&EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Air and Radiation
6202J
EPA 430-B-93-007
October 1993
rgy Star
Buildings Manual
Energy Star Buildings Program
First Edition
October 1993
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Global Change Division
401 M Street SW
Washington, DC 20460
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Preface «
Introduction M
An Introduction to the Energy Star Buildings Program 1-3
Showcase Buildings 1-5
Partner Support Programs 1-6
Planning and Implementation Support 1-6
Partner Visits 1-6
Telephone Support 1-7
Communications 1-7
Information and Analysis 1-7
Energy Star Buildings Manual 1-8
QuikFan Software 1-8
Database of Financing Programs 1-8
Technology Studies 1-8
Computer Simulations 1-8
Generic Specifications 1-8
Technology Briefs 1-9
Technical Advisory Support 1-9
Program Organization 1-9
Progress Reporting 1-9
Surveys To Support Building Upgrades 1-10
Energy Star Computers 1-11
Stage 1: Green Lights 1-1
Section 1.1—An Introduction to the Green Lights Program 1-3
Stage 2: Building Tune-Up 2-1
Section 2.1—Tune-Up, Preventive Maintenance, and Training 2-3
Best Opportunities 2-3
Building Envelope 2-3
Interior Space 2-3
Equipment Room 2-4
Preventive Maintenance 2-4
Building Management 2-5
Economic Benefits 2-5
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual Hi
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Table of Contents
Project Management Considerations 2-7
Training 2-8
Project Specifications 2-9
Stage 3: Load Reductions 3-1
Section 3.1—Summary Snapshot 3-3
Opportunities for Load Reduction 3-3
Lighting Upgrades 3-3
Office Equipment Upgrades 3-3
Building Exterior Upgrades 3-3
Section 3.2—Building Exterior Upgrades 3-5
Best Opportunities 3-5
Window Films 3-6
Roofing Upgrades 3-8
Economic Benefits 3-9
Project Management Considerations 3-9
Window Films 3-9
Roofing Upgrades 3-14
Preparing Specifications 3-15
Window Films 3-15
Roofing Upgrades 3-15
Stage 4: HVAC Distribution System
Upgrades 4-1
Section 4.1—HVAC Distribution System Functions
and Configurations 4-3
Components of an Air Handling System 4-3
Types of Air Handling Systems 4-3
Constant Air Volume Systems 4-4
Variable Air Volume Systems 4-4
System Configurations 4-4
Single-Duct/Single-Zone Systems 4-4
Dual-Duct Systems 4-4
Multizone Systems 4-5
Terminal Reheat Systems 4-5
Section 4.2—Summary Snapshots 4-9
4.2.1—Summary Snapshot: Variable Air Volume Systems 4-11
Best Opportunities 4—11
Downsizing 4-11
Energy-Efficient Motors 4-11
Variable Speed Drives 4-11
iv Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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Table of Contents
Section 4.3—Variable Air Volume System Upgrades 4-13
Best Opportunities 4-13
Downsizing 4-13
Energy-Efficient Motors 4-15
Variable Speed Drives 4-16
Economic Benefits 4-18
Project Management Considerations 4-20
Downsizing 4-20
Energy-Efficient Motors 4-20
Variable Speed Drives 4-20
Preparing Specifications 4-21
Energy-Efficient Motors 4-21
Variable Speed Drives 4-22
Stage 5: HVAC Plant Upgrades 5-1
Section 5.1—HVAC Plant Functions and Configurations 5-3
Components of an HVAC Plant 5-3
Chillers 5-3
Types of Chillers 5-3
Chiller Components 5-3
Section 5.2—Summary Snapshots 5-5
5.2.1—Summary Snapshot: Water-Cooled Centrifugal Chillers 5-7
Best Opportunities 5-7
Chiller Retrofits 5-7
Chiller Replacement 5-7
Variable Speed Drives 5-7
Section 5.3—Water-Cooled Centrifugal Chiller Upgrades 5-9
Best Opportunities 5-9
Chiller Retrofits 5-10
Chiller Replacement 5-10
Economic Benefits 5-10
Project Management Considerations 5-10
Preparing Specifications 5-13
Building Environmental
Quality Issues 6-1
Section 6.1—Indoor Air Quality 6-3
Factors Affecting Indoor Air Quality 6-3
Source 6-4
HVAC Systems 6-5
Pollutant Pathways 6-6
Building Occupants 6-6
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Table of Contents
Developing an Indoor Air Quality Profile 6-6
Steps in Creating an Indoor Air Quality Profile 6-7
Collecting and Reviewing Existing Records 6-7
Conducting a Walkthrough Inspection of the Building 6-7
Collecting Detailed Information 6-8
Operating and Maintaining HVAC Equipment To Ensure
Indoor Air Quality 6-8
Diagnosing HVAC-Related Indoor Air Quality Problems 6-10
Mitigating Indoor Air Quality Problems 6-11
Appendices
Appendix A—Survey Forms and Instructions A-l
Appendix B—Variable Speed Drive Pilot Studies B-l
Appendix C—Variable Speed Drive Technical Information C-l
Appendix D—Generic Specification for Variable Speed Drive D-l
Appendix E—Program Management Information E-l
Appendix F—Glossary F-l
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Preface
The Energy Star Buildings Manual is a guide for Energy Star
Buildings Partners to use in planning and implementing
profitable energy-efficiency upgrades in their facilities. Its
purpose is to provide a concise overview of each of the five
stages of the Energy Star Buildings Program: Green Lights,
Building Tune-Up, Load Reductions, HVAC Distribution
System Upgrades, and HVAC Plant Upgrades. The energy-
efficiency improvements made in each of these stages build
upon the upgrades made in previous stages.
This manual is only one of several technical resources that
EPA is making available for Energy Star Buildings Partners.
It provides a roadmap to guide participants through the steps
that need to be completed during each stage of the program.
Following an introductory chapter, the manual is organized
according to each of the program's five stages. Some of
these chapters begin with a set of summary "snapshots"
that provide an overview of the best opportunities for
profitable upgrades in that stage of the program. The
sections that follow in each chapter provide more detailed
information on those opportunities, including project
management considerations and additional points to consider
when preparing specifications. A separate chapter discusses
building environmental quality issues, and appendices
provide a variety of supplemental information.
This is the first edition of the Energy Star Buildings Manual
As we prepare future editions, we welcome the reader's
specific suggestions for improvements. Please call
202-775-6650 or send a fax to 202-775-6680.
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viii Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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reduction
EPA's Energy Star Buildings Program is here to help building
owners and managers make profitable investments in energy-
efficient equipment and operations.
Investments in energy efficiency benefit the Nation by
reducing pollution and creating jobs. The profitability of
those investments provides benefits to building owners by
improving their bottom lines.
To gain maximum energy savings and profits, Energy Star
Buildings Partners are encouraged to use a comprehensive
five-stage strategy for their building upgrades. Before
learning about the specifics of the stages, however, spend
some time with this introductory chapter. Here you will
become familiar with the Energy Star Buildings Program
and the support EPA can provide.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 1-1
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1-2 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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An Introduction to the
Energy Star Buildings
Program
Each year, the energy required to run office build-
ings in the United States consumes approximately
$71 billion from the Nation's economy and costs
the owner of a typical building between $1 and $3
per square foot. It also creates pollution—16 per-
cent of the carbon dioxide, 12 percent of the nitro-
gen oxides, and 22 percent of the sulfur dioxides
released into the atmosphere are a result of the
energy (primarily electricity) required to run
office buildings.
The goal of the EPA's Energy Star Buildings
Program is to reduce that pollution by encourag-
ing building owners to voluntarily implement
profitable energy-efficiency improvements in their
buildings.
A typical large office building consumes electric-
ity in four main areas:
• Lighting systems (29 percent).
• Air handling systems (28 percent).
• Cooling systems (24 percent).
• Office equipment, elevators, auxiliary heating,
and other (19 percent).
The Energy Star Buildings Program provides
plans for energy-efficiency upgrades in each of
these areas. Through these upgrades, Energy Star
Buildings Partners can expect to reduce total
building energy consumption by approximately
half.
The foundation of the Energy Star Buildings
Program is the Memorandum of Understanding
between EPA and Energy Star Buildings Partners.
As an Energy Star Buildings Partner, signing this
document commits you to do the following:
• Survey and implement comprehensive energy-
efficiency upgrades at one of your buildings
within 2 years.
• Survey all of your U.S. facilities and implement
90 percent of the profitable1 energy-efficiency
upgrades throughout those facilities within
7 years.
In return, EPA agrees to do the following:
• Provide technical guidance and support
throughout the implementation.
• Evaluate implementation results.
• Award Energy Star logos for completely
upgraded buildings.
• Provide public recognition of your efforts.
The Energy Star Buildings upgrades take place in
five stages. These stages provide the opportunity
for profitable upgrades throughout your building
(see Figure 1-1) and corresponding reductions in
your energy costs.
In Stage 1, EPA's Green Lights Program gets
your building upgrades off and running by provid-
ing immediate profitable reductions in overall
energy consumption through energy-efficient
lighting systems. As an Energy Star Buildings
Partner, you have already agreed to participate
in the Green Lights Program.
In Stage 2, Building Tune-Up, you will be com-
pleting a comprehensive energy-efficiency tune-
up of your entire facility. The tune-up, which
ensures that building systems are operating
efficiently and continue to do so, includes preven-
tive maintenance and staff training programs and
provides the additional benefits of improved
levels of occupant comfort and indoor air quality.
1 In the Energy Star Buildings Program, profitability is
determined by comparing the internal rate of return for an
upgrade with the prime interest rate plus 6 percent. For
example, if the prime rate is 7 percent, an energy-efficiency
upgrade is profitable if it provides an internal rate of return
of 13 percent or more.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual I-3
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Introduction
Figure 1-1. Opportunities for Profitable Energy-Efficiency Improvements
Through the Energy Star Buildings Program
High-Efficiency Rooftop AC Units
Green Lights and Energy Star
Computers
Building Tune-Up
o
Green
Lights
Improved Roofs
and Windows
ODD
DDD
High-Efficiency
Fans and Pumps
High-Efficiency,
CFC-Free Chillers
Improved Controls
Stage 3, Load Reductions, is the foundation for
the heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
(HVAC) system upgrades in Stages 4 and 5. For
example, energy-efficient lighting implemented
through the Green Lights Program gives off much
less heat. Therefore, new cooling equipment
would not need to provide as much peak capacity
as the equipment it replaces. Other ways to reduce
heating and cooling loads can be found in reflec-
tive coatings for windows and improved insula-
tion or reflective coverings for roofs.
In Stage 4, HVAC Distribution System Upgrades,
you will be downsizing your air handling system
to match newly reduced loads by installing
smaller energy-efficient motors and larger pul-
leys; converting constant air volume systems to
variable air volume systems (where applicable);
and installing variable speed drives to control fan
motors and provide maximum efficiency at
reduced airflow. Variable speed drives provide
energy savings of 30 to 60 percent over mechani-
cal airflow controls.
In Stage 5, HVAC Plant Upgrades, you will find
that the reduced loads achieved in Stages 1
through 4 create the opportunity for substantial
equipment cost savings on new, high-efficiency
heating and cooling equipment—for example, a
smaller, high-efficiency chiller (an upgrade that
should be seriously considered as new laws
mandating reductions in chlorofluorocarbons
come into effect). You will also be installing
variable speed drives to control chilled water
pumps and condenser water pumps and improving
boilers, cooling towers, and direct-expansion
space-conditioning equipment.
Each of these stages is preceded by a comprehen-
sive survey related to the area that is to be
upgraded. These surveys will help you determine
where energy-saving modifications and upgrades
will be most effective. The surveys for each stage
of the Energy Star Buildings Program are
described later in this chapter. The survey forms
and instructions can be found in Appendix A.
The five distinct stages of the Energy Star Build-
ings program provide you with flexibility to
accomplish the entire program at one time or in
sequence (see Figure 1-2). However, performing
the upgrades in stages will enhance the return on
your investments because you can closely match
equipment to reduced loads, thus building on the
success of previous stages.
1-4 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
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An Introduction to the Energy Star Buildings Program
In this manual, Chapters 1 through 5 explain how
you can obtain energy savings through profitable
energy-efficiency upgrades in each of the five
stages of the program. Chapter 6 provides infor-
mation on building environmental quality issues.
The remaining sections in this introductory
chapter tell how EPA is prepared to support your
efforts, provide advice on how to organize and
manage your Energy Star Buildings effort, intro-
duce the EPA's Energy Star Computers Program
and the Showcase Buildings project, and describe
the building surveys.
Appendix A contains the building survey forms
and instructions. Appendices B, C, and D provide
additional information on variable speed drives,
including the results of a study of 10 pilot installa-
tions of variable speed drives, detailed technical
information on variable speed drives, and a
generic specification. Appendix E contains
supplemental program management information
on financing and preparing requests for proposals
and quotations. Appendix F is a glossary of terms
and abbreviations used in this manual.
Comments on the Energy Star Buildings Manual
are welcome at any time. Please call 202-775-
6650 or send a fax to 202-775-6680.
Showcase Buildings
In the initial phases of the Energy Star Buildings
Program, EPA is focusing its marketing and
implementation efforts on Showcase Buildings
projects. In this effort, EPA is working with Green
Lights Partners willing to commit to an acceler-
ated schedule of Energy Star Buildings upgrades
at one facility within 2 years. In return, EPA will
Figure 1-2. Energy Star Buildings Program Stages and Activities
Stage 1: Green Lights
Implement Green Lights Upgrades
Q
MI Vjrecn
Stage 2: Building Tune-Up
Perform Building Tune-Up
Implement Preventive Maintenance and Training Programs
Stage 3: Load Reductions
Implement Profitable Window and Roofing Upgrades
Stage 4: HVAC Distribution
System Upgrades
Install Energy-Efficient Motors and Variable Speed Drives
Downsized to New Loads (with appropriate safety margins)
Install and Calibrate Controls
Upgrade or Replace Plant with Downsized, High-Efficiency
Equipment
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Energy Star Buildings Manual I-5
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Introduction
provide extensive technical support in the follow-
ing areas:
• Identifying a candidate project.
• Conducting technical and financial analyses.
• Developing a proposal to secure project
funding.
For the initial group of facilities, EPA is looking
for the following building characteristics:
• Medium- to large-size office buildings (25,000
square feet or larger).
• Energy management systems or other energy
monitoring systems in place.
• Few or no previous energy-efficiency upgrades
implemented.
• Central water-cooled chiller plant.
If you would like one of your facilities to be part
of the Showcase Buildings project, please contact
Mr. Chris O'Brien of EPA's Energy Star Build-
ings program office at 202-233-9146.
Partner Support
Programs
The following Energy Star Buildings Partner
support programs support both Showcase Build-
ings project participants and all other Energy Star
Buildings Partners:
• Planning and Implementation Support
—Partner Visits.
—Telephone Support.
—Communications.
• Information and Analysis
—Energy Star Buildings Manual.
—QuikFan Software.
—Green Lights Database of Financing
Programs.
—Case Studies documenting savings for
specific technologies.
—Results of building energy usage computer
simulations.
—Generic Specifications.
—Technology Briefs.
—Technical Advisory Support.
Planning and
Implementation Support
EPA stands ready to provide the following types
of planning and implementation support as your
participation in the Energy Star Buildings Pro-
gram begins.
Partner Visits
In some cases, representatives of EPA or EPA
contract personnel may be available to visit
Energy Star Buildings Partner facilities to address
specific upgrades or implementation issues.
Implementation issues can include the following:
• Organizing the Energy Star Buildings team,
establishing team leadership, and designating
management roles.
• Establishing lines of communication and
coordination, both within the team and between
your organization and EPA.
• Identifying financing needs and resources.
• Conducting the Energy Star Buildings surveys.
• Planning trial installations and evaluating new
technologies.
• Setting goals and developing action plans.
• Determining an approach to use in deciding
which upgrades to implement.
• Developing strategies for submitting progress
reports.
EPA or EPA contract personnel can also help you
use the Energy Star Buildings analysis tools that
are available and provide brief technical reviews
of completed surveys for specific facilities or
program stages. They can help you conduct
preliminary surveys and define trial installation
projects for immediate implementation at your
facility. In some cases, they can visit upgraded
facilities to gather information for case studies or
1-6 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
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An Introduction to the Energy Star Buildings Program
to provide assistance in determining opportunities
for additional energy savings.
Telephone Support
EPA and its contract personnel will maintain
regular contact with all Energy Star Buildings
Partners. Periodic calls provide a convenient
opportunity to discuss project specifics, method-
ologies, and difficulties and to answer technical or
programmatic questions. The objective of this
support is to help Partners get the most out of their
participation in the program.
Of course, you certainly do not need to wait for
the Energy Star Buildings Program to call you;
any time you have a question, problem, or com-
ment you can call the Green Lights Hotline at
202-775-6650 or send a fax to 202-775-6680.
Communications
Because saving energy and preventing pollution is
good news, one important goal of the Energy Star
Buildings Program is to help Partners inform
employees, customers, shareholders, and the
business community about their participation in
the program.
Corporate Communications. EPA has developed
a variety of communications materials and publi-
cations to facilitate participation in the Energy
Star Buildings Program. These materials include
the Green Lights Update newsletter, slide presen-
tations, and Energy Star Buildings Marketing
Briefs.
Case Studies. One of the most successful ways to
promote energy efficiency is through the use of
case studies. These "success stories" can be used
for corporate recognition, program promotion,
education, and developing confidence in the
profitability of building upgrades. Energy Star
Buildings Program staff will work with you to
develop a case study that may ultimately be
publicized in Energy Star Buildings Program
materials, industry publications, local newspapers,
or even national media.
Energy Star Buildings personnel review all
Partner upgrades for potential case study projects.
At the same time, Energy Star Buildings Partners
are welcome to nominate specific projects for
potential case study development. The attributes
of an effective case study are as follows:
• The project was recently completed.
• The project used state-of-the-art technology.
• Quotes from the building owners and occupants
regarding the project are available.
• Descriptions of unique project management
details such as technology evaluation and
alternative financing are available.
Progress Reporting. Compliance with the project
documentation requirement in the Energy Star
Buildings Memorandum of Understanding can be
easily met by submitting an Energy Star Buildings
Implementation Report for each facility once each
year on the anniversary of your participation in
the program. However, EPA strongly suggests
filing these reports quarterly. This requires less
effort than annual reporting and allows EPA to
evaluate the program's effectiveness more fre-
quently, to identify and publicize success stories
soon after the upgrade has been implemented, and
to make Partner support programs more respon-
sive to expressed needs.
EPA analyzes each implementation report form
submitted and follows up as needed to obtain
complete information, assist in selecting future
upgrades, or coordinate case study development.
The information is also entered into an EPA
database that is used to determine the overall
impact of the program and to analyze trends in
upgrade choices, costs, methods, acceptance, and
profitability. These analyses will provide valuable
input for future energy-efficiency products and
services.
Information and Analysis
One of the major obstacles to successful imple-
mentation of energy-efficiency upgrades is the
scarcity of objective information to use in decid-
ing which upgrades provide the proper mix of
energy efficiency and profitability. The Energy
Star Buildings Program has developed the follow-
ing information resources to help Partners obtain
the information they need.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual I-7
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Introduction
Energy Star Buildings Manual
This extensive document provides a concise
overview of Energy Star Buildings upgrades for a
variety of heating, ventilating, and air condition-
ing equipment, as well as building tune-up
(recommissioning) and load reduction activities
you can undertake before starting the equipment
upgrades. It includes detailed survey forms and
instructions, technical information, generic speci-
fications, and information on indoor air quality
issues related to energy-efficiency upgrades. The
manual, distributed to all Energy Star Buildings
Partners, will be regularly updated as information
on additional upgrades becomes available.
QuikFan Software
The QuikFan analysis program, which runs
under Microsoft Windows 3.0, is an easy-to-use
software tool designed to assist in calculating the
profitability of implementing fan system
upgrades, including the interactive effects of
cooling load reductions, and of installing variable
speed drives on fan motors in a building. After
you enter engineering and financial data, QuikFan
calculates the cost of the upgrade, the simple
payback period (in years), and the internal rate of
return for a number of different scenarios.
You can obtain a copy of the QuikFan software
(expected to be available in November 1993) by
writing to the EPA Global Change Division,
USEPA/OAR (6202-J), 401 M Street SW, Wash-
ington, D.C., 20460. The software will also be
available through the Green Lights bulletin board.
Dial 202-775-6671 and follow the instructions on
the screen.
Section 4.3 contains more information about the
QuikFan software, including user instructions.
Database of Financing Programs
This directory, developed for the Green Lights
Program, consists of two indexed databases.
Utility Financing contains information on utility
incentive programs (rebates, direct assistance, and
loans) that encourage energy-efficiency upgrades.
Non-Utility Financing contains information on
companies that provide financing services, either
financing companies or energy services compa-
nies that coordinate with banks, leasing firms, or
investment groups. Financing options offered by
these firms include conventional loans, guaranteed
savings insurance, capital leases, and shared
savings.
The Financing databases run on IBM PC or
compatible computers. You can obtain copies
from the EPA Global Change Division, USEPA/
OAR (6202-J), 401 M Street SW, Washington,
D.C., 20460. The software can also be down-
loaded via modem from the Green Lights bulletin
board. Dial 202-775-6671 and follow the instruc-
tions on the screen.
Appendix E contains more information about
financing options for building upgrades.
Technology Studies
EPA will maintain a number of technology studies
documenting energy savings and internal rate of
return for specific upgrades in specific types of
buildings. Energy Star Buildings Partners can use
these studies as a starting point in determining the
type of energy savings and profits expected from a
particular energy-efficiency upgrade.
Computer Simulations
EPA will offer a database of building energy
usage computer simulations that Energy Star
Buildings Partners can use as a starting point in
determining the type of energy savings and profits
expected from a particular energy-efficiency
upgrade. Comparing the results for upgrades and
building types in locations similar to yours can
help you determine if you are moving in the right
direction. This database will be available in
late 1993.
Generic Specifications
EPA is preparing generic specifications for
specific energy-efficiency technologies that you
can use as a guide as you prepare your own
specifications. They show how to prepare specifi-
cations for both product and performance and
show how to provide general guidelines for the
contractor, how to reference appropriate
standards, and how to establish guidelines for
project execution (installation, testing, documen-
tation, training, spare parts, and warranty).
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First Edition, October 1993
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An Introduction to the Energy Star Buildings Program
Technology Briefs
EPA is developing a series of two-page Technol-
ogy Briefs summarizing various technologies and
implementation issues of interest to Energy Star
Buildings Partners. These publications are
intended to serve as introductions to these tech-
nologies and issues.
Technical Advisory Support
Energy Star Buildings Partners can receive
technical advisory support from EPA contract
personnel as they implement their pilot Energy
Star Buildings upgrades. This support includes
design reviews, technical analysis, and site visits.
Program Organization
Before you begin to consider the specific upgrades
to implement at your buildings, you should take
the following steps to organize the effort:
• Assemble an Energy Star Buildings Task Force
to set goals, establish timetables, and assign
responsibilities.
• Appoint Energy Star Buildings Coordinators
for each business unit, region, or facility group.
• Conduct a kickoff meeting to train coordinators
and focus objectives.
• Determine the priority and order of facilities to
survey and upgrade.
• Decide when to use in-house staff, outside
support, and EPA support.
• Identify financing needs and resources (see
Appendix E).
• Determine if demonstration projects (in addi-
tion to pilot upgrades) are appropriate for your
facility.
• Implement a system of progress reporting.
Creating clearly defined objectives, a written
business plan, and a focused management team
and approach will establish momentum within
your organization and enable EPA to provide
better assistance.
Progress Reporting
Once the upgrades are under way, periodic
progress reports will help you track program
activities and ensure that they are on schedule. In
addition, EPA analyzes the progress reports to
monitor and improve support activities, to find
success stories to publicize, and to find ways to
make your specific projects more successful.
Progress reporting includes the following actions:
• Reporting progress of all energy-efficiency
upgrades on a regular basis:
—Timely interim reports for projects in
progress.
—Final reports for completed projects.
• Nominating projects for publication as Energy
Star Buildings case studies to promote your
efforts in preventing pollution.
To simplify the process of documenting building
upgrades, the Energy Star Buildings Implementa-
tion Report form (available in late 1993) can be
used for both interim progress reports and project
completion reports.
Compliance with the project documentation
requirement in the Energy Star Buildings Memo-
randum of Understanding can be easily met by
submitting an implementation report for each
facility once each year on the anniversary of your
participation in the program. However, EPA
strongly suggests filing these reports quarterly.
More frequent reports require less concentrated
effort than annual reports, resulting in less disrup-
tion at your office, and provide the following
additional benefits:
• EPA can reevaluate the program's effectiveness
in preventing pollution, reducing energy
consumption, and improving the competitive-
ness of U.S. business.
• EPA can identify and publicize success stories
soon after installations are complete or even
while installations are in progress.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual I-9
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Introduction
• EPA can adapt support programs to be more
responsive to Partners' needs.
In addition, an interim progress report for a
facility should be submitted as soon as you decide
to conduct the surveys for that building. At this
point all you need to do is complete Sections 1
through 3 on the report and circle "Preliminary
Survey" in Section 3. These preliminary reports
will be used to establish facility records in the
Energy Star Buildings project tracking database.
Final reports should be submitted as soon as
possible after a project has been completed. Once
a final report has been completed for a building,
no further reports are required until 7 years after
the installation. At that time a new survey and
subsequent upgrades, if profitable, are required.
Final reports are used to:
• Inform EPA that upgrades have been
completed.
• Inform EPA that surveys have been completed
at a facility but no profitable upgrades were
identified.
• Inform EPA of energy-efficiency technologies
used in new construction.
Surveys To Support
Building Upgrades
The purpose of the Energy Star Buildings Pro-
gram is to help you make profitable investments
in energy efficiency. Each stage of the program
requires an understanding of the type of system or
equipment to be upgraded and the condition and
energy efficiency of that system or equipment.
Surveys of your building, conducted prior to each
stage of the Energy Star Buildings Program,
enable you to inspect the building's systems as
well as the building itself to compile this informa-
tion and determine where energy-saving modifica-
tions and upgrades can be implemented.
The surveys are intended to be conducted prior to
each stage. They contain questions that will help
you to determine the most profitable upgrades and
to compile the information needed to calculate
their economic benefits, prepare implementation
plans, and manage installation. They require
visual inspections of all building systems and a
few specific measurements. The measurements
are straightforward and can be conducted in a
reasonably short period of time.
The surveys for each stage of the Energy Star
Buildings Program are described below.
Stage 1—Green Lights. Surveys related to your
lighting systems are completed as part of your
participation in the Green Lights Program and are
described in the Lighting Upgrade Manual.
Stage 2—Building Tune-Up. Surveys for Stage 2
will help you determine the status of your build-
ing's systems. The goal is to become familiar with
the overall condition of your building and the con-
ditions under which its systems operate. This in
turn will help you determine the tune-ups needed
to improve operations and prepare your building
for the energy-efficiency upgrades to follow,
making those upgrades as profitable as possible.
Stage 3—Load Reductions. Surveys for
Stage 3 will help you determine if window or
roofing upgrades can be profitable in your build-
ing. You will be inspecting your windows and
roof and then answering some basic questions
about each.
Stage 4—HVAC Distribution Systems. Surveys
conducted for Stage 4 will help you determine
the types of air distribution system upgrades that
will be profitable in your building. You will be
inspecting your air handling systems and then
answering some basic questions about each.
Note: This edition of the Energy Star Buildings
Manual deals with variable volume air handling
systems. Future editions will include surveys for
constant volume air handling systems and direct
expansion, unitary air conditioning systems.
Stage 5—HVAC Plant. Surveys conducted for
Stage 5 will help you determine the types of
HVAC plant upgrades that will be profitable in
your building.
Note: This edition of the Energy Star Buildings
Manual deals with water-cooled centrifugal
chillers. Future editions of this manual will
include surveys for other types of HVAC plant
upgrades.
1-10 Energy Star Buildings Manual
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An Introduction to the Energy Star Buildings Program
When you are ready to conduct a survey, look for
people familiar with the following aspects of your
facility:
Building: Floor plans, architectural and engineer-
ing drawings, location of equipment rooms and
equipment; construction materials, insulation
materials, and window types.
Mechanical Equipment: Configuration and
operation of air handling units and heating and
cooling systems; types and operation of the
controls on these systems.
Electrical Systems: Configuration of the power
distribution system and electrical systems for air
handling units and heating and cooling systems;
types and operation of motors; lighting systems.
A survey team might include the building engi-
neer, an HVAC technician, a controls technician,
and an electrician. If you cannot assemble the
people or materials needed to conduct the surveys,
you may want to turn to a qualified engineering
consulting firm.
To conduct the surveys, you will need the follow-
ing items:
• Survey questionnaire.
• Copies of the response forms.
• Notepad to record additional information.
• Other tools and documents as specified on the
survey questionnaire. For example:
—An ammeter, devices to record temperature
and humidity, and a calculator
—Architectural, mechanical, and electrical
drawings and as-built drawings
—Operations and maintenance manuals
—Maintenance records for each system
—Complaint logs.
If your building has an energy management
system, the system can be used to compile operat-
ing schedules, current readings, and operational
sequences for use in conducting the surveys.
EPA P.UUT.ONP..EVENTEI.
Appendix A contains the survey questionnaires
and response forms and describes the information
required for each survey, the materials needed to
conduct the survey, and the personnel recom-
mended for the survey team.
Energy Star Computers
The Energy Star Computers Program is a volun-
tary partnership between EPA and leading com-
puter manufacturers under which the participating
manufacturers agree to produce more energy-
efficient computer equip-
ment. The vast majority of
computer companies that sell
products in the United States
haW J0"16*1 *e P^aiTl, and
many have announced new
energy-efficient products. Products that qualify
for the Energy Star logo are capable of entering a
low-power standby mode when they are not being
used; in essence, they "go to sleep" during periods
of inactivity. A simple touch of the keyboard or
mouse will immediately awaken the system right
where it was before. Depending on computer
usage patterns, an Energy Star system can con-
sume 50 to 75 percent less electricity than a
conventional system. An added benefit is that
these efficient systems give off significantly less
heat while they are sleeping and thus can reduce
the amount of electricity needed to cool a building
by 5 to 10 percent.
EPA started the Energy Star Computers Program
to address the fact that computers are currently
responsible for about 5 percent of commercial-
sector electricity consumption, and this percentage
is expected to increase to 10 percent by the year
2000. In addition, EPA has discovered that much
of the electricity used by computers is wasted,
since the vast majority of computers are not in use
the majority of time that they are on. In addition,
30 to 40 percent of computers are needlessly left
running at night and on weekends.
Energy Star computer equipment provides both
direct and indirect energy savings, and the best
part is that this efficient equipment costs no more
than regular computers and printers. Therefore,
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 1-11
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Introduction
specifying Energy Star products at the time new
equipment is purchased or old equipment is
replaced is a highly profitable endeavor. The U.S.
Government has recognized this, because Presi-
dent Clinton has directed U.S. agencies to pur-
chase only Energy Star computers, monitors, and
printers so long as the equipment is commercially
available and meets specified performance needs.
As the largest buyer of computers in the world,
the U.S. Government has sent a strong signal to
computer manufacturers.
EPA is encouraging state governments and other
organizations to consider taking this same step.
Companies interested in purchasing Energy Star
equipment can contact EPA for more information
on participating manufacturers and available
products. To assist companies with procurement
efforts, EPA has also developed sample procure-
ment language for requests for proposals and
quotations.
In addition, companies or organizations may wish
to sign a Letter of Principle stating their intention
to purchase Energy Star equipment. EPA will
maintain a list of organizations that have signed
and returned Letters of Principle to demonstrate to
manufacturers the continued market demand for
Energy Star equipment. Participating companies
can receive updated lists of new products as often
as desired.
For more information about Energy Star Com-
puters, or to receive a copy of the Letter of
Principle, contact the Energy Star Computers
Program Office, U.S. EPA (6202-J), Washington,
D.C. 20460. Telephone 202-233-9114 or fax
202-233-9578.
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Ui
Stage 1: s;:?.;-v-
Green Lights
Q.
O
Stage 1 of the Energy Star Buildings Program involves your
participation in an EPA program closely associated with the
Energy Star Buildings Program—Green Lights.
As an Energy Star Buildings Partner, you are committed to
participation in the Green Lights Program. Implementing the
energy-efficient Green Lights upgrades will get your Energy
Star Buildings upgrades off to a very good start.
Many Energy Star Buildings Partners are already participants
in the Green Lights Program. However, for those who are not
familiar with Green Lights, this chapter provides a brief
description of the program and tells you who to contact for
additional information.
This chapter contains the following sections:
1.1 An Introduction to the Green Lights Program
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An Introduction to
The Green Lights
Program
Lighting accounts for 20 to 25 percent of the
electricity consumed in the United States each
year. Lighting for industry, businesses, offices,
and warehouses represents 80 to 90 percent of
that total. Because generating electricity involves
burning fossil fuels or running a
nuclear reactor or hydroelectric
plant, it often results in pollu-
tion. Energy-efficient lighting
i\//ifjieen can reduce lighting electricity
aas Lights demand by more than 50 per-
cent, which enables powerplants
to bum less fuel. It is estimated that every kilo-
watthour of electricity generating avoided pre-
vents the emission of 1.5 pounds of carbon
dioxide, 0.20 ounces of sulfur dioxide, and 0.08
ounces of nitrogen oxides and also reduces other
types of pollution associated with mining, trans-
portation, and waste disposal.
If energy-efficient lighting were used wherever
profitable, U.S. demand for electricity could be
cut by more than 10 percent. This would reduce
annual carbon dioxide emissions by 202 million
metric tons (4 percent of the national total)—the
equivalent of the exhaust emitted from 44 million
automobiles. It would reduce annual emissions of
sulfur dioxide by 1.3 million metric tons (7 per-
cent of the national total), and reduce annual
emissions of nitrogen oxides by 600,000 metric
tons (4 percent of the national total).
The best opportunity for implementing energy-
efficient lighting upgrades is by participating in
the EPA Green Lights Program. Green Lights is a
voluntary program that encourages the widespread
use of energy-efficient lighting systems. In fact,
the Energy Star Buildings Program was designed
for Green Lights Partners who want additional
profitable energy savings. Green Lights upgrades
should be in place before you begin to implement
the Energy Star Buildings upgrades in a facility.
When you implement the Green Lights Program,
you will be doing the following:
• Determining appropriate lighting levels.
• Improving the efficiency of components and
luminaires.
• Implementing controls on operating hours.
• Maintaining or improving lighting quality.
• Maximizing energy savings.
Green Lights Partners, more than 1,000 strong,
include corporations, environmental groups,
electric utilities, and state and local governments.
They are realizing average returns of 25 percent
on their investments in energy-efficient lighting,
with average savings in lighting electricity bills of
50 percent or more and internal rates of return
between 15 and 50 percent, and they are contribut-
ing to reductions in emissions of pollutants
associated with global warming, acid rain, and
smog.
For example, American Express, a Green Lights
Partner since February 1991, upgraded the light-
ing at its 1.6-million-square-foot facility in New
York City. More than 17,000 T12 "cool white"
fluorescent lamps (the standard "tube" often seen
in commercial lighting) were replaced with the
more energy-efficient and superior quality T8
fluorescent lamps. The building's existing hybrid
ballasts were replaced with electronic ballasts
that consume less electricity, weigh less, make
less noise, and create virtually no lamp flicker.
Two hundred occupancy or motion sensors,
which turn lights on or off when people enter or
leave a room, were installed throughout the
building, reducing annual lighting hours from
6,300 to 5,200.
As a result of its lighting upgrade, American
Express has reduced the number of kilowatthours
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual 1 -3
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Stage 1—Green Lights
used at this building by approximately 4.5 million
per year. Annual savings from the project are
expected to be more than $280,000, with an
internal rate of return calculated at 38 percent.
The amount of pollution prevented each year is
also impressive: 785,000 pounds of carbon
dioxide, 5,500 pounds of sulfur dioxide, and
3,150 pounds of nitrogen oxides.
Lighting efficiency can be improved without
reducing lighting quality. In fact, many efficiency
improvements will improve lighting quality. The
following four categories of lighting upgrades
should be implemented:
• Adjusting Lighting Levels and Quality. Put
the correct amount of quality light where it is
needed. Improve the effectiveness of the
lighting by reducing glare and improving color
rendering.
• Improving Fixture Component Efficiency.
Upgrade with high-efficiency lamps and bal-
lasts to increase the efficiency of converting
electricity to light.
• Improving Luminaire Efficiency. Get more
light out of a fixture by retrofitting or replacing
the fixture to improve the efficiency perfor-
mance of the reflector and shielding materials.
In addition, routine fixture cleaning improves
luminaire efficiency.
• Controlling Burning Hours. Use automatic or
manual lighting controls to turn lights off when
they are not needed.
EPA's Green Lights support system will help you
select the best technologies to provide maximum
energy savings for your building.
Participating in the Green Lights Program
Your Part
Green Lights Partners sign a Memorandum of
Understanding with EPA, in which they agree to
conduct a lighting survey of theirfacilities and, within
5 years, implement high-efficiency lighting upgrades
in 90 percent of their square footage where it is
profitable and where lighting quality is maintained or
enhanced. Participants also agree to appoint an
implementation manager to oversee participation in
the program.
EPA's Part
EPA also signs the Memorandum of Understanding
and agrees to provide the following support to Green
Lights Partners:
• Decision Support System. A state-of-the-art
computer software package that enables Part-
ners to survey lighting systems in facilities,
assess lighting options, and select the most
profitable lighting upgrades.
• Financing Registries. User-friendly computer
databases that describe all available third-party
financing programs.
• Ally Programs. Allies include lighting manufac-
turers, lighting management companies, and
electric utilities that have agreed to educate
customers about energy-efficient lighting.
• Endorser Program. Endorsers are membership
associations and other organizations that pro-
mote Green Lights.
• Public Recognition. The Green Lights Program
places public-service advertising in major maga-
zines and provides newspaper articles, reports
on new lighting technologies, a newsletter, and
other materials. To encourage participants to
promote their own Green Lights activities, EPA
distributes ready-to-use promotional materials to
all Partners.
In addition, EPA contracts and grants provide the
following services:
• Lighting Services Group. Provides technical
support, including a technical services hotline,
workshops, and the comprehensive Lighting
Upgrade Manual.
• National Lighting Product Information Pro-
gram. Provides "consumer reports" on lighting,
making valuable product information available.
For more information about the Green Lights Pro-
gram, refer to your Lighting Upgrade Manual; call
the Green Lights Information Hotline at 202-775-
6650 orfax at 202-775-6680; call the Green Lights
Technical Hotline at 202-862-1145 or fax at 202-
862-1144; or access the Green Lights Electronic
Bulletin Board from your modem at 202-775-6671.
1 -4 Energy Star Buildings Manual
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1.1—An Introduction to the Green Lights Program
Tackling the Barriers to Innovation—
Common Problems and the Green Lights Solution
Q;
gh
Problem: Lighting Is a Low Priority. Few organi-
zations focus on the opportunity to invest in their
own lighting systems.
The Green Lights Solution: Green Lights
Partners see lighting as an investment—a
source of profits. Signing the Memorandum
of Understanding makes lighting an organi-
zational priority.
Problem: Lack of Information and Expertise.
Lighting information travels slowly outside the world
of the lighting industry.
QThe Green Lights Solution: Green Lights
!„, provides informational tools to help lighting
*"" investors make informed upgrade decisions.
Problem: Difficulty in Financing. Investments in
energy-efficient lighting require up-front capital.
The Green Lights Solution: Green Lights
has developed a registry of financing
resources and provides it to all Green Lights
Partners.
1ft
Problem: Restricted Markets. Low demand for
energy-efficient lighting technologies results in lack
of consumer understanding about potential cost
savings and enhanced lighting. Prices remain high
due to small production runs.
The Green Lights Solution: Green Lights
promotes energy-efficient lighting technolo-
gies as cost-effective and high-quality
products to consumers and informs manu-
facturers about the benefits of investing in
new technologies.
Problem: Split Incentives Between Landlords
and Tenants. To realize savings from a lighting
upgrade, landlords and tenants must renegotiate
leases. The landlord rarely installs energy-efficient
lighting in new construction because utility charges
are passed on to tenants.
QThe Green Lights Solution: Green Lights
;„» is developing standard lease language that
"L*hu removes the split incentive barrier between
landlord and tenant.
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1 -€ Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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• I
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Stage 2:
Building Tune-Up
Stage 2 of the Energy Star Buildings Program provides the
opportunity to make your entire building more energy-
efficient through maintenance activities and modifications to
equipment and procedures. Many of these improvements are
free or low-cost and thus are profitable on their own;
however, they also lay a solid foundation that can make your
investments in Stages 3, 4, and 5 even more profitable.
In Stage 2, you will be conducting a comprehensive survey
of your building to determine where energy-saving modifi-
cations and upgrades will be most profitable. Then, based on
the survey results, you will be tuning up operations by
adjusting equipment and procedures. As part of the tune-up,
you will be implementing a preventive maintenance program
and training building personnel on new procedures.
This chapter contains the following sections:
2.1 Tune-Up, Preventive Maintenance, and Training
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Tune-Up, Preventive
Maintenance, and
Training
Building tune-up involves maintenance activities
and modifications to equipment and procedures—
many of which are free or low-cost—that will
enable your building's systems to operate at their
designed efficiencies. This is also known as
recommissioning. Energy consumption in many
buildings can be reduced by 5 percent or more
simply by correcting existing minor problems
such as dirty filters and miscalibrated controls.
Tune-ups are important at this point in the Energy
Star Buildings Program because they also lay the
foundation for upgrades implemented later in the
program, allowing those upgrades to provide the
best return on money invested in energy savings.
If the later upgrades are applied to malfunctioning
systems, they not be as profitable. Furthermore, if
a system is tuned up to operate at peak efficiency,
substantial profits can be realized even before
more comprehensive upgrades are undertaken.
Tuned-up systems save time and money overall by
reducing many repair and maintenance activities.
Building Tune-Up Survey
The Building Tune-Up Survey is an essential first
step in Stage 2 of the Energy Star Buildings Pro-
gram. This survey will familiarize you with the con-
dition of your building's systems and enable you to
determine which systems need to be tuned up.
The survey has two main tasks: analysis and
inspection. To complete it you will need to analyze
some existing information and then obtain some
additional information by conducting general
inspections in various areas of the building.
Appendix A contains the survey questionnaire and
response forms and describes the information
required for the survey, the materials needed to
conduct the survey, and the personnel recommended
for the survey team. The Building Tune-Up Survey
begins on page A-3.
For example, energy-efficient lighting lasts 3 to 7
years longer than conventional lighting, reducing
the number of tube-replacement tasks. Tuned-up
systems also reduce occupant complaints because
more efficient systems improve comfort.
Best Opportunities
This subsection provides a summary of the places,
systems, and procedures that provide the best
opportunities for profitable tune-ups. Detailed
checklists to use in implementing a tune-up
program are included at the end of the section,
beginning on page 2-10.
Building Envelope
Tune-ups related to the building envelope involve
installing and ensuring the effectiveness of
weatherstripping, caulking, and seals on doors,
windows, penetrations, and other openings;
maintaining adequate insulation in walls, ceilings,
and roofing; and replacing any wet insulation.
Interior Space
Building interior space improvements can be
made in the areas of lighting systems, equipment
operation, and interior space conditions.
The best lighting system tune-up is to implement
Green Lights upgrades, which include replacing
old lamps with energy-efficient lighting systems.
Cleaning lamps, luminaries, and interior surfaces
as described in Chapter 9 of the EPA Lighting
Upgrade Manual, which is provided to all Green
Lights Partners, also improves lighting efficiency.
A common misconception about fluorescent lights
is that they cost little to run and that they will not
last as long if turned off and on frequently. The
truth is that turning fluorescent lights off and on
costs only 2 to 3 minutes of life (out of 3 to 7
years) and does not damage either ballasts or
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 2-3
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Stage 2—Building Tune-Up
lamps. Thus turning lights off when rooms are not
in use and installing occupancy sensors that
ensure that lights are on only when necessary
saves energy and prolongs the life of the fixture.
Purchasing Energy Star computers, monitors, and
printers when you need to replace that equipment
is a most profitable way to tune-up office equip-
ment operations. You can also educate employees
about the need to turn office equipment off when
it is not in use, particularly at the end of the day.
If it can be done profitably (that is, with minimal
reconstruction and rewiring compared with the
number of occupant complaints), locating tem-
perature and humidity sensing devices away from
drafts, supply air diffusers, outside walls, and
direct sunlight is a good tune-up action (new
wireless sensors are a good alternative here).
Installing meters and controls (see boxes) is also
a good tune-up action. In addition, you can lock
temperature and humidity sensing devices to
prevent tampering, calibrate temperature and
humidity sensing devices, adjust temperature and
humidity setpoints seasonally (higher in summer
and lower in winter), and ensure that radiators and
convectors are unobstructed and that air flows
freely.
Equipment Room
Tune-up actions for air-side systems include
balancing the system (see box), insulating supply
ductwork, ensuring that dampers are tightly closed
and that linkages are operable, recalibrating con-
trols, replacing inaccurate gauges and thermo-
meters, replacing worn belts and bearings on fans
and motors, maintaining proper shaft alignment
on motors, maintaining tight seals on dampers and
air handling equipment, and maintaining pneu-
matic lines and the compressed air system.
Actions for water-side systems include balancing
the system (see box), repairing leaks, insulating
pipes and tanks, recalibrating controls, cleaning or
replacing strainer screens, ensuring that air sep-
arators are operating properly, reducing domestic
Meters Help Save Energy
Installing meters will help you determine where
energy is being wasted in your building systems.
Meters should be installed on a system when the
annual cost of energy exceeds five times the cost of
the meter. They can point out conditions that can be
corrected with little or no capital investment but
result in energy savings of approximately 5 to 15
percent.
Benefits of Metering
• Identifies opportunities for energy-efficiency
improvements.
• Ensures consistent system operations.
• Provides comparisons with previous or similar
operations.
• Allocates energy costs to various cost centers.
Submetering To Document Energy Savings
Submetering enables you to evaluate the energy
savings that can result from implementing various
energy-saving options. Evaluating these savings
will support your efforts to build organizational sup-
port for additional profitable investments in energy
efficiency. In addition, once purchased, a meter can
be used in all energy conservation projects to con-
tinue to evaluate their contributions.
Selecting a Meter
Many different types of electric meters are available.
The appropriate type depends on the functions
required. Newer meters use electronic technology
and are capable of taking a variety of measure-
ments, including cumulative energy consumption,
instantaneous demand, volts, amperes, power fac-
tors, and harmonics. They can also interface with
energy management systems.
hot water temperature setpoints, flushing water
systems, replacing inaccurate gauges and ther-
mometers, and cleaning all system components
regularly.
Preventive Maintenance
A preventive maintenance program is an impor-
tant part of the building tune-up. Preventive main-
tenance helps keep you aware of the condition of
2-4 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
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2.1—Tune-Up, Preventive Maintenance, and Training
Controls Prevent Conflict
In some buildings, the heating and cooling systems
(and sometimes the perimeter and interior systems
as well) work against each other. For example, if the
heating and cooling systems are not controlled by
the same thermostat, the heating system may be
overheating the space while the cooling system is
operating at a high capacity to remove that heat. You
can resolve this situation by installing controls that
operate both systems together. These controls can
then switch between heating and cooling as needed.
Balancing
Air-Side Systems
Air-side systems should be balanced when you
notice any of the following conditions:
• A number of occupant complaints about tem-
perature in the building.
• Hot or cold spaces in the building.
• The fan is unable to overcome the static pressure
in the system or meet load requirements. In such
cases, check the following first and make any
necessary repairs before balancing:
— Clogged filter.
— Frozen dampers.
— Inoperable variable air volume boxes.
The system should be balanced by a qualified
testing and balancing firm.
Water-Side Systems
Water-side systems should be balanced under the
following conditions:
• The system is unable to meet temperature or
pressure requirements In some areas. In such
cases, check the air system first and make any
necessary repairs before balancing.
• The system is modified, for example, by adding
or deleting a coil or replacing any component that
requires a substantial drop or increase in system
pressure (that is, 5 feet of head or more).
The system should be balanced by a qualified
testing and balancing firm.
your building's systems at all times, thus eliminat-
ing many problems and equipment failures—and
resulting downtime—before they occur. It is much
more cost-effective than corrective maintenance,
in which systems and equipment are repaired only
when they break down. Without preventive main-
tenance, equipment performance can be expected
to degrade, increasing the frequency and magni-
tude of repairs and shortening equipment life.
Preventive maintenance more than pays for itself
in terms of building life-cycle costs; without it,
you pay more for energy, repairs, corrective
maintenance, and equipment replacement.
Building Management
Keeping an operations and maintenance log for
major equipment and updating it regularly will
help identify opportunities for ongoing tune-ups.
In addition, a daily log of temperature and pres-
sure levels will help indicate when tubes, nozzles,
and heat exchange areas need to be cleaned or
adjusted. If you have an energy management sys-
tem, be sure that system programming follows the
designed sequence of operations.
Economic Benefits
Tune-ups increase the reliability of equipment and
systems. They also save energy, making future
energy-efficiency upgrades more profitable and
providing profits of their own. The Case Study
and the Simulation on the following page show
the type of energy savings that can be expected
from illustrative building tune-ups.
In addition, a preventive maintenance program
extends equipment life (which correlates directly
to capital costs), increases the reliability of
equipment and systems, reduces downtime
significantly, and saves energy. The box on
Preventive Maintenance Savings on the following
page shows the types of energy savings that can
result from two illustrative preventive mainte-
nance actions.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 2-5
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Stage 2—Building Tune-Up
Case Study: Minneapolis-St. Paul
The University of Minnesota conducted a study of seven office buildings in Minneapolis-St. Paul and found the
following types of problems? . , ; . \- > .
• Excessive cycling of hot water boilers,
• Lights and off ice equipment left on during unoccupied hours.
• Air handling units left on during unoccupied hours,
• Simultaneous heating and cooling as a result of poor perimeter radiation controls.
• Heat pumps operating continuously.
The analysis led to operational changes that provided utility cost reductions of between 8 and 20 percent, averaging
15.4 percent, after subtracting the cost of the analysis ($0.10 to $0.12 per square foot). The simple payback period
for these improvements was 0.67 years, with an EPA-calculated internal rate of return of 147 percent over 5 years.
Source: Office Building Operations Case Study Reports, Minnesota Building Research Center, University of Minnesota, 1991.
Simulation: Washington, D.C.
An EPA simulation of a typical building in Washing-
ton, D.C, (10 stories, 100,000 square feet) used the
following typical conditions before the tune-up:
• Thermostats not calibrated, causing the summer
setting to be 1 percent lower than the setpoint,
the winter setting to be 1 percent higher than the
setpoint, and the night-setback setting to be
3 percent higher than the setpoint. . - ; ,
• Humidity setting 10 percent higher than the
setpoint.
• Supply fan input 15 percent higher than design
conditions.
• Supply fan and return fan pressures 15 percent
higher than design conditions.
• Chilled water pump input 15 percent higher than
design conditions, condenser water pump Input
8 percent higher than design conditions, and,
cooling tower fan Input 8 percent higher than
design conditions.
• Cooling design loads an average of 4 percent
higher than design conditions across 10 zones.
In this building, annual HVAC energy consumption
would be approximately 15 percent higher than
building design conditions. The owner of this build-
Ing could recover the costs of this unnecessary,
energy consumption by tuning up the building's
systems. ,'•:,,•
Preventive Maintenance Savings
The following examples are based on a 25-
horsepower, 20,000-cfm (cubic feet per minute) air
handling unit with 4-inch water column static pres-
sure. The system operates 10 hours a day, 5.5 days
per week, 52 weeks a year.
Replacing Filters
Replacing filters can save energy and improve
indoor air quality. Pre-filters are replaced every 2 to
4 weeks, depending on conditions, and final filters
are cleaned or replaced every 10 to 16 months,
depending on the pre-filter's quality.
For the example system, 10 pre-f i Iters (24" x 24" x2",
30 percent efficient for 40 square feet at $4.47 each)
cost $44.70 and 10 final filters (24" x 24" x 11,5",
65 percent efficient for 40 square feet at $28.95
each) cost $289.50. Labor costs $120 per year ($20
per hour x 0.5 hours x 12 times per year). The total
, installed cost of the filters is $946 per year.
Air-side energy consumption savings are $1,614
per year; Internal rate of return is 71 percent.
Calibrating Thermostats
Thermostats should be calibrated every 6 months. A
thermostat that varies by one degree above the
heating setpoint relates to an increase of approxi-
mately 3 percent in energy costs; one degree below
the cooling setpoint relates to an increase of
approximately 5 percent in energy costs.
For the example system, the heating season is
6 months and the cooling system is 6 months. Yearly
energy consumption is 112,100 kilowatthours per
year, Ubor costs $120 per year ($30 per hour x
, 2 hours x 2 times per year).
Air-side energy consumption sayings are $364 per
.yean internal rate of return is 170 percent.
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First Edition, October 1993
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2.1—-Tune-Up, Preventive Maintenance, and Training
Project Management
Considerations
After you complete the Building Tune-Up Survey,
you will have a good idea of the types of tune-ups
that will be profitable in your building, making it
more energy efficient and also reducing loads.
This subsection contains some points to consider
as you plan the tune-ups and implement a preven-
tive maintenance program.
• Analyze your utility bills (see box) to help
identify unusual patterns in energy consump-
tion that may indicate the need for tune-ups.
• Organize the tune-ups according to the people
needed to do the work. For example, an HVAC
mechanic and a controls technician are needed
for the air-side tune-ups in the equipment room.
• Complete all other tune-ups before balancing
air-side and water-side systems. The other tune-
ups may make balancing unnecessary. If bal-
ancing is still required, a better tuned system
will allow for more precise balancing.
• Be certain that all tune-ups related to a particu-
lar stage of the Energy Star Buildings Program
are done before determining the upgrades to
implement in that stage.
• If your facility comprises more than one
building, begin tune-ups in the building with
the highest energy costs.
• Most tune-ups will not disturb occupants.
Schedule tune-ups that may disturb occupants
for hours when the building is unoccupied.
• Appoint preventive maintenance and training
coordinators. These positions can be filled by
the same person.
• Develop a preventive maintenance log and
update it regularly. The log should contain:
—Preventive maintenance procedures for each
type of equipment (what work is to be done
and how often it should be performed)
—Preventive maintenance logs for each piece
of equipment to indicate what work was
performed, when, and by whom.
Utility Bill Analysis
When you chart costs from your utility bills while
conducting the Building Tune-Up Survey, you can
gain some helpful insights into energy consumption
in your building. The following list contains some
areas to analyze.
1. Is energy consumption higher in the spring or fall
than the winter or summer months? This could
indicate a heating and cooling problem.
2. Are there significant peaks in any month or
months? If so, what were the weather condi-
tions? For example, if the weather was not
unusually hot, but you notice a major increase in
consumption in a summer month, it could indi-
cate that all chillers were operating but were not
needed or perhaps that some equipment was
unnecessarily operating 24 hours a day.
3. Is energy consumption in any one period consis-
tently and unexpectedly higher than the others?
For example, if October usage is always high,
central heating and central cooling may be run-
ning simultaneously.
You can also look at your utility bills to see when
maximum demand charges are incurred. If, for
example, maximum demand occurred in August
and the weather was not unusually hot, there could
be problems with equipment or operations.
The preventive maintenance coordinator should
review the log regularly to ensure that the
preventive maintenance program is running
smoothly.
Note: Consider buying a computer software
package for use in setting up and tracking a
preventive maintenance program.
• Consider establishing a bonus system to reward
building management personnel for sustained
building efficiency.
• The preventive maintenance coordinator should
periodically inspect equipment to ensure that
proper maintenance procedures are being
followed.
It is important to have a complete set of opera-
tions and maintenance documentation, including
the following:
• All operations and maintenance manuals for
each type of equipment.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 2-7
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Stage 2—Building Tune-Up
• Up-to-date versions of the building drawings
(architectural, mechanical, and electrical).
• A complete set of specifications, including
addenda and all approved changes.
• Up-to-date versions of as-built drawings for
each system.
• Air and water balancing reports.
• All energy management system manuals.
Each staff member should be able to extract infor-
mation on the building and its systems from any
of these sources.
Training
It is vital that your building staff be well-trained
and fully understand all building systems. The
training coordinator should ensure that:
• The entire staff (all shifts) receives adequate
training on new procedures related to the
preventive maintenance program.
• The entire staff (all shifts) receives adequate
training on new equipment. Vendors should
always provide training on new equipment.
• The entire staff (all shifts) receives periodic
training to keep them up to date on new proce-
dures and equipment.
• New employees are trained on the functions,
operating routine, and maintenance procedures
for each piece of equipment in their areas of
responsibility. In addition, new employees
should understand operations and maintenance
procedures for all systems.
The training coordinator should maintain a log
that contains the training required for each type
of equipment, a log that keeps track of what
equipment each person has been trained on, and
training schedules. The training coordinator
should review this log regularly to ensure that all
personnel have been properly trained.
To implement an effective preventive mainte-
nance program, the staff must be an integral part
of that program and understand all aspects of the
program. A comprehensive training program on
each type of equipment in each system includes
the following:
• System fundamentals.
• How to use reference materials (operations and
maintenance manuals, as-built drawings, and so
forth).
• Functions, operational and control sequences,
and maintenance procedures—including
acceptable tolerances for system adjustments,
which are crucial for maximum energy-
efficiency savings.
• Warranty information.
• Service guidelines, including how to deal with
unexpected conditions and emergencies.
The staff should be trained to keep the goal of
maximum energy efficiency in mind at all times.
A well-trained and responsive staff will ensure
maximum energy savings.
If the building has an energy management system,
training is essential to any staff member who will
be working with that system. This training should
include the following:
• Computer and programming fundamentals.
• How to operate the system.
• Programming in the system's language.
• System maintenance.
• Performing all system functions.
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2.1—Tune-Up, Preventive Maintenance, and Training
The staff should also be trained to be aware of
indoor air quality issues. The goal is to obtain
maximum energy efficiency while maintaining
good indoor air quality standards. Chapter 6
provides more information on indoor air quality
issues and how to implement air quality standards
for your building.
Project Specifications
The following pages contain detailed checklists
that you can use as you plan your building tune-up
and preventive maintenance programs. The tune-
up checklist is organized by area of concentration,
while separate preventive maintenance checklists
are included for actions that should be performed
daily, weekly, monthly, every 6 months, and
annually.
Note: Some of the actions listed may not apply to
your building or some of its systems. Refer to your
survey results and notes when considering each
item on the checklists.
When performing any tune-up or preventive
maintenance activity, it is important to follow
manufacturers' specifications for service, mainte-
nance, and replacement parts. Failure to do so
may void warranties and could damage equipment
or cause improper equipment operation.
Asbestos Concerns
When doing any cleaning or maintenance in build-
ings more than 20 years old, be aware of the
possible presence of asbestos-containing materi-
als, particularly in ductwork and boiler and mechani-
cal rooms. While intact and undisturbed asbestos
materials do not pose a health risk, damaged or
disturbed asbestos materials can release asbestos
fibers into the air and pose a health risk, particularly
for service and maintenance workers. However,
removing asbestos materials is often not a building
owner's best course of action; instead, a proactive
management program is recommended.
A number of Federal standards and regulations
govern asbestos exposure. For guidance, building
owners and managers should be familiar with two
EPA documents: Managing Asbestos in Place (the
"Green Book") and Guidance for Controlling
Asbestos-Containing Materials in Buildings (the
"Purple Book"). To obtain these publications or other
materials related to asbestos or to get additional
information on technical issues, call or write the
Environmental Assistance Division, Office of Toxic
Substances, U.S. EPA (TS-799), 401 M Street SW,
Washington, D.C. 20460 (202-554-1404).
Many States and localities also have established
standards and regulations related to asbestos. EPA's
Directory of State Indoor Air Contacts, available
from the Public Information Center, U.S. EPA
(PM-211B), 401 M Street SW, Washington, D.C.
20460 (202-260-2080), can help you find the
appropriate contact.
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Stage 2—Building Tune-Up
Building Tune-Up Actions — Building Management
Keep an operations and maintenance log for major equipment and update
it regularly. A daily log of temperature and pressure levels will help
indicate when tubes, nozzles, and heat exchange areas need to be
cleaned or adjusted.
If you have an energy management system, be sure that system program-
ming follows the designed sequence of operations.
Building Tune-Up Actions — Building Envelope
Install weatherstripping, caulking, and seals on doors, windows,
penetrations, and other openings.
Replace worn weatherstripping and missing putty or caulking around
door and window frames.
Seal openings in walls for piping, electrical conduit, through-wall
units, and so forth.
Replace or repair latches on doors that do not close tightly. Adjust
uneven doors.
Seal exterior joints such as foundation-to-wall.
Maintain adequate insulation in walls, ceilings, and roofing.
Replace wet insulation.
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2.1—Tune-Up, Preventive Maintenance, and Training
Building Tune-Up Actions — Lighting Systems
Implement Green Lights upgrades.
Adjust schedules so that lights are on only when necessary. Install
occupancy sensors.
Take advantage of natural lighting where possible. Use window films
to reduce glare (see Section 3.2).
Where practical, encourage the use of fluorescent desk lamps or
table lamps in offices and use table lamps in lounges and waiting
rooms.
Reduce outdoor, decorative, and display lighting where possible.
Adjust the sensitivity of photoelectric controls on outdoor lights
and be sure the photocells are clean.
Schedule cleaning tasks for daylight hours. If this is not possible,
instruct the custodial staff to use only necessary lighting, one
room at a time, and to vturn lights out after a room is cleaned.
Clean lamps, luminaries, aixd interior surfaces of lighting fixtures
on a regular schedule. x^
Building Tune-T^.,Actipj^
Purchase Energy Star computers, printers, and monitors when you need
to buy new equipment.
Adjust schedules so that office equipment is on only when necessary.
Install timing devices on equipment whenever possible.
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Sfage 2—Building Tune-Up
Building Tune-Up Actions — Interior Space Conditions
Locate temperature and humidity sensing devices away from drafts,
supply air diffusers, outside walls, and direct sunlight, where this
can be done with minimal reconstruction and rewiring. Consider pur-
chasing wireless temperature sensors.
Install locks on temperature and humidity sensing devices in areas
where tampering is a problem.
Calibrate temperature and humidity sensing devices.
Adjust temperature and humidity setpoints within comfort zones
seasonally--higher in summer and lower in winter.
Be sure that radiators and convectors are •unobstructed and that air is
flowing freely.
Close off and seal unused areas and reduce heating and cooling in
little-used areas.
Building Tune-Up Actions— HVAC Equipment
Check heating and cooling season setpoints to be sure that they are at
design values.
Use night setback temperatures during unoccupied hours.
Install meters where cost-effective to monitor trouble areas and
document energy savings (see box on page 2-4).
Adjust controls to prevent simultaneous operation of heating and
cooling.
Operate one boiler, chiller, or compressor at 90 percent capacity
instead of two at 45 percent capacity.
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2.1—Tune-Up, Preventive Maintenance, and Training
Building Tune-Up Actions — Air-Side Equipment
Clean all system components (for example, ducts, humidifiers, con-
denser coil faces, fan blades, and motors) regularly.
Clean or replace filters regularly.
Insulate supply ductwork, particularly where ducts run through uncon-
ditioned space).
Be sure that dampers are tightly closed and repair dampers with loose
or frozen linkages.
Recalibrate controls and be sure that they operate as specified in
the sequence of operation.
Replace inaccurate gauges and thermometers.
Replace worn belts and bearings on fans and motors.
Maintain proper shaft alignment on motors to reduce noise and
vibration.
Keep linkages and bearings lubricated.
Maintain tight seals on dampers and air handling equipment.
Be sure that pneumatic lines are not leaking and that water never
enters the pneumatic lines.
Be sure that the compressed air system is maintained and operating
properly.
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Stage 2—Building Tune-Up
. Ji * ^ , '
Building Tune-Up Actions — Water-Side Equipment
Repair leaks in and maintain pipes, steam traps, pumping glands,
packet glands, valves, rings, orifices, gaskets, couplings, and
impellers.
Insulate pipes and tanks.
Recalibrate controls and be sure that they operate as specified in
the sequence of operation.
Clean or replace strainer screens in pumping systems periodically.
Be sure that air separators are operating properly and that no air is
entering the system.
Isolate offline boilers and chillers.
Reduce domestic hot water temperature setpoints to the minimum
required (for example, by reducing a 180-degree setpoint to
120 degrees).
Flush water systems periodically.
Use proper water treatment procedures to reduce fouling of transfer
surfaces and the potential for biological growth. Checking cooling
tower bleed-off periodically to ensure that water and chemicals are
not being wasted.
Replace inaccurate gauges and thermometers.
Clean coils, chillers, tubes, tanks, drain pans, heat exchanger
surfaces, and boilers or furnaces regularly.
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2,1—Tune-Up, Preventive Maintenance, and Training
Daily Preventive Maintenance Checklist
All Systems Chiller
Inspect generally. Look at Check oil level.
gauges to ensure that the Check oil pressure.
equipment is operating Check operating pressures.
normally, perform a visual Coolina Tower
inspection for obvious Check water level.
problems such as leaks, and Check PH value of water.
check for unusual noises.
Lint Screens
Clean or replace.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 2-15
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Steps 2—Building Tune-Up
Weekly Preventive Maintenance Checklist
Air Compressor Fans
Blow out drip pockets and Check belt tension.
eliminators. Humidifiers and Dehumidifiers
Check oil level. Check operating pressures.
Equipment Room Pumps
Clean. Clean screens, strainers
Chiller and tanks.
Check refrigerant level. Water Treatment
Check refrigerant piping for Check controls.
leaks. Check PH value of water.
Controls
Check settings and calibration.
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2.1—Tune-Up, Preventive Maintenance, and Training
Monthly Preventive Maintenance Checklist
Air Compressor Motors
Check belt tension/alignment. Check shaft alignment.
Clean screens, strainers, and Lubricate bearings.
tanks. Check belt tension/alignment.
Controls Check oil level.
Test protective devices. Pumps
Cooling Tower Lubricate bearings.
Lubricate bearings. Check oil level.
Check operating pressures. Chiller
Dampers Check controls.
Lubricate bearings. Check tension/alignment of
Check for effective operation. compressor belts.
Distribution System Lubricate bearings.
Clean air intake. Check PH value of water.
Fans Check compressor rotation and
Check for blade balance. • seals.
! Humidifiers and Debumidifiers Drain Pans
Clean strainers and tanks. Clean.
Clean sprays. Pre-Filters
Check for spray erosion. Clean or replace.
t
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 2-17
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Stage 2—Building Tune-Up
6-Month Preventive Maintenance Checklist
Air Compressor
Clean or replace filters.
Coils
Remove dust.
Check drainage.
Pump down.
Controls
Test freeze protection on all
equipment.
Chiller
Check drainage.
Pump down.
Check compressor shaft
alignment.
Cooling Tower
Clean sprays.
Check for spray erosion.
Outdoor Air Intake Grills/Screens
Clean or replace.
Dampers
Check alignment.
Check controls.
Humidifiers and Dehunidifiers
Check controls.
Motors
Check for overheating.
Remove dust.
Operating Schedules
Analyze to ensure equipment is
running only when needed.
Pumps
Check for overheating.
Test stand-by equipment.
Steam and Water Piping
Blow out drip pockets and
eliminators.
Check drainage.
2-18 Energy Star Buildings Manual
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2.1—Tune-Up, Preventive Maintenance, and Training
Annual Preventive Maintenance Checklist
Air Compressor Humidifiers and Dehumidifiers
Lubricate bearings. Check thoroughly for leaks.
Clean air intake. Filters and Final Filters
Check oil chambers. Clean or replace.
Check alignment. Pumps
Check controls. Check alignment.
Air Washer Check oil chambers.
Check thoroughly for leaks. Check seals.
Coils Steam and Water Piping
Check thoroughly for leaks. Check strainers and tanks.
Cooling Tower Check thoroughly for leaks.
Check thoroughly for leaks. Fans
Motors Check shaft alignment.
Check rotation.
Dampers
Lubricate bearings.
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2-20 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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Stage 3:
Load Reductions
In Stage 3 of the Energy Star Buildings Program, you will be
reducing the energy loads in your building. By participating
in the Green Lights and Energy Star Computers Programs,
you may already have implemented some highly profitable
load reductions by installing high-efficiency lighting and
purchasing energy-efficient computers. However, load
reductions also include upgrades to your building's exterior
systems—its windows and roofs. Window upgrades are
profitable for application to many office buildings. They
save energy, improve building appearance, and increase
occupant comfort and productivity. Roofing upgrades lessen
the overall cost of a new or recovered roof by improving
energy efficiency.
This chapter contains the following sections:
3.1 Summary Snapshot
3.2 B uilding Exterior Upgrades
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3-2 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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BUILDINGS
EPA POLLUTION PREVENTEH
Stage 3: Load Reductions
Summary
Snapshot
This section provides a summary of how you can
Profit from the Stage 3 load reductions. It contains
a summary of the best opportunities for load
reductions and the benefits those reductions will
bring. An example shows how a typical building
°wner applied the Stage 3 load reductions.
Opportunities for
Load Reduction
Energy loads in your building can be reduced by
ughting upgrades implemented through the EPA's
Green Lights Program, by equipment upgrades
accomplished through purchases of Energy Star
computer equipment, and by energy-efficiency
upgrades to the building's windows and roof.
Lighting Upgrades
As an EPA Green Lights Partner, installing high-
efficiency lighting in your building will reduce
your lighting load and save money through lower
energy costs. High-efficiency lighting lasts longer
than normal lighting, so you will also save on
replacement and maintenance. You should com-
Pjete your Green Lights upgrades before begin-
n|ng the Energy Star Buildings upgrades.
Office Equipment Upgrades
Purchasing energy-efficient computers, monitors,
^d printers with the EPA Energy Star logo will
reduce the electrical load in your building and
Save money through lower energy costs. Energy-
efticient office equipment lasts longer than normal
equipment, so you will also save on replacement
maintenance.
Building Exterior Upgrades
Reflective window films keep the sun's heat out
during the cooling season and keep heat in during
foe heating season, providing a good return on
your investment through lower energy costs.
Window upgrades also enhance the value of your
Building by making it look better, increase worker
productivity by reducing solar glare and direct
heat, and protect other investments by reducing
fading caused by sunlight.
Upgrading roof insulation or adding a reflective
covering during scheduled repairs or replacement
can ease the cost of roof repairs by returning some
of the investment through lower energy costs.
Illustrative Savings
A building In the northeastern United States has the
following attributes:
• Gross area = 30,650 sq, ft,
• Roof area = 7,860 sq.ft.
« Four floors
• Glass to exterior wall ratio = 40 percent
The ownerof this building implemented Green Lights
upgrades and purchased Energy Star computer
equipment as old equipment was scheduled for
replacement.
The building, located in an industrial park, receives
• direct.sunlight throughout most of the day, and
occupants are complaining about the added heat
from the sunlight and the glare on computer screens.
, In addition, occupants are using window ledges to
•Store books and papers, which Is making the build*
Ing look bad from the outside. Thus the owner
decided to Install window films,
The building's roof was scheduled for replacement,
so the owner decided to upgrade insulation as part
of the replacement.
These combined upgrades provided the following
changes in energy consumption:
Lighting (watts/sq. ft.)
Equipment (watts/sq. ft.)
Shading coefficient
, Insulation R-Value \
The upgrades reduced total energy consumption in
"" building by 43 percent, providing t$43,957 per
Before
2.6
1.0
0.9
12
After
0.8
0.5
0.3
20
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 3-3
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3-4 Energy Star Buildings Manual Firs{ Ed!(jon Qctober
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Building Exterior
Upgrades
Thus far in the Energy Star Buildings Program,
you have reduced energy loads inside your
building through the building tune-up and the
EPA Green Lights and Energy Star Computers
Programs. The reduced loads achieved through
these upgrades can make the subsequent HVAC
system upgrades in Stages 4 and 5 even more
profitable by creating the opportunity to downsize
(that is, reduce the size and capacity of equip-
ment—see Section 4.3) those systems to match
the reduced loads. Now, by considering the
building's exterior "systems," that is, windows
and roofs, you should be able to find excellent
opportunities for further energy savings, addi-
tional downsizing, and even more profits.
Best Opportunities
Your building's exterior loses energy through its
windows when sunlight enters in summer, causing
air-conditioning systems to work harder, and
when heat escapes in winter, causing heating
systems to work harder. The same holds true for
the building's roof; heat enters the building
through the roof in summer, and heat escapes
Window and Roofing Survey
The Window and Roofing Survey is an essential first
step in Stage 3 of the Energy Star Buildings Pro-
gram. This survey will familiarize you with the con-
dition of your building's exterior shell and enable you
to determine if window and roofing upgrades can be
profitable in your building.
To complete the survey, you will need to visually
inspect your building's windows, roofing, and insu-
lation. You will also need to analyze some existing
information and perform a few simple calculations.
Appendix A contains the survey questionnaire and
response forms and describes the information
required for the survey, the materials needed to
conduct the survey, and the personnel recommended
for the survey team. The Window and Roofing
Survey begins on page A-19.
Potential Savings
Potential Air-Side Energy Savings From
Window Films, Roof Insulation Upgrades,
and Reflective Roof Coverings 2-25%
Internal Rate of Return 25-75%
through the roof in the winter. To stop this loss of
energy, decrease heating and cooling loads, and
increase overall profitability, consider implement-
ing the following building exterior upgrades:
• Window films that limit the amount of solar
heat passing through windows and the amount
of internal heat escaping through windows
(Figure 3.2-1).
• Reflective roof coverings that reflect summer
heat away from the building (Figure 3.2-2).
• Additional roofing insulation to keep summer
heat out and winter heat in.
These options can reduce energy consumption in
most buildings and have additional benefits as
well. Window films improve productivity by
increasing occupant comfort and reducing glare
on computer screens, increase the value of the
building by improving its appearance, and protect
investments in furniture and carpeting by virtually
eliminating the fading caused by ultraviolet
radiation. Reflective roof coverings typically last
longer than other roof coatings. These additional
benefits contribute to the profitability of building
exterior upgrades.
You can implement building exterior upgrades
individually, or combine them to provide maxi-
mum savings. As you develop your strategy:
• Always consider window films, which provide
the best opportunity for low-cost fenestration
upgrades.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 3-5
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Stage 3—Load Reductions
Figure 3.2-1. What Window Films Do
In summer, keep
61 to 80 percent
of the sun's heat
from entering.
Visible sunlight
In winter, keep
19 to 44 percent
of inside heat
from escaping.
Figure 3.2-2. What Reflective
Roof Coverings Do
Load increases
Load decreases
• If the roof on your building is in need of
replacement, increase the R-value1 of the
original insulation or add a reflective roof
covering as part of the replacement.
• If the roof needs to be recovered, use a reflec-
tive roof covering.
• If your building is a low-rise building with a
large roof area consider a roofing upgrade
(added insulation in northern climates, reflec-
tive coverings in southern), even if the roof
does not need replacement or recovering.
Window Films
Window films provide the best opportunity for
low-cost window retrofit upgrades. These thin
layers of polyester, metallic coatings, and adhe-
sives save energy by limiting both the amount of
solar heat passing through windows and the
amount of internal heat escaping through win-
dows. They can be applied directly to the interior
surfaces of all types of glass and generally last
from? to 12 years.
In the heating season, more heat escapes from a
window than comes in from the sun (on a 24-hour
1 R-value measures the thermal resistance of insulation.
The number is the mean temperature difference between
the two surfaces separated by the insulation. For example,
insulation with an R-value of 10 retains a mean temperature
difference of 10 degrees between the two surfaces.
A higher R-value means more insulation.
basis), the extent depending on the local climate.
Window films can help reduce this costly heat
loss by reflecting indoor radiant heat back into the
room. In the cooling season, even when drapes
and blinds are closed, most of the sun's heat
passes through the glass into the room. Window
films stop the heat of the sun at the window.
Window films save energy by reducing heat loss
and heat transfer through windows, by allowing
better balance in heating and cooling systems, and
by providing opportunities for HVAC system
downsizing.
Most of the energy savings from window films are
a result of solar heat rejection, which is measured
by the window's shading coefficient2. The remain-
ing savings are a result of reduced heat transfer,
measured in the window's U-value3.
Note: The shading coefficient and U-vatue of your
windows should be in the window manufacturer's
2 Shading coefficient is a ratio comparing, under the same
conditions, solar heat gain through a window system to
solar heat gain through a single pane of clear glass. A lower
shading coefficient means less heat gain through the
window.
3 U-value measures a window's rate of heat conductivity,
independent of solar radiation. It is a measure of the heat
transfer that occurs between the inner and outer surfaces of
the window. A lower U-value means better insulation is
provided by the window. Because U-values increase greatly
with greater temperature differences, it is important to use
glass with a U-value appropriate for conditions in your area.
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3.2—Building Exterior Upgrades
Why Window Films Save Energy
Window films reduce the amount of radiation pass-
ing through glass (Figure 3.2-3). A pane of clear
glass 1/8-inch thick transmits about 88 percent of
the solar radiation that strikes it, in approximately
equal parts of visible daylight and radiated heat. A
window film on the pane reduces the transmitted
energy by approximately 50 percent.
Window films can also reduce heat loss in winter and
heat gain in summer, reducing shading coefficients
from 0.94 to as little as 0.23 and U-values from
between 1.09 and 1.03 to less than 0.5, depending
on your area of the country (Figure 3.2-4).
Figure 3.2-3. Window Films Block
Substantially More Solar
Radiation Than Clear Glass
1/8" Clear
Glass Only
1/8" Clear Glass with
Typical Window Film
0 Visible Daylight
Invisible (IR + UV)
Source: E Source, Inc.
Figure 3.2-4. Window Films Reduce
Effective U-Value and Shading
Coefficient
1.00
U-Value Shading Coefficient
(single pane)
Q Without Window Film EU With Window Film
Source: ASHRAE.
data with the building's as-built drawings or spec-
ifications. If they are not, a manufacturer's repre-
sentative should be able to determine these values.
Window films provide additional benefits by
doing the following:
• Increasing productivity by providing a more
comfortable environment.
• Reducing glare caused by sunlight on computer
screens.
• Increasing the value of the building by improv-
ing its appearance and providing architectural
unity and distinction to windows.
• Reducing fading of carpets, furniture, and other
fabrics by filtering out harmful ultraviolet rays.
• Increasing privacy by restricting visibility from
the outside.
• Protecting employees and property from
potential harm from shattered glass.
You can determine if window films can be profit-
able for your building by applying the following
criteria. The more criteria your building meets, the
more profitable window films can be.
• The amount of window space on the building is
large compared to the total surface area (that is,
greater than 25 percent of the surface area).
• The building is in a sunny location (that is,
there is little natural shade).
• Windows on the south and west sides of the
building receive direct sunlight.
• Windows have single-pane glass. Single-pane
glass is found in 68 percent of the commercial
space and 52 percent of the office space in the
United States. (Note, however, that even
buildings with better-insulated double-pane
windows may profit from window films.)
• Windows are clear; that is, they have no
existing tint, color, or reflective coating.
• The building is in an area of the country that
has a great number of sunny days.
• Fan systems and cooling equipment are down-
sized due to peak cooling load reductions.
F
-------
Stage 3—Load Reductions
Roofing Upgrades
If the flat roof on your building is at or near the
end of its useful life, implementing energy-saving
upgrades in combination with the repairs will
enhance the profitability of your investment.
These upgrades will also provide more oppor-
tunities for HVAC system downsizing.
The best opportunities for roofing upgrades are
improving the R-value of insulation when you are
replacing the roof, or using a reflective material if
you are recovering a roof.
If an inspection determines the need for roof
replacement, increasing the R-value of the
original insulation as part of the project will save
energy by restricting heat transfer through the
roof. The insulation in most older buildings has an
R-value between 4 and 10. The American Society
of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE) recommends a minimum
R-value of 17. For highest energy efficiency,
ASHRAE recommends an R-value of 25 to 30.
As long as you are replacing the roof, you should
upgrade to insulation with the highest R-value that
is profitable for your building.
If an inspection determines the need for roof
recovering, either now or in the future, you should
first look into the feasibility of increasing the
R-value of the insulation as part of the project. If
you cannot profitably increase the R-value of the
insulation, you can recover the roof with a light-
colored material, whether stone, coating, or
membrane, that will reflect sunlight. This upgrade
is most effective on buildings with low R-value
insulation in warm climates. In addition to saving
Why Roof Upgrades Save Energy
Insulation with high R-valuesprovides greater resis-
tance against winter heat loss and summer heat
gain. For example, increasing R-value from 2 to 16
reduces summer heat gain by 85 percent and winter
heat loss by 80 percent.
Light-colored roofs reflect more sunlight than dark
colored roofs, decreasing summerheatgain. Adark
roof reflects only 10 to 25 percent of solar heat, while
light roofs reflect 65 to 75 percent.
energy, light-colored roofs typically last longer
than dark-colored roofs.
New coverings, where profitable, offer the follow-
ing advantages:
• Retaining the investment in existing insulation.
• Minimizing the cost of the retrofit.
• Reducing the amount of debris to dispose of.
• Minimizing the risk of water or dust damage
while the work is being done.
Roofing upgrades are most effective in conserving
energy when applied to low buildings with high
roof-to-building envelope ratios" (Figure 3.2-5).
These buildings make up 92 percent of the U.S.
commercial real estate market. In a high-rise
building, the roof represents a small percentage of
the above-ground building shell; energy savings
from roofing upgrades would be small when
compared with the building's total energy bill.
However, in low-rise buildings, the roof area can
easily be 50 to 75 percent of the above-ground
shell. Thus, the roof can be a major contributor to
heat gain and loss, and savings from roofing
upgrades can significantly reduce the building's
total energy bill. Similarly, roofing upgrades are
more effective in areas that experience extreme
heat in summer or extreme cold in winter.
4 A comparison of the square footage of the roof to the total
square footage on the exterior of the building.
Figure 3.2-5. Low Buildings Have
Higher RooMo-Buitding Envelope
Ratios Than Tall Buildings
Roof is 20% of
building shell
Roof is 70% of
building shell
Source:
100'
i: U.S. Department of Energy.
3-8 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
-------
3.2—Building Exterior Upgrades
Economic Benefits
The tables on the following pages show the types
of energy savings, energy cost savings, and inter-
nal rates of return that typical large office build-
lngs in eight cities can achieve from window
upgrades alone and window upgrades combined
with larger fan pulleys that take advantage of the
load reductions resulting from the window films.
example, the owner of a building in Washing-
ton, D.C., with a variable air volume inlet vane
"VAC system and single-pane windows installed
Window films that reduced the shading coefficient
from 0.75 to 0.25. This upgrade reduced energy
consumption by 1 .2 percent and reduced energy
costs by 3.3 percent. The internal rate of return on
ne window film investment alone was negligible.
However, because of the reduced loads realized
from these energy savings, the building owner
was able to install a larger pulley on the HVAC
system's fan (see Section 4.3 for more informa-
tlon on downsizing fan systems). The addition of
tnis upgrade provided total reductions in energy
consumption of 4.7 percent and total energy cost
reductions of 9.5 percent. The combined internal
fate of return was 23.9 percent.
greatest opportunity to profit from window
"Pgrades is brought about by the fact that window
"1ms result in lower utility bill demand charges.
Additional energy and capital cost savings can be
achieved through downsizing, which may be
Possible because of reduced loads. However, it is
ln^portant to remember that window films increase
Profits through means other than energy savings.
"rofits can be realized through factors such as
Jncreased worker productivity, increased property
^alue, improved building marketability, and
'°nger lifetimes for furniture and other fabrics.
to
energy savings from roofing upgrades vary with
Climate, the R-value of existing insulation, and
gilding type and shape. For example, buildings
w>th large roof areas in sunny climates may see
Sl8nificant energy savings from reflective roof
coverings, while buildings in cold or rainy areas
"toy not benefit from this type of upgrade at all.
Buildings with large roof areas in cold climates
see greater energy savings from increasing the
R-value of roof insulation.
Table 3.2-2 shows the types of energy savings,
payback, and internal rate of return that can be
achieved from roof insulation upgrades on two
types of office buildings. For example, improving
insulation from an R-value of 7 to an R-value
of 13 for a small office building reduces energy
consumption by 5.3 percent, with an internal rate
of return of 2.87 percent. Similarly, improving
wet or deteriorating insulation (effective R-value
of 0) to an R-value of 26 for a small office build-
ing provides energy savings of 30.3 percent, with
an internal rate of return of 13 percent.
Project Management
Considerations
This section contains some points to consider
when planning to implement building exterior
upgrades at your facility.
As you reduce loads through building exterior
upgrades, be sure that minimum outside air
settings are maintained in variable air volume
systems. Be certain that the proper amount of
outside air enters the system.
Window Films
m If existing windows are of poor quality (for
example, they contain single-pane glass or are
prone to leakage), you should consider options
such as glass replacement, double glazing, or
full window replacement. These options are
more expensive than window films.
• It may be more cost-effective to install window
films only on the south and west sides of the
building in places where sun exposure is more
significant.
• Window films typically cost between $1.35 and
$3.00 per square foot, installed. Of that, 80 to
90 percent is for labor.
• Proper installation of window films is critical.
Improperly installed films can bubble, crack,
peel off, or even cause glass to crack. Most
manufacturers guarantee films and installation
for 5 to 10 years.
Hr*t Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual 3-9
-------
Stage 3—Load Reductions
Table 3.2-1. Annual Building Energy Savings and
Internal Rate of Return From Window Film Retrofits for Large Office Buildings
in Selected U.S. Cities*
Change in Shading Coefficient
1.0 to 0.75 1.0 to 0.50 1.0 to 0.25
Film Film Film
Plus Plus Plus
Film Fan Film Fan Film Fan
Only Pulley Only Pulley Only Pulley
A. Los Angeles, California
0.75 to 0.50
Film
Only
Film
Plus
Fan
Pulley
0.75 to 0.25
Film
Only
Film
Plus
Fan
Pulley
0.50 to 0.25
Film
Only
Film
Plus
Fan
Pulley
Variable Air Volume System, Inlet Vane Fan Control, Single-Pane Glazing (U-Value = 1 .0)
Energy Savings (percent of kWh) 7.5 10.9 14.6 20.6 18.3 26.9
Energy Dollar Savings (percent) 6.4 9.8 11.8 18.6 11.5 24.4
Internal Rate of Return (percent) 13.7 26.2 32.6 54.1 31.7 71.6
Variable Air Volume System, Inlet Vane Fan Control, Double-Pane Glazing (U-Value
Energy Savings (percent of kWh) 7.7 11.0 15.4 21.3 20.8 29.0
Energy Dollar Savings (percent) 6.6 10.0 13.1 19.6 15.1 27.1
Internal Rate of Return (percent) 14.9 27.1 37.5 57.9 43.9 80.9
Constant Air Volume System, Single-Pane Glazing (U-Value = 1 .0)
Energy Savings (percent of kWh) -2.4 13.5 -6.7 26.1 -14.7 34.5
Energy Dollar Savings (percent) -2.0 13.8 -6.0 26.9 -14.0 36.9
Internal Rate of Return (percent) <0 78.8 <0 154.2 <0 211.8
Constant Air Volume System, Double-Pane Glazing (U-Value = 0.65)
Energy Savings (percent of kWh) -2.1 13.9 -5.5 27.4 -12.7 36.7
Energy Dollar Savings (percent) -2.1 13.7 -5.1 28.1 -12.3 38.9
Internal Rate of Return (percent) <0 76.2 <0 157.2 <0 217.7
B. Miami, Florida
Variable Air Volume System, Inlet Vane Fan Control, Single-Pane Glazing (U-Value =
Energy Savings (percent of kWh) 7.4 10.1 14.3 19.4 21.1 28.0
Energy Dollar Savings (percent) 7.2 10.2 13.6 19.3 20.7 28.7
Internal Rate of Return (percent) 21.0 32.9 45.7 65.6 70.5 98.3
Variable Air Volume System, Inlet Vane Fan Control, Double-Pane Glazing (U-Value
Energy Savings (percent of kWh) 7.6 10.3 14.7 19.6 21.9 28.6
Energy Dollar Savings (percent) 7.4 10.3 13.8 19.4 21.3 28.9
Internal Rate of Return (percent) 22.0 33.9 46.9 66.6 73.6 100.1
Constant Air Volume Reheat System, Single-Pane Glazing (U-Value = 1 .0)
Energy Savings (percent of kWh) -1.9 13.9 -4.2 27.6 -7.3 40.4
Energy Dollar Savings (percent) -2.1 13.4 -4.5 26.8 -2.7 42.7
Internal Rate of Return (percent)
-------
3.2—Building Exterior Upgrades
Table 3.2-1 (continued). Annual Building Energy Savings and
Internal Rate of Return From Window Film Retrofits for Large Office Buildings
in Selected U.S. Cities"
Change in Shading Coefficient
1.0(00.75 1.0 to 0.50 1.0 to 0.25 0.75 to 0.50 0.75 to 0.25 0.50 to 0.25
Film Film Rim Film
Plus Plus Plus Plus
Film Fan Film Fan Film Fan Film Fan
Only Pulley Only Pulley Only Pulley Only Pulley
Film Film
Plus Plus
Film Fan Film Fan
Only Pulley Only Pulley
C- Minneapolis, Minnesota
Variable Air Volume System. Inlet Vane Fan Control
Energy Savings (percent of kWh)
Energy Dollar Savings (percent)
Internal Rate of Return (percent)
0.3 3.7
-2.3 1.8
<0 <0
Variable Air Volume System, Inlet Vane Fan Control
Energy Savings (percent of kWh)
Energy Dollar Savings (percent)
"iternal Rate of Return (percent)
1.2 4.7
-1.6 2.7
<0 <0
, Single-Pane Glazing (U-Value =
-0.8
-4.9
<0
, Double
0.9
-4.7
<0
Constant Air Volume System, Single-Pane Glazing (U-Value
Energy Savings (percent of kWh)
Energy Dollar Savings (percent)
'"ternal Rate of Return (percent)
-3.2 11.3
-2.8 11.7
<0 73.8
Constant Air Volume System, Double-Pane Glazing
Energy Savings (percent of kWh)
Energy Dollar Savings (percent)
'"ternal Rate of Return (percent)
-2.8 12.4
-2.7 13.2
<0 78.2
-7.4
-6.4
<0
5,4
2.5
<0
-3.4
-10.4
<0
-Pane Glazing
7.3
3.4
<0
= 1.0)
19.3
20.4
128.8
-0.9
-10.4
<0
-12.8
-12.9
<0
5.6
2.7
<0
(U-Value
8.2
3.1
<0
26.1
27.8
176.1
= 1.0)
-1.2
-2.3
<0
= 0.65)
-0.4
-2.9
<0
-4.7
-3.7
<0
2.2
1.6
<0
3.1
1.7
<0
12.2
13,3
66.5
-3.9
-6.8
<0
-2.4
-7.1
<0
-10.7
-10.5
<0
2.2
1.9
<0
3.1
1.5
<0
20.8
22.9
114.7
-2.8
-3.7
<0
-2.1
-3.6
<0
-6.5
-5.8
<0
0.5
1.1
<0
1.4
0.9
<0
10.2
11.3
57.2
{U-Value = 0.65)
-7.1
-6.3
<0
21.0
22.7
135.4
-12.3
-11.0
<0
28.3
30.1
179.9
-4.7
-3.5
<0
13.3
15.0
68.4
-10.6
-9.3
<0
22.8
24.8
114.1
-6.5
-5.9
<0
11.2
12.1
56.2
D- Omaha, Nebraska
Variable Air Volume System, Inlet Vane Fan Control, Single-Pane Glazing (U-Value = 1.0)
Energy Savings (percent of kWh)
Energy Dollar Savings (percent)
Eternal Rate of Return (percent)
2.0 5.6
-0.4 -3.7
<0 <0
variable Air Volume System, Inlet Vane Fan Control,
Energy Savings (percent of kWh)
Energy Dollar Savings (percent)
'Nernai Rate of Return (percent)
Instant Air Volume Reheat System,
Energy Savings (percent of kWh)
Energy Dollar Savings (percent)
internal Rate of Return (percent)
Constant Air Volume Reheat System,
Energy Savings (percent of kWh)
energy Dollar Savings (percent)
"iternal Rate of Return (percent)
3.3 6.9
0.5 4.5
<0 <0
2.2
-2.6
<0
8.8
5.1
11.7
1.3
-5.4
<0
10.5
5.0
11.2
Double-Pane Glazing (U-Value
4.6
-1.8
<0
11.1
6.2
14.9
Single-Pane Glazing (U-Value i
-2.9 13.3
-2.2 12.9
<0 80.7
-7.2
-6.0
<0
21.9
21.4
134.5
Double-Pane Glazing (U-Value
•2.2 14.5
-1.9 13.3
<0 78.2
-6.4
-5.9
<0
23.8
22.6
133.5
4.5
-5.4
<0
= 1.0)
-12.4
-10.3
<0
= 0.65)
-11.5
-11.3
<0
13.6
6.2
15.0
29.8
29.4
185.0
32.0
30.3
179.3
0.3
-2.0
<0
= 0.65)
1.3
-2.2
<0
-4.6
-3.7
<0
-4.7
-3.5
<0
4.0
2.5
<0
5.0
2.8
<0
14.6
14.7
72.0
15.7
15.6
70.6
-0.9
•4.9
<0
1.0
•5.9
<0
-10.4
•8.1
<0
•10.4
-9.3
<0
4.0
2.4
<0
5.0
2.9
<0
24.8
25.0
122.9
26.7
25.6
1167
-1.3
•3.0
<0
-0.4
•3.9
<0
-6.4
•5.0
<0
-6.3
-6.2
<0
2.4
1.0
<0
3.3
1.1
<0
12.5
12.7
63.4
13.5
12.7
58.6
^a°le shows percentage changes In annual energy consumption (kiknratthours) and annual energy costs (dollars) plus internal rate of return (IRR) (in
Percent) lor window film retrofits reducing shading coefficient by the amounts given. Film Only column shows savings and IRR for the window film retrofit
°n|y. Film Plus Fan Pulley column Is the combined result of window f Jims and larger fan pulleys on air handling units (downsizing made possible by reduced
'oads provided by window films). Note: Percentages are consistently negative for Film Only retrofits on constant air volume systems because of reheating
Penalty imposed by toss of solar heating. These systems require Ian pulley downsizing before energy savings can be realized.
Source: Simulations run on Department of Energy DOE 2.1 E program, with the following assumptions. Building: IB-stories; total floor area 100,000 square
'*•'; glass area 32,000 square feet or 45 percent of exterior surface. Glass evenly distributed around all sides of the building. Installed Cost of Window Films:
«.50 per square foot, for a total of $80,000. No cost for pulleys; these are typical maintenance Items. Cost of Energy: Minneapolis, $0.032/kWh energy,
*8'l3/kw demand; Omaha, $0.02a/kWh, $8.48/kW demand.
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual 3-11
-------
Stage 3—Load Reductions
Table 3.2-1 (continued). Annual Building Energy Savings and
Internal Rate of Return From Window Film Retrofits for Large Office Buildings
in Selected U.S. Cities*
Change in Shading Coefficient
1.0 to 0.75
E. Phoenix, Arizona
Film
Only
Film
Plus
Fan
Pulley
Variable Air Volume System, Inlet Vane Fan Control
Energy Savings (percent of kWh)
Energy Dollar Savings (percent)
Internal Rate of Return (percent)
8.1
7.7
18.8
11.8
11.3
31.5
Variable Air Volume System, Tnlet Vane Fan Control
Energy Savings (percent of kWh)
Energy Dollar Savings (percent)
Internal Rate of Return (percent)
8.5
8.1
20.6
12.1
11.7
33.1
1.0 to 0.50 1.0 to 0.25
Film
Only
Film
Plus
Fan Film
Pulley Only
Film
Plus
Fan
Pulley
0.75 to 0.50
Film
Only
Film
Plus
Fan
Pulley
0.75 to 0.25
Film
Only
Film
Plus
Fan
Pulley
0.50 to 0.25
Film
Only
Film
Plus
Fan
Pulley
, Single-Pane Glazing (U-Value = 1 .0)
16.2
14.8
43.1
22.1 22.4
20.8 19.6
61.6 58.0
30.3
27.9
83.1
, Double-Pane Glazing (U-Value
17.1
16.2
47.6
22.8 24.1
22.0 22.3
65.6 66.6
31.9
30.4
91.0
8.9
7.9
16.5
= 0.65)
9.5
8.9
20.0
12.4
11.5
28.1
12.9
12.4
31.0
15.6
13.0
32.7
17.1
15.6
40.2
12.4
19.4
50.8
12.9
21.8
57.6
7.5
5.7
5.9
8.7
7.6
12.1
11.2
9.6
18.5
12.4
11.3
23.3
Constant Air Volume System, Single-Pane Glazing (U-Value = 1.0)
Energy Savings (percent of kWh)
Energy Dollar Savings (percent)
Internal Rate of Return (percent)
0.0
-0.6
<0
17.2
17.2
97.1
Constant Air Volume System, Double-Pane Glazing
Energy Savings (percent of kWh)
Energy Dollar Savings (percent)
Internal Rate of Return (percent)
0.0
-0.6
<0
17.5
17.5
95.3
-1.3
-2.4
<0
29.3 -4.6
29.3 -6.1
165.8 <0
39.1
39.2
221.8
-1.4
-2.0
<0
21.1
21.3
84.9
-5.7
-6.7
<0
35.1
35.4
141.3
-4.9
-5.3
<0
16.6
16.7
68.7
(U-Value = 0.65)
-1.1
-2.3
<0
30.2 -4.2
30.3 -5,9
164.7 <0
40.6
40.9
222.6
-1.2
-1.8
<0
22.2
22.4
85.0
-5.1
-6.2
<0
37.3
37.8
143.3
-4.6
-5.1
<0
17.6
17.9
69.9
F. San Antonio, Texas
Variable Air Volume System, Inlet Vane Fan Control, Single-Pane Glazing (U-Value = 1.0)
Energy Savings (percent of kWh) 6.8
Energy Dollar Savings (percent) 3.0
Internal Rate of Return (percent) 4.4
10.1
6.9
25.8
Variable Air Volume System, Inlet Vane Fan Control,
Energy Savings (percent of kWh) 7.5 10.7
Energy Dollar Savings (percent) 3.5 7.2
Internal Rate of Return (percent) 7.0 26.8
12.6
6.1
21.9
18.5
12.7
52.2
16.7
6.5
24.0
Double-Pane Glazing
14.0 19.7 19.0
6.3 12.9 8.3
22.3 52.1 31.7
Constant Air Volume Reheat System, Single-Pane Glazing
Energy Savings (percent of kWh) -1.6 15.6 -4.5
Energy Dollar Savings (percent) -2.6 15.4 -6.1
Internal Rate of Return (percent)
-------
3.2—Building Exterior Upgrades
Table 3.2-1 (continued). Annual Building Energy Savings and
Internal Rate of Return From Window Film Retrofits for Large Office Buildings
in Selected U.S. Cities*
Change In Shading Coefficient
1.0 to 0.75
Film
Plus
Film Fan
Only Pulley
F- Seattle, Washington
Variable Air Volume System. Inlet Vane Fan Control
^nergy Savings (percent of kWh)
Energy Dollar Savings (percent)
Eternal Rate of Return (percent)
2.2 5.6
1.0 4.7
<0 <0
variable Air Volume System, Inlet Vane Fan Control
Energy Savings (percent of kWh)
Energy Dollar Savings (percent)
'nterna! Rate of Return (percent)
Aslant Air Volume System, Single-
Energy Savings (percent of kWh)
Energy Dollar Savings (percent)
'nternal Rate of Return (percent)
3.3 6.8
1.8 5.7
<0 <0
1.0 to 0.50
Film
Only
1 .0 to 0.25 0.75 to 0.50
Film
Plus
Fan Film
Pulley Only
Film Film
Plus Plus
Fan Film Fan
Pulley Only Pulley
, Single-Pare Glazing (U-Value =
2.9
0.5
<0
9.4
7.8
0.0
1.4
-3.0
<0
, Double-Pane Glazing
5.4
2.6
<0
11.9
10.1
<0
5.4
1.0
<0
11.1
8.5
<0
(U-Value =
14.9
12.2
<0
1.0)
0.7
-0.5
<0
0.65)
2.1
0.8
<0
4.2
3.5
<0
5.6
5.1
<0
0.75 to 0.25
Film
Only
•0.8
-3.9
<0
2.1
-1.0
<0
Film
Plus
Fan
Pulley
4.2
4.3
<0
5.6
7.3
<0
0.50 to 0.25
Film
Pius
Film Fan
Only Pulley
-1.7
-3.4
<0
-0.2
-1.9
<0
2.0
1.1
<0
3.6
2.7
<0
Pane Glazing (U-Value = 1.0)
-2.6 12.0
-3.0 11.9
<0 26.7
Constant Air Volume System, Double-Pane Glazing
Energy Savings (percent of kWh)
Energy Dollar Savings (percent)
internal Rate of Return (percent)
S. Washington, D.C.
-1.9 13.2
-2.6 12.8
<0 27.8
Variable Air Volume System, Inlet Vane Fan Control
Energy Savings (percent of KWh)
energy Dollar Savings (percent)
internal Rate of Return (percent)
2.8 6.1
3.0 6.1
-------
Stage 3—Load Reductions
Table 3.2-2. Energy Savings and Internal Rate of Return From Roofing Upgrades
Building Type and
Improvement in R-Value
Energy Savings
(percent)
Simple Payback
(years)
Internal Rate of
Return (percent)
Small Office Building
0 (wet or deteriorating) to 7
7 to 13
13 to 26
Large Office Building
0 (wet or deteriorating) to 7
7 to 13
13 to 26
21.2
5.3
3.8
0.50
0.10
0.10
2
15
33
4
21
39
53.89
2.87
none
28.82
none
none
Source: Simulations run on Department of Energy DOE 2.1 E program, with the following assumptions:
Building Located in Washington, O.C.—Small Office Building: Total floor area: 2,250 sq. ft.; Roof area: 2,172 sq. ft.; System type: RTU VAV with
gas hot water. Large Office Building: Total floor area: 797,124 sq. ft.; Roof area: 19,340 sq. ft.; System type: VAV with gas hot water.
Roofing Upgrade Costs (1993 Means R&R Cost Data)—None or wet to R-Value of 7: $0.77/sq. ft.; R-Value of 7 to R-Value of 13: $1,23/sq. ft.;
R-Value of 13 to R-Value of 26: $1,82/sq. ft.
Cost of Energy in Washington, D.C.—Electricity: $0.086 per kilowatthour; Gas: $0.60 per therm.
Project Management:
General Guidelines
The following general guidelines apply to any
upgrade program:
• Appoint a project manager to be responsible for
all project activity.
• Develop detailed requirements in consultation
with all in-house personnel involved. Require-
ments should be reviewed by several reputable
manufacturers or their representatives prior to
releasing them for bids.
• Determine a schedule for the installation or
upgrade. Be sure that you schedule the work to
minimize disruption to the office. Consult with
vendors and contractors to be sure that they can
meet all scheduled deadlines.
• Communicate regularly with everyone involved
in the installation.
Have several manufacturers install sample
films on one or two windows to compare their
look and effectiveness and to obtain feedback
from building occupants. Films look different
when on the glass, and their look on the glass
depends on the window type.
Installation should not disrupt building opera-
tions. However, if existing films must be
removed, it must be done when the building is
unoccupied.
• Always follow the manufacturer's instructions
for cleaning and maintaining window films.
• Window films deteriorate over time. As soon as
you notice that the film is flaking or peeling, it
should be replaced.
• Some utilities offer rebates for installing
window films.
Roofing Upgrades
m Although replacing a roof is expensive, a new
roof will last longer than a recovered roof. A
new roof also provides the best opportunity to
increase the R-value of insulation.
• Light-colored materials used in recovering will
increase roof life anywhere, and reduce energy
costs especially in warm climates and on build-
ings with low R-value insulation.
• To retain its effectiveness, light-colored reflec-
tive material on a roof needs to be cleaned
periodically.
• Have a contractor or an independent inspector
use an infrared scan to look for areas with heat
loss or cut a small section out of the roof to test
insulation for moisture (wet insulation has lost
its effectiveness). Determining the condition of
the roof will help you decide the type of work
that needs to be done.
3-14 Energy Star Buildings Manual
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3.2—Building Exterior Upgrades
• Be sure the new roof or covering has an
adequate warranty (typically 7 to 10 years)
and that the contractor is available to make any
repairs that may be necessary.
• Look into applicable building codes before
planning a roofing upgrade or replacement.
Because of roof weight and firefighting con-
cerns, some codes limit roofs to no more than
two layers, thereby restricting the potential for
recovering a roof. Removing existing layers
may not be cost-effective.
* Recovering a roof will have minimal effect on
building occupants. However, replacing a roof
and adding insulation probably will affect
people working on the top floor. Here you will
need to decide between providing alternate
workspace or having the work done during off
hours or on the weekend.
• The time required for the project depends on
the square footage of the building and the type
of upgrade and material involved.
• Be aware of indoor air quality considerations
associated with roofing upgrades, particularly
dust and fibers from removal of insulation and
dirt and emissions from roofing repairs or
covering. Chapter 6 contains more information
about indoor air quality.
* Removal of existing roofing may involve
disposal of materials with asbestos. In such
cases, recovering may be an alternative.
Preparing Specifications
This section contains information to consider in
developing specifications for building exterior
Upgrades.
Window Films
In consultation with an engineer or manufacturer,
choose the window film that is most appropriate
for your building. The three general categories
°f window films, shown in Figure 3.2-6, are
described below. Scratch-resistance and shatter
resistance are common on all three.
or Dyed Nonreflective. Clear nonreflective
films are often used solely for safety, security, or
fade control. Dyes or colored adhesive coatings
can be added where some glare control or
privacy are desired. In either case, energy savings
are minimal because this type of film is nonre-
flective.
Reflective Without Color. Clear polyester film is
laminated to a second layer of metallized polyes-
ter to protect the metallized surface from exposure
to corrosives. Although referred to as reflective
without color, they can appear to be colored
(typically silver, gray, or bronze) because the
metal itself is visible through the clear layers.
Dyed Reflective. Here the protective layer lami-
nated over the metallic surface is a dyed film that
gives a colored reflection to that side of the
product (usually the exterior). For colored reflec-
tion visible from either direction, another dyed
layer can be added to the film side of the original
metallic layer.
When working with the engineer or manufacturer
to decide on the product for your building, use the
specifications in the box on page 3-17 as guide-
lines. Your choice should be the window film that
provides the most energy savings at the lowest
cost; however, you want to be sure that the
window film selected looks good on your building
and does not interfere with lighting requirements.
If the window films cause a need for additional
lighting, energy savings may be offset.
Roofing Upgrades
You can improve the thermal performance of your
building's roof by doing one of the following:
• Increase the R-value of existing insulation. You
can do this when adding a new roof membrane
(Figure 3.2-7) or by adding more insulation.
• Install lighter coverings on dark-covered roofs.
The type of deck on the roof is a factor in whether
a new roof covering can be attached to the exist-
ing roof or through the existing roof to the under-
lying framework. Protecting the roof from tearing
off in high-wind conditions is also a considera-
tion. The existing roof must be strong enough to
support the new covering as well as anticipated
loads and should drain well.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 3-15
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Stage 3—Load Reductions
Figure 3.2-6. Types of Window Films
A. Clear or Dyed Nonreflective
Glass
Release Liner-
Adhesive
Polyester Film
—SR Coating
B. Reflective Without Color
Glass
Release Liner-
Polyester Film-
Adhesive
(Clear/U-V Inhibitors)
Polyester Film—
(Clear/
Metallized Surface)
—SR Coating
C. Dyed Reflective
Glass
Release Liner-
Polyester Film—
(Dyed/U-V Inhibitors)
Polyester Film—
(Clear/
Metallized Surface)
Adhesive
Laminating
Adhesive
Polyester Film
(Dyed)
—SR Coating
Select the R-value for insulation and the color and
the level of reflectance needed in a roof covering
based on the climate in your area, the type of
building, the type of existing roof (or the new roof
if you are reroofing), and existing insulation.
Figure 3.2-8 shows the effectiveness of various
colors of roof coverings.
When working with the engineer or manufacturer
to decide on the type of roofing upgrade to imple-
ment, use the specifications in the box on page
3-18 as guidelines.
Figure 3.2-7. A Typical Roof
Has Several Layers
Outside Air
Roof Covering
Roof Membrane
Roof Insulation
Vapor Retarder
Base Insulation
Steel Deck
Still Air
Ceiling Board
Inside Air Film
Figure 3.2-8. Light-Colored Roof
Coverings Are More Effective in
Reflecting Solar Heat From Buildings
White
Source: Du Pont Company.
Gray Beige
Color of Roof
Black
3-16 Energy Star Buildings Manual
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3.2—Building Exterior Upgrades
General Specifications for Window Films
1. Solar Heat Reflection and Absorption Control. Choose a film with the
lowest possible shading coefficient. Typical shading coefficients
range between 0.23 and 0.94, where 0.23 is the most reflective, usu-
ally the darkest, and generally saves the most energy. However, be
sure that the film does not excessively reduce lighting.
2. Degree of Visible Light TranBaiaaion. All window films reduce light
transmission. Therefore, a demonstration installation is recommended.
This will enable you to consider the net light transmission of films
after application. This is a subjective decision to some extent;
however, if window films excessivelyrestrict light,energy costs may
increase because of the need for additional lighting and heating. This
could negate the energy savings realized from reduced cooling loads.
3. Heat Transfer. Select the lowest ^ppjBsible U-value.^^ ^ _ __
4. Absorption of Ultraviolet Radiation. Be sure to attain the maximum
protection from fading.
5. Color. Choose a color that looks^ goodon your building.
6. Shatter Protection and acratcb^Realataace.Shatter ^protection^ is
inherent in all window films. Seratch^res^isjiajace^^^ M ^tion, cpm^nw
on most types of window'film.Bje^j^^ provides
both.
Fir*t Sdition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual 3-17
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Stage 3—Load Reductions
General Specifications for Roofing Upgrades
1. Insulation. If you are replacing the roof, upgrade insulation to the
highest_ JR-yaluefor your type of building and climate. The following
types of insulation are common on most flat-roof commercial buildings:
_ LOOM_FllJ._JFiberSj^powers, ^granules,, or nodules that are poured or
blown into spaces. Well suited for irregular spaces.
Jjnjfulatinfir C«m«nt. Loose material mixed with water and a binder to
attain plasticity and adhesion. Also suited for irregular spaces.
Flexible and Semirigid. Materials with and without binders and with
^various, degrees ofcpmpressibility and flexibility. Generally avail-
,, ...ablei._as^blanket,batt, or felt insulation., and in sheets or rolls.
JRiyld. Blocks, boards, ,or sheets that are preformed to specified
.lengths, widths, and_thicknesses. '
......R«««etiv»...i>rSheets...and rol.ls^.of ..single-layer or. multilayer construc-
tion andin preformed shapes with integral airspaces.
Fo*Med-in-W«Ci(i. Li
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(Q O
(/)
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Stage 4: :
HVAC Distribution
System Upgrades
In Stage 4 of the Energy Star Buildings Program, you will be
upgrading the energy efficiency and cost-effectiveness of the
air distribution equipment associated with the HVAC system
in your building. Each section in this chapter explains
opportunities for profitable upgrades to a particular type of
distribution system.
This chapter contains the following sections:
4.1 HVAC Distribution System Functions
and Configurations
4.2 Summary Snapshots
4.3 Variable Air Volume System Upgrades
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HVAC Distribution
System Functions
- " ^ > I * •/ ^ 1 f -Ll
Components of
an Air Handling
System
The air handling system in a
typical office building is made
up of dynamic (or moving)
parts and stationary parts.
Dynamic Parts include
motors, fans, belts, motor-
ized dampers, and various
control accessories.
Stationary Parts include the
ductwork, louvers, manual
dampers, and air outlets and
inlets, plus the air handling
unit's casings, filters, coils,
and various accessories.
Figure 4.1-1. Air Handling Unit
Exhaust
Air Damper
Damper
Each of these elements affect the energy con-
sumed by the system.
The heart of the air handling system is the air
handling unit, which circulates, cleans, heats,
cools, humidifies, dehumidifies, and mixes the air
(Figure 4.1-1). It is made up of the following
major components:
The Fan Section contains fans, motors (inside
or outside), shafts, belts, guards (for belt-drive
fans), and auxiliary parts. Its primary function
is to draw air from the building or outdoors and
blow it through the ductwork or plena into the
building.
The Coil Section normally contains a cooling
coil (for chilled water or refrigerant) and a
heating coil (for steam, hot water, electric heat,
or direct-fired fuel).
The Filter Section contains filters of various
types and configurations that remove unwanted
Return Fan
Filter
Cooling Coil
Humidifier
SuppfyAir
elements from the air. Filters can be of various
efficiencies and configurations (for example,
flat, flat angle, rigid cube, or bag).
The Mixing Box section is sometimes a com-
ponent of the filter section. Its primary function
is to mix the air being drawn from the building
and the air being drawn frornjhe outside .so, that
a uniform airstream reaches the coils.
Other sections may include humidifiers, sound
alternators, and access sections.
Types of
Air Handling Systems
Many different types of air handling systems are
installed in commercial buildings. However, these
systems can generally be classified as constant air
volume (CAV) or variable air volume (VAV)
systems.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 4-3
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Stage 4—HVAC Distribution System Upgrades
Constant Air Volume Systems
CAV systems (Figure 4.1-2) maintain comfort in
the building by keeping up a constant airflow and
varying the temperature of that airflow. Before
VAV systems became popular in the 1970's, CAV
systems were most commonly used. They are still
necessary in applications where full airflow must
be maintained (for example, in hospitals and
research facilities).
Variable Air Volume Systems
VAV systems (Figure 4.1-3), the most efficient
air handling systems, maintain temperatures by
varying the quantity of air supplied. The air
handling unit supplies air at a constant tempera-
ture to terminal boxes attached to the supply air
duct in various locations in the building. The
terminal box varies the amount of air provided to
each location in response to conditions. VAV
systems maintain the required amount of airflow
to the terminal boxes by increasing or decreasing
the volume of air in the main supply duct (mea-
sured by static pressure). They are used in any
application where separate control of individual
spaces is desired.
System Configurations
CAV and VAV systems typically are configured
as single-duct/single-zone, dual-duct, multizone,
or terminal reheat systems.
Single-Duct/Single-Zone
Systems
Single-duct/single-zone systems (Figure 4.1-4)
are the simplest air handling systems. Typically
used in small buildings, they consist of a single air
handling unit supplying a single location.
Dual-Duct Systems
Dual-duct systems (Figure 4.1-5) condition all of
the air in a central air handling unit and then
distribute the air to the spaces through two ducts.
One duct carries cold air (55 to 60 degrees F.) and
the other carries hot air (90 to 95 degrees F.).
A mixing box near the space generally combines
the cold air and hot air in the proportions needed
to maintain a comfortable temperature, using
dampers to combine the correct amounts of cool
air and hot air as needed to satisfy the thermostat
setting in the space to be heated or cooled.
Figure 4.1-2. Constant Air Volume System
Air Handling Unit
Exhaust
Air
.Damper
Return Fan
Dam
Cooling Coir
Humidifier
Supply Air
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First Edition, October 1993
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4.1—HVAC Distribution System Functions end Configurations
Figure 4.1-3. Variable Air Volume System
Air Handling Unit
Exhaust
Air
Damper
Return Fan
Outside
Air
Damper
Fitter
Cooling CoT
Humidifier
Supply Air
The advantages of dual-duct systems, which were
popular until the 1970's, are that they provide
separate control to individual spaces, provide
excellent dehumidification, and do not require fan
modulation. However, these systems are ineffi-
cient because they require simultaneous heating
and cooling throughout the year. This leads to
high energy costs. In addition, dual-duct systems
have high initial costs and are not very flexible
(adding additional mixing boxes to expand the
system frequently causes air balancing problems).
Thus they are no longer widely used, and many
are being converted to VAV systems.
Multizone Systems
Multizone systems are similar to dual-duct sys-
tems, except that the dampers mixing the hot air
(typically 120 degrees F.) and cold air (typically
55 degrees F.) for each space are located in central
air handling units (Figure 4.1-6). Thermostats in
each space control the dampers at the central unit.
The dampers then mix hot and cold air to maintain
the temperature setting in that space. The condi-
tioned air is then distributed through a single duct.
Multizone systems were common in office
buildings and schools in the late 1960's and early
1970's. They provide the same advantages as
dual-duct systems at less initial cost; however,
they have the same inefficiency problems as dual-
duct systems and even greater flexibility prob-
lems, so they also are no longer widely used.
Terminal Reheat Systems
Terminal reheat configurations (Figure 4.1-7)
can be used with several of the CAV and VAV
systems and offer good temperature control and
excellent dehumidification. In terminal reheat
configurations, the system is based on cooling
the air (typically to 55 degrees F.) at the air
handling unit and then using a reheating coil
(either steam, hot water, or electric) close to the
space or location to be conditioned to reheat the
air to maintain the temperature set by a thermostat
in each space.
CAV terminal reheat systems offer the advantages
of simplicity, but use a great amount of energy in
cooling the air and then reheating it. In addition, it
is difficult to expand these systems. Today they
are primarily used in places that can benefit from
their excellent dehumidification, such as hospital;
operating rooms, laboratories, computer rooms,
and other "clean room" environments.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 4-5
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Stage 4—HVAC Distribution System Upgrades
On the other hand, VAV terminal reheat systems perimeter zones because they eliminate the need
are used widely as perimeter heating systems. for more expensive perimeter heating systems
As such, they are an efficient source of heat for such as heat pumps and fin-tube radiation.
Figure 4.1-4. Single-Duct/Single-Zone Configuration
Air Handling Unit
Exhaust
Air
Damper
Return Fan
Outside
Damper
Filter
Cooling Coil
Humidifier
Supply Air
Zone
Thermostat
Figure 4.1-5. Dual-Duct Configuration
Exhaust
Air Damper
Outside !
Air
Air Handling Unit
Return Fan
Damper '——0-^-*=- Return Air
Preheat Coil Hot Deck
ply Fan Heating Coil
Supply Air
Cold Deck
4-6 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
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4.1—HVAC Distribution System Functions and Configurations
Exhaust
Air
Damper
Figure 4.1-6. Multizone Configuration
Damper
Air Handling Unit
JJeturnFan Return Air
Bypass
Damper
Healing Faee Supply Air
w>n Damper
Exhaust
Air
Outside
Air
Figure 4.1-7. Terminal Reheat Configuration
Dampei
Air Handling Unit
Damper
Return Fan
Cooling Coil
Humidifier
Supply Air
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4-8 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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Summary
Snapshots
This section contains brief summaries of how you can profit
from the Stage 4 Energy Star Buildings Program upgrades.
Each summary "snapshot" lists the best opportunities for
profitable upgrades and provides examples of typical
savings. Snapshots for the various types of HVAC
distribution systems can be found in the following
subsections:
4.2.1 Variable Air Volume Systems
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4-10 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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BUILDINGS
EpA POLLUTION PREVENTER
4.2.1
t, !
Variable Air Volume Systems
section provides a summary of how you can
Pfofit from the Stage 4 energy-efficiency upgrades
" you have a variable air volume distribution
system. It contains a list of the best opportunities
for upgrades and the benefits those upgrades will
°ring. Following the list, an example shows how a
typical building owner can profit from the Stage 4
triable air volume system upgrades.
Best Opportunities
^"e best opportunities for profitable variable air
volurne efficiency upgrades can be found in
Downsizing equipment, installing energy-efficient
Rotors, and installing variable speed drives.
Downsizing
er you tune up your building and reduce loads
|n Stages 1, 2, and 3, you should be able to install
}arger pulleys, adjust the static pressure, and
ltlstall smaller motors in your variable air volume
fystem. The investments in your system will then
ecome even more profitable because properly
Sjzed equipment is more energy-efficient.
Energy-Efficient Motors
^stalling smaller, more energy-efficient motors
further reduce energy costs. In addition, these
save money because they are more reli-
require less maintenance than standard-
efficiency motors, and typically have longer
warranties and longer equipment lifetimes.
Variable Speed Drives
Variable speed drives are the most efficient way
to control a variable air volume system. They will
greatly reduce energy costs, increase equipment
lifetimes, and reduce noise and vibration. They
require little maintenance, and downtime is
insignificant because they can be bypassed to the
original system when they do require service.
. ! *
! ;; ; t Illustrative Savings
1 A building in the northeastern United States has the
; following attributes; ,
:,• Gross area * 30350 square feet : ;
' • Four floors | '
1 • One central air handling unit that serves 26,000
: ; square feet. The air handling system ts a miilJizone
f variable volume Met vane system.
In Stagfe 4, the building owner decided to downsize
the fan, install a smaller energy-efficient motor, and
Install a variable speed drive sized for the decreased
These Upgrades' provided a 73-percent decrease In
: the building's fan energy consumption and saved
; $4^770 peryear in total energy costs, with an internal
; rate of return of,,54 percent. »
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Variable
Air Volume
System Upgrades
Best Opportunities
variable air volume systems are inherently more
efficient than other types of air handling systems.
However, the options described in this section can
further improve the efficiency of variable air vol-
ume systems while maintaining indoor air quality.
With these options, a fairly low initial investment
can result in significant reductions in energy
consumption. The three options are as follows:
* Downsizing, in which the fans and motors in
the air handling unit are sized to operate
efficiently at the reduced loads you have
realized by implementing Green Lights
upgrades; tuning up your building's systems;
Purchasing Energy Star computers, printers,
and monitors; and implementing window and
roofing upgrades.
* Replacing the existing motors on the air
handling unit with new, smaller energy-
efficient motors.
• installing variable speed drives that match the
speed of the air handling unit's fans to the
required variable load.
Variable Air Volume
System Survey
Variable Air Volume System Survey is an
essential first step in Stage 4 of the Energy Star
Buildings Program. This survey will familiarize you
with the condition of your building's air handling
systems and can be used in determining which
system upgrades can be profitable in your building.
Much of the information gathered during the Vari-
able Air Volume System Survey is used as input to
the QuikFan computer program that calculates the
economic benefits of the Stage 4 upgrades.
Appendix A contains the survey questionnaire and
response forms and describes the information
required fa the survey, the materials needed to
conduct the su rvey, and the personnel recommended
'or the survey team. The Variable Air Volume Sys-
tem Survey begins on page A-31.
Potential Savings
Potential Air-Side Energy Savings From
Downsizing, Smaller Energy-Efficient
Motors, and Variable Speed Drives 50-85%
Internal Rate of Return
25-55%
These options can be profitable in most buildings.
You can implement them individually or combine
them to provide maximum savings. As you
develop your strategy:
• Consider downsizing. Downsizing consists of
(1) replacing pulleys, (2) adjusting static
pressure, and (3) installing smaller energy-
efficient motors.
• If you find that downsizing is not appropriate,
you still may be able to replace existing motors
with energy-efficient motors of the same
capacity or smaller.
• Always consider variable speed drives. These
are the most energy-efficient and profitable
upgrades for variable air volume systems.
Downsizing
As you begin Stage 4 of the Energy Star Buildings
program, you have reduced overall loads in your
building through some combination of Green
Potential for Downsizing
If You Reduce Loads By...
Green Lights Upgrades
Energy Star Computers
Window and Roofing Upgrades
Total Potential for Downsizing:
You Probably
Can Downsize
Airflow (cfm) By.,
15-30%
10-20%
5-15%
30-65%
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 4-13
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Stage 4—HVAC Distribution System Upgrades
Figure 4.3-1. Position of Controls Used To Determine Oversizing
Inlet Vanes
Static
Pressure
Probe
VAV Box
Voltage
Input
0
Actuator
Pressure Gauge
Static
Pressure Gauge
Three Ways To Determine Oversizing
Measure Amperage
1. When the variable air volume system is operating at
its maximum level (for example, on a hot summer
day), use an ammeter to measure the amperage of
the fan motor (see Figure 4.3-1).
2. Look at the motor's nameplate to find its full-load
amperage.
3. Compare the full-load amperage to the measured
amperage. If the measured amperage is 25 per-
cent or more lower than the full-load amperage, the
motor is oversized.
Check Vanes and Dampers
When the variable air volume system is operating at its
maximum level (for example, on a hot summer day),
measure the position of the vanes or dampers. The
position can be found on the actuator's pressure
gauge, or (if there is one) on the actuator's pilot
positioner (Figure 4.3-1). If you have an energy man-
agement system (EMS), the position also may be
listed on the computer screen or a printout.
If the vanes or dampers are closed more than
20 percent, the fan is oversized.
Measure Static Pressure
1. When the variable air volume system is operating at
its maximum level (for example, on a hot summer
day), the inlet vanes or dampers probably are
already open to 100 percent of their design value. If
they are not, open them to that position.
2. Open all of the variable air volume boxes associated
with the air handling unit to 100 percent of their
design values. One way to do this is to set the zone
thermostats to a very low setting.
3. A gauge attached to a static pressure probe in the
ductwork (Figure 4.3-1) indicates the static pres-
sure controlling the vanes or dampers. Compare the
reading on this gauge (it may also be available from
an energy management system) with the static
pressure setpoint. If the static pressure reading is
less than the setpoint, the setpoint can be adjusted
to the lower static pressure.
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4.3—Variable Air Volume System Upgrades
Three Ways To Downsize
Larger Pulleys
Replace the existing fan pulley with a larger fan
pulley. This will reduce the fan's speed, greatly
reducing its power requirements. Note that the new
pulley should operate the fan at a reduced speed that
matches current load requirements.
Example
Reducing a fan's speed by 20 percent reduces its
energy requirements by about 50 percent.
Static Pressure Adjustments
Reduce the static pressure setpoint to match the
measured static pressure (as explained in the box on
page 4-14). Do this only if temperature setpoints can
be maintained in all zones. If temperature setpoints
cannot be maintained in all zones, increase the static
pressure setpoint in increments of 0.1 inches until the
temperature setpoints can be maintained. This set-
ting then becomes your most economical static pres-
sure setpoint.
If you have an energy management system that
monitors airflow, you can reduce static pressure and
reduce energy consumption even more. As the
measured airflow decreases in 25 percent incre-
ments, you can decrease the static pressure setpoint
in 40 percent increments. Again, the zone tempera-
ture setpoints must be maintained. If the static
pressure is reduced by 40 percent and the tempera-
ture setpoint in any zone cannot be maintained,
increase the static pressure in 0.1-inch increments
until the temperature setpoints can be maintained,
Example
Reducing the static pressure setpoint from
2.5 inches to 1.5 inches reduces energy
consumption by 10 to 35 percent, depending
on actual fan static pressure.
Smaller Energy-Efficient Motors
Replace the existing motor with a smaller energy-
efficient motor that matches the current load
requirements. Most motor manufacturers now offer
energy-efficient models that consume 3 to 8 percent
less energy than comparable standard-efficiency
motors, depending on size and load.
Example
For a given application where the motor is
oversized, downsizing a 75-horsepower
standard-efficiency motor to a 40-horsepower
energy-efficient motor will result in average
energy savings of 15 percent.
Lights upgrades, building tune-ups, Energy Star
computer equipment, and window and roofing
upgrades. As a result, fans and motors on the air
handling units in your building are probably
oversized—that is, they are no longer required to
operate at previous capacities (see box opposite).
Oversized fans and motors waste energy. They are
rarely required to run at full capacity, but still use
the same amount of energy that full-capacity
operation requires. Therefore, you can save a
significant amount of money by ensuring that fans
and motors operate efficiently at your newly
reduced loads.
Energy-Efficient Motors
Energy-efficient motors use improved motor
designs, more metal, and high-quality materials to
reduce motor losses and therefore improve
efficiency. They are more reliable than standard-
efficiency motors and generally have longer
manufacturer's warranties. These motors reduce
operating costs by:
• Lowering energy consumption, which saves
money by reducing the monthly electric bill
(see Figure 4.3-2).
• Postponing or eliminating the need to expand
the capacity of the electrical supply system in
the building in response to changes in building
use or installation of additional equipment.
• Reducing downtime, replacement, and mainte-
nance costs.
Energy-efficient motors can be implemented
individually or as part of a retrofit that includes
downsizing, variable speed drives, or both.
Whenever a motor is operating, some loss in
efficiency is incurred. For example, if a motor
is 85 percent efficient (see the formula below),
15 percent of the energy input dissipates as heat,
which increases motor temperature. This in turn
increases wear and wastes energy. Replacing a
standard-efficiency motor with an energy-efficient
motor reduces those losses and therefore also
reduces costs (see Figure 4.3-3).
Determining Motor Efficiency
100%x
Mechanical Power Output
Electrical Power Input
pirst Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual 4-15
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Stage 4—HVAC Distribution System Upgrades
Fan motors operate best at 75 to 100 percent of
their fully rated load because the efficiency curve
peaks between 75 percent and 100 percent.
However, a smaller energy-efficient motor can
improve efficiency when operating under part-
load conditions (see Figure 4.3-4). Most savings
occur when the motor is properly matched to its
load. Thus, motors operating at less than
60 percent of their fully rated loads are excellent
Figure 4.3-2. Energy-Efficient Motors
Save Thousands of kWh Annually
(1,800-RPM Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled Motor)
10
20 50
Horsepower
100 200
D
NEMA
Standard
•
Average
Energy-Efficiency
@
Maximum
Efficiency
Source: U.S. Department of Energy.
£
5
_c
ti
3
Figure 4.3-3. Improved Efficiency
Means Reduced Costs
(For 25-Horsepower Motor, per Year)
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Efficiency as Percentage
Source: U.S. Department of Energy.
candidates for replacement with smaller energy-
efficient motors. Table 4.3-1 shows the types of
efficiency improvements that energy-efficient
motors can provide.
When energy-efficient motors are part of a down-
sizing program, savings increase significantly. For
example, downsizing a 75-horsepower standard-
efficiency motor to a 40-horsepower energy-
efficient motor will result in average energy
savings of 15 percent.
Variable Speed Drives
Variable speed drives—an efficient and econo-
mical retrofit option—should be seriously consid-
ered for all variable air volume systems. These
devices, which operate electronically rather than
mechanically, continually adjust the speed of the
air handling unit's fan motor to match the required
load. Thus, the only power consumed is the power
required to meet the demand. Because motors
used in air handling units can consume up to
20 percent of the energy used in commercial
buildings, significant energy savings can result.
For example, reducing a fan's speed by 20 per-
cent can reduce its energy requirements by about
50 percent (Figure 4.3-5).
Figure 4.3-4. Energy-Efficient Motors
Are Effective in Part-Load Conditions
(1,800-RPM Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled Motor)
10
20 50 100 200
Horsepower
D Full Load • 3/4 Load 231/2 Load
Source; Bonnevilte Power Administration.
4-16 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition. October 1993
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4.3—Variable Air Volume System Upgrades
Table 4.3-1. Comparison of
Standard-Efficiency Motors and
Energy-Efficient Motors
(1,800-RPM Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled Motor)
Average Full-Load Efficiency
(percent)
Horsepower
Standard-
Efficiency
Motor
Energy-
Efficient
Motor
5
7.5
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
75
100
125
150
200
83.3
85.2
86.0
86.3
88.3
89.3
89.5
90.3
91.0
91.7
91.6
92.1
92.0
93.0
93.8
89.5
91.0
91.0
91.7
92.0
92.5
92.6
93.1
93.4
94.0
94.1
94.7
94.7
95.0
95.4
Note: Older standard-efficiency models have even lower
efficiencies than those shown here.
Source: Calculations from Washington State Energy Off ice's
Motor Master software program.
Figure 4.3-5. Variable Speed Drives
Reduce Maximum Power Input
t100
£
te so
1
°- 60
i 40
t: 20
c
JB 0
Reduces Required
Power 50%
M
/
/
^-^
/
/
Reduces
20%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent Speed
Source: Electric Power Research Institute.
Variable speed drives require far less input
power than existing methods used to control air-
flow in variable air volume systems (such as vari-
able inlet vane control and outlet damper control)
(Figure 4.3-6). In addition, variable speed drives
reduce fan speed, resulting in more efficient
control of airflow because the motor's speed can
then match the motor's load. Because they are
controlled electronically, the drives can respond
quickly to changing load requirements. They also
reduce fan noise and vibration.
Variable speed drives reduce wear by controlling
current surge when the motor starts up. This surge
of electric current, required to move the motor
from its stationary position, is approximately six
times the normal operating current in motors with
constant speed drives. This produces great stress
on the equipment, particularly the windings. Vari-
able speed drives reduce current surge by replac-
ing instantaneous startup with "soft starting,"
where startup is gradual, over several minutes.
All variable air volume systems should be good
candidates for variable speed drives. The drives
can be implemented individually or as part of a
retrofit that includes downsizing, energy-efficient
motors, or both. In retrofit applications, the exist-
ing control (an inlet vane or outlet damper) is
Figure 4.3-6. Variable Speed Drives
Reduce Power Consumption
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100
Percent CFM
. Outlet
Damper
Variable
Inlet Vane
Variable
' Speed Drive
Source: Electric Power Research Institute.
Hrst Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual 4-17
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Stage 4—HVAC Distribution System Upgrades
How Variable Speed Drives
Reduce Operating Costs
m Soft start capabilities allow motor speed to be
gradually increased, reducing starting currents
and thermal stresses.
• Controlled braking results in quick but safe
reductions in motor speed.
• Soft start, controlled braking, and current reduc-
tions in response to reduced demand lead to
longer equipment life. Belts, pulleys, bearings,
motors, and transformers will also last longer.
• Routine maintenance is unnecessary. If service
is required, the fan can operate independently (at
full speed or under the original controls), which
eliminates downtime.
locked in the fully open position or removed and
the variable speed drive controls the amount of
discharge air by altering the speed of the fan.
Figure 4.3-7 shows the configuration of a variable
air volume system with a variable speed drive.
Appendix B contains the results of several pilot
installations of variable speed drives, Appendix C
contains detailed technical information about
variable speed drives, and Appendix D contains
example specifications for a variable speed drive.
Economic Benefits
You can estimate the expected benefits of a
variable air volume system upgrade for your own
building by running the EPA QuikFan program.
How Variable Speed Drives
Save Energy "
The power required to run variable speed drives
is proportional to rpm3. Therefore, a reduction in
speed of as little as 10 percent results in a
27-percent drop in power consumption
(100 - 0.93). With a variable speed drive, a fan
in a typical variable air volume system runs at
80 percent speed or less 90 to 95 percent of the
time. Compare this with a fan running at
100 percent speed 90 to 95 percent of the time.
The initial power required to start a motor is about
600 percent of rated current when a motor is
started at full voltage and frequency. If a motor is
started at low voltage and frequency through use
of a variable speed drive, it will never need more
than 150 percent of its rated current.
This program provides estimates of the potential
for reducing equipment sizes for fan systems, thus
saving money and energy. To use it, assemble the
information and follow the instructions in the
boxes opposite. The information required to run
QuikFan is gathered during the Stage 4 Variable
Air Volume System Survey (see Appendix A).
You can obtain a copy of the QuikFan software
(expected to be available in November 1993) by
writing to the EPA Global Change Division,
USEPA/OAR (6202-J), 401 M Street SW, Wash-
ington, D.C., 20460. The software will also be
available from the Green Lights bulletin board.
Dial 202-775-6671 and follow the instructions
on the screen.
Figure 4.3-7. Variable Speed Drive Configuration
Voltage Input
Variable
Frequency
Voltage
Fan
4-18 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
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4.3—Variable Air Volume System Upgrades
QuikFan Instructions
Installing QuikFan
1. Place the QuikFan diskette into an appropriate
floppy-disk drive on your computer or download
the QuikFan file from the bulletin board system.
2. Open the Windows program if necessary.
3. In Program Manager's File menu, select Run.
4. Run the SETUP.EXE program from the diskette
in the floppy-disk drive or from the drive to which
you downloaded the program. Use the Browse
feature or type the command (refer to your Win-
dows manual if you need assistance).
5. Select the directory where you want QuikFan to
be installed. Click Continue or press Enter.
6. Click OK or press Enferwhen the program tells
you installation is complete.
Running QuikFan
1. Open Windows.
2. Start QuikFan from the Program Manager by
double-clicking the QuikFan icon in the QuikFan
program group or by using Run under the Win-
dows File menu or in File Manager (refer to your
Windows manual if you need assistance).
3. When the introductory screen is displayed:
Click on the appropriate button to learn about
what QuikFan does and how to enter data.
When you are ready to enter data, click on the
Start QuikFan button.
4. Enter data in the appropriate areas by clicking on
the button for that area and completing each
section on the screen that is displayed (see the
QuikFan Data box on this page for a list of the
data you will be entering in these areas).
As you are working with the program, you can get
more information about how to obtain or calcu-
late the required data by pressing the F1 key
when the cursor is located in a data field.
Afteryou are done with an area, clickOKto return
to the main screen. The data you have entered
will be summarized on the main screen.
Results for the fan upgrade are updated in the
Upgrade Comparison box on the main screen. If
you are upgrading more than one of the same
type of fan, enter the appropriate number in the
Project Multiplier section of the Upgrade Com-
parison box.
Saving the Calculation
1. Under File, select Save Fan Projector Save Fan
Project As.
2. Type a name, retaining the .FAN extension, and
click on OK or press the enter key. You can now
access and work with the calculation by choos-
ing Open Fan Project under File.
Exiting QuikFan
1. Under File, select Exit.
QuikFan Data
Original Fan Description (Fan Icon)
Motor Power (horsepower)
Motor Efficiency (percent)
Fan Airflow Control (type of airflow control)
Floor Area Served by Fan (square feet)
Installed Fan Airflow (cfm)
Maximum Airflow (percent)
Minimum Airflow (percent)
Original Cooling Load (Coil Icon)
Use one of three methods to determine peak
cooling loads for the area served by the fan.
Supply Air Method:
Return Air Dry Bulb (degrees F.)
Return Air Wet Bulb (degrees F.)
Supply Air Dry Bulb (degrees F.)
Chiller Load Method:
Chiller Capacity (tons)
Chiller Utilization (percent)
Percentage of Chiller Load (percent)
Direct Method:
Cooling Load (tons)
Click on the check box that corresponds to the
method used.
Lighting Load Reductions (Green Lights Icon)
Original Lighting Power (watts per sq. foot)
Upgraded Lighting Power (watts per sq. foot)
Other Load Reductions
(Energy Star Computers Icon)
Other Peak Cooling Load Reductions (tons)
Upgraded Motor Efficiency (Fan Icon)
Motor Efficiency (percent)
Operating Hours (Clock Icon)
Monday-Friday (hours per day)
Saturday (hours per day)
Sunday (hours per day)
Holidays (number of days per year)
Economic Data (Dollar Icon)
For each type of equipment
(Motor, VSD, Pulley):
Equipment Cost (dollars per horsepower)
Utility Rebate (dollars per horsepower)
Installation and Survey (dollars per unit)
Energy Cost (dollars per square foot)
Discount Rate (percent)
(Prime Rate plus 6 percent)
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual 4-19
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Stage 4—HVAC Distribution System Upgrades
Project Management
Considerations
This section contains information to consider
when planning to implement downsizing, energy-
efficient motors, and variable speed drives in your
building.
If your organization does not have an engineer on
its staff, you should hire a consulting engineering
firm to verify your choices.
Downsizing
First, you need to determine the components of
the downsizing effort. For example, will you be
replacing pulleys, adjusting static pressure,
installing smaller energy-efficient motors, or
using a combination of these?
The engineer verifying the downsizing potential
you have calculated will need the information you
collected for the QuikFan program, as well as the
types and efficiencies of air handling units, fans,
and pulleys in your building.
Once the potential for downsizing is verified,
qualified personnel should implement the
changes—a controls technician to adjust static
pressure, an electrician to replace motors and
drives, and a mechanic to replace fan pulleys.
Energy-Efficient Motors
Once you have determined the type of energy-
efficient motor to install, the engineer verifying
your selection will need nameplate data and the
loads for all motors you want to replace.
Once the requirements are verified, a qualified
electrician should replace the motors.
Consult with the manufacturer to determine if you
will require an adaptor kit for the motor mounts,
which may be needed to avoid problems with
shaft alignment, base/frame size, and bolt/hole
locations.
Some additional considerations:
• Variable air volume system motors must be
sized to operate at peak load conditions. The
motor output must be measured at maximum
Project Management:
General Guidelines
The following general guidelines apply to any retrofit
program:
• Appoint a project managerto be responsible forall
project activity.
• Develop detailed requirements in consultation
with all in-house personnel involved. Require-
ments should be reviewed by several reputable
manufacturers or their representatives prior to
releasing them for bids.
• Determine a schedule for the installation or
upgrade. Be sure that you schedule the work to
minimize disruption to the office. Consult with
vendors and contractors to be sure that they can
meet all scheduled deadlines.
• Communicate regularly with everyone involved in
the installation.
load. Worn belts and pulleys should be replaced
before you take these measurements (these
actions are part of the Stage 2 building tune-up
and preventive maintenance program).
• For variable air volume systems, the replace-
ment motor selected should be the next name-
plate size above the existing motor's output
when it is operating under full load conditions.
For example, if the measured full-load output
is found to be 18.5 horsepower, select a
20-horsepower motor. Voltage, amperage,
kilowatt draw, power factor, and slip should
be metered for a variety of motor operating
conditions to accurately determine maximum
load.
• Replace a standard-efficiency motor with a
high-efficiency unit of like speed to capture
maximum energy conservation benefits and
minimize equipment replacement costs (pulleys,
sheaves, and so forth).
Variable Speed Drives
Once you have determined the type of variable
speed drive to install, the engineer verifying
your selection will need to know the type of air
handling units in your building and all of the
information you compiled for the QuikFan soft-
ware, including the new motor horsepower and
efficiency calculated by the program. If you cannot
4-20 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
-------
4.3—Variable Air Volume System Upgrades
run the program, the engineer can use the load
calculations from page 4-14 in conjunction with
the survey results to estimate the new motor size.
When the requirements are verified, select
a manufacturer or have the engineer edit the
specifications in Appendix D to meet your
requirements.
Some additional considerations:
• Evaluate the contractor's capabilities and
experience in light of the size of drive you
have selected.
• Evaluate the manufacturer's capabilities in
conducting harmonic, power factor, and
torsional analyses.
• Be sure the contractor will be fully responsible
for getting the job properly completed and
having the manufacturer design around any
potential electrical or torsional problems.
• Address maintenance contracts, start-up, spare
parts, on-site assistance during installation and
precommissioning, and training for in-house
staff.
• Be sure the manufacturer has a thorough
functional testing, inspection, and check-out
plan.
• Specify the types and numbers of drawings and
manuals required.
• A coast-down test to compare mechanical reso-
nance with speed response is important. Have
the manufacturer bypass the critical or reso-
nance frequency band(s) of the motor or fan to
eliminate any noise or vibration problems.
A qualified electrician should install the drives
and ensure that they are wired properly. The
drives should be located in a clean and dry area.
In addition, variable speed drives must have an
Eolation transformer and power system ground
near the motor terminals to maintain proper line-
to-ground voltages at the motor. Winding failures
•nay result from high line-to-ground voltages at
the motor.
Post start-up testing and evaluation consists of
operating the motor at fixed speeds and determin-
lng power requirements at several load points
approximating the load-duration curve.
Indoor Air Quality
When downsizing, be sure to consider indoor air
quality. For example, you must be certain that mini-
mum outside air supply requirements established by
ASHRAE standards or local codes are met, and you
should ensure that air is always being supplied to
each space (that is, the outside air damper is never
closed when the building is occupied).
Chapter 6 contains more information on building
environmental quality issues, including indoor air
quality basics, ASHRAE standards and guidelines
related to indoor air quality, and sources of more
information about indoor air quality, including EPA's
IAQ INFO hotline and the EPA/NISOH publication
Building Air Quality: A Guide for Building Owners and
Facility Managers.
Wiring Guidelines
Do run control wiring in separate conduits. This
prevents critical control-signal variations that can
result from coupled noise in high-power wiring.
Do wire the variable speed drive to a good, indepen-
dent ground. A variable speed drive grounded
through conduit may cause resistance between the
variable speed drive and the true ground.
Do Not attempt to eliminate noise by connecting a
variable speed drive to another variable speed
drive's cabinet. This action will cause the noise to
transmit between cabinets.
Document any problems encountered during the
project and the performance of the various parties
involved.
Preparing Specifications
This section contains information to consider in
developing specifications for energy-efficient
motors and variable speed drives. Specifications
for the components of a downsizing program
depend on the requirements established in the
project management phase.
Energy-Efficient Motors
The motor you select should be able to meet load
requirements. The general specifications on
pages 4-23 and 4-24 will help you determine the
requirements for your motors and ensure that your
criteria are met when the new motors are installed.
first Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual 4-21
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Stage 4—HVAC Distribution System Upgrades
Variable Speed Drives
The drive you select should be able to meet both
motor and load requirements. The following steps
should be taken to ensure that the proper drive is
selected for a particular application.
• Obtain the air handling unit's performance
curves from the manufacturer. This informa-
tion, along with information compiled for the
QuikFan software, should be incorporated in
the specifications to ensure that the proper
drive is installed.
• Note any environmental, weight, or space
constraints.
• Backward:curved or -inclined and airfoil fans
are the best candidates for variable speed
drives. Some axial and forward-curved fans
have narrow operating ranges; if the variable
speed drive operates outside (his range, the fan
will surge and the system will have difficulty
maintaining static pressure. If your system has
an axial or forward-curved fan, check with the
fan's manufacturer to determine its compatibil-
ity with variable speed drives.
At a minimum, the selected variable speed drive
should be equipped with the following options:
• A pulse-width modulated (PWM) inverter.
• A start/stop circuit interlocked with all motor
disconnect switches.
• A set of dry contacts to interface with an
energy management system.
• A place in the circuitry to install external
emergency contacts such as low- and high-
temperature thermostats and vibration switches.
It is important that a variable speed drive for a
high-efficiency motor have isolated gated bipolar
transistors (IGBTs) in the inverter so that motor
overheating does not occur at tower operating
speeds.
The box on page 4-25 provides additional general
specifications for variable speed drives. The box
below contains guidelines for installing variable
speed drives-
Appendix C contains more detailed technical
information on variable speed drives.
Appendix D contains a generic specification for a
variable speed drive, which you can use when
preparing your own specifications.
Power Quality and Variable Speed Drives
The following issues related to power quality could
arise when installing variable speed drives. An electri-
cal engineer should be consulted to analyze any of
these occurrences and, if necessary, to review your
electrical distribution system.
• Harmonic voltage and current distortion levels in a
building should be limited to less than approximately
5 percent. Harmonic distortion is site-specific and
may have a number of causes, either pre-existing or
resulting from the variable speed drive. Line filters
will typically control the problem. A low power factor
indicates a harmonic problem and low-efficiency
equipment.
• Effective protection against electromagnetic inter-
ference should be designed into the inverte r system.
To protect the variable speed drive from shutting
down due to overvoltage or undervoltage condi-
tions (nuisance tripping), use a filter or a standard
isolation transformer.
The variable speed drive should be provided with
ride-through capability so that nuisance tripping
caused by voltage sags can be prevented. Power
conditioners and uninterruptible power supply sys-
tems will also protect the variable speed drive from
tripping.
Variable speed drives can generate audible noise
due to the several-kHz modulation frequency. An
output filter will decrease the higher frequency
harmonics seen by the motor and, therefore, the
audible noise level.
4-22 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
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4.3—Variable Air Volume System Upgrades
General Specifications for Energy-Efficient Motors
1. Nameplate Data. Most of the specifications for the motor can be
obtained from the existing motor's nameplate. The new motor will need
to improve on the existing motor as described below.
2. Rating. The standard torque-speed design for the new motor should have
a NEMA B rating.
3 . Efficiency. The motor should have the highest efficiency possible
for the new horsepower rating (see the motor efficiency table on
page 4-17) .
4. Heating. Note any special cooling requirements needed to dissipate
heat generated by the motor.
5. Inrush Current. Be sure protective devices (for example, circuit
breakers or fuses) can safely handle the starting current.
6. Temperature Rise and Insulation Class. Note the ambient temperature at
which the motor will be operating and specify the class of insulation
required to protect the motor at the maximum ambient temperature
(class F or H will be more efficient and have a longer life).
7. Power Factor. When specifying power factor, keep in mind that high-
efficiency motors have higher power factors;...b5cause_
power to produce magnetic fields. Power factor range
90 percent. „,,.,„.,,,,„,.,,,,.,„ ,,.,,,. <„,„,.,., „._
8. Service Factor. The new motor must have the ability to exceed its
mechanical power output rating for a certain period oftime.This will
allow the motor to operate at higher horsepower, avoiding the need to
obtain a larger motor. Minimum servicefactor• jshould_ b_e_l_. 15_.___ _
9. Sound Level. If noise is a consideration, the .motor __should^be_equipped
with appropriate bearings and ventilation systems.
10. Number of Starts. Be sure the motor and starter can handle the ,
anticipated number of starts per hour. _ , ..,,.,,, ,,,, ..,.,. ..„,,., —
Flr*t Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual 4-23
-------
Stage 4—HVAC Distribution System Upgrades
General Specifications for Energy-Efficient Motors
11. Starter. If you are not installing a variable speed drive, the motor
should be equipped with a starter.
12. Motor Protection. You may want to equip the motor with a disconnect
source, overcurrent protection, and overload protection or low-
voltage protection (or both).
13. Torque. The new motor's start torque (torque produced at zero speed)
and breakdown torque (maximum torque the motor can produce before
starting) must be equivalent to those on the existing motor.
14. Environment. Be sure to let the manufacturer know if the motor will
be installed in an unusual environment (abrasion, high altitude, high
or low ambient temperature, hazardous or other unusual types of
materials nearby, or high humidity). These conditions may necessitate
special enclosures, thermal protection, space heaters, heavy duty
electrical wiring or conduit, or other types of protection.
4-24 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
-------
4.3—Variable Air Volume System Upgrades
General Specifications for Variable Speed Drives
I. Performance Requirements. The variable speed drive must be compatible
with the motor it will be installed on. You need to know the motor's
horsepower, efficiency rating, amperage, voltage, frequency range,
maximum torque, service factor, and power factor.
2. Controller. Select a controller appropriate for the motor on which the
drive is to be installed (pneumatic, analog, or digital) and be sure to
specify the type and extent of remote control, if required.
3. Interface. Specify if the variable speed drive needs to interface with
other devices such as an energy management system. The manufacturer
will need to know the type of link required.
4, Isolation Transformer. Let the manufacturer know if an isolation trans-
former will be needed to separate the variable speed drive from the
incoming AC power line.
5. Motor Heat Rate versus Load. The drive manufacturer will need informa-
tion on tested heat rate compared with load. This can be obtained from
the motor's manufacturer.
6. Fan. The drive manufacturer will need a comparison of tested fan flow
with load and also the fan curve. These can be obtained from the fan's
manufacturer.
7. Environment. Be sure to let the manufacturer know if the drive will be
installed in an unusual environment (abrasion, high altitude, high or
low ambient temperature, hazardous or other unusual types of materials
nearby, or high humidity). These conditions may necessitate special
enclosures, thermal protection, space heaters, heavy duty electrical
wiring, RF or EMI shields, or other types of protection.
8. Power Quality. A power analysis is essential to determine the presence
of low power factors or harmonics in the building. If eitherare found,
corrective measures, such as installing harmonic filters, should be
taken.
Flrst Edition, October 1993 Energy Star Buildings Manual 4-25
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4-26 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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-------
Stage 5:
HVAC Plant Upgrades
In Stage 5 of the Energy Star Buildings Program, you will be
upgrading the energy efficiency and cost-effectiveness of
chillers and other equipment associated with HVAC systems
in your building. Each section in this chapter explains the
most profitable opportunities for upgrades to a particular
type of equipment.
This chapter contains the following sections:
5.1 HVAC Plant Functions and Configurations
5.2 Summary Snapshots
5.3 Water-Cooled Centrifugal Chiller Upgrades
first Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual 5-1
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5-2 Energy Star Buildings Manual P/rs/ Edition, October 1993
-------
BUILDINGS
EPA POLLUTION PREVENTER
HVAC Plant
Functions and
Configurations
UJ
en
Components of
an HVAC Plant
The HVAC plant in a typical office building is
made up of chillers, pumps, boilers, and cooling
towers. Note: This edition of the Energy Star
Buildings Manual deals with chillers only. Future
editions will include information on additional
of HVAC equipment.
Chillers
Chillers generate a cold liquid that is circulated
through the air handling unit's cooling coil to cool
the air supplied to a building or, in other applica-
tions, through machines and process equipment.
Water is the most commonly used liquid for
chillers in office buildings. Brine and various
other fluids are used for chillers in industrial
Process and refrigeration applications.
Types of Chillers
Most chillers fall into two categories, depending
°n the type of refrigeration used — either compres-
sion or absorption.
Compression refrigeration chillers use me-
chanical energy to cool the liquid. The most
common types of compression chillers are
centrifugal, reciprocating, and helical rotary.
Water-cooled centrifugal chillers are the most
commonly used chillers in office buildings.
Absorption refrigeration chillers use heat
energy — steam, hot water, or direct-fired fuel
(natural gas or fuel oil) — to cool the liquid.
Absorption chillers are installed in a small
percentage of office buildings, most typically
where steam is readily available, where elec-
tricity is scarce, or where they can reduce peak
load or be used in cogeneration applications.
Chiller Components
Most office buildings use water-cooled centrifugal
chillers. The water in these systems is chilled by
cooling tower condenser water. The chilled water
then circulates through the system to cool the air.
Figure 5.1-1 shows a typical water-cooled chiller
system. Figure 5.1-2 shows the functions of the
major system components.
The cooler or evaporator is a heat exchanger.
Its function is to cool the chilled water return-
ing from the air handling unit's coils.
The compressor takes the low-pressure refrig-
erant gas leaving the evaporator and increases
its pressure to a level at which it will reject
heat. Compressors may be hermetic (meaning
the motor is inside the chiller casing and is
cooled by refrigerant) or open (the motor is
outside the casing and il rejects its heat into
the space).
Condensers are heat exchangers that remove
the heat from the high-pressure gas refrigerant
leaving the compressor to a degree where the
gas condenses into a liquid refrigerant. Con-
densers in water-cooled chillers use cooling
tower (condenser) water that rejects the
removed heat into the air. Condensers in air-
cooled chillers use fans to pass air across the
condenser.
Expansion valves (or any other expansion
devices) "undo" the work of the compressor.
Their main function is to receive the high-
temperature, high-pressure liquid refrigerant
leaving the condenser and lower its pressure
rapidly (a process referred to as "flashing"),
causing a sudden drop in its temperature. This
low-temperature liquid refrigerant continues to
the evaporator, where it cools the water return-
ing from the air handling unit, gains heat to
evaporate into gas, and repeats the cycle.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 5-3
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Stage 5—HVAC Plant Upgrades
Figure 5.1-1. Typical Water-Cooled Chiller System
Condenser
Water
Pump
Cooling
Tower
Circuit
Chilled
Water
Pump
Figure 5.1-2. Centrifugal Liquid Chiller Functions
Condenser Water
85° F. 95° F.
Expansion
Device
Copressor Motor
Refrigerant
Loop
44° F.
Chilled Water
54. p.
Note: Temperatures and pressures shown are approximations only and may vary,
depending on the type of chiller, its application, and the type of refrigerant it uses.
5-4 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
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Summary
Snapshots
o
uu
V)
This section contains brief summaries of how you can profit
from the Stage 5 Energy Star Buildings Program upgrades.
Each summary "snapshot" lists the best opportunities for
profitable upgrades and provides examples of typical
savings. Snapshots for the various types of HVAC plant
equipment can be found in the following subsections:
5.2.1 Water-Cooled Centrifugal Chillers
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5-6 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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5.2.1
Summary Snapshot:
Water-Coo led Ce ntrif u ga I Chi I lers
This snapshot provides a summary of how you can
profit from the Stage 5 energy-efficiency upgrades
if you have a water-cooled centrifugal chiller.
It contains a list of the best opportunities for
upgrades and the benefits those upgrades will
bring. Following the list, an example shows how a
typical building owner can profit from the Stage 5
upgrades to a water-cooled centrifugal chiller.
Best Opportunities
The best opportunities for profitable upgrades to
water-cooled centrifugal chillers lie in chiller
retrofit or replacement.
• Retrofit the existing chiller so that it can per-
form more efficiently at the newly reduced
cooling loads gained in Stages 1 through 4 of
the Energy Star Buildings Program and also use
the new refrigerants that replace R-l 1 and
R-12, which will be phased out of production
in 1996.
• Replace the chiller with a new, smaller, more
energy-efficient model that uses the new
refrigerants that replace R-ll and R-12.
With either option, equipping the chiller with a
variable speed drive that adjusts the chiller's
flow to match the HVAC system's cooling load
requirements will increase profitability by provid-
ing energy-efficient operation even at part-load
conditions.
Chiller Retrofits
Chiller retrofits are usually profitable if your
existing chiller is up to 10 years old. Retrofitting
to operate at newly reduced loads may involve
replacing orifice plates, replacing impellers, or
even replacing the compressor. The specific
retrofits depend on the type of chiller and its
manufacturer. To use the new refrigerants, you
also may need to replace some gaskets and seals
and rewind the motor.
Chiller Replacement
Replacing the existing chiller with a new, smaller,
more energy-efficient chiller is most profitable if
the existing chiller is more than 10 years old. A
new high-efficiency chiller's energy consumption
could range from 0.15 to 0.30 kilowatts per ton
less than the existing chiller's, depending on the
efficiency of the existing chiller. Combining the
effects of a more efficient chiller with downsizing
can result in peak demand reductions between
10 and 40 percent.
Variable Speed Drives
Installing variable speed drives to control a
chiller system can greatly reduce energy costs
because they adjust the chiller's flow to match
cooling load requirements. Variable speed drives
also run quietly and with little vibration. They
require little maintenance and can be bypassed to
the original control system when they do require
service.
Illustrative Savings
A building in the northeastern United States has on©
300-ton water-cooled centrifugal chiller.
In Stage 5, the building owner determined that
Stages 1 through 4 of the Energy Star Buildings
Program had reduced the building's cooling toad to
210 tons and decided to size the chiller accordingly.
Retrofitting the existing chlllerto run at the new loads
and also convert to new refrigerants would cost
approximately $25,000. This is required spending
due to the 1996 phaseout of the chiller's refrigerant.
Replacing the chiller with a new, smaller, more
energy-efficient chiller would cost approximately
$52,000. The difference is $27,000.
The new chiller would reduce energy consumption
: for cooljng by 25 percent and save $8,775 par year
In total energy costs. The Internal rate of return on
the additional $27,000 required forthe^new chiller |s
31,5 percent.
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5-8 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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Water-Cooled z
Centrifugal Chiller |
Upgrades
o
ui
tn
In Stage 5 of the Energy Star Buildings Program,
you will be looking at upgrades to your building's
HVAC plant. This section deals with water-cooled
centrifugal chillers. You should consider investing
in these chiller upgrades for two reasons:
First, upgrades already done in the program—the
tune-up, Green Lights, Energy Star computer
equipment, and window, roof, and HVAC distri-
bution system improvements—have most likely
brought about a significant reduction in your
cooling load requirements. A new, smaller, more
energy-efficient chiller can increase the profits
you are realizing from these upgrades.
Second, as of January 1, 1996, the type of refrig-
erant (R-l 1 or R-12) currently used in water-
cooled centrifugal chillers will no longer be
produced (see box). This phaseout of R-l 1 and
R-12 is required by the sections of the Clean Air
Act Amendments of 1991 that address chlorofluo-
rocarbons (CFCs). While simply containing or
recycling the existing refrigerant may seem like a
viable alternative, consider the following:
• The phaseout that begins in 1996 will eventu-
ally cause serious shortages of R-l 1 and R-12.
• The price of R-l 1 and R-12 will probably
increase dramatically beginning in 1996.
Chiller Survey
The Chiller Survey is an essential first step in
Stage 5 of the Energy Star Buildings Program. This
survey will familiarize you with the condition of your
building's chillerand enable you to determine if it can
be replaced profitably. Some of the information
gathered during this survey well be used in calculat-
ing new cooling loads for your building.
Appendix A contains the survey questionnaire and
response forms and describes the information
required for the survey, the materials needed to
conduct the survey, and the personnel recommended
for the survey team. The Chiller Survey begins on
page A-43.
CFCs Are on the Way Out
Eighty percent of today's chiller market is made up
of centrifugal chillers that use R-11 as refrigerant.
The alternative is HCFC-123. Some centrifugal
chillers use R-12. Its alternative is HFC-134A.
Phaseout Dates
1996: R-11, R-12, R-500, HCFC-152A, CFC-114.
No new refrigerant containing these com-
pounds will be sold. Chillers using these
refrigerants will no longer be manufac-
tured.
2010: HCFC-22. No new refrigerant containing
this HCFC will be sold. Chillers using refrig-
erants based on this HCFC will no longer
be manufactured.
2020: HCFC-22. Chillers using refrigerant based
on this HCFC will no longer be serviced.
HCFC-123. No new refrigerant containing
this HCFC will be sold. Chillers using refrig-
erants based on this HCFC will no longer
be manufactured.
2030: HCFC-123. Chillers using refrigerant based
on this HCFC will no longer be serviced.
Therefore, you can protect and probably increase
the profits obtained from your existing Energy
Star Buildings Program upgrades by upgrading
your chiller now.
Best Opportunities
The following options provide the best opportuni-
ties for profitable upgrades to water-cooled cen-
trifugal chillers:
• Retrofit your existing chiller so that it can
perform more efficiently at the newly reduced
cooling loads and also use new refrigerants
compatible with chillers that currently use
R-l land R-12.
• Replace the chiller with a new, smaller, more
energy-efficient model that uses the new
refrigerants.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 5-9
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Stage 5—HVAC Plant Upgrades
With either option, equipping the chiller with a
variable speed drive that adjusts the chiller's flow
to match the HVAC system's cooling load
requirements will increase profitability by provid-
ing energy-efficient operation even at part-load
conditions. (Refer to Section 4.3 and Appendix C
for more information on variable speed drives.)
Chiller Retrofits
If your chiller is up to 10 years old, retrofitting
that chiller so that it operates more efficiently at
the newly reduced loads and uses new refrigerants
is probably the most profitable option, simply
because it postpones investing in a new chiller.
Retrofitting for more efficient operation at newly
reduced loads may involve replacing orifice
plates, replacing impellers, or even replacing the
compressor. The specific retrofits depend on the
type of chiller and its manufacturer.
If you are replacing refrigerant, use HCFC-123
in place of R-l 1 and HFC-134A in place of
R-12. To make your building's chiller compatible
with one of these new refrigerants, you may also
need to replace some gaskets and seals and rewind
the motor.
Because of their properties, the new refrigerants
are not as efficient and thus will affect the
chiller's efficiency by reducing cooling tonnage
at current or even increased levels of energy
consumption. However, this loss will be offset
by the reduced cooling loads obtained through
previous Energy Star Buildings upgrades.
Chiller Replacement
Replacing the existing chiller with a new, smaller,
more energy-efficient model that matches the
newly reduced loads and uses new refrigerants can
be considered at any time; however, this option is
most profitable if the existing chiller is more than
10 years old.
Depending on the options implemented in Stages
1 through 4 of the Energy Star Buildings Program,
cooling load requirements in your building have
probably been reduced by at least 10 percent and
possibly by as much as 40 percent. Thus you
have the opportunity to downsize the new chiller
accordingly. While the new chiller must be sized
for peak loads, you want to be sure that it operates
efficiently at part-load conditions because that is
where the chiller operates most of the time.
A new high-efficiency chiller's energy consump-
tion could range from 0.15 to 0.30 kilowatts per
ton less than the existing chiller's, depending on
the efficiency of the existing chiller.
Economic Benefits
The following example shows how to determine
the economics of chiller retrofit and replacement.
In a large office building with a peak cooling
load of 300 tons, Energy Star Buildings upgrades
have reduced peak load to 210 tons (part-load
performances are shown in Table 5.3-1; the box
on page 5-12 shows how to calculate the new
cooling load).
Retrofits to switch the existing chiller from
R-l 1 to HCFC-123 and to downsize the chiller
to 210 tons by installing new gaskets, new orifice
plates, new impellers, and a new compressor
would cost approximately $25,000. Total annual
energy savings from this investment would be
approximately 15 percent, with an internal rate of
return of 16.5 percent.
A new, energy-efficient 210-ton chiller that uses
the new refrigerant would cost approximately
$52,000. The difference in cost between the
retrofit to switch to HCFC-123 (which must be
done regardless of the downsizing) and the cost of
the new chiller is $27,000. Total annual energy
savings from this investment are 74,460 kilowatt-
hours, or 25 percent. With energy costs of $0.08
per kilowatthour, the energy savings bring annual
dollar savings of $8,775. The internal rate of
return on the $27,000 investment is 31.5 percent.
Project Management
Considerations
This section contains some points to consider
when planning to upgrade the HVAC plant in
your building.
A typical action plan for a chiller upgrade would
include the following steps:
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5.3—Water-Cooled Centrifugal Chiller Upgrades
Table 5.3-1. Energy Savings From Downsizing 300-Ton Chiller to 210 Tons
Annual Energy Consumption
(kilowatthours)
Operating
Load (tons)
210
189
168
147
126
105
84
63
42
Totals
Annual Operating Hours
at Given Operating Load
85
170
255
340
340
425
510
680
595
3,400
Original
300-Ton
Chiller
13,430
23,800
32,130
39,440
36,040
39,525
41,310
45.560
31,535
302,770
New
210-Ton
Chiller
10,200
18,020
24,480
29,920
26,860
29,750
31,110
35,360
'22,610
228,310
Annual Energy Savings
From New Chiller
(kilowatthours)
3,230
5,780
7,650
9,520
9,180
9,775
10,200
10,200
8,925
74,460
• Compare the advantages of retrofitting with
those of replacement.
• Determine the type of chiller best suited for the
building's cooling load requirements.
• Evaluate each refrigerant and chiller alternative
for energy efficiency, profitability, and envi-
ronmental acceptability
• Develop an implementation schedule.
The following information may help you decide
whether to retrofit or replace your chiller:
Energy Efficiency. New chillers are 30 to 40
percent more efficient than chillers more than
10 years old and 10 to 20 percent more efficient
than chillers 5 to 10 years old.
Age. The average life of a chiller is 20 years.
Location. It may be difficult or impossible to
remove an existing chiller from its present
Project Management:
General Guidelines
The following general guidelines apply to any retrofit
program:
• Appoint a project managerto be responsible for all
project activity.
• Develop detailed requirements in consultation
with all in-house personnel involved. Require-
ments should be reviewed by several reputable
manufacturers or their representatives prior to
releasing them for bids.
• Determine a schedule for the installation or
upgrade. Be sure that you schedule the work to
minimize disruption to the office. Consult with
vendors and contractors to be sure that they can
meet all scheduled deadlines.
• Communicate regularly with everyone involved in
the installation.
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Stage 5—HVAC Plant Upgrades
location. If this is the case, the existing chiller
and probably a new chiller would need to be
broken down into components, which is
expensive.
Maintenance. An older retrofitted chiller may
require much more maintenance than a new
chiller. Controls on new chillers require less
maintenance.
Cost, The initial capital cost of a new chiller
must be weighed against its life-cycle costs and
the energy savings to be gained.
Safety. Whether you retrofit or replace, any
conversion to an alternate refrigerant must meet
ANSI/ASHRAE 15-1992 standards and local
codes. Some changes to the ventilation system
in the mechanical room may be necessary.
Always follow manufacturers' guidelines on
handling and care of the alternate refrigerant.
You may want to discuss your building's require-
ments with a consulting mechanical engineer who
can verify your cooling load calculations (see box)
and provide you with insight on the various alter-
natives. You may also want to have the engineer
look at your cooling system's pumps to determine
if variable speed drives or flow control valves can
be installed. These devices can adjust pump flow
to match cooling load requirements.
Because of the specialized type of work involved,
a contractor or a manufacturer's representative
generally must do the work for both chiller retrofit
and chiller replacement. You may also need an
electrician to modify branch circuit protection,
overload heaters, and various protective relays
required for the chiller. Be sure that all manu-
facturer's recommendations and instructions for
installation and care of the chiller are followed.
Some additional retrofit considerations:
• The best time to retrofit is at the 10-year over-
haul because a chiller is torn down at that time.
• If retrofitting, you may want to consider
replacing the purge controls at the same time.
Today's purge controls are 98 to 99 percent
efficient.
• Determine if compressor performance will be
affected when operating at partial loads with
the new refrigerant.
Calculating Cooling Load
When doing load calculations, it is important to pay
attention to the chiller configuration. Note that chill-
ers in parallel require that all tonnages be added
together for the full-load rating.
To determine your new cooling load, measure the
following:
• Temperature of the chilled water supply (CHWS).
Atemperature gauge should befound on the pipe
at the chiller's supply outlet.
• Temperature of the chilled water retu rn (CHWR).
A temperature gauge should be found on the pipe
at the chiller's return inlet.
• Flow rate (GPM) in the chilled water supply. A
flow rate gauge should be found on the supply
pipe. An energy management system also may
have this measurement.
These measurements must be taken in the after-
noon on a typical hot summer day to capture the
peak load effects on your system.
Use the measurements to calculate the following
equations:
1. CHWS-CHWR =T
2, Load (in tons) = 500 x T x (GPM + 12,000}
3. Load (in tons) x 1.1 = New Load
If you have no means of taking these measure-
ments, you may want to contact a testing and
balancing company who wilt have all of the equip-
ment and training necessary to take the measure-
ments.
If the new load for the chiller is 30 percent less than
the installed capacity of your existing chiller, you
should seriously consider replacing the chiller. The
efficiency of the chiller decreases sharply below 70
percent loading. Remember, too, that the chiller is
operating most of the time at part-load conditions
with your newly reduced loads, which makes the
existing system even more inefficient.
For example, a 300-ton chiller has a full-load perfor-
mance rating of 0.6 kilowatts per ton. At 80 to 85
percent load, efficiency actually increases to 0.55
kilowatts per ton (this is where chillers are most
efficient). At 70 percent load, efficiency decreases
to 0.65 kilowatts per ton. At 60 percent load, effi-
ciency decreases to 0.7 kilowatts per ton. At
50 percent load, efficiency decreases to 0.8 kilo-
watts per ton.
5-12 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
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5.3—Water-Cooled Centrifugal Chiller Upgrades
• The physical location of the chiller plays an
important role in determining whether or not a
replacement will be possible. If removing the
existing chiller and installing the new one
requires great expense, the benefits of the new
chiller may be offset. In some cases, it may be
possible to keep the existing chiller's shell and
replace the compressor and seals.
• Chillers with hermetic motors normally cost
more to retrofit than those with open motors.
• The manufacturer will guarantee a minimum
performance level for a new chiller for at least
10 years. However, a retrofit may have no
guarantee.
• The cost to replace a chiller 10 to 20 years old
is typically more than the cost of a retrofit;
however, the energy savings make replacement
much less expensive. Retrofitting a 300-ton
hermetic chiller with new gaskets, orifice
plates, and impellers as well as rewinding the
motor costs approximately $25,000; a new
chiller costs approximately $52,000. If the new
chiller provides 25 percent energy savings, the
$27,000 difference is a good investment.
Some additional replacement considerations:
• Absorption-type chillers use lithium-bromide
instead of refrigerant and are driven by either
steam, hot water, or gas. They typically cost
$ 150 per ton more than centrifugal-type
chillers. Absorption chillers are profitable
where demand rates are high, where utilities
offer rebates, and where gas or steam is avail-
able. Larger plants with several chillers may
use a combination of absorption and centrifugal
chillers when demand reduction is required. For
example, the absorption chillers would be used
during peak hours to avoid demand charges and
the centrifugal chillers would be used during
off-peak hours when using the absorption
chillers would require more energy.
• Some manufacturers of rotary chillers guaran-
tee that the chiller will maintain full-load
performance under part-load conditions.
Chiller operation is also important. Because of the
efficiencies of chillers at part-load conditions, you
may save more energy by operating two chillers at
80 percent of their load rather than operating one
chiller at 100 percent and one at 60 percent.
Environmental Considerations for
Centrifugal Chillers
Refrigerant Type. Be certain that the refrigerant
does not contain CFCs. At this time, the accept-
able replacement for R-11 is HCFC-123, and
the acceptable replacement for R-12 is
HFC-134A.
Refrigerant Leak Test. The new chiller must be
tested for refrigerant leaks upon installation and
periodically thereafter, as recommended by the
manufacturer.
Pressure Relief Line and Discharge. The pres-
sure relief line and discharge should be located
in a safe area outside the building to prevent con-
tamination caused by refrigerant infiltrating the
building.
Ventilation Requirement for New Refrigerant.
New refrigerants require adequate ventilation as
recommended by the manufacturer and required
by the EPA.
Evacuaf/onancfDeftydraf/on.Thechillershould
be equipped with a vacuum pump for evacuation
and dehydration to remove, restore, or recycle
refrigerant.
Isolation From Air Handling Unit Intake. To
protect indoor air quality, the chiller should be
located away from the air handling unit's intake
as a precaution in case of refrigerant leakage.
Preparing Specifications
This section contains information to consider in
developing specifications for upgrades to water-
cooled centrifugal chillers.
If you are retrofitting an existing chiller, specifi-
cations for the components of the retrofit depend
on the requirements established in the project
management phase. Some of the accompanying
specifications may apply as well.
If you are replacing the existing chiller, the chiller
you select should be sized to meet the new cooling
loads that result from previous Energy Star
Buildings Program upgrades. Be aware of the
accompanying specifications that also may apply.
Whether you are retrofitting or replacing an exist-
ing chiller, a variable speed drive should be
considered for the upgrade. Section 4.3 and
Appendix C contain more information on variable
speed drives.
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual 5-13
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Stage 5—HVAC Plant Upgrades
.'**,*
-------
5.3—Water-Cooled Centrifugal Chiller Upgrades
r*-
— ~ — ~ —
.-,,.
— - — —
—
General Specifications for Centrifugal Chillers
13. The chiller should be equipped with safety shutoff features and alarms
to protect against low oil pressure, low condenser water flow, and low
chilled-water temperatures.
14. The chiller system should have a separately driven (both manual and
automatic) purge compressor to transfer refrigerant.
15. The chiller's working pressure should be able to withstand system
head.
16. The chiller's motor should have protective features to guard against
electric faults, phase imbalance, and phase reversal.
17. The chiller should be equipped with a self -diagnostic control system
that can identify the causes of safety shutdowns and retain them in
memory until manually deleted.
18. The chiller should be equipped with a low-voltage soft start '(Wye
Delta type) starter.
19. If possible, the chiller should be equipped with a variable speed
drive, either as an integral part of the chiller or installed sepa-
rately.
20. The manufacturer should provide training and startup assistance or the
contractor should provide factory-authorized training and startup
assistance.
21. The chiller should meet applicable NEMA, UL, NEC, ARI, ASME and ASHRAE
requirements.
22. Multiple;£hjy.JL£rm^j3l^ be sequenced and interlocked
properly to avoid simultaneous starts and stops .
23. The chiljjsr^jsjtfajcr^^ (minimum of 10 years). _____
24. The niaximim^a^^r^prje^sjar^^jdrpjp^across the chiller's evaporator and
condenser, when , each a^ drop in the rest of the syjstejn^__
should not_«cceedj*e^^
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5-16 Energy Star Buildings Manual Fjrst Edjtjoni October 1993
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• I
-------
Building
Environmental
Quality Issues
As you implement upgrades to your building's systems
over the course of the Energy Star Buildings Program, you
must ensure that the building's environmental quality is
maintained. This chapter explains the effects of energy
conservation measures on environmental quality and
provides general guidelines on how to maintain building
environmental quality.
This chapter contains the following sections:
6.1 Indoor Air Quality
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6-2 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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Indoor Air Quality
In recent years, the sources and quantities of
pollutants within buildings have proliferated,
increasing the likelihood of indoor air quality
problems. At the same time, increasingly sophisti-
cated HVAC system designs have raised occupant
expectations for comfort and air quality. Because
most people spend at least a third of their day at
the workplace, and the quality of the air they
breathe at work affects their comfort, their health,
and even their job performance, building occu-
pants are less tolerant of fluctuating temperatures,
unpleasant odors, and other departures from ideal
conditions. Therefore, you must be aware of
issues related to indoor air quality and take steps
to ensure that indoor air quality is not degraded as
you implement the various upgrades of the Energy
Star Buildings Program.
The costs of poor indoor air quality to building
tenants include increased absenteeism, lower
productivity, compensation claims linked to
adverse health effects, strained relations with
employees, and damage to public image or
reputation. Individuals suffer from illness, lost
work time, discomfort, dissatisfaction, and
irritation. Potential costs to the building owners,
designers, and product manufacturers include
strained relations with tenants or customers, lost
occupancy, damage to sales and reputation, and
liability expenses. Soiling of surfaces and furnish-
ings and damage to equipment and office
machines incur both aesthetic and economic costs.
Many insurance policies do not cover pollution-
related personal or property damage.
Indoor air quality is the result of a combination of
variables and processes controlled or determined
by the building designer, the building owner, and
the building occupants. Factors external to the
building itself also play a role. Numerous daily
occurrences such as ventilation system schedules,
occupant activities, and variations in outdoor air
quality are involved.
You can tell if there is poor indoor air quality in
your building by looking for the following general
indicators:
• Increasing number of health problems such as
coughing, eye irritation, headache, and allergic
reactions (in extreme cases, life-threatening
conditions such as Legionnaire's disease and
carbon monoxide poisoning may be possible).
• Decreasing productivity due to discomfort or
increased absenteeism.
• Accelerating deterioration of furnishings and
equipment.
Factors Affecting
Indoor Air Quality
Four elements contribute to the development of
indoor air quality problems:
Source. There is a source of contamination or
discomfort indoors, outdoors, or within the
mechanical systems of the building. In some
cases, the building's occupants and their
activities can contribute to indoor air quality
problems.
HVAC System. The HVAC system is not able
to control existing air contaminants and ensure
temperature and humidity conditions that are
comfortable for most occupants.
Pathways. One or more pathways connect the
source of the pollutant to the occupants, and a
driving force exists to move pollutants along
these pathways.
Occupants. Building occupants are affected by
the contaminants.
It is important to understand the role that each of
these factors plays as you investigate and resolve
existing indoor air quality problems and work to
prevent future problems.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 6-3
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Chapter 6—Building Environmental Quality Issues
Source
Indoor air contaminants can originate within the
building or be drawn in from outdoors. If contami-
nant sources are not controlled, indoor air quality
problems can arise, even if the HVAC system is
properly designed and well-maintained. Contami-
nants generally fit into the following broad
categories. Note: The examples given are not
intended to be a complete list.
Sources Outside Building
—Contaminated outside air (pollen, dust,
fungal spores, industrial pollutants, general
vehicle exhaust).
—Emissions from nearby sources (emissions
from vehicles on nearby roads or in parking
lots or garages, from dumpsters, or from
loading docks; exhaust air drawn back into
the building from the building itself or from
nearby buildings; unsanitary debris near the
outdoor air intake).
—Soil gas (radon, leakage from underground
fuel tanks, contamination from previous uses
of the site, pesticides).
—Moisture or standing water producing excess
microbial growth on rooftops or in
crawlspace.
Equipment Sources (Non-HVAC)
—Emissions from office equipment (volatile
organic compounds, ozone).
—Supplies (solvents, toners, ammonia).
—Emissions from shops, laboratories, and
cleaning processes.
—Elevator motors and other mechanical
systems.
Human Activities
—Personal activities (smoking, cooking, body
odor, cosmetics).
—Housekeeping activities (cleaning materials
and procedures, emissions from stored
supplies or trash, use of deodorizers and
fragrances, airborne dust and dirt circulated
by sweeping and vacuuming).
—Maintenance activities (microorganisms in
mist from improperly maintained cooling
towers; airborne dust or dirt; volatile organic
compounds from use of paint, caulk, adhe-
sives, and other products; pesticides from
pest-control activities; emissions from stored
supplies).
Building Components and Furnishings
—Locations that produce or collect dust or
fibers (textured surfaces such as carpeting,
curtains, and other textiles; open shelving;
old or deteriorated furnishings; materials
containing damaged asbestos).
—Unsanitary conditions and water damage
(microbiological growth on or in soiled or
water-damaged furnishings or carpet;
microbiological growth in areas of surface
condensation; standing water from clogged
or poorly designed drains; dry traps that
allow passage of sewer gas).
—Chemicals released from building compo-
nents or furnishings (volatile organic com-
pounds or inorganic compounds).
Other Sources
—Accidents (spills of water or other liquids;
microbiological growth due to flooding or
leaks from roofs or pipes; soot, PCBs, and
odors from fires).
—Special-use areas and mixed-use buildings
(smoking lounges, laboratories, print shops,
art rooms, exercise rooms, beauty salons,
food preparation areas).
—Redecorating, remodeling, and repairs
(emissions from new furnishings; dust and
fibers from demolition; odors and volatile
organic and inorganic compounds from
paint, caulk, and adhesives; microbiologicals
released from demolition or remodeling
activities).
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6.1—Indoor Air Quality
HVAC Systems
A properly designed and functioning HVAC
system performs the following functions:
Provides thermal comfort.
—Uniformity of temperature is important to
comfort. Temperature stratification is a
common problem.
—Radiant heat transfer can cause discomfort
even though the thermostat setting and the
measured air temperature are within the
comfort range. Large window areas some-
times have acute problems with radiant heat
gain and loss during the day as the sun angle
changes. Airflow over large vertical surfaces
can cause problems with drafts.
—Excessively high or low humidity affects
comfort. High humidity reduces the ability
to lose heat through perspiration and evapo-
ration, so the effect is similar to raising the
temperature. High humidity also promotes
the growth of mold and mildew.
—The activity level, age, and physiology of
each person affect the thermal comfort
requirements of that individual.
Distributes enough outdoor air to meet the
ventilation needs of all building occupants.
—The correct blend of outdoor air and recircu-
lated indoor air is necessary to meet both
thermal comfort and ventilation require-
ments.
—Proper design, installation, testing, and
balancing and regular inspection and mainte-
nance are critical to the correct operation of
all types of HVAC systems, especially
variable air volume systems.
—Variable air volume system designs should
ensure that a minimum supply of outdoor air
is provided to all zones and rooms at all
times when the building is occupied.
Isolates and removes pollutants through pressure
controls, filtration, and exhaust fans.
—One technique for controlling odors and
contaminants is to dilute them with outside
air. Dilution can work only if there is a con-
sistent and appropriate flow of supply air
that mixes effectively with room air.
—Another technique is to design and operate
the HVAC system so that pressure relation-
ships between zones and rooms are con-
trolled. This is accomplished by adjusting
the air quantities that are supplied to and
removed from each room. Control of pres-
sure relationships is critically important in
mixed-use buildings or buildings with
special-use areas.
—A third technique is to use local, or dedi-
cated, exhaust systems to ventilate a particu-
lar piece of equipment or an entire room. Air
should be exhausted to the outdoors, not
recirculated. Spaces with local exhaust must
be provided with make-up air, and the local
exhaust must function in coordination with
the rest of the ventilation system.
—Air cleaning and filtration devices designed
to control contaminants are found as compo-
nents to HVAC systems and can also be
installed as independent units. The effective-
ness of air cleaning depends on proper
equipment selection, installation, operation,
and maintenance.
Indoor air quality contamination in the HVAC
system can originate from the following sources:
• Insufficient outside air intake.
• Microbiological growth in drip pans, humidifi-
ers, ductwork, and coils.
• Dust or dirt in ductwork or other components.
• Cooling tower located near outside air intake.
• Improper use of biocides, sealants, and cleaning
compounds.
• Improper venting of combustion products.
• Refrigerant leakage.
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Chapter 6—Building Environmental Quality Issues
Pollutant Pathways
Airflow patterns in buildings result from the
combined action of mechanical ventilation
systems, human activity, and natural forces.
Pressure differentials created by these forces
move airborne contaminants from areas of rela-
tively higher pressure to areas of relatively lower
pressure through any available openings.
The HVAC system is generally the predominant
pathway for air movement in buildings. However,
all of a building's components (walls, ceilings,
floors, penetrations, HVAC equipment, and
occupants) interact to affect the distribution of
contaminants.
For example, supply air can be diverted or
obstructed from the return grille by partitions,
walls, and furnishings. It can be redirected by
openings that provide pathways for air movement.
In a localized area, movement of people has a
major impact on the movement of pollutants.
Pathways change as doors and windows open and
close. The stack effect (the flow of air driven by
the tendency of warm air to rise) can transport
contaminants between floors by way of stairwells,
elevator shafts, utility chases or other openings.
Depending on leakage openings in the building
exterior, wind can affect the pressure relationships
within and between rooms.
Air moves from areas of higher pressure to areas
of lower pressure through any available openings.
A small opening can admit significant amounts of
air if the pressure differentials are high enough.
Even when the building as a whole is maintained
under positive pressure, there is always some
location (for example, the outdoor air intake)
under negative pressure relative to the outdoors.
Entry of contaminants may be intermittent, for
example, occurring only when the wind blows
from the direction of the pollutant source. The
interaction between pollutant pathways and
intermittent or variable driving forces can lead to
a single source causing indoor air quality com-
plaints in areas of the building that are distant
from each other and from the source of the
pollutant.
Building Occupants
Because of varying sensitivity among people, one
individual may react to a particular indoor air
quality problem while surrounding occupants have
no ill effects. In other cases, complaints may be
widespread. A single indoor air pollutant or
problem can trigger different reactions in different
people. Some may not be affected at all.
The effects of indoor air quality problems are
often nonspecific symptoms rather than clearly
defined illnesses. Symptoms commonly attributed
to indoor air quality problems include headache;
fatigue; shortness of breath; sinus congestion;
coughing; sneezing; eye, nose, or throat irritation;
skin irritation; dizziness; and nausea. All of these
symptoms, however, may also be caused by other
factors and are not necessarily indicators of indoor
air quality problems.
Some complaints by building occupants are
clearly related to discomfort. For example, when
the air in a room is slightly too warm for a
person's activity level, that person may experi-
ence mild discomfort. If the temperature continues
to rise, discomfort increases and symptoms such
as fatigue, stuffiness, and headache can appear.
Environmental stressors such as improper light-
ing, noise, vibration, overcrowding, ergonomic
stress, and psychosocial problems such as job
stress can produce symptoms that are similar to
those associated with poor air quality. Odors are
often associated with a perception of poor air
quality, whether they cause symptoms or not.
Developing an Indoor
Air Quality Profile
Creating an indoor air quality profile for your
building is a good first step toward ensuring that
your Energy Star upgrades are contributing to
adequate indoor air quality. The indoor air quality
profile is an organized body of information that
you can use in planning renovations, negotiating
leases and contracts, and responding to future
complaints. It describes the building's structural
features, functions, and occupancy levels, all of
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5.7—Indoor Air Quality
which affect indoor air quality. It should enable
you to answer the following questions, which are
key to maintaining indoor air quality:
• How was the building originally intended to
function? Consider the building's components
and furnishings, mechanical equipment (HVAC
and non-HVAC), and the occupants and their
activities.
• Is the building functioning as designed?
Compare the commissioning information with
the current conditions.
• What changes in building layout and use have
occurred since the original design and construc-
tion? Determine whether the HVAC system has
been reset and retested to reflect the changes.
• What changes may be needed to prevent indoor
air quality problems from developing in the
future? Consider potential changes in future
uses of the building and additional Energy Star
upgrades.
Steps in Creating an
Indoor Air Quality Profile
Note: This section summarizes the steps involved
in creating an indoor air quality profile as de-
scribed in the EPA/NIOSH publication Building
Air Quality: A Guide for Building Owners and
Managers, which provides more detailed informa-
tion on conducting the profile and analyzing the
results and also contains blank forms to use in
compiling the profile.
The process of creating an indoor air quality
profile takes place in three major stages:
1. Collecting and reviewing existing records.
2. Conducting a walkthrough inspection of the
building.
3. Collecting detailed information on the HVAC
system, pollutant pathways, pollutant sources,
and building occupancy.
The type of information required for each of these
stages is summarized below.
Collecting and Reviewing
Existing Records
Review construction and operating documents.
—Commissioning reports.
—Operations manuals.
—Addenda for remodeled areas.
—Plans for addition, removal, or replacement
of HVAC equipment.
—Plans for changes in room use.
Check HVAC system maintenance records
against equipment lists. Collect existing
maintenance and calibration records and check
them against equipment lists, mechanical plans,
and so forth, to see whether all components are
receiving regular attention.
Review records of complaints to identify
building areas that deserve particular attention.
Conducting a Walkthrough
Inspection of the Building
Discuss indoor air quality with staff and other
occupants. Inform them about the concept of
indoor air quality and their responsibilities in
relation to housekeeping and maintenance.
Learn about routine activities in the building to
help clarify elements that should be included in
an indoor air quality plan.
Review facility operation and maintenance.
—HVAC operating schedule.
—HVAC maintenance schedule.
—Use and storage of chemicals.
—Schedule of shipping and receiving, includ-
ing handling of vehicles at the loading dock.
—Scheduling and other procedures for
isolating odors, dust, and emissions from
painting, roof repair, and other contaminant-
producing activities.
—Budgeting.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 6-7
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Chapter 6—Building Environmental Quality Issues
Review housekeeping activities.
—Cleaning schedule.
—Trash storage and collection schedule.
—Use and storage of chemicals.
Review pest-control procedures.
—Schedule and location of pesticide
applications.
—Use and storage of chemicals.
—Pest-control activities other than use of
pesticides.
Look for signs of indoor air quality problems.
—Odors.
—Dirty or unsanitary conditions, particularly
in equipment and mechanical rooms.
—Visible fungal growth or moldy odors on
walls, ceilings, and floors.
—Poorly maintained filters.
—Staining and discoloration.
—Smoke damage.
—Presence of hazardous substances.
—Potential for soil gas entry.
—Unusual noises from light fixtures or
mechanical equipment.
—Inadequate maintenance.
—Signs of occupant discomfort.
—Overcrowding.
—Blocked airflow.
—Obstructed or diverted airflow in plenums.
Debris and damaged or loose material in
plenum area.
—Concentrations of equipment or lighting.
—Inadequate pressure relationships in special-
use areas.
—Improperly located vents, exhausts, and air
intakes.
Collecting Detailed Information
Inspect the HVAC system's condition and its
operation. Identify equipment that needs to be
repaired, adjusted, or replaced. Record control
settings and operating schedules for HVAC
equipment for comparison to occupancy
schedules and current uses of space.
Conduct an inventory of potential pollutant
pathways. Observe and record airflow between
spaces.
Conduct an inventory of potential pollutant
sources.
Collect information on building occupancy.
Obtain EPA indoor air quality publications (see
box on page 6-12).
Operating and
Maintaining HVAC
Equipment To Ensure
Indoor Air Quality
Maintaining good indoor air quality in your
building involves reviewing and amending current
practices. Once you have created an indoor air
quality profile of your building, you can use it to
develop an indoor air quality management plan.
Such a plan will ensure that indoor air quality
considerations become a part of routine proce-
dures. The plan should include the following
activities:
• Informing and training staff, occupants, and
contractors as to their responsibilities relating
to indoor air quality.
• Maintaining all equipment and controls in
proper working order.
• Keeping equipment and mechanical rooms as
well as the interior of ductwork clean and dry.
Indoor air quality can be affected both by the
quality of maintenance and by the materials and
procedures used in operating and maintaining the
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6.1—Indoor Air Quality
ASHRAE Standards and Guidelines Related to Indoor Air Quality
The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration,
and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) has pub-
lished three standards and one guideline related to
indoor airquality. These standards are summarized
below. ASHRAE materials are available from their
Publications Sales Department, 1791 Tullie Circle
NE, Atlanta, Georgia 30329 (Phone 404-636-8400).
Standard 62-1989,
Ventilation for Acceptable Air Quality
ASH RAE 62-1989 is intended to assist in designing
building ventilation systems. It presents two proce-
dures for ventilation design. With the Ventilation
Rate procedure, acceptable air quality is achieved
by specifying a given quantity and quality of outdoor
air based on occupant density and space usage.
The Air Quality procedure is a performance specifi-
cation that allows acceptable air quality to be
achieved within a space by controlling known and
specifiable contaminants. Important features of the
standard include the following:
• A definition of acceptable air quality.
• A discussion of ventilation effectiveness.
• Recommendation of the use of source control
through isolation and local exhaust contami-
nants.
• Recommendations for the use of heat recovery
ventilation.
• A guideline for allowable carbon dioxide levels.
• Appendices listing suggested possible guide-
lines for common indoor pollutants.
Standard 55-1981, Thermal Environmental
Conditions for Human Occupancy
ASHRAE 55-1981 covers several environmental
parameters, including temperature, radiation,
humidity, and air movement. It specifies conditions
to ensure the comfort of healthy people in normal
indoor environments in winter and summer condi-
tions. It also attempts to introduce limits on tempera-
ture variations within a space and describes
adjustment factors for various levels of occupant
activity and types of clothing. Important features of
the standard include the following:
• A definition of acceptable thermal comfort.
• A discussion of additional environmental param-
eters that must be considered.
• Recommendations for summer and winter com-
fort zones for both temperature and relative
humidity.
• A guideline for making adjustments for various
activity levels.
• Guidelines for taking measurements.
Standard 52-76, Method of Testing
Air-Cleaning Devices Used in General
Ventilation for Removing Particulate Matter
This standard describes two ways to test air clean-
ing systems.
The atmospheric dust spot test determines the
efficiency of a medium-efficiency air cleaner by
evaluating its ability to reduce soiling of a clean
paper target. The weight arrestance test is gener-
ally used to evaluate low-efficiency filters by deter-
mining the weight of a standard synthetic dust
trapped in the filter. Important features of the stan-
dard include the following:
• Definitions of arrestance and efficiency.
• Establishment of a uniform comparative testing
procedureforevaluating performance of airclean-
mg devices used in ventilation systems.
• Establishment of a uniform reporting method for
performance.
• Methods for evaluating resistance to airflow and
dust-holding capacity.
Guideline 1-1989, Guideline for the
Commissioning of HVAC Systems
This guideline is intended to assist professionals by
providing procedures and methodsfor documenting
and verifying the performance of HVAC systems so
that they operate in conformity with the design
intent. Important features of the guideline include
the following:
• Definition of the commissioning process.
• Discussion of the process involved in a proper
commissioning procedure.
• Sample specification and forms for logging infor-
mation.
• Recommendation for implementation of correc-
tive measures as warranted.
• Guidelines for operator training.
• Guidelines for periodic maintenance and
recommissioning as needed.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 6-9
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Chapter 6—Building Environmental Quality Issues
building and its systems, particularly the HVAC
system. The maintenance staff can best respond to
indoor air quality concerns if they understand how
their activities affect indoor air quality. It may be
necessary to change existing practices or intro-
duce new procedures in any of the following
areas:
Equipment Operating Schedules. The building
should be flushed by the ventilation system
before occupants arrive. Occupancy cycles
should correspond to actual occupied periods.
Controlling Odors and Contaminants. Main-
tain appropriate pressure relationships between
building usage areas. Provide adequate local
exhaust. Ensure that paint, solvents, and other
chemicals are stored and handled properly, with
adequate ventilation provided.
Ventilation Quantities. Compare outdoor air
quantities with the building's design goal and
local and state building codes. Make adjust-
ments as necessary. You may also find it
informative to compare your ventilation rates
with ASHRAE standard 62-1989 (or the latest
standard), as it was developed with preventing
indoor air quality problems in mind.
Equipment Maintenance Schedules. Inspect
all equipment regularly to ensure that it is in
good condition and is operating as designed.
Be thorough in conducting these inspections.
Components exposed to water require scrupu-
lous maintenance to prevent microbiological
growth and the entry of undesired micro-
biologicals or chemicals into the indoor air-
stream.
Building Maintenance Schedules. Schedule
maintenance activities that interfere with
HVAC operations or that produce odors and
emissions to occur when the building is
unoccupied.
Purchasing. Request information from suppli-
ers about chemical emissions associated with
materials being considered for purchase.
Preventive Maintenance Management. Main-
tenance "indicators" (for example, manometers
for filter banks) can help the staff determine
when routine maintenance is required. Com-
puterized systems that prompt the staff to carry
out maintenance activities at the proper inter-
vals are also available.
Diagnosing HVAC-Related
Indoor Air Quality Problems
Indoor air quality complaints often arise because
the quantity or distribution of outdoor air is
inadequate to meet the ventilation needs of
building occupants. An investigation of these
complaints should begin with the components of
the HVAC systems that serve the complaint area
and surrounding rooms and then be expanded as
necessary. The following questions should be
answered:
• Are the components that serve the immediate
complaint area functioning properly?
• Is the HVAC system adequate for the current
use of the building?
• Are ventilation (or thermal comfort) deficien-
cies evident?
• Should the definition of the complaint area be
expanded based upon the HVAC system's
layout and operating characteristics?
An evaluation of the HVAC system may include
limited measurements of temperature, humidity,
airflow, and carbon dioxide as well as smoke-tube
observations.
The following items should be included in an
HVAC system inspection:
Check temperature and humidity to see if the
complaint area is in the comfort range.
Check for indicators of adequate ventilation.
Check to see if the equipment serving the
complaint area is operating properly.
Compare the current system to the original
design.
Check to see if the layout of air supplies,
returns, and exhausts promotes efficient air
distribution to all occupants and isolates or
dilutes contaminants.
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6.1—Indoor Air Quality
Consider whether the HVAC system itself may
be a source of contaminants.
Compare the original uses of space to current
uses.
Observe the direction of air movement.
A detailed engineering study may be required
if the investigation discovers the following
problems:
• Airflows are low.
• HVAC controls are not working or are working
according to inappropriate strategies.
• Building operators do not understand (or are
unfamiliar with) the HVAC system.
A review of existing HVAC system documenta-
tion (plans, specifications, testing and balancing
reports) should provide information about the
original design and later modifications. If there is
no documentation, an intensive on-site inspection
will be required.
The building staff can provide important informa-
tion about equipment operating and maintenance
schedules and breakdowns or other incidents. In
addition, inspection reports or other written
records may be available for review. Those who
are familiar with building systems in general and
with specific features of the building under
investigation can be helpful in identifying condi-
tions that may be causing complaints about indoor
air quality.
Mitigating Indoor Air
Quality Problems
Modifications to ventilation systems are often
used to correct or prevent indoor air quality
problems. This approach can be effective when
buildings are underventilated or when a specific
source of contamination cannot be identified.
Ventilation can be used to control indoor air
contaminants by:
Diluting contaminants with outdoor air.
—Increasing the proportion of outdoor air to
total air.
—Improving air distribution.
Isolating or removing contaminants by controlling
air pressure relationships.
—Installing effective local exhaust at the
location of the source.
—Eliminating recirculation of contaminated air.
—Locating contamination sources near exhaust
registers.
—Using air-tightening techniques to maintain
pressure differentials and eliminate pollutant
pathways.
—Closing doors when necessary to separate
zones.
Other ways to maintain indoor air quality include
the following:
• Correcting design deficiencies such as inad-
equate outside air intakes or variable air boxes
that close completely because they do not have
a set minimum.
• Eliminating reentrainment of exhaust air and
combustion gases.
• Eliminating reentrainment through heat-
recovery wheels (when applicable).
• Improving the efficiency of the air cleaning and
filtration system.
• Ensuring proper operation of the HVAC
system.
• Performing regular maintenance on the HVAC
system.
• Eliminating or controlling microbiological and
chemical contaminants.
• Educating the building operating staff and
tenants about indoor air quality.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual 6-11
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Chapter 6—Building Environmental Quality Issues
Sources of Additional Information on Indoor Air Quality
EPA's Indoor Air Quality Clearinghouse, IAQINFO,
is an easily accessible central source of information
and publications on indoor air quality. It provides
information on indoorairpollutants and theirsources,
health effects related to indoor air pollution, testing
and measuring of indoor air pollutants, controlling
indoor air pollutants, constructing and maintaining
buildings to minimize indoor air quality problems,
standards and guidelines related to indoor air qual-
ity, and general information on Federal and State
legislation related to indoor air quality.
An IAQ INFO specialist can quickly put you in touch
with a variety of resources, including citations and
abstracts on more than 2,000 books, reports, and
articles; an inventory of Federal Government publi-
cations; and information on more than 150 govern-
ment, research, public interest, and private sector
organizations involved with indoor air quality. The
specialist can answerquestions, send Federal Gov-
ernment publications (most are free) or a list of
publications, referyou to appropriate government or
other organizations, and provide you with a bibliog-
raphy on a topic for further reference.
Among the publications available are the following:
• The Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air Quality
(IAQ-0009)
• Fact Sheet: Respiratory Health Effects of
Passive Smoking: Lung Cancer and Other
Disorders (IAQ-0046)
• Targeting Indoor Air Pollution: EPA's Approach
and Progress (IAQ-0029)
• Fact Sheet: Ventilation and Air Quality in
Offices (IAQ-0003)
• Fact Sheet: Sick Building Syndrome
(IAQ-0004)
• Fact Sheet: Report to Congress on Indoor Air
Quality (Summary of Report) (IAQ-0006)
• Fact Sheet: Carpet and Indoor Air Quality
(IAQ-0040)
• Current Federal Indoor Air Quality Activities
(IAQ-0011)
• Directory of State Indoor Air Contacts
(IAQ-0012)
• Compendium of Methods for Determination of
Air Pollutants in Indoor Air—Project Summary
(IAQ-0022)
To request any of these titles (please include the
catalog number), to request a complete list of titles,
or to speak to an IAQ INFO specialist, call IAQ
INFO's toll-free number, 1-800-438-4318, Mon-
day through Friday, 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. eastern time
(after hours you can leave a message). You can
write or fax any time. The address is IAQ INFO, P.O.
Box 37133, Washington, D.C. 20013-7133. The fax
number is 301-588-3408.
The EPA and National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) publication Building Air
Quality: A Guide for Building Owners and Facil-
ity Managers provides valuable information on how
to develop a building profile that can help you
prevent indoor air quality problems, create an indoor
air quality management plan, identify causes of
indoor air quality problems and develop solutions to
those problems as they occur, identify appropriate
control strategies, and decide if you need outside
technical assistance. You will also find sections
covering key causes of indoor air quality, air quality
sampling, HVAC systems, and moisture problems,
plus a wide variety of checklists and forms that can
help you manage indoor air quality and diagnose
problems. The publication also includes an exten-
sivelisting of indoorairquality information resources.
This publication, published in a looseleaf binder
format, is available for $24 from the Superintendent
of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20402-9325 (credit card orders
by phone, 202-783-3238, or fax, 202-512-2250).
The National Environmental Health Association's
Introduction to Indoor Air Quality set, a reference
manual and a self-paced learning module, is avail-
able from the Association at 720 Colorado Boule-
vard, 970 South Tower, Denver, Colorado 80222
(phone 303-756-9090). The price is $40 for mem-
bers and $47 for nonmembers.
The Survey of Indoor Air Quality Diagnostic and
Mitigation Firms is available in hardcopy ($44.50)
and microfiche ($12.50) from the National Technical
Information Service, 5245 Port Royal Road, Spring-
field, Virginia 22161. Phone 800-553-6847 or 703-
487-460. Order item number PB90-130469.
Also available from the National Technical Informa-
tion Service is the four-volume Report to Congress
on Indoor Air Quality (Aem number PB90-167362;
$77 papercopy, $34 microfiche). The volumes are
also available individually: Executive Summary and
Recommendations (item number PB90-167370;
$17.50 papercopy, $9 microfiche); Volume 1—Fed-
eral Programs Addressing Indoor Air Quality (item
number PB90-167388; $19.50 papercopy, $9 mi-
crofiche); Volume 2—Assessment and Control (item
number PB90-167396; $36.50 papercopy, $12.50
microfiche); and Volume 3—Research Needs State-
ment (item number PB90-167404; $19.50 paper-
copy, $9 microfiche).
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Survey Forms
and Instructions
This appendix contains the forms that you will be using to
conduct the surveys described in the Introduction to this
manual.
Survey forms for each stage of the Energy Star Buildings
Program are included, as listed below.
Note: Stage 1 surveys related to your lighting systems are
completed as part of your participation in the Green Lights
Program. Refer to your Lighting Upgrade Manual for more
information.
Stage 2: Building Tune-Up pageA-3
Stage 3: Windows and Roofing page A-19
Stage 4: Variable Air Volume Systems page A-31
Stage 5: Chillers pageA-43
Additional survey forms will be added as more sections are
developed for this manual.
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First Edition, October 1993
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Stage 2
Building Tune-Up Survey
About This Survey
This survey will familiarize you with the condition of your building's systems and
enable you to determine which systems need to be tuned up in Stage 2 of the
Energy Star Buildings Program.
The survey has two main tasks: analysis and inspection. To complete it, you will
need to analyze some existing information and then obtain some additional infor-
mation by conducting general inspections in various areas of the building.
Survey Team Members
The survey team should include the following people: building engineer, HVAC
technician, and controls technician.
How To Conduct the Survey
Information and examples for each step in the survey are included at the beginning
of the survey to help you collect the necessary data. Response forms to use in
recording your findings are attached at the end of the survey.
Copy the response forms before you begin the survey.
If you need more space for your responses, make an additional copy of the appro-
priate blank form.
Items Needed for the Survey
I I As-built drawings for all systems.
I I Maintenance logs (including records of complaints).
If you have an energy management system, the system logs showing condi-
tions for a variety of operating schedules, sequences, and control conditions.
| | Operations and maintenance manuals for major systems.
n Utility bills (gas and electric) for the last 24 months.
I | Sequences of operations for major systems.
I. ....... I Temperature and humidity probes.
Green Lights surveys and implementation reports (if available).
"Energy Star Buildings Manual ' Building Tune-Up Survey A-3
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Analyze current energy consumption.
I I Chart your energy consumption (in kilowatthours) for the last 24 months on the
table on the following page. Do not chart demand.
i I Note any unusual patterns in consumption. These may help you determine systems
that need to be tuned up.
Examples: Energy consumption in the spring or fall is exceptionally high.
Usage in a certain month is much higher than consumption for that
month in the previous year.
| | Calculate your average annual cost of energy per square foot. Use the following
formula:
Total Annual Cost of Energy •*• Total Building Area
I I Contact your local utilities to determine if your average cost of energy falls within
the average costs for your area and building type.
I | Compare your annual cost of energy to the average costs for various cities in the
table below. Is there a wide variation?
I | If you have more than one building, compare the annual cost of energy for each
building.
Average Cost of Energy in Major U.S. Cities
(dollars per square foot per year)
City Cost of Energy City Cost of Energy
Atlanta, Georgia 1.54 Los Angeles, California 1.91
Baltimore, Maryland 2.21 Memphis, Tennessee 1.19
Birmingham, Alabama 1.69 Miami, Florida 1.93
Boston, Massachusetts 1.99 Nashville, Tennessee 1.59
Charlotte, North Carolina 1.40 New Orleans, Louisiana 1.35
Chicago, Illinois 1.49 New York, New York 2.93
Cleveland, Ohio 2.02 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 2.42
Denver, Colorado 1.28 Seattle, Washington 0.91
Houston, Texas 1.49 St. Louis, Missouri 2.00
Source: Building Operating Management Experience Exchange Report, 1991.
A-4 Building Tune-Up Survey First ^ition, October 1993
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24-Month Energy Consumption Table
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<<£• Analyze the complaint logs for your building.
C I Record any areas where there have been consistent complaints about temperature or
humidity.
Example:
Location
Fourth floor, southwest side
Problem
Temperature too cold in afternoon
Energy Star Buildings Manual
Building Tund-Up Survey A-5
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Analyze the energy management system logs.
I I If you have an energy management system, look at the logs for the past heating or
cooling season (or both) and note any areas that consistently do not maintain
temperature or humidity settings during certain parts of the day.
Examples:
Location Problem
Zone 16 (fourth floor, southwest) 10 AM temp. 72°; 3 PM temp. 81°
Zone 21 (sixth floor, southeast) 8 AM temp. 72°; 11 AM temp. 65°
Inspect the areas listed in items 2 and 3 during the times complaints are
recorded and energy management system readings are inconsistent.
I | Note the location of sensing devices located near supply diffusers, drafts, and outer
walls or in direct sunlight (the best location is near the return air grille).
I | Take temperature and humidity readings with temperature and humidity probes.
Note the location of sensors whose readings do not match those of the probes.
Examples:
The complaint log shows complaints about an area on the southwest side of the fourth floor where it
is too cold in the afternoon. The energy management system shows a temperature reading of 81" F.
for this area at that time. An inspection finds that the actual temperature in the area is 65° F. The
sensor is located in direct sunlight.
. The energy management system shows decreasing temperatures in zone 21. The inspection finds a
VAV box damper that is stuck fully open.
Poorly Located Sensors Mechanical Problems
Zone 16 (room 423) Zone 21 (room 602) damper wide open
J . Inspect the building's exterior systems.
I | Walk through the building to inspect the condition of windows, outer doors, and
other openings. Record the location of the following:
Leaks.
Drafts (Note: complaint logs may also help locate drafts).
Missing or worn weatherstripping, sealant, or caulking.
Example:
Location Problem
North Entrance Lobby Weatherstripping worn; drafts
A-6 Building Tune-Up Survey First Edition. October 1993
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0« Inspect mechanical equipment rooms.
I I Conduct an inspection of the mechanical equipment rooms in your building and
note the location of any problems. Inspect both air-side and water-side systems.
Look for the following types of problems:
Air-Side Systems:
Ducts: Leaks in ducts in mechanical equipment rooms.
Dampers: Leaks and other problems (for example, dampers stuck open).
Controls: Not calibrated; Not operating according to sequence of operation.
Fans: Excessive vibration or noise; Worn or loose belts; Leaking lubricant.
Air Filters: Filters need to be cleaned or replaced.
Pneumatic Lines: Air leaks; Water present.
Examples:
Location Equipment Problem
M.E. Room 4N AHU 12N Air duct leaking
M.E. Room 4N AHU 12N Outside air damper stuck open
M.E. Room 4N AHU 12N Return air damper actuator leaks
M.E. Room 4N AHU 12N Pre-filter clogged
Water-Side Systems
Leaks in Pipes, Steam Traps, Pumping Glands, Valves, Boilers, Water
Generators.
Pipes, Tanks: Lack of adequate insulation; Condensation.
Pumps: Dirty strainers.
Air Separator: Allowing air into the system.
Controls: Not operating according to sequence of operation.
Cooling Towers: Excessive rust; Leaks; Dirty cells; Improper fan operation;
Faulty freeze protection.
Examples:
Location Equipment Problem
Cooling Plant CHW Pump 4 Leak in pumping gland
Cooling Plant CHWS Pump No insulation on 6-ft. run of CHWS
pipes between chiller and pumps
-,, Cooling Plant Chiller 1 CHWS Temp. 42°; Setpoint is 45°
-,' ~, > _^—^^ —^^___^____ ___^_____——————
;> \ • Roof Cooling Tower 1 Rust at basin overflow outlet
Energy star Buildings Manual Building Tune-Up Survey A-7
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/ . Analyze operating schedules.
8.
| I Walk through the building during occupied and unoccupied hours. Record unoccu-
pied areas where lights are on.
Note: Stage 1 surveys conducted for the Green Lights Program may already have
covered this item.
Examples:
Area Room(s) Schedule/Occupancy
Second floor Meeting Room Lights on 24 hours
Fifth floor All offices All lights on; one office in use
I | Walk through the building during occupied and unoccupied hours (combine these
circuits with the lighting survey circuits if desired). Record office equipment in
unoccupied areas that has been left on.
Examples:
Area Room(s) Schedule/Occupancy
Third floor All offices Computers and printers on 24 hours
Second floor Room 226 Copy machine on 24 hours
I I Record the operating schedules for air handling units and other equipment and
compare them to the schedules specified in their sequences of operations.
Example:
Location Equipment Schedule/Occupancy
M.E. Room 4N AHU 12N Unit is on 24 hours; sequence says
12 hours required. Faulty relay does
not turn fan off when required.
Inspect temperature and humidity controls.
I"""! Conduct a spot inspection of the accuracy of temperature and humidity controls.
Check at least one interior and exterior area on each floor as well as all heat- and
humidity-sensitive areas such as computer rooms.
Example:
Area Room(s) Temperature/Humidity Reading
Fourth floor Zone 4-4 Sensor says 74°; probe reads 79°
A-8 Building Tune-Up Survey First Edition, October 1993
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Stage 2—Building Tune-Up Survey
Response Form
JL • I Analyze Current Energy Consumption
Unusual Patterns in Energy Consumption:
Average Cost of Energy per Square Foot in Your Building:
(Total Annual Cost of Energy + Total Building Area)
Comparison of Energy Costs with average costs for your area and building type,
with average costs in other cities, and with your other buildings:
Energy Star Buildings Manual Building Tune-Up Survey A-9
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Stage 2—Building Tune-Up Survey
Response Form
Analyze the Complaint Logs for Your Building
Location Problem
A-10 Building Tune-Up Survey First Edition, October 1993
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Stage 2—Building turt^Up Survey
Response Form
Analyze the Energy Management System Logs
Location Problem
Energy Star Buildings Manual Building Tune-Up Survey A-11
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=1 . :
Stage 2—Building Tune-Up Survey
f Response Form
TT» I Inspection Results
Poorly Located Sensors Mechanical Problems
A-12 Building Tune-Up Survey First Edition, October 1993
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Stage 2-Building Tune-Up Survey
' " Form
Inspect the Building's Exterior Systems
Location Problem
Energy Star Buildings Manual Building Tune-Up Survey A-13
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6.
Stage 2—Building Tune-Up Survey
Response Form
Inspect Mechanical Equipment Rooms
Air-Side Systems:
Location Equipment Problem
A-14 Building Tune-Up Survey First Edition, October 1993
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6.
Stage 2—Building Tune-Up Survey
Response Form
Inspect Mechanical Equipment Rooms (continued)
Water-Side Systems:
Location Equipment Problem
Energy Star Buildings Manual Building Tune-Up Survey A-15
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»
**< " ' ^ . ^
"*,- 5 > »•
r
Stage 2—Building Tune-Up Survey
;,." .;••••(vP£~;-''Response Form
Analyze Operating Schedules
Lighting and Office Equipment:
Area Room(s) Schedule/Occupancy
A-16 BuMng Tune-Up Survey First Edition, October 1993
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Stage 2—Buildingfutte-llp Survey
'•',••' t j *< .v_±.^& > ..,- '4 «• t *i '>, % ti «i is «. ,',"€
7.
Analyze Operating Schedules (continued)
Air Handling Unit and Other Equipment:
Location Equipment Schedule/Occupancy
Energy Star Buildings Manual Building Tune-Up Survey A-17
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Stage 2—Building Tune-Up Survey
Response Form
Inspect Temperature and Humidity Controls
Area Room(s) Temperature/Humidity Reading
A-18 Building Tune-Up Survey First Edition. October 1993
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Stages
Window and Roofing Survey
About This Survey
This survey will familiarize you with the condition of your building's exterior shell
and enable you to determine if window and roofing upgrades can be profitable in
your building in Stage 3 of the Energy Star Buildings Program.
To complete the survey, you will need to visually inspect your building's windows,
roofing, and insulation. You will also need to analyze some existing information
and perform a few simple calculations.
Survey Team Members
The survey team should include the following people: building engineer.
How To Conduct the Survey
Information and examples for each step in the survey are included at the beginning
of the survey to help you collect the necessary data. Response forms to use in
recording your findings are attached at the end of the survey.
Copy the response forms before you begin the survey.
If you need more space for your responses, make an additional copy of the appro-
priate blank form.
Items Needed for the Survey
I I Latest version of the architectural drawings for your building.
I I Maintenance logs (including records of complaints).
| j If you have an energy management system, the system logs showing condi-
tions for a variety of operating schedules, sequences, and control conditions.
j I Operations and maintenance manuals for major systems.
j | Calculator.
Energy Star Buildings Manual Window and Roofing Survey A-19
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2.
Analyze the maintenance and complaint logs for your building.
| | List areas where complaints about leaks or drafts, excessive heat or glare from
windows, or other complaints related to the windows or roof have been recorded.
Examples:
Location Problem
Room 2E-11 Window leaks
Room 5N-27 Too hot in afternoon sun
Analyze the energy management system logs.
| | If you have an energy management system, look at the logs for the last heating or
cooling season (or both) and note any areas on the top floor or on the outside edge
of any floor that consistently do not maintain temperature or humidity settings
during certain parts of the day.
Examples:
Location Problem
Fourth floor (top) Temp. 7-9° warmer than other floors
All floors, southwest Temp. 10° warmer in afternoon
Conduct a general inspection of the windows and roof.
I I Note the location of any areas with leakage or damage. Pay particular attention to
the areas noted in items 1 and 2 above.
Example:
Location Problem
Roof, northwest corner Standing water leaks to insulation
All floors, southwest Direct sunlight in afternoon
I I Describe the general condition of the roof.
I I What color is the roof covering and what is its general condition?
Note the location of any areas where the roof insulation is wet.
A-20 Window and Roofing Survey First Edition, October 1993
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Record the number, size, and location of each type of window on the building (for
example, fixed-sash, double-hung, casement).
Example:
Type Size Location(s) Number
Double-hung 6x8 All sides 60
Casement 14 x 20 West side
Record the number, size, and location of windows with each type of glazing (for
example, single, double, triple).
Example;
Glazing Size Location(s) Number
Double 6x8 All sides 60
Single 14x20 West side
j Note the number, size, and location of windows that already have window coatings
(for example, clear, tinted or colored, reflective).
f
\ > Example:
\ :' Coating Size Location(s) Number
' *' Tinted 14x20 West side 4
>• i
II Note the number, size, and location of windows with each type of interior shading
(for example, shades, horizontal blinds, vertical blinds, curtains).
Example:
Interior Shade Size Location(s) Number
Miniblinds . 6x8 All sides 60
Curtains 14 x 20 West side
* Record the following additional information about your building's roof.
I I Type of roof construction (for example, built-up, asphalt roll, modified bitumen,
shingle, metal).
Type of decking (for example, steel, precast concrete).
Type of insulation (for example, mineral fiber, polystyrene, polyisocyanurate,
foam, fiberboard).
R-Value of insulation (between 0 and 44).
Energy Star Buildings Manual Window and Roofing Survey A-21
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Record the following information about your building.
II Number of floors.
| | Number of heating days.
I I Number of cooling days.
I I Roof-to-building-envelope ratio. Use the following formula:
Total roof area (square feet) -5- Total gross area of building exterior (square feet)
Example:
Building is 120 feet long, 100 feet wide, 45 feet high.
Roof area is 12,000 square feet (120 x 100).
Total gross area is 31,800 square feet:
(120 x 100) + [(100 x 45) x 2] + [(120 x 45) x 2]
Roof-to-building-envelope ratio (12,000 + 31,800) is 38 percent.
r~"'i Glass-to-exterior-wall ratio on each side of the building. Use the following
formula:
First calculate the total area of the wall:
Width x Height
Next calculate the total area of windows on the wall:
Number of Windows x (Width of Window x Height of Window)
Now divide the window area by the wall area:
Total Window Area -i- Total Wall Area
Example:
A single-story building has a north wall 100 feet long and 10 feet high.
The wall has four windows, each 5 feet long and 6 feet high.
Total wall area is 1,000 square feet (100 feet x 10 feet).
Total window area is 120 square feet [4 x (5 feet x 6 feet)].
Percent of glass to exterior wall is 12 percent (120 square feet + 1,000 square feet).
A-22 Window and Roofing Survey First Edition, October 1993
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!- .' - i , !i , " „ ' !> j
Stage 3—Window and Roofing Survey
1 ; > c t * ^ " '• ' 'i ! ! -f" L. .< ^ f! : J. * t< > ., ^ " c^^^ *< t| j,
Form
Analyze the Maintenance and Complaint Logs for Your Building
Location Problem
Energy Star Buildings Manual Window and Roofing Survey A-23
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Stage 3—Window and Roofing Survey
Response Form
Analyze the Energy Management System Logs
Location Problem
A-24 Window and Pooling Survey P/ref Edition, October 1993
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Stage 3—Window and Roof ing Survey
Response Form
! ; < f W *
Conduct a General Inspection of the Windows and Roof
Location Problem
Energy Star Buildings Manual Window and Roofing Survey A-25
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Stage 3—Window and Roofing Survey
Response Form
Conduct a General Inspection of the Windows and Roof (continued)
Describe the general condition of the roof:
What color is the roof covering and what is its general condition?
Note the location of any areas where the roof insulation is wet:
A-26 Window and Roofing Survey First Edition, October 1993
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Stage 3—Window and Roofing Survey
Response Form
3.
Conduct a General Inspection of the Windows and Roof (continued)
Window Type (Fixed Sash, Double Hung, Casement, Other)
Type Size(s) Location(s) Number
Glazing Type (Single, Double, Triple, Other)
Type Size(s) Location(s)
Number
Energy Star Buildings Manual
Window and Rooting Survey A-27
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Stage 3—Window and Roofing Survey
Response Form
Conduct a General Inspection of the Windows and Roof (continued)
Existing Window Coatings (Clear, Tinted or Colored, Reflective, Other)
Type Size(s) Location(s) Number
Interior Shading (Shades, Blinds, Curtains, Other)
Type Size(s) Location(s)
Number
A-28 Window and Roofing Survey
First Edition. October 1993
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Stage 3—Window and Roof ing Survey
Response Form
|Tr« I Record the Following Additional Information About the Roof
Roof construction (type and area):
Decking (type and area):
Roof insulation (type and area):
R-value of insulation (R-value and area):
Energy Star Buildings Manual Window and Roofing Survey A-29
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Stage 3—Window and Roofing Survey
Response Form
5.
Record the Following Information About Your Building
Number of floors:
Number of heating days:
Number of cooling days:
Roof-to-building-envelope ratio:
Total roof area (square feet) •+• Total gross area of building exterior (square feet)
Glass-to-exterior-wall ratio:
Area of the wall: Width x Height
Area of windows on wall: No. Windows x (Window Width x Window Height)
Area of Windows on Wall •*• Area of the Wall
A-30 Window and Roofing Survey First Edition, October 1993
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Stage 4
Variable Air Volume
System Survey
About This Survey
This survey provides the data needed to use the QuikFan computer program to
determine which variable air volume system upgrades can be profitable in your
building in Stage 4 of the Energy Star Buildings Program. It also provides other
information about your air handling units and their fans and motors that may be
needed as you plan your upgrades.
Note: See Section 4.3 for an introduction to the QuikFan program, including
operating instructions.
To complete the survey, you will need to obtain some general information about
your building, perform a few simple calculations, and visually inspect the air
handling units and record some nameplate information.
Survey Team Members
The survey team should include the following people: building engineer, HVAC
technician, and electrician.
How To Conduct the Survey
Information and examples for each step in the survey are included at the beginning
of the survey to help you collect the necessary data. Response forms to use in
recording your findings are attached at the end of the survey.
Copy the response forms before you begin the survey.
If you need more space for your responses, make an additional copy of the appro-
priate blank form.
Items Needed for the Survey
I I Latest version of the architectural, mechanical, and electrical drawings for
your building.
| I If you have an energy management system, the system logs showing condi-
tions for a variety of operating schedules, sequences, and control conditions.
I I Electric bills from the last 12 months.
n Calculator.
Energy Star Buildings Manual Variable Air Volume System Survey A-31
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Record the following information about the building's air handling units.
Unit identification number or serial number.
I | Net conditioned area served by this unit (in square feet).
I | Operating hours (weekday, Saturday, and Sunday/holiday).
Note number of holidays.
j I Supply Fan Motor:
Horsepower.
Age.
Efficiency (in percent). This is the nominal NEMA efficiency from the motor's
nameplate, or calculate:
(Output Power •*• Input Power) x 100
I I Type of supply fan (for example, forward curved, backward curved, backward
inclined, airfoil, radial).
I I Supply fan's variable air volume control (for example, inlet vane, discharge
damper, variable pitch, variable speed drive).
I I AHU's design (installed) airflow (in cubic feet per minute).
This can be obtained from the air handling unit schedule in the building's
mechanical drawings.
I | AHU's maximum airflow (percent).
Measure airflow at maximum load conditions (for example, a hot summer day).
Divide the result by the design airflow.
Multiply the result by 100.
|| AHU's minimum outside airflow (percent).
This can be obtained from the air handling unit schedule in the building's
mechanical drawings.
If the minimum outside airflow is given in cubic feet per minute (cfm) rather than a
percentage, divide the minimum airflow cfm by the design the airflow cfm and
multiply the result by 100.
F"l Ratio of required airflow to design airflow. This is a measure of whether the unit is
oversized or undersized. To determine the ratio:
Measure airflow (cfm) at maximum load conditions (for example, a hot
summer day).
Subtract the maximum airflow (cfm) from the design airflow (cfm).
Divide the result by the design airflow.
Multiply the result by 100.
A-32 Variable Air Volume System Survey First Edition, October 1993
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Example 1 (Undersized System):
Airflow at maximum load conditions is measured at 12,000 cubic feet per minute.
Design airflow is 10,000 cubic feet per minute.
The difference is 2,000 (12,000 - 10,000).
The percent of design CFM is [(2,000 -s- 10,000) x 100].
The unit is undersized by 20 percent.
Example 2 (Oversized System):
Airflow at maximum load conditions is measured at 8,000 cubic feet per minute.
Design airflow is 10,000 cubic feet per minute.
. The difference is -2,000 (8,000 - 10,000).
The percent of design CFM is [(-2,000 -;- 10,000) x 100].
The unit is oversized by 20 percent.
I | Return Fan Motor:
Horsepower.
Age.
Efficiency (in percent). This is the nominal NEMA efficiency from the motor's
nameplate, or calculate:
(Output Power + Input Power) x 100
I I Type of return fan (for example, forward curved, backward curved, backward
inclined, airfoil, radial, vane axial, tube axial, variable air volume).
Return fan's variable air volume control (for example, inlet vane, discharge damper,
variable pitch, variable speed drive).
Calculate the required cooling load for the building.
Chiller load method:
II What is the installed capacity of the chiller (in tons)?
I I What is the required cooling load for the chiller (in tons)?
To determine the required cooling load, take the following measurements in the
afternoon on a typical hot summer day (to capture peak load effects on your system).
Note: an energy management system may also have these measurements.
a. Temperature of the chilled water supply (CHWS). A temperature gauge should be
found on the pipe at the chiller's supply outlet.
b. Temperature of the chilled water return (CHWR). A temperature gauge should be
found on the pipe at the chiller's return inlet.
c. Flow rate of the chilled water supply in GPM (gallons per minute). A flow rate
gauge should be found on the supply pipe.
Energy Star Buildings Manual " Variable Air Volume System Survey A-33
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Now do the following calculations:
CHWR - CHWS = T
T x 500 x (GPM - 12,000) = Load (in tons)
Load x 1.1 = Required Cooling Load
Example:
A building has a chiller with an installed capacity of 170 tons.
Measured CHWR temperature is 55° F.
Measured CHWS temperature is 45° F.
Measured flow rate is 300 GPM.
T= 10(55-45).
Load = 125 tons [10 x 500 x (300 + 12,000)].
Required cooling load =138 tons (125 x 1.1).
II What is the percentage of chiller utilization?
To determine the percentage:
Divide the required cooling load (in tons) by the installed chiller capacity (in tons).
Multiply the result by 100.
Example:
Installed chiller capacity is 170 tons; required cooling load is 138 tons, as
determined in the example above.
Ratio of required capacity to installed capacity is 0.81 (138 -s-170).
Percentage of chiller utilization is 81 percent (0.81 x 100).
I I What percentage of the chiller's load does this air handling unit represent?
To determine the percentage:
From the air handling unit schedule in the building's mechanical drawings, record
the cooling coil's flow rating in GPM (gallons per minute).
Divide this number by the flow rate (GPM) of the chilled water supply (see above).
Multiply the result by 100.
Example:
]'•' Cooling coil's flow rating is 60 GPM.
Flow rate of the chilled water supply is 300 GPM,
: Ratio of the flow rating to flow rate is 0.20 (60 + 300).
: Percentage of the chiller's load is 20 percent (0.20 x 100).
Supply air method
I I From the air handling unit schedule in the building's mechanical drawings, record
the design supply air dry bulb temperature, the return air dry bulb temperature, and
the return air wet bulb temperature.
A-34 Variable Air Volume System Survey F//s/ Edition, October 1993
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4.
Record load reductions.
Green Lights
| | Using Green Lights survey data, record lighting power requirements (in watts per
square foot) both before and after implementation of Green Lights upgrades.
j | If Green Lights survey data are not available, you should be able to estimate
lighting power requirements before and after Green Lights implementation by
using the Quikalc Fixture Table in Appendix A of your Lighting Upgrade Manual
(see page A-24 in that manual):
1. Identify the building's most common fixture, lamp, and ballast combination.
2. Use the Fixture Table to find the fixture system wattage for the combination.
3. Multiply: Fixture System Wattage x Number of Fixtures in a Typical Space.
4. Divide the result by the Area of the Office (square feet).
5. The result is the lighting power requirement in watts per square foot.
| | A third alternative is to use the following formula to estimate lighting power
requirements before and after Green Lights implementation. This formula does not
, take lighting ballast into account, but will provide a reasonable approximation of
the lighting power requirements.
1. Record the number of lighting fixtures in the room.
2. Record the number of lamps per fixture.
3. Record the wattage of one of the lamps.
4. Multiply: Number of Fixtures x Lamps per Fixture x Watts per Lamp
5. Divide the result by the Area of the Office (square feet)
6. The result is the lighting power requirement in watts per square foot.
Other load reductions
{"""I To determine other load reductions, subtract the required cooling load (in tons)
from the installed capacity of the chiller.
See item 2 above for these two numbers.
Determine the cost of electricity for the building.
Calculate the average yearly cost of electricity for your building in dollars per
square foot.
To determine the cost of electricity per square foot:
Take your electric bills from the last 12 months, add the cost of electricity
(kilowatthours plus demand) from each.
Divide that total by total kilowatthours used.
Divide the result by the total square footage of the building.
Energy star Buildings Manual Variable Air Volume System Survey A-35
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Stage 4—Variable Air Volume System
Survey Response Form
jL» I Record Information About Air Handling Units
Air Handling Unit identification number or serial number:
Net conditioned area served by this unit (in square feet):
Operating hours:
Weekday
Saturday
Sunday/Holiday
Number of Holidays per year
Supply Fan Motor:
Horsepower
Age
Efficiency from nameplate, or calculate:
(Output Power + Input Power) x 100
Type of supply fan:
Forward Curved Backward Inclined
Backward Curved Airfoil
Radial Other
Supply fan's variable air volume control:
Inlet Vane Variable Pitch
Discharge Damper Variable Speed Drive
Other
A-36 Variable Air Volume System Survey First Edition. October 1993
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Stage 4—Variable Air Volume System
Survey Response Form
Record Information About Air Handling Units (continued)
AHU's design (installed) airflow (cubic feet per minute):
AHU's maximum airflow (percent)
(Airflow at Maximum Load + Design Airflow) x 100:
AHU's minimum outside airflow (percent)
Percentage of required airflow to design airflow.
Design airflow:
Airflow at maximum load conditions:
Subtract maximum airflow from design airflow:
Divide result by design airflow:
Multiply result by 100:
Percent oversized or undersized:
Return Fan Motor:
Horsepower
Age
Efficiency from nameplate, or calculate:
(Output Power + Input Power) x 100
Energy Star Buildings Manual Variable Air Volume System Survey A-37
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Stage 4—Variable Air Volume System
Survey Response Form
Record Information About Air Handling Units (continued)
Type of return fan:
Forward Curved Backward Inclined
Backward Curved Airfoil
Radial Vane Axial
Tube Axial Other
Return fan's variable air volume control:
Inlet Vane Variable Pitch
\2.
Discharge Damper Variable Speed Drive
Other
Calculate the Required Cooling Load for the Building
Chiller Load Method:
Installed capacity of the chiller (tons):
Required cooling load for the chiller
Temperature of the chilled water supply (CHWS):
Temperature of the chilled water return (CHWR):
Flow rate in the chilled water supply (GPM):
CHWS - CHWR. The result is T:
A-38 Variable Air Volume System Survey First Edition, October 1993
-------
Stage 4—Variable Air Volume System
Survey Response Form
Calculate the Required Cooling Load for the Building (continued)
T x 500 x (GPM + 12,000) = Load (in tons):
Load x 1.1 = Required Cooling Load:
Percentage of Chiller Utilization
(Required Cooling Load + Installed Chiller Capacity) x 100
Percentage of chiller capacity for this air handling unit
(Coil Flow Rating + Chilled Water Supply Flow Rate) x 100
Supply Air Method
Supply air dry bulb temperature.
Return air dry bulb temperature .
Return air wet bulb temperature.
* I Load Reductions
Green Lights
Green Lights survey data:
Lighting power requirements before Green Lights upgrades (watts per square foot):
Lighting power requirements after Green Lights upgrades (watts per square foot):
Energy Star Buildings Manual Variable Air Volume System Survey A-39
-------
Stage 4—Variable Air Volume System
^^ ... '. • ,! i „•' ' !\ '. : .; i ! .! ', ,! I' s ^ i
L
-------
Stage 4— Variable Air Volume System
Survey Response Form
Load Reductions (continued)
Calculate Number of Fixtures x Number of Lamps x Watts per Lamp
Divide result by area of the office (square feet). This is the lighting power
requirement in watts per square foot.
Other Load Reductions
Subtract (Installed Capacity of Chiller - Required Cooling Load)
4.
Cost of Electricity for the Building
Total electric charges (kilowatthours plus demand) and kilowatthours used during
the last 12 months:
Jan. Feb.
May Jun.
Sen. Oct.
1 2-month total costs
Mar.
Jul.
Nov.
Apr.
Aug.
Dec.
12-mnnfh total kilowatthours
Total Costs + Total Kilowatthours
Divide the result by square footage
of your building
Result is cost of electricity per square foot.
Energy Star Buildings Manual Variable Air Volume System Survey A-41
-------
This page intentionally left blank.
A-42 First Edition, October 1993
-------
Stage 5
Chiller Survey
About This Survey
This survey will familiarize you with the condition of your chiller and enable you
to determine if you can replace the chiller with a smaller, more energy-efficient
chiller in Stage 5 of the Energy Star Buildings Program. Some of the information
gathered during this survey will be used in calculating new cooling loads for your
building.
To complete the survey, you will need to visually inspect the chiller and record
some nameplate information, then perform some simple calculations.
Survey Team Members
The survey team should include the following people: building engineer, HVAC
technician, and electrician.
How To Conduct the Survey
Each item on the survey contains information and examples that will help you
conduct the survey. Response forms that you can use to record your findings are at
the end of the survey.
Copy the response forms before you begin the survey.
If you need more space for your responses, make an additional copy of the appro-
priate blank form.
Items Needed for the Survey
| I Latest version of the specifications for the chiller.
| | Operations and maintenance manual for the chiller.
PI If you have an energy management system, the system logs showing chilled
water supply and chilled water return temperatures and flow rates.
r™l Calculator.
Energy Star Buildings Manual Chiller Survey A-43
-------
J_ • Compile the following basic information about your chiller.
Type of chiller.
Manufacturer.
Type of refrigerant.
Age.
II Efficiency (kilowatts per ton).
n Size (in tons) (12,000 Btu per hour = 1 ton).
f • Calculate the required cooling load for your building.
I | What is the capacity of the chiller (in tons)?
I | What is the required cooling load for the building (in tons)? To determine required
cooling load, take the following measurements in the afternoon on a typical hot
summer day (to capture peak load effects on your system).
Note: an energy management system may also have these measurements.
Temperature of the chilled water supply (CHWS). A temperature gauge should
be found on the pipe at the chiller's supply outlet.
Temperature of the chilled water return (CHWR). A temperature gauge should
be found on the pipe at the chiller's return inlet.
Flow rate (GPM) of the chilled water supply. A flow rate gauge should be found
on the supply pipe.
\ j Now do the following calculations:
CHWR-CHWS = T
.' T x 500 x (GPM-*-12,000) = Load (in tons)
Load x 1.1 = Required Cooling Load
What is the ratio of required chiller capacity to installed chiller capacity (in tons)?
II Example:
A building has a chiller with an installed capacity of 170 tons.
Measured CHWR temperature is 55° F.
Measured CHWS temperature is 45° F.
Measured flow rate is 300 GPM.
T= 10 (55-45).
Load = 125 tons [10 x 500 x (300 - 12,000)].
Required cooling load =138 tons (125 x 1.1).
Ratio of required capacity to installed capacity is 0.81 (138 •*• 170).
A-44 Chiller Survey First Edition, October 1993
-------
Stage 5—Chiller Survey
Response Form
Compile Basic Information About Your Chiller
Type of chiller (check one)
Compression Refrigeration:
Air-Cooled Centrifugal
Water-Cooled Centrifugal
Reciprocating
Helical Rotary
Absorption Refrigeration:
Steam Heat
Hot Water Heat
Direct-Fired Heat
Manufacturer:
Age:
Refrigerant (check one):
CFC-11 R-500
CFC-12
CFC-114
HFC-134A
HCFC-22
Efficiency (kilowatts per ton):
Tonnage:
HCFC-123 _
HCFC-152A.
Other
Energy Star Buildings Manual
Chiller Survey A-45
-------
Stage 5—Chiller Survey
Response Form
Calculate the Required Cooling Load for Your Building
Installed capacity of the chiller (tons):
Temperature of the chilled water supply (CHWS):
Temperature of the chilled water return (CHWR):
" Flow rate in the chilled water supply (GPM):
• CHWS - CHWR. The result is T:
T x 500 x (GPM -s-12,000) = Load (in tons):
, Load x 1.1 = Required Cooling Load:
;, Ratio: Installed Capacity •*• Required Load
A-46 Chiller Survey First Edition, October 1993
-------
Variable Speed Drive
Pilot
One of the Energy Star Buildings Program's first
efforts was to conduct pilot studies of variable
speed drives (VSDs) installed at 10 buildings
around the country. The purpose of these studies
was twofold:
• Compare the airflow control provided by VSDs
with that of variable inlet vanes (VIVs).
• Verify—through actual installations—the
potential of VSD technology to provide profit-
able energy savings for Energy Star Buildings
Partners.
The studies showed that VSDs can greatly reduce
the energy used by the same fan operating under
similar airflow volumes and static pressure con-
ditions. Overall, VSDs provided average energy
savings of 52 percent, average demand savings of
27 percent, and an average simple payback period
of 2.5 years.
The following major lessons were learned over the
course of the pilot studies:
• A VSD is almost always profitable, but more so
when the fan or motor is oversized.
• The benefits of VSDs diminish if the fan or
motor is grossly undersized or always runs at
or near full capacity.
• Similarly, the benefits of VSDs diminish if the
system on which the VSD is installed suffers
from control problems (for example, simulta-
neous heating and cooling of the same area).
• In most cases, VSDs should be equipped with
integral harmonic filters. Where this is not
possible, a three-phase AC line reactor should
be installed to reduce total current harmonic
levels to within 5 percent.
• In most cases, VSDs should be equipped with
internal power factor correction capacitors.
Where this is not possible, a single capacitor
should be installed, either on the main power
line serving all VSDs or on the main power line
serving a section of the building or the entire
building.
• Backward-inclined and airfoil fans are the best
candidates for VSDs. Forward-curved fans
become unstable and are more difficult to
control at partial loads.
Summary of Results
The two tests employed in the pilot studies, while
relatively simple, provide a sound basis for
comparing the two types of airflow control. The
first provides a straightforward comparison of
actual energy consumption readings for the VSD
and VIV airflow controls under similar normal
operating conditions. The second compares power
requirements over a range of airflow rates.
The first test determined energy consumption
savings on a day of normal operations. This test
involved recording the VSD's energy consump-
tion (and, where possible, energy demand) hourly
during a day of normal operation (when the
building was occupied) and comparing it with
VIV energy consumption during a similar day of
normal operation (the following day). Airflow and
outside air temperature were monitored to ensure
that both systems were operating under similar
conditions. Table B-l provides a summary of the
results of this test.
The second test determined energy consumption
savings for the fan over the range of its operat-
ing load. For this test, airflow was manipulated so
that VIV and VSD energy consumption (and,
where possible, demand) could be compared over
a range of airflow rates (in this case, increments of
10 percent) simulating the fan's operating load.
The measurements were taken during hours when
the building was unoccupied. The results of this
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual B-1
-------
Table B-1. Summary of Observed Energy Savings
VIV VSD VIV One-Day VSD One-Day Energy VIV VSD Demand
Average Average Energy Energy Savings Maximum Maximum Savings
Airflow Airflow Consumption Consumption With VSD Demand Demand With VSD
Site (cfm) (cfm) (kilowatthours) (kilowatthours) (percent) (kilowatts) (kilowatts) (percent)
American Express (Fifth Floor) 1 ' 2
American Express (Fourth Floor)1' 3
21,157
18,103
15,118
17,980
183.6
N/A
47.1
N/A
74.3
N/A
N/A
14.2
N/A
17.3
N/A
-21.0
Douglas County, Oregon
22,100
20,220
161.1
54.3
66.3
18.7
8.5
54.5
Eli Lilly & Company
Hewlett-Packard (Colorado)1' 4
10,319
114,474
10,588
114,474
112.8
1,867.9
44.2
876.2
60.8
53.1
12.6
N/A
5.3
N/A
54.0
N/A
Hewlett-Packard (California)
10,225
11,560
170.9
45.6
73.3
13.4
4.0
70.1
IVAC, Incorporated
11,400
13,017
136.8
69.4
50.0
17.1
10.0
41.5
Mattel, Inc.
5,310
5,810
75.9
34.8
54.0
10.2
9.3
8.2
Mobil Corporation
13,800 12,600
149.6
89.4
40.2
16.1
12.1
24.8
New York Telephone*
11,300
11,100
91.2
86.8
5.1
7.6
7.4
2.6
Notes:
1. Due to the type of meters available, energy consumption could not be measured at American Express (Fourth Floor) and demand could not be measured at American Express
(Fifth Floor) and Hewlett-Packard (Colorado).
2. The difference in airflow readings at American Express (Fifth Floor) during the VIV and VSD tests are due to a wider difference in temperature on the two days of testing.
3. Demand increased at American Express (Fourth Floor) because an off-the-shelf 40-horsepower VSD was installed on a 30-horsepower motor; thus, the VSD was oversized.
4. Because the air handling unit at Hewlett-Packard (Colorado) had no capability to monitor airflow or static pressure, airflow was measured with a pitot tube only on the day of
VSD testing. Actual fan performance was used to calculate VSD energy consumption. VIV energy consumption was calculated by using fan performance-curve data from the
manufacturer; airflow levels were assumed to be the same as when the VSD was tested. Airflow and energy consumption are generally higher because this system was by
far the largest tested (150 horsepower).
5. Tests were performed on an air handling unit and a return fan. Results are for the air handling unit only.
6. Energy and demand savings at New York Telephone are generally lower because of heating and cooling conflicts in the spaces caused by the design of the HVAC system.
-------
Variable Speed Drive Pilot Studies
incremental testing were used to estimate annual
energy savings. Table B-2 provides a summary of
the results of this test.
Study Methodology
To conduct the pilot studies, the participants
installed submetered VSDs on air handling units
at each site. The participants were volunteers who
were already Partners in the EPA's Green Lights
Program. The VSDs were installed at the follow-
ing facilities:
American Express Company, Shearson Plaza,
New York City, New York (two VSDs).
Douglas County Courthouse, Douglas County,
Oregon.
Eli Lilly & Company Corporate Center,
Indianapolis, Indiana.
Hewlett-Packard Corporation, Palo Alto,
California (Building 20).
Table B-2. Annual Energy Savings From VSDs,
Projected From Incremental Testing
Site
American Express
(Fifth Floor)
American Express
(Fourth Floor)
Douglas County,
Oregon
Eli Lilly & Company
Hewlett-Packard
(Colorado)
Hewlett-Packard
(California)?
IVAC, Incorporated
Mattel, Inc.
Mobil Corporation
Assumed
Annual
Hours of
Operation
Projected Annual
Energy Savings
(kilowatthours) (percent)
Simple
Payback
Period
(years)1
3,651
31,000
53
2.3
3.763
18,440
49
3.9
2,808
26,802
75
2.6
2,730
25,499
79
7.4
4,680
295,309
73
1.4
2,860
35,000
68
1.5
4,420
54,000
71
1.3
2,132
18,083
72
4.9
2,860
18,430
61
3.0
New York Telephone'
8,760
7,485
23
3.2
Internal Rate of
Return
(percent)
42
25
31
69
42
76
20
29
1. Economic data are based on information provided by the building owners. Costs for Douglas County, Ell Lilly,
and Mattel are installed costs; costs tor American Express, Hewlett Packard, IVAC, and Mobil were estimated.
2. Tests were performed on an air handling unit and a return fan. Results are for the air handling unit only.
3. This system operate 24 hours a day. The projrctlons are estimates of the savings that could be realized If the
VSD Is Installed with appropriate HVAC controls and a properly sized fan.
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual B-3
-------
Appendix B
m Hewlett-Packard Corporation, Colorado
Springs Division, Colorado Springs, Colorado
(Building C).
• IVAC, Incorporated, San Diego, California.
• Mattel, Inc., El Segundo, California.
• Mobil Corporation Research and Development
Technical Center, Princeton, New Jersey
(Building 16).
• New York Telephone Company, Buffalo,
New York (Building B).
The VSDs were used to control the airflow in air
handling systems that previously had been using
VIVs to control airflow. (VIVs control airflow
by restricting air at the inlet vane, with the fan
always running at full speed. VSDs control air-
flow by adjusting the speed of the fan.) The per-
formance of these two types of airflow control
was compared across a range of operating
conditions.
EPA and the pilot study participants used the
following procedure to estimate the annual
energy savings of a VSD system:
1. Measure the input power of the existing
system under VIV control at various flow rates
(from 100 percent to the lowest possible flow,
usually around 40 percent, in increments of
10 percent),
2. After the VSD is installed, measure the input
power of the new system at the same airflow
rates used in the VIV testing.
3. Establish an assumed yearly load profile that
defines hours of use at various airflow rates'.
The annual operating load profile used in these
studies is shown in Table B-3.
4. Multiply the hours of use at each flow rate by
the measured energy savings from VSD
installation at that flow rate. Sum these prod-
ucts over the fan's operating range to deter-
mine total savings, in kilowatthours, over a
given period.
1 While an assumed profile was used for the purposes of the
pilot studies, data can be gathered with a data logger or the
trending capabilities of an energy management control
system to log the hours of use as a function of flow rate.
Table B-3. Assumed Load Profile
Used in VSD Pilot Studies
Airflow
(percent of CFM)
Percentage of
Annual Operating Hours
40 or less
21.0
50
22.0
65
22.0
70
15.0
80
10.0
90
7.5
100
2.5
This procedure incorporates many of the elements
of approaches described by Stephen Harding, P.E.,
writing for Bonneville Power Administration2, and
Perigrine White, Jr.f at the Fifth National Demand
Side Management Conference3. It provides a
measurement of savings that is unaffected by
changes in weather, occupancy, equipment load, or
indoor temperature; that is, variables that cannot be
reliably measured or controlled for a significant
period of time. The objective of these short-term
studies is to simply verify savings resulting from
VSD installation.
This type of incremental power monitoring pro-
vides an exact comparison of the VSD and VIV at
the same points. The differences in power con-
sumption can then be applied to any fan operating
load. However, unless the data upon which the
load profile is based are collected over several
months or a complete year, it is difficult to account
for seasonal variations in airflow. This constraint is
avoided by using the assumed annual load profile.
To improve confidence in the annualized results,
operating trend data could be collected in the field.
2 Harding, Steve, P.E., with Fred Gordon and Mike Kennedy,
Site Specific Verification Guidelines, report prepared for
Bonneville Power Administration, May 1992, pp. 27-29.
3 White, Peregrine, Jr., "DSM Savings Verification of Varying
Loads," in Building on Experience: Proceedings of the Fifth
National Demand-Side Management Conference. Palo Alto,
California: Electric Power Research Institute, July 1991,
pp. 103-106.
B-4 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
-------
Variable Speed Drive Pilot Studies
American Express Company (Fifth Floor)
This study highlighted the importance of weather
conditions being similar on the two days of
testing.
Test Summary
The test on the fifth floor of American Express
Company's facility at Shearson Plaza in New
York City was conducted on February 18, 19, and
22,1993.
System Tested
m Air Handling Unit (AHV 5-3): Carrier.
• Motor: U.S. Electric Motor (Emerson)
GT1009507 (40 horsepower).
• VSD: Asea Brown Boveri Model ACH 500
(40 horsepower).
• Airflow Measurement: Cambridge FMS-F.
• Energy Management System: Landis & Gyr
Powers System 600.
Test Conditions
Day One (VSD Testing):
OA temperature range: 14.88-24.76° F.
OA relative humidity range: 45.72-70.93 percent.
Day Two (VIV Testing):
OA temperature range: 36.88-40.98° F.
OA relative humidity range: 101.1-107.4 percent.
Note: Because relative humidity cannot exceed
100 percent, the measurements were assumed to
be inaccurate and 100 percent was used.
Results
Figures B-l and B-2 show the results of the tests.
These results are summarized below.
Energy consumption was 74.3 percent lower with
the VSD, However, average airflow was 28.5 per-
cent lower.
At minimum airflow, energy consumption was
87.5 percent lower with the VSD.
At maximum airflow, there was no difference in
energy consumption between the VSD and VTV.
Figure B-1. Energy Consumption:
American Express (5th Floor)
3
o
18
1 15-
c
I 9
>. 6'
I 3
With VIV
V*
With VSD
I I I I T I ! I I I I
7AM 9AM 11AM 1PM 3PM 5PM
Time of Day
Figure B-2. Incremental Testing:
American Express (5th Floor)
iuo —
_ gn
3
E-o 75
"B C '«*
a 2
S a eo
•s 3 60
&« 45
^o
o> sr 3Q_
w ^ ou
01
CL 15
T
With VIV Jl
• • • ^/
. .-^ 1
s^
mr
^•T^Wtth VSD
41 45 55 65 75 82 100
Percentage of Airflow
The VSD would reduce annual energy consump-
tion by about 31,000 kilowatthours and demand
by 8.4 kilowatts. Using an energy cost of $0.055
per kilowatthour and an equipment cost of $4,000
for the 40-horsepower drive, the simple payback
period was determined to be approximately
2.3 years.
First Edfltan, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual B-5
-------
Appendix B
Unique Issues for This Study
The tests were performed during the winter, when
airflow requirements in New York City are
typically less than during the summer. Average
airflow during the test was approximately
59.1 percent of peak with the VSD and 82.6
percent with the VIV. In summer, airflow require-
ments are closer to peak for a few hours on some
days.
The large variance in outside air temperatures on
the two testing days led to the difference in
average airflow. The average airflow would still
lead to energy consumption savings between
23 percent (with the VSD normalized to the VIV's
average airflow) and 70 percent (with the VFV
normalized to the VSD's average airflow).
B-6 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
-------
Variable Speed Drive Pilot Studies
American Express (Fourth Floor)
This study showed that energy savings can be
realized only if the VSD is properly sized to
match motor horsepower requirements. The study
also showed the importance of having the
inverter's line choke and capacitor properly sized
for power factor correction.
Test Summary
The test on the fourth floor of American Express
Company's facility at Shearson Plaza in New
York City was conducted on March 4-5,1993.
System Tested
m Air Handling Unit (AHU 4-3): Carrier
39EB3B.
• Motor: U.S. Electric Motor (Emerson)
SK386AL223A-R (30 horsepower).
• VSD: Asea Brown Boveri Model ACH 500
(40 horsepower).
• Airflow Measurement: Cambridge FMS-F.
• Energy Meter: Dranetz Series 808.
• Energy Management System: Landis & Gyr
Powers System 600.
Test Conditions
Day One (VSD Testing):
OA temperature range: 37.58-45.87° F.
OA relative humidity range: 67.55-82.21 percent.
Day Two (VIV Testing):
OA temperature range: 33.45-39.57° F.
OA relative humidity range: 98.09-108.6 percent.
Note: Because relative humidity cannot exceed
100 percent, the measurements were assumed to
be inaccurate and 100 percent was used.
Results
Figures B-3 and B-4 show the results of the tests.
These results are summarized below.
Due to the type of meter available, energy con-
sumption could not be measured. Hourly readings
for demand were used for the analysis.
Demand was 21 percent higher with the VSD
while airflow was 0.4 percent higher because an
off-the-shelf 40-horsepower VSD was installed on
Figure B-3. Energy Consumption:
American Express (4th Floor)
•o
20-
18-
16-
14-
12-
10-
With VSD
With VIV
i i i i—i—i—i—i—i—i—r
7AM 9AM 11AM 1PM 3PM 5PM
Time of Day
Figure B-4. Incremental Testing:
American Express (4th Floor)
I I I T I
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage of Airflow
a 30-horsepower motor; thus, the VSD was over-
sized.
At minimum airflow, demand was 78 percent
lower with the VSD, which required 73 percent
less current.
At maximum airflow, demand was 3.4 percent
higher with the VSD, which required 7.9 percent
more current.
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual B-7
-------
Appendix B
Based on 3,763 hours of operation per year, the
VSD would reduce annual energy consumption by
approximately 18,440 kilowatthours and demand
by 4.5 kilowatts. Using an average energy cost of
$0.055 per kilowatthour and an equipment cost of
$4,000 for the 40-horsepower drive, the simple
payback period was determined to be approxi-
mately 3.9 years. The payback period for a 30-
horsepower drive, after taking into account the
lower initial cost and the higher efficiency, would
be approximately 2.7 years.
Unique Issues for This Study
To facilitate test scheduling, the 40-horsepower
VSD was bought off-the-shelf. The motor was
30 horsepower. This difference is seen in the
relatively higher energy usage of the VSD.
A properly sized VSD would be more energy
efficient. In addition, the system operated at
91 percent of maximum airflow during normal
operation with the VSD. The system should not be
operating at such a high airflow during the winter;
normal operation would be between 40 and 60
percent of maximum. If the VSD had been operat-
ing in this range, demand would have been 69
percent lower with the VSD. With a properly
sized VSD, energy savings would be even greater.
AHU 4-3 with the VIV showed a power factor
between -0.9 and -0.94. With the VSD, the power
factor was between -0.86 and -0.97. The VSD
power factor range should normally be between
0.96 and 0.99. Here it is low because the VSD was
oversized. In addition, the VSD procured for this
test was an off-the-shelf unit and the inverter's
line choke and capacitor were not sized properly
for the motor's power factor. The negative num-
bers indicate a capacitive load rather than an
inductive load.
B-8 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
-------
Variable Speed Drive Pilot Studies
Douglas County, Oregon
This study provided the expected results.
Test Summary
The VSD pilot study at the Douglas County
Courthouse was conducted on February 25-26,
1993.
System Tested
m Air Handling Unit (AHU-8): Backward-
inclined fan by PACE.
• Motor: Lincoln (30 horsepower).
• VSD: Asea Brown Boveri model ACH-500.
• Airflow Monitoring Station: Paragon/
Honeywell.
• Energy Meter: Dranetz 808.
Test Conditions
Day One (VSD Testing):
OA temperature range: 31-54° F.
OA relative humidity range: 73.8-80.4 percent.
Day Two (VIV Testing):
OA temperature range: 29-50° F.
OA relative humidity range: 73.2-86.9 percent.
Results
Figures B-5 and B-6 show the results of the tests.
These results are summarized below.
Energy consumption was an average of 66.3 lower
with the VSD.
At minimum airflow, AHU-8 required 86.5 percent
less demand with the VSD than with the VIV.
At maximum airflow, AHU-8 required 25.5 per-
cent less demand with the VSD than with the VIV.
Using an energy cost of $.0328 per kilowatthour
and demand and distribution charges of $2.48 per
kilowatt, the $2,850 AHU-8 drive (30 horse-
power) would reduce yearly energy consumption
Figure B-5. Energy Consumption:
Douglas County, Oregon
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I
SAM 10AM 12AM 2PM 4PM
Time of Day
Figure B-6. Incremental Testing:
Douglas County, Oregon
25-
Wlth VIV
With VSD
i i i i i i i i r
25 38 46 53 65 76 85 93 100
Percentage of Airflow
by about 26,802 kilowatthours and demand by 7.5
kilowatts. The simple payback period was deter-
mined to be approximately 2.6 years.
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual B-9
-------
Appendix B
Unique ISSUeS for ThiS Study Without the VSO, AHU-8 showed a power factor
The tests were performed in winter, when airflow between 0.71 and 0.79. With the VSD, the power
requirements in Oregon are typically less than factor improved to 0.99 at varying speeds. The
during the summer. Average airflow during the VSD installed for this test was provided with an
test was approximately 80 percent of peak with internal power factor correction capacitor that
the VSD and 87 percent with the VIV. In summer, provides automatic power factor correction.
airflow requirements are closer to peak for a few
hours on some days.
B-10 Energy Star Buildings Manual ' • First Edition, October 1993
-------
Variable Speed Drive Pilot Studies
Eli Lilly & Company
This study found that a significant reduction in fan
energy consumption does not always mean that a
VSD retrofit will be profitable. Although the test
confirmed that a VSD brings significant energy
savings when applied to variable air volume air
handling systems (in this case 81 percent better
than the VIV airflow control), the relatively low
cost of energy for the facility examined caused a
longer than normal payback period.
Test Summary
The VSD pilot study at Eli Lilly & Company's
Corporate Center in Indianapolis, Indiana, was
conducted on February 11-12, 1993.
System Tested
m Air Handling Unit (AHU-FQ3): Carrier
39ED, size 32, double-width double-inlet
(DWDI) airfoil fan.
• Motor: Marathon MN 284TTDR7026FN-F2
(25 horsepower).
• VSD: Allen Bradley Model 1336VTB025EA-
FL1
• Airflow Measurement: Tek-Air Vortek airflow
monitoring station located in each branch duct.
• Energy Meters: Esterline PMT3B and
Dranetz 658.
• Energy Management System: Johnson Control
System 686.
• Vibration Meter: Computational Systems
Model 2110-4D.
Test Conditions
Day One (VIV Testing):
OA temperature range: 37.2-40.6° F.
OA relative humidity range: 82.5-98.9 percent.
Day Two (VSD Testing):
OA temperature range: 34.5-36.5° F.
OA relative humidity range: 100 percent.
Results
Figures B-7 and B-8 show the results of the tests.
These results are summarized below.
Energy consumption was 60.8 percent lower with
the VSD, while airflow was 2.5 percent higher.
Figure B-7. Energy Consumption:
Eli Lilly & Company
2
1, 10
I e
3 R
(/) O
UJ
/
With VIV
With VSD
i r i i \ \ \ i r
9AM 11AM 1PM 3PM 5PM
Time of Day
Figure B-8. Incremental Testing:
Eli Lilly & Company
120
100
Percentage of Airflow
Demand was 54 percent lower with the VSD,
while airflow was 3.4 percent higher.
At minimum airflow, demand was 91.7 percent
lower with the VSD, which required 93.3 percent
less current.
At maximum airflow, demand was 1.6 percent
higher with the VSD, which required 18.2 percent
less current.
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual B-11
-------
Appendix B
The VSD would reduce annual energy consump-
tion by about 25,499 kilowatthours and demand
by 9 kilowatts. Using an energy cost of $.0368 per
kilowatthour and an equipment cost of $6,900 for
the 25-horsepower drive, the simple payback
period was determined to be approximately
7.4 years.
Unique Issues for This Study
During the incremental testing, the fan became
unstable at 43 percent of maximum airflow. No
further measurements were possible.
The static pressure setpoint was not maintained
during the incremental testing. If static pressure
had been maintained during the incremental
testing, demand for both the VIV and the VSD
would have increased at all intervals. However,
the difference in demand between the two would
have been close to the results shown.
The tests were performed during the winter, when
airflow requirements in Indianapolis are typically
less than during the summer. Average airflow
during the test was approximately 62 percent of
peak. In summer, airflow requirements are closer
to peak for a few hours on some days.
AHU-FQ3 with the VIV showed a power factor
between 0.658 and 0.755. With the VSD, the
power factor improved to 0.99 at varying speeds.
The VSD installed for this test is provided with a
line choke and a capacitor that provides automatic
power factor correction.
Peak vibration on the AHU decreased by 69.9 per-
cent with the VSD in operation. Less vibration
reduces motor and fan noise and equipment wear.
B-12 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
-------
Variable Speed Drive Pilot Studies
Hewlett-Packard Corporation (Colorado)
This study demonstrated the need to have an
airflow monitoring station to obtain accurate
readings to use in calculating energy savings.
Lack of airflow monitoring data necessitated use
of manufacturer's data. Because use of this
theoretical data conflicted with the methodology,
the margin of error for the predicted savings is
understandably larger.
Test Summary
The VSD pilot study at Building C of Hewlett-
Packard's Colorado Springs complex was con-
ducted on January 25-26, 1993.
System Tested
• Air Handling Unit(AHU-2): Field-erected,
size 66, double-width single-inlet (DWSI)
airfoil fan by Trane.
• Motor: 150 horsepower.
• System: Dual-duct VAV system controlled by
outside air temperature. Note: This system does
not maintain or monitor static pressure.
• VSD: Graham.
• Airflow Measurement: Pilot tube located in the
cold deck.
• Energy Meter: BMI.
Test Conditions
Day One (VSD Testing):
OA temperature range: 22.5-49.1° F.
Note: No VIV testing was conducted.
Results
Figures B-9 and B-10 show the results of the tests.
These results are summarized below.
Energy consumption was 53.1 percent lower with
the VSD at equivalent airflow levels.
At minimum airflow, demand was 92 percent
lower with the VSD.
At maximum airflow, demand was 6 percent
lower with the VSD.
Figure B-9. Energy Consumption:
Hewlett-Packard (Colorado)
i r
7AM 11AM 3PM 7PM 11PM
Time of Day
Figure B-10. Energy Consumption:
Hewlett-Packard (Colorado)
120
I I I - t I I T I I
26 33 48 52 56 59 67 81 93 96 100
Percentage of Airflow
The VSD would reduce annual energy consump-
tion by approximately 295,309 kilowatthours.
Using an energy cost of $0.043 per kilowatthour
and equipment costs of approximately $18,300 for
the 150-horsepower drive, the simple payback
period was determined to be approximately
1.44 years.
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual _fc
-------
Appendix B
Unique Issues for This Study
This air handling unit does not operate as a normal
variable air volume unit in that it does not monitor
or maintain static pressure. From 5 a.m. to 6 p.m.,
the unit operates the VSD between a minimum of
65 percent and a maximum of 95 percent of
airflow capacity, depending on the outside air
temperature. From 6 p.m. to 11 p.m., the unit
operates with the VSD at 65 percent capacity. At
11 p.m., the unit is shut down. Therefore, airflow
was measured with a pilot tube only on the day of
VSD testing. However, the airflow measurements
taken could not be used for the analysis due
inaccuracies caused by turbulence conditions.
Actual fan performance was used to calculate
VSD energy consumption. VIV energy consump-
tion was calculated by using fan performance-
curve data from the manufacturer; airflow levels
were assumed to be the same as when the VSD
was tested.
Because the VIV had no controls, data for the
incremental testing could be collected only by
manually adjusting the VIV setting and taking
readings at different airflows. These readings were
then compared to those of the VSD at similar
airflows.
The maximum setpoint on the VSD, 95 percent,
corresponded to an airflow of 135,000 cfm. The
lowest setpoint, 25 percent (set manually), corre-
sponded to an airflow of 35,000 cfm.
The 20-psi maximum setpoint on the VIV corre-
sponded to 95,000 cfm. The 0-psi minimum
setpoint on the VIV corresponded to 65,000 cfm
(48 percent of the maximum).
B-14 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
-------
Variable Speed Drive Pilot Studies
Hewlett-Packard Corporation (California)
This study showed that return fans are excellent
candidates for VSDs. A system that is oversized
when a VSD is installed will have even greater
savings because the VSD will operate the system
only at the required load.
Test Summary
The test at Building 20 of Hewlett-Packard's Palo
Alto facility was conducted on January 11-12,
1993. It evaluated energy consumption for both
the air handling unit and the return fan.
System Tested
• Air Handling Unit(AHU-3): Field-erected,
size 490, single-width single-inlet (SWSI)
airfoil fan (Twin City).
• Return Fan (RF-3): SWSI airfoil (Twin City).
• Motors: Lincoln (30-horsepower for AHU-3;
15-horsepower for RF-3).
• VSD: Asea Brown Boveri.
• Airflow Monitoring Station: Paragon.
• Energy Meter: Dranetz 8000.
Test Conditions
Day One (VSD Testing):
OA temperature range: 39-54° F.
OA relative humidity range: 55-95 percent.
Day Two (VIV Testing):
OA temperature range: 41-51° F.
OA relative humidity range: 87-100 percent.
Results
Figures B-l 1 through B-14 show the results of
the tests. The results are summarized below.
AHU-3 energy consumption was 73.3 percent
lower with the VSD, while average airflow was
13.1 percent higher.
RF-3 energy consumption was 85.9 percent
lower with the VSD, while average airflow was
10.4 percent higher.
AHU-3 maximum demand was 70.1 percent
lower with the VSD, while maximum airflow was
17.6 percent higher.
Figure B-11. Energy Consumption:
Hewlett-Packard (California)
Air Handling Unit 3
£
o
1 12-
O Q
S. 8"
1
5 4
1>
With VIV
With VSD
i i i i i i i i i i i i
7AM 9AM 11AM 1PM 3PM 5PM
Time of Day
Figure B-12. Energy Consumption:
Hewlett-Packard (California)
Return Fan 3
o
2
S.
W
w
£
With VIV
With VSD
• • • I
i 1 1 1 n—
7 AM 9 AM 11 PM 1 PM 3 PM 5 PM
Time of Day
RF-3 maximum demand was 84.4 percent lower
with the VSD, while maximum airflow was
19.3 percent higher.
At minimum airflow:
AHU-3 demand was 95.5 percent lower.
AHU-3 required 99.5 percent less current.
RF-3 required 99.5 percent less current.
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual B-15
-------
Appendix B
At maximum airflow:
AHU-3 demand was 16.5 percent lower.
AHU-3 required 12.0 percent less current.
RF-3 required 31.2 percent less current.
For the air handling unit, the VSD would reduce
annual energy consumption by approximately
35,000 kilowatthours and demand by 9.6 kilo-
watts. Using an energy cost of $0.06 per kilowat-
thour, demand and distribution charges of $10 per
kilowatt, and equipment costs of $5,000 for the
30-horsepower drive, the simple payback period
was determined to be approximately 1.5 years.
For the return fan, the VSD would reduce annual
energy consumption by approximately 17,500
kilowatthours and demand by 5.0 kilowatts. Using
an energy cost of $0.06 per kilowatthour, demand
and distribution charges of $10 per kilowatt, and
equipment costs of $3,500 for the 15-horsepower
drive, the simple payback period would be
approximately 2.1 years.
Unique Issues for This Study
The tests at Hewlett-Packard were conducted in
the winter, when cooling load requirements in the
San Francisco area typically are lower than in the
summer. Thus, average airflow during the test was
around 40 percent of peak. In summer, airflow
requirements are closer to peak for a few hours on
some days.
The large difference in peak demand at maximum
airflow found in these tests (16.5 percent) was a
result of oversizing. This oversizing also allowed
the VSD to consume much less energy.
With the VIV, AHU-3 showed a power factor
between 0.668 and 0.791. With the VSD, the
power factor was between -0.512 and -0.802. The
negative numbers were probably caused by the
VSD's power factor correction capacitor, which
may be oversized.
Figure B-13. Incremental Testing:
Hewlett-Packard (California)
Air Handling Unit 3
i i i i i i i r
21 31 41 52 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage of Airflow
Figure B-14. Incremental Testing:
Hewlett-Packard (California)
Return Fan 3
120
I T I I I I \ I I I
10 21 31 41 52 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage of Airflow
B-16 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
-------
Variable Speed Drive Pilot Studies
IVAC, Incorporated
This study showed that VSDs provide significant
energy savings even if the system operates with
higher average airflow.
Test Summary
The test at IVAC, Incorporated, a subsidiary of Eli
Lilly & Company in San Diego, California, was
conducted on March 10-12, 1993.
System Tested
• Air Handling Unit (AHU-4): Backward-
inclined fan by Trane (CLCH-35).
• Motor: Gould Century (30 horsepower).
• VSD: Magnetek GPD 503.
• Airflow Monitoring Station: Air Monitor.
• Energy Meter: BMI 3030.
• Energy Management System: Trane Tracer.
Tesf Conditions
Day One (VSD Testing):
OA Temperature Range: 53.6-65.0° F.
OA Relative Humidity: 76.1-89.5 percent.
Day Two (VIV Testing):
OA Temperature Range: 64.1-81.4° F.
OA Relative Humidity: 72.7-90.4 percent.
Results
Figures B-15 and B-16 show the results of the
tests. These results are summarized below.
Energy consumption was 50 percent lower with
the VSD, while airflow was 10 percent higher.
At minimum airflow, demand was 92.9 percent
lower with the VSD.
At maximum airflow, demand was 14 percent
lower with the VSD.
The VSD would reduce annual energy consump-
tion by about 54,000 kilowatthours, summer
demand by 2.7 kilowatts, and winter demand by
10.7 kilowatts. Using an energy cost of $.03332 to
Figure B-15. Energy Consumption:
IVAC, Incorporated
o
18-
16-
14-
| 12-
w
3 10-
UJ
8-
Wlth VIV
With VSD
\ I\ \ l I 1
SAM 10AM 12PM 2PM
Time of Day
Figure B-16. Incremental Testing:
IVAC, Incorporated
105-
g 90-
f 1 7S"
* I 60-
45-
S g 30-
S. 15-
o :
o>
With VIV
1
With VSD
i i i i i i i r r
34 39 48 56 62 68 79 90 100
Percentage of Airflow
$.07201 per kilowatthour and demand and distri-
bution charges of $7.02 to $20.47 per kilowatt,
and an equipment cost of $5,000 for the 30-
horsepower drive, the simple payback period was
determined to be approximately 1.3 years.
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual B-17
-------
Appendix B
Unique Issues for This Study
Average airflow during the test was around 72.7
percent of peak with the VSD and 65.8 percent of
peak with the VIV. The VSD still consumed less
energy than the VIV, even though it was operating
at airflow that on average was 10 percent higher
and an average outside air temperature 14.6" F.
higher. The large difference indicated here could
be due to motor oversizing.
Without the VSD, AHU-4 showed a low power
factor of 0.75, which indicates that the motor is
inefficient. With the VSD, the power factor
gradually improved from a low reading of
0.6 at low speed to 0.89 at the full 60 Hz speed.
Without replacing the motor, the VSD provided a
remarkable power factor improvement.
B-18 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
-------
Variable Speed Drive Pilot Studies
Mattel, Inc.
This study provided the expected results.
Test Summary
The test at Mattel, Inc., in El Segundo, California,
was conducted on March 24-26,1993.
System Tested
• Air Handling Unit (AHU-5): Forward-curved
fan.
• Motor: 20 horsepower.
• VSD: Graham 1700.
• Airflow Monitoring Station: Tek-Air.
• Energy Meter: Dranetz 8000.
• Energy Management System: Teletrol Control
System
Test Conditions
Not available.
Results
Figures B-17 and B-18 show the results of the
tests. These results are summarized below.
Energy consumption was 54 percent lower with
the VSD, while airflow was 4.3 percent higher.
At minimum airflow, demand was 83.3 percent
lower with the VSD.
At maximum airflow, demand was 8.5 percent
higher with the VSD.
The VSD would reduce annual energy consump-
tion by approximately 18,083 kilowatthours and
demand by 1.5 kilowatts. Using an energy cost of
$0.13784 per kilowatthour during the summer on-
peak hours and $0.05675 per kilowatthour during
all other hours, $19.45 per maximum demand and
$3.65 for demand ratchet, and an equipment cost
of $8,742, the simple payback period was deter-
mined to be approximately 4.9 years.
Unique Issues for This Study
Average airflow during the test was approxi-
mately 33.8 percent of peak with the VSD and
30.8 percent with the VIV. In summer, airflow
Figure B-17. Energy Consumption:
Mattel. Inc.
1
i i i i i i i i I r
8AM 10AM 12PM 2PM 4PM
Time of Day
Figure B-18. Incremental Testing:
Mattel, Inc.
i i i i i i i r
17 30 40 51 59 69 79 93 100
Percentage of Airflow
requirements are closer to peak for a few hours on
some days. VSDs may require slightly more
energy at peak airflow than VIVs.
When VSD testing began, the drive was operating
the fan at 68 percent of maximum airflow, causing
the higher initial energy consumption for the VSD
shown in Figure B-17. More typical percentages
of maximum airflow were recorded during the
remainder of the test.
F/ref Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual B-rl 9_
-------
Appendix B
The VSD used for this study was more expensive motor is inefficient. With the VSD, the power
than comparable drives of its size, even when factor ranged between -0.21 and -0.77. The VSD
installation is included. This caused the longer installed for this test was not equipped with power
than normal payback period. factor correction capability (indicated by the low
power factor reading). The negative number
With the VIV, AHU-5 showed a power factor indicates the measured load is capacitive.
between 0.675 and 0.869. This indicates that the
B-20 Energy Star Building* Manual • First Edition, October 1993
-------
Variable Speed Drive Pilot Studies
Mobil Corporation
This study provided an example of what can
happen when cooling and heating systems are not
properly coordinated. This coordination could be
achieved by connecting perimeter heating valves
to the thermostats that control the VAV boxes. If
this were done, the VAV boxes would modulate
the airflow down to the minimum position before
allowing the heating valves to open when there is
demand for heating. On the other hand, the
heating valves would close completely before
allowing the VAV boxes to open when there is
demand for cooling.
Test Summary
The test at Building 16 of Mobil's Princeton, New
Jersey, complex was conducted on April 13 and
15, 1993.
System Tested
• Air Handling Unit (FNS-4): Trane Climate
Changer (CLCH) with a single-width single-
inlet (SWSI) backward-inclined fan.
• Motor: Magnetek (25 horsepower).
• VSD: Asea Brown Boveri model 501 ACH.
• Airflow Monitoring Station: Multi-tube, multi-
hole station built on site by Mobil's Facilities
staff, a pitot tube, and a pressure differential
gauge.
• Energy Meter: Dranetz 8000.
Test Conditions
Day One (VIV Testing):
0 A temperature range: 40-61 ° F.
Day Two (VSD Testing):
OA temperature range: 51-65° F.
Results
Figures B-19 and B-20 show the results of the
tests. These results are summarized below.
Energy consumption was 40.2 percent lower
with the VSD. However, average airflow was
9.2 percent lower.
Figure B-19. Energy Consumption:
Mobil Corporation
~iiiiiiiiiir
7AM 9AM 11AM 1PM 3PM 5PM
Time of Day
Figure B-20. Incremental Testing:
Mobil Corporation
i i
25 40 50 65 74 80 90 100
Percentage of Airflow
At minimum airflow, demand was 92.3 percent
lower with the VSD, which required 89.6 percent
less current.
At maximum airflow, demand was 15.5 percent
lower with the VSD, which required 15,3 percent
less current.
first Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual B-21
-------
Appendix B
The VSD would reduce annual energy consump-
tion by about 18,430 kilowatthours. Using an
average energy cost of $0.07 per kilowatthour and
a VSD cost of $4,000, the simple payback period
was determined to be approximately 3 years. This
figure is based on a load ratio that varies during
the year according to the heating and cooling load.
Unique Issues for This Study
The tests were performed in early spring, when
airflow requirements in Princeton are typically
40 percent to 70 percent of peak. Average airflow
during the tests was approximately 86 to 87 per-
cent of peak, a figure more comparable with
summer airflow. This high airflow was a result of
cooling demand caused by excessive heat from
perimeter heating, which is controlled by outside
air temperature (airflow is controlled by space
thermostats). This setting causes the airflow to run
high to remove the heat from the space.
With the VIV, AHU FNS^ showed a power
factor of 0.9, which indicates that the motor is
efficient. With the VSD, the power factor
remained in the 90 percent and above range. The
VSD installed for this test was provided with
power factor correction capability.
B-22 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
-------
Variable Speed Drive Pilot Studies
New York Telephone
This study provided another example of what can
happen when cooling and heating systems are not
properly coordinated. This coordination could be
achieved by connecting perimeter heating valves
to the thermostats that control the VAV boxes. If
this were done, the VAV boxes would modulate
the airflow down to the minimum position before
allowing the heating valves to open when there is
demand for heating. On the other hand, the
heating valves would close completely before
allowing the VAV boxes to open when there is
demand for cooling.
Test Summary
The test at New York Telephone was conducted at
Building B of the company's Buffalo complex on
March 17-19, 1993.
System Tested
m Air Handling Unit (AHU-7B): Packaged,
size 31, single-width single-inlet (SWSI) airfoil
fan (Climate Changer by Trane).
• Return Fan (RF-7B): SWSI airfoil fan by
Barry Blower.
• Motors: Lincoln (15 horsepower for AHU-7B;
5 horsepower for RF-7).
• VSD: Asea Brown Boveri model ACS 501.
• Airflow Monitoring Station: Tek-Air Vortek.
• Energy Meter: Dranetz 808.
• Energy Management System: Johnson Control
Systems DSC 8540 and DSC 8500.
Test Conditions
Day One (VSD Testing):
OA temperature range: 16-24° F.
OA relative humidity range: 42-45 percent.
Day Two (VIV Testing):
OA temperature range: 12-26° F.
OA relative humidity range: 41-48 percent.
Results
Figures B-21 and B-22 show the results of the tests.
These results are summarized below.
Figure B-21. Energy Consumption:
New York Telephone
3 *•
O
| 10
o
,g
a.
w
E>
8
With VIV
:• • •
• • •
- • •— i
• M __ __ ^ __
1 1 I 1 1
• ™ • • • •
With VSD
8AM 10AM 12PM 2 PM 4 PM 6PM
Time of Day
Figure B-22. Incremental Testing:
New York Telephone
i i i i i i i
16 21 31 38 50 63 72 80 91 100
Percentage of Airflow .
Energy consumption was 5.1 percent lower with
the VSD. However, average airflow was 1.8
percent lower.
Demand was 2.6 percent lower with the VSD,
while average airflow was 1.8 percent lower.
At 20 percent of maximum airflow, demand was
62 percent lower with the VSD, which required
55 percent less current.
First Edition. October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual B-23
-------
Appendix B
At maximum airflow, demand was 0.6 percent
higher with the VSD, which required 7.2 percent
more current.
Because the system was operating at peak airflow
at all times with the VSD as well as with the VIV,
energy savings from using the VSD could only be
estimated. If the control problem is corrected and
the fan is sized properly, the VSD would reduce
annual energy consumption by about 7,485 kilo-
watthours. Using an energy cost of $0.095 per
kilowatthour and an equipment cost of $2,300 for
the 15-horsepower drive, the simple payback
period was determined to be approximately
3.2 years.
Unique Issues for This Study
Due to the lack of a second energy meter and an
additional airflow monitoring station in the return
air ductwork, airflow, demand, energy consump-
tion, power factor, and harmonics data were not
obtained during the incremental testing.
AHU-7B was adjusted during the incremental
testing, while RF-7B tracked AHU-7B. The
lowest frequency setpoint on AHU-7B and
RF-7B with the VSD was 10 Hz. That setpoint
coincided with an AHU-7B airflow of 1,820 cfm
(16 percent of the maximum airflow). Using the
VIV with dampers set at the maximum closed
position, AHU-7B airflow was 1,360 cfm
(10 percent of the maximum airflow).
The design of the existing HVAC system had a
major effect on this test. The building is heated by
individually controlled radiators that operate
independently of cooling system controls. There-
fore, as long as the room is being heated, the room
thermostat will call for cooling. This results in
VAV boxes being constantly in a full open
position. Since the VAV system was run at
maximum airflow, the test showed only minor
differences between VSD and VIV operation.
Nevertheless, when airflow was adjusted manu-
ally, a significant reduction in energy consump-
tion was observed.
The AHU without the VSD showed a power factor
of -0.97. This indicates that efficient equipment
has been installed. With the VSD installed, the
power factor fluctuated from -0.81 to -0.97 at
varying speeds. The VSD installed for this test is
provided with a line choke and a capacitor that
automatically provides power factor correction.
The negative numbers indicate the measured load
is capacitive.
B-24 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
-------
Variable Speed
Drive technical
Information
UJ
Variable speed drives (VSDs) can be applied to
most motors. For motors used in HVAC systems,
electronic VSDs with pulse-width modulated
inverters are used in most applications. This
appendix concentrates on those devices.
VSD Components
Electronic VSDs control motor speed by varying
the frequency of power output to alternating
current (AC) motors. An electronic VSD system
(Figure C-1) has three elements:
• Rectifiers, which convert incoming 60-Hz AC
power to direct current (DC) voltage.
• Inverters, which convert the DC output of the
rectifier into variable AC power.
• Regulators, which provide a constant voltage to
frequency ratio output.
Rectifiers (Figure C-2) fit into two categories:
• Phase-controlled rectifiers, which convert
incoming AC power to a variable DC voltage.
• Diode bridge rectifiers, which convert incom-
ing AC power to a constant DC voltage.
Three types of inverters are used in commercial
electronic VSDs:
• Voltage-source inverters, or variable voltage
inverters.
• Current-source inverters.
• Pulse-width modulated source inverters.
While all of these inverters use the same principle
to convert fixed frequency and voltage to variable
frequency and voltage, each uses a different type
of conversion. Pulse-width modulated inverters
(Figure C-3) use state-of-the-art technology and
Figure C-1. Configuration of an Electronic VSD System's Components
CONTROLLER
ELECTRONICS
460/230 V
3-PHASE
50/60 HZ
460/230 V
3-PHASE
3-60 HZ
HAND SPEED •-•>-
POTENTIOMETER |
SPEED
REFERENCE
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual C-1
-------
Appendix C
Figure C-2. Basic Rectifier Configurations
60 Hz
3-PHASE
AC SUPPLY
PHASE-
CONTROLLED
RECTIFIER
DC LINK
_L
T
SQUARE-
WAVE
INVERTER
•^WAPPP
i
*
T
R
SQUARE-
WAVE
INVERTER
DC LINK
T
are considered by many in the industry to be the
most reliable. They are the most common invert-
ers used in VSDs applied to HVAC systems.
Pulse-width modulated source inverters control
voltage and frequency by varying the width or
duration of the voltage pulses applied to the
motor. The power factor remains constant
throughout the speed range. The waveforms
created require less filtering, and the modulation
may even be optimized to eliminate selected
harmonics. Pulse-width modulated source invert-
ers are commonly used in multiple-motor applica-
tions and can be used as long as the combined
load current of the motors does not exceed the
drive's rated current. Their power range is high
(typically up to 3,000 horsepower), with efficien-
cies in the range of 94 percent to 98 percent.
Pulse-width modulated source inverters have the
following advantages:
• They are dominant in commercial buildings.
• They provide more precise control than
voltage-source inverters.
• They can run smoothly over an extremely wide
speed range (a 20-to-l speed range is typically
possible) with no clogging.
They provide excellent speed control with low
harmonic content (5 percent compared with
30 percent for voltage-source inverters).
They are capable of working with voltage-
source inverters in the higher frequency range.
They are easy to install and can be located at a
distance from the motor being controlled.
They require less technical and therefore less
expensive service because large-scale inte-
grated circuits perform the more complex
control functions such as self-diagnostics.
Wiring
Proper wiring procedures must be followed when
installing VSDs. Improper installation can cause
many problems. Some important wiring guide-
lines are listed below.
• All control wiring must be run in a separate
conduit. Never run control wiring in the same
conduit as high-power wiring. Major variations
in the control signal can result from improper
wiring.
• The VSD should be independently grounded.
Do not ground the VSD through conduit, as this
will put resistance between the VSD and the
C-2 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
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Variable Speed Drive Technical Information
Figure C-3. Pulse-Width Modulated Inverter Used in Variable Speed Drives
AC TO DC
CONVERTER
DC LINK
DC TO AC
INVERTER
C
t
q
, o
0
,"3
' ~
T •
b :
b :
b:
b'
b :
1
b1
b'
. !
b'
b •
b
:
]
/
\
LINE-TO-LINE VOLTS
O TIME
LINE AMPERES
VARIABLE
VOLTAGE
CONTROL
VOLTAGE
SMOOTHING
VARIABLE
FREQUENCY
CONTROL
TIME
true ground. Do not connect one VSD's ground
to another's cabinet because noise will be fed
from one drive to the other.
• Run incoming and outgoing power wires in
separate conduits. If this is not done, electrical
noise generated by the inverter can couple back
to the input power wiring and affect all other
equipment on the same circuit as well as the
VSD itself.
• All screws responsible for electrical connec-
tions should be checked prior to start-up and
periodically afterwards. A loose electrical
connection can cause erratic operation. If the
loose connection is in the power circuitry,
excessive heat can be generated. If the loose
screw holds a power component in place, heat
can build up in the component and cause the
component to fail.
• Pay close attention to the control signal's
grounding requirements. Ground loop problems
can result from improper grounding.
• Always follow the manufacturer's instructions.
Power Quality
Although VSDs provide fast, efficient, and
accurate control, they can create power-quality
problems in the electrical system. Measures to
correct these problems can be easily implemented,
but the best way to avoid them is to use care when
installing the VSD. The key elements of good
installation include proper documentation of the
equipment specifications, knowledge of the
technical aspects of the drives, an understanding
of the configuration of the building's electrical
system and its effect on overall power quality, and
good engineering design.
The major power-quality issues related to VSD
installation are harmonic distortion, transient
voltages, power factors, voltage sags and momen-
tary outages, line notching, motor overheating,
and audible noise. These issues need to be
addressed during design and installation; most can
be solved by having protective devices installed in
the VSD before it is delivered.
Harmonic Distortion
A harmonic is defined as a sinusoidal component
of a periodic wave, with a frequency that is an
integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. In
a 60-Hz system, for example, the second harmonic
would be 120 Hz (2 x 60 Hz), the third harmonic
would be 180 Hz, the fifth harmonic would be
300 Hz, and so on.
Loads such as motors, incandescent lighting, and
resistive heaters are linear in nature. The load
impedance is essentially constant regardless of the
applied voltage. For alternating current, the
current increases proportionally as the voltage
increases and decreases proportionately as the
voltage decreases. This current is in phase with
the voltage for a resistive circuit with a power
factor of unity. It lags the voltage by some phase
angle for the more typical inductive circuit (with a
power factor commonly between 0.80 and 0.95)
and leads the voltage by some phase angle for a
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual C-3
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Appendix C
capacitive circuit, but is always proportional to the
voltage (Figure C-4). For a sinusoidal voltage, the
current is also sinusoidal.
VSDs are characterized as having a nonlinear
load; that is, the load current is not proportional to
the instantaneous voltage and is not continuous.
The drive can be switched on for only part of the
cycle, as in the inverter, or pulsed, as in the
controlled rectifier circuit of the VSD (Figures
C-5 and C-6). This switching or pulsing will
generate harmonic currents. The major effect of
nonlinear loads is to create considerable harmonic
distortion on the system.
Normally, in a 3-phase, 4-wire system, the single-
phase-line to neutral-load currents flow in each
phase conductor and return in the common neutral
conductor. The three 60-Hz phase currents are
separated by 120 degrees, and they are equal for
balanced 3-phase loads. When they return in the
Figure C-4. Linear Currents
IN-PHASE CURRENT IH
LEADING CURRENT lc
LAGGING CURRENT IL
VOLTAGE E
IR = PURE RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
CURRENT
IL = PARTIALLY INDUCTIVE
(LAGGING) CIRCUIT CURRENT
PF ABOUT 85% (TYPICAL)
lc = PARTIALLY CAPACITATIVE
(LEADING) CIRCUIT CURRENT
(UNCOMMON)
Figure C-5. Typical Nonlinear Load
DIODE-CAPACITOR
INPUT CIRCUIT
SWITCHING
POWER
SUPPLY
Figure C-6. Electrical Equivalent of the Nonlinear Load Shown in Figure C-5
420 Hz
m
C-4 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
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Variable Speed Drive Technical Information
neutral, they cancel each other out, adding up to
zero at all points. Therefore, for balanced 3-phase,
60-Hz loads, neutral current is zero.
For second harmonic currents separated by
120 degrees, cancellation in the neutral would
also be complete (Figure C-7), with zero neutral
current. This is true in the same way for all even
harmonics.
For third harmonic currents, the return currents
from each of the three phases are in phase in the
neutral (Figure C-8), so the total third harmonic
neutral current is the arithmetic sum of the three
individual third harmonic phase currents. This
is also true for all odd multiples of the third
harmonic (9, 15, 21, and so on). Other odd har-
monics (5, 7, 11, 13, and so on) add in the neutral,
but the total neutral-harmonic current is somewhat
less than the arithmetic sum of the three harmonic
phase currents.
For pulsed loads, the pulses can occur in each
phase at a different time. They will return in the
common neutral, but they will be separated by
time. Therefore, there will be no cancellation. If
none of the pulses overlap, the neutral current can
be three times the phase current (Figure C-9).
These harmonic currents cause excessive heating
in the magnetic steel cores of transformers and
motors. Odd-order harmonics are additive in the
neutral conductors of the system; some of the
pulsed currents do not cancel out in the neutral,
even when the three phases of the system are
carefully balanced. The result is overloaded
neutral conductors.
Nonlinear loads have a low power factor, increas-
ing the cost of utility power where power factor
penalty clauses apply. Figure C-10 shows a
typical VSD current waveform. Note the period of
zero amps before and after the peaks. This is due
to the gate firing angle delay control device. Little
or no power is found in the sine wave for one or
two milliseconds as the silicon-controlled rectifi-
ers are kept from firing until the desired time.
Figure C-l 1 is a plot of the discrete frequencies in
a VSD operation, where determination of the
exact amount of the total harmonic current
distortion can be made.
Figure C-7. Fundamental and
Second Harmonic Currents
2 = 0
B, <|>C - fundamental (60Hz) current
4>2A, <|>2B, <|>2C - 2nd harmonic (120 Hz) current
4>B lags <|>A by 120°, 4>C lags 4>B by 120°
Figure C-8. Fundamental and
Third Harmonic Currents
4>A, <|>B, <>C • fundamental (60Hz) current
<(i3A, QQQ, $3C • 3rd harmonic (180 Hz) current
4>B lags <(>A by 120°, $C lags
-------
Appendix C
How To Avoid Harmonic Distortion
• Specify VSDs that have a total harmonic
distortion output of 5 percent or less. Compli-
ance with ANSI/IEEE standard 519 (Harmonic
Control and Reactive Compensation of Static
Power Converters) should be emphasized.
Finding Harmonics
Because every building or facility has a different
power distribution system and contains different
equipment, an effective approach to solving a power
quality problem requires a thorough review of the
electrical system. A harmonic survey, the elements
of which are described below, will give a good idea
whether or not a problem exists.
• Load Inventory. Conduct a walking tour of the
facility and look at the types of equipment in use.
If you find a tot of personal computers, VSDs,
printers, solid-state heater controls, and elec-
tronic ballasts, there is a good chance that har-
monics already exist.
• Transformer Heat Check. Locate the trans-
formers feeding the nonlinear loads and check
them for excessive heating.
• Transformer Secondary Current, Measure and
record the transformersecondary currents with a
true-RMS meter in each phase and in the neutral.
Calculate the kVA delivered to the load. If har-
monic currents are present, the transformer can
overheat even if the kVA delivered is less than
the nameplate rating.
• Neutral Current. If the measured neutral current
is unexpectedly high compared with the value
predicted from the imbalance in the phase cur-
rents, triplen harmonics are likely. Measure the
frequency of the neutral current. A typical reading
for a neutral current consisting of mostly third
harmonic would be 180 Hz.
• Panel Neutral Current Check. Measure the
current in each branch neutral and compare the
value to the rated capacity for the wire size in use.
Check the neutral bus bar and feeder connec-
tions for heating or discoloration.
• Receptacle Neutral-to-Ground Voltage Check.
With loads "on," measure the voltage between
the neutral and ground at the receptacle. Two
volts or less is normal; higher voltages can indi-
cate a strong presence of harmonics.
There are several ways to address some of the
above typical harmonics problem. Detailed analysis
and a design specific to the problem are necessary.
• Specify VSDs that use pulse-width modulation.
Pulse-width modulated inverters use a choke in
the DC bus section to maintain a constant
power factor very near unity. The choke also
reduces the need to add inductance to the AC
line to reduce harmonic currents. The output
voltage has a lower harmonic content.
• To reduce the harmonic distortion level the
VSD injects into the electrical system, install a
harmonic filter. The filter provides a low-
impedance path for the harmonic currents,
thereby preventing harmonic voltage distortion
problems. The filter is tuned to a frequency
slightly lower than the harmonic frequency of
concern.
Transient Voltages
Smaller VSDs with pulse-width modulated source
inverters incorporate a large DC bus capacitor
(Figure C~l 2). The controls for this
Figure C-9. Fundamental and
Pulsed Currents
A, oB, <(>C - fundamental (60Hz) current
PA, PB, PC • pulses, each starting 25° after the
zero crossing of its respective phase
Fundamental and pulsed currents. The sum of
the pulses in the neutral equals three times the RMS
value of any one phase pulse, since there is no
overlap or cancellation. Different pulses might
overlap for partial reinforcement or cancellation.
C-6 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
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Variable Speed Drive Technical Information
type of drive have a fairly narrow bandwidth for
overvoltage and undervoltage protection. Thus
it is not uncommon for the DC overvoltage
control to cause the drive to trip whenever the
DC bus voltage exceeds 117 percent (760 volts
for 480-volt applications). Because the DC
capacitor is essentially connected alternately
across each of the three phases, drives of this type
can be extremely sensitive to overvoltages on the
AC power side.
The transient overvoltages caused by capacitor
energizations are generally not a concern to the
power supplier because they are usually below
Figure C-10. Input Current Waveform for a VSD
W
--204 SO
+ 1 24 40 AMPS TRUE RMS CURRENT = 95.51 AMPS
"l
1
1
1
1
1
I 1
1 1
t i
t
1 I
t i
I
N
•120.90 AMPS
204.80 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 19.99 39.99
MILLISECONDS
Figure C-11. Input Current Plot
59.00
3RD ORDER (180 HERTZ)
5TH ORDER (300 HERTZ)
7TH ORDER (420 HERTZ)
11TH ORDER
60 HERTZ - FUNDAMENTAL 13TH ORDER (780 HERTZ)
1 T
488.037
HERTZ
976.3182
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual G-7
-------
Appendix C
Figure C-12. One-Line Diagram of an Electrical System
With VSDs and Capacitors
OTHER FEEDERS
Y *-
A*
FAULT
1
DISTRIBUTION FEEDER
CUSTOMER v^^Lx^
TRANSFORMER rV~Y~\O
T
SUBSTATION
CAPACITOR BANK
LOAD (ASDs)
CAPACITORS
the level at which protective devices operate
(150 percent to 200 percent). These transients can
be magnified at the customer's facility if the
customer uses low-voltage capacitor banks for
power factor correction.
How To Avoid Transient Voltages
• Use tuned filters instead of shunt capacitor
banks for power factor correction. The tuned
filters change the response of the circuit and
usually prevent magnification from being a
problem. The filter is a good solution for a
combination of power factor correction,
harmonic control, and transient suppression.
• To eliminate nuisance tripping of small drives
due to capacitor switching, add a choke to the
power system. The series inductance of the
choke will reduce the current surge into the
VSD, limiting the DC overvoltage.
• Provide high-energy metal oxide varistor
(MOV) protection on 480-volt buses. VSDs
are normally protected by MOVs, which are
very effective when low-energy transients are a
concern. For high-energy transients, the energy
capability of the MOV should be at least
1 kilojoule.
• Control the capacitor switching transient by
using the vacuum switches with synchronous
closing control designed to energize the capaci-
tor bank at zero crossing.
Voltage Sags and
Momentary Outages
Another concern for VSD applications is the
control's sensitivity to short-duration voltage
sags and momentary interruptions. Voltage sags
caused by faults on the power system are one
of the more serious problems experienced with
sensitive loads. Whenever there is a fault on the
utility transmission or distribution system serving
the facility, there will be either a voltage sag or
an interruption.
How To Avoid Voltage Sags and
Momentary Outages
• Specify VSDs that have a ride-through capabil-
ity to withstand momentary voltage sags and
outages.
• If the VSD controls are sensitive to voltage
sags, install power conditioners to the
controllers.
• Install an uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
system to eliminate interruptions in the input
signal.
Line Notching
Line notching of the input voltage waves is a
normal characteristic of switching that occurs in
the power electronics of a rectifier during continu-
ous current operation. The currents must be
C-8 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
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Variable Speed Drive Technical Information
transferred from one SCR (or diode) to the next.
System impedances do not permit this transfer to
take place instantaneously. For a very short dura-
tion, called commutation (the period of conduc-
tion interval), there is an effective phase-to-phase
short circuit on the input. The net result is a
reduction in available voltage during the con-
duction time (Figure C-13).
Figure C-13. Voltage Reduction
During Line Notching
1000
0.020
0.025
0.035
TIME(S)
0.040
0045
0.050
Notching is more severe with phase-controlled
rectifiers because the delayed firing results in
commutation at a point where the phase-to-phase
voltage is higher. Notching can cause interference
with control circuits and communications systems.
The most severe problem is interference with the
controls of other VSDs located nearby.
How To Avoid Line Notching
• Add a choke (inductance) or an isolation
transformer on the input to the VSD. The
inductance limits the notches to the VSD side
of the choke. Note: Line notching is more
prevalent if the VSD uses the six-step inverter
type {current source or voltage source) in the
150-horsepower or higher range; thus it is not
common in pulse-width modulated VSDs.
• Specify VSDs that meet the IEEE Standard 519
criteria of less than 3 percent voltage distortion
and voltage notches of less than 16,400 volt-
microseconds.
Motor Overheating
Motors are generally linear loads, but when the
supply voltage has harmonic distortion, the motor
draws harmonic currents. The harmonic currents
cause excessive motor heating from higher
hysteresis and eddy-current losses in the motor
laminations and skin effect in the windings. Pulse-
width modulated source inverters with very fast
rise times can cause insulation failure in the first
turn of the motor winding due to unequal voltage
distribution across the winding.
How To Avoid Motor Overheating
• Install an output choke (inductance) to reduce
the high harmonics.
• Purchase factory-installed controls to decrease
rise time and prevent overheating.
• To control harmonic effects due to inverter
design on the motor side, derate the motor. If
operated at or near full load or used for high-
torque loads, the motors should be derated by at
least 15 percent.
• Derating can also be achieved by installing
motors with a higher class of insulation and
operating these motors at temperatures for a
lower class of insulation. Note: High-efficiency
motors are well suited for this application
because they run at higher temperatures and
thus have more insulation.
Audible Noise
Motors with pulse-width modulation generally run
with high audible noise, a result of the high-
frequency modulation. This noise at audio and
radio frequencies can sometimes be carried over
power lines and get into telephone, communica-
tions, and data systems by induction, capacitive
coupling, or radiation.
How To Avoid Audible Noise
• Use an output choke to reduce the high-
frequency harmonics generated by the VSD.
• Purchase a VSD with high carrier frequency.
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual C-9
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This page intentionally left blank.
C-10 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
-------
Generic
Specification for
Variable Speed Drive
This appendix contains an example specification for a variable
speed drive for induction motors that you can use when
preparing your own specifications. You will see how to
prepare specifications for performance and product and see
how to provide general guidelines for the contractor, how to
reference appropriate standards, and how to set guidelines for
project execution (installation, testing, documentation,
training, spare parts, and warranty).
In the specification, items that are in italic are options that
may be appropriate for certain facilities or that may need to be
modified by Energy Star Buildings Partners because of their
effect on cost or schedule. These items should be deleted or
modified as necessary.
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual D-1
-------
Appendix D
Table of Contents
Part 1—General 0-6
1.1 Summary of Work D-5
1.2 Proposal Compliance D-5
1.3 Terminology D-5
1.4 Materials and Services To Be Provided D-5
1.5 Requirements D-6
1.6 Expected Life D-6
1.7 Submittals D-6
1.7.1 Procedures D-6
1.7.2 Proposal D-6
1.7.3 Shop Drawings D-6
1.7.4 Manuals D-7
Part 2—Standards D-7
2.1 Listings D-7
2.1.1 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) D-7
2.1.2 National Electrical Manufacturer's Association (NEMA) D-8
2.1.3 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Publications D-8
2.1.4 Underwriter's Laboratories Incorporated (UL) Publications D-8
2.1.5 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Publications D-8
Parts—Performance D-S
3.1 Power Input Rating D-8
3.1.1 Line Voltage D-8
3.1.2 Line Frequency D-8
3.1.3 Power Factor D-8
3.1.4 Ambient Harmonic Voltage D-8
3.1.5 Acceptable Harmonic Distortion D-8
3.1.6 Fuses D-8
3.2 Output Rating D-9
3.2.1 Voltage D-9
3.2.2 Frequency D-9
3.2.3 Overload D-9
3.2.4 Efficiency D-9
3.2.5 Braking and Regeneration D-9
3.2.6 Waveform : D-9
3.2.7 Starting D-9
3.3 Controls D-9
3.3.1 Frequency D-9
3.3.2 Voltage D-9
3.3.3 Control Signal D-9
3.3.4 Standard Setup Adjustments D-9
Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
-------
Generic Specification for Variable Speed Drive
Table of Contents—continued
3.4 Protection D-9
3.4.1 VSDTrip D-10
3.4.2 Complete Shutdown of the VSD D-10
3.4.3 Personnel Protection D-10
3.4.4 Surge Protection D-10
3.5 Transformers D-10
3.6 Ambient Conditions D-10
Part 4—Product D-IO
4.1 Controls D-10
4.1.1 Control Circuitry D-10
4.1.2 Printed Circuit Boards D-l 1
4.1.3 Wiring D-ll
4.2 Converter D-12
4.2.1 Cooling D-12
4.2.2 Components D-12
4.2.3 Repair and Reliability D-12
4.2.4 Protection D-12
4.3 Derating D-12
4.3.1 Electronic Components D-12
4.3.2 Power Semiconductor Devices D-13
4.4 Microprocessors D-13
4.5 Bypass D-13
4.6 Energy Management System Interface D-13
4.7 Power Line Conditioner D-13
4.7.1 Harmonic Filters D-14
4.7.2 Capacitors D-14
4.7.3 Inductors D-14
4.8 Enclosure D-14
4.9 Operation D-14
4.9.1 Auto Restart D-14
4.9.2 Current Limit D-14
4.9.3 Critical Frequency Rejection D-14
4.9.4 Input Command Signal D-14
4.9.5 Jog-Speed Operation D-14
4.9.6 Output Monitoring D-14
4.9.7 Volts Per Hertz Profiles D-15
4.9.8 Loss of Command Signal D-15
4.9.9 VSD Operation D-15
4.9.10 Motor Power Loss D-15
4.9.11 Automatic Stall Prevention D-15
4.9.12 Drive Information Display D-15
4.9.13 Menu-Driven Setup D-15
First Edition, October 1993 Energy Star Buildings Manual D-3
-------
Appendix D ^
Table of Contents—continued
Part 5—Execution D-IS
5.1 Installation D-15
5.1.1 Instructions • D-15
5.2 Testing D-16
5.3 Manuals D-16
5.3.1 Description of Components D-16
5.4 Spare Parts D-16
5.4.1 Products Required D-16
5.4.2 Storage and Maintenance D-16
5.5 Training D-16
5.6 Warranty '. D-16
D-4 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
-------
Generic Specification for Variable Speed Drive
Part 1—General
This specification contains requirements for a
Variable Speed Drive (VSD). It includes general
requirements, applicable standards, performance
specifications, product specifications, and require-
ments for delivery, installation, testing, documen-
tation, spare parts, training, and warranty.
1.1—Summary of Work
The Contractor is to provide the Owner a low-
loss, high-performance controller that will convert
nominal rated voltage, three-phase, 60-Hz input
utility power to adjustable-frequency and
adjustable-voltage three-phase AC output power
to drive an induction motor for a fan or pump.
The VSD shall be suitable for continuous opera-
tion of any NEMA-standard VSD-compatible
induction motor of the specified horsepower. It
may be a retrofit for an existing induction motor.
The VSD shall operate reliably when connected to
a power-supply bus supplying other solid-state
power controllers (including other VSDs), which
may distort the bus voltage. Adequate transient
protection shall be provided to permit the VSD to
function reliably in a typical industrial or com-
mercial environment.
1.2—Proposal Compliance
The proposal shall comply with this specification,
including all attached data. Exceptions and
deviations from the specification shall be clearly
noted in the proposal. Alternatives or improve-
ments offered by the Contractor must be approved
by the Owner before the proposal is submitted.
1.3—Terminology
The following terms related to the VSD and motor
are used in this specification:
Variable Speed Drive (VSD). Assembly consist-
ing of a converter, controls, and line conditioner
connected to the utility supply line for power
input and distributing output power to the motor
terminals. Control signals are also considered as
input.
Converter. Assembly consisting of an input
rectifier, an adjustable-frequency and adjustable-
voltage three-phase inverter, contactors, and a
firing and control circuit that operates the
converter.
Controls. Control equipment that receives com-
mand and feedback signals from the system (for
example, HVAC) and applies those signals to the
converter.
Line Conditioner. Power-factor correction
capacitors or a power-harmonic filter, plus surge-
suppression circuits, located at the power input to
the converter.
VSD Rating. The VSD rating is the maximum
output voltage, maximum RMS current, maximum
kVA, and maximum kW for continuous operation
without exceeding the allowable temperature rise
for the components.
Motor Rating. The nameplate rating of the motor
in horsepower, speed, frequency, voltage, and
current. This is usually the rating for operation at
60 Hz.
PWM Inverter. In pulse-width modulated
(PWM) inverters, a front-end rectifier is generally
used to rectify the input AC line. The inverter
controls the magnitude and frequency of the
output voltage by modulating the pulse width of
the power switches to shape the output AC voltage
to closely resemble a sine wave.
Microprocessor. A universal large-scale inte-
grated circuit with the ability to perform a variety
of functions by executing a sequence of instruc-
tions stored in memory.
1.4—Materials and Services
To Be Provided
The Contractor shall:
(1) Deliver, install, and test the VSD.
(2) Provide the services of a Field Engineer for
the following:
(a) Install the VSD and connect it to the
power supply and existing motor.
(b) Start up the VSD.
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual D-5
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Appendix D
(c) Provide technical assistance in training
the Owner's personnel.
(3) Provide appropriate documentation:
manufacturer's product data, specifications,
detailed drawings, performance characteris-
tics, installation instructions, and operations
manuals.
1.5—Requirements
The Contractor shall be responsible for all sys-
tems included in this specification, including logic
and power components. The Contractor shall
perform any required analysis of the existing drive
motor to ensure that the motor will perform its
designated function without undue temperature
rise, mechanical vibration, and generation of
acoustic noise. The Owner will supply electrical
and mechanical data for the induction motor so
that the Contractor can perform the analysis.
All components necessary for the normal opera-
tion of the VSD induction motor drive system
shall be part of this specification and be supplied
by the Contractor, whether or not specifically
identified in this specification.
The Contractor shall perform a harmonic analysis
at the site to prove compliance.
The VSD's manufacturer shall have factory-
trained personnel and all needed parts in a
permanent location not more than 200 miles from
the site where the VSD is installed.
1.6—Expected Life
The quality of the components and the workman-
ship of the VSD shall result in a life expectancy
for the VSD to be not less than 80,000 hours with
nominal maintenance and repair. The Contractor
shall furnish the Owner with maintenance instruc-
tions, including component replacements, to
achieve the expected life.
7.7—Submittals
The Contractor shall prepare Submittals on
schedule and in the required detail in order to
advise the Owner of progress on the procurement.
1.7.1—Procedures
The Contractor shall provide the Submittals on a
schedule as follows:
(1) Proposal—as required in solicitation.
(2) Contract award—first day of contract.
(3) Shop drawings—1 week after contract award.
(4) Shop drawings approved—2 weeks after
contract award.
(5) VSD delivery—2, 4, 6, 8 weeks after
drawings approved.
(6) VSD Installation—1 week after VSD
delivery.
(7) Start-up—1 week after installation.
(8) Testing and Owner Staff Training—
1 week after installation.
(9) Owner Acceptance—1 week after
installation.
1.7.2—Proposal
The Proposal submitted by the Contractor shall
include the following:
(1) Overall description of the VSD.
(2) Circuit diagrams.
(3) Size and weight of equipment.
(4) Contractor's previous experience with VSDs.
(5) Exceptions to the specification.
(6) Price and delivery.
(7) Warranty.
1.7.3—Shop Drawings
Each item shall be delivered using Owner-
accepted transmittal forms and will be identified
by Specification Number and reference to the
pertinent drawing sheet. The Contractor shall
identify any exceptions from contract drawings.
Space will be provided for review stamps.
After the submittal is reviewed by the Owner, the
Contractor shall revise and resubmit if required,
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Generic Specification for Variable Speed Drive
clearly identifying changes incorporated since the
previous submittal.
Shop drawings shall include the following infor-
mation:
(1) Dimensions, weight, and mounting require-
ments for the enclosure.
(2) Connection points for utility line, motor, and
controls.
(3) Layout of control panel.
(4) Requirements for control interface.
(5) Maximum utility fault current.
(6) Analysis of line-current harmonics.
(7) Analysis of input power factor.
(8) Warranty data.
(9) Verification that conducted and radiated RFI
and EMI emission levels do not exceed those
set forth by the FCC.
1.7.4—Manuals
The Contractor shall deliver four (4) copies of an
Operation and Maintenance Manual for the VSD.
The manual shall include the following:
(1) Overall description of operation.
(2) Dimensions, weight, and electrical connec-
tion points.
(3) Requirements for utility line, motor, and
external control connections.
(4) Circuit diagrams and parts list.
(5) Maintenance and troubleshooting guide.
(6) Data sheets on critical components.
(7) Installation and start-up instructions.
Part 2—Standards
The VSD shall operate from the utility line and
provide adjustable-voltage and adjustable-
frequency power to the induction motor. The
VSD shall be designed, manufactured, and tested
in accordance with the best workmanship and the
latest applicable codes and standards. The Con-
tractor shall ensure that the equipment performs
its specific function reliably and safely.
2.7—Listings
The VSD shall conform to the pertinent portions
of the latest issue of the following applicable
standards.
2.1.1—American National Standards
Institute (ANSI)
C2, National Electrical Safety Code
C37.46, Specifications for Power Fuses and
Fuse Disconnecting Switches
C39.1, Requirements for Electrical Analog
Indicating Instruments
C57.12.01, General Requirements for Dry-
Type Distribution and Power Transformers
C37.20.1, Metal Enclosed, Low Voltage
Power Circuit Breaker Switchgear
ANSI/IEEE 91, Graphic Symbols for Logic
Functions (Two-State Devices)
ANSI/IEEE 100, Dictionary of Electrical and
Electronics Terms
ANSI/IEEE 142, Practice for Grounding of
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
ANSI/IEEE 200, Reference Design for
Electrical and Electronic Parts and Equip-
ment
ANSI/IEEE 315, Graphic Symbols for
Electrical and Electronic Diagrams
ANSI/IEEE 493, Recommended Practice for
Design of Reliable Industrial and Commer-
cial Power Systems
ANSI/IEEE 519-1992, IEEE Recommended
Practices and Requirements for Harmonic
Control in Electrical Power Systems
ANSI/IEEE C62.41, IEEE Guide for Surge
Voltages in Low Voltage AC Power Circuits
ANSI/IPC D-322, Guidelines for Selecting
Printed Wiring Board Sizes Using Standard
Panel Sizes
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Energy Star Buildings Manual D-7
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Appendix D
ANSI/IPC SM780, Component Packaging
and Interconnection with Emphasis on
Surface Mounting
ANSI/IPC T-50D, Terms and Definitions for
Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic
Circuits
2.1.2—National Electrical
Manufacturer's Association (NEMA)
ICS.l, General Standard for Industrial
Controls and Systems
ICS 1.1, Safety Guidelines for the Applica-
tion, Installation, and Maintenance of Solid-
State Control
ICS 2, Industrial Control Devices, Control-
lers, and Assemblies
ICS 3, Industrial Systems
ICS 3.1, Safety Standards for Construction
and Guide for Selection, Installation, and
Operation of Adjustable Speed Drive
Systems
ICS 4, Terminal Blocks for Industrial Use
ICS 6, Enclosures for Industrial Control
Devices and Systems
SG 5, Power Switchgear Assemblies
2.1.3—National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) Publications
2.1.4—Underwriter's Laboratories
Incorporated (UL) Publications
467, Grounding and Bonding Equipment
489, Molded Case Circuit Breakers and
Circuit Breaker Enclosures
508, Industrial Control Equipment
2.1.5—International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) Publications
801-4, Electromagnetic Compatibility for
Industrial Process, Measurement and Control
Equipment
801-5, Industrial Process Measurement and
Control-System Aspects
Part 3—Performance
The converter in the VSD shall use a pulse-width
modulated (PWM) inverter that shall be suitable
for operating with any NEMA or equivalent three-
phase induction motor.
3.1—Power Input Rating
Power input requirements for the VSD are as
follows.
3.1.1—Line Voltage
The VSD shall operate in one of the following
line-voltage categories:
(1) Voltage: 208 to 230. Tolerance: 198 to 253
volts, 3-phase.
(2) Voltage: nominal 460. Tolerance: 96 to 550
volts, 3-phase.
3.1.2—Line Frequency
The VSD shall operate at a line frequency of
60 Hz ± 5 percent.
3.1.3—Power Factor
The VSD shall have a displacement power factor
better than 0.95 lag or lead, regardless of the
horsepower load or torque on the motor,
3.1.4—Ambient Harmonic Voltage
The VSD shall operate satisfactorily when con-
nected to a bus that may have up to 10 percent
total RMS harmonic voltage distortion when other
VSDs or any other type of nonlinear equipment
are operated from the same bus.
3.1.5—Acceptable
Harmonic Distortion
The VSD shall meet the criteria as defined by the
latest IEEE-519 standard. The VSD and all
associated equipment shall not cause misoperation
of any equipment due to radiated or conducted
RFI or EMI emissions.
3.1.6—Fuses
The VSD input line power circuits shall be fused
with fast-acting current-limiting fuses rated min-
imally at an interrupting capacity of 200,000 A.
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Generic Specification for Variable Speed Drive
3.2—Output Rating
VSD output requirements are as follows.
3.2.1—Voltage
The VSD shall operate in one of the following
output voltage categories:
(1) Maximum 200 to 240 volts, proportional to
input line voltage.
(2) Maximum 380 to 480 volts, proportional to
input line voltage.
3.2.2—Frequency
The base frequency shall be user selectable from
0 Hz to 66 Hz. Once set, that shall be designated
as the maximum frequency.
The frequency range shall extend from 0 Hz to the
maximum frequency.
3.2.3—Overload
The VSD must be capable of developing 110 per-
cent torque at starting speed through nominal
speed. The overload capacity shall be capable of
supplying the motor at 110 percent of its rated
torque at any speed for 1 minute.
3.2.4 Efficiency
The full load efficiency of the VSD (without
motor) shall be a minimum of 96 percent.
3.2.5—Braking/Regeneration
The VSD shall be protected from excessive
regeneration and shall have the capability for
rapid deceleration of the motor.
3.2.6—Waveform
The output voltage waveform of the converter
shall be sine-wave PWM. The design of the PWM
pattern shall ensure operation of the motor over
the full frequency range without undue acoustic
noise or vibration.
3.2.7—Starting
The VSD shall be capable of detecting the speed
of a rotating motor in either direction, synchroniz-
ing the reapplication of power, and accelerating or
decelerating to set speed without stop, trip, or
component loss.
3.3—Controls
The control requirements of the VSD are as
follows.
3.3.1—Frequency
Frequency specifications are as follows:
(1) Control range: 0 Hz to maximum frequency.
(2) Accuracy of setpoint: 0.5 percent of maxi-
mum frequency.
(3) Resolution: 0.5 percent of maximum
frequency.
(4) Long-term correspondence of frequency to
setpoint: 0.5 percent of maximum frequency.
3.3.2—Voltage
The output voltage shall track the frequency in
a user-selectable mode. The VSD shall have
adequate voltage boost under all operating
conditions.
3.3.3—Control Signal
The frequency shall be set by an external analog
or digital signal. The analog signal will be 0 to
10 volts DC, or 4 to 20 mA DC.
3.3.4—Standard Setup Adjustments
Standard setup adjustments shall include:
(1) Minimum speed: 0 to 100 percent.
(2) Maximum speed: 0 to 100 percent.
(3) Linear acceleration to maximum speed
setting: 1 to 120 seconds.
(4) Linear deceleration to minimum speed
setting: 1 to 120 seconds.
(5) Maximum output voltage: adjustable.
(6) V/Hz: adjustable at selectable profiles.
(7) Current limit: 50 to 110 percent.
(8) Torque limit: 50 to 110 percent of rated
torque.
3.4—Protection
Protection requirements for the VSD are as
follows.
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Appendix D
3.4.1—VSD Trip
The VSD shall trip to shut down output voltage
under the following conditions:
(1) Single-phase fault or 3-phase short circuit on
VSD output terminals.
(2) Instantaneous output overcurrent and
overvoltage.
(3) Output overfrequency.
(4) Loss of phase voltage.
(5) Motor overload.
(6) Motor overspeed.
(7) Motor overtemperature.
3.4.2 Complete Shutdown
of the VSD
Complete shutdown of the VSD shall occur under
the following conditions:
(1) Ground fault within VSD.
(2) Loss of cooling air.
(3) Overtemperature.
(4) Loss of logic control power.
(5) Blown fuses.
(6) Input line undervoltage or overvoltage,
underfrequency or overfrequency trip.
3.4.3—Personnel Protection
The power-supply AC line circuit breaker or
disconnect shall be interlocked with the enclosure
door to prevent the closing of the line circuit
breaker when the enclosure doors are open. The
interlocking devices shall be designed so that the
enclosure door can be padlocked with the breaker
in the OFF position.
Capacitors with high energy content shall be
adequately discharged by suitable internal or
external discharge resistors. DC link voltage must
decay to less than 50 volts within 60 seconds of
power removal.
3.4.4—Surge Protection
The VSD shall include surge-voltage suppression
to attenuate voltage transients and to allow
reliable operation when powered from a utility
bus. The 3-phase AC input line shall comply with
the surge voltage test in accordance with ANSI/
IEEE PC62.45.
3.5—Transformers
The input and output transformers shall be
specifically designed for power conversion
application and must meet the criteria of ANSI
C57.18. A dry-type, self-cooled unit shall be used.
3.6—Ambient Conditions
The VSD shall operate under the following
ambient conditions:
(1) Storage temperature: -4°F to 140°F (-21°C
to 60°C).
(2) Ambient temperature: 32°F to 104°F (0°C
to 40°C).
(3) Altitude: To 3,300 ft. without derating.
(4) Atmosphere: Clean air free of dirt and
corrosive gases.
(5) Humidity: 95 percent relative humidity
noncondensing.
(6) Vibration: 1 G less than 20 Hz; up to 0.2 G at
20 to 50 Hz.
Part 4—Product
The following design requirements represent
minimum practice for the components and con-
struction of the equipment. Established practice
by the Contractor may deviate from the specifica-
tion and will require approval by the Owner.
4.1—Controls
This section contains requirements for control
circuitry, printed circuit boards, and wiring.
4.1.1—Control Circuitry
The following specifications apply to control
circuitry:
(1) Construction: Control circuitry shall be laid
out on plug-in printed circuit boards or pull-
apart terminal blocks to facilitate mainte-
nance.
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Generic Specification for Variable Speed Drive
(2) Isolation: Control circuitry shall be
electrically isolated from all power compo-
nents. The isolation shall be such that an
ungrounded test instrument may be con-
nected to the control circuitry for mainte-
nance purposes.
(3) Self-Checking: Control circuitry shall be
designed to have self-diagnostic features and
to be fail-safe.
(4) Status Indicators: Front-panel displays and
LED and other diagnostic indicators shall be
provided to aid in visually verifying the
proper operation of the internal control
circuitry. The on-board status indicators shall
also function as a diagnostic system.
(5) Test Points: Test points shall be provided
on the circuit boards to facilitate trouble-
shooting.
(6) Spare Terminal Blocks: Spare terminal
blocks shall be provided for external signal
wires.
4.1.2—Printed Circuit Boards
The following specifications apply to printed
circuit boards:
(1) Construction: Circuit boards shall be
constructed of flame-retardant glass-
epoxy laminate with a nominal thickness
of 1/16 inch. Other material, if used, shall
have similar electrical properties, dimen-
sional stability, and low moisture absorption
characteristics.
(2) Cleaning: Chemical agents containing
chlorofluorocarbons and methylchloroform
shall not be used to clean printed circuit
boards.
(3) Dimensions: Industry-standard board dimen-
sions with standard bus patterns and contact
row spacings shall be used wherever possible.
(4) Contacts: Contact fingers for printed circuit
board sockets shall employ silver-plated
contacts and be keyed to prevent incorrect
placement.
(5) Fabrication: Printed circuit boards shall
include standard component legends and
high-quality solder mask coatings.
(6) Sockets: Socketed components shall be
restricted to microprocessor ICs, EPROMs,
EEPROMs, and similar components. The
sockets shall be gold-plated and develop low
insertion force with high retention. Standard
integrated devices and active and passive
components shall be soldered to the circuit
board.
4.1.3—Wiring
The following specifications apply to wiring:
(1) Insulation: Conductor insulation material
shall be resistant to flame and ozone and be
inert to oils and solvents, with an operating
temperature of at least 176°F (80°C). Teflon
or other special insulations suitable for high-
temperature operation shall be used where
necessary.
(2) Hook-up wire: Copper conductors shall be
used for signal and control interconnect
wiring.
(3) Stranded conductors: Stranded conductors
designed for flexibility shall be used where
flexing is involved.
(4) Sizes: Unless otherwise specified, intercon-
necting wiring shall be sized as follows:
(a) Logic wiring: Minimum acceptable size,
No.24AWG.
(b) Circuits operating at 60 volts and less:
Minimum acceptable size, No. 22 AWG
stranded.
(c) Circuits operating above 60 volts:
Minimum acceptable size, No. 18 AWG
stranded.
(5) Marking: All conductors and terminal points
shall be clearly identified at each termination
by wire markers corresponding to the nota-
tion appearing on the wiring diagrams.
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Appendix D
4.2—Converter
This section contains requirements for cooling,
components, repair and reliability, and protection.
4.2.1—Cooling
The following specifications apply to cooling:
(1) Free air cooling: Power semiconductor
assemblies shall preferably be cooled by free
air convection. Cooling fans are acceptable if
required to maintain operating temperature.
(2) Heatsinks: Heatsinks and cooling hardware,
including mounting hardware for power
semiconductor assemblies, shall use standard
hardware where possible. Nonstandard
threads, nuts, fittings, or assemblies requiring
proprietary tools shall not be allowed.
4.2.2—Components
The following specifications apply to components:
(1) Modular assembly: Modular, easily replace-
able assemblies shall be employed in the
design.
(2) Multiple sourcing: The Contractor shall make
every effort to use power semiconductor
devices that are commercially available from
more than one source.
(3) Single devices: Parallel or series connected
devices shall not be used to increase device
ratings.
4.2.3—Repair and Reliability
The following specifications apply to repair and
reliability:
(1) Replacement: The mechanical and wiring
arrangements shall be designed for field
replacement.
(2) Reliability: The mean time between failure
(MTBF) of the converter power assemblies
shall exceed 50,000 hours combined for all
components under maximum operating
conditions.
(3) Failure isolation: Device ratings, protection,
and other design measures shall be employed
to prevent a single power device failure from
causing other device failure (that is, no
avalanche failure modes).
4.2.4—Protection
The following specifications apply to protection:
(1) Transient protection: Power semiconductor
devices shall be protected from voltage
transients generated external to the VSD, and
from recurring transients due to the operation
of the VSD.
(2) Overtemperature: Heatsink or power semi-
conductor device temperatures shall be
monitored and used to protect the devices
from thermal damage.
(3) Overcurrent: Fuses or other means shall be
used to protect power semiconductor devices
from overcurrent conditions.
4.3—Derating
This section contains requirements for electronic
components and power semiconductor devices.
4.3.1—Electronic Components
The following derating requirements apply to
electronic components used in the VSD. If
unspecified, a general derating factor of three is to
be used. The Contractor will be required to submit
documentation verifying these derating factors.
(1) Integrated circuits shall be within the
manufacturer's specified maximum power
dissipation rating at case temperatures up to
140°F(60°C).
(2) The transistor power dissipation rating
shall be at least three times nominal power
dissipation.
(3) Transistor ratings shall be 600 Vceb for 230
VAC, 1,200 Vceb for 460 VAC, and 1,400 to
1,600 Vceb for 575 VAC lines.
(4) The diode average forward current rating
shall be at least three times the nominal
current at operating temperature.
(5) VRRM for all diodes shall be at least five times
operating voltages.
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Generic Specification for Variable Speed Drive
(6) Resistor maximum power dissipation capabil-
ity shall be a minimum of three times nomi-
nal power dissipation.
(7) Capacitor working voltage at operating
temperature shall be at least three times
nominal operating voltage.
4.3.2—Power
Semiconductor Devices
Power semiconductor devices used in the VSD
shall be subject to the following minimum
derating requirements:
(1) Current: The manufacturer's specified
current rating for all power semiconductor
devices shall exceed 125 percent of the cur-
rent required for the worst-case operating
conditions.
(2) Voltage: The manufacturer's specified
voltage rating for all power semiconductor
devices shall exceed 120 percent of the
voltage required for the worst-case transient
voltage conditions.
(3) Junction temperature: Power semiconductor
devices and power modules shall not exceed
the manufacturer's maximum junction
temperature specification when subjected to
125 percent of the rated current required for
normal operation. This rating shall be veri-
fied at worst-case operating conditions. The
Contractor shall be required to show that the
manufacturer's rating is not exceeded for this
operating condition.
4.4—Microprocessors
The following specifications apply to micro-
processors:
(1) Types: LSI devices such as microprocessors,
digital signal processors, and microcontrol-
lers shall be multiple-source industry stan-
dard types.
(2) Word Size: LSI devices used in the VSD
control circuit shall be state-of-the-art high-
performance units with word sizes of 8, 16,
or 32 bits.
(3) Non-Volatile Program Memory: The soft-
ware program, setup menus and parameters,
look-up tables, and so forth, shall be stored in
non-volatile memory such as EPROM and
EEPROM.
4.5—Bypass
A bypass circuit shall be provided to allow the
motor to run at constant speed across the line if
the VSD is shut down. A rotary switch shall be
used to accomplish the transfer from the VSD to
the input AC line. The bypass circuitry shall
conform to the requirements of this specification,
and shall be enclosed in a NEMA-1 or NEMA-12
enclosure. The bypass enclosure shall be an
integral part of the VSD.
The bypass enclosure shall incorporate a door-
interlocked input AC line circuit breaker, a VSD
input contactor or an input disconnect for the VSD
separate from the line circuit breaker, a VSD
output contactor, and a full-voltage starter with
overload. A motor overload relay shall provide
motor protection. At a minimum, the enclosure
door shall carry the following:
(1) The bypass selector switch.
(2) Power ON indicator.
(3) VSD ON indicator.
(4) ON LINE motor operation indicator.
4.6—Energy Management
System Interface
The VSD microprocessor-based control shall
include a communications interface that can
control the VSD and inquire about the status of
internal parameters. The interface may be used
with external control equipment such as an Energy
Management System.
4.7—Power Line Conditioner
This section contains requirements for harmonic
filters, capacitors, and inductors.
4.7.1—Harmonic Filters
The following specifications apply to harmonic
filters:
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Energy Star Buildings Manual D-13
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Appendix D
(1) General: Harmonic filters shall be supplied
for the VSD. The harmonic filters shall not be
damaged or exhibit any significant change in
their characteristics when subjected to the
following operating conditions:
(a) Overvoltage on the AC bus derated for
the VSD's size.
(b) No load.
(c) Short circuit.
4.7.2—Capacitors
The following specifications apply to capacitors:
(1) Types: Capacitors for power harmonic filters
shall be specifically designed for filter
applications. The capacitors should exhibit
dielectric loss of 1/2 watt per kVAR. Capaci-
tors shall be of metalized film construction or
of self-cleaning design.
(2) Protection: Capacitors for harmonic filters
and for power factor correction shall be
adequately fused.
4.7.3—Inductors
Inductors for power harmonic filters shall be
impregnated with moisture and fungus-resistant
varnish.
4.8—Enclosure
The VSD enclosure shall be a standard NEMA-1
(orNEMA-12) dust-tight, drip-proof enclosure.
All the electrical and electronic components, with
the exception of the input and output isolation
transformers (if any) and remote-control devices,
shall be located within the enclosure.
The enclosure shall have a corrosion-resistant
finish suitable for an industrial environment.
4.9—Operation
The VSD shall incorporate the following opera-
tional characteristics.
4.9.1—Auto Restart
The VSD shall be have the ability to provide
automatic restart after a drive trip or power
outage. The number of attempted restarts after a
trip condition shall be user-selectable (0 to 3).
If the drive reaches the set limit of restarts and is
not successful in restarting the motor, the restart
circuit shall be disabled and an alarm activated.
A label shall be placed on the VSD and the driven
equipment to warn about the possibility of auto-
matic restart.
4.9.2—Current Limit
The VSD shall include a user-adjustable current-
limit circuit to limit motor current during overload
conditions. The overcurrent adjustment range
shall be from 50 to 110 percent of full load
current.
4.9.3—Critical Frequency Rejection
The VSD shall have the ability to provide a
minimum of three (3) avoidance speeds, to be
used to avoid critical resonance for applications
subject to mechanical harmonic resonance.
4.9.4 Input Command Signal
The input command signal circuit shall accept an
electrical speed command signal from a remote
external ungrounded or grounded source rated at
0 to 10 volts or 4 to 20 mA. The command signal
may be set manually by a one-turn or digital
potentiometer on the VSD. The VSD shall accept
a 3- to 15-psi pneumatic signal from a pressure
source. In all cases, the range of adjustment shall
be from 0 to 100 percent of maximum set speed.
The input signal circuitry shall incorporate full
signal conditioning and shall respond directly or
inversely to the speed command as selected by
the user.
4.9.5—Jog-Speed Operation
The VSD shall be capable of independent jog-
speed operation. The range of adjustment shall be
from 0 to 100 percent of maximum speed.
4.9.6—Output Monitoring
The VSD shall include analog output signals for
monitoring motor speed and motor load. The
signal range shall be typically 0 to 10 volts or
4 to 20 mA.
4.9.7—Volts Per Hertz Profiles
The VSD shall provide a minimum of six (6)
user-definable V/Hz curves to optimize the energy
supplied for centrifugal loads such as fans and
pumps.
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Generic Specification for Variable Speed Drive
4.9.8—Loss of Command Signal
In the event of loss of input command signal, the
VSD shall go to a user-adjustable, pre-set speed.
The VSD shall provide an alarm to warn of the
absence of the command signal.
4.9.9—VSD Operation
The following specifications apply to VSD
operation:
(1) The VSD shall be capable of reliably starting
and operating without a motor connected to
the output.
(2) The VSD logic shall be capable of continuous
operation during a momentary loss of power
of thirty (30) cycles (one-half second).
4.9.10—Motor Power Loss
The VSD shall generate a sinusoidal PWM output.
The design should incorporate efficient power
transfer and reduced power losses in the drive
motor. Under no condition shall the ratio of the
RMS motor line current at rated speed, torque,
and voltage to the rated RMS motor current for a
pure sine wave exceed 105 percent.
4.9.11—Automatic Stall Prevention
The VSD control circuit shall incorporate auto-
matic stall prevention by reducing output voltage
and frequency during overload conditions. When
the overload condition is removed, the drive shall
resume normal operation. A label shall be
installed on the VSD and on the driven equip-
ment to warn about the possibility of automatic
resumption.
4.9.12—Drive Information Display
The VSD information display shall have the
capability of displaying output speed, target
speed, motor amps, motor power in kW, output
voltage, output frequency, and kWh consumption,
all in real time. The display shall also function as
a status indicator, displaying the operating status
and fault modes.
4.9.13—Menu-Driven Setup
The VSD control section shall incorporate a user-
programmable, full-function, microprocessor-
based menu. A menu selection list shall allow the
user to access internal setup areas, fault diagnostic
messages, and operating parameters that shall be
stored in non-volatile memory.
Part 5—Execution
This section deals with installation, testing,
manuals, spare parts, training, and warranty.
5.1—Installation
The Contractor shall install the VSD and perform
all associated work in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions.
The Contractor shall provide full drawings and
instructions for VSD installation and start-up,
including:
(1) Electrical schematic drawings.
(2) Mechanical details and mounting.
(3) Preliminary testing.
(4) Manual (local) operation.
(5) Operation in system.
(6) Field tests.
5.2—Testing
Upon completion of the installation, the Contrac-
tor shall completely test and inspect the VSD
system to determine its compliance to this specifi-
cation. All test reports generated during the field
test shall be submitted to the Owner. Any defect
in material or workmanship found during field
testing and inspection shall be corrected by the
Contractor.
During the field tests, the Contractor shall
generate the following data from actual test
measurements:
(1) A set of torque-speed curves demonstrating
that the motor's torque exceeds the load
torque at all speeds, with the maximum motor
current limited to less than 110 percent of
rated full load current.
(2) A frequency spectrum of the pertinent input
and output parameters, including input and
output voltages and currents for the VSD
showing the harmonic content as a percent-
age of the base frequency.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual D-15
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Appendix D
(3) The overall efficiency of the VSD system at
full load, at 50 percent load, and at
25 percent load.
5.3—Manuals
The Contractor shall provide an Operation and
Maintenance Manual in accordance with the
following requirements.
5.3.1—Description of Contents
The manual shall include a description of
component parts, including operating function,
electrical characteristics, and limiting conditions;
component performance curves with test data
and results; and general nomenclature and com-
mercial part numbers for replaceable parts.
The manual shall also contain the following:
(1) Wiring Diagrams. The manual shall include
as-installed color-coded wiring diagrams for
the control circuit, power section, and acces-
sories.
(2) Operating Procedures. The manual shall
include start-up, break-in, and routine
normal and calibration operating procedures
and instructions; shut-down and emergency
instructions; and descriptions of diagnostic
and VSD status messages.
(3) Maintenance Requirements. The manual shall
include routine maintenance procedures and
related requirements for troubleshooting,
disassembly, and repair; detailed assembly
instructions and alignment procedures; and
instructions for adjusting, balancing, and
fault handling.
(4) Instructions. The manual shall include
component manufacturers' installation,
operation, and maintenance instructions.
(5)
Parts List. The manual shall include compo-
nent manufacturers' illustrations, assembly
drawings, and diagrams required for
maintenance.
5.4—Spare Parts
This section contains requirements for spare parts.
5.4.1—Products Required
The Contractor shall provide manufacturers'
recommended quantities of spare parts, mainte-
nance tools, and materials in addition to those
required for completion of installation.
5.4.2—Storage and Maintenance
After delivery of parts to the site, the Contractor
shall maintain spares in the same condition as the
units to be installed.
The Contractor shall store spare units in original
shipping containers, with labels intact, until
delivery.
5.5—Training
After all products are accepted, the Contractor
shall provide a factory-trained engineer to train
the Owner's personnel on the operation and
maintenance of the units for a minimum of two (2)
hours, four (4) hours, eight (8) hours.
5.6—Warranty
The Contractor shall provide a complete parts and
labor warranty for a period of one (I) year, two
(2) years, five (5) years from the date of the
Owner's acceptance and approval of the installed
product.
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Program Management
Information
This appendix contains supplemental program
management information on financing your
Energy Star Buildings upgrades and on preparing
requests for proposals and quotations. A sample
request for proposals is included.
Financing
Many profitable upgrade projects are delayed by
restricted availability of capital. Utility incentives
(particularly through EPA Super Ally Program
utility partners), national purchasing agreements,
and equipment financing (with or without perfor-
mance guarantees) can help Energy Star Buildings
Partners overcome financing obstacles and obtain
the financial advantages of energy efficiency.
Alternatives to using in-house capital for energy-
efficiency upgrades include conventional financ-
ing, leasing (capital leases and operating leases),
and shared savings financing. These financing
options can provide positive cash flow when the
periodic energy cost savings exceed the amount of
payments. The risk of the investment can be
reduced or eliminated with guaranteed savings
insurance and shared savings financing. National
purchasing agreements, if applicable, can reduce
costs and improve service.
Several types of utility incentives and financing
options reduce or eliminate the need for capital,
reduce risk, and improve cash flow. Although
third-party financing may be a slightly more
expensive approach to procuring energy-
efficiency upgrades, it may still be the best
alternative because it allows you to retain more
capital for use in your specific business activities.
This section addresses the attributes of the more
popular financing options that can be used for
procuring Energy Star Buildings upgrades. Note,
however, that terms and conditions for each
option will vary among these financing sources.
You can obtain detailed information about the
utilities and financing companies that offer the
various financing options described in this section
from the Green Lights database of financing
programs, described later in this section.
Utility Incentives
Electric utilities in some areas are helping their
customers reduce the cost of energy-efficiency
upgrades by offering rebates and other incentives.
By encouraging reduced customer loads, an
electric utility can meet new customer demand
while avoiding the costs required to add more
generating capacity.
Before you proceed with your Energy Star Build-
ings upgrades, contact your local utility and obtain
specific incentive program information. Pay
particular attention to customer eligibility criteria
and the specific technologies that qualify for
Action Steps
for Financing
1. Use the Green Lights database of financing
programs to:
— Determine the availability of utility
incentives.
— Review services and terms offered by
financing organizations.
2. Work with your financial and tax analysts to
determine the appropriate financing option
based on:
— Cost of capital
— Eligibility for utility incentives
— Perceived investment risk
— Flexibility.
3. Work with manufacturers and service compa-
nies to investigate national purchasing
agreements.
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Appendix E
incentives or rebates. Be certain to verify the
deadline for the rebate applications or for the
upgrades themselves. These deadlines are impor-
tant for determining whether you can qualify for
rebates or incentives. To determine the incentives
that may apply to your upgrades, consult the
Green Lights database of financing programs
(described later in this section).
Specific types of utility incentives are described
below.
Rebates
— The utility company reimburses the building
owner for a portion of the cost of energy-
efficiency improvements implemented.
— Rebates may be based on peak load reduc-
tions (that is, dollars per kilowatt) or based
on a fixed rebate for each energy-efficient
product purchased (that is, dollars per item).
— A given technology may qualify under one
or more programs offered by the utility.
Typically, only one incentive program
application may be submitted per building.
Check with your utility for details.
— Rebates have been the most common form
of utility incentive during the past several
years.
Direct Utility Assistance
— The utility pays some or all of the cost of
the upgrade directly to the installing con-
tractor selected by the customer.
— Alternatively, the utility provides energy-
efficiency products or services to the
customer through utility personnel or
contractors selected by the utility.
Low-Interest Loans
— Some utilities offer low-interest financing
for energy conservation projects. Loan
payments can be added to your utility bills.
National Account Agreements
National purchasing agreements, also called
national accounts, are negotiated relationships
between suppliers and nationwide buyers of
products and services. National accounts provide
the following benefits:
• Streamlined coordination of energy-efficiency
equipment purchases.
• Guaranteed availability of selected technology.
• Competitive prices.
• Multi-location shipping directly from the
manufacturer.
• Standardized installation and maintenance.
• Additional support services available only from
the manufacturer.
National account programs can assist Energy Star
Buildings Partners by simplifying the procure-
ment process for energy-efficiency upgrades.
They may or may not take the form of written
agreements. To be legally binding, however, the
agreements are written, agreed to, and signed by
both parties. A request for proposals (RFP) to
solicit bids on a national account may or may not
be necessary.
Energy Star Buildings Partners interested in
exploring national account agreements should take
the following steps:
• Determine the types of upgrades for which
national accounts would be appropriate and
determine the quantities and prices for the
products and services required.
• Plan and aggregate company-wide purchases to
gain the maximum discount for quantity
purchases.
• If possible, reduce the diversity of products
to increase purchase quantities and further
increase discounts for quantity purchases.
• Identify which products will be specified for
purchase and whether or not substitutes would
be acceptable.
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Program Management Information
m If applicable, determine annual purchasing
volume.
• Contact the appropriate manufacturers to
inquire about establishing a national account.
• If necessary, issue an RFP to solicit bids from
interested manufacturers or contractors (see
page E-6 for more information about proposals
and quotations).
Overview of Financing Options
Financing organizations can provide the needed
capital for implementing your Energy Star Build-
ings upgrades. These financing options are
designed to reduce or eliminate up-front project
expenditures and distribute these costs over time.
In many cases, the periodic energy cost savings
exceed the periodic financing payments, resulting
in positive cash flow from the beginning of the
project. In addition to providing capital, several
organizations provide the expertise to design and
install the upgrades while assuming some or all of
the performance risk.
There are many variations of financing options
available to Energy Star Buildings Partners. In the
descriptions that follow, the most common
attributes of the financing methods are described.
However, note that the specific terms and condi-
tions vary among the large number of financing
entities. To determine the incentives that may
apply to your upgrades, consult the Green Lights
database of financing programs (described later in
this section).
Note: Because tax laws are frequently revised and
sometimes are difficult to interpret, check with
your tax and financial analysts to determine
bottom-line impacts before entering into an
agreement with a financing company.
Table E-l provides a summary of the attributes of
the financing options described in the rest of this
section. Other options may be applicable to
projects that involve cogeneration or thermal
storage systems.
Table E-1. Comparison of Financing Options
Initial
Payment
Periodic
Payment
Payment
Source
Performance
Risk
Contract
Termination
Options"
Ownership
Tax
Deductions*"
Cash Purchase
1 00 Percent of
Project Cost
None
Capital
Owner*
Not Applicable
Building Owner
Depreciation
Conventional
Financing
Capital Lease
0 to 30 Percent of $0 or Deposit
Project Cost
Fixed
Capital
Owner*
Principal Payoff
Building Owner
Depreciation and
Interest
Fixed
Capital
Owner*
Principal Payoff
Building Owner
Depreciation and
Interest
Operating Lease
$0
Fixed
Operations
Lessor
Fair Market Value
Buyout; Renew;
Return
Lessor
None****
Shared Savings
$0
Percentage of
Energy Cost
Savings
Operations
Investor
Fair Market Value
Buyout; Renew;
Return
Investor
Shared Savings
Payments
* Owner's risk may be reduced with guaranteed savings insurance.
" At end of term.
"* Subject to change in tax laws; consult with tax advisor regarding eligibility.
"** No tax benefits to owner. Lessor claims tax benefits associated with depreciation.
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Appendix E
Lease Purchase
Two basic types of leases can be used to finance
energy-efficiency improvements: capital leases
and operating leases.
Capital leases are installment purchases. Little or
no initial capital outlay is required to purchase the
equipment. You are considered the owner of the
equipment and may take deductions for deprecia-
tion and for the interest portion of the payments to
the lessor. Similar to conventional loans, capital
leasing is "on balance sheet" financing, meaning
that the transaction will be recorded on your
balance sheet as both a liability and an asset.
Capital leases are offered by banks, leasing
companies, installation contractors, suppliers, and
some electric utilities.
Under operating leases, the lessor owns the
equipment that is, in effect, "rented" (leased) to
you for a monthly fee during the contract period.
This provides an "off balance sheet" financing
option. Because the lessor is considered the owner
of the energy-efficiency equipment, he claims the
tax benefits associated with the depreciation of the
equipment. At the end of the contract term, you
can elect to purchase the equipment at fair market
value (or at a predetermined amount), renegotiate
the lease, or have the equipment removed.
Some energy-efficiency upgrades may not qualify
for an operating lease based on the criteria defined
by Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB)
Statement 13. These criteria disallow automatic
ownership transfer and bargain purchase options,
set the maximum term of the lease at 75 percent
of economic life, and limit the present value of
rental payments (plus any residual value guaran-
tee) to less than 90 percent of fair value of the
leased equipment. In such cases, shared savings
financing may offer many of the advantages of
operating leases.
Shared Savings
Shared savings is a unique financing method
whose primary benefit is that it reduces the risk of
the energy-efficiency upgrade investment. The
features of shared savings include the following:
• No Down Payment. Entire cost of the upgrade
is paid for by the third-party financing source.
• Third-Party Ownership. Third party investor
provides the capital for the project and owns
the improvements during the term of the
agreement. As a result, the financing obligation
does not appear on your balance sheet. At the
end of the contract, you have the option to
purchase the improvements at an agreed-upon
value, renegotiate the contract terms, or termi-
nate the agreement and allow the investor to
recover the equipment.
• Performance-Based Payments. Periodic
variable "energy service" payments are based
on the measured or calculated energy cost
savings performance attributed to the upgrades.
These payments will typically be made from
your operating budget (not your capital bud-
get). You pay a portion of the cost savings back
to the investor according to ratios outlined in
the contract. The energy services contractor
takes responsibility for maintaining the system
in order to ensure energy savings.
• Positive Cash Flow. Because you make no
down payment and periodic payments are taken
from realized savings, the resulting cash flow is
always positive.
• No Performance Risk. Because the third-party
investor gets paid only in proportion to the
financial performance of the upgrade, the risk
of the investment is shifted to the third party.
However, the overall costs associated with
reducing risk through shared savings should be
carefully evaluated.
Guaranteed Savings Insurance
Guaranteed savings insurance may be applied to
the following types of financing approaches:
• Cash Purchase.
• Conventional Financing.
• Lease Purchase.
The guaranteed savings option consists of an
agreement to ensure that the periodic energy cost
savings will exceed an established minimum
dollar value. This guarantee is usually provided by
the supplier, installer, or energy services company
who sold the upgrade. In many cases, this mini-
mum guaranteed savings value is set equal to the
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Program Management Information
financing payment value for the same period in
order to ensure a positive cash flow during the
financing term.
Entering into a guaranteed savings agreement is
like buying an insurance policy. To compensate
the guarantor for assuming some of the perfor-
mance risk as well as costs associated with
ensuring guaranteed performance (such as mainte-
nance and monitoring costs), you will pay an
indirect insurance premium. When combined with
conventional or lease financing, this premium can
be added to the monthly payment or paid directly
to the guarantee provider.
Choosing a
Financing Option
With many options available to Energy Star
Buildings Partners for financing energy-efficiency
upgrades, how does one go about determining
which method is most advantageous? The final
answer can not be computed by purely quantita-
tive methods. Instead, the financing decision must
take the following factors into account:
• Cost of Capital.
• Eligibility for Utility Incentives.
• Perceived Risk.
• Impact on Balance Sheet.
• Flexibility.
These factors are discussed in the following
subsections.
Cost of Capital
In any economic study, the cost of capital must be
considered. The capital cost factor most often
applied in financial analysis is the Discount Rate,
expressed as a percentage. Simply put, the dis-
count rate may be assumed to be the corporation's
minimum required rate of return on invested
capital. Energy Star Buildings Partners may
choose the prime interest rate plus six points to
determine their discount rate. Most corporations
have a specific discount rate that is used in their
financial analyses.
There is a simple relationship between the cost of
capital and the attractiveness of third-party
financing. The higher the cost of capital (that is,
the higher the discount rate), the more attractive
third-party financing becomes. Perform a Net
Present Value analysis of the 20-year cash flows
resulting from your proposed financing alterna-
tives. The option with the highest net present
value would be the most attractive financing
alternative for your corporation, based on your
cost of capital.
Eligibility for Utility Incentives
Before entering into a shared savings financing
agreement, check with your local utility to deter-
mine who is eligible to receive any incentives—
the Energy Star Buildings Partner or the third-
party investor. If the investor is to receive the
incentive, negotiate reduced payments that take
into account the value of the utility incentives paid
to the financing entity.
Perceived Risk
Compared with other investments, energy-
efficiency upgrades are low-risk investments.
Nevertheless, returns on these investments are
dependent on such external factors as electricity
rates, building occupancy, and usage. To reduce
these risks, your financial officer may choose to
pay additional premiums for a savings guarantee
or enter into a shared savings agreement. Note,
however, that the risks associated with achieving
reduced electrical load are minimal; actual load
reductions can be easily measured in the field.
Impact on Balance Sheet
With conventional loans or capital leases, the
transaction is recorded on the company's balance
sheet as both an asset and a liability. For compa-
nies that are not in a position to incur additional
liabilities, or are concerned about impacts on their
return on assets, the shared savings and operating
lease approaches should be considered. These are
the only commonly available financing options
for energy-efficiency upgrades that are considered
to be "off the balance sheet." Some energy-
efficiency upgrades may not qualify for financing
with an operating lease because of FASB
requirements.
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Appendix E
Flexibility
Regardless of the financing approach, verify that
no penalties will be incurred by prepayment or
early buyout of the financing liability. For shared
savings agreements, be certain that provisions
exist for purchasing the equipment at fair market
value prior to the end of the contract term. In
addition to these contract termination options, also
look for financing sources that can adapt the
financing agreement to include future purchases
of energy-efficient equipment.
Green Lights Database of
Financing Programs
The Green Lights database of financing programs
provides information on both utility incentives
and non-utility financing options for lighting and
other building upgrades. The database, which is
updated regularly, runs on IBM PC or compatible
computers. You can obtain a copy from the EPA
Global Change Division, USEPA/OAR (6202-J),
401 M Street SW, Washington, D.C., 20460. The
software can also be downloaded via modem
from the Green Lights bulletin board. Dial
202-775-6671 and follow the instructions
on the screen.
The Green Lights database of financing programs
consists of the following two modules.
Utility Incentives
To quickly identify rebates or other utility incen-
tives that may apply to your energy-efficiency
upgrades, select the Utility Financing module
from the bulletin board's main menu. Then select
your utility company from the next menu that is
displayed. You will then see a display of the
specific incentive levels, eligibility criteria, and
contact information. If you want a copy of the
data for future reference, you can choose a print
option from the menu.
For each utility, the following information is
displayed:
• Utility Name.
• Program Name.
• Incentive Type (rebate, loan, etc.).
• Sectors (eligible customer groups).
• Situation (retrofit, new construction).
• Contact Information.
• Program Details.
The database can also be searched for specific
technologies. For example, your could create a list
of all incentive programs that address water-
cooled centrifugal chillers.
Non-Utility Financing Sources
By selecting the Financing Products module from
the bulletin board's main menu, you can see a list
of organizations that provide project financing.
Note that each organization may have minimum
requirements for project size and client gross
revenue. Maximum contract terms and loan
amounts are specified for each organization.
For each financing organization, the following
information is displayed:
• Name, Address, Contact Name, Telephone
Number.
• Type of Organization.
• For Each Financing Product Offered:
—Equipment Covered
—Terms
—Markets
—Census Regions
• Sources of Capital.
• Eligibility Criteria.
Requesting Proposals
and Quotations
Many companies that do not have the in-house
capacity to survey, specify, and implement a
comprehensive energy-efficiency project will turn
to outside consultants, vendors, and contractors.
This section briefly discusses some of the issues
related to requesting proposals and quotations. A
sample request for proposals is included at the end
of this appendix.
Note: EPA cannot provide legal advice, and this
section is not intended to do so. Because RFPs
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Program Management Information
and quotations are legal documents, appropriate
legal advice should be sought when writing these
documents.
RFPs and RFQs
A request for proposals (RFP) or request for
quotations (RFQ) enables a building owner to
communicate all pertinent information about a
potential project to prospective bidders. If an RFP
or RFQ is complete and detailed, the bids received
in response to the RFP or RFQ will more than
likely be complete and detailed as well. While
there are many similarities, the purposes of the
RFP and the RFQ are different.
An RFP is an invitation for bidders to propose a
project. It may ask the bidder to propose one or
more of the following:
• Specification of the scope of work.
• Specifications for materials.
• Financing options or terms.
• Performance guarantee(s).
• Extended warranty or maintenance terms.
• Project price.
In short, the RFP is a request for bidders to
determine both the scope of work and the cost to
complete the work. The successful bidder is
awarded the project on the basis of the quality of
the proposal as well as price.
An RFQ is an invitation for a bidder to quote a
price for a project that is specified by the building
owner in the request. The determination of the
scope and specifications of the project are made
prior to and separate from the RFQ. The success-
ful bidder is generally awarded the project on the
basis of cost and the building owner's confidence
in the bidder's capabilities.
Content of RFP and RFQ
The RFP or RFQ should contain all information
about a project that a prospective bidder needs to
prepare a proposal. The items described in this
subsection should be included.
Timetable
A timetable provides important dates and dead-
lines, including the following:
• Dates for pre-bid meetings.
• Schedule for site visits.
• Due date for proposals or bids.
• Date that work may begin.
• Date required for project completion.
Scope of Work
In this section, the services to be performed by the
bidder are defined. The description of work
should be clear and concise so that there is no
confusion as to the requirements. For example, the
bidder should be provided the size, location, and
number of buildings included in the project.
A typical scope of work contains the following:
• Goals and objectives of the project.
• Restrictions and preferences for equipment to
be used.
• Applicable laws, codes, and standards.
• Instructions for disposal of obsolete equipment.
• Target values for variables such as load, watts
per square foot, internal rate of return, or
shared savings terms.
Bidding Procedure
and Instructions
The bidder needs specific instructions about the
time, location, and format of the bid. Minimum
bidder qualifications, if any, should be described.
The instructions usually provide a date by which
bidders will be notified of the results of the
proposal evaluation will be complete.
To ensure that bidders provide complete informa-
tion in a format that is consistent, an RFP or RFQ
usually includes forms to be completed by the
bidders. These forms provide information about
the bidder's staff, previous projects, and other
data that may help the building owner choose the
best contractor for the project. The following
items are usually requested on these forms:
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Energy Star Buildings Manual E-7
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Appendix E
m Key project participants, including resumes.
• Subcontractors.
• Previous projects.
• References.
• Other support and resources available.
A point of contact and telephone number should
be provided in case bidders have any questions
related to the RFP or RFQ.
Selection Criteria
To help bidders provide information that is
important to the building owner, the RFP or RFQ
should include a description of the criteria that
will be used to evaluate the proposals or quota-
tions. This may include listing the selection
factors and the relative importance of each to the
decision.
Financing Methods and Payments
The financing method, if any, should be outlined
in the RFP. For example, if the building owner
desires a shared savings contract, the terms should
be outlined in this section. Similarly, specific
payment schedules and methods, if desired,
should be explained. Bidders should also know if
the project is to be bid on a lump sum or unit price
basis.
General Conditions
This part of the RFP or RFQ contains contractual
issues and details. Items in this section include the
following:
• Contract change procedures.
• Insurance and worker compensation.
• Maintenance.
• Guarantees.
• Samples and demonstration installations.
Types of RFPs and RFQs
Because each project is different, with unique
characteristics and objectives, no two RFPs and
RFQs are the same. General types of RFPs and
RFQs are described below. An RFP or RFQ may
consist of any combination of these types.
Request for Quotation,
Consulting Only
This RFQ is used to solicit engineering and
design services for a project. The actual installa-
tion is not included in this proposal. As an
example, the bidder responding to this RFQ would
develop a proposal to design an upgrade, provide
equipment specifications, and provide an eco-
nomic analysis.
Request for Quotation,
Performance
This type of RFQ is used to obtain a quotation for
the installation only. The scope of work for the
upgrade in this case is already defined, so the
engineering and design is not part of this proposal.
The proposal would require estimates of labor and
material costs rather than, for example, internal
rate of return, load, or watts per square foot.
Request for Quotation, Financial
This request would be used only if financial
analysis is desired. It requests bids on such items
as initial investment, internal rate of return, simple
payback, rebates, and other financial analyses to
ensure the profitability of the project. Once again,
the scope of the project is already defined, so
project engineering and design are not included.
Request for Proposal,
Design and Build
Here an RFP is used to solicit proposals for all
design and installation of the energy-efficiency
upgrade. One company will be selected to perform
the survey and analysis for, design, and install the
upgrade. This RFP is unique from the other RFPs
and RFQs because it is for an entire project, from
start to finish.
Request for Proposal,
Shared Savings
This is a specific RFP, similar to the RFP for
design and build described above. However, here
a section of the RFP contains specific details on
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Program Management Information
how the initial cost will be financed. In this case,
the future energy cost savings are shared between
the building owner and the bidder. The bidder will
finance the initial cost and receive some of the
energy cost savings as compensation.
Request for Proposal,
Guaranteed Savings
This is another specific RFP, similar to the RFP
for shared savings. Here, the bidder must be
prepared to assume the risk of investment and
guarantee minimum energy savings. The proposal
must contain details on financing and guaranteed
energy cost savings that will free the building
owner from any risk in the project.
Sample RFP
The following pages contain a sample request for
proposals, which is included only for example
purposes. When preparing to request proposals or
quotations, you should consult with your
company's purchasing staff and legal counsel.
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Energy Star Buildings Manual E-9
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Appendix E
This page intentionally left blank.
E-10 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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Program Management Information
Request for Proposals
Performance Contracting for Energy-Efficiency Improvements
is requesting proposals for the implementation of energy-
efficiency improvements on a performance contracting basis. The following buildings are to be upgraded:
Proposals for acquisition and delivery of the items and services listed in the attached Request for Proposals
will be received until 2:00 p.m. local time on , 19 at the
following location:
All proposals shall be submitted in accordance with the attached proposal documents.
The Owner reserves the right to reject any or all of the proposals in whole or in part and to accept the proposal
or portion of the proposal that, in the Owner's opinion, best serves the interests of the Owner.
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Appendix E
Request for Proposals
Performance Contracting for Energy-Efficiency Improvements
Table of Contents
I. Introduction and Background Information
II. Premises That Require Energy-Efficiency Improvements
III. Selection Process
A. Timetable
B. Bidders Conference and Site Visits
C. Submission of Proposals
D. Proposal Evaluation
E. Energy Services Agreement
IV. Instructions for Submitting Proposals
A. Requests for Additional Information
B. Submission of Proposals
C. Security Bond
D. Proprietary Information
E. Modification or Withdrawal of Proposals
F. Right To Reject
G. Cost of Proposal Preparation
V. Proposal Format and Content
A. Instructions for Preparing Forms
B. Required Forms
VI. Significant Provisions of Proposed Energy Services
A. Trade Names and Patents
B. Patent and Patent Rights
C. Right-of-Way
D. Labor Laws and Ordinances
E. Assignment and Subletting of Contract
F. Worker's Compensation Insurance
G. Comprehensive General Liability Insurance
H. Indemnification
I. Bonds and Insurance
J. Standards of Service
K. Arbitration
L. Compliance With Law and Standard Practices
VII. Appendices
A. Technical Information Regarding Premises
B. Building Use and Energy Consumption Summary
C. Utility Rate Tariffs
E-12 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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Program Management Information
Request for Proposals
Performance Contracting for Energy-Efficiency Improvements
I. Introduction and Background Information
The Owner requests detailed proposals for the implementation of energy conservation and efficiency
improvements in all of the listed buildings on a performance contracting basis. Specifically, the Contractor
selected will be expected to:
1. Provide comprehensive energy services for all of the listed buildings, including:
a. Performance of energy audits;
b. Design, selection, and installation of energy-efficient equipment and systems;
c. Maintenance and servicing of the installed equipment and systems; and
d. Provision of financing for the transaction.
and
2. Structure the terms of payment obligations for the energy-efficiency improvements and services on
a performance contracting basis and negotiate an energy services agreement that specifically meets
the needs of the Owner.
The Owner expects the Contractor to propose financing arrangements to fund the energy-efficiency
improvements through contracts in which the costs of the improvements are paid from a portion of the savings
produced by the improvements.
Upon review of proposals received in response to this request, the Owner will select a single contractor to
provide energy-efficiency improvements and services for all of the listed buildings.
II. Premises That Require Energy-Efficiency Improvements
Proposals must address each of the buildings listed in Appendix A, which provides technical information
regarding the buildings, and Appendix B, which includes information on building usage and data pertinent
to historical energy consumption and costs.
III. Selection Process
Each step in the selection process is described below.
A. Timetable
The selection process is expected to ensue the following timetable:
Bidders Conference and Site Visits _ _ _
Submission of Proposals (3 weeks after conference).
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Appendix E
B. Bidders Conference and Site Visits
The Owner will conduct a mandatory pre-bid conference and walkthrough inspection of the buildings
beginning at on , 19 . The conference will be held in
, with the walkthrough to begin immedi-
ately thereafter. Selected representatives of the Owner will be at the conference to answer any questions
regarding this RFP and this project.
Proposals will not be accepted from Contractors who are not represented at the Bidders Conference.
Additional walkthroughs will be arranged for contractors who require additional time for site visits. These
visits will not be scheduled until the Bidders Conference and walkthrough have taken place.
C. Submission of Proposals
Interested contractors must submit proposals to the Owner as described in Sections IV and V below.
D. Proposal Evaluation
All proposals will be evaluated by a committee. The evaluation committee may conduct interviews with
finalists to clarify information provided in the proposals. Following these interviews the evaluation
committee will recommend a Contractor to the Owner, who will then make a final selection.
Proposals will be evaluated and scored on the basis of the following criteria, which will be accorded the
relative weight indicated in parentheses:
1. Financial Terms (50%). Preference will be given to Contractors who responsibly maximize the net
financial benefit in connection with the proposed transaction. Factors that will be considered will
include (a) the proposed term (length) of the energy services agreement; (b) the net dollar benefits to
the Owner from entering into the transaction; (c) the methods and the level of energy savings achieved
in the buildings; (d) purchase option terms (both during the term of the Energy Services Agreement
and upon its termination); (e) the Contractor's source(s) of financing; (f) the nature and amount of any
tax benefits to be claimed by the Contractor; and (g) the degree to which the Contractor has minimized
the Owner's risk in connection with this project. The Owner will look favorably upon proposals that
include a guaranteed level of energy cost savings.
2. Technical Approach (20%). Proposals should include a detailed approach to meeting the Owner's
energy-efficiency objectives and should include the installed cost of all proposed equipment and
systems. Proposals should also outline the Contractor's specific responsibilities for operation,
maintenance, and repair of the equipment and systems following installation and should demonstrate
the Contractor's ability to provide both routine and emergency service.
3. Experience and Qualifications (20%). Preference will be given to Contractors demonstrating strong
capabilities, experience, and reputation in performance contract undertakings similar to those
described (requested) in this RFP and providing authoritative documentation of the Contractor's
financial condition and stability.
4. Ability To Implement the Project Promptly (10%). Preference will be given to Contractors
demonstrating an ability to carry out the tasks and responsibilities outlined in the proposal, including
the procurement of any necessary financing, in a prompt and efficient manner.
The Contractor selected by the Owner will be notified of the award in writing.
E-14 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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Program Management Information
E. Energy Services Agreement
Once a final selection has been made following the procedures outlined above, the selected Contractor will
submit an Energy Services Agreement (the "Agreement") for review. The Agreement will include at a
minimum those terms set forth in Section V of this RFP.
The selected Contractor will complete a detailed Technical Energy Audit of the identified buildings within
sixty (60) calendar days after final selection notification. Based on the results of this audit, the Contractor
will resubmit, in final form, Forms IX, X, XI, and XII of the proposal (which contain the technical and
financial terms of the proposed transactions, as explained in Section V below). These forms will constitute
the Contractor's final proposal.
If the Owner agrees to the terms of the Contractor's final proposal, those terms will be incorporated into the
Agreement for execution. If the owner decides not to proceed on the basis of the final proposal, or if the Owner
and the selected Contractor cannot agree on the contents or manner of incorporation of that proposal within
forty-five (45) calendar days after submission of the final proposal, the Owner will reimburse the Contractor
for the cost of the detailed Technical Energy Audit (as stipulated in the Contractor's proposal), unless:
1. The total project energy savings set forth in the final proposal's Form XI are less than 90 percent of
the total project energy savings projected by the Contractor in the original response to the RFP; or
2. The total net benefits set forth in the final proposal's Form XI are less than 90 percent of the total net
benefit projected by the Contractor in the original response to the RFP.
In these events, the Owner reserves the right to refuse the reimbursement for the cost of the detailed Technical
Energy Audit.
IV. Instructions for Submitting Proposals
The following information applies for those Contractors submitting proposals.
A. Requests for Additional Information
Questions concerning this RFP and the procedures for responding to the RFP should be directed to:
B. Submission of Proposal
Respondents should submit an original and three (3) copies of the proposal. Proposals must be received by
2:00 p.m. local time on , 19 at the following location:
Proposals should be clearly marked: Performance Contracting RFP.
The Owner reserves the right to disqualify from consideration proposals received after the time and date
specified above or which do not substantially provide all of the information requested in this RFP.
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Appendix E
C. Security Bond
The Contractor shall submit a bid bond that will be 5 percent of the project cost proposed. The 5 percent shall
include total costs associated with all measures submitted as part of the contractor's preliminary assessment.
D. Modification or Withdrawal of Proposals
Any proposal may be withdrawn or modified by written request made by the Contractor, provided such
request is received at the above address prior to the date and time established for receipt of proposals.
E. Right to Reject
In submitting a proposal, the Contractor understands that the Owner reserves the right to accept any proposal,
to reject any and all proposals, and to waive any irregularities or informalities that are in the best interest of
the Owner.
F. Cost of Proposal Preparation
The cost of preparing a response to this RFP, including site visits and the preliminary energy conservation
measure analyses, will not be reimbursed by the Owner.
V. Proposal Format and Contents
Proposals must be submitted in the format outlined in this section, with each of the described forms and
sections completed in full. Each proposal will be reviewed to determine whether or not it is complete prior
to actual evaluation.
The Owner reserves the right to eliminate from further consideration any proposal deemed to be substantially
or materially unresponsive to the request for information contained herein.
A. Instructions for Preparing Forms
Forms to be used in preparing the proposal begin on the following page. Use of these forms is mandatory.
You may:
1. Use the proposal form exactly as supplied, typing your answers in the spaces provided. Attach extra
sheets only where indicated; or
2. Retype the portions of the questions exactly as they appear, followed by your response, on plain paper
or letterhead. Number the questions exactly as they appear on the form, and leave them in the same
sequential order. Your response should be confined to the same amount of space allotted on the
proposal form.
B. Required Forms
The following pages contain the required forms.
E-16 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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Program Management Information
Proposal Form I
Name of Firm
Prime Contractor
Subcontractor(s) (if any)
Name
Address
Telephone.
Name
Address
Telephone.
Name
Address
Telephone.
Name
Address.
Telephone.
Area of Responsibility.
Area of Responsibility.
Area of Responsibility.
Area of Responsibility.
Lead Personnel for This Project
List persons who will have supervisory or other responsibility for the work to be performed.
Name
Name
Name
Name
Name
Name
Name
Name
Title
Title
Title
Title
Title,
Title
Title
Title
First Edition, October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual E-17
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Appendix E
Proposal Form II
Name of Firm
Executive Summary
Briefly summarize your proposal, including your firm's qualifications, the type(s) of improvements
proposed, the type(s) of financing and guaranteed savings contracts you would agree to, the nature of the
proposed contractual and payment arrangements, and the projected benefits.
Use one page only. Do not attach additional pages.
E-18 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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Program Management Information
Proposal Form III
Name of Firm
Identification of Prime Contractor
Name
Address
Phone Fax
Number of years in business
Principal owners
Point of contact.
Phone
Prime Contractor's Responsibilities
Describe below the aspects of the project for which the prime contractor will have sole responsibility.
First Edition, October 1993 Energy Star Buildings Manual E-19
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Appendix E
Proposal Form IV
Name of Firm
Identification of Subcontractors and Their Responsibilities
Submit a copy of this sheet for each additional subcontractor.
Name
Address.
Phone Fax.
Number of Years in Business
Principal Owners
Point of Contact
Phone
Describe the aspects of the project for which this subcontractor will have sole responsibility.
E-20 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition. October 1993
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Program Management Information
Proposal Form V
Name of Firm
Contractor Qualifications
Describe below your firm's qualifications (and the qualifications of subcontractors, if appropriate) to provide
energy-efficiency improvements on a performance contracting basis.
Use a maximum of two pages for your response.
First Edition, October 1993 Energy Star Buildings Manual E-21
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Appendix E
Proposal Form VI
Name of Firm
Project References
Complete one copy of this page for each project that is representative of your firm's experience (or the
experience of key subcontractors, if appropriate). You must submit a minimum of three (3) references, with
a maximum of six (6).
Client
Address
Point of Contact
Title
Phone
Type of Facility
Type of energy-efficiency improvements implemented:
Type of financing or contract used for this project:
Current status of this project:
Check all areas for which the firm named above has, or had, primary responsibility on this project.
Energy Audit Financing
Contract Negotiation Performance Monitoring
Engineering or Design Service or Maintenance
Installation
E-22 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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Program Management Information
Proposal Form VII
Name of Firm
Financial Information
Insert here copies of the three (3) most recent annual reports or financial statements for the prime contractor.
First Edition, October 1993 Energy Star Buildings Manual E-23
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Appendix E
Proposal Form VIII
Name of Firm
Technical Energy Audit Information
The selected Contractor will perform a detailed Technical Energy Audit and provide a written audit report
(after being selected). Describe what your detailed Technical Energy Audit would cover and what the audit
report would contain. At a minimum, the following should be considered when developing the audit.
1. Contractor can add projects to the preliminary list.
2. Contractor is allowed to finalize the energy savings with the help of the final audit.
3. Itemize the costs of each existing measure (including design, construction, labor, materials, added
maintenance, etc.).
4. Identify and/or consider architectural (for example, windows, doors, and wall insulation), mechanical,
thermal, operations and maintenance, and roofing projects as part of the final audit.
5. Briefly explain each project, including materials and the general method of installation.
Cost of the Detailed Technical Energy Audit
Enter the cost of the detailed Technical Energy Audit: $
As explained in Section III.E, this cost will be reimbursed only if the Owner elects not to proceed with the
project after receipt of the detailed audit report or if the criteria specified in that section are not satisfied.
E-24 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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Program Management Information
Proposal Form IX
Complete one copy of this page for each building
Name of Firm
Name of Building
Proposed Energy Efficiency Measures
The energy-efficiency improvements identified for this building are the projects identified as a result of the
on-site walkthrough and the Contractor's preliminary assessment.
Projected annual energy savings for this building (kilowatthours)
Projected annual dollar savings for this building (use price data in Appendix A) $
Name of Measure Description of Measure
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Do any of these energy-efficiency improvements have special operating requirements or need regular
maintenance? For each energy-efficiency improvement, describe the operating or maintenance requirement
and explain who bears responsibility for meeting that requirement.
Operating or Maintenance Requirement Responsibility
(a) ..
(b) —
(c)
(d)
(e) .
(f)
First Edition, October 1993 Energy Star Buildings Manual E-25
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Appendix E
Proposal Form X
Name of Firm
Financial Projections
Respondents must use the following assumptions in all financial calculations:
(a) If it is necessary to inflate any costs, the Contractor should clearly identify the percent of inflation.
(b) "Annual Energy Savings" should be based on the utility rates set forth in Appendix A.
1. Term of Agreement
The term of the Agreement is years.
2. Energy Savings and Benefits
Complete the following table using the financial assumptions above. Provide any attachments that may
clarify or amplify the data on the chart.
Year
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Total
Total Guaranteed
Energy Savings
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
Total Payments
By District
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
Net Benefits
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
Net Cumulative
Cash Flow
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
E-26 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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Program Management Information
Proposal Form XI
Name of Firm
Financial Aspects
Describe on a separate sheet of paper the following important financial aspects of your proposal:
1. The method to be used in determining payments.
2. The frequency of the payments.
3. The term of the proposed agreement.
4. A guarantee of energy savings or net cash flow.
5. A strategy for minimizing the degree of risk assumed by the Owner.
6. An outline of the purchase options available, including times when such options will be available and
the costs of exercising such options. A statement allowing the Owner to seek his own financing terms
and a willingness to develop a revised financial analysis based on the Owner's financing terms and
percentage rate will be helpful.
7. A description of the Contractor's source of financing for this project, including any contingencies that
must be met in order to obtain such financing, any debt financing that is involved, the percentage of
total projected costs to be financed with debt, the anticipated interest rate, and the term of the loan.
8. Any other terms or information relevant to the financial aspects of the proposed transaction, including
an itemization of costs associated with the implementation of the project, such as design, insurance,
travel, expenses, etc. (other than information concerning the method to be used in determining energy
savings).
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Appendix E
Proposal Form XII
Name of Firm
Implementation, Training, and Monitoring
1. Time Required To Implement Energy-Efficiency Improvements
After the Owner accepts the detailed Technical Energy Audit and the Owner and the Contractor sign the
Agreement, how many months will elapse before the proposed energy-efficiency improvements are
operational?
Months
2. Orientation and Training
Describe what your firm will do to orient employees to the use and benefits of the energy-efficiency
improvements. If training is required to operate equipment, explain how this training will be provided and
what it will cover.
3. Monitoring
Explain any steps your firm will take to monitor the performance of the energy-efficiency improvements.
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Program Management Information
Proposal Form XIII
Name of Firm
Maintenance and Service
1. Maintenance.
Describe the maintenance services that are included in your proposal for the new equipment. Are the costs
for proposed maintenance services for new equipment included in the payments from savings to the
Contractor on Form X, or are they separate payments? What equipment will be covered? How frequently
will maintenance be performed?
2. Service.
Should new equipment malfunction, who will provide service? How quickly will service be provided?
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Appendix E
VI. Significant Provisions of the Proposed Energy Services Agreement
The Owner intends for the terms described in this section to be included in the proposed Agreement submitted
by the selected Contractor.
A. Trade Names and Patents
Whenever an article of any class of materials or equipment is specified by the trade name of any particular
patentee, manufacturer, or dealer, it shall be taken to mean and specify the article or articles or materials
described are equal thereto in quality and durability and are equally as serviceable for the purpose for which
it is, or they are, intended. The Owner shall make the decision as to whether the materials or equipment offered
are equal to those specified, and the decision shall be final.
B. Patents and Patent Rights
The Contractor shall protect and save harmless against all claims and actions brought by reason of any actual
infringement upon patent rights in any materials, process, machine, or appliance used by the Contractor in
the work.
C. Right-of-Way
The necessary rights-of-way for any construction to be done across or in private property will be obtained
by the Owner. The Contractor shall take due and proper pYecautions against injury to adjacent structures and
shall hold the firm strictly within the rights secured for the firm in prosecuting work in private property.
D. Labor Laws and Ordinances
The Contractor shall obey and abide by all laws of the State relating to the employment of labor and public
work, and all ordinances and requirements regulating or applying to all building improvements.
E. Assigning or Subletting of Contract
In execution of the Agreement, it may be necessary for the Contractor to sublet part of the work to others;
however, the Contractor shall not award any work to any subcontractor without prior written approval of the
Owner, whose approval shall not be unreasonably withheld. The Contractor shall be fully responsible for the
acts and omissions of subcontractors and of persons, whether directly or indirectly employed by the
subcontractors, as the firm is for the acts and omissions of persons directly employed by the firm.
F. Worker's Compensation Insurance
The Contractor shall procure and maintain Worker's Compensation Insurance in accordance with the
Worker's Compensation Act during the life of this Agreement, adequately protecting all laborers employed
by the Contractor during the life of this Agreement, and shall provide evidence to the Owner that such
insurance is in fact in force.
G. Comprehensive General Liability Insurance
The Contractor shall procure and shall maintain in effect during the life of this Agreement, Comprehensive
General Liability Insurance in an amount not less than $ each occurrence, $
aggregate for bodily injury liability, and $ property damage liability.
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Program Management Information
H. Indemnification
All Certificates of Insurance forwarded to the Owner by the Contractor shall include a clause that states that
the Contractor shall defend, indemnify, and hold the Owner harmless from any and all claims and judgments
to which the Owner may be subjected or which it may suffer or incur by reason thereof.
The Contractor and the Owner agree to indemnify, defend, and hold harmless from any and all claims, actions,
cost, expenses, damages, and liabilities, including reasonable attorney's fees, arising out of, connected with,
or resulting from negligence or misconduct of their respective employees or other agents in connection with
their activities within the scope of this Agreement, insofar as any such loss or claim is not covered by available
insurance proceeds, and the Owner shall so indemnify, defend, and hold the Contractor harmless from any
claim of its creditors to any right, title, or interest in the equipment. However, neither party shall indemnify
the other against, claims, damages, expenses, or liabilities arising from the negligence or misconduct of the
other party. The duty to indemnify will continue in full force and effect notwithstanding the expiration or early
termination of this Agreement with respect to any claims based on facts or conditions that occurred prior to
termination.
I. Bonds and Insurance (see also Section IV.C)
The successful bidder will be required to execute the bonds, in the form that will be provided after the bid
process, with sureties acceptable to the Owner and to be conditioned for the faithful performance and
fulfillment of the Agreement and to include the protection from all liens and damages arising out of the work;
and the other bond to the Owner to be conditioned for the payment of labor and materials used in the work
and for the protection of the Owner from all liens and damages arising there from each. Each bond shall be
in the amount equal to 100 percent of the total amount of the Contractor's initial investment in the premises
as calculated at the time the final proposals are received.
Insurance policies required under this Agreement to be carried out by the Contractor shall state that the
policies shall not be changed or cancelled without 90 days prior written notice.
J. Standard of Service
The Contractor shall maintain and operate the equipment in a manner that will provide the standards of service
and comfort (that is, heating, cooling, hot water, lighting, and so forth) described in the Energy Services
Agreement.
K. Arbitration
Any dispute, controversy, or claim arising out of or in connection with or relating to this Agreement or any
breach or alleged breach hereof, shall upon the request of any party involved (and without regard to whether
or not any provision of this Agreement expressly provides for arbitration), be submitted to and settled by
arbitration at the locality where the premises are situated, in conformance with rules of the American
Arbitration Association then in effect (or at any other place or under any other form of arbitration mutually
acceptable to the parties). Any reward rendered shall be final and conclusive upon the parties, and a judgment
thqreon may be entered in the highest court of a forum, State or Federal, having jurisdiction. The expenses
of the arbitration shall be borne equally by the parties to the arbitration provided that each party shall pay for
and bear the cost of its own experts, evidence, and counsel.
L. Compliance With Law and Standard Practices
The Contractor's obligations hereundershall be performed in compliance with any and all applicable Federal,
State, and local laws, rules, and regulations, including applicable licensing requirements, in accordance with
sound engineering and safety practices, and in compliance with any and all reasonable rules relative to the
premises. The Contractor shall be responsible for obtaining all governmental permits, consents, and
authorizations as may be required to perform the Contractor's obligations hereunder.
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E-32 Energy Star Buildings Manual First Edition, October 1993
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Glossary
AC. Alternating current.
Actuator. Device that activates equipment.
AHU. Air handling unit.
Air-Side Systems. Equipment used to distribute
conditioned air to a space. Includes heating and
cooling coils, fans, ducts, and filters.
Air Handling Unit. The heart of an air handling
system. Circulates, cleans, heats, cools, humidi-
fies, dehumidifies, and mixes interior air.
Air Separator. Device that removes the circulat-
ing air in water-side systems.
Alternating Current. Electric current that
reverses direction in a circuit at regular intervals.
Ammeter. Instrument used to measure electric
current.
Ampere. Unit of electric current in the meter-
kilogram-second system.
ANSI. American National Standards Institute.
ARL Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration
Institute.
ASHRAE. American Society of Heating, Refrig-
erating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASME, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers.
Balancing. Process of measuring and adjusting
differential pressures to obtain design flows.
Applied to both air-side and water-side systems.
Ballast. Power-regulating device that modifies
incoming voltage and controls current to provide
the electrical conditions necessary to start and
operate electric discharge lamps.
Bleeding-Off, Process of removing minerals from
the water in an open recirculating cooling system
by draining small amounts of water that contain
concentrated minerals.
Boiler. Pressure vessel designed to transfer heat
(produced by combustion) or electric resistance to
a fluid. In most boilers, the fluid is usually water
in the form of liquid or steam.
Calibration. Process of adjusting equipment to
ensure that operation is within design parameters.
Carbon Dioxide. Colorless, odorless, incombus-
tible gas formed during respiration, combustion,
and organic decomposition. Increasing amounts of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are believed to
contribute to the global warming phenomenon.
CAV. Constant air volume.
CFC. Chlorofluorocarbon.
CFM. Cubic feet per minute.
Chiller. Device that generates cold liquid, which
is circulated through an air handling unit's cooling
coil to cool the air supplied to a building.
Chlorofluorocarbons* Halocarbon compounds
consisting of carbon, hydrogen, chlorine, and
fluorine, once used widely as aerosol propellants
and refrigerants. Believed to cause depletion of
the atmospheric ozone layer.
Coil, Cooling. Heat exchanger used to cool air
under forced convection, with or without dehu-
midification. May consist of a single coil section
or several coil sections assembled into a bank.
Coil, Condenser. In an evaporative condenser,
heat exchanger used to circulate vapor from the
compressor discharge. The coil is continuously
wetted on the outside by a recirculating water
system. Air is simultaneously directed over the
coil, causing a small portion of the water to
evaporate. This evaporation removes heat from
the coil, thus cooling and condensing the vapor.
Coil, Heating. Heat exchanger that heats air
under forced convection. May consist of a single
coil section or several coil sections assembled into
a bank.
First Edition. October 1993
Energy Star Buildings Manual F-1
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Appendix F
Compressed Aif System. Equipment that uses
compression to boost the pressure of air.
Condenser. Heat exchanger in a refrigeration
system that rejects heat from a system to some
cooler medium. The cool refrigerant condenses to
the liquid state and drains from the condenser to
continue in the refrigeration cycle.
Constant Air Volume. Type of air handling
system that maintains comfort in buildings by
providing a constant airflow and varying the
temperature of that airflow.
Control. Device that analyzes the difference
between an actual process value and a desired
process value and brings the actual value closer to
the desired value.
Convector. Heat-distributing unit that operates
with gravity-circulated (natural convection) air.
A heating element is surrounded by an enclosure,
with an air inlet opening below and an air outlet
opening above.
Cooling Tower. Device that dissipates heat from
water-cooled systems through a combination of
heat and mass transfer. The water to be cooled is
distributed in the tower and exposed to circulated
atmospheric air.
Dampers. Single blade or multiple blades that are
either manually or automatically opened or closed
to control the amount of air entering or leaving an
air conditioning system.
DC. Direct current.
Demand. Rate at which electrical energy is
delivered to or by a system at a given time or
averaged over a designated period. Expressed in
kilowatts.
Demand Charges. Fees levied by a utility com-
pany for electric demand.
Design (Load) Conditions. Optimal thermal
environmental conditions that enable HVAC
systems to ensure the comfort of healthy people in
buildings.
Direct Current. Electric current flowing in one
direction only.
Direct Expansion System. Cooling system in
which the refrigerant runs in the cooling coil to
directly cool the air; that is, there is no water loop
between the refrigerant and the air to be cooled.
Downsizing. Process of reducing the size (capac-
ity) of equipment so that it operates efficiently at
design load conditions.
Drip Pocket. Device that holds condensate and
sediment removed from steam lines.
Ductwork. Distribution system for air in HVAC
systems. Usually made of sheet metal or fiber-
glass.
Efficiency. Ratio of power output to power input.
Electromagnetic Interference. Unwanted electro-
magnetic signals or noise, caused by electric or
electronic equipment, which can affect the opera-
tion of other equipment.
Eliminator. Stationary vanes or louvers designed
to remove water entrained in an airstream.
EMI. Electromagnetic interference.
EMS. Energy management system.
Energy Management System. Control system
that monitors the environment and energy usage in
a building and adjusts the parameters of local
control loops to conserve energy while maintain-
ing a suitable environment.
Envelope (Building). Elements of a building that
enclose the internal space, including all external
materials, windows, and walls.
Exhaust Air. Air removed from a portion of a
building and not reused.
Fan, Airfoil. Centrifugal fan used in general
HVAC applications. Its 10 to 16 blades of airfoil
contour are curved away from the direction of
rotation.
Fan, Axial. Fan that produces pressure through a
change in the velocity of air passing through the
impeller. Common types are propeller, tube-axial,
and vane-axial.
Fan, Backward Curved. Centrifugal fan used in
general HVAC applications. Its 10 to 16 single-
thickness blades are curved or inclined away from
the direction of rotation.
F-2 Energy Star Buildings Manual
First Edition, October 1993
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Glossary
Fan, Cooling Tower. Two types of fans can be
found in cooling towers: (1) axial fans used to
draw air into and discharge that air out of the
cooling tower and (2) centrifugal fans used to cool
the water in the cooling tower via forced air,
Fan, Forward Curved. Centrifugal fan primarily
used in low-pressure HVAC applications. Its
blades are curved or inclined toward the direction
of rotation.
Fan, Inlet Vane. Fan that controls airflow
volume and pressure by automatically adjusting
the position of vanes located at the air inlet.
Fan, Return. Fan that returns air from a condi-
tioned area.
Fan, Supply. Fan that provides air to a condi-
tioned area.
Fan Pulley. A wheel with a grooved rim and a
belt that transfers electrical energy from a motor
shaft to mechanical energy on a fan shaft.
Fenestration. Arrangement, proportioning, and
design of windows and doors in a building.
Filter, Final. Filter that removes fine particles
from the supply airstream in an air handling
system.
Filter, Line. Any filter located along the flow of a
substance (water, refrigerant, air, gases).
Filter, Pre-. Filter that removes debris from the
mixed airstream in an air handling system. Lo-
cated upstream of the final filter.
Fouling Factor. Performance measure for a
condenser in which scaling and deposits are
measured.
Gaskets. Seals.
Glass to Exterior Wall Ratio. Amount of glass on
a wall compared with the total surface of the wall.
Glazing. Glass set or made to be set in frames.
GPM. Gallons per minute. Measure of flow rate.
Harmonics. Distortion of input signals which
causes an output signal to have frequency compo-
nents that are integer multiples of an input
frequency.
Head. Pressure that a pump or fan has to work
against in order for liquids to flow.
Heat Exchange Area. Area where heat is trans-
ferred from one medium to another.
Heat Pump. Device that extracts heat from one
substance and transfers it to another portion of the
same substance or to a second substance at a
higher temperature.
Humidifier. Device that adds moisture to air.
HVAC. Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning.
IEEE. Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers.
IGBT. Isolated gated bipolar transistor.
Impeller. The rotating element of a fan or pump,
used to circulate the air or water.
Internal Rate of Return. Compound interest rate
at which the total discounted benefits become
equal to total discounted costs for a particular
investment.
Inverter, Pulse-Width Modulated. Component of
a variable speed drive in which the DC voltage on
the intermediate DC link is inverted into AC
current or voltage at a frequency required to
control the motor's speed.
IRR. Internal rate of return.
Isolation Transformer. Transformer used to
separate an electrical device from a main power
source.
Kilowatt. Unit of power equal to 1,000 watts.
Kilowatt Draw. Amount of electrical energy
required to operate a piece of equipment.
Kilowatthour. Unit of electric power equal to the
work done by one kilowatt acting for one hour.
kW. Kilowatt.
kWh. Kilowatthour.
Linkage. Mechanism that uses cranks, arms, rods,
and slides to open and close dampers.
Load. Power required to maintain an indoor
design temperature over a range of outdoor
temperatures.
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Appendix F
Luminaire. Complete lighting unit, consisting of
one or more lamps together with a housing, the
optical components to distribute the light from the
lamps, and the electrical components (ballast,
starters, etc.) necessary to operate the lamps.
Manometer. Instrument used to measure the
pressure of liquids and gases.
Megawatt. One million watts.
Megawatthour. A unit of electric power equal to
the work done by one megawatt acting for one
hour.
Meter. Device used to measure and display or
record data.
Mixing Box. Component of an air handling unit,
in which air drawn from the building and air
drawn from the outside are mixed to create a
uniform airstream before reaching the heating and
cooling coils.
Nameplate. Manufacturer's data for a piece of
equipment, imprinted on metal and affixed to the
equipment.
NEC. National Electric Code.
NEMA. National Electrical Manufacturers
Association.
NIOSH. National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health.
Nitrogen oxides. Chemical compounds that
contain nitrogen and oxygen. They react with
volatile organic compounds in the presence of
heat and sunlight to form ozone, and are a major
precursor to acid rain.
Occupancy Sensor. Device that detects the
presence or absence of people within an area and
causes equipment to be adjusted accordingly.
Orifice Plate. Device that measures the drop in
pressure when fluid is forced through the plate.
Outside Air. Air that is brought into a building
from outdoors through a ventilation system and
has not previously been circulated through an air
handling system.
Part-Load Conditions. Time when equipment is
operating at less than design loads; represents the
majority of the time equipment is operating.
Payback, Simple. Measurement of the elapsed
time between an initial investment and the point at
which accumulated savings are sufficient to offset
the initial investment.
Peak Load. Maximum power required to main-
tain an indoor design temperature under the most
adverse outdoor air conditions.
Pneumatic Lines. Tubing that carries air.
Power Factor. Ratio of real power to total
apparent power.
Pump, Chilled Water. Device that circulates
chilled water.
Pump, Condenser Water. Device that circulates
condenser water.
Purge Control. Device that regulates purging
operations.
Pumping Down. Process of removing the refrig-
erant from a cooling system.
Purge Compressor. Device that removes air and
water from refrigerant, then compresses and
condenses the refrigerant and returns it to the
system.
PWM. Pulse-width modulated.
R-Value. Thermal resistance value, a measure of
the ability of a material to retard the flow of heat.
Radiator. Device that provides warmth to a space
through radiant or convective heat provided by
either steam or hot water.
Recommissioning. Process of performing mainte-
nance and modifying equipment and procedures to
enable a building's systems to operate at designed
efficiencies.
Refrigerant. Substance, such as air, ammonia,
water, or carbon dioxide, used to provide cooling
either as the working substance of a refrigerator or
by direct absorption of heat.
RF. Radiofrequency.
Roof to Building Envelope Ratio. Ratio of roof
area compared with the total exterior area (walls
and roof) of a building.
Sequence of Operation. Consecutive series of
operations.
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Glossary
Setpoint. Desired temperature in a space.
Shading Coefficient. Ratio of solar heat gain
through a given glazing system to that of a
standard pane of glass 1/8-inch thick under the
same conditions.
Sheave. Wheel or disk with a grooved rim used
as a pulley.
Slip. Difference between the frequency of the
voltage applied to a motor and the equivalent
mechanical frequency of the voltage applied to
that motor.
Space. Distinct area to which conditioned air is
delivered.
Sprays. Devices used to dispense water in the
form of droplets into the airstream for
humidification.
Static Pressure. Condition that exists when an
equal amount of air is being supplied to and
removed from a space.
Steam Trap. Valve that allows water condensate
to flow from a steam supply line without allowing
any of the steam to escape.
Strainer Screen. Filtering device used in water-
side systems to protect equipment from dirt, rust,
or other particles.
Submeter. Meter installed on a subsystem.
Sulfur Dioxide. Heavy, colorless, pungent air
pollutant formed primarily by the combustion of
fossil fuels. It is a respiratory irritant and a
precursor to the formation of acid rain.
Supply Air Diffuser. Device used to evenly
distribute supply air to a space.
Terminal Reheat. Type of air handling system
(commonly integrated with variable air volume
and constant air volume systems) that maintains
comfort in a building by cooling the air (typically
to 55° F.) at the air handling unit and then reheat-
ing the air near its point of use.
Thermostat. Device, as in a home heating
system, a refrigerator, or an air conditioner, that
automatically responds to temperature changes
and activates switches controlling the equipment.
U-Value. Heat-transfer coefficient or thermal
transmittance. The inverse of R-value; the time
rate of heat flow per unit area under steady
conditions from the warm side of a barrier to the
cold side. Per unit temperature difference between
the two.
UL. Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
Variable Air Volume. Type of air handling sys-
tem that maintains comfort in building by varying
the quantity of air supplied through the building.
Variable Speed Drive. Device used to adjust the
speed of an AC motor to match load requirements.
VAV. Variable air volume.
Volts. International System unit of electric poten-
tial and electromotive force.
VSD. Variable speed drive.
Water Column. Common pressure measurement
for air at low pressure (that is, below 1 pound per
square inch).
Water-Side Systems. Equipment used to supply
heating and cooling for air-side systems. Includes
pumps, chillers, boilers, and other devices.
Winding. Conductive path inductively coupled to
a magnetic core or cell.
Zone. An distinct area of space to which condi-
tioned air is delivered.
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