WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES • 12090 ECS 02/71
State of the Art of
Textile Waste Treatment
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY . WATER QUALITY
OFFICE
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Water Pollution Control Research Series
The Water Pollution Control Research Reports describe
the results and progress in the control and abatement of
pollution in our Nation's waters. They provide a central
source of information on the research, development, and
demonstration activities in the Water Quality Office, in the
Environmental Protection Agency, through in-house research
and grants and contracts with Federal, State, and local agencies,
research institutions, and industrial organizations.
Inquiries pertaining to Water Pollution Control Research
Reports should be directed to the Head, Project Reports System,
Water Quality Office, Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D. C. 20242.
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STATE OF THE ART OF
TEXTILE WASTE TREATMENT
A STUDY CONDUCTED FOR
WATER QUALITY OFFICE
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
BY
DEPARTMENT OF TEXTILES
CLEMSON UNIVERSITY
CLEMSON, SOUTH CAROLINA 29631
INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION CONTROL BRANCH
GRANT NO. 12090 ECS
FEBRUARY, 1971
For sale \>y the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington. D.C. 20402 - Price $2.50
Stock Number 5501-0090
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EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed and approved for publication by the Water Quality
Office of the Environmental Protection Agency. Approval does not signify that the
contents necessarily reflect the views or policies of the EPA, nor does mention of
trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for
use.
it
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ABSTRACT
A study has been made of waste treatment methods and practices used in the textile
industry. Information was obtained from people working in the textile processing
industry, designing waste treatment plants, and enforcing state and federal regula-
tions on waters discharged to streams and natural reservoirs. To supplement this
information the literature was reviewed and an annotated bibliography prepared
using relevant articles.
The report contains sections on the following: characteristics of textile waste,
waste treatment techniques, treatment methods in use, effects of textile wastes on
receiving waters, the cost of waste treatment operations, and state and federal
regulations governing discharge waters.
Areas of needed research are recommended to improve waste treatment methods
currently practiced by the textile industry.
The report is designed to give the reader an insight into the problems facing the
textile industry, solutions presently available, and references for further reading.
The annotated bibliography contains references on synthetic fiber manufacturing
wastes, detergent waste treatment, instrumentation, plant design, water treatment
for plant use as well as articles pertaining specifically to textile waste treatment.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Grant project 12090 ECS between the
Federal Water Quality Administration and Clemson University
Key Words: Textiles, Wastewater Treatment, Industrial Wastes, Cost Comparisons.
• • •
in
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ABSTRACT "'
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS I
Areas of Needed Research . I
Desizing I
Removal of Dyes from Textile Waste I
Electrolytic Treatment of Textile Waste 2
Space Requirements of Waste Treatment Plants 4
Reverse Osmosis 4
Sludge Handling and Disposal 5
Water Reuse 5
In-Piant Changes 5
Total Carbon Analysis 6
Mixing of Textile and Domestic Waste 6
The Use of Pilot Plant and Laboratory Data for
Plant Design 7
Formation of a Cooperative Pollution Abatement
Organization for the Textile Industry 7
INTRODUCTION 9
THE CHARACTERIZATION OF TEXTILE EFFLUENTS 19
Cotton 19
Wool 25
Synthetics 34
Rayon 37
Acetate 37
Nylon 38
Polyester 39
Acrylics and Modacrylics 40
Wet Processing Wastes of Synthetic Fibers 41
Special Finishing 45
Characterization of Textile Effluents Summary 46
REVIEW OF WASTE TREATMENT TECHNIQUES 47
Introduction - 47
Preliminary Treatment 47
Secondary Treatment 50
Ponds and Lagoons 53
Activated Sludge 54
Trickling Filters 57
Sludge Disposal 59
Tertiary Treatment 59
Waste Treatment Techniques Summary 62
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Contents - Continued
TREATMENT OF TEXTILE EFFLUENTS 65
Pollution Survey 65
Waste Reduction Through In-Plant Measures 67
Reduction of Wastewater Volume °7
Reduction of Process Chemicals °°
Recovery and Reuse of Process Chemicals 68
Process Modifications 69
Substitution of Chemica Is . 7°
Good Housekeeping 71
Discharge of Textile Wastes to Municipal Sewers 71
Plant-Owned Facilities 73
Secondary Treatment 74
Tertiary Treatment 75
Sludge Disposal 76
Cotton Wastes 76
In-Plant Measures ?6
Treatment Efficiencies 78
Wool Wastes 79
Synthetic Wastes 81
Dyei ng Wastes 85
Treatment of Textile Effluents Summary 86
COST OF TREATMENT PROCESSES 8?
Biological Treatment 8?
Comparison of Costs 8?
Chemical Treatment 95
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 99
LITERATURE CITED (BIBLIOGRAPHY) 101
APPENDIX A 115
Water Pollution Control Legislation H5
Introduction 115
Federal Legislation 115
State Legislation 120
New England 120
Connecticut 120
Massachusetts 136
Rhode Island 147
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Contents - Continued
Middle Atlantic States . . . . ........................
New Jersey . .................................
New York ...................................
Pennsylvania ................................. n d/
_. _ . ' loo
The Southeast ....................................
Alabama ....................................
Georgia ............................... ..... 20?
North Carol ina ........................... .... 215
South Carol ina ................ . ........ . ..... 229
Tennessee .................................... 239
Virginia ..................................... 249
Conclusions .............................................. 25A
LITERATURE CITED ........................................... 356
APPENDIX B ................................................ 263
Annotated Bibliography .................................... 263
General Textile Waste Treatment ........................ 264
Cotton Waste Treatment ................................ 283
Wool Waste Treatment ................................. 288
Man-Made Fiber Waste Treatment ....................... 294
Dye Waste Treatment ................. .................
Detergent Waste Treatment
Water Treatment for Use
Instrumentation and Plant Design for Waste Treatment 332
APPENDIX C ...
341
Agencies Contributing Information for This Report
Textile and Chemical Manufacturers
Engineers ............................................ «, o
Instrument Manufacturers ...............................
State Agencies .......................................
Schoo|s ..... - ........................................
Federal Agencies ............................... . ..... oil
APPENDIX D
Effects of Finishing Plant Wastes Upon Water Quality
* *
VII
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
I. Consumption of Textile Fibers in the United States
(Textile Organon, 40, 191, 1969) 3
2. A Comparison of the GNP and Population Growth
in the United States 1930-70. Federal Reserve
Bulletin, 55, A68 (1969) 10
3. Production of Plastics and Resin Materials
in the United States II
4. Surface-active Agents Produced in the United States 12
5. Structures of Some Commercial Polymers Used
by the Textile Industry 14
6. Process Flow Sheet for Cotton Goods 20
7. Wool and Worsted Fabric Manufacturing 27
8. Wool and Worsted Finishing Operations 28
9. Typical Processing of 100 Percent Synthetic Fabric 35
10. Typical Processing of Blended Fabrics 36
II. Activated Sludge Plant 55
12. Trickling Filter Plant 58
13. Cotton Waste Processing Flow Chart 76
14. Wool Waste Processing Flow Chart 79
15. Synthetic Textile Finishing Waste Treatment
Flow Chart 81
\6j. Trickling Filter (Option I) Construction Costs 87
17. Trickling Filter (Option 2) Construction Costs (Ref. 146) 88
18. Trickling Filter (Option 3) Construction Costs 89
19. Activated Sludge (Option I) Construction Costs 90
20. Activated Sludge (Option 2) Construction Cost 91
2 I. Activated Sludge (Option 3) Construction cost 92
22. Aerated Lagoon Construction Costs 93
23. Costs as a Function of Plant Size - Tertiary Waste
Water Treatment - Granular Activated Carbon 97
VIII
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
I. Chemicals Present in Cotton Dyebaths 22
II. Pollution Effect of Cotton Processing
Wastes 23
III. Characteristics of Cotton Processing Wet
Wastes 24
IV. Projected Gross Wasteload and Wastewater volume
for Cotton Finishing Wastes for Selected Years,
1970-1982 25
V. Chemicals Present in Wool Dyebaths 29
VI. Pollutional Loads of Wool Wet Processes 31
VII. Characteristics of Wool Processing Wastes 32
Vlll. Projected Gross Wasteload and Wastewater Volume
for Woolen Finishing Wastes for Selected Years,
1970-1982 , 33
IX. BOD Loadings of Polyester Dye Carriers 40
X. Pollutional Load of Synthetic Wet Fiber
Processes 42
XI. Significant Pollutants in Synthetic Fiber
Wet Processing 43
XII. Projected Gross Wasteload and Waterwaste Volume
For Synthetic Fiber Finishing Wastes for Selected
Years 1970-1892 44
XIII. Chemicals for Neutralization 48
XIV. Chlorine Equivalent Required for Disinfection 49
XV. Aeration Modifications In Activated Sludge
Processes 56
XVI. Tertiary Treatment Processes: Removal Efficiencies
and Estimated Costs 60
XVII. Biochemical Oxygen Demand of Commonly Used Sizing
Compounds 77
XVIII. Treatment Removal Efficiencies 78
XIX. Removal Efficiencies of Treatment Techniques
used in Wool Waste Treatment 82
XX. Biochemical Oxygen Demand Reduction Potentials
of Synthetic Textile Fiber Process Modifications 83
XXI. Removal Efficiencies of Treatment Methods Used
for Synthetic Fiber Wet Processing Wastes 84
XXII. Economics of Carbon Adsorption for Municipal Waste 95
Al. Fresh Waters Classification and Standards of
Water Quality A23
ix
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TABLE
All. Coastal and Marine Waters and Standards of
Water Quality A28
AMI. Fresh Water Classifications and Water Quality
Criteria A34
AIV. Salt Water Classifications and Water Quality
Criteria A38
AV. Classification and Standard of Quality for New
Jersey State Surface Waters A44
AVI. Classes and Standards for Fresh Waters A58
AVII. Classes and Standards for Salt Waters A64
AVIII. Special Classifications and Standards A68
AIX. Water Uses of Pennsylvania Streams A73
AX. Specific Water Quality Criteria for Pennsylvania
Streams A 75
AXI. Water Use Classifications and Their Specific
Water Quality Criteria A8I
AXIL General Criteria For All Water in the State
of Georgia A94
AXI1I. Specific Criteria for Classified Water Usage in
the State of Georgia A95
AXIV. Fresh Surface Water Classification and
Standards of Water Quality Applied Thereto AI02
AXV. Tidal Salt Water Classifications and the
Standard of Water Quality Applied Thereto A110
AXVI. Established Classes for Fresh Surface
Waters and the Standards of Quality and
Purity Which Shall be Applied Thereto AII6
AXVII. Established Classes for Tidal Salt Waters
and the Standards of Quality and Purity
Which Shall be Applied Thereto AI2I
AXVIII. Criteria of Water Conditions AI28
AXIX. Major Water Class Designations AI36
AXX. Subclasses to Complement Major Water
Class Designations AI37
Dl. Effects of Finishing Plant Waste Upon
Water Quality D2
x
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RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
Areas of Needed Research
Desizing
Research is needed which will decrease significantly the waste load from desizing
operations. This may be accomplished by recovering the size from the waste stream
for reuse or developing more rapid treatment methods for size removal.
The waste water from a desizing operation constitutes one of the biggest BOD loads
on the treatment plant (1). If the sizing polymer is biodegradable, as is starch, the
treatment plant has to have available sufficient volume capacity for the retention
and oxidation of the waste. However, if the sizing material is not biodegradable,
such as polyvinyl alcohol or carboxymethyl cellulose, (2) the system will not de-
grade these polymers and may not remove them from the waste stream.
The alternative methods of removing soluble refractory polymers from waste streams
are by physical or chemical treatment. Pangle has received a patent (3) for the
removal of textile chemicals from wastewater by treating the waste with calcium
oxide and carbon dioxide. This method could be applied to CMC removal. In this
case the crosslinking of polymer chains by salt bridges would cause their precipita-
tion and eventual removal. Other multivalent cations would be used and might be
more effective. The problem is more complex with polyvinyl alcohol, which is a
neutral polymer. Its removal might be accomplished by absorption (4) or molecular
filtration, but either of these methods will require laboratory work to prove their
applicability. Since the use of this polymer is increasing each year, a research
effort is needed to determine its eventual fate in the waste streams.
One method of removing desizing chemicals from the waste stream is to use sizing
polymers that can be recovered and reused. If new sizes are developed that can be
applied and recovered from solvent systems, the size load on the waste stream would
be eliminated. Some of the major polymer manufacturing companies are looking at
this, but no commercial use is presently underway. Other properties could be built
into the sizing chemicals to increase their usefulness - dyeability, permanent press,
and soil resistance. By taking a broad view of the possibilities available to the
sizing operation many changes are discernible in textile finishing.
Removal of Dyes from Textile Waste
Research is needed which will demonstrate the effective and economical removal of
color from textile waste streams.
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The removal of dyes from textile waste streams is important because their contami-
nation is visible. The approximate quantity of dye waste produced per year may be
estimated from the curves in Figure I which show that 10 billion Ibs. of fibers are
currently processed by the textile industry per year. Although some fabrics are not
dyed, others receive as much as 6 percent dye. If we use 1% dye as a conservative
average, 100 million pounds of dye are consumed by the American textile industry
per year. As about 10 percent of this ends up in the waste stream, 10 million
pounds of dye per year must be treated by textile waste treatment plants. Treat-
ment methods that have been used for dye containing waste streams are in most
cases biological. Whether or not this method of treatment is the most suitable is
debatable and is the basis for much needed research.
Recent studies have shown that biological treatment methods can degrade selected
dyes (5), but the degradation products may be more toxic than the dyes themselves.
Other reported data (2) show several dye systems to be resistant to degradation. No
doubt the high standards placed on commercial dyes to resist many chemical environ-
ments such as washing and fading suggest that most of them will either be resistant
to biological degradation or require carefully controlled conditions for microbial
treatment. Better and less sensitive methods of dye removal may be accomplished
by physical or chemical treatment. These include polymer coagulation (6), cation
ion precipitation (7), carbon adsorption (8), ion exchange(9), and high energy
radiation (10). The cost of these methods may be more than that of conventional
biological treatment systems, but the fact that some are in commercial operation
(8) shows that they are practical.
Research that is needed will establish parameters for the effective and economical
operation of chemical treatment and show clearly how it can complement existing
biological treatment plants. The analytical procedures used in the research pre-
fects will be important because BOD tests will not measure refractory chemicals.
The fact that dyes can be degraded to objectionable, colorless toxic moieties (5) is
more reason for the use of extensive analytical procedures in the evaluation of any
treatment method. Gas chromatographic, mass spectral, total carbon and infrared
analyses, or other quantitative methods should be used to show the presence of trace
amounts of materials in treated waste streams.
Electrolytic Treatment of Textile Waste
Electrolytic methods of waste treatment must be examined more closely as a means
of removing the refractory chemicals present in the textile waste streams today.
A patent was recently issued (II) for a system which will remove color from a textile
waste stream by electrolysis. It was claimed that hypochlorite generated during
electrolysis degrades dyestuffs. One disadvantage noted was the requirement of
sufficient chloride ion concentration for suitable conductivity and hypochlorite
production.
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Cotton
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Man-made Fibers
1950
1955
1960
1965
1970
Figure 1. Consumption of Textile Fibers in the
United States (Textile Organon, 40, 191
1969) .
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The process is attractive for other applications such as reducible metals removal and
electrodialytic separations. Additional work is needed to determine how to optimize
the process and lower the power consumption. For the process to have the greatest
chance of success it should be incorporated in an overall treatment plan for use on
waste streams requiring special treatment such as dye waste, refractory chemicals,
or chromium containing effluents.
Space Requirements of Waste Treatment Plants
Research is needed to reduce significantly the space required for biological treat-
ment systems.
Space required for modern biological waste treatment plants is large (12). The
obvious reason for this is the retention time necessary for biological degradation
of industrial effluents. Although space has not been a limiting factor in the South,
it has been limiting in highly populated areas of the North. The time is not very
far away when we will not be able to refer to a waste treatment plant as being
"As big as a City" (12).
Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis deserves more research attention to establish its applicability to the
treatment of textile waste. The fact that water can be produced which would be
suitable for reuse makes the process attractive. Any research study should also
propose an effective method to dispose of the waste concentrate which will be a
by-product of this type of treatment.
The textile industry uses a large amount of salt, ionic dyes, inorganic catalyst,
detergents and bleaching agents that add to the dissolved solids concentration of
the waste water. Some of these electrolytes are nutrients which are partially re-
moved by conventional biological treatment plants; however, most of them pass
into the receiving stream. As industry grows the concentration of dissolved solids
in natural waters will increase unless corrective measures are taken. Initial action
has been taken by some local government agencies in specifying maximum allow-
able dissolved soild concentrations in wastewaters. The next step will be enforce-
ment and constant re-evaluation of regulations to be sure that suitable limits have
been determined. The changes in regulations will come about as the population
density changes and the industrial community increases in size.
One of the more effective methods which have been recently developed for elec-
trolyte removal is reverse osmosis (13). The process utilizes the lower permeabil-
ity of solvated ions (non-electrolytes can also be removed) across polymer mem-
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branes to remove them from a water solution. In most cases reverse osmosis has
been applied to water treatment in areas where natural water supplies were contam-
inated or highly saline. The initial studies show the process to be an expensive
method of purifying water for human consumption; however, in industrial water
treatment where the level of treatment required may be lower, the process could
be more economical.
Sludge Handling and Disposal
Research is needed to develop effective and economical methods for ultimate dis-
posal of concentrated waste materials removed from wastewaters. Attention should
be given to recovery and reuse of chemicals, both to minimize production costs and
to reduce disposal problems. Ultimate disposal of waste concentrates must be made
in ways which do not cause more pollution problems.
Existing biological waste treatment plants processing textile finishing wastes have a
real problem of handling excess sludges. In the past land fills and spreading on the
soil have been the most common methods of disposal. These are becoming expen-
sive and can result In water pollution. Seepage from land fills can pollute ground
water or surface water. If drainage from fields on which sludge has been spread
goes directly to streams, heavy rains can wash the sludge into these surface waters.
Better methods of dewatering and disposing of these sludges are needed. Incinera-
tion is a possibility, but air pollution problems should be considered.
Water Reuse
When requirements for quality of wastewater discharges approach requirements for
process water, it becomes feasible to consider water renovation and reuse within
the mill. Some physical-chemical methods result in high quality water. Use of
such treatment methods or tertiary treatment after conventional processes may well
be economical in some cases. The philosophy of closing the loop and entirely
eliminating effluents seems to be gaining ground, possibly as a response to periodic
tightening of regulations.
In-Plant Changes
Mention has been made of process changes which have reduced BOD of wastewater.
Deliberate efforts are needed to minimize water consumption per unit of production.
Not only is a savings in water costs possible, but also a reduction in the hydraulic
load to the waste treatment facility may allow for smaller units requiring less capi-
tal and operating costs. Employees need to know about the costs involved in water
supply and waste disposal. Mill management must also recognize these costs as part
of production expenses, and encourage, from the top, the good housekeeping prac-
tices and water savings which reduce the costs of waste treatment and disposal.
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Total Carbon Analysis
To get an accurate measure of the organic compounds present in a waste stream, a
total carbon analysis of the waste stream is useful. A BOD test will only measure
biological oxidation. It gives no indication of the presence of nondegradable ma-
terials. The BOD test is useful in designing aeration capacity for biological treat-
ment plants, but it gives no indication of refractory organic compounds in treated
effluents. Carbon analysis is not affected by toxicity, source and acclimation of
seeding organisms, dilution water, and other chemical interferences which can
cause problems with the BOD determination. Automated equipment is available to
measure continuously and record carbon content in wastes or process streams where
continuous control becomes important (14). Even with standard equipment data
from carbon analyses are available within an hour after sample collection compared
to five days for BOD determinations.
Mixing of Textile and Domestic Waste
A research committee of the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists
has published a list of textile chemicals which gives the 5 day BOD of each chemi-
cal (2). Out of 300 products, almost 40% had less than a 10% 5 day BOD by
weight of chemical and may be considered relatively resistant to biodegradation.
The use of synthetic fibers, polymers, and finishes by the textile industry is in-
creasing at a rapid rate. Since many of these products are resistant to biological
degradation, a careful study of their removal from wastewaters is essential so that
effective waste treatment methods are chosen. Both State and Federal regulations
will increase as the industrial community grows and the water supply is reused more
often. Although mixing of domestic wastes with textile wastes has led to success-
ful treatment in the past (15), the increasing inertness of textile effluents may pre-
vent this general approach in the future.
Two important considerations for the construction of a waste treatment plant are the
cost and availability of land. As waste chemicals become harder to degrade bio-
logically, longer retention times will be needed for their degradation in the treat-
ment plant. Plant size, therefore, is dependent on the character of the waste stream.
Chemicals that are resistant to biodegradation may be removed from the stream by
adsorption on the sludge formed by biological degradation. In some cases this
method of removal will be satisfactory, but more data is needed to substantiate the
effectiveness of adsorption on sludge as a removal process.
In the future, waste streams from different processing operations will have to be
isolated and treated by either physical, chemical, or biological methods, or by
combinations of these methods. The choice of treatment will depend on the com-
position of the waste stream. Effluent through a single pipe can no longer simply
be "turned over" to the pollution control engineer for him to "take care of."
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The Use of Pilot Plant and Laboratory Data for Plant Design
One of the hardest problems the engineer faces is designing a full scale plant from
plant laboratory data. To design plant scale lagoons, aerators, clarifiers, filters,
etc., requires appropriate "scale-up" factors and often experience with the spe-
cific waste stream.
It is therefore recommended that the study be undertaken to correlate the existing
information on such things as a coefficients (relative rates of oxygen transfer to
waste and water), and 3 coefficients (aerator spacing correction), so that more
economical waste treatment plant design will be possible with less guesswork. This
may be a difficult undertaking, but it is very important to waste treatment plant
design. The cost of a waste treatment plant may be the factor which determines
whether or not a textile plant can continue to operate. It is therefore very import-
ant that the most economical construction be chosen.
Any data that guides the engineer to the most accurate specifications of equipment
and layout will result in an eventual savings to the industry which is installing the
waste treatment plant. One approach to this research would be to design treatment
plants with flexibility enough to take care of future changes in production. An
example of this is the use of concrete trickling filters for a specific textile waste
containing starch when the textile industry is changing from the biodegradable
starch to the relatively inert polyvinyl alcohol. Treatment plant design must be
done with a consideration for these changes, or a financial loss will result when
existing treatment facilities become unuseable.
Formation of a Cooperative Pollution Abatement Organization
for the Textile Industry
There is a need for an industry organization to cooperatively explore treatment
process and other pollution control improvements. A real need and opportunity ex-
ist for a textile-related organization comparable to the National Council for Air
and Stream Improvement affiliated with the pulp and paper industry. This organi-
zation could explore possible improvements in pollution abatement for the textile
industry as a whole.
Such an organization could have several functions:
In-house research and development
Pilot Plant studies
Research support at universities or foundations
Public relations
Information collection, storage, and retrieval
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The organization should be free enough to effectively pursue problems of greatest
significance/ yet insulated enough from competition between firms so that it would
function effectively. Support would probably come from contributions from member
firms with some agreement on the ratio of support to membership. Open disclosure
should be encouraged where applicable,, but there should be some advantages to the
supporting firms, else there is little likelihood of support. Actual structure and ad-
ministration could best be formulated by exchange of ideas through ATM I or one of
its committees.
The organization should have a small full time staff and should seriously consider
the experience of the National Council for Air and Stream Improvement as an ex-
ample of the advantages and problems resulting from such cooperative action.
Since most mills do not have a specialist in waste treatment, there is a very real
likelihood that even though information may already be available for the solution
of problems, local personnel may have no contact with the information or its source.
A cooperative organization could compile, abstract, and distribute the available
information. It could also serve as a search agency when specific information is
requested by one of the members.
Such an organization could advance pollution abatement considerably at minimal
cost. Pilot plant studies which have general applicability could be run at one lo-
cation rather than repeated by several firms. Cooperative support of research and
development should return more information to each member firm at less cost than
individual effort.
8
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INTRODUCTION
The public knowledge of the potential threat that pollution poses to our environment
has made us aware that some changes must be made if we are to continue to enjoy
our environment. Since the harm any specific case of pollution may cause is de-
pendent on the total pollution, we must first look at this to put the problem in its
proper perspective. An idea of the total potential pollution may be gained from
the curve shown in Figure 2, where the Gross National Product and population are
plotted from 1930 to the present time. While population has almost doubled over
the past 40 years the GNP has increased by a factor of 10 to 20, depending on
the inflationary yardstick chosen. Since GNP is the combined measure of goods and
services both of which can contribute to pollution, it should be proportional to the
total industrial waste effluent that needs treatment. One estimate is that 1/4 of the
total available run-off water is being used today by all industry and in fifty years
the water usage will equal the available run-off water.
As of 1968 approximately 14.3 trillion gallons of water are discharged by the U. S.
industry each year (16). The textile mill products industry discharged about 461
billion gallons or 1% of the total. The major water users are:
Metal & Metal Products
Chemical & Allied Products
Paper & Allied Products
Petroleum & Coal Products
Food & Kindred Products
Textiles Mill Products
Rubber & Plastics
Other
Total
7,841 Billion Gals/yr
7,820 "
6,599 "
7,220 "
1,405 "
1,127 "
1,106 "
2,438 "
35,556
22.1%
22.0%
18.6%
20.3%
4.0%
3.2%
3. 1%
6.7%
100.0%
There are approximately 4 million employees working in textile related jobs. Of
these, nearly 1 million may be considered textile employees working for 700 mills
with an annual sales of 21 billion dollars (16).
Another very important factor to consider as far as the textile industry is concerned
is the rate at which this growing waste stream is changing in composition. Some
evidence for this is seen in the data reported in Figures 3 and 4. New detergents
and resins which are introduced onto the textile market are generally accompanied by
a new or different effluent. A waste stream that may have once been homogeneous and
biodegradable can become heterogeneous and inert. It is evident that we must have
waste treatment plants with built in flexibility so they can accommodate future pro-
duction changes. This is hard to do when the industrial waste stream is treated by a
municipal treatment plant. In some cases the mixing of industrial and municipal
* Includes the SIC Industry Group Numbers 221-223, 225-229, and Industry Numbers
2823 and 2824.
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1930
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1970
Figure 2. A Comparison of the GNP and Population
Growth in the United States 1930-70.
Federal Reserve Bulletin, 55, A68 (1969)
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Figure 4. Surface-active Agents Produced in the United
States. United States Tariff Commission
Reports on Synthetic Organic Chemicals (1950-
1967) .
12
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waste streams may very well produce a waste which is less suited for either biologi-
cal or chemical treatment. This raises the question, Should industrial waste be
treated by municipalities or by the plants themselves? No obvious answer exists,
but any product or service that causes pollution should pay for its equitable share of
restoring the water to a desirable condition.
A better insight into some of the questions that have been raised may be obtained if
we look at changes that have occurred in the textile industry over the past twenty
years and see how these changes will affect waste treatment methods.
Fibers
In 1950 the major fiber consumed on the American market was cotton. If man-made
cellulosic fibers are not included, the quantity of man-made fibers produced at this
time was hardly significant. This is illustrated by the curves shown in Figure 1.
The lint from textile manufacturing and finishing is a noticeable part of the sus-
pended solids in textile waste. In the case of natural fibers biological degradation
will occur when the fiber is retained with the sludge in the treatment plant. This is
not true for most synthetic fibers as they are comparatively inert. The buildup of
synthetic fibers in a treatment plant using mechanical aeration can cause damage to
pumps and aerators unless special precautions are taken to see that the fibers are re-
moved from the waste stream before it enters the plant. This is generally done by
screening the waste stream as it enters the treatment plant. In some cases this is a
difficult operation because a screen system fine enough to remove fibers 15 microns
in diameter may easily clog or remove suspended solids that are suitable for biolog-
ical treatment.
The example just described shows in a visible way how an industrial waste stream
has changed over the past 20 years.
Sizing
The principal slashing polymer used before 1960 was starch. This natural polymer
of glucose is easily degraded biologically and should present no problem to the
conventional waste treatment plant other than BOD loading.
The development of many synthetic fibers in the 1950's and their use in blended
fabrics created the need for new sizes which were more compatible with the hydro-
phobic fibers. Some of those which were developed and are still in use are poly-
vinyl alcohol (PVA), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), and polyacrylic acid. The
structures of these polymers are shown in Figure 5. Of these three materials poly-
vinyl alcohol and carboxymethyl cellulose are the most widely used. The total
sizing materials entering waste streams today can be estimated from the fiber con-
13
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-CH0-CH-CH0-CH-
2 , 2 j
OH OH
Polyvinyl Alcohol
-CH0-CH-CH0-CH-
2 2 i
C02H
C02H
Polyacrylic Acid
CH2OCH2CO H OCH CO H
Carboxymethyl Cellulose
-CH2CH=CHCH2CH2
H-
Butadiene-styrene
-CH0-CH-CH0-CH-
2 I . 2 I
OCOCH3 OCOCH3
Polyvinyl Acetate
Polyethylene
0 O
t I
•R-NH-C-O-R-O-C-NH-R-
Polyurethane
-CH0-CH-CH0-CH-
2 | 2 |
CO2Et CO2Et
Ethyl Acrylate
Figure 5. Structures of Some Commercial Polymers
used by the Textile Industry.
14
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sumption in Figure 1. If an average size concentration of 10% is assumed to be
present on woven fabrics, which constitute 70% to 80% of the fabrics produced,
approximately 400 million Ibs. of size per year are currently entering textile fin-
ishing waste streams. This constitutes one of the major BOD loads on waste treat-
ment plants in the case of starch (1).
Since PVA and CMC are resistant to biological degradation (2), we would not ex-
pect conventional treatment methods to alter their chemical structure. While the
polymer may be partially removed from the waste water by adsorption on the sludge
it is questionable whether this is an effective method of treatment. This brings up
a point about the use of BOD analysis for industrial waste and suggests as others
have (17) that, organic carbons analysis would be more indicative of organic con-
taminants.
Scouring
The change in scouring which has possibly received the most attention since 1950
was the conversion to biodegradable detergents (18). Today most of the detergents
are at least partially biodegradable so that foaming tendencies can be destroyed by
microbial action. The increasing use of detergents is illustrated in Figure 4.
An important factor to consider today is the impact that solvents, which are used in
scouring operations (19), will have on pollution. Several solvents such as mineral
spirits, chlorobenzenes and perchloroethylene have been used to aid in the removal
of oil born stains from synthetic fibers (20). Some of the solvents are inert to bio-
logical treatment (2) and may not be removed from a waste stream by the conven-
tional waste treatment plant. More research is needed to develop effective methods
of removing volatile chemicals from waste streams without contributing to the prob-
lem of air pollution.
A few of the major chemical manufacturers are now offering solvent processes to the
textile industry for scouring where little water is used (21). In these cases non-
flammable chlorinated solvents are used and the projected solvent recovery is be-
tween 90% and 97%. If a 93% recovery value is assumed and we apply it to a
continuous finishing range running 70 yards a minute, we can visualize that nearly
one ton of solvent per day per range will reach the atmosphere or waste stream.
Chemical methods of treatment may be required. These could pay for part of their
operation by recovering valuable solvent for reuse. When treatment methods are
able to recover expensive chemicals from a waste stream, new production processes
may be developed that would have been previously considered too expensive.
Mercerizing
The original purpose of mercerization was to improve the luster of cotton fibers.
15
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Today the treatment of a cotton containing fabric with a caustic solution is as
much for improving the dyeability and absorption characteristics of the fabric as
anything else. Since man-made fibers are not mercerized, the use of the process
will depend on the quantity of cotton fibers reaching the finishing plant.
A significant decrease in caustic consumption is obtained when caustic recovery
units are installed in the finishing plant. Several studies (17 22) have been made
which document the improved efficiency of treatment plant operation when the
caustic loading is decreased. The obvious advantages of this process accounts for
its use by most finishing plants.
If the fiber consumption shown in Figure 1 continues to change at its present rate,
the percentage of fabrics receiving caustic treatments will decrease considerably in
the next ten years.
Bleaching
This is one textile finishing operation which has shown an improvement over the
past twenty years as far as water pollution is concerned. In 1950 the mafor bleach-
ing agent used was sodium hypochlorite (23); today it is hydrogen peroxide. Hydro-
gen peroxide decomposes to water and oxygen and leaves no dissolved solids or ob-
jectionable residues behind. In fact it can raise the waste stream's dissolved oxy-
gen concentration which is desirable in many cases.
Solvent systems for bleaching are being examined by academic institutions (24) and
chemical manufacturers (21). To be economical these processes will require effi-
cient solvent recovery operations. With the use of suitable solvents a combined
scouring and bleaching operation could be developed that would use very little
water. A change in wastewater volume such as this could drastically affect the
operation of a conventional biological treatment plant. Waste treatment plants
must be designed with built-in flexibility where process changes are anticipated.
Dyeing
This is a second only to chemical finishing in the changes that occur each year.
Not only have approximately forty new fibers appeared on the market in the past
twenty years, but new dyes for these fibers are developed each year. The "Textile
Chemist and Colorist" (25) lists twenty-six new dyes for 1969 alone, and this is by
no means a complete listing. The market demands better performance each year.
Dyes have to be more resistant to ozone, nitric oxides, light, hydrolysis and other
degradative environments to capture a valuable portion of the commerical market.
It is not surprising that studies on the biological degradation of dyestuffs yield nega-
tive results when the dyes themselves are designed to resist this type of treatment.
The high color value or absorptivity needed for a commercial dye is not an advan-
16
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tage when that dye ends up In a waste stream. Although some dyes are biologically
degradable (26), most that are present in waste water are objectionable for their
coloration. To effectively remove dyes from textile waste effluents, non-biological
processes will have to be used in many instances. Dyes are fust too refractory to
undergo degradation in the time required for conventional waste treatment. Initial
studies using chemical treatment methods (8) look good, but more research is needed
to establish clearly the parameters for chemical treatment.
The auxiliary chemicals used in aqueous dyeing can also present a problem to bio-
logical processes. Carriers such as methyl naphthalene, chlorobenzenes, biphenyl,
orthophenyl phenol, and benzyl alcohol are used to speed up the dyeing process.
When the dyeing operation is completed, these chemicals are discharged to the
sewer. Some are biodegradable; others are not. Even though the nonbiodegrad-
able chemicals may be absorbed by the sludge in an activated sludge process, the
problem is not alleviated if the sludge is not handled properly for ultimate disposal
to prevent further contamination.
Finishing
A treatment of a fabric that modifies its physical or chemical properties may be
classified as finishing. Today there are finishes that are commonplace which were
either nonexistent or not in significant use twenty years ago. Examples are perma-
nent press finishes, oil repellents, soil release agents, low crock polymers, abrasion
resistant polymers, fire retardants, lamination polymers, germicide and fungicide
chemicals, to mention a few. The curve in Figure 3 illustrates the increase in
production of these polymers and resins which are used by the textile industry. A
small number of these materials are biodegradable; most are not.
The polymers used for textile finishing are generally supplied to the finishing plant
as emulsions. This is done because of the ease of handling and cost of manufactur-
ing. Most polymer emulsions are sensitive to pH, salt or agitation and may coagu-
late when they enter waste streams. The sewer lines may then become clogged with
inert materials which have to be removed by hand. Although the bulk of the poly-
mer emulsion can be coagulated and removed in a treatment plant, some of it re-
mains emulsified and is not removed by biological treatment. For complete removal
of the polymer emulsion, chemical treatment is sometimes necessary. However, this
is an additional step which in itself could replace much of the need for biological
treatment. Several polymers which are used commercially are shown in Figure 5.
Most of the finishes used for wash and wear and permanent press fabrics are manu-
factured from urea, formaldehyde, melamine and glyoxal compounds. Some of these
products are readily degradable by microbial action; others are not (2). The formal-
dehyde derivatives can react with themselves or other chemicals in the waste stream
to form insoluble products that may be removed by sedimentation.
17
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A class of finishing chemical that has come into prominence is recent years is fire
retardants. These chemicals have received attention because of the growing con-
cern over the flammability of textile fabrics. Most of the commerical fire retardant
finishes are phosphorous and nitrogen containing compounds (27). Two examples are
triaziridyl phosphine oxide (APO) and tetrakis (hydroxymethyl) phosphonium chlo-
ride (THPC). APO, a chemisterolant (28), could present a serious problem if it got
into a natural stream. The chemical reactivity of APO would facilitate its hydroly-
sis in a waste stream and prevent the parent compound from reaching the discharge
water of a treatment plant. Whether or not these initial hydrolysis products are
toxic or harmful is not known. This points to the increasing need for the charac-
terization of industrial waste.
The newest finishes to appear on the market are soil release materials (29). These
chemicals are applied to fabrics to aid in the removal of dirt and oil born stains.
Some are acrylate and methacrylate copolymers containing free carboxyl groups.
Most are resistant to biological treatment. Either physical or chemical methods
may be required for their effective removal from wastewater.
The many changes discussed above show that considerable discretion must be used
in designing a waste treatment plant for the textile industry.
18
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THE CHARACTERIZATION OF TEXTILE EFFLUENTS
A number of mechanical operations have to be performed to convert textile fibers
into fabrics. The fibers must be combined into yarns and then the yarns into fab-
rics. After the fabrics are manufactured, they are subjected to several wet pro-
cesses collectively known as finishing, and it is in these finishing operations that
the major waste effluents are produced. To get more insight into the characteristics
of the waste from these finishing operations we will discuss each one in some detail.
Cotton
The consumption of cotton fibers by textile mills in the United States exceeds that
of any other single fiber; however, the total synthetic fiber poundage consumed by
the textile industry is greater than that of cotton as seen in Figure 1.
The operations required to produce a piece of finished cotton fabric are shown in
the flow diagram of Figure 6; in any given mill, either the weaving or knitting
route will be utilized, not both. For a more detailed explanation of cotton pro-
cessing, refer to the American Cotton Handbook (30).
Slashing is the first process in which liquid treatment is involved. In this process,
the warp yarns are coated with "sizing" in order togive them tensile strength to
withstand the pressures exerted on them during the weaving operation.
Such substances as starch, starch substitutes, polyvinyl alcohol, carboxy methyl
cellulose, gelatin glue and gums have been used as size agents. The source of pol-
lution in this process results from the cleaning of slasher boxes, rolls, and make up
kettles. The volume is therefore usually low; however, the BOD can be quite high,
especially if starch is used (2).
The operation of desizing removes the substance applied to the yarns in the slashing
operation, by hydrolyzing the size into a soluble form. There are two methods of
desizing - acid desizing and enzyme desizing.
In acid desizing, the fabric is soaked in a solution of sulphuric acid, at room tem-
perature, for 4 to 12 hours (31), and then washed out. In enzyme desizing, cou-
plex organic compounds produced from natural products or malt extracts are used to
solubilize the size. The bath is maintained at a temperature of 130° - 180° F.
and a pH of 6-7.7, for a period of 4-8 hours. Due to the unstable nature of these
organic compounds, the whole bath must be discarded after each batch. After the
size has been solubilized, the fabric is rinsed clean. Desizing contributes the lar-
gest BOD of all cotton finishing processes - about 45 percent (32).
19
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Raw Cotton
-Quilling^-
f.
Warping
Slashing
I
'Weaving
T .
Singeing
Desizing
•Scouring
I
Bleaching
Mercerizing
'Dyeing &
Printing
Finishing
0 .
Opening
Picking
Carding.
I
Drawing
c --
Spinning
Winding
Combing
-^Dyeing - Skein,
Package & Beam
Mercerizing
.
-^Knitting
Bleaching
I
Dyeing &
Printing
I
Finishing-^
Figure 6. Process Flow Sheet for Cotton Goods
20
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Scouring follows desizing. In this process, the cotton wax and other non-cellulosic
components of the cotton are removed by hot alkaline detergents or soap solutions.
In most modern plants, scouring is done in conjunction with desizing rather than as
separate operation. Caustic soda and soda ash along with soaps and synthetic de-
tergents and inorganic reagents are used to remove the non-cellulosic impurities.
The bath is characterized by a pH of 10 to 13 and temperatures of 250° F. (31).
Although the strength of alkali in the beginning of the operation is between 1 per-
cent and 5 percent, the waste liquor will have a 0.3 percent alkaline concentra-
tion, the rest being taken out of solution by the cotton fibers. As in the desizing
operation, the scouring process is a batch operation requiring the fabric to remain
in the kier for a period of from 2-12 hours. Scouring is the second largest BOD
contributing process in the finishing of cotton textiles - about 31 percent (32).
Following the "boil-off", the goods are rinsed with hot and cold water to remove
residual alkali.
Bleaching, the next process, removes the natural yellowish coloring of the cotton
fiber and renders it white. The three bleaches most commonly used for cotton are
sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxide, and sodium chlorite. In hypochlorite
bleaching, the fabric is rinsed, saturated with a weak solution of sulfuric or hydro-
chloric acid, rinsed again, and then passed through the hypochlorite for a period of
up to 24 hours (31). The process is done at room temperature with a pH range of
9 to 11. When bleaching with sodium chlorite, acetic acid is used in place of
sulfuric or hydrochloric acid, the temperature of the bath is hot (180° - 185° F.^
and the pH is 3.5-5.5. Hydrogen peroxide is used for continuous bleaching. This
process calls for a washer, with a 140° - 175° F. temperature, saturation with
caustic soda at 175° - 180° F., passage through the peroxide at 195° F., and a
final rinse. The pH range used in hydrogen peroxide bleaching is 9 to 10 (31). The
final rinse may contain an antichlor, sodium bisulfite or sulfuric acid, to remove
residual chlorin from the fabric. The bleaching process contributes the lowest BOD
for cotton finishing (32).
The mercerization process was originally developed to give increased luster to cot-
ton fabrics. Today it is still used for that purpose, but more importantly to impart
increased dye affinity and tensile strength to the fabric. It is estimated that only
30 percent of all cotton fabrics are now mercerized, and with the increasing use of
cotton-polyester blends, less will probably be done in the future (33). The process
uses a 15 to 30 percent solution of sodium hydroxide at room temperature for 1/2 to
3 minutes (34). The fabric is then rinsed in an acid wash to neutralize the fabric
and washed in water and then dried. The effluent from this process is alkaline and
high in dissolved solids, but low in BOD (33).
After mercerizing, the goods are sent to the dye house or color shop. In the dye
house they are dyed either in small volumes on batch process machines, or on con-
tinuous dyeing ranges in large volumes. There are five important classes of dyes
used on cotton fabrics: vat, developed, naphthol, sulphur, direct, and aniline
21
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black.
The dyeing process is carried out in an aqueous bath with pH variations of 6 to 12,
and temperature variations from room temperature to boiling (35). Table I lists
the various chemicals present in the baths used in cotton dyeing.
TABLE I
CHEMICALS PRESENT IN COTTON DYEBATHS
Dye Type
Aniline Aniline hydrochloride, sodium ferrocyanide,
Black sodium chlorite, pigment, soap.
Developed Dye, penetrant, sodium cloride, sodium nitrate,
hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, developer (beta
naphthol), soap or sulfated soap or fatty alcohol.
Direct Dye, sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, and
wetting agent or soluble oil or sodium sulfate.
Naphthol Dye, caustic soda, soluble oil, alcohol, soap,
soda ash, sodium chloride, base, sodium nitrate,
sodium nitrite, sodium acetate.
Sulfur Dye, sodium sulfide, sodium carbonate,
sodium chloride.
Vat Dye, caustic soda, sodium hydrosulfite, soluable oil,
gelatine, perborate or hydrogen peroxide.
Source: (Ref. 36, p. 482)
In the color shop, the goods are printed with colored designs or patterns. The usual
method is by roller machines (32). The color is imparted to the fabric from the rolls
which contain the printing paste. This paste contains dye, thickener, hygroscopic
substances, dyeing assistants, water, and other chemicals. The pollutional load
from the color shop comes mainly from the wash-down rinses used to clean the
equipment in the shop and the cloth rinsings. The pollutional load is rather low in
both volume and BOD (32). When a mill does both printing and dyeing, the BOD
contribution of the combined processes is 17 percent, and the total BOD load comes
from the process chemicals used (32).
22
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Table II. Pollution Effect of Cotton Processing Wastes
Wastes (p.p.m.)
Process
pH
Slashing, sizing
yarn* 7.0-9.5
f^j Desizing
00 Kiering — 10-13
Scouring
Bleaching (range)—— 8.5-9.6
Mercerizing •— 5.5-9.5
Dyeing:
Aniline Black
Basic 6.0-7.5
Developed Colors 5-10
Direct 6.5-7.6
Naphthol — 5-10
Sulfur 8-10
Vats 5-10
B.O.D.
620-2,500
1,700-5,200
680-2,900
50-110
90-1,700
45-65
40-55
100-200
75-200
220-600
15-675
11-1,800
125-1,500
Total Solids
8,500-22,600
16,000-32,000
7,600-17,400
2,300-14,400
600-1,900
t
600-1,200
500-800
2,900-8,200
2,200-14,000
4,500-10,700
4,200-14,100
1,700-7,400
lions Waste
r 1,000 Ibs.
goods
60-940
300-1,100
310-1,700
2,300-5,100
300-14,900
27,900-36,950
15,000-23,000
18,000-36,000
8,900-25,000
1,700-6,400
2,300-16,800
2,900-25,600
1,000-20,000
Pounds
B.O.D.
per 1,000
Ibs . goods
0.5-5.0
14.8-16.1
1.5-17.5
1.36-3.02
5.0-14.8
10.5-13.5
5-10
15-50
15-20
1.3-11.7
2-5
2-250
12-30
Pounds
Total Solids
per 1,000
Ibs. goods
47-67
66-70
19-47
38-290
185-450
100-200
150-250
325-650
25-250
200-650
300-1,200
150-250
*Cloth Weaving Mill Waste. (Composite of all waste connected with each process.)
Reference 37, p8
-------
Table II lists the range of pollutlonal loads of the various cotton textile wet-pro-
cessing operations. The ranges have been compiled from the values given by sev-
eral authors in different studies. Wide variance in the values of each process is
caused by the following: the problems of representative sampling in a highly vari-
able waste stream; the several methods of technology available, for example, batch
vs. continuous processing; the interchangeability of process chemicals, for exam-
ple, hypochlorite vs. peroxide in bleaching; and the wide variety of cotton fabrics
manufactured. Any particular cotton processing mill should be producing effluents
with values falling within the ranges listed in Table II.
Each process produces a waste with different characteristics. Table III character-
izes the wastes from cotton wet processing.
TABLE III
CHARACTERISTICS OF COTTON PROCESSING WET WASTES
Process Significant Pollutants
Desizing High BOD, neutral pH, high total solids
Scouring High BOD, high alkalinity, high total solids,
high temperature
Bleaching High BOD, alkaline pH, high solids
Mercerizing Low BOD, alkaline pH, low solids
Dyeing and High BOD, high solids, neutral to
Printing alkaline pH
Source: (Ref. 33, p. 83)
In treating 1000 pounds of cotton fabric, a composite waste stream has the follow-
ing characteristics: pH of 8 to 11; the color either a gray or that of the predom-
inant dye used; the BOD, total solids and suspended solids with concentrations of
200 to 600 p.p.m., 1,000 to 1,600 p.p.m. and 30 to 50 p.p.m., respectively.
These wastes will be contained in a volume of 30,000 to 93,000 gallons (37).
Based on estimates of product mix; that is, the amount of 100 percent cotton fabrics
and cotton-synthetic blends; and the degree of technology mix; that is, the number
of modern plants and out-of-date plants; and the projected growth rate of the cot-
24
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ton finishing industry for the next twelve years, the Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration has predicted a gross wasteload and wastewater volume for selected
years in this period. Table IV lists these estimates for BOD, suspended solids, tot-
al dissolved solids and volume of wastewater for 1970, 1971, 1972, 1977 and 1982.
TABLE IV
PROJECTED GROSS WASTELOAD AND WASTEWATER VOLUME
FOR COTTON FINISHING WASTES FOR SELECTED YEARS,
1970-1982
Year BOD , Suspended Total Dis- Volume
Solids solved Solids (Billion
(Million Pounds) Gallons)
1970 529 165 497 99
1971 528 164 496 100.1
1972 526 163 495 100.1
1977 516 160 494 102.3
1982 502 154 483 105.6
Source: (Ref. 33, p. 62)
The reason for the gradual decrease of the gross pollutional load in the coming
years is based on these assumptions: new machinery, which tends to produce less
pollution per unit of cloth, due to water reuse and counter current flow designs,
will continue to be purchased; trends in process modification, new chemical manu-
facture and better housekeeping will continue and a larger percentage of the wastes
will be treated due to increased efficiency of treatment facilities and increased
pressure by State, local, and Federal agencies (33).
Wool
Wool fiber consumption is the smallest of the three groups, and the trend seems to
be toward less demand in the future on a percentage basis (39). Wool fibers are
processed into two fabric types: woolen fabrics and worsted fabrics - the latter
being used for expensive garments. Figure 7 outlines the operations that take
place in woolen and worsted fabric manufacturing. The American Wool Handbook
25
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(40) gives a detailed account- of each of these fiber and fabric manufacturing oper-
ations. Figure 8 is a process flow chart of wool and worsted fabric finishing opera-
tions. As in cotton textile production, either knitting or weaving will be done at a
particular mill, not both.
Scouring is the first wet process that wool fibers receive. This process removes all
the natural and acquired impurities from the woolen fibers.
There are two methods of wool scouring - detergent scouring and solvent scouring.
In the United States, the detergent scouring process is used almost exclusively (40).
There are two types of detergent scouring - the soap-alkali process and the neutral
detergent scouring process. In the soap-alkali process, a soap or synthetic deter-
gent and a mild alkali such as sodium carbonate or soda ash is added to a bath at a
pH of 9.5 to 10.5 and heated to temperatures of 130 F. This process consumes a
volume of 8,000 to 12,000 gallons (40) of water per 1000 pounds of wool fiber. In
the neutral detergent process, non-ionic detergents of the ethylene oxide condensate
class are added to water at a pH of 6.5 to 7.5 and a temperature of 135° to 160°
F. (40).
The process is carried out in a series of four open bowls called "scouring train".
The first two bowls contain the detergent or soap and alkali and perform the scour.
The last two bowls serve to rinse the fibers clean. For every pound of scoured wool-
en fiber one and one-half pounds of waste impurities are produced (32); therefore,
wool scouring produces one of the strongest industrial wastes in terms of BOD (33).
This process contributes 55 to 75 percent of the total BOD load in wool finishing.
Depending on whether the fabric is classified as woolen or worsted, the remaining
wet processes will vary. The burrpicking and carbonizing step is done to remove
any vegetable matter remaining in the wool after scouring. If the wool is to be
stock dyed, it is done prior to dyeing; if the wool is to be piece dyed, the fabric
is carbonized prior to dyeing.
Due to the popularity of multi-colored fabrics, stock dyeing is used more often to-
day than Is piece good dyeing (33). The two classes of dyes used on wool fiber are
acid dyes and metalized dyes. Table V lists the chemicals found in the woolen
fiber dyebaths.
26
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Woolen System
Worsted System
Raw Wool
Fiber Selection
I.
Sorting & Blending . -
T t
Scouring Stock Dye
Raw Wool
T
Fiber Selection
.
Scouring
n
Drying
Burrpicking/
Carbonizing
I.
Dusting -
Stock Dye
Drying
I
Mixing & Oiling
\ f
Carding
Knitting-
Roving^-
Spinning
u
Wine
ing-
n
••Drying
Dusting
Mixing & Oiling
Card
ing
Gilling
T
Combing
Pin Drafting
Quilling
.Weaving Preparation
T
Weaving
Figure 7. Wool and Worsted Fabric Manufacturing
27
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Burling & Mending
I
Tackling
T
Fulling
T
Washing
T
Felting
I
Carbonizing— i
I
Dusting
Piece Dye
Bleaching
I
Finishing
Figure 8. Wool and Worsted Finishing Operations
28
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TABLE V
CHEMICALS PRESENT IN WOOL DYEBATHS
Dye Type Chemicals Present
Acid Dyes Dye, sulfuric or acetic acid or
ammonium sulfate and Glauber Salt
Metalized Dyes Dye, acetic or sulfuric acid or
ammonium sulfate
Source: (Ref. 41, p. 332).
In the dyeing of wool fibers it is impossible to fix definite formulas. The dye,
grade of wool, and the type of dyeing machine will alter the formulation (42). In
the acid dyeing baths the temperature of the solution will vary from 140° to 212°
F. In the metalized dyeing the average final temperature is 185° F. The pH var-
ies depending on the amount of residual alkali left in the wool fibers after the
scouring process (31). The volume of waste water generated by dyeing, either
stock or piece goods is large and highly colored. Many of the chemicals used for
wool dyeing are toxic (33). The BOD load is contributed by the process chemicals
used, and the contribution of wool dyeing to the mill's total BOD load is 1 to 5
percent (32).
Although the mixing and oiling step does not contribute directly to the water waste
volume, the oil finds its way into the waste stream through the washing after fulling
operation. The percentage contribution to total BOD load of this process varies
with the type of oil used. The traditional oiling agent is olive oil, which produces
a high BOD that could contribute 10 percent of the total BOD load (32); however,
there is a trend toward the use of non-ionic emulsifiers in oiling, that greatly re-
duces the BOD contribution in this area (40).
Fulling is another operation that does not directly contribute to the waste stream,
until the process chemicals are washed out of the fabric in the wash after fulling
operation (32). There are two common methods of fulling, alkali fulling and acid
fulling. In the former case, soap or synthetic detergent, soda ash, and sequester-
ing agents are used in the fulling solution. In acid fulling, the fabric is impregna-
ted with an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid, hydrogen peroxide, and minor a-
mounts of metallic catalysts (chromium, copper and cobalt). In either case, the
water is heated to a temperature of 90° to 100° F. (32)0 Acid fulling is always
followed by alkali fulling.
29
-------
Following the fulling operation, the goods are washed to remove the fulling chemi-
cals mentioned above and the carding oil described in the mixing and oiling discus-
sion. It is estimated that from 10 to 25 percent of the fulled cloth's weight is com-
posed of process chemicals that will be washed out in this process and wasted (32).
Due to this large amount of waste, wool washing after fulling is the second largest
source of BOD, contributing from 20 to 35 percent of the total (33). The usual
procedure in this process Is to subject the fulled cloth to two soapings, two warm
rinses, and one cold rinse. In the first soaping, nothing is added to the water, the
soaping action takes place when agitation of the fabric causes the soap or synthetic
detergent to produce suds, thus washing the fabric. In the second soaping, a 2 per-
cent solution of soap or synthetic detergent is used. The warm water rinsings are
done at 100° to 110° F.7 while the cold rinse is done below 100° F. (32). This
process consumes from 40,000 to 100,000 gallons of water for each 1000 pounds of
wool fabric (33). Analyses show that wool, once thoroughly washed, will produce
little or no BOD of itself on being rewashed (32).
After the dusting process, which follows carbonizing the fabric or stock of fibers,
the acids used in carbonizing must be removed. In order to accomplish this, the
wool is rinsed to remove the bulk of the acid. Following the rinse, the wool is
neutralized by a low concentration solution of sodium carbonate. After this neu-
tralization bath the fabric is rinsed again. Since sulfuric acid and soda ash have
little or no BOD, this process contributes less than 1 percent of the total BOD load
(33).
Wool is bleached if white fabric or very light shades of colored cloth are required;
however, the amount of wool fabric bleached is rather small (33). There are three
methods of bleaching wool - with sulphur dioxide, with hydrogen peroxide, and
with the optical brighteners. With hydrogen peroxide and sulfur dioxide bleaching
the BOD contribution is usually less than one-half of a percent; optical brighten-
ers, which use organic compounds, contribute about 1 percent of the total BOD
(33).
In the processing of woolen fibers, five sources of pollutional load exist - scouring,
dyeing, washing after fulling, neutralizing after carbonizing, and bleaching with
optical brighteners. Table VI contains average values of the pollution load of
each of these processes, and Table VII lists the significant pollutants from each
process.
30
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Table VI. Pollutional Loads of Wool Wet Processes.
B.O.D.
Process pH p.p.m. lbs/1,000 Total Solids Volume
Ibs. cloth p.p.m. (gallons)
Scouring 9.0-10.4 30,000-40,000 104.5-221.4 1,129-64,448 5,500-12,000
Dyeing 4.8-8.0 380-2,200 9.0-34.3 3,855-8,315 1,900-2,680
CO
"" Washing 7.3-10.3 4,000-11,455 31-94 4,830-19,267 40,000-100,000
Neutral- 1.9-9.0 28 1.7-2.1 1,241-4,830 12,500-15,700
ization
Bleaching 6.0 390 1.4 908 300-2,680
Source: Ref. 32, p. 60; Ref. 33, p. 20; Ref. 43, p. 386; Ref. 44, p. 37.
-------
TABLE VII
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL PROCESSING WASTES
Process Significant Pollutants
Scouring High BOD, high grease content, high alkalinity,
turbid brown color and a temperature of
115° to 125° F.
Dyeing Acid pH, highly colored, relatively high in BOD
and possibly toxic
Washing High BOD, high oil content and temperatures of
110° to 150° F.
Source: (Ref. 33, p. 13).
In Table VI, the pollutional load values vary greatly due to different methods of
accomplishing the same process; for example, dyeing can use either acetic acid or
ammonium sulfate as a dye assistant, the latter having a lower BOD loading. Var-
iance in volume is caused by differences between batch and continuous processes.
In the pH values, the large variance in neutralization is due to the fact that the
first soapings1 function is to remove residual acid from the fabric; whereds, the
second soaping adds alkali to the bath. For scouring, washing and neutralizing,
the values are for the entire process, not separate bowls.
In treating 1000 pounds of scoured wool, the total wasteload will contain 1000
pounds of grease, suet, and dirt, plus up to 500 pounds of process chemicals (de-
tergents, alkali, softeners, etc.) (32). This wasteload is broken down into 250
pounds of BOD, 188 pounds of alkalinity, and 40.5 pounds of acidity (45). The
volume of water used will range from 55,725 to 133,060 gallons (32,45). A com-
posite waste stream produced by the finishing of wool fibers would have the follow-
ing pollutional loadings: pH-9.0 to 10.5; BOD and total solids concentrations of
432 to 1200 p0p.m. and 6,470 p.p.m. respectively (44,45,46). The effluent will
have a brown colloidal color, tinged with the most used dye color (32).
As in cotton finishing, the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration has es-
timated the gross wasteload, in pounds of BOD, and the wastewater volume for the
selected years in the period 1970-1982. These estimates are based on the following
factors: (33)
32
-------
1. anticipated growth rate of the wool finishing industry
2. the assumptions that the industry will continue to purchase
processing machinery and process chemicals that tend to
produce a lower pollutional load per unit of fabric processed
3. treatment facilities will achieve more efficient pollution
load removal
4. increased pressure by Federal, State and local regulatory
agencies concerning pollution
The Administration's estimates are contained in Table VIII.
TABLE VIII
PROJECTED GROSS WASTELOAD AND WASTEWATER VOLUME
Year
1970
1971
1972
1977
1982
FOR WOOLEN FINISHING WASTES
1970-1982
BOD
(Million Ibs.)
133.0
133.2
133.2
134.2
136.0
FOR SELECTED YEARS,
Volume
(Billion Gals.)
28.35
28.40
28.40
28.6
29.0
Source: (Ref. 33, p. 22).
Unlike cotton, the total waste discharges of wool are expected to increase slightly
in the twelve year period. Although no reason is given for this increase, a reason-
able conclusion would be that it is impossible to foresee any major process changes
in wool finishing.
33
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Synthetics
In this category of textile fibers there are two broad classifications: cellulosic and
non-cellulosic fibers. The two major cellulosic fibers are rayon and cellulose ace-
tate. The major non-cellulosic fibers are nylon, polyester, acrylics and modacryl-
ics. There are other fibers in both classes, but at present they are not consumed in
as large a volume as the six fibers mentioned above. The largest volume of synthet-
ic fibers consumed by textile mills comes from the non-cellulosic fibers (39); and
the trend is toward an even greater demand in the future, particularly for polyester
fibers (47). Synthetic fibers can be converted into fabrics in one of two ways.
Continuous filament yarns can be used to manufacture 100 percent synthetic fab-
rics, or staple yarns can be used to produce fabrics that are blends of man-made
fibers or man-made and natural fibers. In Figure 9 a process flow chart shows the
operations required to produce a 100 percent synthetic fabric; Figure 10 shows the
processes required for the production of blended fabrics. Blended fabrics are pro-
cessed according to the natural fiber component of the yarn (32). As in cotton and
wool processing, the yarns are either woven or knitted, not both.
For a more detailed description of synthetic fiber manufacture, processing, and
blending, refer to Man-Made Fibers (48), Man-Made Fibers-Science and Technol-
ogy (49), and the Man-Made Fiber Fact Book (50).
The first process in which synthetic fibers are subjected to an aqueous treatment is
stock dyeing, unless the fabric is to be piece dyed. When stock dyeing is used, the
liquid waste discharge will vary from about 8 to 15 times the weight of the fibers
dyed (51). A more detailed explanation of synthetic fiber dyeing will be given in
the discussion on individual fibers.
Due to the low moisture regain of the synthetics, static electricity is a problem
during processing. To minimize this problem, anti-static oils are applied to the
yarns, which also serve as lubricants and sizing compounds. Those compounds com-
monly used are: polyvinyl alcohol, styrene-base resins, polyalkylen glycols, gela-
tin, polyacrylic acid, and polyvinyl acetate (52). These compounds become a
source of water pollution when they are removed from the fabrics during scouring
(32).
Since the manufacture of synthetic fibers can be well controlled, chemical impuri-
ties are relatively absent in these fibers; therefore, only light scouring and little or
no bleaching are required prior to dyeing; and if synthetics are bleached, the pro-
cess is not normally a source of organic or suspended solids pollution; however, the
process will generate dissolved solids if chlorine bleaches are used (33).
Each of the synthetic fibers is processed in varying sequences of operations; there-
fore, each major synthetic fiber must be examined individually.
34
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Dyeing^
T
Knitting^-
Bleaching-^-
Fiber Manufacture
I
Winding
, •
— Scouring -
T
Heat Setting
T
-^•Dyeing ^ -
I
..I
Finishing
•Warping —
I
Dyeing
I
Slashing-
I
•Weaving
T
Desizing
Figure 9. Typical Processing of 100 Percent Synthetic
Fabric.
35
-------
Fiber Manufacturing
T
Tow Converter >
I
Picking-^
Worsteds-
Processes
-Woolen Weaving •<-
Processes
Knitting «
Blending
•Carding-
.1
Spinning^-
•Winding
^Woolen
Finishing
Operations
Dyeing
->-Combed Cotton
Processes
-^•Cotton Weaving-
Processes
Knitting
Cottony-
Finishing
Operations
Figure 10. Typical Processing of Blended Fabrics
36
-------
In finishing rayon, scouring and dyeing are usually done concurrently in a single
bath. A solution of soluble oil and synthetic detergent is used for the scouring ac-
tion. The same dyes as are used in cotton dyeing can be applied to rayon; however,
lower temperatures (180° - 200° F.), retarding agents, and lower concentrations
of electrolytes are used to effect exhaustion of color (35). The main reason for dye-
ing and scouring rayon in the same bath is that very little rayon is bleached, due to
the degradation of the fiber by the oxidizing agents used in bleaching (31). A typ-
ical rayon scour and dye bath will contain the antistatic-lubricant used for weaving
purposes and the soluble oil and synthetic detergent used in scouring (52). The av-
erage BOD in this bath is 2,832 p.p.m. of which 50 to 60 percent was contributed
by the anti-static compounds, 30 to 40 percent was due to the soluble oil, and 10
to 20 percent was caused by the synthetic detergent (32).
After the scour and dye bath, rayon is subjected to a salt bath to remove residual
scouring material and to assure fastness of the dyestuff. The bath contains a syn-
thetic detergent and salt solution which is subsequently rinsed from the fabric.
Practically all the BOD of this discharge is due to residual scour and dye bath so-
lution left in the fabric. The waste discharge has an average BOD of 58 p.p.m.
and a salt content of 4,000 to 12,000 p.p.m. (32).
If scouring and dyeing are the only finishing processes given rayon fabrics, the two
baths will produce an equalized effluent of 1445 p.p.m. BOD and 2,000 to 6,000
p.p.m. salt contained in approximately 5000 gallons of water for each 1000 pounds
of fabric processed (52).
Acetate
The usual procedure for processing acetate fabrics is as follows: a preliminary de-
sizing action, if necessary; a scour and dye bath or scour and bleach bath, depend-
ing on whether colored or white fabric is desired; and two rinsings. The anti-static
compounds are solubilized by diastatic or proteolytfc enzymes prior to scouring
(52). Soap or a synthetic detergent is used for scouring, and dyeing is done by dis-
persed dyes, dispersed developed dyes, acid and naphthol dyes (53).
Because dispersed dyes have very low solubility in water, they are applied as a
fine dispersion of the dye. Sulfonated oil, aliphatic esters, and softeners are ap-
plied to each class of dye at a concentration of 0.02 pounds per pound of fiber to
facilitate dyeing (53). When the fiber is swelled, the dye solution penetrates into
the fiber. The rinses following dyeing remove the swelling agent, and as the fiber
unswells, the dye solution is encased in the fiber (53).
If the bleaching is required, mild oxidizing agents such as peroxide bleaches and
37
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chlorine can be used. Usually a 3 percent solution of hydrogen peroxide is used as
the bleaching agent (54).
The wastes from the scour and dye bath averaged 2000 p.p.m, and 50 pounds of
BOD for each 1000 pounds of acetate fabric. The bath contained the anti-static-
lubricant desizing wastes, which contributed 40-50 percent of the BOD load; the
sulfonated oil swelling agent, which accounted for 30-40 percent of the BOD load;
the aliphatic ester swelling agent, which amounted to 10 to 20 percent of the BOD
discharged, and the softener which had negligible BOD content. The two rinses
had a fairly low BOD content, resulting from residual chemicals remaining in the
cloth from the scour and dye bath0 These three processes produce a composite waste
of 666 p. p.m. of BOD for each 1000 pounds processed; the volume of water requir-
ed to treat this amount of cloth averages 9000 gallons (52).
If bleaching is substituted for dyeing, the BOD of the discharge of the scouring and
bleaching bath is approximately 750 p.p.m. (52). The equilization of this bath
with the discharges from the two rinsings will average 250 p.p.m. and 15-20pounds
of BOD in 9000 gallons of wastewater for the processing of 1000 pounds of cloth.
Nylon
The usual procedure involved in nylon finishing is scouring, two rinses, dyeing and
another rinse. Nylon differs from other synthetics in that approximately 1 percent
of the fiber dissolves when scoured. Nylon fibers can be dyed by every class of
dye. When nylon is used in blended fabrics, the choice of dye usually depends on
the other fiber component of the blend (52).
Soap and soda ash are used in the scouring process. When wasted, the bath con-
tains the following BOD producing compounds - the anti-static compound, soaps,
and fatty esters (from the dissolving fiber components) (32). The typical nylon
scour bath averages 1360 p.p.m. and 34 pounds of BOD for each 1000 pounds of
cloth processed. The substances present in the bath contributed the following per-
centage to the total BOD of the bath: anti-static-sizing compound (40-50 per-
cent), soap (40-50 percent), and fatty esters (10-20 percent) (52).
When nylon is dyed, sulfonated oils are used as dye dispersants. These dye dispers-
ants contribute practically all of the process's BOD7 which amounts to an average
of 600 p.p.m. and 15 pounds for each 1000 pounds of cloth dyed.
The two rinses between the scouring and dyeing processes and the rinse following
dyeing are low in BOD, which is caused by scouring and dyeing process chemicals
that remained on the fabric. If the wastes from these five processes are equalized,
scouring and dyeing 1000 pounds of nylon fabric results in a waste stream which
will average 346 p.p.m. and 43.2 pounds of BOD in 15,000 gallons of waste wa-
38
-------
ter (52). The BOD contribution of the scouring process is roughly 80 percent, the
remaining BOD being contributed by the dyeing process (32).
Polyester
Polyester fabric finishing Is usually carried out in the following order: scour, rinse,
dye, and scour again. If blended fabrics are being processed, there is usually a
second dyeing before the final scour. A non-ionic synthetic detergent is used for
scouring.
Polyester may be dyed in several different ways. Conventional dyeing temperatures
(room temperature to boiling) may be used, but carriers are needed to take the dye
into the fiber. A second method eliminates the carriers, but high temperatures
(250° F.) and pressures (50 psi) are required to get desirable results. Another
method of polyester dyeing is thermosal dyeing, in which the fabric is coated with
the dyestuff and cured on the fabric in an oven. Carriers used in polyester dyeing
are: ortho-pheny I phenol, biphenyl, benzyl alcohol, methyl naphthalene, and
chloro-benzenes. To use these carriers at conventional temperatures, high concen-
trations of from 0.06 to 0.4 pounds of carrier to one pound of fiber are required
(55).
The polyester scour wastes average 500-800 p.p.m. of BOD. The processing of
1000 pounds of polyester fabric will produce 15.5 pounds of BOD of which 90 per-
cent is contributed by the anti-static compounds used for lubrication and sizing
(32).
Because of the high concentrations at which they are used and the inherent high
rate of BOD, the emulsifying and dissolving agents used in polyester dyeing will
produce high BOD loads. Table IX lists the BOD loads in p.p.m. and pounds of
BOD for some carriers used in polyester dyeing.
39
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TABLE IX
BOD LOADINGS OF POLYESTER DYE CARRIERS
Carrier BOD
p.p.m. Ibs./IOOO ibs. of cloth
Ortho-phenylphenol 6,000 180
Benzoic Acid 27,000 810
Salicylic Acid 24,000 720
Phenylmethyl carbinol 19,000 570
Monochlorobenzene 480 14
Source: (Ref. 32, p. 38).
At the present time ortho-phenylphenol is one of the most widely used dye carriers.
Chlorobenzenes find limited use because their toxic vapors cause health problems
(52). The two rinses of polyester finishing are usually low in BOD as the result of
chemicals held in the cloth after scouring and dyeing. The processing of polyester
uses an average of 15,000 gallons of water (32).
AeryMcs and ModacryI ics
Although these two fiber - types have different physical and chemical properties,
they are both subject to the same finishing techniques and can be discussed to-
gether.
The most prevalent methods of dyeing these two fibers are with acid dyes using ca-
tionlc dyeing assistants, and with basic dyes using anionic assistants (56). The
amount of carriers used in the bath ranges from 0.02 to 0.1 pound of chemical per
pound of fiber dyed (32).
The waste from the first scour averages 2190 p.p.m. and 660 pounds of BOD per
1000 pounds of processed fiber. The chemical components of the bath are the anti-
static compound, which accounts for 30-50 percent of the BOD, and the soaps used
to accomplish this process. The rinse following the first scour contains the soap and
lubricant solution held over from the scouring process and is usually low in BOD
(32).
40
-------
When using acid dyes, the dye baths average 175 p.p.m. and 5.3 pounds of BOD
per 1000 pounds of fabric, the total BOD load coming from the dye carriers.
The final scour averages 668 p.p.m. and 20 pounds of BOD for 1000 pounds of
cloth (52). This final scour is accomplished with synthetic detergents and pine oil,
which together contribute practically all the BOD. Again, the subsequent rinse
washes out held over solution and is relatively low in BOD.
The equalized discharges will have a BOD of 575 p.p.m. and 120.9 pounds in a
volume of 25,000 gallons of wastewater for each 1000 pounds of acrylic and moda-
crylic fabric processed.
Wet Processing Wastes of Synthetic Fibers
Unlike wool and cotton, synthetic fibers of the same type can have different physi-
cal and chemical properties., The producers of man-made fibers are continually
producing variations of existing fibers and totally new fibers to meet existing or
anticipated needs. As a result of all this research and development work, the
techniques used in finishing synthetic textile fibers are largely dictated by the
fiber manufacturer. For these reasons, the processing of synthetic fibers can pro-
duce a variable wasteload depending on the particular fiber type used, the manu-
facturer's suggested method of processing, and the particular process chemicals
used. Table X lists the pollutional loads and waste water volume generated in
processing the five synthetic fibers discussed above. Table XI lists the significant
pollutants found in the waste water resulting from these same processes.
41
-------
Table X. Pollutional Load of Synthetic Wet Fiber Processes.
B.O.D.
Total Solids
Suspended
Process
Scour
Scour &
Dy_e
Dye
Salt
Bath
Final
Scour
Special
Fiber
Nylon
Acrylic/
Modacrylic
Polyester
Rayon
Acetate
Nylon
Acrylic/
Modacrylic
Polyester
Rayon
Acrylic/
Modacrylic
Polyester
Nylon
Acrylic/
p_H
10.4
9.7
8.5
9.3
8.4
1.5-
3.7
6.8
7.1
p. p.m.
1360
2190
500-
800
2832
2000
368
175-
2000
4SU —
27,000
58
668
650
Ibs./lOOO
Ibs. of cloth
30-40
45-90
15-25
50-70
40-60
5-20
2-40
0-3
10-25
15-25
i r>
fift
p. p.m.
1882
1874
3334
1778
641
833-
1968
4890
1191
Ibs./lOOO
Ibs. of cloth
30-50
12-20
25-35
25-39
20-34
6-9
on 9 nn
20-200
4-12
10-50
3 i no
3-100
*5 i nn
^-1 on
1-1 nn
Solids
Ibs./lOOO
Ibs. of cloth
20-40
25-50
5-15
0-3
1-20
2-42
5-20
2-6
3-7
3-50
3-50
3-50
0 Kf)
3-50
Volume in jjal
per 1000 Ibs.
of cloth
6,000-8,000
6,000-8,000
3,000-5,000
2,000-4,000
4 ,000-6,000
2,000-4,000
2,000-4,000
500-1,500
8,000-10,000
2,000-4,000
500-1 500
3 000-5 000
4 000 6 000
5 000-7 000
i .ono-3.000
Sources: Ref. 32, p64; Ref. 33, p 101; Ref. 52, p 16.
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TABLE XI
SIGNIFICANT POLLUTANTS IN SYNTHETIC FIBER WET PROCESSING
Fiber
Rayon
Acetate
Nylon
Acrylic/
Modacrylic
Process
Scour & Dye
Scour & Bleach
Salt bath
Scour & Dye
Scour & Bleach
Scour
Developed Dis-
persed Dye
Bleach
Dye
Thermosol
Dyeing
Bleach
Scour
Thermosol
Dyeing
Liquid Waste Pollutant
Oil, dye, synthetic detergent, and
anti-static lubricants
Synthetic detergent, and hydrogen
peroxide
Synthetic detergent, chloride
or sulfate
Anti-static lubricants, dye, sulfonated
oils, synthetic detergent, esters, and
softeners
Synthetic detergent, hydrogen
peroxide or chlorine
Anti-static lubricants, soap,
tetrasodium pyrophosphate, soda,
and fatty esters.
Dye, NaNO2, Hydrochloric acid,
veloper, and sulfonated oils
Peracetic Acid
Dye, formic acid, wetting agent,
aromatic amines, retarding agent,
and sulphates
Acid
Chlorite
Synthetic detergent and pine oil
Acid
43
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TABLE XI Continued
Dyeing with Chlorobenzenes, hot water, and dye;
carriers or pheny I methyl carbinol, dye, and
hot water; or ortho-phenylphenol
and dye
Scour Anti-static lubricants, chlorite or
hypochlorite, and non-ionic
synthetic detergents
High temperature Dye and hot water
& pressure dyeing
Bleach Chlorite, NaNG>2, acetic acid,
oxalic acid, nitric acid, bisulfite,
proprietary bleaches
Source: (Ref. 33, p. 93)
The Federal Water Pollution Control Administration has projected the gross waste-
load expected to be produced by the synthetic textile finishing industry for the next
twelve year period. These projections are based on the projected growth rate of the
industry and on estimates of increased waste treatment and reduction of wastes per
unit of operation (33). These projected figures are given in Table XII for 1970,
1971, 1972, 1977 and 1982.
TABLE XII
PROJECTED GROSS WASTELOAD AND WATERWASTE VOLUME FOR
SYNTHETIC FIBER FINISHING WASTES FOR SELECTED YEARS 1970-1982
Year BOD Suspended Total Dissolved Volume
Solids Solids (Billion Gals.)
(Million Pounds)
1970 288 291 584 28
1971 301 304 608 29
1972 314 316 633 30
1977 375 379 760 36
1982 409 412 827 39
Source: (Ref, 33, p. 102).
44
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As noted in the introductory remarks of this section, the synthetic fibers are gaining
a large portion of the total textile fiber market. The rather high growth rate antic-
ipated (47) accounts for such high waste load predictions.
Special Finishing
In the past, special finishing was used to impart a smooth appearance and the de-
sired stiffness to the fabric. Today, in addition to the above two purposes, fabrics
are finished in order to obtain several other desirable properties. Among the prop-
erties desired are flame retardancy, water repellency, water proofing, mildew
proofing, oil repel lency, and the latest two convenience items, soil release and
wash and wear.
The list of chemicals used for special finishing is rather long and will not be cov-
ered here. The American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists has pre-
pared a list of the 5-day BOD values for all textile chemicals (2). This list enum-
erates the uses of each chemical, and the ones used in finishing can be examined to
see how much BOD they would contribute to the final wasteload.
At present there hasn't been any extensive research into the pollutional effects and
loads produced by these processes; however, it is estimated that this process con-
tributes 5 to 15 percent of the total plant BOD for all three fiber groups (33).
Tables II and X list some values given by authors for special finishing of cotton
and synthetic fibers; however, these values reflect a particular mill's discharge and
may not indicate a true average value. The major reason for the scarcity of re-
search data on this subject is probably that not all goods receive the same degree of
special finishing, and that some, such as wash and wear rain coats, may receive
several types of special finishing.
45
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CHARACTERIZATION OF TEXTILE EFFLUENTS SUMMARY
From examining Tables II, IV, and X, it can be concluded that each of the three
textile finishing groups produces a highly variable wasteload. The constant intro-
duction of new fibers, finishes, chemicals, processes, machinery and techniques
and an ever-changing consumer demand for different styles and colors of fabric are
the principal causes of this variation.
The wastes from a textile finishing mill come from two sources: the natural impuri-
ties present in the fibers and the process chemicals used. In synthetic fibers, only
the process chemicals are the source of pollution as they are relatively free of
chemical impurities. In the processing of cotton and wool wastes, the natural im-
purities are the largest source of pollution, and are contained in a highly concen-
trated effluent.
Wool finishing wastes have high BOD loads, high solid concentrations, and a high
grease content that arises from the scouring process. The wool wastes are usually
considered the strongest textile wet wastes per gallon of process water used. The
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration's predictions of future wool wet
waste discharges (Table VIII) call for a slight increase in total BOD discharge;
however, due to wool's low demand, these wastes will be the lowest for the indus-
try. Although its waste is not as strong as that from the wool industry, due mainly
to the absence of grease, the cotton finishing industry produces the largest volume
of wet wastes. Cotton textile wastes can have high color content. The Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration's gross wasteload projections are for a slight
decrease in cotton waste discharges in the coming years (Table IV).
The synthetic fiber finishing wastes are lower in volume and concentration than the
natural fiber wastes per gallon of water used. The synthetic fiber market's rapid
growth has indicated that on a total volume basis, these wastes will be the largest
for the industry in a short period of time (Table XII). One significant difference
between synthetic fiber wastes and natural fiber wastes is the presence of toxic ma-
terials in the waste stream when dye carriers are used for synthetic dyeing.
46
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REVIEW OF WASTE TREATMENT TECHNIQUES
Introduction
Waste water treatment processes may be categorized into groups which differ main-
ly by the number of operations performed on the waste streams: preliminary treat-
ment, which is used to remove grit and solid material; primary treatment, which
removes settleable and floatable solids; secondary treatment, which removes bio-
degradable organic matter; and tertiary treatment, which is used to remove materials
that are resistant to secondary treatment. In addition to these conventional treatment
processes are the newly developed chemical and physical treatment methods which
may replace any or all of the above processes.
Preliminary and Primary Treatment
Preliminary treatment includes equalization, neutralization, and possibly disinfection
of the waste stream, although this may be done at the end of the treatment process.
Segregation of different streams is performed for several reasons, among them being
these: the presence of toxic compounds that could upset the balance of bacterial
growth in biological treatment; or the possibility of wastes such as storm drainage,
sanitary and housekeeping wastes that require no pretreatment, being included with
the industrial effluent that must be pretreated; and temperature differences which
must also be equalized before further treatment.
Equalization or mixing of different wastes is used to insure that the variations and
shock loadings are not introduced to the secondary treatment process. Variations
in loading are eliminated by mixing highly concentrated waste with very dilute
waste. The differences in production such as batch processing and the possibility
of variation in the work week require equalization of waste streams to insure that
the secondary treatment system, if biological, will not be damaged. If waste
streams are not carefully controlled, lagoons used for equalization can become od-
oriferous and objectionable to the surrounding community. For this reason, modern
installations provide aeration of the mixed effluent, to reduce the possibility of
odor formation and at the same time lower the pollutional load as measured by five
day BOD tests (57).
Neutralization will be necessary if the biological processes reach a pH higher than
10 (43). Direct discharge of acidic and alkaline waste can cause corrosion of pipes
and sewer facilities. State regulations limit the range of pH allowable for dis-
charge - to stream effluent. Table XIII lists some of the chemicals commonly used
for neutralization.
47
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TABLE XI11
Acid Wastes
Lime Slurries
Limestone
Soda Ash
Caustic Soda
Ammonia
Waste Alkali
CHEMICALS FOR NEUTRALIZATION
Alkaline Wastes
Sulfuric Acid
Hydrochloric Acid
Carbon Dioxide
Flue Gas
Sulphur
Waste Acid
Source: (Ref. 58, p. 34).
These chemicals can be added in either a batch process, or by automatic acid or
alkaline dosing units.
Disinfection of waste waters may be required before discharging treated effluent to
streams. This can be accomplished before primary treatment or as the final treat-
ment step. When disinfectant is added before primary treatment it may have two
effects: it may destroy some wastes that are toxic to the microbes in the'secondary
stage; secondly, it may prevent septic f!ox, pathogenic organisms, and undesirable
algae from reaching the receiving stream. When the disinfectant is added as the
final treatment step, it is done for this second effect. Chemicals commonly used
for disinfecting waste waters include chlorine and several of its derivatives —
chlorinated lime, high test hypochlorite and chlorine dioxide, and ozone. Table
XIV lists ranges of chlorine required for treatment of municipal waste waters.
48
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TABLE XIV
CHLORINE EQUIVALENT REQUIRED FOR DISINFECTION
Status of Effluent mg./l Required
Raw Sewage 6-12
Septic 12-25
Settled Sewage 5-10
Septic 12-40
Chemical Precipitation 3-6
Trickling Filter, Normal 3-5
Trickling Filter, Poor 5-10
Activated Sludge, Normal 2-4
Activated Sludge, Poor 3-8
Sand Filter, Normal 1-3
Sand Filter, Poor 3-5
Source: (Ref. 59, p. 86).
State regulations usually require the higher quantity dosage associated with the
poor effluent category, rather than the normal effluent category; for example, raw
sewage is required to receive 12-25 mg./l. rather than 6-12 mg./l.
Screening (60,61,62) is used to remove the relatively large floating or suspended
particles such as fibers, undissolved chemicals, dirt and grit from the effluent be-
fore further treatment. There are three general classifications of screens: coarse -
with openings of 1.5 to 6 inches; intermediate - with 0.25 to 1.5 inch interstices;
and fine screens with less than 0.25 inch openings. Screening media include equal-
ly spaced bars, woven wire, slotted or perforated plates. The solids that collect on
the screens can be removed manually, mechanically, or by back-washing with wa-
ter, steam, or air. Where a continuous discharge takes place, the latter two pro-
cedures are best. The screens are placed at the head of the drain pipes or another
easily accessible place and function as the effluent is discharged through them. The
paper and pulp, food processing, and steel industries are experimenting with vibrat-
ing screens, which may accomplish a higher degree of solids removal than conven-
tional screens.
Sedimentation (63,64) uses the force of gravity to remove settleable solids from
waste waters. The effluent is discharged to sedimentation tanks and detained there
for a period long enough for sedimentation (65). Detention over a long period of
time will cause scum and sludge build-up along with odoriferous conditions. Dif-
49
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ferent tanks, including Imhoff tanks, can be used for sedimentation. The deciding
factors are land space and sludge disposal requirements. In general the settleable
solids are deposited on the bottom of the tank where they form a watery sludge,
which is mechanically removed and disposed of. (The disposal of sludge shall be
covered in a separate topic.) The tanks are covered containers which can accom-
plish both sedimentation and sludge digestion by anaerobic bacteria in the same
vessel. Thus they have a decided advantage over open tanks and separate sludge
disposal systems in small areas.
Flotation is another method of solids-liquid separation. This can be done by employ-
ing flocculation and dissolved-air flotation.
Flocculation (66,67) utilizes chemical precipitation to cause separation. It can
be used to increase the rate of sedimentation and flotation by dissolved-air pro-
cesses, or as a separate settleable solids reduction technique. The principle of the
process is to add organic and/or inorganic chemicals (depending on the waste
characteristics of the effluent) to the waste waters. The solids in the waste
collide with the coagulants, and the two are held together by molecular forces,
thus increasing particle size. The resulting bulky gelatinous particles known as
floe are removed by either sedimentation or floatation and possibly by a final
filtering step.
The flotation process most commonly employed in waste treatment is that of dis-
solved-air flotation. Fine air bubbles, less than 100 microns in diameter, are in-
troduced to the effluent, where due to surface interactions they become attached
to the solid particles. As the air bubbles decrease the density of the solids, the
separation takes place at the surface of the effluent, rather than at the bottom of
the settling basin.
Secondary Treatment
Two treatment methods used to reduce the organic load of textile effluents are
chemical separation and biological oxidation.
Chemical separation uses the action of chemical absorption or bonding to separate
the dissolved contaminants from textile effluents. An advantage of this type of treat-
ment is flexibility. When process chemicals are changed, the chemical coagulants
can also be altered to handle the change in effluent composition. Common coagulants
used in textile effluent applications are these: lime, sulphuric acid, ferrous sulphate,
ferric sulphate, aluminum sulphate, ferric chloride, calcium chloride and ferric alum.
By this method of treatment the wastes are stored in a lagoon or settling basin
for the proper removal of solids. The effluent is then pumped to rapid-mix
basins where coagulants are added by automatic control devices. This rapid
50
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mixing causes flocculation and sedimentation to occur. After the floe is removed
from the surface or settled to the bottom of the basin, the liquid is drawn off and dis-
charged.
This treatment method for municipal wastes reduces BOD on the average of 45-50
percent and color 80-90 percent (68). The process, however, is not as economical
as biological methods of secondary treatment. Chemical treatment methods require
skilled technicians to assure that the proper chemicals are added in the proper
dosages to the varying effluent.
Biological oxidation (69,70) utilizes microorganisms to degrade the organic mater-
ial in the waste stream.
There are two methods of biological treatment, classified according to oxygen
requirements—aerobic and anaerobic. The first method uses microorganisms and
free oxygen dissolved in the effluent to convert the wastes to more microorganisms
plus energy needed for this existence. The microorganisms use the waste as food to
develop and multiply; the same process that occurs naturally in streams and rivers.
The microbes use the oxygen and convert the waste to carbon dioxide and water; a
typical reaction with a carbohydrate would be:
C6 H|2 O6 + 602 -*• 6CO2 + H2O
Another type of organism is used in the anaerobic digestion process. This process
occurs without free oxygen available to the microbes. Bacteria ultimately convert
most of the waste to methane and carbon dioxide; a typical reaction is:
C6 H|2 06 •*• 3CH4 + 3C02
Generally, aerobic digestion is preferred for two main reasons. The products of
aerobic digestion are in a higher state of oxidation and anaerobic digestion can
produce odoriferous hydrogen sulfide when sulfate or sulfides are present in the
waste stream.
In biological processes, there are four process variables: BOD loading, oxygen and
temperature requirements, and degree of mixing. In conjunction with these are
five environmental variables: pH, nutrients, salts, toxic load, and variations in
environment.
The BOD is a measure of the amount of organic matter in the waste, expressed in
terms of the pounds of oxygen required for aerobic decomposition of the waste.
51
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Oxygen requirements are given as pounds of oxygen per pound of biodegradable
waste (generally referred to as BOD). The oxygen supplied must sustain a dissolved
oxygen level of 0.5 to 1.0 milligrams per liter to insure adequate aerobic condi-
tions; however, too much dissolved oxygen can encourage the growth of undesira-
ble species (71).
Depending on the type of biological process being used, temperature requirements
vary. For trickling filters, a consistent temperature of 85° F. is important for op-
timum results (57); if the temperature is lowered or raised, efficiency is adversely
affected. This feature makes ft difficult for trickling filters to operate at an opti-
mum during the hot summer periods and cold winter days. Some activated sludges
have been able to operate efficiently at 115° F. (71). With the activated sludge
process, increases of temperature in the range of 50° F. to 115° F. afford a num-
ber of advantages: at higher temperatures, a fixed quantity of microorganisms can
treat more BOD at the same time; flocculation and sedimentation are enhanced;
less sludge is produced for a given BOD loading; sludge is less sensitive to adverse
BOD loadings (71). The degree of mixing microbes and waste water can have a
substantial effect on process performance. These higher efficiencies are achieved
through more effective use of existing volume or creation of more surface area.
As stated earlier, the biological processes can not operate effectively at a pH
above 10. The accepted range of pH values for biological methods is 6.5 to 9;
microorganisms can be acclimated to perform well at any point within these limits,
and will adjust to slight changes of pH over time; however, rapid changes in pH
can retard their activity (71). High rate trickling filters are capable of operating
at pH of 10.5 and activated sludge at pH 10 as an upper limit (57); however, any
variation from these limits once the bacteria become acclimated, will cause lower-
ing of process efficiency.
Biological growth requires several elements to sustain itself. The list includes car-
bon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and trace elements of iron,
calcium, magnesium, manganese, zinc, boron, potassium and cobalt. Natural
waters contain sufficient trace elements, but sometimes lack nitrogen and phos-
phorus. These two nutrients can be added in two ways. Good results have been
obtained in municipal treatment plants when domestic sewage which is high in
phosphorus and nitrogen is mixed with textile wastes that are deficient these two
elements (72). Also a mixing tank can be used in which ammonium phosphate is
added to insure that the effluent contains nitrogen to carbon ratios of 1:20 or 1:10
and phosphorus to carbon ratios of 1:100 (43). If the process water has been chem-
ically pretreated to remove hardness and other inorganic compounds (73, 74), a
number of trace elements may also need to be added to the effluent before it is fed
to the secondary process.
Salt present in the effluent will affect biological activity. It is therefore desira-
52
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ble to limit salt concentrations to less than 10,000 milligrams per liter (71). This
may be a problem in some dye manufacturing operations but is not a problem with
most textile waste streams.
Metal ions, phenolics, sulfides, cyanides and formaldehyde can be treated by ac-
climated cultures successfully, provided the concentrations are carefully control-
led. For such control segregation and equalization would be required before bio-
logical treatment. Phenolics and formaldehyde are treatable in concentrations up
to 1,000 milligrams per liter; sulfides and cyanides have been treated at concen-
trations less than 100 milligrams per liter, and metal ions present no problems when
concentrations are 10 milligrams per liter or less (71). While the limiting concen-
trations given represent safe concentrations in most cases, complex waste streams
may have toxic properties attributable to synergistic effects of specific mixtures.
Although microorganisms readily acclimate themselves to different environments,
rapid pH changes or temperature movements of more than 5° F. per hour (71) are
deleterious. Abnormal changes in BOD loading can cause adverse effects if there
is not enough dissolved oxygen to handle the peak food supply.
There are four common biological treatment processes: stabilization ponds, aerated
lagoons, activated sludge, and trickling filters.
Ponds and Lagoons
The stabilization pond is a basin 3 to 5 feet deep. The oxygen necessary for the
biological process is supplied from the algae and surface aeration. To achieve high
BOD reductions, the BOD loadings must be kept low, usually 4 to 10 pounds of
BOD per acre-foot per day (71). Process efficiency varies with the season, as sun-
light and temperature affect the growth of algae. The effluent is high in suspended
solids and requires sedimentation before final discharge if this is to be the final
treatment step. Liquid detention in stabilization ponds varies from 4 to 20 days de-
pending on BOD loadings (71). The primary consideration with this process is the
availability of a large area and remote location for the ponds. A large area is
needed for the large volume of waste, and a remote location may be necessary due
to the production of odors from the ponds in the summer season.
Aerated lagoons are similar in construction to stabilization ponds with the addition
of mechanical aeration, which drastically increases the efficiency of the lagoon.
The aerated lagoon has a depth of 15-18 feet, and the area requirements are about
one-fifteenth of that of the stabilized ponds. The amount of oxygen required for
efficient treatment is about 1 pound per pound of BOD (71). The aerated lagoon
uses aerobic microbes and algae to perform the biological oxidation. The detention
time for this process is 3 to 10 days, depending on the amount of oxygen supplied
(43). Due to the large volume being treated at any time, shock loadings usually
53
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have much less effect on the system.
Activated Sludge
Activated sludge process involves mixing incoming waste water with biologically
active sludge or suspensions of microorganisms. This mixture is aerated with com-
pressed air or mechanical aerators for the desired length of time and then transfer-
red into another tank where the activated sludge is separated by sedimentation. The
isolated sludge is disposed of or returned to the process if needed. The treated ef-
fluent, which is relatively clear and odor free, with low BOD, low bacteria and
suspended solids content, is then discharged to the receiving streams. Figure 11 is
a schematic diagram of an activated sludge treatment plant.
The extended aeration type of activated sludge operation is designed for low BOD
loadings, requires large quantities of oxygen, has detention times of 1 to 5 days,
and produces the smallest amount of excess biological solids. The BOD loading
parameters are 0.03 to 1.8 pounds BOD per pound of mixed liquor suspended solids
(M. L.S.S.) per day. Oxygen requirements are 1.3 to 1.8 pounds per pound of BOD.
The sludge waste, consisting of some waste particles and dead bacteria, will be 0.1
to 0.2 pounds per pound of BOD removed. The M. L. S. S. concentration usually
maintained varies from 5,000 to 7,000 milligrams per liter. Due to long retention
times and capacity of M. L. S. S. limits, the process is limited by the space avail-
able for operation ponds. Final BOD reduction with this method can be in excess
of 95 percent, under ideal operating conditions (71).
Another activated sludge process called the conventional activated sludge tech-
nique is the most widely used for domestic sewage because of its simplicity. It af-
fords a good BOD removal rate (90 percent). The BOD loadings required are 0.3
to 1.2 pounds of BOD per pound of M. L. S. S. per day; the oxygen requirements are
0.7 to 1.2 pounds per pound of BOD. The waste solids produced are around 0.35
to 0.55 pounds per pound of BOD removed. The M. L.S.S. concentrations are held
at 2,000 to 4,000 milligrams per liter, and detention times run from 6 to 12 hours,
depending on organic waste loadings (71).
A third activated sludge process called the high-rate process uses the least amount
of space, requires the least oxygen, and has the lowest retention time. Because of
these advantages it also produces the most excess biological solids and has the low-
est BOD reduction rate (50-70 percent). The BOD loadings varies from 1.5 to 4.0
pounds of BOD per pound of M. L. S. S. per day; oxygen supply ranges from 0.45 to
0.65 pounds per pound of BOD. The sludge produced from this process is about
0.65 to 0.85 pounds of solids per pound of BOD removed. The detention time with
this process is about 2 hours. M. L. S. S. concentrations should be held to about
1,000 milligrams per liter (71).
There are eight modifications of each activated sludge process which come about
54
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Oi
Inffluent
Activated
Sludge Recirculation
B
Solids Disposal
A. Preliminary Treatment
B. Primary Treatment
Effluent Recirculaticn
r
111111111
~i
Effluent
Aeration Supply
Sludge Disposal
C. Aeration Tank
D. Secondary Settling
Figure 11 Activated Sludge Plant.
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through different aeration techniques. They are summarized in Table XV.
TABLE XV
AERATION MODIFICATIONS IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESSES
Process Name
Hays Process
Dual Aeration
Stage Aeration
Step Aeration
Tapered Aeration
Contact Stabilization
Extended Aeration
Aeration Ditch
Mixed System
Source: (Ref. 37, p. 93).
Modification
Incorporates a sedimentation stage between two
periods of aeration.
Air is admitted at the bottom of the aeration
tank and near the effluent surface.
The first stage is an activated sludge tank,
and the second stage is a trickling filter.
Return sludge is added to the mixed liquor at a
number of points in the aeration tank.
Air addition rate is inversely proportional to
distance of effluent from entrance.
Biological floe is contacted with effluent for
only 1/2 to 1 1/2 hours. Separated floe is
then reaerated. Used for effluents with a low
soluble organic load.
Extended aeration activated sludge is followed
by long term (8 or more hours) aeration.
Combines sedimentation with mixed reactor
and plug-flow reactor.
Each of the above modifications has been used to increase aeration time and thus
further remove BOD. Most of these modifications came about as a result of trying
to increase process efficiency without increasing space requirements.
Another alteration of the activated sludge process is known as endogenous respira-
tion. In this process the effluent is discharged into an aeration lagoon and seeded
56
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with activated sludge. The resultant mixture is aerated until most of the organic
wastes have been oxidized. This eliminates the need for extensive sludge disposal
and has been shown capable of oxidizing 60 pounds of organics in 1000 cubic feet
of aeration lagoon (75).
Trickling Filters
Trickling filters or percolating beds (76, 77) contact the waste stream with the mi-
crobes and air by flowing the waste stream over a bed of rocks or synthetic media.
Figure 12 schematically depicts a trickling filter installation.
The filter is usually a cylindrical tank packed with the filter medium (stone, coke,
or synthetic material such as plastic) in such a way as to insure the presence of
voids between the media pieces. The effluent flows onto the filter media by means
of a rotating arm that distributes the waste load uniformly over the circular bed.
The effluent trickles through the filter and over a slime of bacteria that adheres to
the filter media. As bacteria die, they fall off the filter and are removed from the
effluent during the secondary settling stage.
Trickling filters may be classified by filter media composition or method of effluent
application onto the filter.
Filter media may be composed of rock or synthetic material. Stone, clinkers and
coke are used for rock filters. The hydraulic loading of rock filters is usually 10 to
40 million gallons per acre per day; the BOD loadings are from 0.015 to 3.0 pounds
BOD per cubic yard of media per day. The rock filters are 10 to 50 feet deep, re-
quiring large land areas for settling and recirculation which is usually on a ratio of
1:1 or 10:1 raw waste to treated effluent (71).
The relatively new synthetic filter media have several advantages over the rock fil-
ter types. They are lighter than rock and can be stacked 30 feet high (78). The
surface area per unit of volume is controlled when the media is manufactured so
that more space for bacterial attachment is provided. The hydraulic loading can be
as high as 200 to 400 million gallons per acre per day, and BOD loadings of 5 to 10
pounds per cubic yard per day (71) can be obtained.
The rate of effluent addition to the filter media may be standard or high rate load-
ing. The difference is that the standard rate addition is intermittent loading periods
of five minutes or less; whereas, high-rate types are continuously fed the waste
stream by means of a variable recirculation system. The standard rate filter has a
hydraulic loading of 4 million gallons per day per acre, organic loads of 15 pounds
of BOD per acre-foot per day, and intermittent releasing of dead bacteria. The
sludge from the process is a black, highly oxidized product containing light fine
particles and a highly nitrified effluent with less than 20 milligrams of BOD per
57
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Oi
00
B
Influent
Sludge Recirculation
Solids Disposal
A. Preliminary Treatment
B. Primary Treatment
Effluent
Sludge Disposal
C. Trickling Filter
D. Secondary Settling
Figure 12 Trickling Filter Plant.
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liter. The effluent is usually discharged after one pass through the filter. The cor-
responding hydraulic load, organic load, and sludge discharge rate of the high-
rate type are, respectively: 10-30 million gallons per day per acre, 30 pounds of
BOD per acre-foot per day, and continuous. The sludge produced in the secondary
settling tank is brown in color and not fully oxidized; the effluent is not fully ni-
trified and has a BOD of 30 or more milligrams per liter (59). Recirculating the
effluent makes the final discharge as good as it is with the standard rate; however,
the efficiency is lowered appreciably.
The term single-stage trickling filter refers to the process of passing the effluent
through one trickling filter and then to a secondary settling tank. Two stage treat-
ment refers to the passing of the effluent from primary settling through two trickling
filters in series before the secondary settling stage. With single stage treatment,
BOD removal is about 50-75 percent. The two stage method has a higher rate of
BOD reduction (71) and is more costly than the activated sludge method (43).
SJudge Disposal
The biological treatment techniques produce sludge which ultimately must be dis-
posed of. The simplest type of operation uses drying beds or sand filters on which
the sludge is spread; the sand particles collect the solid matter while passing the
water to an underdrain. The solid wastes can be incinerated, used for fertilizer,
used as sanitary land fill, or buried in deep wells (79, 80). Care must be taken to
avoid odorproblems in hot weather. A second method of sludge disposal is digestion
by anaerobic bacteria (81, 82, 83). The by-products of this method include the
following: humus, used as fertilizer; sludge liquor that is recirculated in the sec-
ondary system to assure its purity before discharge; and decomposition gases. One
research firm suggests the use of these gases as low grade fuel gas (59). A third
method is vacuum filtration (84, 85). In this process, the sludge is passed under a
vacuum pump which removes the solid content of the sludge and allows the water to
pass through a discharge or recirculation drain. Finally, the sludge can be sent to
an incinerator where the solids content of the sludge is burned (86, 87, 88, 89).
Tertiary Treatment
At present this category of waste treatment is mostly in an experimental stage at
industrial and domestic effluent treatment plants. However, these methods do bear
discussion, for in the future legal standards concerning the quality of discharges
will be raised to values exceeding the limits of conventional waste treatment
methods.
Tertiary treatment processes may be classified into two broad groups: those that re-
move organics and those that remove inorganics from the effluent. Examples of or-
ganic removal processes are absorption, foam separation, and chemical oxidation.
59
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Following are the inorganic removal processes: anaerobic denitrification, algae
harvesting, ion exchange, electrodialysis, solvent extraction, reverse osmosis,
freezing, ammonia stripping, and distillation. Table XVI lists some of these pro-
cesses, their removal efficiencies, and estimated costs.
TABLE XVI
TERTIARY TREATMENT PROCESSES: REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES AND
ESTIMATED COSTS
Process Substance Efficiency Costs
Removed (percent) fc/1000 gal.)
Anaerobic
Denitrification nitrate-nitrogen 80-95 2-3
Algae Harvesting nitrate-nitrogen 50-90 2-4
Ammonia Stripping ammonia-nitrogen 80-95 1-3
Ion Exchange nitrogen-phosphorus 80-92 17-25
Electrodialysis dissolved solids 10-40 25-75
Carbon Absorption organic material 90-98 4-8
Reverse Osmosis dissolved solids 65-95 25-40
Distillation dissolved solids 90-98 40-100
Foam Separation surface-active-agent 1-2
Source: (Ref. 90, p. 97).
Adsorption (91, 92, 93) uses highly adsorptive materials to partition waste impuri-
ties from waste streams. At present the most economical, efficient, and widely
used absorbent is activated carbon. The carbon may be used as a batch or contin-
uous process. In the batch process the entire bed of carbon is regenerated at one
time. In the continuous process a moving bed is divided into a number of trays
which are moved countercurrently through the tank by chain drive. When the tray
loses its absorptive capacity, it is removed from the system and regenerated. Re-
generation is accomplished by steam or incineration.
Foam separation (94, 95, 96) can be used when surface active agents are present in
the waste water. In this process, compressed air is passed through the waste waters
and a foam rich in surface active agents is produced. Removal of foam, normally
by mechanical methods, accounts for eighty-five percent removal of the synthetic
detergents present (90).
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Chemical oxidation (37,90) decreases the biological oxygen demand of the waste
stream. In this way residual BOD in the effluent will not deplete the total dissolved
oxygen content of the stream. Chemicals used are ozone, hydrogen peroxide, and
manganese perchlorate, chlorine, sodium hypochlorite, potassium persulfate, sodium
peroxide.
Anaerobic denitrification (98,99) is used to remove nitrates (which are not degrad-
ed by the microbes of trickling filters and activated sludge) from waste water. An
organic chemical such as methanol, ethanol, acetone or acetic acid is added as a
carbon source to the effluent, which is then subjected to anaerobic digestion. The
nitrates are reduced to nitrogen gas and nitrous oxide, which are released to the
atmosphere as gas. The treated effluent is withdrawn after several days retention
time and aerated without producing any waste products that require disposal (90).
Algae harvesting (100) is a method of biologically removing nitrogen and phospho-
rus compounds from the effluent. The effluent is deposited in shallow earthen ponds,
where the algae convert the above compounds into cell tissue. The algae is then
removed from the waste stream.
Ion exchange resins (9, 10) can be added to the effluent to remove inorganic ions
such as salts, nitrates, and phosphates. The cations are exchanged for hydronium
ions, and the onions are exchanged for hydroxide ions.
Electrodialysis (102, 10) is another type of ion separation. It uses an electrical
potential rather than ion exchange to perform its function. The effluent is sub-
jected to an electric potential which separates the waste into positive and negative
components. The positive components are attracted to a negative membrane, and
the negative components are attracted to a positive membrane, leaving a relatively
pure solution between the membranes. Usually recirculation is required to get a
high degree of dissolved solids removal.
Solvent extraction (57) is accomplished by the addition of an immiscible solvent to
the waste water. The liquids are mixed together with high speed agitation and then
separated. Organic impurities are removed from the water and transferred to the
solvent. To date, very little research is available on the efficiency or cost of this
process.
A new technique used for water purification and suggested by DuPont (104) for in-
dustrial waste water recovery is the reverse osmosis process (29, 105). Wastes are
removed from the effluent by use of a semipermeable membrane, usually constructed
of cellulose acetate or hollow nylon fibers and subjected to 350-600 pounds per
square inch pressure, which is much in excess of the osmotic pressure of the solu-
tion. This causes the passage of water from an area of greater concentration to a
solution of lower concentration. The solvent, in this case water, is passed through
61
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the membrane, while the impurities are collected at the membrane's surface. Since
reverse osmosis can remove up to 95 percent of the dissolved solids content, it looks
promising even though it is presently expensive, as shown in Table XV.
There exist two physical methods of obtaining very pure waste water-freezing and
distillation. Both produce an almost pure waste free second phase from a high pol-
lutional liquid phase. In freezing (57) the pure water collects as ice crystals on
the surface of the waste water, while the impure compounds remain in solution.
When ice crystals are removed and thawed, the water is very pure. Distillation
(106, 107) separates the wastes from the water through a liquid-vapor conversion.
The water is converted to steam, leaving non volatile waste behind. When it is
condensed back to liquid form, it is very pure.
Ammonia stripping (108, 109) is a method of removing nitrogen from waste water.
At a pH of 9 or more, ammonia is liberated as a gas by stripping towers. The process
required 400 cubic feet of air per gallon of waste water in order to achieve high
efficiency (90).
WASTE TREATMENT TECHNIQUE SUMMARY
Due to the variations in textile effluents from process to process, and from hour to
hour, it would seem almost necessary to have some sort of preliminary treatment at
most plant sites. This is especially true where the effluent is being discharged to a
municipal sewer to avoid shock loadings to the treatment plant. Neutralization
and equalization have been proved beneficial if the firm has its own secondary bio-
logical treatment plant.
Primary settling is also advantageous to biological treatment, not only because it
removes solids that would take a long time for the bacteria to digest, but also be-
cause it avoids clogging of drain lines and flooding of tanks.. Sedimentation and
screening can also have economic advantages in that usable fibers may be recov-
ered.
In secondary treatment of municipal waste the biological processes have proved to
be more efficient and lower in cost than the chemical precipitation methods. As
for the use of trickling filters or activated sludge, it is hard to determine what
criterion has been used to choose between the two processes. Trickling filters re-
quire more area than activated sludges and are more expensive to build;but they
are generally easier to operate, have lower operating costs (flow is by gravity
rather than pumping), and are more resistant to some types of shock loading.
Activated sludge is generally more economical for removing greater than 90% BOD.
Chemical treatment can be more economical for removing total organic loading when
the waste stream is only partially biodegradable.
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At present, very little tertiary treatment is done at textile mills. One reason is
the added expense; another is that conventional treatment can reduce the effluent
to standards of 80-85% removal of oxygen demanding contaminants. However, in
the future this type of treatment will become necessary to remove the many non-
biodegradable chemicals in the industrial waste stream.
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TREATMENT OF TEXTILE EFFLUENTS
The disposal of textile water wastes may be accomplished by two methods which are
acceptable to state agencies. The first method is to discharge them to municipal
sewer systems. The second method would be treatment of the wastes in a plant-
owned facility and discharge to a receiving stream. Discharge of untreated wastes
to a stream or other body of water is not acceptable.
Methods commonly used to neutralize effluents, to remove suspended solids, and to
oxidize organic substances in effluents were described earlier. In this section,
these methods of waste treatment and their application to textile wastes will be
discussed in order to determine the methods best suited for particular textile water
wastes.
In order to determine the most practical and economical waste treatment scheme
available to a particular mill, the composition and volume of the mill's effluent
must be known. This is accomplished by analyzing the mill's wet processing oper-
ations.
Pollution Survey by Analyzing Effluents
Chemical and biological characteristics of a waste stream are commonly determined
by monitoring the stream over a period of time long enough to establish the average
composition and typical variations.
Pollution Survey by Analyzing Wet Processing Operation
A simplified waste survey technique for the textile industry has been suggested by
three New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission consultants (32).
Their suggestions are incorporated into this section.
Their technique requires the evaluation of four waste producing variables. These
variables are:
I. Pounds of fabric passed through each process
2. Water consumption for all processes
3. Pounds of chemicals used in each process
4. Pollution contribution of the impurities removed from
the fabrics, and the process chemicals used in production
They recommend that the survey be limited to processes that use over 5 percent of the
total poundage processed; for those processes that use less than 5 percent, only the
volume of water consumed is required, since these generally produce negligible
contribution to the impurities in the stream.
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As mentioned in the previous chapter, the total waste load from textile processing
is contributed by two sources - the natural impurities removed from the fiber and
the process chemicals used in removing these natural impurities and in finishing the
fabric. Therefore, the total waste load can be calculated by adding together the
waste load of the process chemicals and the waste load due to the natural impuri-
ties.
The BOD load of process chemicals can be determined by examining the American
Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists1 BOD list of textile chemicals (2), or
by conducting BOD tests on those process chemicals which are not contained in this
listing. In the list the BOD's are given as percentages; the results of a BOD test
are given in milligrams per liter or parts per million. Dividing by the factor 10,000
converts milligrams per liter or parts per million to percentage values (2). These
figures can be converted into pounds of BOD by the following formula (32):
BOD (Pounds) = pounds of chemical used x BOD percentage
100
The pounds of chemical used can be determined either by examination of process
formulae or by an inventory survey. The total BOD load produced by the process
chemicals may then be calculated by adding all the process chemical BOD contri-
butions together.
In order to calculate the waste loadings of the impurities and chemicals, samples
are taken of the baths and rinses used in the scouring, desizing and bleaching, dye-
ing and finishing processes. These samples are analyzed to determine the weight of
the impurities produced; process formulae will indicate the amount of chemicals that
will also be present in these baths. The samples are tested to determine their COD,
TOC, BOD, pH, and alkalinity value. Other tests may also be necessary.
The concentration in terms of parts per million of milligrams per liter of the natural
impurities and the process chemicals can be calculated by the following formula
(32):
Concentration (p.p.m.) = pounds used x 120,000
total gal. discharged
The total gallons discharged is considered to be the total water consumption for the
survey period. This factor can easily be determined from water meter readings or
process formulae.
The BOD contribution in parts per million or milligram per liter of the impurities
and the process chemicals can be calculated by the following formula (32):
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BOD (p.p.m.) = Concentration (p.p.m.) x BOD percentage
100
After evaluating four factors and making the necessary calculations, a picture of
the waste composition and volume of the plant's effluent is obtained. Once this is
done, the analyst will be able to select the most economical and practical waste
reduction scheme based on the requirements imposed by the regulatory agencies.
Waste Reduction Through In-Plant Measures
After successfully completing a pollution survey, the analyst should determine if the
waste load generated by the plant can be reduced. Significant reductions in the
waste load could lead to the elimination of costly treatment facilities and process-
es. Six in-plant measures can be checked to see if the waste load can be reduced:
reduction of wastewater volume, reduction of process chemicals, recovery and re-
use of process chemicals, process modifications, substitution of process chemicals,
and good housekeeping.
Deduction of Wastewater Volume
The first in-plant measure is the reduction of waste water volume. The main ad-
vantages of this procedure are reduction in water purchasing costs and the concen-
trating of the effluents in a smaller volume of water. The two procedures most com-
monly used to achieve this reduction are counter flow processing and water reuse
techniques.
In counter flow processing, the water flows through the process in the direction op-
posite to movement of fabric. This scheme can be employed in operations that work
on the continuous flow principle, for example, the rinses following bleaching of
cotton and the scouring train in wool processing. By the time the fabric reaches the
last unit, it should contain the least amount of natural impurities and/or process
chemicals. Fresh water is used to remove this small amount of waste material and
then, containing this small amount of waste, it is advanced to the preceding unit
and used to rinse fabric containing a larger quantity of waste matter. The process
is contained until the water is finally used in the first unit of the process. At this
point the water may be discharged or used to make up the process bath (110).
Another way of reducing the volume of waste water is to use the same water several
times before discharging it. This scheme can be used for batch processes, where the
contents of one bath can not be forwarded to a preceding bath. Process water can
be reused in the same process or in other processes. For example, waters used to
rinse fabrics after dyeing can be used to make up a new dye solution, or merceriz-
ing wash waters can be used to prepare scour, chlorine bleach, and "wetting-out"
baths (57). When process water is reused it is usually circulated through filtering
or settling devices to remove impurities from the water.
6?
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When reusing process water or employing counterflow processing, care must be tak-
en to assure that any substances that could affect the ensuing textile processes are
effectively removed. Fluorescent brighteners in concentrations as low as 0.5 mil-
ligrams per liter, some finishing agents, and salt compounds can leave residues on
the fabric which will lead to undesirable results during further processing (111).
Reduction of Process Chemicals
It has been estimated that over 90 percent of the pollution load of textile wastes is
contributed by the process chemicals (112). Therefore, reducing the amount of
chemicals used in textile processes will lead to lower pollutional loads. Another
benefit of reducing the amount of process chemicals is the consequent lowering of
production costs.
Very often a large margin of safety is used in textile mill operations to eliminate
the need for reprocessing. As this condition prevails only 1 to 5 percent of the
time (32), it is possible to reduce this margin without impairing the quality of pro-
duction. Careful study of the various textile processes should be undertaken in or-
der to reduce the over-all quantity of process chemicals to the minimum necessary
to ensure the required results. Through such studies it may be possible to reduce
the amount of process chemicals usually used in washing, dyeing, etc., by one-
fifth to one-half, thereby reducing the pollutional load on the order of 30 percent
(32).
Recovery and Reuse of Process Chemicals
The reduced pollutional loads and production cost savings mentioned in the previous
section can also be realized by recovering and reusing process chemicals instead of
wasting them when the process is finished.
The two areas in which this action has proved most favorable are the recovery of
caustic soda in cotton processing and the wool grease recovered in wool scouring.
Caustic soda is recovered from the mercerizing and scouring processes; consequently
it contains the natural impurities removed by the cotton which can be removed by
dialysis or centrifuging and evaporation. In dialysis (115), the caustic solution is
filtered to remove the insoluble natural impurities and then dialyzed to remove the
soluble ones. In the other recovery technique, the solution is subjected to a cen-
trifuging operation which removes the impurities and then subjected to a series of
evaporators that concentrate the solution (110).
In the wool scouring, the wool grease can be recovered by the acid cracking pro-
cess, centrifuging, or by solvent extraction. In the acid cracking process, the
scouring liquor is acidified with sulfuric acid and well mixed until the grease sepa-
rates from the water and is then recovered by pressure filtering (116). In the cen-
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trifuging process, the liquors from the first scouring bowl are subjected to high
speed centrifugal separation which removes a high proportion of the grease from the
water (45). Solvents such as aviation gasoline, naphtha, trichlorethylene, ben-
zene, and carbon tetrachloride are used in solvent scouring of wool to remove the
wool grease in a non-aqueous medium.
In the early 1950's efforts were made to recover dyes and accessory chemicals by
adsorption on fuller's earth and activated bauxite followed by solvent extraction,
but at that time were found to be impractical and unprofitable (117).
Process Modifications
The changing of processes and material flow procedures is another way of elimina-
ting unnecessary wastes. Continuous operations generally require smaller space,use
less water and process chemicals; the consequences of the last two advantages have
already been discussed. Whenever possible, separate operations should be combin-
ed, such as scouring and dyeing in the finishing of synthetic fibers (51), and the
desizing and scouring of cotton fibers (113). Another method of process change is
to substitute standing baths and rinses for running ones, thus conserving water and
concentrating the wasteload in the bottom of the process unit (57).
One drastic process modification is not to discharge the effluent at all, but to
pump the process liquor to a storage tank where it is stored and saved for reuse in
the make up of the next similar bath (68). Akin to this modification is the use of
heat exchanges to transfer the high temperature of some effluents to incoming pro-
cess water, thereby conserving water heating costs and reducing the possibility of
thermal pollution (118).
Another process modification is the use of solvent processing. Although the scour-
ing of wool by the solvent method has been done for a long time, large scale scour-
ing and desizing of cotton and the dyeing and finishing of all types of fibers
has been predicted for the future (119, 120, 121). When expounding the virtues of
this new type of processing, the authors place as much emphasis on the consequent
reduction of water pollution, due to the fact those solvent systems mentioned use
little or no water, as on the efficiencies of the process. Besides accomplishing de-
sizing dyeing and finishing in shorter time than by conventional aqueous systems
(119), the new non-aqueous systems reduce the pollutional load. They do this by
collecting the soluble natural impurities as an oily semi-solid at the solvent puri-
fication stills, rather than discharging them to waste, and by eliminating the highly
alkaline and soap-laden effluent from cotton scouring and desizing and reducing
the fresh water requirements from 15 gallons to 1/2 of a gallon (120). If all of the
solvent is not recovered, however, a more serious air or water pollution problem
may result.
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Substitution of Chemicals
One method of reducing the BOD load of the mill is to substitute low BOD process
chemicals for ones that have high BOD values. By again consulting the BOD list of
textile chemicals (2), the analyst can determine which low BOD chemicals can be
exchanged for those with a high value of BOD.
Three classical examples of process chemical substitution exist in the textile indus-
try - the substitution of synthetic warp sizes (1 to 3 percent BOD) for starch (50
percent BOD) and gelating (100 percent BOD) in cotton slashing operations; the
substitution of ammonium sulphate, chloride, or mineral acids (0 percent BOD) for
acetic acid (33 to 62 percent BOD), and low BOD synthetic detergents (0 to 22 per-
cent BOD) for soaps (140 percent BOD) (32). In wool processing, the traditional
carding oil, olive oil, which has a 100 percent BOD value, has been replaced in
some mills by mineral oils with nonionic emulsifiers that have a 20 percent BOD
value (32). Again the mill must be sure that the low BOD chemicals are not more
harmful than high BOD chemicals.
Other possible chemical substitutions have been suggested. The use of sulfuric acid
in place of soap in wool fulling operations has been suggested by one group of re-
searchers. Not only does sulfuric acid have no BOD, but when used in conjunction
with synthetic detergent washing, the combined waste is highly acidic instead of
highly alkaline (32). The substitution of steam ranges for the oxidation of dyes in
place of dichromate-acetic acid baths, the use of low BOD dispersing, emulsifying
and leveling agents in place of their high BOD counterparts in dyeing will decrease
BOD loadings (51).
The substitution of low BOD process chemicals for high BOD ones has two draw-
backs. One is the increased cost usually associated with these products (32). The
other drawback is that while these chemicals have low five-day BOD values, little
is known about their long term effects on aquatic life and waste treatment costs
downstream (57). Careful study of the ultimate decomposition of these chemicals
should be undertaken before they are indiscriminately substituted for high BOD
compounds.
The substitution of synthetic detergents for soap presented treatment problems for
textile wastes in the early 1960's. The typical synthetic detergent used prior to
July 1965 was the alkyl benzene sulfonate surfactant type, commonly referred to
as ABS. This synthetic detergent exerted no BOD (0 percent) on the receiving
stream (18), but was non-biodegradable and therefore passed into the receiving
stream unaltered. The presence of ABS in streams gives rise to foaming conditions
(122) which were objectionable and hard to remove. Soap, on the other hand, is
thoroughly decomposed by biological treatment (123). Since June 30, 1965, the
detergent industry has switched to the production of biodegradable synthetic deter-
gent of the linear alkylare sulfonate type, commonly known as LAS. These com-
70
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pounds are converted to new biological cell tissue by aerobic oxidation and remov-
ed from the effluent by settling tanks (124). The additional BOD exerted by using
biodegradable detergents is only five percent over loads exerted by wastes contain-
ing non-biodegradable synthetic detergents (18). For the most part, textile surface
active agents are of the "soft" or biodegradable type (122), thereby eliminating a
major waste treatment problem.
Good Housekeeping
Another method of reducing thepollutional load of a mill and concurrently reduc-
ing production costs is good housekeeping. One method of good housekeeping is to
maintain close control over the mill's operations, in order to avoid accidental spil-
lages of process chemical baths and the preparation of too large a batch, the excess
of which might be wasted. If accidental spillages of toxic chemicals occur, a good
housekeeping practice is to dilute the spillage sufficiently to prevent shock loads
from reaching the treatment facility (57). If the possibilities of picking up dirt,
grease, rust, etc., from the floor and the machinery are eliminated, less washing
and less processing of the fabrics are required (32).
A plant can be engineered for minimum losses through spillage, breakage, etc., by
the incorporation of retaining walls, splashboards, and sills, but effective house-
keeping depends on the efforts, cooperation, and support of the operating personnel
to implement these procedures to the fullest extent possible in order to reduce the
mill's pollutional load (68). It has been estimated that conscientious good house-
keeping practices can eliminate from 5 to 10 percent of the total pollutional load
of a textile mill.
By instituting a number of these in-plant pollutional load reduction techniques, a
textile mill can reduce its effluent BOD considerably. Many state regulations require
75 percent or better BOD removal. Although the in-plant reduction procedures do
not provide the required reduction percentage, they should still be employed as
they reduce the waste load to its lowest level, provide the waste analyst with
information he needs to select the most practical and economic waste treatment
scheme, and, as a bonus, lead to reduced production costs.
Discharge of Textile Wastes to Municipal Sewers
The simplest and sometimes most economical method of treating a textile waste is
to discharge it too municipal treatment facility (37, 112, 128). If the afore-
mentioned in-plant reduction guidelines have been followed properly, the
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mill's waste may be clean enough or low enough in volume to be treated by the
municipal plant at little or no extra cost; and even if preliminary or primary treat-
ment is required, the cost to the mill will be much less than if a complete treatment
facility was required (129). A permit issued by the sewer authority is usually re-
quired for this privilege, which allows the authority the power to collect sewage
service charges. These service charges are usually based on the volume of waste
water discharged to the municipal facility, the volume of water consumed by the
mill, the BOD output of the mill, or that portion of the extra costs involved in
providing for the treatment of the textile effluent (57, 130).
In cases where a municipal facility exists and a textile firm wishes to connect to it,
the existing plant may have to be expanded to handle the increased load, or the
authority may place limits on the firm's discharges to the sewer. When the munici-
pal plant is of the activated sludge type, the addition of trickling filters ahead of
the aeration units is one method of enlarging the capacity; for trickling filter plants
extra trickling filters or a chemical coagulation process can be added to the exist-
ing plant (37). The authority may set limits on the rate of flow and the temperature
of the effluents discharged to their facilities. Other restrictions that may be im-
posed by the municipal plant are the neutralization of highly acidic or highly alka-
line wastes, the reduction of toxic materials to very low concentrations, and the
limiting of the concentrations of BOD and suspended solids. Exact values for these
limits vary from one municipality to the other, depending on local conditions and
the size, standards, and desired uses of the receiving watercourse (37). Therefore,
unless the effluents produced by the mill do not meet these restrictions, equaliza-
tion and/or preliminary treatment will be required in order to prevent the introduct-
ion of shock loadings to the system. If both textile mills and municipalities are lo-
cated in an area in which there are no treatment facilities, and if the industrial
waste stream can be treated by the municipality, a foint venture into the construct-
ion of a facility for combined treatment of the wastes is more economical and feasi-
ble than the construction of two separate facilities (37).
Another economic advantage in constructing a combined facility is that through
Section 8 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, the municipality is able to
receive construction grants from the Federal and State Governments. This typically
amounts to 30 percent of the costs, leaving both the city and the plant responsible
for only 70 percent of the costs (112).
There are three advantages to treating textile wastes in combination with domestic
sewage (37). The first advantage of combined treatment is the economy of the op-
eration. It reduces the capital outlays associated with waste treatment by provid-
ing a more economical operation and eliminating administrative costs. The second
advantage is that combined treatment enhances the biological waste treatment pro-
cesses, because domestic sewage contains the bacteriological nutrients (phosphorus
-------
and nitrogen) which may be absent in textile wastes. Finally, in combined treat-
ment, the dilution of the textile wastes by domestic sewage weakens the concentra-
tion of the former, thus increasing process efficiency and preventing shock loads of
toxic materials from killing the bacteria in the treatment plant.
Although the ratio of domestic sewage to textile wastes has no appreciable effect on
the treatability of the wastes, a minimum of 7 parts of domestic sewage to 100 parts
of textile waste is necessary to insure that the proper amounts of nutrients are sup-
plied to the bacteria in the system (131, 132). The plant must also remember that
when it depends on municipal waste treatment it is subject to their regulations and
cost.
Plant Owned Facilities
If there is no possibility of discharging its effluents to a municipal sewer, the mill
must construct its own waste treatment facilities, which would include preliminary,
primary, secondary, and possibly tertiary treatment. In releasing its effluents to a
municipal facility, a mill may also be obligated to install its own preliminary or
primary treatment facilities.
For textile wastes the three preliminary steps used to ensure proper treatment of ef-
fluents whether by municipal or plant-owned systems are segregation, equalization,
and neutralization. These systems were presented earlier and have obvious advan-
tages.
Textile wastes vary tremendously due to the different processes, the variety of
process chemicals used, and the inconsistent rate of discharge flow. Therefore, it
may be desirable to make the waste as uniform as possible to assure proper operation
of the treatment system. Equalization of the wastes accomplishes this objective by
mixing and storing the effluent in ponds or basins. One approach is to use three
basins or ponds on a fill-and-draw three-cycle system. With this arrangement one
basin is receiving raw wastes, the second is thoroughly mixing the effluent, and the
third is supplying effluent to the treatment system (128). The reason for suggesting
this procedure is that textile waste liquors were found to have density variations
caused by the variations in temperature and composition of the effluents. These
variations cause low density, high-temperature liquids to lie near the surface and
pass through gravity flow tanks quickly, while the high-density low-temperature
liquids settle to the bottom and remain in the tank for longer periods of time, there-
by negating the advantages of equalization.
The mixed liquors discharged from textile processing mills are generally alkaline
and may require neutralization. Neutralization to pH 7, however, is not neces-
sary; the amount of pH adjustment needed depends on which biological treatment
process is being used. If chemical coagulation is used instead of biological oxida-
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tion, the pH adjustment will depend on the stream standard. The chemical agents
for neutralization are sulfuric acid and carbon dioxide (134). The sulphuric acid is
usually added to the effluent by automatic dosing units. Carbon dioxide can be
added in two ways. First, carbon dioxide produced during aerobic biological oxi-
dation (44) is suitable for alkali neutralization. Secondly, flue gas can be a source
of carbon dioxide for neutralizing. The alkaline wastes flow down a steel tower
through which carbon dioxide gas, burned as fuel, rises causing the neutralization
to take place in the tower (115, 135). This method must be preceded by a screen-
ing and sedimentation operation to remove solid matter (136), and an antifoaming
agent must be added when surface-active agents are contained in the liquor (134).
Neutralization is likely to be most effective if the strong alkaline liquors are sep-
arated from the rest of the waste and neutralized in a segregated basin (136).
Screening and sedimentation are the two types of primary treatment used for textile
wastes. Screening is necessary in order to remove solid wastes such as lint, fibers,
grit, and dirt from the effluent. If allowed to remain in the waste stream, the sol-
ids would clog sewers, cause interference in subsequent treatment processes, and
even end up in the receiving stream.
Stationary screens, if not properly maintained, will clog drains and cause stoppages
and backups. Two developments to combat this nuisance have been used in textile
facilities. One is the use of fine mesh vibrating screens (129); the other is a Swed-
ish process in which a current of liquid, which flows away from the filtering screen,
catches up the solid matter, then is fractionated and returned to the system (128).
Sedimentation is important for removing suspended settleable solids from the efflu-
ent, but it can not eliminate the dissolved and non-settleable impurities which
comprise the major proportion of the pollutional load present in most textile efflu-
ents. When biological oxidation is used as secondary treatment, some solids can be
removed after treatment along with the sludge from the process (111, 117).
Secondary Treatment
Every state water pollution control agency requires this type of treatment for dis-
charge of effluent to their state's waters. Secondary treatment involves the oxida-
tion of organic matter by aeration, chemical, or biological methods or a combina-
tion of each.
When wastes are stored and held in equalization and sedimentation basins, they may
become subject to anaerobic decomposition which tends to produce fecal odors (37).
By maintaining a pH's high enough to prevent the loss of mercaptans, etc., in con-
junction with aeration, this condition can be alleviated. Another reason for aera-
tion is that the wastes may contain easily oxidizeable organic and inorganic mat-
ter, which can be oxidized by the air supplied to the wastes. Whether or not this
is the most economical place to aerate must be determined from pilot studies.
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Aeration can also be used as a post or "polishing" treatment on treated effluents to
produce a final effluent that has a higher degree of clarity than obtained by the bi-
ological treatment alone (37).
Chemical coagulation has been used to reduce the BOD load of strong textile wastes
by 30 to 50 percent (128). In wool processing chemical coagulation has been used
extensively, and is considered a necessary pretreatment step for the removal of un-
recovered wool grease from wool scouring effluents prior to biological treatment
(33, 136). This process has been suggested as a method for removing toxic synthet-
ic fiber dye wastes from the effluent prior to using biological treatment. In cotton
wastes treatment, chemical coagulation has been used to reduce the load on subse-
quent biological treatment processes or as a "polishing" process on treated effluents
(37). Research has shown that alum (aluminum sulfate) gives good coagulation of
solids when used near a pH of 7 (136).
Three methods of biological treatment are used on textile wastes—anaerobic
decomposition, mechanically induced aeration, and natural aeration.
Anaerobic decomposition can be used with wastes of high BOD concentration (2000
p.p.m. and up) (32). This would mean that the equalized effluents of any textile
waste mill would be less effectively treated by anaerobic processes. Anaerobic
digestion could be used on the segregated and highly concentrated wastes from the
wash after fulling in wool processing wastes (138). In this connection it is usually
used as a pretreatment step prior to aerobic processing (136).
The two most widely used biological treatment methods involving aeration are the
activated sludge and trickling filters. Both processes can treat soluble BOD very
effectively if the pH is adjusted to the acceptable limits, temperature is held fairly
constant, the organic matter is biodegradable, toxic elements are absent or within
tolerance limits, and the proper dosage of nutrients is present (32).
The most popular biological system used for treating textile wastes is the activated
sludge extended aeration process (112, 127). If this process is properly used and
maintained,a major portion of the process chemicals in use today can be effective-
ly treated (112).
Tertiary Treatment
At the present time, tertiary treatment is not extensively done at many plant-owned
facilities. The main reason probably is that conventional secondary treatment is all
that is required by the state regulatory agencies for the discharge of effluents to
stream in their states. Carbon adsorption has recently been introduced to the textile
industry (8). Polishing lagoons following secondary treatment are sometimes referred
to as tertiary treatment.
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Sludge Disposal
In most of the treatment methods described above, the process of waste water puri-
fication produces sludges or solid wastes that must be disposed of. Sludge from
chemical coagulation can be dewatered, dried, buried, or used as land fill. These
disposal methods may be used with sludge from biological processes or it may be
further degraded in an anaerobic sludge digester (37).
Cotton Wastes
Figure 13 is a recommended waste treatment flow chart for the cotton textile finishing
industry (33). The wastes from the individual processes should be discharged to an
equalization basin or its equivalent. This step is considered a necessity because of
the variability of the wastes, the need for biological processes to receive consistent
effluents, and the restrictions imposed by the municipal authorities. From equal-
ization and holding, the effluents may be discharged to the treatment facility, be
it municipal, plant-owned and treating only textile wastes, or plant-owned and
treating combined wastes.
In-Plant Measures
For cotton processing, a mill that effectively employs in-plant measures may reduce
by as much as 70 percent the total BOD load expected to be produced if these
measures are not taken (32).
The BOD load of desizing can be reduced by 40 to 90 percent depending on the de-
gree of sizing process chemical substitution (32). If a low BOD synthetic size re-
places starch or gelatin completely, a 33 1/3 percent total mill BOD load reduction
can be achieved (139). Table XVII lists the six most commonly used sizing com-
pounds and their BOD values in parts per million and pounds per 1000 pounds of
cloth.
The two most widely used synthetic sizing compounds are polyvinyl alcohol and
carboxymethyl cellulose (140). If these two starch substitutes are used to replace
starch in printing pastes, a 5 to 20 percent reduction of the mill's total BOD could
be attained depending on the volume of goods printed (139). Before low BOD
chemicals are used to replace high BOD chemicals consideration must be given to
the effects the new chemicals will have on the waste treatment plant and receiving
stream.
The reuse of weak dye rinses, the storage and reuse of dye and mercerizing baths,
and counterflow washing can reduce the water consumption in cotton processing by
30 to 40 percent (139).
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Desizing
Scouring
T
Bleaching
Heat
Recovery
Mercerizing Dyeing
v v
Caustic Heat
Recovery Recovery
Finishing
Equalization, Holding and Clarification
Municipal
Treatment
Sludge Handling
I
T
.
Screening
*
Biological
Treatment
1. Lagoons
2. Activated
Sludge
3. Trickling
Filters
4. Oxidation
. Ponds
Tertiary —
Treatment
I
•>>Water
Reuse
Domestic
Sewage
~~* r~^
Chemical
Treatment
Coagulation
Carbon
Adsorption
Receiving Stream
t
Figure 13. Cotton Waste Processing Flow Chart.
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TABLE XVII
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND OF COMMONLY USED
SIZING COMPOUNDS
BOD
Compound p.p.m. Ibs./lOOO Ibs. of cloth
Corn Starch 810,000 477.0
British Gum 690,000 690.0
Methylcellulose 1,600 1.6
Carboxymethol-cellulose 10,000 9.0
Poly vinyl Alcohol 1,600 1.6
Polystyrene 12,000 1.2
Source: (Ref. 30, p. 550; Ref. 68, p. 920; Ref. 114, p. 171).
Treatment Efficiencies
In 1967, approximately 35 percent of cotton effluents were discharged to municipal
sewers; this figure is expected to reach 40 percent by 1972 (33). The prolonged
aeration form of the activated sludge process (141), a two stage activated sludge
process, a two stage trickling filter process (142), and a high rate trickling filter
followed by an activated sludge process (36) have all been used with combinations
of domestic sewage and textile wastes to reduce BOD over 90 percent. Table XVIII
lists the removal efficiencies of various treatment processes used on cotton water
wastes.
The values in Table XVIII reflect the use of any auxiliary units normally associa-
ted with the process; for example, the trickling filter and activated sludge effici-
encies cited required primary sedimentation and effluent circulation (33).
The activated sludge process with extended aeration times and a higher concentra-
tion of mixed liquor suspended solids than produced by the conventional method,
consistently produces BOD reductions of 90 percent or better (33). The single-stage
trickling filter process cannot reach the removal efficiencies of conventional acti-
vated sludge and is therefore expected to be used less in the future.
Polishing ponds have been used in treating cotton wastes. The most economical
method is to simply store the treated effluent in an oxidation pond after it has been
subjected to secondary treatment. Polishing ponds may reduce the effluent's pollu-
tional load an extra 50 percent; for example, from 90 to 95 percent total BOD
removed (33).
78
-------
TABLE XVIII
TREATMENT REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES
"REMOVAL EFFICIENCY (PERCENT)
Removal Method BOD Suspended Total Dissolved
Solids Solids
Screening 0-15 5-20 0
Sedimentation 5-15 15-60 0
Chemical Coagulation 25-60 30-90 0-50
Trickling Filter 40-85 80-90 0-30
Activated Sludge 70-95 85-90 0-40
Lagoon 30-80 30-80 0-40
Aerated Lagoon 50-95 50-95 0-40
Source: (Ref. 33, p. 66).
Wool Wastes
Figure 14 is a representation of the waste treatment flow chart for wool processing
wastes. The only effluents in wool processing that would require segregation are
the wool scour liquors, which produce 30 percent of the mill's total BOD (143).
Two reasons for segregating wool scouring liquors are to reduce the high organic
load on secondary biological treatment facilities or to recover wool grease, which
is a major source of high quality lanolin (144). However, wool scour liquors can
be discharged to equalization basins along with the three other wool waste produ-
cing processes.
There are three methods of degreasing wool scour liquors: acid or salt cracking,
centrifuging, and solvent extraction. Centrifuging may be used by itself to recover
25 to 40 percent of the grease from the scour liquor or may be used on high grease
content liquors as a pretreatment step for salt or acid cracking (116). In the acid
cracking process sulfuric acid is added to settled scour liquor and the mixture is
aerated, allowed to stand overnight, and the resultant "magna" is either scooped
off the surface or passed through the sludge disposal drain. This process is used on
scour liquors containing synthetic detergents. It removes about 65 percent of the
grease from the effluent (116). The salt cracking process makes use of calcium
chloride addition to soap and alkali scour liquors. At present the wool grease,
soap, and alkali are precipitated as an emulsion from the liquor, thus making re-
covery of wool grease by this method uneconomical (145). Solvent degreasing uses
79
-------
Seoul
:ing Stc
Dye:
— ^-Suint
Recovery
— ^-Degreasing
« II
* 1
Grease
Recovery
Dck Wash
.ng Aft
Full
ling Neutrc
:er Af1
.ing Carboi
alize
ter
lizing
Equilization & Holding
I
Fine Mesh
Screening
Flotation &
Skimming
Chemical
Coagulation
Sludge
Concentration
1 —
Effluent-
I
^— ^—~ ___ --
~i
Sedimentation-
\ '
Activated
Sludge —
Treatment
Trickling
Filtration
1
Lagoons
Lagoons or Sand Bed Treated Discharge
Figure 14 Wool Waste Processing Flow Chart.
-------
two separate alcohol extraction procedures. Methanol is used to remove suet salts
from the fibers and ethanol or a mixture of isopropanol and methanol is used for re-
moval of grease. The grease is then recovered by evaporation (32). However, this
process does not remove the inert vegetable matter contained in raw wool fiber
(45). Suet recovery is not often practiced, although total plant BOD reductions of
45-50 percent are possible if both suet and grease are removed from the scour liquors
(32).
Because most wool processing mills are located adjacent to or within population
centers, such as the New England and Middle Atlantic Regions of the United States,
it has been traditional for them to dispose of their waste to municipal sewers. It
has been estimated that 60 percent of the effluents from wool manufacturing were
discharged to municipal sewers in 1967. By 1980 it is expected that 80 percent of
the woolen mills in the country will use municipal treatment (33).
Equalization of wool process effluents, whether discharged to municipal or plant
owned facilities, is a necessity as most of the processes are batch operations. Wool
also has a high settleable solids content, composed mostly of grease, inert dirt, and
small fibers. These solids should be removed as efficiently as possible in order to
assure proper functioning of chemical and biological oxidation processes (136).
En the past, wool wastes were treated at plant owned facilities by chemical precip-
itation with grease recovery. Today, the activated sludge process using extended
aeration and pH adjustment will reduce BOD load about 90 percent (33).
Table XIX lists the pollution reduction percentages of the various treatment tech-
niques used for wool wastes. The figures cited for activated sludge, trickling fil-
ter, and lagoons are for systems that make use of degreasing either by recovery or
chemical coagulation prior to treatment.
Synthetic Wastes
Figure 15 is a waste treatment flow chart for synthetic fiber finishing wastes. These
are free from fiber impurities except for the small amount of nylon which is decom-
posed during the scouring of that fiber (32); therefore, any waste reduction program
must deal with reducing the BOD load of the process chemicals. The substitution of
low BOD process chemicals for ones with high BOD values can reduce the total
BOD load of a mill by 35 percent (51).
In general, the wastes produced by synthetic fiber wet processing have a lower pol-
lution potential than those of natural fiber effluents. The greatest pollutional load
in synthetic fiber processing is generated by the dyeing of polyester and acrylic fi-
bers. The problem is associated with the special dyeing assistants used with these
two fibers. These "carriers" give rise to three sources of pollution: odor, toxicity,
and high BOD (33).
-------
Chemical Scour
Prep.
Dye Bleach Scour Heat Special
Setting
Equilization and Holding
I
Screening
* 1
Plain Chem
Sedimentation Prepa
1
Activated Trie
Sludge Fil
* •
Lagooning
\
' *
ical Flotation
ration
1
cling Oxidation
ter Pond
r
To
Watercourse
Figure 15 Synthetic Textile Finishing Waste Treatment
Flow Chart.
-------
TABLE XIX
REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES OF TECHNIQUES USED IN
WOOL WASTE TREATMENT
Treatment
Method
Grease Recovery:
Acid Cracking
Centrifuge
Evaporation
Screening
Sedimentation
Flotation
Chemical Coagulation;
Ca CI2
Lime and Ca G2
CO2- CaCI2
Alum
Copperas
H2SO4 and Alum
Urea and Alum
H2SO4 and FeCI2
Fe S04
Activated Sludge
Trickling Filter
Lagoons
Removal
BOD
20-30
20-30
95
0-10
30-50
30-50
40-70
60
15-25
20-56
20
21-83
32-65
59-84
50-80
85-90
80-85
0-85
Efficiency
Grease
40-50
25-45
95
0
80-90
95-98
97
0-15
0-10
0-10
Suspended Solids
(Percentage)
0-50
40-50
20
50-65
50-65
80-95
80-95
80-95
90-95
90-95
30-70
Source: (Ref. 33, p. 26).
Table XX outlines the relative BOD load reduction potentials of various process
modifications used in treating synthetic fiber wastes.
In order to realize these potential BOD reductions, the following sequential proce-
dure must be employed. First, scouring must precede or be concurrent with dyeing
or bleaching; final scouring or the salt bath must follow dyeing, and special fin-
ishing if applied must follow all other processing (33).
Either biological oxidation or chemical precipitation can be the principal BOO re-
duction treatment for synthetic fiber processing mill wastes (32). Segregation or
-------
chemical pretreatment may be required to treat the toxic chemicals used in poly-
ester and acylic dyeing before biological treatment.
In 1967, it was estimated that half of the total synthetic fiber processing effluents
were discharged to municipal sewers. By 1972, it is estimated that 55 percent of
these effluents will be discharged to municipal sewer systems (33).
It is common procedure in treating synthetic fiber wastes to adjust the pH of the
waste stream prior to chemical coagulation in order to reduce the requirement of
costly coagulation chemicals (33). As synthetic fiber processing wastes have low
concentrations of suspended solids, sedimentation may be eliminated or replaced by
fine screening (III).
TABLE XX
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND REDUCTION POTENTIALS OF
SYNTHETIC TEXTILE FIBER PROCESS MODIFICATIONS
Process
Scour:
Continuous Machines
Scour and Dye:
Continuous Machines
Scour and Bleach:
Continuous Machines
Dye:
Dye:
High temperature
pressure machine
Bleach:
Continuous Machines
Final Scour:
Continuous Machines
Special Finishing
Fiber
Nylon, Acrylic
and Polyester
Rayon and
Acetate
Rayon and
Acetate
Nylon, Acrylic
Polyester
Nylon, Acrylic
Polyester
Acrylic and Polyester
All fibers
(optional)
BOD Reduction
(percent)
10-15
10-15
10-15
Depends on dye
80
5-10
10-20
Depends on finish
Source: (Ref. 33, p. 103).
-------
Table XXI lists the BOD removal efficiencies of treatment processes used for syn-
thetic fiber processing waters.
TABLE XXI
REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES OF TREATMENT METHODS USED FOR
SYNTHETIC FIBER WET PROCESSING WASTES
Removal of Efficiency (Percent)
Treatment Method BOD S. S. T.D.S.
Screening 0-5 5-20 0
Sedimentation 5-15 15-60 0
Chemical Precipitation 25-60 30-90 0-50
Trickling Filter 40-85 80-90 0-30
Activated Sludge 70-95 85-95 0-40
Lagoon 30-80 30-80 0-40
Aerated Lagoon 50-95 50-95 0-40
Source: (Ref. 33, p. 105).
Due to the fact that synthetic fiber processing wastes contain only the chemicals
used in finishing, reuse of process chemicals would probably be practiced if eco-
nomically feasible methods of recovery were developed.
Dyeing Wastes
Wastes from the dyeing of textile fibers present a particular problem to the indus-
try. As mentioned previously, some dyestuffs, for example, sulphur dyes, are toxic
in themselves, or, as in the case of polyester dyestuffs, require the use of toxic as-
sistants, emulsifiers, and leveling agents. These chemicals, however, can be ef-
fectively treated by segregation or chemical coagulation. The real difficulty lies
in the color imparted to receiving streams by dyestuff residues. Although most dyes
have low BOD values they add organic carbon and color to the water which is
objectionable to the public for aesthetic reasons (112, 145). In the late 1950's,
research studies of color removal from textile effluent streams showed that the trick-
ling filter and activated sludge processes could remove effectively 84 and 93 per-
cent of the color in textile effluents (8), and chemical coagulation of cotton dye
wastes averaged 80 to 91 percent removal of color (68). The color of today's new,
improved and virtually non-destructible dyes can only be reduced by 50 to 85 per-
cent (112). Therefore, if public authorities insist on clear water, improved methods
85
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of removing the residual organic dyestuffs from textile effluents must be developed.
Methods that have been used include carbon absorption (8) and chemical coagulation
(68). Another suggested method of reducing color from dyehouse wastes is to subject
the wastes to sunlight (5). In the last case the time requirements would make the
process unattractive for most dyes.
TREATMENT OF TEXTILE EFFLUENTS SUMMARY
Due to the variations inherent in textile water wastes, a survey should be made of
all the mill's wet processes to determine as exactly as possible the composition and
volume of its effluents. A simplified survey method which can be used for textile
processing involves studying the production records, water consumption, and on-
weight-of-fabric formulations to determine the amount of goods processed in each
operation, the amount of process chemicals used in each operation, and the water
consumption for the entire processing operation. With this data three simple cal-
culations can be made to determine the BOD load in both pounds and parts per mil-
lion and the concentration of each process chemical in the effluent. The information
obtained in this survey will often be sufficient for treatment plant design, in the
absence of a complete waste profile developed by long term sampling of all waste
streams.
The BOD load of textile fiber processing wastes can be reduced significantly by in-
plant measures: reduction of waste-water volume, reduction in process chemical
use, reuse of process chemicals, process modifications, substitution of process
chemicals, and good housekeeping. BOD loads have been reduced by as much as
75 percent in cotton processing, by 30 to 70 percent in wool, and up to 40 percent
in synthetic wastes through successful implementation of these measures (112).
The treatment of textile wastes involves equalization,neutralization, removal of
suspended solids, and oxidation of organic solids. The first two operations can be
accomplished during the preliminary and primary treatment.
When possible, textile wastes may be discharged to municipal sewer systems. This
procedure is more economical than the construction of plant owned facilities, and
is sometimes more efficient in terms of pollution reduction than plant-owned facil-
* i •
ities.
When in-plant treatment is required, physical and chemical methods and activated
sludge systems have been found capable of reducing BOD loads to the limits requir-
ed by state regulatory agencies. The extended aeration activated sludge process is
the most often used biological system.
Chemical pretreatment, coagulation, or segregation must be performed on the
wastes prior to secondary biological treatment if the wastes contain toxic materials.
Wool wastes must be chemically pretreated or subject to a grease recovery opera-
tion prior to discharge to secondary treatment facilities.
86
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COST OF TREATMENT PROCESSES
Biological Treatment
The cost of construction and operation is hard to estimate in our rapidly changing
economy. However, some guide-lines must be established if we are to compare
waste treatment methods. For biological treatment of textile waste we can look at
some of the data reported by Farrow, Hirth and Judkins (146).
They reported on the construction cost for plants using each of the three methods of
secondary treatment: trickling filters, activated sludge, and mechanically aerated
lagoons. Waste water flowrates ranged from 250,000 to 6,000,000 gallons per day.
At a given flowrate the plant construction cost was determined for three representa-
tive BOD concentrations: 300, 450 and 700 p.p.m.
The construction costs for the trickling filter and activated sludge treatment plants
were developed with the aid of U. S. Public Health Service Publication No. 1229
(147). Although this report was based on domestic waste treatment facilities, fac-
tors such as population equivalent, waste volumes, overflow rates and organic load-
ing were taken into consideration in adjusting the cost figures to conform to textile
waste treatment practices.
Construction estimates for treatment using mechanically aerated lagoons are based
on several recent confidential engineering studies for actual facilities handling 1.4
million gallons per day.
All of the construction cost data, based on a 1968 dollar, are shown in Figures 16
through 22. The costs include a factor of 20% for overhead, but exclude the cost
of the necessary land.
Three different options are referred to in Figure 16-22. Option I is conventional
process with tapered aeration and consist of a primary sedimentation tank, an aeration
unit and a secondary sedimentation tank in series. Sludge is returned to the aeration
unit from the secondary sedimentation tank to achieve the desired biological growth
conditions. A six-hour retnetion time is typical for the aeration tank. Compressed
air in decreasing amounts is introduced at various points along the length of the
aeration unit. Option 2 replaces the primary sedimentation tank and sludge digestion
with a three-day holding pond and sludge lagoons respectively. Option 3 replaces
the primary sedimentation tank in Option I with a three-day holding pond.
Comparison of Costs
Mechanically aerated lagoons are considerably cheaper to construct than trickling
filters or activated sludge units, regardless of flowrate or BOD concentration. It
87
-------
3.0
en
4->
(0
o
U
o o
O PS
3 O
M -H
-P rH
W H
C -H
O S
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
BOD = 700
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Flowrate (MGD)
Figure 16. Trickling Filter (Option 1) Construction Costs
(Ref. 146)
-------
3.0
2.5
2.0
w
•u -x
w to
o
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
1.0
BOD = 700 ppm
2.0 3.0 4.0
Flowrate (MGD)
5.0 6.0
Figure 17. Trickling Filter (Option 2) Construction Costs
(Ref. 146)
-------
3.0
2.5
2.0
to
-P -s
(o en
O H
G H
O O
O G
D O
H -H
-P H
O) H
G -H
o s
O ~
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
BOD =700 ppm
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Flowrate )MGD)
Figure 18. Trickling Filter (Option 3) Construction Costs
(Ref. 146) .
90
-------
CO
4J —,
W W
ss
Flowrate (MGD
Figure 19. Activated Sludge (Option 1) Construction Costs
(Ref. 146)
91
-------
3.0
2.5
2.0
in ^-.
-P to
u SH
o a
H
S O
O Q
•H
4J
o a
3 O
t| m_j
rl "I
-P H
W rH
1.5
1.0
0.5
BOD = 700
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Flowrate (MGD)
Figure 20. Activated Sludge (Option 2) Construction Costs
(Ref. 146) .
92
-------
3.0
2.5 '
2.0
t! «
S n
o m
O H
„ H
is
1.5
1.0
0.5
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Flowrate (MGD)
Figure 21. Activated Sludge (Option 3) Construction Costs
(Ref. 146).
-------
.60
.50
,40
en
-P ^
w en
o n
CJ (C
O O
0 C
3 O
M -H
4J H
OJ rH
C -H
O g
CJ —
,30
,20
.10
0
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Flowrate (MGD)
5.0
6.0
Figure 22. Aerated Lagoon Construction Costs
(Ref. 146).
94
-------
should be emphasized, however, that the selection of any treatment method should
be based on treatability studies followed by a pilot plant study using the same waste
at flowrates and BOD concentrations expected to be produced by the plant.
Textile plants in or near cities may choose to have their waste handled along with
domestic sewage in the city treatment system. Such treatment systems usually em-
ploy either trickling filters or activated sludge units. Cooperating with a city has
the advantage of reducing capital outlay, since cities can apply for federal funds
to expand their sewage treatment facilities. The textile plant would then be billed
by the city on the plant's proportional contribution in waste flowrate or BOD to the
total treatment load.
The choice between activated sludge or trickling filters depends on the waste flow-
rate, operating cost, and the availability of qualified plant personnel. According
to Public Health Service Publication No. 1229 (147), activated sludge construct-
ion is cheaper at flows below 750,000 gallons per day. But at higher capacities,
the construction cost advantage favors trickling filters. Operating costs are usually
higher for activated sludge plants than for trickling filters because of aeration ex- .
penses and additional pumping costs. Although activated sludge units may yield
slightly higher BOD reductions than trickling filters, the process is quite sensitive
to shock loads, and operational problems are not uncommon. Any biological pro-
cess needs biodegradable chemicals for food and protection from toxic chemicals
and shock loading. The best method for waste treatment will depend on the avail-
able space and the particular waste stream in addition to the construction cost.
Chemical Treatment
The data for cost estimation of chemical treatment of textile waste is very limited as
this treatment method has not been used except in rare cases. We do know that
Water prepared by chemical means for plant use costs anywhere from five to twenty
cents per 1,000 gallons depending on the quality of the source water available.
No doubt this rising cost and the ungrading of effluent standards will make chemi-
cal treatment for water reuse much more attractive. A Summary Report on Advanc-
ed Waste Treatment (148) gives a cost estimation of five to eight cents per 1,000
gallons of water treated for alum, lime, and polyelectrolyte chemicals. This seems
like a low estimate, but even if the cost is higher it is worth consideration.
More data has been published on carbon absorption, and we have previously re-
ferred to its use in one textile plant. To provide a more general idea of carbon
adsorption cost the following Table XXII and Figure 23 are presented. This data
was prepared by M. W. Kellogg Company for the Robert A. Taft Water Research
Center using a municipal waste stream having a total COD of 60 mg./l. influent
and 9.5 mg./l. effluent. This data is not taken from a textile waste stream, but
the reader should get a better feel for the cost of this type treatment from the data
shown. For more information the following references are given (4,8,92).
95
-------
TABLE XXII
ECONOMICS OF CARBON ADSORPTION FOR MUNICIPAL WASTES
Plant Size
Contactor Type «
Velocity, GPM/ft
Contact Time, Min.
Carbon Particle Size, Mesh
Regeneration Loss, %
Carbon Capacity, Ib. COD/lb C
Vessel Size
Number of Vessels
Number of Trains
Investment, $M
Concrete
Absorbers
Tanks
Pumps
Special Equipment
Piping
Conveyors
Total Major Material
Plant Investment
Carbon @26
-------
TABLE XXII - Continued
Operating Costs,
Gal.
vO
Make-up Carbon @ 26(/lb.
Power @ l
-------
20.0
10.0
en
Ł
O
•H
•H
S
§
cn
-p
-H
ft
(0
O
100
1.0 -
(ti
O
o
o
o
10
-P
w
O
u
•rH
-p
(C
4J
o
EH
100
Plant Capacity, MGD
Figure 23
Costs as a Function of Plant Size - Tertiary
Waste Water Treatment - Granular Activated Carbon
Municipal Waste (Ref. 4)
-------
If increased use of chemical methods for waste treatment lowers their cost, they
could have several advantages over their sensitive biological counterparts. Any-
one who is paying the price for installation of a waste treatment plant would do
well to look at chemical methods and water reuse.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The investigators would like to express their appreciation to several people who
have made contributions to this report.
Several textile mills were visited and were very cooperative in offering data and
suggestions for needed improvements in textile waste treatments. Without their
help the report would have less value.
Over 17 state agencies concerned with the regulations affecting textile waste
water treatment were also visited. They offered many helpful suggestions for
treatment improvements. Information obtained from them is included in the
report.
Many engineering firms that design waste treatment plants offered their suggest-
ions for research that would improve textile waste treatment.
A list of agencies and plants visited is included in Appendix C.
Finally, appreciation is expressed for the cooperation and financial support of
the Industrial Pollution Control Branch of the Federal Water Quality
Administration.
99
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. R. H. Souther, "Waste Treatment Studies at duett, Peabody and Company
Finishing Plant", Am. Dyestuff Reptr., 58, 13 (1969).
2. American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists, "The BOD of Tex-
tile Chemicals, Updated List-1966", Am. Dye. Rept. 55, 18: 39. 1966.
3. J. C. Pangle, Jr., U. S. P. 3, 419, 493: Dec. 1968.
4. United States Department of the Interior, "Appraisal of Grandular Carbon
Contacting: Phase I and Phase II", Robert A. Taft Water Research Center
Rept. No. TWRC, 1969 : ~
5. R. K. Flege, "Determination, Evaluation and Abatement of Color in Textile
Plant Effluents", Report prepared for Dept. of the Interior, Office of Water
Resources Research, WRC - 0868, (1968).
6. K. M. Akhmedor and I. M. Garibov, "Methods for Removing Sulfur Dyes
from Wastes from the Dyeing Plant of the V. I. Lenin Bakin Textile Works",
Tekh. Progress 5, 41 (1966).
7. E. Peyron, "Dyeing and Finishing Effluents", Teintex, 32 (6), p 419
(1967).
8. Activated Carbon Reclaims Textile Industry's Waste Waters, Environmental
Sci. and Technoj., 3:314 (1969).
9. R. Eliassen and G. E. Bennet, "Anion Exchange and Filtration Techniques
for Waste Water Renovation", Jour. Water Pollution Control Federation, 39
10:R 82 (1964). " ~
10. A. I. Mytelka and R. Manganelli, "Energy-Induced Changes in an Azo
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260 (1968).
11. G. Hertz, U. S. 3, 485, 729 (1969).
12. F. Rigsbee, "For Lyman: A Two Million Pollution Solution", Textile Bull.,
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13. R. J. Mattson and V. J. Tomsic, "Improved Water Quality", Chem. Eng.
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101
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Bibliography - Continued
14. Schaffer, R. B., et al., "Application of a Carbon Analyses in Waste
Treatment", Journ. Water Pollution Control Federation, 37, 1545-1566
(1965).
15. D. T. Lauria and C. A. Willis, "Treatment Studies of Combined Textile
and Domestic Wastes", Proc. 19th Ind. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ. Engr.
Extn. Ser. 117, p 45 (I964]L
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Manufacturers Institute, Inc. Special Committee on Stream Pollution
Report, March 1969, Charlotte, North Carolina.
17. C. E. VanHall, J. Safronko and V. A. Stenger, "Rapid Combustion
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active Agents", Southwest Water Works, J. 49, 26, (1967); R. L. Hud-
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stuff Reptr., 55, p 52 (1966).
19. R. B. LeBlanc, "Solvents in Textile Processing and Finishing", Am.
Dyestuff Reptr. J56, p 623 (1967).
20. W. A. S. White, H. J. Ross and N. F. Crowder, "Use of Trichloroethylene
in Continuous Scouring and Bleaching of Textiles", J. Textile Inst., 50,
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102
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Solvents", Am. Textile Reptr. 84 9:11. (1970).
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Industry", J. Society Dyers and Colourists 83, 9:373. (1967).
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139. Masselli, N. W. and M. G. Barford. "Pollution Sources in Cotton
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Treatment Plants," Sewage and Industrial Waste, 30, p. 1160. (1958).
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112
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STATE OF THE ART OF
TEXTILE WASTE TREATMENT
APPENDIX
A STUDY CONDUCTED FOR
WATER QUALITY OFFICE
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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APPENDIX A
WATER POLLUTION CONTROL LEGISLATION
Introduction
Individual states have always had the right to control and prevent pollution of waters
within their boundaries. The Federal Government limits its involvement to pollution
of coastal, interstate, and international waters. Even in these areas it gets involved
only when the states request assistance or fail to handle the problems themselves.
For this paper, only the laws of the twelve states in which a major portion of tex-
tile waste producers are located shall be studied. These twelve are: Connecticut,
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Alabama,
Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee and Virginia. The pollution
control laws, water quality standards, degree of treatment required, and the
penalties for violation of the laws wi II be presented.
Federal Legislation
In 1948, the Congress of the United States passed the "Water Pollution Control Act"
(Al). This legislation marked the Federal Government's first serious involvement
in water pollution control. Two previous legislative acts, "The Rivers and Harbors
Act of 1899" and "The Oil Pollution Act of 1924" concerned only the pollution of
coastal and navigable waters.
The original version of the 1948 Act has been revised and amended over the past
twelve years. The original Act was intended to exist for five years, in 1956, the
Act, extensively revised, became known as "The Federal Water Pollution Control
Act (33 United States Code 466)" (A2). It was further amended in 1961 (A3), in
1965 by the "Water Quality Act (A4), and again in 1966 by the "Clean Water Re-
storation Act" (A5). Another 1966 amendment (A6) transferred the duties, functions
and authority of the Act from the Department of Health, Education and Welfare to
the Department of the Interior. These duties were again transferred on December 2,
1970, to the Environmental Protection Agency.
The purpose of the legislation has been "to enhance the quality and value of our
water resources and to establish a national policy for the prevention, control and
abatement of water pollution" (A4). In entering the field of pollution control, the
Congress has declared as its policy:
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(Federal)
to recognize, preserve, and protect the primary responsibilities and
rights of the States in preventing and controlling water pollution, to
support and aid technical research relating to the prevention and con-
trol of water pollution, and to provide Federal technical services and
financial aid to State and Interstate agencies and to municipalities in
connection with the prevention and control of water pollution. (A2)
The Act has established two Federal agencies that are to be concerned with water
pollution prevention and control. The 1956 amendments created the Federal Water
Pollution Control Advisory Board composed often members, including the Secretary
of the Interior, or his designee, who shall act as chairman. The Board "shall ad-
vise, consult with and make recommendations to the Secretary on matters of policy
relating to the activities and functions of the Secretary under this Act". (A2) The
other Federal agency was created by the "Water Quality Act" in 1965. This agen-
cy, formerly known as the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, under the
authority of the Secretary of the Interior is now the Water Quality Office of the
Environmental Protection Agency.
Section 3 of this Act provides for joint investigations by the Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration, State water pollution control agencies, interstate agencies,
municipalities and industries to prepare or develop comprehensive programs for
eliminating or reducing the pollution of, and improving the sanitary condition of
interstate waters. This section also allows for the payment of a grant not to exceed
fifty percent of the administrative expenses of a planning agency for a period of less
than three years, if the planning agency provides for adequate representation of the
State, interstate or local interests and provides an effective, comprehensive water
quality control and pollution abatement plan for the area.
Section 4 of the Act encourages: cooperative activities by the States for the pre-
vention and control of water pollution; the enactment of uniform State laws relating
to water pollution prevention and control; and compacts between States for the pre-
vention and control of water pollution.
The Secretary of the Interior, through Section 5, is to conduct, through the Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration and in cooperation with public and private
agencies and institutions, research, investigations, experiments, demonstrations,
and studies relating to the causes, control and prevention of water pollution. The
Secretary shall also collect and make available through publications the results and
other information of such research, investigations, experiments, demonstrations and
studies; make grants-in-aid to public or private agencies for such research, inves-
tigations, experiments, demonstrations and studies. This Section of the Act also
gives him the authority to conduct investigations, research and surveys concerning
any specific problem of water pollution confronting any State, interstate agency,
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(Federal)
community, or industrial plant, if requested to do so by the State water pollution
control agency.
Section 6 of the Act provides for a Federal grant-in-aids for the research, studies,
demonstrations and experiments mentioned in Section 5. These grants-in-aid are of
two types. The first are those available to any State, interstate, municipal or in-
termunicipal agency for the purpose of assisting in the development of any project
which will demonstrate:
a new or improved method of controlling the discharge into any waters
of untreated or inadequately treated sewage or other wastes from sew-
ers or an advanced waste treatment and water purification methods (in-
cluding the temporary use of new or improved chemical additives which
provide substantial immediate improvement to existing treatment pro-
cesses) or new or improved methods of joint treatment systems for muni-
cipal and industrial wastes. (A5)
The other type is a grant to persons for research for the prevention of pollution of
waters by industrial waste treatment. The grant to public agencies cannot exceed
seventy-five percent of the estimated cost, while the industrial grants cannot ex-
ceed seventy percent of the estimated cost or one million dollars, whichever
amount is smaller.
Both type grants are subject to the Secretary of the Interior's determination that
the project will serve a useful purpose in the development or demonstration of a
new or improved method of treating wastes or preventing pollution (A5).
The Secretary of the Interior is empowered, through Sections 7 and 8, to grant
Federal funds to State, interstate, municipal or intermunicipal agencies. The
Section 7 grants-in-aid are to assist these public agencies in establishing and main-
taining adequate measures for the prevention and control of water pollution. In
order to receive these funds, the agencies must submit a plan for the prevention and
control of water pollution in the particular drainage area and this plan must meet
with the Secretary's approval. In Section 8, the Secretary is authorized to grant
Federal funds to public agencies for the construction or alteration of water waste
treatment and disposal facilities; provided that such facilities are approved by the
State water pollution control agency.
Section 10 of the Act requires the establishment of water quality criteria for all the
streams in the country and it sets forth the procedure involved in bringing the Feder-
al Government into pollution abatement litigation. Subsection "c" of this section,
which was incorporated into the Federal Water Pollution Control Act by the "Water
Quality Act", deals with the setting of water quality criteria for all interstate and
navigable waters. The Act specifies that these criteria "shall take into considera-
117
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(Federal)
tion their use and value for public water supplies, propagation of fish and wildlife,
recreational purposes and agricultural, industrial and other legitimate uses" (A4).
The States were given until June 30, 1967 to file a letter of intent with the Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration which contained a list of water quality cri-
teria applicable to the waters of the State and a plan for the implementation and
enforcement of these water quality standards. If approved, these standards and the
plan for their enforcement would become the recognized standards for the waters of
the State. The Federal Water Pollution Control Administration had turned down
some States' plans, but encouraged those whose standards were rejected to resubmit
plans of their own. This subsection gives the Secretary of the Interior the right to
promulgate standards of water quality for any State which fails to do so, within a
reasonable period of time, after holding a public meeting with the water pollution
control agency of the States concerned and the Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration (A4). Virginia is the only "Textile State" which still has not sub-
mitted standards acceptable to the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
but its Water Control Board is in the process of resubmitting new standards (A7).
Subsections "d" through "k" set forth the procedures required for the Secretary of
the Interior to follow in order to seek the abatement of pollution. If the Secretary
receives a report, survey or study that leads him to believe that any interstate or
navigable waters are being polluted, by the discharge of untreated or improperly
treated effluents, which endangers the health or welfare of any persons; or if he is
requested by the Governor, State water pollution control agency, governing body
of a municipality or the Secretary of State (in the case of pollution of international
water) to help abate a source of pollution, he is to proceed in the following man-
ner. In the case of a discharge that endangers the health or welfare of any persons
in a foreign country, the Secretary shall give formal notification to the State water
pollution control agency of the State in which the discharge originates to secure
immediate abatement of the discharge; and he shall call for a conference between
the appropriate foreign water pollution control agency, State water pollution con-
trol agency and the alleged polluter in order to secure permanent abatement of such
pollution (A5). In the case of a discharge that endangers the health or welfare of
any persons in a State other than the State in which the discharge takes place, the
Secretary shall give formal notification of the existence of such pollution to the
State water pollution control agency in the State in which the discharge takes
place, and call a conference of the State water pollution control agencies, of the
State filing the request for abatement and the State in which the discharge takes
place and any interested parties, including the alleged polluter (A2). In the case
of a discharge that endangers the health or welfare of only persons in the State in
which the discharge takes place, the Secretary shall give formal notification of the
existence of such pollution to the State water pollution control agency. He shall
not call for a conference unless requested to do so by the Governor or State water
pollution control agency (A3).
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After the conference, if the Secretary does not think that satisfactory abatement
is taking place, he shall recommend to the appropriate State water pollution control
agency the taking of remedial action. The Secretary is to allow a period of six
months for such remedial action to take place (A2). If the pollution is not yet abat-
ed after this period, the Secretary shall call a public meeting before a five-man
Hearing Board, appointed by him. The Board will make recommendations to the
Secretary, and he shall send to the guilty person the findings of the Board and re-
commend means of abatement. The Secretary is to allow a period of six months for
such recommendations to be put into effect. If at the end of this period, the pollu-
tion is not abated, the Secretary can call upon "the Attorney General of the Unit-
ed States to secure abatement of the pollution" (A2).
Any person required to appear at any hearing called by the Secretary of the Inter-
ior, and whose discharges are alleged to be causing or contributing to water pollu-
tion, must file with the Secretary a report furnishing such information as "to the
character, kind and quantity of such discharges and the use of facilities or other
means to prevent or reduce such discharges" (A5). If such person fails to file the
above report within the time specified by the Secretary, he shall be fined one hun-
dred dollars each day he fails to file such report. The fine shall be recoverable in
a civil suit to the United States (A5).
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State Legislation
The Federal Government has granted the right of preventing and controlling water
pollution to the individual States. Therefore, in order to determine the exact legal
wastewater treatment and disposal requirements applicable to the effluents produced
in a particular region of the country, a thorough study of the water pollution laws,
disposal requirements and stream standards in the States located in that region is a
necessity.
The textile industry is concentrated in several States located in three particular
regions of the United States: the New England area, the Middle Atlantic area,
and the Southeastern area. The legal aspects regarding water pollution within
each particular state will be discussed.
New England
In New England, the textile wet processing industries are concentrated in Connect-
icut, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. There are some firms located in the other
three New England States, but these are small in size and number. These States
and New York belong to the New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Com-
mission. This Commission was set up in an effort to prevent and control pollution in
the interstate waters of New England. The Commission does not have authority to
involve itself in the operations of the individual State pollution control agencies
(A8).
The laws of the three "Textile States" will be discussed individually in the follow-
ing order: Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Due to the fact that all
three are members of the New England Interstate Water Pollution Administration,
their stream standards are similar.
Connecticut
In 1965 the governor of Connecticut formed a Clean Water Task Force to propose a
new water quality act. The recommendations of this Task Force were presented to
the legislature and in 1967 the Clean Water Act was adopted (A9). The new law
was designed to accomplish three basic objectives. First, it gives financial assist-
ance to municipalities and industry in the construction of pollution abatement facil-
ities; Second, it provides the authority required by the Water Resources Commission
to control and abate all the sources of water pollution in Connecticut; and Third,
it authorizes the Water Resources Commission to set water quality standards to com-
ply with Federal law and to make the communities of the State eligible for addi-
tional Federal grants. Taking up these three elements in somewhat greater detail,
the law proposed:
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(1) The establishment of a program to assist municipalities to finance a greatly
accelerated program of sewage treatment by providing a grant of thirty percent of
the cost of constructing the necessary plant and appurtenant facilities. Authoriza-
tion of $150 million in State bonds is included in the act to make funding available
for such grants and to advance Federal grants. Since many towns have already in-
curred considerable expense in constructing pollution abatement facilities prior to
enactment of Public Act 57r the State will annually grant thirty percent of the
principal amount of the bond or note indebtedness still outstanding in each of these
communities which come due each year.
(2) Removal of State sales and use tax, State business taxes, local property taxes
on, and provision for accelerated depreciation of structures and equipment used to
treat industrial wastes is included to help industry and commerce to carry out their
responsibilities in this area.
(3) Improvement of existing law and addition of new sections to the law to make
possible more effective control of all forms of water pollution; and
(4) Additions to appropriations and facilities of the Water Resources Commission to
enable this body to cope effectively with the numerous, persistent and complex
problems associated with water pollution control. In addition to increased monies
from the State general fund, provision has been included to make one-half of one
percent of the $150 million bond authorization or $750 thousand available for ad-
ministration of the clean up program. This has permitted immediate implementation
of the act following signing into law on May 1, 1967 without waiting for general
fund monies to become available, and it will also allow the hiring of special con-
sultant engineering services as needed; and it permits rapid expansion and con-
traction of Staff in line with changing needs.
The following gives a detail description of Public Act No. 577 the Clean Water
Act of 1967:
AN ACT CONCERNING THE ELIMINATION OF
POLLUTION OF THE WATERS OF THE STATE
Section 1. It is found and declared that the pollution of the waters of the state is
inimical to the public health, safety and welfare of the inhabitants of the state, is
a public nuisance and is harmful to wildlife, fish and aquatic life and impairs do-
mestic, agricultural, industrial, recreational and other legitimate beneficial uses
of water, and that the use of public funds and the granting of tax exemptions for
the purpose of controlling and eliminating such pollution is a public use and pur-
pose for which public monies may be expended and tax exemptions granted, and
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the necessity and public interest for the enactment of this act and the elimination
of pollution is hereby declared as a matter of legislative determination.
Section 2, As used in this act: "Commission" means the water resources commis-
sion; "waters" means all tidal waters, harbors, estuaries, rivers, brooks, water-
courses, waterways, wells, springs, lakes, ponds, marshes, drainage systems, and
all other surface or underground streams, bodies or accumulations of water, natural
or artificial, public or private, which are contained within, flow through or border
upon this state or any portion thereof; "Wastes" means sewage or any substance,
liquid, gaseous, solid or radioactive, which may pollute or tend to pollute any of
the waters of the state; "pollution" means harmful thermal effect or the contamina-
tion or rendering unclean or impure of any waters of the state by reason of any
wastes or other material discharged or deposited therein by any public or private
sewer or otherwise so as directly or indirectly to come in contact with any waters;
"rendering unclean or impure" means any alteration of the physical, chemical or
biological properties of any of the waters of the state, including, but not limited to,
change in odor, color, turbidity or taste; "harmful thermal effect" means any sig-
nificant change in the temperature of any waters resulting from a discharge therein,
the magnitude of which temperature change does or Is likely to render such waters
harmful, detrimental or injurious to public health, safety or welfare, or to domes-
tic, commercial, industrial, agricultural, recreational or other legitimate benefi-
cial uses, or to livestock, wild animals, birds, fish or other aquatic life; "person"
means any individual, partnership, association, firm, corporation or other entity,
except a municipality, and includes any officer or governing or managing body of
any partnership, association, firm or corporation; "community pollution problem"
means the existence of pollution which, in the sole discretion of the commission,
can best be abated by the action of a municipality; "municipality" means any
metropolitan district, town, consolidated town and city, consolidated town and
borough, city, borough, village, fire and sewer district, sewer district and each
municipal organization having authority to levy and collect taxes or make charges
for its authorized function; "discharge" means the emission of any water, sub-
stance or material into the waters of the state, whether or not such substance causes
pollution; "pollution abatement facility" means treatment works which are used in
the treatment of waters, including the necessary intercepting sewers, outfall sew-
ers, pumping, power and other equipment, and their appurtenances, and includes
any extensions, improvements, remodeling, additions and alterations thereof;
"disposal system" means a system for disposing of or eliminating wastes, either by
surface or underground methods, and includes sewage systems, pollution abatement
facilities, disposal wells and other systems; "federal water pollution control act"
means the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, 33 U. S.C. section 466 et seq.,
including amendments thereto and regulations thereunder; "order to abate pollution"
includes an order to abate existing pollution or to prevent reasonably anticipated
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sources of pollution.
Section 3. The commission shall have the following powers and duties: (a) To
exercise general supervision of the administration and enforcement of this act;
(b) to develop comprehensive programs for the prevention, control and abatement
of new or existing pollution of the waters of the state; (c) to advise, consult and
cooperate with other agencies of the state, the federal government, other states
and interstate agencies and with affected groups, political subdivisions and indus-
tries in furtherance of the purposes of this act; (d) to submit plans for the preven-
tion and control of water pollution and to render reports and accounts to the United
States secretary of the interior, the federal water pollution control administration
and to any other federal officer or agency on such forms containing such informa-
tion as the said secretary and the federal water pollution control administration, or
any other federal officer or agency, may reasonably require, in order to qualify the
state and its municipalities for grants from the United States government; (e) to
encourage, participate in or conduct studies, investigations, research and demon-
strations, and collect and disseminate information, relating to water pollution and
the causes, prevention, control and abatement thereof; (f) to issue, modify or re-
voke orders prohibiting or abating pollution of the waters of the state, or requiring
the construction, modification, extension or alteration of pollution abatement facil-
ities or any parts thereof, or adopting such other remedial measures as are necessary
to prevent, control or abate pollution; (g) to hold such hearings as may be requir-
ed under the provisions of this act, for which it shall have the power to issue notic-
es by certified mail, administer oaths, take testimony and subpoena witnesses and
evidence; (h) to require the submission of plans, specifications and other necessary
data for, and inspect the construction of, pollution abatement facilities and dispos-
al systems in connection with the issuance of such permits or approvals as may be
required by this act; (i) to issue, continue in effect, revoke, modify or deny per-
mits, under such conditions as it may prescribe, for the discharge of any water,
substance or material into the waters of the state, or orders for or approval of the
installation, modification or operation of pollution abatement facilities; (j) to re-
quire proper maintenance and operation of disposal systems; (k) to exercise all
incidental powers necessary to carry out the purposes of this act.
Section 4. The commission may require any person or municipality to maintain
such records relating to pollution, possible pollution or the operation of pollution
abatement facilities as it deems necessary to carry out the provisions of this act.
The commission or any authorized representative thereof shall have access to such
records, and may examine and copy any such records or memoranda pertaining there-
to, or shall be furnished copies of such records on request. Such representative shall
have the power to enter upon any public or private property, at reasonable times, to
secure such information and the owner, managing agent or occupant of any such prop-
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(Connecticut)
erty shall permit such entry; provided any information relating to secret processes
or methods of manufacture or production ascertained or discovered by the commis-
sion or its agents during, or as a result of, any inspection, investigation, hearing
or otherwise, shall not be disclosed and shall be kept confidential.
Section 5. (a) The commission shall adopt, and may thereafter amend, standards
of water quality applicable to the various waters of the state or portions thereof.
Such standards shall be consistent with the federal water pollution control act and
shall be for the purpose of qualifying the state and its municipalities for available
federal grants and for the purpose of providing clear and objective public policy
statements of a general program to improve the water resources of the state; pro-
vided no standard of water quality adopted shall plan for, encourage or permit any
wastes to be discharged into any of the waters of the state without having first re-
ceived the treatment available and necessary for the elimination of pollution. Such
standards of quality shall: (1) Apply to interstate waters or portions thereof within
the state; (2) apply to such other waters within the state as the commission may
determine is necessary; (3) protect the public health and welfare and promote the
economic development of the state; (4) preserve and enhance the quality of state
waters for present and prospective future use for public water supplies, propagation
of fish and aquatic life and wildlife, recreational purposes and agricultural, in-
dustrial and other legitimate uses; (5) be consistent with health standards as es-
tablished by the state department of health, (b) Prior to adopting, amending or
repealing standards of water quality, the commission shall conduct a public hearing.
Notice of such hearing specifying the waters for which standards are sought to be
adopted, amended or repealed and the time, date, and place of such hearing shall
be published at least twice during the thirty-day period preceding the date of the
hearing in a newspaper having a general circulation in the area affected and shall
be given by certified mail to the chief executive officer of each municipality in
such area. Prior to the hearing the commission shall make available to any inter-
ested person any information it has as to the water which is the subject of the hear-
ing and the standards under consideration, and shall afford to any interested person
the opportunity to submit to the commission any written material. At the hearing,
any person shall have the right to make a written or oral presentation. A full tran-
script or recording of each hearing shall be made and kept available in the com-
mission's files, (c) The commission shall establish the effective date of the adop-
tion, amendment or repeal of standards of water quality. Notice of such adoption,
amendment or repeal shall be published in the Connecticut Law Journal upon ac-
ceptance thereof by the federal government, (d) The commission shall monitor the
quality of the subject waters to demonstrate the results of its program to abate
pollution.
Section 6. No person or municipality shall cause pollution of any of the waters of
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the state or maintain a discharge of any treated or untreated wastes in violation of
any provision of this act.
Section 7. If the commission finds that any municipality is causing pollution of
the waters of the state, or that a community pollution problem exists, or that pollu-
tion by a municipality or a community pollution problem can reasonably be antici-
pated in the future, the commission shall issue to the municipality an order to abate
pollution. If a community pollution problem exists in, or if pollution is caused by,
a municipality geographically located all or partly within the territorial limits of
another municipality, the commission shall, after giving due regard to regional
factors, determine which municipality shall be ordered to abate the pollution or
shall, after giving due regard to regional factors, issue an order to two or more
municipalities |ointly to provide the facilities necessary to abate the pollution.
Such order shall include a time schedule for action by the municipality or munici-
palities, as the case may be, which may require, but is not limited to, the follow-
ing steps to be taken by such municipality or municipalities: (a) Submission of an
engineering report outlining the problem and recommended solution therefor for ap-
proval by the commission; (b) submission of contract plans and specifications for
approval by the commission; (c) arrangement of financing; (d) acceptance of
state and federal construction grants; (e) advertisement for construction bids; (f)
start of construction; (g) placing in operation.
Section 8. If the commission finds that any person prior to the effective date of
this act has caused pollution of any of the waters of the state, which pollution re-
curs or continues after said date, the commission shall issue an order to abate pol-
lution to such person. The order shall include a time schedule for the accomplish-
ment of the necessary steps leading to the abatement of the pollution. This section
shall not apply to any person who is subject to the provisions of Section 9 of this
act.
Section 9. (a) No person shall, after the effective date of this act, initiate, cre-
ate or originate any new discharge of water, substance or material into the waters
of the state without first obtaining a permit for such discharge from the commission.
Application for such permit shall be on a form prescribed by the commission may
therein require.
(b) If, upon receipt of an application for a permit as required in subsection (a),
the commission finds that such discharge would not cause pollution of any of the
waters of the state, it shall issue a permit for such discharge. If the commission
finds that such discharge would cause pollution of any of the waters of the state,
'!• shall require the applicant to submit plans and specifications of a proposed sys-
tem to treat such discharge. If the commission finds that the proposed system
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(Connecticut)
to treat such discharge does not protect the waters of the state from pollution, it
shall promptly notify the applicant that its application is denied and the reasons
therefor. If any applicant, after having submitted plans and specifications pursuant
to the provisions of this section for a proposed system to treat such discharge, is de-
nied a permit by the commission, such applicant shall have the right to a hearing
and an appeal therefrom in the same manner as provided for in Sections 15 and 16
of this act.
(c) The permits issued pursuant to this section shall be for a period of five years,
except that any such permit shall be subject to the provisions of Section 10 of this
act. Such permit: (1) Shall specify the manner, nature and volume of discharge;
(2) shall require proper operation and maintenance of any pollution abatement fa-
cility required by such permit; (3) may be renewable for like periods in accordance
with procedures and requirements established by the commission; and (4) shall be
subject to such other requirements and restrictions as the commission deems neces-
sary to comply fully with the purposes of this act.
(d) If the commission finds that any person has, after the effective date of the state
without a permit as required in subsection (1) hereof, or in violation of such a per-
mit, it shall, notwithstanding any request for a hearing pursuant to Section 15 of
this act or the pendency of an appeal therefrom, request the attorney general to
bring an action in the superior court for Hartford County to enjoin such discharge
by such person until he has received a permit from the commission or has complied
with a permit which the commission has issued pursuant to this section. Any such
action brought by the attorney general shall have precedence in the order of trial
as provided in section 52-191 of the general statutes.
Section 10. The commission shall periodically investigate and review those sources
of discharge which are operating pursuant to any order, permit, directive or deci-
sion of the commission issued before or after the effective date of this act and, if it
determines that there has been any substantial change in the manner, nature or vol-
ume of such discharge which will cause or threaten pollution to any of the waters of
the state, or if it finds that the system treating such discharge, or the operation
thereof, no longer insures or adequately protects against pollution of the waters of
the state, the commission shall issue an order to abate such pollution to such person
or municipality. Such order shall include a time schedule for the accomplishment
of the necessary steps leading to the abatement of the pollution.
Section 11. If the commission finds that any person is maintaining any facility or
condition which reasonably can be expected to create a source of pollution to the
waters of the state, it shall issue an order to such person maintaining such facility
or condition to take the necessary steps to correct such potential source of pollution.
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Any person who receives an order pursuant to this section shall have the right to a
hearing and an appeal in the same manner as is provided in sections 15 anid 16 of
this act. If the commission finds that the recipient of any such order fails to com-
ply therewith, it shall request the attorney general to bring an action in the super-
ior court for Hartford County to enjoin such person from maintaining such potential
source of pollution to the waters of the state. All actions brought by the attorney
general pursuant to the provisions of this section shall have precedence in the order
of trial as provided in section 52-191 of the general statutes.
Section 12. Whenever the commission issues an order to abate pollution to any
person pursuant to the provisions of section 8 or 10 of this act, and the commission
finds that such person is not the owner of the land from which such source of pollu-
tion emanates, the commission may issue a like order to the owner of such land or
shall send a certified copy of such order, by certified mail, return receipt request-
ed, to the owner at his last-known post-office address. When the commission issues
an order to an owner, the owner and the person causing such pollution shall be
jointly and severally responsible. Any owner to whom an order is issued or who re-
ceives a certified copy of an order pursuant to this section shall be entitled to all
notices of, and rights to participate in, any proceedings before or orders of the
commission and to such hearing and rights of appeal as are provided for in sections
15 and 16 of this act.
Section 13. When the commission issues an order to any person to abate pollution,
it may cause a certified copy thereof to be filed on the land records in the town
wherein the land is located, and such order shall constitute a notice to the owner's
heirs, successors and assigns. When the order has been fully complied with, the
commission shall issue a certificate showing such compliance, which certificate the
commission shall cause to be recorded on the land records in the town wherein the
order was previously recorded.
Section 14. If any person or municipality fails to comply with any order to abate
pollution, or any part thereof, issued pursuant to the provisions of sections 7, 8, 10
or 12 of this act, and no request for a hearing on such order or appeal therefrom is
pending and the time for making such request or taking such appeal has expired, the
commission shall request the attorney general to bring an action in the superior
court for Hartford County to enjoin such person or municipality from maintaining
such pollution and to comply fully with such order or any part thereof. All actions
brought by the attorney general pursuant to the provisions of this section shall have
precedence in the order of trial as provided in section 52-191 of the general
statutes.
Section 15. Each order to abate pollution issued under section 7, 8 or 10 of this act
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(Connecticut)
shall be sent by certified mail, return receipt requested, to the subject of such or-
der and shall be deemed issued upon deposit in the mail. Any person or municipal-
ity aggrieved by any such order may, within thirty days from the date such order is
sent, request a hearing before the commission. After such hearing, the commission
shall consider the facts presented to it by the person or municipality, including, but
not limited to, technological feasibility, shall consider the rebuttal or other evi-
dence presented to or by it, and shall then revise and resubmit the order to the per-
son or municipality, or inform the person or municipality that the previous order has
been affirmed and remains in effect. The request for a hearing as provided for in
this section shall be a condition precedent to the taking of an appeal by the person
or municipality under the provisions of section 16 of this act. The commission may,
after the hearing provided for in this section, or at any time after the issuance of
its order, modify such order by agreement or extend the time schedule therefor if it
deems such modification or extension advisable or necessary, and any such modifi-
cation or extension shall be deemed to be a revision of an existing order and shall
not constitute a new order. There shall be no hearing subsequent to or any appeal
from any such modification or extension.
Section 16. Any person or municipality aggrieved by any order of the commission
to abate pollution may, after a hearing by the commission as provided for in section
15 of this act, appeal from the final determination of the commission based on such
hearing to the superior court for Hartford County within fifteen days after the issu-
ance of such final determination. Such final determination shall be sent by certi-
fied mail, return receipt requested, and shall be deemed issued upon deposit in the
mail. Such appeal shall have precedence in the order of trial as provided in sec-
tion 52-192 of the general statutes. All appeals taken pursuant to this section shall
be based solely upon the record of the hearing required in section 15 of this act.
The court shall determine whether the commission acted arbitrarily, unreasonably or
contrary to law. If upon any such appeal, any question of law is raised which any
party claims should be reviewed by the supreme court, the superior court judge shall
forthwith transmit a certificate of his decision, including therein such question of
law, together with a proper finding of fact, to the chief justice of the supreme
court who shall thereupon call a special session of said court for the purpose of an
immediate hearing upon the questions of law so certified. The chief justice of the
supreme court may make such orders as will expedite said appeal, including orders
specifying the manner in which the record on appeal may be prepared.
Section 17. Any person or municipality which knowingly violates any provision of
this act shall forfeit to the state a sum not to exceed one thousand dollars, to be
fixed by the court, for each offense. Each violation shall be a separate and dis-
tinct offense and, in case of a continuing violation, each day's continuance there-
of shall be deemed to be a separate and distinct offense. The attorney general,
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upon complaint of the commission, shall institute a civil action to recover such
forfeiture.
Section 18. The commission shall make a grant to any municipality which, after
the effective date of this act, constructs, rebuilds, expands or acquires a pollution
abatement facility. In the case of a municipality which, on said date, is in the
process of constructing, rebuilding, expanding or acquiring such a facility, such
grant shall apply only to that part of the facility constructed, rebuilt, expanded or
acquired after said date. The grants under this section shall be subject to the fol-
lowing conditions: (1) No grant shall be made for any pollution abatement facil-
ity unless such facility, and the plans and specifications therefor, are approved by
the commission, and such facility is constructed in accordance with a time sched-
ule of the commission, and subject to such requirements as the commission shall im-
pose. If the commission requires that the facility be approved by the federal water
pollution control administration, such grant shall be conditioned upon the munici-
pality complying with all of the requirements of said water pollution control admin-
istration; (2) no grant shall be made until the municipality has agreed to pay that
part of the total cost of the facility which is in excess of the applicable state and
federal grants; (3) the grant to each municipality shall equal thirty percent of the
cost of such facility, which cost shall be that cost which the federal water pollution
control administration uses or would use in making a federal grant, except that where
the commission has approved plans for a facility exceeding the requirements of the
federal act, the grant shall be thirty percent of the actual cost; (4) the state grant
under this section shall be paid to the municipality in partial payments similar to
the time schedule that such payments are or would be provided to the municipality
by the federal water pollution control administration; (5) no grant shall be made
unless the municipality assures the commission of the proper and efficient operation
and maintenance of the pollution abatement facility after construction; (6) no
grant shall be made unless the municipality has filed properly executed forms and
applications prescribed by the commission; (7) any municipality receiving state or
federal grants for pollution abatement facilities shall keep separate accounts by
project for the receipt and disposal of such eligible project funds.
Section 19. The commission may provide a grant of thirty percent to a municipality
for the cost of those projects which it determines to be essential to a storm and san-
itary sewer separation program when it finds that such project is primarily for the
separation of storm and sanitary sewage and will eliminate a substantial source of
pollution. The cost of the project used to determine the state grant in this section
shall not include any cost for the acquisition of land or any rights or interests
therein.
Section 20. If federal funds are not available to the municipality at the time of its
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scheduled construction of a pollution abatement facility, the commission shall ad-
vance to such municipality, in addition to the state contribution provided for in
section 18, that sum of money which would equal the amount of the federal grant,
provided the municipality shall agree that any federal contribution thereafter made
for the project shall be forwarded to the state as reimbursement for the funds ex-
pended under this section. Prior to advancing the federal share, the commission
shall require the municipality to agree in its project contract with the commission
to do all that is necessary to quality for the federal grant. The municipality shall
also agree to pay over to the commission any installment of a grant received from
the federal water pollution control administration on which the state has made an
advance under this section. Said monies received from the municipality shall be
deposited in a sinking fund which is hereby established for payment of the debt
service costs of bonds issued under section 25 of this act.
Section 21. If federal funds for contract plans and specifications for the construct-
ion of a pollution abatement facility are not available to the municipality at the
time of its scheduled planning, the commission shall advance to such municipality
a sum equal to seven per cent of the estimated construction cost, said amount to be
used by the municipality for the purpose of preparing contract plans and specifica-
tions; provided any remaining balance of the seven per cent advanced under the
section shall be applied to the cost of construction of the facility. The funds ad-
vanced to the municipality under this section shall be considered a part of the total
amount of the state grant provided for in section 18 of this act. Such facility shall
be constructed in accordance with a schedule of the commission and shall be in
conformance with an engineering report approved by the commission. Before ap-
proving the engineering report required in this section, and in section 7 of this act,
and as may be required under section 10 of this act, the commission shall, among
other factors, give due regard to whether such report is in conformance with its
applicable guidelines, whether such report makes adequate recommendations con-
cerning all existing and anticipated community discharges, whether such report
conforms with existing planning studies and whether satisfactory considerations have
been given to all regional problems outlined to the engineer in pre-report confer-
ence with the commission.
Section 22. If federal funds for an engineering report are not available, and the
schedule of the commission as provided for in section 7 of this act requires that a
municipality prepare such a report before July 1, 1968, and the commission finds
that the charter of such municipality does not authorize a reasonable method for
providing the required funds to proceed on such a report in time to accomplish its
completion as scheduled, the commission may advance funds to such municipality in
the amount necessary to provide such report, said funds to be used by the munici-
pality for the purpose of preparing such report. Any funds advanced to the munici-
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(Connecticut)
polity under this section shall be considered a part of the total amount of the state
grant provided for in section 18 of this act.
Section 23. The commission of agriculture and natural resources is designated as
the officer of the state to manage, administer and control funds appropriated by the
general assembly or authorized by the state bond commission to carry out the provi-
sions of this act. All grants made pursuant to this act shall be made only with the
advice and consent of the commissioner and no grant shall be made under this act if
such grant, together with all grants awarded prior thereto, exceeds the amount of
funds available therefor.
Section 24. The water resources commission is designated as the administrative
agency of the state, acting with the advice and consent of the commissioner of ag-
riculture and natural resources, to apply for and accept any funds or other aid and
to cooperate and enter into contracts and agreements with the federal government
relating to the planning, developing, maintaining and enforcing of the program to
provide clean water and pollution abatement of the waters of the state, or for any
other related purpose which the congress of the United States has authorized or may
authorize. The commission, with the advice and consent of the commissioner of
agriculture and natural resources, is authorized in the name of the state to make such
applications, sign such documents, give such assurances and do such other things as
are necessary to obtain such aid from or cooperate with the United States or any a-
gency thereof. The commission may, with the advice and consent of the commis-
sioner of agriculture and natural resources, enter into contracts and agreements
and cooperate with any other state agency, municipality, person or other state
when the same is necessary to carry out the provisions of this act. Such contracts
shall be subject to the approval of the attorney general as to form.
Section 25. (a) The state bond commission is empowered to authorize the issuance
of bonds of the state in one or more series in an aggregate principal amount not ex-
ceeding one hundred fifty million dollars. The proceeds of the sale of said bonds
shall be used for the making of advances and grants under sections 18 to 22, inclu-
sive, and 35 of this act and for the payment of expenses incurred by the department
of agriculture and natural resources in carrying out the provisions of this act which
are not otherwise provided for from the state general fund. Not more than one-half
of one per cent of said proceeds shall be used for the payment of such expenses.
Said bonds shall be issued in accordance with section 3-20 of the general statutes
and the full faith and credit of the state are pledged for the payment of the princi-
pal of and interest on said bonds as the same become due.
(b) All of said bonds shall be payable at such place or places as may be determined
by the treasurer pursuant to section 3-19 of the general statutes and shall bear such
131
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(Connecticut)
date or dates, mature at such time or times not exceeding twenty years from their
respective dates, bear interest at such rate or different or varying rates and payable
at such time or times, be in such denominations, be in such form with or without
interest coupons attached, carry such registration and transfer privileges, be pay-
able in such medium of payment and be subject to such terms of redemption with or
without premium as, irrespective of the provisions of section 3-20 of the general
statutes, may be provided in the determination authorizing the same or fixed in ac-
cordance therewith. Notwithstanding the provisions of said section 3-20, any of
said bonds may be sold to the United States or any agency or instrumentality thereof
in such manner and-on such terms as may be provided in the determination authoriz-
ing the same or fixed in accordance therewith.
Section 26. Any town may, by ordinance, establish a special taxing district for the
purpose of defraying, by taxes levied solely upon properties within such district,
any of the costs of acquisition or construction of a sewerage system in accordance
with the provisions of chapter 103 of the general statutes. Such special taxes shall
be based upon annual budget appropriations and estimates of receipts from special
benefit assessments and use charges levied with respect to such system approved by
such town for the special taxing district in the manner required for the adopting of
the annual budgets of such town and shall be included but shown separately in the
annual tax levies of such town. Such town may, from time to time, by ordinance,
alter the boundaries of such special taxing district. To meet any costs of acquisi-
tion or construction, including planning, of any such sewerage system the town may
issue its general or special obligation bonds in accordance with the laws applicable
thereto, the principal and interest on which shall be paid from the budgets of such
special taxing district. For the purposes of this section "town" means town, con-
solidated town and city and consolidated town and borough.
Section 27. Subsection (51) of section 12-81 of the 1965 supplement to the general
statutes is re pea led and the following is substituted in lieu thereof:
(Any structure, building, machinery or other equipment after July 1, 1965, con-
structed, installed and used primarily for the purpose of eliminating industrial
waste, or pollution of waters as defined in section 25-19. A certification by the
water resources commission that such structure, building, machinery or other equip-
ment is approved for the elimination of industrial waste or for water pollution con-
trol shall require the assessors of the town where such property is located to exempt
such property from taxation. This exemption shall not apply to any water company
as defined by section 16-1.) Structures and equipment acquired after July 1,
1965, for the treatment of industrial waste before the discharge thereof into any
waters of the state or into any sewerage system emptying into such waters, the pri-
mary purpose of which is the reduction, control or elimination of pollution of such
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(Connecticut)
waters, certified as approved for such purpose by the water resources commission.
For the purpose of this subsection "industrial waste" means any harmful thermal
effect or any liquid, gaseous or solid substance or combination thereof resulting
from any process of industry, manufacture, trade or business, or from the develop-
ment or recovery of any natural resource.
Section 28. Section 12-412 of the general statutes is amended by adding subdivi-
sion (u) as follows: Sales of and the storage, use or other consumption of tangible
personal property acquired for incorporation into facilities for the treatment of in-
dustrial waste before the discharge thereof into any waters of the state or into any
sewerage system emptying into such waters, the primary purpose of which is the re-
duction, control or elimination of pollution of such waters, certified as approved
for such purpose by the water resources commission. For the purposes of this sub-
division "industrial waste" means any harmful thermal effect or any liquid, gaseous
or solid substance or combination thereof resulting from any process of industry,
manufacture, trade or business or from the development or recovery of any natural
resource.
Section 29. There shall be allowed as a credit against the tax imposed by chapter
208 of the general statutes in any income year an amount equal to the product of
the tax rate imposed by section 12-214 of the 1965 supplement to the general stat-
utes for such income year multiplied by the amount of expenditures paid or incurred
during such income year for the construction, rebuilding, acquisition or expansion
of pollution abatement facilities, including the planning thereof, provided (a) such
credit shall be allowed only with respect to pollution abatement facilities approved
as such by the water resources commission, the construction, rebuilding, acquisition
or expansion of which was commenced after January 1, 1967; (b) the net income
for such income year and succeeding income years shall be computed without any
deductions for such expenditures or for depreciation of such facilities, except to
the extent the cost or other basis of such facilities may be attributable to factors
other than such expenditures or in case a credit is allowable pursuant to this section
for only a part of such expenditures, any deduction allowable under the federal in-
ternal revenue code for such expenditures or for depreciation of such facilities shall
be proportionately reduced in computing net income for the income year and all
succeeding income years; and (c) upon the sale or other disposition of such facilities
in any income year the gain or loss on such sale or other disposition shall be the
gain or loss which would have resulted if the cost or other basis of such facilities
had been reduced by straight line depreciation based on the useful life of such fa-
cilities, except that, if such sale or other disposition occurs within three years af-
ter the date such facilities were placed in operation, the basis of such facilities for
the purpose of determining gain or loss shall be zero.
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(Connecticut)
Section 30. In determining gross income subject to tax under chapter 213 of the
general statutes a taxpayer at its election may either deduct expenditures made or
incurred for the construction, rebuilding, acquisition or expansion of pollution
abatement facilities, including the planning thereof, in the income year in which
such expenditures were paid or incurred, or amortize such expenditures over a per-
iod of not more than five taxable years commencing with the year in which such
expenditures were paid or incurred, by deducting an equal portion thereof in each
income year during such period, provided no such deduction shall be allowed with
respect to expenditures made or incurred for pollution abatement facilities not ap-
proved as such by the water resources commission, or the construction, rebuilding,
acquisition or expansion of which was commenced prior to January 1, 1967.
Section 31. There shall be allowed as a credit against the tax imposed by chapter
211 of the general statutes in any tax year an amount equal to the product of the
tax rate imposed by section 12-258 of the 1965 supplement to the general statutes
for such tax year multiplied by the amount of expenditures paid or incurred during
such tax year for the construction, rebuilding, acquisition or expansion of pollution
abatement facilities, including the planning thereof, provided such credit shall be
allowed only with respect to pollution abatement facilities approved as such by the
water resources commission, the construction, rebuilding, acquisition or expansion
of which was commenced after January 1, 1967.
Section 32. There shall be allowed as a credit against the tax imposed by chapter
212 of the general statutes in any tax year an amount equal to the product of the
tax rate imposed by section 12-264 of the general statutes for such tax year multi-
plied by the amount of expenditures paid or incurred during such tax year for the
construction, rebuilding, acquisition or expansion of pollution abatement facilities,
including the planning thereof, provided such credit shall be allowed only with re-
spect to pollution abatement facilities approved as such by the water resources com-
mission, the construction, rebuilding, acquisition or expansion of which was com-
menced after January 1, 1967.
Section 33. Section 25-3a of the 1965 supplement to the general statutes is re-
pealed and the following is substituted in lieu thereof:
In all cases wherein the water resources commission is required to hold hearings,
public or otherwise, on any matter within its jurisdiction, said commission may hold
such hearing sitting as a body or may designate a subcommittee consisting of not
fewer than three members of said commission, or may designate a member of the
commission or a member of its staff to act as a hearing examiner, said subcommittee
or hearing examiner to hold such hearing, at the time and place designated by said
commission. When the'commission designates a subcommittee to hold the hearing,
-------
(Connecticut)
one member of said subcommittee shall be designated as chairman. The subcommit-
tee designated to hold such hearing shall be known as the hearing subcommittee.
The hearing subcommittee chairman for any hearing before the subcommittee, or
any member of the commission for any hearing before the commission, or the hear-
ing examiner, may issue subpoenas, administer oaths and cause the attendance of
witnesses and the production of evidence and testimony in any proceeding pending
before it. The subcommittee or the hearing examiner shall, after each hearing, file
with the commission a report including a finding of fact and recommendations. Af-
ter considering the report of the subcommittee or the hearing examiner and the tes-
timony of the hearing, the commission shall issue such order or permit as is appli-
cable to the particular proceeding.
Section 34. All order, directives or decisions of the water resources commission
which are in existence on the effective date of this act shall continue in force until
rescinded, amended or repealed by the commission.
Section 35. The commission shall make a grant to any municipality which, prior to
the effective date of this act, constructed, rebuilt, acquired or expanded a pollu-
tion abatement facility, which grant shall be thirty per cent of the principal amount
of bond or note obligations of such municipality, issued to finance such construct-
ion, rebuilding, acquisition or expansion and outstanding on said date, exclusive
of all interest costs and for which grant application is made on an application pre-
scribed by the commission. Such grant shall be paid in equal annual instalments at
least thirty days prior to the date the municipality is obligated to make payment on
such bonds or notes, provided any grant under this section shall be reduced by any
amount payable to such municipality under the provisions of section 18 of this act
for the same construction, rebuilding, acquisition or expansion project, such re-
duction to be prorated over the period remaining for the payment of such bonds or
notes.
Section 36. Sections 25-19 to 25-24, inclusive, of the general statutes, as amend-
ed, are repealed.
Section 37. This act shall take effect from its passage.
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Massachusetts
In Massachusetts, the "Clean Waters Act" is the statute that provides for the con-
trol of water pollution. It was first passed in 1966 and amended in 1967, 1968 and
1969.
The Act establishes a Water Pollution Control Division in the Department of Natural
Resources under the authority of the Water Resources Commission. The Division is
given the duty and responsibility to enhance the quality and value of the waters
and to establish programs for the prevention, control and abatement of water pollu-
tion in the Commonwealth.
In order to carry out its duty and responsibility, the Division has the following pow-
ers: to encourage the adoption and execution by users of the waters of the Common-
wealth, of plans for the prevention, control and abatement of water pollution; to
cooperate with the federal government, inter-state, or other states' agencies in
matters related to water quality control; to receive and dispense such funds as may
become available to it for the prevention, control and abatement of water pollu-
tion; to conduct a program of study and research and demonstration, either by it-
self or in cooperation with other agencies, relating to new and improved methods of
pollution abatement or water quality control; to adopt standards of water quality for
the waters of the Commonwealth and a plan for the implementation and enforcement
of such standards; to examine periodically the quality of waters in the Common-
wealth; to prepare and keep current comprehensive plans for the abatement of ex-
isting pollution and the prevention of further pollution; to arrange for personnel to
instruct employees of water pollution control facilities in the latest and most effi-
cient methods of water pollution control and the latest developments in the opera-
tion and maintenance of waste treatment facilities; to adopt, amend or repeal after
proper hearing from time to time, rules and regulations necessary for the proper ad-
ministration of the laws concerning water pollution and water quality control in the
Commonwealth; to require submission of reports and plans of treatment facility con-
struction or improvement; to inspect treatment facilities for compliance with plans
and permit conditions; and to use whatever methods it considers best and most ex-
pedient to remove any spillage, seepage or filtration of oil into waters of the
Commonwealth (A 10).
Before any person, municipality or special district can treat or discharge sewage
and/or industrial wastes; or construct facilities for the same purpose, he must ob-
tain a permit from the Director of the Division of Water Pollution Control, and such
permit shall be issued subject to such conditions as the Director "may deem neces-
sary to insure compliance with the standards established for the waters affected".
Any person owning, operating or building a water pollution abatement facility must
allow for inspection of such facility by agents of the Division, and allow the in-
spection of records and papers pertaining to the operation of a disposal system or
treatment works, providing such inspection does not allow access to confidential
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(Massachusetts)
Information such as secret formulas and economics of operation (A10).
For violation of permit regulations, for failure to allow inspection, and for causing
or contributing to conditions which contravene the standards adopted by the Divi-
sion of Water Pollution Control, the accused party must appear before the Division's
"Regulatory Review Board" and answer the charges brought against him (Al 1). If
this Board finds him guilty of the charges, he shall be fined one hundred dollars for
each separate offense. Each day of violation shall be considered a separate offense
(A 10). The Director of the Division is also empowered to issue such orders or take
such actions as he determines appropriate under the circumstances, to assure that
the matter complained of shall be corrected; however, such actions and orders shall
be subject to |ud?cial review (A 10).
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts has enacted four classifications and compiled
water quality criteria within each class for both fresh (Table Al) and salt (Table All)
waters.
TABLE Al. FRESH WATERS CLASSIFICATION
AND STANDARDS OF WATER QUALITY
Class A: Waters designated for use as public water supplies. Character uniformly
excellent.
Standards of Quality
Item Water Quality Criteria
1. Dissolved oxygen. Not less than 75% of saturation during at least
16 hours of any 24-hour period and not less
than 5 mg./l. at any time,
2. Sludge deposits-solid refuse- None allowable.
floating solids-oil-grease-
scum.
3. Color and turbidity. None other than of natural origin.
4. Coliform bacteria per Not to exceed an average value of 50 during
100 ml. anX monthly sampling period.
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Table Al (Cont'd.)
5. Taste and odor.
6. pH.
7. Allowable temperature
increase.
8. Chemical constituents
9. Radioactivity.
(Massachusetts)
None other than of natural origin.
As naturally occurs.
None other than of natural origin.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful or offensive to humans, or
harmful to animal, or aquatic life.
None other than that occurring from natural
phenomena.
Class B: Suitable for bathing and recreational purposes including water contact
sports. Acceptable for public water supply with appropriate treatment.
Suitable for agricultural, and certain industrial cooling and process uses;
excellent fish and wildlife habitat; excellent aesthetic value.
Item
!„ Dissolved oxygen.
2. Sludge deposits-solid refuse-
floating solids-oils-grease
scum.
30 Color and turbidity.
4. Coliform bacteria per
100ml.
5. Taste and odor.
Standards of Quality
Water Quality Criteria
Not less than 75% of saturation during at
least 16 hours of any 24-hour period and not
less than 5 mg./l. at any time.
None allowable.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class.
Not to exceed an average value of 1,000
during any monthly sampling period nor 2,400
in more than 20% of samples examined during
such period.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class
and none that would cause taste and odor in
edible fish.
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Table Al (Cont'd.)
6. PH.
7. Allowable temperature
increase.
8. Chemical constituents.
9. Radioactivity.
10. Total phosphate.
11. Ammonia.
12. Phenols.
(Massachusetts)
6.5 -8.0.
None except where the increase will not ex-
ceed the recommended limit on the most sen-
sitive receiving water use and in no case ex-
ceed 83 F in warm water fisheries and 68° F
in cold water fisheries, or in any case raise
the normal temperature of the receiving water
more than 4° F.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful or offensive to human, or
harmful to animal or aquatic life or any water
use specifically assigned to this class.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful to human, animal, or aquatic
life for the appropriate water use. None in
such concentrations which would result in
radio-nuclide concentrations in aquatic life
which exceed the recommended limits for
consumption by humans.
Not to exceed an average of 0.05 mg./l. as
P during any monthly sampling period.
Not to exceed an average of 0.5 mg./l. as
N during any monthly sampling period.
Shall not exceed .001 mg./l. at any time.
Class C: Suitable for recreational boating; habitat for wildlife and common food
and game fishes indigenous to the region; certain industrial cooling and
process uses; under some conditions acceptable for public water supply with
appropriate treatment. Suitable for irrigation of crops used for con-
sumption after cooking. Good aesthetic value.
Item
Standards of Quality
Water Quality Criteria
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Table A1 (Cont'd.)
(Massachusetts)
1. Dissolved oxygen.
2. Sludge deposits-so I id
refuse-floating solids-
oi Is-grease-scum.
3. Color and turbidity.
4. Col (form bacteria.
5. Taste and odor.
6. PH.
7. Allowable temperature
increase.
8. Chemical constituents.
9. Radioactivity.
Not less than 5 mg./l. during at least 16
hours of any 24-hour period nor less than
3 mg./l. at any time. For seasonal cold
water fisheries at least 5 mg./l. must be
maintained.
None allowable except those amounts that may
result from the discharge from waste treatment
facilities providing appropriate treatment.
None allowable in such concentrations that
would impair any usages specifically
assigned to this class.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class,
and none that would cause taste and odor to
edible fish.
6.0-8.5.
None except where the increase will not ex-
ceed the recommended limits on the most sen-
sitive receiving water use and in no case ex-
ceed 83° F in warm water fisheries, and 68° F
in cold water fisheries, or in any case raise
the normal temperature of the receiving water
more than 4° F.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful or offensive to human, or
harmful to animal or aquatic life or any water
use specifically assigned to this class.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful to human, animal, or aqua-
tic life for the appropriate water use. None
in such concentrations which would result in
radio-nuclide concentrations in aquatic life
140
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Table Al (Cont'd.)
10. Total phosphate.
11. Ammonia.
12. Phenols.
(Massachusetts)
which exceed the recommended limits for
consumption by humans.
Not to exceed an average of 0.05 mg./l.
as P during any monthly sampling period.
Not to exceed an average of 1.0 mg./l.
as N during any monthly sampling period.
Not to exceed an average of 0.002 mg./l
at any time.
Class D: Suitable for aesthetic enjoyment, power, navigation, and certain in-
dustrial cooling and process uses. Class D waters will be assigned only
where a higher water use class cannot be attained after all appropriate.
waste treatment methods are utilized.
Standards of Quality
|tem Specifications
Not less than 2 mg./l. at any time.
1. Dissolved oxygen.
2. Sludge deposits-solid
refuse-floating solids-
oils-grease-scum.
3. Color and turbidity.
4. Coliform bacteria.
5. Taste and odor.
6. pH.
None allowable except those amounts that
may result from the discharge from waste
treatment facilities providing appropriate
treatment.
None in such concentrations that would im-
pair any usages specifically assigned to this
class.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class.
6.0-9.0.
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Table Al (Cont'd.)
7. Allowable temperature
increase.
8. Chemical constituents.
9. Radioactivity.
(Massachusetts)
None except where the increase will not ex-
ceed the recommended limits on the most sen-
sitive receiving water use and in no case
exceed 90° F.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful to human, animal, or aquatic
life for the designated water use.
None in such concentrations or combinations
which would be harmful to human, animal or
aquatic life for the designated water use.
None in such concentrations which will result
in radio-nuclide concentrations in aquatic life
which exceed the recommended limits for con-
sumption by humans.
Source: A12, p. 2-7.
TABLE All. COASTAL AND MARINE WATERS
AND STANDARDS OF WATER QUALITY
Class SA: Suitable for any high quality water use including bathing and water
contact sports. Suitable for approved shellfish areas.
Item
1. Dissolved oxygen.
2. Sludge deposits-solid
refuse-floating solids-
oil-grease-scum.
3. Color and turbidity.
Standards of Quality
Water Quality Criteria
Not less than 6.5 mg./l. at any time.
None allowable.
None in such concentrations that will impair
any usages specifically assigned to this
class.
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Table All (Cont'd.)
(Massachusetts)
4. Coliform bacteria per
100ml.
5. Taste and odor.
6. PH.
7. Allowable temperature
increase.
8. Chemical constituents.
9. Radioactivity.
10. Total phosphate.
Ammonia.
Not to exceed a median value of 70 and not
more than 10% of the samples shall ordinarily
exceed 230 during any monthly sampling
period.
None allowable.
6.8 — 8.5.
None except where the increase will not ex-
ceed the recommended limits on the most
sensitive water use.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful to human, animal, or aquatic
life or which would make the waters unsafe or
unsuitable for fish or shellfish or their propa-
gation, impair the palatability of same, or
impair the waters for any other uses.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful to human, animal or aquatic
life for the designated water use. None in
such concentrations which would result in radi-
nuclide concentrations in aquatic life which
exceed the recommended limits for consump-
tion by humans.
Not to exceed an average of 0.07 mg./l. as
P during any monthly sampling period.
Not to exceed an average of 0.2 mg./l. as
N during any monthly sampling period.
Class SB: Suitable for bathing and recreational purposes including water contact
sports; industrial cooling; excellent fish habitat; good aesthetic value;
and suitable for certain shellfisheries with depuration.
(Restricted Shellfish Areas).
Standards of Quality
Item
Water Quality Criteria
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Table All (Cont'd)
1. Dissolved oxygen.
(Massachusetts)
Not less than 5.0 mg./l. at any time.
2. Sludge deposits-solid refuse- None allowable.
floating solids-oils-grease-
scum.
3. Color and turbidity.
4. Coliform bacteria per
100ml.
5. Taste and odor.
6. PH.
7. Allowable temperature
increase.
8. Chemical constituents.
9. Radioactivity.
10. Total phosphate.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class.
Not to exceed a median value of 700 and not
more than 2,300 in more than 10% of the sam-
ples during any monthly sampling period.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class
and none that would cause taste and odor in
edible fish or shellfish.
6.8 -8.5.
None except where the increase will not
exceed the recommended limits on the most
sensitive water use.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful to human, animal or aquatic
life or which would make the waters unsafe or
unsuitable for fish or shellfish or their propa-
gation, impair the palatability of same, or
impair the water for any other usage.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful to human, animal, or aquatic
life for the appropriate water use. None in
such concentrations which would result in
radio-nuclide concentrations in aquatic life
which exceed the recommended limits for
consumption by humans.
Not to exceed an average of 0.07 mg./l,, as
P during any monthly sampling period.
-------
Table All (Cont'd.)
11. Ammonia.
(Massachusetts)
Not to exceed an average of 0.2 mg./l. as
N during any monthly sampling period.
Class SC: Suitable for aesthetic enjoyment; for recreational boating; habitat for
wildlife and common food and game fishes indigenous to the region;
industrial cooling and process uses.
1.
Item
Dissolved oxygen.
2. Sludge deposits-solid
refuse-float ing solids-
oils-grease-scum.
3. Color and turbidity.
4. Coliform bacteria.
5. Taste and odor.
6. pH.
7. Allowable temperature
increase.
8. Chemical constituents.
Standards of Quality
Water Quality Criteria
Not less than 5 mg/1. during at least 16 hours
of any 24-hour period or less than 3 mg./l. at
any time.
None except that amount that may result from
the discharge from a waste treatment facility
providing appropriate treatment.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class
and none that would cause taste and odor in
edible fish or shellfish.
6.5 -8.5.
None except where the increase will not ex-
ceed the recommended limits on the most
sensitive water use.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful to human, animal or aquatic
life or which would make the waters unsafe or
unsuitable for fish or shellfish or their propa-
gation, impair the portability of same, or
impair the water for any other usage.
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Table All (Cont'd.) (Massachusetts)
9. Radioactivity. None in such concentrations which would be
harmful to human, animal or aquatic life for
the designated water use. None in such con-
centrations which would result in radio-nu-
clide concentrations in aquatic life which ex-
ceed the recommended limits for consumption
by humans.
10. Total phosphate. Not to exceed an average of 0.07 mg./l. as
P during any monthly sampling period.
11. Ammonia. Not to exceed an average of 1.0 mg./l. as
N during any monthly sampling period.
Source: A12. p. 9-12
The Division of Water Pollution Control requires that the wastes discharged to fresh
waters in the Commonwealth receive secondary treatment with disinfection or its in-
dustrial waste treatment equivalent, except when a higher degree of treatment is
required to meet water quality standards. Disinfection may be discontinued during
the period of October 1 to May 1, at the discretion of the Division. In the period
May 2 to September 30, the disinfection requirements are to be "equivalent to a
free and combined chlorine residual of at least 1.0 milligram per liter after 15 min-
utes contact time during peak hourly flow or maximum rate of pumpage " (A12).
For coastal and marine waters the appropriate treatment is that degree of treatment
with disinfection required for the receiving waters to meet their assigned classifi-
cation and water quality standards. As in fresh water disinfection, the Division
may grant permission to discontinue chlorination during the period of October 1 to
May 1. The required dosage of free and combined chlorine is the same as that re-
quired of effluents discharged to fresh waters (A 12).
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts exempts from local property taxes any equip-
ment or facility installed for the purpose of abating or preventing pollution of any
waters of the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth also allows for the accelerated
depreciation of capital investments used in approved waste treatment facilities on
state corporate taxes (A 13).
In Massachusetts, the textile industry is well spread throughout the state with a
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(Massachusetts)
large concentration in New Bedford. The firm sizes vary from small to very large.
At present there has been no extensive research on textile water waste problems in
Massachusetts; however, a recent article in a trade journal relates the closing of
two Massachusetts wool scouring mills as a result of a tough new stand against pol-
lution by the Division of Water Pollution (A 14). Both firms have had to close be-
cause their effluent discharges contravened the established standards of the receiv-
ing streams, and they could not afford the expense of building pre-treatment facil-
ities. Although firms located in large cities and towns probably discharge their ef-
fluents to municipal treatment facilities; firms which have previously been dumping
untreated or slightly treated effluents in the Commonwealth waters may find that
they too will have to close down or build expensive treatment facilities.
Rhode Island
The control of water pollution in the State of Rhode Island is governed by the
"Water Pollution Laws, Title 46, Chapter 12 of 1956" as amended in 1958, 1963
and 1966. The laws create a five member advisory Water Pollution Board, which
has the function of assisting the State Department of Health which the laws desig-
nate as the state water pollution control agency.
The Board's only function is to advise the Department of Health on matters concern-
ing water pollution, when asked to do so by the Department. The Department has
nine board powers it can exercise. They are: advise, consult and cooperate with
federal and other state agencies in matters that relate to the control of pollution;
accept and administer loans and grants; conduct studies, investigations, research
and demonstrations concerning water pollution problems; collect and disseminate
information from aforementioned studies, investigations, research and demonstra-
tions to persons requiring technical assistance in water waste disposal projects;
adopt, modify and repeal water classifications and standards; require the submission
of plans for the construction of new, or the modification of existing waste treatment
facilities and inspect such construction; consult the advisory board; and make, a-
mend and revoke pollution control rules and regulations (A13).
The state requires permits for the operation, construction or renovation of a waste
treatment facility. This permit must be obtained from the Director of the Rhode Is-
land Department of Public Health. The Department has a rule that prohibits the
approval of a permit for an individual waste treatment facility, "if a public sani-
tary sewer is reasonably accessible" to the premises (A 15).
The Department of Health requires a minimum B.O. D. and suspended solids removal
of 85 percent (by weight) unless dilution requirements demand higher removals.
Where dilution requirements are more than sufficient in estuarine waters, primary
147
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(Rhode Island)
treatment may be employed (A16).
The state also requires the disinfection of all waste effluents, that may contain or-
ganisms that could influence public health conditions, by chlorination. The De-
partment of Health requires one milligram per liter of chlorine added after 15 min-
utes detention time to secondary treatment facilities and two milligrams per liter of
chlorine for primary plants after the 15 minutes detention.
For the violation of permit regulations, for causing pollution or failure to treat ef-
fluents in the proper manner, the "Water Pollution Laws" of Rhode Island penalize
such persons a fine of five hundred dollars and/or 30 days in jail for each separate
offense. The Department of Health is to consider each day of continued violation
as a separate offense (A13).
The State of Rhode Island has instituted a set of classifications and water quality
criteria for each classification for both fresh (Table AMI) and salt (Table AIV)
Water.
TABLE AIM. FRESH WATER CLASSIFICATIONS
AND WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
Class A: Suitable for water supply and all other water uses; character uniformly
excellent. Waters in use for drinking water supply may be subject to
restricted use by state and local authorities.
Standards of Water Quality
1. Dissolved oxygen. 75% saturation, 16 hours/day
5 mg./l. at any time.
2. Sludge deposits-solid refuse- None allowable.
floating solids, oils, and
grease-scum.
3. Color and turbidity. None other than of natural origin.
4. Col if or m bacteria per 100 ml. Not to exceed a median of 100 per 100 ml.
nor more than 500 in more than 10% of
samples collected.
148
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Table AMI (Cont'd.)
5. Taste and odor.
6. pH.
7. Allowable temperature
increase.
8. Chemical constituents.
(Rhode Island)
None other than of natural origin.
As naturally occurs.
None other than of natural origin.
None in such concentrations or combinations
which would be harmful to human, animal, or
aquatic life. The limits prescribed by the
United States Public Health Service are to be
used as a guideline.
Class B: Suitable for bathing, other recreational purposes, agricultural uses, in-
dustrial processes and cooling; excellent fish and wildlife habitat; good
aesthetic value; acceptable for public water supply with appropriate
treatment.
Standards of Water Quality
1. Dissolved oxygen.
2. Sludge deposits-solid
refuse-floating solids, oils,
and grease-scum.
3. Color and turbidity.
75% saturation, 16 hours/day
5 mg./l. at any time.
None allowable.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class.
4. Coliform bacteria per 100 ml. Not to exceed a median of 1,000 per 100 ml.
nor more than 27400 in more than 20% of
samples collected.
5. Taste and odor.
6. pH.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this Class
nor cause taste and odor in edible fish.
6.5 -8.0.
149
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Table All I (Cont'd.) (Rhode Island)
7. Allowable temperature Only such increases that will not impair any
increase, usages specifically assigned to this Class. The
temperature increase shall not raise the temper-
ature of the receiving waters above 68° F for
waters supporting cold water fisheries and 83° F
for waters supporting a warm water fishery. In
no case shall the temperature of the receiving
water be raised more than 4° F.
8. Chemical constituents. None in such concentrations or combinations
which would be harmful to human, animal or
aquatic life. For public drinking water sup-
plies, the limits prescribed by the United
States Public Health Service are to be used as
a guideline. In areas where fisheries are the
governing considerations and approved limits
have not been established, bioassays shall be
performed as required by the Department of
Health.
Class C: Suitable for fish and wildlife habitat; recreational boating, and industri-
al processes and cooling; under some conditions acceptable for public
water supply with appropriate treatment; good aesthetic value.
Standards of Water Quality
1. Dissolved oxygen. 5 mg./l., 16 hours/day; not less than 3 mg./l.
at any time. For cold water fishery not less
than 5 mg./l. at any time.
2. Sludge deposits-solid None shall be allowed except for such small
refuse, floating solids,oils, amounts that may result from the discharge of
and grease-scum. appropriately treated sewage or industrial
waste effluents.
3. Color and turbidity. None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class.
4. Coliform bacteria None in such concentrations that would impair
per 100 ml. any usages specifically assigned to this class.
150
-------
Table All I (Cont'd.)
5. Taste and odor.
6. pH.
7. Allowable temperature
increase.
8. Chemical constituents.
(Rhode Island)
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this Class
nor cause taste and odor in edible fish.
6.0-8.5.
Only such increases that will not impair any
usages specifically assigned to this Class. The
temperature increase shall not raise the tem-
perature of the receiving waters above 68° F
for waters supporting cold water fisheries and
83° F for waters supporting a warm water fish-
ery. In no case shall the temperature of the
receiving water be raised more than 4° F.
None in such concentrations or combinations
which would be harmful to human, animal or
aquatic life. For public drinking water sup-
plies, the limits prescribed by the United
States Public Health service are to be used as
a guideline. In areas where fisheries are the
governing considerations and approved limits
have not been established, bio-assays shall be
performed as required by the Department of
Health.
Class D: Suitable for navigation, power, certain industrial processes and cooling,
and migration of fish; good aesthetic value. This class will be assigned
only where a higher water use class cannot be attained after all appro-
priate waste treatment methods are utilized.
Standards of Water Quality
1. Dissolved oxygen.
2. Sludge deposits-solid
refuse-floating solids, oils,
and grease-scum.
3. Color and turbidity.
A minimum of 2 mg./l. at any time.
None shall be allowed except for such small
amounts that may result from the discharge of
appropriately treated sewage or industrial
waste effluents.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this Class.
151
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Table All I (Cont'd.) (Rhode Island)
4. Coliform bacteria per TOO ml. None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this Class.
5. Taste and odor. None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this Class.
6. pH. 6.0-9.0.
7. Allowable temperature None except where the increase will not ex-
increase, ceed the recommended limits on the most sen-
sitive water use and in no case exceed 90° F.
8. Chemical constituents. None in such concentrations or combinations
which would be harmful to human, animal or
aquatic life.
Class E: Waters falling below the standards of quality of Class D shall receive
this classification and considered to be a nuisance and unsuitable for
most uses.
Source: A17 p. 2-6
TABLE AIV. SALT WATER CLASSIFICATIONS
AND WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
Class SA: Suitable for all sea water uses including shellfish harvesting for direct
human consumption (approved shellfish areas), bathing, and other
water contact sports.
Standards of Quality
1. Dissolved oxygen. Not less than 6.0 mg./l. at any time.
2. Sludge deposits-solid refuse- None allowable.
floating solids, oil, grease,
scum.
152
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Table A1V (Cont'd.)
3. Color and turbidity.
4. Coliform bacteria per
100ml.
5. Odor.
6. PH.
7. Allowable temperature
increase.
8. Chemical constituents.
9. Radioactivity.
(Rhode Island)
None in such concentrations that will impair
any usages specifically assigned to this Class.
Not to exceed a median MPN of 70 and not
more than 10% of the samples shall ordinarily
exceed an MPN of 230 for a 5-tube decimal
dilution of 330 for a 3-tube decimal dilution.
Samples shall be taken during periods when the
most unfavorable hydrographic and pollution
conditions prevail.
None allowable.
6.8 - 8.5.
None except where the increase will not ex-
ceed the recommended limits for the most
sensitive water use.
None in concentrations or combinations
which would be harmful to human, animal, or
aquatic life or which would make the waters
unsafe or unsuitable for fish or shellfish or
their propagation, impair the portability of
same, or impair the waters for any other uses.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful to human, animal or aquatic
life.
Class SB: Suitable for bathing, other recreational purposes, industrial cooling and
shellfish harvesting for human consumption after depuration (restricted
shellfish area); excellent fish and wildlife habitat; good aesthetic value.
1. Dissolved oxygen.
2. Sludge deposits-solid
refuse, floating solids-
oils, grease,scum.
Standards of Quality
Not less than 5.0 mg./l. at any time.
None allowable.
153
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Table AIV (Cont'd.)
3. Color and turbidity.
4. Coliform bacteria per
100ml.
5. Taste and odor.
6. PH.
7. Allowable temperature
increase.
8. Chemical constituents.
9. Radioactivity.
(Rhode Island)
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class.
Not to exceed a median value of 700/100 ml.
and not more than 27300 in more than 10 per-
cent of the samples. Samples should be taken
during periods when the most unfavorable hy-
drographic and pollution conditions prevail.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this Class
and none that would cause taste and odor in
edible fish or shellfish.
6.8 -8.5.
None except where the increase will not ex-
ceed the recommended limits on the most sen-
sitive water use assigned to this class.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful to human, animal, or aquatic
life or which would make the waters unsafe or
unsuitable for fish or shellfish or their propa-
gation, or impair the water for any other
usage assigned to this class.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful to human, animal or aquatic
life.
Class SC: Suitable for fish, shellfish, and wildlife habitat; suitable for recreational
boating, and industrial cooling; good aesthetic value.
1. Dissolved oxygen.
Standards of Quality
Not less than 5 mg./l. during at least 16
hours of any 24 hour period nor less than
3 mg./l. at any time.
2. Sludge deposits-solid refuse, None except that amount that may result from
154
-------
Table AIV (Cont'd.)
(Rhode Island)
2. (Cont'd.) f loaf ing sol ids-
oils,.grease, scum.
3. Color and turbidity.
4. Coif form bacteria.
5. Taste and odor.
6. pH.
7. Allowable temperature
increase.
8. Chemical constituents.
9. Radioactivity.
the discharge from a waste treatment facility
providing appropriate treatment.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class
and none that would cause taste and odor in
edible fish or shellfish.
6.5 -8.5.
None except where the increase will not ex-
ceed the recommended limits on the most sen-
sitive water use assigned to this class.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful to human, animal, or aquatic
life or which would make the waters unsafe or
unsuitable for fish or shellfish or their propaga-
tion, or impair the water for any other usage
assigned to this class.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful to human, animal or aquatic
I* r
ife.
Class SD: Suitable for navigation, industrial cooling and migration of fish; good
aesthetic value. This class will be assigned only where a higher water
use class cannot be attained after appropriate waste treatment methods
are utilized.
Standards of Quality
1. Dissolved oxygen. Not less than 2 mg./l. at any time.
2. Sludge deposits-solid refuse, None except that amount that may result from
155
-------
Table AIV (Conr'd.)
2. (Cont'd.) floating solids,
oils, grease, scum.
3. Color and turbidity.
4. Coliform bacteria.
5. Taste and odor.
6. pH.
7. Allowable temperature
increase.
8. Chemical constituents.
9. Radioactivity.
(Rhode Island)
the discharge from a waste treatment facility
providing appropriate treatment.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class.
None in such concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class
and none that would cause taste and odor in
edible fish or shellfish.
6.5 -8.5.
None except where the increase will not ex-
ceed the recommended limits on the most
sensitive water use.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful to human, animal, or aquatic
life or which would make the waters unsafe or
unsuitable for fish or shellfish or their propa-
gation, impair the palatability of same, or im-
pair the water for any other usage.
None in concentrations or combinations which
would be harmful to human, animal or aquatic
life.
Class SE: Water falling below the standards of quality of Class SD shall receive
this classification and considered to be a nuisance and unsuitable for
most uses.
Source: (A17, p. 9-12)
156
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(Rhode Island)
In Rhode Island, the textile industry is located throughout the state with a particu-
lar concentration in the towns of Woonsocket, Providence and West Warwick.
Most of the firms are located in towns of moderate or large size. The size of firms
varies from very large to small. No extensive study is available on the textile
water waste problems of the state; however, due to the Department of Health's
regulation prohibiting private treatment plants if sewers exist that are easily
accessible, a reasonable conclusion would be that the mills use municipal sewage
systems to dispose of their liquid wastes.
Middle Atlantic States
Three states (New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania) in the Middle Atlantic
region have large concentrations of textile water waste producing firms. New York
belongs to the New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission and has
adopted standards consistent with those of the Commission. There is little similarity
in the standards of these three states. The laws of these three states are presented
in the following order: New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania.
New Jersey
Chapter 210, Public Law 1899 as amended governs water pollution control efforts in
the State of New Jersey. Chapter 12 of Title 58 of the Revised Statutes of New
Jersey empowers the State Department of Health with complete control of effluent
discharge to state waters, setting of stream standards, classification of streams, is-
suance of disposal discharge permits and inspection of treatment facilities (A18).
Once a permit has been issued, any violation of its conditions of issuance or failure
to comply to state effluent standards can result in fines ranging from $100 to $2,500
per day depending on the seriousness of the violation. Court injunctions are usual-
ly the first form of state sanction in New Jersey. When pollution is first discovered,
the person or municipality guilty of the condition is served an injunction to cease
Polluting practices. If the party fails to comply with the injunction, then the State
Attorney General is empowered to impose said fines.
The Department of Health employs civil and sanitary engineers who can be used as
consultants to municipalities and industrial firms for guidance, direction and infor-
mation. The State also allows for exemption from all real and personal property
taxes equipment and facilities used for water pollution control provided they do not
lead to the recovery of by-products sold to obtain profits.
The waterways in New Jersey are divided into three broad groups; non-tidal fresh
157
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(New Jersey)
water, tidal surface waters, and coastal waters. Within each group are a number
of classifications - three for fresh surface water (F. W.)/ three for tidal waters
(T.W.), and two for the coastal waters (C.W.). Table AV lists the Classification
and Standards Quality for the State of New Jersey.
TABLE AV. CLASSIFICATION AND STANDARD OF QUALITY
FOR NEW JERSEY STATE SURFACE WATERS
Class F.W.-l
Definition:
Criteria:
Class F.W.-2
Definition:
2.
Criteria:
Conditions
Fresh surface waters designated by authorized state agencies
as being set aside for posterity to represent the natural aqua-
tic environment and its associated biota.
These waters shall be maintained, as to quality, in their
natural state.
Fresh surface waters approved as sources of public potable
water supply. These waters are to be suitable for public
potable water supply after such treatment as shall be re-
quired by the State Department of Health. These waters
shall be suitable also for all recreational purposes includ-
ing fishing, the propagation and migration of native fish
species desired for angling and other fish and aquatic life
necessary thereto as well as any other reasonable uses.
Floating solids, settable solids,
oil, grease, artificial coloring
matter and turbidity.
Toxic or deleterious substances
(including mineral acids, caustic
alkali, cyanides, heavy metals,
carbon dioxide, ammonia or
ammonium compounds, chlorine,
etc.
Allowable Limits
- None of which are noticeable in the
water or are deposited along the shore
or on the aquatic substrata in quantities
detrimental to the natural biota.
- None of which would effect humans or
be detrimental to the natural aquatic
biota.
158
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Table AV (Cont'd)
(New Jersey)
3. Odor and taste producing
substances.
4. PH.
5. Dissolved oxygen.
6. Thermal discharges
None of which are offensive to humans,
detrimental to the aquatic biota or cap-
able of producing offensive tastes and/
or odors in water supplies and fauna us-
ed for human consumption.
Between 6.5 and 8.5 unless naturally
outside thereof.
Not less than 5.0 p.p.m for trout
waters; otherwise 4.0 p.p.m.
None of which detrimentally affect the
natural aquatic biota, or reasonable
anticipated reuse of the waters.
Class F.W.3
1.
2.
Definition:
Criteria:
Conditions
Fresh surface waters suitable for all purposes provided for under
Class F.W.-2 except public potable water supply.
Floating solids, settleable solids,
oil, grease, and turbidity.
Toxic or deleterious substances
(including mineral acids, caustic
alkali, cyanides, heavy metals,
carbon dioxide, ammonia or
ammonium compounds, chlorine,
etc.
3. Color, odor and taste producing
substances.
Allowable Limits
None of which are noticeable in the
water or are deposited along the shore
or on the aquatic substrata in quanti-
ties detrimental to the natural biota.
None of which would affect humans or
be detrimental to the natural aquatic
biota.
None of which are offensive to humans,
detrimental to the aquatic biota or cap-
able of producing offensive tastes and/
or odors in fauna used for human
consumption.
159
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Table AV (Cont'd.)
(New Jersey)
4. pH.
5. Dissolved oxygen.
6. Thermal discharges.
- Between 6.5 and 8.5 unless naturally
outside thereof.
- Not less than 5.0 p.p.m. for trout
waters; otherwise 4.0 p.p.m.
- None of which detrimentally affect the
natural aquatic biota, or reasonable
anticipated reuse of the waters.
Class T.W.-l
Definition: Tidal surface waters suitable for all recreational purposes, as a
source of public potable water supply where permitted, and,
where shellfishing is permitted, to be suitable for such purposes.
Criteria:
Conditions
1. Floating solids, setfleable solids,
oil, grease, sleek and turbidity.
2. Toxic or deleterious substances
(including mineral acids, caustic
alkali, cyanides, heavy metals,
carbon dioxide, ammonia or
ammonium compounds, chlorine,
etc.).
3. Color, odor and taste producing
substances.
4. pH.
5. Dissolved oxygen.
Allowable Limits
None of which are noticeable in the
water or are deposited along the shore
or on the aquatic substrata in quanti-
ties detrimental to the natural biota.
None of which would affect humans or
be detrimental to the natural aquatic
biota.
- None of which are offensive to humans,
detrimental to the aquatic biota or cap-
able of producing offensive tastes and/
or odors in water supplies and fauna
used for human consumption.
- Between 6.5 and 8.5 unless naturally
outside thereof.
- Not less than 50% of saturation.
160
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Table AV (Cont'd.)
6. Thermal discharges.
7. Coliform bacteria.
(New Jersey)
- None of which detrimentally affectthe
natural aquatic biota, or reasonably
anticipated reuse of the waters.
- The median MPN value in shellfish
growing areas shall not be in excess of
70 per lOOmilliliters.
ClassT.W.-2
Definition:
Criteria:
Conditions
Tidal surface waters having limited recreational value and ordi-
narily not acceptable for bathing but suitable for fish survival
although perhaps not suitable for fish propagation. These waters
shall not be an odor nuisance and shall not cause damage to
pleasure craft having occasion to traverse the waters.
1. Floating solids, oil and grease.
2. Toxic and deleterious substances.
3. Taste and odor-producing
substances.
4. pH.
5. Dissolved oxygen.
6. Thermal discharges.
Allowable Limits
- None of which are noticeable in the
water or contribute to the formation of
sludge along the shores.
- None in such concentrations as to
cause fish mortality or inhibit their
natural migration.
- None, either alone or in combination,
which are offensive or that would pro-
duce offensive tastes and/or odors in
fauna used for human consumption.
- Between 6.5 and 8.5 unless naturally
outside thereof.
- Not less than 50% saturation.
- None which detrimentally affect
reasonable anticipated reuse of the
waters.
161
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Table AV (Cont'd.)
(New Jersey)
ClassT.W.-3
Definition:
Criteria:
Conditions
Tidal surface waters used primarily for navigation, not recrea-
tion. These waters, although not expected to be used for fish-
ing, shall provide for fish survival. These waters shall not be
an odor nuisance and shall not cause damage to pleasure craft
traversing them.
1. Floating solids, settleable solids,
oil and grease.
2. Toxic and deleterious substances.
3. Taste and odor producing
substances.
4. pH.
5. Dissolved oxygen.
Allowable Limits
None of which are noticeable in the
water or contribute to the formation of
sludge deposits along the shores.
None in such concentrations as to
cause fish mortality or inhibit their
natural migration.
None of which shall be offensive or
that would detrimentally affect finfish,
shellfish or other aquatic life in higher
quality waters.
Between 6.5 and 8.5 unless naturally
outside thereof.
Not less than 30% of saturation or
3.0 p.p.m., whichever is less.
Class C.W.-l
Definition:
Criteria:
Conditions
Atlantic Ocean waters within 1500 feet from mean low tide or to
a depth of 15 feet, whichever is more distant from the mean low
tide line, and expected to be suitable for all recreational pur-
poses including fishing, the propagation and migration of native
fish species desired for angling and other fish and aquatic life
necessary thereto as well as any other reasonable use.
Allowable Limits
162
-------
Table AV (Cont'd.)
(New Jersey)
1. Floating solids, settleable solids, - None of which are noticeable in the
oil, grease and turbidity.
water or contribute to the formation of
sludge deposits along the shores.
2. Toxic and deleterious substances. - None of which would affect humans or
be detrimental to the natural aquatic
biota.
3. Color, taste and odor producing
substances.
4. pH.
5. Dissolved oxygen.
6. Thermal discharges.
- None of which are offensive to humans,
capable of producing offensive tastes
and/or odors in fauna used for human
consumption.
- Between 6.5 and 8.5 unless naturally
outside thereof.
- Not less than 50% saturation.
- None which detrimentally affect the
natural aquatic biota.
ClassC.W.-2
Definition: Atlantic Ocean waters out to the three (3) mile limit, expected
to be suitable for all recreational uses, including those in
Class C.W.-1, except bathing.
Criteria:
Conditions
1. Floating solids, settleable solids,
oil, grease and turbidity.
Allowable Limits
- None of which are noticeable in the
water or contribute to the formation of
sludge deposits along the shores.
2. Toxic and deleterious substances. - None of which would affect humans or
3. Color.
be detrimental to the natural aquatic
biota.
- None which would impair the quality
of C.W.-1 water or be detrimental to
aquatic biota.
163
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Table AV (Cont'd.) (New Jersey)
4. Taste and odor producing - None of which are offensive to humans,
substances. or capable of producing tastes and/or
odors in fauna used for human con-
sumption.
5. Dissolved oxygen. - Not less than 50% saturation.
6. Thermal discharges - None which detrimentally affect the
natural aquatic biota.
Source: A19
There are seven river basins in New Jersey; the Delaware, Hackensack, Passaic,
Wallkill, Atlantic Coastal Plain, and the Hudson River Basin including Arthur Kill
and its tributaries. The Department of Health has set up specific "regulations con-
cerning treatment of waste waters, domestic and industrial, separately or in combi-
nation" for the first six areas. The regulations for the seventh are still under con-
sideration, due to its being affected by New York state waters a joint resolution
will probably be passed.
The Department of Health's engineers use the above criteria to classify the state's
streams. When the classification of a basin's surface waters is complete, the De-
partment studies the waters' present condition, and based on the desired conditions
passes the specific regulations for the particular basin. Each of the six basins that
have specific regulations have been passed by the state legislature as separate bills.
Two provisions are the same for each bill:
1) "It is recognized, especially in connection with some industrial
wastes, that the pollution load imposed upon the waters of the
basin cannot be evaluated fully exclusively by the biochemical
oxygen demand test; therefore, each industrial waste problem
shall be considered individually and treatment shall be required
as needed to effect compliance with the Water Quality Standards
established for the various classifications of waters in the basin.
2) Treatment standards set by these regulations are the minimum
acceptable for the basin. Treatment more intense than that
specified herein above shall be provided whenever it is deter-
mined by the State Department of Health that such treatment
is necessary." (A 19)
164
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(New Jersey)
The specific regulations covering treatment of waste waters discharged to the
Delaware River Basin are:
"Henceforth, industrial wastes (separately or in combination with
domestic wastes), prior to discharge into waters of the Delaware
River Basin classified as F.W.-2, F.W.-3, T.W.-l and T.W.-2,
shall be treated to a degree providing, a* a minimum, ninety per-
cent (90%) of reduction of biochemical oxygen demand at all
times and such further reduction of biochemical oxygen demand as
may be necessary to maintain the receiving waters, after reasonable
effluent dispersion, as specified in the regulations entitled 'Regu-
lations Concerning Classification of the Surface Waters of the Del-
aware River Basin, Being Waters of the State of New Jersey1, ef-
fective July 28, 1967; it is an objective of this regulation that
the biochemical oxygen demand of effluents discharged shall not
exceed twenty-five (25) parts per million." (A20)
The specific regulations of the waste water treatment required for surface waters in
the Hackensack River Basin are:
"Henceforth, industrial wastes (separately or in combination with
domestic wastes), prior to discharge into waters of the Hackensack
River Basin, classified as F.W.-2, F.W.-3 or T.W.-l shall be
treated to a degree providing, as a minimum, ninety percent (90%)
of reduction of biochemical oxygen demand at ail times and such
further reduction in biochemical oxygen demand as may be necessary
to maintain water in the River after dispersion of treated industrial
waste effluents as specified in the rules and regulations entitled
'Regulations Concerning Classification of the Surface Waters of the
Hackensack River Basin1, effective March 1, 1966; it is the ob-
jective of this regulation that the biochemical oxygen demand of
effluents discharged shall not exceed twenty-five (25) parts per
million.
Henceforth, industrial wastes prior to discharge into waters of the
Hackensack River Basin classified as T.W.-2 or T.W.-3, shall be
treated to a degree providing, as a minimum, eighty percent (80%)
of reduction of biochemical oxygen demand at all times and such
further reduction of biochemical oxygen demand as may be neces-
sary in order to maintain the waters of the river of a quality as spec-
ified by the rules and regulations entitled 'Classification of the
Surface Waters of the Hackensack River Basin', effective March 1,
'966; it is the objective of this regulation that the biochemical
165
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(New Jersey)
ox/gen demand of effluents discharged shall not exceed 50 parrs
per million." (A21)
The Passaic River Basin and Newark Bay are governed by the following regulations:
"Henceforth, industrial wastes (separately or in combination), prior
to discharge into the waters of the Passaic River Basin, classified as
F. W.-2, or F.W.-3, shall be treated to a degree providing, as a
minimum, ninety percent (90%) of reduction of biochemical oxygen
demand at all times and such further reduction in the biochemical
oxygen demand as may be necessary to maintain water in the river
after dispersion of treated industrial waste effluents as specified in
the rules and regulations entitled 'Regulations Concerning Classifi-
cation of the Surface Waters of the Passaic River Basin1, effective
September 11, 1966; it is the objective of this regulation that the
biochemical oxygen demand of effluents discharged shall not exceed
twenty-five (25) parts per million.
Henceforth, industrial wastes (separately or in combination with do-
mestic wastes), prior to discharge into the waters of the Passaic River
Basin, classified as T.W.-2 or T0W.-3, shall be treated to a degree
providing, as a minimum, eighty percent (80%) of reduction of bio-
chemical oxygen demand at all times, and such further reduction of
biochemical oxygen demand as may be necessary in order to maintain
the waters of the River of a quality as specified by the rules and regu-
lations entitled 'Classification of the Surface Waters of the Passaic
River Basin1, effective September 11, 1966; it is the objective of this
regulation that the biochemical oxygen demand of effluents discharged
shall not exceed fifty (50) parts per million." (A22)
The following regulations apply to the Raritan River Basin, including Raritan Bay:
"Henceforth, industrial wastes (separately or in combination with do-
mestic wastes), prior to discharge into waters of the Raritan River Basin,
classified as F.W.-2 or F.W.-3, shall be treated to a degree providing
as a minimum, ninety percent (90%) of reduction of biochemical oxygen
demand at all times and such further reduction in biochemical oxygen
demand as may be necessary to maintain water in the river after disper-
sion of treated industrial waste effluents as specified in the rules and
regulations entitled 'Classification of the Surface Waters of the Raritan
River Basin including Raritan Bay1, effective April 15, 1965.
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(New Jersey)
Henceforth, industrial wastes prior to discharge into waters of the
Raritan River Basin, classified as T.W.-1, shall be treated to a
degree providing, as a minimum, eighty percent (80%) of reduct-
ion of biochemical oxygen demand at all times and such further re-
duction of biochemical oxygen demand as may be necessary in order
to maintain the waters of the river of a quality as specified by the
rules and regulations entitled 'Classification of the Surface Waters
of the Raritan River Basin including Raritan Bay1, effective
April 15, 1965." (A23)
The Wallkill River Basin is covered by the following regulation:
"Henceforth, industrial wastes (separately or in combination with
domestic wastes), prior to discharge into waters of the Wallkill River
Basin, classified as F. W.-2 or F.W.-3, shall be treated to a degree
providing, as a minimum, ninety-five percent (95%) of reduction of
biochemicaFoxygen demand at all times and such further reduction
in biochemical oxygen demand as may be necessary to maintain the
receiving waters, after reasonable effluent dispersion, as specified
in the rules and regulations entitled 'Regulations Concerning Clas-
sification of the Surface Waters of the Wallkill River Basin1, effect-
ive July 28, 1967; it is an objective of this regulation that the bio-
chemical oxygen demand of effluents discharged shall not exceed
fifteen (15) parts per million." (A24)
New Jersey is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean and her east coast is considered as
the Atlantic Coastal Plain - here are its discharge regulations:
"Henceforth, industrial wastes (individually or combined with do-
mestic waste), prior to discharge into waters of the Atlantic Coastal
Plain, classified as F.W.-2, F.W.-3, or T.W.-l, shall be treated
to a degree providing, as a minimum, ninety-five percent (95%) of
reduction of biochemical" oxygen demand at all times and such further
reduction in biochemical oxygen demand as may be necessary to main-
tain receiving waters, after reasonable effluent dispersion, as specified
in the rules and regulations entitled 'Regulations Concerning Classifi-
cation of the Surface Waters of the Atlantic Coastal Plain1, effective
May 24, 1967; it is an objective of this regulation that the biochemical
oxygen demand of effluents discharged shall not exceed fifteen (15)
parts per million.
Henceforth, industrial wastes prior to discharge into waters of the
16?
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(New Jersey)
Atlantic Coastal Plain, classified as C.W.-1 and C.W. -2, shall be
treated to a degree providing, as a_ minimum, eighty-five percent
(85%) of reduction of biochemical oxygen demand at all times and
such further reduction of biochemical oxygen demand as may be
necessary in order to maintain the receiving waters in a quality as
specified by the rules and regulations entitled 'Classification of the
Surface Waters of the Atlantic Coastal Plain1, effective May 24,
1967." (A25)
The bulk of New Jersey's Textile Industry is located in the highly industrialized
northeastern section of Newark, Paterson, Passaic, Hackensack, Elizabeth City
and Jersey City. Most are small (100 employees or less) and use municipal sewers
for discharge of effluent. Due to the highly concentrated industry in this area, it
is hard to isolate textile wastes, which would lessen the possibility of fines and
penalties being administered to individual firms. However, with New Jersey's
stipulation for a fixed amount of both percentage removal by weight and volume
(parts per million) of B.O. D. allowed in the final effluent, increased control of
final discharges will become necessary. It might be well worth their while for New
Jersey firms to investigate if pretreatment or full treatment on their effluents will
reduce the pollutional load on receiving streams. With tax incentives, they maybe
able to reduce their sewerage charges and also perform a value service to humanity.
New York
Article 12 of the State Public Health Law is the legislative act that controls water
pollution in New York State. The public policy of New York as declared by this
act is:
"to maintain reasonable standards of purity of the waters of the state
consistent with public health and public enjoyment thereof, the prop-
agation and protection of fish and wildlife, including birds, mammals
and other terrestrial and aquatic life, and the industrial development
of the state, and to that end require the use of all known available
and reasonable methods to prevent and control the pollution of the
waters of the state" (A26).
As of 1961, the duties, powers, authority and functions of water pollution control
are vested in the Water Resources Commission under the authority of the State De-
partment of Health. Under this article, the Commissioner of the Department of
Health is authorized to: hold public hearings with respect to alleged violations of
the pollution control laws; make, modify or cancel orders requiring the discontin-
uance of the discharge of wastes into state waters and specifying the conditions and
168
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(New York)
time within which such discontinuance must be accomplished; cause to be instituted
in a court of competent furisdiction proceedings to compel compliance with the
provisions of the article or his orders; issue, continue, deny, revoke or modify
permits for the discharge of wastes, or the installation or operation of disposal sys-
tems; and perform such other acts as he may deem necessary and proper to carry out
the duties prescribed to him by the article (A26).
The Water Resources Commission has the duty and responsibility to: adopt, amend
or cancel such administrative rules and regulations as may be necessary to carry out
the provisions of the Article; encourage voluntary cooperation by all persons in pre-
venting the abating pollution of state waters; encourage the formulation and execu-
tion of plans by cooperative groups or associations of municipalities, industries,
etc., who are or may be the sources of pollution in the same waters, for the preven-
tion and abatement of pollution; cooperate with the appropriate agencies of the
United States or other states, or interstate commissions in respect to pollution con-
trol matters; conduct studies and research with respect to pollution abatement or
control problems; prepare and develop a general comprehensive plan for the abate-
ment of existing pollution and the prevention of new pollution; serve as the agency
of the state for the receipt of moneys from the federal government, public or private
agencies and to expend said moneys for the purpose of pollution control; require the
submission of plans for disposal system construction or reconstruction and to inspect
the construction for compliance with approved plans, esiablish water classification
standards; and establish a water quality surveillance network to meet the needs of
the state (A26).
The Article has two broad statements of prohibition. It is unlawful for any person
to discharge, directly or indirectly, into the waters of the state organic or inorgan-
ic matter "that shall cause or contribute to a condition in contravention of the
standards adopted by the Water Resources Commission (A). It is also unlawful for
any person to make or use a new outlet for the disposal of wastes to waters of the
State, to operate or construct disposal systems, or to modify the content of the
wastes discharged through permitted outlets, without a valid permit (A26).
For the discharge of all waste effluents, except sanitary sewage, to State waters,
efficient removal (75 - 95 percent) of 5-day B. O. D. and suspended solids is re-
quired (A27). When plans are submitted to the water resources board for construct-
ion of new, or renovation of existing treatment facilities, a description of the waste
characteristics and components is required. The biologists in the Conservation De-
partment study each description individually and if it is felt that any of the compo-
nents would have a detrimental effect on the receiving stream's biota, then the
concentration of such components in the waste stream must be limited to the amounts
prescribed by such individual study (A28).
169
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(New York)
The State of New York offers two types of tax advantages as incentives for indus-
trial firms to construct their own waste treatment facilities. An income deduction
from the State Corporate Income Tax, during the year money is spent, of the cost of
wastewater treatment facilities; and an exemption from local taxes and special ad
valorem levies for said facilities (A29). These tax advantages are applicable to the
following industrial waste water facilities.
"(1) facilities from a point immediately preceding the treatment,
neutralization or stabilization device or devices to the point
of discharge to the waters of the State, or to a municipal
sewer system;
(2) facilities whose primary purpose is pollution abatement even
though they may salvage marketable materials;
(3) pretreatment devices which produce an effluent that is in
conformance with a municipal sewer use ordinance;
(4) for purposes of State Corporate Income Tax deductions,
facilities and pretreatment devices, the construction, re-
construction, erection or improvement of which is initiated
on or after January 1, 1965, and only for expenditures paid
or incurred prior to January 1, 1972.
(5) for purposes of Real Property Tax exemptions, facilities and
pretreatment devices which were constructed or reconstructed
subsequent to May 12, 1965 and prior to March 31, 1972.
(A30).
The following facilities are ineligible for tax advantages:
"(1) facilities that rely solely upon dilution, dispersion or assim-
ilation of pollutants in the receiving waters;
(2) holding tanks or similar structures unless followed by treatment,
neutralization or stabilization;
(3) facilities whose primary purposes are salvage of materials
which are usable in the manufacturing process or are marketable;
(4) collection systems including pumping and transmitting facilities
preceding the point of treatment, neutralization or stabilization.
(A30)"
170
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(New York)
In order to benefit from these tax deductions, the eligible facilities must possess a
certificate compliance. These certificates of compliance are issued by the Depart-
ment of Health, after the inspection of said facilities proves they are in compliance
with the provisions of Article 12, the State Sanitary Code, and regulations, permits
or orders issued by the Commissioner of the Department of Health. In the case of
pretreatment facilities, the department requires confirmation from the chief admin-
istrator of the municipal system to which the industrial effluent is discharged to de-
termine that such facilities were installed pursuant to his approval and that such
facilities are producing an effluent which is in conformance with the municipal
sewer use ordinance (A30).
For the violation of any provision of Article 12, the discharge of wastes that con-
travene the standards established by any waters of the state, violation of permit
regulations, or the improper operation and maintenance of an approved treatment
facility, a person will be served an order to appear at a public hearing before the
Commissioner of the Department of Health to answer the charges brought against
him. Based on the evidence of such hearing, the Commissioner will give written
notice to the alleged violator requiring that the matters complained of be corrected.
In the case of a violation that constitutes danger to the health of the people, the
Commissioner is authorized to compel the correction of such violation immediately
(A26).
For refusing to appear at the above mentioned hearing, or refusing to comply with
the written notice from the Commissioner, the Attorney General of the State is em-
powered to take the alleged violator into a court to face legal proceedings. If
convicted, said person shall be guilty of misdemeanor and be fined not less than
one hundred dollars, nor more than five hundred dollars and/or imprisoned for a
term of not more than one year for each separate violation. Each day of continued
violation shall constitute a separate violation (A26). If the alleged violator also
possesses a certificate of compliance for tax deduction incentives, the certificate
of compliance shall be revoked (A30).
The State of New York has an elaborate set of stream classifications and standards.
Table AVI lists the fresh water standards, Table AVII the salt water classifications,
and Table AVIII is a compilation of special standards.
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(New York)
TABLE AVI. CLASSES AND STANDARDS FOR FRESH WATERS
Class AA
Best Usage of Waters: Source of water supply for drinking, culinary or
food processing purposes and any other usages.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: The waters, if subjected to approved
disinfection treatment, with additional treatment if necessary to
remove naturally present impurities, meet or will meet U. S. Public
Health Service drinking water standards and are or will be consider-
ed safe and satisfactory for drinking water purposes.
Quality Standards
Items
1. Floating solids, settleable solids;
oil; sludge deposits; tastes or
odor producing substances.
2. Sewage or wastes effluents.
3. pH.
4. Dissolved oxygen.
5. Toxic wastes, deleterious
substances, colored or other
wastes or heated liquids.
Specifications
6. Organisms of coliform group.
None attributable to sewage, indus-
trial wastes or other wastes.
None which are not effectively
disinfected.
Range between 6.5 and 8.5.
For trout waters, not less than 5.0
parts per million; for non-trout waters,
not less than 4.0 parts per million.
None alone or in combination with
other substances or wastes in sufficient
amounts or at such temperatures as to
be injurious to fish life, make the wa-
ters unsafe or unsuitable as a source of
water supply for drinking, culinary or
food processing purposes or impair the
waters for any other best usage as de-
termined for the specific waters which
are assigned to this class.
Monthly median coliform value shall
172
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Table AVI (Cont'd)
(New York)
60 (Cont'd.) Organisms of
coliform group.
not exceed 50/100 ml. from a mini-
mum of five examinations and not more
than 20 percent of the samples shall
exceed a coliform value of 240/100
ml.
NOTE 1: In determining the safety or suitability of waters in this class for use as a
source of water supply for drinking, culinary or food processing purposes
after approved treatment, the Water Pollution Control Board will be
guided by the standards specified in the latest edition of Public Health
Service Drinking Water Standards published by the United States Public
Health Service.
NOTE 2: With reference to certain toxic substances as affecting fish life, the es-
tablishment of any single numerical standard for waters of New York
State would be too restrictive. There are many waters, which because
of poor buffering capacity and composition will require special study to
determine safe concentrations of toxic substances. However, based on
non-trout waters of approximately median alkalinity (80 p.p.m.) or
above for the state, in which groups most of the waters near industrial
areas in this state will fall, and without considering increased or de-
creased toxicity from possible combinations, the following may be con-
sidered as safe stream concentrations for certain substances to comply
with the above standard for this type of water. Waters of lower alkalin-
ity must be specially considered since the toxic effect of most pollutants
will be greatly increased.
Ammonia or Ammonium
Compounds
Cyanide
Ferro-or Ferricyanide
Copper
Zinc
Not greater than 2.0 parts per million
(NH3) at pH of 8.0 or above.
Not greater than 0.1 part per million
(CN).
Not greater than 0.4 parts per million
(Fe(CN)6).
Not greater than 0.2 parts per million
(CU).
Not greater than 0.3 parts per million
(Zn).
173
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Table AVI (Cont'd.)
Cadmium
(New York)
Not greater than 0.3 parts per million
(Cd).
Class A
Best Usage of Waters: Source of water supply for drinking, culinary or food
processing purposes and any other usages.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: The waters, if subjected to approved
treatment equal to coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfect-
ion, with additional treatment if necessary to reduce naturally present
impurities, meet or will meet U. S. Public Health Service drinking
water standards and are or will be considered safe and satisfactory for
drinking water purposes.
Quality Standards
Items
Specifications
1.
Floating solids; settleable solids;
sludge deposits.
2. Sewage or waste effluents.
3. Odor producing substances con-
tained in sewage, industrial
wastes or other wastes.
4. Phenolic compounds.
5. PH.
6. Dissolved oxygen.
None which are readily visible and at-
tributable to sewage, industrial wastes
or other wastes or which deleteriously
increase the amounts of these constitu-
ents in receiving waters after opportun-
ity for reasonable dilution and mixture
with the wastes discharged thereto.
None which are not effectively
disinfected.
The waters after opportunity for reason-
able dilution and mixture with the wastes
discharged thereto shall not have an in-
creased threshold odor number greater
than 8, due to such added wastes.
Not greater than 5 parts per billion
(Phenol).
Range between 6.5 and 8.5.
For trout waters, not less than 5.0 parts
174
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Table AVI (Cont'd.)
(New York)
6.
7.
(Cont'd.) Dissolved
oxygen.
Toxic wastes, oil, deleterious
substances, colored or other
wastes or heated liquids.
per million; for non-trout waters, not
less than 4.0 parts per million.
None alone or in combination with
other substances or wastes in sufficient
amounts or at such temperatures as to
be injurious to fish life, make the
waters unsafe or unsuitable as a source
of water supply for drinking, culinary
or food processing purposes or impair
the waters for any other best usage as
determined for the specific waters
which are assigned to this class.
Monthly median coliform value shall
not exceed 5000/100 ml. from a mini-
mum of five examinations and not more
than 20 percent of the samples shall
exceed a coliform value of 20,000/ml.
Note: Refer to Notes 1 and 2 under Class AA, which are also applicable to Class A
standards.
8. Organisms of Coliform group.
Class B
Best Usage of Waters: Bathing and any other usages except as source of
water supply for drinking, culinary or food processing purposes.
Quality Standards
Items
1.
Floating solids; settleable solids;
sludge deposits.
Specifications
None which are readily visible and
attributable to sewage, industrial
wastes or other wastes or which dele-
teriously increase the amounts of these
constituents in receiving waters after
opportunity for reasonable dilution and
mixture with the wastes discharged
thereto.
175
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Table AVI (Cont'd.)
2. Sewage or wastes effluents.
3. PH.
4. Dissolved oxygen.
(New York)
5.
Toxic wastes, oil, deleterious
substances, colored or other
wastes or heated liquids.
None which are not effectively
disinfected.
Range between 6.5 and 8.5.
For trout waters, not less than 5.0
parts per million; for non-trout waters,
not less than 4.0 parts per million.
None alone or in combination with
other substances or wastes in sufficient
amounts or at such temperatures as to
be injurious to fish life, make the wa-
ters unsafe or unsuitable for bathing or
impair the waters for any other best
usage as determined for the specific
waters which are assigned for this class.
Monthly median coliform value shall
not exceed 2400/100 ml. from a mini-
mum of five examinations and not more
than 20 percent of the samples shall
exceed a coliform value of 5000/100 ml.
Note: Refer to Note 2 under Class AA, which is also applicable to Class B standards.
Class C
Best Usage of Water: Fishing and any other usages except for bathing as source
of water supply for drinking, culinary or food processing purposes.
6. Organisms of coliform group.
Quality Standards
Items
Specifications
1.
Floating solids; settleable solids;
sludge deposits.
None which are readily visible and at-
tributable to sewage, industrial wastes
or other wastes or which deleteriously
increase the amounts of these constitu-
ents in receiving waters after opportunity
for reasonable dilution and mixture with
the wastes discharged thereto.
176
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Table AVI (Cont'd.)
(New York)
2. pH.
3. Dissolved oxygen.
4.
Range between 6.5 and 8.5
For trout waters, not less than 5.0
parts per million; for non-trout waters,
not less than 4.0 parts per million.
None alone or in combination with
other substances or wastes in sufficient
amounts or at such temperatures as to
be injurious to fish life or impair the
waters for any other best usage as de-
termined for the specific waters which
are assigned to this class.
Note: Refer to Note 2 under Class AA, which is also applicable to Class C
standards.
Toxic wastes, oil, deleterious
substances, colored or other
wastes, or heated liquids.
Class D
Best Usage of Waters: Agricultural or source of industrial cooling or process
water supply and any other except for fishing, bathing or as source of
water supply for drinking, culinary or food processing purposes.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: The waters will be suitable for fish sur-
vival; the waters without treatment and except for natural impurities
which may be present will be satisfactory for agricultural usages or for
industrial process cooling water; and with special treatment as may be
needed under each particular circumstance, will be satisfactory for
other industrial processes.
Quality Standards
Items
Specifications
1.
Floating solids, settleable solids;
sludge deposits.
None which are readily visible and at-
tributable to sewage, industrial wastes
or other wastes or which deleteriously
increase the amounts of these constitu-
ents in receiving waters after opportu-
nity for reasonable dilution and mix-
ture with the wastes discharged thereto.
177
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Table AVI (Cont'd.)
2. PH.
3. Dissolved oxygen.
4. Toxic wastes, oil, deleterious
substances, colored or other
wastes, or heated liquids.
(New York)
Range between 6.0 and 9.5.
Not less than 3.0 parts per million.
None alone or in combinations with
other substances or wastes in sufficient
amounts or at such temperatures as to
prevent fish survival or impair the wa-
ters for agricultural purposes or any
other best usage as determined for the
specific waters which are assigned to
this class.
Note: Refer to Note 2 under Class AA, which is also applicable to Class D
standards.
Source: A31 p. 504-507
TABLE AVII. CLASSES AND STANDARDS FOR SALT WATERS
Class SA
Best Usage of Waters: Shellfishing for market purposes and any other usages.
Quality Standards
Items
1. Floating solids; settleable solids;
oil; sludge deposits.
2. Garbage, cinders, ashes, oils,
sludge or other refuse.
3. Sewage or waste effluents.
Specifications
None attributable to sewage, industri-
al wastes or other wastes.
None in any waters of the marine dis-
trict as defined by State Conservation
Law.
None which are not effectively
disinfected.
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Table AVII (Cont'd.)
(New York)
4. Dissolved oxygen.
5. Toxic wastes, deleterious
substances, colored or
other wastes or heated
liquids.
6. Organisms of coliform group.
Not less than 5.0 parts per million.
None alone or in combination with
other substances or wastes in sufficient
amounts or at such temperatures as to
be injurious to edible fish or shellfish
or the culture or propagation thereof,
or which in any manner shall adversely
affect the flavor, color, odor or sani-
tary condition thereof or impair the wa-
ters for any other best usage as deter-
mined for the specific waters which
are assigned to this class.
Median MPN not to exceed 70/100 ml.
in any series of samples representative
of waters in the shellfish growing area.
Class SB
Best Usage of Waters: Bathing and any other usages except shellfishing for
market purposes.
Quality Standards
Items
1. Floating solids; settleable solids;
oil; sludge deposits.
2. Garbage, cinders, ashes, oils,
sludge or other refuse.
3. Sewage or waste effluents .
4. Dissolved oxygen.
5. Toxic wastes, deleterious
substances, colored or other
Specifications
None attributable to sewage, industrial
wastes or other wastes.
None in any waters of the marine dis-
trict as defined by State Conservation
Law.
None which are not effectively
disinfected.
Not less than 5.0 parts per million.
None alone or in combination with
other substances or wastes in sufficient
179
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Table AVII (Cont'd.)
(New York)
5. (Cont'd.) wastes or heated
liquids.
amounts or at such temperatures as to
be injurious to edible fish or shellfish
or the culture or propagation thereof,
or which in any manner shall adversely
affect the flavor, color, odor or sani-
tary condition thereof; and otherwise
none in sufficient amounts to make the
waters unsafe or unsuitable for bathing
or impair the waters for any other best
usage as determined for the specific
waters which are assigned for this class.
Class SC
1.
Best Usage of Waters: Fishing and any other usages except bathing or shell-
fishing for market purposes.
Quality Standards
Items
Floating solids; settleable solids;
sludge deposits.
2. Garbage, cinders, ashes, oils,
sludge or other refuse.
3. Dissolved oxygen.
4. Toxic wastes, oil, deleterious
substances, colored or other
wastes or heated liquids.
Specifications
None which are readily visible and at-
tributable to sewage, industrial wastes
or other wastes or which deleteriously
increase the amounts of these constitu-
ents in receiving waters after opportu-
nity for reasonable dilution and mix-
ture with the wastes discharged thereto.
None in any waters of the marine dis-
trict as defined by State Conservation
Law.
Not less than 5.0 parts per million.
None atone or in combination with
other substances or wastes in sufficient
amounts or at such temperatures as to
be injurious to edible fish or shellfish,
or the culture or propagation thereof,
or which in any manner shall adversely
180
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Table AVII (Cont'd.)
4. (Cont'd.)
(New York)
affect the flavor, color, odor or sani-
tary condition thereof or impair the
waters for any other best usage as de-
termined for the specific waters which
are assigned to this class.
Class SD
1.
2.
4.
Best Usage of Waters: Any usages except fishing, bathing, or shellfishing
for market purposes.
Quality Standards
Items
Floating solids; settleable solids;
sludge deposits.
Garbage, cinders, ashes, oils,
sludge or other refuse.
Dissolved oxygen.
Toxic wastes, oil, deleterious
substances, colored or other wastes.
Specifications
None which are readily visible and at-
tributable to sewage, industrial wastes
or other wastes or which deleteriously
increase the amounts of these constitu-
ents in receiving waters after opportu-
nity for reasonable dilution and mix-
ture with the wastes discharged thereto.
None in any waters of the marine dis-
trict as defined by State Conservation
Law.
Not less than 3.0 parts per million.
None alone or in combination with
other substances or wastes in sufficient
amounts to prevent survival of fish life
or impair the waters for any other best
usage as determined for the specific
waters which are assigned to this class.
Source: A31 p. 507-510
181
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(New York)
TABLE AVIII. SPECIAL CLASSIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS
Class AA - Special Waters
Best Usage of Waters: Any usage except for disposal of sewage,
industrial waste or other waste.
Quality Standards
Items Specifications
1. Floating solids, settleable solids, None attributable to sewage, industri-
oil, sludge deposits, toxic wastes, al wastes or other wastes.
deleterious substances, colored or
other wastes or heated liquids.
2. Sewage or waste effluents. None into waters of this class.
Class A - Special (International Boundary Waters)
Best Usage of Waters: Source of domestic water supply (when subjected
to approved treatment equal to coagulation, sedimentation, filtra-
tion and disinfection, with additional treatment if necessary to meet
U. S. Public Health Service drinking water standards) or industrial
water supply, navigation, fish and wildlife, bathing, recreation,
agriculture and other riparian activities.
Quality Standards
Items Specifications
1. Floating solids; settleable solids; None which are readily visible and
sludge deposits. attributable to sewage, industrial
wastes or other wastes or which dele-
teriously increase the amounts of these
constituents in receiving waters after
opportunity for reasonable dilution and
mixture with the wastes discharged
thereto.
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Table AVI 11 (Cont'd.)
2. Sewage or waste effluents.
3. Odor producing substances
contained in sewage,
industrial wastes or other
wastes.
4. Phenolic compounds.
5. PH.
6. Dissolved oxygen.
7. Toxic wastes, oil, deleterious
substances, colored or other
wastes or heated liquids.
(New York)
None which are not effectively
disinfected.
The waters after opportunity for reason-
able dilution and mixture with the
wastes discharged thereto shall not have
an increased threshold odor number
greater than 8, due to such added
wastes.
Not greater than 5 parts per billion
(Phenol).
Range between 6.7 and 8.5.
Not less than 4.0 parts per million.
None alone or in combination with
other substances or wastes in sufficient
amounts or at such temperatures as to
adversely affect the usages recognized
for this class of waters.
Class
Best Usage of Waters: Fishing and any other usages except bathing or
shellfishing for market purposes.
Quality Standards
Items
1. Floating solids; settleable solids;
sludge deposits.
2. Garbage, cinders, ashes, oils,
sludge, or other refuse.
Specifications
None which are readily visible and at-
tributable to sewage, industrial wastes,
or other wastes or which deleterious!/
increase the amounts of these constitu-
ents in receiving waters after opportu-
nity for reasonable dilution and mixture
with the wastes discharged thereto.
None in any waters of the marine dis-
trict as defined by State Conservation
Law.
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Table AVIII (Cont'd.)
3. Sewage or waste effluents.
4. Dissolved oxygen.
(New York)
5. Toxic wastes, oil, deleterious
substances, colored or other
wastes or heated liquids.
Effective disinfection if required by
International Sanitation Commission.
An average of not less than 50 percent
saturation during any week of the year,
but not less than 3.0 parts per million
at any time.
None alone or in combination with
other substances or wastes in sufficient
amounts to be injurious to edible fish
and shellfish or the culture or propaga-
tion thereof, or which shall in any
manner affect the flavor, color, odor,
or sanitary condition of such fish or
shellfish so as to injuriously affect the
sale thereof, or which shall cause any
injury to the public and private shell -
fisheries of this state; and otherwise
none in sufficient amounts to impair the
waters for any other best usage as de-
termined for the specific waters which
are assigned to this class.
Class II
Best Usage of Waters: All waters not primarily for recreational purposes,
shellfish culture or the development of fish life.
Quality Standards
Items
1.
Floating solids, settleable solids;
sludge deposits.
Specifications
None which are readily visible and at-
tributable to sewage, industrial wastes
or other wastes or which deleteriously
increase the amounts of these constitu-
ents in receiving waters after opportun-
ity for reasonable dilution and mixture
with the wastes discharged thereto.
184
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Table AVIII (Cont'd.)
(New York)
2. Garbage, cinders, ashes, oils,
sludge, or ofher refuse.
3. Dissolved oxygen.
4. Toxic wastes, oil, deleterious
substances, colored or other
wastes.
None in any waters of the marine dis-
trict as defined by State Conservation
Law.
An average of not less than 30 percent
saturation during any week of the year
provided such saturation levels insure
adequate oxygen to support fish and
shellfish life at all times.
None alone or in combination with
other substances or wastes in sufficient
amounts to be injurious to edible fish
and shellfish, or the culture or propa-
gation thereof, or which shall in any
manner affect the flavor, color, odor,
or sanitary condition of such fish or
shellfish so as to injuriously affect the
sale thereof, or which shall cause any
injury to the public and private sheII-
fisheries of this state.
Source: A31, p. 511-520
These special classes are to be applied to certain drainage areas or particular bodies
of water in the state. Class AA-Special is applied to Lake Champlain and the up-
Per Hudson River drainage basin. There are no textile dyeing and finishing firms
near the Lake. There are a few textile dyeing and finishing plants located in the
latter area; however, they are located in large towns which probably means they use
the municipal sewer system.
Classes I and II refer to the waters in and around New York City. There is a large
concentration of small to medium textile plants in this area, along with a large pop-
ulation and various other industries. These waters are used for the disposal of treat-
ed effluents from New York City's municipal sewer system.
Class A-Special (International Boundary Waters) is applied to those state waters
which border on the Dominion of Canada. While no textile dyeing and finishing
Plants are located on or near the waters so classified, the Water Resources Commis-
sion's list of industries producing waste effluents that reduce the dissolved oxygen
185
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(New York)
content of these waters "unreasonably" includes wool scouring (A31).
The textile dyeing and finishing industry in New York is spread throughout the
state with a large concentration in the Metropolitan New York City area. The
size varies from large to small. Most of the large firms are outside the New York
City area but located in large towns, while the bulk of small firms are located in
New York City.
Pennsylvania
The "Clean Streams Law" first passed in 1937, and constantly amended, is the water
pollution control statute of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. The agency which
is empowered to enforce this law's provisions is the Sanitary Water Board, a divi-
sion of the Pennsylvania Department of Health.
The objectives of the act are to prevent the direct discharge of sewage and indus-
trial waste into the streams of the Commonwealth; including those on its borders,
and "to restore to a clean state every stream in Pennsylvania that is now polluted."
The Sanitary Water Board has two broad powers; the issuance of discharge permits
and the setting of treatment standards. Any municipality or person (legal defini-
tion) that has an effluent to discharge, must make written application to the De-
partment of Health for a permit. Before the permit is issued, the Sanitary Water
Board has the right to inspect the treatment plant and set standards of treatment.
Pennsylvania law states that any person or municipality which produces a water
waste and discharges this waste to another person or municipality for the purpose of
treatment is also responsible for purchasing such a permit.
The penalties imposed for creating pollution, failure to comply with the conditions
of an issued permit or failure to provide adequate treatment to wastes are $100-
$5,000 fine or imprisonment for one year or both. The $100 fine applies to first
offenders, while the $5,000 fine and imprisonment term are for previously convicted
offenders if they have not abated pollution practices within two years of first con-
viction.
The Sanitary Water Board demands at least secondary treatment for all industrial
wastes that are bio-degradeable and non-bio-degradeable wastes must receive an
equivalent of secondary treatment. The Board further defines secondary treatment
as:
"that treatment that will reduce the organic waste load, as
measured by the biochemical oxygen demand test by at least
85% during the period May 1 to October 31 and by at least
186
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(Pennsylvania)
75% during the remainder of the year based on a five consecu-
tive day average of values; will remove practically all of the
suspended solids; will provide effective disinfection to control
disease producing organisms; will provide satisfactory disposal
of sludge; and will reduce the quantities of oils/ acids, alkalis,
toxic, taste and odor producing substances, color, and other
substances inimical to the public interest to levels that will not
pollute the receiving stream. " (A32)
Pennsylvania's standards have been approved by the Federal Water Pollution Con-
trol Administration.
The Commonwealth has set up a complex system of stream classifications. There is
a list of "Water Uses" and a list of "Specific Water Quality Criteria" that are used
to designate stream standards in the Commonwealth. The twelve sewer basins of
Pennsylvania are divided into zones. These zones in some cases pertain to the en-
tire Pennsylvania flow of a creek or stream while in other cases such as the Dela-
ware, Schuylkill, Susquehanna and Monongahela Rivers, the zones are bounded by
county, state or municipal lines and confluence of tributaries. Table AIX lists the
"Water Uses" specifications and Table AX lists the specific "Water Quality Cri-
teria."
TABLE AIX. WATER USES OF PA. STREAMS
1.0 Aquatic Life
1.1 Cold Water Fishes - Maintenance and propagation of the family
Salmonidae and fish food organisms.
1.2 Warm Water Fishes - Maintenance and propagation of fish food
organisms and all families of fishes except Salmonidae.
1.3 Migratory Fishes - Passage, maintenance and propagation of
anadromous and catadromous fishes, and other fishes which ascend
to flowing waters to complete their life cycle.
1.4 Trout (Stocking Only) - Warm water fishes and trout stocking.
2.0 Water Supply
2.1 Domestic Water Supply - Use by humans after conventional treat-
18?
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Table AIX (Cont'd.) (Pennsylvania)
2.0 Water Supply (Cont'd.)
ment, for drinking, culinary and other purposes.
2.2 Industrial Water Supply - Use by industry for inclusion into
products, for processing and for cooling.
2.3 Livestock Water Supply - Use by livestock and poultry for
drinking and cleansing.
2.4 Wildlife Water Supply - Use for waterfowl habitat and by wildlife
for drinking and cleansing.
2.5 Irrigation Water Supply - Used to supplement precipitation for
growing of crops.
3.0 Recreation
3.1 Boating - Power boating, sailboating, canoeing and rowing for
recreational purposes.
3.2 Fishing - Use of the water for the taking of fish by legal methods.
3.3 Water Contact Sport - Use of the water for swimming and related
activities.
3.4 Natural Area - Use of the water as an esthetic setting to
recreational pursuits.
3.5 Conservation Area - Waters used within and suitable for the main-
tenance of an area now or in the future to be kept in a relatively
primitive condition.
4.0 Other
4.1 Power - Use of the water energy to generate power.
4.2 Navigation - Use of the water for the commercial transfer and
transport of persons, animals and goods.
4.3 Treated Waste Assimilation - Use of the water for the assimilation
and transport of treated waste waters.
Source: A33
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(Pennsylvania)
TABLE AX. SPECIFIC WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR PA. STREAMS
A. PH
A] - Not less than 6.0; not to exceed 8.5
A2 - Not less than 6.5; not to exceed 8.5
A3 - Not less than 7.0; not to exceed 9.0
B. Dissolved Oxygen
B] - Minimum daily average 6.0 mg./l.; no value less than
5.0mg./l.
82 - Minimum daily average 5.0 mg./l.; no value less than
4.0 mg./l.
63 - Minimum daily average not less than 5.0 mg./l., except during
the period 4/1 to 6/15 and 9/16 to 12/31, not less than
6.5 mg./l.
64 - Minimum daily average not less than 3.5 mg./l., except
during the period 4/1 to 6/15 and 9/16 to 12/31, not
less than 6.5 mg./l.
65 - Minimum daily average not less than 3.5 mg./l., except
during period 4/1 to 6/15 and 9/16 to 12/31, not less
than 6.5 mg./l.
B0 - No value less than 7.0 mg./l.
67 - For lakes, ponds and impoundments only, no value less than
4.0 mg./l. in the epilimnion.
BQ - For lakes, ponds and impoundments only, no value less than
5.0 mg./l. at any point.
C. Iron
C| - Total iron, not to exceed 1.5 mg./l.
189
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Table AX (Cont'd.) (Pennsylvania)
Co - Dissolved iron, not to exceed 0.3 mg./l.
D. Temperature
Dj - Not to be increased by more than 5 F above natural
temperature nor to be increased above 58 F.
D2 - Not to exceed 5 F rise above ambient temperature or a
maximum of 87 F, whichever is less; not to be changed by
more than 2° F during any one hour period.
D3 - Not to exceed 5° F rise above natural temperature or a
maximum of 86° F, whichever is less; not to be changed by
more than 2° F during any one hour period.
D4 - Not to exceed 93° F; not to be changed by more than 2° F
during any one hour period.
E. Dissolved Solids - Not to exceed 500 mg./l. as a monthly average value;
not to exceed 750 mg./l. at any time.
F. Bacteria (Coliforms/100ml. of water)
F] - For the period 5/19 to 9/15 of any year, not to exceed
1,000/100 ml. as an arithmetic average value; not to exceed
1,000/100 ml. in more than two consecutive samples; not to
exceed 2,400/100 ml. in more than one sample.
For the period 9/16 to 5/1 4 of any year, not to exceed
5,000/100 ml. as a monthly average value; nor to exceed
this number in more than 20% of the samples collected during
any month; nor to exceed 2,000/100 ml. in more than 5% of
the samples.
?2 ~ Not to exceed 5,000/100 ml. as a monthly average value;
nor to exceed this number in more than 20% of the samples
collected during any month; nor to exceed 20,000/100 ml.
in more than 5% of the samples.
F3 - Not to exceed 5,000/100 ml. as a monthly geometric mean.
190
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Table AX (Cont'd.) (Pennsylvania)
G. Turbidity
G] - Not to exceed 30 units during the period 5/30 to 9/15,
nor to exceed a monthly mean of 40 units or a maximum
of 150 units during the remainder of the year.
G2 - Maximum monthly mean 40 units, maximum value not to
exceed 150 units.
H. Threshold Odor Number - Not to exceed 24 at 60° C.
I. Alkalinity - Not less than 20 mg./I.
J. M. B.A.S. (Methylene Blue Active Substance)
J ] - Not to exceed 0.5 mg./l.
J2 - Not to exceed 1.0 mg./l.
K. Total Manganese - Not to exceed 1.0 mg./l.
L. Fluoride - Not to exceed 1.0 mg./l.
M. Cyanide - Not to exceed 0.025 mg./l.
N. Sulfate - Not to exceed 250 mg./l. or natural levels, whichever is greater.
O. Chlorides
O] - Not to exceed 150 mg./l.
O2 - Not to exceed 250 mg./l.
P. Phosphate (total soluable as PO4)
Pi - Not to exceed 0.10 mg./l. or natural levels, whichever is
greater.
P2 - Not to exceed 0.30 mg./l. or natural levels, whichever is
greater.
P3 - Not to exceed 0.40 mg./l. or natural levels, whichever is
greater.
191
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Table AX (Cont'd.) (Pennsylvania)
Q. Phenol - Not to exceed .005 mg./I.
R. Color - Not to exceed 50 units.
5. Copper
$1 - Not to exceed 0.02 mg./l.
$2 - Not to exceed 0.10 mg./l.
T. Zinc - Not to exceed 0.05 mg./l.
Source: A22
At the present time, Pennsylvania does not extend grants to industrial firms for re-
search or offer tax exemptions on treatment facilities. Therefore, firms should try
to locate near municipal facilities or expect to finance their own abatement pro-
grams completely.
In Pennsylvania, the textile industry is centered in the east, particularly the south-
east metropolitan area of Philadelphia; Allentown, Scranton and Reading areas.
Most of the firms are small (less than 100 employees) and discharge to municipal
sewer systems; however, there are a number of large firms that do exist outside these
large population areas and who must supply their own treatment facilities. This fact
plus the overworked conditions of the municipal sewers, which could lead to au-
thorities refusing to handle industrial waste loads, encourages the Pennsylvania
Textile Industry to study their situation carefully.
Due to the complicated system of stream classification, two firms located on the
same river, but in different zones, may find completely different requirements to
satisfy. For example, a firm on the Delaware River up stream from Philadelphia
may be able to use moderately efficient secondary treatment to render the effluent
acceptable to stream standards being the only industrial disposer in the area where
the flow volume is large. On the other hand, a firm downstream from Philadelphia
would have to take extra care to reduce his effluent due to the wide variety and
large volumes of the City's sewage and industrial waste load.
The Southeast
This portion of the United States has become, since the 1950's, the textile manu-
facturing center of the country. There are six states in this area in which a large
192
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(Southeast)
number of textile water waste producing firms are located. These States are:
Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee and Virginia. No
formal interstate compact exists between these states. Alabama, Georgia and Ten-
nessee have similar classification systems, as do North and South Carolina. Vir-
ginia is still attempting to receive Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
approval for its standards. The laws of the States in this region will be discussed in
the following order: Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennes-
see and Virginia.
Alabama
The "Alabama Water Pollution Control Act" of 1965 controls water pollution in the
state. The purpose of this act is stated as:
"The improvement and conservation of ground and surface waters of the
State of Alabama is of utmost importance. The existing water conditions
of the state and the right of municipalities, industries and individuals to
the reasonable use of such waters so as to promote the continued growth
and development of the state, in industry, agriculture, health, recrea-
tion and conservation of natural resources is recognized." (A34)
The Act created a fourteen-member Water Improvement Commission, which is the
only state agency with legal responsibilities with respect to water pollution; how-
ever, the Commission's authority does not extend to other aspects of water resources.
Of the fourteen members appointed to the Commission, one must come from each of
the six industrial categories specified by law. One of these categories is the Tex-
Hle Industry (A35). The Commission is given eight broad powers; they are: to in-
vestigate and study all problems concerned with improvement and conservation of
fte state's waters; to develop programs pertaining to the treatment and disposal of
sewage and industrial wastes; to propose remedial measures for the abatement of
Pollution; insofar as practical means are available, to advise industries and muni-
cipalities with respect to the control of pollution; to establish stream standards in
relation to their best usage as shall be in the public interest; to receive and exam-
ine plans and applications for permits to treat and dispose of sewage and industrial
wastes; to investigate the discharge of pollution being made under a permit; and to
issue orders directing abatement of pollution within a reasonable specified time.
The Alabama Water Improvement Commission requires the possession of a permit for
the discharge of wastes to surface or ground waters in the state. Any person propos-
ing to discharge wastes to said waters must apply to the Commission for a permit and
submit such basic information as general description of the proposed operation, the
characteristics of the effluents to be discharged, and any other information the
193
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(Alabama)
Commission deems necessary. In Alabama, permits are of a permanent nature and
are not subject to renewal, although they may be revoked or amended for justifiable
cause.
For violation of permit regulations or causing pollution or operating treatment facil-
ities in a manner that threatens potential pollution, a person may be fined not less
than one hundred dollars nor more than ten thousand dollars, with each day of con-
tinued violation considered a separate offense (A34). The Commission is also given
the authority to recover damages for the destruction of wildlife, aquatic life, fish
or marine life caused by pollution of state waters (A35).
The Commission requires that:
"all industrial wastes likely to contain bacteria harmful to humans shall
receive a minimum of secondary treatment or the equivalent thereof, and
if necessary, disinfection before being discharged to waters of the state
used as sources of public water supply, for the harvesting of oysters or
customarily used by the public for swimming and other whole body water-
contact sports (A36). "
Some industrial waste discharges in Alabama are exempt from this provision of the
law because these discharges do not contravene the water quality standards of their
receiving waters. However, they will require "a minimum of secondary treatment
or its equivalent at such time as plants existing at the time of exclusion must be en-
larged or become inadequate for any reason" (A35).
The Commission defines secondary treatment of industrial wastes as "a process or
group of processes capable of removing virtually all floating and settleable solids
and reduction of 5-day B.O. D. and suspended solids to the minimum extent possible
within limits of practicability and technology but not less than 75 percent" (A36).
For those industrial wastes "in which B.O. D. and suspended solids are not involved,
objectionable constituents shall be controlled, removed or reduced to the maximum
degree attainable within the limits of practicability and technology" (A36). The
equivalent of secondary treatment is defined as "control and restriction, generally
through in-plant measures or storage and regulation of discharge, of waste constitu-
ents capable of producing pollutional effects to a degree comparable to that obtain-
ed through applicable secondary treatment processes" (A36).
The Commission has designated seven water use classifications and specific water
quality criteria for each class (Table AXI). These standards have been approved,
with the exceptions of dissolved oxygen and temperature for fish and aquatic life
and bacteriological criteria for recreational and potable water supply waters (A35)
194
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(Alabama)
by the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration.
TABLE AXI. WATER USE CLASSIFICATIONS AND
THEIR SPECIFIC WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY
Best Usage of Waters: Source of water supply for drinking or food-processing
purposes.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: The waters, if subjected to treatment approved
by the State Department of Public Health equal to coagulation, sedimenta-
tion, filtration and disinfection, with additional treatment if necessary to
remove naturally present impurities and meet the "Public Health Service
Drinking Water Standards" will be considered safe for drinking or food-
processing purposes.
1.
Items
Sewage, industrial wastes,
or other wastes.
2. PH.
3. Temperature.
Specifications
None which are not effectively treated or
controlled in accordance with Section V
of these criteria.
Sewage, industrial waste or other wastes
shall not cause the pH to deviate more
than one unit from the normal or natural
pH nor be less than 6.0, nor greater
than 8.5.
The ambient temperature of receiving
waters, in degrees Fahrenheit, after
reasonable mixing, shall not be increased
by more than 10 percent by the addition
of domestic, industrial or other wastes
nor shall these wastes cause the tempera-
ture of the receiving waters to exceed 90
degrees Fahrenheit, except that the tem-
perature may be as high as 93 degrees
Fahrenheit for not more than eight hours
195
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Table AXI (Cont'd.)
3. Temperature (Cont'd.)
(Alabama)
4. Dissolved oxygen.
Toxic substances; color-
producing substances;
heated liquids; or other
deleterious substances
attributable to sewage,
industrial wastes or
other wastes.
Taste- and odor-producing
substances attributable to
sewage, industrial wastes,
or other wastes.
Bacteria.
during any twenty-four hour period.
With respect to cooling water discharges
only, the ambient temperature of receiv-
ing waters shall not be increased by more
than 10 degrees Fahrenheit by the dis-
charge of such cooling waters, after rea-
sonable mixing; nor shall the discharge of
such cooling waters, after reasonable mix-
ing, cause the temperature of the receiv-
ing waters to exceed 93 degrees Fahren-
heit.
Sewage, industrial waste or other wastes
shall not cause the dissolved oxygen to be
less than 4.0 parts per million as measured
at a depth of five feet in waters ten feet
or greater in depth and at mid-depth in
waters less than ten feet in depth.
Only such amounts, whether alone or in
combination with other substances, and
only such temperatures as will not render
the waters unsafe or unsuitable as a source
of water supply for drinking or food-pro-
cessing purposes, or injurious to fish,
wildlife and aquatic life, or adversely
affect the aesthetic value of waters for
any use under this classification.
Only such amounts, whether alone or in
combination with other substances or
wastes, as will not, cause taste and odor
difficulties in water supplies which can-
not be corrected by treatment as specified
under "Conditions Related to Best Usage",
or impair the portability of fish.
In the event there are discharges of sew-
age, or other wastes likely to contain
bacteria harmful to humans, to waters
within the watershed above the point of
196
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Table AXI (Cont'd.)
(Alabama)
7. Bacteria (Cont'd,) taking water for purposes of public water
supply or waters for food-process ing pur-
poses, after conventional treatment, the
following bacteriological criteria are to
apply: bacteria of the fecal coliform
group not to exceed 5,000 per 100 milli-
liters (either most probable number of
mlllipore filter count) as a monthly aver-
age value; nor exceed this number in more
than 20 percent of the samples examined
during any month; nor exceed 20,000 per
mi 11 Hirers in more than 5 percent of the
samples examined during one month.
NOTE NO. 1: In determining the safety or suitability of waters for use as sources
of water supply for drinking or food-processing purposes after ap-
proved treatment, the Commission will be guided by the physical
and chemical standards specified in the latest edition of the "Pub-
lic Health Service Drinking Water Standards."
SWIMMING AND OTHER WHOLE BODY-CONTACT SPORTS
Best Usage of Waters: Swimming and other whole body water-contact sports.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: The waters, under proper sanitary supervision by
the controlling health authorities, will meet accepted standards of water
quality for outdoor swimming places and will be considered satisfactory for
swimming and other whole body water-contact sports. The quality of waters
will also be suitable for the propagation of fish, wildlife and aquatic life.
The quality of salt waters and estuarine waters to which this classification
is assigned will be suitable for the propagation and harvesting of shrimp and
crabs.
2.
Items
Sewage, industrial wastes,
or other wastes.
PH.
Specifications
None which are not effectively treated or
controlled in accordance with Section V
of these criteria.
Sewage, industrial wastes or other wastes
shall not cause the pH to deviate more
than one unit from the normal or natural
197
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Table AXI (Cont'd.)
(Alabama)
2. pH (Cont'd.)
3. Temperature.
4. Dissolved oxygen.
5. Toxic substances; color-
producing substances;
odor-producing substances;
or other deleterious sub-
stances attributable to
sewage, industrial wastes
pH nor be less than 6.0 nor greater than
8.5. For estuarine waters and salt waters
to which this classification is assigned
wastes as described herein shall not cause
the pH to deviate more than one unit from
the normal or natural pH nor be less than
6.5 nor greater than 8.5.
The ambient temperature of receiving wa-
ters, in degrees Fahrenheit, after reason-
able mixing, shall not be increased by
more than 10 percent by the addition of
domestic, industrial or other wastes nor
shall these wastes cause the temperature
of the receiving waters to exceed 90 de-
grees Fahrenheit, except that the tem-
perature may be as high as 93 degrees
Fahrenheit for not more than eight hours
during any twenty-four hour period. With
respect to cooling water discharges only,
the ambient temperature of receiving wa-
ters shall not be increased by more than
10 degrees Fahrenheit by the discharge of
such cooling waters, after reasonable
mixing; nor shall the discharge of such
cooling waters, after reasonable mixing,
cause the temperature of the receiving
waters to exceed 93 degrees Fahrenheit.
Sewage, industrial wastes or other wastes
shall not cause the dissolved oxygen to be
less than 4.0 parts per million as measured
at a depth of five feet In waters ten feet
or greater in depth and at mid-depth in
waters less than ten feet in depth.
Only such amounts, whether alone or in
combination with other substances or
wastes, as will not: render the water un-
safe or unsuitable for swimming and water-
contact sports; be injurious to fish, wild-
life and aquatic life or, where applicable,
198
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Table AXI (Cont'd.) (Alabama)
5. (Cont'd.) shrimp and crabs; impair the portability
or other wastes. of fish, or, where applicable, shrimp and
crabs; impair the waters for any other us-
age established for this classification or
unreasonably affect the aesthetic value of
waters for any use under this classifica-
tion.
6. Bacteria. Waters in the immediate vicinity of dis-
charges of sewage or other wastes likely
to contain bacteria harmful to humans,
regardless of the degree of treatment af-
forded these waters are not considered
acceptable for swimm;ng or other whole
body water-contact sports. In the event
there are discharges of sewage or other
wastes likely to contain bacteria harmful
to humans to waters within the watershed
above the point of use for swimming and
other whole body water-contact sports,
the following bacteriological criteria are
to apply: bacteria of the fecal coliform
group not to exceed 1,000 per 100 milli-
liters (either most probable number of
millipore filter count) as a monthly aver-
age value during the months of May
through September, nor exceed this value
in any two consecutive samples collected
during these months. In the event a sani-
tary survey reveals no discharges of sew-
age or other wastes likely to contain bac-
teria harmful to humans within the water-
shed above the point of use for swimming
and other whole body water-contact
sports, these bacteriological criteria, at
the discretion of the Commission may not
apply.
NOTE NO. 2: In assigning this classification to waters intended for swimming and
water_contact sports, the Commission will take into consideration
the relative proximity of discharges of wastes and will recognize
the potential hazards involved in locating swimming areas close
199
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Table AX I (Cont'd.)
(Alabama)
Note No. 2 (Cont'd.) to waste discharges. The Commission will not assign this
classification to waters, the bacterial quality of which is depend-
ent upon adequate disinfection of waste and where the interruption
of such treatment would render the water unsafe for bathing.
SHELLFISH HARVESTING
Best Usage of Waters: Propagation and harvesting of shellfish for sale or use as a
food product.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: Waters will meet the sanitary and bacteriologi-
cal standards included in the latest edition of the National Shellfish Sanita-
tion Program Manual of Operations, Sanitation of Shellfish Growing Areas;
published by the Public Health Service, U. S. Department of Health, Edu-
cation and Welfare, and the requirements of the State Department of Public
Health. The waters will also be a quality suitable for the propagation of
fish and other aquatic life, including shrimp and crabs.
Items
1. Sewage, industrial wastes
or other wastes.
pH.
Temperature.
Specifications
None which are not effectively treated in
accordance with Section V of these cri-
teria.
Sewage, industrial wastes or other wastes
shall not cause the pH to deviate more
than one unit from the normal or natural
pH nor be less than 6.5 nor greater than
8.5.
The ambient temperature of receiving wa-
ters, in degrees Fahrenheit, after reason-
able mixing, shall not be increased by
more than 10 percent by the addition of
domestic, industrial or other wastes nor
shall these wastes cause the temperature
of the receiving waters to exceed 90 de-
grees Fahrenheit, except that the temper-
ature may be as high as 93 degrees Fah-
renheit for not more than eight hours dur-
ing any twenty-four hour period.
200
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Table AXI (Cont'd.)
3. Temperature (Conf'd.)
4. Dissolved oxygen.
5. Toxic substances
attributable to sewage,
industrial waste or
other wastes.
Color, taste and odor-
producing substances and
other deleterious substances
attributable to sewage,
industrial wastes or
other wastes.
Bacteria.
(Alabama)
With respect to cooling water discharges
only, the ambient temperature of receiv-
ing waters shall not be increased by more
than 10 degrees Fahrenheit by the dis-
charge of such cooling waters, after rea-
sonable mixing; nor shall the discharge of
such cooling waters, after reasonable mix-
ing cause the temperature of the receiving
waters to exceed 93 degrees Fahrenheit.
Sewage, industrial wastes or other wastes
shall not cause the dissolved oxygen to be
less than 4.0 parts per million as measured
at a depth of five feet in waters ten feet
or greater in depth and at mid-depth in
waters less than ten feet in depth.
Only such amounts, whether alone or in
combination with other substances, as will
not: be injurious to fish and aquatic life
including shrimp and crabs; affect the
marketability of fish and shellfish, includ-
ing shrimp and crabs; exceed one-tenth of
the 48-hour median tolerance limit for
fish, aquatic life or shellfish, including
shrimp and crabs.
Only such amounts, whether alone or in
combination with other substances, as will
not: be injurious to fish and shellfish, in-
cluding shrimp and crabs; adversely affect
marketability or palatability of fish and
shellfish, including shrimp and crabs; un-
reasonably affect the aesthetic value of
waters for any use under this classification.
Not to exceed the limits specified in the
latest edition of the National Shellfish
Sanitation Program Manual of Operations,
Sanitation of Shellfish Growing Areas,
published by the Public Health Service,
U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and
Welfare.
201
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Table AXI (Cont'd.)
(Alabama)
FISH AND WILDLIFE
Best Usage of Waters: Fishing, propagation of fish, aquatic life and wildlife and
any other usage except for swimming and water-contact sports or
as a source of water supply for drinking or food-processing pur-
poses .
Conditions Related to Best Usage: The waters will be suitable for fish aquatic life
and wildlife propagation. The quality of salt and estuarine waters
to which this classification is assigned will also be suitable for the
propagation of shrimp and crabs.
1.
Items
Sewage, industrial wastes
or other wastes.
2. pH.
3. Temperature.
Specifications
None which are not effectively treated in
accordance with Section V of these cri-
teria.
Sewage, industrial wastes or other wastes
shall not cause the pH to deviate more
than one unit from the normal or natural
pH nor be less than 6.0 nor greater than
8.5. For salt waters and estuarine waters
to which this classification is assigned
wastes as herein described shall not cause
the pH to deviate more than one unit from
the normal or natural pH nor be less than
6.5 nor greater than 8.5.
The ambient temperature of receiving wa-
ters, in degrees Fahrenheit, after reason-
able mixing, shall not be increased by
more than 10 percent by the addition of
domestic industrial or other wastes nor
shall these wastes cause the temperature
of the receiving waters to exceed 90 de-
grees Fahrenheit, except that the temper-
ature may be as high as 93 degrees Fah-
renheit for not more than eight hours dur-
ing any twenty-four hour period.
With respect to cooling water discharges
202
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Table AX1 (Cont'd.)
3. Temperature (Cont'd.)
(Alabama)
4. Dissolved oxygen.
5.
Toxic substances
attributable to sewage,
industrial wastes or
other wastes.
6.
Taste, odor and color-
producing substances
attributable to sewage,
industrial waste and
other wastes.
only, the ambient temperature of receiv-
ing waters shall not be increased by more
than 10 degrees Fahrenheit by the dis-
charge of such cooling waters, after rea-
sonable mixing; nor shall the discharge of
such cooling waters, after reasonable mix-
ing, cause the temperature of the receiv-
ing waters to exceed 93 degrees Fahrenheit.
Sewage, industrial wastes or other wastes
shall not cause the dissolved oxygen to be
less than 4.0 parts per million as measured
at a depth of five feet in water ten feet or
greater in depth and at mid-depth in wat-
ers less than ten feet in depth.
Only such amounts, whether alone or in
combination with other substances, as will
not: be injurious to fish and aquatic life
including shrimp and crabs in estuarine or
salt waters or the propagation thereof; not
to exceed one-tenth of the 48 hour median
tolerance limit for fish and aquatic life
including shrimp and crabs in salt and es-
tuarine waters except that other limiting
concentrations may be used when factual-
ly justified and approved by the Commis-
sion.
Only such amounts, whether alone or in
combination with other substances as will
not be injurious to fish and aquatic life
including shrimp and crabs in estuarine
and salt waters or adversely affect the
propagation thereof; impair the palatabil-
ity or marketability of fish and wildlife or
shrimp and crabs in estuarine and salt wa-
ters; unreasonably affect the aesthetic
value of waters for any use under this
classification.
203
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Table AXI (Cont'd.)
AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLY
Best Usage of Waters: Agricultural irrigation, livestock watering, industrial cool-
ing and process water supplies, fish survival and any other usage,
except fishing, bathing, recreational activities including water-
contact sports or as source of water supply for drinking or food-
processing purposes.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: The waters, except for natural impurities which
may be present therein, will be suitable for agricultural irrigation,
and livestock watering, industrial cooling waters and fish survival.
The waters will be usable after special treatment, as may be need-
ed under each particular circumstance, for industrial process water
supplies. The waters will also be suitable for other uses for which
waters of lower quality will be satisfactory.
Items
1. Sewage, industrial wastes
or other wastes.
PH.
Temperature.
Specifications
None which are not effectively treated or
controlled in accordance with Section V
of these criteria.
Sewage, industrial waste or other wastes
shall not cause the pH to deviate more
than one unit from the normal or natural
pH nor be less than 6.0 nor greater than
8.5.
The ambient temperature of receiving wa-
ters, in degrees Fahrenheit, after reason-
able mixing, shall not be increased by
more than 10 percent by the addition of
domestic, industrial or other wastes nor
shall these wastes cause the temperature
of the receiving waters to exceed 90 de-
grees Fahrenheit, except that the temper-
ature may be as high as 93 degrees Fah-
renheit for not more than eight hours dur-
ing any twenty-four hour period.
With respect to cooling water discharges
only, the ambient temperature of receiv-
204
-------
Table AXI (Cont'd.)
3. Temperature (Cont'd.)
(Alabama)
4. Dissolved Oxygen.
5. Color, odor-and taste-
producing substances,
and other deleterious
substances, including
chemical compounds,
attributable to sewage,
industrial wastes and
other wastes.
ing waters shall not be increased by more
than 10 degrees Fahrenheit by the discharge
of such cooling waters, after reasonable
mixing; nor shall the discharge of such
cooling waters, after reasonable mixing,
cause the temperature of the receiving
waters to exceed 93 degrees Fahrenheit.
Sewage, industrial waste or other wastes
shall not cause the dissolved oxygen to be
less than 2.0 parts per million as measured
at a depth of five feet in waters ten feet
or greater in depth and at mid-depth in
waters less than ten feet in depth.
Only such amounts as will not render the
waters unsuitable for agricultural irriga-
tion, livestock watering, industrial cool-
ing, industrial process water supply and
fish survival.
NAVIGATION
Best Usage of Waters: Navigation.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: Waters will be of a quality suitable for naviga-
tion and any other uses except agricultural irrigation, livestock
watering, industrial cooling, industrial process, water supply,
fish and wildlife propagation, recreational activities including
swimming and skiing, or source of water supply for drinking or
food-process ing purposes.
1.
Items.
Sewage, industrial wastes or
other wastes.
2. pH.
Specifications
None which are not effectively treated or
controlled to the best practicable degree.
Sewage, industrial wastes or other wastes
shall not cause the normal or natural pH
205
-------
Table AXI (Cont'd.)
2. pH (Cont'd.)
3. Dissolved oxygen.
4. Odor-producing substances.
(Alabama)
to be lower than 5.0 nor greater than
9.5.
Sufficient to prevent the development of
an offensive condition.
Only in such amounts as will not create
an offensive condition.
TREATED WASTE TRANSPORTATION
Best Usage of Waters: Transportation of sewage, industrial wastes or other wastes
which have received the best practicable treatment or control.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: This category includes those watercourses in
which natural flow is intermittent and nonexistent during droughts
and which must, of necessity, serve as points of disposal of muni-
cipal sewage, now and in the future, and of wastes from existing
industries. Wastes discharged to these streams must receive the
best practicable treatment or control.
Items
1. Sewage, industrial wastes
and other wastes.
Spec if i cat i ons
None which are not treated or controlled
to the best practicable degree.
Source: A36, p. 7-20
These criteria are to be applied to waters which have the dppropriate best-use clas-
sification. In addition to these specific criteria, the Commission has set the follow-
ing minimum conditions which are applicable to all state waters:
"State waters shall be free from substances attributable to sewage,
industrial wastes or other wastes that will settle to form bottom deposits
which are unsightly, putrescent or interfere directly or indirectly with
any classified water use or in amounts sufficient to be unsightly or
interfere directly or indirectly with any classified water use.. .or in
concentrations or combinations which are toxic or harmful to human,
animal or aquatic life" (A36).
206
-------
(Alabama)
In Alabama, the textile industry is scattered throughout the state, with no particu-
larly heavy concentrations in any one area. Officials in Alabama's Water Improve-
ment Commission feel that the state's textile industries have made outstanding pro-
gress in waste treatment (A35). They claim that all major mills have either finished
or are in the final stages of having completed construction on treatment facilities.
In Alabama, there is an equal division between joint municipal and industrial sys-
tems and separate industrial projects.
Georgia
In July 1964, the "Georgia Water Quality Control Act" was passed by the General
Assembly of that state. It has had several revisions in 1965 and 1966, but remains
unchanged since the latter date. In the act, Georgia has declared as its policy
"that the water resources of the state shall be utilized prudently to the maximum
benefit of the people in order to restore and maintain a reasonable degree of purity
in the waters of the state".
This act also created a Division for Georgia Water Quality Control within the De-
partment of Health; and provided for the setting up of a nine-man State Water Qual-
ity Control Board to operate the division and administer the functions granted to it
by the Act. In its operation, the Board has light broad powers: to conduct research,
in order to determine the value of advanced or new waste treatment processes; to
enter into agreements and compacts, with both the Federal and other state govern-
ments; to survey state waters, in order to assure pollution is being abated and pos-
sibly change a stream's classification; administer and enforce the "Water Quality
Control Act" and any other statutes that may be legislated and approved by the
General Assembly; to adopt rules and regulations for its conduct of meetings, sub-
mission of permit applications, etc.; to make any investigations and inspections
that it feels necessary to the abatement of pollution; to establish water quality
standards, and to issue orders to prevent a person or municipality found to be pol-
luting state waters from continuing said pollution practices. The Board is also given
the power to award grants both from the Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis-
tration and the State Budget to counties and municipalities and to render any firm,
county or municipality laboratory assistance, water quality data, technical and le-
gal advice, etc.
The "Water Quality Control Act" makes it unlawful "to use any waters of the state
for the disposal of sewage, industrial wastes, or other wastes", unless they have
been rendered by secondary treatment (conventional biological treatment processes)
to a degree consistent with the conditions of an issued permit, classification appli-
cable to the receiving stream and the rules and regulations of the Board.
20?
-------
(Georgia)
The State of Georgia also defines exactly what the Board is to consider as pollution:
"'Pollution1 means any alteration of the physical, chemical, or bio-
logical properties of the waters of this state, including change of tem-
perature, taste, or odor of the waters, or the addition of any liquid,
solid, radioactive, gaseous, or other substances to the waters or the
removal of such substances from the waters, which will render or is
likely to render the waters harmful to the public health, safety, or
welfare, or harmful or substantially less useful for domestic, munici-
pal, industrial, agricultural, recreational, or other lawful uses, or
for animals, birds, or aquatic life." (A37)
If the Board finds a person or municipality to be causing pollution or a threat of
pollution, it has the right to issue, through the superior court of the county in which
the violation takes place, an injunction order to cease and desist polluting practic-
es. If a party is found guilty of violating any provision of the Act or does not obey
a court injunction order, said party "shall be guilty of a misdemeanor" and is
therefore to be punished as provided by law. "Each day of continued violation af-
ter conviction shall constitute a separate offense."
There are six "Water Use Classifications" which have been developed by the
Georgia Water Quality Control Board. These are: (a) drinking water supplies,
(b) recreation, (c) fishing, propagation of fish, shellfish, game and other aquatic
life, (d) agricultural, (e) industrial, and (f) navigation.
The State Board of Water Quality Control has promulgated two sets of criteria:
"General Criteria for All Waters" (Table AXII), and "Specific Criteria for Classi-
fied Water Usage" (Table AXII I). The Board, after surveying the state's waters,
classifies a stream according to its use, the streams are classified in decreasing or-
der of quality; that is the best streams are classified as drinking water supplies,
while the lowest quality are reserved for navigation. The "General Criteria" must
be met by all the waters of the state; however, the stream's classification determines
what "Specific Criteria" it must meet. Georgia's standards were approved by the
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration on July 19, 1967.
TABLE AXII. GENERAL CRITERIA FOR ALL WATER
IN THE STATE OF GEORGIA
(a) All waters shall be free from materials associated with municipal or domestic
208
-------
Table AXII (Cont'd.) (Georgia)
sewage, industrial waste or any other waste which will settle to form
sludge deposits that become putrescent, unsightly or otherwise ob-
jectionable.
(b) All waters shall be free from oil, scum and floating debris associated
with municipal or domestic sewage, industrial waste or other discharges
in amounts sufficient to be unsightly or to interfere with legitimate
water uses.
(c) All waters shall be free from material related to municipal, industrial
or other discharges which produce turbidity, color, odor or other
objectionable conditions which interfere with legitimate water uses.
(d) All waters shall be free from toxic, corrosive, acidic and caustic
substances discharged from municipalities, industries or other sources
in amounts, concentrations or combinations which are harmful to humans,
animals or aquatic life.
(e) The maximum permissible concentration of radio-nuclides in the water
of the state must conform to the limits which are cited in Chapter 270,
5-20, "Control of Radio-active Materials", of the Rules and Regula-
tions of the Georgia Department of Public Health.
Source: A38
TABLE AXII I. SPECIFIC CRITERIA FOR CLASSIFIED WATER USAGE
IN THE STATE OF GEORGIA
1. Drinking Water Supplies
(a) Those waters approved by the Georgia Department of Public
Health and requiring only approved disinfection and meeting
the requirements of the latest edition of "Public Health Serv-
ice Drinking Water Standards"; or waters approved by the
Georgia Department of Public Health for human consumption
and food processing or for any other use requiring water of a
lower quality.
Bacteria Fecal coliform not to exceed a mean of
50 per 100 mill Miters (MPN) based on at
209
-------
TableAXIII (Cont'd.) (Georgia)
Bacteria (Cont'd.) least four samples taken over a 30 day
period and not to exceed 200 per 100
milliliters in more than five percent (5%)
of the samples in any 90 day period.
Floating solids, settleable solids, None associated with any waste discharge.
sludge deposits or any taste, odor
or odor producing substances.
Sewage; industrial or other waste None.
(b) Those raw water supplies requiring approved treatment to meet the
requirements of the Georgia Department of Public Health and the
latest edition of "Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards"
or which are approved by the Georgia Department of Public Health
for human consumption and food processing; or for any other use re-
quiring water of a lower quality.
Bacteria Fecal coliform not to exceed a mean of
5,000 per 100 milliliters (MPN) based on
at least four samples taken over a 30 day
period and not to exceed 20,000 per 100
milliliters in more than five percent (5%)
of the samples taken in any 90 day period.
Dissolved oxygen Not less than 4.0 milligrams per liter at
any time; a minimum of 5.0 milligrams
per liter at all times for waters designated
as trout streams by the State Game and
Fish Commission.
pH Within the range of 6.0 - 8.5.
Temperature Not to exceed 93.2 F (34.0 C) at any
time and not to be increased more than
10°F above intake temperature. In
streams designated as trout waters by the
State Game and Fish Commission, there
shall be no elevation or depression of
natural stream temperatures.
No material or substance in such concentration that, after treatment,
210
-------
Table AXIII (Cont'd.)
(Georgia)
Dissolved oxygen
would exceed the requirements of the Georgia Department of
Public Health and the latest edition of "Public Health Service
Drinking Water Standards."
2. Recreation - Genera! recreation activities such as water skiing, boating
and swimming, or for any other use requiring water of a lower quality.
These criteria are not to be interpreted as condoning water contact
sports in proximity to sewage or industrial waste discharges regardless
of treatment requirements imposed on such waters.
Bacteria Fecal cofiform not to exceed a mean of
1,000 per 100 milliliters (MPN) based on
at least four samples taken over a 30 day
period, and not to exceed 4,000 per 100
milliliters in more than five percent (5%)
of samples taken in any 90 day period.
Not less than 4.0 milligrams per liter ex-
cept that those streams designated as trout
waters by the State Game and Fish Com-
mission must have a minimum of 5.0 milli-
grams per liter at all times.
Within the range of 6.0 to 8.5.
None in concentrations that would harm
man, fish and game or other beneficial
aquatic life.
Not to exceed 93.2°F (34.0°C) at any
time and not to be increased more than
10°F above intake temperature. In
streams designated as trout waters by the
State Game and Fish Commission, there
shall be no elevation or depression of
natural stream temperatures.
3. Fishing, propagation of fish, shellfish, game and other aquatic life; or any
other use requiring water of a lower quality.
PH
Toxic wastes and other deleterious
materials.
Temperature
Dissolved oxygen
A minimum of 5.0 milligrams per liter at
all times for streams designated as trout
211
-------
TableAXIII (Cont'd.)
(Georgia)
Dissolved oxygen (Cont'd.)
Bacteria
Bacteria (Applicable only to
shellfish to be commercially
harvested)
Temperature
Toxic wastes and other
deleterious materials
waters by the State Game and Fish Com-
mission; a minimum of 4.0 milligrams per
liter at all times for waters supporting warm
water species of fish.
Within the range of 6.0 to 8.5.
Fecal coliform not to exceed a mean of
5,000 per 100 milIIliters (MPN) based on
at least four samples taken over a 30 day
period and not to exceed 20,000 per 100
milliliters in more than five percent (5%)
of the samples in any 90 day period.
Total Coliform group not to exceed a med-
ian MPN of 70 per 100 milliliters, and
not more than 10 percent (10%) of the
samples shall exceed an MPN of 230 per
100 milliliters for a 5-tube decimal dilu-
tion test (or 330 per 100 milliliters where
a 3-tube decimal dilution is used) in those
areas most probably exposed to fecal con-
tamination during the most unfavorable
hydrographic and pollution conditions.
Not to exceed 93.2°F (34.0°C) at any
time and not to be increased more than
10°F above intake temperature. In
streams designated as trout waters by the
State Game and Fish Commission, there
shall be no elevation or depression of
natural stream temperatures.
None in concentrations that would harm
man, fish and game or other beneficial
aquatic life.
4.
Agricultural - For general agricultural uses such as stock watering and irri-
gating; or for any other use requiring water of a lower quality.
Bacteria
Fecal coliform not to exceed a mean of
10,000 per 100 milliliters (MPN) based on
212
-------
Table AX HI (Cont'd.) (Georgia)
Bacteria (Cont'd.) at least four samples taken over a 30 day
period and not to exceed 40,000 per TOO
mill Miters in more than five percent (5%)
of the samples in any 90 day period.
Dissolved oxygen A daily average of 3.0 milligrams per li-
ter and no less than 2.5 milligrams per
liter at any time.
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 8.5.
Temperature Not to exceed 93.2°F (34.0°C) at any
time and not to be increased more than
10°F above intake temperature.
Toxic substances and other None in concentrations or amounts that
deleterious materials would interfere with or adversely affect
uses for general agricultural purposes or
would prevent fish survival.
5. Industrial - For processing and cooling water with or without special treat-
ment; or for any other use requiring water of a lower quality.
Dissolved oxygen A daily average of 3.0 milligrams per
liter and not less than 2.5 milligrams per
liter at any time.
pH With in the range of 6.0 to 8.5.
Toxic substances and other None in concentrations that would pre-
deleterious materials vent fish survival or interfere with legiti-
mate and beneficial industrial uses.
Temperature Not to exceed 93.2°F (34.0°C) at any
time and not to be increased more than
10°F above intake temperature.
6. Navigation - To provide for commercial ship traffic and protection of seamen
or crews.
Bacteria Feca\ coliform not to exceed a mean of
10,000 per 100 milliliters (MPN) based on
at least four samples taken over a 30 day
period and not to exceed 40,000 per 100
milliliters in more than five percent (5%)
213
-------
TableAXIM (Cont'd.) (Georgia)
Bacteria (Cont'd.) of the samples in any 90 day period.
Dissolved oxygen A daily average of 3.0 milligrams per
liter and not less than 2.5 milligrams per
liter at any time.
pH Within the range of 6.0 to 8.5.
Toxic substances, None in concentrations or amounts that
deleterious materials would damage vessels, prevent fish sur-
vival or otherwise interfere with commer-
cial navigation.
Temperature Not to exceed 93.2°F (34.0°C) at any
time and not to be increased more than
10 F above intake temperature.
Source: A3 8
In Georgia, the textile industry is well distributed throughout the state with a con-
centration of carpet manufacturers in the Dalton area. According to a recent (1966)
Georgia Institute of Technology survey (A39), only eight of the forty-eight mills
use their own treatment facilities and seven used no treatment at all, while the rest
disposed their effluents to city sewers. Due to Georgia's requirement of at least
secondary treatment for all wastes, it is likely those seven have now some form of
treatment, either municipal or their own. When petitioning the Water Quality
Control Board for a permit to treat industrial wastes, besides the engineering dia-
grams, etc., the plans must also include the following information: type of indus-
try; kind and quantity of finished product; amount of waste and sources; quantity of
unpolluted waste water, such as cooling water and provision for separation from
other discharges; description of waste including chemical analysis, amount and kinds
of chemicals used in process; proposed solution to the problem; cost estimates (opera-
tion and maintenance); proficiency and number of personnel needed to assure satis-
factory operation and maintenance, and sufficient charts, tables, calculations, ba-
sis of design data and graphs to make the report readily understandable. This is re-
quired so that when pollution problems exist, the Board can check to see where the
load is coming from. Another reason is to enable the Board to lend its assistance to
firms of a like nature who wish to locate in Georgia. The State also exempts from
ad valorem and poll taxes any equipment used solely for the control of water
pollution.
214
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North Carolina
The "North Carolina Water and Air Resources Act" was passed in 1967. This act is
the state's water and air pollution control act. It provides for the establishment of
a 13 member Board of Water and Air Resources with an auxiliary 9 member Advisory
Board, one each for water and air pollution problems. The act also provides for the
establishment of water quality standards and the classification of the state's surface
waters according to usage. The act empowers the Board to: issue permits for sewage
and industrial waste disposal; set water quality standards for each watershed, and to
modify these from time to time as the Board sees fit; to conduct hearings; and to pro-
vide for the granting of Federal and State funds to municipalities. The Board has
empowered itself to lend municipalities, counties and firms trained engineers and
chemists to assist in the design, operation and maintenance of waste treatment fa-
cilities. The Board's technicians are also available to assist in special studies to
determine degree and type of treatment required for a specific effluent.
In the Act, the General Assembly of North Carolina declares as public policy "to
provide for the conservation of water and air resources to achieve and to main-
tain for the citizens of the state a total environment of superior quality."
The Board of Water and Air Resources has the responsibility of enforcing compliance
to the standards it has set for the various streams in the state. In order to fulfill
this obligation, the Board requires sewage plants and individually owned treatment
facilities to have a discharge permit and to allow regular routine inspection of its
sites by Board engineers and inspectors. If a person or municipality is found to be
violating conditions of a permit, causing pollution, or violating any provision of
the Water and Air Resources Act, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be
liable to a penalty of not less than one hundred dollars ($100.00) nor more than one
thousand dollars ($1,000.00) for each violation, depending on the seriousness of the
violation. Willful violation can be adjudged by the court as a separate violation for
each day of violation.
The State of North Carolina requires that all wastes receive the degree of treatment
that may be necessary to prevent violation of the assigned classification of the re-
ceiving stream. The minimum degree of treatment specified by the Board of Water
and Air Resources is secondary treatment (A40).
There are two broad classifications of North Carolina waters: fresh surface and ti-
dal salt waters (defined as "all tidal waters which are so designated by the Board of
Water and Air Resources and which generally have a natural chloride ion content in
excess of 500 parts per million" (A41). Table I lists the "Fresh Surface Water Clas-
sifications and Standards of Water Quality Applied Thereto", and Table II lists the
"Tidal Salt Water Classifications and Standards of Water Quality Applied Thereto."
These standards have been approved by the Federal Water Pollution Control Admin-
istration.
215
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(North Carolina)
TABLE AXIV. FRESH SURFACE WATER CLASSIFICATION
AND STANDARDS OF WATER QUALITY APPLIED THERETO
Class A-l:
1.
2.
3.
Best Usage of Waters: Source of water supply for drinking, culinary or food
processing purposes or any other usage requiring water of lower
quality.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: The waters, if subjected to approved
treatment equal to coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and
disinfection, with additional treatment if necessary to remove
naturally present impurities will meet the "Public Health
Service Drinking Water Standards" and will be considered safe
for drinking, culinary or food-process ing purposes.
Quality Standards for Class A-ll Waters:
Items
Floating solids; settleable
solids; sludge deposits.
Sewage, industrial or
other wastes.
Odor-producing substances
contained in sewage,
industrial or other
wastes.
Specifications
Only such amounts attributable to sew-
age, industrial wastes or other wastes as
will not, after reasonable opportunity for
dilution and mixture of same with the re-
ceiving waters, make the waters unsafe or
unsuitable as a source of water supply for
drinking, culinary or food-process ing
purposes, injurious to fish and wildlife, or
impair the waters for any other best usage
established for this class.
None which are not effectively treated to
the satisfaction of the Board and in ac-
cordance with the requirements of the
State Board of Health.
Only such amounts, whether alone or in
combination with other substances or
wastes, as will not, after reasonable op-
portunity for dilution and mixture of same
with the receiving waters, cause taste and
odor difficulties in water supplies which
216
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Table AXIV (Cont'd.)
(North Carolina)
3. Odor-producing (Cont'd.)
substances...
4. Phenolic compounds
5. PH
8.
Total hardness
Dissolved oxygen
Toxic wastes; oils;
deleterious substances;
colored or other wastes
9. Organisms of coliform group
Temperature
cannot be corrected by treatment as spe-
cified under "Conditions Related to Best
Usage", impair the portability of fish,
or have a deleterious effect upon any best
usage established for waters of this class.
Not greater than 3.0 parts per billion
(phenols).
Shall be normal for the waters In the area,
which generally range between 6.0 and
8.5 except that swamp waters may have a
low of 4.3.
Not greater than 100 parts per million
as CaCO3.
Not less than 5.0 parts per million for
trout producing waters; not less than 4.0
parts per million for non-trout waters ex-
cept that swamp waters may have a mini-
mum of 3.0 parts per million.
Only such amounts, whether alone or in
combination with other substances or
wastes as will not render the waters unsafe
or unsuitable as a source of water supply
for drinking, culinary or food-processing
purposes, injurious to fish and wildlife or
adversely affect the portability of same,
or impair the waters for any other best
usage established for this class.
Not to exceed 5,000/100 mi 11 Miters as a
monthly average value (either M. P. N. or
M. F. count); nor exceed this number in
more than 20% of the samples examined
during any one month; nor exceed 20,000/
100 mil I Miters in more than five percent
(5%) of such samples.
Not to exceed 7°F above the ambient
217
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Table AXIV (Cont'd.)
10. Temperature (Cont'd.)
(North Carolina)
11. Radioactive substances
1,
2.
stream or water temperature and in no
case to exceed 95°F. The temperature of
trout producing waters shall not exceed
70°F due to the discharge of heated
liquids.
Gross beta activity (in the known absence
of Strontium-90 and alpha emitters) not to
exceed 1,000 picocuries per liter.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: This class is intended primarily for waters
having water sheds which are uninhabited and otherwise protected
as required by the State Board of Health and which require only
approved disinfection, with additional treatment when necessary
to remove naturally present impurities, in order to meet the "Pub-
lic Health Service Drinking Water Standards" and will be consi-
dered safe for drinking, culinary, and food-process ing purposes.
Quality Standards for Class A-l Waters:
Items Specifications
Floating solids; settleable
solids; sludge deposits; taste
or odor-producing substances
Sewage; industrial or other
wastes
Toxic wastes; oils; deleterious
substances; colored or other
wastes.
Organisms of coliform group
5. Radioactive substances
None attributable to sewage, industrial
wastes or other wastes.
None.
None.
Not to exceed 50/100 milliliters (either
M. P. N. or M. F. count) as a monthly
average value.
Gross beta activity (in the known absence
of Strontium-90 and alpha emitters) not to
exceed 1,000 picocuries per liter at any
time.
218
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Table AXIV (Cont'd.) (North Carolina)
NOTE 1: In determining the safety or suitability of waters in this class for use as a
source of water supply for drinking, culinary or food-processing purposes
after approved disinfection, the Board will be guided by the physical,
chemical and bacteriological standards specified in the 1962 edition of
the "Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards" and the require-
ments of the State Board of Health as set forth in Section 5, "Protection
of Unfiltered Public Water Supplies", of the Rules and Regulations Pro-
viding for the Protection of Public Water Supplies as adopted October 6,
1960 and amended May 9, 1962, August 26, 1965 and October 12, 1967.
Class A-ll:
Best Usage of Waters: Source of water supply for drinking, culinary or food-
processing purposes and any other best usage requiring waters of
lower quality.
NOTE 1: In determining the safety or suitability of waters in this class for use as a
source of water supply for drinking, culinary, or food-processing purposes
after approved treatment; the Board will be guided by the physical, chem-
ical and bacteriological standards specified in the 1962 edition of the
"Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards."
NOTE 2: It is recognized that certain toxic substances will seriously affect fish
life; however, the establishment of a single numerical standard for
North Carolina waters would be too restrictive. In view of this and
since there are many waters which, because of poor buffering capacity
and composition will require special consideration, limiting values for
such toxic materials will be established on the basis of the characteris-
tics of the particular waters under consideration.
Class B:
Best Usage of Waters: Bathing and any other usage except as source of
water supply for drinking, culinary or food-processing purposes.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: The waters, under proper sanitary super-
vision by the controlling health authorities, will meet accepted
standards of water quality for outdoor bathing places and will be
considered safe and satisfactory for bathing purposes. Also,
suitable for other uses requiring waters of lower quality.
219
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Table AXIV (Cont'd.)
(North Carolina)
Quality Standards for Class B Waters:
Items
1.
Floating solids; settleable
solids; sludge deposits
2.
Sewage, industrial or
other wastes
3. Phenolic compounds
4. PH
5. Dissolved oxygen
6. Toxic wastes; oils;
deleterious substances;
colored or other wastes
Specifications
Only such amounts attributable to sew-
age, industrial wastes or other wastes as
will not, after reasonable opportunity for
dilution and mixture of same with the re-
ceiving waters, make the waters unsafe or
unsuitable for bathing, injurious to fish
and wildlife, or impair the waters for any
other best usage established for this class.
None which are not effectively treated to
the satisfaction of the Board. In determin-
ing the degree of treatment required for
such waste when discharged into waters to
be used for bathing, the Board will take
into consideration the quantity and qual-
ity of the sewage and wastes involved and
the proximity of such discharges to the
waters of this class.
Not to exceed 3.0 parts per billion
(phenols).
Shall be normal for the waters in the area,
which generally range between 6.0 and
8.5, except that swamp waters may have
a low of 4.3.
Not less than 5.0 parts per million for
trout producing waters; and not less than
4.0 parts per million for non-trout waters,
except that swamp waters may have a
minimum of 3.0 parts per million.
Only such amounts, whether alone or in
combination with other substances or
wastes as will not render the waters un-
safe or unsuitable for bathing, injurious
to fish and wildlife or adversely affect the
220
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Table AXIV (Cont'd.) (North Carolina)
6. Toxic wastes, etc. palatability of same, or impair the waters
(Cont'd.) for any other best usage established for
this class.
7. Organisms of coliform group Fecal coliform not to exceed an average
(Applicable only during the of 200/100 milliliters (either M. P. N. or
months of May through M. F. count) based on at least five conse-
September) cutive samples examined during any 30-
day period and not to exceed 400/100
milliliters in more than twenty percent
(20%) of the samples, examined during
any 30-day period.
8. Temperature Not to exceed 7 F above the ambient
stream or water temperature, and in no
case to exceed 9^F. The temperature of
trout producing waters shall not exceed
70 F due to the discharge of heated
liquids.
NOTE 1: Refer to Note 2, under Class A-ll.
NOTE 2: In assigning this classification to waters intended for bathing, the Board
will take into consideration the relative proximity of sources of pollution
and will recognize the potential hazards involved in locating swimming
areas close to sources of pollution and will not assign this classification
to waters, the bacterial quality of which is dependent solely upon ade-
quate disinfection, and where the interruption of such treatment would
render the water unsafe for bathing.
Class C:
Best Usage of Waters: Fishing and any other usage except for bathing or as a
source of water supply for drinking, culinary or food-process ing
purposes.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: The waters will be suitable for fish and
wildlife propagation; also, suitable for other uses requiring waters
of lower quality.
221
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Table AXIV (Cont'd.)
(North Carolina)
Quality Standards for Class C Waters:
Items
1. Floating solids; settleable
solids; sludge deposits
2. pH
3. Dissolved oxygen
4. Toxic wastes; oils;
deleterious substances;
colored or other wastes
5. Organisms of coliform group
(Applicable only to waters
designated by the Board for
irrigation "of fruits and
vegetables.)
6. Temperature
Specifications
Only such amounts attributable to sew-
age, industrial wastes or other wastes as
will not, after reasonable opportunity for
dilution and mixture of same with the re-
ceiving waters, make the waters unsafe or
unsuitable for fish and wildlife, or impair
the waters for any other best usage estab-
lished for this class.
Shall be normal for the waters in the area,
which generally range between 6.0 and
8.5, except that swamp waters may have
a low of 4.3.
Not less than 5.0 parts per million for
trout producing waters; not less than 4.0
parts per million for non-trout waters,
except that swamp waters may have a
minimum of 3.0 parts per million.
Only such amounts, whether alone or in
combination with other substances or
wastes as will not render the waters inju-
rious to fish and wildlife or adversely af-
fect the portability of same, or impair
the waters for any other best usage estab-
lished for this class.
Not to exceed an average of 5,000/100
milliliters (either M.P.N. or M. F. count)
based on at least five consecutive samples
examined during any 30-day period and
not to exceed 20,000/100 milliliters in
any sample during such period.
Not to exceed 7°F above the ambient
stream or water temperature and in no
case to exceed 95°F. The temperature of
222
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Table AXIV (Cont'd.)
6. Temperature (Cont'd.)
(North Carolina)
trout producing waters shall not exceed
70 F due to the discharge of heated
liquids.
NOTE 1: Refer to Note 2, under Class A-ll.
Class D:
Best Usage of Waters: Agriculture, industrial cooling and process water sup-
ply, fish survival, navigation and any other usage, except fishing,
bathing, or as a source of water supply for drinking, culinary or
food-processing purposes.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: The waters without treatment and except
for natural impurities which may be present therein will be suitable
for agricultural uses and will permit fish survival. The waters will
also be useable after special treatment by the user as may be need-
ed under each particular circumstance for industrial purposes, in-
cluding cooling and process waters.
Quality Standards for Class D Waters:
Items
1.
Floating solids; settleable
solids; sludge deposits
2. pH
3. Dissolved oxygen
4. Toxic wastes; oils-
deleterious substances;
colored or other wastes
Specifications
Only such amounts attributable to sewage,
industrial wastes or other wastes as will
not, after reasonable opportunity for dilu-
tion and mixture of same with the receiv-
ing waters render the waters unsuitable for
agriculture, industrial cooling purposes
and fish survival, or cause an offensive
condition.
Shall be normal for the waters in the area,
which generally shall range between 6.0
and 8.5, except that swamp waters may
have a low of 4.3.
Not less than 3.0 parts per million.
Only such amounts attributable to sewage,
industrial wastes or other wastes as will
not render the waters unsuitable for agri-
223
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Table AXIV (Cont'd.) (North Carolina)
4. Toxic wastes, etc. culture/ industrial cooling purposes, navi-
(Cont'd.) gation, and fish survival, or cause offen-
sive conditions.
5. Organisms of coliform group Not to exceed an average of 5,000/100
(Applicable only to waters milliliters (either M. P. N. or M. F. count)
designated by the Board for based on at least five consecutive samples
irrigation of fruits and examined during any 30-day period and
vegetables.) not to exceed 20,000/100 milliliters in
any sample examined during such period.
6. Temperature Not to exceed 7°F above the ambient
stream or water temperature, and in no
case to exceed 95 F.
NOTE 1: Refer to Note 2, under Class A-lt.
Source: A42
TABLE AXV. TIDAL SALT WATER CLASSIFICATIONS
AND THE STANDARD OF WATER QUALITY APPLIED THERETO
Class SA:
Best Usage of Waters: Shellfishing for market purposes and any other usage
requiring waters of lower quality.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: Waters will meet the sanitary and bac-
teriological standards given in the 1965 revision of the "National
Shellfish Sanitation Program Manual of Operations: Part I, Sani-
tation of Shellfish Growing Areas", recommended by the Public
Health Service and will be considered safe and suitable for shell-
fish culture.
Quality Standards for Class SA Waters:
Items Specifications
1. Floating solids; settleable None attributable to sewage, industrial
solids; sludge deposits wastes or other wastes.
224
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Table AXV (Cont'd.)
(North Carolina)
2. Sewage, industrial or
other wastes
3. PH
4. Dissolved oxygen
5. Toxic wastes; oils;
deleterious substances;
colored or other wastes
6. Organisms of coliform group
7. Temperature
None which are not effectively treated to
the satisfaction of the Board and in accord-
ance with the requirements of the State
Board of Health.
Range between 6.8 and 8.5.
Not less than 4.0 parts per million, ex-
cept that swamp waters may have a mini-
mum of 3.0 parts per million.
Only such amounts, whether alone or in
combination with other substances or
wastes as will not make the waters unsafe
or unsuitable for fish and shellfish or their
propagation, impair the palatability of
same, or impair the waters for any other
best usage established for this class.
Total coliform group not to exceed a med-
ian M.P.N. of 70/100 milliliters and not
more than 10% of the samples shall ex-
ceed an M.P.N. of 230/100 milliliters for
a 5-tube decimal dilution test (or 330/100
milliliters where a 3-tube decimal dilu-
tion is used) in those areas most probably
exposed to fecal contamination during the
most unfavorable hydrographic and pollu-
tion conditions.
Not to exceed 7 F above the ambient
stream or water temperature and in no
case to exceed 95°F.
NOTE 1: Refer to Note 2, under Class A-ll.
Class SB:
Best Usage of Waters: Bathing, and any other usage except shellfishing for
market purposes.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: The waters, under proper sanitary super-
225
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Table AXV (Cont'd.)
(North Carolina)
Class SB
(cont'd)
1.
2.
5.
6.
vision by the controlling health authorities, will meet accepted
sanitary standards of water quality for outdoor bathing places and
will be considered safe and satisfactory for bathing purposes.
Quality Standards for Class SB Waters:
Items
Floating solids; settleable
solids; sludge deposits
Sewage, industrial or
other wastes
3. pH
4. Dissolved oxygen
Toxic wastes; oils;
deleterious substances;
colored or other wastes
Organisms of coliform group
(Applicable only during
months of May through
September)
Specifications
None attributable to sewage, industrial
wastes or other wastes.
None which are not effectively treated to
the satisfaction of the Board. In deter-
mining the degree of treatment required
for such wastes when discharged into wa-
ters to be used for bathing, the Board will
take into consideration the quantity and
quality of the sewage and wastes involved
and the proximity of such discharges to the
waters in this class.
Shall be normal for the waters in the area,
which generally range between 6.0 and
8.5, except that swamp waters may have
a low of 4.3.
Not less than 4.0 parts per million, ex-
cept that swamp waters may have a mini-
mum of 3.0 parts per million.
Only such amounts, whether alone or in
combination with other substances or wastes
as will not make the waters unsafe or un-
suitable for bathing, injurious to fish or
shellfish, or adversely affect thepalatabil-
ity of same, or impair the waters for any
other best usage established for this class.
Fecal coliform not to exceed an average
of 200/100 milliliters (either M. P.N. or
M. F. count) based on at least five con-
secutive samples examined during any
226
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Table AXV (Cont'd.)
(North Carolina)
6. Organisms of col iform
(Cont'd.)
30-day period and not to exceed 400/100
milliliters in more than twenty percent
(20%) of the samples examined during any
30-day period.
Not to exceed 7°F above the ambient
stream or water temperature, and in no
7. Temperature
case to exceed 95°F.
NOTE 1: Refer to Note 2, under Class B.
NOTE 2: Refer, to Note 2, under Class A-ll.
Class SC:
Best Usage of Waters: Fishing,and any other usage except bathing or shell-
fishing for market purposes.
Conditions Related to Best Usage: The waters will be suitable for fishing and
fish propagation. Also, suitable for other uses requiring waters of
lower quality.
Items
Quality Standards for Class SC Waters:
Specifications
1.
Floating solids; settleable solids;
sludge deposits
2. pH
Only such amounts attributable to sewage,
industrial wastes or other wastes as will
not, after reasonable opportunity for dilu-
tion and mixture of same with the receiv-
ing waters, make the waters unsafe or un-
suitable for fish, shellfish and wildlife, or
impair the waters for any other best usage
established for this class.
Shall be normal for the waters in the area,
which generally range between 6.0 and
8.5, except that swamp waters may have
a minimum of 4.3.
3. Dissolved oxygen
Not less than 4.0 parts per million
cept that swamp waters may have
, ex-
a mini-
22?
-------
Table AXV (Cont'd.)
(North Carolina)
3. Dissolved oxygen (cont'd.) mum of 3.0 parts per million.
4. Toxic wastes; oils;
deleterious substances;
colored or other wastes
5. Organisms of coliform group
(Applicable only to waters
designated by the Board for
irrigation of fruits and
vegetables)
6. Temperature
Only such amounts, whether alone or in
combination with other substances or
wastes as will not render the waters inju-
rious to fish and shellfish, adversely affect
the palatability of same, or impair the
waters for any other best usage established
for this class,
Not to exceed an average of 5,000/100
milliliters (either M. P. N. or M. F. count)
based on at least five consecutive samples
examined during any 30-day period, and
not to exceed 20,000/100 milliliters in
any sample examined during such period.
Not to exceed 7°F above the ambient
stream or water temperature, and in no
case to exceed 95°F.
NOTE 1: Refer to Note 2, under Class A-ll.
Source: A42
North Carolina provides for rapid amortization of industrial waste treatment works,
permitting write-off in five years and, in addition, exempts industrial waste treat-
ment facilities from personal property and local ad valorem taxes forever. (A43)
In North Carolina, the textile industry is concentrated in the central portion of the
state. No extensive studies concerning textile waste treatment in this state are
available. Some large textile operations such as American Enka Corporation in
Enka (A44) and Burlington's Cooleemee Plant (A45) have erected their own treat-
ment plants in order for their wastes to be allowed discharge in local streams. In
towns such as Greensboro and Kannapolis (A46), there is a mixing of both domestic
sewage and industrial waste.
228
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South Carolina
The "South Carolina Pollution Control Law" first passed in 1950 and amended in
1962, 1965 and again in 1969, governs air and water pollution in the State. In
passing this law, the General Assembly of South Carolina has declared:
"to be the public policy of the State that reasonable standards of
purity of the waters of the State be maintained, consistent with
public health, the public enjoyment of such waters, the propaga-
tion and protection of fish, shellfish and wildlife, the operation of
existing industries and the future industrial development of the State
with a reasonable balance of consideration of the public welfare and,
to that end, that the use of reasonable methods to prevent and control
pollution of the waters be required." (A47)
The law created within the State Health Department a ten-member Pollution Control
Authority of South Carolina. The Authority is empowered to: establish stream use
classifications and water quality standards; safeguard the waters of the state from
pollution; make, revoke, or modify orders requiring the discontinuance of the dis-
charge of sewage, industrial or other wastes into any waters of the state; institute
legal proceedings to compel compliance with the provisions of this Law; issue,
continue in effect or deny permits for waste disposal or for the installation or oper-
ation of disposal systems; conduct such investigations as it deems advisable and
necessary; cooperate with the federal government and other state governments in
respect to pollution control matters; conduct research with respect to pollution
abatement or control problems; serve as the agency of the state for the receipt of
moneys from the federal government or other public or private agencies and expand
them for pollution control research or otherwise; and to perform such other and fur-
ther acts as may be necessary to carry out effectively the duties and responsibilities
of the Authority prescribed by this law.
The Authority requires the possession of a permit for the discharge of sewage, indus-
trial or other wastes to streams of the state; and also, for the construction, opera-
tion or improvement of new or existing water waste treatment facilities. Any person
or municipality found guilty of violating this provision of the law, any other provi-
sion of the law or in any way contributing to the pollution of South Carolina rivers
and streams, is "guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction shall be fined not
less than five hundred dollars, nor more than five thousand dollars, or be imprisoned
for not more than two years, or both " (A48) with each day's violation to be con-
sidered a separate offense. In addition,
"Any person who discharges organic or inorganic matter into the waters
of this State to the extent that the fish, shellfish, aquatic animals,
wildlife or plant life indigenous to or dependent upon the receiving
229
-------
(South Carolina)
waters are damaged or destroyed shall be liable to the state for a
penalty equal to the value of the damage caused, which shall be
recovered in a suit brought by the state in its own name or in the
name of the Authority.
The amount of any judgment for damages recovered, less cost/shall
be remitted to the agency, commission, department or political sub-
division of the state that has jurisdiction over the fish, shellfish,
aquatic animals, wildlife or plant life damaged or destroyed." (A48)
In classifying the waters of South Carolina, the Pollution Control Authority has es-
tablished classes for both the fresh surface waters of the state (Table AXVI) and its
tidal salt waters (Table AXVII).
TABLE AXVI. ESTABLISHED CLASSES FOR FRESH SURFACE WATERS
AND THE STANDARDS OF QUALITY AND PURITY
WHICH SHALL BE APPLIED THERETO
Class AA
Waters meeting S. C. State Board of Health requirements as suitable for
use for domestic and food processing purposes with disinfection as only
treatment required. Suitable also for uses requiring waters of lesser
quality.
Quality Standards for Class AA Waters
Items Specifications
1. Sewage or waste effluents. None.
2. Dissolved oxygen. Not less than 5 mg./l.
3. Toxic wastes, deleterious None in amounts to exceed limitations set
substances, colored or forth in the latest edition of U.S. Public
other wastes. Health Service Drinking Water Standards.
4. Fecal coliform. Not to exceed 20/100 ml. as a monthly
arithmetic average.
5. Temperature. Not to exceed 93.2°F at any time, after
230
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Table AXVI (Cont'd.) (South Carolina)
5. Temperature (cont'd.) adequate mixing of heated and normal
water, as the result of the discharge of
heated liquids, nor shall the water tem-
perature in a zone of adequate mixing be
more than 10°F greater than that of water
unaffected by the heated discharge.
PROVIDED: That hydraulic conditions at
the point of discharge are arranged so
that there is an unheated zone for fish
passage between the point of discharge
and the zone of adequate mixing.
6. pH.
Class A
Range between 6.0 and 8.0 except that
swamp waters may range from pH 5.0 to
PH 8.0.
Waters meeting S. C. State Board of Health requirements as suitable
for use as swimming waters. Suitable also for other uses requiring
waters of lesser quality.
Quality Standards for Class A Waters
Items Specifications
1. Fecal Coliform. Not to exceed a geometric mean of
200/100 ml. nor shall more than 10% of
the total samples during any 30 day
period exceed 400/100 ml.
2. Phenolic compounds. Not greater than 1 microgram per liter,
unless caused by natural conditions.
3. pH. Range between 6.0 and 8.0 except that
swamp waters may range from pH 5.0 to
pH 8.0.
4. Dissolved oxygen. Not less than 5 mg./l., except that
swamp waters may have a low of
2.5 mg./l.
231
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Table AXVI (Cont'd.) (South Carolina)
5. Temperature. Not to exceed 93.2°F at any time, after
adequate mixing of heated and normal
water, as the result of the discharge of
heated liquids, nor shall the water tem-
perature in a zone of adequate mixing be
more than IO°F greater than that of water
unaffected by the heated discharge.
PROVIDED: That hydraulic conditions at
the point of discharge are arranged so that
there is an unheated zone for fish passage
between the point of discharge and the
zone of adequate mixing.
Class B
Waters suitable for domestic supply after complete treatment in accord-
ance with requirements of the S. C. State Board of Health. Suitable
also for uses requiring water of lesser quality.
Quality Standards for Class B Waters
Items Specifications
1. Fecal coliform. Not to exceed 2000/100 ml. as a monthly
arithmetic average.
2. pH. Range between 6.0 and 8.0, except that
swamp waters may range from pH 5.0 to
pHS.O.
3. Dissolved oxygen. Not less than 4.0 mg./l. except that
swamp waters may have a low of
2.5 mg./l.
4. Phenolic compounds. Not greater than 1 microgram per liter
unless caused by natural conditions.
5. Temperature. Not to exceed 93.2°F at any time, after
adequate mixing of heated and normal
water, as the result of the discharge of
heated liquids, nor shall the water tem-
perature in a zone of adequate mixing be
232
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Table AXVI (Cont'd.)
5. Temperature (conrd.)
(South Carolina)
more than 10°F greater than that of water
unaffected by the heated discharge.
PROVIDED: That hydraulic conditions at
the point of discharge are arranged so that
there is an unheated zone for fish passage
between the point of discharge and the
zone of adequate mixing.
Class C
1.
Waters suitable for propagation of fish, industrial and agricultural
uses and other uses requiring water of lesser quality.
Quality Standards for Class C Waters
Specifications
Range between 6.0 and 8.5, except that
swamp waters may range between 5.0
and 8.5.
2. Dissolved oxygen.
Temperature.
Not less than 4 mg./l., except that
swamp waters may have a low of 2.5
mg./l.
Not to exceed 93.2°F at any time, after
adequate mixing of heated and normal
water, as the result of the discharge of
heated liquids, nor shall the water tem-
perature in a zone of adequate mixing be
more than 10 F greater than that of water
unaffected by the heated discharge.
PROVIDED: That hydraulic conditions at
the point of discharge are arranged so that
there is an unheated zone for fish passage
between the point of discharge and the
zone of adequate mixing.
233
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Table AXVI (Cont'd.) (South Carolina)
Class Ca
Waters suitable for fish survival*, industrial and agricultural uses and
other uses requiring water of lesser quality.
Quality Standards for Class CQ Waters
Items Specifications
1. pH. Range between 6.0 and 8.5, except that
swamp waters may range between 5.0
and 8.5.
2. Dissolved oxygen. Not less than 3.0 mg./l., except that
swamp waters may have a low of
2.5 mg./l.
3. Temperature. Not to exceed 93.2°F at any time, after
adequate mixing of heated and normal
water, as the result of the discharge of
heated liquids, nor shall the water tem-
perature in a zone of adequate mixing
be more than 10 F greater than that of
water unaffected by the heated discharge.
PROVIDED: That hydraulic conditions at
the point of discharge are arranged so
that there is an unheated zone for fish
passage between the point of discharge
and the zone of adequate mixing.
* "Fish Survival" as used in this standard means the continued existence of
individual fish normally indigenous to waters of this type.
To apply only to streams receiving waste prior to May 4, 1950, and not
to be applied to streams with a 7 day once in 10 years occurrence flow
of more than 22.5 mgd.
Source: A49, p. 5-8
234
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(South Carolina)
TABLE AXVII. ESTABLISHED CLASSES FOR TIDAL SALT WATERS
AND THE STANDARDS OF QUALITY AND PURITY
WHICH SHALL BE APPLIED THERETO
Class SA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Wafers suitable for she 11 fish ing for market purposes and any other usages.
Suitable also for uses requiring water of lesser quality.
Items
Garbage, cinders, ashes, oils,
sludge or other refuse.
Sewage or waste effluents.
Dissolved oxygen.
Toxic wastes,
deleterious substances,
colored or other wastes.
Quality Standards for Class SA Waters
Specifications
None.
Organisms of coliform group.
PH.
None which are not effectively
disinfected.
Not less than 5.0 mg./I.
None alone or in combination with other
substances or wastes in sufficient amounts
as to be injurious to edible fish or shell-
fish or the culture or propagation thereof,
or which in any manner shall adversely
affect the flavor, color, odor, or sanitary
condition thereof or impair the waters for
any other best usage as determined for the
specific waters which are assigned to this
class.
Shall meet U. S. Public Health Service
Standards (1965 Revision).
Shall not vary more than 3/10 of a pH
unit above or below that of effluent-free
waters in the same geographical area hav-
ing a similar total salinity, alkalinity and
temperature.
235
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Table AXVII (Cont'd.)
(South Carolina)
7. Temperature.
Class SB
Fall, winter, spring, no more than 4°F
above natural. Summer, no more than
1.5°F above natural.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Waters suitable For bathing and any other usages except shellfishing for
market purposes. Suitable also for uses requiring water of less quality.
Items
Quality Standards for Class SB Waters
Specifications
Garbage, cinders, ashes, oils, None.
sludge or other refuse.
Sewage or waste effluents.
Dissolved oxygen.
Toxic wastes,
deleterious substances,
colored or other wastes.
Fecal coliform.
PH.
None which are not effectively
disinfected.
Not less than 5.0 mg./l.
None alone or in combination with other
substances or wastes in sufficient amounts
as to be injurious to edible fish or the
culture or propagation thereof, or which
in any manner shall adversely affect the
flavor, color, odor or sanitary condition
thereof; to make the waters unsafe or un-
suitable for bathing or impair the waters
for any other best usage as determined for
the specific waters which are assigned to
this class.
Not to exceed a geometric mean of
200/100 ml. nor shall more than 10% of
the samples in any 30 day period exceed
400/100 ml.
Shall not vary more than one-half of a pH
unit above or below that of effluent-free
waters in the same geographical area hav-
ing a similar total salinity, alkalinity,
236
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Table AXVII (Cont'd.)
6. PH (Cont'd.)
7. Temperature.
Class SC
(South Carolina)
and temperature, but not lower than
6.75 or above 8.5.
Fall, winter, spring, no more than 4°F
above natural. Summer, no more than
1.5 F above natural.
1.
Waters suitable for crabbing, commercial fishing and any other usages
except bathing or other shellfishing for market purposes. Suitable also
for uses requiring water of lesser quality.
Quality Standards for Class SC Waters
Items
Garbage, cinders, ashes, oils,
sludge or other refuse.
2. Dissolved oxygen.
3. Toxic wastes, oils,
deleterious substances,
colored or other wastes.
4. Temperature.
5. pH.
Specifications
None.
Not less than 4.0 mg./l.
None alone or in combination with other
substances or wastes in sufficient amounts
as to be injurious to edible fish or the
culture or propagation thereof, or which
in any manner shall adversely affect the
flavor, color, odor, or sanitary condition
of fish or impair the waters for any other
best usage as determined for the specific
waters which are assigned to this class.
Fall, winter, spring, no more than 4°F
above natural. Summer, no more than
1.5°F above natural.
Shall not vary more than one pH unit
above or below that of effluent-free wa-
ters in the same geographical area having
a similar total salinity, alkalinity and
temperature but not lower than 6.75 or
above 8.5.
Source: A50, p. 1-3
237
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(South Carolina)
Together with these standards for water quality and purity, South Carolina has a
number of general rules which apply to all the waters of the state. They have been
established to "maintain in the waters of South Carolina a water quality sufficient
for the survival and general well-being of fish and other aquatic life during periods
of migration and passage" (A51).
These rules require all bio-degradable waste, prior to discharge to state streams, to
receive a minimum of secondary treatment, and all other wastes an equivalent degree
of treatment. Another provision of the special rules section is that waters which are
subject to effluent discharges and are of a different classificafion than waters into
which they flow, will carry a classification supplemented by the following stipula-
tion: "The quality of any waters receiving sewage, industrial wastes or other waste
discharges shall be such that no impairment of the best usage of waters in any other
class shall occur by reason of such sewage, or industrial waste discharge" (A51).
The general rules also state that "the waters of the state shall at all times be free
from:
1. Substances attributable to sewage, industrial waste, or other
waste that will settle to form sludge deposits that are unsightly,
putrescent or odorous to such degree as to create a nuisance, or
that interfere directly or indirectly with water uses;
2. Floating debris, oil, grease, scum, and other floating materials
attributable to sewage, industrial waste, or other waste in
amounts sufficient to be unsightly to such a degre as to create a
nuisance, or that interefere directly or indirectly with water
uses;
3. Materials attributable to sewage, industrial waste, or other
waste which produce taste, odor, or change the existing color
or other physical and chemical conditions in the receiving
stream to such a degree as to create a nuisance, or that inter-
fere directly or indirectly with water uses; and
4. High-temperature, toxic, corrosive or other deleterious sub-
stances attributable to sewage, industrial waste, or other
wastes in concentrations or combinations which interfere di-
rectly or indirectly with water uses, or which are harmful to
human, animal, plant or aquatic life" (A51).
The State of South Carolina exempts from property taxes any facilities used for
pollution control.
238
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(South Carolina)
The Textile Industry is well spread across South Carolina, with a particularly
heavy concentration in the vicinity of Greenville. In a comprehensive study on
water use, waste treatment and water pollution in South Carolina manufacturing
plants, the Water Resources Research Institute of Clemson University (A52) studied
the seventy-one textile dyeing and finishing plants in the state. They found that
twenty-two firms dispose of their water waste to city sewers, this is particularly
true in Greenville and other large cities. Thirty-eight plants provide some form of
treatment before final discharge into streams. They found eleven firms that were at
that time (1967) not treating their wastes before direct discharge to streams (A52).
A list of these firms compiled by the South Carolina Pollution Control Authority,
and sent to the above mentioned research organization, showed that nine of the
firms were actively engaged in planning to provide for the necessary treatment of
their wastes.
Tennessee
The "Tennessee Stream Pollution Control Law" is that state's statute governing the
control of water pollution. It was first passed in 1945 and has had several minor
revisions, Under the law, the Stream Pollution Control Board was created and in-
stituted as an agency of the State Board of Health. This Pollution Control Board
consists of seven members and has the following powers: to exercise general super-
vision over the administration and enforcement of all laws relating to pollution of
the waters of the state; conduct experiments, investigations and research to discov-
er methods of preventing pollution; receive and expend any monies whic,h it may be
allored; issue general orders and adopt rules and regulations for the means of con-
trolling pollution; conduct stream surveys; set, modify and change stream use clas-
sifications and water quality standards; enter into agreements with the federal and
other state governments to control pollution; and review applications for permits,
issue new permits, or modify and revoke existing ones.
For permission to collect, treat and dispose of sewage or industrial wastes in Ten-
nessee, a person or municipality must obtain a permit; a permit is also needed for
the right to renovate in any manner existing waste treatment facilities. Each per-
mit issued will stipulate both the conditions under which the discharge may take
place and the time during which such discharge may be permitted. The owners of
Permits must submit reports and records of their operation as deemed necessary by
the Public Health Department and allow such inspections and investigations as the
Pollution Control Board deems necessary. If the conditions of the permit are found
to have been violated, the facility will be given 30 days to take corrective action
before the permit is revoked (A53).
If a person or municipality is responsible for causing pollution, they will be requir-
239
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(Tennessee)
ed to appear at a hearing before the Pollution Control Board and answer the charges
against them. If four or more members of the Board decide that the person is caus-
ing pollution, it has the authority to:
"Issue., .special orders (stating generally the nature of condi-
tions to be corrected) directing particular persons responsible
for pollution to do or accomplish one or more or all of the fol-
lowing: 1) conduct experiments, investigations and research
in order to discover methods and means for controlling pollu-
tion; 2) prepare and submit for the approval of the board
plans and specifications for streams, facilities, methods and
means for controlling pollution; and 3) secure such operating
results toward the control of pollution as the board may pre-
scribe." (A54).
If this pollution is adjudged by the Board as constituting "great danger to public
health,., .the Board shall immediately issue peremptory orders requiring such oper-
ating results toward the control of pollution as the Board may prescribe" (A54).
If after the issuance of special or peremptory orders, the person served continues to
cause pollution; or if a person operates a treatment facility without permit; or re-
fuses to furnish information, plans or other data, as the Board may require, shall be
liable to penalty. The penalty prescribed under law is a fine of not less than fifty
dollars, nor more than five hundred dollars for each violation; and each day of con-
tinued violation may constitute a separate offense and may subject the system or es-
tablishment to abatement as a nuisance (A54).
The Pollution Control Board of Tennessee has adopted a list of five general consider-
ations and seven water-use classifications with a set of criteria for each class
(Table AXVIII) "as a guide in determining the permissible conditions of waters with
respect to pollution and the prevention or corrective measures required to control
pollution in various waters or in different sections of the same waters (A55). These
standards and considerations are set on the assumption that:
"all discharges of sewage, industrial waste, and other wastes
will receive the best practicable treatment (secondary or the
equivalent) or control according to the policy and procedure
of the Tennessee Stream Pollution Control Board. A degree of
treatment greater than secondary when necessary to protect the
water uses will be required for selected sewage and wastes
discharges." (A55)
240
-------
(Tennessee)
The general considerations are:
"1. Waters have many uses which in the public interest are
reasonable and necessary. Such uses include: Sources
of water supply for domestic and industrial purposes;
propagation and maintenance of fish and other desirable
aquatic life; recreational boating and fishing; the final
disposal of municipal sewage and industrial waste follow-
ing adequate treatment; stock watering and irrigation;
navigation; generation of power; and the enjoyment of
scenic and esthetic qualities of the waters.
2. The rigid application of uniform water quality Is not de-
sirable or reasonable because of the varying uses of such
waters. The assimilative capacity of a stream for sewage
and waste varies depending upon various factors includ-
ing the following: volume of flow, depth of channel, the
presence of falls or rapids, rate of flow, temperature, nat-
ural characteristics and the nature of the stream. Also the
relative importance assigned to each use will differ for dif-
ferent waters and sections of waters throughout the stream.
3. To permit reasonable and necessary uses of the waters of
the State, existing pollution should be corrected as rapidly
as practical and future pollution controlled by treatment
plants or other measures.
There is an economical balance between the cost of sewage
and waste treatment and the benefits received and within
permissible limits the dilution factor and the assimilative
capacity of surface water should be utilized. Waste recov-
ery, control of rates and dispersion of waste Into the streams,
and control of rates and characteristics of flow of waters in
the stream where adequate, will be considered to be a means
of correction.
4. Sewage, industrial wastes, or other wastes, as defined in the
Stream Pollution Control Code, shall not be discharged into
or adjacent to streams or other surface waters in such quan-
tity and of such character or under such conditions of dis-
charge in relation to the receiving waters as will result in
visual or olfactory nuisances, undue interference to other
241
-------
(Tennessee)
reasonable and necessary uses of the water, or appreciable
damage to the natural processes of self-purification. In re-
lation to the various qualities and the specific uses of the
receiving waters, no sewage, industrial wastes, or other
wastes discharged shall be responsible for conditions that
fail to meet the criteria of water quality outlined below.
Bypassing or accidental spills will not be tolerated.
The criteria of water quality are considered as guides in
applying the water quality objectives in order to insure
reasonable and necessary uses of the waters of the State.
In order to protect the public health and maintain the
water suitable for other reasonable and necessary uses;
to provide for future development; to allow proper sharing
of available water resources; and to meet the needs of
particular situations additional criteria will be set." (A55)
TABLE AXVI1I. CRITERIA OF WATER CONDITIONS
1. Domestic Raw Water Supply
(a) Dissolved Oyxgen - There shall always be sufficient dissolved oxygen
present to prevent odors of decomposition and other offensive conditions.
(b) pH - The pH value shall lie within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 and shall not
fluctuate more than 1.0 unit in this range over a period of 24 hours.
(c) Hardness or Mineral Compounds - There shall be no substances added to
the waters that will increase the hardness or mineral content of the wa-
ters to such an extent to appreciably impair the usefulness of the water
as a source of domestic water supply.
(d) Total Dissolved Solids - The total dissolved solids shall at no time
exceed 500 mg./I.
(e) Solids, Floating Materials and Deposits - There shall be no distinctly
visible solids, scum, foam, oily sleek, or the formation of slimes, bot-
tom deposits or sludge banks of such size or character as may impair the
usefulness of the water as a source of domestic water supply.
(f) Turbidity or Color - There shall be no turbidity or color added in amounts
242
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Table AXVIII (Cont'd.) (Tennessee)
or characteristics that can not be reduced to acceptable
concentrations by conventional water treatment processes.
(g) Temperature - The temperature of the water shall not exceed
93 F and the maximum rate of change shall not exceed 3 F
per hour. In no case shall the maximum temperature rise be
more than 10 F above the stream temperature which shall be
measured at an upstream control point.
(h) Microbiological Coliform - Coliform group shall not exceed
10,000 per 100 ml. as a monthly average value (either MPN
or MF count); nor exceed this number in more than 20 per-
cent of the samples examined during any month; nor exceed
20,000 per 100 ml. in more than five percent of such samples.
These values may be exceeded provided the organisms are
known to be of nonfecal origin. No disease producing bac-
teria or other ob|ectionable organisms shall be added to sur-
face waters which will result in the contamination of said
waters to such an extent as to render the water unsuitable
as sources of domestic water supply after conventional water
treatment.
(i) Taste or Odor - There shall be no substances added which
will result in taste or odor that prevent the production of
potable water by conventional water treatment processes.
(j) Toxic Substances - There shall be no toxic substances added
to the waters that will produce toxic conditions that material-
ly affect man or animals or impair the safety of a conventionally
treated water supply.
(k) Other Pollutants - Other pollutants shall not be added to the
water in quantities that may be detrimental to public health
or impair the usefulness of the water as a source of domestic
water supply.
2. Industrial Water Supply
(a) Dissolved Oxygen - There shall always be sufficient dissolved
oxygen present to prevent odors of decomposition and other
offensive conditions.
243
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Table AXVIII (Cont'd.) (Tennessee)
(b) pH - The pH value shall lie within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 and shall
not fluctuate more than 1.0 unit in this range over a period of 24 hours.
(c) Hardness or Mineral Compounds - There shall be no substances added
to the waters that will increase the hardness or mineral content of the
waters to such an extent as to appreciably impair the usefulness of the
water as a source of industrial water supply.
(d) Total Dissolved Solids - The total dissolved solids shall at no time
exceed 500 mg./l.
(e) Solids, Floating Materials and Deposits - There shall be no distinctly
visible solids, scum, foam, oily sleek, or the formation of slimes,
bottom deposits or sludge banks of such size or character as may impair
the usefulness of the water as a source of industrial water supply.
(f) Turbidity or Color - There shall be no turbidity or color added in
amounts of characteristics that can not be reduced to acceptable
concentrations by conventional water treatment processes.
(g) Temperature - The temperature of the water shall not exceed 93°F
and the maximum rate of change shall not exceed 3°F per hour. In no
case shall the maximum temperature rise be more than 10°F above the
stream temperature which shall be measured at an upstream control
point.
(h) Taste or Odor - There shall be no substances added that will result in
taste or odor that would prevent the use of the water for industrial
processing.
(i) Toxic Substances - There shall be no substances added to the waters
that may produce toxic conditions that will adversely affect the water
for industrial processing.
(j) Other Pollutants - Other pollutants shall not be added to the waters in
quantities that may adversely affect the water for industrial processing.
3. Fish and Aquatic Life
(a) Dissolved Oxygen - The dissolved oxygen shall be maintained at 5.0
mg./l. except in limited sections of the stream receiving treated efflu-
ents. In these limited sections, a minimum of 3.0 mg./l. dissolved
244
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Table AXVIII (Cont'd.) (Tennessee)
(a) oxygen shall be allowed. The dissolved oxygen content shall be meas-
ured at mid-depth in waters having a total depth of greater than ten (10)
feet. A minimum dissolved oxygen content of 6.0 mg./l. shall be
maintained in recognized trout streams.
(b) pH - The pH value shall lie within the range of 6.5 and 8.5 and shall
not fluctuate more than 1.0 unit in this range over a period of 24 hours.
(c) Solids, Floating Materials and Deposits - There shall be no distinctly
visible solids, scum, foam, oily sleek, or the formation of slimes, bottom
deposits or sludge banks of such size or character that may be detrimental
to fish and aquatic life.
(d) Turbidity or Color - There shall be no turbidity or color added in such
amounts or of such character that will materially affect fish and aquatic
life.
(e) Temperature - The temperature of the water shall not exceed 93°F and
the maximum rate of change shall not exceed 3°F per hour. The maxi-
mum temperature of recognized trout streams shall not exceed 68°F.
In no case shall the maximum temperature rise be more than 10°F above
the stream temperature which shall be measured at an upstream control
point.
(f) Taste or Odor - There shall be no substances added that will impart un-
palatable flavor to fish or result in noticeable offensive odors in the
vicinity of the water or otherwise interfere with fish or aquatic life.
(g) Toxic Substances - There shall be no substances added to the waters that
will produce toxic conditions that affect fish or aquatic life.
(h) Other Pollutants - Other pollutants shall not be added to the waters that
will be detrimental to fish or aquatic life.
. Recreation
(a) Dissolved Oxygen - There shall always be sufficient dissolved oxygen
present to prevent odors of decomposition and other offensive conditions.
(b) pH - The pH value shall lie within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 and shall not
fluctuate more than 1.0 unit in this range over a period of 24 hours.
245
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Table AXVIII (Cont'd.) (Tennessee)
(c) Solids, Floating Materials, and Deposits - There shall be no distinctly
visible solids, scum, foam, oily sleek, or the formation of slimes, bot-
tom deposits or sludge banks of such size or character that may be det-
rimental to recreation.
(d) Turbidity or Color - There shall be no turbidity or color added in such
amounts or character that will result in an objectionable appearance to
the water.
(e) Temperature - The temperature of the water shall not exceed 93°F and
the maximum rate of change shall not exceed 3°F per hour. In no case
shall the maximum temperature rise more than 10°F above the stream
temperature which shall be measured at an upstream control point.
(f) Microbiological Coliform - The fecal coliform group shall not exceed
5,000 per 100 milliliters as a monthly average value nor exceed this
number in more than 20 percent of the samples examined during any
month; nor exceed 20,000 per 100 milliliters in more than five percent
of such samples. In those waters that are physically suitable and avail-
able to the public for water-contact recreation the fecal coliform con-
centration shall not exceed 1,000 per 100 milliliters in any two conse-
cutive samples collected during the months of May through September.
Water areas near outfalls of domestic sewage treatment plants are not
considered suitable for water-contact recreation.
(g) Taste or Odor - There shall be no substances added that will result in
objectionable taste or odor.
(h) Toxic Substances - There shall be no substances added to the water that
will produce toxic conditions that affect man or animal.
(i) Other Pollutants - Other pollutants shall not be added to the water in
quantities which may have a detrimental effect on recreation.
5. Irrigation
(a) Dissolved Oxygen - There shall always be sufficient dissolved oxygen
present to prevent odors of decomposition and other offensive conditions.
(b) pH - The pH value shall lie within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 and shall not
fluctuate more than 1.0 unit in this range over a period of 24 hours.
246
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Table AXVIH (Cont'd.) (Tennessee)
(c) Hardness or Mineral Compounds - There shall be no substances added to
the water that will increase the mineral content to such an extent as to
impair its use for irrigation.
(d) Solids, Floating Materials and Deposits - There shall be no distinctly
visible solids, scum, foam, oily sleek, or the formation of slimes, bot-
tom deposits or sludge banks of such size or character as may impair the
usefulness of the water for irrigation purposes.
(e) Temperature - The temperature of the water shall not be raised or low-
ered to such an extent as to interfere with its use for irrigation purposes.
(f) Toxic Substances - There shall be no substances added to the water that
will produce toxic conditions that will affect the water for irrigation.
(g) Other Pollutants - Other pollutants shall not be added to the water in
quantities which may be detrimental to the waters used for irrigation.
6. Livestock Watering and Wildlife
(a) Dissolved Oxygen - There shall always be sufficient dissolved oxygen
present to prevent odors of decomposition and other offensive conditions.
(b) pH - The pH value shall lie within the range of 6.0 to 9.0 and shall not
fluctuate more than 1.0 unit in this range over a period of 24-hours.
(c) Hardness or Mineral Compounds - There shall be no substances added to
water that will increase the mineral content to such an extent as to im-
pair its use for livestock watering and wildlife.
(d) Solids, Floating Materials and Deposits - There shall be no distinctly
visible solids, scum, foam, oily sleek, or the formation of slimes,
bottom deposits or sludge banks of such size or character as to interfere
with livestock watering and wildlife.
(e) Temperature - The temperature of the water shall not be raised or low-
ered to such an extent as to interfere with its use for livestock watering
and wildlife.
(f) Toxic Substances - There shall be no substances added to water that will
produce toxic conditions that will affect the water for livestock watering
and wildlife.
247
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Table AXVill (Cont'd.) (Tennessee)
(g) Other Pollutants - Other pollutants shall not be added to the water in
quantities which may be detrimental to the water for livestock watering
and wildlife.
7. Navigation
(a) Dissolved Oxygen - There shall always be sufficient dissolved oxygen
present to prevent odors of decomposition and other offensive conditions.
(b) Hardness or Mineral Compounds - There shall be no substances added to
the water that will increase the mineral content to such an extent as to
impair its use for navigation.
(c) Solids, Floating Materials and Deposits - There shall be no distinctly
visible solids, scum, foam, oily sleek, or the formation of slimes,
bottom deposits or sludge banks of such size or character as to interfere
with navigation.
(d) Temperature - The temperature of the water shall not be raised or low-
ered to such an extent as to interfere with its use for navigation purposes.
(e) Toxic Substances - There shall be no substances added to water that will
produce toxic conditions that will affect the water for navigation.
(f) Other Pollutants - Other pollutants shall not be added to the water in
quantities which may be detrimental to the waters used for navigation.
DEFINITIONS
1. Conventional Water Treatment - Conventional water treatment as refer-
red to in the criteria denotes coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and
chlorination.
2. Mixing Zone - Mixing zone refers to that section of flowing stream or
impounded waters necessary for effluents to become dispersed. The mix-
ing zone necessary in each particular case shall be defined by the
Tennessee Stream Pollution Control Board.
Source: A55, p. 2-6
248
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(Tennessee)
These standards were accepted by the Federal Water Pollution Control Administra-
tion in February 1968.
In Tennessee the Textile Industry is located mostly in the eastern part of the state,
With a scattering of mills in the central and western parts. Most of the firms are
located in towns and municipalities which probably provide them with sewage
systems. No indepth study of Tennessee and the textile water waste problem has
been undertaken.
Virginia
The "Virginia State Water Control Law" as amended by the 1968 General Assembly
governs water pollution in the state. The philosophy of the State concerning water
Pollution is that existing pollution is to be reduced and potential pollution prevent-
ed through control measures. The law establishes a five-member State Water Con-
trol Board that is completely independent of all other state agencies. The law em-
powers the agency to: establish water quality standards; maintain those standards;
issue special orders and compel compliance, through the Enforcement Division, to
those standards and special orders. The Virginia State Board of Health retains the
Power of issuing sewage discharge permits and consults and advises waste treatment
facility owners (municipal and industrial) on the appropriate treatment required for
Discharge of their effluent to state streams.
For violation of permit regulations, causing pollution, or violation of any provision
of the "Water Control Law", a person or municipality is liable to an injunctive
action by the court, to cease polluting practices or fines up to $500 for each sepa-
rate offense (A).
At present, the stream standards of the Virginia Water Control Board do not satisfy
the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration's requirements (A56). The
General Assembly of the State has taken action in revising the old law (first passed
'n 1946) and the Water Control Board has proposed new standards. While these new
standards are not yet in effect, they were at the time of writing this report on the
Governor's desk awaiting his signature.
The streams of Virginia will be subject to a two-fold classification, each stream is
to be assigned a major class and subclass designation. As a minimum, all waters of
the State will be satisfactory for fishing and secondary contact recreation. Table
AXlX lists the "Major Class" designations to be applied to Virginia waters;
Table AXX lists the "Subclasses to Complement Major Water Class Designations. "
249
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TABLE AXIX. MAJOR WATER CLASS DESIGNATIONS
Class
III
IV
V
VI
Description
Open Ocean (Seaside of Land Mass).
Estuarine (Tidal Water - Coastal Zone to Fall Line).
Free Flowing Streams (Coastal Zone and Piedmont Zone to the
Crest of the Mountains).
Mountainous Zone.
Put and Take Trout Waters.
Natural Trout Waters.
Standards
Dissolved Oxygen
Class
1
II
III
IV
V
VI
Minimum
5.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
Daily Average
- -
5.0
5.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
pH
6.0-8.5
6.0-8.5
6.0-8.5
6.0-8.5
6.0-8.5
6.0-8.5
Temperature F
Rise above Natural
4.0 (Sept. -May)
1.5 (June-Aug.)
4.0 (Sept. -May)
1.5 (June-Aug.)
5
5
—
—
Maximum
—
—
90
87
70
70
Source: A57 : 8
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(Virginia)
TABLE AXX. SUBCLASSES TO COMPLEMENT MAJOR
WATER CLASS DESIGNATIONS
Subclass A
Description: Waters generally satisfactory for use as public or municipal water
supply, secondary contact recreation, propagation of fish and
aquatic life and other beneficial uses.
Standard: Coliform organisms - Monthly average value not more than
5,000/100 milliliters. (M. P.N. or M. F. count). Not more than
5,000 MPN/100 milliliters In more than 20 percent of the samples
in any month. Not more than 20,000/100 milliliters in more than
5 percent of such samples. Fecal coliforms (multiple-tube fermen-
tation or M. F. count) not to exceed a log mean of 1,000/100 milli-
liters. Not to equal or exceed 2,000/100 milliliters in more than
10 percent of the samples.
Subclass B
Description: Waters generally satisfactory for use as public or municipal water
supply, primary contact recreation (prolonged intimate contact;
considerable risk of ingestion), propagation of fish and other aquatic
life, and other beneficial uses.
Standard: Coliform organisms - Monthly average not more than 2,400/100
milliliters. (M.P.N. orM.F. count). Not more than 2,400/100
milliliters in more than 20 percent of the samples in any month.
Not applicable during, or immediately following periods of rain-
fall. Fecal coliforms (multiple-tube fermentation or M.F. count)
within a 30-day period not to exceed a log mean of 200/100 ml.
Not more than 10 percent of the samples within a 30-day period
will exceed 400/100 milliliters.
Subclass C
Description: Waters satisfactory for use as public or municipal water supply
requiring disinfection only.
Standard: Coliform organisms - Not to exceed 100/100 milliliters (M. P. N. or
M.F. count) at any time. No floating or settleable solids, sludge de-
posits, taste or odor producing substances directly attributable to sew-
251
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Table AXX (Cont'd.) (Virginia)
Standard: age, industrial wastes or other wastes.
Supplement
In open ocean or estuarine waters in the specific areas where leased private or
public shellfish beds are present, the following supplement to Subclasses A or B
will be applied:
Not more than 70/100 mi Hi liters of coliform organisms.
Not more than 10 percent of the samples ordinarily greater
than 230/100 mill filters (5-tube decimal dilution), or
330/100 mi 11 Miters (3-tube decimal dilution). Not to be
so contaminated by radionuclides, pesticides, herbicides
or fecal material so that consumption of the shellfish might
be hazardous.
Source: A57, p. 8-9
Two other provisions which relate to all Virginia state waters are:
"All waters within this state shall at all times be free from
all substances attributable to sewage, industrial wastes, or
other wastes in concentrations or combinations which con-
travene established standards or interfere directly or indi-
rectly with beneficial uses of such waters; except that lim-
ited zones will be permitted for the mixture of treated sew-
age, treated industrial wastes, and other waste effluents
with receiving waters. The boundaries of mixing zones will
be determined on a case by case basis. However, these
zones shall generally occupy as small an area and length as
possible, and shall not prevent free passage of fish or cause
fish mortality.
In lakes and impoundments the temperature of the epilimnion,
in those areas where important organisms are most likely to be
adversely affected, shall not be raised more than 3°F above
that which existed before the addition of heat of artificial
origin. The increase is to be based on the monthly average
of the maximum daily temperature. Unless a special study
shows that a discharge of heated effluent into the hypolim-
252
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(Virginia)
nion (or pumping water from the hypolimnion for discharging
back into the same water body) will not produce adverse ef-
fects, such practice shall not be approved. Maximum tem-
peratures consistent with the standards established for waters
immediately above and below the lake or impoundment will
be established for these waters. " (A58)
The State requires conventional secondary treatment or its equivalent on sewage and
industrial waste before discharge into its streams. With this degree of treatment,
the Water Control Board expects to reduce the volume of B.O.D.-5 and suspended
solids discharged, to be between 50 and 100 milligrams per liter, depending on the
classification and quality standards of the receiving stream. Materials such as:
copper, chromium, chlorinated hydrocarbons, phenolic chemicals, toxic materials
and water-insoluble organic chemicals must be eliminated from any waste discharges.
Color will have to be eliminated, if it causes a nuisance in the receiving stream
(A56).
The State grants a five year accelerated amortization of waste treatment or control
facilities installed for compliance with State Water Control Law.
The Textile Industry in Virginia is well scattered over the southern portion of the
state. For the,most part, the individual firms are located in large towns, which
Would probably have sewage facilities. As to date, there has been no extensive
study of Virginia's Textile Industry's water needs and waste treatment problems.
253
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CONCLUSIONS
Each state has established a set of stream standards, which the water pollution
control agency of that state is empowered to enforce. The standards applied to a
particular stream or portion thereof will determine the degree of treatment required
for effluents that are to be discharged into it. A firm located on a stream designat-
ed as a source of drinking water supply will have to treat Its effluents more effect-
ively than one located on a stream used only as a source of industrial water supply.
The first firm would be required to effect higher BOD, dissolved solids and sludge
removal than the latter firm.
The stream standards that affect the textile industry the most are: pH, the processes
of dyeing, bleaching and adding of certain finishes require aqueous baths of vary-
ing alkaline and acid content, therefore, some form of neutralization would be a
must to ensure discharges within the range required by stream standards; tempera-
ture, the textile industry uses large amounts of water for dyeing and finishing which
are heated above 100 F. and such temperatures would contravene any state's stand-
ards; color, the dyeing process produces an effluent that imparts an unsightly color
to receiving streams; sludge deposits, textile wastes contain inorganic chemicals,
bits of fiber and trash that could settle to the bottom of the stream causing object-
ionable conditions; dissolved oxygen, the organic chemicals used in dyeing and
finishing are usually high in BOD, which would lead to the depletion of the stream's
dissolved oxygen content; and lastly, toxic materials, a number of chemical finish-
es and dyes contain chromium and phenolic compounds which are toxic to the aqua-
tic biota.
Each textile water waste producing firm should become familiar with the standards
established for the stream into which it is discharging its effluents. These firms
would also benefit by working closely with the state water pollution control agency
in the event that if standards on treatment requirements are to be changed, they can
make the necessary adjustments in the shortest possible time and with the minimum
of expense.
Textile firms cannot receive grants-in-aid from the Federal or State governments for
the construction or renovation of waste treatment facilities, because the Federal
and State grants-in-aid are restricted to municipalities and other political subdivi-
sions. Therefore, they must finance their own waste disposal projects. If this
course of action is economically unfeasible, the firm may be able to negotiate with
the local sewer authority. Such authority would be able to receive grants-in-aid
up to thirty percent of the construction cost, through Section 8 of the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act. The firm could offer to pay for a percentage of the remain-
ing costs, thus providing a treatment facility for both the domestic and industrial
wastes at a cost to each party that would be less than for the construction of two
separate facilities.
254
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The only financial aid available to the industry from the Federal government is for
the researching of means to prevent water pollution by industrial wastes and State
tax incentives. The Federal research funds can only be used for that purpose; how-
ever firms or textile research groups receiving such grants could transfer an equal
amount from research funds to treatment facility construction funds. The tax incen-
tives are usually in the form of exemptions and accelerated depreciation; however,
all States do not offer such incentives.
255
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LITERATURE CITED
Al Unifed States Congress. "Water Pollution Control Act". The Statutes at
Large of the United States of America. Vol. 62, Part 1. Washington
D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office. 1948; United States Congress.
"Water Pollution Control Act, Amendments of 1952". The Statutes at
Large of the United States of America. Vol. 66. Washington, D.C.:
U. S. Government Printing Office. 1952.
A2 United States Congress. "Water Pollution Control Act, Amendments of 1956".
The Statutes at Large of the United States of America. Vol. 70. Wash-
ington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office. 1956.
A3 United States Congress. "Water Pollution Control Act, Amendments of 1961".
The Statutes at Large of the United States of America. Vol. 75. Wash-
ington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office. 1961.
A4 United States Congress. "Water Quality Act of 1965". The Statutes at large
of the United States of America. Vol. 79. Washington, D.C.: U. S.
Government Printing Office. 1965.
A5 United States Congress. "Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966". The Statutes
at Large of the United States of America. Vol. 80. Washington, D.C.:
U. S. Government Printing Office. T966.
A6 United States Congress. "Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1966". The Statutes
at Large of the United States of America. Vol. 80. Washington, D.C.:
U. S. Government Printing Office. 1966.
A7 Leatherland, L. C. Private Communication. Assistant Director, Pollution
Abatement Division of Industrial Wastes. Virginia Water Control Board.
Richmond, Va. 1970.
A8 Knox, J. C. "Pollution Control of New England Interstate Waters".
Am. Dye. Rept. 47, 14: P 477. 1958
A9 Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources. "Connecticut's Clean
Water Act of 1967". Public Act. No. 57, State Office Building,
Hartford, Connecticut. 1967.
A10 Division of Water Pollution Control. Massachusetts Clean Waters Act.
Boston: Water Resources Commission, Commonwealth of Massachusetts.
Pub. No. 5003. 1970.
256
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Al 1 Division of Water Pollution Control. "Rules for the Conduct of Adjudica-
tor/ Proceedings". Rules and Regulations of the Division of Water Pol-
lution Control. Boston: Water Resources Commission, Commonwealth
of Massachusetts,. Pub. No. 2001. 1968.
A12 Division of Water Pollution Control. Water Quality Standards. Boston:
Water Resources Commission Commonwealth of Massachusetts. 1967.
A13 Anonymous. "State Regulations". Chem. Eng. 75, 10:25-48. 1968.
A14 Anonymous. "Close-Downs Hit Six More Textile Plants; Pollution Control a
Factor". Am. Textile Reptr. 84, 9: 19. 1970.
A15 Division of Water Pollution Control. "Chapter SD 2.8". Rules and Regula-
tions Establishing Minimum Standards Relating to Location, Design,
Construction and Maintenance of Individual Sewage Disposal Systems.
Providence, R. I.: Department of Health, State of Rhode Island. 1967.
A16 Klazer, P. M. Private Communication. Principal Sanitary Engineer,
Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control. Rhode Island Depart-
ment of Health. Providence, R. I.
A17 Division of Water Pollution Control. Standards of Quality for Classifica-
tion of Waters of the State. Providence, R. I.: Department of Health,
State of Rhode Island. 1967.
A18 New Jersey State Department of Health. "Statutes of the New Jersey
Division of Clean Water". Circular 213, Third Edition. Trenton, N.J.
N. J. State Dept. of Health. 1967.
A19 New Jersey State Department of Health. "Regulations Establishing Certain
Classification to be Assigned to the Waters of This State and Standards
of Quality to be Maintained in Waters So Classified. " WP-D9.
Trenton, N. J.: N. J. State Dept. of Health. 1969.
A20 New Jersey State Department of Health. Regulations Concerning Treatment
of Wastewaters, Domestic and Industrial, Separately or in Combination,
Discharged into the Waters of the Delaware River Basin" Trenton, N.J.;
N. J. State Dept. of Health. 1967.
A21 New Jersey State Department of Health. Regulations Concerning Treatment
of Wastewaters, Domestic and Industrial, Separately or in Combination,
Discharged into the Waters of the Hackensack River Basin. Trenton,
N. J. : N. J. State Dept. of Health. 1967.
257
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A22 New Jersey State Department of Health. Regulations Concerning Treatment
of Wastewaterf Domestic, and Industrial, Separately or in Combination,
Discharged Into the Waters of the Passaic River Basin Including Newark
Bay. Trenton, N. J.: N. J. State Dept. of Health. 1967.
A23 New Jersey State Department of Health. Regulations Concerning Treatment
of Wastewaters, Domestic and Industrial, Separately or in Combination,
Discharged into the Waters of the Raritan River Basin Including Raritaii
Bay. Trenton, N. J.: N. J. State Dept. of Health. 1967
A24 New Jersey State Department of Health. Regulations Concerning Treatment
of Wastewaters, Domestic and Industrial, Separately or in Combination/
Discharged into the Waters of the Wallkill River Basin. Trenton, N.J.:
N. J. State Dept. of Health. 1967.
A25 New Jersey State Department of Health. Regulations Concerning Treatment
of Wastewaters, Domestic and Industrial, Separately or in Combina-
tion, Discharged in the Waters of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Trenton,
N. J.: N. J. State Dept. of Health. 1966.
A26 New York Department of Health. Public Health Law Article 12, Water
Pollution Control. Albany, N. Y.: New York Department of Health.
T96JT
A27 Black, H. H. Planning Industrial Waste Treatment. Albany, N.Y.:
New York Department of Health. 1969.
A28 Stevens, D. B. Private Communication. Director, Bureau of Water Qual-
ity Management. New York Department of Health, Albany, N.Y.
1970.
A29 Division of Pure Waters. New York's Tax Incentive Program. Albany,
N. Y.: New York Department of Health. 1965.
A30 New York Department of Health. "Industrial Waste Treatment Facilities:
Certification for Tax Purposes". Administrative Rules and Regulations
of Title 10 of the Official Compilation of Codes, Rules and Regula-
tions of the State of New York. Albany, N. Y.: New York Depart-
ment of Health. 1967.
A31 Water Resources Commission. Classifications and Standards of Quality and
Purity for Waters of New York State. Albany, N. Y.: New York
Department of Health. 1968.
258
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A32 Pennsylvania Sanitary Water Board. "House Bill No. 1353. Session of
1969". Harrisburg, Pa.: Dept. of Health. 1969.
A33 Pennsylvania Sanitary Water Board. Rules and Regulations of the Sanitary
Water Board. Harrisburg, Pa.: Dept. of Health. 1967.
A34 Alabama Water Improvement Commission. "Alabama Water Pollution Con-
trol Act". Acts of Alabama 1965. Montgomery, Ala.: Water Im-
provement Commission. 1965.
A35 Crokett, J. L. "Legislation and Pollution Abatement. State Water Pollu-
tion Control Programs - Alabama". Proc. AATCC Symposium on Water
Pollution Control in the Textile Industry. Research Triangle Park, N.C.
1969.
A36 Alabama Water Improvement Commission. Water Quality Criteria.
Montgomery, Ala.: Water Improvement Commission. 1967.
A37 Georgia Water Quality Control Board. "Georgia Water Quality Control
Act." Act. No. 810 (H.B. 730). Atlanta, Ga.: State Dept. of
Health. 1966.
A38 Georgia Water Quality Control Board. "Chapter 730". Rules of the
Georgia Water Quality Control Board. Atlanta, Ga.: State Dept. of
Health. 1969.
A39 Hyden, W. L., Becknell, D. F. and T. E. Elders. "Survey of the Nature
and Magnitude of the Water Research Needs of the Textile Industry of
Georgia". Water Resources Center WRC-0366. Georgia Institute of
Technology, Atlanta, Ga. 1966.
A40 Board of Water and Air Resources. Laws of North Carolina Relating to
Water and Air Resources. Raleigh, N. C.: N. C. Dept. of Water
and Air Resources. 1968.
A41 Private Communication. D. L, Coburn. Member of North Carolina Board
of Water and Air Resources. 1970.
A42 Board of Water and Air Resources. Classifications and Water Quality Stand-
ards Applicable to the Surface Waters of North Carolina. Raleigh,
N. C.: N. C. Dept. of Water and Air Resources. 1968.
A43 Rickles, R. "State Assistance to Industry for Waste Treatment Facilities".
Chem. Eng. 72, 20: 136. 1965.
259
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A44 Hill, B. V. "What the Mills Are Doing to Control Water Pollution -
American Enka". Proc. AATCC Symposium on Water Pollution Control
in the Textile Industry. Research Triangle Park, N. C. 1969.
A45 Anonymous. "Burlington Invests $3/4 million to Treat Wastes at Cooleemee".
Textile World 117, 11: 63. 1967.
A46 Lauria, D. T. and C. A. Willis. "Treatment Studies of Combined Textile
and Domestic Wastes". Proc. 19th Industrial Waste Conference.
Purdue Univ. Engineering Extension Service. 1964; Brown, J. L.
"What We Did About Waste Treatment". Textile Industries 124, 6:
78-81. 1960.
A47 South Carolina Pollution Control Authority. "Chapter 70-102". South
Carolina Pollution Control Law. Columbia, S. C.: South Carolina
State Board of Health. 1969.
A48 South Carolina Pollution Control Authority. "Chapter 70-116". South
Carolina Pollution Control Law. Columbia, S.C.: South Carolina
State Board of Health. 1969.
A49 South Carolina Pollution Control Authority. "Section III". Water Classi-
fications - Standards System for the State of South Carolina. Columbia,
S. C.: South Carolina State Board of Health. 1967.
A50 South Carolina Pollution Control Authority. "Section IV". Water Classi-
fications - Standards System for the State of South Carolina, Columbia,
S. C.: South Carolina State Board of Health. 1967.
A51 South Carolina Pollution Control Authority. "Section II". Water Classifi-
cation - Standards System for the State of South Carolina! Columbia,
S. C.: South Carolina State Board of Health. 1967.
A52 Water Use, Waste Treatment, Water Pollution and Related Economic Data
on South Carolina Manufacturing Plants. J. M. Stepp, Clemson Uni-
versity Resources Research Institute, Clemson, S. C. Report No. 8.
1968.
A53 Tennessee Stream Pollution Control Board. "Permits to Discharge Sewage,
industrial Wastes or Other Waste". General Regulations of the Ten-
nessee Stream Pollution Control Board! Nashville, Tenn.: Dept. of
Public Health, State of Tennessee.
260
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A54 Tennessee Stream Pollution Control Board. Tennessee Stream Pollution
Control Law. Nashville, Tenn.: Dept. of Public Health, State of
Tennessee.
A55 Tennessee Pollution Control Board. General Water Quality Criteria for the
Definition and Control of Pollution in the Waters of Tennessee.
Nashville, Tenn.: Dept. of Public Health, State of Tennessee. 1967.
A56 Private Communication. L. C. Leatherland, 1970.
A57 Virginia State Water Control Board. Rules with Specific Application Based
on Climate, Geographical Area or Uses. Excerpt of Revised Standards,
1970.
A58 Virginia State Water Control Board. "Rules with General State Wide
Application". Excerpt of Revised Standards, 1970.
261
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APPENDIX B
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
To supplement the report, an annotated bibliography has been prepared. Most of
the references come from the last six years as it was felt this information would be
of the greatest use to the reader. As an additional aid the abstracted articles are
grouped into eight different sections:
1. General Textile Waste Treatment
2. Cotton Waste Treatment
3. Wool Waste Treatment
4. Man-Made Fiber Waste Treatment
i
5. Dye Waste Treatment -
6. Detergent Waste Treatment
7. Water Treatment for Use
8. Instrumentation and Plant Design for Waste Treatment
While most of the reported articles come under one of the above designations, some
can be classed into more than one grouping. The reader is directed to peruse other
sections if specific information is not listed under a particular heading.
263
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GENERAL TEXTILE WASTE TREATMENT
A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE OF 1968 ON WASTE-WATER AND WATER
POLLUTION CONTROL, C. M. Weiss and others; J. Water Pollution Control
Fed., 41:873-1254, (June 1969).
Literature on analytical methods, wastewater treatment, water
pollution, and industrial wastes is reviewed. Of particular
interest is the literature review of tannery, textile, and wool
scouring wastes.
POLLUTION CONTROL: EVERYONE TO BLAME, T. A. Alspaugh (Cone
Mills Corp.); Modern Textiles Mag. 50: 21, 23-24,(Nov. 1969).
The author reviews the general problem of pollution and empha-
sizes the need for fundamental research in ecology, chemistry,
the effect of pollutants, and other areas. He discusses the use
of solvents in sizing, desizing, dyeing, and finishing, and the
effects of biodegradability and biochemical oxygen demand on
water treatment.
ABSTRACTS OF 1969 ASME/AIChE POLLUTION CONFERENCE. PART 2,
Am. Dyestuff Reptr. 58:31-34, (Aug. 1969).
Eight papers on various phases of water pollution control are
summarized.
CLEANER STREAMS, LOWER COSTS, Textile Inds. 133: 138, 142, 144,
153, (Mar. 1969).
By 1977, the net waste discharge by the cotton finishing industry
is expected to be half the 1963 level as a result of shifts to new
processes in finishing plants. Some of the changes that have
already been made in desizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerizing,
and dyeing are outlined along with factors influencing the waste
load and waste treatment costs.
POLLUTION CONTROL EFFORTS: TELL THE WORLD ABOUT IT, Textile
Inds. 133:71-73, (June 1969).
Proceedings of a symposium on pollution control sponsored jointly
by the AATCC and the Departments of Commerce and Interior
are summarized. 36 experts from industry and government spoke
264
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on various aspects of the subjects, describing methods of treat-
ing wastes efficiently, reporting cost cutting technological
developments, and emphasizing the need for greater participation.
FEATURE REPORT: POLLUTION PROBLEMS, Am. Dyestuff Reptr. 58: 11-29, 31,
(July 1969).
This report includes 5 articles, some of which are abstracted
individually, and summaries of some papers given at the 1969
ASME/AIChE Conference on Stream Pollution Abatement.
USE OF WATER AND DISPOSAL OF EFFLUENT FROM UNDERTAKINGS IN THE
TEXTILE INDUSTRY. CONFERENCE OF THE INSTITUTE FOR INDUSTRIAL
WATER AND AIR PURIFICATION (Cologne), November 21, HELD AT FRANK-
FURT/MAIN, Dittrich. Z. ges. Textilind. 71, No. 2: 127-128, (1969),(German)
Through World Textile Abstr. 1: 1333, (1969).
Abstracts of the following are given: (1) Practical experience of
the Institute for Water and Air Purification in water and effluent
problems in textile mills, by H. Fathmann: (2) Advantages and
disadvantages of a combined chemical/biological effluent treat-
ment in the textile industry, by H. Jung: (3) Possibilities for the
reuse of used water in the factory, by H. Riemer; (4) Costs and
fees for the removal of effluent, by W. Gassier (the use of a pri-
vate treatment and disposal unit is compared in cost with the use
of public sewage systems).
WATER POLLUTION CONTROL IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY, Textile chemist &
Colorist 1: 171-187, (Mar. 1969).
The following papers, delivered at the AATCC symposium on water
pollution control, are published: (1) Better management of water
resources is a must if future heeds are to be met, by K. L. Kollar
(U. S. Dept. of Commerce), p. 171-173: (2) Federal assistance
available to companies establishing pollution control programs, by
W. J. Lacy and A. Cywin (Fed. Water Pollution Control Admin.),
p. 173-176, (3) Treating wastes in a water short area, by D. M.
Wells and H. M. Clay, p. 176-179, (4) Research on treatment of
dye wastes, by D. L. Michelsen (Va. Polytechnic Inst.), p. 179-
181, (5) Water quality management in Virginia, by A. H. Paess-
ler (Va. Water Control Board), p. 181-184, (6) Availability of
quality water is important in picking a plant site, by T. A. Fridy
(Lockwood Greene Engineers), p. 185-187.
265
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WATER POLLUTION CONTROL IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY, Textile Chemist &
Colorist 1: 142-157, (Mar. 1969).
Highlights are given of papers presented at a 2-day symposium
sponsored by AATCC's Stream Sanitation Technology Committee
in cooperation with the U. S. Departments of Commerce and
Interior, held March 1969 in Washington, D.C.: (1) Industry
has a poor public image, by R. W. Armstrong; (2) No credit
where credit's due, by D. Byrd; (3) (Seven separate papers)
What the mills are doing to control water pollution, by B. V.
Hill (Am. Enka Corp.), W. I. English (Burlington Inds.),
J. L. Brown, Jr. (Cannon Mills), A. L. Smith (Chatham Mfg.
Co.), T. A. Alspaugh (Cone Mills), J. C. Pangle, Jr. (Dan
River Mills), M. Bright, Jr. (M. Lowenstein & Sons).
MORE PROGRESS NEEDED IN WATER POLLUTION CONTROL, T. A.
Alspaugh (Cone Mills Corp.), Am. Textile Reptr. 83: 32-33 (April 1969).
Proceedings of an AATCC symposium on water pollution control
in the textile industry are summarized. The symposium brought
together members of the industry and government officials to
discuss and review progress made in water pollution control to
date and to examine future goals.
POLLUTION CONTROL: INTERVIEW, W. I. English (Burlington Inds.),
Modern Textiles Mag. 50:21-23, (Nov. 1969).
The techniques being used for treatment of industrial wastes at
Burlington Industries are discussed, and the urgent need for
more research on the problem of water purification by chemical
and biological methods is stressed.
TEXTILE EFFLUENT TREATMENT WITH FLUE GASES, J. S. Franklin, K. Barnes,
and A. H. Little; Intern. Dyer 142: 427-432, (Sept. 1969).
The treatment of waste caustic mercerizing liquors, in a textile
factory, utilizing the acidic fractions of boiler flue gases is
described. A description of the effluent is given and alternative
treatment methods are briefly reviewed. Laboratory work and
an indication of the calculations leading to the plant design are
included and the installed plant is described. Some operational
and performance data are provided, together with an indication
of the calculations leading to the plant design are included and
the installed plant is described.
266
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TEXTILE WASTES—A BIBLIOGRAPHY, C. D. Livengood; Water Resources Research
lnst.f N. C. State Univ., P.O. Box 5006, Raleigh, N.C. 27607, (Feb. 1969).
Abstracts of literature references relative to textile wastes as
stream pollutants and published no earlier than 1954 are given.
Abstracts from Chemical Abstracts, Textile Technology Digest,
Shirley Institute Abstracts, and Water Pollution Abstracts through
June 1968 are included. The bibliography is keyword coded and
indexed and the abstracts are listed alphabetically by author's
last name.
FOR BETTER POLLUTION CONTROL, J. W. Masselli and N. W. Masselli
(Wesleyan Univ.), Textile Inds. 133:65-69, (June 1969).
This is the report of an interview with two chemists at the Wesleyan
University's Industrial Waste Laboratory on the problem of stream
pollution in the textile industry. Various effluent treatment pro-
cesses are discussed, and steps in a pollution control program are
outlined. Cooperation among industry, government, and the
public is urged.
METHODS FOR PROCESSING RESIDUES OBTAINED IN THE PURIFICATION OF
TEXTILE EFFLUENTS, J. Rouba; Tech. Wlok. 18, No. 3: 91-95, (1969), (Polish)
Through World Textile Abstr. 1:3220, (1969).
Physical chemical characteristics of sludges obtained in the
purification of textile effluents are outlined and methods of
processing are discussed.
STUDY OF FILTRATION OF POST-COAGULATION DEPOSITS FROM TEXTILE
MILL EFFLUENT, J. Rouba; Przelad Wlok. 23, No. 6:301-304, (1969) (Polish)
Through World Textile Abstr. 1: 6143, (1969).
Effluent from the cotton and wool industries has been investigated.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE OF 1967 ON WASTE-WATER AND WATER POLLUTION
CONTROL, C. M. Weiss and others; J, Water Pollution Control Fed. 40: 897-1219,
(June 1968).
Literature relating to wool and wool scouring wastes, cotton and
blends wastes, and synthetic fibers wastes.
EFFLUENT TREATMENT AND WATER CONSERVATION, Intern. Dyer 140: 617,
(Nov. 1968).
26?
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The following papers presented at the Shirley Institute Conference
on Effluent Treatment and Water Conservation are summarized:
(1) Treatment of textile wastes in pilot plants, by H. S. Gardner
(Shirley Inst.); (2) Activated sludge treatment for waste purifica-
tion, by J. R. Simpson (Univ. of Newcastle); (3) Water Conser-
vation and future prospects for industrial supplies, by D. H. New-
some (Water Resources Board); (4) Water usage in textile processes,
by A. H. Little (Shirley lnst.).
POSSIBILITIES OF BIOLOGICAL PURIFICATION OF TEXTILE EFFLUENT
TOGETHER WITH URBAN SEWAGE, J. Debula and A. Nalberczynski; Przeglad
Wlok. 22, No. 3: 151-154 (1968), (Polish) Through Shirley Inst. 48: 3591 (1968).
The Biofloc, Turofloc and 'contact stabilization1 methods are
discussed.
AN ANALYSIS OF TEXTILE WATER WASTES AND A PROCEDURAL FORMAT FOR
SOLVING EFFLUENT PROBLEMS, R. D. Elliott; MS Thesis, N. C. State School of
Textiles, Raleigh, N. C. (1968).
WATER REQUIREMENTS IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY, L. Erbert; Deut. Textiltech.
18, No. 6: 375-380, (1968), (German) Through Shirley Inst. 48: 3715, (1968).
Tables of water consumption are given for the dyeing and
finishing of stockings and for finishing processes in the wool
and silk Industry, and in the finishing of nonwovens.
THE INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION OF WATER, I. THE PROBLEM FACING THE TEX-
TILE INDUSTRY IN FRANCE, Kamblock, G.; Industrie Text., (France), 963, 825,
(1967); Shirley Inst. Abs., 48, 4163, (1968).
II. PURIFICATION TREATMENTS, Industrie Text., (France), 964, 67, (1968);
Shirley Inst. 48, 4163, (1968).
III. PURIFICATION TREATMENTS, Industrie Text., ( France), 969, 448, (1968);
Shirley Inst., 48, 4163, (1968).
A review of textile wastes problems in France and the methods
of handling them.
RECLAIMING TEXTILE WASTE WATERS, Pangle, James C., Jr. (Dan River Mills,
Inc.), U. S. 3, 419, 493 (CL. 210-44), (31 Dec. 1968), Appl. 22 Dec. 1966;
5pp.
268
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Textile mill waste waters contg. dyes, wetting and scouring
agents, caustic soda, and other textile chemicals are reclaimed
by the addn. of CaO and CO2. CaO is added to adsorb impu-
rities followed by settling out as sludge. A gas contg. CO2and
air aerates the CaO treatment effluent to produce a foam which
is removed, broken, and recycled to the waste water. The ef-
fluent from the foam treatment is held in a quiescent zone, al-
lowing CC>2 to escape and CaCC*} to ppt. resulting in reclaimed
water characterized by a pH of 7-7.5, approx. 30 ppm. Ca, a
very low BOD, and a low degree of hardness. The sludge and
pptd. CaCO are burned to provide CaO and CO2 that are re-
cycled to the process.
PROCESS WATER AND PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH TEXTILE EFFLUENT,
F. H. Slade; Textile Mfr., 94, p. 14-18, (1968).
Trade effluents contain organic and inorganic substances, and
the problems in various sections of industry must be assessed indi-
vidually to ensure treatment which does not contravene the
(British) Public Health Acts or the Rivers (Pollution) Acts.
Modern methods and equipment are discussed in this article.
EFFLUENT PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTION, J. J. Priestley; Chem. Process
(London) 14, No. 7: 8-11, (1968) Through Chem. Abstr. 69, No. 16: 61398,
(1968).
After a brief description of the legislation regarding discharge
of trade wastes into public sewers and rivers, the need for a
full survey of discharges from all production units including
oxidation towers, activated sludge and percolating filters,
alkaline textile wastes, acid effluent, steel pickling effluent,
and coagulation and sedimentation of suspended solids is
discussed.
METHODS FOR PURIFYING TEXTILE EFFLUENTS, J. Rouba; Tech. Wlok. 17,
No. 6: 188-190, (1968), (Polish) Through Shirley Inst. 48: 4495, (1968).
Mechanical, chemical, physico-chemical, and biological
methods for the treatment of industrial wastes are discussed
briefly. In order to reduce the quantity of industrial effluent
discharged into reservoirs, the reuse in technological processes
of water with a low degree of impurities (a 'closed-circuit1
system) is considered.
269
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NOTES ON THE REUSE OF WASTE LIQUORS IN THE PRODUCTION OF TEXTILES,
T. Sedzikowski and W. Dobrowolski; Przeglad Wlok. 22, No. 8: 434-436, (1968),
(Polish) Through World Textile Abstr. 1: 1956, 1969.
The reuse of waste liquors carried away into sewage systems
of textile mills was studied in order to relieve the shortage
of water supplies, and also to comply with general require-
ments regarding the economy of water. General results of
studies carried out at the Textile Research Institute at Lodz
are presented with the authors' opinions and suggestions for
further work on the topic.
PROCESS WATER AND TEXTILE EFFLUENT PROBLEMS, PART 2., Slade, F. H.;
Textile Mfr., 94, p. 89-93 and 99, (1968).
Biological treatment of effluent, oxygen transfer, continuous
sludge removal, flocculation, difficult wastes, and the
Lubeck process are considered.
PROCESS WATER AND TEXTILE EFFLUENT PROBLEMS, PARTS, Slade, F. H.;
Textile Mfr. 94: 276-281, (July 1968).
Methods of treatment of dyeing and finishing effluent are
described with Joshua Wardle Ltd. (dyes and finishers) as an
illustrative example. Effluent treatment plant instrumentation
is discussed in terms of pH control and flow control and measure-
ment equipment. Traditional methods of drying sludge (in lagoons)
and incineration methods and equipment are considered.
PROCESS WATER AND TEXTILE EFFLUENT PROBLEMS, PART 3, Slade, F. H.
Textile Mfr. 94: 224-227, 230, (June 1968).
Features of plastic filter media, equipment and techniques for
treating wool scouring effluent, calcium chloride treatment,
and neutralization by boiler flue gases are discussed in this
part. 1. ref.
PURIFICATION OF WASTE WATER FROM THE SCOURING OF FABRICS, Antipova,
P. S. (VNII VODGEO, Moscow, USSR), Tekst. Prom. (Moscow), (1968), 28 (6),
73, (Russian).
Waste water from the "Red Rose" hosiery mill contained 260-400
mg./l. anionic and 400-1000 mg./l. nonionic compds. Ca alum-
inate was used for the treatment and was preprd. in the waste
2?0
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waters from 50-100 mg./l. A12(504)3 (based on the Al) and
1000 mg./l. milk of lime (based on active CaO). If the quan-
tity of anionic compds. was 2= that of the nonionics, then Ca
aluminate removed 94-6% of anionics and 55-65% nonionics.
An addnl. treatment by flotation was not required.
SEDIMENTATION TANKS AND CLARIFIERS, A. H. Little; Paper Maker:
94, 96, 98, 100-102, (Sept. 1967), Through Shirley Inst. 48: 449, 1968.
Studies in relation to textile trade effluents are described.
ACCELERATED CLARIFICATION OF EFFLUENT, M. R. Tixerant (Water Eng. Ltd.)
Intern. Dyer 137: 577-579, (Apr. 1967).
In the Water Engineering Ltd. settling tank sludge settlement is much
accelerated and more compact in its settled form over a greatly re-
duced area. Mechanical clearing of the sludge is dispensed with.
Features and action of the WEL tank are described and illustrated
with diagrams.
TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS. Vol. 3. THE COST OF CLEAN WATER, U. S. Dept.
of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Admin., (Sept. 1967), Industrial
Waste Profiles No. 4.
This volume contains detailed information on processes and
wastes, gross waste quantities, waste reduction practices, and
cost information in wool textile weaving and finishing and in
cotton and synthetic textile finishing.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SIXTEENTH SOUTHERN WATER RESOURCES AND
POLLUTION CONTROL CONFERENCE, Dept. of Civil Eng., Duke Univ.,
Durham, N. C. (1967).
These conferences are sponsored jointly by Duke University,
North Carolina State College, and the University of North
Carolina. Included in the proceedings are two papers of specific
textile interest: (1) Reuse of plant effluent as process water, by
W. J. Day, p. 75-80; and (2) Separation and analysis of color-
producing agents in water and wastewater and nonionic exchange
resins, by T. F. Walser, p. 81-86. A symposium, by State, on
Water resources problems and research needs in the Southeast is
also included.
271
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PLASTICS IN WASTE TREATMENT. PART 2., M. W. Askew; Process Biochem. 1,
No. 1:31-34, (1967) Through Chem. Abstr. 66, No. 14:58697, (1967).
Pilot-plant studies on textile and resin wastes are noted briefly in
a general report on the treatment of effluent. A two-stage treatment
over Flocor resulted in 58.0-64.2% BOD removal for textile wastes;
for synthetic resins, phenol removal after one stage was 95%.
PLASTICS IN WASTE TREATMENT, Askew, M. W.: Process Biochem., 1,
p. 483-486 and 492, 1966; 2, p. 31-34, (1967).
The author discusses the standards for trade effluent imposed and
expected in Europe, Canada and U. S. A. As a result of these
higher standards new methods of treatment have been devised using
polyvinyl chloride corrugated-sheeting units which can be used in
place of established biological filtration media, where cost, space
and technical problems make the use of activated-sludge tanks and
other conventional methods impracticable. The characteristics of
Flocor medium and its advantages over conventional filter media
are described and examples are given of its use to treat waste waters
from distilleries, breweries fruit and vegetable processing, and
textile plants.
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF TEXTILE EFFLUENTS, A. I. Biggs (Confed. of
Brit. Ind.), Chem. & Ind., No. 37: 1536-1538, (Sept. 1967).
The author reviews the research which has been carried out in the
field of biological treatment of textile effluents without attempt-
ing to deal with the problems of harnessing these results to practi-
cal use at individual works.
WATER POLLUTION AND WASTE CONTROL IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY,
P. Brannock (N. C. State Univ.), Textile Forum 25: 10-13, (Dec. 1967 -
Jan. 1968).
The treatment and disposal of textile effluents in North Carolina
are briefly surveyed under the following headings: Evaluation
of the pollution problem; Sources and types of textile process
wastes; Characteristics and effects of pollution; Determination
of a course of action; and Reduction of wastes by in-plant process
control.
272
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SIMPLIFIED CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE WATER FROM TEXTILE FACTORIES
WITH CLARIFYING, FLOCCULATING, AND PRECIPITATING AGENTS,
Dietrich, K. R.; Text.-PRAX., 22, (2), p. 126-127, (1967), (German).
Mixtures of electrolytes containing Al^, Fe^ , Fe"1"*, Si^", and
Ca are more effective flocculating agents than those containing only
Fe cations. Applied to textile plant sewage at < 50 mg./l., the
mixtures drastically reduce the organic matter, ppt. or absorb dyes
and P compounds, and improve the drying of the sludge; the effects
are largely independent of pH.
WATER RESOURCES GUIDE FOR TEXTILES, T. E. Elders; Master's Thesis, Georgia
Inst. of Technol., Atlanta, Ga., (1967), 102 p.
Suggestions, data, and general directions to assist the textile
industry in solving water problems are discussed under the follow-
ing headings: legal stipulations, water supply, water purification,
waste water treatment, and in-plant modification.
EXPERIENCE IN DECONTAMINATION OF EFFLUENTS FROM THE RODNIKOVSKY
SPINNING MILL, Krasovskii, L. V.: Gig. Sanit., 32, (7), p. 98-99, (1967),
(Russian).
A table is given showing the change in color, ph, suspended solids,
BOD, etc., produced by a purification plant involving said traps,
settling basins, and aero-tanks. The coli-index required chlorina-
tion and a graph of residual Cl vs. dosage is included. Promising
redns. of coli-index and no. of colonies were obtained with irradn.
by using a low-pressure Ar-Hg lamp.
MECHANICAL TREATMENT OF EFFLUENT, Krasovskii, L. V.; Tekstil. Prom., 27,
(10, p. 61-62, (1967), (Russian).
The use of screens, sand traps, and settling tanks in the treatment
of textile-processing effluent containing fibre, bits of fabric,
insoluble particles of dye, and chemical auxiliaries is discussed.
TREATMENT OF TEXTILE WASTE LIQUORS, A. H. Little (Shirley Inst.), J. Soc.
Dyers Colourists 83: 268-273, (July 1967).
The character of textile waste liquors, the estimation of organic
load in waste liquors, treatment methods, water reuse, and
analytical effluent tests are examined in this paper.
273
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THE USE OF WEAK-ACID CATIONIC AGENTS TO REMOVE ZINC FROM HIGHLY
MINERALIZED WASTE WATERS, V. K. Marinich, N. L. Shevchenko, and O. V.
Flrsova; Khim. Volok, No. 2: 63-65, (1967), (Russian) Through Shirley Inst. 47:
2485, (1967).
Zinc compounds can be almost completely removed from waste
waters with the aid of weak-acid cationic agents KB-4 and
KB-4P-2. On average, the consumption of agents normally
used in effluent purification (soda, caustic soda) is reduced by
30%, the method is less cumbersome in application, and less
equipment and plant is required. The method is suitable for the
removal of zinc from highly mineralized effluent from viscose
cord and staple fiber production.
TEXTILE WATER POLLUTION CLEANUP PICKS UP SPEED, Pinault, R. W.;
Textile World, 117, p. 52-66, (1967).
The problem of textile water pollution and what government
regulations mean to the textile manufacturer are examined.
Factors to be considered in the selection of an effluent treat-
ment system are discussed and case studies of the waste treat-
ment plants now in use at five different textile mills are cited.
EFFECT OF INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATERS ON THE HORIZON OF FERRUGINOUS
ACCUMULATION OF NORTHWESTERN MESHCHERA SOILS, V. S. Shishova and
V. T. Dodolina; Kokl. TSKhA No0 124:85-93, (1967) Through Chem. Abstr. 68:
8312, 1968.
Laboratory experiments were carried out to determine the effect
on soil samples of wastewaters from a textile factory and a phar-
maceutical plant that contain large amounts of inorganic salts
and that are used for spray irrigation. It was found that the alka-
line wastewaters reduced the acidity of ferruginous soil samples
and did not cause leaching of the iron; in humus soils, the amounts
of alkaline earth elements and organic substances were reduced.
PURIFICATION OF WASTE WATER IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY, C. Strugaru and
G. Cristescu; Industrie Textile 18, No. 12: 743-746, (1967), (Rumanian) Through
Shirley Inst. 48:994, 1968.
Problems of the treatment of textile effluent prior to its discharge
into a municipal drainage system are discussed.
274
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EFFLUENT PROBLEMS AND THEIR TREATMENT IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY,
T. H. Summers (Nalfloc Ltd.)/ J. Soc. Dyers Colourists 83: 373-379, (Sept. 1967).
Textile effluent problems and treatment in the U. K. are discussed
under the following headings: legislative progression, textile
industry effluents, determination of effluent characteristics,
methods for resolving effluent problems, principles of treatment,
neutralization of effluents, synthetic detergents, color, bleachery
wastes, and future trends.
WATER AND EFFLUENTS, R. W. Moncrieff; Textile Mfr. 93: 11-13, (Jan. 1967).
Lectures presented at a half-day symposium by the London Region
of the Soc. of Dyers & Colourists on Nov. 4, 1966 are summarized:
(1) Water for the dyehouse, by T. H. Morton
(2) Water usage in rinsing, by G. J. Parish
(3) Surface active agents in processes and effluents,
by W. V. Barnes and S. Dobson
(4) Treatment of effluents, by A. H. Little
TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF THE SLUDGE IN WASTE-WATER TREATMENTS,
Vogel, W.; Milliand Textilber., 48, (8), p. 950-954, (1967), (German).
Sludge from textile effluent has a high water content, and before
disposal must be treated to separate this water. Equipment for
various methods of sludge treatment is reviewed. The methods include
rotting and stabilizing, static and dynamic water separation,
drying, combustion, and conversion to compost.
WATER POLLUTION: CHALLENGE TO INDUSTRIAL LEADERSHIP, L. L. Jones, Jr.
(Canton Textiles Inc.), Textile Bull. 92: 68-69, (Mar. 1966).
Industrial responsibility for effective pollution control is emphasized.
ELECTRIC FLOTATION OF SUSPENDED PARTICLES WITH THE USE OF FLOTATION
REAGENTS, B. M. Matov; Elektron. Obrab. Mater., Akad. Nauk Mold. SSR No. 3:
80-82, (1966), (Russian).
Waste water from a silk production plant has been clarified by
flotation of suspended particles in an electric field. Various
flotation reagents were used; optimum conditions were obtained
with 0.4 g/l of ferric chloride.
275
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PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE-WATER TREATMENT INSTALLATIONS,
G, Pais, R. Mitroiu, and H. Weinberg; Hidrotch. Gospodarirea Apelor Meterol.
11, No. 3: 149-155, (1966), (Rumanian).
Figures for silk and wool industries are included in analytical
data (pH values, total suspensions, and organic matter) on waste
waters from various industries,, Methods of waste water treatment
are also discussed.
TEXTILE INDUSTRY WARS ON STREAM WASTE POLLUTION: AN STN INDUSTRY
SURVEY, Allen, F.: Southern Textile News, 22, p. 1, 2, 10, 11, (Aug. 1966).
Textile industry efforts to combat stream waste pollution are
illustrated with specific examples.
BIOLOGICAL WASTE TREATMENT SYSTEMS, Dravo Corp., Water & Waste
Treatment Dept., 1 Oliver Plaza, Pittsburgh, Pa. 15222, (1969), 12 p.
Features of various Dravo biological waste treatment systems are
described, and textile applications are indicated.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTEENTH SOUTHERN WATER RESOURCES AND
POLLUTION CONTROL CONFERENCE, Dept. of Civil Eng., N. C. State Univ.,
Raleigh, N. C. (1966).
These conferences are sponsored jointly by Duke University,
North Carolina State University, and the University of North
Carolina. Included in the proceedings are two papers of
specific textile interest: (1) Applicability of optimization
techniques to textile mill waste treatment, by J. M. DeBruhl
and C. Smallwood, Jr., p. 63-80; (2) Recoverable warp sizes,
by R. N. Berrierand H. Y. Jennings, p. 81-83.
SYMPOSIUM ON WASTE-DISPOSAL PROBLEMS OF SOUTHERN MILLS,
Am. Dyestuff Reptr., 44(12), p. 279-400, (1966).
Papers on Relation of Federal stream pollution to laws and industry;
Cotton slashing with synthetic compounds as means toward pollution
abatement; Bleaching and dyehouse waste studies; Textile waste
treatment in Texas; Biological treatment of mixture of highly alka-
line textile-mill waste and sewage; Classification of streams in
Georgia; South Carolina and North Carolina; Pollution control
by recovery of caustic soda.
276
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VERSATILE ION EXCHANGE RESINS CAN SOLVE POLLUTION PROBLEMS,
Am. Textile Reptr., 80, p. 19, 21 and 61, (1966), (Farbenfabriken Bayer AG.).
This paper reports on the treatment of raw textile waters using
ion exchange resins. It considers economy of equipment
installation in new or remodeled plants.
WATER AND EFFLUENTS, Intern. Dyer 136: 916-917, (Dec. 1966).
Summaries are given of the following papers presented at the
half-day symposium by the London Region of the Soc. of Dyers &
Colourists on Nov. 4, 1966:
(1) Water for the dyehouse, by T. H. Morton
(2) Water usage in rinsing, by G. J. Parish
(3) Surface-active agents in processes and effluents, by
W. V. Barnes and S. Dobson
(4) Treatment of effluents, by A. H. Little
PURIFICATION OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES, Asendorf, Erich.; Chemikerztg., 90,
(16), p. 573-578, (1966), (German).
Thumbnail descriptions of processes for the following wastes
are given: aldehydes, acetonitrile, acrylonitrile, amines,
bisulfite, H2S, HCN, chromic acid, tanning wastes, fibrous
materials, F compounds, carbon dust, dairy wastes, oil and
petroleum products, pharmaceuticals, phenols, starch manufg.,
acids, metal ions, textiles, clay, and sugar.
IN-PLANT PROCESS CONTROL FOR ABATEMENT OF POLLUTION LOAD OF
TEXTILE WASTES, Ganapati, S. V.; Environ. Health (India), 8 (3), p. 169-173,
(1966).
The redn. of waste production procedures at a textile mill is
discussed. It is possible to reduce the vol. and strength of the
waste by recovery of certain salvageable substances. It is also
possible to recover much waste heat during the processes. A
significant quantity of pollution results from the waste of the
sizing process. This can be reduced by utilizing chemicals with
a lower BOD such as synthetic sizing agents which produce wastes
with a much lower BOD than those from natural sizing agents.
THE PURIFICATION OF TEXTILE EFFLUENT, Hamburger, B.; Text! I-Praxis, 21,
(1), p. 39-41, (1966), (German).
277
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A short survey of physical, chemical and biological methods is
made.
ACID PROTECTION AND EFFLUENT TREATMENT IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY,
W. Heynemann and H. J. Bradke; Spinner Weber Textilveredlung 84, No. 8:
850-857, (1966), (German) Through Shirley Inst. 46: 5243, (1966).
Special treatments to prevent attack by acid on floors of workshops
are described; films of polyisobutylene offer short-term protection
but bitumen or acid-resistant tiles are needed for permanent pro-
tection. A short survey of small-scale effluent treatment tanks is
given.
THE STATE OF THE ART OF WATER USE AND WASTE DISPOSAL IN THE TEXTILE
INDUSTRY (1950-1966), L. D. Jones and W. L. Hyden; Georgia Inst. of Technol.,
Water Resources Center, Atlanta, Ga., 30332, (June 1966), 61 p., WRC-0166.
This report provides a comprehensive listing and a general review
of the technical literature of textile mill processes related to liquid
waste production, treatment, and disposal. It covers the period from
1950 to 1966. Processes related to the manufacture of cotton, wool,
silk, flax, and manmade fiber products are discussed. Problems such
as excessive color in plant effluents, the effects of synthetic deter-
gents on waste treatment, and waste-heat recovery are high-lighted.
Special emphasis is placed on problems which are in need of accel-
erated research effort.
WATER AND EFFLUENT. PART 4, M. Kehren; Z. ges., Textil-lnd. 68, No. 8:
602-606, (1966), (German) Through Shirley Inst. 46: 4976, (1966).
This supplementary article publishes recent statistics on the
consumption of water by industries in Germany, and the most
recent news of surface active agents which are biologically
degradable. Four recent publications on fatty-acid sugar esters
are summarized.
WASTE WATER TREATMENT IN MODERN TEXTILE OPERATIONS, Kuisel, H. F.;
Oesterr.-Abwasser-Rundsch., LL, (5), p. 80-84, (1966), (German).
Utilization of Lake Constance as a drinking water reservoir, and
an agreement between Austria, Germany, and Switzerland place
limitations on waste water into the lake to: suspended solids < 0.3,
org. solvents and extractable matter by petroleum ether
-------
matter, and temp. < 30 . Activated sludge is poisoned by
chemicals used in the textile industry (phenol, urea-formaldehyde
or mineral oils) as these are liberated in biol. treatment. Collect-
ion and mixing of all effluents of a textile plant is a partial solution
to this problem, having excess Cl decolorizing dyes In soln. The
temp, can be controlled by a heat exchanger, which also results in
a fuel savings. The water is clarified and treated by activated
sludge, to be used as an org. fertilizer. High pH and BOD are
reduced by aeration for 48 hours; hard detergents are to be ex-
cluded either by legislation or voluntarily. Phenol is to be re-
moved in the plant by ion exchange, and may be recovered.
Examples are given of treatment in various textile plants.
ELECTRIC FLOTATION OF SUSPENDED PARTICLES WITH THE USE OF FLOTATION
REAGENTS, Matov, B. M.; Elektron. Obrab. Mater., Akad. Nauk. Mold. SSR, (3)
p. 80-82, (1966), (Russian).
Waste water from a silk production plant has been clarified by
flotation of suspended particles in an electric field. Various
flotation reagents were used; Optimum conditions were obtained
with 0.4 g/l of ferric chloride.
WATER IN THE SERVICE OF INDUSTRY, Streatfield, E. L.; Chemistry and
Industry, Vol 14, p. 569, (1966).
A general survey on textile and other industrial wastes.
QUESTIONS ON WASTE WATERS FROM THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY, F. Taresay,
Wass. Boden 18:276-280, (1966) Through Water Pollution Abstr. 40: 1712,
(Oct. 1967).
Textile industry waste waters containing acids, alkalies, dyes,
and fibers have a high oxygen demand, and therefore require
preliminary treatment. Details are given of laboratory and
pilot-plant experiments which have to be carried out by the
textile industry in planning the treatment necessary before the
waste waters can be discharged to the municipal sewer to reduce
the pollution load.
THE BOD OF TEXTILE CH EMICALS: UPDATED LIST - 1966, Am. Dyestuff Reprr.,
55, p. 685-688, (1966), RA58 Stream Sanitation Techno!., AATCC Committee.
The list gives (1) name of chemical, (2) 5-day BOD %,
(3) references, (4) chemical composition and use.
279
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE FOURTEENTH SOUTHERN WATER RESOURCES AND
POLLUTION CONTROL CONFERENCE, Dept. of Environmental Sciences & Eng.,
Univ of N. C., Chapel Hill, N. C. (1965).
These conferences are sponsored jointly by Duke University,
North Carolina State University, and the University of North
Carolina. Included in the proceedings is one paper of specific
textile interest: Developing patterns for efficient water utiliza-
tion: textiles, by C. A. Willis, p. 100-104.
TEXTILE EFFLUENT TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL (Papers read at a conference at
the Shirley Institute on Nov. 17, 1965). Cotton, Silk & Man-Made Fibres Research
Assoc., Shirley Inst., Didsbury, Manchester 20, England, 1966.
Contents: (1) Planning for trade-effluent disposal, by
P. C. G. Isaac, p. 9-34; (2) Treatment of waste waters from
the textile industry, by A. B. Wheatland, p. 35-39 (14 refs);
(3) Pollution by textile effluents in the Mersey basin, by C. Lumb,
p. 60-76; (4) Stratification in sedimentation tanks, by
A. H. Little, p. 77-92.
TEXTILE EFFLUENT TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL. THE COTTON AND MAN-
MADE FIBRES RESEARCH ASSOCIATION, Shirley Inst. Pamph., 1966, No. 92,
92 pp 20s; At a conference at the Shirley Institute, Manchester, (November 1965).
The following papers were read: (1) Planning for trade-effluent
disposal, Isaac, P. C. G.; (2) Treatment of waste waters from
the textile industry, Wheatland, A. B.; (3) Pollution by textile
effluents in the Mersey basin, C. Lumb; (4) Stratification in
sedimentation tanks, A. H. Little.
A COMPREHENSIVE SURVEY OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE POLLUTION IN SOUTH
CAROLINA, Hann, R. W., Jr. and F. D. Callcott: Industrial Waste Conf.
(Purdue), 20, p. 538-550, (1965).
This study discusses the major industries (the textile industry is the
largest) using the waters of South Carolina. Their processes are
examined and the location and magnitude of their waste discharges
noted. The scope of the various industries in relationship to their
waste discharges as compared to one another and to the domestic
population is calculated. 7 references.
TEXTILE MILL EFFLUENT CONTROL, Lawton, E.; Textile Forum, 23, p. 8-14,
47-57, (1965).
280
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The varied character of textile wastes, waste recovery systems,
analysis of waste waters, and methods of waste treatment are
described.
THE EFFECT OF INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS ON SOIL FILTRATION, H. Reploh and
H. Kustermann; Arch. Hyg. Bakteriol. 149, No. 7/8:627-635, (1965), (German)
Through J. Textile Inst. Abstr. 57: W624, 1966.
Soil filtration of sewage was found to be effected, detrimentally,
by textile-mill effluent. Tests showed that the highly alkaline
effluent reduced the filtering speed of the soil by dissolving humus
substances, but that this could be overcome by neutralizing the
effluent with sulfuric acid.
WASTE DISPOSAL BY TEXTILE PLANTS, A. L. Smith (Chatham Mfg. Co.),
J. Water Pollution Control Fed. 37: 1607-1613, (Nov. 1965).
Sources of wastes and general methods of removal are discussed,
followed by two examples: (1) how a multifiber woolen mill
solved a problem in solids removal and in incomplete treatment,
and (2) how a plant processing synthetic fibers made good use of
aeration for handling sludge.
TREATMENT STUDIES OF COMBINED TEXTILE AND DOMESTIC WASTES,
Lauria, D. T. and C. A. Willis; Proc. 19th Ind. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ.,
Engng. Extn. Ser. 117, p. 45-58, (1964).
At Valdese, N. C., more than 80 percent of the total waste flow
consists of waste waters from the dyeing and finishing operations
at textile mills. The existing sewage works are overloaded and,
since the effluents are discharged to a creek flowing into a lake
used for recreational and water-supply purposes, it was decided
to carry out pilot-plant experiments to obtain data for the design
of a new plant for biological treatment of combined domestic
sewage and textile waste waters. The method of treatment chosen
was a low-load ing completely-mixed process, and results showed
that reductions in BOD of 90 percent could be obtained with BOD
loadings of at least 2 Ib. of BOD per Ib. of sludge per day. The
proposed new plant, which will have a capacity of 3.2 m.g.d., will
comprise facilities for screening and grit removal, lagoons with me-
chanical surface aerators, sedimentation tanks, facilities for chlori-
nation of effluents, and a solid-bowl centrifuge for thickening excess
sludge before disposal as landfill.
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APPLICATION OF THE DISSOLVED OXYGEN ELECTRODE TO THE TREATMENT
OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES, Mathews, L. A.; Proc. S. Munic. Ind. Waste Conf.,
13, p. 89-96, (1964).
Determination of oxygen up-take and respiration by aerated sludges
of textile and dyeing wastes treated by the activated sludge process
is discussed.
HYGIENIC ASPECTS OF THE TREATMENT OF TEXTILE INDUSTRY WASTE WATERS
CONTAINING CHROMIUM SALTS, USED FOR IRRIGATION, Sedova, G. P.;
J. Hyg. Epidem. Microbiol. Immun., 8, p. 281, (1964); and Zentbl. Bakt.
Parasitkde, I, 200, Ref., p. 407, 1965.
Details are given of experiments carried out on the treatment of
textile industry waste waters containing chromium salts for use in
Irrigation. Results showed that trivalent and hexavalent chromium,
present in clay soil in amounts of 0.1 mg. per 100 g. of soil, had no
adverse effects on the nitrification process. Irrigation with undiluted
waste waters containing chromium inhibited the formation of nitrate-
nitrogen in the soil but had a growth-promoting effect on plants such
as cabbage, carrots, and tomatoes. When using waste waters contain-
ing chromium for irrigation, the waste water must be diluted, so that
the chromium content does not exceed 0.5 mg. per litre and the amount
of irrigation should not exceed 2000 m per ha.
THE ECONOMICS OF BASE METAL RECOVERY BY ION EXCHANGE, A. B.
Mindler (Permutit Co., Paramus, N. J.), Met. Soc. Conf. 24, 851-8, discussion
858-0, (1963).
Data are presented to demonstrate that industry producing base
metals may profit by ion exchange, esp. where the metal concn.
is low. The examples are taken from the textile industry in which
5000 tons Cu and Zn, as oxides, are recovered each year from
waste solns. Costs are given for the Zn circuit, but the costs
should be similar for a Cu circuit. Also a new process (abiperm)
is described for recovering Na from sulfite pulp waste liquors.
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COTTON WASTE TREATMENT
PROCESS FOR SIZING TEXTILES AND THE DISPOSITION OF SIZING WASTES
THEREFROM, Bode, H. E.; U.S. P. 3,093,504.
By allowing starch to react with alkali metal phosphates under
prescribed conditions, involving heating in a semi-dry state, it
is claimed that reagents can be produced which develop colloidal
properties suitable for sizing cotton warp at a relatively higher
viscosity than that required with the parent starches. As a result,
only about half the usual weight of size is required and only half
the usual weight of size solids appear in the desizing liquor, thus
reducing the pollution load, fn addition, desizing can be carried
out simply by heating in water, with no resultant degradation of
the basic starch molecule, and the desizing liquor can be used as
make-up liquor for further desizing; alternatively, it can be treated
to recover the starch solids by precipitation with a material, such as
barium hydroxide or lime, which will supply a cation to neutralize
the charge on the anionic starch polymer; after removal of the pre-
cipitated starch phosphate by centrifuging, filtration, or sedimen-
tation, the effluent is substantially free from B.O. D. attributable
to the starch size.
WASTE TREATMENT STUDIES AT CLUETT, PEABODY AND COMPANY FINISH-
ING PLANT, R. H. Southern; Am. Dyestuff Reptr. 58: 13-16, (July 1969).
Data on pollution effects of textile processing wastes, effects on
modified extended contact bio-aeration, and effects of in-plant
mercerizing caustic recovery are given. The results of trials with
caustic soda recovery units are discussed.
KINETICS OF REMOVAL OF STARCH IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEMS,
Banerji, S. K., B. B. Ewing, R. S. Englebrecht, and R. E. Speece; J. Water
Pollution Control Fed., 40, (2), Part 1, p. 161-173, (1968).
A laboratory-scale study of the kinetics of starch removal in
activated sludge systems revealed that first-order kinetics
prevail during the initial aeration period, with the removal-
rate constant dependent on food-to-microorganism ratio rather
than on initial sludge concentration. Removal of total chemical
oxygen demand follows zero-order kinetics and depends on initial
mixed liquor suspended solids. The effect of temperature on both
removal rates is significant. In aerobic systems, further break-
-------
down of starch breakdown products occurs inside microbial cells.
Anaerobiosis has no effect on starch degradation under good mix-
ing conditions, but greatly retards total COD and total carbo-
hydrate removals.
MECHANISM OF STARCH REMOVAL IN THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS,
Banerji, S. K.7 B. B. Ewing, R. S. Englebrecht, and R. E. Speece; J. Water
Pollution Control Fed., 40, p. 16-29, (1968).
A laboratory experiment on the removal of starch from textile
desizing processes is reported. An explanation of the mechanisms
involved in removal of potato starch by activated sludge is offered.
EFFECT OF THE QUANTITY OF WATER USED IN FABRIC BLEACHING ON THE
DEGREE OF WHITENESS ATTAINED AND ON THE CONTENT OF IMPURITIES IN
EFFLUENT, H. Jakubowica; Tech. Wlok. 17, No. 10:316-318, (1968), (Polish)
Through Shirley Inst. 48: 5705, (1968).
Experimental work on the bleaching of cotton fabrics and viscose
in rope form on Kleinewefers, Benteler, and QL-1 equipment is
reported.
COMBINED TREATMENT OF COTTON MILL AND DAIRY WASTES WITH SEWAGE,
Petru A.; Water Waste Treat., 11, (12), p. 532-533, (1968).
The combined treatment of cotton mill and dairy wastes with
sewage was evaluated by treating synthetic sewage made from
dried milk and textile wastes from an operating cotton mill.
The wastes were tested manometrically. These manometric tests
were followed by tests in a laboratory model, two-stage activated
sludge plant. The combined waste could be effectively treated.
Shock loading of alkaline pH was adequately handled. S 17,
Cr 1.68 (as K2Cr2O4), and Cu (as CuSO4) 41 mg./l. were
without effect. Retention times of one hour in the primary and
three hours in the secondary stage yielded acceptable results,
USES OF CAUSTIC SODA RECOVERED FROM THE MERCERIZATION PROCESS
IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY, D. F. Becknell; Master's Thesis, Georgia Inst. of
Technol., Atlanta, Ga. (1967).
Recovery and reuse of sodium hydroxide from the mercerization of
cotton textiles have been investigated for the purposes of economy
and reduction of water pollution.
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THE TREATMENT OF KIER LIQUOR IN A MIXTURE WITH SEWAGE, K. A. Deigh-
ton; Water Pollution Control 66, No. 5: 484-491, (1967) Through Shirley Inst. 48:
177, 1968.
It has been established that Greenfield (Lancastershire) sewage
containing kier liquor and other trade effluents can be successfully
purified by two-stage treatment using a partial-treatment activated-
sludge plant followed by biological filtration. While no set of con-
ditions ensured a 30:20 effluent at all times, departures from this
were generally slight. On average, during the later stage of the
experiment, effluents were within the 30:20 standard.
RECIRCULATION AT SEWAGE WORKS TO DEAL WITH KIER COTTON LIQUOR,
Munic. Engng., Lond. 144:2317, (1967) Through Water Pollution Abstr. 41:
1633, Sept. 1968.
An illustrated description is given of new sewage works under
construction that are designed to treat a dry-weather flow of
0.75 m.g.d., including 0.1 m.g.d. of cotton kiering waste-
waters. Treatment is by biological filtration with 1.1 recircu-
lation of effluent and results are given of pilot-plant experiments
showing reductions in biological and chemical oxygen demand
obtained with single and alternating double filtration. With al-
ternating double filtration and 1.1 recirculation, a biological
oxygen demand reduction of 95.7% was achieved.
SODIUM HYDROXIDE RECOVERY IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY, C. S. Carrique
and L. U. Jauregul; U. Proc. 21st Ind. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ., Engng, Extn.
Ser. No. 121:861-868, (1966) Through Water Pollution Abstr. 40: 1891,
Nov. 1967.
The Castelar textile mill in Buenos Aires, Argentina, has provided
a treatment plant for coagulation of the waste waters with aluminum
sulfate, followed by chlorination before discharge to a storm drain.
Since the waste water from the cotton mercerizing process is very
alkaline, it was decided to segregate it for recovery of sodium
hydroxide; the waste water is filtered to remove fine colloidal
matter and is then evaporated in a double-effect system to produce
colorless concentrated sodium hydroxide. Diagrams of the recovery
system are included and the costs are estimated.
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IN-PLANT PROCESS CONTROL FOR ABATEMENT OF POLLUTION LOAD OF
TEXTILE WASTES, S. V. Ganapati; Environ. Health 87 No. 3: 169-173, (1966)
Through Chem. Abstr. 66, No. 6: 21985, 1967.
Reduction in the volume and strength of textile mill waste by
recovery of certain salvageable substances (and also recovery of
waste heat) is discussed. A particular aspect mentioned is the
reduction of sizing waste; this can be effected by using synthetic
sizing agents which produce wastes with a much lower BOD than
those from natural sizing agents.
WASTE LIQUORS FROM THE MERCERIZATION OF COTTON FABRICS AND
LIMITING OF WASTE WATER ALKALINITY, Jaromir Nosek; Vodni Hospodarstvi
16 (7), 288-91, (1966), (Czech).
In the mercerization process, the consumption of mercerization
caustic depends mainly on the humidity of the fabric entering and
leaving the mercerization machine. To reduce the caustic con-
sumption, increased wringing by the machine and use of waste
liquor for the dissoln. of the fresh caustic are suggested.
TREATMENT OF WASTES FROM COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY, Rao, V. Rama;
Technology (Sindrr), Spec. Issur. 3, (4), p. 56-58, (1966).
The vol. of waste water discharged from 87 cotton textile mills at
Ahmedabad (India) varies between 10,000 and 3,000,000 gal./day.
Waste waters are chiefly from bleach and dyehouse and contain
fibrous and suspended solids. Owing to great variations in the
characteristics of the waste water, it was not appropriate to mix
it directly with sewage. Modified pretreatment methods of waste
treatment in each plant were worked out, which consists of coagu-
lation by lime and gypsum followed sedimentation and filtration
through a gypsum filter.
BIOLOGICAL PURIFICATION OF PRODUCTION EFFLUENTS FROM COTTON
BLEACHING, Zawadzki, Jerzy; Biul. Inst. Wlok., 177 (2), p. 1-5, (1965),
(Polish).
Investigations were made on a lab. scale on the possibility of
purifying waste waters from cotton bleaching for further utilization.
Purifications were carried out by the activated sludge method. To
ensure the development of microorganisms, 1 g. K, P, and N (in
form of NH3)/m.3 of effluents. It was impossible to det. on the
lab. scale the optimum amt. of air needed for decreasing 5-day
286
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BOD in effluents. The purified waste waters could be reused for
rinsing raw cotton after bleaching.
UNIQUE TREATMENT SYSTEM FOR CHEMICAL COTTON WASTES, B. W. Dick-
erson (Hercules Powder Co., Wilmington, Del.), Proc. Ind. Water Waste Conf.
5th, Dallas, (1965), 397-427.
Processing of cotton I inters consists essentially of cooking with a
caustic liquor, washing, bleaching, packaging, and passing the
purified product through a regular paper machine. Three methods
of handling the wastes were investigated: evapn., burning, and
recausticization for recovery of caustic soda; the Zimmerman pro-
cess; and biol. oxidn. The last method appeared to be the most
feasible. Batch aeration studies showed that with proper diln.,
pH adjustment, and nutrient addn., the composite waste was
amenable to such treatment under aerobic conditions. Semipilot-
plant studies showed that good purification of the waste may be
obtained with an aeration period of 16-24 hours. Based upon the
data obtained in these studies, a pilot-plant operation was devised.
After months of operation, sufficient data was accumulated for
design criteria to be developed. The full scale plant design
developed is described and also shown pictorially.
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WOOL WASTE TREATMENT
THE CENTRIFUGAL RECOVERY OF WOOL GREASE, Wool Sci. Rev. No. 37:
23-36, (Oct. 1969).
Various aspects of the centrifugal method are discussed in this paper
and a procedure is given for achieving maximum profitability. The
topics covered are: structure of the wool scour liquor, general prin-
ciples of recovery, primary separation, the secondary centrifuge,
the purifier centrifuge, and scouring and centrifuging procedures for
maximum grease recovery. The economics of wool grease recovery
and the future demand for wool grease are also covered.
NEW ZEALAND WOOL SCOURING LIQUORS-TREATMENT AND POTASSIUM
RECOVERY, J. L. Hoare, R. G. Stewart, and B. J. Sweetman; N. Z. J. Sci. 12,
No. 2:237-251, (1969) Through World Textile Abstr. 1: 5694, (1969).
Some results are given of the effect of acidification on a series of
nonionic detergent stabilized New Zealand wool scouring liquors.
By treatment with sulfuric acid to pH 3.5 the emulsion is cracked
but phase separation is generally poor. The potassium contents of
67 samples of 48s Romney Crossbred wool were determined and two
methods of recovering potassium from wool washings were examined
on a laboratory scale. At present the most satisfactory way of treat-
ing effluent from wool scouring is in admixture with domestic wastes
in a conventional treatment plant.
WATER POLLUTION: SPECIFIC POLLUTION BY GREASY WOOLS, B. Koussens;
Bulletin Trimestriel. Centre Textile de Controle et de Recherche Scientifique
No. 74: 236-245, 1968, (French) Through World Textile Abstr. 1: 848, (1969).
The effluents from the scouring of several types of greasy merino and
crossbred fleece wools and Mazamet skinwool were analyzed for
matter in suspension, biological oxygen demand, chemical oxygen
demand, and organic matter content, the last three being determined
after being decanted for 2 hrs. Soap-soda and detergent scours were
compared.
PURIFICATION OF EFFLUENT FROM WOOL SCOURING MILLS, Y. Y. Lur'e and
P. S. Antipova: Tekstil, Prom. 28, No. 2: 13-14, (1968), (Russian) Through Shir-
ley Inst. 48: 2244, (1968).
A chemical method for the removal of anionic synthetic detergents
288
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from wool scouring wastes which contain too high a concentration
for discharge into a municipal sewage works is described. It in-
volves the use of potassium aluminate or other sorbents which act
in alkaline medium; in the experimental work this was used to re-
move dodecylbenzenesulfonate from the effluent.
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF WOOL-SCOURING WASTE,
Ogawa, Hiroshi; Horikawa, Kunihiko; Yasuda, Makoto; Kagami, Tsunejiro
(Kanagawa-ken Kogyo Hokoku), (1968), (21), 35-45, (Japanese).
Coagulation and subsequent activated sludge treatment for wool
scouring waste was investigated. Gravitational sedimentation was
effective for inorg. substances but not for oily org. substances.
Acid sedimentation by ^$04 reduced S.S.< 6000 in 70-80%
efficiently at pH 3-4. After the acid sedimentation, B.O. D. and
C.O. D. were reduced to 400-5600 and 146-1630 ppm., followed
by neutralization with Ca(OH)2- Grease recovery was investigated
regarding solvent (ClCr^Ch^CI, CCI^ C$2/ n-hexane, and pe-
troleum ether) extn. and centrifugal method. After the chem. treat-
ment B.O.D. and CO. D. were reduced to 900-1500 and 400-800 ppm.
resp. In final activated sludge treatment C.O.D. 75% and > 1-2 hrs.
B. O. D. 75% elimination was achieved. After over-all treatment
B.O.D. and C.O. D. were reduced to 15-70 and 60-120 ppm., resp.,
and the transparency >30 cm.
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE WATER FROM WOOL WASHING PLANTS
WITHOUT CHEMICAL PRE-TREATMENT, A. Petru. Vod. Hospod. 17: 108-109,
1967, (Czech), (English summary) Through Water Pollution Abstr. 41:878 (May 1968}
Previous experiments have shown that wool washing waste waters
could be treated biologically in admixture with sewage after pre-
liminary chemical treatment, and further experiments have now
been carried out to investigate the possibility of omitting the chem-
ical treatment. The results showed, however, that satisfactory treat-
ment could be achieved only by a two-stage biological process,
treating a mixture of 1 part of waste water to 80 parts of sewage.
ACID METHOD FOR ADDITIONAL DECREASING OF WASTE WATERS OF WOOL-
WASHING PLANTS, Radvinskii, M. V.; Martynova, A. P. (USSR). Vodosnabzh,
Kanaliz. Gidrotekh. Sooruzh. Mezhved. Resppub. Nauch.-Tekh. Sb. 1967, No. 5,
87-7 (Russian) From Ref. Zh., Khim. (1968), Abstr. No. 121497.
Waste waters contain significant amt. of wool fat after flotation
and sepn. About 60-70% of the indicated ^$04 content is spent
289
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for alky, neutralization of waste waters and only 30-40% for
acidification to pH 3.5. Before releasing the degreased waste
waters Into the effluent system, they can be neutralized by
partial combination with alk. rinsing waters of the last vats.
Acid demulsification of predild. waste waters at 40-50° resulted
in favorable wool fat pptn. process.
EFFLUENTS AND BYPRODUCTS, R. E. F. Gardner, F. Hunter and P. Ramsden
(City of Bradford Sewage Dept.); J. Bradford Textile Soc: 89-95, (1967-1968).
The three authors give separate accounts of the water supply,
water pollution, and sewage purification in Bradford in relation
to the high concentration of the wool scouring industry there.
EXPERIENCES WITH PLANTS TREATING WASTE WATERS FROM THE WOOL
INDUSTRY, Lebedev, M., and Agalova, V.; Vodosnab. sanit. Tekh., (1967),
No. 4, 34-37.
Details are given of experiences in the treatment of wool industry
waste waters at a mechanical-biological plant in Ulan-Ude,
U.S.S.R. The plant, which has been operated successfully for
two years, provides two-stage biochemical treatment, and the
sludge is used as manure.
FINANCIAL RETURN FROM INDUSTRIAL WASTE PR E-TREATMENT, Reich, J. S.;
Proc. 22nd Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue Univ., Extension Service,
Vol. 129, p. 92, (1967).
Article discusses problems encountered with wool waste in the
city of Philadelphia. Several wool fulling and scouring plant
discharges to the city's biological treatment plans have caused
problems. It was found that fibers were being lost that could be
recovered at a profit. The plants made changes in their waste
screening procedures and recovered this valuable material.
INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE CENTRIFUGING OF WOOL-SCOURING LIQUORS
FOR WOOL-GREASE RECOVERY. I. THE PRIMARY CENTRIFUGE, Anderson,
C. A., and G. F. Wood; J. Text. Inst., 57, p. T55-T64, (1966).
Experiments were carried out using an Alfa-Laval sludge-discharge
centrifuge, type FVK4, to determine the effect of various factors
on grease recovery. In general the centrifuge was inefficient at
settings that gave very low or very high cone, of grease in the
290
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product, the optimal cone, being 15+/-5%; procedure is described
for adjusting the centrifuge for optimal production,
EQUIPMENT FOR WASHING AND DECREASING WOOL, Spinner Weber Textil-
veredlung 84, No. 5: 533-534, (1966), (German) Through Shirley Inst. 46: 3359,
(1966).
A method due to the Stiftelsen Svensk Textilforskning gives wool
a rhythmical shaking in the liquor which should not cause felting.
Two others methods are described in which the wool is sprayed
with aqueous detergent solution. A variation of the CSIRO method
is for the treatment of lumpy wool without causing further felting.
WATER POLLUTION, Lab. Essais Chambre Comm. Magamet No. 2: 16-22, (1965),
(French) Through J. Textile Inst. Abstr. 57: W625, (1966).
Results are reported from a simple installation of two decanting tanks
for treating effluent in a Magamet de-wooling plant where water is
supplied from a stream that is also the outlet for effluent.
CARPET MANUFACTURING EFFLUENTS AND THEIR TREATMENT, Evers, D.:
J. Proc. Inst. Sew. Purif., Part 5, p. 464-470, (1966).
Carpet processing effluent is divided into categories - effluent
from (1) scouring of raw wool and yarn, (2) dyeing, (3) sizing,
(4) latex ing, (5) moth-and mildew-proofing. If a firm discharges
all these effluents, the smaller volumes of effluent from latexing
and proofing will be lost in the larger volumes from scouring and
dyeing. If only dyeing and latexing are carried out, acid dye
liquors will precipitate latex and clog sewers.
FIT WASTE WATER TREATMENT TO INDUSTRIAL PROCESS, Nebolsine, R. and
Donovan, E. J.; Plant Engineering, Vol. 20, p. 140, (1966).
Discusses the treatment of wool along with other wastes.
PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE-WATER TREATMENT INSTALLATIONS,
Pais, G.; R. Mitroiu, and H. Weinberg; Hidroteh. Gospodarirea Apelor Meteo-
rol., II, (3), p. 149-155, (1966), (Rumanian).
Figures for silk and wool industries are included in analytical
data (pH values, total suspensions, and organic matter) on
waste waters from various industries. Methods of waste water
treatment are also discussed.
291
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PHYSICAl/CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOLEN MILL EFFLUENT AND
PURIFICATION TRIALS, M. Rusanovschi, E. Iliescu, and B. Zilberstein;
Industrie Textile 17, No. 3: 160-164, (1966), (Rumanian) Through Shirley Inst.
46: 3503, (1966).
Qualitative and quantitative analyses of the waste waters from
woolen mills have been investigated and an attempt has been
made to establish a purification technique which will treat the
effluent to such an extent that final purification may be carried
out at the domestic sewage plant. Two purification techniques
are suggested: chemical coagulation and absorption.
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF WOOL SPINNING WASTES, Tanaka, M.,
Dazai, M., and Ono, H.; Hakko Kogaku Zasshi (Japan), 42, 5, 306, (1964):
Chem. Abs., 64, 19181, (1966).
Article covers work on the mophilic methane fermentation of wool
spinning waste. The digested liquor was mixed with the dye liquor
and backwash water and treated in an activated sludge plant.
METHOD FOR DISPOSAL OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE WATER, Yoshikara, A.,
Yoshikara, T., Okada, K. and Sakaguchi, S.; U. S. Patent 3, 163,598; Jour.
Textile Inst. Abs., 57, 626, (1966).
Authors covered the treatment of wool wastes with wood, charcoal
or the like, then treatment with zinc compounds (cheap by-prod-
ucts of industrial processes).
DEVELOPMENT TRIALS OF PLANT FOR THE CONTINUOUS PURIFICATION
OF SOLVENT-EXTRACTED WOOL GREASE, J. Brach; Ann. Sci. Textiles Beiges
No. 4: 65-85, (1965), (French) Through J. Textile Inst. Abstr. 57: W243, (1966).
Plant for the continuous treatment of solvent-extracted wool
grease by the De Smet Neumi process is described. The ex-
tracted grease is mixed with hexane, alcohol, water, and
soda. After decanting into three phases, treatment with al-
cohol and water removes any traces of soaps from the upper
phase, the solvent is distilled from the grease, and the hexane
and alcohol are collected. Alcohol is recovered by water from
the hexane, which is then available for reuse. Data of the
properties of the purified grease and of the operation of the
plant are reported.
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TREATMENT OF WOOL SCOURING LIQUORS, E. W. Clark and G. F. Kitchen
(to Woolcombers Ltd. and Westbrook Lanolin Co.), BP 1 029 114, (May 1965),
Appl. Apr. 21, 1964.
The invention covers a method for removing detergents from the
waste liquor to facilitate recovery of wool grease and produce
a purer effluent for disposal in public sewage systems.
EFFLUENT CONTROL IN THE CARPET INDUSTRY, Evers, D.; Textile Inst. Ind. 3,
p. 237-240, (1965).
The characteristics of effluents resulting from scouring, dyeing,
sizing, latexing, mothproofing, and mildewproofing are discussed.
DISPOSAL OF WOOL SCOURING RINSINGS, Y. Yajima, N. Todo, T. Oda,
and G. Fujiwara (to Kanematsu Woolen Mills Ltd. and Takuma Boiler Mfg. Co.
Ltd.), BP 1 128 921, Oct. 2, 1968, Appl. (Japan) (Oct. 1964).
The scouring effluent is separated into coagulated matter or
sludge and waste water suitable for discharge into public drainage
and the sludge is treated further to recover wool fat and fertilizer
by means of solvent treatment.
THE PURIFICATION OF WASTE WATER FROM WASHING WOOL BY MEANS OF
ANAEROBIC FERMENTATION, E. E. Grishina; Vodosnabzh. i Sanit. Tekhn.,
(1964), (12), 24-7, (Russian).
The construction and working of a pilot plant for purifying the
waste water from washing wool by filtration and anaerobic
fermentation is described. The method makes possible a decrease
of the pH to 8.3, the abs. B. O. D. to 25-30 mg./l/ and a com-
plete elimination of the wool fat. The NO3" and NO2~ content of
the purified waste water was 31 and 0.1 mg./l., resp.
RECOVERY OF FIBROUS MATERIAL FROM WASTE WATERS OF THE PAPER,
CARDBOARD AND CELLULOSE INDUSTRY, H. Sommer, H. Bestian, and D.
Bergmann (to Farbwerke Hoechst AG), USP 3 399 110, Aug. 27, 1968, Appl.
(Germany), (Mar. 1964).
The process consists of adding to the waste water a nitrogenous
product obtained by the condensation of urea and a 1, 2-alky-
lene-imine or oligomer.
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MAN-MADE FIBER WASTE TREATMENT
PILOT WASTE WATER STUDY GIVES ENCOURAGING INDICATIONS,
R. S. Sahlie and C. E. Steinmerz (Fiber Inds. , Inc.). Modern Textiles Mag, 50:
26-28 (Nov. 1969).
Early results are reported from operation of a pilot plant designed
to discover the most efficient methods for treating effluent from
polyester fiber manufacture for reuse.
THERMAL DECONTAMINATION OF WASTE WATER FROM THE PRODUCTION
OF ANID (nylon 66) FIBERS, Bernadiner, M. N. Shurygin, A. P.; Esilevish,
G. S.; Lepakhin, I. A.; Baskova, N. K.; Kazanskii, A. A. (USSR).
Khim Volokna (I960), (4), 67-70 (Russian).
The concn. of H2N(CH2) 6NH2(I) in the waste effluents of a
nylon 66 plant near Kiev is <,0.2 wt. %. The amt. allowed
by Soviet law of this toxic compound is ^O-Ol mg./l. in water
and 0.001 mg./l. in the air. Hot effluents are sprayed into the
top section of a cyclone furnace directly into the flame jets of
burning natural gas-air mixts. The combustion of I is nearly 100%.
PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE FROM CELLULOSE FIBER PRODUCTION, Kaeding,
Joachim; Erdtel, Lothar; Oehme, Rudolf. (German) (East) 627 267 (Cl. C 02c),
(05Jun. 1968), Appl. lOJul. 1967.
The title process is carried out by mixing alk., cellulose-
production sewage with some of the acid sewage, followed by
flocculation, sedimentation, aeration, and biol. purification
steps. Thus, heavily loaded alk. sewage and part of the less
heavily loaded acid sewage are put in settling tanks for 2 hrs.
and then measured together into a 3rd tank in a suitable ratio
to give pH 2.5-3.0, whereupon a and 3 -cellulose are pptd.
with some adsorbed Zn compds. The acid liquor from the latter
settling vessel is mixed with excess acid sewage from the begin-
ning of the process and neutralized with chalk or NaOh to
pH 8-9, whereupon Zn salts are pptd. Nutrients are added,
e.g. N and P salts, and the sewage is put into another settling
tank for 1 hr. and then into an activated-sludge, biodegradation
vessel for 4 hrs. where the residual Y -cellulose is degraded.
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SCHEME FOR THE REMOVAL OF ZINC IONS FROM EFFLUENT BY CATION
EXCHANGERS IN A FLUIDIZED BED, Khfm-voiok. (USSR), 6, p. 65, 1967;
Shirley Inst., 48, 450 (1968).
Discusses an ion exchange method of zinc recovery from viscose
fiber production using a sodium type cation exchanger. The viscose
production waste waters were not screened or settled but put directly
through the two ion exchange columns. After this treatment, the
zinc was reduced to 0.01 mg./l.
BIOCHEMICAL CLARIFICATION OF WASTE WATERS CONTAINING
CAPROLACTUM, Kulakov, E. A., et. al.; Tr. Vses., Nauch-lssled. Inst.
Vodosnabzhenii, Inst. Gidrogeol. (USSR), 14, 18 (1966); Chem. Abs., 68,
15914, (1968).
A discussion of biological purification of caprolactum containing
waters. It can be treated in two ways: (a) using 5 mg/l of phos-
phorus providing the BOD is less than 500 mg/l., and (b) the
addition of municipal waste water. The same biological process
can be used for either.
^FLUENT TREATMENT IN THE MANUFACTURE AND PROCESSING OF MAN-
MADE FIBERS, F. Rub.; Chemiefasern 18, No. 7: 524-526 (1968). (German)
trough Shirley Inst. 48: 3776, (1968).
The author describes a clarification plant (a Lubecker tank), a
biological treatment system, and the Cyclator and its use in
flocculation.
VISCOSE WASTE-PROFILE OF A SUCCESSFUL POLLUTION CONTROL
PROGRAMME, Woodruff, P. H.; Moore, W. J.; Sitman, W. D.; and Omohundro,
G. A.; Wat. Sewage Wks. (1968), 115, 441-450.
An illustrated description is given of the plant constructed to treat
cellophane manufacture waste waters. On the basis of extensive
laboratory and pilot-plant studies, results of which are tabulated,
the contact-stabilization process was selected; preliminary neutral-
ization of the waste waters and addition of nutrients are necessary.
The limited data available on the performance of the plant indicate
that reductions in BOD and COD of 80 and 75-85 percent, respect-
ively, can be achieved.
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RECOVERY OF ZING FROM VISCOSE RAYON WASTE, Chakrabarty, R. N.;
Saxene, K. L.; Chattopadhya, S. N. (CPHERI Field Centre, Kanpur, India).
Environ.Health India, (1967), 9(4), 296-305.
(
Chem. pptn. was much superior to ion exchange for the removal
of Zn. A typical flow diagram contains 2 flocculators; the pH is
increased to 6 in the 1st one with CaO and to 9 in the 2nd with
NaOH. The sludge from the 1st flocculation is discarded, while
that from the 2nd is treated with H2SO4 and the recovered Zn is
reused in the rayon process.
RECOVERY OF ZINC FROM SPINNING BATH WASTE OF A VISCOSE RAYON
FACTORY BY ION-EXCHANGE PROCESS, Bhakuni, T. S.; and Bopardikar, M.V.,
Envir. Hlth, India, (1967), 9, 327-338.
An ion-exchange laboratory process for the recovery of zinc from
spinning bath solution in a viscose rayon factory is described, in
which the zinc is adsorbed on a polystyrene-based sulphonic cation-
exchange resin in hydrogen or sodium form and eluted with dilute
sulphuric acid. Percentage recoveries of over 90 percent were
obtained.
INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT REUSE, Day, W. J.; Southern Engineer, Vol. 85, 56,
(1967).
Author discusses the reuse of water from Fortrel polyester fiber
production. The author describes a new plant to be built where
water reuse will be necessary and economically feasible. Pilot
work was carried out at the extended-aeration activated sludge
disposal facilities of a similar type plant. Plans call for the use
of a plastic media trickling filter preceding the activated sludge
portion to reduce the cost of the mechanical aerators. This was
followed by: polishing ponds, algae removal screens, and acti-
vated carbon (to remove organic matter). The recovered water
was to be used mainly as cooling water make-up. This will re-
quire a continuous blow-down to control inorganic solids.
THE PURIFICATION OF WASTE WATER IN THE PRODUCTION OF POLYAMIDE-
FIBER, Kaeding, J.; Fortschr. Wasserchem. Ihrer Grenzgeb., 5, p. 258-283,
(1967), (German).
Water from the production of polyamide fibers by the steeping
and direct spinning processes was contaminated with org. sub-
stances, such as e -aminocaprolacram oligomers, products, and
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2
detergents. Further knowledge concerning the amt. (55-7 m. /ton)
and kinds of impurities and how they can be treated was sought.
Lab scale tests were carried out on a 2-stage biol. treatment follow-
ed by flocculation. Holding times of 6-8 hours sufficed for the de-
compn., which was effected with more certainty and greater capaci-
ty at 30 than at 20 . The lactam N was consumed by the micro-
organisms, so that only phosphates had to be added for microbial
decompn. Substances not easily biodegradable were removed from
the waste water by adsorption with coagulants (Al2(SO4)3.18H2O;
FeCl3.6H2O; FeSO4-7H2O; CaO) and the decompn. capacity
was then approx. that of lactam-contg. water.
PURIFICATION OF WASTE WATERS FROM THE VISCOSE RAYON INDUSTRY,
Kulakov, E. A.; and I. N. Myasnikov; Zh. Vses. Khim. Obshchest., 12, (6)7
p. 638-644, (1967).
The purification of waste waters obtained from production of viscose
silk (900 m./ton),vhcose reinforced staple (500 m. 3/t°n)/ vis-
cose cord (700 m. Vton), and cellophane (750 m. 3/ton) is de-
scribed. Sep. processes are suggested for removing all impurities,
including acidity 4-8.5 meq./l., pH 2.5-2.8, CS2 20-100, H2S 5-25,
Zn 20-75, suspended material 120-470, dry residue 2700-6500, and
calcined residue 2200-3500 mg./l.
FUNCTION OF SEDIMENTATION TANKS IN SEMI-INDUSTRIAL PLANT FOR
EFFLUENT PURIFICATION, Malikov, V. A.; Khim. Volok., (3), p. 64-66,
(1967), (Russian).
Experimental work on the use of vertical and horizontal settling
tanks in the purification of viscose-production effluent is re-
ported. The vertical tanks are shown to have three times the
capacity of the horizontal tanks in achieving the same degree of
purification but the problem of removal of the sediment is more
complex.
EXTRACTION OF ZINC FROM INDUSTRIAL WASTE WATERS, Shrylev, L. D.
and Mokruslun, S. G.; Zuhr. Priklad. Khim. (USSR) 40, 72 (1967); Chem. Abs.,
66, 79391, (1967).
Removal of zinc by successive treatment with solutions of Na2SO4,
FeSO4, and NaOH is discussed. The final separation of zinc was
carried out by flotation.
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ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT OF SOME ORGANIC WASTES, Wheatlcmd,
A. B.; Proc. 22nd Ind. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ. Extention Service, Vol. 129,
p. 983, (1967).
Discusses laboratory work on the activated sludge treatment of
synthetic fibers waste. The work was carried out in three stages:
(a) Neutralization and precipitation followed by activated sludge
treatment, (b) activated sludge treatment alone without pretreat-
ment, and (c) mixing the cooling waters, the waste material, and
domestic waste-water for treatment with activated sludge. Carried
out on nylon, terylene and polyacrylie-dyeing wastes.
SEWAGE TREATMENT IN VISCOSE FIBRE PRODUCTION, Economic Commission
for Europe. Water Poll/Econ/Working Paper 25, (1966).
At a meeting of experts for the study of economic aspects of water
pollution control problems the characteristics of waste waters from
the manufacture of viscose rayon fibres were outlined. These com-
prise acidic and alkaline streams which when mixed result in an
acidic solution in which ct and 3 celluloses are regenerated and
may be settled after flucculation. The efficiency of flocculation
is influenced by temperature and concentration of sulphuric acid
and sodium sulphate; sedimentation improves at higher tempera-
tures but is adversely affected by the presence of gas bubbles and
by changes in atmospheric pressure.
ZINC RECOVERY FROM VISCOSE RAYON EFFLUENT. Aston, R. S.; Ont. Ind.
Waste Conf., Proc. No. 13, p. 215-230, (1966).
The recovery of Zn, in the form of ZnSO4, by ion exchange was
successfully applied to the treatment of effluent liquors from a
viscose rayon plant. The resin used was Permutit Q, a cation
exchanger of the sulfonated polystyrene type, operating in the
H cycle and regenerated with H2SO4-
REMOVAL OF ZINC FROM WASTE WATERS FROM VISCOSE FIBER PRODUCTION,
Fishman, G. I.; Mater. Soveshch. Molodykh Spets. Vses. Nauch. Issled. Vodos-
nabzh. Kanaliz. Gidrotekh. Sooryzhennii Inzh. Gidrogeol. Ochistka Stochn.
Bod., Moscow, p. 9-15, (1966), (Russian).
A soda-sulfate method is recommended for local clarification of
coned. Zn-contg. waste waters if complete Zn removal is nec-
essary; if the latter is not required, a soda method is recommended
and regeneration of the Zn is not expedient. In the soda-sulfate
29S
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xmethod a Na2Co3 soln. is added to the waste waters to pH 4-4,5;
after blowing with CO2 in a degasifier the pH is brought to 8.5-9.5.
The Zn3SO3(OH)4 formed is pptd. in vertical settling tanks. Then
the waste waters are subjected to final Zn removal with Na2S fol-
lowed by filtration on sand filters (Filtration rate 5 m./hr.).
COMPOSITION AND CLARIFICATION OF WASTE WATERS FROM A SYNTHETIC
FACTORY, Gantsmakher, Z.; Dokl. Neftekhim. Sekts., Bashkir, Respub. Provl.
Vses. KhimObshchest., 2, p. 143-145, (1966), (Russian).
Before discharging into the river the clarified waste waters pass
through 2-step biol. ponds. The indexes of waste waters dis-
charged from the clarifying equipment and of the river water 1 km.
below the discharge point are: BOD 4.12, 6.03; Oxidizability 9.4,
8.24; caprolactam concn. 0.9, 0.16; dissolved 0 11.39, 7.37gm./
I/, resp.
ELECTROLYTIC REMOVAL OF COPPER FROM WASH WATERS FROM THE
PRODUCTION OF RAYON BY THE CUPRAMMONIUM PROCESS, Haake, G.
Neue Huette, II, (5), p. 272-278, (1966), (German).
Effects of copper concentration, sulphuric acid concentration,
and temperature have been investigated.
COMPOSITION AND PURIFICATION OF WASTE WATER FROM CAPROLACTAM
PRODUCTION, R. A. Kiseleva and M. S. Dudkin; Khim. Prom. 42 (10), 743-5
(1966), (Russian).
The waste analysts revealed that the aq.-acid layer contained
55% and the alk. waste water 43% of the total amt. of dicar-
boxylic acids. Two methods were developed for the purifica-
tion of alk. wastes. The 1st (giving no pos. results) involved
the use of adsorbent carbons: type A, iodized KAD, and milled
KAD. In the 2nd, the alk. waste water was treated with coned.
H2SO4 in amnts. allowing the clarified soln. to attain the acid-
ity of 0.3N H2SO4. The soln. was then biol. purified or distd.
with steam (removal of monocarboxylic acids and traces of cyclo-
hexanol), and as result a soln. was obtained appropriate for yeast
production.
CHOICE OF THE TYPE OF MIXING UNIT FOR PURIFICATION OF VISCOSE-
PRODUCTION WASTE WATERS, MaPkov, V. A.; Khim. Volok., (5), p. 57-59,
(1966), (Russian).
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The design of mixing chambers for the combination of milk of
lime and effluent is discussed.
PURIFICATION OF EFFLUENTS FROM THE MANUFACTURE OF VISCOSE,
V. S. Morgenshtern Ya. Z. Sorokin Yu. E. Matuskov and V. A. Mal'kov
(Branch All-Union Res. Inst. Fibers, Leningrad). Khfm. Volokna (1966), (1),
44-7, (Russian).
Pilot plant expts. were carried out in order to det. the best
method of pptg. Zn from viscose effluents and of removing
the suspended particles. For effluents from rayon fiber manuf.,
lime was the best pptg. agent. Complete pptn. of Zn takes
place at pH 9.5-10.5. Subsequent 2-step sedimentation gives
a high degree of effluent purification. When the recovery of
Zn from the effluent is recommended, e.g. in the manuf. of
rayon cord fibers or reinforced textile rayon fibers, pptn. of
Zn with calcined soda and then with Na2S is preferred. The
Zn is recovered from the sedimented ppt. by treatment with
H2SO4 in a yield of about 90%.
CLARIFICATION OF SEWAGE FROM SYNTHETIC FIBER FACTORIES WITH THE
AID OF SINGLE-CELL ALGAE, Palamar-Mordvintseva, G. M.; V. K. Marinich,
V. V. Grabovs'ka, and S. M. Neigauz; Ukr. Botan. Zh., 23, (5), p. 56-61,
(1966), (Ukrain).
Expts.were conducted in open basins to confirm data obtained
under lab. conditions on the possibility of cultivating Chlorella
algae on sewage from synthetic fiber production for the purpose of
clarifying the sewage. Growth and development of algae and clar-
ification of sewage were more rapid under natural conditions than
in the lab. The main clarification was completed in 1 day in the
presence of algae. A 3-day cultivation of the algae removed Zn,
H2$, S, and sulfides (100%) and C$2 (60%), and decreased =
BOD by 92.5%.
USE OF SEWAGE FROM HYDRAULIC ASH REMOVAL FROM POWER PLANTS FOR
NEUTRALIZATION AND FINAL CLARIFICATION OF SEWAGE FROM VISCOSE
FIBER PRODUCTION, Pleshakov, V. D. and Matsrev, A. I.; Tr. Novocherk.
Politekhn. Inst. (USSR), 157, 29 (1964); Chem. Abs., 65, 3551, (1966).
The author studied the use of an ash waste from a power plant to
neutralize and clarify waste from a synthetic fiber operation.
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VISCOSE RAYON WASTES AND ZINC RECOVERY THEREFROM, Saxena, K. L.,
and R. N. Chakrabarty; Technology (Sindri), Spec. Issur. 3 (4), p. 29-33, (1966).
To avoid fouling and choking the sewers, acidic and alk. wastes
are sepd. Most of the Zn in the spent spinning soln. can be re-
covered by neutralization, thus reducing the toxicity of the wastes.
VISCOSE RAYON FACTORY WASTES AND THEIR TREATMENT, Sharda, C. P.
and K. Manivannan; Technology (Sindri), Spec. Issur. 3 (4), p. 58-60, (1966)
The process of viscose rayon manuf. is briefly described. The
effluents from the factory are classified as alkali, viscose, acid
sulfide, and sanitary. The combined waste treatment may be
difficult and sep. treatment is recommended, The process adopted
includes neutralization and settlement, incineration, neutralization
with lime or limestone and trickling filter. The addnl. problem of
Zn removal from viscose tire cord factory is mentioned.
AERATION, SETTLING, AND CHLORINATION OF THE COMBINED WASTE
FROM A VISCOSE FIBER PLANT, Sinev, O. P.; Tr. Novocherk. Politekh. Inst.,
162, p. 33-43, (1966), (Russian).
Treatment of waste waters in an aerator with an air rate of
10-10.4 m. /m. waste water reduced the C$2 concn. from
41.6-82.3 to 5.2-9.0 mg./l., and H2S from 13.7-26 to
1.45-3.1 mg./l. Combined pptn. of suspended solids at pH,>10
ensured not only intensive floccule formation and pptn. of
hydrocellulose but also better conditions for extn. of Zn (OH)2.
Chlorination was most effective for a supplementary clarification
after lime treatment and removal of suspended solids. The Cl
absorbability of the waste waters after lime treatment, settling,
and filtering through a sand filter was 46-73 mg./l. Residual
CS2 and H2S concns. in the waste waters at Cl2 doses equal to
Cl absorbability were 5.3-12.9 and 0-7.1 mg./l., resp. A pre-
liminary aeration of the waste waters at pH 3 considerably reduced
Cl absorbability,
REMOVAL OF ZINC FROM SEWAGE, Skylev, T. D.; Zhur. Priklad. Khim.
(USSR), 39, 544 (1966), Chem. Abs., 65, 1950, (1966).
A study of zinc removal that found that in an acid solution
Na2$ treatment to excess, then FeSO^ to excess would pre-
cipitate the zinc. If the waste was alkaline, then adjust to
acid before adding Na2S. The precipitate was then filtered
to concentrate the zinc.
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COMBINED CLARIFICATION OF WASTE WATERS AND VENTILATION EXHAUSTS
IN VISCOSE FIBER PRODUCTION, Zakharina, S. B.; Mater. Soveshch. Molodykh
Spets. Vses. Nauch.-lssled. Inst. Vodosnabzh., Kanaliz., Gidrotekh. Sooruzh-
emii Inzh. Gidrogeol., p. 79-83, (1966), (Russian).
A process for clarification of waste waters and ventilation exhausts
was developed. The latter, contg. H2S, enter a hollow steel
scrubber wet with a soln. of calcined soda (30-75 g./l.)« The
purified gases contg. <, 20 mg. H2$/m. are released into the atm.
Waste waters contg. ZnSO4 and 1^504 entered a mixer where the
pH is brought to 4-5 with a soda-sulfide soln. To remove CO2
formed the waste waters are passed to a packed degasification column
to which air is fed (0.2 m./sec. ). ZnS is removed, dehydrated in a
vacuum filter, and calcined in the presence of atm. O (Sulfatizing
calcination furnace) to obtain
APPLICATION OF THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGICAL ACTIVATED-
SLUDGE TREATMENT TO THE TREATMENT OF WASTE WATERS FROM
"CHEMLON" MANUFACTURE, Zekeova, Z. N.; - Pr. vysk. Ust. vodohospod.,
Bratislava, (1966) No. 40 78 pp.
Investigations were carried out on the waste waters from the pro-
cessing of 6-caprolactam to produce polyamide fibres of the
"chemlon" type, and data are reported on the sources, volume,
and composition of the waste waters (excluding cooling water,
which is not treated) and on the parameters required for design
of an activated-sludge plant to treat the waste waters, including
optimal loading and detention period, concentration of activated
sludge, nutrient requirements and intensity of aeration. Activated
sludge from municipal sewage was acclimated satisfactorily to treat
waste waters containing up to 600 mg. of caprolactam per litre but
above this level the sludge developed undesirable properties.
During the process there was a loss of nitrogen which increased
with increasing concentrations of waste waters and with higher
loadings, reaching a maximum of 56.7 percent; the loss of nitro-
gen decreased with higher concentrations of phosphate and was
completely negligible with a nitrogen-phosphorus ratio of 2. 1.
AN INDUSTRIAL WASTE GUIDE TO THE SYNTHETIC TEXTILE INDUSTRY.
AATCC Comm. on Stream Sanitation Technol. Prepared in cooperation with the
National Technical Task Comm. on Industrial Wastes. U. S. Public Health Serv.,
Wash. (1965).
This guide describes problems involved in the treatment of wastes
302
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from the synthetic textile industry and offers general treating
methods.
CHIEF PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION OF SEWAGE FROM
CELLULOSE PRODUCTION IN AERATION TANKS, M. A. Evilevlch; Tr. Vses.
Nauch.-lssled. Inst. Tsellyul.-Bum. Prom. No. 51, 43-62 (1965), (Russian).
In the load range 118-542 mg./g.-day the concn. of activated
sludge had no effect on the rate and effectiveness of clarifica-
tion. A decrease in the sewage temp, to 10-13° also had no
effect on these factors. To ensure a steady performance of equip-
ment under low temp, conditions prolonged adaptation of micro-
organisms is necessary. The oxidative capacity of an aeration
tank is directly proportional to the amt. of air used (in the range
28-64 m./m. tank vol.). Aeration tanks oerform efficiently
at oxidative capacities of 1500-1600 g./m. /day for sewage from
sulfite pulp production and 1000-1200 g./m.3/day for sulfate pulp
sewage. In planning, oxidative capacities of 1200 and 800 g./m.
/day and aeration time of >,5 hrs. are recommended. The air
consumption is calcd. by the formula D = 1.430 C/KH, where OC
is the oxidative capacity, K is the air consumption coeff., and H
is the depth of immersion of the aerator. The effective dose of
activated sludge is detd.ensuring a load on the sludge of 400-500
in the summer and 200-50 mg./g.-day in the winter. The concn.
of activated sludge was >, 3 g./l. The consumption of biogenic
elements was caled. from the ratio 5-day BOD: N:P= 100: 4:1.
THE PURIFICATION OF VISCOSE-CONTAINING WASTES BY THE ACTIVATED
SLUDGE PROCESS, Kaeding, J.; and L. Erdtel; Fortschr. Wasserchem. Ihrer
Grenzgeb., 3, p. 212-216, (1965), (German).
Neutralization and pptn. of dissolved org. material in cellulose
waste water leaves behind about 500 population-equivs. (5-day
BOD)/ton. Preliminary expts. show that it is possible to reduce
this 90% by further biol. treatment.
USE OF CLARIFIERS WITH A FLUIDIZED/SEDIMENT FOR PURIFICATION OF
SEWAGE FROM VISCOSE FIBER PRODUCTION, V. A. Mal'kov; Sanit. Tekhn.,
Dokl. k Nauchn. Konf. Molodykh Uchenykh Stroitelei, 1st, Sb., Leningrad
(1965), 77-88 (Russian).
A slit-type clarifier with a removal sediment condenser exhibited
several advantages over All-Union Sci.-Res. Inst. Hydrotech.
and Sanit.-Tech. Works clarifiers and diffusers. The clarifier
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performed best at a rate of 1.4 mm./sec. in the fluidized layer
zone and a % suction of 25-40%. Residual concns. of suspended
solids and Zn in the clarified sewage were 40-73 and 3.2-6.0
mg./l., resp. Clarification was 86-94% and 84-91% for suspend-
ed solids and -Zn, resp.
USE OF CONTACT CLARIFIERS FOR THOROUGH CLARIFICATION OF SEWAGE
FROM VISCOSE PRODUCTION CONTAINING SUSPENDED MATERIAL AND
ZINC, Yu. E. Matuskov; Sanit. Tekh., Kokl. Nauch. Konf. Leningrad.
Inzh.-Stroit. lnst.7 23rd, Leningrad (1965), 90-3 (Russian).
The specific amt. of sewage formed in various productions is:
viscose rayon 700-1500; cord 300-700; staple 300-500 m.3/t°n
of product. The indexes of the total waste waters of the plant
are: Zn^lO-lOO, CS22-40, H2S 2-45, suspended solids
50-300, Na2SO4 1000-7000, chem. 0 demand 60-250,
5-day BOD 30-150, solid residue 1000-10,000, calcined
residue 500-8000 mg./l., and pH 1.5-12.0. A method for
removing Zn"*^" with the aid of lime (at pH 9.0-10.5) was
developed. A pilot app. consisted of a mixer, clarifiers,
and settling tanks.
PILOT STATION FOR THE PURIFICATION OF THE RESIDUAL WATER IN THE
PULP, PAPER, AND ARTIFICIAL FIBER INDUSTRIES, Stanescu, N. and V. Sirbu;
Celuloza Hirtie, 14, (1), p. 27-30, (1965), (Rumanian).
A pilot station for the purification of the residual water in the
pulp, paper, and artificial fiber industries in Roumania is des-
cribed. The purification is first performed phys.-chem. (neu-
tralization, coagulation, decantation) and then biol. (strong
agitating with compressed air, biofiltration).
DIMETHYLFORMAMIDE IN BIOLOGICAL PURIFICATION OF WASTE WATER,
M. Thonke and W. Dittmann; Fortschr. Wasserchem. Ihre Grenzgeb 4: 272-277,
(1966), (German) Through Chm. Abstr. 67, No. 8: 36195, 1967.
Dimethylformamide, present in the waste water from acrylic
fiber production, is relatively quickly degraded by an activated
sludge treatment and provides a source of carbon and nitrogen.
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DYE WASTE TREATMENT
ACTIVATED CARBON RECLAIMS TEXTILE INDUSTRY'S WASTE WATERS,
Environmental Sci. & Technol. 3:314-315, (Apr. 1969).
Eighty percent of the process waters for dyeing and rinsing operations
can be reused by effluent treatment with carbon reactivation in
Calgon's Filtrasorb waste water reclamation system.
I
WILL SOLVENT DYEING SOLVE WATER POLLUTION PROBLEM?, Atlantic News
5: 1, 3, (Nov. 1969).
A solvent dyeing system together with efficient recovery of solvent
is a solution to the problem of water pollution from the discharge
of dye wastes into streams.
THE TREATMENT AND CONTROL OF BLEACHING AND DYEING WASTES,
A. H. Little; Water Pollution Control 68, No. 2: 178-189, (1969) Through World
Textile Abstr. 1:2640, (1969).
The composition of typical textile waste liquors is described.
Neutralization of alkaline kier liquor with sulfuric acid or
with flue gases is discussed. Sedimentation may not always be
necessary. Biological treatment in experimental activated
sludge plants of bleaching and dyeing liquor is described.
There was no pronounced difference in the performance of
mechanical aeration and diffused air plants.
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANT FOR DYEING WASTE WATERS, Effluent Water
Treatment J. 8: 355, (1968) Through Water Pollution Abstr. 42: 820, Apr. 1969.
An activated sludge plant which treats waste waters from the
dyeing of synthetic yarn and wool at the mills of John Shaw and
Sons Ltd., is described. The 2 aeration tanks, which can be run
in series of in parallel, are equipped with Cavitair surface aera-
tors. The waste water is treated to comply with the Royal Com-
mission standards specified by the Yorkshire House and Hull River
Authority, and the effluent is discharged to the river Colder.
WATER: A PROBLEM AND A PROMISE, Monsanto Mag. 48: 10-13, (Oct. 1968).
This article is an account of how Monsanto Biodize Systems is
providing a practical, low-cost approach to reducing water
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pollution at Cold Springs Bleacher/, a Pennsylvania plant
involved in several cotton finishing operations. The process is
based on the biological oxidation of organic pollutants.
THE CENTRAL WASTE-TREATMENT PLANT OF THE PETROCHEMICAL AND DYE
MANUFACTURE WORKS OF BAYER, A. G., AT DORMAGEN, Jubermann, O.,
and Krause, G.; Chemie-lngr.-Tech,, (1968), No. 6, 288-291.
Details are given of the operation and efficiency of the waste
treatment plant of Bayer, A. G., in Dormagen, Germany,
where the waste waters from the chemical and petrochemical
industry are treated biologically, using ejector aeration which
through maintaining a favourable oxygen supply has proved
satisfactory.
WATER FOR THE DYER. PART 1., T. H. Morton (Courtaulds Ltd.), Textile J.
Australia 43: 16-19, (Nov. 1968).
The present and estimated future use of water in England and
Wales is compared with available resources. The changes In
procurement of water and disposal of effluent implied in recent
legislation are discussed, particularly as they are likely to affect
the dyeing industry. The quality of water for use in the dyeworks
is discussed in terms of dissolved and suspended impurities; and the
methods available for the control of the effects on the dyeing pro-
cess of ionic solutes, residual hardness, heavy metals, and bicar-
bonate are summarized.
WATER FOR THE DYER, PART 2., T. H. Morton (Courtaulds Ltd.), Textile J.
Australia 43: 40-44, 52, 54, 60, (Dec. 1968).
In this part, the author covers the quality of water for use in dye-
works, technical effects of water solids, and effluents from dyeworks
in relation to water policy in Great Britain. The overall purpose of
this paper is to show that the water supply can no longer be taken
for granted and that dyeworks should carefully consider their use and
disposal of this decreasing resource.
ENERGY-INDUCED CHANGES IN AN AZO DYESTUFF WASTE, A. I. Mytelka
(Ritter Pfaudler Corp.) and R. Manganelli (Rutgers Univ), J. Water Pollution Con-
trol Fed. 40, No. 2, Part 1; 260-268, (Feb. 1968).
Sterilization of water and wastewater by means of radiation is based
on energy-induced changes in the waste and the effect of these
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changes on subsequent biological oxidation. The industrial waste
selected for testing was an azo dyestuff mother liquor with low
biodegradability and intense color. The ionizing radiation source
was cobalt-60 gamma rays. Parameters investigated include total
organic carbon (TOC), COD, BOD, dye concentration, color,
solids, and pH. Results show a decrease in the above variables,
and a waste more amenable to biological oxidation as radiation
dosages increased.
DISPOSAL OF DYE AND FINISHING HOUSE WASTES AND SIMILAR MATERIALS,
E. C. Oden; Water Sewage Works 114: 367-368, 1967. Through Water Pollution
Abstr. 41: 1504, (Aug. 1968).
The author discusses the design and operation of systems for the
disposal of dyeworks waste waters. His recommendations include
the use of a holding tank with a retention period long enough for
fibers to be removed from the liquid surface and the construction
of covered trenches filled with limestone and sand to receive
waste waters before discharge to surface water.
RECOVERY OF HEAT FROM LIQUID EFFLUENT IN DYEHOUSES, F. O. E.
Schwenkler, Spinner Weber Textilveredlung 86, No. 8:705, (1968), (German)
Through Shirley Inst. 48: 4497, (1968).
It is estimated that half the heat energy in hot dyeing liquors can
be recovered: the heat exchanger is shown diagrammatically.
THE QUANTITY AND COMPOSITION OF WASTE WATER FROM A HOSIERY
MILL, Spivakova, O. M.; Neimark. G. I.; Krasnoborod'ko, I. G. (Leningrad
Inzh.-Stroit. Inst., Leningrad, USSR), Tekst. Prom (Moscow), (1968), 28(6), 71-2,
(Russian).
Waste waters were analyzed from a large knitting and hosiery mill
in Leningrad where scouring, bleaching, and dyeing is done;
11,000 m.3 of waste water/24 hrs. is discharged into the city
sewers from this mill. It is recommended that waste water should
be decolorized, purified from surface-active materials to a certain
level, and then be dild. with city sewage and treated by aeration
on city's sewage plant.
PRELIMINARY WORK FOR A JOINT SEWAGE-TREATMENT PLANT FOR THE
DYEWORKS OF BAYER A. G. AND THE WUPPERVERBAND, Weber, H. H. and
Mersch. F. Chemie-lngr-Tech., (1968), No. 6, 272-274.
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Following extensive pilot-plant experiments to find the most
efficient treatment for the waste waters of Bayer's chemical works
which contain a heavy load of organic substances, it was decided
that these waste waters should receive full biological treatment in
the joint sewage-treatment plant of the Wupperverband. Those
containing weak acids will be discharged to the North Sea together
with the effluents from a titanium works. The waste waters from
both industries containing inorganic substances should first be suf-
ficiently diluted with cooling or rain water before they are dis-
charged to the Rhine.
POLAROGRAPHIC DETERMINATION OF NITRO COMPOUNDS IN WASTE
WATERS FROM THE ANILINE DYE INDUSTRY, Zaitsev, P. M.; Krasnosel'skii,
V. N.; Dichenskii, V. I. (USSR), Zavod. Lab., (1968)34(8), 940-1, (Russian).
This method is particularly applicable to waste waters contg.
p-nitrophenetole, o- and p-nitroanisole, and aminonitrocresoL
Into a 15 ml. flask, place 1-30-g. sample of waste water,
15 ml. MeOH, a definite vol. of ION NaOH, 0.5 ml. of 0.5%
gelatin soln., and H2O to mark. Stir, remove dissolved O, and
analyze in a polarograph. The El/2 = 0.75-0.80 v. indicates
the content of nitroanisoles and nitrophenetoles and the El/2 =
0.98-1.05 v. the content of nitrophenols. In the anal, of waste
waters from the production of aminocresol contg. up to 1 g./l. of
3-nitro-4-cresol the error does not exceed 4%.
PERFORMANCE OF PLASTIC FILTER MEDIA IN INDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC
WASTE TREATMENT, Chipperfield, P. N. J.; J. Water Pollution Control Fed.,
39, p. 1860-1874, (1967).
In Great Britain, a plastic medium for packing trickling filters
has been developed and tested with domestic and industrial wastes,
including textile dyeing and finishing wastes. The medium (Flocor),
consisting of alternate plain and corrugated sheets of polyvinyl
chloride, is said to be inexpensive and efficient.
TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE. VI. TREATMENT OF SULFUR DYE WASTE,
4. Ichikawa, Kunisuka; Maeda, Yoshimichi (Himeji Inst. Technol., Himeji, Ja-
pan), Himep Kogyo Daigaku Kenkyu Hokoku, (1967), 20A 91-6 (Japan).
The waste stack gas, contg. 10% CO2, was successfully used to
neutralize the alk. S dye waste. It is necessary to remove Na2S
by oxidn. provided the waste contains considerable amts. of
Na2S. After the neutralization, the waste can be clarified either
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by the addn of FeSO4 or the electrolytic treatment applying
1-10 v.d.c. Though the electrolytic treatment is efficient and
economical, further investigation on the electrode problems is
required.
CLARIFICATION OF WASTE WATER CONTAINING DYES. III. PRECIPITATION
OF DIRECT DYES AND ACID DYES BY IRON SALTS, Hda, H., and Endo, M.;
Rep. Govt chem. ind. Res. Inst., Tokyo, (1967), 62, 134-138; J. appl. Chem.
Abstr., 1968, 18, i.333.
Studies on the treatment of dyeworks waste waters by coagulation
with iron salts showed that treatment with 80 p.p.m. ferric iron,
as ferric chloride, removed 96 percent of the direct dyes and 60
percent of the acid dyes from a 100 p.p.m. solution; addition of
sodium sulphate reduced the removal of direct dyes slightly and
hindered the removal of acid dyes. Treatment with ferrous sul-
phate, with adjustment of the pH value to about 10, removed 92
percent of the direct dyes and 36 percent of the acid dyes; again
the removal of the dyes was adversely affected by addition of
sodium sulphate and sodium carbonate.
PRECIPITATION OF DIRECT DYES AND ACID DYES BY IRON SALTS, H. lida and
M. Endo (Govt. Chem. Ind. Research Inst., Tokyo); Kogyo Kagaku Zasshi 70:
403-404, (1967).
In order to obtain basic data for the clarification of industrial
waste water containing dye, 18 direct dyes and six acid dyes
were precipitated from each aqueous solution by the addition
of ferric chloride or ferrous sulfate, and the amounts of precip-
itated dyes were determined. From the results it was found that
ferric chloride and ferrous sulfate were excellent for the precip-
itation of direct dye, but were not useful for acid dye. It was
difficult to precipitate acid dyes from their aqueous solution
containing sodium sulfate by the above method.
TREATMENT OF SULFUR DYE WASTE WATERS, V. OXIDATION OF SODIUM
SULFIDE BY OXYGEN, Maeda, Yoshimichi; Nishiumi Yoshio; Ichikawa, Kunisuke
(Himeji Tech. Coll., Himeji, Japan); Kogyo Yosui, (1967), No. 106, 60-7 (Japan).
_o
Aq. solns. of 3.3-12.8 X 10 M Na2$ were used as samples of
sulfur dye waste water. A sample soln. (327 ml.) was placed in
a modified Ziegelmeyer's vessel (1958) and agitated at 500 rpm.
under 1. atm. 0. The oxidn. rate of Na2$ by 0 was observed at
20° without or with existence of various materials such as 12 sul-
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fur dyes, 2 sulfur vat dyes, 8 vat dyes, CuSO4, CoSO4, FeSC>4,
pyrocatechol, sulfate lignin, and treated mud of town sewage.
Among these materials, sulfur dyes, sulfur vat dyes, sulfates ex-
cept FeSC>4, pyrocatechol, and some vat dyes such as Threne
Briliant Blue 4G and Threne Khaki GG accelerated greatly the
oxidn. of Na2S in a concn. of 0.5-1 g./l. Oxidn. products
were salts of $2 , SC>3 , and mainly $203 . The treated
mud and sulfate lignin were also good accelerators for the oxidn.
of
RADIATION TREATMENT OF AN INDUSTRIAL WASTE, Mytelka, Alan I.;
Manganelli, Raymond M. (AeroChem Res. Lab., Inc., Princeton, N. J.); Purdue
Univ., Eng. Bull., Ext. Ser., (1967), No. 129 (Pt. 2), 1025-43.
Current biol. waste treatment methods are often unsatisfactory
because many effluents are refractory to biol. oxidn. This is a
study of radiation-induced changes in an industrial waste and
the effect of these changes on the biol. degradation of the waste.
An azo dye mother liquor was selected. Under conditions of the
investigation chm. 0 demand (C.O. D.) of the waste was reduced
61%, total org. C 43%, and for all practical purposes no dye re-
mained. The waste also became more amenable to biol. oxidn.
with the redn. of the COD/BOD ratio from 54 to 2.2.
EFFLUENTS FROM DYEING AND FINISHING BATHS, Peyron, E.; Teintex, 32,
(6), p. 419, 421-422, and 425, (1967), (French).
The treatments of dyeing and sizing effluents used in the textile
industry were discussed. The autoneutralization, pH regulation,
flocculation, decolorization by C and decantation processes in-
volved were described. The various effluents were combined in
an equilization bath provided with a surface skimming device and
an aeration system by compressed air. Flocculation is carried out
by Al2(SO4)3 and Na silicate in a special tank. CaCl2 used
for decolorization is distributed automatically and is controlled by
a galvanometric device.
FOR LYMAN: A $2 MILLION POLLUTION SOLUTION, F. Rigsbee; Textile
Bull. 93:49-50, (Feb. 1967).
The industrial waste treatment plant at Lyman Printing and
Finishing Co. is described.
POLAROGRAPHIC DETERMINATION OF TRIAZINE AZO DYES, Shkorbatova,
310
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T. L. and L. D. Pegusova; Zh. Anal. Khim., 22, (6), p. 918-923, (1967),
(Russian).
The polarographic behavior of some triazine azo dyes and amino
azo dyes in certain universal buffer solutions (Britton-Robinson)
was studied. One of the dyes, Violet 4K, contained Cu and one
Cl in the triazine group, all the other belong to the dichlorotriazine
dyes. All dyes give polarographic waves in the pH range 2-10. The
height of all polarographic waves of all dyes studied is linearly pro-
portional to the concentration of the substance determined. The above
properties can be used for the polarographic determination of dyes in
stationary waters and sewage. The absence of a second wave on the
polarograms proves that the active dyes are present in sewage in a
hydrolyzed state. The accuracy of the method was studied by adding
known amounts of dyes. The relative error is +/- 2.85%.
ACTIVATED SLUDGE TREATMENT OF SOME ORGANIC WASTES, Wheatland,
A. B. (Water Pollut., Res. Lab., Stevenage, Engl.); Purdue Univ., Eng. Bull.,
Ext. Serv. (1967), No. 129 (Pt. 2), 983-1008 (English).
Activated sludge can be used to treat waste waters from a variety
of industries if conditions are provided for the microorganism to
become acclimatized to the wastes. Waste waters contg. poten-
tially toxic or inhibitory org. substances which are only slowly
degraded by microorganisms even after a period of adaptation may
require diln. If domestic sewage is used as a diluent, it may
facilitate treatment by providing nutrients and required trace
elements. Activated sludge becomes acclimated to waste waters
from the production and dyeing of synthetic fibers more rapidly
when the proportion of waste water in the sewage is increased in
stages. A period of about a month should be allowed for acclima-
tization. Increase in temp, can be beneficial but performance at
30° is not greatly superior to that at 20°. Waste water from a dye-
house and from the manuf. of synthetic rubber can be treated in the
absence of domestic sewage. Color in the dyehouse effluent required
coagulation with alum followed by settling for removal. Partial puri-
fication of the waste water from a dairy products factory is possible
by contact stabilization providing bulking of the activated sludge can
be prevented.
AERATED LAGOON HANDLES 10-MILLION BPD., Textile World 116: 86-87,
(Feb. 1966).
The aerated lagoon of Springs Cotton Mills' Grace Bleachery is
briefly described.
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METHODS FOR REMOVING SULFUR DYES FROM WASTES FROM THE DYEING
PLANT OF THE V. I. LENIN BAKIN TEXTILE WORKS, Akhmedov. K. M. and
I. M. Garibov; Tekh. Progress, (5), p. 41-43, (1966), (Russian).
Experiments were made with wastes containing 600 mg./l. sulfur
dyes. A 10% H2SO4 solution (250-750 mg./l./) and 0.1%
solution of polyacrylamide (2mg./l.) were added to the sewage,
stirred 2 minutes, and left to settle for 0.5 hr. The residual con-
centration of sulfur dyes was 0-100 mg./l.
CARPET MANUFACTURING EFFLUENTS AND THEIR TREATMENT, D. Evers;
J. Proc. Inst. Sewage Purif. Part 5: 464-470, (1966) Through Shirley Inst. 46:
5941, (1966).
Carpet processing effluent is divided into categories - effluent
from (1) scouring of raw wool and yarn, (2) dyeing, (3) sizing,
(4) latexing, (5) moth-and mildew-proofing. If a firm dis-
charges all these effluents, the smaller volumes of effluent from
latexing and proofing will be lost in the larger volumes from
scouring and dyeing, if only dyeing and latexing are carried out,
acid dye liquors will precipitate latex and clog the sewers.
Acidity in dye liquor could be used to reduce the acid needed in
treatment of fatty scouring effluent, but the increased volume of
liquor to be treated would be uneconomic to process as scouring
liquor. The scouring liquors have a high biological oxygen de-
mand; dyeing liquors can be put to better use as diluents for the
outflow from the grease cracking plant.
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT SOLVES DYEWORKS EFFLUENT PROBLEMS, Felstead,
J. E,; Wat. Waste Treat. J., 11, p. 127-129, (1966).
A description is given of the development of treatment facilities
for waste waters from the textile dyeing and finishing plant, which
involved preliminary chemical analyses of a considerable number
of minor effluents and laboratory-scale trials on composite effluents.
The waste waters were formerly passed over alumina ferric blocks and
settled before discharge, but the effluent failed to comply with the
standards laid down by the Trent River Authority. The waste waters
from the 2 mills, in nature mainly organic, but also containing low
concentrations of a variety of other compounds such as inorganic
salts and bases, are not pumped first to a holding tank, and then to
2 activated-sludge tanks fitted with Simcar aerators.
MILL SUPPLY WATER IN FINISHING, H. Gunther; Spinner Weber Textilveredlung
312
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84, No. 8:858-863; No. 11: 1255-1258, (1966), (German) Through Shirley Inst.
46: 6653, (1966).
The required purity levels and test methods are summarized.
Corrective measures and normal volume requirements in finishing
are specified.
A DYER'S "OPERATION CLEANUP", S. M. Suchecki; Textile Inds. 130: 113-126,
136, 185 (June 1966).
Waste treatment and water pollution control are discussed and the
program of Northern Dyeing Co. is described.
PURIFICATION OF WASTE WATER FROM DYEING AND FINISHING OPERATIONS,
VasiPev, G. V. (USSR), Tekst. Prom. (Moscow), (1966), 26(7), 52-4, (Russian).
Waste water of heterogeneous compn. (suspended matter 150-250,
dry substance 1000-1500, COD (Chem. 0 demand) 250-1200,
BOD, 100-400, synthetic detergent 30-130, Cr. 0.1-0.5 mg./l.)
from dyeing and finishing operations is purified by aeration in acti-
vated sludge. For the biol. purification, the H2O is treated with
Cl2 or O3.
PURIFICATION OF WASTE WATERS FROM DYEING AND FINISHING FACTORIES,
Vasil'ev, G. V.; Tekstil. Prom., 26, (7), p. 52-54, (1966), (Russian).
Problems associated with the ever-increasing use of new dyes,
synthetic surface-active agents which cause excessive foaming,
and of finishing agents such as dodecylbenzene-sulphonate,
certain cationic agents, and Karbozolin which can be oxidized
biochemically to only a small extent and are toxic to microflora
used in effluent purification, are discussed.
TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES, Wagner, H. O. and Souther, R. H.;
Southern Engineer, Vol. 84, p. 37, (1966).
Description of the Canton, Georgia waste treatment plant which
handles waste consisting of 52% domestic sewage and 39% textile
dyeing and finishing wastes and 9% hospital wastes.
CLARIFICATION OF WASTE WATERS FROM PRODUCTION OF ACTIVE
TRIAZINEDYES, Zakhorzhevskaya, A. G.; Vodosnabzh. Kanaliz. Gidrotekh.
Sooruzh. Mezhved. Resp. Nauch. Sb., (1), p. 37-46, (1966), (Russian).
313
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A flow sheet is proposed. After concn., the waste waters enter
the cathode space of an electrolytic bath where they are reduced
for 12-14 hrs. at c.d. 8 amp./dm. . Dyes and org. impurities are
decompn. products are pptd.; the waste water loses its color.
NaOH formed by electrolysis is recovered.
DETERMINATION OF CHLORIDE IONS AND 2, 4-DIN1TROCHLOROBENZENE
IN SEWAGE FROM SULFUR DYE PRODUCTION, Khr. Popov. Khim. Ind. (Sofia)
37(5), 164-8, (1965), (Bulg.).
In the absence of 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (I), Cl~ is detd. by
dilg. a 5-10 ml. sample with distd. H2O, a sufficient amt. of
0. IN AgNOs is added for the complete pptn. of chlorides, sul-
fides, polysulfides, sulfites, and thiosulfates, plus 2-3 ml. excess,
an amt. of HNO3 is added equal to 0.5 the vol. of the test soln.,
glass beads are added, and the mixt. is boiled for 4-5 min. If the
soln. is not completely colorless, 20-30 ml. dil. HNO3 (1:2) is
added, and the soln. re-boiled. After cooling to room temp, the
soln. is filtered to remove AgCl, and the ppt. is washed to a neg.
Ag reaction with very dil. (0.02-0.05N) HNO3. The filtrate and
wash waters are combined, and the detn. is completed by using
Folhards method, where the excess AgNOS is titrated with 0. IN
NH4SCN, using FeNH4 (SO4)2 as indicator to a rose-red color.
Where I is present total Cl~ is detd. by boiling the sample with
8% NaOH in order to transform molecular Cl in I to Cl", and
the analyses completed as above. A sep. analysis for Cl~ without
this transformation give Cl "content without the mol. Cl from I,
and the amt. of I can therefore be calcd. by difference.
ACTIVATED-SLUDGE TREATMENT OF TEXTILE AND DYEING MILLS WASTE,
Kashiwaya, M.; Proc. 2nd Intern. Conf. Water Pollution Research, Tokyo, 2,
p. 63-84, (1965).
In the region of Ichinomiya, Besai, and Kosogawa, Aichi Pre-
fecture, Japan, waste waters from 129 factories processing, dyeing
and finishing textiles have caused serious pollution of the Nikko
River. The author reports pilot-scale studies, with tabulated and
graphical results, which showed that the waste waters could be
treated effectively by a conventional activated-sludge or contact-
stabilization process.
DISPOSAL OF EFFLUENT, D. W. Hill (Shirley Inst.), Textile Weekly 65 (2):
841-842, (Nov. 1965).
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The activated sludge method of biological treatment of disposing
of dyeing and finishing wastes, as applied by the Shirley Institute,
is outlined. Mention is also made of the use of water-conserving
washing procedures to reduce both the amount of water used and
the volume of effluent.
EFFLUENT TREATMENT IN DYEWORKS, Shirley Inst. Intern. Dyer 134: 871-873,
(Dec. 1965).
A brief review of the work reported by the Shirley Institute in
leaflets and at the open-days of the Cotton, Silk & Man-Made
Fibres Research Assoc. on effluent treatment studies.
RESEARCH ON METHODS FOR THE DECOLORIZATION OF DYEWORKS WASTE
WATERS DISCHARGED INTO RIVERS, Weiner, L; Munteanu, A.; lancu, A.;
Gafiteanu, M.; Negoescu, V.; and Malacca, I.; Trib. CEBEDEAU, (1965), 18,
440-445.
Pilot-scale studies have been carried out on the treatment of waste
waters from a factory manufacturing dyes in Romania. It is now
concluded that the waste waters should be equalized for a period
of 24 hours and oily products should be removed in a separator be-
fore the physico-chemical treatment. Best results are obtained by
treatment with 1.5-3 g of ferrous sulphate per litre followed by
neutralization with 0.5-1 g of lime per litre, and sedimentation
in a sludge- blanket tank with a surface loading of 0.5 m^ per
m^ hour. The sludge produced has a moisture content of 99 percent
which can be reduced by 80 percent in 5 days by a sand filter.
After sedimentation, the best treatment was found to be filtration
of effluent through active carbon at a rate of 5 m per hour (the
cycle lasting 50 hours before regeneration of the carbon by heat-
ing anaerobically at 600°-700° C). This treatment not only de-
colorized the waste waters completely and reduced the oxygen
demand by 80 percent, but also reduced the toxicity. Biological
treatment of the settled waste waters was not effective owing to
the low content of biologically-degradable organic material.
To reduce the costs of treatment it is recommended that the dif-
ferent types of waste water should be segregated.
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DETERGENT WASTE TREATMENT
EVALUATION OF DETERGENT PERFORMANCE, DISCUSSED, R. W. Moncrieff,
Textile Weekly 69(1): 128-129, (Jan. 1969).
This is a brief report of a conference on surface active substances
in which 199 papers were presented. The search for a standard
method of testing bio-degradability is the principle subject of
this article.
USE OF AZURE A INSTEAD OF METHYLENE BLUE FOR DETERMINATION OF
ANIONICDETERGENTS IN DRINKING AND SURFACE WATERS, Den Tonkelaar,
W. A. M.; Bergshoeff, G. (Res. Inst. Public Health Eng., TNO, Delft, Neth.),
Water Res., (1969), 3(1), 31-8 (English).
The methylene blue routine method, which is widely used for
anionic detergents, is rather time-consuming and displays hardly
satisfactory sensitivity for drinking water as well as pos. inter-
ferences by several substances. The Azure A method developed
by van Steveninck and Riemersma (1966) proved to be more rapid,
more sensitive, and more selective for detergents in drinking and
surface waters.
DETERGENTS AND TREATMENTS OF CONTAMINATED WATERS, Argiero, L. and
Paggi, A.; Hlth. Phys., (1968), 14, 581-592.
Studies were made of the effect of surface-active agents on the
treatment of waters contaminated with radioactivity, both by
coagulation and by ion-flotation methods. Results are given
for various cationic and anionic detergents and data are pre-
sented showing the effect of changes in pH value and in the
electrostatic charge on suspended particles. In the ion-
flotation method, a relation was found between the pH value,
intrinsic viscosity, and efficiency of removal of caesium-137.
WATER POLLUTION AND SYNTHETIC DETERGENTS WHICH CAN BE BIO-
DEGRADED, Revol, Louis (Fac. Med. Pharm. Lyon, Lyson, Fr.), Ses Parfums,
(1968), 11(57), 35-46, (French).
The article reviews basic detergent chemistry and structure,
forms and effects of pollution, chem. and test of biodegradation,
and synthesis of biodegradable detergents.
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KNITTERS GUIDE TO BIODEGRADABLE DETERGENTS, Knitted Outerwear Times
37:31-36, (Mar. 1968).
The table lists trade names, manufacturers, properties, and applications.
DETERGENT DEGRADABILITY, H. M. Lewis; Textile Forum 26: 15-39,
(Feb.-Mar. 1968).
The problem of water pollution by bacterial resistant surfactants
in detergent compositions, particularly alkylbenzene sulfonates,
is discussed, and the development and chemistry of biodegrada-
ble linear alkylbenzene sulfonates and surfactants derived from
secondary alcohols are reviewed. Methods of evaluating sur-
factant biodegradability are also covered.
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF WASTE WATER FROM THE PRODUCTION OF
ORGANICS, CONTAINING SURFACTANTS, AND DISPOSAL OF THE RESULT-
ING EXCESS SLUDGE, Pitter, P.; Chudoba, J. and Palaty, J.; Sb. Vys. Sk.
chem.-technol. Praze, Technol.Vod., (1968), 14, 27-46, (English).
Tabulated and graphical results are given of experiments on
biological treatment of waste waters from the manufacture of
organic chemicals; the waste water had BOD and COD values
of 1000 and 2000 mg. per litre, respectively, and contained
21.5 mg. of anionic surface-active materials per litre of which
39.5 percent were not degradable. It was found that the waste
waters could be treated by the activated-sludge process at an
average loading of 940 g. of BOD per m day and a detention
period of 25.6 hours, when average reductions in COD and BOD
of 55 and 85 percent,respectively, were obtained. If the effluent
from the aeration tank was coagulated with alum, greater removal
of the dispersed bacterial floe was achieved and the overall re-
movals of COD and BOD were increased to 70 and 95 percent,
respectively.
WATER AND WASTE WATER, M. Kehren; Z. ges. Textil-lnd. 69, No. 12:
937-942, (1967), (German) Through Shirley Inst. 48: 173, 1968.
This article relates specifically to consumption figures and recent
legislation in W. Germany. There are notes on the poisoning of
river life by detergents.
MICROBIAL OXIDATION ON SURFACE-ACTIVE AGENTS, Ray C. Allred and
R. L. Huddleston (Continental Oil Co., Ponca City, Okla.), Southwest Water
317
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Works J. 49(2), 26-8, 30, (1967).
The degradability was detd. on 14 surfactants by using river water
and activated sludge in shake flasks and semi and continuous cir-
culation. Branched chain structures are less susceptible to biol.
attack than straight chain materials. The presence of a phenoxy
group in the mol. will significantly retard biol. oxidn.
SURFACE-ACTIVE AGENTS IN TEXTILE PROCESSES AND THEIR EFFECT ON
EFFLUENTS, Barnes, W. V,, and Dobson, S. J.; Soc. Dyers Colour., (1967),
83, 313-320.
The widespread uses of surface-active agents in the textile
industry, their biodegradability in relation to their chemical
structure, and the difficulties which they cause at sewage works
and in rivers are described and discussed. The necessary use of
non-ionic detergents, which cause a great degree of pollution
as a result of their resistance to degradation, is considered and
their future improvement is mentioned.
BIODEGRADABLE SURFACTANTS FOR THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY, K. A. Booman,
J. Dupre and E. S. Lashen (Rohm & Haas Co.), Am. Dyestuff Reptr. 56: p. 82-88,
(Jan. 1967).
Test methods, biodegradability of anionic surfactants and of
nonionic surfactants, field test results, and impact of government
action are discussed.
BIODEGRADABILITY AND TREATABILITY OF ALKYL PHENOL ETHOXYLATES:
A CLASS OF NONIONIC SURFACTANTS, Lashen, E. S.; Booman, K. A. (Rohm
and Haas Co. Res. Lab., Spring House, Pa.), Water Sewage Works, (1967), 114
(Nov.), 155-63, (English).
In an activated sludge plant having 3 aerators in parallel,
removal of OPEjQ (Triton X-100), a nonionic surfactant, was
> 90% at added influent concns. of 5 and 10 ppm., as shown by the
Co-(SCN)2 test of Crabb and Persinger (1964) and by loss of
foaming and surface tension depressant activity. Concns. of
OPEiQ in the effluent from the test units were only slightly
higher than in that from a control unit receiving the normal
OPE]Q concn. of 4.5 ppm. There was no problem with foaming
in the aerators and no redn. in efficiency of treatment. Accli-
mation was more rapid in the field test than in the lab. tests and
more rapid in a continuous lab. unit than in a semicontinuous unit.
318
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Degradation of OPEjQ also occurs readily in river water.
BIODEGRADABLE NONIONIC SURFACTANTS IN TEXTILE WET PROCESSING,
B. B. Rein (Continental Oil Co.), Am. Dyestuff Reptr. 56: 909-915, (Nov. 1967).
The purpose of this article is to show, in tests widely accepted
by the textile industry, that biodegradable surfactants are at
least as efficient, and, in many instances, more efficient than
the current nonbiodegradable surfactants.
BIODEGRADATION OF SURFACTANT BENZENE RINGS, Swisher, Robert D.
(Inorg. Chem. Div., Monsanto Co., St. Louis, Mo.), Ind. Chim. Beige, (1967),
32 (Spec. No.), 719-22.
A linear alky Ibenzenesulfonate (I) was prepd. by a Iky lotion of
benzene with a-dodecane to give a mixt. of 2-, 3-, 4-, 5-,
and 6-phenyldodecane, which was then sulfonated and converted
to the Na salt. Detergent concns. were detd. by a modified
methylene blue test. Benzene and derivs. were detd. from ab-
sorption intensities at 180, 200, and 256 m with river water in
the reference cell. Plots of methylene blue response over periods
of 10-20 days, and uv spectra at 0, 10 and 44 days are given.
Based on the progressive disappearance of the peak at 223 m it is
concluded that the benzene ring of the I structure is destroyed
during the biodegradation process.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF BIODEGRADABLE SURFACTANTS AS AN ANSWER TO A
WATER POLLUTION PROBLEM, E. C. Steinle (Union Carbide Corp.), Am. Dye-
stuff Reptr. 56: P386-P390, (May 1967).
Wastes, waste disposal, types of pollution, and surfactant pollu-
tion are discussed briefly, biodegradability (what it is, how it is
measured) and the characteristics of commercially available bio-
degradable surfactants are examined in detail.
UNION CARBIDE'S BIODEGRADABLE SURFACTANTS FIGHT POLLUTION,
Am. Textile Reptr., 80, (25), p. 60, (1966).
Union Carbide's biodegradable surfactants for the textile industry
are discussed in relation to water pollution.
BIODEGRADATION TESTING OF TYPICAL SURFACTANTS IN INDUSTRIAL
USAGE, Richard A. Conway and Gene T. Waggy (Union Carbide Corp.,
S. Charleston,W. Va.), Am. Dyestuff Reptr. 55 (16), 607-614, (1966).
319
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Susceptibility of surfactants to bacterial oxidn. in industrial
waste water treatment plants and surface waters can be monitored
by simple screening tests, such as shake-culture, activated sludge,
and river die-away. Detailed comparisons of linear secondary-ale.
ethoxamers with alkylphenol-based surfactants were made by several
test procedures. The linear secondary-ale, ethoxylates were effi-
ciently biodegraded under a range of environmental conditions,
while the alkylphenol materials have not as yet been demonstrated
to meet these degradation standards.
RELATIONSHIP AMONG "EMULSION" TYPE, DETERGENCY, AND FOAM,
W. R. Kelly (Allied Chem. Corp.), J. Am. Oil Chemists Soc. 43: 358-363,
(June 1966).
Three test methods were developed to show the measurably close
relationship existing among detergency, foam, and the indication
of the type of "emulsion" naturally inclined to form. Visual
recognition of the state of the emulsion makes it possible to assess
the system as to its comparative detergent capabilities and its foam-
ing proclivities. Guided steps can then be taken for improvements.
The methods have been used with success in formulating alkaline
cleaning mixtures.
FOAM TEST METHOD, W. R. Kelly and P. F. Borza (Allied Chem. Corp.),
J. Am. Oil Chemists Soc. 43: 364-365, (June 1966).
This method measures the height of foam developed by
pouring. The action is intermittent, time being a Noted
strictly for foam decay, as well as for foam generation.
SYNTHETIC DETERGENTS-THEIR INFLUENCE UPON Fe-BINDING COMPLEXES
OF NATURAL WATERS, Fred Kent and Frank F. Hooper (Univ. Museums Annex,
Ann Arbor, Mich.), Science 153 (3735), 526-7, (1966), (English).
Most of the org. exts. prepd. from Michigan lakes and streams
exhibited Fe-binding capacity, land increased the growth rate
of Chamydomonas reinhardi. Histidine, tyrosine, and aspartic
and glutamic acids were abundant in these exts. Samples col-
lected from the Huron River on 19 April 1965 failed to show the
reaction; analysis indicated the presence of anionic detergents.
In samples failing to bind Fe, alkylbenzenesulfonates were
bound to the amino acids.
THE ORIGIN, BEHAVIOR AND REMOVAL OF PHOSPHATES FROM SURFACE
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WATER AND WASTE WATER. PART 2., M. Kehren; A. ges. Textil-lnd. 68,
No. 10: 782-788, (1966), (German) Through Shirley Inst. 46: 5938, (1966).
This review gives details of electrolytic phosphate precipitation
techniques referred to in Part 1. Other techniques, notably pre-
cipitation with aluminum sulfate, are surveyed. There is a review
of the analytical methods used for phosphate determination. The
methods are (1) Molybdenum Blue method and (2) paper-chro-
matographic separations.
CHEMICAL PURIFICATION OF WASTE WATERS FROM SYNTHETIC ANION
SURFACE-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES, Yu. Yu Lur'e and P. S. Antipova; Vodosnabzh.
Sanit. Tekh., (1966), (11), 18-20, (Russian).
The method introduces into waste waters contg. synthetic suf-
factangs, grease, impurities, and the K salt of various org. acids,
as well as sorbents which keep up their properties at high pH values,
such as Ca(A102)2/ MgO, and calcined or semicalcined dolomote.
It was found possible to obtain the necessary amt. of efficient ab-
sorbent by introducing AIC^ or A^SO^, MgO, or dolomite as
well as a certain amt. of milk of lime (pH 12-12.4) directly into
the water being purified.
DEGRADABLE POLLUTANTS-STUDY OF THE NEW DETERGENTS, McGauhey,
Percy, H.; Klein, Stephen A. (Univ. of California, Berkeley, Calif.), Advan.
Water Pollut. Res., Proc. Int. Conf., 3rd, (1966), (Pub. 1967), 1, 353-74.
Pilot plant studies of the degradable detergent LAS (linear
a Iky late sulfonate) indicated that secondary sewage treatment was
necessary if frothing was to be precluded. Monitoring studies of
2 treating plants during the changeover from ABS (alkylbenzene-
sulfonate) to LAS confirmed the pilot plant studies that a high
degree of waste treatment was still required to prevent frothing
of the receiving water.
RAPID METHOD TO TEST/SOAPS SYNDETS, B. M. Milwidsky and S. Holtzmann;
Soap Chem. Specialties 42: 83-86, 154-158, (May 1966).
The two-phase titration method described permits easy, fast, and
accurate determination of anionic detergents, both soap and sym-
thetic, and ready differentiation between the two in mixtures.
REMOVAL OF DETERGENTS FROM WATER, Odom, James J.; Shumaker, Thomas
P.; Bloomquist, Paul R. (Reichhold Chemicals, Inc.), S. African 6706, 339,
27 Feb. 1968, U. S. Appl., (02 Nov. 1966).
321
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Removal of both alkylbenzenesulfonate (hard) detergents and linear
alkyl sulfonate (soft) detergents from waste water systems is accom-
plished by treating the waters with a water-sol., cationic, amine-
contg. synthetic resin. The amine-contg. resinous removal agents
react with the detergents to produce insol. reaction products which
can be readily removed from the water by conventional clarification
means such as filtration, settling, and decantation. Amine-aldehyde
resins contg. reactive amine groups are preferred such as polyamine-
modifled urea-formaldehyde and melamine-formaldehyde resins. A
principle advantage of the resins is that both hard and soft detergents
are removed through their use.
A SIMPLIFIED TECHNIQUE FOR ROUTINE ANALYSIS OF ANIONIC DETERGENTS
IN WATER AND WASTE-WATER, J. F. Panowitz and C. E. Renn, J. Water Pollu-
tion Control Fed. 38: 636-640, (Apr. 1966).
REMOVAL OF ALKYLBENZENESULFONATES (ABS) FROM WATER, Jer-Yu
Shange (to Sun Oil Co.), U. S. 3,247,103, (Cl. 210-21), (April 19, 1966),
Appl. Dec. 3, 1962.
In this process, water contg. ABS is mixed with an immiscible
org. liquid. The ABS collects at the interface between the
immiscible liquids with the sulfonate portion in the water and
the org. portion in the org. liquid phase. ABS was coned, at
the interface and scpd. from the water phase by one of several
convenient methods, thus reducing the ABS concn. of the water.
FOAMING OF SOLUTIONS OF SURFACE ACTIVE AGENTS, M. G. Shikher,
Z. P. Ezhova, N. P. Belova, and L. A. Rybina; Tekstil. Prom. 26, No. 7:
55-57, (1966), (Russian) Through Shirley Inst. 46: 4864, (1966).
To characterize the foaming capacity of a solution of a surface
active agent, an index determined from the area bounded the
curve obtained by plotting relative foam-height against time
has been used. Values of this index have been obtained for a
number of surface active agents, with and without foam suppres-
sors, and it is shown that, in some cases, foaming can be reduced
by mixing two surface active agents.
AN AUTOMATIC METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF ANIONIC SURFACE-
ACTIVE MATERIAL IN WATER, A. Sodergren; Analyst 91: 113-118, (Feb. 1966)
Through Shirley Inst. 46: 2195, (1966).
An automatic version of the Methylene Blue procedure for deter-
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mining alkylbenzenesulfonates in fresh and saline waters, by means
of the Technicon AutoAnalyser, is described.
DISPOSAL OF INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS, B. A. Southgate; Specialties 2(12), 29-32
(1966).
For the activated-sludge process, settled sewage is treated in tanks.
This process suffers from under-aeration and is sensitive to anything
that reduces the concn. of O in soln. Detergents and many indus-
trial effluents contg. substances such as phenol, oils, and cyanides
have a deleterious effect on O absorption and bacterial action.
Changes in the type of detergents have become necessary. However,
the new detergents are biodegradable only under aerobic conditions.
They interfere with anaerobic fermentation and are as undegrad-
able as the "hard" surfactants originally used. Industrial wastes
must be closely controlled as to biodegradability. Some effluents
may require sep. and special treatment.
IDENTIFICATION AND ESTIMATION OF LAS (linear Alkylate sulfonates) IN
WATERS AND EFFLUENTS, R. D. Swisher (Monsanto Co., St. Louis, Mo.),
J. Am. Oil Chemists' Soc. 43(3), 137-40, (1966).
A sample contg. about 1 mg. of methylene blue active substance
(Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Waste Water,
New York: Am. Publ. Health Assoc., 1960, llth ed., p. 245-51)
and 150 ml. of the methylene blue reagent are shaken with 50 ml.
CHCI3, the CHCI3 and emulsion layer is forced through a 2-cm.
bed of glass wool in a 2-cm. diam. tube, the CHCIs layer is
sepd., the original aq. mixt. is again extd. with 50 ml. of CHCIs,
the combined CHCI3 layers are evapd., and the residue is desul-
fonated and gas chromatographed. Gas chromatographs of samples
and effluent to which 0.5 ppm. LAS has been added are presented
and interpreted.
FOAM—AN APPLICATIONAL PROBLEM, H. E. Tschakert. Tenside 3:
317-322, (Sept. 1966);359-365, (Oct. 1966); 388-394, (Nov. 1966); (German),
English translation in Tenside 3: 49-52, (Sept. 1966); 59-62, (Oct. 1966);
67-70, (Nov. 1966).
Part 1 discusses foam formation and its breakdown, as well as
methods of determining foam. Part 2 deals with further methods
of foam determination and contains examples of the practical
utilization of foam characteristics of surface active substances,
soaps, and active detergent blends. Part 3 discusses the biodeg-
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radation of surfactants.
EFFECT OF SURFACTANTS ON THE BIOCHEMICAL PURIFICATION OF WASTE
WATERS, S. V. Yakovlev, Yu. M. Laskov, T. A. Karyukhina, Yu. V. Voronov,
and M. S. Lebedovskii, (V. V. Kibyshev Inst. of Architecture Eng., Moscow),
Izv. Nyssh. Ucheb. Zaved., Stroit. Arkhitekh, 9(8), 124-32, (1966), (Russian).
The surfactants OP-7, OP-10, and B-A which are polyethylene
glycol derivs. of the mixt. of long chain mono- and dialkyl-
phenols, and nonionic or cationic surfactants, resp., can be biol.
degraded in wastes if their concn. does not exceed 20 mg./l.
Compound 101, a long-chain quaternary alkylamidomethylpyrid-
inium salt, should not be allowed in waste drainage systems.
BIODEGRADABLE DETERGENTS FOR THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY, R. L. Huddleston
(Continental Oil Co.), Am. Dyestuff Reptr. 55: P52-P54, (Jan. 1966).
Although biodegradable detergents by their very nature must have
a BOD, studies indicated that straight chain alcohol nonionic
products should not noticeably affect total BOD requirements of
textile plant effluent waters.
KNIT GOODS FINISHERS AND BIODEGRADABLE DETERGENTS, R. H. Beau-
mont (W. F. Fancourt Co.), Knitting Ind. 85: 10, 39, (Nov. 1965).
If waste goes through a treatment system, the new detergents are
desirable; if not, it may be better to keep biodegradability to a
minimum.
REMOVAL OF NONBIODEGRADABLE DETERGENTS FROM SEWAGE, Herbert N.
Dunning, Maurice M. Kreevoy, and James M. White (to General Mills, Inc.),
U. S. 3,215,622 (Cl. 210-21), (Nov. 1965), Appl. April 26, 1961 and
Nov. 2, 1965, 8 pp.
Nonbiodegradable detergent residues are removed from sewage
with 90-98% efficiency if the sewage is acidified, stirred with
kerosene contg. a long-chain, water-insol. secondary amine,
and the org. phase is stripped. The sepd. org. phase is scrubbed
with caustic to recover reuseable material. Ca(OH) , NaOH,
Ba(OH) are all suitable caustic strippers for regeneration of
the amone.
WATER AND WASTE WATER. PART 2., M. Kehren, Z. ges. Textil-lnd. 67,
No. 10:807-811 (1965), (German) Through Shirley Inst. 45: 5681, (1965).
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This article supplements information on the biodegradability
of detergents and surface active agents given in abstr.
RATES OF DECOMPOSITION IN NATURAL WATERS OF SOME SYNTHETIC
DETERGENTS AND SURFACE-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES, V. P. Kaplin, N. G. Fe-
senko, A. I. Fomina, and L. S. Zhuravieva; Nauch. Tr., Akad. Kommunal.
Khoz. No. 37, 97-110, (1965), (Russian).
Synthetic detergents of the alkyl sulfate type decomp. in natural
waters relatively quickly (48-480 hrs.); alkylsulfonates decomp.
more slowly 10-50 days), and alkylarenesulfonates extremely
slowly (30-90 days). The decompn. time is greatly affected by
the initial concn. of detergents. The decompn. time is longer
at higher initial concn. Abs. quantity of decompd. detergent
increases also with increased initial concn. Decompn. of syn-
thetic surface-active substances is affected by thechem. structure:
e.g. dodecyibenzenesulfonate with straight alkyl side chain de-
comp. 2-3 times more quickly than the same prepn. with a
branched alkyl side chain.
INFLUENCE OF DETERGENTS ON WATER ALGAE, D. Matulova; Sb. Vysoke
Skoly Chem.-Technol. Praze, Technol. Vody 8(2), 251-301, (1965), (English).
The effect of detergents, made in Czechoslovakia, on water
algae was tested. Chlamydomonas gelatinosa was more sensitive
than Scenedesmus abundans and Ch lore I la saccharophila. Un-
favorable effects were observed with 9 mg./l. of alkylsulfates,
7mg./l. of alkylbenzenesulfonates, 0.1 mg./l. of cetylpyrid-
inium bromide, 25 mg./l. of diisobutylnaphthalenesulfonate,
and 5 mg./l. of non-ionic surfactant (cetyloeyl ale. + 20 mols.
ethylene oxide). The lethal concns. were 111, 70, 2, 200, and
200 mg./l., resp.
SURFACE-ACTIVE AGENTS IN WASTE WATERS. VIII. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE AND THE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF ANION-ACTIVE SUR-
FACTANTS TO BIOCHEMICAL OXIDATION (summary of the results), P. Pitter;
Sb. Vysoke Skoly Chem.-Technol. Praze, Technol. Vody 8(2), 13-39, (1965).
Branched alkyl chains reduce the decompn. of alkylarenesulfo-
nates and alkyl sulfates by activated sludge. Some iso-alkyl
sulfates are biol. - not fully oxidized, being probably resistant
to total biol. hydrolysis. Sulfated N-(hydrpxyalkyl) amides of
high-mol.-wt. fatty acids and sulfated low-mol.-wt. polyethylene
glycol n-alkyl ethers (sulfated nonionic surfactants) are biol.
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easily oxidized. Alkanesulfonates with straight alkyl chains are
readily biol. degraded. The behavior of n-alkyl touenesulfonates
is similar to that of n-alkyl benzenesulfonates. Both are utilized
less as a source of org. C by microorganisms than n-alkyl sulfates.
The studies made possible a classification into 3 classes: (1) Soft
surfactants easily biodegradable, n-alkyl sulfates, n-alkane sul-
fonates, sulfated low- mole.-wt. polyethylene glycol n-alkyl
ethers, sulfated N- (hydroxyalkyl) amides of high-mol. -wt. fatty
acids and others; (2) semihard surfactants biol. slowly or semi-
degradable, n-alky! benzenesulfonates, n-alkyl toluenesulfonates
and mixts. of soft and hard surfactants, and their admissible concn.
for sewage treatment must be detd. expt.; (3) hard surfactants
hardly degradable, isoalkylarenesulfonates, and isoalkyl sulfates.
THE BIODEGRADABILITY OF TEXTILE AUXILIARIES, Salquain, J.; Teintex, 30,
(4), p. 233-259, (1965), (French).
This study of the behaviour of most classes of surface-active
agents in biological effluent purification also includes notes
on current legislation in Europe.
A PROCEDURE AND STANDARDS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE BIODE-
GRADABILITY OF ALKYLBENZENESULFONATE AND LINEAR ALKYLATE SUL-
FONATE, C. M. Snow, et. al.; J. Am. Oil Chemists' Soc. 42(11), 986-93,
(1965).
The procedure designed is based on screening by the simple
"Shake flask method" (A) and as a confirming phase, the more
complex and tedious semicontinuous activated sludge procedure
(B). According to the standard established, a 90% biodegrada-
bility in A is adequate; a value of 80-90% biodegradability in
A requires detn. by B. A result below 80% indicates not ade-
quately biodegradable.
ACCURACY AND PRECISION OF LABORATORY AND FIELD METHODS FOR THE
DETERMINATION OF DETERGENTS IN WATER, C. H. Wayman and A. T. Miesch,
(U. S. Geol. Surv., Denver, Colo.), Water Resources Res. 1(4), 471-6, (1965).
The results obtained by using the 2 field methods and the lab.
method currently employed for the detn. of both the branched-
chain and straight-chain alkylbenzenesulfonates in water are
recorded and evaluated on the basis of accuracy and precision.
Field method (1) employs a modified methylene blue technique,
and field method (2) employs the dye Toluidine Blue O as the
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complexing agent. The lab. method (3) employs methylene blue
as the complexing agent. Method (2) showed relatively large and
statistically significant amrs. of neg. bias that varies with the
concn. level with both types of detergent. The precision of method
(2) was slightly poorer than that of method (1), and considerably
poorer than that of method (3).
REMOVAL OF ANIONIC SURFACTANTS FROM LIQUIDS, Irving M. Abrams
(to Diamond Alkali Co.), U. S. 3,232,867 (Cl. 210-37), Feb. 1, 1966, Appl
(Aug. 1963), Continuation-in-part of U. S. 3,123,553.
The removal of alkylbenzenesulfonates (!) in amts. of 1-10 pom.
is accomplished by passing the liquid through a weak-base anion-
exchange resin in the acid-salt form, II. II has a greater capacity
for absorbing I and other detergent anions than did a resin in the
free or hydroxide form. The absorbed I can be quant, recovered
by elution with aqueous alkali. In the treatment of sewage effluent
by this process, it is necessary to first clarify the effluent before
anion-exchange treatment. Numerous resins are available for this
use. A resin like Duolite A-7 was found to absorb about four times
as much I per g. as did activated C.
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WATER TREATMENT FOR USE
INDUSTRIAL WATER AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN THE FINISHING OF
KNITTED GOODS, H. Gunter. Wirkerel-u. Strickerei-Tech. 18, No. 10:
531-538 (1968). (German) Through World Textile Abstr. 1:847 (1969).
Methods used for expressing the hardness of process feed water
in Germany, France, and the U. K. are explained. The effects
of hardness and the presence of iron, manganese, and copper
salts or organic impurities in bleaching, scouring, and dyeing
are discussed. Tables give some maximum permissible concen-
trations for the different processes. Methods of water condi-
tioning and water requirements for different types of knitted
goods are considered briefly.
WATER TREATMENT IN TEXTILE MILLS, R. Oncellet. Textil-Praxis 24, No. 2:
104-108 (1969). (German) Through World Textile Abstr. 1:1604 (1969).
Water treatment equipment by the firm of Hager and Elsasser is
described and illustrated. The sections of the article deal briefly
with filtration of suspended matter, removal of iron and manga-
nese, deacidification, softening and desalination, treatment with
special phosphates, and degasification.
PREPARATION OF PROCESS WATER FOR THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY, F. Rub.
Chemiefasern 19, No. 1:58-61 (1969). (German) Through World Abstr. 1: 1332
(1969).
This article deals in particular with the application of ion-
exchangers for the purification of textile process water. These
are used where comparatively small volumes of water of a very
high degree of purity are required. Boiler feed water for small
rapid steam raising equipment is a case in point. Ion-exchange
equipment by eight West German manufacturers is described and
illustrated. There is a short comment on test equipment for the
continuous monitoring of water quality.
IMPROVED WATER QUALITY, R. J. Mattson and V. J. Tomsic (E. I. du Pont de
Nemours & Co.). Chem. Eng. Progr. 65:62-68 (Jan. 1969).
The authors state that the technology and equipment for providing
water of improved quality from specific brackish water sources are
available. They describe a new separator, the Permasep permeator,
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which, using nylon hollow fibers in a reverse osmosis operation,
promises to be a novel approach in upgrading water for process
and municipal use. The results of field tests are reported.
PROCESS WATER AND TEXTILE EFFLUENT PROBLEMS. PART 2., F. H. Slade.
Textile Mfg. 94: 89-93, 99 (Mar. 1968).
Biological treatment of effluent, oxygen transfer, continuous
sludge removal, flocculation, difficult wastes, and the
Lubeck process are considered.
MANGANESE IN PROCESS WATER OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY. R. S. Ingols.
Tribune CEBEDEAU 20:271-272 (1966). (French) Through Chem. Abstr. 66,
No. 6: 19673 (1967).
Hazards arising in textile plants from the presence, usually
seasonal, of manganese in surface water used as a water supply
are discussed. Accumulated deposits of manganese oxides in
heat exchangers and distribution systems can be released by
pressure surges and result in staining of white cloth and in
shade changes in some dyes. Five methods of treating the
water supply are suggested.
TREATMENT OF PROCESS WATER, WITH REFERENCE TO SPECIAL PHOSPHATES,
L. Mattes. Spinner Weber Textilveredlung 85, No. 2; 120-122 (1967). (German)
Through Shirley Inst. 47: 1571 (1967).
The suppression of lime deposits by metal phosphates and the
solubilization of iron by silica-phosphate (Siliphos) are
discussed.
WATER FOR THE DYER, T. H. Morton (Courtaulds Ltd.). J. Soc. Dyers Colour-
ists 83: 177-184 (May 1967).
The present and estimated future use of water in England and
Wales is compared with available resources. The quality of
water for use in the dyeworks is discussed in terms of dissolved
and suspended impurities; and the methods available for the con-
trol of the effects on the dyeing process of ionic solutes, residual
hardness, heavy metals, and bicarbonate are summarized. The
problems of disposal of dyeworks1 effluent are also considered.
TREATMENT OF PROCESS WATER, F. Rub. Chemiefasern 17, No. 2: 140-146
(1967). (German) Through Shirley Inst. 47: 1281 (1967).
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Filtration and softening plant by German manufacturers is
reviewed.
INDUSTRIAL WATER SOFTENING, S. H. Qasim. Pakistan Textile J., 18,
P. 27-30, (1967).
Commercial methods of conditioning boiler water via the lime
soda, ion exchange and metaphosphate processes are discussed.
The article includes a brief description of methods generally
used in softening process water especially in the textile industry.
IMPORTANCE OF PH CONTROL IN THE AUTOMATION OF A WATER SOFTEN-
ING PLANT, E. Wedlich. Textil-Praxis 22, No. 8: 586-590 (1967). (German)
Through Shirley Inst. 47: 449 (1967).
It is demonstrated the equipment for the rapid removal of carbon-
ate hardness can be automated. The system described has three
reactors and a pH controller which regulates the addition of milk
of lime (calcium hydroxide). The control equipment is by
Polymetron AG.
THE ORGANIZATION AND PROBLEMS OF A COMMERCIAL WATER AND
EFFLUENT UNDERTAKING. PART 2. ION-EXCHANGERS IN WATER TREAT-
MENT, J. Wilhelm. Spinner Weber Textilveredlung 85, No. 2: 122-123 (1967).
(German) Through Shirley Inst. 47: 1572 (1967).
This article contains a list of names of useful ion-exchangers pro-
duced in Europe and America.
PROCESS WATER FOR THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY, W. Pree. Melliand Textilber. 47,
No. 1:89-92 (1966). (German) Through Shirley Inst. 46: 1132 (1966).
This brief survey of the necessity of water treatment and possible
methods covers deacidification, iron and manganese removal,
softening, and partial and full de-salting.
REMOVAL OF IRON AND MANGANESE FROM RAW WATER SUPPLIES,
R. L. Reed (Betz Labs.). Betz Indicator 35: 2-7 (Mar. 1966).
These impurities can be removed from water by several different
processes and combinations of processes. Careful study is required
to select a method most suitable to any individual case.
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WATER TREATMENT WITH PHOSPHATES, R. Wagerle and J. A. Benckiser.
Textil-Prax?s21, No. 1:36-39 (1966). (German) Through Shirley Inst. 46: 1375
(1966).
The phosphate inoculation of water feed systems is discussed:
this prevents lime deposits and inhibits corrosion. Boiler feed
water is prepared or adjusted by phosphate additions.
WATER TREATMENT DATA: A HANDBOOK FOR CHEMISTS AND ENGINEERS
IN INDUSTRY, W. M. T. Body and G. S. Solt. Hutchinson & Co. Ltd., London.
1965. 60 p. Available from Chemical Rubber Co., 2310 Superior Ave., Cleveland
14, Ohio.
Contents: General and engineering data, Properties of solutions,
Chemical and process data, Costs.
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INSTRUMENTATION AND PLANT DESIGN FOR WASTE TREATMENT
CLEANING OUR ENVIRONMENT: THE CHEMICAL BASIS FOR ACTION,
ACS Subcomm. on Environmental Improvement-, Am. Chem. Soc. Special Issues
Sales, 1155 16th St. N. W., Washington, D. C. 20036. (1969).
Although this report does not contain specific information on
textile waste control it does contain valuable material on solid
waste control, air pollution, and water pollution in general.
POLLUTION CONTROL DIRECTORY, Environmental Sci. & Technol. 3:
951-1130, (Oct. 1969).
This directory is divided into the following sections:
(a) Advertised product directory; (b) Professional consulting
services; (c) Products, services, and supplies; (d) Events
calendar; (e) Trade names; (f) Books and authors;
(g) Company directory.
THE TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES, E. B. Besselievre (Forrest & Cotton,
Inc.), McGraw-Hill, New York, (1969).
Introduction; Selecting an engineer; The problems - the require-
ments; The information - the data - the characteristics; The
study; The design; Construction and the operation; Conventional
and unconventional methods of treatment of industrial wastes; The
role of the federal government in water pollution and its wastes;
Ordinances and regulations; Designing economy into industrial
wastes treatment; Sludge; Coagulants and aids; Incentives to
industry; Renovation of industrial waste effluents for reuse.
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION INSTRUMENTATION, R. L. Chapman, ed.
(Instrument Soc. of America), Instrument Soc. of America, 530 William Penn
Place, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 15219, (1969).
This book contains selected papers from symposia presented under
the auspices of the Analysis Instrumentation Division of the In-
strument Society of America. The following may be of some tex-
tile interest: (1) Instrumentation for monitormg air pollutants, by
A. P. Altshuller; (2) Meterological instrumentation for air pollu-
tion applications, by H. E. Cramer; (3) Calibration of SO2 moni-
toring instruments, by T. A. Gray and E.R. Kuczynski; (4) The
future of instrumentation in water pollution control, by J. H.
332
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McDermott, D. G. Ballinger, and W. T. Sayers; (5) Tofal
organic carbon analysis and its relationship to biochemical and
chemical oxygen demand, by R. H. Jones; (6) A stink in the
ear: noise, by H. C. Roberts.
ECONOMICS OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT, W. W. Eckenfelder, Jr. and
D. L Ford;Chem. Eng. 76: 109-118, (Aug. 1969).
Treatment processes and related capital costs for wastewater
treatment from process industries are discussed. Mathematical
models of various processes as well as an optimization approach
to wastewater treatment, based on volume flow and effluent
quality, are included.
BOOK OF ASTM STANDARDS. PART 23. WATER: ATMOSPHERIC ANALYSIS,
Am. Soc. for Testing & Materials, 1916 Race St., Phila., Pa., 19103, (Oct. 1968).
DIRECTORY OF GOVERNMENT PERSONNEL IN WATER SUPPLY AND POLLUTION
CONTROL, Water & Wastes Eng. 5: 34-42, (Jan. 1968).
Names, addresses, and officers of the federal, state, and interstate
agencies governing the various aspects of water supply and pollution
control are listed.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - A COMPLETE GUIDE TO POLLUTION
CONTROL, Chem. Eng. 75, No. 22, (Oct. 1968).
This special issue contains information on governmental control
activities, state air and waters laws, how to organize a control
program, the technology of abatement, 100 types of equipment,
900 equipment suppliers, and 300 technical bulletins. The major
sections are classified under the headings (1) The challenge of
pollution control, p. 13-52; (2) Water pollution control, p. 73-
117; (3) Air pollution control, p. 141-169, refs.
WATER AND ITS PROBLEMS, G. Digout, Teintex 33, No. 3: 155-167, (1968),
(French) Through Shirley Inst. 48: 2515, (1968).
The organization of water conservancy boards in France is explain-
ed. A National Water Committee has been formed. Purification
of water effluent from dyeworks is discussed in general terms.
Specific problems of sulfides and detergents are referred to.
333
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SOLUTION TO WATER POLLUTION SEEN IN JOINT ACTION, T. M. Forbes,
Am. Textile Reptr. 82: 25, 49-507 (Aug. 1968).
The author defines the six major types of water pollution that are
covered by statutory laws and administrative regulations and he
suggests that industry, through knowledge of the law and with the
help and guidance of public government agencies, can eventually
improve the quality of water before and after use.
INDUSTRIAL WASTE TREATMENT MANAGEMENT, R. N. Rickles and R. W.
Okey (Resources Engineering Assoc.), Water & Wastes Eng. 5: 14-18, (Sept. 1968).
This paper covers the following areas of waste treatment:
(a) Organization of a corporate waste treatment program;
(b) Organization of an industrial waste treatment project;
(c) Design of operable industrial waste treatment facilities;
(d) Design of biological waste treatment facilities based on
contacting modes other than completely mixed systems.
COST OF CONVENTIONAL AND ADVANCED TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER,
R. Smith (Cincinnati Water Research Lab.), J. Water Pollution Control Fee. 40:
1546-1574, (Sept. 1968).
Most of the information in this comprehensive article is in the form
of tables (9) and figures (29).
THE POLLUTION PROBLEM, J. M. Stepp and H. H. Macaulay (Clemson Univer-
sity), American Enterprise Inst. for Public Policy Research, 1200 17th St., N. W.
Washington, D. C., 20036, (Oct. 1968).
Contents: (1) Introduction; (2) Economic nature of the problem;
(3) Some possible side effects of pollution control; (4) Criteria
for classifying various kinds of pollution; (5) Trends in pollution
control in the U. S.; (6) Economic effects of various kinds of
pollution controls; (7) Philosophy of pollution control.
AUTOMATIC LIQUID SAMPLER, No. Hants Eng. Co. Brit. Hosiery J. 22:
23, 24, (Mar. 1967).
This is a description of a mechanically operated liquid sampler
for obtaining samples of dyeing effluent and contaminated water.
SUMMARY OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE TREATMENT CONCEPTS AND PRACTICES,
Betz Labs., Betz Indicator 36: 2-8, (July 1967); 2-8 (Aug. 1967).
334
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This summary was prepared for those who are not actively involved
in waste treatment or closely associated with the control of indus-
trial waste water, but who seek basic information regarding current
concepts and practices.
THEORY OF BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF TRADE WASTES, W. W. Eckenfelder,
Jr., J. Water Pollution Control Fed. 39: 240-250, (Feb. 1967).
A REDUCED-SCALE METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE DI-CHROMATE
VALUE (Chemical Oxygen Demand) OF SEWAGE AND TRADE EFFLUENTS,
Fearn, R, J., W. H. Hetherington, S. M. Jaeckel, and C. D. Ward; J. Soc.
Dyers Colourists, 83, p. 146-151, (1967).
A description is given of a convenient and reliable analytical
method for the determination of the dichromate value of sewage
and trade effluents. The method is more rapid than existing macro-
scale procedures and is sufficiently analytically accurate and
reproducible for the calculation of trade-waste treatment charges.
Oxidation with potassium dichromate is carried out in boiling 50%
(vol./vol.) sulfuric acid, with a total reagent volume of 30 ml.
DESIGN OF AERATED SYSTEMS FOR INDUSTRIAL WASTE TREATMENT, J. L.
Mancini and E. L. Barnhart (Hydrosciences, Inc.), J. Water Pollution Control
Fed. 39: 978-986, (June 1967).
A laboratory method which can be used to evaluate and compare
activated sludge, aerobic digestion, and aerated lagoons is sug-
gested as an aid in planning a waste treatment system.
REMOVAL OF FORMALDEHYDE FROM WASTE WATERS, Schmitz, Paul, Karl H.
Krueger, Hans Havekoss, and Fritz Steinfatt; Farbenfabriken Bayer A.-G. Ger.
P. 1, 244, 144 (Cl. C07c), (July 1967), Appl. Jan. 30, 1964; 3 pages.
Acidified (pH 4) waste waters from resin manufacturers are freed
of HCHO by adding MeOH and heating. One 1. of waste water
contg. HCHO 4, H2SO4 12, HCC^H 15%, and other org. and
inorg. compounds was treated with 50 ml. MeOH and heated.
During heating, another 150 ml. of MeOH was added and the
vapors were removed through a small column. The residual waste
water contained 0.005% HCHO and had substantially less toxic-
ity to Esc her ic hia col? and Daphnia pulex.
BIOCHEMICAL DECOMPOSITION OF ANILINE AND SOME OF ITS DERIVA-
TIVES, Stasiak, Miroslaw; Gax, Woda, Tech. Sanit., 41, (8), (1967), (Polish).
335
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PhNH2/ m- and p-NH2CoH4OH, p-NH2C6H4CHO, m- and
p-NH2C6H4NO2/ o-NH2C0H4-CI, and p-NH2C6H4SO3H
were subjected to bfochem. decompn. controlled by detn of concn.
of the initial compds. O, NH3, and NO2. Harmful effect of
some compds. was studied by detn. of B.O.D. The highest rate
of decompn. was observed In PhNH2 and p-amino-benzaldehyde.
The decompn. of amino-phenols was much slower, and nitroani-
lines, chloro-aniline, and sulfanilic acid were not decompd. under
the exptl. conditions. Nitroanilines and sulfanilic acid inhibited
the self-purification of anilines.
CELANESE DEEP WELL DISPOSAL PRACTICES, Veir, Byron B.; Ind., Water
Waste Conf., Proc.7 7th, Austin, Tex., p. 111-25 - 111-36, (1967).
Plant waste characteristics, lab. testing of wastes, selection of a
waste disposal system, and waste treatment are discussed. The
treatment system consists of a waste neutralization tank, a gravity
settling tank, filter feed pumps, Anthrafilt bed filters, cartridge
filters, and a high-pressure injection pump. A 200-ft. blanket of
highly permeable sand strata located at a depth of approx. 3500 ft.
is suitable for deep well waste disposal. Results of the study indi-
cate that deep well disposal is feasible for the plant.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE OF 1966 ON WASTE-WATER AND WATER POLLU-
TION CONTROL, C. M. Weiss and others; J. Water Pollution Control Fed. 39:
689-749, (May 1967); 867-945, (June 1967); 1049-1154 (July 1967).
Includes: Analytical methods, textile wastes.
COORDINATED EFFORT IS REQUIRED TO SOLVE PROBLEMS OF POLLUTION,
M. A. Wright; Am. Textile Reptr. 81:29-31, (Jan. 1967).
Action by business and by government on air and water pollution
are discussed.
1966 BOOK OF ASTM STANDARDS. PART 23. INDUSTRIAL WATER: ATMOS-
PHERIC ANALYSIS, Am. Soc. for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race St., Phila-
delphia, Pa., 19103, (1966).
ASTM standards relating to industrial water, industrial waste
water, and atmospheric analysis are included.
EFFLUENT ANALYSIS, Proc. Soc. Anal. Chem. 3, No. 2:21-23, (1966)
Through Shirley Inst. 46: 2194, (1966).
336
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Summaries of the following papers are presented: Examples of the
use of empirical methods in the analysis of complicated effluents,
by F. G. Broughall; Determination of some inorganic constitu-
ents of trade effluents, by N. T. Wilkinson; Determination of
organic matter in sewage and trade wastes and some observations
of the determination of cyanide, by S. H. Jenkins.
INDUSTRIAL WATER RE-USE, Chem. Eng. News 44: 90-100, (Mar. 1966).
Industrial water re-use methods, particularly through cooling,
are discussed.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE FAIR ON EFFLUENT TECHNOLOGY IN MUNICH,
Chemiefaserm 16, No. 12: 986-992, (1966), (German). Through Shirley Inst.
47:238, (1967).
This is an illustrated commentary on an exhibition of both full-
treatment installations and individual items of equipment.
CHEMICAL PURIFICATION OF VARIOUS INDUSTRIAL WASTE WATERS,
W. Ballnus; Wasser, Luft, Betr. 8: 201-204, 1964, (German), (1966).
Precipitation processes for the treatment of effluent from a
paper and ceramic-producing industry and a textile plant
are described. The textile waste waters are effectively puri-
fied by a combination of ferrous sulfate and calcium hydroxide
or by aluminum sulfate. Costs of chemicals are quoted.
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS, N. Blakebrough;
Intern. Dyer 135:909, 911, (June 1966).
The Lubeck process is described.
AUTOMATIC SAMPLING OF SEWAGE AND EFFLUENTS, J. Dean; Instrum. Eng.
4, No. 6: 124-128, (1966) Through Shirley Inst. 46: 6655, (1966).
The author discusses types of sampling (non-proportional and
proportional), automatic samplers of the pump type and of the
scoop type, bottling mechanisms, and portable samplers.
WATER FROM SEWAGE EFFLUENT, Eden, G. E.; Truesdale, G. A.; Wyatt, K.L.
and Stennett, G. V.; Chemistry and Industry, Vol. 14, No. 36, p. 1517, (1966).
Covers water reuse for cooling as researched by the British Water
337
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Pollution Research Laboratory.
INDUSTRIAL MEASURES FOR THE PURIFICATION OF AIR AND WATER,
M. Kehren; Textilveredlung lf No. 5: 219-227, (1966), (German) Through Shirley
Inst. 46:3501, (1966).
The large-scale developments and the plant at Farbwerke Hoechst
are described. Mechanical diltration and electrostatic precipita-
tion are used in air cleaners, A pilot-scale water treatment plant
has been used to develop a full-scale effluent and water plant
dealing with 24,000 rrT per day.
SOLUBLE ORGANIC CHEMICAL WASTES: CONTROL, TREATMENT, DISPOSAL,
Manufacturing Chemists Assoc., 1825 Connecticut Ave. N.W., Washington, D. C.
20009, (April 1966).
This manual discusses the water pollution aspects of soluble
organic chemical wastes and their control, treatment and
disposal.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
PROGRAM, S. Megregian; (Federal Water Pollution Control Admin.), Am. Dye-
stuff Reptr. 55: P573-576, (July 1966).
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 21st INDUSTRIAL WASTE CONFERENCE, (May 1966),
PARTS 1 AND 2, Sponsored by Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind. n. d. 1017 p.
(1) Biological treatment of waste water from synthetic resin
manufacture, by K. G. Singleton (CIBA (A.R.L.) Ltd.),
p. 62-71; (2) Mechanism of starch removal in activated sludge
process, by S. K. Banerji, B. B. Ewing, R. S. Engelbrecht, and
R. E. Speece, p. 84-102; (3) Sodium hydroxide recovery in the
textile industry, by C. S. Carrique and L. U. Jaurequi (Univ. of
Buenos Aires), p. 861-868; (4) Utilization of resistant proteins
(e. g. keratine) by activated sludge, by G. J. Capestany (Muni-
cipality of Metropolitan Seattle) and D. A. Carlson (Univ. of
Washington), p. 943-952.
TECHNICAL BASES FOR ASSESSING THE STRENGTH, CHARGES FOR TREAT-
MENT AND BIOLOGICAL TREATABILITY OF TRADE WASTES, J. R. Simpson;
J. Appl. Chem. 16:272-280, (Sept. 1966).
The Public Health Act 1961 in Gt. Britain empowers a local or
sewage authority to recover any additional expense incurred or
338
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likely to be incurred in connection with the reception or disposal
of trade effluents. This paper discusses technical bases for asses-
sing these charges.
WATER: INDUSTRY CHALLENGE—TODAY, S. M. Suchecki; Textile Inds.
130: 180-110, (June 1966).
The need for industry to conserve water, use It sensibly, and use
it again after suitable treatment is discussed. Dumping of un-
treated waste or insufficiently treated waste into streams can no
longer be tolerated.
WASTE WATER AND ITS PURIFICATION WITH REFERENCE TO METHODS OF
BIOLOGICAL DISINTEGRATION, J. Wilhel; Spinner Weber Textilveredlung 84,
N : 145-150, (1966), (German) Through Shirley Inst. 46: 1957, (1966).
STANDARD METHODS FOR THE EXAMINATION OF WATER AND WASTE-WATER,
INCLUDING BOTTOM SEDIMENTS AND SLUDGES, 12th ed. Prepared and pub-
lished jointly by American Public Health Assoc., American Water Works Assoc.,
and Water Pollution Control Fed., American Public Health Assoc., Inc., 1790
Broadway, New York, N. Y. 10019, (1965).
WATER AND WASTE WATER. PART 1., M. Kehren, Z. ges. Text! I-Industrie 67,
No. 5:361-364, (1965), (German) Through Shirley Inst. 45: 4518, (1965).
The natural cycle of water is discussed. Purification methods
are summarized.
POLLUTION CONTROL 1965, R. Rrckles; Noves Development Corp., Pearl
River, N. Y., (1965) 207 p., Chemical Process Monograph No. 10.
Contents: Water treatment, Water renovation, Sewage disposal,
Biodegradable detergents, Solids disposal, Air pollution, Radio-
active waste treatment. The book discusses proven and proposed
schemes for solving pollution problems.
WASTE RECOVERY AND POLLUTION ABATEMENT, R. N. Rickles (Dorr-Oliver,
Inc.), Chem. Eng. 72: 133-152, (Sept. 1965).
Many waste-recovery methods have been proposed and then refected
because it is cheaper to dump the wastes (thereby polluting the
streams and air) than to process them. These recovery processes
will make good economic sense, however, when anti-pollution
regulations prohibit dumping.
339
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EFFLUENT PURIFICATION WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO PHOSPHATE
ELIMINATION, K. Wuhrmann; SVF Fachorgan Textilver. 20, No. 7:432-441,
(1965), (German) Through Shirley Inst. 45: 4520, (1965).
Nitrogen and phosphorus are both part of the nutrient matter for
microphyte organisms which multiply rapidly in effluent liquor.
Methods for clearing nitrogen- and phosphorus-containing solu-
tes from the effluent are described, and the records of one plant
are discussed.
CLARIFICATION OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES BY ANAEROBIC FERMENTATION,
Nevzorov, M. I., Vopr. Sovrem. Strait, i Arkhitekt Sb (USSR), 380, (1964).
This work covers both the themophilic and mesophilic phases.
The mesophilic fermentation was indicated to be best.
Experiments found 25 days would reduce the B. O. D. by 90%.
340
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APPENDIX C
Included in this appendix are listings of Textile Manufacturers and Finishers,
Engineering Firms, Instrument Manufacturers, State Agencies, Schools, and
Federal Agencies that contributed information for the preparation of this
report.
341
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TEXTILE AND CHEMICAL MANUFACTURERS
Abney Mills
Airco Chemicals & Plastics
American Viscose Corp.
BASF Corp.
Burlington Industries, Inc.
Calgon Corp.
Cannon Mills Co.
Celanese Corp.
Collins & Aikman Corp.
Cone Mills Corp.
Cranston Print Works Co.
Crown-Metro, Inc.
Deering Milliken, Inc.
Dow Badische Co.
E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc.
Fiber Industries, Inc.
Gaston County Machine Works
Graniteville Co.
Greenwood Mills
Jenkins Wright Co.
Kendall Co., The
Los Angeles Piece Dye Works
M. Lowenstein & Sons
M and T Chemicals
Mohasco Industries, Inc.
National Dye & Finishing Corp.
PPG Industries
Palmetto Chemical Corp.
C. H. Patrick & Co., Inc.
Quaker Chemical Co.
Reeves Brothers Inc.
Riegel Textile Corp.
Rohm & Haas Co.
Sandoz Incorporated
Springs Mills
Standard Gil of California
J. P. Stevens & Co., Inc.
Synalloy Corp.
Tex Fi Industries
Union Carbide Corp.
United Piece Dye Works
United Merchants & Mfgs., Inc.
West Point Pepperell, Inc.
Westvaco Chemical Co.
Whitestone Chem. Corp.
342
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ENGINEERS
Beeson Engineering Co.
Bechtel Corp.
Delta Engr. & Surveyors, Inc.
Enwright Assoc.
Eskridge & Long Construction Co.
Froehling & Robertson
Testing Laboratory
Floyd & Davis Engineers, Inc.
From Corp. Industrial Div.
General Engineering Service, Inc.
Harlee-Quattlebaum Engrs.
and Contractors
Harwood-Beebe Co., The
Lockwood-Greene Engineers, Inc.
Metcalf & Eddy, Engineers
Charles T. Main, Inc.
Palmer & Mallard Assoc.
Piatt & Davis Engr.
Piedmont Engrs. & Architects
Robert and Co. Associates
J. L. Rogers Engr. Co., Inc.
J. E. Sirrine Co.
Wiedemen & Singleton Engineers
Williams Engrs. Inc.
INSTRUMENT MANUFACTURERS
Automated Environmental Systems
Beckman Instruments, Inc.
Corning
Ionics, Inc.
Perkin-Elmer Corp.
Preiser Scientific, Inc.
Scientific Products
Union Carbide Corp.
Will Scientific, Inc.
343
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STATE AGENCIES
Alabama
California
Connecticut
Florida
Georgia
Massachusetts
Missouri
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Virginia
SCHOOLS VISITED
Duke University
Durham, N. C.
Georgia Tech
Atlanta, Ga.
N. C. State University
Raleigh, N. C.
Philadelphia College of Textiles
& Science
Philadelphia, Pa.
Purdue University
Lafayette, Ind.
Textile Research Institute
Princeton, N. J.
Tulane University
New Orleans, La.
FEDERAL AGENCIES
Federal Water Quality Administration
344
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APPENDIX D
EFFECTS OF FINISHING PLANT WASTES
UPON WATER QUALITY
To get an idea of the waste load on several streams in the Southeast data taken
from state agencies for the year 1969 is reported in Table XXIII. The analyses
were made on samples taken above and below plant outfalls. In some cases a
significant amount of domestic waste may be included as part of the textile
waste, but this should not detract from the value of the analysis since this is
a common practice in many situations. No distinction is made in the type of
treatment the waste may have received before discharge. The data is reported
as a qualitative reference for what was occurring in 1969.
345
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TABLE PI
EFFECTS OF FINISHING PLANT WASTES
Plant A
Parameter
Dissolved oxygen (D. O.)
Biochemical Oxygen Den
Coliform Bacteria (MPN)
PH
Alkalinity
Color
Plant B
D.O.
BOD
MPN
PH
Alkalinity
Color
Plant C
D.O.
BOD
MPN
PH
Alkalinity
Color
Plant D
DO
BOD
MPN
PH
Alkalinity
Color
UPON WATER QUALITY
Water
Above Plant
0.) 6.5
Demand (BOD) 2.0
PN) 33.0
6.5
18
100
4.0
2.0
6.9
30
75
4.0
5.0
6.8
20
50
5.0
10
6.8
20
20
Analyses
Below Plant
5.0
5.0
1000
6.6
20
200
1.0
5.0
7.0
40
200
2.5
500
7.7
110
150
3.0
250
11.0
500
70
346
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TABLE Pi (Continued)
Plant E
DO 6.5 6.0
BOD 3.0 6.0
MPN 490 650
pH 6.7 7.3
Alkalinity 20 50
Color 20 100
Plant F
DO 9.0 5.0
BOD 1-2 5.0
MPN 500 1500
pH 6.8 7.5
Alkalinity 15 70
Color 5 100
Plant G
DO 6.5 6.4
BOD 5.0 10.0
MPN
pH 6.8 4.0
Alkalinity 20 0
Color 20 100
Conductance 40 mhos/cm 1000
Plant H
DO 6.0 5.0
BOD 10.0 25
MPN
pH 6.7 7.5
Alkalinity 15 150
Color 15 100
Conductance 25 900
347
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TABLE PI (Continued)
Plant I
DO 5-° i
BOD 10-° 25
MPN .
PH 6'°
Alkalinity 25 Zj
Color 25 50
Conductance 80 I7°
348
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Number
Subject Fu-ld & Group
05D
SELECTED WATER RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
Organization
Department of Textiles; Clemson University;
Clemson, South Carolina 29631
Title
State of the Art of Textile Waste Treatment
i Q Authors)
Porter,
John J.
16
21
Project Designation
12090 ECS
/Vote
22
Citation
Descriptors (Starred First)
^Textiles, -^Wastewater Treatment, ^Industrial Wastes, -HCost Comparisons
Identifiers (Starred First)
27
Abstract ^ study has been made of waste treatment methods and practices used in the
Textile industry. Information was obtained from people working in the textile
processing industry, designing waste treatment plants, and enforcing state and
federal regulations on waters discharged to streams and natural reservoirs. To
supplement this information the literature was reviewed and an annotated bibliography
prepared using relevant articles. The report contains sections on the following:
characteristics of textile waste, waste treatment techniques, treatment methods in
use, effects of textile wastes on receiving waters, the cost of waste treatment
operations, and state and federal regulations governing discharge waters. Areas
of needed research are recommended to improve waste treatment methods currently
practiced by the textile industry. The report is designed to give the reader
an insight into the problems facing the textile industry, solutions presently
available, and references for further reading. The annotated bibliography contains
references on synthetic fiber manufacturing wastes, detergent waste treatment,
instrumentation, plant design, water treatment for plant use as well as articles
pertaining specifically to textile waste treatment. This report was submitted
in fulfillment of Grant project 12090 ECS between the Federal Water Quality
Administration and Clemson University.
I lis tractor
Dr. John J. Porter
Institution
Clemson University
YVRM02 (REV JULY t»6»»
WRSI C
SEND TO! WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
WASHINGTON. D. C. 2024O
* CPO: 19«9-35»-339
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