
JfUCOUESCY 0 I » S T *_ _ll __2_0 T _11 2T_ 2S M_
11
I
0
0 .
a
T
fr
%
4
1
Z
I
0
9
a
7
6
5
3
2
I
0
0
.
.
.
INTERVAL t 2 i * * 6 7 e 9 10 11 12 n u is i* 17 u 19 20
• 4200. eooti MAX •
«Wft SUt I A/17/48-12/18./
7555«i IMRH~I WToTTS JJRf Tt 60 E
-U*.VU 1 1 1 •>. » 6 71 9 10 II 12 H I* H 16 17""ll"""l9 20
— TABLE B—24
203
-------
TRACE ELEMENTS
Copper and Chromium
General Considerations
COPPER
The effects of copper in water have been reported in terms of
copper or copper salts. The chloride, nitrate and sulfate or
divalent copper are highly soluble in water, but the carbonate,
hydroxide, oxide and sulfide are not. Cupric ions introduced
into natural waters at pH 7 or above will quickly precipitate
as the hydroxide or as basic copper carbonate, to be removed
by adsorption and/or sedimentation, (McKee ?. rtolf, 1963).
Copper in trace amounts may be beneficial or even essential
for the growth of living organisms. However, in excessive
quantities, copper is toxic to a wide variety of aquatic
forms, from bacteria to fish, (Hale, F.E., 1942). Copper
may be concentrated by plankton from the surrounding waters
by factors of 1,000 to 5,000 or more. The toxicity of copper
to aquatic organisms varies significantly, not only with the
species, but also with the physical and chemical characteristics
of the water, such as its temperature, hardness, turbidity and
C02 content, (Tarzwell, C.M., 1957). In hard water, the toxi-
city of copper salts is reduced by the precipitation of copper
carbonate or other insoluble compounds, (Hale, F.E., 1942).
The toxicity of copper to fish varies greatly with the presence
of Mg salts and phosphates, (Ellis & Ladner, 1935). The sul-
fates of copper and zinc, and of copper and cadmium, have been
found to be synergistic in their toxic affect on fish in soft
water, (Doudoroff, P., 1952) however, no synergism between
copper and zinc has been found to be evident in hard water,
(Dept. of Scientific & Ind. Res., 1960).
Because of variable toxicity of copper to living organism,
the killing concentrations of copper and copper sulfate reported
by independent workers vary over a wide range. Copper concen-
trations varying from 0.1 to 1.0 mg/1 have been noted to be safe
for most fish, whereas concentrations of 0.01 to 20 mg/1 of
copper sulfate have been used to control different aquatic
fauna, from insect larvae to snails. The toxicity of copper
sulfate to fish varies with the species and exposure, and the
physical and chemical characteristics of the water, (McKee
& Wolf, 1963). For instance, the fish have been more resistant
to copper sulfate in hard, alkaline waters than in soft acid
waters.
204
-------
Hutchinson, (1956), reporting the data of Hale, cites that
concentrations as low as .030 mg/1 have shown adverse affects
°n certain algae. Copper sulfate has been used commercially
as an algacide in public and private waters since 1904,
(Kingsbury, 1968).
Sodium nitrite, sodium nitrate and sodium chloride have been
found to be antagonistic to the toxic effect of copper
sulfate, (Core, A.E. , 1941).
CHROMIUM
Chromium can exist in various ionic forms, i.e. as chromic
ion (Cr+++) and dichromate ion (C^Oy"). In the chromic
form, the chromium is trivalent while in the dichromic form
]t is hexavalent. All chromous compounds (Cr++) tend strongly
t° be oxidized to the chromic condition, whereas hexavalent
chromium can be reduced to the trivalent form by heat, by
organic matter or by reducing agents. Of the trivalent chromic
?<s, the chloride, nitrate and sulfate are readily soluble
in water, but the hydroxide and carbonate are quite insoluble.
°f the hexavalent chromate salts, only sodium, potassium and
Ammonia chromates are soluble. The corresponding dichromates
aire also quite soluble, (McKee & Wolf, 1963).
chromium salts are used extensively in metal
kling and plating operations, in anodizing aluminum and
the manufacture of many other substances. Trivalent
omium salts, on the other hand, are used much less
fxtensively, being used for instance in photography, (McKee
Wolf, 1963) .
Jnere is no evidence that chromium salts are essential or
Beneficial to human nutrition. When administered orally,
chromium salts are not retained in the body but rapidly and
c°>npletely eliminated, (Browning, E., 1961). The toxicity
f chromium salts towards aquatic life varies widely with
Pscies, temperature, pH, valence of the chromium and
rVnergistic or antagonistic effects, especially that of
ness. Fish are relatively tolerant of chromium salts,
lower forms of aquatic life are extremely sensitive.
appears to be no evidence to lead to the conclusion
hexavalent chromium is more toxic towards fish than the
yalent form. Hexavalent chromium that have been shown to
»xnibit some toxic effects towards fish range from 5 (Feller
loJIewman, 1951) to as high as 520 mg/1, (Doudoroff & Katz,
•I53). Hexavalent chromium in concentrations as low as 0.016
r?'] have been reported to be toxic to Daphnia magna , (Metal
fishing Industries Action Committee, 1950). Other similar
anisms have been shown to
ng greater than 0.2 mg/1.
205
-------
Existing Conditions
COPPER
Although the concentrations of copper in the epilimnion and
hypolimnion of Station No. 1 are quite similar, the distri-
bution of data for the epilimnion of Station No. 2 is
considerably different from both zones of Station No. 1
and the hypolimnion of Station No. 2. This difference is
not discernable from the line plots, which show only slight
variations with respect to time between Stations 1 & 2.
Owing to the similarity of the pertinent chemistry between
Stations 1 & 2, i.e. nitrates, chlorides, sulfates, alkalinity
and sulfides, it does not appear that chemical interactions
cause the unique distribution of the epilimnion of Station
No. 2. It may be attributable, however, to the differences
in biota and biomass observed between Stations 1 & 2 through-
out the year, (Figure C-2), owing to the tendency of some
plankton to concentrate copper more than others.
The mean and geometric mean are the same for the epilimnion
and hypolimnion and are 0.04 and 0.05 mg/1 respectively.
206
-------
CHROMIUM
All values of chromium represent total chromium, and no
distinction was made as to form. The distribution of data
and the mean and geometric mean values are very similar for
all zones except the hypolimnion of Station No. 2. The mean
value of this zone is 0.03 mg/1 as compared to 0.02 mg/1
for all other zones. This represents a significant increase
which could be attributable to the influence of a major
steel manufacturing discharge. The latter discharge was
Measured as having an average Cl concentration of 2,318 mg/1
and contributing 39% of the total chromium discharged. The
Cl concentration results in a liquid density equal to or
greater than that which was measured for the hypolimnion of
the lake. Therefore, this discharge would tend to reside in
this zone. Line plots, (Figure B-22) are quite similar and
d° not lend clarity to the above discussion. This discharge
°f the steel plant was analyzed and chromium concentrations
Jf as high as 9.9 mg/1 at 6.5 mgd were found. This daily
discharge is equivalent to a concentration throughout the
'ake of 0.0017 mg/1.
207
-------
4/17/6) - 12/18/69 EPIL1NNION
0.00000 NAX •
0.21000 AMEAN
Q.OS36TSTDOW
TKWOW
MOMl •O.OOOOOE 00 MONi • O.IK41E-02 NOMJ • 0.62699E-04 NOK4 • O.II093E-OS SKEW • 0.13J1TE 01 KURT • 0.5TI3IE 01
INTERVAL LENGTH • 0.01166
37 24 28
16
35
34
33
32
11
30
21
2«
27
26
2»
24
23
22
21 _„
20
14
18
IT
16
IS
14
13
12
11
io
t
a
^
,
____^,
__^
^.
^^^^
^^
^
__.
^
-~*r
.
INTtHVAL
J L.
10 II 12 U 14 IS It IT 18 1« 20
STAT 2 4/1T/68 - 12/11/69 HYPOLIHMIOH
0.01400 HAX
0. 15000 KMEAN •
0*04729 5TDDFV~*
0*02917SMEAR •
MON1
0.00000'E 00 HOH2
0.6*J">»6-03 MOH3 » 0.21S22E-0* MOM4 •
01 KURT • 0
INTERVAL LENGTH
o.ootss
FREQUENCY 0 14 2'
27
26
JS
24
It
22
21
20
19
It
(7
16
U
13
12
-------
-CU-
$i»t i
4/17/68 - 12/18/69 fPIUflNION
0.18800 »Mt«N
MN •0.01000SSS •
~S6Hf~« oT6"b6ooe 00 KbH2~- b7l"OS08f-"b2~MOMl~V
"TllfEKvi'irrENOTTri 0:00988
"T576i!PJ« 5T6BEV"
6.0)217 - SME4N .
970*715
1-0* MOM4 • 6."*7T)5(-6« Sxft|-.~-0;Uom e4~"HON4~:—e;4i?ja£-d! iktr-" ir.i»*9Tr~ai RURT^ o.io*i»E ei
INTERVAL ItNdlH .
—J*E9UENCY 0 *
«_..
59
)8
37
3»
)»
3*
J)
«
II
— -«
it
*»
Z7
• ?6_
2f
2*
21
-— Z2
21
J»
„
-~_W
IT
- — .u
tt
1*
rj
- — ii
u "
lo
9
•— -~—> «
1 I
~ * •
J- j
2 .
.L_
-Jaitiyu i :
*-- —
0.0099*
9 16 18 2
s • 1
* * •
•
-4 9 ,
i • i • — —
• ••**•* • * •
TABLE B-26
209
-------
$T«t 2 4/IT/68.--12/11/49 I»lll«NIOH
-*IH i 6700900—MX". o~.bTioo»«e«N*i 0.029(4 IrootiTi ~"o.«i094« 'emit*'. 8.0JU4
'Hnul - 'O.OOOOOt 00 MOH2 * 0.9JMOJ-04 H011 •" 6.l»6»lt-09 MOM4 > ' 0.94II6f-Ot SKIM * A.IU42C 01 KtMT • 0.106*21 02 '
~fNTE«V«C"l.€NflTH~i O^OOITT " ' "
49
44
41
42
41
40
•n
IT
16
16
11
12
11
10
21
it
2T
26 -
29
24
21
22
21
20
11
ie
IT
16
19
14
11
12
11
10
1
T
6 •
9 - •
_ _
NfSi 1* IS" 1* IT .11 1» 10
C«
~if«t"» 4/17/66 - 12/U/H HT>OLIMMIO»I
OTOHIJ—exei
B:WOOO-
~*I>Ti 5700065 Six • d.096b'o »ME«N * B.62719 H6ttV~*~
"Konl'i^dToOOOOe 00 NOMI"i—b.2H2l«-01 HOHJ-.-0.10Sne-b4"l«)l14-.—O.T2JS4E-06 SlCtW-i- O.J1l99f 01 «WT «—B.IJOT3I 02-
INTCKVil ItNGIH > 0.00911
49
44
41
42
41
41
V>
1»
IT
16
If
14
31
12
11
10
11
29
2T
26
29
' 2* "
21
22
21
20
!•»
11
IT
16
IT
14
11
12
11
to • -•- -
•
•
• • • •
INttKVU I 2~" 1 4 9
••————-- ———*——-•"——•"«•— --••-••———•—•- -——-•-—
_
__
__
_
__
__
t .
• _ . ., ........ ,...- •— •-•
» r i « to n ti i» u is u it u i* 10
„ .! TABLE B-*7 -
210
-------
C*
»T»T 1 4/IT/6S - IZ/lt/** IPILIMNION
*IN~5 0.09*00PHuT"570«0fiSNEAN • O.OJ»J2""'STDOEV~- OT010TI GHEUT* OTRlfT
ri—BrS8009no~HOH5-i— o;tlS«2E-0} MOM»~i— 0^**l*r-0»-HOM*-.—O.JMUE-04 SKEW. -O.W11E 01 KOUT'.-0.2,0»0»e 02"
EKnrtfNCTirs-
"TJV80J1V
• 0.00*00 MAX • 0.10005 IffEWI * ' 0.02613 STOBIV"" O.OlTZI CHfA
.0231*
07bObOOE 00 HOH2 • 07n6eIf^tfi~WCKS~S~Ti7TSI7H-0*T(0»«~i~0;$ll«e=06~$«EWi 0.1222TE 01"KURT"-- O.U17*E 02
W'««virTfMo»Br=
EliQUEIKV 0*2 It TTI« $1112110100011
211
-------
TRACE ELEMENTS
Iron. Manganese. Zinc
General Considerations
IRON
Natural waters may be polluted by iron bearing industrial
wastes such as those for pickling operations and by the
leaching of soluble iron salts from soils and rocks. Al-
though many of the ferric and ferrous salts such as the
chlorides, sulfates or nitrates are highly soluble in water,
the ferrous ions are readily oxidized in natural surface
waters to the ferric condition and form insoluble hydroxides.
These precipitates tend to agglomerate, flocculate and settle
or be adsorbed on surfaces; hence the concentration of iron
in well aerated waters is seldom high, (McKee & Wolf, 1963).
Most natural waters have enough buffering capacity to avoid
the lowering of pH by additions of iron salts. It has been
reported that the decomposition of iron hydroxide on the gills
of fish may cause irritation and blocking of the respiratory
channels. It is often reported that heavy precipitates of
ferric hydroxide may smother fish eggs, (Southgate, B.A.,
1948). Iron in the ferrous state apparently does not have the
toxic effects that the ferric state has. The buffering capa-
city of Onondaga Lake is quite strong with pH's ranging from
6.5 to 9.0.
MANGANESE
Manganese, like iron, occurs in the divalent and trivalent
form. The chloride, nitrate and sulfate salt of manganese
are highly soluble in water; but the oxides, carbonates and
hydroxides are only sparingly soluble. For this reason,
manganic or manganous ions are seldom present in natural
surface waters in concentrations above 1.0 mg/1. Manganese
frequently accompanies iron in ground water. The toxicity
of manganese toward fish is dependent upon many factors,
(McKee & Wolf, 1963). The toxicities of manganous chloride
and manganous sulfate have been reported to be slight, being
about 2,400 and 1,240 mg/1 of manganese respectively, (Oshima.
S., 1960 & Iwao, T. , 1960). Concentrations of manganese
tolerated by fish such as carp, and tench have been found to be
as high as 15 mg/1 for a seven day exposure, (Schweiger, G.,
1957).
212
-------
ZINC
^nc occurs abundantly in rocks and ores, and is used exten-
*ively for galvanizing, in alloys, for electrical purposes,
printing plates and for other industrial purposes. Many
zinc salts are highly soluble in water, such as zinc
e and zinc sulfate whereas the zinc carbonate and zinc
are relatively insoluble in water. Zinc is thought
° exert its toxic action on fish by forming insoluble corn-
Pounds with mucous that covers the gills, (Southgate, B.,
955) or possibly as an internal poison, (Dept. of Scientific
J Industrial Research, 1958). The sensitivity of fish to zinc
ai"ies with species, age and condition of the fish, as well as
Jth the physical and chemical characteristics of the water.
Olt)etaccl imatization to the presence of zinc is possible and
urvivors from batches of fish subjected to dissolved zinc
*ve been less susceptible to additional toxic concentrations
nan fish not previously exposed, (Affleck, A.J., 1952).
' has been found that upon conducting tests in which zinc
^as precipitated, almost all of the toxicity was attributable
T° the zinc remaining in solution, (Dept. of Scientific &
"Justrial Research, 1958). It was also shown that the toxi-
t-ty of zinc salts to sticklebacks in soft water is reduced
the addition of calcium chloride, (Lloyd, R. , I960). It
been reported that for mature fish the lethal limit for
0.1'11 water containing 1 mg/1 of calcium is only 0.3 mg/1
in water with 50 mg/1 of calcium, as much as 2.0 mg/1 of
c is not toxic, (Jones, J.R.E., 1938).
Xl'sting Conditions
d,!* the case of iron, values in the hypolimnion were approxi-
Ktely 30% higher than in the epilimnion, whereas values in
e e hypolimnion were 19% higher in the case of manganese, and
djj^l in the case of zinc. In general, the distributions of
^•a for both iron and zinc were similar from Stations 1 & 2
D.Q for the epilimnion and hypolimnion respectively.
i stributions tend towards normalcy with skewness towards
QWer values.
ii .
Wever, the statistical distribution for manganese values
ered from Stations 1 & 2 in that the value of the hypolimnion
Station 1 and Station 2 showed a tendency towards a bimodal
ribution, whereas the epilimnion of Station No. 2 showed a
Wer range of values. The reasons for this difference in distri
°n ls n°t readily apparent on the basis of discharge sources
cannot at this time be attributable to mineral stability or
ogical phenomena. The major contributing discharges for
n9anese are Onondaga Creek and Ley Creek with 64 and 19%
213
^ We
f *f
-------
respectively. In regards to iron, the major contributing
discharges are Nine Mile Creek and the Steel Mill representing
27 and 22% of the total respectively. Increased iron con-
centrations in the hypolimnion may be related to the waters
of Nine Mile Creek.
214
-------
ST/>T
0.06664
i o.oooooe 44
if SRvic Ti«i6nr= -- »n»»7i
0.24U1
o; vzsn — crewn
e.*iTT»-o2 SKEW * 'O.JMTMT WKWT ~. O.TTZIZE 02 •
172102100001101
H . 2 3 •> » 6 T « 1 10 II 12 \1 1* l» 16 IT IB 19 20
ft STUT 1 4/IT/6B - 12/lliyt^
0.0)930 MAX •
1.33000 »NE»N
^72"6~^'f^ ~ST66fV"
6.227*4
"om . o.oooooe oo HOH.V • 0.332316-01 MOHJ"- b.2i»66C-oi MOM* - o.22«)3e-oi SKEW • o.)«2ME 01 nunt • o.ztn&ti 02
<"ITE»v»l. LENCTM"
0.07172
.FREQUENCY 0 8 26
1702000 02010011
10 II 12 1)
16 IT IB 19 20
TABLE B-29
215
-------
UN
STAT 2
4/17/68 - 12/16/69 EPILIMMON
H1N 0.01430 SASr: 0.4TS06 AMEAN . 0.01142 STOOSV 575177? CHEHr= 070ZOT
"HoSl « O.OOOOOt 00 MOMJ • 0.4~i924TH52"T»i»3 . 0.927l!E-03~HOt«~r—07SOJ34E-OJ SKEW • O.OT9IE 01 HUM • 0.143I3E 02
"TNTBRVAL LENGTiTS (57dT*61 '
FREQUENCY
3* 32 33 IT 10
1
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
it
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
IT
16
11
14
13
12
11
10
g
T
6 i
4 •
4 •
2 1
-
— -
— •»
—
i— '
• —
INTERVAL
* S 6 T «
STAT 2 4/IT/A8 - 12/18/69* HYPOLIMNION
M1N •
0.01400 MAX • 0.4000O »HEAN > 0.20026 fl60t\T"i 87159*02 EMTMT''! 0.1T3SA "
MOM I . 0.OOOOOE 00 MOM.1 • 0.92216E-02 MONI • 0..23BOOE-03 MON4 - O.H«60t-03 SKEW •' 0.26ST6E 00 KURT -0.114501 01'
"INTERVAL LENGTH " 0.02144 ~ "
FREQUENCY 02131
M
11 " '•'•• - " ""~
12
11
10
9
8
7
6 <
5 4
4 *
3 * •
1 "•" * ' * «
* l
i
i
V 11 1
i * * i
» n * i
E 76 34491
•
• • * • » »**.*"
""*" ~ » ~ • '" • '•'""'•""'!
867111 —
— -•
— —
—~~
— •
•
• * ' — -
» * • •
™ • "-•• • * '* • -~"
TABLE B-30
216
-------
IN ST/>t I 4/17/4S - 13/11/69 EPILIMNION,
HUTS0.01400 MAX 0.21000 ANEAN - 0.07217STDOEV • 0.04*59 t«»N • A.0*042
S.20742E-02 MONj~v~6ri"jo2«E-bJ" MON4~-" o.22i»«E-o4 SKEW • ~o.ii742t orku»r '•""K9iitn~n
"INTERVAL" LENGTH~i~ 0.01)11 "~ "' _..-..
_F»EQU6NCY. 0 20 IT 27 10 II. 13_13_ >. .*. * 1 > V. ° 2 0 0 1 1
27
26
_2»
24
2i
"22
21
20
"IS
17
U
IS
U
TZ
11
"10 " ~~ • • if"
9 « ___• • « « • _•
• "" ' V • "•" • •" '•' • " — - -
_7 ....«.«
6 •••••••••
5 • • • • » • • • •
4 •• • • • • • • •" "
t «___• • _ • • « » « » « __"_
__l • • • • ^i •••••••• • ••
U ~ NN ST«t~T 47f776T~^~r27i'g7tV~HY>'o'LIMNI'ON ———.- —_. _ _________
Wi o.ouoo SET; o.ioooo ANEAN • 6.20*6.—JTBOIVT 6.16JH tKian BTTTTW
~HONr . O.OOOOOE OOTiOBiri- 0.l07«»Ei01 NON3~i~~0^tT6lE-0} NON4 • 0.30M-C-0) SKEW • 0.613MI 00 KURT • 0.2.2ME"01"
TNTERViL LENGTH • OToTtOiT
o i 4 « 2» ii jj to 7 10 u 7 • s e q o i z L
"24"
2}
22
-lo-
ir
-if
u
"14"
13
12"
a
' ^^.^ t
..- _v__>._
—™, ,-
I
—^...^....^-..--....-------.--.—... ^~ ^ ^ ^ ^ 14 IS |» IT II l» 20
TABLE B-31
217
-------
IN
»r»T I
4/17/68 - 12/11/64 EPILIHNION
XfWT~-
0707»H - STDDEV~- - 0706717 — CHUN'
0.6J240E-OJ HOM4 -~O.IS02«-OJ SKEW •' O.ZOB44E
0.04Z5J --
— 0.73829E 01"
F*EOU?NCY
28 61 1* 13
EACH • EQUALS 2 POINTS
60
— »a "™ " ""
$4
52
to
48
46
44
42
40
18
16
14
12
10
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
16
8
6
4
2
INTERVAL 1 i
.
— —
-— *
,
*
— ^
•
* * * * * * *
_ST»T_I_
4/17/68 - 12/11/69 HYPOLIMNION
MOMl • O.OOOOOE 0
INTERVAL LENGTH •
FREQUENCY 0 2
~50 "
41
48
47
46
4*
43
42
41
40
19
18
17
36
15
14
11
12
11
10
29
28
27
26
25
24
' 2J
22
21
20
19
17
16
"""" H
14
11
12
11
10
9 MOM
<
» S<
[_ 3
!• 0.181666-02 MOM) • O.S3829E-03 NOM4 . 0.12010E-0) SKEW •0.2*82«EOl KURT • 0.824JO(Ol
). 01188
—
) 21 17 12 32122131130001 —
— __.... -—
__^-~~
'
^_— -
—
— —
— — — *"
J^-— '
__
— — -
_^^-~~~
^ ^-*
__^ •-
. .. ..._...- —,..,..—,. ,^. . . ..
_—
_--*^-
• ^_ '-*"
* » » 7 • «. 10 11 12 13 14 15 I* 17 II l« *0 — -"*"
-**
218
-------
FLUORIDE
General Considerations
Fluorine is the most reactive nonmetal and is never found free
in nature. It is a constituent of fluorite or fluorspar,
(calcium fluoride in sedimentary rocks) and also of cryolite
(sodium alumninum fluoride in igneous rocks), (McKee & Wolf,
1963). Fluorapatite is sometimes present in natural waters
and can be significant in precipitating phosphates.
There have been numerous articles describing the effects of
fluoride-bearing waters on dental enamel of children and a
few papers pertaining to skeletal damage. Many repots
generalize that the effects of water containing less than 0.9
to 1.0 mg/1 of fluoride will seldom cause mottled enamel in
children. For adults, concentrations of fluorides less than
3 or 4 mg/1 are not likely to cause cumulative fluorosis and
skeletal effects. It has been stated that the presence of
about 1.0 mg/1 of fluoride ions in natural waters may be more
beneficial than detrimental, (McKee & Wolf, 1963).
There is evidence to support the contention that fluorides
in excess of the threshold for mottling of teeth and up
to 5 mg/1 produce no harmful effects other than mottling,
(Worker, H. , 1949).
Existing Conditions
°ata tend to be distributed normally for the epilimnion of
Station 1 whereas data for the hypolimnion as well as both
zones of Station 2 show a bimodal and sometimes a tri -nodal
distribution. All values represent the negative log to the
base 10 of the concentration in moles per liter. In all
cases, mean and geometric mean values fall within the range
°f 0.4 to 0.7 mg/1. The minimum and maximum values of the
epilimnion of Station No. 1 represent the widest range of
3.95 to 5.05 or corresponding concentrations of 2.13 and 0.17
Line plots show some tendency toward lower values or higher
concentrations in the epilimnetic waters, especially during
the late summer and eary fall months, (Figure B-26).
219
-------
stit i 4/i7/*« - i2/~ia/t9 EPILIMNION
WIN • )t9fOOO MAX • 4.09000 AMEAN • 4.43863 STDDEV • 0.22011 CHHIT* 4.41121
Mo>«r^~"97bobflroe"bo Notts '• b;Ves»oe-oi^oHi'^~dY72*»6g-o2~Mb«<»~v ~o.»»JT2fi02 SKEM •" o.trmt oo KUKT> O.I««;«F~OT
_____ f.REOUtNCV . 0 ______ 1 0 _ 2 _____ 0 >_....?. _7 __ !.....« ___ S _____ * 2 * J ____ l_. 0. 0_ I _ 1
I 2 _3 4_
10 11 12 13 14 It U U II I* 20
it*T
HVPOLIMNION
H I H""« 1.95000 MAX • *.»6000 AMEAN • *Ti6«65 . 5TOOEV~i 6711120 BME*H~S *TJS<7
oo
"iNt£«V»l LENGTH 5 i)70fVll*
FREQUENCY 0 I 00001 1 Jtf25i22420l
Tstiiivui i s *—s—i—T—i—«—ITS—n—n—n—n—n—n—n—n—n—nr
TABLE 8-33
220
-------
SILICON DIOXIDE
General Considerations
"The element silicon is not found free in nature but it occurs
as silica in sand or quartz and as silicates in feldspar,
kaolinite and other minerals", (McKee & Wolf, 1963). Silicon
dioxide may occur in natural waters as finely divided or
colloidal suspended matter in concentrations of 1 to 40 mg/1 ,
(Love, S.K., 1960). An abundance of silica in water along
with other necessary nutrients, favors the growth of diatoms.
The diatom Asterionella, and possibly other algae, require
silica concentrations above 0.5 mg/1 for growth in ponds and
cannot utilize silica when present at lower concentrations,
(Lund, J.W.G., 1951).
Existing Conditions
The distribution of data for the epilimnion of Station No. 1
tends to be bimodal with a mean and geometric mean of 4.9
and 4.5 mg/1 respectively, whereas the distribution for the
hypolimnion tends more toward normalcy with corresponding
values of 8.2 and 7.9 mg/1. Mean and geometric mean values
for Station No. 2 are very similar to corresponding values
for Station No. 1, with only slight differences noted in the
distribution of data.
Line plots of this parameter show stratification from June
through October with higher values predominant in the 12 to
'8 meter waters. Of interest are the relatively low values
observed in the surface waters on June 4th and September
18, 1969. On these same dates, relatively high numbers
°,f diatoms were observed in the surface waters, as described
in Appendix C. This can be explained on the basis of
incorporation of a silica into the walls of the diatoms.
221
-------
SIOJ! STAT 1 4/17/69 - 12/18/69 EPILIHNION
MIN • 0.75000 "i(»X m '" 6.81000 AMEAN"S"4.B9999SfDOEV • [. 788>T GHEAN - 4.454J6
MOM1 . O.OOOOOf 00 MOHS - 0.3199TE of HOM3 • -0.1S9S4E 01 MOM* . 0.262116 02 SKEW • 0.2T8746 00 KURT • 0.25A01E 01
INTERVAL LENGTH » 0.44999
FREQUENCY 031402 11 4T8 12
11
10
INTERVAL I 2
_ _ _ _
"9 To TT
n
rs — re — n — n — n — vr
ST»T 1 4/1T/&8 -
MIN • 4.00000 MAX • 15.20000 AHEAN > 8.16774 STD"DTV~i J.02177 GMniT
HOHl . 6.00000E'
O.V2§OSE~Ol k6M*"i 0.708156 02
6fl KUHT . — 8.433HE Ul~
INTERVAL LEN6TH • 0.62222
.li-
0 I \ 14 4 4 IS 11 11 » 7 5 2 2 0 1 0
12
_LL
10
INTEHVAL 1
1 4 5 t 7 9 1 10 u 12 U U 15 16 IT 18 19
TABLE B-34
222
-------
SOLIDS
General Considerations
Jn natural waters, suspended solids consist normally of ero-
sion silt, organic detritus and plankton. Development by
Nan, however, can add suspended solids in the form of liquid
wastes from domestic and industrial discharges, street
Washings and in the form of settleable air pollutants. The
Physical charactertisti cs of suspended solids can be injurious
to aquatic life by clogging the gills and respiratory passages
of various aquatic fauna; by causing abrasive injuries; and by
blanketing the stream bottom, killing eggs, young fish and
food organisms, and destroying spawning beds. Indirectly,
suspended solids are inimnical to aquatic life because they
impede light penetration and, by carrying down and trapping
bacteria and decomposing organic wastes on the bottom, they
Promote and maintain the development of noxious conditions and
°xygen depletion, (McKee and Wolf, 1963).
Dissolved solids (DS) were determined by subtracting suspended
solids (SS) from total suspended matter (TSM). Thus, DS
Represents the sum total of ions, molecules and colloidal
solids. Thus, based on the relative portion of ions with
respect to colloidal and molecular solids in the water, DS
can be analogous to conductivity. Irrespective of the chemical
nature of dissolved solids, DS can adversely affect fish and
aquatic life by their exertion of osmotic pressure in a liquid
"•edla. "In natural waters the dissolved solids consist mainly
°f carbonates, bicarbonates , chlorides, sulfates, phosphates
j*nd possibly nitrates of calcium, magnesium, sodium and
Potassium, with traces of iron, manganese and other substances.
'ye mineral content of natural waters may be lowered artifici-
J!'y by dilution or raised by the addition of chemical wastes,
a>issolved salts, acids, alkalies, gas and oil-well brines,
°£ drainage waters from irrigated lands. All salts in solution
cnange the physical and chemical nature of the water and exert
°Stootic pressure", (McKee & Wolf, 1963).
blood of fresh water fish has an osmotic pressure approxi-
equal to 6 atmospheres, or about 7,000 mg/1 as sodium
ride, and fresh water fish have been able to live well in
water diluted to this level, (Ellis, M.M., 1937).
ting concentrations of dissolved solids for fresh water
-.'sh are not definitely known, but may range from 5,000 to
/H»°00 mg/1, according to species and prior acclimating
s fee. H.H., 1953). Some fish are adapted to living in more
,anne waters, and a few species of fresh water forms have
•,?eri found in natural waters with a salt concentration of
'a»OQO to 20,000 mg/1, (Rawson, D.S. and Moore, J.E., 1944).
223
-------
"Dissolved solids influence the toxicity of heavy metals and
organic compounds to fish and other aquatic life, primarily
because of the antagonistic effect of hardness metals.
Chromates, copper, cyanides, detergents, phenolic compounds,
zinc and several other substances are generally more toxic in
distilled water than in hard water with high dissolved solids",
(McKee & Wolf, 1963).
Existing Conditions
- Suspended Solids (SS)
The distribution of data for the epilimnion and hypolimnion
of Station No. 1 show a tendency towards normalcy with skewness
towards lower values. Station No. 2 shows similar distribu-
tions. Mean and geometric mean values for the epilimnion of
Station No. 1 are slightly higher (8%) than the corresponding
values for Station No. 2., whereas values for the hypolimnion
of Station No. 1 are almost equal to those of Station No. 2.
Relationships of magnitude with depth are not apparent from the
line plots, (Figure B-28). This is most likely due to the ef-
fects of wind on plankton distribution in the upper waters,
decomposition of plankton in the lower waters and input
variations .
- Dissolved Solids (DS)
Distributions for the epilimnion and hypolimnion of Station
No. 1 tend towards normalcy with skewness towards higher values
Mean and geometric mean values of the epilimnion of Station
No. 2, equal to 3,305 and 3,174 mg/1 respectively, are slightly
higher (3.3%) than the corresponding values of Station No. 1.
Hypolimnion values of Station No. 2 are almost equal to those
of Station No. 1. Slightly higher values in the epilimnion of
Station No. 2 may be attributable to the influence of the Nine
Mile Creek Discharge.
Referring to Figure B-29, it can be seen that in general DS
values in the epilimnetic waters are less than DS values in the
hypolimnetic waters and that the relationship of DS values to
time, irrespective of depth is very similar to that which is
observed for conductivity, (Figure B-20), as well as the major
anion and cation species, calciurn,sodiurn and chlorides,
(Figures B-16, B-17 & B-4). This is attributed to the fact
that DS measures ionic species to a great extent.
224
-------
WTT
.1UO.UEMCV 01 * 2 2 I J * * » 7___ ?? 1?. L? » *—2* * 2. *
*20 ' " Jl
rt ~~~~~~~~
_»»
17
-U-
u
13 ~
-1?
10
— : ^ t-
••-.--• .-
... ^ >..
ftiEftvAi ( f » * » * i « 9—10—11—12is u is 16-
!I7.. Tl »Mt~j <7_IT/6i -~T2/li76"9~JHVPOLiMHION~ '.1— —. —~-~
~fiH~^ i7s». 0002* Ki.'Ti «'S96Tbb'S9» *HF»STS *'6i»r7«iT* SfbbsvTi 167720263 JS'HE»N"
HOKV i 0.000006"06"HDMS • O.*00l3t 06"HOM3 •' -0.37J8*E 09 MOH*"« 0.13237E 13 SKEW • 0.107IQE 01 KURT "• O.S2921E
INtEKVAl-iEN67H~> m.3*a«l " "" ' " ----- - --
~?.»SOU(NCT O *.__? .1 0 & O 0 _ * It 2» U II 19 • 1Z 1.0 I I
2« """ " "
27 " " " '" " "
2*
23
.20
- IT
16
I»
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12
lt i- ...» .
.10. • • • • * • .
9 •«tt»»«»»
^ t • • : •—*—•—• —
~f- ; ; ;; , 2 . ...... ^..
'N7t»»Ic=?""I "•:=^—:r-.-^.T--—~—^r:±---.-.--t"r™':--r-r-i_ ..(| (J ^ 1S---16 - 17 tl ~-M—••»'
.TABLE. »-39
225
-------
_VS ST«T > 4/17/66 - 12/U/69 6P1I.IMNION
HIN -
MOM1 . O.
0.00010 MAX • 55.00000 »MEAN~~S17.72121 StbDCV
O.U359E 03 MOM3 • O.U010C 04 HOM* . 0.57g03{ 05 .*«. . O.SOM5E 66 K.*T . O.»l-Tf 61
OOOOOE 00
FREQUENCY Q t 5 14 12 ?0 4 It g Z 0 3 5 2 7 0 0 0 0 I
IS
17
16
I*
1 J
12
11
10
9
a
7
6
1 5 1 !
.
'.
TCTCTTO - 1 - J
re — n — n — n — n — n — n — r» — n — n
"rrsn
TTTTT^ 6.00666
54.66060
~ 15.45J4S .TDDEV • 11.09507 6H.-M 0.00000
• O.OOOOOE oo MOM?. » O.UJOSE 03 HOMS • .0.189595 o* HOM* «
FREQUENCY 0 6 T II 22 1* 9 II 4 * 0 1 0 t I 00001
22
"ST
*
-tf-
16
TT-
12
-rr
~s • «-
10
lNtE<»VU -- 1
3 « - - • » 1 S i i F- 1
«
t •
k 1
i • •
• ' • • : i
" " 4 "~
~s T 1 5—re—n—n—ra—n—n—re—n—n—r»—zo-
TABLE B-36
226
-------
OS ST*T 1 *7TT76T - li/ltf
— t;o*.oooi* — snr: — *Mo.oao»e — WMITS — 1266.22161 STOOEV
T~» O.OOOOOE 00 NOH.T • O.SI6A4E U» HONJ • -O.JZ656S 09 HUB» • 0.»T
CHUN
ERV»L LENGTH •17*.(fISO
0134
3 2 T U S T 7 10
S 1 T"
INTCftVAL I 2 1 » * » 1 8 9 10 II 12 13 1* i» It IT 18 19 10
O.OQOOOf 00 MOM.1! - 0.*8O96E 06 MOM3 . -0.388716 09 MOM* • 0.121*OE 11 SKEH • 0.1U»*C 01 KUftT • 0.*J)»7E 01
LENGTH « If.97222
100000*9 21 19 t H * 1351
10 11 12 13 * IS 16 IT U 14 20
227
-------
ESCHERICHIA COLI
General Considerations
The coliform bacteria are members of the family Entero-
bacteriaceae. They include the genera Escherichia and
Aerobacter. As far as can be determined, Escherichia coli
is entirely of fecal origin. Although this organism is not
pathogenic, it is used as an indicator of pollution, and by
association, to the potential presence of pathogens.
The Millipore Filter Technique was employed in order to
determine positive numbers of Escherichia coli (E-coli ,)
in lieu of the MPN tests which yields a most probable number
of E-coli upon a "completed test".
Existing Conditions
The data are distributed similarly at Station No. 1 for both
the epilimnion and hypolimnion with concentrations centered
around a very narrow range. Skewness tends towards lower
values, and is somewhat more prominant for values of the
hypolimnion. The mean value for the epilimnion, 1,200/100 ml,
is nearly five times the mean of the hypolimnion, 252/100 ml.
Thus, it would appear that influent domestic discharges dis-
tribute predominantly in the epilimnion, with lower numbers
in the hypolimnion representing cell dieoff and/or portions of
input domestic wastes. The distribution of data for the
epilimnion of Station No. 2 also shows a very narrow range of
values with a mean, 407/100 ml., considerably less than that
of the corresponding zone at Station No. 1. Data for the
hypolimnion of Station No. 2, however, shows a distribution
markedly different from the three previously mentioned zones.
This zone shows a much broader distributon of values.
Line plots of E-coli show a greater tendency of bacteria at
Station No. 1 to stratify with depth with concentrations
decreasing with increasing depths. The opposite trend at
Station 2 could be the result of die-off in the surface waters
along with some sustaining of bacteria on decaying algae in
the hypolimnion (Figure B-31).
228
-------
HlN • 2.00006H/OTS tfiSdoTBai*? IKE AN • WKWJT7STBBtVT nTTVSOlN CMHUTi
O.OOOOOe 00 NOM2 - O.l»97«f OT HOH3 • 0.1577QE 11
~lNftlW»L LENGTH .
HUH* . O.U*»E » SKEW . 8.ta
ae 8i KUHT
. 44448
_MEOU6NCV OS> ^0000010000000000
EtCH t EQUALS 2 POINTS
»OOO PER 100 ML
INTERVAL t 2 i 4 » t T » 1 10 u 12 13 14 ti u u u 19 20
tCOLI ST*T 2 4/17/68 - 12/H/69 HYPOlIMNION
0.00000 MAX •367.00006AMtAN *119.9024SSTOOEV •84.3*433GNEAN •OiOOOOO
l~- O.OOOOOE 66' MdM.1 • O.T11T1E 04 HOH1 -—O.T2449E 04 MOH4 •—0.25449E 09 SKEW •—0.12074E 01 KURT >—O.S013II 01
IENGTH »21*50000
044184 2 4632010000 0 I 1
* *
• *
• • 1
,
LESS THAN
•
' 5000 PER 100 ML
• • •
• * • •
TABLE e-38
229
-------
ECOI.I
ST»T 1 4/17/68 - 12/18/69 EPILINNION
KIN. ?;006»6 " HAS . '10000.66117 »ME«t"- ii99V»ltf«~~ . SYDDEV '•' 189U84546 't«B»N' •'" '141.57*61
HQM1 . b. 000001 00 NOHJ! • 0.35T90E 07'HOH3 •" O.'ZOMOE If NOH4 -' 0.I64J3E l» iKEN • 0.299951 01 kIMT - 0.12S44J 02
LENGTH •' 551.4444% " "~
MfJUEICT
29
28
2T
*»_
25
24
ZJ
22
JI
29
19 "
IK
IT
16
15
14
ll~
12
it
10
9
8
"T '
6
*
4
~woo~peR~is
-------
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The main types of statistical methods used were basic sta-
tistics, correlation analysis, histograms and regression
analysis. The purpose of these methods was to gain insight
into the various relationships between the parameters mea-
sured. As such, the results of these methods were never an
end in themselves but were used in conjunction with visual
displays, reports and the experience of the Advisors and
staff. Only those statistical analyses were run that, in the
opinion of the Advisors and staff, had the highest probability
°f being fruitful.
Table B-2 shows some of the results.of regression analyses.
Such conclusions as the following may be inferred from this
table.
The relationship between dissolved oxygen and pH is especi-
Jlly strong in the epilimnion and either is non-existent in
the lower waters or is masked by the influence of other para-
"Jeters. Possibly, this relationship does not hold for
Dissolved oxygen less than a certain threshold point which
1s not obtained in the lower waters. Relatively large
Percentages of dissolved oxygen (epilimnion), chloride
^Pilimnion) and alkalinity (hypolimnion) are "explicable"
trough the combined effects of other variables, while only
J" the case of dissolved oxygen can a simple variable (pH)
be considered as more influential than others.
Care must be taken in interpreting some of the measures. For
example, if the number of variables is close to the number
°,f observations, one is no longer gaining a measure of a
trend" but "fitting to errors" as in the case of run number 7.
,;his forces a higher correlation coefficient (R) than would
e obtained if more observations were available.
U69ression analysis was not used to develop a predictive
J)odel of any measurable parameter. Such an undertaking
w°uld be beyond the scope of this Study.
231
-------
TABLE B-40
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
CORRELATION & REGRESSION ANALYSIS
DEPTH SYNOPTIC DATA
Symbol
Sres
Mean of dependent
variable
Sres/Mean
Sm
Explanation
Multiple correlation coefficient
The square of the multiple corre-
lation coefficient. A measure of
the amount of variation in the de-
pendent variable that is accounted
for or explained by variations of
the independent variables
The standard deviation of the resi-
duals, i.e. the standard deviation
of the differences between the pre-
dicted and actual values of the
dependent variables.
The average value of the dependent
variable
A comparative measure of the varia-
tion in the residuals, i.e. a com-
parative measure of "predictability"
The standard error (deviation) of
the mean, i.e. the constant term
in the predictive equasion
Regression - (at a risk - Y - could
Significant level of 5%) - N - could
not happen by chance
happen by chance
Largest Gr
Variable of Gr
Value of the highest correlation
coefficient of the independent
variables with the dependent vari
able after correcting for inter-
dependence of the independent
variables
Name of variable of largest Gr
232
-------
TABLE B-40
Co
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
CORRELATION & REGRESSION
Run
Depen
Vari-
able
Num-
Identi- ber
fication of
OBS.
R
Mean
2 Of
R Depen
Variable
Sres
Mean
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FIGURE B-34
-------
, (p-± ttfi tjs >• _,^",' * '. •,*•>. ' kr *
t v1 7V^;v : ^\-v i,;A>
i PERIOD Q* C'^'E^TL'^'
nmxNiBwc « i
FIGURE 8-35
ro
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FIGURE B-35
-------
amc - PKBWIT 4, i?/6B 10 i
CRITICAL ptftiOD
FIGURE B-36
FIGURE B-36
v£>
-------
17/ffl rO 1EX1B^
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APPENDIX C
BIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
by
J. M. Kingsbury & P. Sze
This Section deals with the details of phytoplankton,
zooplankton and ichthyological investigations of Onondaga
Lake. Methods and results are included in their respec-
tive Sections.
Figure numbers for the Section on
gations refer to figures prefaced
Appendix.
iphytoplankton investi-
by a C under this
311
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INTRODUCTION
Previous Studies
Prior to 1968 when this Study was initiated, published and
unpublished observations on the phytoplankton of Onondaga Lake
were scattered and often obtained incidentally to other studies.
In nearly all cases, identity of organisms was recorded only in
general terms. Thus, for example, Jackson (1968) noted that
blooms of green algae (Chlorophyta) and euglenoids (Euglenophyta)
have occurred during late June and early July in the Lake
since 1962. Miscellaneous observations during the summer (June
to early October) of 1963 by Onondaga County (unpublished)
indicated that members of the Chlorococcales were common,
particularly Chlorella and Scenedesmus. The diatom Melosi ra
is mentioned as predominant at times. During 1964-65, the
Syracuse University Research Corporation (SURC) studied the
Lake for the Onondaga County Department of Public Works (results
unpublished; final report, 1966). Flagellates (Lepocinclis,
Chlgrogoni urn and Chlamydomonas) were common from May through
early July, with the maximum concentration of algae for the
year occurring in June. Pennate diatoms (Pennales) and coccoid
greens (Chlorococcales) were present from July through September,
being then followed by centric diatoms (Centrales). Little
else was known of the seasonal succession of algae in the Lake.
The most recent observations were made from May through
October 1967 by Jackson (1969). He sampled the lake on six
dates at two locations and measured the following: (a)
"Productivity rates." Photosynthesis and respiration were
measured using a Warburg Apparatus, (b) "Quality of the
standing crop." Cell counts were made of dominant genera
using a Sedgwick-Rafter counting chamber and a Whipple Disc.
Unfortunately, no species were identified. The results are
summarized in Table C-l. (c) "Quantity of standing crop."
Dry weight was used as a measure of the standing crop of
phytoplankton, but it is not clear how zooplankton and detri-
tus were separated from the algae for the determination.
TABLE C-l
Dominant Genera in 1967 (Jackson. 1969)
May 15th --Chlamydomonas, Lepocinclis, Chlorogonium
June 12th -- Chlamydomonas, Scenedesmus, Chlorella
July 17th -- Scenedesmus, Chlorella
August 15th --Chlorella, Cyclotella, Scenedesmus
September llth -- Cyclotella, Stephanodiscus, Chlorella
October 16th -- Cyclotella, Stephanodiscus
312
-------
In his survey of the diatoms of Western New York State,
Hohn (1951) included diatoms from Onondaga Lake, but his
data consist of no more than a list of species. As an
outgrowth of this survey, Hohn (1952) described a new
variety (var. radiatus) of Coscinodiscus subtilis from
the Lake.
In the laboratory, Jackson (1968) attempted to determine
the potential for algal growth in Onondaga Lake. He used
several concentrations of filtered Lake water as culture
medium for various test algae obtained from the Indiana
University Culture Collection.
Most notable in light of the results presented in our Study
is the apparent absence of colonial and filamentous blue-
green algae (Myxophyceae) in earlier reports.
Although Anabaena was occasionally found in the Onondaga
County col lections, nothing is said about either Polycystis
(Microcystis) or Aphanizomenpn. Absence of blue-green
blooms was noted by Jackson (1968) who speculated why
members of the Myxophyceae were unsuccessful in Onondaga
Lake on the basis of his results with filtered lake water.
Similarly, SURC was concerned with the paucity of blue-green
algae in Onondaga Lake and concluded: "It seems evident
from our studies that the major elements are not limiting
for algal growth in Onondaga Lake but rather that the saline
elements in the lake combine to create conditions which are
inhibitory to the growth of those types of algae which
contribute to troublesome blooms in eutrophic lakes."
313
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METHODS
1. 1968 Phytoplankton Observations.
During the preliminary phase of the Onondaga Lake Study
(1968), various locations on the Lake were sampled using
a No. 20 net. The purpose of work in the preliminary
phase was to select sampling stations, to compare various
sampling techniques and to get a general picture of the
phytoplankton. When appropriate, these observations have
been combined with detailed data for 1969. No quantitative
data from 1968 were used, as cell counts were made for the
purpose of developing facility with the filtering technique
and cannot be translated to an equivalent basis for
comparison.
2. Collection of Samples.
During 1969, Onondaga Lake was sampled regularly at five
stations. The two main stations, designated North-Deep and
South-Deep, were at the deepest points in the north and
south basins respectively. Samples for quantitative analy-
sis were taken at the surface and selected depths. Supple-
mentary stations for surface samples were placed near the
mouths of Ley Creek and Nine Mile Creek and at the Lake Outlet
to the Seneca River (Figure 1). All stations were located by
sighting on landmarks. During January, February, March and
December, the deep-water stations were sampled twice a month;
no sampling was done at the other stations except in December.
During the remainder of the year, sampling was weekly at all
five stations. Bad weather in October and November caused
modification of the sampling program.
At the North- and South-Deep Stations, samples were taken at
depths of 0, 3, 6 and 12 meters. A surface sample was collected
in a plastic pitcher from which 50 ml of lake water was
carefully measured into a graduated cylinder and preserved
with Acid LugoTs.H (Prescott, 1964). Subsurface samples were
collected by means of a VanDorn Bottle or Kammerer Bottle
and 50 ml of each was preserved. An integrated sample of the
top 0.6 meter was taken by lowering vertically a plastic tube
to the desired depth -- the lower end at 0.6 m. and the other
Some samples were preserved with 3% formulin
314
-------
end sticking above the surface -- and then closing the ends
with rubber stoppers. After mixing the contents of the tube,
50 ml of water was measured off and preserved. Often
duplicate samples were collected.
The three inshore stations were sampled using a pitcher
to collect surface water, as already described for the
deep-water stations.
During 24-hour periods on June 10/11 and July 29/30, samples
at 0, 3, 6 and 12 meters were collected every 4 hours at the
South-Deep Station.
3. Net Samples and Qualitative Observations.
At the same time that unconcentrated 50 ml samples were
collected, as described above, vertical and horizontal net
hauls were made with a No. 20 net. These samples were either
preserved with formulin or returned to the laboratory
unpreserved. The samples concentrated by the net were used
for identifying algae and for initiating unialgal cultures.
Identifications were made of recently preserved or living
cells, and a list of organisms present in each net haul was
prepared without any attempt at quantification.
4. Filtering and Quantitative Observations.
Quantitative observations on the phytoplankton were made
using a modified version of the procedure of DeNoyelles
(1968) for staining, filtering and counting cells. Upon
return to laboratory, the 50 ml samples of Lake water
(with a known volume of preservative) were stained with
0.5 ml of 1.0-1.5% Aniline Blue solution. After allowing
approximately 24 hours for viable cells to stain, an
aliquot (0.6, 1.0, 2.0 or 4.0 ml) was withdrawn from each
sample with a syringe and filtered through a 0.8 micro
Millipore Filter (AAWP 013, 0.8 micro, white, plain, 13mm).
The volume filtered depended upon the amount of matter
(detritus and plankton) in a given sample. Filters were
mounted in Einschlussmittel W15 (Carl Zeiss), which
made them semitransparent and permanent. Later cells of
major species present were enumerated by superimposing a
Whippie Disk Micrometer over a filter. The area of the
filter counted for each species depended on the abundance,
size and arrangement (colonial; filamentous, etc.) of the
cells. Cell counts, along with volume of Lake water filtered
and area of filter used for counting, were recorded directly
°n a coding form, and an IBM 1130 Computer was programmed to
transcribe the raw data into cells per milliliter.
315
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Note On Taxonomy and Nomenclature.
Identifications of genera were based on 6. M. Smith's The
Fresh-water Algae of the United States, (1950). Algae of
the Western Great Lakes Area by G.W. Prescott (1962) was the
principal reference for determining species, excluding diatoms
and desmids. For diatoms, The Diatoms of the United States,
Vol. 1, by R. Patrick and C.W. Reimer (1966) or Das Phytopl'ankton
des Susswassers. Diatomeen (1962) by Huber-Pestalozzi was
used. Desmids were identified with Fr. Irenee-Marie's Flore
Desmidiale de la Region de Montreal (1938).
Nomenclature throughout this Report consistently follows
the authorities used for identification. Confusion may result
in the case of the colonial blue-green alga commonly called
"Microcystis". We are using the designation "Polycystis
aeruginosa".
For convenience, members of the classes Chlorophyceae, Bacil-
lariophyceae, Dinophyceae and Myxophyceae are referred to as
the greens, diatoms, dinof1agellates and blue-greens
respectively.
The word "pulse" is used in a general sense to mean any
distinct peak on a graph.
316
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
January 14. 30; February 14, 19; March 5, 19.
During the first two months of 1969, the lake was covered
with 15 to 30 centimeters of ice, except at places along shore
near warm discharges. Snow or rain collected at times on the
frozen surface. In March the ice broke up, beginning at the
southern end, so that by the second half of the month the
southern basin was free. Few phytopl ankters were collected
during this three-month period. Water temperatures ranged
from 0 to 3° C. There was no reason to believe major nutrients
(P04, NOa, NH4) were limiting.
April 4. 9.
Although there was no detectable change in the phytopl ankton
counts, net hauls revealed an increase in pennate diatoms and
Chi amydomonas sp. The lake at this time was free of ice at
tfhe deep-water stations.
April 16. 23.
Cjil amydomonas sp. dominated the phytopl ankton , being more
abundant in the northern basin (Figures 4 and 5). Common
diatoms included Navicula sp. , Amphiprora alata and
jji tzschia sp .
April 30.
Chi amydomonas sp. (Figures 4 and 5) and the diatoms we/re
considerably reduced from the levels of the previous two weeks
Dominant species were Synura uvella (Table 5) and Cyclotella
fllomerata. with Chlamydomonas sp. and Diatoma tenue also
common.
Synura uvella was drastically reduced while Cyclotella
fljomerata had increased over the previous week's level. The
diatom was more abundant in the 3 and 7 m samples than in
317
-------
surface samples, and appeared in greater numbers at the
northern stations. Diatoma tenue (Figures 7 and 8) had
increased over its level of May 7, and displayed a distri-
bution similar to Cyclotella. Chlamydomonas sp. (Figures 4
and 5) was very reduced. Other diatoms of moderate
importance were Synedra uIn a, Nitzschia sp. and Amphiprora
alata. Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus sp. were also
present, particularly at the North-Deep.
May 21.
All species were greatly reduced. Cyclotella glomerata was
practically gone. Diatoma tenue was common in surface samples
from the northern basin, (Figures 7 & 8). On this date and
May 27, Chaetoceros sp. was collected in the northern basin.
May 27.
Synura uvella reappeared in surface and 3 m samples. Diatoma
tenue continued its increase. As before, this diatom was
commoner at the northern stations. Cryptomonas p^yata. col-
lected in small numbers throughout the lake on May 21 , was
now common. Also present was Carteria sp.
June 4.
On this date th.e diversity of phytoplankton was high, parti-
cularly at the outlet. The presence of a few cells of a
number of species was seen more clearly in net samples than
filtered samples. Diatoma tenue and Cyclotella bodanica
were dominant. Diatoma reached its maximum abundance at the
surface but was noticeably reduced at Ley Creek and Nine Mile
Creek (Figures 7 and 8). Similarly Cyclotella bodanica
was abundant at surface with a higher count at the South-Deep
than North-Deep. Cells of Cyclotella glomerata. Nitzschia
sp. and Melosira virans were common, but in lesser numbers.
Also present were greens of the Order Chlorococcales , and at
the outlet, colonial and filamentous blue-greens appeared.
Associated with the high level of diatoms was a drop in
silicate. Some diatoms had fungal cells attached to their
frustules. The parasites were not identified but probably
were chytrids (Chytridiales).
June 10/11.
Diatoma tenue was greatly reduced from its peak abundance of
the previous week (Figures 7 and 8). Cells appeared unhealthy
318
-------
sometimes with epiphytic fungi. Chlamydomonas sp. dominated
the phytoplankton with greater than 10 eel Is/ml at the
North-Deep (Figures 4 and 5). Chlorella vulgaris was common
at the North-Deep. Also present were Ni tzscnia sp. ,
Cryptomonas ovata and Scenedesmus sp.
June 18.
Chlamydomonas sp. continued to dominate (Figures 4 and 5).
Chlorella vulgaris (Figures 10 and 11), Scenedesmus obliquus
(Figures 1 3 and 14), Scenedesmus quadri cauda (F1gures 16
and 17) and Cyclotella glomerata were also abundant. Oocystis
Bo r_g e i was present but less common. Pi a t gm a tenue was
practically gone.
June 25.
Common species were Chlamydomonas sp., Scenedesmus obli guus,
—• 9uadrlcauda and Chlorella vulgaris ; none was dominant.
Vertically, the phytoplankton were common in the 3 m samples.
In general, these species were more abundant at Nine Mile
and the outlet than at other stations.
July 2.
Chlorella vulgaris (Figures 10 and 11), Scenedesmus guadricauda
T^igures 16 and 17) S.. obi iquus (Figures 13 and 14) were domi-
nant at the deep-water stations and Nine Mile, but an unusually
large number of other species were also found, particularly
at the outlet. Chlamydomonas ^sp. was very reduced (Figures 4
and 5). The level of phytoplankton at the Ley Creek Station
was very low compared to the rest of the lake. Aphanizomenon
flos-aquae was common at Nine Mile; Pediastrum Boryanum,
MIosTra granulata and Coscinodlscus subtil 1s at the outlet.
Oocystis Borgei was found throughout the lake. During the summer
Rotifers and copepods did not appear to ingest algae, but
Djjghnia often had its gut filled with cells of Chlorella.
jiiLU__9.
Chjorel la vulgar is and Scenedesmus, obj Iquus were dominant,
^Tth Scenedesmus quadricauda commonT but reduced from its
level of July 2 (Figures 16 and 17).
319
-------
July 16.
Scenedesmus obliquus had declined (Figures 13 and 14), parti-
cularly at the North-Deep, while Chlorella vulgaris continued
dominant (Figures 10 and 11). Cells of Chi ore!la from 12 m
had a "wrinkled" appearance. This characteristic was observed
generally in deep samples during most of the period of
occurrence of the species.
July 23.
Chlorella vulgaris dominated the lake plankton (Figures 10
and 11), but Polycystis aeruginosa was abundant at the
outlet (Figure 22).ATso common at this station was
Coscinodiscus subtilis.
July 30.
The algae were noticeably reduced, particularly Chlorella
vulgaris (Figures 10 and 11). Unhealthy looking cells were
found at 6 and 12 m but were largely absent from the
surface waters.
August 6.
Chlamydomonas sp. was dominant at all stations except the
outlet (Figures 4 and 5). This flagellate was particularly
abundant in the southern basin. Blue-greens, Aphanizomenon
flos-aquae (Figures 19 and 20) and Polycystis aerugi noTa"
(Figure 22) , were the major species at the outlet. For the
first time, Aphanizomenon was collected at all stations.
Chlorella yulgaris was ab~undant at the deep-water stations
(Figure 10). CosTi nodiscus subtilis was common at the outlet.
August 13.
Chlamydomonas sp. was reduced but still common in the southern
basin and at Nine Mile (Figures 4 and 5). Once again, Chlorella
yulgaris dominated (5 X 102* cells/ml) except at the outlet
(Figures 10 and 11). Polycystis aeruginosa dominated at the
outlet (3 X 104 cells/ml) and Aphanizomenon flos-aquae was
common at the outlet and North-beep (Figures 19, 20 and 22).
August 22.
The level of algae was reduced from that of August 6 and 13.
The greens were predominant in the southern basin while the
320
-------
blue-greens dominated in the northern suggesting a transition
was occurring in the lake. Chlamydomonas sp. was common at
Ley Creek (Figure 5), and Chlorella vulgaris at both southern
stations (Figures 10 and 1TTAt the outlet and Nine Mile,
Polycystis aeruginosa was common (Figure 22), along with
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (Figure 20) and Anabaena circinalis
(Figure 23) at the outlet.
August 27.
The blue-greens dominated the lake phytoplankton, having
replaced the greens. Chlorella vulgaris continued its decline
while Aphanizomenon flos-aquae was the dominant form (Figures
19 and 20). Also common were Polycystis aeruginosa, which was
very abundant at the outlet (105 cells/ml), and Anabaena
circinalis confined to the northern basin.
September 3.
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae continued its increase, with filaments
primarily in the surface and 3 m samples (Figures 19, 20 and
21g). Chlamydomonas sp. was abundant at Ley Creek, where the
blue-green was unimportant (Figure 5). Polycystis was
abundant at Nine Mile and the outlet (Figure 22) , with
Pjediastrum duplex and Pediastrum simplex common at the latter.
Melosi ra granulata was fairly common at the North-Deep and
Nine Mile (Figures 24 and 25).
.September 10/11 .
Melosira granulata, a diatom, replaced the blue-greens as the
aominant form (Figures 24 and 25). Cells collected at the
South-Deep on September 1.0, were most abundant vertically at
the surface while the collections of September 11, at the
North-Deep had the highest level of cells at 3 m (Figure 26 b).
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae followed in abundance, being concen-
trated vertically at 3 m (Figure 21 h). Windy weather may have
been responsible for the increase in Melosira and decline of
Aphanizomenon. It is likely (see below and Lund, 1954, 1955)
that the former depends on turbulence to remain afloat while
the latter, which normally floats on the surface due to the
ouoyan't effect of pseudovacuoles (gas vacuoles), was partially
blown ashore and partially mixed in the epilimnetic waters.
aerugionsa, also possessing pseudovacuoles, was
common at the South-Deep but scattered throughout the water
column.
321
-------
September 18.
Though still abundant, Melosira granulata was reduced
(Figures 24 and 25) and Aphanizomenon flos-aquae was again
dominated (Figures 19 and 20).The diatom was unimportant
at Ley Creek and the outlet. At the deep-water stations
filaments were more abundant in subsurface samples than at
the surface (Figure 26c).
Cells generally had fungi
Aphani zomenon returned to
outlet, Pediastrum duplex
crotonensis
South-Deep.
that a desmid,
at a station other
were common .
This was the
Staurastrum
than the outlet
(chytrids) attached to the walls.
its level of September 3. At the
IP. simplex and Fragi laria
Polycystis was abundant at the
first time in either 1968 or 1969
paradoxum. was found in the lake
September 25.
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae was dominant (Figures 19 and 20).
Other common species in the lake were Cryptomonas ovata,
Chroomonas Nordsteti i , Polycystis aeruginosa and Melosira
granulatluM. granuTata was abundant in 6m samples from
the deep-water stations (Figure 26d). At the outlet, Pedi-
astrum duplex, IP_. simplex, Coscinodiscus subtiln's, Fragi laria
crotonensis and Glendinium pulvisculus were also common.
October 2.
Cryptomonas ovata dominated together with Aphanizomenon
Melosira qranulata and Chroomonas Nordstetii
throughout the lake and
f1os-aquae.
continued to be moderately common
Pediastrum duplex, Coscinodiscus subtil is
crotonsis and Glenodinium pulvisculus at
the lake
., Fragi laria
the outlet.
October 8.
Cryptomonas ovata was dominant, while Aphanizomenon flos-aquae
had declined. Melosira granul ata continued to" decline.
October 15.
Chlamydomonas sp. was dominant at Ley Creek (Figure 5) and
common at the other stations, where Cryptomonas ovata was
dominant. At the deep-water stations. Cryptomonas was con-
centrated at the surface, with 8 X 10^ cells/ml at the
South-Deep and 2 X 103- cells/ml at the North-Deep At the
322
-------
outlet, Coscinodiscus subti1 is . Pediastrum duplex , Pediastrum
Boryanum, Fragilaria crotonensis were also common. MelosirlT"
granulata was practically gone.
October 23, 29.
The phytoplankton were reduced throughout the lake. Cryptomonas
ovata was the most common species with 300 cells/ml. Other less
abundant species were Aphanizomenon flos-aquae and Cyclotella
glomerata.
November 5/6.
The most common species were Cryptomonas ovata and Aphanizomenon
flos-aquae.
November 13.
Cryptomonas ovata was dominant, with 200 cells/ml. Coscino-
discus subtilis, Fragilaria crotonensis (Figure 23) and
Asterionella formosa were relatively common at the outlet.
November 20, December 4.
The phytoplankton were further reduced. Cryptomgnas ovata
was the commonest species with 100 cells/ml. Chlamydomonas
sp., Neidium sp. , Melosira granulata, Cyclotella glomerata,
Cyclotella comta. Fragilaria crotonensis, Coscinodiscus
lubti1 is. Stephanodiscus astraea and Nitzschia sp. were also
present. At the outlet, Euglena gracilis and Asterionella
formosa were moderately common.
December 18
Thin ice covered the outlet station (no sample). Surface
temperatures at the North- and South-Deeps were 2.6° and 2.8°
c respectively. No algae were present at the North-Deep.
Cryptomonas ovata was the most common species at the South-Deep,
Ley Creek and Nine Mile Stations. Also found at these stations
were Cyclotella comta, Asterionella formosa and Nitzschia sp.
The annual succession of phytoplankton observed in Onondaga
Lake during 1969 was generally typical for a eutrophic lake
323
-------
The finding of a high diversity of species was not entirely
expected in light of the lake's unusual chemistry and earlier
observations. With respect to the phytoplankton, the year
may be divided roughly into five periods.
The Winter Period lasted from December through March and was
characterized by "an almost complete absence of algae.
The Spring Period was from April into June. The characteristic
species during this time was the diatom Diatoma tenue, but
other species showed pulses. Synura uvella and CycTo"tena
glomerata reached peaks in May while Cyclotella bodani ca
showed one in early June. Chlamdomonas sp. reached maxima in
April and in June, following the peak of Diatoma on June 4.
Chi orella vu1garis, Scenedesmus o b 1 i q u u s and Scenedesmus
q'uadricaTTda characterized the Early Summer Period , lasting from
June to early August. Initially, in June all three species
were dominant but _S. quadricauda and S_. o b 1 i q u u s declined
during the first half of July leaving Chlorella vulgaris to
reach a maximum in the July 16 and 23, samples. On July 29/30
all samples showed an unexpected paucity of phytoplankton but
the following week Chlorella returned. Chlamydomonas sp. had
a peak in early August.
The Late Summer Period lasted from August into October. The
blue-green algae and Melosira granulata were dominant, with
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae important over most of the period.
During mid-August a transition was obvious between the Early
and Late Summer forms. The former persisted in the southern
basin while the latter developed in the northern. Polycystis
aeruginosa (Microcystis) showed a sporadic abundance and
Melosira granulata a pu'lse in early September. In 1969,
there was no distinct autumn flora. The Late Summer species
declined leaving Cryptomonas ovata. present during most of
the summer, as the dominant form. Cryptomonas increased
slightly to a maximum in mid-October. Chlamydomonas displayed
a brief pulse at the same time.
In 1968, a warm period in late September stimulated the
reappearance of Chlorella vulgaris and the Autumn Period
consisted of a mixture of Early and Late Summer species
with the overall level of phytoplankton declining as the
water cooled. There was no distinct diatom flora associated
with an overturn either year.
Biomass
Biomass is one of several accepted indices of production in
natural bodies of/water. In this Study biomass of phyto-
plankton has been estimated using cellular volume excludina
the wall and sheath. For the 10 major speclSs" «11ular
324
-------
dimensions were measured, and the volume of an "average cell"
was determined for each species. The species used were
Chiamydomonas sp., Chi ore 11 a vulgaris, Scenedesmus obiiquus ,
Scenedesmus ^uadri caTTda, Melosira granulata, CycTFtella
bodanica, Cyclotella gl'omerata, Diatoma tenue7"Po1ycystis
aeruginosa and Aphani zomenon flos-aquae. For Chiamydomonas ,
separate calculations were made for spring and summer forms.
The total cellular volume per unit volume of water was
determined for each date from phytoplankton concentrations in
the 0.6 tube samples taken at the deep-water stations. The
validity of estimating production by determining biomass
hinges on the following assumptions:
a. An average volume for the cells of a given
species is applicable over the entire period
of abundance. If the average cell size of
a species changed greatly during the period,
the average volume would not be valid for all
dates .
i
b. The species employed represented the great
bulk of biomass present on any given date.
The ten species represented nearly all the
biomass at the deep-water stations, although
the shallow-water stations, particularly the
outlet, often had significant counts for a
number of species in addition to the ten of
overall importance in the lake.
c. Cellular contents are relatively uniform.
Inclusions within cells vary in importance
from species to species. For example, the
centric diatoms have a large vacuole while
the vacuole of the green algae is inconspi-
cuous. The greens, therefore, have a greater
concentration of protoplasm per unit volume
than the diatoms.
d. The physiological condition of cells is
representative of a healthy, reproducing
population. Active cells of a species tend
to divide rapidly and be smaller than quies-
cent cells (see Stewart, 1968), yet the
former are the significant producers. Calcu-
lations of protoplasmic volume may give undue
emphasis to the latter.
Despite such obvious shortcomings of our method of estimating
productivity, we feel the procedure is superior
to other standard techniques and reflected best the general
situation observed in our samples and in the lake. Estimated
325
-------
production was high when particular species showed maxima and,
in many cases, was associated with noticeable coloring of the
lake water.
Maximum production occurred during June, July and part of
August (Figure 2). The earlier peak in April was associated
with an abundance of Chlamydomonas and the one in May with
Cyclotel1 a glomerata. The minimum in late June marked the
transition from Spring forms, represented by Diatoma tenue
and Ch]amydomonas sp. , to Early Summer forms , consisting of
Chiorella vulgarTs , Scenedesmus quadricauda and Scenedesmus
obiiquus. The precipitous drop on July 30, resulted from a
major reduction of algae in all samples and general clearing
of the lake. In August and September, estimated production
was consistently higher at the southern station. At other
times, both stations were similar. The difference could indi-
cate either actual lesser production at the North-Deep, or the
presence at the North-Deep of species not included in the
estimate but contributing significant! to production. We
believe the former applies, that is, the difference in produc-
tion was real. Chiamydomonas and Chiorella were responsible
for the peak at both stations in early^August. Both species
were more numerous in the southern basin. The peak in
September was associated with Melosira granulata. The final
peak resulted initially from a pulse of Chlamydomonas sp.
in mid-October and then a combined effect of Chlamydomonas
and Cyclotella glomerata during the remainder of the month.
Diversity Index.
During the preliminary phase of the project, we were impressed
by the large number of species of phytoplankton in Onondaga
Lake. The unusual chemistry of the water suggested an
environment which would be inhabited by only a few well-adapted
species. This was not the case. The lake showed an obvious
seasonal succession marked by a rich flora. We hoped with
Margalef's diversity index (Margalef, 1968) to achieve some
measure of the variety of phytoplankton in the lake. This
index has been derived from information theory and is a
theoretical measure of the organization of an ecosystem. The
form of the expression used was
-i
Pi In Pi
i
where Pi is the number of individuals of species i divided
by the total of all individuals. According to Margalef (1968),
high diversity reflects high organization, and maximum diversity
is also associated with a high degree of stability. For valid
application of the diversity index certain criteria are implied:
326
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a. Diversity of organisms is a measure of orga-
nization of the entire ecosystem and is not
strictly applicable to a component community,
such as phytoplankton alone. However, Margalef
states that the diversity at the ecosystem level
will probably be reflected at the level of
major components. This reservation suggests
that use of the index to measure diversity in
a phytoplankton community should be accompanied
by special caution in the interpretation of
results.
b. In theory, the diversity index operates in a
closet system where the total number of indi-
viduals is constant. The distribution of the
individuals among the categories is variable.
This situation obviously does not exist in
Onondaga Lake. Here a succession of forms
occurs with the species present on one date
not necessarily extant at all on another. In
addition, the total of individuals is highly
variable. 12
Plotted values of the diversity index, based on observations
from the South-Deep and North-Deep Stations are shown in
Figure 3. Maxima occurred in late May-early, July, early
August, late August, and late September-early October, at
both stations, though not always simultaneously. In all cases,
the peaks can be interpreted in terms of effects of specific
species on the index. Similar line plots could be presented
for the inshore stations. However, the latter probably reflect
the flow into or out of the lake in addition to the actual
measure of community organization. For example, if the Seneca
River was mixing with the lake water at the outlet when a sample
was taken, high diversity would not indicate stability. Simi-
larly, rain would tend to increase the flow of the creeks and
thus increase the likelihood of attached algae being torn from
their substrate and washed into the lake. Thus it does not seem
possible to draw useful conclusions from the rise or fall of
the diversity index for either the deep or inshore stations.
Wilhm and Dorris (1968) discussed the use of diversity
indices to measure water quality.
327
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MAJOR SPECIES
Chiamydomonas spp.
The species of Chiamydomonas were not distinguished one from
another in this Study (except C_. eplphyti ca) , because of the
complex and highly technical taxonomy of the several hundred
known species. It is doubtful whether "forcing" an identifi-
cation out of one of the available keys would have had any
merit. Isolations of Chiamydomonas from the lake have been
made and cultures are available for further systematic study.
The rather specialized Chlamydomonas epiphytica attaches to
the sheath of Polycystts aeruginosa. and its distribution
generally follows that of the blue-green. The following
discussion does not include data for this species which is
treated separately in Appendix B.
Since sampling in 1968 was done primarily with nets, few
observations were made of Chiamydomonas , which is normally
too small to be retained. The more detailed data for 1969
show pulses of Chiamydomonas spp. in April, June, August and
October (Figures 4 and 5).Chiamydomonas acted as an opportunist,
with brief maxima between the more sustained developments of the
other major species. Chiamydomonas was the first genus to
develop in the spring, and it declined during the pulses of
Cyclotella glomerata and Synura uvella which followed Its
second pulse followed the peak of Diatoma tenue in early June
and gave way to Chlorella vulgar is1. Scenedesmus obi iquus and
Scenedesmus quadricauda. When Chforella temporarily declined
at the end of July, CFTarnydomonaj^ again displayed a brief
pulse, before the coccoid green redeveloped. The final pulse
of the flagellate occurred during the decline of Melosira
granulata in October. The opportunistic nature of Chlairiydomonas
is a result of its ability to develop rapidly and, in some
instance, to its ability to live heterotrophi cal ly. '* The
pulses in August and October were greater in the southern
basin, particularly at Ley Creek, and suggest a correlation
with domestic waste discharged there.
13 Heterotrophic nutrition among species of Chlamydomonas is
variable, see Danforth (1962).
328
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Following the break-up of the ice at the end of March,
Chlamydomonas was the first major species to develop. During
the first half of April, many cells were dividing, with daughter
cells inside the parent wall. Maxima were reached in April
16-23 at all five lake stations. Cell numbers were greatest
at the outlet (Figure 5). At the deep-water stations, cells were
concentrated at the surface on April 16 (Figure 6a), but on
April 23 (Figure 6b) reached their greatest abundance in the
water column at 3 m. The reduction in Chiamydomonas on April 30
was followed by a brief increase on May 7 before the complete
decline of the April-May pulse. Chlamydomonas was absent
May 21 and 27 when the closely related Carteria sp. was collected
in the lake.
The June pulse of Chlamydomonas presented a maximum on June
10/11-18 at all five stations; numbers were considerably lower
at Ley Creek than elsewhere (Figures 4, 5 and 6c). The North-
Deep appeared to be slightly ahead of the South-Deep both in
development and decline of the bloom. At the time of greatest
abundance, the lake water was distinctly green, with bright
yellow-green bubbles forming wherever the water had been stirred
up.
The flagellate was, apparently, held by the surface tension
of the bubble. This phenomenon was not observed during the
bloom of Chlorella vulgaris and, therefore, proved to be a
way of recognizing the presence of large numbers of Chlamydomonas,
After being absent in July, Chlamydomonas pulsed again in early
August, reaching a maximum on August 6, (Figures 4, 5, 6d and e).
The greatest number of cells (1Q5 cells/ml) was at Ley Creek.
The development at the outlet was less than at the other stations,
Cjilamydomonas declined over the remainder of the month, but on
September 3, increased at Ley Creek to 4 X 105 cells/ml.
During August and early September, cell counts were generally
greater at the South-Deep than at the North-Deep and this is,
in part, responsible for the difference in biomass between
these stations (Figure 2).
From September 10 through October 8, Chlamydomonas was
foun.d occasionally, but numbers were never significant.
.Chlamydomonas developed a final pulse around October 15,
and declined through November (Figures 4 and 5).
329
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Diatoma tenue
Diatoma tenue was previously reported from Onondaga Lake by
Hohn (1951). During the Spring Period of 1969, this diatom
was a major species in the lake (Figures 7, 8 and 9). In
April, cells were collected in net hauls at the three sta-
tions in the northern basin. Cells were not numberous enough
to appear in filtered samples until May 7, when cells were
present at all 5 stations. The greatest number was at the
North-Deep and least number at Ley Creek. No cells were
collected from 12 m at either deep-water station, (Figure 9a).
In the May 14, samples, £. tenue generally showed a slight
increase with cells at the deep-water stations reaching their
highest concentrations at 3 m, (Figure 6b). No cells were
found at Ley Creek. As was generally the case during the
period of occurrence, levels at the North-Deep were higher
than at the South-Deep (Figure 7). In the Me/ 21, samples,
J). tenue was reduced or showed no increase compared to its
levels of May 14, except at the outlet. Overall, the phyto-
plankton were reduced on this date and the concomitant
appearance of Chaetoceros sp. is suggestive of a change in
the environmental character of the lake. On May 27, JD. tenue
again had increased at every station. Cells showed their
greatest vertical concentrations at the 6 m level in the
South-Deep and at 3 m in the North-Deep (Figure 6d). No cells
occurred at 12 m in either location. The diatom reached
its maximum for the year on June 4, with 1.8 X 10^ cells/ml
at the North-Deep. At both deep-water stations, maximum
abundance was at the surface on this date (Figure 6e).
Fungal cells were seen attached to frustules on June 4. No
positive identification of the parasite was made, but it is
likely that it was a chytrid (Chytridiales) and possibly
Rhi zophidi urn. Other diatoms also were attacked by fungal
cells. Whether the fungus caused the ensuing decline of D_.
tenue or appeared as a result of the already unhealthy condition
of cells is unknown. In the English Lake District, Canter and
Lund (1948, 1951) have shown that Rhizophidium pianktonicum.
a parasite on Asterionella formosa and other diatoms, can
delay the occurrence and reduce the level of maxima. On the
other hand, Steward (1968) has found that active angiosperm
cells resist infection better than inactive cells. Therefore,
the fungus may at the start be taking advantage of "weakened"
eel Is of £ tenue.
On June 11, D_. tenue was noticeably reduced, except at the
outlet where it continued to increase (Figures 7 and 8). At
the deep-water stations, more cells were found at 3 or 6 m
than at the surface, (Figure 6f). During the remainder of
June, cells were mainly at 12 m at the deep-water stations and
absent at the other stations. This appears to indicate that
330
-------
cells were sinking following the maximum of June 4. After
July 2,-when a few scattered cells were collected, the diatom
was entirely absent, except for several cells in a vertical
net haul at the South-Deep on October 15.
Overall, the spring development of Diatoma tenue was similar
at the five stations in the lake (Figures 7 and 8). The
levels at Ley Creek tended to be lower than at the other
stations, and the maximum at the outlet was delayed a week
compared to the rest. Levels at the North-Deep were generally
a little higher than at the South-Deep.
The possibility that senescent cells of Diatoma tenue sink
deserves further comment. Sinking is not the only possible
explanation for the observed distribution. The cells could
merely be persisting longer at 12 m than in the upper waters,
where competition is greater. However, the low levels of
light at 12 m make it unlikely that the large population
observed at that depth actually developed there. Secchi disk
readings of less than one meter on June 4 and 11, at both
stations, suggest a relatively shallow euphotic zone (see
Figure 27). If pronounced sinking commenced after the diatom
population reached a maximum, this could have resulted from a
change in the buoyancy of the cells associated with a changed
physiological state, or from a change in external conditions,
such as turbulence. Lund (1959) felt that diatoms with silicate
frustrules were always heavier than water and, therefore,
always tended to sink. He showed (1954, 1955) that the fila-
mentous diatom Melosira i t a 1i c a subsp. subarctica required
turbulence to remain suspended in the euphotic zone. With
respect to Diatoma tenue in Onondaga Lake, there was no marked
change in the wind during the first half of June. The possi-
bility that £. tenue was physiologically unhealthy during the
decline is suggested by the presence of the parasitic fungus.
Changes in the composition of stored metablolites , especially
lipids, or in the contents of the vacuoles are obvious ways in
which buoyancy might change.
Cjil ore 11 a vulgaris
Cjilorella vulgaris dominated the phytoplankton populations
from the end of June until the middle of August in 1969
(Figures 10, 11 and 12). This coincided with the period of
maximum organic production in the lake (Figure 2). Chi ore 11 a
appeared in the northern basin in early May but was found
in the southern basin only after the middle of June, following
the decline of Chlamydomonas sp. (Figures 4 and 5), and
became clearly dominant in the first samples in July. Chlo-
rella increased to a maximum abundance (10^ cells/ml) on
July 16, at all five stations. It continued at this level of
331
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abundance at the deep-water stations through July 23, but
declined earlier at the shallow stations (Figures 10 and 11).
During the period of abundance, cells were concentrated at or
near the surface (Figures 12 f, g). On July 30, Chlorella
was absent from the surface waters at all locations
(Figures 10 and 11) and was only found in appreciable numbers
at 6 or 12 m at the deep-water stations, (Figure 12h), where
cells were in the "wrinkled" condition (discussed below).
The August 6 samples showed Chlorella again increasing,
though Chlamydomonas temporarily dominated in numbers. By
the next week (August 13), Chlorel1 a dominated the phyto-
plankton populations for a second time and then declined
during the remainder of the month. For most of August, con-
centrations of cells were greater at the South-Deep than the
North-Deep (Figure 10); this difference is reflected in the
plots of biomass (Figure 2). During September and October,
Chlorella was collected but never in large numbers.
The overall pattern of occurrence of Chlorella vulgaris
was similar at all 5 stations, though initial develop-
ment was earliest at the North-Deep (Figures 10 and 11).
In July, the increase at the outlet and Ley Creek lagged
behind that of the other stations, and, following the maxima
in July, the three shallow-water stations declined sooner
than the deep-water stations. In 1968, Chlorella presented
an additional pulse at the end of September, which lasted
into October; this did not occur in 1969.
The vertical distribution of Chlorella at the North- and
South-Deeps are interesting. As shown in Figures 12 a, b,
for the North-Deep on June 11 and 18, the initial increase
of Chlorella developed at the surface. Few cells were at
6 m, just at the top of the thermocline, or 12 m, just below
it. On June 25, cells were mostly absent from the surface
and concentrated at 3 m (Figure 12 c). Figures 12 a, b,.
and c show that development in June at the South-Deep was
delayed a week compared to the North-Deep and that cells
reached their greatest concentration at 3 m. At both stations
for most of July, cells were generally most abundant at the
surface and distinctly less numerous at 12 m (Figures 12 d,
e, f and g). On July 30, cells at the South-Deep were concen-
trated at 12 m and at the North-Deep at 6 m (Figure 12 h).
At the South-Deep on the following week (August 6), the pattern
was similar with no cells at 6 m and a large number at 12 m.
However, additional cells occurred at the surface (Figure 12)
and suggest that a new growth of Ghlorella was starting at the
surface while cells of the previous cycle were gradually sink-
ing. The pattern at the North-Deep on August 6, shows ver-
tical maxima at 3 and 12 m (Figure 12i) and can be interpreted
in similar fashion as the pattern at the South-Deep, with an
overlap between the declining and increasing groups of cells.
332
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On August 13, cells reached high concentrations at the surface
and at 6 m at the South-Deep (Figure 12j). The vertical
pattern at the South-Deep was similar the following week
(August 22, Figure\12k). At the North-Deep on August 13 and
22, there was only one distinct vertical maximum (at 3 m,
Figure 12j, k). From August 27, through November, Chlorella
remained in the Lake at low concentrations.
Cell counts do not readily distinguish the condition of cells
as long as they appear alive. However, gross anomalies are
sometimes observed. In this investigation, some Chlorella
cells were slightly flattened on several sides giving the
appearance of a ball which had been squashed by pressing at
various points on the surface.
Generally, these cells did not give a positive reaction for
starch with iodine (I-KI) solution. Filtering and counting
was done within a few days of collection, and it is doubtful
that the preservative was responsible for this condition.
During July, "wrinkled" cells generally occurred in 12 m
samples and not in other samples taken on the same day. On
July 30, all cells of Chlorella were "wrinkled". "Wrinkled"
cells were observed in deeper samples (6, 12 m) on August 6,
but not at the surface, where cells were actively dividing.
On August 13, "wrinkled" cells were collected at 6 and 12 m.
For the remainder of the year, most cells wVr\e "wrinkled".
The abrupt disappearance of Chlorella vulgaVis \together
with general absence of phytoplankton from the surface
waters on July 30, was unexpected, since no such\clearing
was observed in 1968. It is unlikely that eithervtemperature
or light was responsible. The lake continued relatively
undisturbed by winds. Measured inorganic nutrients showed
no change that would be associated with clearing. Reduction
in dissolved oxygen on July 30, resulted from the low amount
of phytosynthesis by algae and uptake of oxygen by increased
bacterial activity. The increase in bacteria, shown by a
rise in the coliform counts, may have resulted from the
breakup of cells of the previous algal bloom. Predation will
be discussed later, but there is no evidence to suggest that
grazing by zooplankton reduced the phytoplankton. Aside from
effects of unmeasured inorganic or organic nutrients, three
explanations exist for the absence of Chlorella which was the
only species of consequence at the time:
1. Competition with another species of phyto-
plankton: Chlorella returned to a dominant
position after the decline of July 30. Thus
it was not displaced by another species,
although Chlamydomonas sp. showed a brief
pulse of the flagellate was probably due to
333
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its ability to develop faster than Chlorel1a
and this development may have been favored by
an ability to live heterotrophically on the
products of bacterial activity. Since no suc-
cessful competitor appeared, the decrease in
population of Chiorel1 a cannot be explained
immediately on this basis.
Extra-cellular products: Assays were not
made for organic compounds secreted or
released by the metabolic activities or
decomposition of organisms. Thus, the pos-
sibility that the water became "conditioned"
by such activities cannot be ruled out. The
abrupt decline in populations of Chlorella
could have been caused either by its own
activities in forming autoinhibitory sub-
stances or by compounds released by other
organisms. According to Pratt (1940) and
Pratt and Fong (1940), Chlorella yulgaris.
in culture, secretes a substance (later
called chlorellin) which retards its further
development, and old cells release higher
concentrations than actively dividing ones.
However, no satisfactory evidence is available
to demonstrate growth-inhibition in natural
populations of Chlorel la, and it is questionable
whether the concentration of an inhibitor could
reach an effective level in a lake. In the
case of inhibitory substances from sources
other than Chlorella, the possibilities are
almost limitless and the source need not be
within the lake. The Bristol Pharmaceutical
Plant, for example, is known to discharge
antibiotics occassionally into Ley Creek.
Processes inherent to the cells: The possi-
bility should not be overlooked that clearing
may have been associated with normal function-
ing of the cells. In studies with synchronous
cultures of Chlorella el 1ipsoidea (review
articles by Hase, 1962, Tamiya, 1963), it has
been shown that the length of time between
divisions is independent of light intensity
but varies with temperature. At constant
intensity, cells divide more quickly at higher
temperature, (within 9-25° C range studied).
This shortening of the period of the life
cycle implies that cells have less time to
build up photosynthetic reserves of starch,
which are produced and stored during the
"growth phase" and utilized as the cells pre-
pare to divide. Conditions in the lake in
33*
-------
July were perhaps optimal for the turnover
of cells. Temperatures at the surface were
above 25° C on July 16 and 23, and light
probably was saturating. In this situation,
cells will be drawing more and more on re-
serves to make up for the energy they did
not have time to store during the growth
phase. Eventually, they will "use themselves
up" and the whole population will collapse.
The effect of grazing by zooplankton on algae is difficult
to determine because ingestion (or intake) must be distin-
guished from digestion of algal cells. Of the genera of
zooplankton in Onondaga Lake, only Daphnia was seen with
ingested algae. In the case of other zooplankters , intake
of algal cells was not observed, though the possibility
cannot be overlooked in light of their known feeding habits.
Daphni a ingested green algae, and cells of Chlorella vulgaris
appeared either macerated or intact within the guts (during
July and August). The maceration of cells need not imply
that they are being digested; it may merely be a physical
effect of passing through the gut. No other species of
algae were recognized in gut contents.
Of interest in connection with grazing on Chlorella vulgaris
by zooplankton is a study by Ryther (1954), involving cul-
tures of this algae and Daphnia magna. He found that
secretions of Chlorella inhibited the activities of Daphnia
and that actively dividing algal cells had a smaller inhibitory
effect than did senescent ones. Ryther suggested that the
inhibitory substance was chlorellin, known from the work of
Pratt to be a self-inhibiting secretion of Chlorella (see
above). He further observed that cells could pass through the
animals' guts and remain viable. No firm conclusion can be
drawn regarding the importance of predation on Chlorella in
Onondaga Lake without further experiments.
Scenedesmus obliquus and Scenedesmus quadricauda
Six species of Scenedesmus were found in Onondaga Lake
during 1968-1969, but only S_ obliquus and S_. quadricauda
were abundant at any time. Both species were associated
with Chlorella vulgaris, although reaching maxima slightly
earlier in July.
Scenedesmus obliquus was first.collected on April 20, at the
North-Deep. Its occurence in the lake until June 11, was
irregular, and cells were relatively uncommon. On June 11,
there was a noticeable increase of S.. obliquus at the stations
in the northern basin, while a similar increase at the
South-Deep occurred the following week (Figures 13 and 14).
335
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For the remainder of June and the first half of July, this
alga was common at all stations except Ley Creek and, at
the deep-water stations, tended to be concentrated in the
water column at 3 or 6m (Figure 15). S_. obliquus was
declining on July 23, and practically gone on July 30,
(Figures 13 and 14). From August through October, cells
were relatively uncommon. In contrast to the other stations,
1- obiiguus never became common at Ley Creek, except for a
minor pulse on July 23. The overall patterns at stations
other than Ley Creek were similar. The drop at the Outlet
on July 2, was probably due to inflow of water from the
Seneca River. This "reversal" of flow was indicated by the
presence in the sample of a number of species not found
elsewhere in the lake, and a temporary reduction in the levels
of lake species at the outlet (see Ch1ore 11 a vu1garis ,
Figure 11).
Scenedesmus quadricauda was collected from mid-April through
October (Figures 16 and 17). It became common in June at
all stations except Ley Creek and reached maxima at the four
stations in late June or early July. Cell numbers declined
through July, but, in early August, there was a second, short
pulse, after which S_. quadricauda was uncommon. Its vertical
distribution at the deep-water stations during the period of
abundance was variable (Figure 18) but the small number of
cells involved makes it difficult to separate statistical
variability from actual fluctuations in populations. It
appears that cells were concentrated at the surface on
June 18, (Figure 18a) and at 3 m on June 25, (Figure 18b).
During the maximum (July 2), cells were most abundant at the
surface at the South-Deep but at 6 m at the North-Deep
(Figure 18c). On July 9, cell numbers had declined, and
cells were concentrated at the surface (Figure 18d). On sub-
sequent dates, cells were scattered throughout the water
column (Figure 18 e and f).
Blue-green Algae; Polycystis, aeruqinosa, Aphanizomenon
flos-aquae, Anabaena flos-aquae and Anabaena circinalis
Polycystis (Microcystis) aeruginosa. Aphanizomenon flos-
aquae and Anabaena spp. are generally considered among the
seriously troublesome algae. Blooms of these forms have
aroused concern in many lakes because they are obvious to
the casual observer, often diminishing the recreational appeal
of a lake, and because they have been implicated in the deaths
of animals, such as fish and cattle. At times, blue-greens
increase to such an extent that the water is colored bright
green and parts of the shore, where they accumulate, have the
appearance of green paint. The increase may be quite sudden.
336
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All three types mentioned above form extensive aggregations
of cells. Gas vacuoles (pseudovacuoles , discussed below)
contained within the individual cells give them buoyancy,
and the aggregations accumulate at or near the surface of
the water. Thus they become noticeable when an equivalent
bloom of a non-floating algae might not.
Blue-green algae may be responsible for the deaths of ver-
tebrate animals in three ways (Fogg, 1962a; Prescott, 1968):
1. Toxins released by the algae: Laboratory
studies by Gorham (1962) have shown that
Polycystis (Microcystis) aeruginosa and
Anabaena flos-aquae form substances toxic
to mammals!(Schwimmer and Schwimmer, 1968).
2. Products of algal decay: Following a bloom
of blue-green algae, their cells break down
in the water. The products of decomposition
are in some cases toxic, particularly protein
deri vati ves .
3. Depletion of oxygen by the algae: Blue-green
algae produce oxygen by photosynthesis only
during the day. At night, they utilize oxy-
gen dissolved in the water to meet their
respiratory requirements. A massive bloom
thus may reduce the level of dissolved oxygen
at night to the point that fish are killed.
Four species of planktonic blue-greens are discussed in this
Section. Aphani zomenon flos-aquae , Anabaena circi nalis and
Anabaena flos-aquae are filamentous, while Polycystis
TMi crocy'sti s J aeruginosa is an aggregation of spherical cells
held together in mucilage. Other blue-greens were found in
the lake but only these four were ever common in the plankton.
Blue-greens appeared in July but were found in significant
numbers only after the greens declined. They dominated the
phytoplankton during August and September then declined
through November. This pattern held for both 1968 and 1969,
but the overall numbers were greater in 1968, when PoTycystis
aeruqinosa. Aphanizomenon flos-aquae and Anabaena flos-aquae
were the major species.In 1969. Aphanizpmenon was again
abundant but Polycystis was less common than in 1968. Anabaena
.fjos-aguae was uncommon in 1969, having been found in lesser
abundance than a fourth blue-green. Anabaena circtnalis, which
"itself was never present in great amount.
337
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In 1969, Apham'zomenon flos-aquae developed earlier at the
outlet than at the other stations (Figure 20). Here, al-
though filaments were collected on June 4 and July 2, (also
at Nine Mile), an obvious increase did not begin until
July 16. Than Apham'zomenon built up steadily to a maximum
(10^ cells/ml) on September 3. The decline during the next
week may be attributable to stormy weather. On September 11,
10 cells/ml were present at the outlet. A new increase,
more gradual than the first, commenced but was halted in
October, possibly by cooling of the water.
At the two deep-water stations, Aphanizomenon displayed a
short pulse from August 6 to 13, (Figures 10 and 21). After
declining temporarily, it held to a relatively stable level
of 103 cells/ml at the North-Deep from August 27, through
September 25. During October it declined. Cells of
Aphanizomenon were, generally, less numerous at the South-Deep,
where a maximum occurred on September 3, and then declined
gradually.
The pattern at Nine Mile Creek was similar to the North-Deep
(Figure 20). At Ley Creek, Aphanizomenon displayed a brief
pulse August 22-27 but was uncommon the rest of the time
(Figure 20).
Polycystis (Microcystis) aeruginosa was less abundant than
Aphanizomengn in 1969. this colonial blue-green displayed
a gradient in number from a maximum at the outlet lessening
towards the southern end of the lake (Table 2). Polycystis
was initially found at the outlet on June 4, and was conti-
nuously collected there through November. On July 23, it
began increasing (Figure 22). After a temporary drop on
July 30, associated with the overall clearing of the lake,
this blue-green increased again, reaching a maximum on August
27 - September 3, of 1Q5 cells/ml. On September 11, it had
begun to decline. At the intermediate station in the northern
basin (North-Deep), Polycystis was found from July 2 through
October. In addition to a short pulse August 6, the alga was
abundant during September, with a maximum of 6 X 103 cells/ml
on September 18, (Figure 22). At the South-Deep, Polycystis
was collected from the middle of July until the middle of
October and was abundant during the first half of September,
with a maximum of 4 X 10^ cells/ml on September 18, (Figure 22).
Overall in September, the counts at the North-Deep tended to be
higher than those at the South-Deep. Only a few colonies were
collected at Ley Creek, the southern most station, during the
entire summer. It is interesting to note that the period of
abundance at the deep-water stations came slightly later than
at the outlet (Figure 22 .The stormy weather on September 10,
and 11 seems to be the dividing point, marking the end of the
maximum at the outlet and fol owed by the maximum at the North-
and South-Deeps (September 18). One explanation could be that
338
-------
TABLE C-2
OCCURRENCE IN POLYCYSTIS AERUGINOSA IN 1969
CO
CO
vo
STATION
Outlet
North-Deep
South-Deep
Ley Creek
Nine Mile
PRESENT
June 4 - Nov. 13
July 2 - Oct. 29
July 16 - Oct. 15
i rregular
July 23 - Sept. 2
July 23 - Oct. 29
COMMON*
July 23 - Sept. 25
Aug. 27 - Oct. 2
Aug. 27 - Oct. 2
never
irregular
MAXIMUM
Sept. 3
Sept. 18
Sept. 18
never
Sept. 3
* Count greater than 100 cells/ml; isolated values ignored.
-------
cells were blown down the lake by wind. But it is also as
likely that development was first triggered at the outlet by
proper conditions and then spread through the lake.
Anabaena flos-aquae was collected from August into October
in 1968 and was common during the second half of August and
first half of September. In 1969, filaments were collected
from July until October but in nothing like the numbers or
regularity of 1968.
Anabaena circinalis was rare in 1968 but, in 1969, was more
abundant than /\. flos-aquae. Filaments were collected from
July 23, through September 25, in the orthern basin (Figure
23). Only on September 3, were they found at the South-Deep.
Pseudovacuoles or gas vacuoles are present in all four spe-
cies of planktonic blue-greens discussed. Their function is
unknown, but it has been suggested that they contain metabolic
wastes, are used to shade the cell from solar radiation, or
are of primary use for flotation (Fogg, 1941; Fritsch, 1945).
Generally, cells with pseudovacuoles float on the surface of
the water, although there are instances of layering at an
intermediate depth (Lund, 1959). If an algae tends to float
on the surface, it is very susceptible to winds. During
August, Onondaga Lake was relatively calm, and Aphanizomenon
was concentrated at the surface (Figure 21). In September,
the winds increased and reduced the population of the blue-
green by blowing filaments ashore. Figures 21 for September
10/11, and 18, show that turbulence of the water mixed the
remaining cells throughout the epilimnion.
Much has been written about the environmental conditions
under which blue-green algae are observed, and it is not
our intention to present a review here (see Pearsall, 1932);
(Hutchinson, 1967). However, the sodium requirement of certain
species deserved comment because of the salinity of Onondaga
Lake. In attempting to culture various blue-green algae,
Allen (1952) found that some species had requirement for
sodium, which was not replaceable by potassium. Further studies
demonstrated that Anabaena cylindrica had an absolute need for
at least 5 ppm sodium (Allen, 1955). None of the planktonic
species of Onondaga Lake show evidence of a sodium requirement,
but we have isolated Aphanizomenon flos-aquae from the lake
for further experimentation along tfrese lines.
Nitrogen fixation by blue-green algae is reviewed by Fogg (1962)
and Fogg and Stewart (1965). Generally, fixation of nitrogen
occurs in the absence of other nitrogen sources. It requires
an energy source, hydrogen donors and carbon skeletons. Molybdenum
is a component of the enzyme systems involved. Of the species
340
-------
found in Onondaga Lake, only Anabaena flos-aquae had been
shown to fix nitrogen (Bi1 lard, 1967). Anabaena circinalis
may (Hutchinson, 1944, 1967), but there is no evidence that
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae or Polycystis aeruginosa can carry
out the process. The high levels of soluble nitrogen compounds
in the lake create an unfavorable condition for fixing atmos-
pheric nitrogen. The relatively low numbers of Anabaena spp.
in 1969 make it doubtful that fixation, if ,it occurred, con-
tributed significantly to the nitrogen in the lake. It can
be concluded that nitrogen-fixation under the present
conditions is unlikely. However, if nitrogenous discharges
into the lake are reduced, Anabaena f los-aquae already present
could increase to the point that its nitrogen fixation would
be important in the general fertility of the lake.
Melosi ra granulata
Melosira granulata is a centric diatom, generally found with
its cells arranged in a filament. Hohn (1951), who described
other diatoms in Onondaga Lake, did not record its presence.
In 1968-69, filaments were collected during most of the year,
but the diatom was present in relatively large numbers only in
the Late Summer Period, in association with the blue-greens.
In 1969, NL granulata displayed a sharp peak of 1O4 cells/ml
on September 10/11 (Figures 24 and 25). Except for a slight
increase at the end of September, the diatom declined steadily
following the maximum. The pattern was similar at all sta-
tions, except Ley Creek where an increase did not occur.
With observations from the deep-water stations, it is possible
to follow the distribution of Melosira granulata in the water
column during September and early October!CelIs were present
in the epilimnion on September 3, (Figure 26a) , but an increase
was not observed until September 10/11 , following stormy
conditions (Figure 26b). At the South-Deep (September 10),
the greatest number of cells was found at the surface, while
at the North-Deep (September 11) cells were slightly more
numerous at 3 m than at the surface. On September 18, IM.
granulata had declined in numbers, with the greatest concen-
tration of cells at 3 and 6 m (Figure 26c). A week later
(September 25) cells were further concentrated at 6 m, except
that a new growth of cells was occurring at the surface at
the Morth-Deep (Figure 26d; absence of cells in the count for
3 m at the North-Deep was rechecked). By October 2, there was
a similar secondary development at the South-Deep, while they
were concentrated at 3 m at the North-Deep (Figure 26f). Cells
were not common on succeeding dates.
Lund (1954, 1955) studies the occurrence of Melosira italica
subsp. subartica, a winter species in the English Lake
District.
341
-------
He showed that the diatom had a relatively high sinking rate
and depended on turbulence to remain in the euphotic zone.
He found an inverse correlation between its occurence in
the plankton and its abundance on the bottoms of the lakes
studied. The vertical distribution of M^ qranulata during
September and early October (1969) in Onondaga Lake suggests
that, following their maximum at the surface, cells began to
sink. The initial appearance of cells is not explained by
the effect of turbulence. On September 3, before the stormy
weather, cells were already increasing in the epilimnion
(Figure 26a). Possibly, turbulence made the September 10/11
maximum greater than it would have been otherwise, but it is
questionable what effect winds could have on the hypo!imnetic
waters (below 12m). Cells may have been suspended in shallow
water. Finally, the general occurrence of Melosira granulata
from the latter need not be expected to apply to the former.
Mk granulata tends to occur in more eutrophic lakes during
the summer, often associated with blue-green algae (Pearsall,
1932; Lund, 1954). This is in contrast to M. italica as
stated above.
From September 18, through October, M^. granulata was parasi-
tized by a fungus, and an argument similar to the one for
Diatoma tenue could be made concerning the condition of cells
(see discussion for Diatoma).
342
-------
OTHER SPECIES
Certain species require additional comment for the following
reasons:
1. They were moderately abundant for ,an extended
period of time, or
2. They were very common for a brief time, or
3. They were uncommon but their presence in the
lake is of special interest.
This Section deals with such species.
Ejiteromorpha intestinal is
Enteromorpha is generally considered to be a marine "seaweed".
Its "normal" habitate is in tidepools and in the intertidal
zone along the coast, but it is also found in brackish water
away from the ocean. The presence of Enteromorpha in Onondaga
Lake and its tributaries was known before the present survey
(Jackson, 1968; Kingsbury, personal communication). During
the summer of 1969, the alga was collected in shallow water on
the Solvay waste beds.
Pediastrum spp. (Table 3)
Three species of the planktonic genus Pediastrum were collected
for relatively long periods of time in Onondaga Lake but were
never abundant.
common of the three species.
June through October, with
2. P.. Boryanum was collected
irregularly at the other
Pedi astrum Boryanum was the least
It was present at the outlet from
a maximum of 843 cells/ml on July
during June at the North-Deep and
stations.
Pediastrum duplex was collected from June into November at
the outlet and North-Deep. At the outlet, maxima of greater
than 700 cells/ml occurred on August 27 and September 25. The
alga had a scattered pattern at the other stations.
Pediastrum simplex appeared later than the other two species.
^t the outlet, it was found from July into November, with a
maximum on September 18, of 734 cells/ml. It occurred at the
North-Deep from August through November and at the South-Deep
343
-------
from August through November and at the South-Deep from late
August through November. It was collected irregularly at
Nine Mile and was never found at Ley Creek.
Desmids: Closterium qracile and Staurastrum
par ad-ox urn (Table 3)
Desmids have often proved to be valuable as indicator organisms
because the presence of certain distinctive species can be
related to particular environmental conditions. Desmids tend
to be found in waters low in calcium and with acid pH's
(Hutchinson, 1967; Prescott, 1968). Prescott (1968) gave
their optimal pH range as 5.4 to 6.8. Considering the high
levels of calcium and a pH near 8 in Onondaga Lake, the
presence of two desmids, Closteri urn gracile , Staurastrum
paradoxum is of particular interest. Although little infor-
mation is available in the literature on Closterium gracile,
Staurastrum paradoxum is reported to occur over a wide range
of calcium concentrations (Pearsall, 1932). Closteri urn
qracile was not collected in 1968 and Staurastrum paradoxum
only irregularly at the outlet from August through October.
In 1969, Closterium appeared at the outlet in mid-September.
It spread to the deep-water stations in early October and was
found at Nine Mile the end of October. The desmid was never
collected at Ley Creek. Closteri urn was collected at the
outlet, North- and South-Deep Stations until the end of
October and at Nine Mile until the middle of November.
Staurastrum paradoxum appeared the end of August (1969) at the
outlet.IT was found at the North-Deep in mid-September. Only
on Oct. 2, was it collected at the South-Deep and was never
found in samples from Nine Mile or Ley Creek. Staurastrum
declined at the North-Deep at the end of October and at the
outlet in mid-November.
Reynolds (1940) has shown that the biradiate and triradiate
forms of S_. paradoxum occur at different times of the year
and that the latter is found in late summer. All cells of
Staurastrum collected in 1969 were triradiate.
Although the number of cells never reached a measurable
level, both desmids were consistently found during the periods
given for their occurrence in 1969, in contrast to their
irregular appearance of 1968.
Synura uvej_1_a_ (Table 4)
During its two pulses in May (1969), Synura uvella dominated
344
-------
the phytoplankton. The first pulse was on May 7, with the
greatest number of cells found at the outlet. The second
pulse occurred on May 27, when the greatest number of cells
was at the South-Deep.
Cyclotella spp. (Table 3)
Cyclotella glomerata, part of the nannopl arikton (not retained
by nets) occurred in both spring and fall. In spring, the
diatom had two pulses, May 7-14 and June 18-25. During
October, November and December, iC. glomerata was found in
relatively small numbers. This pattern of occurrence leads
to two conclusions. First, in both spring and fall, cells
at all stations. This suggests
cells existing all the time in the
the observed growths under favorable
occurrence of £. glomerata in both
that temperature or light is the
developed at the same time
that there is a reserve of
gives rise to
Second, the
fall suggests
lake which
conditions
spring and
critical factor for initiation of growth.
Cyclotella bojJjuiica occurred only in spring. It developed a
major pulse Tn e a r 1 y June and a minor pulse in early July.
Cyclotella comta was collected in the fall, when it held a
constant level during October, November and December
relati vely
It was never
abundant.
Coscinodiscus subti1 is (Table 3)
The type locality for the variety radiatus of Coscinodiscus
sub til is is Onondaga Lake (Hohn, 1952).
of 1968 and 1969, cells of Coscinodiscus
collected which matched the descriptions of Hohn
for the variety. No comparisons were made with type
During the summer
sub til is were
(1951 , 1952)
specimens
In 1969, Coscinodiscus was collected in the northern basin
from the beginning of July into December. Maxima of greater
than 500 cells/ml occurred on July 2, July 23, and October 2,
at the outlet. The diatom was collected in the southern
basin in early July and October (once in November).
Chaetoceros sp.
The genus Chaetoceros
but col lections of C_.
in North America. In
is generally
Elmorei have
THe
(1950), G.M. Smith cites
species in Devil's Lake,
considered to be marine,
been made in several lakes
Fresh-water Algae of the United States
references on
North Dakota.
the occurrence of the
Rawson and Moore (1944)
345
-------
collected £. El morei in the saline lakes of Saskatchewan.
Anderson, Comita and Engestrom-Heg (1955) and Anderson
(1958) have described the occurrence of the same species in
Lake Lenore and Soap Lake, saline lakes in Washington. Huber-
Pestalozzi (1962) summarizes the occurrence of £. El morei in
Europe.
In Onondaga Lake, a few cells of Chaetoceros were collected
in 1969. They were found May 21, 27, and June 4 at the
stations in the northern basin. A sample of the Onondaga
Chaetoceros, which appears to be a very rare or as yet
undescribed species, was sent to Dr. R. Patrick for
identi fication.
Fragilaria crotonensis (Table 4)
In Linsley Pond, Fragilaria crotonensis competes with Anabaena
circina 1 is for phosphate (Hutchfnsorf,T944). When nitrate
is low, the blue-green is favored; when nitrate is high, the
diatom is likely to be dominant. A similar interaction may be
occurring in Onondaga Lake between the same two species,
although neither is as abundant as in Linsley Pond. Figure 23
shows that Fraqi laria increased at the outlet when A. d rcinalis
declined after September 3. Although competition for nutrients
is dependent on the direction of flow between the lake and
Seneca River a reversal of flow could have been responsible
for Fragi larja replacing A_. circinalis. Further, the stormy
weather on September 11, may have reduced the blue-green
population (see discussion for Aphanizomenon flos-aquae) and
created the turbulence necessary to suspend the diatom (see
discussion for Melosira granulata). Neither species was common
enough at the other stations to allow a comparison with the
outlet.
Fragilaria crotonensis was collected at the stations in the
northern basin from August 27, through December 4. It was
commonest at the outlet, reaching a maximum there of 700 cells/ml
on October 15. The diatom occurred at the South-Deep from
September 25, to November 13; it was never observed at Ley Creek.
Dinof1 age!1ates; Glenodinium pulvisculus and Ceratium
hirundinella (Table 3)
Although two species of dinoflagellates were collected with
some regularity in Onondaga Lake during the summer, neither
Glenodinium pulvisculus nor Cerati urn hirundinella was ever
abundant.
Glenodinium pulvisculus. generally part of the nanno-
plankton, was not found in 1968. In 1969, it was collected
346
-------
at the outlet from the end of July until October. A maximum
of slightly less than 200 cells/ml occurred on September 25,
through October 2. Scattered collections of Glenodi nium
were made at the North-Deep and one collection (October 8)
at the South-Deep. Cells were never found in samples from
Nine Mile or Ley Creek.
Ce_r_a t j_u_m hi rundi nel 1 a displayed two pulses in 1968. The first
pulse occurred during August when the dinof1agel1 ate was
observed spreading throughout the lake on successive weeks.
On August 8, Ceratium was collected only at the outlet. The
next week (August 14) it was found at the other two stations
in the northern basin (North-Deep and Nine Mile), as well as
at the outlet. A week later (August 20), it was also found
at the South-Deep. It was never collected at Ley Creek.
The second pulse occurred at the end of September and in
early October, only at the North-Deep and outlet.
In 1969, Ceratium hirundinella was not collected as often as
in 1968. It never spread to the southern basin in 1969, and
its occurrence at the North-Deep and Nine Mile was irregular.
Two pulses were recognized at the outlet, the first in late
July and early August and the second during the second half
of September.
Cyclomorphosis (seasonal polymorphism) of Ceratium has been
reviewed at length by Hutchinson (1967). Among the charac-
teristics of the dinoflagellate which show seasonal change,
the presence or absence of the fourth horn is most readily
determined. Its presence seems to be related to high
temperature. During the first pulse in 1969, all individuals
possessed a fourth horn. Most of the members of the second
pulse had a fourth horn but a few did not.
Cryptomonads: Chroomonas Nordstetii and Cryptomonas
ovata (Table 3)
Chroomonas Nordstetii and Cryptomonas ovata are both members
of the nannoplankton. They were collected over relatively
long periods of time in 1969.
Chroomonas was collected regularly from July into October at
the South-Deep, North-Deep and Nine Mile Stations. Concen-
trations were of the order of 103 cells/ml. At the deep-
water stations, cells generally were concentrated at the
surface and 3 m. At Ley Creek and the outlet, the flagellate
was less common and its occurrence irregular.
Except at Ley Creek, Cryptomonas was collected from late May
into December. A maximum occurred on October 15, when there
were 8 X 102 cells/ml at the South-Deep and 2 X 10J cells/ml
at the North-Deep. Crvptomonas occurred irregularly at Ley Creek
347
-------
TABLE C-3
PERIODS OF OCCURRENCE OF 14 SPECIES OF PHYTOPLANKTON IN ONONDAGA LAKE
DURING 1969 (FOR COMPARISON OBSERVATIONS FOR 1968 ARE INCLUDED FOR 4 SPECIES)
STATION
SPECIES
Pediastrum Boryanum
Pediastrum duplex
Pediastrum simplex
Closterium gracile
Co
oo Staurastrum paradoxum
Cyclotella bodam'ca
Cyclotella comta
Cyclotella glomerata
YEAR
1969
1969
1969
1968
1969
1968
1969
1969
1969
1969
OUTLET
6/4-10/29
6/4-11/13
7/2-11/13
never
9/18-10/29
(8/8-11/14)
8/27-11/13
6/4-11,
7/9
(9/25-12/4)
5/7-7/2
10/15*-12/4
NORTH-DEEP
5/27-7/2
6/11-11/20
8/6-11/20
never
10/2-10/29
never
9/18-10/29
5/27-6/11
(7/2-16)
10/2-11/20
5/7-6/25
10/8-12/4
SOUTH-DEEP
(June 25)
(6/4-10/8)
8/27-11/20
never
10/8-11/5
never
10/2
5/27-6/11
(7/2-16)
9/25-12/18
5/7-7/2
10/8-12/18
NINE MILE
(7/2-9/18)
(6/11-9/18)
(8/27-10/29)
never
10/29-11/13
never
never
5/27-6/18
10/25
5/7-6/25
10/25*-ll/20
LEY CREEK
never
(7/23)
never
never
never
never
never
(6/4-11)
(7/16)
9/25-11/;
5/7-6/18
11/13-20*
* No samples at Outlet and Nine Mile on Oct. 3.
** No samples at Ley Creek on Oct. 23, 29, Nov. 5.
-------
TABLE C-3 - Cont'd
00
STATION
SPECIES
YEAR
OUTLET
Coscinodiscus subtilis 1969 7/2-12/4
NORTH-DEEP SOUTH-DEEP NINE MILE
6/25-11/13 (7/2-9,
10/2-11/20) (7/2-11/20)
Fragilaria crotonensis 1969 8/27-12/4 7/28-11/20 9/25-11/13 9/25-12/4
Glenodinium
pulvisculus
1968 never
1969 7/23-10/2
Ceratium hirundinella 1968 8/8-27
9/30-10/7
1969 7/23-8/13
9/18-25
Chroomonas Nordstetii 1969 99/11-10/2
Cryptomonas ovata 1969 5/21-12/14
7/2-10/15 7/2-10/15 7/2-10/15
5/21-12/18 5/21-12/18 5/27-12/18
LEY CREEK
(7/2-10/8)
never
never
8/6-9/18-
10/8
8/14-27
9/30
8/22
9/18-25
never
10/8
8/20
never
never
never
8/14-27
8/27
never
never
never
never
(7/2-8/27)
5/27-12/18
-------
TABLE C-4
CONCENTRATIONS OF SYNURA
DATE
April 30
May 7
00
Ut
° May 14
May 21
May 27
June 4
SOUTH-DEEP
0
3
0
0
12
0
UVELLA IN SURFACE SAMPLES (X 1 O3 CELLS/ML)
STATIONS
NORTH-DEEP LEY CREEK NINE MILE
000
596
0.5 0 0
000
303
000
OUTLET
0
18
0
0
0
0
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Light, Temperature and Turbulence
Light, temperature and turbulence in the water column are
essentially independent of phytoplankton concentration,
although "self-shading" may be critical during a bloom.
Light not only is the source of energy for photosynthesis,
but its diurnal and seasonal rhythms are used by organisms
to time their activities. The concept of critical day length
has played an important role in explaining the development of
higher plants. However, this idea has been largely overlooked
in dealing with algae. Temperature determines the rate of
metabolic processes and thus sets the range over which a spe-
cies can function efficiently. Temperature also determines
the stability of the water column. Turbulence suspends
relatively heavy cells of diatoms, which would otherwise
settle to the bottom (as already discussed). Mixing of the
waters also keeps the distribution of cells and nutrients
relatively uniform in the epilimnion.
The effect of light is confined to a layer at the surface of
a lake, called the euphotic zone. In the euphotic zone,
there is more than enough light to allow algae to meet their
respiratory needs by photosynthesis. A rough approximation
of the depth to which the euphotic zone extends can be made
using the Secchi disk. Three assumptions are involved:
1. At the depth the Secchi disk appears, the
light intensity has been reduced to 5% of
the surface intensity (Hutchinson, 1957).
2. The bottom of the euphotic zone occurs at
the depth where the surface intensity has
been reduced to }% (Yentsch, 1962).
3. In penetrating through water, light is
reduced in intensity logarithmically
(Yentsch, 1962).
Based on these assumptions, Figure C-27 has been constructed,
from which the depth of the euphotic zone can easily be
determined. For example, if the Secchi disk disappears at
a depth of 2 m, the euphotic zone ends at 3.1 m. By this
method of approximation, it has been determined that the
euphotic zone rarely exceeds 3 m in depth in Onondaga Lake.
The remainder of this Section will be devoted to the inter-
action of light, temperature and turbulence to create
conditions favorable for photosynthesis and algal growth.
351
-------
Certain generalizations are made about the conditions
favorable for the d-ifferent groups of algae. The greens of
the Order Chlorococcales and the blue-greens are assumed to
grow best at relatively high light intensities, at high
temperatures (20°-25° C) and in relatively calm water. The
diatoms are favored by moderate to low light, moderate
temperatures and moderate mixing. Four situations will be
discussed below:
1. Mixing throughout the water column. In the
absence of thermal stratification, mixing by
the winds can occur from top to bottom in a
relatively shallow lake. The euphotic zone
extends only to a limited depth, while
mixing occurs to the bottom. If the phyto-
plankton are being mixed throughout the water
column, individual cells spend relatively less
time in the euphotic zone and more time at
depths where there is insufficient light for
photosynthesis. A slight increase in algae
was observed with the disappearance of the
ice cover. Illumination continued to increase,
but this favorable effect was offset by the
mixing of winds. In Onondaga Lake, the
euphotic zone is relatively shallow (less
than 3 m as shown by the Secchi disk). This
means a cell may spend a large proportion of
its time at intensities too low for net
production. With the formation of the thermo-
cline and thus reduction of the depth of
mixing in late April, the algae increased
noticeably. A similar condition applies in
late fall but in reverse -- as the thermo-
cline weakens, the depth of vertical mixing
becomes greater. At both times of the year,
the unfavorable mixing of algae seems to be
more important than the accompanying resus-
pension of nutrients, which might otherwide
be expected to favor algal growth. To say
this another way, establishment of a thermo-
cline does not reduce algal growth in the
epilimnion, as in oceans and many lakes,
because in Onondaga Lake the epilimnion is
always nutrient rich. The absence of a phy-
toplankton increase associated with the times
of "overturn" may largely be due to the ad-
verse effect of increased turbulence. Low
temperatures may also contribute to holding
back growth in the spring.
352
-------
2. Relative stability in the epilimnion. When
the epilimnetic waters are calm, phytopiankton
can maintain a relatively constant position
in the water column. While diatoms are at a
disadvantage because of their heavy walls,
lighter genera, such as Chi ore 11 a and
Scenedesmus , are favored. Layering of algal
cells can occur with "sun cells" at the
surface and "shade cells" lower in the euphotic
zone (Yentsch, 1962). The former are more
efficient at photosynthesizing at high light
intensities while the latter are adapted to
lower intensities. This condition may exist
in Onondaga Lake in June and July, when single-
celled and small colonial forms predominate.
In August, the blue-green algae dominate.
Although the cells are aggregated in large
masses or filaments, the gas vacuoles concen-
trate the cells at the surface by their
buoyant effect. The existence of a layer
of blue-green algae on the surface requires
almost total calm. The shading by the blue-
greens during a bloom considerably reduces
light penetration into the water and creates
a shallow euphotic zone. Diatoms, more effi-
cient at the low light intensities than green
algae, thus occur below the blue-greens if
they can compensate for the absence of turbu-
lence. The single-celled centric diatoms
such as Coscinodiscus, have a large vacuole
which helps to offset the weight of the wall.
3. Thermal stratification with mixing in the
epilimnion. With moderate turbulence in the
epilimnion, local depletions of nutrients are
prevented and the heavier cells of diatoms
can remain suspended. In Onondaga Lake, the
epilimnion extends deeper than the euphottc
zone. Because of the mixing in the epilimnion,
a cell may spend part of the time at low in-
tensities of light, even though the lake is
stratified. Species adapted to photosynthesize
efficiently at higher intensities will be at
a disadvantage relative to species able to
photosynthesize with less light. Diatoms will
generally be favored under these conditions,
as shown by the growths of Diatoma tenue and
Melosi ra pjranul ata.
4. Winter. Under ice, little mixing occurs,
temperatures and light are low. Snow or water
353
-------
may collect on the ice further reducing illu-
mination in the water. Diatoms are the species
most likely to develop at reduced levels of
light and at low temperatures, but ice cover
protects the water from disturbence by the
winds, which aids in suspending cells.
Therefore, it is not surprising that algae
were not found under the ice in Onondaga
Lake.
Relationship of Phytoplankton to Hater Chemistry
Two approaches have been taken to relate the algae to the
chemical environment of Onondaga Lake:
1. Comparison of the phytoplankton with the line
plots for different nutrients shows no obvious
correlation between changes in the level of
any nutrient and algal activity, except silica.
2. The chemical environment of the lake has been
compared to the conditions for algal growth
in culture, as described in various literature.
Culture techniques vary with the investigator
and results obtained by one method are not
strictly equivalent to results from another
or to natural conditions. Generally, algal
requirements for a particular chemical species
are lower in nature than in culture.
1 . Phosphate
Phosphorylated compounds are intermediates in most reactions
in cells. On the average, algae contain 10~7 Ligm of
phosphorous/cell (Kuhl, 1962). Cells are able to store
phosphorus when it is available, and draw on this store in
times of depletion in the environment (Chu, 1943). In
culture, good growth is obtained with 0.1 to 2.0 ppm
phosphate-phorphorus (P-P04); growth is limited by concen-
trations below 0.05 ppm and inhibited by concentrations
greater than 20 ppm (Kuhl, 1962, using the data of Chu, 1942).
Chu (1943) observed that the upper phosphate limit for growth
was lower with NH4 as the nitrogen source (2.0 ppm P-POa) than
with nitrate (8-20 ppm). Rhode (1948) divided algae into
three categories in terms of their phosphate requirements for
optimum growth:
354
-------
P-P04
Lower Limit Upper Limit
Low P requirement <0.02 ppm <0.02 ppm
Medium P requirement <0.02 ppm >0.02 ppm
High P requirement >0.02 ppm >0.02 ppm
According to Rhode (1948) Uroglena ameri'cana and Pi nobryon
divergens belong to the group with low phosphorus require-
ment -- they are inhibited by the addition of 0.005-0.010
ppm P-P04 to a sample of lake water. Asteriqnella formosa
belongs to the intermediate group, and Scenedesmus quadricauda
has a high phosphorus requirement.
The mean concentrations (arithmetic mean) of phosphate-
phosphorus in the epilimnion of Onondaga Lake during 1968-69
were 0.94 ppm at the South-Deep and 0.97 ppm at the
North-Deep. These values are within the range for optimum
growth given by Kuhl (1962). Therefore, it appears that the
phosphate concentrations in the lake are sufficient to meet
the needs of phytoplankton.
2. Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a necessary component of proteins. Algae utilize
both ammonia (NH4) and nitrate (NOs) as sources of nitrogen.
Chu (1943) found that cultures of various species of algae
generally grew in concentrations of nitrogen (nitrate or
ammonia) from 0.3 to 13 ppm, with optimum growth between 1.3
and 6.5 ppm. Above 13 ppm, increasing concentrations caused
increasing inhibition. Rhode (1948) observed that Scenedesmus
quadricauda grew well in cultures with 5 ppm ni trate-nitrogen
and poorly with 0.05 ppm. Neither of these investigators used
species of blue-green algae which are known to grow well at
low. nitrogen levels (Pearsall, 1932, Hutchinson, 1967).
In Onondaga Lake, the mean concentrations of ammonia-nitrogen
in the epilimnion in 1968-69 were 2.14 ppm at the South-Deep
and 1.90 ppm at the North-Deep. Nitrate-nitrogen means
were 0.39 ppm and 0.41 ppm for the South-Deep and North-Deep
respectively. Nitrite means of 0.06 ppm and 0.08 ppm were
observed for the same stations.
The concentrations of ammonia-nitrogen appear to be sufficient
to support algal growth throughout the year. Low levels in
the epilimnion were observed in July, late August and early
355
-------
September. Probably, the phytopl ankton were responsible for
this reduction in concentrations. High values in the hypo-
limnion probably resulted from the sinking and decomposi tiun
of cells. During July, the high pH (8.7) indicated the
existence of undissoci ated NI^OH, thought to be toxic to
organisms (Hutchi nson , 1957). However, the bloom of Chlorel la
vulgaris through most of July showed no signs of being affected
by NH40H.
Nitrate alone appears to be sufficient to support algal growth
from January through July. It was depleted in mid-July and
remained at a low level through November. During this period
of low nitrate, the nitrogen requirements of the phytoplankton
were undoubtedly met with ammonia. Blue-green algae were
common during late August and early September when ammonia
(and nitrate) were at minimum concentration.
As in the case of phosphate, nitrogen does not appear to be
limiting the growth of the phytoplankton.
3. Potassium concentration in the lake fell within within
the range for optimal algal growth as determined
by Chu (1942).
4. Silica (S102)
The walls of diatoms are composed of "hydrated amorphous silica"
Lewin, (1962). Silica dioxide (SiOz) constitutes 96.5% of
the wall which may represent up to 50% of the dry weight of
the cell (Lewin, 1962). The silica content depends on envi-
ronmental conditions and the physiology of the cell. Orthosilicic
acid, S1(GHH, is the probable form taken up by the cell;
uptake is an active process requiring the expenditure of
energy (Lewin, 1962).
Chu (1942) determined the concentrations of SiO? for optimum
growth of several diatoms in cultures: Nrtzschia palea
9.8-39 ppm, Fragilaria crotonensis 19.6-39 ppm. AsT¥rTonel 1 a
.gracillima 9.8-19.6 ppm, and Tabellaria flocculosa 2-19 6 pom
These concentrations are considerably higher than the
concentrations occurring in many lakes where diatoms are
known to thrive (Hutchinson, 1957, 1967). In the Enalish Lake
District, Lund (1954) estimated that the lower limit for the
9r2Wi!) QfMeTosira italica subsp. subarctica to be 0.6 ppm
and that Astenonella and Tabellaria could grnw at even lower
concentrations.
The mean values for the concentration of SiO? in the enilimninn
of Onondaga Lake during 1969 were 4.89 ppm at the South-Deeo
and 4.73 pprn at the North-Deep, in Apr?? and SSy, conce ^ratio
in the epilimnion were greater than 7 ppm. The bloom ^ntrai1o
356
-------
Dlatoma tenue reduced the levels to 1.8 and 1.5 ppm at the
South-Deep and North-Deep respectively (surface values for
June 4). During June, July and August, concentrations of
Si02 gradually increased to approximately 5 ppm, but the
bloom of Melosira granulata again reduced the concentrations
to 0.8 ppm at the South-Deep and 0.5 ppm at the North-Deep
(surface values for September 18). Silica returned to a
level of 5 ppm for the remainder of the year. Thus silica
(SiO?) appears to be depleted by blooms of diatoms to a
level that it may be limiting to further growth.
5. Metals (Cu, Cr, Zn, Mg, Mn).
In low concentrations, metals are activators of enzyme systems
but at higher concentrations they become inhibitory. Most
common species of algae are inhibited by 1-2 ppm CuS04
(Krauss, 1962). Some algae are sensitive to concentrations
as low as 0.03-0.05 ppm Cu (Hutchinson, 1957, using data of
Hale). Greenfield (1942) found that photosynthesis by
Chlorella vulgaris was inhibited by 10-' M CuS04 (0.0064 ppm
Cu). However, mutants of Ankistrodesmus brauni i are able
to withstand 5 X 10~5 M (3 ppm Cu) (Kellner, 1955). The mean
concentration of copper in the epilimnion of Onondaga Lake
was 0.05 ppm in 1969. Thus copper approaches concentrations
that may be inhibitory to the growth of some algae.
Hervey (1949) reported that the susceptibility of algae to
chromium varied with culture conditions and species. Growth
of members of the Chlorococcales was completely inhibited by
3.2-6.4 ppm Cr, euglenoids by 0.32-1.6 ppm and diatoms by
0.032-0.32 ppm. In the epilimnion of Onondaga Lake, the mean
concentration of chromium is 0.02 ppm, and at some of the
higher levels occasionally observed in the lake, this metal
is probably inhibitory to algal growth.
Greenfield (1942) reported that at least 10"2 M ZnS04 (654
ppm) was needed to inhibit photosynthesis by Chiorella
vulgaris. Thus zinc is probably not inhibitory in Onondaga
Lake where the average concentration in the epilimnion was
0.07 ppm.
Greenfield (1942) observed no inhibitory effect with MgS04
or MnS04 on Chi ore!la vulgaris.
The relatively high levels in the lake of certain metals may
be inhibitory to algal growth. Other conditions appear to be
favorable for larger populations of algae than those found
in the lake. If the level of a metal is acting as a check,
its removal or reduction may lead to greater blooms than
presently occur.
357
-------
Grazing
Grazing by herbivorous zooplankters has often been thought
to be a significant factor in controlling the abundance of
phytoplankton. The effect of grazing on the phytoplankton
community of Onondaga Lake should have been most apparent
in June, July and August, when the plants reached their
maximum abundance and biomass for the year (1969). A
comparison of the time plots for the zooplankters with the
time plots for dominant species of phytoplankton and with
the plots for overall biomass of phytoplankton should give
an indication of the extent of feeding by zooplankton on
phytoplankton. If grazing is a significant factor in con-
trolling algae, a maximum in phytoplankton should be followed
within a week by a maximum in one or more species of zooplankton
followed by a drop in the abundance of phytoplankton. In
Onondaga Lake, the communities of algae and zooplankton, to
the degree they were related, presented peaks and valleys
simultaneously. In the absence of a lag a drop in the
abundance of phytoplankton cannot be casually associated
with an increase in zooplankton. This suggests that interaction
between the phytoplankton and zooplankton is less important
in determining the abundance of either group than are other
environmental conditions acting simultaneously but indepen-
dently on both communities.
Bioassays
The major objective of the present study was to describe the
seasonal succession of phytoplankton. Absence of any prior
studies of the phytoplankton through one entire annual cycle
indicated that this was the most urgent need. Bioassays, in
which algae are grown in lake water enriched in various ways,
may provide useful information relating the algae found in
the lake with particular factors of the environment.
Dr. D.F. Jackson's laboratory at Syracuse University has been
conducting bioassay investigations related to Onondaga Lake
for an extended period, but results have not yet appeared in
a form available for our use.
Current State of Onondaga Lake with Respect to
the Phytoplankton
Onondaga Lake undergoes a seasonal succession of phytoplankton
typical of a eutrophic lake (see Rawson, 1956). Both the
variety of species and the abundance of certain species is
impressive. Approximately 100 species have been identified
in 1968-69. The dominant phytoplankters show the expected
succession for a shallow, nutrient-rich lake: diatoms and
358
-------
flagellates in the spring, green algae of the Chiorococcales
in the early summer, blue-green algae later in the summer,
and an association of flagellates and diatoms in the fall.
A seasonal pattern can be described for a number of moderately
common species. Finally, numerous rare species occassionally
appear in the lake.
Biomass is greatest in the lake during June, July and August,
when the water is noticeably colored by blooms of greens and
blue-greens. In 1969, the blooms were less intense than in
the previous year. During the late summer of 1968, masses
of blue-green algae were washed ashore, and the bloom persis-
ted through September. The difference between the two years
is probably due more to random variation in the algal popula-
tions than to changes in environmental conditions.
A "catastrophic oxygen deficiency" occurs in many highly pro-
ductive lakes at the end of algal blooms (Hutchinson, 1957).
In relatively calm water, respiration and decomposition of the
cells at the termination of a bloom may greatly reduce the
dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water. Prior to the present study,
Onondaga Lake usually "cleared" for a brief time each summer.
This clearing was associated with a marked drop in DO (C.
Wilson, personal communication). The phenomenon disappeared
and the DO content of the water dropped to approximately 2
ppm at the surface. It is uncertain whether this clearing
can be attributed to the effect of a single population
(Chlorella vulgaris) or to the total phytoplankton community.
Chlorella vulgaris was the only common phytoplankter at the
time.
Jackson's (1969) observations from May through October 1967
agree, in general, with our observations in 1968-69, except
that he did not report blue-green algae. The presence of
noticeable blooms of blue-greens during the summers of 1968
and 1969 make it surprising that blue-greens were not found
in 1967.
We were unable to confirm the observations of Jackson (1969)
that Cladophora replaces Enteromorpha near the discharge of
the Metropolitan Treatment Plant and thus is associated with
high pollution. During July 1969, Cladophora was collected
near the marina in Liverpool, (little pollution) while
Enteromorpha was found on the waste beds (southern basin).
C1 adophofaTeems to require a solid substrate for attachment,
while EnTeromorpha can grow in the semi-solid substance of the
waste beds. The distribution, of neither alga appears to be
related to pollution.
Onondaga Lake also has unique characteristics. It is more
saline than the other lakes in central New York (Berg, 1963).
359
-------
Although the seasonal succession of dominant phytoplankters
suggests a typical eutrophic lake, the composition of the
less abundant species shows a trend toward a marine flora.
The variety and total number of centric diatoms is interme-
diate between a typical fresh-water environment and an oceanic
condition. The presence of dinoflagellates further supports
this tendency. Both groups are considerably more important
in the oceans than in fresh water. Most of the centric
diatoms and dinoflagellates in Onondaga Lake are fresh water
species from genera in which most of the species are marine.
Two characteristically marine species of algae were found in
the lake: Enteromqrpha intestinal is; which seems to thrive,
and an unidentified and perhaps previously unknown species
of Chaetoceros. Chaetoceros is a genus lacking clearly
fresh water species.
360
-------
ZOOPLANKTON OF ONONDAGA LAKE, NEW YORK
by
G. Waterman
INTRODUCTION
Zooplankton comprise the second trophic level of open water
in lakes. As such they reflect some environmental conditions
much as the algae. They feed upon algae and bacteria, and in
turn are consumed by fish as well as aquatic insects and a
few predatory crustaceans. It is difficult to establish their
role as a population regulator to the algae, though they un-
doubtedly have a moderating influence on the extent of algae
blooms. However, it is clear that their own population size
and relative abundance can be controlled through extensive
grazing by fish. It is thus reasonable to expect a lake
study to include a general survey of the species composition
and abundance of zooplankton, though no previous study has
done so.
METHODS
The sampling program as well as processing methods have been
designed to reveal approximate density of the abundant forms
and presence of rarer species, but gives no information on
extremely rare organisms which would require intensive sam-
pling to reveal (cf. Hairston and Byers, 1954).
Weekly samples were taken (less often in colder months) with
a 9-inch #20 mesh net, from the same stations as employed in
the algal study (Figure C-l). Vertical hauls with known
length of tow were made only at stations 1 and 2 (North and
South Deeps) and used for counting. Mean sample volume was
115 liters (minimum 76 liters). Horizontal tows from all
five stations were evaluated qualitatively.
All organisms were identified from slide-mounted material at
a compound microscope, using keys in Edmondson (1959) and
J. L. Brooks (1957) as well as careful comparison with material
from other lakes, mostly in New York State. One rare rotifer
(designated Rotifer B) was not identified owing to its amor-
phous features and consequent taxonomic problems. The other
rotifers (Brachionus sp.. Polyarthra sp., and Asplanchna sp.)
are ambiguous at the species level, hence identified to
family only.
361
-------
Counting was done at a dissecting microscope, Using whole
samples for sparce organisms, aliquots for abundant ones, in
which case single replicate aliquots were always counted, as
were replicate samples when available (all but three dates,
one station each; cf. Table C-6).
RESULTS
The resultant data are summarized in Table C-5, from which
C-28 is extracted to show graphically the behavior of abun-
dant forms. Greater detail, including separate station data
is appended in Tables C-6 and C-7 and Figure C-28. The
reader is reminded that these data are biological in nature
and hence may deviate from statistical reality.
Results for the three rotifers ^Keret'eTTa hiimal is,
Brachionus sp. and Polyarthra s_p_7] show trend only, because
absolute concentrations of such small organisms are not
adequately reflected by towed, net samples owing to losses
through the mesh (Li _ke.ns—arfuf Gilbert, in process, Hall and
Copper, in press). Density figures for nauplii and small
copepodids are similarly affected, but since in this lake
they are almost 100% Cyclops vernal is (see below), we can
establish the reliability of their trends by comparison with
adults of that species (Figure C-28). It seems reasonable to
assume that trends in the density of the three rotifers men-
tioned are equally unaffected by net sampling losses.
362
-------
TABLE C-5
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
ZOOPLANKTON; MEAN NUMBER PER 100 LITERS*
Jan Feb March
T? 30~ IT ~5 T"9
Cladocera:
1 . Daphm'a simil is: total 1
2. with eggs 1
3. ripe ovaries
4. Daphm'a pulex: total 8 2 1 tr
5. with eggs 1 1
6. ripe ovaries
7. Ceriodaphnia quadrangula
Copedoda:
8. all copepod nauplii 1 tr
9. cyclopoid copepodids 2 5 1 tr
10. Cyclops Vernalis 1 1
Rotifera:
11. Keratella hiemalis 1
12. Braehionus sp.
13. Polyarthra sp.
Rare spp:
14 Asplanchna sp.
15. Keratella cochlearis
16. Filinia~Tongiseta
17. Rotifer F
18. Chydorus spaericus
19. Bosmina longirostris
20. Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi tr
21 . Mesocylops edax' ~
22. Diaptomid copepodids
23. Diaptomus sici1is
* Arithmetic mean of two station means (North & South basin
near center), rounded to integers.
Blank space means none present in aliquots counted,
tr - trace
363
-------
TABLE C-5 - (Cont'd)
April Ma
23 30 714 21 27
1
tr
tr
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
134
2
3
45
75
7
1.
2.
3.
4. tr tr 1 tr
5. tr
6.
7. tr tr
8.
9.
10. tr
11. tr 159
12. tr 1 36 1,355 32,693 910
13. tr
14. tr tr 1
15.
16.
17. 2 4 abundant
18.
19.
20. tr
21.
22. tr tr
23. tr tr tr
364
-------
TABLE C-5 - (Cont'd)
June
4
2
1
129
1,446
295
51
92
62
11
tr
tr
6
2
356
10,262
1,605
400
71
18
tr
tr
tr
73
1
1,180
6,125
4,749
949
34
tr
25
4
1
1
98
10
4
3,012
5,476
2,659
690
220
2
20
4
4
86
10
10
3,606
4,402
616
418
1 ,392
July
9
134
12
10
94
4
8
1 ,488
2,992
408
517
540
16
1 ,708
134
32
52
16
6
3,061
4,196
1 ,404
835
368
386
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16. 416
17.
18.
19.
20.
21. 13
22.
23.
365
-------
TABLE C-5 - (Cont'd)
July Au g u s t
T3 3~0~
6
396
42
6
3
656
440
634
134
126
620
13
3,096
30
33
89
4
1 ,380
3,270
1 ,072
512
44
1,781
22
1 ,608
123
30
54
5
3
1 ,649
2,018
1 ,192
336
207
27
1,696
89
28
46
2
617
1 ,044
294
114
451
12
1. 1,844 1,954
2. 31 150
3. 56 3
4. 54 60
5. 10
6. 3
7. 1,912 844
8. 5,364 2,726
9. 1,423 268
10. 730 132
11. 499 233
12.
13. 14
14.
15.
16.
17.
11:
20.
21.
22. 2
23.
366'
-------
TABLE C-5 - (Cont'd)
September
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
n.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
3
666
18
84
303
935
223
98
724
2,044
18
2
18
526
16
38
152
4
2,112
1 ,778
557
117
592
1 ,649
14
6
25
120
5
2
242
81
11
926
1 ,694
413
no
306
782
6
3
3
tr
tr
3
1
tr
8
45
53
2
33
7
16
October
15 29
224 7
22
30 3
164 8
36
18
166
1,641 49
1,604 42
234 1
204 57
3,564 344
Nov
20
88
21
848
252
9
63
182
13
1 ,998
97
29
Dec
~T¥
35
975
138
22
44
45
4
426
2
367
-------
TABLE C-6
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
ZOOPLANKTON: MEAN NUMBER PER TOO LITERS @ EACH STATION*
Jan Feb
14 30 19
S N S N S N
Cladocera:
1 . Daphm'a sim 11 is : total 1
2. with eggs 1
3. ripe ovaries
4. Daphm'a pul ex; total 116 41
5. with eggs 1 1 1
6. ripe ovaries
7. Ceriodaphnia quadrangula
Copedoda:
8. all copepod nauplii 1 tr
9. cyclopoid copepodids 32 81
10. Cyclops Vernal is 11 1 tr
Rotifera:
11. Keratella hiemalis
12. Brachionus sp.
13. Polyarthra sp.
Rare spp:
14. Asplanchna sp.
15. Keratella cochlearis
16. Fi1inia~Tongiseta
17. Rotifer B.
18. Chydorus s_p_a_er_icu_s_
19. Bosmina "longirostri s
20. Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi
21 . Mesocylqps edax"
22. Diaptomid copepodids
23. Diaptomus s i c i1i s
* Arithmetic mean of two samples rounded to integer; total
counts or aliquot(s) used from each sample.
Blank space means none present in aliquots counted,
tr = trace
368
-------
TABLE C-6 - (Cont'd)
March
April
4
S N
9
S N
16
S N
23
S N
30
S N
5 T9
S N S N
1.
2.
3.
4, tr tr tr
5.
6.
7. tr
8. 1 tr 2 1
9. tr 1 tr tr tr 1 tr
10. tr tr tr
11.
12. tr tr 1
13. tr tr
14. tr tr tr
15.
16.
17. 2334
18.
19.
20. tr tr
21.
22. tr tr tr
23.
369
-------
TABLE C-6 - (Cont'd)
s
1
N
14
S N
May
S
21
N
S
21
N
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11 .
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
tr
tr 2
1 3
tr
21 52
1 tr
tr tr
tr
tr 1 tr tr
tr
tr tr
1 268 17 72
11 1 2 126 23
11 15 85
268 50 10
224 2,486 44,593 20,793 1,397 422
abundant
tr
tr
37Q
-------
TABLE C-6 - (Cont'd)
June
4 11 18
S N S N S N
1 . tr tr tr tr
2. tr tr tr
3. tr
4. 1 2 3 8 94 52
5. 1 1 1 3 1
6.
7. 204 54 340 371 1,199 1,160
8. 1,424 1,469 7,204 13,319 8,677 3,573
9. 267 323 503 2,707 3,255 6,243
10. 75 27 262 548 980 918
11. 110 74 54 88
12. 74 79 67
13. tr tr
14.
15.
16. 87 745
17.
18.
19.
20.
21 .
22.
23.
25
S
7
1
1
75
20
4,321
6,473
3,936
793
152
N
tr
tr
122
8
1 ,703
4,480
1 ,382
587
287
371
-------
TABLE C-6 - (Cont'd)
July
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
S
35
5
5
41
4
3,790
2,506
617
167
1 ,433
2
N
6
4
2
131
16
21
3,422
6,298
615
669
1 ,351
S
160
20
17
171
6
16
1 ,935
4,240
555
500
935
9
N
109
4
4
16
3
1
1 ,040
1 ,744
262
534
144
1
S
2,854
155
52
70
23
9
3,412
5,739
2,301
1,448
619
540
26
6
N
561
112
13
33
8
4
2,710
2,652
507
220
118
231
23
S N
2,097 1,590
31 31
57 54
103 5
2,055 1,768
5,501 5,227
1,598 1,248
674 787
356 642
372
-------
TABLE C-6 - (Cont'd)
1 .
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15,
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
July
30
S N
1,332 2,575
301
5
86 33
20
5
742 945
2,749 2,073
343 193
96 168
198 268
28
August
6 13
S N S N
212 579 639 5,553
85 25 35
5 30 36
5 89 89
9
123 1,189 1,455 1,304
350 529 2,438 4,103
1,084 183 560 1,583
139 128 564 460
129 122 88
863 376 824 2,738
22
S N
1,685 1,531
217 29
59
59 48
10
5
2,120 1,178
2,447 1,589
2,120 265
435 236
326 88
373
-------
TABLE C-6 - (Cont'd)
Augu
st
September
27
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
S
2,884
144
46
73
4
833
1,555
369
147
674
N
509
34
9
18
401
532
219
82
228
25
23
4
S
1,084
25
18
320
1 ,626
386
151
960
3,104
9
3
N
248
12
150
286
244
60
46
489
984
27
5
1
S
929
26
76
189
8
1 ,523
1 ,798
738
133
824
1 ,357
8
N
122
5
116
2,700
1 ,758
376
101
360
1,941
28
11
2
S
167
4
4
347
140
22
888
2,195
417
73
157
695
5
N
72
5
137
22
265
1 ,193
409
147
456
868
11
374'
-------
TABLE C-6 - (Cont'd)
October November December
2 15 29 20 T8
S S N S S N S
1. 3 345 104 7 29 146 35
2. tr 43 42
3. tr 33 26 3 21
4. 3 172 156 8 1,350 345 975
5. 1 42 31 368 136 138
6. tr 4 31 21 22
7. 8 164 167 10 8
8. 45 1,024 2,258 49 68 58 44
9. 53 1,442 1,766 42 324 39 45
10. 2 234 233 1 2 24 4
11. 33 235 175 57 1,264 2,733 426
12. 7
13. 16 1,827 5,301 344 136 58 2
14.
15. 58
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
375
-------
TABLE C-7
ONONDA6A LAKE STUDY
COEFFICIENTS OF VARIATION*. MAJOR SPECIES
Jan Feb March
T? O
Cladocera:
1. Daphnia simil is 141
2. Daphnia pulex 42 85 81 141
3. Chydorus spahaericus
Copepoda:
4. all copepod nauplii 141 141
5. cyclopoid copepodids 28 110 141 141
6 Cyclops vernal is 141
Rotifera:
7. Keratella htetnalis 141
8. Brae hi onus sp.
9. Polyarthra sp.
TOO s
-K
Blank space means none present in aliquots counted
- means no replication
376
-------
TABLE C-7 - (Cont'd)
April
4 9 16 23 30
1.
2. 141 141
3. 141
4. 141 47
5. 141 141
6. 141 141
7.
8. 141 141
9. 141
May
7 14 21 29
141 141
141
141 141 141 87
71 47 74
94 33
141 97
60 118 51 76
377
-------
TABLE C-7 - (Cont'd)
June
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
4
47
82
2
13
67
28
29
11
141
64
6
42
97
52
34
18
141
41
2
59
44
5
141
141
25
141
34
61
26
68
21
43
July
2 9 16
100 27 95
74 117 51
7 42 16
61 59 52
1 51 90
95 5 104
96
4 104 57
23
19
128
11
4
17
11
40
30
45
63
17
1
40
38
21
141
378
-------
TABLE C-7 - (Cont'd)
August September October
13 22 27 ~3 18 25 2 15 29
1 .
2.
3.
66
141
115
112
8
7
14
40
99
85
50
89
111
8
108
34
39
56
61
6
28
34
16
76
7
1
4.
5.
6.
29
100
6
36
67
14
30
110
42
69
36
40
104
103
75
2
46
19
42
1
48
9
75
34
57
14
1
7. 4 141 81 70 46 55 69 39 21
8. 29
9. 56 76 141 73 25 16 64 69
379
-------
TABLE C-7 - (Cont'd)
November December
20 18
1- 95 10
2. 84 19
3. 16
*• 11 89
5. Ill 15
6. 120 141
7. 52 51
8.
9. 57 141
380
-------
INTERPRETATION
The extremely low densities of zooplankton from December
through April probably reflect the depressing effect of low
temperature, and ice cover on algal food. The first major
growth of each form appears to be exponental , suggesting that
it is growth without active inhibition from environmental
deficiencies. Though unexplained, the marked fluctuations
which follow suggest that a relatively high density of each
abundant organism is ordinarily possible but is being inter-
rupted; high sections of each curve are often somewhat
flattened compared to the low sections, which are relatively
momentary. This suggests the action of an inhibitor (causing
the troughs) as well as a limiting factor (leveling the tops).
Such a conjecture gains some support from the following
observations: a) Each trough appears for almost all plankters
at the same date and with adjacent similar motion, yet in each
case at least one plankter is not thus affected. This miti-
gates against explaining the troughs by artifact. (The
exception, October 2nd, may indeed result from a sampling
anomaly), b) Some similar behavior is seen in the algae,
as follows:
DATE
ZOOPLANKTON
PHYTOPLANKTON EVENT
mid July
depression
beg. Aug.
beg. Sept.
beg. Oct.
beg. Nov.
marked
depression
depression
depression
depression
no depression of phyto-
plankton biomass but
Chlorella unhealthy and
ScenedesnTus density de-
creased
marked depression, parti-
cularly Chlorella;
generally unhealthy cells
depression, blue-greens
have just attained
dominance
depression at South-Deep
only
no depression
Particularly striking is the trough of all plankton at the
beginning of August, and it is tempting to explain this on the
basis of chemical inhibitor (a combination of high NH3 with
high pH (8.8) perhaps). However, too little is known about the
381
-------
tolerance of zooplankters to high ion concentrations to permit
decisive equation with the chemical data (see discussion in
Hutchinson, 1967). Zooplankton densities after November 1,
are likely to be temperature linked.
The high densities of zooplankton are mostly confined to the
period of warm water temperatures, thus suggesting that con-
trolling factors may also be influenced by temperature. The
upper limits of these densities may not be a function of food
supply; brood sizes for all crustaceans are large throughout
the summer and fall, averaging for daphnids better than 6
eggs per gravid female, which is possible but unlikely in the
presence of food shortage (Hall 1964). Moreover, dissolved
oxygen, N, P04 and K levels as well as algal densities are
generally high throughout the period (see Appendix B for
nutrients).
Predation by tish is occuring and may be affecting densities
of cladocera; in June (and to some extent in August) white
perch were seen to select large daphnia. However, throughout
July and August there was an abundance of large IK sjmil is,
an improbable situation in the presence of heavy grazing
(Brooks 1966; Brooks and Dodson, 1965; Hall and Cooper, in
press; Hall and Waterman, in process).
Sudden decreases in plankton density could conceivably
follow from disease, but there was no visible signs of para-
sites, degenerate egqs, or anomalous growth.
The spatial distribution of Onondaga zooplankton seems rather
homogeneous. Abundance of principal plankters seldom shows
marked divergence between North and South-Deeps (Figure C-28,
Table C-6). Moreover, remarkably similar species compositions
are found at the peripheral stations, there being little or no
observable divergence (from deep stations) on 24 out of 32
dates -- except at the outlet station, where backflow from the
Seneca River is apparent. Physical information on the backflow
(Section 9) is supported by the following:
NUMBER OF OCCURRENCES
Species Deep Stations Outlet Stations
Diaptomus sici1is 3 4
Diaptomid copepodids 4 7
Chydorus spahaericus 3 3
Bosmina longirostris 1 6
Asplanchna sp. 4 7
382
-------
Chydorus, though not more frequent at the outlet, appeared
much more abundant there, as did Bosmina and Asplanchna.
Other peripheral divergences are trivial by comparison.
Vertical distribution was not studied, but a striking lack of
observable differences in species composition or density bet-
ween surface and vertical hauls at the deep stations suggests
that stratification of zooplankters was not extreme within
the epilimnion.
The species composition of Onondaga Lake is highlighted by two
plankters which are often associated with saline waters.
Daphnia similis (subgenus Ctenodaphnia), a very large species
not previously known from this region, is normally observed
in lakes with very high salinities, perhaps above 5000 ppm
(Brooks 1957). Brachionus sp. is formally found in hard water
and some species are marine (Edmondson, in Edmondson, 1959;
and Ahlstrom, 1940).
D_aphnia_ similis appears to have experienced only limited suc-
cess in the lake in June (conceivably because of fish grazing)
but it multiplied exponentially in early July, leveling off
(with the notable exception of the August 6 crash) until the
beginning of September. The subsequent decline may be a func-
tion of temperature.
The two daphnia may also be in competition. Daphnia pulex
shows only low densities in the summer when D. similis is
high. After some parallel densities in OctoFer, D_. pulex
becomes the dominant daphnid as though it were the more
successful form at lower temperatures. However, competition
with Ceriodaphnia (see Figure C-28) or selective fish pre-
dation, (decreasing with temperature) may have occurred,
while temperature and even change in food species might have
had some effect. Interaction of several (or all) of these
factors and others is likely.
The Ceriodaphnia curves are notably similar to those of the
copepods nearly all of which are Cyclops vernal is, the other
species (Mesocyclops edax and Diaptomus sicilis) being rare
and sporadic. The first peak of nauplii is about a week
ahead of the copepodids and adults, presumably showing normal
ontogenetic sequence of the first abundant generation. There-
after they and (Ceriodaphnia) all change density in approximate
parallel. The greater amplitude of the curves for juvenile
forms probably reflects natural mortality prior to maturity.
The general shapes of these cu'rves is discussed above. This
lake is perhaps unique in having but one relatively abundant
copepod.
The ragged rotifer curves no doubt reflect the tremendous
fecundity and shortgeneration time of these small organisms,
383
-------
but they also result from a sampling routine which, as
discussed above, is less suitable than for the crustaceans,
and a correspondingly less fastidious counting result. The
Braehi onus explosion (in May), probably occurring in the
absence of competition of predation, appears to exhibit
natural exponential growth (to the point of crowding) and
decline. The subsequent explosion of Cyclopoda suggests
that Brachionus may have been a food source for them, at
least in late May. Cyclomorphs of Keretella hiemalis were
seen throughout the year, but were not studied.
In general the Onondaga Lake zooplankton populations conform
to what might be expected in a saline lake at this latitude.
Explanation of the fluctuations neither requires nor excludes
the possibility of relationship with specific chemical
parameters.
384
-------
FISH SURVEY OF ONONDA6A LAKE - SUMMER, 1969
by
R. L. Noble and J. L. Forney
INTRODUCTION
Under contract with O'Brien & Gere Engineers, Inc., Syracuse,
New York, a fish survey of Onondaga Lake was conducted during
the summer of 1969 by the Department of Conservation, Cornell
University. The objectives of the study were to determine
the species composition of the fish population and its general
condition.
METHODS
Fishery investigations were conducted in Onondaga Lake on
May 12-13, June 18-19 and August 7-8, 1969. To ensure that
the greatest variety of fish would be taken, a number of dif-
ferent sampling techniques were utilized (Table C-8).
TABLE C-8
Summary of Fishery Research Activities
Conducted on Onondaga Lake, 1969
Date
May
13-14
June
18-19
August
7-8
Activity
Mid-water Trawl ing
Half-meter plankton netting
Gill netting
Half-meter plankton netting
Gill netting
Mid-water Trawling
Gill netting
Seining
Ekman dredge sampling
Objective
Adult pelagic fish
Pelagic fry
Adult inshore fish
As above
As above
Adult pelagic fish
reproduction
As above
Reproduction, small
littoral fish
Benthos
385
-------
Gillnetting was done during each sampling period to collect
adult fish. Four nets, each 125 feet long by 6 feet high and
mesh sizes of 1-1/2 to 4 inches (stretch), were set overnight
during each month at stations throughout the shallow portions
of the lake (Stations 3-8, Fig. 1).
A half-meter plankton net, equipped with #0 mesh (aperture
size .5 mm) was towed near the surface at Stations 1-6 in May
and at Stations 1-3, 5, 7 and 8 in June to collect pelagic
fry. Approximately 34 m3 were strained per haul.
An 8 x 8 foot mid-water trawl with 1 inch mesh wings and 1/4
inch cod-end liner was towed in May and August in search of
pelagic fish, either adult or young. A single tow was made
across the lake at Station 1 in May and two tows near
Station 3 in August.
A 6 foot mid-water trawl with 1 inch mesh and 1/8 inch cod-
end liner and 1/16 inch mesh catch bucket was towed near the
surface in August in search of pelagic fry. Tows were made
from the Liverpool launching area (Station 9) to Station 2,
and from Station 2 to Station 11.
A 75 foot bag seine with 1/4 inch mesh was used in August to
collect small fish along the shoreline. Hauls were made from
a depth of 3 to 4 feet to the shore at Stations 8-11.
In addition to the fish survey, benthos samples were taken
with an Ekman dredge at the gill net sites in August. Two 100
cm2 samples were taken at each station, one at the shallow and
one at the deep end of the gill net.
386
-------
SPECIES COMPOSITION
The following species were collected in the course of the 1969
Onondaga Lake investigation:
Cyprinus carpio - Carp - 55 adults
Notropis atherinoides - Emerald shiner - 4 adults
Catostomus commersoni - White sucker - 2 adults, 5 young
Moxostoma macrolepidotum - Northern redhorse - 6 adults
Noxostoma sp. - Redhorse sucker - 1 adult
Ictalurus punctatus - Channel catfish - 20 adults
Ictaturu? nebulosuT - Brown bullhead - 3 adults, 3 young
Culaea fnconstans - Brook stickleback - 1 adult
Roccus americanus - White perch - 607 adults, 10 young
Micropterus dolo¥ieui - Smallmouth bass - 5 adults
Lepomis macrochirus - Bluegill - 1 adult
Lepomis gibbosus - Pumpkinseed (Common sunfish) - 3 adults
Lepomis sp. - Bluegill or Pumpkinseed - 3 young
Perca flavescens - Yellow perch - 22 adults
Stizostedion y,. vitreum - Walleye - 5 adults
Aplodinotus grunniens - Fresh water drum - 6 adults
This list is probably incomplete, however, it is unlikely that
any species common in Onondaga Lake is not represented.
Carp - Carp appear to be common in Onondaga Lake. Adults were
taken in gill nets and by seining, and a single adult captured
in a mid-water trawl when towed on bottom in approximately six
feet of water. Carp were also frequently observed jumping
from the water when setting nets in the evening. Adults
ranged from 255 mm to 668 mm and were all age II and older.
The absence of young carp in the seine hauls and yearlings in
all samples indicates that the population may not be reproduc-
ing well in the lake.
Emerald shiner - Four adult emerald shiners were seined just
each of the outlet of Onondaga Lake.
White sucker - Two adult suckers were taken in gill nets at
Station 3 in May. Four young and one yearling were taken in
seine hauls at Stations 9 and 10. Reproduction may occur in
the lake.
Redhorse suckers - Six adult northern redhorse suckers were
taken in gill nets at Station 3. In addition, a single spe-
cimen of another species of redhorse was caught. The taxonomy
of this genus is presently under revision and therefore the
species was not determined.
Channel catfish - Catfish were taken in gill nets at three
sites in August (Stations 3, 5 and 8). Sizes ranged from
387
-------
260-512 mm total length. These fish appeared to be in good
condition, and were feeding on zooplankton chironomids, and
filamentous algae.
Brown bullhead - Three adult bullheads wefe taken in gill
nets in August at three separate sites, and three young of
the year were taken in August at Station 9 in the seine.
Bullheads probably are reproducing in Onondaga Lake.
Brook stickleback - A single adult stickleback was seined at
Station 9 in August. This species is not typically a lake
inhabitant.
White perch - A white perch population appears to be well es-
tablished in Onondaga Lake. Adults were taken in large num-
bers in gill nets, particularly at Stations 3 and 5. Size of
adults range up to 263 mm, with most fish between 170 and 230
mm total length. Examination of scales revealed that this
size range was composed of fish mainly age 3 to 5. All year
classes of white perch were we!1-represented in the adult
population; indicating that the population should be fairly
stable. Although much individual variation in growth was
apparent, growth of white perch in Onondaga Lake can be con-
sidered average (Table C-9). Scales indicated that excep-
tionally rapid growth occurred in 1968, but little growth
had occurred prior to August 7, 1969 judging from scale
markings.
Food habits of white perch were determined on each sampling
date. White perch fed primarily on chiromids and zooplankton
and most stomachs were nearly full on all sampling dates.
On May 13, chironomids and zooplankton were utilized to a
large extent, one or both occurring in over 80 percent of the
stomachs. In the later samples, chironomids played a lesser
role. In June, chironomids occurred in only 12 percent of the
stomachs, compared to a 74 percent occurrence of zooplankton,
and in August they occurred in 20 percent of the stomachs com-
pared to 66 percent for zooplankton. On June 19, it was noted
that the larger zooplankton (D_. pul ex) were often selected.
On the August sampling date, some zooplankton selection
occurred, but the smaller cladocerans were being utilized to
a greater extent than previously. The white perch population
of Onondaga Lake depends substantially on the zooplankton for
food, however, the composition of the zooplankton as well as
the amount of benthos may have considerable influence on the
growth rate.
White perch apparently spawned between mid-May and mid-June.
Large numbers of adult white perch in spawning condition were
collected at Stations 3 and 5 in May but most of those caught
on June 18-10 were spent. Only 10 young were collected by
388
-------
TABLE C-9
00
vo
AGE AND GROWTH OF WHITE PERCH IN ONONDAGA LAKE
May 13 - 14
Age
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
Older
No.
Aged
0
1
23
39
18
9
1
Mean
Length
(mm)
--
168
204
211
216
229
235
June 1
No.
Aged
1
3
30
31
20
6
6
18 - 19
Mean
Length
(mm)
114
144
185
204
222
239
251
, 1969
Augus
No.
Aged
0
3
16
36
6
2
0
t 7 - 8
Mean
Length
(mm)
--
182
210
213
224
234
--
Total
91
97
63
-------
seining in August, and none oy fry sampling. The occurrence
of so few young indicates that reproductive success was not
substantial in 1969. Large numbers of young may not be
necessary to maintain the population since mortality from
angling is probably negligible and predators do not appear
abundant.
The white perch is an exotic species, which until recently
was found principally in brackish water along the east coast.
It invaded New York around 1950 and became established in
some of the natural waters. It evidently found a favorable
niche in Onondaga Lake and has become firmly established.
Smallmouth bass - Five smallmouth bass were taken in gill
nets at Stations 3 and 5. These fish ranged from 191 to 279
mm and from age 2 to 5. Growth rate is within the range
observed in other New York waters. The magnitude of the
smallmouth population is difficult to assess from these sam-
ples since smallmouths are not very vulnerable to gill nets.
Sunfish - One adult bluegill and three adult pumpkinseeds
were taken. In addition, three young sunfish were seined in
August at Station 10. Reproduction probably occurred in
Onondaga Lake. Sunfish were likely more abundant in Onondaga
Lake than it appeared from these samples, since they are not
particularly vulnerable to gillnetting.
Yellow perch - Adult yellow perch were taken in gill nets on
aTTsampling dates, but in small numbers. Examination of
scales of the 22 perch revealed that growth in Onondaga Lake
was average for this species. At Station 6, ripe females
were taken in May, which is unusually lake in the season to
find females with eggs. In nine New York lake studies during
the spring of 1969, yellow perch spawned in late April. Pos-
sibly the eggs were retained because of adverse spawning
conditions. No young yellow perch were taken by tow nets or
by seining, indicating the reproduction probably was poor.
Wai 1 eye - In August, five adult walleyes were taken by gill
nets at Stations 3 and 8. These walleyes ranged from 468
to 550 mm in length and appeared to be in good condition,
although the stomachs were empty.
Freshwater drum - Six freshwater drum were taken with gill
nets in August at Stations 3 and 8. These fish ranged from
268 to 307 mm in length and were age 3 and 4.
390
-------
DISTRIBUTION
Gill net sites were selected to give a
distribution of fish. Station 3 and 5
produced good catches in May, so these
for each sampling period (Table C-10).
general indication of
along the east shore
sites were retained
Station 6, near the
mouth of Ley Creek, produced only five yellow perch and one
carp in May and no fish in August. Station 7,
west end of the lake, was sampled in June and
fish. Stations around the mouth of Nine Mile
tions 4 and 8) were not productive in May and
variety of fish were caught in August.
wide
a
these
at the south-
yielded no
Creek (Sta-
June, however
The bottom at
stations (Stations 6-8) was soft and foul-smelling.
Only the northern basin was seined for reproduction, (Sta-
tions 8-11), and only at Stations 9 and 10 were young fish
found. The bottom of these stations on the east shore was
noticeably more clean and firm than at the two stations on
the west side.
BENTHOS
Benthos samples were taken with an Ekman dredge at Stations
3, 5, 6 and 8 on August 8, 1969. A shallow and deep sample
were taken at each station. Only at Station 8, near the mouth
of Nine Mile Creek, were large numbers of benthic organisms
taken.
Station
3
5
8
Depth in Feet
5
20
5
12
8
15
6
10
Organisms
Bottom calcareous, no sample
None
1 chironomid larva
None
None
None
Chironomid larvae, ostracods
Chironomid larvae
Benthos samples were deposited with the Department of Ecology
and Systematics (G. Waterman under Contract with O'Brien &
Gere Engineers, Inc.) for further classification.
391
-------
TABLE C-10
GILL NET CATCHES, ONONDAGA LAKE, 1969
Station
«*•
j^'"
0) i—
c
3 1
00
•4-> CO
3 1
z3 r*^
CO OJ OrdCi—
2 <1) OJ S- >>E5'i-T-
Q. r— Ci — JC 4-> I— i— (/) O. 0)
* 'aj ^I~^l^'~ w^e^
o >- o CQ a: 3: 3 oo u_ a. ca
2
1 5
1 5
9 2 1
10 5 1
8 17 15242421
12 21 1
4511 1 2
TOTAL 607 45 22 20 3 7 2 5 5 6 2 1
N -- None
392
-------
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Onondaga Lake supports a fairly diverse fish fauna, typical
of many warm water lakes in Central New York State. Except
for the large population of white perch, species composition
has not changed appreciably from that reported in the surveys
of 1927 and 1946. Despite the unusual chemical and physical
characteristics of Onondaga Lake, growth of most game and pan
fish compared favorably with published growth rates of fish
in other waters of the northeast. Reproduction appeared to
be very limited in 1969, however, those young taken were of
good size and condition.
The general distribution of fish in Onondaga Lake indicates
that the population may be restricted to areas where condi-
tions are favorable. It is obvious that conditions along the
northeast shoreline of the lake are favorable to a large and
varied fish fauna, and it is unlikely that 1imnological con-
ditions in the remainder of the lake are much worse than
marginal. The apparent paucity of adult fish in the
southernmost part of the lake and lack of young along the
northwest shore probably reflect the inflow of low quality
water at the south end of the lake and from Nine Mile Creek.
Anoxic conditions in the hypolimnion have not prevented
development of a substantial pan fish population since the
habitat of white perch, yellow perch and sunfish does not
necessarily include the hypolimnion. Epilimnetic oxygen
conditions, although marginal at times, are evidently not
critical for the present fish species. These conditions may,
however, limit fish production. In addition, the quality of
the substrate in littoral areas may limit reproductive success.
Nevertheless, Onondaga Lake, located within a metropolitan
area, can provide angling opportunities for many urban
dwellers. Management of the existing fish population,
consisting principally of pan fish, could assure recreation
for youth of the area and for inter-city residents who are
unable to travel to more distant waters. Utilization of this
resource is presently limited by aesthetic considerations and
uncertainty about the quality of the fish.
In response to complaints that the flavor of Onondaga fish is
tainted and that they are undesirable for consumption, a taste
test was conducted using walleyes and white perch from Onondaga
and Oneida Lakes. Without knowledge of the source of each fish,
ten participants tasted fillets of fish from each lake. White
perch from the two sources, although distinguishable by four
persons, did not have an objectionable taste. The taste of
Onondaga Lake walleyes, however, was considered less desirable
than that of Oneida Lake walleyes by seven person, but few
393
-------
few people actually considered them objectionable. In con-
trast, one participant regarded the taste of Onondaga Lake
walleyes superior to that of the Oneida Lake counterpart. It
appears from this test that tainting of the flavor of Onondaga
Lake fish should be little deterrent to the development of an
active sport fishery on Onondaga Lake.
If current efforts to improve water quality are successful
and the results of these improvements made evident to the
public, fishing pressure will increase. Whether the present
population could sustain an intensive fishery, however, is
uncertain. When the entire basin can be improved to the
existing conditions of the northeast area of the lake, the
lake as a whole should be able to produce and maintain popu-
lations of pan fish similar to those at Stations 3 and 5.
Management of the population under greater fishing pressure
and improved habitat will require further study when such
changes occur.
394
-------
ONONDAGA LAKE
NORTH-DEEP
STATION
9
SOUTH-DEEP
STATION
LEY CREEK
STATION O
• PHYTOPLANKTON, ZOOPLANKTON
© FISH
BARGE CANAL
TERMINAL
395
BIOLOGICAL
SAMPLING LOCATIONS
-------
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8/ G/69
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PHY 1
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H—I—I—I—I—I
5/ 7/63
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5/27/63
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STATION 1 1/4 IN = 4omiR/M. STATION 2
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-------
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PHY 4
STATION 1 1^4 IN = isoso CEULSXM. STATION 2
6/11/69
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6/25/69
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409
C-12
-------
CHLDRELLA VULGARIS
PHY 5
STATION 1 1/4 IN = 18050 CELLS/ML STATION 2
7/ 2/69
\—I—I—I—I—I—HH—I—hH—I—I—I—I—I—t- H—I—I—I—I—I—h-H—I—hrH—I—I—I—I—I—I
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7/16/69
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EHLDRELLA VULGARI5
PHY E
STATION 1 1^4 IN = 1B050 CELLS/M- STATION 2
7/23/63
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I—I—I—Hd—I—I—I
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-------
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PHY 7
STATION 1 1X4 IN = 1B050 CELLS/ML STATION
8/13/69
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PHY B
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6/1S/G9
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SCENEDESMUS DBLIQUUS
PHY 9
STATION 1 1/4 IN = 4000 CELLS^i. STATION 2
7/ 9/69
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STATION 1
6/18/69
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SCENEDESMUS QUADRICAUDA PHY11
STATIQN 1 1x4 IN = also CELLS/M- STATION
7/ 9/69
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9/25/69
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9/25/69
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100
\- 1 1 h
BOTTOM OF EUPHOTICXZONE
0.5
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0
DEPTH-METERS
433
EUPHOTIC ZONE
DETERMINATION
(SEE TEXT)
O'BRIEN a GERE
iNtimim • uw» tu«vcro*i
trucuit, •(•
-------
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I I I I I I II III I t
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JLY AUG SEP OCT MOV DEC
1969
3OK-
IOK
5K-
2K
K
500
scale:
APPROXIMATE NUMBERS PER 100 LITERS
454
ONONDAGA LAKE
ZOOPLANKTON
OlMICN ft KWC
MM CMMMCWI • UHM I
, mm TWW
028
-------
cyclopoid
copepodids
Cyclops
vernalis
Kerotello
hiemolis
Brachionus sp.
Polyarthro sp.
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JLY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
1969
scale:
30 K--
10 K- -
5K-.
2K
K
500
0*
APPROXIMATE NUMBERS PER IOO LITERS
435
ONONDAGA LAKE
ZOOPLANKTON
• 0EMC
-------
PERCENTAGE
OF IONS, ION PAIRS,
RELATIVE TO
TOTAL
CONCENTRATION OF
CHEMICAL
SPECIES 75
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-------
| Q t
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72
68
64
60
56
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F- APATITE UNSTABLE
STABILITY BOUNDARY
F-APATITE STABLE
10
DATA
BOUNDARY
(4
T(*C)
18
22
26
438
STABILITY DIAGRAM FOR
FLUORAPATITE
JUNE-OCT 69
0-MIEH a «EftE
MALI'
D-3
-------
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A JULY I6-OCT29 1969
439
STABILITY DIAGRAM FOR
FLUORITE
JUNE-OCT 69
-------
2.0 -
1.0 J
10
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0.5 j
0.0
FILTERED
DATA
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CALCfTE
STABLE
STABILITY BOUNDARY
UNRLTERED
DATA
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CALCITE
UNSTABLE
70
75
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9.0
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6/25/69- 8/6/69
UNF1LTERED WATER
FALL 1969
440
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4.6
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10 14 18 22 26
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441
FLUORIDE ACTIVITY
JUNE-OCT 69
r. ,——j>«m.
-------
10
8
j 6
G
(gibbiite)
Kf
(potassium feldspar)
DATA
BOUNDARY
K
(kaolinite)
Waters above 9 m.
20* C Model
[si*]
442
STABILITY DIAGRAM FOR
POTASSIUM MINERALS,
KAOLINITE, AND GIBBS ITE
OtftlCN • WMC
I • LM* IWVf TM(
D-7
-------
10
o
o
o
8
Kf
(potassium feldspar)
G
(gibbsite)
DATA
BOUNDARY
K
(kaoMnite)
Waters below 9 m.
IO°C Model
443
STABILITY DIAGRAM FOR
POTASSIUM MINERALS,
KAOLINITE.AND GIBBSITE
t^HOmtII2Ji«» • UJJJMWtTWW
•TIMVMVi ••• TVm
-------
16 t
14
CM
12
g
9
O
10
8
DATA
BOUNDARY
CaM
(calcium
montmorillonite)
K
(kaolinite)
444
STABILITY DIAGRAM FOR
KAOLINITE -
Ca- MONTMORILLONITE
O*MIEN ft acne
D-9
-------
1.0
2 .8
o"
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o
u
O
o
.4
.8
.6
10 [cr]
DATA POINTS FOR Mg NOT SHOWN
I.O
1.2
445
LEAST SQUARES
LINEAR REGRESSIONS FOR
ONONDAGA LAKE WATER
O'MICN • OCKE
COMWriM HWWCIM • UMW »UBVIT»m
, «• *•*•
-------
1.2
1.0
o
Z,
.6
.6
o
K)
4^
•K
JL
o
.2
• Q.Q3I Cl~ -f 0.274
.2
.4
.6
.6
1.0
1.2
DATA POINTS FOR Cd NOT SHOWN
446
LEAST SQUARES
LINEAR REGRESSIONS FOR
SEDIMENT ENCLOSED WATERS
0*MIEN a SEME
OH I
-------
s
r
o c/>
•n m
o
05 ?
m
°1
o TI
BLACK CLAY
BROWN "CLAY"
BROWN SAND
BANDING, WHITE,
LIGHT 8 DARK GREY
WHITE OR GREY
MOTTLING
black-brown = bb
grey-brown » gb
BROWNISH - GREY
COMPACT
SCALE :
I CM.' 30 CM.
-------
TABLE D-1
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
Chemical Data from Sediment Enclosed Waters (Piston Core), 1969
(mg/1)
Station
Depth
in Seds.
(m)
Cl
Na
Ca
Mg.
Alk
oo
815
815
818
818
818
818
819
819
819
819
820
820
820
821
821
821
821
821
A
A
A
A
B
B
A
A
B
B
A
A
B
A
A
B
C
C
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
1
4
1
1
4
5,800
38,500
4,298
26,500
3,849
18,500
17,393
18,992
2,400
9,900
4,400
29,288
6,000
5,150
40,900
5,900
26,300
33,500
3,150
18,200
2,540
1 ,630
--
13,300
22,300
1 ,090
7,620
2,660
21,500
3,930
3,510
28,600
3,690
19,100
29,500
1 ,050
1 ,250
1 ,890
--
1..740
--
581
653
748
849
1 ,090
1,520
1 ,210
1 ,070
1,090
1 ,020
1,380
1 ,520
133.
357.
127.
—
115.
--
133.
206.
42.
188.
133.
387.
151.
78.
272.
121 .
287.
436.
30.8
29.5
35.6
—
34.8
—
84.5
88.
27.3
87.1
41.4
54.6
37.5
39.6
—
37.
35.1
54.6
800
600
1 ,200
400
900
500
700
500
800
700
900
1 ,100
700
700
400
1 ,000
900
400
7. 50
8.15
7.65
7.90
7.50
7.60
7.85
7.70
7.60
7.80
7.70
7.50
7.60
7.55
8.10
7.50
7.80
7.20
-------
TABLE D-2
Chemical Data from Sediment-Enclosed Waters (Piston Core), 1968
UD
Station
910
912
912
912
913
913
913
913
916
916
919
919
920
920
920
920
920
920
A
A
A
B
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
B
B
B
Depth
in Seds.
(m)
1.2
0.2
0.5
1.2
0.5
0.8
1 .2
1.3
0.8
1 .5
0.5
1.8
0.3
0.6
1
0
Cl
(mg/1)
Na
Ca
i.o
1.3
13,550
2,300
1 ,950
2,000
5,300
8,000
11 ,050
2,550
7,450
19,350
5,800
5,600
5,800
5,400
10,000
8,800
14,200
9,600
4,950
2,670
2,670
3,000
3,340
6,000
7,840
2,670
5,500
--
2,500
2,500
2,500
2,400
3,680
7,940
7,500
3,420
2,700
758
380
490
539
587
550
587
795
123
550
623
342
858
233
477
500
612
—
16
52
6
220
304
376
268
20
20
216
150
—
12
500
310
490
--
115.
232.
154.
257.
51 .5
26.
64.
45.
84.
244.
109.
58.
64.
90.
64.
31 .
38.5
38.5
Alk,
1 ,010
2,750
800
2,710
1 ,010
1 ,070
890
2,470
1 ,690
1 ,650
180
904
880
1 ,160
1 ,960
1 ,810
1 ,150
540
6.5
11.3
8.2
11.8
7.52
7.45
7.50
7.7
11 .7
9.3
8.95
9.0
7.15
11.0
7.8
7.2
6.9
7.52
-------
TABLE D-3
Station
ONONDA6A LAKE STUDY
Chemical Data for Sediment-Enclosed Waters (Gravity Core), 1969
Qng/1)
Depth
in Seds.
(m)
Cl
Na
Ca
Si
OP
01
o
A
A
721 A
723 A
723 A
724 A
724 B
724 B
724 C
724 C
724 D
724 D
731
731
801 A
807 A
807 A
807 B
808 A
808 B
808 B
808 B
811 A
811 B
812 A
812 A
812 A
812 B
812 B
0.9
0.3
—
0.5
0.3
1 .45
0.3
1.6
0.7
2.1
0.5
--
0.5
1 .7
0.5
0.5
0.5
—
--
0.5
- .
0.5
—
--
0.5
--
37,200
15,500
26,000
4,500
11 ,500
36,000
5,000
35,000
3,000
6,500
6,500
22,000
2,500
6,000
63,000
6,000
—
2,000
1 ,500
2,000
2,000
--
7,500
2,500
1 ,740
19,000
52,500
4,540
8,230
16,900
2,780
6,530
20,600
2,420
20,100
1 ,330
4,840
3,870
14,600
823
2,060
12,800
1 ,730
133
865
865
666
799
413
1 ,800
945
958
4,690
11 ,800
812
1 ,330
799
1 ,060
1 ,080
1 ,840
1 ,100
3,260
1 ,200
918
1 ,090
1,200
666
2,640
--
2,250
290
1 ,160
450
290
741
363
2,830
1 ,740
1 ,740
9,510
21 ,000
119.
339.
242.
--
__
--
--
--
--
--
--
—
--
—
--
--
--
--
—
26.6
7.8
7.8
45.3
72.6
23.
27.5
77 .4
33.9
54.5
162.
31 .5
227 .
104.
102.
20.6
23.
16.9
47.2
26.6
35.1
33.9
26.6
29.0
26.6
29.
9.7
32.7
43.6
25.4
98.
290.
51 .
59.
56.2
52.5
40.
43.5
62.
50.
10.
7.5
5.5
67.5
37.
16.
22.
18.
56.
57.2
57.2
41 .
41 .
33.5
12.5
17.5
7.5
10.5
13.5
2.5
2.
7.5
3.
3.5
2.
12.5
--
0.
2.
1 .5
.5
6.5
.5
0.
1.
4.5
1 .5
6.
2.5
1 .5
1.5
0.
0.
0.
0.2
0,
-------
TABLE D-4
Sample
(Date)
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
Chemical Data from Lake Water, Station 7, 1969
(mg/1)
Depth
in Seds.
(m)
Cl
Na
Ca
MS.
K
en
611
611
618
625
625
521
716
723
813
827
903
918
918
1008
1023
1121
1121
1204
1204
1218
3
12
15
3
12
12
0
9
0
18
6
0
12
18
3
6
9
12
15
18
1 ,350
1 ,900
1 ,850
1 ,300
1 ,750
1 ,700
1 ,250
1 ,750
1 ,450
1 ,800
2,000
1 ,600
1 ,750
1 ,900
2,000
2,000
1 ,900
2,500
2,350
2,300
391
590
586
511
641
792
528
847
605
684
853
678
678
895
865
1 ,020
1 ,060
782
958
1 ,000
426
708
688
517
752
983
548
977
654
818
858
792
871
1 ,200
1 ,040
1 ,060
1,110
931
1 ,080
1 ,250
27.
27.5
31 .
27.8
29.
40.5
58.1
69.
30,
62
30,
30,
29
47
32
41
40.
31 .5
33.9
33.9
3
7
3
3
6
1
7
12,
17
14,
13,
15.
17,
14,
17
17
16,
24
16
15
17
21
22
23
17
20
8
5
4
1
4
3
2
2
9
2
4
4
3
1
3
3
6
18.2
Twenty samples chosen at random for Least Squares Regression Analysis
-------
TABLE D-5
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
Sediment Shaking Tests
(mq/1)
Station
OP
SI
ALK.
2J1
Dry Wgt
(mg)
913
913
912
912
912
912
912
912
920
920
916
916
919
919
917
917
913
913
802
802
919
919
A2D
A2S
ID
IS
2D
2S
3D
3S
AD
AS
A3D
A3S
BSD
B3S
Al .00
Al .OS
B2D
B2S
ED
ES
Al .80
Al .85
.2
trace
.03
.4
.04
.2
trace
.08
.12
.26
.18
.16
.16
.4
.2
.08
.32
.16
trace
trace
trace
trace
14
11
>40
>40
13
14
18
31
^40
>40
5
4
4
9
5
4
4
12
25
10
9
12
.0
.4
.0
.0
,2
.5
.0
.5
.0
.0
.5
.5
.4
.5
.0
.8
.5
.0
.4
.0
.6
.5
5
5
5
5
10
15
15
10
15
15
30
30
20
10
30
20
20
20
10
5
5
5
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
6
6
7
6
6
6
7
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
6
6
6
9
8
6
6
.0
.1
.5
.2
.1
.2
.9
.8
.4
.0
.45
.3
.3
.2
.4
.2
.7
.8
.0
.75
.55
.5
,3195
.3350
.2910
.3230
.4935
.3822
.4065
.3010
.3785
.2670
.2910
452
-------
TABLE D-5
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
Sediment Shaking Tests
(mg/1)
Station
OP
910 2D
910 2S
913 B3D
913 B3S
920 B-l .3D
920 B-1.3S
910 3D
910 3S
919 A5D
919 A5S
913 BSD
913
913 Al .00
913 Al.OS
919 A50
919 A5S
920 Al .70
920 Al .75
920 A3D
920 ASS
919 B.7D
919 B.7S
918 B.7D
918 B.7S
trace
trace
trace
trace
.28
.16
.24
.16
.28
.30
.82
.16
.04
.16
.42
.08
.52
.08
trace
trace
.12
trace
.96
.12
SI
10
9
13,
12,
13,
10,
6,
6,
13.
10,
19,
6.
24,
27.
22,
5.
27.
6.
16.
28.
6.
10.
27.
2
0
2
2
2
0
9
9
2
2
5
9
8
8
8
5
0
9
5
0
9
4
8
11 .8
ALK.
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
10.0
0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
10.0
20.0
10.0
15.0
10.0
20.0
10.0
20.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
6.1
6.2
6.1
6.3
5.0
3.3
7.1
6.5
6.3
6.5
6.4
6.5
5.1
7.1
5.0
5.7
6.2
6.5
6.6
6.3
5.8
5.85
6.3
6.3
Dry Wgt
(mg)
.3125
.3505
.3605
.3630
.3770
.3810
.4060
.3175
.3260
.3540
.3330
.3150
453
-------
TABLE D-5
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
Sediment Shaking Tests
(mg/1)
Station
OP
SI
ALK.
Dry Wgt.
(mg)
916
916
916
916
916
916
913
913
912
912
917
917
920
920
923
923
917
917
920
920
916
916
AID
"A1S
A2D
A2S
BID
BIS
A3D
A3S
ID
IS
A7D
A7S
B1AD
BIOS
A.SD
A.5S
A3D
A3S
Al .70
A1.7S
B2D
B2S
.28
.18
trace
trace
.45
.24
.60
.12
trace
.14
.36
.12
.54
trace
trace
trace
.2
.16
.14
.04
.16
trace
8
6
12
24
9
6
12
6
23
33
24
6
25
4
19
27
11
16
8
10
16
6
.0
.0
.0
.5
.2
.0
.0
.96
.2
.50
.0
.0
.44
.8
.0
.0
.0
.5
.5
.0
.5
.0
10
20
10
10
10
20
20
20
10
5
10
20
10
20
20
10
5
5
5
5
5
5
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
,0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
5.
5.
6.
5.
5.
6.
6.
6.
4.
4.
5.
6.
6.
6.
9.
5.
6.
6.
6.
6.
6.
6.
4
9
3
6
9
1
1
2
9
55
8
0
0
1
0
8
4
2
4
4
3
3
.3155
.3260
.3265
.3050
.2910
.3005
.2160
.2690
.3310
.3260
.3610
454
-------
TABLE D-6
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
Jenkins Samples (rng/1)
June 30, 1969
Station
DO
CL
SI02
OP
TP
J3H. ALK
01
01
617 B-U
617 B-D
619 B-U
619 B-D
South Deep-D
Unmarked
623 A-D
618 A-D
South Deep-U
624 A-D
623 A-U
624 A-U
618 A-U
626 A-D
626 A-U
1 .0
8.4
10.0
1.4
1 .2
6.4
6.0
1 .2
8.4
5.8
6
6
5
1
3
3
1.5
0.75
1.35
1 .60
0.70
1 .90
3.50
0.80
0.50
3.75
0.00
0.50
1 .25
2.80
0.70
1 .10
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
2.0
0.0
0.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
5.0
3.5
3.0
3.5
11.0
4.5
8.5
6.0
27.5
35.5
2.0
24.5
4.0
30.5
7.00
6.28
7
9
6
7
7
6
6
80
88
6.81
6.90
6.85
6.10
6.78
20
05
04
80
98
6.90
200
50
160
40
100
240
40
20
240
20
160
200
180
60
200
-------
TABLE D-6
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
Jenkins Samples (mq/1)
July 11 , 1969
Station
DO
CL
SI02
OP
TP
ALK
en
ov
617 B-U
617 B-D
619 B-U
619 B-D
South Deep-D
Unmarked
623 A-D
618 A-D
South Deep-U
624 A-D
623 A-U
624 A-U
618 A-U
626 A-D
626 A-U
617 A-D
617 A-U
619 A-D
619 A-U
450
50
200
1 ,800
1 ,850
1 ,500
300
250
1 ,100
1,300
850
200
2,750
450
5.5
0.0
2.5
1.5
15.0
18.5
2.5
0.0
23.0
18.0
14.5
15.5
4.5
7.5
0.5
1.5
2.0
0.5
3.0
5.5
0.0
0.5
3.0
0.0
1.5
3.0
0.0
1.5
Not
Run
7.30
6.75
7
7
7,
6,
7
6
.10
,50
,05
,90
.15
,80
7.10
6.40
7.30
6.80
7.00
7.60
260
60
170
70
150
300
120
110
310
60
240
240
110
260
-------
TABLE D-6
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
Jenkins Samples (mg/1)
July 22, 1969
Station
DO
CL
SI02
OP
TP
£H_ A-LK
en
617 B-U
617 B-D
619 B-U
619 B-D
South Deep-D
Unmarked
623 A-D
618 A-D
South Deep-U
624 A-D
623 A-U
624 A-U
618 A-U
626 A-D
626 A-U
Harbor Br-D
Harbor Br-U
619 A-U
1 ,750
0
1 ,700
0
0
0
0
1,400
0
1 ,100
0
1 ,100
1 ,000
Not
Run
0.50
0.50
5.15
0.0
0.0
5.25
0.0
2.30
0.0
1 .85
0.0
1.60
5.40
0.6
0.4
2.4
0.4
0.4
2.4
0.4
1.6
0.4
1.4
1.2
1 .6
1.0
7.15
7.20
6.60
7.10
6.85
6.25
7.25
6.45
7.20
6.55
7.10
6.50
7.25
230
150
30
300
30
10
320
20
210
20
260
20
260
-------
TABLE D-6
ONONDAGA LAKE STUDY
Jenkins Samples (mg/1)
August 11 , 1969
Station
DO
CL
SI02
OP
TP
JDH
ALK
en
oo
617 B-U
617 B-D
619 B-U
619 B-D
South Deep-D
Unmarked
623 A-D
618 A-D
South Deep-U
624 A-D
623 A-U
624 A-U
618 A-U
626 A-D
626 A-U
629 A-D
0
1 ,900
0
1,800
0
100
1 ,850
0
0
1 ,550
1 ,650
0
1,100
0.0
0.0
0.0
23.13
0.0
8.25
20.50
0.0
0.0
9.88
19.50
0.0
9.88
0.0
0.0
0.8
3.60
0.0
0.4
2.6
0.0
0.0
0.5
1 .60
0.4
1 .60
Not
Run
7.40
6.15
7.70
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
40
,40
,30
10
,45
6.55
6.75
,30
,40
6.75
7.55
6.75
200
20
140
60
350
320
120
330
20
20
220
300
50
280
40
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LAKE STABILIZATION ZONE
AIR POLLUTION
950 LBS/DAY
BASED ON CRITICAL CONDITIONS
LAKE OUTLET
NINE MILE CREEK
HARBOR BROOK
1,647 LBS/DAY
THERMOCLINE
9-12 M
LBS./DAY — PRESENT DAILY
AVERAGE DISCH.
OF TOD5,UNLESS
OTHERWISE NOTED
BENTHIC DEPOSITS
ONONDAGA CREEK
4,562 LBSy/DAY
LEY CREEK
67,891 LBS/DAY
LCSTP—LEY CREEK
SEWAGE TRMT.PLNT.
MSTP— METRO SEWAGE
TRMT. PLNT.
PRESENTLY BEING
PUMPED TO MSTP
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100 •
o
tj
oc
5
V)
o
o
60 50 40 30 25 15
TOD5 INPUT TO LAKE
(1000's of Ibs)
BASIS OF CALCULATION:
1000'S OF LBS.
loco's OF K6S.
CRITICAL CONDITIONS
LAKE TEMP 17.4 °C
DO IN LAKE (OLDO) 0.66 MG/L
BOD5 IN LAKE (OLBODj) 6.41 MG/L
DEOXY6ENATION RATE (K,) 0.18/DAY
DO SATURATION 9.46 MG/L
NOTE: PROJECTION CURVE
ACCOUNTS FOR NITROGEN -
EOUS OXYGEN DEMAND,
NOD «0.28 BOD
TOD5 INPUT (TULBS)
126,800
LBS/DAY
LAKE DO
vs
BOD INPUT
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1
5
Accession /Vumbrr
2
.Subjerf Fii-Id & Group
SELECTED WATER RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
Organization
Title
Onondaga Lake Study
10
Authors)
O'Brien & Gere - Consulting
Engineers for Onondaga County
Dept. of Public Works, Divi-
sion of Drainage & Sanitation
16
Project Designation
FWQA Research & Development 11060 FAE
21
Note
22
Citation
23
Descriptors (Starred First)
*Eutrophication, trophic status, *Dissolved oxygen saturation,
sediments, phosphate bearing minerals
25
Identifiers (Starred First)
saline, *0nondaga Lake, Syracuse, New York
27
Abstract
geochemical
status of a
investigations
saline lake on
Physical, chemical, biological and
were conducted to determine the trophic
the edge of Syracuse, New York. _, ^. u t . *.
The lake was found to be dimictic, and although lake waters
are vertically stratified, they are well mixed horizontally.
The lake supports a wide variety of phytoplankton, zooplankton
and fish which is surprising in light of the trophic level.
Mineral-water equilibria studies showed Pho|P»jate bearing
minerals form throughout the year in all zones of the lake, cai-
cite, which is prevalent throughout most of the year,
consti tutes
facilities
of the epi-
most of the lake's sediments.
It was determined that projected waste treatment
will result in an increase in the DO saturation level -
limnion from 10 to 50* and a reduction of 70* of total Phosphorus
now discharging to the lake. Mineral formation of the above
minerals will not be reduced measureably following the operation
of these same facilities.
Inxtitution
(REV. JULY
SEND TO:
WASHINCTON, D. C.' ZOZ40
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