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TECHNICAL STUDY REPORT
BATEA-NSPS-PSES-PSNS
TEXTILE MILLS POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
prepared for
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Contract Nos. 68-01-3289, 68-01-3884
SVERDRUP & PARCEL AND ASSOCIATES, Inc.
St. Louis, Missouri
November, 1978
ED-78031
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* NOTICE *
This document is a CONTRACTOR'S REPORT. It includes technical informa-
tion submitted by the Contractor to the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) regarding the subject industry. It is being
distributed for review and comment only. The report is not an official
EPA publication and it has not been reviewed by the Agency.
The report will be undergoing extensive review by EPA, Federal and State
agencies, public interest organizations, and other interested groups and
persons during the coming weeks.
The regulations to be published by EPA under Sections 301 (b) and (d),
304 (b), 306, and 307 (b) and (c) of the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act, as amended, will be based in part, on the report and the comments
received on it. EPA will also be considering economic and environmental
impact information that is presently being developed. Upon completion
of the review and evaluation of the technical, economic, and environmental
information, an EPA report will be drafted. The report will be issued
concurrent with the proposed rule-making and will set forth EPA's pre-
liminary conclusions regarding the subject industry. The proposed rules
will include effluent guidelines and standards, standards of performance,
and pretreatment standards applicable to the industry. EPA is making
this draft contractor's report available to encourage broad public
participation early in the rule-making process.
The report shall have standing in any EPA proceeding or court proceeding
only to the extent that it represents the views of the Contractor who
studied the subject industry and prepared the information. It cannot be
cited, referenced, or represented in any respect in any such proceedings
as a statement of EPA's views regarding the subject industry.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Water and Waste Management
Effluent Guidelines Division
Washington, D.C. 20460
11
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UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON DC 20460
Textile BAT Revision Public Meeting
Commenter:
Affiliation:
Speaker at the
December 12 Meeting:
Phone Number:
I (do) (do not) wish to explain my comments at the December 12 meeting
at Waterside Mall, Room 3906, 401 M Street, S.W., Washington, D.C.
I wish to reserve (5) (10) (20) (25) (30) minutes of time at the meeting.
I understand that EPA will finalize an agenda and notify me by telephone
of the specific details of the meeting on or before December 12.
Signed
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UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON DC 20460
Gentlemen:
Enclosed is our contractor's technical report concerning the revision of
the best available technology (BAT) effluent limitations for the textile
industry. Pretreatment standards for new and existing plants and new
source performance standards are being revised along with BAT.
The schedule for this rulemaking requires that BAT regulations for the
textile industry be proposed in May 1979. We would like to afford
interested parties the opportunity to participate in the rulemaking and
are, therefore, soliciting comments relative to the enclosed technical
report. Because of the time constraints under which the Agency is now
working, this comment period is limited. All comments must be received
at EPA by December 8. At the time of proposed rulemaking you will be
given another opportunity to provide comments relative to the proposed
regulations.
Please send your comments to Dr. James D. Gallup, Technical Project
Officer, at the following address:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
ATTN: WH-552 (Textiles)
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
A meeting will be held on December 12, to enable interested parties to
explain their written comments. The meeting will begin at 9:00 A.M. in
Room 3906 at the Waterside Mall, 401 M Street, S.W., Washington, D.C. If
you would like to have an opportunity to explain your comments at the
December meeting, please return the enclosed form by November 27. An
agenda will be established by the Agency and all speakers will be
notified of specific details by telephone on or before December 8.
Comments received on the June 1978 draft technical report and all
additional comments received by December 8, 1978 are eligible for
discussion at the December 12 meeting.
I want to thank you in advance for your efforts and cooperation on our
current rulemaking efforts.
'James D. Gallup
Working Group Chairman
Textiles
Enclosure
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
I CONCLUSIONS 1-1
II RECOMMENDATIONS II-1
III INTRODUCTION III-l
PURPOSE AND AUTHORITY III-l
METHODOLOGY III-l
Evaluation of Existing Information III-2
Profile of the Industry III-2
Industry Categorization III-2
Screening and Verification Sampling III-3
308 Data Request III-3
Data Analysis III-4
Control and Treatment Technology III-4
Costs III-4
DESCRIPTION OF THE INDUSTRY III-5
Background III-5
General Profile of Major Group 22 III-5
Industry Survey III-7
PROFILE OF MANUFACTURING (To be Developed) III-17
Raw Materials 111-17
Wool 111-20
Cotton 111-20
Synthetics (Man-made) 111-20
Major Dry or Low Water Use Processing 111-20
Spinning 111-20
Tufting 111-20
Knitting 111-21
Weaving 111-21
Slashing 111-21
Other Fabric Manufacturing 111-22
Adhesive Processing 111-22
Functional Finishing 111-23
Major Wet Processing 111-25
Raw Wool Scouring 111-25
Carbonizing 111-26
Fulling 111-26
Desizing 111-27
Scouring 111-27
Mercerizing 111-28
Bleaching 111-28
Dyeing 111-29
Acid Dyes 111-32
Azoic Dyes 111-33
Basic Dyes 111-33
Disperse Dyes 111-34
111
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)
SECTION PAGE
Mordant Dyes 111-34
Reactive Dyes 111-35
Sulfur Dyes 111-35
Vat Dyes 111-36
Printing 111-37
Final Products 111-39
Wool Stock and Top 111-39
Finished Wool Goods 111-39
Greige Goods and Adhesive Related Products 111-42
Finished Woven Goods 111-42
Finished Knit Goods 111-42
Finished Carpet 111-46
Finished Stock and Yarn 111-46
Nonwovens 111-46
Felted Fabric 111-46
Summary II1-46
IV INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION IV-1
SELECTED SUBCATEGORIES IV-1
PURPOSE AND BASIS OF SELECTION IV-1
Statistical Analysis of Industry Segments IV-2
Raw Materials IV-3
Final Products IV-4
Manufacturing Processes IV-4
Wastewater Characteristics and Treatability IV-6
Size and Age IV-6
Location IV-9
Plant Operating Characteristics IV-9
SUBCATEGORY DESCRIPTIONS AND RATIONALE BEHIND SELECTION IV-9
Subcategory 1 - Wool Scouring IV-9
Subcategory 2 - Wool Finishing IV-13
Subcategory 3 - Low Water Use Processing IV-13
Subcategory 4 - Woven Fabric Finishing IV-14
Simple Processing IV-14
Complex Processing IV-14
Complex Processing Plus Desizing IV-14
Subcategory 5 - Knit Fabric Finishing IV-15
Simple Processing IV-15
Complex Processing IV-15
Hosiery Products IV-15
Subcategory 6 - Carpet Manufacturing IV-16
Subcategory 7 - Stock and Yarn Finishing IV-16
Subcategory 8 - Nonwoven Manufacturing IV-16
Subcategory 9 - Felted Fabric Processing IV-17
IV
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)
SECTION PAGE
V WASTE CHARACTERISTICS V-l
BACKGROUND V-l
CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS V-l
Conventional V-l
Non-Conventional V-l
Discussion of Raw Waste Characteristics V-2
Subcategory 1 - Wool Wcouring V-2
Subcategory 2 - Wool Finishing V-3
Heavy Scour V-3
Carbonizing V-4
Fulling V-4
Bleaching V-4
Dyeing V-5
Subcategory 3 - Low Water Use Processing V-5
Slashing V-5
Water - Jet Weaving V-6
Adhesive Processing V-6
Subcategory 4 - Woven Fabric Finishing V-6
Desizing V-7
Scouring V-7
Bleaching V-8
Mercerization V-8
Dyeing V-9
Printing V-9
Functional Finishing V-10
Subcategory 5 - Knit Fabric Finishing V-10
Scouring V-ll
Bleaching V-ll
Dyeing V-ll
Printing V-12
Functional Finishing V-12
Subcategory 6 - Carpet Finishing V-12
Scouring/Bleaching V-12
Dyeing V-12
Printing V-13
Functional Finishing V-13
Carpet Backing V-13
Subcategory 7 - Stock & Yarn Finishing V-13
Mercerization V-14
Bleaching/Scouring V-14
Dyeing/Printing V-14
Subcategory 8 - Nonwoven Manufacturing V-14
Web Formation V-14
Bonding and Coloring V-14
Functional Finishing V-15
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)
SECTION PAGE
Subcategory 9 - Felted Fabric Processing V-15
Felting (Fulling) V-15
Dyeing V-15
Functional Finishing V-15
Characterization of Raw Wastewaters V-15
Characterization of BPT Effluents V-22
PRIORITY POLLUTANTS V-27
Heavy Metals V-31
Organics V-31
Questionnaire Information V-32
Field Sampling Program V-37
Priority Pollutants - Field Sampling Data V-47
Subcategory 1 - Wool Scouring V-55
Subcategory 2 - Wool Finishing V-55
Subcategory 3 - Low Water Use Processing V-55
Subcategory 4 - Woven Fabric Finishing V-56
Subcategory 5a and 5b - Knit Fabric Finishing V-56
Subcategory 5c - Hosiery Products V-57
Subcategory 6 - Carpet Finishing V-57
Subcategory 7 - Stock & Yarn Finishing V-58
Subcategory 8 - Nonwoven Manufacturing V-58
Subcategory 9 - Felted Fabric Processing V-58
Other Sources of Information V-59
VI SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS VI-1
CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS VI-1
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) VI-1
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) VI-2
Total Suspended Solids (TSS) VI-3
Oil & Grease VI-4
pH - Acidity and Alkalinity VI-5
NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS VI-6
Color VI-6
Sulfide VI-7
PRIORITY POLLUTANTS VI-8
Group 1 - Most Significant in Textile Wastewaters VI-8
Acrylonitrile VI-8
Benzene VI-9
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene VI-9
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol VI-9
Parachlorometacresol VI-10
Chloroform VI-10
1,2-Dichlorobenzene VI-10
Ethylbenzene VI-11
Trichlorofluoromethane VI-11
Naphthalene VI-11
N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine VI-12
VI
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)
SECTION PAGE
Pentachlorophenol VI-12
Phenol VI-12
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate VI-13
Tetrachloroethylene VI-14
Toluene VI-14
Trichlorethylene VI-14
Antimony VI-15
Arsenic VI-15
Cadmium VI-16
Chromium VI-16
Copper VI-17
Cyanide VI-18
Lead VI-18
Mercury VI-18
Nickel VI-19
Selenium VI-20
Silver VI-20
Zinc VI-21
Group 2A - Potentially Significant in Textile
Wastewaters: Detected more than once VI-21
Acenaphthene VI-22
Chlorobenzene VI-22
Hexachlorobenzene VI-23
1,1,1-Trichloroethane VI-23
1,4-Dichlorobenzene VI-24
2,4-Dichlorophenol VI-24
Methylene Chloride VI-24
N-nitrosodiphenylamine VI-25
Butyl Benzyl Phthalate VI-25
Di-n-butyl Phthalate VI-26
Diethyl Phthalate VI-27
Dimethyl Phthalate VI-28
Anthracene VI-28
Pyrene VI-29
Thallium VI-29
Group 2B - Potentially Significant in Textile
Wastewaters: Detected only Once VI-29
Benzidine VI-30
1,2-Dichloroethane VI-30
1,1-Dichloroethane VI-31
2-Chloronaphtalene VI-31
2-Chlorophenol VI-32
3,3-Dichlorobenzidine VI-32
1,1-Dichloroethylene VI-32
1,2-Dichloropropane VI-33
2,4-Dimethylphenol VI-33
2,6-Dinitrotoluene VI-33
VII
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)
SECTION PAGE
1,2-Diphenylhydrazine VI-34
Methyl Chloride VI-34
Methyl Bromide VI-34
Dichlorobromomethane VI-34
2-Nitrophenol VI-35
4-Nitrophenol VI-35
2,4-Dinitrophenol VI-36
N-Nitrosodimethylamine VI-36
Benzofluoranthene (3,4 and 11,12) VI-36
Fluorene VI-37
Phenanthrene VI-37
Vinyl Chloride VI-37
Dieldrin VI-38
4,4'-DDT VI-38
Beryllium VI-39
Group 2C - Potentially Significant in Textile
Wastewaters: Not Detected VI-39
Carbon Tetrachloride VI-40
1,1,2-Trichloroethane VI-40
Chloroethane VI-41
4-Chlorophenyl Phenyl Ether VI-41
Dichlorodifluoromethane VI-41
Isophorone VI-42
Nitrobenzene VI-42
4,6-Dinitro-o-Cresol VI-42
Acenaphthylene VI-43
Group 3 - Not Considered Significant in Textile
Wastewaters VI-43
VII CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY VII-1
INPLANT CONTROLS AND PROCESS CHANGES VII-1
Summary of In-Place Controls Data VII-2
Water Reuse VII-2
Water Reduction VII-4
Chemical Substitution VII-6
Material Reclamation VII-7
Process Changes and New Process Technology VII-7
End-of-Pipe Treatment Technologies VII-9
Summary of Current Practices VII-9
Screening VII-15
Industry Application VII-15
Neutralization VII-17
Industry Application VII-17
Equalization VII-17
Industry Application VII-19
Biological Porcesses VII-19
Aerated Lagoons VII-19
VI11
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)
SECTION PAGE
Industry Application VII-21
Activated Sludge VII-22
Industry Application VII-24
Biological Beds VII-26
Industry Application VII-27
Stabilization Lagoons VII-27
Industry Application VII-28
Literature/Research VII-30
Coagulation VII-32
Industry Application VII-34
Literature/Research VII-36
EPA/Industry Field Studies VII-38
Precipitaton VII-47
Industry Application VII-48
Literature/Research VII-48
Oxidation VII-49
Industry Application VII-49
Literature/Research VII-49
EPA/Industry Field Studies VII-52
Filtration VII-55
Industry Application VII-56
Literature/Research VII-57
EPA/Industry Field Studies VII-62
Hyperfiltration/Ultrafiltration VII-76
Industry Application VII-77
Literature/Research VII-77
Dissolved Air Flotation VII-78
Industry Application VII-79
Literature/Research VII-79
Stripping VII-81
Electrodialysis VII-81
Industry Application VII-81
Activated Carbon Adsorption VII-81
Industry Application VII-83
Literature/Research VII-83
EPA/Industry Field Studies VII-84
Powdered Activated Carbon Treatment (PACT) VII-95
Industry Application VII-95
Literature/Research VII-95
EPA/Industry Field Studies VII-98
VIII COSTS, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER DUALITY ASPECTS VIII-1
EXISTING DIRECT DISCHARGE SOURCES VIII-1
In-Plant Control Measures VIII-1
IX
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)
SECTION PAGE
Selected End-of-Pipe Technologies VIII-2
Chemical Coagulation VIII-2
Multi-Media Filtration VIII-2
Dissolved Air Flotation VIII-3
Activated Carbon VIII-3
Ozonation VIII-3
Investment Costs VIII-4
Monitoring Equipment VIII-4
Land Costs VIII-4
Annual Costs VIII-4
Capital VIII-4
Depreciation VIII-4
Operation Labor VIII-4
Maintenance Labor VIII-4
Sludge Disposal VIII-5
Energy and Power VIII-5
Chemicals VIII-6
Monitoring VIII-6
Cost Curves VIII-7
Model Plant Costs VIII-7
Cost Effectiveness Summaries VIII-16
EXISTING INDIRECT DISCHARGE SOURCES VIII-16
Selected End-of-Pipe Technologies VIII-16
Screening VIII-45
Equalization VIII-45
Investment Costs and Annual Costs VIII-45
Model Plant Costs VIII-47
Cost Effectiveness Summaries VIII-47
NEW SOURCES VIII-47
Zero Discharge VIII-72
Water Usage Rates VIII-72
Control Measures VIII-72
End-of-Pipe Technologies VIII-73
NEW DIRECT DISCHARGE SOURCES VIII-74
In-Plant Control Measures VIII-74
Selected End-of-Pipe Technologies VIII-74
Activated Sludge VIII-75
Investment Costs and Annual Costs VIII-75
Land Costs VIII-77
Model Plant Costs VIII-77
Cost Effectiveness Summaries VIII-77
NEW INDIRECT DISCHARGE SOURCES VIII-77
End-of-Pipe Technologies VIII-102
Investment Cost and Annual Costs VIII-102
Land Costs VIII-102
Model Plant Costs VIII-102
Cost Effectiveness Summaries VIII-102
ENERGY ASPECTS VIII-102
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)
SECTION PAGE
SLUDGE MANAGEMENT VIII-126
Current Practices VIII-126
Sludge Quantities VIII-128
OTHER NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS VIII-130
IX APPLICATION OF BEST AVAILABLE TREATMENT ECONOMICALLY
ACHIEVABLE IX-1
X APPLICATION OF PRETREATMENT STANDARDS FOR EXISTING
SOURCES X-l
XI APPLICATION OF NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS XI-1
XII APPLICATION OF PRETREATMENT STANDARDS FOR NEW
SOURCES XII-1
XIII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS XIII-1
XIV REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY XIV-1
XV GLOSSARY XV-1
APPENDIX A - SURVEY FORMS USED IN 308 DATA REQUEST
APPENDIX B - WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION DATA
APPENDIX C - PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
APPENDIX D - PRIORITY POLLUTANT SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL
PROCEDURES
APPENDIX E - SUPPORTING INFORMATION FROM ATMI AND DETO
APPENDIX F - DESCRIPTIONS OF EPA/INDUSTRY FIELD STUDY MILLS
XI
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xii
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LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
WASTE TREATMENT STATUS - WET PROCESSING MILLS
ON MASTER LIST 111-15
III-2 FIBERS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF TEXTILES 111-19
III-3 SUBCATEGORY 1: TYPICAL WOOL SCOURING PROCESS
FLOW DIAGRAM II1-40
III-4 SUBCATEGORY 2: TYPICAL WOOL FINISHING PROCESS
FLOW DIAGRAM 111-41
III-5 SUBCATEGORY 3: TYPICAL LOW WATER USE PROCESSING
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS III-43
III-6 SUBCATEGORY 4: TYPICAL WOVEN FABRIC FINISHING
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM 111-44
III-7 SUBCATEGORY 5: TYPICAL KNIT FABRIC FINISHING
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM III-45
III-8 SUBCATEGORY 6: TYPICAL CARPET FINISHING
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM 111-47
II1-9 SUBCATEGORY 7: TYPICAL STOCK AND YARN
FINISHING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM 111-48
111-10 SUBCATEGORY 8: TYPICAL NONWOVEN MANUFACTURING
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM 111-49
III-ll SUBCATEGORY 9: TYPICAL FELTED FABRIC PROCESSING
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM 111-50
VII-1 DETENTION TIME VS AERATION HORSEPOWER PER UNIT
VOLUME OF BASIN - PLANTS WITH BPT TECHNOLOGY VII-14
VIII-1 CHEMICAL COAGULATION - INSTALLED COST VIII-8
VIII-2 DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION - INSTALLED COST VIII-9
VIII-3 MULTI-MEDIA FILTRATION - INSTALLED COST VIII-10
VIII-4 ACTIVATED CARBON - INSTALLED COST VIII-11
VIII-5 OZONATION - INSTALLED COST VIII-12
xiii
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LIST OF FIGURES (Cont.)
NUMBER PAGE
VIII-6 VACUUM FILTRATION - INSTALLED COST VIII-13
VII1-7 ACTIVATED SLUDGE - INSTALLED COST VII1-14
VIII-8 HAULING COSTS FOR DEWATERED SLUDGE VIII-15
A-l TELEPHONE SURVEY FORM A-2
A-2 EPA INDUSTRY SURVEY - TEXTILE PLANTS:
BAT-NSPS-PRETREATMENT (WET PROCESSING) A-3
A-3 EPA INDUSTRY SURVEY - TEXTILE PLANTS:
BAT-NSPS-PRETREATMENT (LOW WATER USE
PROCESSING) A-17
xiv
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LIST OF TABLES
NUMBER PAGE
III-l GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION - TEXTILE MILL
, PRODUCTS MAJOR INDUSTRIAL GROUP III-6
III-2 GENERAL STATISTICS - TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS
MAJOR INDUSTRIAL GROUP III-8
III-3 WATER USE AND WASTEWATER DISCHARGE STATISTICS -
TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS MAJOR INDUSTRIAL GROUP III-9
III-4 SURVEY STATUS SUMMARY - MILLS ON MASTER LIST III-ll
III-5 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION - MILLS ON MASTER LIST 111-13
III-6 PRODUCTION SIZE - MILLS ON MASTER LIST 111-14
III-7 WASTEWATER DISCHARGE - MILLS ON MASTER LIST 111-15
III-8 DISCHARGE TYPE - MILLS ON MASTER LIST 111-16
IV-1 STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE - COMPARISON OF
SELECTED PRODUCT LINES; EXTERNAL COMPARISONS IV-5
IV-2 STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE - COMPARISON OF
PROCESSING COMPLEXITY; INTERNAL COMPARISONS IV-7
IV-3 MEDIAN RAW WASTE VALUES - STATISTICAL TESTING
STUDIES IV-8
IV-4 EFFECT OF PRODUCTION SIZE ON TEXTILE WASTEWATER
CHARACTERISTICS IV-10
IV-5 EFFECT OF MILL AGE ON TEXTILE WASTEWATER
CHARACTERISTICS IV-11
IV-6 EFFECT OF GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION ON TEXTILE
WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS IV-12
V-l WATER USAGE AND MILL WASTEWATER DISCHARGE -
SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL DATA V-16
V-2 RAW WASTE CONCENTRATIONS - CONVENTIONAL AND
NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS - HISTORICAL DATA -
MEDIAN VALUES V-18
V-3 RAW WASTE LOADS - CONVENTIONAL AND NON-
CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS - HISTORICAL DATA -
MEDIAN VALUES V-19
xv
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LIST OF TABLES (Cont.)
NUMBER PAGE
V-4 RAW WASTE CONCENTRATIONS - CONVENTIONAL AND
NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS - RESULTS OF FIELD
SAMPLING PROGRAM V-20
V-5 TYPICAL RAW WASTE CONCENTRATIONS - CONVENTIONAL
AND NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS - SUMMARY OF
HISTORICAL AND FIELD SAMPLING DATA V-23
V-6 BPT EFFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS - CONVENTIONAL
AND NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS - HISTORICAL
DATA - MEDIAN VALUES V-24
V-7 BPT EFFLUENT LOADS - CONVENTIONAL AND NON-
CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS - HISTORICAL DATA -
MEDIAN VALUES V-26
V-8 BPT EFFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS - CONVENTIONAL AND
NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS - RESULTS OF
FIELD SAMPLING PROGRAM V-28
V-9 TYPICAL BPT EFFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS -
CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS -
SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL AND FIELD SAMPLING DATA V-30
V-10 INDUSTRY RESPONSES TO PRIORITY POLLUTANTS LIST -
SUMMARY OF ALL MILLS V-33
V-ll SUMMARY OF MILL CHARACTERISTICS AND SAMPLE
COLLECTION - FIELD SAMPLING PROGRAM V-38
V-12 PRIORITY POLLUTANTS DETECTED IN TEXTILE
MILL RAW WASTEWATERS V-44
V-13 SUMMARY OF ANALYTICAL RESULTS - PRIORITY
POLLUTANT SAMPLING PROGRAM V-48
VII-1 REPORTED IN-PLANT CONTROL MEASURES - RESULTS
OF INDUSTRY SURVEY VII-3
VII-2 WASTEWATER TREATMENT STATUS - WET PROCESSING
MILLS SURVEYED VII-10
VII-3 EXISTING TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES -
DIRECT DISCHARGERS VII-12
VII-4 EXISTING PRETREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES -
INDIRECT DISCHARGERS VII-13
xvi
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LIST OF TABLES (Cont.)
NUMBER PAGE
VII-5 WASTEWATER SCREENING BY TEXTILE INDUSTRY -
RESULTS OF INDUSTRY SURVEY VII-16
VII-6 WASTEWATER NEUTRALIZATION BY TEXTILE
INDUSTRY - RESULTS OF INDUSTRY SURVEY VII-18
VII-7 WASTEWATER EQUALIZATION BY TEXTILE INDUSTRY -
RESULTS OF INDUSTRY SURVEY VII-20
VII-8 USE OF STABLIZATION LAGOONS BY TEXTILE
INDUSTRY - RESULTS OF INDUSTRY SURVEY VII-29
VIII-1 ALTERNATIVE END-OF-PIPE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY -
EXISTING SOURCES VIII-17
VIII-2 SELECTED MODEL PLANT SIZES -
EXISTING SOURCES VIII-19
VII1-3 MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - BATEA VIII-20
to to
VIII-14 VIII-43
VIII-15 MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSES VIII-48
to to
VIII-26 VIII-71
VIII-27 ALTERNATIVE END-OF-PIPE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES -
NEW SOURCES - DIRECT DISCHARGE VIII-76
VIII-28 SELECTED MODEL PLANT SIZES - NEW SOURCES VIII-79
VIII-29 MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - NSPS VIII-80
to to
VIII-39 VIII-101
VIII-40 ALTERNATIVE END-OF-PIPE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES -
NEW SOURCES - INDIRECT DISCHARGE VIII-103
VIII-41 MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSNS VIII-104
to to
VIII-51 VIII-125
VII1-52 ESTIMATED MAXIMUM ADDITIONAL ENERGY REQUIRE-
MENTS BASED ON MEDIAN TOTAL MILL USAGE VIII-127
VIII-53 CURRENT SLUDGE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES VIII-129
xvii
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LIST OF TABLES (Cont.)
NUMBER PAGE
VIII-54 ESTIMATED QUANTITIES OF DEWATERED SLUDGE FOR
REPRESENTATIVE MODEL PLANTS - DIRECT
DISCHARGERS VIII-131
VIII-55 ESTIMATED QUANTITIES OF DEWATERED SLUDGE FOR
REPRESENTATIVE MODEL PLANTS - INDIRECT
DISCHARGERS VIII-133
B-l RAW WASTE CHARACTERISTICS - SUMMARY OF
HISTORICAL DATA B-2
B-2 BPT EFFLUENT CHARACTERISTICS - SUMMARY OF
HISTORICAL DATA B-18
xviii
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
The United States Environmental Protection Agency will propose general
conclusions regarding industry categorization, impacting pollutant
parameters, alternative treatment, technologies, and treatment costs upon
review and evaluation of the technical information contained in this
document, the comments from reviewers of this document, the economic
impact on the industry if required to install additional pollution
control technology, and other information as appropriate.
1-1
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
The United States Environmental Protection Agency will propose
recommended effluent limitations for Best Available Technology (BAT),
New Source Performance Standards (NSPS), and pretreatment standards for
new and existing sources of the Textile Mills Point Source Category upon
review and evaluation of the technical information contained in this
document, the comments from reviewers of this document, the economic
impact on the industry if required to install additional pollution
control technology, and other information as appropriate.
II-l
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE AND AUTHORITY
The Environmental Division of Sverdrup & Parcel and Associates, Inc.
(S&P) was contracted by the United States Environmental Protection
Agency, under Contract Nos. 68-01-3289 and 68-01-3884, to assist in a
review of the effluent limitations guidelines, new source performance
standards, and pretreatment standards for the industrial facilities
covered under the Textile Mills Point Source Category. Contract 68-01-3289
required that all existing data and information available in the administra-
tive record and elsewhere be evaluated, that a revised profile of the
point source category be developed, and that a 308 data request be
initiated. Contract 68-01-3884 required that a screening and a verifica-
tion phase of priority pollutant sampling be conducted, that an industry
categorization be developed, and that alternative treatment technologies,
and their associated costs, be developed for treating the wastewater
from each subcategory established.
The purpose of this document is to provide the technical data base for
the review by EPA, based on the requirements of these contracts.
METHODOLOGY
The data and technical findings presented in this document were developed
by performing the following major tasks:
1. Collecting, reviewing, and evaluating existing information including:
the administrative record; historical wastewater data from EPA
regional offices, state water pollution control agencies, and
municipalities; the literature; current research projects; and that
available from textile trade associations.
2. Profiling the industry with regard to age, production, geographic
location, type of discharge, raw materials, production processes,
final products, in-plant controls, end-of-pipe treatment practices,
and wastewater data.
3. Reviewing the existing industry categorization and developing a
revised categorization to accommodate any previously unidentified
segments of the industry.
4. Administering a screening sampling program to qualitatively determine
which of the 129 priority pollutants appear in textile industry raw
wastewaters and treated effluents.
5. Developing, distributing, and retrieving a 308 data request to
update the existing data base.
III-l
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6. Administering a verification sampling program to confirm the presence
of the priority pollutants identified in the screening sampling,
and to establish the effectiveness of in-place advanced treatment
technologies in removing priority pollutants.
7. Analyzing and organizing the data collected in each task area to
establish an updated administrative record.
8. Establishing the alternative in-plant control measures and end-of-pipe
treatment technologies that will result in the elimination or
reduction of pollutant discharge from the industry.
9. Estimating the costs and effectiveness of the alternative control
measures and treatment technologies for representative mills in
each subcategory.
Evaluation of Existing Information
The collection, review, and evaluation of existing information was the
initial major task performed. It provided the starting point for subsequent
major tasks and established the extent of effort that was to be required
in each. The review of literature and current research project reports
continued throughout most of the project. A complete bibliography of
the pertinent material reviewed is presented in Section XIV.
Profile of the Industry
Developing the profile of the textile industry required work in several
of the major task areas. Following review of the existing profile
information, it was recognized that a more current picture of the industry
was necessary. The primary sources of information were the United
States Department of Commerce Standard Industrial Classification (SIC)
and the results of the 308 data request. Details of the data request
are discussed below, and details of the industry profile are presented
later in Section III.
Industry Categorization
A preliminary review of the existing industry categorization indicated
that the basis for the categorization was not firmly documented. Con-
sequently, a complete review of the industry for purposes of categoriza-
tion was required. The information collected during the industry survey
provided the data base for the review, and approaches based on the
following were evaluated: 1) raw materials, 2) products, 3) manufacturing
processes, 4) size, 5) age, 6) wastewater characteristics, 7) wastewater
treatability, 8) non-water quality aspects, and 9) various combinations
of the above. The results of the industry categorization are fully
discussed in Section IV.
III-2
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Screening and Verification Sampling
The wastewater sampling program required to characterize textile effluents
with respect to the 129 priority pollutants was performed in three
phases. A fourth phase of sampling also was performed to evaluate the
effectiveness of advanced treatment technologies in removing or reducing
the levels of priority pollutants.
The first three phases of the program were conducted between March and
November of 1977, and involved a total of 44 mills. Field sampling
teams composed of environmental engineers and environmental technicians
performed the sampling. Engineers performed presampling visits to
conduct a survey of each mill and made the necessary arrangements for
the sampling crews. The samples collected were analyzed by either
Monsanto Research Corporation (MRC), Dayton, Ohio or by one of several
EPA laboratories.
The fourth phase of sampling began in April, 1978 and is scheduled to be
completed in October, 1978. A total of 10 locations will have been
sampled during this time. MCR is performing all sampling and analytical
work.
The sampling and analytical procedures employed in all phases followed
the "Sampling and Analysis Procedures for Screening of Industrial
Effluents for Priority Pollutants," U.S. EPA, Cincinnati, March, 1977,
(revised April, 1977) and "Analytical Methods for the Verification Phase
of the BAT Review," U.S. EPA Effluent Guidelines Division, Washington,
D.C., June, 1977 (see Appendix D). Additional descriptions of the
sampling program and a detailed discussion of the results are presented
in Section V.
308 Data Request
The 308 data request (Industry Survey) was performed to update the
existing data base. A master list of textile mills was developed by
reviewing the Davison's Textile Blue Book (8). The mills were classified
as "wet" or "dry" depending on the type of processing employed. Wet
operations were further categorized based on product, raw materials,
production processes, and type of processing equipment. The wet opera-
tions mills listed were sent an introductory letter during February,
March, and April of 1977 that explained the purpose and nature of the
survey. The letters were followed by a telephone survey performed by
engineers assigned to the project. The availability of good historical
wastewater monitoring data was established and basic mill information
was obtained with the telephone survey.
A detailed data collection portfolio was designed and forwarded to each
mill noting the availability of historical wastewater monitoring data.
The returned portfolios were reviewed in detail and, when warranted,
follow-up telephone calls were made to clarify or amplify the information.
Distribution and review of the portfolios is discussed in more detail
below under "Description of the Industry."
III-3
-------
Data Analysis
The data collected as part of the evaluation of existing information,
the 308 data requests, and the field sampling program were processed and
fully analyzed. Most of the data were processed electronically. Infor-
mation obtained from the 308 data requests provides the basis for the
industry profile and the industry categorization. Historical wastewater
monitoring data were used to establish typical raw waste and treated
effluent characteristics for each subcategory. The field sampling
results were used to characterize the wastewaters from each subcategory
with respect to the priority pollutants.
Data collected by the 308 data requests also provided a basis for evalu-
ating the effectiveness of in-place treatment technologies and provided
basic information related to design and costing of advanced treatment
alternatives. The constituents of the wastewaters from each subcategory
that should be subject to effluent limitations guidelines, new source
performance standards, and pretreatment standards were established. The
significance of the constituents is discussed in Section VI.
Control and Treatment Technology
The full range of in-plant controls and end-of-pipe treatment technologies
that exist or are applicable for the wastewaters from each subcategory
were identified. The data used for identification of the control and
treatment technologies were derived from a number of sources including:
EPA research information, published literature, various industry associa-
tions, qualified technical consultants, information furnished by individual
textile firms and government agencies, and on-site visits including
sampling programs and interviews at representative textile plants through-
out the United States. The effectiveness of each control and treatment
technology was established in terms of the amounts of constituents and
the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics. The problems,
limitations, and reliability of each treatment technology were also
identified. In addition, the impacts of application of such controls or
technologies on other problems, including air pollution, solid waste
management, and energy were identified and the costs associated with the
impacts estimated. The control and treatment information is discussed
in detail in Section VII.
Costs
The treatment technologies recommended to remove or reduce the wastewater
constituents of significance from each subcategory were established, and
the costs of application of these technologies for the full range of
mills sized were estimated. The estimated costs represent a detailed
analyses of the treatment requirements and were developed by selecting
three or four model plants to represent the range of mills in each
subcategory. The cost estimates and the basis for the estimates are
fully detailed in Section VIII.
III-4
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DESCRIPTION OF THE INDUSTRY
Background
The United States textile industries are covered by two of the twenty
major groups of manufacturing industries in the Standard Industrial
Classification (SIC). They are Textile Mill Products, Major Group 22,
and Apparel and Other Textile Mill Products, Major Group 23. The Textile
Mill Products group includes 30 separate industries that manufacture
approximately 90 classes of products. The Apparel and Other Textile
Products group includes 33 separate industries that manufacture some 70
classes of products.
The Textile Mill Point Source Category Development Document (1) covers
those facilities in Major Group 22. These facilities are principally
engaged in receiving and preparing fibers; transforming these materials
into yarn, thread, or webbing; converting the yarn and web into fabric
or related products; and finishing these materials at various stages of
the production. Many produce a final consumer product such as thread,
yarn, bolt fabric, hosiery, towels, sheets, carpet, etc., while the rest
produce a transitional product for use by other establishments in Major
Groups 22 and 23.
The facilities in Major Group 23, Apparel and Other Textile Mill Products,
are principally engaged in receiving woven or knitted fabric for cutting,
sewing, and packaging. Some of the products manufactured are dry cleaned
and some undergo auxiliary processing to prepare them for the consumer.
In general, all processing is dry and little or no discharge results.
General Profile of Major Group 22
Exact figures for the number of wet processing mills and the total
number of mills in the textile industry are difficult to establish
because of the relatively large numbers involved, the dynamic state of
the industry, and differing classification criteria. Published reports
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) and surveys (6, 7) over the past ten years place the
first figure (wet processing) in the neighborhood of 2,000 mills, and
the total mills between 5,000 and 7,500. The U.S. Department of Commerce
Census of Manufactures (6) provided the most structured and inclusive
information, and reports from the 1972 census were used in developing
the general profile.
A breakdown of the Textile Mill Products group by SIC code (major product
class) and region (geographical location) is provided in Table III-l.
Nearly 80 percent of the facilities are located in the Mid-Atlantic and
Southern regions. The remaining 20 percent are distributed about equally
between the New England region and the North Central and Western regions.
Some industries, particularly yarn manufacturing, weaving, and carpet
manufacturing, are heavily concentrated in a few southeastern states.
III-5
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TABLE III-l
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION*
TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS MAJOR INDUSTRIAL GROUP
SIC Code
Region 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 22
New England
Mid-Atlantic
South
N. Central & West
Total
14
52
223
18
307
56
104
231
21
412
71
64
32
31
198
111
124
111
30
376
101
1362
1094
166
2733
110
280
208
58
656
22
47
368
92
529
102
146
530
32
810
242
401
330
220
1193
829
2580
3127
668
7204
* Based on 1972 Census of Manufacturing (6)
Note:
New England - CT, MA, ME, NH, RI, VT
Mid-Atlantic - NJ, NY, PA
South - AL, AR, DE, FL, GA, KY, LA, MD, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA, WV
N. Central - IA, IL, IN, KS, MI, MN, MO, ND, NE, OH, SD, WI
West - AK, AZ, CA, CO, HI, ID, MT, NM, NV, OR, UT, WA, WY
221 - Weaving Mills, Cotton 226 - Textile Finishing, Exc. Wool & Knits
222 - Weaving Mills, Synthetic 227 - Floor Covering Mills
223 - Weaving & Finishing Mills, Wool 228 - Yarn & Thread Mills
224 - Narrow Fabrics Mills 229 - Miscellaneous Textile Goods
225 - Knitting Mills (Incl. Finishing) 22 - Textile Mill Products
III-6
-------
The geographical distribution of mills is based in part upon historical
considerations. The textile industry in this country began in the
northeast and spread south due to that region's position as the major
cotton producer. Although synthetics have replaced cotton as the primary
material in recent years, the southeast continues to be the center of
the textile industry.
General statistics regarding number of establishments, number of employees,
and economics of manufacture are presented in Table III-2 for the Textile
Mill Products group. Of the nine major product classes (three-digit SIC
Codes), three have been subdivided to present information for the industry
segments that are of primary concern here and are likely to be most
affected by the development of effluent limitations guidelines, new
source performance standards, and pretreatment standards.
Knitting Mills (SIC 225) is the largest single major product class in
terms of number of establishments with 38 percent. These mills employ
29 percent of all textile workers and the value of shipments is 27
percent of the industry total. Among specific industry segments, weaving
mills, yarn & thread mills, finishing mills, and floor covering mills
follow knitting mills in terms of number of establishments, number of
employees, and value of shipments. The number of facilities manufacturing
felt goods, nonwoven goods, and scoured wool is small relative to the
rest of the industry. These three subdivisions combined accounted for
less than 3 percent of the number of employees and value of shipments
prior to 1972.
Water use and wastewater discharge statistics for the nine major product
classes and subdivisions are provided in Table III-3. The Census of
Manufactures report these statistics for only those establishments that
discharge 75.7 million cubic meters (20 million gallons) per year or
greater. Therefore, the numbers of establishments do not correspond
between Tables III-2 and III-3. The values of shipments, which are
provided in each table, give a good indication of the significance of
the establishments covered in Table III-3. Of the nine major product
classes, all except narrow fabric mills and knitting mills are composed
of establishments whose value of shipments ranges from 45 to 77 percent
of the values for all establishments in Table III-2. The average value
of shipments for the facilities covered by Table III-3 is approximately
50 percent of the industry total, while the average number of establish-
ments represents just over 10 percent of the total mills in the industry.
As a general summary it can be stated that based on the 1972 Census of
Manufactures, the industries in Major Group 22 employ nearly one million
persons and manufacture goods valued at over 28 billion dollars annually.
In the process, they use and discharge over one-half billion cubic
meters (130 billion gallons) of processrelated wastewater each year.
Industry Survey
A major survey of the facilities in Major Group 22 was performed to
provide a descriptive and representative data base from which subsequent
III-7
-------
M
l-l
oa
TABLE III-2
GENERAL STATISTICS*
TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS MAJOR INDUSTRIAL GROUP
Value (10 $/yr)
Industry Segment
Weaving Mills, Cotton
Weaving Mills, Synthetics
Weaving & Finishing Mills,
Wool
Narrow Fabrics Mills
Knitting Mills (Inc.
Finishing)
Hosiery Mills
All Other Knitting Mills
Finishing Mills, Exc. Wool
& Knits
Broad Woven Fabric
Stock, Yarn, Narrow Fabric,
Floor Covering Mills
Yarn & Thread Mills
Miscellaneous Textile Goods
Felt Goods
Nonwoven Goods
Wool Scouring & NEC Goods
Other Miscellaneous
Textile Products
Textile Industry - All
Segments
SIC Code
All Group No. 221
All Group No. 222
All Group No. 223
All Group No. 224
All Group No. 225
2251, 2252
2253, 2254, 2257
2258, 2259
All Group No. 226
2261, 2262
etc. 2269
All Group No. 227
All Group No. 228
All Group No. 229
2291
2297
2299
2292, 2293, 2294
2295, 2296, 2298
Major Group No. 22
Establishments
Total 20+ emp.
307
412
198
376
2723
727
1996
656
455
201
529
810
1193
47
82
345
719
7204
227
341
119
215
1725
486
1239
433
305
128
280
636
529
30
65
79
355
4505
Employees
(1000's)
121.3
149.7
19.4
27.1
276.4
82.1
194.3
79.7
61.2
18.5
59.9
147.8
71.5
5.0
10.4
8.3
47.8
952.8
Added by of
Manufacture Shipments
1256
1832
239
289
3180
734
2446
1120
850
270
1078
1586
1144
80
190
108
766
11724
2661
3856
450
566
7703
1585
6118
2633
1996
637
3153
4249
2802
146
393
212
2051
28073
Based on 1972 Census of Manufactures (6)
# NEC = Not Elsewhere Classified
-------
M
M
s
Industry Segment
TABLE III-3
WATER USE AND WASTEWATER DISCHARGE STATISTICS*
TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS MAJOR INDUSTRIAL GROUP
Value of
Establish- Shipments Water Use#
6
Wastewater Discharge
Indirect Direct
ments** (10°$/yr) (10° cu m/yr) (10U cu m/yr) (10U cu m/yr)
Weaving Mills, Cotton
Weaving Mills, Synthetics
Weaving & Finishing Mills, Wool
Narrow Fabrics Mills
Knitting Mills (Including Finishing)
Hosiery Mills
All Other Knitting Mills
Finishing Mi Hi , Except Wool & Knits
Broadwoven Fabric
Stock, Yarn, Narrow Fabric, etc.
Floor Covering Mills
Yarn & Thread Mills
Miscellaneous Textile Goods
Felt Goods
Nonwoven Goods ,,
Wool Scouring & Goods NEC
Other Miscellaneous Products
Textile Industry - All Segments
96
113
32
10
162
47
115
139
93
46
65
101
70
7
10
13
40
788
2058
2179
277
87
2357
459
1898
1852
1463
389
1868
1907
1328
64
140
74
1050
13913
35.2
51.9
22.0
0.8
88.9
5.7
83.3
169.6
141.9
27.3
58.7
39.0
15.5
1.5
4.9
3.8
5.3
481.6
22.0
28.4
11.4
1.1
84.8
9.1
75.7
78.3
53.0
25.4
43.5
30.7
20.8
0.8
2.3
3.4
14.4
321.0
26.9
48.1
13.6
0.4
25.7
0.0
25.7
105.2
100.7
4.5
23.8
27.6
12.1
1.5
3.4
2.3
4.9
283.4
* Based on 1972 Census of Manufactures (6)
** Only includes locations with greater than 7.5 x 10
// Process water not including recirculated flow.
## NEC = Not Elsewhere Classified
cu m/yr discharge.
-------
decisions regarding effluent limitation guidelines, new source performance
standards, and pretreatment standards could be made. The survey involved
the following phases of activity: 1) developing a master list of textile
mills thought to have wet production operations; 2) contacting mills on
the master list by letter to outline the purpose and intent of the
survey; 3) contacting mills on the master list by telephone in order to
assess the value of available wastewater information and to gather basic
facility information; 4) distributing detailed survey questionnaires;
and 5) retrieving and analyzing the questionnaires. Samples of the
telephone and detailed survey questionnaires are placed in Appendix A.
In developing the master list of wet production facilities, consideration
was given to several sources of information including the Standard
Industrial Classification (SIC), the Census of Manufactures, data collected
during previous textile industries studies, information from trade
associations, and information in a commercial directory, "Davison's
Textile Blue Book" (8). Examination of the various sources and knowledge
gained from previous studies indicated that the directory provided the
most useful and current information. It was reviewed and each facility
listed was tentatively classified as wet or dry. Of 5,500 mills listed
in the directory, approximately 2,900 were initially classified as dry
and 2,600 were classified as wet. Wet operations were further subcategor-
ized based on product, raw materials, production processes, and type of
processing equipment. Information to identify each wet facility and to
provide the means to make an initial contact was processed by computer,
which in turn provided a master list.
A telephone survey of those mills classified as having wet manufacturing
operations reduced the number of mills on the master list since many
turned out to be dry operations or were no longer in the textile manu-
facturing business. Information on selected low water use mills was
also received from a general survey. (See Appendix A for a sample of
the survey questionnaire.) General survey information was replaced by
detailed survey information for most wet manufacturing operations that
noted the availability of historical wastewater data. The information
obtained from both types of surveys was recorded, and electronic data
processing (EDP) was used to evaluate the results. This information
provides the best general representation of the textile industry developed
to data and serves as the basis of this report.
A breakdown of the 1,973 production facilities that comprise the master
list is presented in Table III-4. The manufacturing segments listed
resemble the recommended categorization of the industry for purposes of
effluent limitation guidelines, new source performance standards, and
pretreatment standards. There are 1,165 mills in the nine wet processing
classifications and 808 mills classified ss low-water-use-processing
operations. Detailed survey information was received for 538 of the wet
processing mills and an additional 573 provided general survey information.
Actual confirmation of wet processing activities at the remaining 54
locations could not be made. Just over twothirds of the wet processing
facilities finish either woven or knit fabrics (including hosiery).
111-10
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TABLE III-4
SURVEY STATUS SUMMARY - MILLS ON MASTER LIST
Manufacturing Total Mills
Segment Listed
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
Knit Fabric Finishing
Hosiery Finishing
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
17
37
808
336
282
160
58
217
38
20
1973
Detailed
13
19
315
151
114
58
37
121
14
11
853
Survey Status
General No Contact
4
15
15
158
155
102
18
90
23
8
588
0
3
478
27
13
0
3
6
1
1
532
III-ll
-------
Stock and yarn finishing mills comprise nearly 20 percent of the wet
processing facilities; wool goods processing, carpet manufacturing, and
nonwoven manufacturing and felted fabric processing together each comprise
approximately 5 percent. Detailed surveys provide information on more
than onethird of the mills in each wet processing segment.
Low water use processing operations were surveyed separately from the
wet processing mills; the 315 detailed survey responses noted were
obtained from a random sample of approximately half of the mills initially
classified as low water use operations.
The geographical distribution of the industry survey responses is shown
in Table III-5. The distribution confirms observations made previously
regarding Major Group 22. Over half of the wet production facilities
are located in the southeast (EPA Region IV), particularly the Carolinas
and Georgia. Another 25 percent are in the northeast (New England, New
Jersey, and New York). Less than 5 percent of the mills are located in
the west (EPA Regions VI through X).
Table III-6 illustrates the range of plant sizes (in terms of production
exposed to wet processing) found in the industry. Wet production is
dependent on the weight of material in the final product and it may be
noted in the table that mills producing light weight products such as
hosiery and other sheer knit goods occupy the smaller production ranges
while mills manufacturing heavy weight woven goods (upholstery and
drapery fabric) and carpet occupy the larger production ranges. Within
individual manufacturing segments, variations in production are substantial
as evidenced by the fact that all but two segments have production
ranges of two to three orders of magnitude. The woven fabric finishing
segment is clearly the largest, with more than twice as many facilities
than any other segment processing greater than 25,000 kg/day (55,000
Ib/day).
3
Wastewater discharge quantities, methods of discharge, and general
treatment status are illustrated in Tables III-7 and III-8 and Figure
III-l, respectively. Table III-7 illustrates the distribution of discharge
volume for the mills in each segment of manufacturing. Each segment
shows variation in discharge of from two to four orders of magnitude.
The largest dischargers are Woven Fabric Finishing mills with over five
times as many mills discharging greater than 5,000 cu m/day (1.3 mgd).
The smallest discharges are associated with Hosiery Finishing, Nonwoven
Manufacturing, and Felted Fabric Processing facilities with 87, 76, and
90 percent, respectively, discharging less than 1,890 cu m/day (0.5
mgd).
Based on the results of the industry survey, it is estimated that over
three-fourths of the wet processing facilities in the industry discharge
process-related wastewater to Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTW's).
Table III-8 illustrates the numbers of mills on the master list that are
direct dischargers, indirect dischargers, or for which the discharge
could not be determined because of limited information. At one extreme,
111-12
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TABLE III-5
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION - MILLS ON MASTER LIST
Manufacturing EPA Region All
Segment I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X Regions
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use
Processing
Woven Fabric
Finishing
Knit Fabric
Finishing
Hosiery
Finishing
Carpet
Finishing
Stock & Yarn
Finishing
Nonwoven
Manufacturing
Felted Fabric
Processing
All Segments
6
20
86
69
27
2
0
33
10
7
260
1
2
108
54
58
2
1
19
3
2
250
3
4
125
34
45
9
4
31
4
3
262
3
3
463
155
134
139
39
120
11
3
1070
0
1
11
11
9
5
1
6
7
2
53
3
1
8
3
1
2
4
3
2
0
27
0
1
1
1
2
0
0
1
0
0
6
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
4
7
6
0
9
4
1
3
34
1
4
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
_0
8
17
37
808
336
282
160
58
217
38
20
1973
111-13
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Manufacturing
Segment
0-2 2-4
TABLE III-6
PRODUCTION SIZE - MILLS ON MASTER LIST
Mills Within Given Production Range, kkg/day
4-9 9-13 13-22 22-34 34-45 45-68 68-91
Un- All
91+ known Mills
M
V
M
-T--
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use
Processing
Woven Fabric
Finishing
Knit Fabric
Finishing
Hosiery Finishing
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn
Finishing
Nonwoven
Manufacturing
Felted Fabric
Processing
All Segments
2
8
10
36
43
94
2
32
3
6
236
3
9
7
27
26
25
2
47
3
5
154
0
9
11
33
34
10
7
35
2
2
143
1
2
19
28
29
5
3
23
4
1
115
4
1
23
33
48
2
8
25
3
0
147
2
2
21
21
21
0
5
20
5
0
97
2
2
7
20
7
0
6
6
2
0
52
2
0
5
12
9
0
7
7
2
1
45
0
0
3
9
5
0
5
1
0
0
23
0
0
2
21
1
0'
5
2
1
0
32
1
4
700
96
59
24
8
19
13
5
929
17
37
808
336
282
160
58
217
38
20
1973
-------
Manufacturing
Segment
TABLE III-7
WASTEWATER DISCHARGE - MILLS ON MASTER LIST
2
Mills Within Given Discharge Range, 10 cu in/day (mgd)
0-0.36 0.36-3.70 3.70-18.9 18.9-37.8 37.8-94.6 94.6-378 Un- All
(0.-0.009)(0.010-0.099)(0.10-0.49) (0.50-0.99) (1.0-2.4) (2.5-10.0) known Mills
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
Knit Fabric Finishing
Hosiery Finishing
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
All Segments
0
5
243
48
39
57
2
27
16
7
444
10
8
60
65
60
69
7
61
7
1
348
5
10
23
71
68
13
17
70
6
10
293
1
4
0
33
44
0
16
25
2
0
125
1
5
1
35
26
0
9
18
0
0
95
0
0
0
19
3
0
0
1
0
0
23
0
5
481
65
42
21
7
15
7
2
645
17
37
808
336
282
160
58
217
38
20
1973
-------
TABLE III-8
DISCHARGE TYPE - MILLS ON MASTER LIST
Manufacturing Total Mills Direct Indirect Discharge
Segment Listed Discharge Discharge Unknown
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
Knit Fabric Finishing
Hosiery Finishing
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
17
37
808
336
282
160
58
217
38
20
1973
7
10
24
82
48
8
13
36
12
5
245
10
24
87
224
221
152
42
175
25
14
974
0
3
697*
30
13
0
3
6
1
1
754
* 196 mills reported no discharge of process-related wastewater
111-16
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95 percent of the hosiery mills discharge to POTW's (indirect discharge),
while on the other extreme, less than 60 percent of the wool scouring
mills employ this method of discharge.
Figure III-l illustrates the level of wastewater treatment provided by
direct and indirect dischargers. Over half of the indirect dischargers
provide no treatment of process-related wastewater, while slightly less
than 10 percent provide treatement processes equivalent to, or better
than, the recommended Best Practicable Technology (BPT). Over two-thirds
of the direct dischargers provide treatment at the BPT level. Direct
dischargers without treatment are predominantly mills waiting to tie
into POTW's presently in the design or construction phases.
PROFILE OF MANUFACTURING
It has been noted that the textile industry (SIC Major Group 22) consists
of approximately 6,000 manufacturing facilities. These facilities are
engaged in various processing operations required to transform fiber
the industry's basic raw material -- into yarn, fabric, or other finished
textile products. Approximately 70 percent of the facilities are believed
to perform manufacturing operations that require no process water and an
additional 10 percent are believed to use only small quantities of
process water. In contrast, the remaining 20 percent of the facilities
that scour wool fibers, clean and condition other natural and man-made
fibers, and dye or finish various textile products generally require
large quantities of process water. The remainder of this section discusses
the principal raw materials utilized by the industry, final products
manufactured by the industry, and the processing operations required to
bring about the transformations. Emphasis is placed on operations and
products requiring large quantities of process water.
Raw Materials
Various natural and man-made fibers are suitable for use in the manufac-
ture of textiles (Figure III-2). Presently, wool, cotton, and man-made
fibers (synthetics, rayon, and cellulose acetate) are the basic fibers
used. The term "synthetic" is often used synonymously with the term
"man-made" when referring to fiber, but as shown in Figure III-2, some
prefer a more restricted definition. In this system, the major difference
between the man-made fibers is that synthetic fibers are synthesized,
usually from simple monomers, whereas natural polymer fibers are manu-
factured from naturally occurring raw materials and thus are referred to
as regenerated fibers. Synthetic fibers represent the major portion of
man-made fibers in use, and since the term "synthetic" is commonly used
to refer to all man-made fibers, synthetic fibers will mean man-made
fibers for the purposes of this document.
In 1977, wool consumption by the industry (computed on a scoured basis)
was approximately 0.05 billion kilograms (0.12 billion pounds), cotton
consumption 1.6 billion kilograms (3.6 billion pounds), and synthetic
fiber consumption 4.0 billion kilograms (8.8 billion pounds) (11).
111-17
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FIGURE III-l
WASTEWATER TREATMENT STATUS - WET PROCESSING MILLS ON MASTER LIST*
No Treatment
S Preliminary
El Biological or Equivalent
D Advanced
871
221
203
-800-
-700-
-600-
2 -500-
ft
DC
m -400-
-300-
-200-
-100-
870
793
DIRECT DISCHARGERS
INDIRECT DISCHARGERS
* Does not include 808 mills classified as "Low Water
Use Processing," 57 mills that could not be contacted,
and 16 wet processing mills for which the treatment
could not be classified.
111-18
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FIGURE III-2
FIBERS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF TEXTILES (9,10)
FIBERS
NATURAL FIBERS
MAN-MADE FIBERS
VEGETABLE
ORIGIN
COTTON
JUTE
ANIMAL
ORIGIN
WOOL
ANIMAL HAIR
SILK
MINERAL
ORIGIN
ASBESTOS
METALS
GLASS
I
NATURAL POLYMERS
(REGENERATED)
(CELLULOSIC)
I
1
RAYON
CELLULOSE
ACETATE
PROTEIN
SYNTHETICS
(NON-CELLULOSIC)
1
POLYAMIDES
(NYLON)
1
POLYESTERS
1
POLYACRYLONITRILES
1
POLYVINYL
DERIVATIVES
1
MISCELLANEOUS
OTHER
-------
Other fibers such as animal hair, silk, and glass are also used, but
consumption is insignificant in comparison to the above.
The natural fibers are supplied in staple (short fiber) form whereas the
synthetic fibers are supplied as either staple or continuous filament.
The steps required to prepare these fibers for processing are highly
dependent on fiber type.
Wool. Raw wool, depending on the breed and habitat of the sheep from
which it is obtained, may contain from 30 to 70 percent natural and
acquired impurities such as grease, soluble salts (suint), and dirt
(10). Thorough scouring of this fiber prior to spinning and other
processing is an absolute necessity, and there are a number of mills in
the industry (Subcategory 1 - Wool Scouring) that perform this function
only.
Cotton. Consumption of cotton exceeded that of any other single fiber
in 1977. Cotton is a much cleaner raw fiber than wool, and initial
fiber preparation consists only of dry operations such as opening,
picking, carding, combing, and drawing to mechanically remove vegetable
matter and other impurities and to align the fibers for spinning.
Synthetics (Man-made). Synthetic fibers are classified as cellulosic
and non-cellulosic based upon whether they are produced from cellulose
or from synthesized organic materials (Figure III-2). Cellulosic fibers
comprise the bulk of regenerated man-made fiber production. Total
synthetic fiber consumption was two and a half times that of cotton in
1977. Major cellulosic fibers are rayon and cellulose acetate. Non-
cellulosic fibers, including nylon (polyamides), acrylics, modacrylics,
and particularly polyester are more extensively used than cellulosic
fibers. There are other fibers in both classes, but at present they are
not consumed in as large a volume as those noted above. Synthetic
fibers are much cleaner than cotton fibers, and thus do not require the
extensive dry fiber preparation processes used with cotton.
Major Dry or Low Water Use Processes
Depending on the primary fiber type, a variety of production processes,
some completely dry in terms of water requirements and some resulting in
wastewater discharge, are used to manufacture the various products of
this industry. In general, most of the dry- or low water use-processing
operations precede the wet processing operations in the manufacturing
sequence.
Spinning. Spinning is the process by which the fiber is converted into
yarn or thread. It is performed after initial fiber preparation and
consists of drawing out the fibers, twisting them into yarn, and winding
the newly made yarn onto a bobbin, cone, or other suitable holder. This
111-20
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process is completely dry. Texturizing (modification of physical and
surface properties of yarn by mechanical or chemical means) may also be
performed during yarn manufacture.
In some instances yarn is dyed and finished, and production of yarn and
thread for consumers may be an end in itself. Usually, however, manu-
factured yarn is used within the industry for tufting, knitting, weaving,
or other fabric manufacturing.
Tufting. Mechanical tufting is currently the predominant method of
manufacturing carpet. It is performed on large vertically positioned
needle punch machines (tufting machines) that have hundreds of needles
in a horizontal bank. Multiple ends of yarn are fed to the bank of
needles and the needles pull or loop the yarns through a woven or nonwoven
backing material, usually made of polypropylene or jute. The backing
moves relative to the needles to anchor each stitch, and the result is
loops that form the carpet pile. If the loops are cut during the tufting
process, the construction is known as cut pile rather than loop pile.
Tufting is a completely dry operation.
Knitting. Knitting is a major method for manufacturing fabrics. Nearly
all hosiery is knit, as well as large amounts of piece goods, outerwear,
and underwear. Knitting is accomplished by interlocking series of loops
of one or more yarns using any of a number of popular stitches and is
performed with sophisticated, high-speed machinery. Although knitting
is a completely dry process, oils are usually applied to the yarn to
provide lubrication during stitching. These oils enter wastewater
streams in subsequent wet processes.
Weaving. Weaving is the most common means of producing fabrics in the
textile industry, and woven fabrics are used in the manufacture of
numerous consumer and industrial products. Weaving is performed on any
of a number of types of looms which, generally speaking, cause length-
wise yarns (warp yarns) to interlace with yarns running at right angles
(filling yarns) by going over and under the filling yarns. A special
type of shuttleless loom, known as a water-jet loom, uses a jet of water
to propel the filling yarn. However, use of such looms is not widespread
in this country at this time. With the exception of water-jet looms,
weaving is a completely dry operation. However, in order to prevent
warp yarn breakage due to friction during the weaving operation, a step
known as slashing is usually necessary and a small amount of wastewater
may be generated at weaving (greige) mills as a result.
Slashing. Slashing consists of coating warp yarns with sizing compounds
to impart tensile strength and smoothness and thus prevent yarn rupture.
It is perfored by dipping the yarns through a box or trough containing
the sizing agent. This size is dried on the yarn and remains until
removed in subsequent operations at a finishing mill. As a result of
slashing, the woven fabric may contain add-ons equivalent to as much as
15 percent of the weight of the fabric (12). The most common sizing
agents are starch, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), carboxymethyl cellulose
111-21
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(CMC), and polyacrylic acid (PAA). Starch is traditionally associated
with the sizing of cotton. As previously mentioned, slashing may result
in occasional wastewater discharges, usually due to spillage and the
cleaning of slasher boxes, rolls, and size makeup kettles.
Other Fabric Manufacturing. Two other general fabric manufacturing
methods, in addition to the more common and conventional methods
previously described, are felted fabric manufacturing and nonwoven
fabric manufacturing. These manufacturing methods do not involve yarns.
Instead, they are built up from a web or continuous sheet of fibers.
The differences between felts and nonwovens lie in the types of fibers
used and in the methods of bonding the fibers together into a fabric.
Traditionally, felt has been made of wool with manufacture based on the
ability of the scaly structured wool fibers to felt, or adhere, together
naturally. Although use of wool in felts is still common, the role of
synthetics (mostly rayon and polyester) has become more important in
recent years. Felts are made by physically interlocking the fibers
through a combination of mechanical working, chemical action, moisture,
and heat.
Manufacturing of nonwoven textiles can be considered an industry in
itself. Nonwovens, or webbed textiles, are used in numerous applications,
and more and more uses are being discovered as the relatively new industry
expands. Primarily, nonwoven textiles are made of fibers held together
by an applied bonding agent or by the fusing of self-bonding thermo-
plastic fibers. This results in a fabric structure built up from a web
or continuous mat of fibers. Although a number of methods are used to
form the web and accomplish bonding of the fibers, certain operations
are basic to all methods of nonwoven fabric manufacture. These include,
in sequence: (1) preparation of the fiber; (2) web formation; (3) web
bonding; (A) drying; and (5) finishing techniques.
Web formation is usually accomplished by overlaying several layers of
carded fiber or, in the case of thermal processing, randomly laying down
filament. A less common method of web formation, called "wet lay", uses
water as a transport medium for the fibers. The fibers, suspended in
the water, are deposited onto a screen, and a web that is carried from
the screen by a large moving belt is formed. Once a nonwoven web is
formed, by whatever method, bonding is usually achieved by padding,
dipping, or spraying with adhesives such as acrylic or polyvinyl acetate
resins. A less common bonding method that is applicable to low melting
point fibers only is to fuse the fibers together thermally.
Adhesive Processing. Adhesive-related processes include operations such
as bonding, laminating, coating, and flocking. These processes are
similar in that an adhesive or other continuous coating is applied to a
fabric or carpet in order to change the original properties. These
processes are all generally dry or extremely low in water use, although
waste of the bonding and adhesive chemicals (often latex compounds) or
coating materials (often polyvinyl chloride) may result from overspraying,
111-22
-------
spillage, rinsing, and equipment cleanup. Brief descriptions of the
most prevalent adhesive-related processes follow.
Bonding is performed to join two textile materials together in a per-
manent union by application of a thin adhesive layer. The process
enables different fabric constructions, colors, and textures to be
combined so that performance, appearance, and use can be extended.
Fabric-to-fabric bonding is most commonly performed using either a wet
adhesive (often a water-based acrylic compound) or urethane foam. In
wet-adhesive bonding, the underside of the first fabric is coated with
adhesive and the second fabric is joined by passing both fabrics through
rollers. The adhesive is then heat cured to effect a permanent bond.
In foam flame bonding, a layer of urethane foam is passed over a gas
flame to make it tacky on one side. The foam and the first fabric are
then joined as they pass through rollers. The second fabric is joined
to the other side of the foam layer by repeating the process.
Laminating is similar to bonding except that laminated goods generally
consist of foam or nontextile materials bonded to fabrics, or thick
layers of foam bonded to two fabrics. Related to laminating is the
specialized textile process of carpet backing, used to secure the yarns
and to impart dimensional stability. It is achieved by bonding a foamed
latex or jute backing to the carpet's underside. Latex adhesives
typically are used in both cases. An alternative to latex adhesives is
the application of a hot melt (thermoplastic) composition.
Fabric coating employs various chemicals and synthetic resins to form a
relatively distinct, continuous film on a base fabric. Polyvinyl chloride
is the most common coating for textile fabrics. The coatings may be
applied as a 100 percent "active solids" system either as plastisols
(dispersions of polymer particles in liquid plasticizers) or as melts
(flexible grade polymer plus plasticizer). The plastisols are generally
coated by knife over roll coaters, and the melts are applied by calenders.
Although coatings of PVC plastisols and melts are the most common, other
substances and methods may also be employed for various reasons. One
important process is the application of latex-based coating to tire cord
fabric. The loosely woven tire cord fabric is dipped and coated with
latex so that the fabric will bond securely with rubber during vulcani-
zation.
Flocking is the process by which short chopped fibers are applied to an
adhesive pattern that has been "preprinted" on a fabric. In this manner,
design areas can be produced on any type of fabric to resemble embroidery
or woven clipped figures. The process can be achieved by spray or
electrostatic techniques.
Functional Finishing. Functional finishing refers to the application of
a large group of chemical treatments that extend the function of a
fabric by providing it with desirable properties. Special finishes can
be applied to make a fabric wrinkle-resistant, crease-retentive, water-
repellent, flame-resistant, mothproof, mildew-resistant, bacteriostatic,
111-23
-------
and stain resistant. Although the range of chemicals used is very
broad, the wastewater generated during application is usually relatively
small. The finishes are most often applied to the fabric from a water
solution and several finishes may be applied from a single bath. Applica-
tion is by means of rollers (calenders) that transport the finish(s)
from a trough to the surface of the fabric. The finish(s) are then
dried and cured (some permanently) onto the fabric. The only wastewater
is from bath dumps and cleanup of applicator equipment and mix tanks.
Wrinkle-resistance and crease retention (permanent press) are achieved
by treating the fabric with synthetic resins. The resins are adhesive
in nature and are permanently cross-linked with the fiber molecules.
Durability is achieved by curing with heat and a catalyst, resulting in
a reaction called polymerization. The actual physical structure of the
fabric is changed and the fabric is said to have obtained a "permanent
memory" of its flat, finished state.
Water repellency is achieved by treating the fabric with silicones and
other synthetic materials. Insoluble soaps and wax emulsions have been
used in the past, but these materials lack permanancy. The silicone
treatments can stand repeated washings or dry cleanings if properly
applied. In addition to water, the silicones successfully repel oily
fluids as well.
Flame resistant finishes are applied to cellulosic fabrics to prevent
them from supporting combustion. Phosphorus is a component of most
flame retardents, and it is theorized that oxides of phosphorus combine
with water formed at high temperatures to restrict the production of
combustionable gases. Tetrakis (hydroxymethyl) phosphonium chloride
(THPC) is the essential ingredient of many flame retardent formulations.
Mothproofing finishes typically are applied to wool and other animal
hair fibers. Fabric made from these fibers are impregnated with chemicals
that make them unfit as food for the moth larva. Chemicals such as
silicofluoride and chromium fluoride are used in the formulations.
The growth of mildew, mold, fungus, and rot is inhibited by application
of toxic compounds that destroy their growth. Those commonly used
contain chlorinated phenols or metallic salts or zinc, copper, or mercury.
Hygienic additives also are employed to inhibit the growth of bacteria.
They prevent odors, prolong the life of the fabric, and also combat
mildew, mold, and fungus.
Soil release finishes make it possible to remove stains from fabrics by
ordinary washing. Most of the finishes make use of organosilicone
compounds that are applied by the pad-dry-cure process. Other soil
release finishes in use contain fluorocompounds or oxazoline derivatives.
Soil release finishes produce a hydrophilic state in the fabric and thus
make polyester and polyester blend fabrics less conducive to static
collection.
111-24
-------
In addition to functional finishing processes, there are a number of
mechanical finishing operations such as calendering, embossing, and
napping that change the surface effect of fabric by means of rollers,
pressure, heat, or similar actions. These can be performed before or
after the chemical treatment but do not result in wastewater.
Major Wet Processes
Most high water use textile manufacturing processes occur during the
conventional finishing of fiber and fabric products. The most significant
are desizing, scouring, mercerizing, bleaching, dyeing, and printing.
In the case of wool products, the distinct nature of this fiber often
makes additional wet processing necessary prior to conventional finishing.
Additional specific processes for wool include raw wool scouring,
carbonizing, and fulling.
Although the various wet processes are described separately, it is not
uncommon for two or more operations to occur sequentially in a single
batch unit or on a continuous range. For example, it is not unusual for
desizing, scouring, and mercerizing operations to be placed in tandem
with the continuous bleaching range to enable cotton to be finished more
efficiently. It should be understood that a variety of wet finishing
situations of this type may occur, depending upon factors such as processes
employed, type and quality of materials and product, and original mill
and equipment design.
Raw Wool Scouring. Wool scouring is the first treatment performed on
wool and is employed to remove the impurities peculiar to wool fibers.
These impurities are present in great quantities and variety in raw wool
and include natural wool grease and sweat, and acquired impurities such
as dirt, feces, and vegetable matter. Disinfectants and insecticides
applied in sheep dips for therapeutic purposes may also be present.
Practically all of the natural and acquired impurities in wool are
removed in the scouring process.
Two methods of wool scouring, solvent and detergent scouring, are practiced.
In the U.S., the latter is used almost exclusively. In the detergent
process the wool is raked through a series of 1500- to 3000-gallon scouring
bowls known as a "scouring train." Unless the first bowl is used as a
steeping or de-suinting bowl, the first two bowls contain varying
concentrations of either soap and alkali, or non-ionic detergents of the
ethylene oxide condensate class. The soap-alkali scouring baths are
generally characterized by a temperature of 32° to 40°C (115° to 130°F)
and a pH of 9.5 to 10.5; neutral detergent baths normally have a pH of
6.5 to 7.5 and a temperature of A30 to 57°C (135° to 160°F). The last
two bowls of the scouring train are for rinsing and a counterflow arrange-
ment is almost always employed using the relatively clean waters from
these bowls in preceding bowls.
Scouring emulsifies the dirt and grease and produces a brown, gritty,
turbid waste that is often covered with a greasy scum. It has been
111-25
-------
estimated that for every pound of fibers obtained, one and one-half
pounds of waste impurities are produced. Since the wool grease present
in the scour liquor is not readily biodegradable and is of commercial
value, grease recovery is usually practiced. In the most typical recovery
process, the scour liquor is first piped to a separation tank where
settling of grit and dirt occurs. The supernatant from the tank is then
centrifuged (one or more stages) into high density, medium density, and
low density streams. The high density stream consists mainly of dirt
and grit, and is discharged as waste. The medium density stream is
recycled to the wool scouring train. The low density stream contains
concentrated grease that is normally refined further to produce lanolin.
Acid-cracking, utilizing sulfuric acid and heat, is an alternative
method of grease recovery, but it is not widely practiced at this time.
Carbonizing. Carbonizing removes burrs and other vegetable matter from
loose wool or woven wool goods. These cellulosic impurities may be
degraded to hydrocellulose, without damaging the wool, when acted upon
by acids. It is important to remove these impurities from the wool to
prevent unequal absorption of dyes.
The first operation in carbonization is acid impregnation. Typically
this consists of soaking the wool in a 4 to 7 percent solution of sulfuric
acid for a period of 2 to 3 hours. The excess acid is squeezed out and
the wool is baked to oxidize the cellulosic contaminants to gases and a
solid carbon residue. The charred material, primarily hydrocellulose,
is crushed between pressure rollers so that it may be shaken out by
mechanical agitation. Some solid waste is generated, but, with the
exception of an occasional dump of contaminated acid bath, no liquid
waste results. However, after the residue has been shaken out, the
acid must be removed. This is achieved by preliminary rinsing to
remove most of the acid followed by neutralization with sodium carbonate
solution. A final rinse is then used to remove the alkalinity. As a
result, the overall water requirements for the carbonization of wool are
substantial.
Fulling. Fulling gives woven woolen cloth a thick, compact, and substantial
feel, finish, and appearance. To accomplish it, the cloth is mechanically
worked in fulling machines in the presence of heat, moisture, and sometimes
pressure. This allows the fibers to felt together, which causes shrinkage,
increases the weight, and obscures the woven threads of the cloth.
There are two common methods of fulling, alkali and acid. In alkali
fulling, soap or detergent is used to provide the needed lubrication and
moisture for proper felting action. The soap or detergent is usually
mixed with sodium carbonate and a sequestering agent in a concentrated
solution. In acid fulling, which may be used to prevent bleeding of
color, an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid, hydrogen peroxide, and
small amounts of metallic catalysts (chromium, copper, and cobalt) is
used.
111-26
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The first step in both methods is to impregnate the fabric in the fulling
machines with heated fulling solution. If acid fulling is performed, it
is followed by alkali fulling. No waste is produced during this step
since all of the solution stays in the cloth. At this point, from 10 to
25 percent of the fabric weight may be process chemicals such as soap,
alkali, sequesterant, and carding oil. Fulling is followed by extensive
washing to remove process chemicals and prevent rancidity and wool
spoilage. The usual washing procedure is to subject the fulled cloth to
two soapings, two warm rinses, and one cold rinse. The first soaping is
usually achieved by agitation of the fabric in the soapy solution created
by the fulling soap already on the cloth. After a warm rinse, the cloth
is usually soaped a second time in a stationary bath with a 2 percent
solution of soap or synthetic detergent. This is followed by a second
warm rinse at 40°C (105°F) and a cold rinse to cool off the cloth.
Desizing. Desizing removes the sizing compounds applied to the yarns in
the slashing operation and is usually the first wet finishing operation
performed on woven fabric. It consists of solubilizing the size with
mineral acid or enzymes (starch size only) and thoroughly washing the
fabric. Acid desizing utilizes a solution of dilute sulfuric acid to
hydrolyze the starch and render it water soluble. Enzyme desizing
utilizes vegetable or animal enzymes to decompose starches to a water
soluble form. In either case, the desizing agent is normally applied to
the fabric by rollar pad. After the desizing solution has been applied,
the goods are soaked or steeped in storage bins, steamers, or J-boxes.
After the size has been solubilized, the solution is discarded and the
fabric is washed and rinsed. For desizing of PVA and CMC, sizing materials
that are directly soluble in water, no decomposition is required and the
goods are merely washed with water.
Scouring. Scouring is employed to remove natural and acquired impurities
from fibers and fabric. The nature of the scouring operation is highly
dependent upon fiber type; raw wool scouring has been discussed separately
due to its uniqueness among textile processes. The comparative lack of
impurities associated with synthetic fabrics allows much milder scouring
than that required for cotton goods.
Cotton fabric contains natural impurities such as wax, pectins, and
alcohols, as well as processing impurities such as size, dirt, and oil.
These substances are removed from the fabric by hot alkaline detergents
or soap solutions. An additional function of cotton scouring is to make
the fibers whiter and more absorbent for subsequent bleaching and dyeing.
Scouring of cotton is often done in conjunction with desizing rather
than as a totally separate operation and is usually accomplished by
either kier or open width boiling.
In kier boiling, desized cotton fabric in rope form is loaded into a
large cylindrical pressure vessel. An aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide,
soap, and sodium silicate, or a similar mixture, is recirculated through
the goods at temperatures up to 90°C (220°F), pH values of 10 to 13, and
111-27
-------
pressures of 10 to 20 psig for 6 to 12 hours. The fabric is then cooled
and rinsed in the kier. Goods processed in the open width are normally
scoured in open-width boil-out machines, also known as progressive jigs.
The goods are continuously fed through the scouring solution by the use
of transfer rolls and after the required contact period are unrolled
through wash boxes. Methods of scouring and dumping the scour waste
vary from mill to mill, but at all mills the cloth is completely rinsed
to clean the fibers and remove residual alkali.
The manufacture of synthetic fibers is well controlled so they are
relatively free of impurities. Consequently, only light scouring and
little or no bleaching is required prior to dyeing. However, sizes
applied to synthetics are often removed in the scouring process rather
than in a separate desizing step. Scour baths usually contain weak
alkalis, anti-static agents, lubricants, and soap or detergents.
Although acetate fibers may be scoured and dyed in one bath, most
synthetics are scoured independently of the dyeing operation. Rope
soapers, jig scours, beck scours, drum or paddle scours, or beam dyeing
equipment may be employed. After scouring, the goods are rinsed to
remove excess material in preparation for the dye bath.
Either light or heavy scouring of wool goods may be performed during
wool finishing to remove acquired impurities.
Mercerizing. Mercerization increases the tensile strength, luster,
sheen, dye affinity, and abrasion resistance of cotton goods. It may be
performed on yarn or greige goods, but is usually conducted after fabric
scouring. It is accomplished by impregnating the fabric with cold
sodium hydroxide solution (15 to 30 percent by volume). The solution
causes swelling of the cotton (cellulose) fibers as alkali is absorbed,
with higher concentrations, longer residence times, and lower temperatures
favoring greater swelling. When increased tensile strength is a primary
consideration, the fabric is mercerized on a tenter frame. After the
desired period of contact, the caustic is thoroughly washed off, sometimes
with the aid of an intermediate acid wash. In many mills, the sodium
hydroxide is reclaimed in caustic recovery units and concentrated for
re-use in scouring or mercerization. It is presently estimated that
less than half of all cotton fabrics are mercerized, and with the
increasing use of cotton-polyester blends, less mercerization is likely
in the future.
Bleaching. Bleaching is a common finishing process used to whiten
cotton, wool, and some synthetic fibers. In addition to removing color,
bleaching can dissolve sizing, natural pectins and waxes, and small
particles of foreign matter. It is usually performed immediately after
scouring or mercerizing and prior to dyeing or printing; bins, jigs, or
continuous equipment may be employed. Bleaching is primarily accomplished
with hydrogen peroxide, although hypochlorite, peracetic acid, chlorine
dioxide, sodium perborate, or even reducing agents may be used.
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Most cotton fabrics are bleached on continuous bleaching ranges directly
after scouring. The fabric, fed in either rope or open width form, is
first washed with hot water to ensure removal of all contaminants. As
the goods leave the washer, excess water is removed and sodium hydroxide
is added. The saturated fabric remains at about 65° to 68°C (175° to
180°F) for approximately 40 to 60 minutes, resulting in the conversion
of fats and waxes to soaps. The material is then rinsed with hot water
and passed through a peroxide solution containing hydrogen peroxide and
sodium silicate. At this point the cotton is bleached out at a temperature
of 76°C (195°F) for approximately 40 to 60 minutes before the final hot
water rinse. A second stage of bleaching, sometimes with sodium hypo-
chlorite, may be employed in some mills.
In sodium hypochlorite bleaching, whether batch or continuous, the cloth
is rinsed, scoured with a weak solution of sulfuric or hydrochloric
acid, and rinsed again. The cloth is then passed through a solution of
sodium hypochlorite and allowed to bleach out in bins (batch) or J-boxes
(continuous) for the necessary period of time. A final rinse is then
performed.
Bleaching methods for synthetic fabrics are dependent upon fiber type.
Since there is less coloring matter to remove, cellulosic fibers (rayon
and acetate) are bleached using methods similar to, but less extensive
than, those used in bleaching cotton. Non-cellulosic fibers (polyesters,
acrylics, nylons) are not usually bleached unless blended with natural
fibers. When bleaching is performed, various weak acids may be used.
Wool top or fabric may be bleached if white or very light colored fabric
is required. Hydrogen or sodium peroxide, or optical brighteners composed
of various organic compounds may be used. Control of pH is important in
peroxide bleaching of wool and is usually achieved by mixing hydrogen
peroxide with sodium silicate or sodium peroxide with acid. Optical
brighteners are useful in combination with peroxide bleaching agents to
help give wool a good white base for subsequent dyeing.
Solvent bleaching systems and pressure steamers for reduction of residence
time in continuous bleaching are two developments that may change the
character of bleaching operations in the future.
Dyeing. Dyeing is the most complex of all the wet-processing operations.
It is performed essentially for aesthetic reasons in that it does not
contribute to the basic structural integrity, wearability, or durability
of the final product. It does, however, play a major role in the market-
ability of textile products.
In short, the function of dyeing is co anchor dyestuff molecules to
textile fibers. The color observed is a result of the light waves
absorbed and reflected by the dyestuffs. The factors that cause a
substance to absorb and reflect light waves are complex and beyond the
scope of this section. Presented here are the methods of dyeing, the
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types of dyestuffs and auxiliary chemicals used in dyeing, and the types
of equipment available and in use for application of dyes.
The mechanisms of dyeing textile fibers can be summarized as follows
(10):
1. Migration of the dye from the solution to the interface, accompanied
by adsorption on the surface of the fiber.
2. Diffusion of the dye from the surface towards the center of the
fiber.
3. Anchoring of the dye molecules by covalent or hydrogen bonds, or
other forces of a physical nature.
Dye/fiber interfacing is a function of the type of equipment utilized,
while the specific dye formulas provide the chemical environment for
bonding to take place. Dyeing can be performed while the goods are in
the stock, top (wool or wool blends), yarn, or fabric state. Both
single and multiple fiber goods can be dyed, although multiple fiber
dyeing may require multiple steps.
Stock dyeing is performed before the fiber has been converted to the top
or yarn state. In simplest terms, the process involves placing stock
fiber in a vat or pressure kettle, applying a sufficient quantity of dye
liquor, providing optimum environmental conditions, allowing time for
the chemical reaction, and rinsing. Wool used to produce fancy goods
and a small amount of cotton or synthetic fibers used for flocking are
dyed in this manner.
Top dyeing is performed on sliver or slubbing that is wound into a
cylindrical shape approximately 18 inches in diameter. The top has been
carded and combed but not spun into yarn. Dyeing is accomplished by
placing the top in cans, placing the cans in a dye vat, circulating the
dye liquor, and allowing sufficient time for reaction. Fibers that are
to be used for worsted fabric are typically dyed in this manner.
Yarn dyeing is performed on yarns that are used for woven goods, knit
goods, and carpets. The traditional methods are skein (hank), package,
and space dyeing. Skein dyeing is accomplished by placing turns of yarn
on a frame, placing the frame in a dye bath in which either the frame or
the dye liquor are circulated, providing optimum environmental conditions,
allowing time for reaction, and rinsing. Package dyeing is the most
common yarn dyeing process and is accomplished by placing yarn wound
onto perforated cones on a frame, placing the frame into a pressure
vessel, circulating dye liquor in and out of the cones and yarn under
optimum environmental conditions, and rinsing. Warp yarns wound on
large perforated beams are also dyed using the package method. The
beams of dyed yarn can be used directly in weaving.
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Package dyeing has become favored over skein dyeing because skein-reeling
is a comparatively expensive process, more working space is required,
and the skein-dyed yarn must always be wound onto a bobbin, cone, or
spool at a later stage.
Space dyeing is a specialty yarn dyeing process. The technique resembles
the roller printing process in that the dye liquor is applied to warp
yarns at a repeat or random interval by a roller type dye pad. The dyed
yarn then enters a hot water steam box for development and fixation of
the color and is finally rinsed. Two or more dyes can be padded. The
process has become especially important to the manufacture of tufted
carpet.
Fabric dyeing is the most common method in use today. It is preferred
over yarn dyeing because it is a continuous or semicontinuous process
and because a mill does not have to commit itself to large yardages.
The methods employed include beck (winch), jet, jig, and continuous
range.
Beck dyeing is accomplished with the fabric in the rope form. Both
atmospheric and pressure machines are in use. In either case, the
fabric, connected end-to-end is rotated through dye liquor by passing
over a large rotating drum. Twelve or more loops of fabric can be dyed
side by side, being kept apart by dividing fingers. The length of each
loop is such that the fabric lies in a heap at the bottom of the beck
for a short time. The proper environmental conditions and residence
time must be provided as in the other previously described methods.
Jet dyeing is also accomplished with the fabric in rope form. Jet
machines are similar to the pressure becks except that each loop of
fabric passes through a venturi tube. A pump circulates the dye liquor
through the tubes and the suction at the venturi causes the fabric to
rotate. Jet machines have improved on certain deficiencies of beck
dyeing by allowing shorter liquor-to-fabric ratios, reducing the risk
of tangling, providing a more uniform temperature, reducing elongation
of the fabric due to tension, and lessening the formation of creases in
synthetic fabrics. Jet dyeing is especially suitable to synthetic
fibers.
Jig dyeing is performed with the fabric in the open width. Both atmos-
pheric and pressure equipment are available. Dyeing is accomplished by
slowly winding the fabric over rollers that stand above a shallow trough
containing the dye liquors. The rollers, by rotating in clockwise and
counterclockwise directions alternately, move the cloth through the dye
liquor, complete immersion being insured by guide rollers at the bottom
of the trough. Since only a few meters of the fabric are immersed at a
time, it is possible to work with an exceedingly short liquor ratio.
Jig dyeing is particularly attractive for cellulosic fibers because the
dyes used generally do not exhaust well, and less dyestuff is wasted.
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Continuous dyeing is also performed with the fabric in the open width.
It is accomplished under atmospheric conditions on what are termed
"continuous dyeing ranges." These ranges generally consist of a number
of dip troughs through which the fabric is dyed and oxidized, rinse
boxes that remove excess dye liquor, and heated rotating drying cans
that dry the fabric.
Thermosol dyeing is a continuous process used for dyeing polyester and
polyester/cotton blends. Dye is padded onto the fabric in the pigment
form from a pad box and dried, causing a film containing the dye to
adhere to the surface of the fibers. The fabric is then heated to 180°
to 220°C (380° to 454°F) for a period of 30 to 60 seconds to set the
dye. The transfer of dye from the surface deposit to the polyester is
through the vapor phase.
Dyes are classified according to their chemical constitution or on the
basis of their dyeing properties, with little correlation between the
two systems. Classification according to application is most relevant
for the purposes of this document and is discussed below. Classification
according to chemical constitution is not discussed, but the reader is
referred to the Colour Index, Volume III, published by the Society of
Dyers and Colourists and the American Association of Textile Chemists
and Colorists for a thorough coverage of this subject.
The following tabulation provides the classification name and the principal
fiber types for which the dye classes are used, based on the application
classification.
Dye Class Applicable Fiber Types
Acid Protein, polyamide (nylon)
Azoic (Naphthal) Cellulosic
Basic (Cationic) Acrylic, silk, wool, cellulosic if mordanted
Direct Cellulosic
Disperse Cellulosic, acetate, synthetics (man-made)
Mordant (Chrome) Protein, cellulosic
Reactive Cellulosic, wool, silk
Sulfur Cellulosic
Vat Cellulosic, wool, silk
Acid Dyes. These dyes are sodium salts, usually of sulphonic acids, but
in a few cases carboxylic acids. They are invariably manufactured as
sodium salts because the free dye acids are more difficult to isolate
and they are hygroscopic, which makes them difficult to pack and store.
They have a direct affinity toward protein fibers and are the main class
of dyes used in wool dyeing. Most will not exhaust on cellulosic fiber
but, since they resemble the direct dyes in chemical constitution, there
are a number that dye cellulose quite well. The dyes also have an
affinity for polyamide fibers.
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There are many ways in which the acid dyes are applied. Primarily, the
variations create environmental conditions suitable to the type of dye
being used. In addition to the dyes, the following auxiliary chemicals
may be required for satisfactory dyeing:
sodium sulfate (Glauber's salt)
sulfuric acid
formic acid
acetic acid
ammonium acetate
ammonium sulfate
ammonium phosphate
leveling agents
Azoic Dyes. These dyes are insoluble pigments anchored within the fiber
by padding with a soluble coupling compound and then treating with a
diazotized base. Since naphthol is used as the coupling component, they
are referred to as naphthol dyes by the industry. They are used for
dyeing cellulosic fibers when comparatively good wet-fastness and brightness
of shade are required at a reasonable cost. They are especially satisfactory
in the yellow, orange, and red spectrum. They have been applied to
protein fibers, but equally good results can be obtained with acid dyes
by simpler methods.
Dyeing with azoic dyes is a two-stage process involving impregnating the
fiber with an azoic coupling component and coupling with a diazonium
salt. There are over 50 coupling components listed in the Colour Index,
and over 50 bases that can be diazotized and coupled with the former (10).
In addition to the coupling component and base, common salt and surface-
active compounds (sulfated fatty alcohol or ethylene oxide condensate)
are usually necessary to speed the reaction.
Basic Dyes. These dyes are usually hydrochlorides of salts or organic
bases. The chromophores are found in the cation; therefore these dyes
are often referred to as cationic dyes. Because of poor fastness to
light, these dyes had virtually been discontinued until it was discovered
that they would dye acrylic fibers and give bright, clear shades of good
light-fastness. Cellulosic fibers have, for all practical purposes, no
affinity for basic dyes. The dyes can be applied to cellulose if the
fibers are mordanted before dyeing; however, these dyes are very rarely,
if ever, applied to cotton these days. In the case of protein fiber,
there is substantial evidence that the affinity is of a chemical nature.
There are several methods of applying basic dyes to acrylic fibers and
many dyes that are suitable. In addition to the dyes, the following
auxiliary chemicals may be necessary for satisfactory dyeing:
acetic acid
formic acid
oxalic acid
tannic acid
sodium sulfate
sodium acetate
ethylene carbonate
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Direct Dyes. These dyes resemble acid dyes in that they are sodium
salts of sulfonic acids and are almost invariably azo compounds. They
have a direct affinity for cellulosic fibers. These dyes are frequently
referred to as substantiative dyes and, in special circumstances, they
are used to dye protein fibers. The distinction between acid and direct
dyes is often not well defined. For example, C.I. Direct Dye 37 may be
applied as a direct dye to cellulose or as an acid dye to protein fibers.
The dyes offer a rather wide range of color but have poor wash- and
light-fastness.
The direct dyes are divided into three classes; self-leveling (Class A),
salt controllable (Class 6), and temperature controllable (Class C).
Depending on the class of the dye employed, one or more of the following
auxiliary chemicals may be necessary for satisfactory dyeing:
sodium chloride
sequestering agents
sodium sulfate
sodium nitrite
hydrochloric acid
phenols
aromatic amines
Disperse Dyes. This class of dyes arose out of the need to find an easy
and satisfactory way to dye cellulose acetate. Hydrophobic fibers, such
as secondary or tertiary cellulose acetate, and the synthetic fibers
will often dye better with insoluble dyes than those that are dissolved
in water. These dyes are suspensions of finely-divided organic compounds
with very slight aqueous solubility.
There are numerous disperse dyes but no sharp dividing lines to group
them into separate classifications according to their dyeing behavior.
In addition to the dyes, one or more of the following auxiliary chemicals
may be necessary for satisfactory dyeing:
acetic acid
dispersing agents
orthophenylphenol
butyl benzoate carriers
chlorobenzene
diethyl phthalate
other carriers
Mordant Dyes. This class of dyes includes many natural and synthetic
dyes, the latter usually being obtained from anthracene. They have no
natural affinity for textile fibers, but are applied to cellulosic or
protein fibers that have been mordanted with a metallic oxide. Since
chromium is the most commonly used mordant, these dyes are often referred
to as chrome dyes. At one time, there were a number of naturally occurring
mordant dyes in use, but acid mordant dyes have replaced these. The
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acid mordant dyes are applied to wool or polyamide fibers as if they
were acid dyes and, by subsequent mordanting, are given very good wash-
fastness.
The mordant dyes are most commonly applied in a boiling acid dyebath
and, when exhaustion is complete, an appropriate amount of dichromate is
added and the bath boiled for an additional 30 minutes. The following
auxiliary chemicals are generally necessary to achieve satisfactory
results:
acetic acid
sodium sulfate (Glauber's salt)
penetrating agents
sulfuric or formic acid
potassium or sodium dichromate
ammonium sulfate
Reactive Dyes. These are the latest dyestuff discovery and, because
they react chemically with cotton, viscose, linen, wool, and silk, they
possess very good wash-fastness. They can be dyed by many methods and
adapt well to the requirements of continuous dyeing. The whole spectrum
of color can be applied with these dyes.
There are several classes of reactive dyes that are specific to the
fibers being processed. In addition to the dyes, one or more of the
following auxiliary chemicals may be necessary for satisfactory dyeing:
sodium chloride
urea
sodium carbonate
sodium hydroxide
Sulfur Dyes. These dyes are complex organic compounds that contain
sulfur linkages within their molecules. They are usually insoluble in
water, but dissolve in a solution of sodium sulfide to which sodium
carbonate may be added. The sodium sulfide acts as a reducing agent,
severing the sulfide linkage and breaking down the molecules into simpler
components that are soluble in water and have an affinity toward cellulose.
The soluble components are then oxidized in the fiber to the original
and soluble sulfur dyes. These dyes have excellent resistance to washing,
but poor resistance to sunlight. They will dye cotton, linen, and
rayon, but the colors are not very bright.
In their reduced state, the dyeing properties of the sulfur dyes resemble
those of the direct dyes. They exhaust better in the presence of electro-
lytes and vary considerably with regard to the temperatures at which
maximum exhaustion takes place. They are decomposed by acids, usually
with the liberation of hydrogen sulfide, and when exposed to air or
acted upon by mild oxidizing agents, some of the sulfur is oxidized to
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sulfuric acid. In addition to the dyes, one or more of the following
auxiliary chemicals may be necessary for satisfactory dyeing:
sodium sulfide
sodium carbonate
sodium dichromate
acetic or alternative acids
hydrogen peroxide
sodium chloride
sodium sulfate
copper sulfate
Vat Dyes. There are the best known dyes in use today because of their
all-around fastness to both washing and sunlight. They are among the
oldest natural coloring matters used for textiles. They are insoluble
in water and cannot be used without modification. When treated with
reducing agents, they are converted into leuco (combining) compounds,
all of which are soluble in water in the presence of alkali. The leuco
compounds have an affinity towards cellulose and reoxidize to the insoluble
colored pigment within the fiber when exposed to air. Vat dyes are made
from indigo, anthraquinone, and carbazol and are successfully used on
cotton, linen, rayon, wool, silk, and sometimes nylon. These dyes are
also used in the continuous piece goods dyeing process, sometimes called
the pigment application process. In this method the dyes are reduced
after they have been introduced into the fabric.
Each vat dye has its own optimum temperature and specific proportions of
alkali and reducing agents for vatting. In practice, however, it is
practical to classify them into four groups, based on method of application:
Method 1 - dyes requiring relatively high alkali concentration and
high vatting and dyeing temperatures.
Method 2 - dyes requiring moderate alkali concentrations, lower
temperatures for reducing and dyeing, and some electrolyte
to complete exhaustion.
Method 3 - dyes requiring low alkali concentration, low vatting and
dyeing temperatures, and large quantities of electrolyte.
Method 4 - a special case for dyeing blacks requiring exceptionally high
alkali concentration and temperature but no electrolyte.
In addition to the dyes, one or more of the following auxiliary chemicals
may be necessary for satisfactory dyeing:
sodium hydroxide
sodium hydrosulfite
dispersing agents
hydrogen peroxide
acetic acid
sodium perborate
sodium chloride
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Printing. Printing of textiles is not unlike the process of dyeing.
Instead of coloring the whole cloth as in dyeing, print color is applied
only to specific areas of the cloth to achieve a planned design.
Consequently, printing is often referred to as localized dyeing. The
color application techniques are, however, quite different.
Most of the textiles wet-printed in the U.S. are produced by the roller
machine methods and a smaller proportion by the screen method. Highly
advanced electronically controlled spray printing techniques are beginning
to emerge, especially in relation to the printing of carpet.
Roller printing is accomplished by first transferring the desired design
onto copper rollers; applying print paste from reservoirs to rotating
rollers that circumvent a main cylinder roller that transports the
fabric; transferring the design to the fabric by contacting the rollers
and fabric; and steaming, aging, or other after-treatment operations.
The design can be transferred to the rollers by hand engraving, photo
engraving, or chemical etching. The latter two methods are most used
today. The copper rollers, as many as 16 per print machine, may have a
circumference of from 35 to 91 cm (14 to 36 in.), and a length of from
117 to 152 cm (46 to 60 in.). They are hollow, and steel mandrils are
pressed into the hollows to hold the rollers in position and to turn
them at the desired speed. The rollers are generally coated with a thin
layer of chromium to prevent damage to the engraving during handling.
Each roller imprints one repeat of the design with color supplied from
the color trough. As the roller spins, a doctor-knife continuously
scrapes the extraneous color back to the color trough. A different
design and color can be transferred for each roller. Generally, only
one side of the fabric is printed.
Final washing of the fabric removes excess print paste and leaves a
uniformly smooth effect. This process, along with the cleanup of print
paste mixing tanks, applicator equipment (troughs and rollers), and
belts, contributes the wastewater associated with the printing process
itself.
Screen printing differs from roller printing in that the print paste is
forceably transferred to the fabric through the openings in specially
designed screens. The process can be manual, semi-automatic, or completely
automatic. Automatic screen printing can be either flat bed or rotary,
while manual and semi-automatic are flat bed processes only.
Screens are made by manually (sketching or tracing) or photogrammetrically
transferring the desired design. If the transfer is performed manually,
the area outside the design is opaqued so that print paste will be
retained. In the photogrammetric transfer technique, which is the
method of today, the negative is used for the opaquing process, using a
specially sensitized coating. The screens, which are largely made of
synthetic materials today, are securely stretched over a wooden frame so
they can be correctly positioned. A separate screen is made for each
color in the design.
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In manual screen printing, the fabric is stretched out on long tables,
the screens representing the pattern laid on it according to the repeat
pattern, and the selected print paste forced through the screen mesh
onto the fabric by squeegee. The fabric is dried by placing it on a
rack above the table, steamed to set the color, and given other finishing
treatments for fineness and texture.
The semi-automatic process is quite similar to the manual process except
that the fabric travels and the screens representing the pattern are
kept in place. The handling of the screens and the application of the
color are still performed manually.
Automatic flat bed screen printing is accomplished on a machine that
electronically performs and controls each step of the operation. It is
a continuous process in which the fabric moves along a table, the screens
representing the design are automatically positioned, and the color is
automatically deposited and squeegeed through the screen onto the fabric.
The fabric moves forward one frame between each application of color and
as it leaves the last frame, it passes into a drying box, from which it
emerges dry and ready for aging.
Rotary screen printing combines some of the advantages of both roller
printing and screen printing. Instead of flat screens, the color is
transferred to the fabric through lightweight metal foil screens that
resemble the cylinder rollers of the roller printing process. The
desired design is transferred to the foil screens in much the same way
as for the flat screens. The fabric moves continuously under the cylinder
screens and print paste is forced, under pressure, from the inside of
the screens through and onto the fabric. A separate screen is required
for each color in the design.
Rotary screen printing is faster than flat bed printing and approaches
the production speed of roller printing. The down-time during pattern
changeover is somewhat less than for roller printing. As with roller
printing, wastewater is generated primarily from the final cleaning of
the fabric, cleanup of applicator equipment, and cleaning of belts.
Another type of printing that is in use today is sublistatic (heat
transfer). This method employs a prepared pattern paper from which a
design can be transferred to nearly any fabric by a simple hot transfer
or calendering operation. The main advantages of the sublistatic process
are ease of application, clarity of reproduction, flexibility in design
choice, and a wide range of design sizes. After printing, no subsequent
treatment such as washing or steaming is required and there is no print
paste to clean from equipment. Consequently, the process does not
result in wastewater discharge.
The auxiliary chemicals used in printing each of the dye types are
included in the lists provided in the discussion of dyeing. In addition,
a thickener is used to give the print paste the desired viscosity for
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the method employed and the pattern desired. The thickeners commonly
used are locust bean, quar, alginate, starch, and combinations of these
gums. Urea, thiourea, and glycols are also used in many print formula-
tions.
In printing with pigments, which do not react chemically with the fiber
as do some dyes, the same general formula is used for all fiber types.
The formula includes the pigment, resin, binder, latex, emulsifier,
varsol, thickener, and water.
Final Products
It has been noted earlier in this section that the Textile Mill Products
group (SIC Major Group 22) includes 30 separate industries that manufacture
approximately 90 classes of products. Throughout the 90 classes, there
are hundreds of individual products and the number is constantly changing
due to research, development, and marketing. Many of the industries and
product classes do not require wet operations in their manufacture and,
consequently, are not of specific interest here. To represent the
wet-processing segment of the industry with regard to effluent limitations
guidelines and standards of performance for wastewater discharge, 9
major subcategories have been established. The subcategories represent
13 processing classes at which the products are composed of characteristic
raw material and at which the production is the result of similar manu-
facturing operations. It is not suggested that each processing class
represents facilities that are completely homogeneous because that is
definitely not the case. The textile industry, especially the wet-
processing segment, is highly variable and homogeneity is not found even
among mills that have similar processes or products. A description of
each major processing class follows.
Wool Stock and Top. (Subcategory 1 - Wool Scouring) Unlike cotton and
synthetic fibers, raw wool is very dirty and must be extensively cleaned
and prepared before it can'be processed . A number of mills scour wool
and make wool top as a final product and ship it to other facilities in
the industry. A schematic of a typical wool scouring operation is
presented in Figure III-3. Raw wool is scoured after it has been sorted
and blended. The scouring process has been described previously. Most
mills in this segment practice countercurrent flow of wash water and
recover grease from the scour waste. The scoured wool must be thoroughly
dried to prevent racidity. The dried wool may be shipped as such,
combed to create wool top, or finished in another portion of the mill.
Finished Wool Goods. (Subcategory 2 - Wool Finishing) Wool not only
requires more preparation than other fibers, but also requires unique
finishing operations. As a result, there are a number of mills in the
industry devoted exclusively to finishing wool goods. A schematic of
the typical wool finishing process is presented in Figure III-4.
Finished wool products include top, yarn, blankets, and fabrics for
apparel, upholstery, outerwear, and numerous other uses. A single mill
may manufacture any number of these products. Light scouring, dyeing,
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FIGURE III-3
SUBCATEGORY 1: TYPICAL WOOL SCOURING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
Water,
Alkali and
Detergent
Water T
s
f
SORT AND
BLEND
\
/
SCOUR
Liquor _
GREASE
RECOVERY
Liquid Waste _
Re-use'
Water
WASH
J
DRY
GREASE
PURIFICATION
Liquid Waste
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FIGURE III-4
SUBCATEGORY 2: TYPICAL WOOL FINISHING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
Water
H 2864 and
Na2 CO3
Detergent, Acid,
and/or Alkali
H202
s
Scouring
Agents ^
Dyestuffs
and
Auxiliary
Chem.
Detergents
Lubricants,
Sizing, and
Finishing Agents
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( Stock I
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SCOUR
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SCOUR
N
f
DYE
xl/
^
-^
WASH
~»
^
f
FINAL
FINISH
Liquid
Waste
Liquid
Waste .
Liquid
Waste
Liquid
Waste _
Liquid
Waste
Liquid
Waste
Liquid
Waste
i^^
(From Cleanup)
[Finished]
V Fabric J
(TOP)
(YARN)
(FABRIC)
111-41
-------
and washing are employed regardless of whether top, yarn, or fabric is
being finished. In addition, carbonizing, bleaching, oiling, carding,
and spinning may be performed when finishing wool top. Carbonizing and
bleaching are also performed at mills finishing wool fabric, as is
fulling (felting) and final finishing. Knitting or slashing and weaving
must be performed to create wool fabric from yarn. This can occur at a
greige mill, at a top finishing mill after spinning, at a yarn finishing
mill after dyeing and washing, or at a fabric finishing mill prior to
carbonizing or fulling.
Greige Goods and Adhesive Related Products. (Subcategory 3 - Low Water
Use Processing) Greige goods are materials that have been woven or
knit, but not dry- or wet-finished. A large number of mills perform the
mechanical operations to produce greige goods, and ship them to other
mills for dyeing and finishing. The manufacture of woven greige goods
is the only fabric construction process that results in process wastewater.
A typical woven greige mill operation (Figure III-5) consists of opening
and picking the fiber, carding and spinning the fiber into yarn, applying
size to the yarn, and weaving the yarn into fabric on a loom. Usually,
only a small quantity of wastewater is generated during slasher cleanup,
although at the few mills where water-jet weaving is employed, the
wastewater discharge may be substantial.
Adhesive related products are goods that have been created or modified
due to operations such as bonding, laminating, coating, or flocking.
Backed carpet, tire cord fabric, other coated fabrics, laminated fabric,
and flocked fabrics are the principal products. A schematic of a typical
adhesive-related operation is presented in Figure III-5. Application of
adhesive, followed by setting or drying are the main adhesive related
processes.
Finished Woven Goods. (Subcategory 4 - Woven Fabric Finishing) Finished
woven fabric is a primary textile product that is used in countless
applications. Sheeting, industrial fabrics, upholstery, towels, and
materials for numerous types of apparel are finished at the mills in
this subcategory. A typical process flow diagram is presented in Figure
III-6. For cotton fabrics, typical processing consists of desizing to
remove size applied to the yarn prior to weaving, scouring to remove
natural and acquired impurities from the fabric, mercerizing to increase
the luster, strength and dye affinity of cotton fabric, bleaching to
whiten cloth and remove stains, dyeing and/or printing to impart desired
colors and patterns to the fabric, and final finishing to add other
desired qualities and properties to the fabric. For synthetic fabrics,
extensive desizing, mercerizing, and bleaching are less common.
Finished Knit Goods. (Subcategory 5 - Knit Fabric Finishing) Finished
knit goods include fabrics and hosiery. Principal fabric products are
underwear, numerous types of outerwear, various types of household and
industrial items, circular knits, and warpknits. Hosiery products include
both conventional footwear and ladies nylon hose and pantyhose. Typical
process flow diagrams for knit fabric processing and hosiery processing
are presented in Figure III-7. Knit fabric finishing is similar to the
111-42
-------
SUBCATEGORY 3:
FIGURE III-5
TYPICAL LOW WATER USE PROCESSING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS
Water,
Starch, PVA,
and/or CMC
Water
(Water-jet
only)
( Stock ^
1 Fiber J
V
OPEN AND
PICK
\r
CARD AND
SPIN
J,
SIZE
(SLASHING)
J,
WEAVE
i
{ Woven A
1 Fabric I
Liquid Waste
(From
Cleanup)
Liquid Waste ^
/Yarn/
( Fabric,
V Carpet
\^\^
Water, Resin, > /
Latex, Acrylic^ D|p/pA[
SATURA1
1
DRY
f Coated \ f
I Goods J I
/ Backed
I Carpet
v_^
(ADHESIVE RE
)
(, Liquid Waste
rE (From
Cleanup)
\f
^ ^.
Lam- \
inated )
Fabricy
- -^
\
LATED)
(WOVEN GREIGE GOODS)
111-43
-------
FIGURE III-6
SUBCATEGORY 4: TYPICAL WOVEN FABRIC FINISHING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
/ Woven \
1 Greige 1
\Goods J
Water _
Enzymes
or
H2SO«
NaOH and
Auxiliary Chem.
Concentrated NaOH
HzOzorNaOCI
Dyestuffs
Auxiliary Chem.
Print Pastes
Auxiliary Chem.
Finishing Agents
f'
^^
^
f
t
\
1
DESIZE
,
N
,
SCOUR
,
MERCERIZE
*.
\
I
BLEACH
N
N
,
DYE
N
f
PRINT
\
f
FINAL
FINISH
Liquid Waste
Liquid Waste ^
, 1 iqniH
H CAUSTIC Waste
RECOVERY m
Liquid Waste
Liquid Waste ^
Liquid Waste _
Liquid Waste
(From Cleanup)
^Finished
Woven
k Fabric
III-4A
-------
FIGURE III-7
SUBCATEGORY 5: TYPICAL KNIT FABRIC FINISHING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
Water
Detergent and
Scouring Agents
Bleaching
Agents ^
Dyestuffs and
Auxiliary Chem.
Print Pastes ,
and P
Auxiliary Chem._
Finishing Agents
/ Knit \
I Greige I
\Goodsy
>!/
WASH/
SCOUR
1 Hosiery I
\
HWA
sec
. 1 s
vl/
BLEACH
j
\l/
DYE
J,
EXTRACT/
DRY
>/
PRINT
j
]/
FINAL
FINISH
J/
[Finished]
\ Fabric J
-
Liquid Waste
>
BLE
x
^
.
(From Extract)
Liquid Waste
(From Cleanup)
Liquid Waste
(From Cleanup)
>
[Finis
\Hos
/
SH/ Liquid Waste ^
>UR
/
Liquid Waste
/
Liquid Waste
/
,hed)
ieryV
(FABRIC)
(HOSIERY)
111-45
-------
finishing required for woven goods, except that desizing and mercerizing
are not necessary. Hosiery finishing is generally much simpler, especially
dyeing.
Finished Carpet. (Subcategory 6 - Carpet Finishing) Carpet manufacturing
is an important and distinct segment of the textile industry. Most
carpet mills are integrated operations; tufting, finishing and backing
carpet at the same location. Finishing operations that may be performed
include scouring, bleaching, dyeing, printing, and application of
functional finishing agents. A typical process flow diagram is presented
in Figure III-8.
Finished Stock and Yarn. (Subcategory 7 - Stock & Yarn Finishing) Many
of the products previously noted are often manufactured from finished
yarn. Stock is likewise used in the manufacture of products already
noted. Both yarn and thread are used outside the industry and as such
are sold as products in themselves. A schematic of typical yarn and
stock finishing operations is provided in Figure III-9. Yarn finishing
and stock finishing basically involve the same processes except that
mercerizing is not performed on stock.
Nonwovens. (Subcategory 8 - Nonwoven Manufacturing) Nonwoven manufactur-
ing is a relatively new and rapidly growing segment of the textile
industry. Typical products include filter media, diapers, interliners,
padding, surgical gowns, absorbent wipes, and other disposable products,
as well as fabrics for other uses. A schematic of a typical nonwoven
manufacturing operation is presented in Figure 111-10. Web formation is
a dry operation unless the wet lay process is employed. In the latter
case, a portion of the water used to transport the fibers and form the
web is often discharged.
Felted Fabric. (Subcategory 9 - Felted Fabric Processing) Although
felted fabrics comprise a relatively small segment of the textile industry,
they are used in a variety of applications. In addition to woven paper-
makers' felt, there are pressed felts and punched or needleloom felts.
Typical products include polishing cloth, insulating fabric, lining,
trimming, acoustical fabric, automotive padding, felt mats, and felt
apparel fabric. A typical felted fabric processing flow diagram is
presented in Figure III-ll. Rinsing following fulling and dyeing (if
employed) is responsible for the rather high water use of this segment.
Summary
Three primary fiber types are used to manufacture the principal products
produced by the textile industry. While there is a large number of
textile processing operations, the need for specific major operations is
a function of the fiber type and the final product, each fiber/product
combination having its own particular processing requirements. The
principal products of the industry can be divided into 13 processing
classes based on the similarity in the processing required. This sub-
division is developed in the next section.
111-46
-------
FIGURE III-8
SUBCATEGORY 6: TYPICAL CARPET FINISHING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
Water
Bleach or
Scouring Agents
Dyestuff and
Auxiliary Chem.
s
Finishing Agents _
TUFT
>
f
SCOUR /
BLEACH
\l/
DYE/
PRINT
s
^
r
FINAL
FINISH
Liquid Waste
Liquid Waste
Liquid Waste
(From Cleanup)
Jr
Latex Compounds
BACK
\
LATEX
^ SEGREGATION
f \i
Liquid
Waste
(From Cleanup)
111-47
-------
FIGURE III-9
SUBCATEGORY 7: TYPICAL STOCK AND YARN FINISHING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
Water
Detergents
and
Scouring Agents
\
Concentrated
NaOH
H2O2 or NaOCI
Dyestuff and
Auxiliary Chem.
s
k
f
\
t
WASH/
SCOUR
^
\
t
MERCERIZE
^
t
BLEACH
>
\
Liquid Waste
>
t
WASH/
SCOUR
)
A*
,
DYE/
PRINT
^^^^^^^
^^^^^^^
f
BLEACH
1
DYE
Liquid Waste ^
Liquid Waste
Liquid Waste
(YARN)
(STOCK)
111-48
-------
FIGURE 111-10
SUBCATEGORY 8: TYPICAL NONWOVEN MANUFACTURING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
(Wet-Lay Only)
Water _
Water T
Re-use
Acrylic,
Latex, Resins,
and Pigments
Finishing
Agents ^
/ Stock \
I Fiber J
v
OPEN AND
BLEND
1
WEB
FORMATION
i
V
WET OUT
1
BOND AND
COLOR
w
FINAL
FINISH
Liquid Waste
J
Liquid Waste
(From Cleanup)
Liquid Waste
(From Cleanup)
111-49
-------
FIGURE III-ll
SUBCATEGORY 9 - TYPICAL FELTED FABRIC PROCESSING PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
(Harden)
Water
Detergent, Acid,
and/or Alkali
Dyestuffs and
Auxiliary Chem.
Finishing Agents
Liquid Waste
(Batch Dumps)
Liquid Waste
Liquid Waste
Liquid Waste
(From Cleanup)
111-50
-------
SECTION IV
INDUSTRY CATEGORIZATION
SELECTED SUBCATEGORIES
Based on the findings detailed in this section, and supported by the
discussions in Section V, the subcategories of the textile industry
established for developing effluent limitations guidelines and standards
of performance are as follows:
1. Wool Scouring
2. Wool Finishing
3. Low Water Use Processing
4. Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
5. Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
6. Carpet Finishing
7. Stock and Yarn Finishing
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
9. Felted Fabric Processing
Raw materials, final products, manufacturing processes, and waste
characteristics are all interrelated and constitute the most significant
factors in the categorization of the industry. Raw materials and final
products form the framework for the selected subcategorization, but some
of the remaining factors are also important and are reflected in the
subcategories and subdivisions developed.
PURPOSE AND BASIS OF SELECTION
Point source categories are subdivided to implement effectively the
requirements of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of
1972. The primary purpose of subcategorization is to divide the industry
into segments that have similar discharge characteristics while main-
taining a logical and manageable system.
The textile industry, because of its structure and the possible variations
and combinations of end products, fiber compositions, and manufacturing
and finishing processes, requires considerable study to develop well-
defined groupings with similar waste characteristics. Factors to be
considered in development and review of subcategories include raw
materials used, products, manufacturing processes employed, size and age
of mill and equipment, waste characteristics, water pollution control
technology, treatment costs, energy requirements, and solid waste
generation and disposal requirements. Various approaches aimed at
IV-1
-------
classifying the industry have been used in the past, but each has certain
drawbacks regarding subcategorization.
The Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) (13) system is the most
widely used method of industrial classification. It is a highly
structured system that is maintained by periodic survey. The system is
oriented toward the collection and presentation of economic data related
to gross production, sales, and unit costs. It is not directly related
to actual plant operations, production processes, or considerations
associated with water pollution control. Therefore, it does not lend
itself well to categorization of the textile industry with respect to
manufacturing processes and waste characteristics.
The report entitled "A Simplification of Textile Waste Survey and Treat-
ment" (14) advanced the approach of synthesizing raw waste by additive
contributions of the chemicals used. A similar scheme outlined in a
report prepared for EPA (15) utilizes unit processes to synthesize raw
waste loads. Both approaches are considered impractical to implement
because of the nature of the drainage piping systems at most mills that
prevents ready isolation of the wastewaters from individual steps in the
manufacturing process.
Textile raw materials, further identified by product lines and associated
effluents, have been the basis of categorization for most recent studies
dealing with textile wastewater characteristics and treatment. Reports
by EPA (1) and various researchers and consultants (4, 16) have categorized
first on the basis of a very important raw material distinction, the
processing of wool y_£ other textile fibers (primarily cotton and synthetics),
Following this major division, both wool and other textile fibers have
been further categorized based on products that in turn relate to types
of wastes. Specific subcategories vary from scheme to scheme, although
not radically, depending upon the extent of the information available.
This study, as noted previously, is the most extensive to date and after
comprehensive examination of the factors noted above has also found
categorization on a raw material/product line/waste characteristic basis
to be most appropriate. The study methods employed and justification
for the recommended categorization are presented below along with
discussions of other factors that were considered, but rejected as a
basis for subdividing the industry.
Statistical Analysis o_f Industry Segments
Statistical methods were employed as an aid in subcategorizing the
textile industry on the basis of waste characteristics. The Wilcoxon
Two-Sample Test (17, 18, 19) (also known as the Mann-Whitney U Test) was
used to substantiate eight major wet processing subcategories and to
investigate the need for additional subcategories and internal subdivisions
within the existing subcategories. Water usage rate (liters/kg of
product) and 800, COD, and TSS mass loadings (kg/kkg of product) were
the parameters compared in the statistical testing.
IV-2
-------
The Wilcoxon Two-Sample Test was chosen as the test statistic because it
is distribution free (nonparametric) and adaptable to large as well as
small populations (less than eight values). The method tests the null
hypothesis that two samples come from identical continuous populations
against the alternative that the populations have unequal means. It is
an alternative to the standard two-sample "t" test and is especially
adaptable when the data being tested are non-normal in distribution
(18). The test employs ranking of observations as the basis for
statistical decision making and takes into account the relative position
of each data value within the groups being tested. As the sample size
increases the test statistics can be approximated closely by a normal
distribution.
The major subcategories and product lines tested were essentially those
established in earlier effluent guidelines studies of the textile industry
and included wool scouring, wool finishing, woven fabric finishing, knit
fabric finishing, carpet finishing, and stock & yarn finishing, plus
hosiery products and nonwoven manufacturing. External comparisons
(subcategory vs_ subcategory) were investigated for the knit fabric,
hosiery, carpet, and stock & yarn product lines. Internal subcat-
egorization was investigated in the woven fabric finishing, knit fabric
finishing, carpet finishing, stock & yarn finishing, and nonwoven
manufacturing subcategories, as well as hosiery products. The wool
scouring and wool finishing subcategories could not be investigated for
internal subcategorization because of the relatively small numbers of
mills with useful wastewater characterization data.
Approximately 50 combinations of manufacturing process, type of discharge,
production quantity, geographic location, mill age, and amount of auto-
mation were investigated as bases for internal subcategorizations. A
need for internal subcategorization was determined to be necessary for
the woven fabric and knit fabric finishing subcategories, and felted
fabric processing was segregated from nonwoven manufacturing. Sub-
divisions in the other subcategories were not justified.
Raw Materials
The principal raw materials used by the textile industry are wool,
cotton, and synthetic fibers. There are major differences in terms of
processing, products, and wastewater characteristics that distinguish
woolen mills from other textile operations and require an initial
division on this basis.
Wool and other animal hair fibers, unlike cotton and synthetic fibers,
require extensive cleaning and preparation prior to use in fabric, and
these steps result in a characteristic wastewater. Even in the processing
and finishing stages, wool, other animal hair fibers, and wool blends
are subjected to many chemicals and processes that are unique to these
materials.
IV-3
-------
There are also differences in the processing of cotton goods and goods
made from synthetic fibers. However, variations in wastewater charac-
teristics between mills that process mostly cotton and those that handle
primarily synthetics are not consistent, except for suspended solids.
This pollutant is readily amenable to treatment, and subcategorization
based on this difference was judged to be unwarranted. Another difficulty
in subcategorizing on the basis of cotton vs_ synthetics is that many
mills process substantial amounts of products containing both fibers.
The relative consumption of each may vary substantially over short
periods of time due to the demands of the market.
Final Products
Final products from textile mills cover a wide spectrum and, following
the initial separation of wool from the other fibers, provide a rational
basis for subcategorizing the industry. The industry can be divided
into a number of general product lines. The processing of each line has
associated chemical and water requirements, and generates characteristic
wastewaters. The product lines specifically identified, excluding those
requiring little or no wet processing, include scoured wool, finished
wool goods, and the following finished cotton and synthetic products:
woven fabric, knit fabric, carpets, stock and yarn, nonwovens, and felt
goods. Mills that combine finishing and greige operations and those
that produce woven, knit, and/or yarn products are categorized based
upon the major finishing effort. Thus, although processing may sometimes
involve activity in more than one product area, a particular product
line almost always predominates and permits placement of each mill in
the most appropriate subcategory. Wastewater characteristics associated
with each subcategory are presented and discussed in Section V.
The distinct nature of the wastewaters generated by the subcategories
can be observed in Table IV-1 where selected product lines are compared
for the test statistics discussed previously. The differences in water
usage rate are highly significant for each comparison except that between
knit fabric and stock & yarn for which the COD and TSS statistics are
significant.
Manufacturing Processes
Subcategories based on final product generally reflect differences
between various manufacturing processes. The product subcategories
selected were further segmented where necessary to allow for dissimilar
levels of processing. Statistical methods were used to evaluate the
advantage of further subdivisions within the various subcategories. It
was established that complexity of manufacturing was most meaningful as
a basis for categorizing groups of mills with wide differences in water
usage rate and BOD, COD, and TSS mass loadings. Complexity of manufactur-
ing here refers to the numbers and types of processes employed at a
facility. A mill is considered to be a complex processing facility if
more than one of the following processes - bleaching, dyeing, or printing -
is applied to more than five percent of total production. Mills employing
IV-4
-------
TABLE IV-1
STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE - COMPARISON OF SELECTED PRODUCT LINES
EXTERNAL COMPARISONS
Product Lines Compared
Test Statistic*
Water Usage BOD5 COD TSS
Knit Fabric vs Hosiery
Knit Fabric vs Carpet
Knit Fabric vs Stock & Yarn
Hosiery vs Carpet
Hosiery vs Stock & Yarn
Carpet vs Stock & Yarn
0.1
0.1
NS
0.5
2
0.1
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
5
10
5
NS
NS
NS
5
5
NS
NS
NS
Values indicate level of significance in percent; NS indicates
"Not Significant at 10% level." The level of significance
represents the probability that an error has been committed in
stating that two samples compared come from different populations.
IV-5
-------
one of the processes only, or additional processes at less than five
percent, are considered simple manufacturing facilities.
The results of statistical comparison within a number of subcategories,
based on complexity of manufacturing, are presented in Table IV-2. As a
result of the comparisons, further segmentation of the Woven Fabric
Finishing and Knit Fabric Finishing subcategories was found to be warranted.
Subcategory 4 wastewater characteristics were found to be influenced
also by the amount of desizing performed. Therefore, complex processing
mills are further broken down based on less than or greater than 50
percent desizing. Although not significant at the 10 percent level,
observed differences in COD loadings for Simple vs Complex Knit Fabric
Finishing mills made division of this subcategory attractive. Further
classification of Hosiery, Carpet, or Stock & Yarn Finishing mills could
not be justified.
Wastewater Characteristics and Treatability
Data on wastewater characteristics support subcategorization based on
product. Specific water usage rates and wastewater volumes and character-
istics are associated with each subcategory selected. In addition,
wastewater treatment efficiencies vary somewhat for the different wastes,
and thus raw waste characteristics tend to determine attainable effluent
quality for each subcategory. A summary of the median raw waste values
of the significant parameters for each subcategory and subdivision is
provided in Table IV-3. The values provide a general comparison between
all subcategories and demonstrate the usefulness of the internal sub-
divisions established.
Although wastewater concentrations and loadings are variable throughout
the industry, the constituents of most textile wastewaters are similar
and, in general, these wastewaters are amenable to biological and
physicochemical treatment systems of the same general type. Wool Scouring
facilities are the only major group of mills with extremely different
wastes, and wastewater treatment schemes for these mills may differ
somewhat from those in the rest of the industry. However, because most
textile wastes can be treated in the same general manner, subcategoriza-
tion of the textile industry based on wastewater treatability is not
justified. Also, because of the similarity in the treatability of most
textile wastewaters, associated costs and energy requirements of water
pollution control technology are unsatisfactory as a basis for sub-
categorization.
Size and Age
Textile operations range in size from small shops to large mills with
thousands of employees. In most cases, however, wastewater volume and
pollutant load are proportional to size, and size alone has only a minor
effect on wastewater characteristics. While size does dictate, to some
degree, the types and costs of wastewater treatment technologies, these
factors are taken into account in the development of control and treatment
alternatives and costs in Sections VII and VIII, and do not constitute a
basis for subcategorization of the industry.
IV-6
-------
TABLE IV-2
STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE - COMPARISON OF PROCESSING COMPLEXITY
INTERNAL COMPARISONS
Data Base
Comparison
Test Statistic*
Water Usage BODS COD
TSS
Woven Fabric Finishing
Woven Fabric, Simple Finishing
Woven Fabric, Complex Finishing
Woven Fabric, Except Complex
Finishing GT 50% Desizing
Woven Fabric, Except Complex
Finishing LTET 50% Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing, Except
Hosiery Products
Hosiery Finishing
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Simple vs Complex
LTET** vs GT** 50% Desizing
LTET vs GT 50% Desizing
Simple v£ Complex LTET
50% Desizing
Simple vs Complex GT
50% Desizing
Simple vs Complex
Simple vs Complex
Simple vs. Complex
Simple vs Complex
NS
NC
NC
NC
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NC
NS
2
NC
1
NS
NS
NS
NS
5
NS
NS
NS
2
NS
NS
NS
NS
NC
NS
5
NC
2
NS
NS
NS
NC
* Values indicate level of significance in percent; NS and NC indicate "Not Significant at 10% level" and
"Not Compared," respectively.
** LTET = Less Than or Equal To; GT = Greater Than
-------
TABLE IV-3
MEDIAN RAW WASTE VALUES - STATISTICAL TESTING STUDIES
Sub category
1 . Wool Scouring
2. Wool Finishing
3. Low Water Use Processing
4. Woven Fabric Finishing:
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
H
i c. Complex Processing
Plus Desizing
5. Knit Fabric Finishing:
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
6. Carpet Finishing
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
9. Felted Fabric Processing
Water
(I/kg)
11.7
283.6
9.2
78.4
86.7
113.4
122.4
122.4
69.2
46.7
100.1
40.0
212.7
Usage
(gal/lb)
1.4
34.1
1.1
9.4
10.4
13.6
14.7
14.7
8.3
5.6
12.0
4.8
25.5
BOD5
41.8
59.8
2.3
22.6
32.7
45.1
23.4
23.4
26.4
25.6
20.7
6.7
70.2
COD
(kg/kkg)
128.9
204.8
14.5
92.4
110.6
122.6
81.1
115.4
89.4
82.3
62.7
38.4
186.0
TSS
43.1
17.2
1.6
8.0
9.6
14.8
6.6
6.6
6.7
4.7
4.6
2.2
64.1
-------
Facility age is not a suitable basis for textile subcategorization
because age of both facilities and manufacturing equipment varies sub-
stantially. New facilities do not necessarily have modern equipment,
nor do all old facilities have old equipment. Continuous modernization
of facilities and maintenance of equipment can serve to modify the
effects of age on wastewater characteristics.
Effects of variations in mill size or mill age due to the manufacture of
different products is taken into consideration through subcategorization
on a product basis. Comparisons of the test parameters for various
ranges of mill size and mill age for Subcategories 4, 5, and 7 are
presented in Tables IV-4 and IV-5. The comparisons indicate that neither
size nor age significantly affects hydraulic or pollutant loadings in a
consistent manner for establishments engaged in similar manufacturing
operations.
Location
Mill location, both geographically and locally, may be important in
terms of water supply quantity and quality, land availability, treatment
efficiency, and wastewater treatment costs, but does not appear to
provide a justifiable basis for subcategorization. The effect of geo-
graphical location on the test parameters is illustrated in Table IV-6
for Subcategories 4, 5, and 7. From this, it would appear that mills in
the central and western portions of the country use less water than
those in the eastern United States, although the numbers of mills in the
samples are small and may not be fully representative. Water usage rate
is highest for mills in the south, possibly because water is still a
plentiful commodity in that area. Pollutant loadings, especially between
mills in the north and those in the south, do not vary in a consistent
manner and this, coupled with the variability, complexity, and overriding
effects of previously cited factors, prevents location from being sufficient
to define or substantiate Subcategories.
Plant Operating Characteristics
The effects on water usage of automation, number of employees, and work
schedule were investigated at mills performing similar manufacturing
operations. Only the number of shifts (work schedule) had any impact on
water usage. Mills operating three shifts per day have considerably
higher water usage per unit of production than those operating one or
two shifts, and investigations showed a correlation between the number
of shifts and complexity of operations performed. The subdivisions
within the selected subcategorization account for this characteristic.
SUBCATEGORY DESCRIPTIONS AND RATIONALE BEHIND SELECTION
Subcategory ^ - Wool Scouring
This subcategory covers facilities that scour natural impurities from
raw wool and other animal hair fibers as the majority of their processing.
Integrated mills that perform Wool Scouring and other finishing operations
IV-9
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TABLE IV-4
EFFECT OF PRODUCTION SIZE ON TEXTILE WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS*
Water Usage Rate
BODS
COD
TSS
Size Range
(1000 Ib/day)
Number
of Mills
(I/kg) (kg/kkg) (kg/kkg)
Median (Range) Median (Range) Median (Range)
Subcategory 4 - Woven
1 -
21 -
Over
20
50
50
43
39
60
83
72
98
( 4-396)
( 4-508)
(11-235)
Subcategory 5 - Knit
1 -
21 -
Over
20
50
50
38
41
30
120
39
103
( 8-417)
(15-378)
(83-393)
Subcategory 7 - Stock
1 -
21 -
Over
20
50
50
57
36
24
112
111
64
( 8-613)
( 3-558)
( 5-303)
(kg/kkg)
Median (Range)
Fabric Finishing
34
25
35
(4-120)
(4-143)
(4-215)
99
85
114
(10-301)
(28-798)
(30-437)
11
12
11
(1-222)
(1-177)
(1-47)
Fabric Finishing
20
28
23
(4-209)
(8-138)
(3-85 )
81
84
115
(47-372)
(18-503)
(51-379)
9
7
6
(5-292)
(2-110)
(1-42)
& Yarn Finishing
24
25
17
(3-113)
(1-113)
(3-38)
75
65
62
(21-380)
( 2-255)
(13-110)
5
4
5
(1-478)
(1-35)
(1-10)
* Based on data from detailed industry survey.
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TABLE IV-5
EFFECT OF MILL AGE ON TEXTILE WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS*
Water Usage Rate
BODS
COD
TSS
Age Range
(Years)
Number
of Mills
(I/kg) (kg/kkg) (kg/kkg)
Median (Range) Median (Range) Median (Range)
Subcategory 4 - Woven
1
1 -
16 -
Over
15
40
40
31
47
56
101
89
82
( 5-247)
( 4-277)
(15-508)
Subcategory 5 - Knit
1 -
16 -
Over
15
40
40
53
24
27
124
115
103
( 1-378)
(15-417)
(13-388)
Subcategory 7 - Stock
1 -
16 -
Over
15
40
40
32
32
37
104
105
105
( 3-448)
( 8-433)
(11-613)
(kg/kkg)
Median (Range)
Fabric Finishing
24
43
39
(4-120)
(4-189)
(6-215)
96
121
119
(43-267)
(13-388)
(31-798)
8
13
11
(2-177)
(4-62)
(1-222)
Fabric Finishing
26
23
28
(3-52)
(8-209)
(9-138)
115
88
110
(51-173)
(33-372)
(18-503)
7
6
9
(1-20)
(2-292)
(3-108)
& Yarn Finishing
21
18
21
(1-113)
(3-57)
(3-76)
71
54
72
( 2-380)
(21-306)
(13-219)
3
5
5
(1-26)
(1-35)
(1-23)
* Based on data from detailed industry survey.
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TABLE IV-6
EFFECT OF GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION ON TEXTILE WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS*
Water Usage Rate
BODS
COD
TSS
Geographical
Location
Number
of Mills
(I/kg)
Median (Range)
Subcategory 4
Northeast
Southeast
Central & West
45
89
9
82
101
28
(13-428)
( 4-508)
( 4-99)
Subcategory 5
Northeast
Southeast
Central & West
39
67
3
98
127
92
( 1-388)
(20-417)
(13-237)
Subcategory 7
Northeast
Southeast
Central & West
29
82
6
83
108
48
( 8-506)
( 3-613)
(15-240)
(kg/kkg) (kg/kkg) (kg/kkg)
Median (Range) Median (Range) Median (Range)
- Woven Fabric Finishing
34
31
63
- Knit Fabric
20
28
No
( 6-109)
( 4-215)
(47-78)
Finishing
( 3-138)
( 4-209)
Data
103
113
153
88
101
110
(28-240)
(10-798)
(one mill)
(33-503)
(18-379)
(48-173)
12
10
50
7
6
16
( 1-222)
( 1-177)
(35-62)
( 1-108)
( 1-292)
(11-20)
- Stock & Yarn Finishing
17
24
9
( 3-113)
( 1-113)
( 4-25)
76
63
46
(23-306)
( 2-380)
(26-73)
4
5
4
( 1-478)
( 1- 26)
( 2-7)
* Based on data from detailed industry survey.
Note:
Northeast - CT, DE, MA, MD, ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, VT
Southeast - AL, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN, VA, WV
Central & West - All Other States
-------
should apply the applicable Wool Scouring effluent limitations to the
Wool Scouring production and the other finishing production to applicable
effluent limitations covering that production in order to calculate
discharge allowances.
Wool and other animal hair fibers must be thoroughly cleaned by alkali
and detergent scouring before they can be converted into textile products.
A complete description of the wool scouring process is given in Section III.
Wool scouring is conveniently separated from other segments of the
textile industry because wool and other animal hair fibers require
extensive preliminary cleaning. The raw wastes (See Section V) are
considerably stronger than those of other subcategories.
Subcategory 2 - Wool Finishing
This subcategory covers facilities that finish fabric, a majority of which
is wool, other animal hair fiber, or blends containing primarily wool or
other animal hair fibers, by employing any of the following processing
operations on at least five percent of their total production: carbonizing,
fulling, bleaching, scouring (not including raw wool scouring), dyeing and
application of functional finish chemicals. Mills that primarily finish
stock or yarn of wool, other animal hair fibers, or blends containing pri-
marily wool or other animal hair fibers and that perform carbonizing
are included in this subcategory and wool stock or yarn mills that do
not perform carbonizing and scouring are covered under Subcategory 7,
Stock & Yarn Finishing.
The processes comprising a typical wool finishing operation, which
include carbonizing, fulling, fabric scouring, and dyeing, are described
in Section III. Wool finishing is differentiated from other finishing
categories because of the manufacturing processes (principally carbonizing
and fulling) and dyes and other chemicals associated with wool operations.
As a result, wool finishing operations generate high volume wastes with
pH fluctuations and oil & grease.
Subcategory 3 - Low Water Use Processing
Low water use processing operations include establishments primarily
engaged in manufacturing greige goods, laminating or coating fabrics,
texturizing yarn, tufting and backing carpet, producing tire cord fabric,
and similar activities in which either cleanup is the primary water use or
process water requirements are small, or both.
While there are a large number of facilities of these types, the process-
related wastewater generated and discharged from each is, for the most
part, comparatively small. During this study, sufficient information
could not be developed about this segment of the industry to fully
define the wastewater characteristics and control needs. The wastewater
data presented in Section V for this segment represents only a small
amount in relation to the total number of facilities covered by this
segment. Revised waste characteristics and treatment models and their
associated costs will be developed during a later phase of the study.
IV-13
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Subcategory 4 - Woven Fabric Finishing
This subcategory covers facilities that primarily finish fabric, a
majority of which is woven, by employing any of the following processing
operations on at least five percent of their production: desizing,
scouring, bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing, printing, and application of
functional finish chemicals. Integrated mills that finish a majority of
woven fabric along with griege manufacturing or other finishing operations
such as yarn dyeing are included in this subcategory and total finishing
production should be applied to the applicable Woven Fabric Finishing
effluent limitations to calculate discharge allowances. Denim finishing
mills are also included in this category. Woven fabric composed primarily
of wool is covered under Subcategory 2 - Wool Finishing.
A wide variety of processes are used in finishing woven fabric, and, in
terms of cumulative flow this subcategory is the largest. Processes
that may be employed are described in Section III and include desizing,
scouring, bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing, printing, and application of
functional finish chemicals. Many finishing facilities also perform
weaving, but the added hydraulic and pollutant loadings from slasher
equipment cleanup are insignificant compared to the finishing wastes.
Desizing is a major contributor to the BOD load in woven fabric finishing.
This results in a major difference in waste characteristics between
woven and knit fabric finishing, and the amount of desizing practiced is
responsible for differences in the waste characteristics within the
Woven Fabric Finishing subcategory as well. In addition, the number of
processes performed at a particular mill may vary from merely scouring
or bleaching to all of those previously listed. Consequently, it is
important to further subdivide this subcategory.
Simple Processing. This Woven Fabric Finishing subdivision covers
faci-lities that perform fiber preparation, desizing, scouring, functional
finishing, and/or one of the following processes applied to more than
five percent of total production: bleaching, dyeing, or printing. This
subdivision includes all Woven Fabric Finishing mills that do not qualify
under either the Complex Processing or Complex Processing plus desizing
subdivisions.
Complex Processing. This Woven Fabric Finishing subdivision covers
facilities that perform fiber preparation, desizing of less than 50
percent of their total production, scouring, mercerizing, functional
finishing, and more than one of the following, each applied to more than
five percent of total production: bleaching, dyeing, and printing.
Complex Processing Plus Desizing. This Woven Fabric Finishing subdivision
covers facilities that perform fiber preparation, desizing of greater
than 50 percent of their total production, scouring, mercerizing, functional
finishing, and more than one of the following, each applied to more than
five percent of total production: bleaching, dyeing, and printing.
IV-14
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Subcategory 5 - Knit Fabric Finishing
This subcategory covers facilities that primarily finish fabric made of
cotton and/or synthetic fibers, a majority of which is knit, by employing
any of the following processing operations on at least five percent of
their production: scouring, bleaching, dyeing, printing, and application
of lubricants, antistatic agents, and functional finish chemicals. Integrated
mills that finish a majority of knit fabric along with greige manufacturing
or other finishing operations such as yarn dyeing are included in this
subcategory and total finishing production should be applied to the
applicable Knit Fabric Finishing effluent limitations to calculate
discharge allowances.
Basic knit fabric finishing operations are similar to those in the Woven
Fabric Finishing subcategory and may include scouring, bleaching, dyeing,
printing, application of lubricants, antistatic agents, and functional
finish chemicals. Knitting is performed in conjunction with finishing
at most of these facilities. Desizing is not required in knit fabric
finishing and mercerizing is uncommon in practice. The generally lower
waste loads of the subcategory can be attributed to the absence of these
processes.
As with woven fabric finishing, the number of processes performed at a
mill may vary considerably. In addition, hosiery manufacture is distinct
in terms of manufacturing and raw wastewater characteristics. Consequently,
internal subdivision is required for this subcategory.
Simple Processing. This Knit Fabric Finishing subdivision covers
facilities that perform fiber preparation, scouring, functional finishing,
and/or one of the following processes applied to more than five percent of
total production: bleaching, dyeing, or printing. This subdivision
includes all Knit Fabric Finishing mills that do not qualify under
either the Complex Processing or Hosiery Products subdivisions.
Complex Processing. This Knit Fabric Finishing subdivision covers facilities
that perform fiber preparation, scouring, functional finishing, and/or more
than one of the following processes each applied to more than five percent of
total production: bleaching, dyeing, or printing.
Hosiery Products. This Knit Fabric Finishing subdivision covers facilities
that are engaged primarily in dyeing or finishing hosiery of any type.
Compared to other Knit Fabric Finishing facilities, Hosiery Finishing
mills are generally much smaller (in terms of wet production), more
frequently employ batch processing, and more often consist of only one
major wet processing operation. All of these factors contribute to
their lower water use and much smaller average wastewater discharge.
IV-15
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Subcategory 6 - Carpet Manufacturing
This subcategory covers facilities that primarily finish textile-based
floor covering products, of which carpet is the primary element, by
employing any of the following processing operations on at least five
percent of their production: scouring, bleaching, dyeing, printing, and
application of functional finish chemicals.
Integrated mills that finish a majority of carpet along with tufting
or backing operations or other finishing operations such as yarn dyeing
are included in this subcategory and total finishing production
should be applied to the applicable Carpet Manufacturing effluent
limitations to calculate discharge allowances. Mills that only perform
carpet tufting and/or backing are covered under Subcategory 3 -
Low Water Use Processing.
Processes comprising a typical carpet manufacturing operation are described
in Section III. Carpet Manufacturing is a distinct segment of the
textile industry because of the lower degree of processing required and
the typically weaker wastes that result.
Subcategory 7 - Stock & Yarn Finishing
This subcategory covers facilities that primarily finish stock, yarn, or
thread of cotton and/or synthetic fibers by employing any of the following
processing operations on at least five percent of their production:
scouring, bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing, or application of functional finish
chemicals. Facilities finishing stock, yarn, or thread principally of wool
also are covered if they do not perform carbonizing as needed for coverage
under Subcategory 2 - Wool Finishing. Denim finishing is included under
Subcategory 4 - Woven Fabric Finishing.
Typical stock & yarn finishing may include scouring, bleaching, mercerizing,
dyeing, or functional finishing. Stock dyeing is basically tub dyeing,
but yarn or thread dyeing may include any of the following methods: skein,
package, space, or beam. As a result of process differences, the water usage
and pollutant loadings of this subcategory are lower than those found in most
other subcategories.
Subcategory 8 - Nonwoven Manufacturing
This subcategory covers facilities that primarily manufacture nonwoven textile
products of wool, cotton, or synthetics, singly or as blends, by mechanical,
thermal, and/or adhesive bonding procedures. Nonwoven products produced
by fulling and felting processes are covered in Subcategory 9 - Felted Fabric
Processing.
IV-16
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The Nonwoven Manufacturing subcategory includes a variety of products
and processing methods. The processing is dry (mechanical and thermal
bonding) or low water use (adhesive bonding) with the major influence on
process-related waste characteristics resulting from the cleanup of
bonding mix tanks and application equipment. Typical processing operations
include carding, web formation, wetting, bonding (padding or dipping
with latex acrylic or polyvinyl acetate resins) and application of
functional finish chemicals. Pigments for coloring the goods are usually
added to the bonding materials.
Subcategory 9 - Felted Fabric Processing
This subcategory covers facilities that primarily manufacture nonwoven
products by employing fulling and felting operations as a means of achieving
fiber bonding.
Wool, rayon, and blends of wool, rayon, and polyester are typically used
to process felts. Felting is accomplished by subjecting the web or mat
to moisture, chemicals (detergents), and mechanical action. Wastewater
is generated during rinsing steps that are required to prevent rancidity
and spoilage of the fibers. Typical felted fabric processing operations
are discussed in Section III.
IV-17
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SECTION V
WASTE CHARACTERISTICS
BACKGROUND
The subcategorization presented in Section IV provides the most rational
subdivision of the textile industry for the purpose of establishing
effluent limitations guidelines, new source performance standards, and
pretreatment standards for existing and new sources. The methods used
to gather and report waste characteristics for the textile industry, and
summaries of those characteristics relative to the subcategories estab-
lished in Section IV, are presented in this section. The wastes are
characterized in terms of quantity (cu m/day), concentrations (mg/1),
and pollutant loadings (kg/kkg of product) for the conventional and
non-conventional pollutants, and concentrations (ug/1) for the priority
pollutants. Quantity of discharge, water use, and conventional and
non-conventional pollutant data were, for the most part, acquired from
the records of industry-owned-and-operated treatment plants, Federal and
state water pollution control monitoring reports, records of publicly
owned treatment works (POTW's), and a field sampling program. Priority
pollutant data were not readily available and acquisition required a
field sampling program.
CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS
Past studies of the textile industry by EPA (1, 3) and others (4) have
established a list of pollutant parameters that are useful in character-
izing the wastewaters from the industry. The list includes both conven-
tional and non-conventional pollutants, and is as follows:
Conventional
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Oil & Grease
Non-Conventional
Total Phenols
Sulfide
Color
Chromium is an additional pollutant that is now classified as toxic and
included on the list of 129 priority pollutants discussed below in this
section. Since historical data are available for this parameter, they
are presented here with the conventional and non-conventional pollutants.
Even though the above parameters are recognized as significant in textile
mill wastewaters, monitoring practices across the industry are, at best,
V-l
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inconsistent. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
permits dictate the parameters to be monitored by these facilities, but
in many cases, permit requirements are outdated. For mills discharging
wastewaters to POTW's, monitoring requirements range from none, which is
the typical case, to very complete programs. The majority of these
mills pay for wastewater disposal based on a local charge factor per
unit of water consumption and monitoring of wastewater constituents is
not regularly carried out.
In order to achieve the best possible characterization of the wastes
from each subcategory of the industry, mills believed to be potential
dischargers of wastewater were contacted regarding the availability of
historical data. Based on the contacts, 637 mills were sent a detailed
questionnaire requesting that they provide representative monitoring
results or information about where such data could be obtained. Data
for 1976 was specifically requested in order to obtain a consistent and
up-to-date data base.
Data considered useful in developing raw waste characteristics were
received for 447 mills. Similarly, data from 75 mills were considered
useful in developing BPT effluent characteristics.
Discussion of Raw Wastewater Characteristics
The raw waste characteristics for the textile industry in general reflect
the products and the methods employed to manufacture them. Because
there is such a diversity in products, in processing, in raw materials,
and in process control, there is a wide range in the characteristics.
The variation extends vertically within each subcategory, as well as
horizontally between the subcategories. Non-process-related variables
such as raw water quality and discharge of non-process-related wastes
(sanitary, boiler blow-down, cooling water, etc.) contribute to this
lack of uniformity.
In Section III, the typical wet processing operations responsible for
the wastewater discharged by the textile industry were introduced and
fully discussed. In Section IV, the selected subcategories were pre-
sented and the basis for their selection fully explained. The dis-
cussions that follow relate the processing and raw waste characteristics
for each subcategory and explain the source(s) of the pollutants specific
to each.
Subcategory 1_ - Wool Scouring
Wool scouring waste contains significant quantities of natural oils,
fats, suint, and adventitious dirt that, even after in-process grease
recovery steps, cause the characteristics to be distinctly different
from those of the other subcategories. These materials are collectively
responsible for high concentrations and quantities of BOD5_, COD, TSS,
and oil & grease. Since the natural fat is technically a wax, it is not
readily biodegradable and must be removed by physical or chemical treatment.
V-2
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According to Trotman (10), a typical dirty wool might consist of 33
percent keratin (wool protein), 26 percent dirt, 28 percent suint, 12
percent fat, and 1 percent mineral matter. The constituents are different
for the wool from different breeds of sheep, and it is generally stated
that raw wool may contain between 30 and 70 percent impurities.
Sulfur, phenolics, and other organic compounds are brought in with the
wool. Phenolics are derived from sheep urine, feces, blood, tars,
branding fluids, and insecticides used in sheep-dips. Sulfur makes up
approximately 3 to 4 percent of clean keratin and enters the waste
stream as fiber (10).
Wool scouring is generally performed in a series of scouring bowls using
a counterflow process. The concentration of soap or detergents and
alkali (generally sodium carbonate) is about 1 percent total. The
pollutional contribution of these scouring materials is insignificant
compared to the residual materials scoured from the stock fiber. Complete
purification of the wool is not practical, and it is usually accepted
that the scouring has been satisfactory if the wool contains less than
1/2 percent of oil (10).
Wastewater from the wool scouring process is usually brown, thickly
turbid, and noticeably greasy. It is strongly alkaline and very
putrescible.
Subcategory 2 - Wool Finishing
Wool finishing wastes are typically high volume, low concentration
wastes (for the conventional pollutant parameters) that, in terms of
mass loadings, contribute large quantities of conventional pollutants
per unit of production. The non-conventional pollutants (sulfide and
color) and the priority pollutants that have been historically monitored
(phenol and chromium) are both high in concentration and quantity.
These conditions can be attributed to the numerous steps required in
processing and finishing wool yarn and wool fabric and to the wide
variety of chemicals used.
The pollutional contributions of each of the major wool finishing steps
are detailed below.
Heavy Scour. Even after effective raw grease wool scouring, wool fiber
contains a small amount of grease and foreign material. Also, oil (2 to
5 percent by weight) is often added prior to spinning to ensure satisfactory
lubrication. All of these materials must be removed before finishing
can be performed and to prevent future degradation of the wool fiber by
bacteriological action.
The heavy scour process consists of washing the fabric with detergents,
wetting agents, emulsifiers, alkali, ammonia, or various other agents to
remove the foreign and applied materials. Fibers used to manufacture
fancy goods are dyed in the stock state and undergo heavy scour prior to
V-3
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the stock dyeing step. Piece-dyed goods are scoured in the fabric state
before the dyeing step; the weight, foreign material content, and degree
of felting of the fabric all have a direct bearing on the degree of
scouring required.
Heavyweight, closely woven fabrics with a high percentage of recycled
wool require very heavy detergents, long wash times, and extensive
rinsing periods. High organic and hydraulic loadings are associated
with these types of fabric. Light, open goods with a low percentage of
wool generally scour more easily with lighter detergents, shorter wash
times, and less rinsing, resulting in lower organic and hydraulic dis-
charges.
Because some woolen mills produce only heavyweight fabric, some only
lightweight fabric, and some both, it is apparent that considerable
hydraulic and organic fluctuations can exist from the heavy scour process.
Carbonizing. Carbonizing does not contribute greatly to the strength of
wool finishing wastes but, because of the rinsing steps used to neutralize
the acid taken up by the fabric, does add significantly to the hydraulic
load. As discussed in Section III, carbonized vegetable matter is
removed as a solid waste and only the residual sulfuric acid and neutraliz-
ing agents (generally sodium carbonate) enter the waste stream. The
acid bath must be dumped when it becomes too contaminated for efficient
carbonization and the acid taken up by the fabric must be neutralized to
prevent damage to the wool fibers.
The wastewaters from the carbonizing process are typically acidic, low
in organic content, and high in total solids.
Fulling. Fulling, like carbonizing, does not contribute significantly
to the strength of the wool finishing waste but adds to the hydraulic
load. Wastewater is generated during the washing and rinsing steps,
which are required to prevent rancidity and wool spoilage, and when the
water bath (wet fulling only) is dumped. If alkali fulling is employed,
the rinse streams will contain soap or detergent, sodium carbonate, and
sequestering agents (phosphate compounds). If acid fulling is also
employed, sulfuric acid, hydrogen peroxide, and small amounts of metallic
catalysts (chromium, copper, or cobalt) also will be present.
Bleaching. Bleaching is performed on woolens, but to a lesser degree
than on cotton goods. Only 40 percent of the woolen mills that returned
detailed surveys practice bleaching. Those that do, do so on 20 percent
or less of their production. Hydrogen peroxide is generally used because
sodium and calcium hydrochloride discolor and damage wool fibers. The
volume of waste from hydrogen peroxide bleaching of wool is generally
low (1 to 3 gal/lb of product) and the BOD contribution is usually less
than 1 percent of that for the total typical wool finishing process.
The waste loads for other conventional parameters are generally very
small.
V-4
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Dyeing. The typical dyeing processes for the industry in general are
discussed in Section III. As noted in that discussion, some of the dyes
and dye chemicals used for wool goods are specific to the wool fiber.
The acid and metalized dyes are commonly used, while mordant and fiber
reactive dyes are used to a small extent. Because of the recognized
hazards of chromium entering the waste stream, the use of mordant dyes
has greatly diminished and they presently are used only if exceptional
fastness is mandatory.
In sensitive dyeing, a pre-scour step is often used. Detergents and
wetting agents are added, the scouring performed, and the fabric thoroughly
rinsed. The waste generated contributes to the hydraulic load but adds
little to the strength.
For acid dyes, the main consideration is to create a pH value suitable
to the type of dye in use. The ingredients, in addition to the dyes,
include Glauber's salt crystals (Na-SO, - 10H-0), sulfuric acid, and
formic acid.
The metalized dyes, which are very fast and have a very high affinity
for wool even under mildly acidic conditions and at low temperatures
(below 110°C), are often used on 100 percent wool fabric. These dyes
are almost completely exhausted so only a small quantity of metallic
ions (chromium) enters the waste stream.
Blends of wool and synthetic fibers are sometimes dyed in a single bath
and sometimes dyed in two separate baths. When two baths are used, dyes
specific to each fabric type are used and the hydraulic load can increase
by 50 percent.
In each type of dyeing the fabric is cooled with clear water and thoroughly
rinsed; both steps add significantly to the hydraulic load.
Subcategory ^ - Low Water Use Processing
Low water use processing refers, almost exclusively, to facilities that
perform weaving or adhesive-related processing. Regardless of mill
size, process-related wastewaters from both types of mills are typically
very low in volume. The only mills with large flows are those engaged
in water-jet weaving and mills discharging large volumes of cooling or
other non-process water. Where process-related wastewater is a large
portion of the total discharge, the wastewater characteristics are
determined primarily by the slashing process (conventional weaving), the
weaving process (water-jet weaving mills), or the dipping, padding, or
saturating process (adhesive-related mills). The pollutional contribu-
tion of these processes is discussed below.
Slashing. The slashing operation (see Section III) consists of coating
yarn with sizing compounds prior to weaving. At conventional weaving
mills, slashing is generally the only source of process wastewater.
Wastewater results from spillage in the size mixing area, dumps of
V-5
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excess sizing, and cleanup of the slasher and mixing equipment. Among
the components that are used in sizing formulations and that may enter
the waste stream are the sizing compounds (starch, PVA, CMC, PAA), wax
or tallow, wetting agents, softeners, penetrants, plasticizers,
fungicides, bacteriostats, and other preservatives. Sizing formulations
are typically high in COD and, if starch is the primary agent, the BOD
is also high. In general, the wastes from the slashing operation are
highly diluted by non-process wastewater, such as sanitary sewage,
boiler blowdown, and non-contact cooling water, generated at these
mills.
Water-Jet Weaving. Water-jet looms are a special type of shuttleless
loom that use a jet of water to propel the filling yarns during the
weaving operation. Although not widely practiced at present, water-jet
weaving is becoming more popular. Each type of water-jet loom has
different water requirements, and discharges from the different machines
were reported to range from less than 3,785 I/day (100 gpd) up to 37,850
I/day (1000 gpd). The water drains from beneath the machines and may
contain sizing chemicals and contaminants collected from the fiber.
However, chemical sizing requirements are less than with conventional
looms since the water has certain lubricating properties. Most of the
wastewater from greige mills that employ water-jet weaving comes from
this process.
Adhesive Processing. Adhesive processing (see Section III) includes
operations such as bonding, laminating, coating, and flocking. In all
of these operations a continuous adhesive or coating is applied to the
material by padding, dipping, saturating, or similar means. Wastewater
occurs as a result of equipment cleanup, rinsing, overspraying, or
spillage. Polyvinyl chloride from coating or latex compounds from
bonding, laminating, or flocking are likely to be the chief constituents
of these wastewaters. Latex wastes may be high in COD and suspended
solids. Depending on the manufacturing activities, other contaminants
may also find their way into adhesive-related processing wastewaters.
Subcategory A - Woven Fabric Finishing
The wastewater generated from the finishing of woven fabric is repre-
sented by a rather broad range in concentration and mass quantity for
the conventional pollutant parameters. The internal subdivisions of
this subcategory (Simple Processing, Complex Processing, Complex
Processing Plus Desizing) group the estimated 336 mills into three
reasonably distinct segments. The bases for the subdivisions are
thoroughly discussed in Section IV and a schematic displaying the
typical processes employed is presented in Section III.
The differences between the three subdivisions are a function of the
complexity of the wet processing. Mills classified in the Complex
Processing subdivision perform simple processing plus one or more addi-
tional major wet-processing steps. Mills classified in the Complex
Processing Plus Desizing subdivision perform complex processing plus
desizing on the majority of their production. The typical water use and
waste mass loading values are progressively greater for each subsequent
V-6
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subdivision and generally reflect an increase in the same basic
pollutant parameters.
The wet-processing employed by a Woven Fabric Finishing mill could
include desizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing, printing,
and functional finishing. The pollutional contributions of these
processing operations are discussed below.
Desizing. Desizing contributes a significant amount of organic load,
some oil & grease, and most of the suspended material found in woven
fabric finishing wastewater. Natural starch size is high in BOD while
the synthetic sizing agents, which tend to be less biodegradable during
treatment unless exposed to an acclimated biological environment, result
in increased COD. Over an extended period (such as the 20 days required
for the standard BOD2£ test), however, the synthetic sizing agents can
exert a substantial oxygen demand. Depending on the fabric type,
desizing can contribute 50 percent or more of the total solids resulting
from the finishing of woven fabrics (1). For the average Woven Fabric
Finishing mill processing 100 percent cotton goods with starch used as
the sizing agent, the desizing waste will generally constitute about 16
percent of the total wastewater volume, 5 percent of the BOD, 36 percent
of the total solids, and 6 percent of the alkalinity (12).
Synthetic sizing agents such as PVA, CMC, and PAA are soluble in water
and can be removed from woven fabric without difficulty. Starch is not
readily soluble and must be hydrolyzed into a soluble form by the action
of special enzymes or acid solutions before removal. Enzymatic removal
generates starch solids, fat, wax, enzymes, sodium chloride, and wetting
agents. The waste contains organic and inorganic dissolved solids,
suspended solids, and some oil & grease. It has a pH of 6 to 8, and is
light in color. Sulfuric acid removal generates starch solids, fat,
wax, and sulfuric acid. The wastes also contain organic and inorganic
dissolved solids, suspended solids, and some oil & grease. It has a pH
of 1 to 2 and is relatively light in color.
The Complex Processing Plus Desizing subdivision of Subcategory 4 was
established principally because of the significant waste contribution of
the desizing operation.
Scouring. Scouring of cotton and cotton-synthetic fiber blends generate
waste liquors that are strongly alkaline (pH greater than 12), dark in
color from cotton impurities, and high in dissolved solids. The liquors
contain significant quantities of oil & grease and some suspended solids
that are removed as impurities in the cotton fiber. Besides sodium
hydroxide, of which a 2 percent solution typically is used, phosphate,
chelating agents, and wetting agents may be used as auxiliary scouring
chemicals. For the typical finishing mill processing 100 percent cotton
goods, the scouring waste will generally constitute about 19 percent of
the total wastewater volume, 37 percent of the BOD, 43 percent of the
total solids, and 60 percent of the alkalinity (12).
V-7
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Synthetic fibers are relatively free of natural impurities so they
require much less vigorous scouring. They experience low moisture
regain so static electricity can be a problem during processing. To
minimize this problem, antistatic materials are applied to the yarns;
these agents also serve as lubricants in sizing compounds. Compounds
commonly used are PVA, styrene-base resins, polyalkylene glycols, gela-
tine, PAA, and polyvinyl acetate. These compounds become a source of
water pollution when they are removed from the fabrics during scouring.
In general, a milder sodium carbonate solution and a surfactant will
suffice in scouring synthetics.
Bleaching. Cotton bleaching may be accomplished with hypochlorite,
hydrogen peroxide, chlorine dioxide, sodium perborate, peracidic acid,
or other oxidizing agents. Reducing agents may also be used, although
almost invariably, the oxidizing agents give a more permanent white.
Today, most of the cotton bleaching is done with hydrogen peroxide or
hypochlorite, either in kiers or on a continuous range; hydrogen peroxide
is the preferred oxidizing agent and the continuous range the most
efficient bleaching method.
Bleaching of cellulosic regenerated fibers is accomplished using the
same methods as for cotton; however, there is less coloring matter to
remove so the severity of the process can be decreased. Polyester and
polyacrylonitrile fibers are not often bleached unless part of a cotton-
synthetic fiber blend.
Hydrogen peroxide bleaching contributes very small waste loads, most of
which are inorganic (sodium silicate, sodium hydroxide, and sodium
phosphate) and organic (surfactants and chelating agents) dissolved
solids. A low level of suspended solids (fibers and natural impurities)
will be present when goods containing cotton are bleached.
Mercerization. Mercerization is practiced to increase the tensile
strength of the cotton fiber and to increase its affinity for dyes (see
Section III). Essentially, the process amounts to saturating the fabric
with sodium hydroxide (usually a 25- to 30-percent solution), allowing
sufficient residence time for interaction, and washing the fabric to
remove the excess caustic.
Mercerization wastes are predominantly the sodium hydroxide used in the
process, diluted as a result of the washing step. The waste stream
contains high levels of dissolved solids and may have a pH of 12 to 13.
Depending on whether mercerization is practiced before or after bleaching,
small amounts of foreign material and wax may be removed from the fiber
and will appear as suspended solids and oil & grease. In total, merceri-
zation has been found to contribute about 1 percent of the BOD load
generated during the processing of 100 percent cotton woven fabric
V-8
-------
Today, with synthetics and cotton-synthetic blends replacing 100 percent
cotton fabric, mercerization is practiced less often. Most of the mills
that do utilize the process have found it economically attractive to
recover sodium hydroxide for reuse. Consequently, the waste contribu-
tion from the process has become even less significant at many mills.
Dyeing. Dyeing is without question the most complex of all the wet-
finishing operations for all of the applicable textile subcategories.
There are 9 basic classifications of dyes, according to application, and
approximately 17 types according to use by the textile industry (10).
There are thousands of individual dyes. Besides the dyestuff itself,
various other chemicals are used to help deposit the dye or to develop
the color. Chemicals that may be employed include acids, bases, salts,
wetting agents, retardants, accelerators, detergents, oxidizing agents,
reducing agents, developers, and stripping agents. A complete and
detailed discussion of the various dyes and dyeing methods is provided
in Section III.
Woven fabric is usually dyed as piece goods with batch or continuous dye
equipment. The batch equipment can be either the atmospheric type or
the pressure type; continuous dye equipment is operated under
atmospheric pressure conditions. Atmospheric dyeing generally requires
greater amounts of auxiliary chemicals to achieve the desired results.
Since most of these chemicals are not retained in the final product but
are discarded after they have served their purpose, atmospheric dyeing
customarily results in increased waste loadings.
Depending on the type(s) of fabric, the type(s) of dyes used, the
type(s) of equipment employed, and the efficiency of the process(es),
the waste stream from the dyeing of woven fabric may contain any com-
bination of the dyes and auxiliary chemicals. It can contribute
substantially to the total waste load and is responsible for most of the
waste volume. Color is an obvious adverse pollutant and high levels of
dissolved solids are present. Suspended solids are relatively low.
For various Woven Fabric Finishing mills that process 100 percent
cotton, the BOD contribution resulting from the dyeing process was found
to vary from 1.5 to 30 percent of the total (14). Carriers, which are
essential for dyeing polyester, can result in an even greater BOD con-
tribution when cotton/polyester blends and pure polyesters are being
processed.
Printing. Printing is generally accomplished at the same stage in woven
fabric finishing as is dyeing. The fabric goes through the preliminary
cleaning and conditioning steps and is printed using one of several
methods. Woven fabric may be dyed and printed, in which case printing
is performed last. A complete discussion of the types of printing and
equipment used to perform them is provided in Section III.
V-9
-------
Printing has often been referred to as localized dyeing, and as such,
the same basic dyestuffs are used in both processes. Dyes are applied
as liquid, while a paste is used in printing. In addition to the dye-
stuff and auxiliary chemicals discussed under "Dyeing", a thickener is
used to give the print paste the desired viscosity. Gums serve as
thickeners and those commonly used include locust bean, guar, alginate,
starch, and combinations of these. Urea, theourea, and glycols are also
used in many print formulations.
Printing wastes are comparable in constituents to dye wastes, although
the volumes are much lower and the concentrations greater. The
thickeners contribute to the BOD, and solvents used to prepare pigments
and clean pigment application equipment are often present. Printing
pigments will contribute some suspended solids when the fabric is rinsed,
although much of the waste from printing comes from the cleaning of
make-up tanks and process equipment.
Functional Finishing. The functional finishes represent a large group
of chemical treatments that extend the function of a fabric by making it
resist creasing, water, stains, rot, mildew, moths, bacteria, and other
undesirable items. They are more often applied to the natural fibers
(cotton and wool) and are therefore quite prevalent in the finishing of
woven fabrics. As would be expected from processes that provide such
diverse effects, the range of chemicals used is very broad. For resin
treatment, a urea-formaldehyde-glyoxal compound (DMDHEU), a fatty
softener, and a catalyst (zinc nitrate, magnesium chloride) are used
together. Water repellents include silicones, fluorochemicals, and
fatty materials, each generally applied with a catalyst. Soil release
treatments include special acrylic polymers and fluorochemicals.
These finishes are generally applied by impregnation of the fabric
followed by squeezing to retain the desired amount of add-on. The moist
material is dried and then heat cured. The cured fabric is frequently
packed for shipment without rinsing. Most resin-treated goods are
subsequently cured in a garment factory and must not be rinsed, since
the catalyst would be removed.
Waste from resin treatment, water-proofing, flame-proofing, and soil
release are small in volume, since the chemicals are applied by padding,
followed by drying and curing. The chemicals used are diverse and small
amounts of them will enter the mill's waste stream.
Subcategory 5 - Knit Fabric Finishing
The wastewaters generated from the finishing of knit fabric are, like
those from the finishing of woven fabric, represented by a rather broad
range in concentration and mass quantity for the conventional pollutant
parameters. The typical waste is not generally as great in terms of
concentration as woven fabric finishing waste, and the variability from
mill to mill is also somewhat less. The internal subdivisions of this
subcategory (Simple Processing, Complex Processing, and Hosiery Products)
V-10
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group the estimated 442 wet-processing mills into three distinct segments.
As with Woven Fabric Finishing, the subdivisions established for knitted
fabric are based on complexity of the operation. The Hosiery Products
subdivision was established because the processing in this segment
requires less water and less variable amounts and types of process
chemicals. The bases for the subdivisions are fully discussed in
Section IV and a schematic representing the typical processing sequence
for each subdivision, as well as a description of processes, is presented
in Section III.
The wet processing employed by a Knit Fabric Finishing mill (Simple
Processing and Complex Processing subdivisions) can include various
combinations of the following operations: scouring, bleaching, dyeing,
and printing. A Hosiery Products mill typically employs scouring,
bleaching, and dyeing. Each subdivision might apply chemical coatings
during the final finishing step, but only a small amount, if any, of
these chemicals enters the waste stream. The impact of these processes
on wastewater discharged by Knit Fabric Finishing mills is discussed
below.
Sizing, as such, is not applied to knitted goods because the knitting
process does not stress the yarn to the same degree as does weaving.
Lubricants, generally mineral oils, vegetable oils, synthetic esters, or
waxes, are added but these can be removed easily with simple scouring.
Thus, desizing is not necessary.
Scouring. Washing or scouring is frequently the first process at Knit
Fabric Finishing mills. Knit goods are washed or scoured with deter-
gents, soaps, or solvents to remove natural or artificial waxes, oils
and other impurities. The discharge of the scouring or wash solution
along with any acquired impurities from knit cotton fabric or blends,
will result in a wastewater high in dissolved solids, dark in color from
cotton impurities, and containing significant quantities of oil & grease.
The scouring or washing of 100 percent synthetic fabrics typically
results in a less contaminated waste.
Bleaching. Bleaching of knit fabrics is similar to bleaching of woven
fabrics. The bleaching agents used are generally sodium hypochloride or
hydrogen peroxide, and the previous discussion in this section on waste
characteristics associated with bleaching woven fabrics is also applicable
to this subcategory.
Dyeing. The dyeing operation is a major source of wastewater in knit
fabric finishing. Beck, beam, and jet dyeing are all commonly employed
using either atmospheric or pressure operating modes. Paddle, rotary,
or tub dyeing may also be employed, especially for hosiery. Jig dyeing
and continuous dyeing are less common. The types of dyestuff, auxiliary
chemicals, and conditions employed for dyeing knit goods are essentially
the same as for woven goods of comparable fiber composition. The discus-
sion previously presented in this section concerning waste characteristics
associated with dyeing woven fabrics is also relevant to knit fabric
V-ll
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dyeing and is not repeated here. In knit fabric finishing, rinse liquors
are often mechanically extracted. In this step a centrifugal extractor
is used to draw water out of the fabric.
Printing. Printing methods used in finishing knit fabrics are similar
to the methods used on woven fabrics. Sources and characteristics of
the wastes are similar to those previously discussed for the Woven
Fabric Finishing subcategory.
Functional Finishing. The functional finishes applied to knit fabrics
are essentially the same as those previously noted for woven fabrics.
The methods of application are also similar so the same variety of
constituents is likely to appear in the waste.
Subcategory 6 - Carpet Finishing
The wastewater volume from carpet mills is typically quite large, although
water use (gal/lb of product) is low relative to other subcategories.
This is due to the specialized nature of carpet manufacturing and the
heavy weight of carpet relative to other textile products. The wet
processing employed by a carpet mill can include various combinations of
the following operations: scouring, bleaching, dyeing, printing, func-
tional finishing, and backing. Wastes from dyeing and printing are the
major contributors to the high flows at these mills, but these processes
do not lead to extreme levels of conventional and non-conventional
pollutants. Scouring and bleaching are performed very little at carpet
finishing mills. Functional finishing and carpet backing make small
contributions to the total flow; the latter often results in a latex
waste that should be segregated from the rest of the waste discharge for
separate treatment. The pollutional contributions of these processes
are discussed below.
Scouring/Bleaching. Carpets may be scoured with soaps or detergents to
remove processing oils, waxes, and other impurities and prepare them for
dyeing or printing. If bleaching is required, the bleaching agents are
added after scouring (4). Less than 15 percent of the mills that returned
detailed surveys perform scouring, and at all of these the percentage of
total production scoured is small (1 to 40 percent with an average of 16
percent). Only three mills that returned detailed surveys perform
bleaching; the amount of production reported bleached was 1, 2, and 10
percent, respectively. Thus, scouring and bleaching are seen to have
only a minor effect on the characteristics of carpet mill wastewaters.
Dyeing. Nearly all Carpet Finishing mills perform piece dyeing, and the
wastewaters are greatly influenced by the dyes used and dye machines
employed. Nylon is the major fiber type in the manufacture of carpet,
although the use of polyester fiber is also substantial. Other fibers
are used by only 5 mills that returned detailed surveys. Dyeing is
typically accomplished using atmospheric dye becks, or, to a lesser
extent, continuous dye ranges. Only four dye classifications were
identified as being used by carpet finishing mills. Acid dyes, dispersed
V-12
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dyes, and cationic dyes are most frequently employed, and small quantities
of direct dyes are sometimes used. In addition to these dyestuffs
themselves, numerous auxiliary chemicals, such as leveling agents,
inorganic compounds, acids, sequestering agents, organic compounds,
dispersing agents, and various carriers may also be employed, as dis-
cussed in Section 111. Since most of these auxiliary chemicals perform a
function during the dyeing operation, they do not remain with the carpet.
As a result they are found in the waste stream along with excess dyes
and contribute substantially to BOD, COD, dissolved solids, and color.
Printing. Carpet is generally printed by rotary, flat bed, warp yarn,
or tuft dye equipment. Flat bed printing is the most common method,
although even this mode of printing occurs at less than 10 percent of
the mills returning detailed surveys. Spray printing techniques, using
highly advanced electronically controlled machinery, may play an important
role in carpet printing in the future, but at present wastes from carpet
printing should not differ substantially from those discussed previously
for woven fabric printing.
Functional Finishing. Chemical agents may be applied to carpets after
dyeing or printing to impart certain desirable qualities. Chemicals
that increase the water repellency, flame or mildew resistance, and soil
retardance are sometimes used, as are anti-static agents and softeners.
Since these agents are not applied as frequently and are not as numerous
as those which might be used in finishing woven fabric, their impact
should be less. Nevertheless, these various chemicals will enter the
waste stream in small amounts and will have a minor effect on hydraulic
and pollutant loadings.
Carpet Backing. The carpet backing process laminates a secondary backing
(normally jute or propylene) to the dyed or printed carpet. The adhesive
is normally a latex compound, although sometimes a foam backing of
urethane or latex is used. The latex used in both foamed and unfoamed
backing is not soluble in water, but is used in a highly dispersed form.
Waste from this process may be high in suspended solids and COD.
Subcategory T_ ~ Stock & Yarn Finishing
The volume of wastewater discharged by Stock & Yarn Finishing facilities
is comparable to that from mills in other finishing subcategories. The
wastes generated are generally not as strong as those found in the other
subcategories, and depend substantially on whether natural fibers,
blends, or synthetic fibers alone are processed.
The wet processing employed by a Stock & Yarn Finishing mill can
include various combinations of the following operations: scouring,
bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing, and printing. Bleaching and dyeing are
the processes most commonly responsible for wastes in this subcategory.
Scouring, mercerizing, and "printing" (space or knit-deknit dyeing) are
only performed on a very limited basis. A description of stock & yarn
processing, as well as schematics of typical finishing operations, is
V-13
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presented in Section III. The pollutional contributions of the wet-
processing operations are discussed below.
Mercerization. Concentrated caustic solution is used to mercerize
cotton yarns at some of the mills in this subcategory. The resulting
wastewater has a high pH and contains high levels of dissolved solids.
Bleaching/Scouring. Bleaching is performed on either raw stock or yarn
to whiten the fibers and remove any natural colors. Sodium hypochlorite
or hydrogen peroxide are typically used for this purpose. The contribu-
tion of bleaching on wastewater characteristics has been discussed
previously in this section under Subcategory 4. Scouring is employed
infrequently at Stock & Yarn Finishing mills and has also been discussed
previously under Subcategory 4.
Dyeing/Printing. Stock dyeing is usually performed in a vat or pressure
kettle. Yarn dyeing is usually performed by skein or package dyeing
methods. A specialty yarn dyeing process, similar to and sometimes
referred to as printing, is known as space dyeing. All these methods
have been previously discussed in Section III; a discussion of dyes and
auxiliary chemicals associated with coloring various fibers is also
presented there. The effect of dyeing on waste characteristics is
presented in detail earlier in this section under Woven Fabric Finishing.
Virtually all dye classes are used in stock & yarn dyeing, and the
waste generated will be similar to those generated in dyeing fabric or
carpet of the same fiber type.
Subcategory 8 - Nonwoven Manufacturing
The nature of nonwoven manufacturing is such that a typical facility has
relatively small hydraulic and pollutant loadings. The wastewater may
contain latex and numerous other contaminants. At a few facilities,
special manufacturing operations or activities common to other subcate-
gories might be performed with resultant higher water use, but this is
the exception rather than the rule. The wastewater aspects of the
various nonwoven manufacturing processes are discussed below.
Web Formation. Web formation is a dry operation unless the "wet lay"
process is used (see Section III). Since water is used as a transport
medium for the fibers in this method, some contaminated wastewater
results from this process. This waste is generally dilute, has a pH of
6 to 7, and is slightly milky.
Bonding and Coloring. Bonding is used to impart structural integrity to
the nonwoven fabric. Adhesives such as acrylics, polyvinyl acetate
resins, or other latex compounds are usually used. Cleanup of applicator
equipment and mixing tanks results in small volumes of wastewater contami-
nated with the adhesives. The function of nonwoven fabrics (i.e. com-
mercial applications, disposable items, etc.) is such that adding color
is not always necessary. When color is required, it is generally applied
in the form of pigments added to the bonding agents.
V-14
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Functional Finishing. Chemical treatments to impart flame resistance,
water repellency, or mildew resistance are often applied to nonwovens.
The methods of application and effects on wastewater characteristics are
similar to those previously described for other subcategories.
Subcategory 9 - Felted Fabric Processing
Felted fabric processing typically results in high volume wastes of a
generally dilute nature. The wet-processing operations may include
felting, dyeing, and functional finishing. The rinses that follow
felting (fulling) and dyeing, if employed, result in considerable water
use and contribute most of the pollutants. Functional finishing may
also make minor contributions to the waste load. The pollutional con-
tribution of the typical wet-processing steps is discussed below.
Felting (Fulling). Fulling of felted fabric is similar to the fulling
employed in wool finishing. Detergents, alkali, or acid may all be
used, and these constituents along with auxiliary chemicals are discharged
whenever baths are dumped. In some cases, neutralization of the acid
absorbed by the fabric will be required. The major hydraulic loading
comes from the washes or rinses that follow fulling. Hardening is a
mechanical pressure process used by some mills prior to fulling to cause
the wool to felt. The only waste resulting from this step is from steam
or mist condensate that collects on the heavy vibrating metal plates.
Dyeing. Dyeing of felts is not unlike dyeing of other fabrics. Dyes
appropriate to the fiber content of the felt are used, along with approp-
riate amounts of auxiliary chemicals. Together, these materials will
contribute to BOD, COD, and dissolved solids loadings in the wastewater.
Functional Finishing. A wide variety of functional finishes and chemical
treatments are applied to felts. These chemicals and the methods of
application have been previously described. Although functional finishing
has only a minor impact on hydraulic loading, a wide variety of chemicals
may be introduced into the waste stream.
Characterization of Raw Wastewaters
Statistical summaries of the reported historical raw waste concentra-
tions and loading values for the conventional and non-conventional
pollutant parameters are presented in Table B-l of Appendix B. The
summaries provide the minimum, maximum, average, and median values, as
well as the number of plants represented for each parameter in each
subcategory. The values represent averages for mills for which historical
data were obtained. The range in these data demonstrates the high
degree of variability that is inherent in the industry.
Water usage rates and total mill wastewater discharge for each subcategory
are presented in Table V-l. Discharge values represent the median of
the reported values while water usage rates are represented by the range
and median of calculated values. Wool scouring, as noted in the table,
V-15
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TABLE V-l
WATER USAGE AND MILL WASTEWATER DISCHARGE - SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL DATA
f
Subcategory
Water Usage, I/kg (gal/lb) of Production
Min. Med. Max.
Discharge, cu m/day (MGD) No. of
Median Mill Mills
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing
Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
4.2
110.9
0.8
12.5
10.8
5.0
8.3
20.0
5.8
8.3
3.3
2.5
33.4
(0.5)
(13.3)
(0.1)
(1-5)
(1-3)
(0.6)
(0.9)
(2.4)
(0.7)
(1.0)
(0.4)
(0.3)
(4.0)
11.7
283.6
9.2
78.4
86.7
113.4
135.9
83.4
69.2
46.7
100.1
40.0
212.7
(1.4)
(34.1)
(1.1)
(9.4)
(10.4)
(13.6)
(16.3)
(10.0)
(8.3)
(5.6)
(12.0)
(4.8)
(25.5)
77.
657.
140.
275.
276.
507.
392.
377.
289.
162.
557.
82
930.
6 (9.3)
2 (78.9)
1 (16.8)
2 (33.1)
9 (33.2)
9 (60.9)
8 (47.2)
8 (45.4)
4 (34.8)
6 (19.5)
1 (66.9)
.6 (9.9)
7(111.8)
193
1892
231
636
1533
636
1514
1998
178
1590
961
378
564
(0.
(0.
(0.
(0.
(0.
(0.
(0.
(0.
(0.
(0.
(0.
(0
(0.
051)
500)
061)
168)
405)
168)
400)
528)
047)
420)
254)
.100)
149)
12
15
13
48
39
50
71
35
57
37
116
11
11
-------
requires the least water per unit of production. In comparing the
values shown, however, it should be kept in mind that raw wool contains
between 30 to 70 percent by weight of non-wool materials such as dirt
and grease. This material is included when calculating water usage for
this subcategory.
In contrast, wool finishing requires the greatest amount of water,
principally because of the numerous low temperature rinsing steps that
are required to remove residues from the carbonizing, scouring, and
bleaching processes and soaps from the fulling process. Detailed descrip-
tions of the process water requirements are provided in Section III.
The median discharge for Complex Knit Fabric Finishing mills (Subcategory
5b) and Wool Finishing mills (Subcategory 2) are the largest, while
Hosiery Products mills (Subcategory 5c) and Wool Scouring mills (Sub-
category 1) have the smallest median discharge. The greatest flow (28,900
cu m/day) is discharged by a Complex Processing Woven Fabric Finishing
mill (Subcategory 4b) and the smallest flow (4 cu m/day) by a Hosiery
Products mill (Subcategory 5c) (See Table B-l, Appendix B).
Raw waste concentrations for the conventional and non-conventional
pollutant parameters are presented in Table V-2. Values are included
for each parameter for which three or more data points are available.
The values are the medians of the reported values rounded off for
presentation purposes. For the conventional parameters, the median wool
scouring discharge is the most concentrated and the median wool finishing
discharge is the least concentrated. This is directly related to the
fact that the Wool Scouring subcategory and the Wool Finishing subcategory
use, respectively, the least and greatest amounts of processing water
per unit of production (based on median values and not including Low Water
Use Processing, see Table V-l).
Wastewater concentrations are of primary importance in predicting the
treatability of a particular waste stream and are used to design, monitor,
and control the operation of treatment systems. But alone they do not
provide a complete picture of the relative pollutant contributions of
each subcategory. Waste loadings, which relate pollutant concentrations
and water use to production levels, provide a more suitable means of
regulating waste discharges. Median waste loading values for the approp-
riate pollutant parameters are presented in Table V-3. Again, values
are reported for each parameter for which three or more data points are
available.
The raw waste loads in Table V-3 offer a more direct comparison of the
various subcategories than do raw waste concentrations and, in terms of
COD, demonstrate the basis of the subdivision of Subcategories 4 and 5,
as outlined in Section IV.
The conventional and non-conventional pollutant data collected in con-
junction with the field sampling program were instrumental in filling
gaps in the historical data base and helped develop a more complete
characterization of the typical wastewater from each subcategory. The
data for each mill sampled are presented in Table V-4.
V-17
-------
TABLE V-2
RAW WASTE CONCENTRATIONS - CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS
HISTORICAL DATA - MEDIAN VALUES
1.
2.
3.
4.
f 5.
H-
OO
6.
7.
8.
9.
Subcategory
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing
Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
BOD
Gng/1)
2270
170
293
270
350
420
210
270
320
440
180
180
200
COD
(mg/1)
7030
590
692
900
1060
1240
870
790
1370
1190
680
2360
550
TSS
(mg/1)
3310
60
185
60
110
155
55
60
80
65
40
80
120
0 & G
(mg/1)
580
#
//
70
45
70
85
50
100
20
20
#
30
Phenol
(ug/1)
t
#
#
50
55
145
110
100
60
130
170
*
580
Chromium
(ug/1)
#
#
//
40
110
100
80
80
80
30
100
//
//
Sulfide
(ug/1)
#
#
#
70
100
#
55
150
560
180
200
//
//
Color
APHA Units
#
#
#
800
#
#
400
750
450
490
570
#
#
Insufficient data to report value.
-------
TABLE V-3
RAW WASTE LOADS - CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS
HISTORICAL DATA - MEDIAN VALUES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Subcategory
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing
Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
BOD
41.8
59.8
2.3
22.6
32.7
45.1
27.7
22.1
26.4
25.6
20.7
6.7
70.2
COD TSS
(kg/kkg)
128.9
204.8
14.5
92.4
110.6
122.6
81.1
115.4
89.4
82.3
62.7
38.4
186.0
43.1
17.2
1.6
8.0
9.6
14.8
6.3
6.9
6.7
4.7
4.6
2.2
64.1
0
10
*
9
3
4
4
3
6
1
1
*
11
& G
.3
.1
.8
.1
.0
.5
.6
.1
.6
.2
Phenol
it
*
8
7
13
8
12
4
11
15
*
247
.2
.7
.1
.7
.0
.2
.3
.0
.4
Chromium
(g/kkg)
#
*
4
2
20
7
4
6
3
12
0
*
.3
.6
.9
.8
.7
.4
.4
.0
.5
Sulfide
f
*
7.6
12.5
13.0
14.0
23.8
9.4
27.8
*
*
// Insufficient data to report value.
-------
TABLE V-4
RAW WASTE CONCENTRATIONS - CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS
RESULTS OF FIELD SAMPLING PROGRAM
to
o
Mill
Subcategory
Wool Scouring
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
Simple Processing
Simple Processing
Complex Processing
Complex Processing
Complex Processing
Complex Processing
Complex Processing
Complex Plus Desizing
Complex Plus Desizing
Complex Plus Desizing
Complex Plus Desizing
Complex Plus Desizing
Complex Plus Desizing
BOD
(mg/1)
1900
5000
450
330
-
-
50
400
500
450
-
1500
600
290
20
400
560
440
350
COD
(mg/1)
6100
24000
1700
1100
1900
720
-
1100
500
1700
2000
-
1600
320
2700
1500
1700
800
800
TSS
(rag/1)
2300
87000
160
70
-
15
55
200
30
90
-
500
15
40
50
110
70
50
20
0 & G Phenol
(mg/1) (ug/1)
_ _
1100
90
160
80
80
20
90
70
280
150
20
-
70
55
65
75
55
Chromium
(ug/1)
10
220
190
880
10
4
4
8
-
70
15
35
5
4
10
25
20
35
"
Sulfide
(ug/1)
500
6000
1100
1000
ND
1000
200
7600
1000
1000
-
-
20
1000
5600
1000
5200
2500
Color
APHA Units
2200
-
2000
1000
-
10
500
-
1300
1500
-
-
-
1200
250
3200
40,000
2600
500
PH
Units
10.4
7.8
10.7
9.2
-
6.9
9.0
9.5
10.5
-
11.2
9.3
10.0
10.0
10.0
10.0
11.2
10.0
Notes: A dash indicates that analyses were not performed.
ND indicates "Not Detected"
-------
TABLE V-4 (Coat.)
Mill
Subcategory
Knit Fabric Finishing
Simple Processing
Simple Processing
Simple Processing
Complex Processing
Complex Processing
Hosiery Products
Hosiery Products
Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Carpet Finishing
"f Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
BOD
(mg/1)
-
200
240
220
-
-
200
-
180
1100
380
120
-
-
-
-
COD
(mg/1)
-
580
780
560
730
880
820
2900
1300
940
740
1300
1100
460
-
640
340
220
480
1100
TSS
(mg/1)
6
25
20
25
25
20
180
95
40
-
20
30
20
35
-
125
-
35
15
40
O&G
(mg/1)
-
-
320
-
180
340
630
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
210
-
-
-
-
Phenol
(ug/1)
230
740
940
110
1
-
-
-
30
45
-
40
40
65
-
45
-
-
-
Chromium
(ug/1)
-
6
20
1
10
660
8
4
25
55
10
3
25
650
-
10
4
-
-
Sulfide
(ug/1)
6000
2100
750
9200
1000
1800
ND
ND
1000
1000
-
1400
4500
1000
-
ND
1000
ND
ND
1200
Color
APHA Units
300
150
740
250
820
220
270
300
-
-
1400
1300
10,000
-
310
_
140
35
190
PH
Units
10.0
9.2
10.2
10.0
7.5
9.1
6.4
11.0
-
-
10.5
7.4
10.5
-
6.2
_
9.4
6.3
7.3
Notes: A dash indicates that analyses were not performed
ND indicates "Not Detected".
-------
With the exception of oil & grease, the data are for composite samples.
The samples were collected with automatic sampling equipment over either
8- or 24-hr periods or by combining individual grab samples collected at
representative intervals over 8- or 24-hr periods. Alone, the field
sampling data do not provide a reliable characterization of the wastewater
concentrations because of the limited scope of the sampling procedures
and limited number of mills sampled. They are useful, however, to
confirm and, in some cases, to supplement the historical data base.
Typical raw waste concentrations for the conventional and non-conventional
pollutant parameters, based on both the historical data and the field
sampling results, are presented in Table V-5. The values are represent-
ative of the typical mill in each subcategory and are those used in
developing the treatment technologies and costs in subsequent sections.
For several subcategory-parameter combinations, typical values could not
be established with sufficient confidence and thus are not presented.
Additional sampling would be necessary to establish these values.
Characterization ojf BPT Effluents
Historical data that were judged to be reliable in terms of sampling
methodology, frequency, and duration were available for 75 wet-processing
mill treatment facilities that provided Best Practicable Technology (BPT).
The types of mills represented by the data include 2 Wool Scouring, 2 Wool
Finishing, 7 Simple Processing Woven Fabric Finishing, 7 Complex Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing, 18 Complex Processing Plus Desizing Woven Fabric
Finishing, 13 Simple Processing Knit Fabric Finishing, 5 Complex Processing
Knit Fabric Finishing, 2 Hosiery Products Knit Fabric Finishing, 6
Carpet Finishing, and 13 Stock & Yarn Finishing. In order to qualify as
BPT, the treatment chain had to include extended-aeration (at least
24-hours detention) activated sludge followed by secondary sedimentation
with sludge return to the aeration basin. In addition to the wet-
processing subcategories data, treated effluent data are available for
17 Low Water Use Processing mills. The treatment at these mills is
biological, but is not necessary BPT. The data are included here in
characterizing BPT effluents. Additional information about
current industry treatment practices is provided in Section VII.
Statistical summaries of the reported historical BPT effluent concentra-
tions and mass loading values for the conventional and non-conventional
pollutant parameters are presented as Table B-2 in Appendix B. The
formats of the summaries are similar to those used for the raw waste
summaries discussed above. While there are much less BPT data available,
they are more consistent than the raw waste data and median values are
often similar in magnitude to the average values. This is logical
because effective BPT treatment systems should produce effluents with
similar characteristics.
BPT effluent concentrations for the conventional and non-conventional
pollutant parameters for each subcategory are presented in Table V-6.
The values are medians of reported values rounded off for clearer presenta-
tion. Values are reported for each parameter for which data were available.
V-22
-------
TABLE V-5
TYPICAL RAW WASTE CONCENTRATIONS - CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS
SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL AND FIELD SAMPLING DATA
1.
2.
3.
4.
<
to
UJ S
6.
7.
8.
9.
Subcategory
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing
Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
BOD
(mg/1)
2300
170
290
270
350
420
210
270
320
440
180
180
200
COD
(mg/1)
7000
600
690
900
1100
1240
870
790
1370
1190
680
2360
550
TSS
(mg/1)
3300
60
180
60
110
150
50
60
80
70
40
80
120
O&G
(mg/1)
600
*
(80)
70
50
70
80
50
100
20
20
(60)
30
Phenol
(ug/1)
#
(120)
//
50
50
150
110
100
60
130
170
(40)
(580)
Chromium
(ug/1)
(120)
(500)
(4)
40
110
100
80
80
80
30
100
(10)
f
Sulfide
(ug/1)
(500)
(3500)
*
70
110
(1700)
50
150
560
175
200
*
(1200)
Color
APHA Units
(2200)
(1500)
(10)
800
(1400)
(1900)
400
750
450
490
570
(90)
(200)
// Insufficient data to report value.
( ) Value is median of field sampling results.
-------
TABLE V-6
BPT EFFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS - CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS
HISTORICAL DATA - MEDIAN VALUES
f
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Subcategory
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing
Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
BOD
(mg/1)
92
50
24
15
24
24
13
21
71
34
11
*
f
COD
(mg/1)
2000
530
223
240
250
250
270
280
570
290
140
*
f
TSS
(mg/1)
700
95
28
38
48
49
34
55
130
63
25
*
f
O&G
(mg/1)
190
f
*
24
//
9
14
32
*
6
*
//
#
Phenol
(ug/1)
100
81
64
20
110
34
56
65
34
100
56
*
f
Chromium
(ug/1)
37
200
60
20
25
29
58
25
30
25
42
f
#
Sulfide
(ug/1)
360
*
90
130
60
1120
130
55
56
63
120
#
f
Color
APHA Units
1900
*
*
340
//
120
190
#
#
310
470
f
f
# No data
-------
Reporting all data in contrast to reporting values for which three or
more mills are represented (as with raw waste values) is believed to be
justified because BPT normally provides more consistent results regardless
of the characteristics of the influent raw waste. Based on the values
reported, the treatment provided to the wastes from the Wool Scouring,
Wool Finishing, and Knit Fabric Finishing-Hosiery Products subcategories
appears to be less effective than for the other subcategories.
For Subcategory 1, Wool Scouring, the data are from only two mills. In
wool scouring wastewaters it is generally recognized that emulsified
wool grease is responsible for the higher conventional pollutant concen-
trations. The relatively large COD value compared to BOD indicates that
wool grease is not readily biodegradable. The values for oil & grease,
phenol, chromium, sulfide, and color are from a single mill and, as
such, cannot necessarily be regarded as representative.
The data for the Wool Finishing subcategory are also reflective of only
two mills. Although a median oil & grease value is not available from
the historical data, it is known that oils present in wool yarn after
spinning must be removed by finishing mills in the heavy scour step to
ensure satisfactory dyeing. Removal of this grease increases the organic
load and causes the non-biodegradable organic content to be relatively
high. The value for phenol represents data from only one mill, and the
chromium value represents data from two mills, both of which employ
chrome-based dyes for part of their production. Historical data were
not available for sulfide and color.
The values for the Knit Fabric Finishing-Hosiery Products subcategory
are also based on limited data because most of these mills are indirect
dischargers. The two mills represented have marginal BPT treatment
components and the data may not be as representative of BPT as data for
other subcategories.
The values for the conventional pollutant parameters for the other
subcategories, with the exception of Nonwoven Manufacturing and Felted
Fabric Processing, are generally supported by adequate data. The non-
conventional parameters are represented by fewer data points, but are
reasonably consistent.
Waste mass loading values for BPT effluents are reported in Table V-7.
They represent median values for each parameter for which data are
available. Although based on only two data points each, Wool Finishing
and Wool Scouring mills appear to be discharging greater quantities of
pollutants. This is logical since their raw waste loads are also high.
The median BPT effluent waste loads for the Woven and Knit Fabric Finishing
subcategories are generally equivalent; however, the chemical constituents
responsible for the waste characteristics are different (see "Discussion
of Raw Wastewater Characteristics" at beginning of Section V) so the
treatability of these wastes do not share the same similarity. The only
outstanding difference in the characteristics is the sulfide value for
the Woven Fabric Finishing-Complex Processing Plus Desizing subcategory.
V-25
-------
TABLE V-7
BPT EFFLUENT LOADS - CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS
HISTORICAL DATA - MEDIAN VALUES
I
N>
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Subcategory
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing
Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
BOD
4.0
25.1
0.1
2.6
4.0
2.1
1.6
3.2
4.0
1.6
0.8
*
*
COD TSS O&G
(kg/kkg)
82
273
2
33
39
29
28
40
23
15
11
.0
.1
.7
.6
.0
.4
.6
.4
.7
.3
.4
#
f
37.
46.
0.
4.
7.
4.
3.
5.
5.
3.
2.
8 11.2
4 #
2 //
8 5.2
6 #
6 1.0
5 1.1
9 5.9
4 //
1 0.7
1 //
f //
f f
Phenol
6
0
2
17
3
7
10
1
4
6
.2
#
.6
.8
.4
.0
.8
.7
.4
.8
.6
*
#
Chromium
(g/kkg)
2.
94.
2.
3.
2.
5.
1.
1.
1.
3.
2
3
*
6
7
4
7
9
2
4
9
#
f
Sulfide
20.7
*
0.7
16.6
9.6
92.3
20.8
9.9
2.3
5.2
12.1
*
f
// No data
-------
A close inspection of this value reveals that, of the four mills for
which data are available, three use sulfur dyes on a significant
portion of their production. Since the dyes contain sulfur linkages
within their molecules and sodium sulfide is used as a reducing agent in
sulfur dyeing, sulfur could be expected to show up in the effluent.
The conventional and non-conventional pollutant data collected in con-
junction with the field sampling program provide some additional charac-
terization of 8PT effluents that serve both to confirm and to fill gaps
in the historical data base. The data for each mill sampled are presented
in Table V-8. These data represent samples collected using the same
procedures explained above for raw wastewaters.
Typical BPT effluent waste concentrations for the conventional and
non-conventional pollutants, based on the historical data and the field
sampling results, are presented in Table V-9. These data are the best
available for mills with BPT treatment. While some additional data were
collected for mills that have other than BPT treatment, they are not of
direct significance here. These mills and the data are discussed in
Section VII.
The BPT effluent values are in general believed to be representative of
typical effluents from each subcategory and are those used in developing
the treatment technologies and costs in subsequent sections. There are
several subcategory-parameter combinations for which a typical value
could not be presented, and two subcategories, Nonwoven Manufacturing
and Felted Fabric Processing, are predominantly indirect dischargers and
no useful data are available.
PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
The Clean Water Act of 1977 expanded the spectrum of pollutant parameters
to receive attention in point source discharges to include potentially
toxic pollutants. More specifically, 65 classes of toxic compounds and
groups originally identified in the Consent Decree in NRDC vs Train,
8 ERC 2120 (D.D.C 1976) have been made subject to effluent limitations.
The 65 classes were selected as the most important of 232 pollutant
categories considered to be of the greatest environmental concern. The
selections were based on the following criteria:
o "Substances for which there is substantial evidence of carcino-
genicity, mutagenicity and/or teratogenicity;
o Substances structurally similar to the aforementioned compounds or
for which there is some evidence of carcinogenicity, mutagenicity,
or teratogenicity; and
V-27
-------
TABLE V-8
BPT EFFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS - CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS
RESULTS OF FIELD SAMPLING PROGRAM
f
NJ
00
Mill BOD
Subcategory (rag/1)
Wool
Wool
Wool
Wool
Scouring
Scouring
Finishing
Finishing
84
140
170
36
COD
(mg/1)
840
1300
1650
290
TSS 0 & G
(mg/1) (mg/1)
300
76 5.0
230
77
Phenol
(ug/1)
_
65
68
Chromium
(ug/1)
3
17
150
1800
Sulfide
(ug/1)
10
4000
100
Color
APHA Units
1900
2000
90
PH
Units
8
8
7
7
.1
.4
.3
.0
Woven Fabric Finishing
Simple Processing
Simple Processing
Complex Processing
Complex Processing
Complex Processing
Complex Processing
Complex Plus Desizing
Complex Plus Desizing
Complex Plus Desizing
Complex Plus Desizing
Complex Plus Desizing
Complex Plus Desizing
Complex Plus Desizing
5
67
70
-
16
40
14
5
24
5
5
25
5
130
590
830
450
-
300
78
750
130
260
400
110
26
27
220
-
36 8.0
20
43
19
92
21
21
300
13
16
24
140
13
5
5
-
14
7
18
25
88
23
3
5
160
52
-
-
4
14
4
-
31
1000
1000
1000
-
20
1000
3500
1000
1000
5000
1000
500
2000
-
-
500
30
2480
150
500
1920
750
7
7
8
8
8
7
7
7
7
7
10
8
.1
.1
.1
-
.0
.0
.6
.2
.3
.2
.5
.0
.0
Note: A dash indicates that analysis was not performed.
-------
TABLE V-8 (Cont.)
Mill
Subcategory
Knit Fabric Finishing
Simple Processing
Simple Processing
Complex Processing
Complex Processing
Carpet Finishing
Carpet Finishing
^3 Carpet Finishing
i
CO
« Stock & Yarn Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Felted Fabric Processing
BOD
(mg/D
28
59
42
-
40
5
13
5
-
COD
(mg/1)
45
320
1000
160
500
240
250
99
230
120
78
550
TSS 0 & G
(mg/1) (mg/1)
45
42 270
580
- -
6
-
28
8
78
17
37 92
91 190
Phenol
(ug/1)
32
32
29
94
54
14
-
4
26
22
Chromium
(ug/1)
-
36
-
20
-
170
360
15
30
-
6
35
Sulfide
(ug/1)
6000
ND
1000
1000
1000
1000
-
200
3000
1000
2000
ND
Color
APHA Units
250
190
75
300
-
-
90
370
250
210
280
PH
Units
7.1
7.0
7.8
7.5
-
-
7.5
5.8
8.0
6.4
7.2
Note: A dash indicates that analysis was not performed.
ND indicates "Not Detected".
-------
TABLE V-9
TYPICAL BPT EFFLUENT CONCENTRATIONS - CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS
SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL AND FIELD SAMPLING DATA
Subcategory
BOD COD TSS O&G
(mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1)
Phenol Chromium Sulfide Color
(ug/1) (ug/1) (ug/1) APHA Units
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing
Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
90
50
25
15
25
25
15
20
70
35
10
*
«
2000
530
220
240
250
250
270
280
570
290
140
//
1
700
100
30
40
50
50
35
55
130
60
25
*
f
190
//
*
25
(8)
9
15
30
#
f
(90)
//
f
100
80
60
20
110
35
55
65
35
100
55
*
f
40
200
60
20
30
30
60
25
30
25
40
#
f
360
(2000)
90
130
60
1100
130
55
55
60
120
*
^
1900
(1000)
*
340
(2000)
120
190
75
#
310
470
c
#
*
# Insufficient data to establish a typical value.
( ) Value is median of field sampling results.
-------
o Substances known to have toxic effects on man or aquatic organisms
at sufficiently high concentrations and which are present in
industrial effluents."
Within the 65 classes, 129 specific elements or compounds have been
identified as priority pollutants. These include 13 metals, 114 organic
compounds, cyanides, and asbestos. A list of all 129 pollutants is
provided in Appendix C.
Heavy Metals
The 13 priority pollutant metals, which include the traditional heavy
metals, are:
antimony
arsenic
beryllium
cadmium
chromium
copper
lead
mercury
nickel
selenium
silver
thallium
zinc
The heavy metals are often thought of as a group because of their several
common characteristics and behavioral properties, but each has distinctive
characteristics that influence its behavior and the effect that it will
have on the environment. In addition to the individual characteristics
of a metal acting alone, synergistic or antagonistic effects have been
observed between metals in terms of toxicity and the capacity to remove
them from a waste stream. Generally, the insoluble compounds and complexes
tend to be more prevalent than the dissolved forms, but metals can exist
in solution and in various complexes with organic materials.
The concentrations of metals in many waste streams are higher than the
concentrations of individual toxic organics. Metals are not appreciably
biodegradable and removal mechanisms depend upon physicochemical processes.
While there is still much to be learned about the behavior of metals and
their impact on removal systems, there has been a considerable amount of
research in this area in recent years.
Organics
The 114 organic compounds can be subdivided into the following broad
classifications:
Aliphatics 36
Aromatics 59
Pesticides 19
V-31
-------
Approximately 30 of the compounds can be considered volatile, and 69
contain chlorine. Compared to the metals, the majority of the toxic
organic compounds are usually present at much lower concentrations, some
in only fractions of micrograms per liter (ug/1). These concentrations
are relatively insignificant compared to the organics that are measured
by the standard BOD, COD, or TOC tests. The organics provide a much
greater variety of molecular structures and behavoral patterns than do
the metals, however.
Much of the focus of this study as well as the information presented
below and in Section VI revolves about the 129 representative priority
pollutants.
Questionnaire Information
Most of the organic priority pollutants are specific compounds and more
sophisticated laboratory analytical techniques are required than for the
non-specific parameters such as solids, COD, alkalinity, etc. Also, as
noted above, the concentrations of interest are considerably lower than
for most of the conventional and non-conventional pollutants, and more
elaborate sample collection and handling methods are necessary to insure
that meaningful and reproducible results are obtained. Because of these
aspects, there is relatively little historical information about the
presence or concentrations of most of the priority pollutants, especially
the non-metals, in textile mill wastewaters.
One source of information utilized in developing information about the
priority pollutants in textile wastes was the questionnaires received
from wet processing mills. The questionnaire survey has been described
previously, and a sample of the questionnaire is provided in the Appendix.
Section VI of the questionnaire asked that the mills identify whether
each of the 123 priority pollutants* was known present, suspected present,
suspected absent, or known absent, in the raw wastewater or treated
effluent. The responses for each pollutant were tallied for the mills
that provided what was judged to be a good reply to Section VI. A
summary of the responses for all mills is presented in Table V-10. The
summary represents the responses from 418 mills and shows that 52 pollutants
are known to be present and an additional 47 are suspected to be present
by at least one mill. A total of 69 pollutants are reported known or
suspected present by more than two mills; only 29 of these are known to
be present by more than two mills.
* At the time of the survey distribution (March, 1977), the priority
pollutant list contained only 123 compounds; shortly thereafter, the
list was increased to 129 with the addition of di-n-octyl phthalate,
PCB-1221, PCB-1232, PCB-1248, PCB-1260, and PCB-1016.
V-32
-------
TABLE V-10
INDUSTRY RESPONSES TO PRIORITY POLLUTANTS LIST
SUMMARY OF ALL MILLS
Priority Pollutant
Known Suspected
Present Present
Known Suspected
Absent Absent
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
acenaphthene
acrolein
acrylonitrile
benzene
benzidine
carbon tetrachloride
(tetrachloromethane)
chlorobenzene
1,2,4-trichlorobenzene
hexachlorobenzene
1,2-dichloroethane
1,1, 1-trichloroethane
hexachloroethane
1 , 1-dichloroethane
1,1, 2-trichloroethane
1 , 1 , 2, 2-tetrachloroethane
chloroethane
bis(chloromethyl) ether
bis(2-chloroethyl) ether
2-chloroethyl vinyl ether (mixed)
2-chloronaphthalene
2 ,4,6-trichlorophenol
parachlorometa cresol
chloroform (trichloromethane)
2-chlorophenol
1 ,2-dichlorobenzene
1 , 3-dichlorobenzene
1 , 4-dichlorobenzene
3 , 3-dichlorobenzidine
1 , 1-dichloroethylene
1 , 2- trans-dichloroethylene
2,4-dichlorophenol
1 , 2-dichloropropane
1 , 3-dichloropropylene
2,4-dimethylphenol
2^4-dinitrotoluene
2,6-dinitrotoluene
1 ,2-diphenylhydrazine
ethylbenzene
fluoranthene
4-chlorophenyl phenyl ether
6
5
6
1
4
33
1
1
5
1
1
3
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
7
3
26
27
42
9
28
53
5
6
34
1
1
9
2
8
5
3
1
2
7
3
5
8
16
9
8
10
2
2
2
3
3
5
7
1
4
262
264
243
254
236
244
235
182
256
245
233
260
258
254
258
256
246
255
256
263
260
259
249
257
252
259
259
260
267
265
263
263
263
260
261
262
263
256
263
264
43
46
38
40
43
61
44
38
48
50
46
51
53
52
52
48
60
53
54
42
44
47
55
43
40
40
40
41
41
41
43
45
45
45
45
44
39
41
42
41
V-33
-------
TABLE V-10 (Cent.)
Priority Pollutant
Known Suspected
Present Present
Known Suspected
Absent Absent
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
4-bromophenyl phenyl ether
bis(2-chloroisopropyl) ether
bis(2-chloroethoxy) methane
methylene chloride
(dichloromethane)
methyl chloride (chloromethane)
methyl bromide (bromome thane)
bromoform (tribromome thane)
dichlorobromomethane
trichlorofluoromethane
dichlorodifluorome thane
chlorodibromomethane
hexachlorobutadiene
hexachlorocyclopentadiene
isophorone
naphthalene
nitrobenzene
2-nitrophenol
4-nitrophenol
2,4-dinitrophenol
4,6-dinitro-o-cresol
N-nitrosodimethylamine
N-nitrosodiphenylamine
N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
pentachlorophenol
phenol (4APP)
bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
butyl benzyl phthalate
di-n-butyl phthalate
di-n-octyl phthalate*
diethyl phthalate
dimethyl phthalate
1,2 benzanthracene
3,4-benzopyrene
3 , 4-benzof luoranthene
11 , 12-benzof luoranthene
chrysene
acenaphthylene
anthracene
1 , 12-benzoperylene
fluorene
3
1
7
2
81
3
1
8
3
2
i
1
1
17
2
4
1
5
2
1
48
7
2
2
4
2
5
4
15
48
4
2
6
7
17
5
2
1
1
1
2
8
2
4
266
263
265
242
264
265
266
265
264
263
261
260
265
262
232
260
262
260
257
259
260
261
265
248
161
263
261
261
261
243
260
261
263
262
262
262
256
259
256
43
46
45
41
43
43
44
46
45
45
49
44
43
45
33
42
43
43
43
45
42
42
42
45
38
41
43
42
41
40
41
43
44
45
44
41
41
45
45
V-34
-------
TABLE V-10 (Cont.)
Priority Pollutant
Known Suspected Known Suspected
Present Present Absent Absent
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
phenanthrene
1 ,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene
indeno(l,2,3-cd) pyrene
pyrene
tetrachloroethylene
toluene
trichloroethylene
vinyl chloride (chloroethylene)
aldrin
dieldrin
chlordane (technical mixture
and metabolites)
4, 4' -DDT
4, 4 '-DDE (p.p'-DDX)
4,4'-DDD (p.p'-TDE)
alpha-endosulfan
beta-endosulfan
endosulfan sulfate
endrin
endrin aldehyde
heptachlor
heptachlor epoxide
alpha-BHC
beta-BHC
gamma-BHC (lindane)
delta-BHC
PCB-1242 (Arochlor 1242)
PCB-1254 (Arochlor 1254)
PCB-1221 (Arochlor 1221)*
PCB-1232 (Arochlor 1232)*
PCB-1248 (Arochlor 1248)*
PCB-1260 (Arochlor 1260)*
PCB-1016 (Arochlor 1016)*
Toxaphene
Antimony (Total)
Arsenic (Total)
Asbestos (Fibrous)
Beryllium (Total)
Cadmium (Total)
Chromium (Total)
Copper (Total)
10
8
4
2
1
1
1
1
16
10
3
2
24
117
87
3
6
2
19
40
17
5
1
1
1
1
36
6
3
5
17
55
79
260
258
261
261
242
223
251
253
242
241
242
239
240
240
243
243
244
246
246
246
246
244
245
245
245
244
244
243
208
246
257
257
219
117
146
43
42
46
45
43
43
40
47
78
78
78
82
82
82
77
77
77
77
77
77
77
77
77
77
77
79
79
77
56
70
65
65
57
38
27
V-35
-------
TABLE V-10 (Cont.)
Known Suspected Known Suspected
Priority Pollutant Present Present Absent Absent
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
Cyanide (Total)
Lead (Total)
Mercury (Total)
Nickel (Total)
Selenium (Total)
Silver (Total)
Thallium (Total)
Zinc (Total)
2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
(TCDD)
10
34
19
28
7
12
2
100
6
27
15
28
3
4
1
64
1
240
204
212
208
242
244
251
140
260
72
59
68
53
59
56
59
30
44
* Pollutant not included on original list of 123.
Known Present - The compound has been detected by reasonable analytical
procedures in the discharge or by reference is known to
be present in the raw waste load.
Suspected Present- The compound is a raw material in the processes employed,
a product, a by-product, catalyst, etc. Its presence
in the raw waste load and discharge is a reasonable
technical judgment.
Suspected Absent - No known reason to predict that the compound is present
in the discharge.
Known Absent - The application of reasonable analytical procedures
designed to detect the material have yielded negative
results.
V-36
-------
Field Sampling Program
Because of the non-existence of historical data on the priority pollutants
noted above, it was necessary to perform a comprehensive field sampling
program. The program was organized to involve four phases. The first
phase was conducted by Monsanto Research Corporation (MRC) in connection
with the joint ATMI/EPA mobile pilot plant project. Raw waste, secondary
effluent, and, in some cases, advanced treatment effluent samples were
collected at 23 locations during March, April, and May of 1977. The
second phase was directed by Sverdrup & Parcel (S&P), with MRC providing
laboratory analytical service. Raw waste and secondary effluent samples
were collected at 8 additional locations (6 by S&P and 2 by EPA sampling
crews) and from the various advanced treatment modes of the mobile pilot
plant at 1 previously sampled location (by S&P) during May, June, and
July of 1977. The third phase was also directed by S&P, with MRC and
EPA Region IV providing analytical and/or sampling services. Water
supply, raw waste, secondary effluent, and/or advanced treatment effluent
samples were collected at 13 additional locations (8 by S&P and 5 by EPA
Region IV sampling crews) and from the various advanced treatment modes
of the mobile pilot plant at 1 previously sampled location during September,
October, and November of 1977. The fourth phase was directed by S&P,
with MRC providing sampling and analytical services. An additional 10
locations were sampled to investigate the day-to-day fluctuations in raw
wastes and treated effluents. This phase also studied the efficiency of
various full scale advanced, physicochemical treatment technologies.
The scope of the field sampling program, to date, is presented in Table
V-ll. A total of 44 mills was sampled, and all nine subcategories were
included, with more emphasis placed on the major subcategories in terms
of number and size of establishments. Most of the direct discharge
mills provided BPT (secondary) treatment, and a few provided additional
(advanced) treatment processes. The sample collection and handling
procedures employed by each sampling crew and the laboratory analytical
procedures employed by MRC conformed to protocols developed by EPA. A
summary of the procedures is provided in Appendix D.
The overall qualitative results of the field sampling program of raw
textile mill wastewaters by subcategory are presented in Table V-12.
All positive results are included whether or not the concentration is
regarded as meaningful in terms of analytical accuracy or environmental
impact. Three of the priority pollutants [bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate,
copper, and zinc] were detected in all nine major subcategories. An
additional five pollutants were detected in eight of the nine major
subcategories. At the opposite end of the scale, 18 priority pollutants
were detected in only a single subcategory. This reflects the wide
variety of manufacturing methods and process machinery in the textile
industry and, perhaps, the fluctuating character of textile wastes
caused by batch operations and frequent changes in product line. Of
interest was the finding that the average number of organic priority
pollutants detected at the 44 mills was approximately 6.
V-37
-------
TABLE V-ll
SUMMARY OF MILL CHARACTERISTICS AND SAMPLE COLLECTION
FIELD SAMPLING PROGRAM
Mill Type
Typical Processing
Products
Samples Collected
Water Raw Secon- Ad-
Supply Waste dary vanced
f
u>
oo
1. Wool_ Scouring Raw wool scouring
1. Wool Scouring Raw wool scouring, heavy
scour, carbonizing, bleaching
1. Wool Scouring Raw wool scouring, spinning
2. Wool Finishing Heavy scouring, stock & yarn
dyeing
2. Wool Finishing Heavy scouring, bleaching,
stock & yarn dyeing
3. Low Water Use Spinning, slashing, weaving
Processing
3. Low Water Use Water-jet weaving
Processing
Wool top
Wool top & wool/
polyester fabric
Wool top & carpet
yarn
Woven fabric
Apparel & upholstery
fabric
Woven greige goods
Woven greige goods X
X
X
X
X
-------
TABLE V-ll (Cont.)
Mill Type
Typical Processing
Products
Samples Collected
Water Raw Secon- Ad-
Supply Water dary vanced
4. Woven Fabric Finishing
a.
a .
Simple
Simple
Processing
Processing
Piece dyeing
Printing
Upholstery fabric
Sheets, blankets,
X
X
X
X
X
b. Complex Processing
b. Complex Processing
b. Complex Processing
Complex Processing
Plus Desizing
Complex Processing
Plus Desizing
towels
Scouring, bleaching, Finished fabric
printing, piece dyeing
Desizing, scouring, Finished fabric
bleaching, mercerizing,
printing, dyeing
Slashing, weaving,
desizing, bleaching,
printing, dyeing
Sheets & towels
Desizing, scouring, Finished fabric
bleaching, mercerizing,
piece dyeing
Weaving, desizing,
scouring, bleaching,
printing, piece dyeing
Sheets
X
-------
TABLE V-ll (Cont.)
Samples Collected
Water Raw Secon- Ad-
Mill Type Typical Processing Products Supply Water dary vanced
c. Complex Processing Desizing, scouring, Finished fabric X X
Plus Desizing bleaching, piece dyeing
c. Complex Processing Desizing, scouring, Finished fabric X X X X*
Plus Desizing bleaching, mercerizing,
dyeing
c. Complex Processing Desizing, scouring, Sheeting & shirting X X
Plus Desizing bleaching, mercerizing,
piece dyeing
f
*j c. Complex Processing Desizing, scouring, Finished fabric X X
Plus. Desizing bleaching, mercerizing,
piece dyeing
c. Complex Processing Desizing, scouring, Finished fabric X X
Plus Desizing bleaching, mercerizing,
piece dyeing
c. Complex Processing Desizing, scouring, Finished fabric X X
Plus Desizing bleaching, mercerizing,
(Commission yarn & piece dyeing
Finisher)
* Collected from mobile pilot plant.
-------
TABLE V-ll (Cont.)
Samples Collected
Water Raw Secon- Ad-
Mill Type Typical Processing Products Supply Water dary vanced
c. Complex Processing Desizing, scouring, Sheeting X X
Plus Desizing bleaching, mercerizing,
printing, piece dyeing
c. Complex Processing Desizing, scouring, Sheeting & apparel XXX
Plus Desizing mercerizing, printing,
piece dyeing
c. Complex Processing Slashing, weaving, Denim fabric XXX
Plus Desizing desizing, scouring,
bleaching, yarn dyeing
5. Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing Scouring, piece dyeing Apparel fabric X X
a. Simple Processing Piece dyeing Outerwear fabric X X
a. Simple Processing Piece dyeing Apparel & auto X X X X*
upholstery fabric
b. Complex Processing Scouring, bleaching, Apparel fabric X X
printing, piece dyeing
Collected from in-place technology and mobile pilot plant.
-------
TABLE V-ll (Cont.)
JS
ro
Mill Type
Typical Processing Products
Samples Collected
Water Raw Secon- Ad-
Supply Water dary vanced
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
c. Hosiery Products
c. Hosiery Products
6. Carpet Finishing
Scouring, bleaching,
piece dyeing
Piece dyeing
Scouring, bleaching,
piece dyeing
Piece dyeing
Tufting, piece dyeing,
Finished fabric
Men's hosiery
Men's hosiery
Ladies' hosiery
Finished carpet
X
X X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X*
X
6. Carpet Finishing
6. Carpet Finishing
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing
latex backing
Tufting, piece dyeing,
latex backing
Tufting, printing,
piece dyeing, latex
backing
Desizing, scouring,
bleaching
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing Yarn dyeing
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing
Bleaching, mercerizing,
yarn dyeing
Finished carpet
Finished carpet
Surgical gauze &
cotton
Greige & finished
yarn
Sewing thread & yarn
Effluent from holding basin.
-------
TABLE V-ll (Cont.)
*>
UJ
Mill Type
Typical Processing
Products
Samples Collected
Water Raw Secon- Ad-
Supply Water dary vanced
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing Yarn dyeing
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing Yarn dyeing
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing Wool scouring, stock
Finished yarn
Finished yarn
Carpet yarn
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X*
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
9. Felted Fabric
Processing
dyeing, yarn dyeing
Carding, adhesive
bonding
Carding, adhesive
bonding, viscose
regeneration
Fiber preparation, wet
lay, adhesive bonding
Weaving, scouring,
felting
Disposable wiping
towels
Finished fabric
Finished fabric
Papermaker's felt
X*
Collected from polishing pond.
-------
TABLE V-12
PRIORITY POLLUTANTS DETECTED IN TEXTILE MILL RAW WASTEWATERS
Subcategory
1.
3.
4.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
13.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
27.
29.
31.
32.
36.
37.
38.
44.
45.
48.
Priority Pollutant
acenaphthene
acrylonitrile
benzene
chlorobenzene
1,2, 4-trichlorobenzene
hexachlorobenzene
1 ,2-dichloroethane
1,1, 1-trichloroethane
1 , 1-dichloroethane
2-chloronaphthalene
2,4, 6- trichlorophenol
parachlorometa cresol
chloroform
2-chlorophenol
1 ,2-dichlorobenzene
1 ,4-dichlorobenzene
1 , 1-dichloroethylene
2 , 4-dichlorophenol
1 ,2-dichloropropane
2 , 6-dinitro toluene
1 , 2-diphenylhydrazine
ethylbenzene
methylene chloride
methyl chloride
dichlorobromomethane
1 2 3 4a 4b 4c 5a 5b 5c 6
XXX
X
X XXX XX
X XXX
X X XXX
X X
X
XXX
X
X
XX XX
X
X XXXXXXXX
X
XX XXX
X X
X
X X
X
X
XX XXXXX X
XX X
X
X
789
X
X X
X
X
X X
-------
TABLE V-12 (Cont.)
Ul
Subcategory
55.
62.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
70.
71.
74.
75.
78.
80.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
114.
115.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
Priority Pollutant
naphthalene
N-nitrosodiphenylamine
pentachlorophenol
phenol (4APP)
bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
butyl benzyl phthalate
di-n-butyl phthalate
diethyl phthalate
dimethyl phthalate
3 ,4-benzof luoranthene
11,] 2-benzof luoranthane
anthracene
f luorene
pyrene
tetrachloroethylene
toluene
tricholroethylene
vinyl chloride
antimony
arsenic
beryllium
cadmium
chromium
copper
cyanide
lead
1 2
X
X
X X
X X
X
X X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X X
X X
X X
X
X
3 4a
X
X
X X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
4b
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
4c
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
5a
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
5b
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
5c
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
6
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
7
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
8
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
9
X
X
X
X
X
-------
f
TABLE V-12 (Cont.)
Priority Pollutant
128. zinc
4a 4b
Subcategory
4c 5a 5b
5c
123.
12A.
125.
126.
127.
mercury
nickel
selenium
silver
thallium
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-------
The quantitative results of the field sampling program are summarized in
Table V-13, with the median and maximum concentrations and the numbers
of mills where detected. Results are shown for the water supply, the
raw wastes, and the secondary treatment effluent. The results from
advanced treatment units are included in Section VII to describe the
performance of the different technologies. It should be noted (Table V-ll)
that water supply samples were collected for 14 mills, with two pairs of
mills using the same supply. In other words, 12 separate water supply
samples were collected and analyzed.
Table V-13 includes all 129 of the priority pollutants, whether detected
in textile wastes or not, and it shows that 65 priority pollutants,
including all but two of the pesticides and all of the PCB's were not
detected in any wastewater sample. An additional 15 priority pollutants were
detected only once, i.e., in samples from only one source stream.
With the exception of zinc, the maximum concentration of any priority
pollutant detected in raw wastewater was less than 5 mg/1; zinc was
detected at just under 8 mg/1.
The field sampling program differed from the usual screening and verifica-
tion programs prescribed by EPA in that the number of mills in each
subcategory was changed to more closely fit the distribution of mills in
the industry. Because of the wide diversity within the manufacturing
processes used by the textile industry, it was recognized that the
screening phase should encompass more than one mill in each subcategory.
That this expanded approach was correct is indicated by the number of
priority pollutants that were detected at only one of the 44 mills, as
discussed in more detail in Section VI. The findings of the field
sampling program also indicate that a verification program that adhered
exactly to the EPA protocol would not have produced different results
because many of the priority pollutants were found infrequently and
probably would not have shown up during the verification phase. On the
other hand, the field sampling program did clearly identify those priority
pollutants that are generally used in the various subcategories of the
textile industry.
Priority Pollutants - Field Sampling Data
Based on the data from the field sampling program, the most significant
priority pollutants within each subcategory of the industry were identified.
Both raw wastewater and secondary treated effluent samples were reviewed,
and all values of 10 ug/1 and above were included. The maximum concen-
tration detected and the number of mills where the pollutant was detected
were considered in determining the significance of the pollutants.
It should be noted that the number of mills sampled was necessarily
limited, and this information is not intended as an all-inclusive listing.
Subsequent findings may result in other priority pollutants being added.
V-47
-------
TABLE V-13
SUMMARY OF ANALYTICAL RESULTS - PRIORITY POLLUTANT SAMPLING PROGRAM
oo
Priority Pollutant
Concentration Observed, micrograms/liter
Water Supply Raw Wastewater Secondary Effluent
Med. Max. No. Med. Max. No. Med. Max. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
acenaphthene
acrolein
acrylonitrile
benzene (4) (5)
benzidine
carbon tetrachloride
chlorobenzene
1,2, 4- trichlorobenzene
hexachlorobenzene
1,2-dichloroethane *
1,1,1- trichloroethane (5)
hexa chloroe thane
1 , 1-dichloroethane
1 , 1 , 2- trichloroethane
1,1,2, 2-tetrachloroethane
chloroethane
bis (chloromethyl) ether
bis (2-chloroethyl) ether
2-chloroethyl vinyl ether
(mixed)
2-chloronaphthalene
*
*
*
2
*
*
*
*
*
1
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
8.7 12
1600
(5) 200
25 296
410 2700
1.3 2
(5) 1
7.8 17
13 14
(10)
3
*
1
10
*
*
5
8
2
4
JL
1
*
*
*
*
*
*
1
0.5 1
*
400 1
(5) 64 4
JL.
*
3.5 1
608 1582 4
*
*
(5) 1
*
*
*
*
"
*
*
*
* Pollutant not detected
( ) Reported as less than value
-------
TABLE V-13 (Cont.)
Priority Pollutant
Concentration Observed, micrograms/liter
Water Supply Raw Wastewater Secondary Effluent
Med. Max. No. Med. Max. No. Med. Max. No.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
2,4,6-trichlorophenol
parachlorometa cresol
chloroform 39 1360
2-chlorophenol
1 ,2-dichlorobenzene
1 , 3-dichlorobenzene
1 ,4-dichlorobenzene
3,3'-dichlorobenzidine
1 ,1-dichloroethylene
1 ,2-trans-dichloroethylene
2 ,4-dichlorophenol
1 ,2-dichloropropane
1,3-dichloropropylene 0.8
2 ,4-dimethylphenol
2 ,4-dinitrotoluene
2 ,6-dinitrotoluene
1 ,2-diphenylhydrazine
ethylbenzene
fluoranthene
4-chlorophenyl phenyl ether
*
*
6
*
*
.i.
*
*
*
*
*
it
1
*
Jt.
/«
*
*
*
*
*
20 27
168
48 642
78
2.0 287
110 215
(5)
26 41
100
54
22
54 2840
4
1
11
1
7
JL
/«
2
*
1
*
2
1
*
*
JL
/i
1
1
20
*
*
19
32
8.5 58
5.9
10 20
0.8 1.5
8.0
63 3018
1
1
6
1
4
J-
t\
2
*
*
*
*
*
*
1
.A.
/«
*
*
8
_A_
*
* Pollutant not detected
( ) Reported as less than value
-------
TABLE V-13 (Cont.)
Ul
o
Priority Pollutant
Concentration Observed, micrograms/liter
Water Supply Raw Wastewater- Secondary Effluent
Med. Max. No. Med. Max. No. Med. Max. No.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53,
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
4-bromophenyl phenyl ether
bis(2-chloroisopropyl) ether
bis(2-chloroethoxy) methane
methylene chloride (5) (5)
methyl chloride
methyl bromide
bromoform
dichlorobromomethane (5) (5)
trichlorofluorome thane
dichlorodifluoromethane
chlorodibromomethane
hexachlorobutadiene
hexachlorocyclopentadiene
isophorone
naphthalene
nitrobenzene
2-nitrophenol
4-nitrophenol
2 ,4-dinitrophenol
4 ,6-dinitro-o-cresol
*
*
*
2
*
*
*
2
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
j.
*
47 110 3 (5) (5)
(5) 1
*
*
6.6 1
* 90 2138
*
*
*
*
*
44 410 19 22 255
*
* 4.1
* (10)
*
*
*
k
k
3
k
A.
t\
*
*
3
*
*
*
*
#
5
*
1
1
*
*
* Pollutant not detected
( ) Reported as less than value
-------
TABLE V-13 (Cont.)
f
VS1
Priority Pollutant
Concentration Observed, micrograms/liter
Water Supply Raw Wastewater Secondary Effluent
Med. Max. No. Med. Max. No. Med. Max. No.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
N-nitrosodimethylamine
N-nitrosodiphenylamine
N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
pentachlorophenol
phenol (4APP) 10 36
bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate 8.2 39
butyl benzyl phthalate
di-n-butyl phthalate 1.6
di-n-octyl phthalate
diethyl phthalate 2.1 5.5
dime-thyl phthalate
1,2 benzanthracene
3 , 4-benzopyrene
3 , 4-benzof lubranthene
11 , 12-benzof luoranthene
chrysene
acenaphthylene
anthracene 0.2 0.4
1 , 12-benzoperylene
fluorene 0.2 0.4
*
*
*
*
5
6
J.
1
__
/«
3
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
3
*
2
15
52
55
26
42
16
6.0
12
72
940
4900
860
73
67
86
14
(10)
(10)
0.1
15
J-
t\
3
*
11
25
27
2
7
-*.
*»
10
4
*
*
1
1
*
*
1
*
1
10 19
12 15
14 50
18 231
3.6
1.5 9.4
1.0
4.4
*
j_
#»
2
2
7
23
*
1
*
4
1
*
*
*
*
*
*
1
j>_
/«
*
* Pollutant not detected
( ) Reported as less than value
-------
TABLE V-13 (Cont.)
Ln
NJ
Priority Pollutant
Coacentration Observed, micrograms/liter
Water Supply Raw Wastewater Secondary Effluent
Med. Max. No. Med. Max. No. Med. Max. No.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
phenanthrene
1 ,2,5 ,6-dibenzanthracene
indeno(l,2,3-cd)pyrene
pyrene
tetrachloroethylene
toluene 0.8
trichloroethylene
vinyl chloride
aldrin
dieldrin
chlordane
4, 4' -DDT
4,4'-DDE(p,p' DDX)
4,4'-DDD(p,p1 TDE)
alpha-endosulfan
beta-endosulfan
endosulfan sulfate
endrin
endrin aldehyde
heptachlor
*
*
*
*
*
2.4 4
*
*
*
J.
t\
ft
J.
ft
*
JL.
t\
*
*
ft
*
*
*
*
*
0.9 1
(5) 2100 7
26 620 25
47 840 10
11 1
*
JL
t\
ft
ft
*
*
ft
*
*
*
*
*
JL.
*\
*
*
0.2 0.3 4
11 17 2
14 1400 16
4.9 87 4
*
*
0.2 1
*
0.5 1
.A.
/»
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Pollutant not detected
( ) Reported as less than value
-------
TABLE V-13 (Cont.)
Ln
LO
Priority Pollutant
Concentration Observed, micrograms/liter
Water Supply Raw Wastewater Secondary Effluent
Med. Max. No. Med. Max. No. Med. Max. No.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
heptachlor epoxide
alpha-BHC
beta-BHC
gamma -BHC (lindane)
delta-BHC
PCB-1242 (Arochlor 1242)
PCB-1254 (Arochlor 1254)
PCB-1221 (Arochlor 1221)
PCB-1232 (Arochlor 1232)
PCB-1248 (Arochlor 1248)
PCB-1260 (Aroclor 1260)
PCB-1016 (Aroclor 1016)
toxaphene
antimony
arsenic
asbestos (fibrous)//
beryllium
cadmium
chromium
copper
(5)
(5)
(5)
(10)
(5)
10
48
(5)
(5)
(10)
(5)
47
*
*
*
*
*
*
JL
/»
*
.A.
/«
*
*
J.
t\
JL
/*
6
4
4
5
5
6
7.0
10
(5)
(5)
14
40
170
200
40
46
880
2400
J4.
/»
*
*
Jt.
t\
*
*
J.
n
J-
J>.
*
*
*
j.
n
23
14
5
22
37
40
4.5
39
(5)
6
20
32
684
160
(5)
13
1800
290
*
*
*
*
*
*».
**
*
*
*
*
*
*
.X.
16
8
5
15
27
28
* Pollutant not detected
# Pollutant not analyzed for
( ) Reported as less than value
-------
TABLE V-13 (Cont.)
<
Ul
Priority Pollutant
Concentration Observed, micrograms/liter
Water Supply Raw Wastewater Secondary Effluent
Med. Max. No. Med. Max. No. Med. Max. No.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
cyanide
lead
mercury
nickel
selenium
silver
thallium
zinc
2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodi
benzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) #
11
(5)
0.2
(5)
(5)
(5)
3
60
22
45
0.8
47
23
17
3
4540
4
6
4
6
6
6
4
12
8.0
35
0.6
54
35
32
3
190
39
750
4
300
740
130
9
7900
10
26
10
32
10
26
5
45
12
46
0.4
70
47
25
3.0
200
980
120
0.7
150
97
140
18
38000
5
16
7
18
4
15
4
30
* Pollutant not detected
# Pollutant not analyzed for
( ) Reported as less than value
-------
Subcategory 1. - Wool Scouring. Three mills in the Wool Scouring subcategory
were sampled for priority pollutants. The following pollutants were
found to be most significant:
8. 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene
65. phenol
66. bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
68. di-ni-butyl phthalate
70. diethyl phthalate
85. tetrachloroethylene
87. trichloroethylene
115. arsenic
118. cadmium
119. chromium
120. copper
121. cyanide
122. lead
124. nickel
126. silver
128. zinc
Subcategory 2 - Wool Finishing. Two mills in the Wool Finishing subcategory
were sampled for priority pollutants. The following pollutants were
found to be most significant:
25. 1,2-dichlorobenzene
27. 1,4-dichlorobenzene
38. ethyl benzene
55. naphthalene
64. pentachlorophenol
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
87. trichloroethylene
118. cadmium
119. chromium
120. copper
123. mercury
124. nickel
128. zinc
Subcategory 3 - Low Water Use Processing. Two mills in the Low Water
Use Processing subcategory were sampled for priority pollutants. The
following pollutants were found to be most significant:
23. chloroform
87. trichloroethylene
120. copper
122. lead
124. nickel
126. silver
128. zinc
V-55
-------
Subcategory 4 - Woven Fabric Finishing. Sixteen mills in the Woven
Fabric Finishing subcategory were sampled for priority pollutants. The
following pollutants were found to be most significant:
4. benzene
7. (mono) chlorobenzene
8. 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene
21. 2,4,6-trichlorophenol
22. parachlorometacresol
23. chloroform
24. 2-chlorophenol
32. 1,2-dichloropropane
38. ethyl benzene
44. methylene chloride
55. naphthalene
62. N-nitrosodiphenylamine
64. pentachlorophenol
65. phenol
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
68. di-n-butyl phthalate
70. dimethyl phthalate
86. toluene
87. trichloroethylene
114. antimony
115. arsenic
118. cadmium
119. chromium
120. copper
122. lead
123. mercury
124. nickel
126. silver
128. zinc
Subcategories 5a and 5b - Knit Fabric Finishing. Six mills in the Knit
Fabric Finishing subcategory were sampled for priority pollutants. The
following pollutants were found to be most significant:
8. 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene
23. chloroform
25. 1,2-dichlorobenzene
38. ethyl benzene
55. naphthalene
64. pentachlorophenol
65. phenol
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
69. diethyl phthalate
70. dimethyl phthalate
85. tetrachloroethylene
86. toluene
V-56
-------
87. trichloroethylene
114. antimony
115. arsenic
118. cadmium
119. chromium
120. copper
121. cyanide
122. lead
124. nickel
126. silver
128. zinc
Subcategory 5_£ - Hosiery Products. Three mills in the Knit Fabric
Finishing - Hosiery Products subcategory were sampled for priority
pollutants. The following pollutants were found to be most significant:
3. acrylonitrile
21. 2,4,6-trichlorophenol
23. chloroform
55. naphthalene
62. N-nitrosodiphenylamine
65. phenol
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
67. tetrachloroethylene
119. chromium
126. silver
128. zinc
Subcategory 6 - Carpet Finishing. Three mills in the Carpet Finishing
subcategory were sampled for priority pollutants. The following pollutants
were found to be most significant:
23. chloroform
37. diphenylhydrazine
55. naphthalene
65. phenol
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
118. cadmium
119. chromium
120. copper
121. cyanide
123. mercury
124. nickel
126. silver
128. zinc
V-57
-------
Subcategory 7 - Stock & Yarn Finishing. Six mills in the Stock &
Yarn Finishing subcategory were sampled for priority pollutants. The
following pollutants were found to be most significant:
23. chloroform
55. naphthalene
65. phenol
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
69. diethyl phthalate
70. dimethyl phthalate
87. trichloroethylene
114. antimony
118. cadmium
119. chromium
120. copper
122. lead
123. mercury
124. nickel
126. silver
128. zinc
Subcategory 8 - Nonwoven Manufacturing. Three mills in the Nonwoven
Manufacturing subcategory were sampled for priority pollutants. The
following pollutants were found to be most significant:
4. benzene
23. chloroform
55. naphthalene
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
67. butyl benzyl phthalate
86. toluene
118. cadmium
120. copper
121. cyanide
122. lead
124. nickel
126. silver
128. zinc
Subcategory 9 - Felted Fabric Processing. One mill in the Felted Fabric
Processing subcategory was sampled for priority pollutants. The following
pollutants were found to be most significant:
55. naphthalene
65. phenol
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
87. trichloroethylene
V-58
-------
Other Sources o£ Information
Various chemical and textile industry literature sources were reviewed
to collect general information about usage of the priority pollutants.
In addition, selected specialists within the industry were asked to
provide information about certain of the pollutants. In some cases, the
results were opinions from chemists and others and were based on the
individual's experience only, without additional study or research. In
other cases, special study committees were convened by trade associations
to gather information from the membership about certain of the priority
pollutants. Except for some of the metals, the findings of these committees
were qualitative because of the absence of quantitative historical
information. Two committees, one from the American Textile Manufacturers
Institute (ATMI) and one from the Dyes Environmental and Toxicology
Organization (DETO), were particularly helpful in providing useful
information.
ATMI organized a special Task Group on Priority Pollutants and it reviewed
in detail a list of 52 priority pollutants that were neither clearly
present nor clearly absent in textile mill wastewaters. This list was
based on the literature and some early results of the field sampling
program. Information was requested about the likelihood of each pollutant
being present and, if so, information about potential sources. The Task
Group classified each pollutant as:
Probable definitely established as present in product or process.
Pollutant levels have been established in only a few cases but the
evidence is sound.
Possible known or suspected as an intermediate or contaminant of
products and processes being used. Many in this category could be
entering in an auxiliary manner such as maintenance products and
agricultural contaminants in process water.
Not Likely -- unable to find data to support the presence of these
chemicals.
For each "probable" or "possible" pollutant, possible sources were
suggested. This information is incorporated in the discussions of the
sources of the individual priority pollutants in Section VI.
The other industry-related group was the Ecology Committee of Dyes
Environmental and Toxicology Organization, Inc. (DETO). DETO comprises
18 member companies that, in aggregate, produce over 90 percent of the
dyes manufactured in the United States. The Ecology Committee carried
out a survey of the DETO membership to determine which of the priority
pollutants in textile wastewaters might originate in dyes. The list of
pollutants was narrowed to 40 that the committee believed could possibly
be present in commercial dye products. Because of time limitations, the
V-59
-------
committee focused on dye products for which domestic sales (1976) exceeded
90,000 kg (approximately 20,000 pounds) per year and for which there are
more than two producers. The list of dyes numbered 70. Questionnaires
were sent to and received from all 18 member companies, and in addition
to the 70 listed dyes, responses were received for an additional 81
dyes, for a total of 151 dye products representing 55.3 percent of the
113,380 metric tons (approximately 250 million pounds) sold in 1976.
Six priority pollutants (chromium, copper, parachlorometacresol, penta-
chlorophenol, phenol, and zinc) were classed as "believed present in (some)
commercial dyes at greater than 0.1%" and 19 additional pollutants were
classified as "believed present in (some) commercial dyes at less than 0.1%."
The results of the DETO survey are presented in more detail in the
discussion of the sources of the individual pollutant parameters in
Section VI.
The ATMI Task Force reports and the DETO survey and results are provided in
Appendix E.
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SECTION VI
SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
The wastewater parameters and individual pollutant constituents that are
to be considered in establishing effluent limitations guidelines, standards
of performance, and pretreatment standards are presented in this section.
They are grouped into three separate classes: conventional, non-conventional,
and priority pollutants. The priority pollutants are further classified
into three groups, based on their evaluated significance in textile mill
wastewaters. The information sources used in selecting the pollutant
parameters in each class are described in Section V.
CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS
The conventional pollutant parameters selected for the textile mills
point source category are the following:
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Oil & Grease
pH - Acidity and Alkalinity
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the quantity of oxygen required for
the biological and chemical oxidation of waterborne substances under
ambient or test conditions. Materials which may contribute to the BOD
include: carbonaceous organic materials usable as a food source by
aerobic organisms; oxidizable nitrogen derived from nitrates, ammonia
and organic nitrogen compounds which serve as food for specific bacteria;
and certain chemically oxidizable materials such as ferrous iron, sulfides,
sulfite, etc. which will react with dissolved oxygen or are metabolized
by bacteria. In most industrial and municipal wastewaters, the BOD
derives principally from organic materials and from ammonia (which is
itself derived from animal or vegetable matter).
The BOD of a waste exerts an adverse effect upon the dissolved oxygen
resources of a body of water by reducing the oxygen available to fish,
plant life, and other aquatic species. Conditions can be reached where
all of the dissolved oxygen in the water is utilized resulting in anaerobic
conditions and the production of undesirable gases such as hydrogen
sulfide and methane. The reduction of dissolved oxygen can be detrimental
to fish populations, fish growth rate, and organisms used as fish food.
A total lack of oxygen due to excessive BOD can result in the death of
all aerobic aquatic inhabitants in the affected area.
Water with a high BOD indicates the presence of decomposing organic
matter and associated increased bacterial concentrations that degrade
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its quality and potential uses. A by-product of high BOD concentrations
can be increased algal concentrations and blooms which result from
decomposition of the organic matter and which form the basis of algal
populations.
The BOD5 (5-day BOD) test is used widely to estimate the pollutional
strength of domestic and industrial wastes in terms of the oxygen that
they will require if discharged into receiving streams. The test is an
important one in water pollution control activities. It is used for
pollution control regulatory activities, to evaluate the design and
efficiencies of wastewater treatment works, and to indicate the state of
purification or pollution of receiving bodies of water.
Complete biochemical oxidation of a given waste may require a period of
incubation too long for practical analytical test purposes. For this
reason, the 5-day period has been accepted as standard, and the test
results have been designated as BOD!5. Specific chemical test methods
are not readily available for measuring the quantity of many degradable
substances and their reaction products. Reliance in such cases is
placed on the collective parameter, BOD5, which measures the weight of
dissolved oxygen utilized by microorganisms as they oxidize or transform
the gross mixture of chemical compounds in the wastewater. The bio-
chemical reactions involved in the oxidation of carbon compounds are
related to the period of incubation. The five-day BOD normally measures
only 60 to 80 percent of the carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand of
the sample, and for many purposes, this is a reasonable parameter.
Additionally, it can be used to estimate the gross quantity of oxidizable
organic matter.
The BOD5 test is essentially a bioassay procedure which provides an
estimate of the oxygen consumed by microorganisms utilizing the degradable
matter present in a waste under conditions that are representative of
those that are likely to occur in nature. Standard conditions of time,
temperature, suggested microbial seed, and dilution water for the wastes
have been defined and are incorporated in the standard analytical procedure.
Through the use of this procedure, the oxygen demand of diverse wastes
can be compared and evaluated for pollution potential and to some extent
for treatability by biological treatment processes.
Because the BOD test is a bioassay procedure, it is important that the
environmental conditions of the test be suitable for the microorganisms
to function in an uninhibited manner at all times. This means that
toxic substances must be absent and that the necessary nutrients, such
as nitrogen, phosphorus, and trace elements, must be present.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a purely chemical oxidation test devised
as an alternate method of estimating the total oxygen demand of a waste-
water. Since the method relies on the oxidation-reduction system of
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chemical analyses rather than on biological factors, it is more precise,
accurate, and rapid than the BOD test. The COD test is widely used to
estimate the total oxygen demand (ultimate rather than 5-day BOD) to
oxidize the compounds in a wastewater. It is based on the fact that
organic compounds, with a few exceptions, can be oxidized by strong
chemical oxidizing agents under acid conditions with the assistance of
certain inorganic catalysts.
The COD test measures the oxygen demand of compounds that are biologically
degradable and of many that are not. Pollutants which are measured by
the BOD5 test will be measured by the COD test. In addition, pollutants
which are more resistant to biological oxidation will also be measured
as COD. COD is a more inclusive measure of oxygen demand than is BOD5
and will result in higher oxygen demand values than will the BOD5 test.
The compounds which are more resistant to biological oxidation are
becoming of greater and greater concern not only because of their slow
but continuing oxygen demand on the resources of the receiving water,
but also because of their potential health effects on aquatic life and
humans. Many of these compounds result from industrial discharges and
some have been found to have carcinogenic, mutagenic and similar adverse
effects, either singly or in combination. Concern about these compounds
has increased as a result of demonstrations that their long life in
receiving water - the result of a slow biochemical oxidation rate -
allows them to contaminate downstream water intakes. The commonly used
systems of water purification are not effective in removing these types
of materials and disinfection, such as chlorination, may convert them
into even more hazardous materials.
Thus the COD test measures organic matter which exerts an oxygen demand
and which may affect the health of the people. It is a useful analytical
tool for pollution control activities. It provides a more rapid measure-
ment of the oxygen demand and an estimate of organic compounds which are
not measured in the BOD5 test.
Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Suspended solids include both organic and inorganic materials. The
inorganic compounds include sand, silt, and clay. The organic fraction
includes such materials as grease, oil, tar, and animal and vegetable
waste products. These solids may settle out rapidly and bottom deposits
are often a mixture of both organic and inorganic solids. Solids may be
suspended in water for a time, and then settle to the bed of the stream
or lake. These solids discharged with man's wastes may be inert, slowly
biodegradable materials, or rapidly decomposable substances. While in
suspension, they increase the turbiaity of the water, reduce light
penetration and impair the photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants.
Suspended solids in water interfere with many industrial processes,
cause foaming in boilers and incrustations on equipment exposed to such
water, especially as the temperature rises. They are undesirable in
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process water used in the manufacture of steel, in the textile industry,
in laundries, in dyeing, and in cooling systems.
Solids in suspension are aesthetically displeasing. When they settle to
form sludge deposits on the stream or lake bed, they are often damaging
to the life in water. Solids, when transformed to sludge deposits, may
do a variety of damaging things, including blanketing the stream or lake
bed and thereby destroying the living spaces for those benthic organisms
that would otherwise occupy that habitat. When of an organic nature,
solids use a portion or all of the dissolved oxygen available in the
area. Organic materials also serve as a food source for sludgeworms and
associated organisms.
Disregarding any toxic effect attributable to substances leached out by
water, suspended solids may kill fish and shellfish by causing abrasive
injuries and by clogging the gills and respiratory passages of various
aquatic fauna.
Indirectly, suspended solids are inimical to aquatic life because they
screen out light, and they promote and maintain the development of
noxious conditions through oxygen depletion. This results in the killing
of fish and fish food organisms. Suspended solids also reduce the
recreational value of the water.
Oil & Grease
Because of widespread use, oil and grease occur often in wastewater
streams. These oily wastes may be classified as follows:
1. Light Hydrocarbons - These include light fuels such as gasoline,
kerosene, and jet fuel, and miscellaneous solvents used for industrial
processing, degreasing, or cleaning purposes. The presence of these
light hydrocarbons may make the removal of other heavier oily wastes
more difficult.
2. Heavy Hydrocarbons, Fuels and Tar - These include the crude oils,
diesel oils, #6 fuel oil, residual oils, slop oils and, in some cases,
asphalt and road tar.
3. Lubricants and Cutting Fluids - These generally fall into two
classes: non-emulsifiable oils such as lubricating oils and greases and
emulsifiable oils such as water soluble oils, rolling oils, cutting
oils, and drawing compounds. Emulsifiable oils may contain fat, soap,
or various other additives.
4. Vegetable and Animal Fats and Oils - These originate primarily from
processing of foods and natural products.
These compounds can settle or float and may exist as solids or liquids
depending upon factors such as method of use, production process, and
temperature of wastewater.
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Oils and grease even in small quantities cause troublesome taste and
odor problems. Scum lines from these agents are produced on water
treatment basin walls and other containers. Fish and water fowl are
adversely affected by oils in their habitat. Oil emulsions may adhere
to the gills of fish causing suffocation, and the flesh of fish is
tainted when microorganisms that were exposed to waste oil are eaten.
Deposition of oil in the bottom sediments of water can serve to inhibit
normal benthic growth. Oil and grease exhibit an oxygen demand.
Levels of oil and grease which are toxic to aquatic organisms vary
greatly, depending on the type and the species susceptibility. However,
it has been reported that crude oil in concentrations as low as 0.3 mg/1
is extremely toxic to fresh-water fish. It has been recommended that
public water supply sources be essentially free from oil and grease.
Oil and grease in quantities of 100 1/sq km (10 gallons/sq mile) show up
as a sheen on the surface of a body of water. The presence of oil
slicks prevent the full aesthetic enjoyment of water. The presence of
oil in water can also increase the toxicity of other substances being
discharged into the receiving bodies of water. Municipalities frequently
limit the quantity of oil and grease that can be discharged to their
wastewater treatment systems by industry.
Wool wax is a substantial pollutant in the Wool Scouring subcategory of
the textile industry; in other subcategories, materials measured as
grease and oil are much less troublesome.
p_H - Acidity and Alkalinity
Although not a specific pollutant, pH is related to the acidity or
alkalinity of a wastewater stream. It is not a linear or direct measure
of either; however, it may properly be used as a surrogate to control
both excess acidity and excess alkalinity in water. The term pH is used
to describe the hydrogen ion - hydroxyl ion balance in water. Technically,
pH is the hydrogen ion concentration or activity present in a given
solution. pH numbers are the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion
concentrations. A pH of 7 generally indicates neutrality or a balance
between free hydrogen and free hydroxyl ions. Solutions with a pH above
7 indicate that the solution is alkaline, while a pH below 7 indicates
that the solution is acid.
Knowledge of the pH of water or wastewater is useful in determining
necessary measures for corrosion control, pollution control, and
disinfection. Waters with a pH below 6.0 are corrosive to water works
structures, distribution lines, and household plumbing fixtures and such
corrosion can add constituents to drinking water such as iron, copper,
zinc, cadmium and lead. Low pH waters not only tend to dissolve metals
from structures and fixtures but also tend to redissolve or leach metals
from sludges and bottom sediments. The hydrogen ion concentrations can
affect the taste of the water and at a low pH, water tastes sour.
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Extremes of pH or rapid pH changes can exert stress conditions or kill
aquatic life outright. Even moderate changes from acceptable criteria
limits of pH are deleterious to some species. The harmful effect on
aquatic life of many materials is increased by changes in the water pH.
For example, metalocyanide complexes can increase a thousand-fold in
toxicity with a drop of 1.5 pH units. Similarly, the toxicity of ammonia
is a function of pH. The bactericidal effect of chlorine in most cases
is less as the pH increases, and it is economically advantageous to keep
the pH close to 7.
NON-CONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS
The non-conventional pollutant parameters selected for the textile mill
point source category are the following:
Color
Sulfide
Total Phenols
Color
Color is defined as either "true" or "apparent." In Standard Methods
for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (8), the true color of water
is defined as "the color of water from which the turbidity has been
removed." Apparent colors include "not only the color due to substances
in solution, but also due to suspended matter."
Color in textile wastewater results from equipment washup, textile
washwater and from dye not exhausted in the dyeing process.
Color bodies interfere with the transmission of light within the visible
spectrum which is absorbed and used in the photosynthetic process of
microflora. Color will affect the aquarian ecosystem balance by changing
the amount of light transmitted and may lead to species turnover.
Color bodies discharged to waterways alter the natural stream color and
thereby become an aesthetic pollutant. Unnatural receiving water color
detracts from the visual appeal and recreational value of the waterways.
Color, when discharged to receiving waters, may have a detrimenal effect
on downstream municipal and industrial water users. Color is not treated
for in conventional water treatment systems and when passed to users may
result in consumer discontent and may also interfere with industrial
processes which demand high quality water.
Color is found in wastewater throughout the textile industry. Some
colors are water soluble and some are not (dispersed and vat dyes).
Biodegradability is highly variable. Many hues are used in dyeing, and
may appear in wastes; their combination in waste streams frequently
generates a gray or black color. There is no universally accepted
monitoring method, although an analytical procedure developed by the
American Dye Manufacturers Institute (ADMI) has been found to evaluate
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color in textile effluents most accurately. The analytical procedure
and the calculations required to evaluate color are reported in Appendix
A of the Point Source Development Document (1).
Sulfide
Sulfates discharged to neutral receiving waters can be reduced to hydrogen
sulfide under certain conditions. Hydrogen sulfide is an extremely
toxic, odoriferous, and corrosive gas. It is very soluble and exists
as a dissolved gas in receiving waters.
Minute concentrations (less than 0.002 mg/1) of hydrogen sulfide impart
an objectionable odor and taste to water, making it unfit for municipal
consumption.
The proven toxicity of sulfides to aquatic life makes them objectionable
components of the waste stream. Sulfide corrosion of metal and cement
structures are additional problems. In addition to corrosion, discolora-
tion of structures through sulfide oxidation is a cause for concern.
Organic sulfur and sulfides are in the waste flow from the dyeing operation,
and are also derived from other processes using compounds containing
organic sulfur.
PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
Because there are several manufacturing processes that are common to
more than one subcategory of the textile industry, the data from all
mills in the field sampling program were combined in order to identify
the priority pollutants that are most significant for the entire industry.
Using the data from the field sampling program and the other sources of
information described in Section V, each of the 129 priority pollutants
was evaluated in terms of its significance in textile mill wastewaters.
The results are presented below in three groups. The first group includes
17 organic compounds, cyanides, and 11 metals. Most of these were found
frequently and all were detected at least once in secondary treatment
effluents at concentrations of 10 ug/1 or greater, except for mercury.
The second group includes those priority pollutants that are potentially
significant in textile mill wastes either in terms of measured raw waste
or treated effluent concentrations or frequency of detection. None
were detected in secondary treatment effluents at concentrations of
10 ug/1 or above. Some Group 2 pollutants were not detected, but were
either established as potentially present in mill wastes by industrial
sources (ATMI or DETO) or suggested as possibly present as an intermediate
or contaminant. The third group includes 27 organic compounds plus
asbestos that are regarded as unlikely constituents of textile wastewaters.
The 10 ug/1 level was selected as an interim limit for the textile
industry in order to focus upon those priority pollutants that potentially
will cause the most serious problems. There exist some questions about
the reliability of results below 10 ug/1 for some of the priority pollutants
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because of limitations in the analytical procedures to extract, concentrate,
and clean up samples of textile mill wastewaters. Also, at this time,
there is little information available about treatment options that can
control concentrations at levels below 10 ug/1.
Group !_ - Most Significant in Textile Wastewaters
The priority pollutants judged to be most significant in textile mill
wastewaters are the following:
3. acrylonitrile
4. benzene
8. 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene
21. 2,4,6-trichlorophenol
22. parachlorometacresol
23. chloroform
25. 1,2-dichlorobenzene
38. ethylbenzene
49. trichlorofluoromethane
55. naphthalene
63. N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
64. pentachlorophenol
65. phenol
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
85. tetrachloroethylene
86. toluene
87. trichloroethylene
114. antimony
115. arsenic
118. cadmium
119. chromium
120. copper
121. cyanide
122. lead
123. mercury
124. nickel
125. selenium
126. silver
128. zinc
A brief discussion of the traditional uses and possible sources in
textile mill operations of each of the Group 1 priority pollutants
follows.
Acrylonitrile. Acrylonitrile is an unsaturated synthetic organic compound
primarily used in the production of acrylic and modacrylic fibers,
nitrile rubber, and plastics. Annual production totals approximately
1.5 billion pounds.
Sources of acrylonitrile reported by the textile industry include fibers
and other raw materials, laboratory operations, dyes, and latex compounds.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 32 indicated "known or suspected
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presence" in mill wastewaters. Despite this indication of rather common
usage, acrylonitrile was detected at only 1 mill of 44 in the field
sampling program.
Benzene. Benzene is produced principally from coal tar distillation and
from petroleum by catalytic reforming of light naphthas from which it is
isolated by distillation or solvent extraction. The broad utility
spectrum of benzene (commercially sometimes called "Benzol") includes:
extraction and rectification; as an intermediate for synthesis in the
chemical and pharmaceutical industries; the preparation and use of inks
in the graphic arts industries; as a thinner for lacquers; as a degreasing
and cleaning agent; as a solvent in the rubber industry; as an antiknock
fuel additive; and as a general solvent in laboratories. Industrial
processes involving the production of benzene and chemical synthesis
usually are performed in sealed and protected systems. Currently,
benzene is used by the chemical industry at the rate of 1.4 billion
gallons annually.
Sources of benzene reported by the textile industry include raw materials,
use as a solvent, and dyes, although it was not one of 25 priority
pollutants suggested by DETO as likely to be present in the 151 dye
products that represent the bulk of the dye industry's commercial volume
by weight. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 32 indicated "known or
suspected presence" in mill wastewaters. Benzene was detected at greater
than 10 ug/1 levels in 5 mills in the field sampling program, and at
lesser levels in 6 mills. With one exception, however, levels in secondary
effluents were "less than 5 ug/1" or undetectable.
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene. The compound 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene is a chlorinated
benzene and is one of the class of aromatic organic compounds characterized
by the substitution of from one to six chlorine atoms on the benzene
nucleus. Other trichlorobenzene isomers are 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene,
and 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene but these are not used in significant quantity.
The compound has seen use as a dye carrier in the textile industry, a
herbicide intermediate, a heat transfer medium, a dielectric fluid in
transformers, a degreaser, a lubricant, and as a potential insecticide
against termites. During the period 1973-1974, production and use of
trichlorobenzenes resulted in approximately 8,182 metric tons entering
the aquatic environment.
Sources of trichlorobenzene reported by the textile industry include
usage as a dye carrier in dyeing polyester fiber, laboratory operations,
scouring in the dyeing process, and as a raw material. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 86 indicated "known or suspected presence" in
mill wastewaters. It was detected at 10 ug/1 or greater (often much
greater) in 10 of 44 mills in the field sampling program.
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol. The compound 2,4,6-trichlorophenol belongs to
the chemical class known as chlorinated phenols. This class represents
a group of commercially produced, substituted phenols and cresols referred
to as chlorophenols and chlorocresols. Chlorinated phenols are used as
intermediates in the synthesis of dyes, pigments, phenolic resins,
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pesticides, and herbicides. Certain chlorophenols also are used directly
as flea repellents, fungicides, wood preservatives, mold inhibitors,
antiseptics, disinfectants, and antigumming agents for gasoline.
Sources of trichlorophenol in the textile industry include possible
usage as a preservative and as a constituent or impurity in carrier
systems for dyeing polyester. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 7
indicated "suspected presence" in mill wastewaters. Trichlorophenol was
detected in the wastes at five textile mills during the field sampling
program.
Parachlorometacresol. Parachlorometacresol belongs to the chemical
class known as chlorinated phenols. This class represents a group of
commercially produced, substituted phenols and cresols referred to as
chlorophenols and chlorocresols. Chlorinated phenols are used as inter-
mediates in the synthesis of dyes, pigments, phenolic resins, pesticides,
and herbicides. Certain chlorophenols also are used directly as flea
repellents, fungicides, wood preservatives, mold inhibitors, antiseptics,
disinfectants, and antigumming agents for gasoline.
Sources of parachlorometacresol reported by the industry include its
possible use as a biocide or disinfectant in dyestuffs, dye carrier
systems, and in industrial cleaning compounds. The survey of the dye
manufacturing industry conducted by DETO indicated that this compound
was one of six priority pollutants that could be present at levels
greater than 0.1 percent in some commercial dyes, resulting in possible
raw waste loadings from 100 to 1,000 ug/1. Of 418 questionnaire returns,
3 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill wastewater. This compound
was detected at two mills in the field sampling program.
Chloroform. Chloroform was initially employed as an anesthetic agent;
however, it has become obsolete as a widely used anesthetic in favor of
other agents with more desirable properties. The major uses of chloroform
at present are as a solvent and as an intermediate in the production of
refrigerants, plastics, and Pharmaceuticals. Chloroform seems to be
ubiquitous in the environment in trace amounts; discharges into the
environment result largely from chlorination treatment of water and
wastewater.
Sources of chloroform reported by the textile industry include its use
in dyeing operations and in the laboratory. Although only 7 out of 418
questionnaire returns indicated "known or suspected presence" of chloro-
form, it was detected at levels greater than 10 ug/1 in the wastewaters
from 12 of 44 mills in the field sampling program, and at lesser levels
in 2 additional mills.
1,2-Dichlorobenzene. The compound 1,2-dichlorobenzene belongs to the
chemical class known as dichlorobenzenes. This class of compounds is
represented by three isomers: 1,2-dichloro-, 1,3-dichloro-, and
1,4-dichloro-benzene. Both 1,2-dichloro- and 1,4-dichloro-benzene are
produced almost entirely as byproducts from the production of monochloro-
benzene. Production in 1975 consisted of 24,801 metric tons of
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1,2-dichlorobenzene and 20,754 metric tons of 1,4-dichlorobenzene. The
estimated losses of dichlorobenzenes during the production of monochloro-
benzene are 20.5 kg/metric ton to wastewater and 22.22 kg/metric ton to
land disposal. The major uses of 1,2-dichlorobenzene are as a process
solvent in the manufacturing of toluene diisocyanate, and as an intermediate
in the synthesis of dyestuffs, herbicides, and degreasers.
In the survey carried out by DETO, 1,2-dichlorobenzene was judged to be
present in some commercial dyes, but at levels less than 0.1 percent.
This is the only reported source of this compound in textile mill wastewaters.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 18 indicated "known or suspected
presence" in the wastewaters. In the field sampling program, this
pollutant was detected at greater than 10 ug/1 at 4 mills, and at lesser
concentrations at 5 additional mills.
Ethylbenzene. Ethylbenzene is an alkyl substituted aromatic compound
employed as an antiknock compound for airplane engine fuel, as a lacquer
diluent, in the synthesis of styrols for resins, as a solvent for paraffin
waxes, and in the production of cellulose acetate silks. It is only
slightly soluble in water, but will dissolve in organic solvents.
Ethylbenzene was one of 25 priority pollutants that may be present in
some commercial dyes, at less than 0.1 percent, according to the survey
carried out by DETO. Its presence in dyestuffs and as a solvent in
print pastes was also reported by individual mills. While only 9 out of
418 questionnaire returns indicated "known or suspected presence" in
mill wastewaters, ethylbenzene was detected at 23 of 44 mills in the
field sampling program. Concentration levels of 10 ug/1 or more were
measured in the wastewaters from 19 of the 23 mills.
Trichlorofluoromethane. Trichlorofluoromethane belongs to the class of
compounds known as halomethanes. These compounds are a subcategory of
the halogenated hydrocarbons. Tricholorofluoromethane is also known as
trichloromonofluoromethane, fluorotrichloromethane, Freon 11, Frigen 11,
and Acton 9. Freon compounds are organic compounds that contain fluorine.
They have a high degree of chemical stability, relatively low toxicity,
and are nonflammable. They have found many applications ranging from
use as propellants to use as refrigerants and solvents.
Trichlorofluoromethane may be used as a refrigerant and an aerosol
propellant in the textile industry. None of the questionnaire returns
indicated any likelihood of this compound being in the mill wastewaters,
although one industry source speculated that it might result from laboratory
operations. It was detected in treated effluents at five mills in the
field sampling program, but not in the raw wastes at these mills.
Naphthalene. Naphthalene, a bicyclic aromatic compound, is the most
abundant single constituent of coal tar. It is also found in cigarette
smoke. This compound is used as an intermediate in the production of
dye compounds and in the formation of solvents, lubricants, and motor
fuels. The largest use of napthalene in 1975 (58 percent of total use)
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was for the synthesis of phthalic anhydride. It has also been used as a
moth repellent and insecticide, as well as an antihelminthic and as an
intestinal antiseptic and vermicide.
Sources of naphthalene in textile mill wastewaters reported by the
industry are dyes and possibly laboratory operations. The direct dyes
were cited as specific sources of this compound. The DETO survey results
indicated that this priority pollutant was likely to be present in some
dyes at levels less than 0.1 percent. Out of 418 questionnaire returns,
55 indicated "known or suspected presence" in mill wastewaters. In" the
field sampling program, it was detected at 10 ug/1 or greater concentrations
at 15 mills and at lesser levels in 7 additional mills.
N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine. The compound N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
belongs to the chemical class known as nitrosamines. The organic nitroso-
compounds are a large group of chemicals characterized by a nitroso
group (N=0) that is attached to the nitrogen of a secondary amine.
Patent applications show potential uses of nitrosamines in the manufacture
of rubber, dyestuffs, gasoline additives, lubricating oils, explosives,
insecticides, fungicides, dielectric fluids, acrylonitrile, plasticizers,
industrial solvents, and hydrazine. At present, two major industries
are involved in handling nitrosamines: organic chemicals manufacturing
and rubber processing. Diphenylnitrosamine is the only nitrosamine that
is produced in quantities greater than 450 kg. It is used as a vulcanizing
retarder in rubber processing and in pesticides. Other nitrosamines are
not produced commercially except as research chemicals.
Limited industry information suggests that N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
may possibly be present in textile mill wastewaters from contamination
of certain chemicals, perhaps some dyes. None of the 418 questionnaire
returns indicated "known or suspected presence" in mill wastes. In the
field sampling program, this compound was detected at only two mills, at
relatively low concentrations, and only in the effluents from secondary
treatment systems.
Pentachlorophenol. Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is a commercially produced
bactericide, fungicide, and slimicide used primarily for the preservation
of wood, wood products, and other materials. As a chlorinated hydrocarbon,
its biological properties have also resulted in its use as a herbicide,
insecticide, and molluscicide.
Pentachlorophenol is used in the textile industry as a preservative in
dyes. In the DETO survey results, this was one of six priority pollutants
that could be expected in some commercial dyes at levels greater than
0.1 percent, resulting in possible raw textile wastewater concentrations
in the 100 to 1,000 ug/1 range. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 17
indicated "known or suspected presence" in mill wastewaters. In the
field sampling program, pentachlorophenol was detected at 10 ug/1 or
greater levels in 10 mills, and at lower levels in 2 additional mills.
Phenol. Phenol is an aromatic compound that has a hydroxyl group attached
directly to the benzene ring. It is a liquid and is somewhat soluble in
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water. Phenol is used in large quantities as an industrial chemical.
It is produced almost entirely as an intermediate for the preparation of
other chemicals. These include synthetic polymers such as phenolic
resins, bis-phenol and caprolactam plastics intermediates, and chlorinated
and alkylated phenols.
Phenol is used in the textile industry as a preservative in dyes and
could be present in textile mill raw wastes in the 100 to 1,000 ug/1
range according to the results of the DETO survey. Out of 418 question-
naire returns, 81 reported "known presence" and an additional 47 reported
"suspected presence" in mill wastewaters. Reported sources cover a wide
spectrum including the water supply; raw materials, including various
fibers; dyes and dye carriers; finishing resins; nylon carpet processing;
laboratory operations; and general cleaners and disinfectants used in
the mill. In the field sampling program, phenol was detected at concentra-
tions greater than 10 ug/1 in the wastewaters from 25 of 44 mills, and
at lesser concentrations at 4 additional mills.
Bis (2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate. Bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate belongs to
the group of compounds known as phthalate esters. The phthalic acid
esters (PAE) are a large group of substances widely used in the U.S.
and the rest of the world as plasticizers. In the plastics industry,
they are used to impart flexibility to plastic polymers, to improve
workability during fabrication, and to extend or modify properties not
present in the original plastic resins.
PAE are extensively used in polyvinylchloride plastics, which have a
wide variety of applications. They are contained in building and construc-
tion materials (flooring, weatherstripping, wire, and cable), home
furnishings (garden hoses, wall covering, upholstery), transportation
materials (seat covers, auto mats), apparel (footwear, outerwear, baby
pants), and food surfaces and medical products (food wrap film, medical
tubing, intravenous bags). Dioctylphthalate (DOP) and its isomer
di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEPH) are probably the most widely used
plasticizers today. PAE also have minor non-plastic uses as pesticide
carriers, in cosmetics, fragrances, industrial oils, and insect repellents.
The PAE plasticizers, which can be present in concentrations up to 60
percent of the total weight of the plastic, are only loosely linked to
the plastic polymers and are easily extracted. PAE are known to be
widely distributed in the environment. They have been found in soil,
water, air, fish tissue, and human tissue.
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate may make up from 10 to 50 percent of some
coating formulations used in the textile industry. It was detected at
levels of 10 ug/1 or greater in wastewaters from 27 out of 44 (61%)
mills in the field sampling program, although only 4 questionnaire
returns out of 418 reported "suspected presence" in mill wastes. This
priority pollutant was also found at significant concentrations (10 ug/1
or greater) in raw water supplies and in tubing blanks. This indicates
that its use may be less widespread in the industry than the 61 percent
occurrence noted above. It is clear, however, that in some mills this
constituent is added to the waste stream during textile finishing.
VI-13
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Tetrachloroethylene. Tetrachloroethylene (1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethylene,
perchloroethylene, PCE) is a colorless, nonflammable liquid used primarily
as a solvent in dry cleaning industries. It is used to a lesser extent
as a degreasing solvent in metal industries.
Perchloroethylene is widespread in the environment, and is found in
water, aquatic organisms, air, foodstuffs, and human tissues, in quant-
ities of micrograms per liter. The highest environmental levels of PCE
are measured in commercial dry cleaning and metal degreasing industries.
Although PCE is released into water via aqueous effluents from production
plants, consumer industries, and household sewage, its level in ambient
water is reported to be minimal due to its high volatility.
Tetrachloroethylene is used in the textile industry as a dry cleaning
solvent and in some dyeing operations as part of the carrier systems or
scouring formulations. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 29 indicated
"known or suspected presence" in mill wastes. In the field sampling
program of 44 mills, tetrachloroethylene was detected at levels greater
than 10 ug/1 at 4 mills, and at lower concentrations at 4 additional
mills.
Toluene. Toluene is a clear, colorless, noncorrosive liquid with a
sweet, pungent odor. The production of toluene in the U.S. has increased
steadily since 1940 when approximately 117 million liters (31 million
gallons) were produced; in 1970, production was 2.62 billion liters (694
million gallons). Approximately 70 percent of the toluene produced is
converted to benzene, another 15 percent is used to produce chemicals,
and the remainder is used as a solvent for paints and as a gasoline
additive.
Toluene is a volatile compound and is readily transferred from water
surfaces to the atmosphere. In the atmosphere, it is subject to photo-
chemical degradation. It degrades to benzaldehyde and traces of per-
oxybenzoyl nitrate. Toluene can also re-enter the hydrosphere in rain.
Sources of toluene reported by the textile industry include dyes and dye
carriers, raw materials, and use as a cleaning solvent. Toluene is one
of 25 priority pollutants that may be present in commercial dyes at
levels less than 0.1 percent according to the survey carried out by
DETO. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 48 indicated "known or suspected
presence" in mill wastewaters. In the field sampling program, toluene
was detected at levels of 10 ug/1, or greater, at 18 of the 44 mills
sampled, and at lesser concentrations at 13 additional mills.
Trichloroethylene. Trichloroethylene (1,1,2-trichloroethylene, TCE), a
volatile nonflammable liquid, is used mostly in metal industries as a
degreasing solvent. It had minor applications as a dry cleaning solvent
and as an extractive solvent for decaffeinating coffee, but was replaced
in both these capacities by perchloroethylene and methylene chloride,
respectively.
VI-14
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Its volatilization during production and use is the major source of
environmental levels of this compound. TCE has been detected in ambient
air, in food, and in human tissue in ug/1 (ppb) quantities. Its detection
in rivers, municipal water supplies, the sea, and aquatic organisms
indicates that TCE is widely distributed in the aquatic environment at
the ug/kg level or lower. Trichloroethylene is not expected to persist
in the environment. This is due in part to its short half-life in air
and its evaporation from water.
Sources of trichloroethylene in textile mill wastewaters reported by the
industry include its use as a solvent in dyeing and cleaning, and also
in some raw materials. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 21 indicated
"known or suspected presence" in mill wastes. It was detected in the
wastewaters at greater than 10 ug/1 concentrations in 10 of the 44 mills
visited in the field sampling program, plus three mills at lower concentra-
tions.
Antimony. Antimony is a naturally occurring element that makes up
between 0.2 and 0.5 ppm of the earth's crust. Environmental concen-
trations of antimony are reported at 0.33 ug/1 in seawater of 35 parts
per thousand salinity and at 1.1 ug/1 in freshwater streams. Antimony
and its compounds are used in the manufacturing of alloys, as flame
retardants, pigments, and catalysts, as well as for medicinal and
veterinary uses.
Individual mills reported possible sources of antimony in textile
wastewaters as finishing agents, dyestuffs, and raw materials. The DETO
survey results did not list antimony as one of the 25 priority pollutants
likely in the bulk of commercial dyes produced. Various antimony compounds
have been used as mordants in dyeing, in printing pastes, and as pigments
in dye manufacture. Antimony trioxide is used as a flame retarding
agent. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 52 indicated "known or suspected
presence" in mill wastes. Of the 44 mills in the field sampling program,
no antimony was detected in the wastewaters from roughly half. This
metal was detected at concentrations judged to be above common background
water supply levels (here selected as 20 ug/1 for antimony) in eight
mill waste streams. The water supplies of 12 mills were sampled and
analyzed for antimony. One supply had a level of "less than 49 ug/1."
The remaining 11 were all less than 18 ug/1.
Arsenic. Arsenic is a naturally occurring element often referred to as
a metal, although chemically classified as a metalloid. Environmental
concentrations of arsenic have been reported at 0.0005 percent in the
earth's crust and 3 ug/1 in sea water. Analyses of 1577 surface waters
samples in the U.S. showed arsenic being present in 87 samples, with
concentrations ranging from 5 to 336 ug/1, and a mean level of 64 ug/1
(20). Arsenic and its compounds are used in the manufacturing of glass,
cloth, and electrical semiconductors, as fungicides and wood preservatives,
as growth stimulants for plants and animals, and in veterinary applications.
VI-15
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Individual textile mills reported likely sources of arsenic in their
wastewaters as dyes and "raw materials." Out of 418 questionnaire
returns, 16 indicated "known or suspected presence" in mill wastes. The
survey carried out by DETO confirmed that some commercial dyes contain
arsenic; likely levels are less than 0.1 percent. Other possible uses
include its presence in fungicides and specialty chemicals. Arsenic was
not detected at appreciable levels in any mill water supplies sampled.
It was detected in approximately 25 percent of the raw waste and secondary
effluent samples collected in the field sampling program. Its occurrence
was less widespread than many of the other metallic priority pollutants.
Cadmium. Cadmium is a soft, white metal that dissolves readily in
mineral acids. Biologically, it is a non-essential element of high
toxic potential. It occurs in nature chiefly as a sulfide salt,
frequently in association with zinc and lead ores. Accumulations of
cadmium in soils in the vicinity of mines and smelters may result in
high local concentrations in nearby waters. The salts of the metal also
may occur in wastes from electroplating plants, pigment works, and
textile and chemical industries. Seepage of cadmium from electroplating
plants has resulted in groundwater cadmium concentrations of 0.01 to 3.2
mg/1.
Dissolved cadmium was found in less than 3 percent of 1,577 U.S. surface
water samples with a mean concentration of slightly under 10 ug/1. Most
fresh waters contain less than 1 ug/1 cadmium and most analyses of
seawater indicate an average concentration of about 0.15 ug/1 (20).
Sources of cadmium reported by individual textile mills include pigments,
dyes, nylon carpet processing, and "raw materials", including dirt in
raw wool. Cadmium was one of the priority pollutants in the DETO survey
that could be present in dyes at levels less than 0.1 percent. Of 418
questionnaire returns, 24 indicated "known presence" and 17 indicated
"suspected presence" in mill wastes. In the field sampling program,
cadmium was measured in only one of the 12 water supplies sampled. In
two raw wastewater samples and in one secondary effluent sample, cadmium
was measured at greater than 10 ug/1.
Chromium. Chromium salts are used extensively in the metal finishing
industry as electroplating, cleaning, and passivating agents, and as
mordants in the textile industry. They also are used in cooling waters
in the leather tanning industry, in catalytic manufacture, in pigments
and primer paints, and in fungicides and wood preservatives. In the
analysis of 1,577 surface water samples collected at 130 sampling points
in the U.S., chromium was found in 386 samples ranging from 1 to 112
ug/1; the mean concentration was 9.7 ug/1 (20). Trivalent chromium is
recognized as an essential trace element for humans. Hexavalent chromium
in the workplace is suspected of carcinogenicity.
VI-16
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Sources of chromium reported by individual textile mills include dyes,
mordants, pigments, other raw materials, and nylong carpet processing.
In addition, chromium may result from plating baths used to resurface
printing rolls and may also originate in blowdown from recirculating
cooling systems where it is used to control biofouling. The results of
the DETO survey confirmed that chromium may be present in some commercial
premetallized dyes at levels of from 3 to 4 percent. The metal is an
integral part of the dye molecule and most should exhaust onto the fiber
being dyed. Of 418 questionnaire returns, 117 indicated "known presence"
and an additional 55 indicated "suspected presence" in textile mill
wastewaters. In the field sampling program, chromium was detected in
only one of 12 water supply samples (at less than 4.6 ug/1). In the
field sampling program, chromium was detected at all but 6 mills, with
about two-thirds of the raw and secondary treated wastewaters having
values less than 30 ug/1.
Copper. Copper is a soft heavy metal that is ubiquitous in its distribu-
tion in rocks and minerals of the earth's crust. In nature, copper
occurs usually as sulfides and oxides and occasionally as metallic
copper. Weathering and solution of these natural copper minerals result
in background levels of copper in natural surface waters at concentra-
tions generally well below 20 ug/1. Higher concentrations of copper are
usually from anthropogenic sources. These sources include corrosion of
brass and copper pipe by acidic waters, industrial effluents and fallout,
sewage treatment plant effluents, and the use of copper compounds as
aquatic algicides. Potential industrial copper pollution sources number
in the tens of thousands in the U.S. However, the major industrial
sources include the smelting and refining industries, copper wire mills,
coal burning industries, and iron and steel producing industries.
Copper may enter natural waters either directly from these sources or by
atmospheric fallout of air pollutants produced by these industries.
A five year study of natural surface waters in the U.S. revealed copper
concentrations ranging from less than 10 ug/1 (the limit of detection)
to 280 ug/1, with a mean value for U.S. waters of 15 ug/1. Values
from 0.6 ug/1 to 4.3 ug/1 have been reported in seawater (20).
Sources of copper reported by individual textile mills include pigments,
dyestuffs, and the mill plumbing system. The DETO survey results indicated
that copper may be present in some commercial dyes at levels of 3 to 4
percent. Since the copper is an integral part of the dye molecule, most
of it should be exhausted from the dye bath onto the fiber being dyed.
Of 418 questionnaire returns, 87 indicated "known presence" and 79
indicated "suspected presence" in the mill wastewaters. In the field
sampling program, copper was not detected in nine of the twelve water
supply samples. Only one sample had more than 11 ug/1. Raw textile
mill wastewaters measured in the field sampling program showed a wide
range of values, with 19 samples having more than 50 ug/1, and 11 with
more than 100 ug/1. The effluents from secondary mill treatment plants
showed a wide range of values also, but there were fewer samples at the
higher levels.
VI-17
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Cyanide. Cyanide compounds are almost universally present where life
and industry are found. Besides being very important in a number of
manufacturing processes, they are found in many plants and animals as
metabolic intermediates that generally are not stored for long periods
of time.
Possible sources of cyanide reported by individual textile mills include
dyestuffs and "raw materials." The ATMI Task Group suggested that
cyanide is probable in some waste streams, originating in laboratory and
specialty chemicals. Cyanide was not among the 25 priority pollutants
identified in the DETO survey as possibly present in commercial dyes.
Of 418 questionnaire returns, 16 indicated either "known or suspected
presence" in mill wastewaters. In the field sampling program, cyanide
was at less than 2 ug/1 in 9 of the 12 water supply samples with the
maximum level at 22 ug/1. In the raw wastewater samples, almost all
were less than 10 ug/1 with 3 in the 11 to 100 ug/1 range. Similar
results were obtained for the secondary effluent samples, although two
samples contained more than 100 ug/1 of cyanide.
Lead. Lead is a naturally occurring metal that makes up 0.002 percent
of the earth's crust. The reported concentration of lead in seawater of
35 parts per thousand salinity is 0.03 ug/1, while available data indicate
that the mean natural lead content of the world's lakes and rivers
ranges from 1 to 10 ug/1. Analyses of over 1500 stream samples from
1962 to 1967 found lead in 19.3 percent of the samples, with concentra-
tions ranging from 2 to 140 ug/1, and a mean value of 23 ug/1 (20).
Lead is used in the metallurgy of steel and other metals; in ceramics,
plastics and electronic devices; in construction materials and in x-ray
and atomic radiation protection devices.
Sources of lead reported by individual textile mills include pigments,
process chemicals, "raw materials", and tramp impurities in dyes. The
DETO survey results indicated that lead may be present in some commercial
dyes at levels less than 0.1 percent. Of 418 questionnaire returns, 34
indicated "known presence" and 27 indicated "suspected presence" in mill
wastewaters. In the field sampling program, lead was either not detected
or at less than 5 ug/1 in 10 of the 12 water supply samples measured.
Two samples had lead levels of 37 and 45 ug/1, respectively. In the raw
textile mill samples analyzed, roughly 40 percent had lead levels below
10 ug/1, while 4 had levels above 100 ug/1. Of 16 secondary treatment
effluents, 10 (60%) were below 10 ug/1, and only one sample had a concen-
tration greater than 100 ug/1.
Mercury. Mercury, a silver-white metal that is a liquid at room tempera-
ture, can exist in three oxidation states: elemental, mercurous, and
mercuric; it can be part of both inorganic and organic compounds.
VI-18
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A major use of mercury has been as a cathode in the electrolytic pre-
paration of chlorine and caustic soda; this accounted for 33 percent of
total demand in the U.S. in 1968. Electrical apparatus (lamps, arc
rectifiers, and mercury battery cells) accounted for 27 percent, and
industrial and control instruments (switches, thermometers, and barometers),
and general laboratory applications accounted for 14 percent of demand.
Use of mercury in antifouling and mildew-proofing paints (12 percent)
and mercury formulations used to control fungal diseases of seeds,
bulbs, plants, and vegetation (5 percent) were other major utilizations;
however, mercury is no longer registered by the EPA for use in antifouling
paints or for the control of fungal diseases of bulbs. The remainder (9
percent) was for dental amalgams, catalysts, pulp and paper manufacture,
Pharmaceuticals, and metallurgy and mining.
Sources of mercury reported by individual textile mills include pigments,
dyes, and "raw materials", including impurities in caustic soda. The
ATMI Task Group suggested that mercury is probably present in some
textile mill wastewaters, originating in dyes and specialty chemicals.
The DETO survey results included mercury among the priority pollutants
possibly present in some commercial dyes at levels less than 0.1 percent.
Of 418 questionnaire returns, 19 indicated "known presence" and 15
indicated "suspected presence" in mill wastewaters. In the field sampling
program, mercury was detected in only 1 of the 12 water supplies sampled,
at 0.79 ug/1. Of 51 raw textile mill wastewater samples, 11 had levels
of 0.2 ug/1 or greater, with only 2 of these above 1.0 ug/1. In effluents
from secondary treatment plants at textile mills, there were 5 out of 38
samples with levels of 0.2 ug/1 or above and none as high as 1.0 ug/1.
Mercury is not commonly found in textile mill wastewaters.
Nickel. Nickel is a silver-white ductile metal commonly occurring in
natural waters in the +2 valence state in concentrations ranging from a
few micrograms per liter, to more than 100 ug/1. Nickel seldom is found
in groundwater, and if present, probably exists in colloidol form.
Approximately 0.01 percent of the earth's crust is nickel, and it is
ranked 24th in order of abundance of the elements. By far the greatest
proportion of nickel in the earth's crust comes from ingneous rocks.
Some common minerals containing nickel include pentlandite and ullmannite.
Certain secondary silicate minerals contain nickel, which also substitutes
for magnesium in various primary minerals (e.g. olivine, hypersthene,
hornblende, biotite).
In a study of 130 surface water sampling stations throughout the U.S.,
nickel appeared in 16.2 percent of 1,577 samples collected between 1962
and 1967, with a mean concentration of 19 ug/1 and a range of 1 to 130
ug/1. In drinking water samples taken throughout the U.S., nickel was
detected in only 4.6 percent of the samples, with a mean concentration
of 34.2 ug/1 and a range of 1 to 490 ug/1.
VI-19
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Sources of nickel reported by individual textile mills include pigments,
dyes, processing chemicals, and "raw materials." The DETO survey confirmed
that nickel may be present in some commercial dyes at levels less than
0.1 percent. Nickel may also originate from plating operations in
resurfacing of printing rolls. Of 418 questionnaire survey returns, 28
indicated "known presence" and 23 indicated "suspected presence" in the
mill wastewaters. In the field sampling program, nickel was measured at
greater than 5 ug/1 in 2 of the 12 water supplies sampled; one at 41
ug/1 and the other at 47 ug/1. Of the raw wastewater samples, approximately
40 percent were less than 10 ug/1, with approximately 20 percent in each
of the following ranges: 11 to 50 ug/1, 51 to 100 ug/1, and greater than
100 ug/1. The results for the secondary treatment effluents were similarly
scattered, although the numbers of samples above 10 ug/1 were reduced.
Selenium. Selenium is a naturally occurring element and is an essential
nutrient with concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 100 ug/1 in potable
water and averaging 0.09 ug/1 in the major oceans. In most natural
waters, selenium levels are low (less than 1 ug/1) but in areas with
seleniferous soils, water levels up to 300 ug/1 have been reported (20).
The major source of selenium entering the environment is the weathering
of selenium-containing soils and rocks. Man-related activities account
for approximately 3,500 metric tons of selenium being discharged into
the environment each year. Major uses include glass manufacturing,
photocopying, electronic devices, pigments, and others including several
veterinary uses.
No widely recognized sources of selenium in textile mill wastewaters
were reported in this study. The ATMI Task Group suggested that selenium
might be present in some dyes and speciality chemicals. This was not
confirmed by the DETO survey of dye manufacturers. Of 418 questionnaire
responses, 7 indicated "known presence" and 3 indicated "suspected
presence" in the mill wastewaters, although no specific sources were
mentioned. In the field sampling program, selenium was at undetectable
levels in most water and wastewater samples. However, in two water
supply samples and six raw and six secondary effluent samples,
appreciable concentrations (from 11 to over 30 ug/1) were measured. The
data developed in this study are insufficient to establish a possible
link between water supply levels and wastewater concentrations. In
summary, for most textile mills, selenium should not be a problem. For
a few, in-plant controls or treatment may be required.
Silver. Silver is a white ductile metal occurring naturally in the pure
form and in ores. Principal uses of silver are in photographic materials,
as a conductor, in dental alloys, solder and braying alloys, paints,
jewelry, silverware, and mirror production.
VI-20
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Of 418 questionnaire returns, 12 indicated "known presence" and 4
indicated "suspected presence" in textile mill wastewaters, although no
specific sources were given. The ATMI Task Group suggested that silver
was a probable constituent of some textile mill wastewaters, originating
in dyes and/or specialty chemicals. The DETO survey did not confirm
commercial dyes as a likely source of silver. In the field sampling
program, silver was measured at greater than 5 ug/1 in 2 of the 12 water
supplies sampled, both at 17 ug/1. In 19 raw wastewater samples, silver
was detected at greater than 10 ug/1, with 13 samples above 30 ug/1, and
1 above 100 ug/1. In secondary treatment effluents, there were eight
with levels greater than 10 ug/1, six above 30 ug/1, and one above 100
ug/1. Based on these limited data, it seems that silver must be regarded
as a constituent of the wastewaters from some textile mills.
Zinc. Zinc is a naturally occurring element that makes up approximately
0.02 percent of the earth's crust. It is used in various alloys, as a
protective coating for other metals, in galvanizing sheet iron, and as a
reducing agent. Zinc was detected in 1,207 of 1,577 surface water
samples collected at 130 sampling locations throughout the U.S. between
1962 and 1967. The maximum observed concentration was 1,183 ug/1 and
the mean value was 64 ug/1. Levels of zinc in natural seawater approxi-
mate 5 ug/1 (20).
Zinc originates from many sources in textile mill wastewaters, including
pigments, dyes, dye stripping, coating materials, catalysts, latex
curing, and in many specialty chemicals both as an added component and
as an impurity. The DETO survey pointed out that some dyes are prepared
as double salts of zinc and may contain up to 3 percent of this metal.
Unlike chromium and copper, the zinc is not exhausted onto the fiber in
dyeing. Zinc can also be contributed by water conditioning chemicals,
alloys used in pumps and valves, galvanized metals, painted surfaces,
and several other sources in industrial facilities. Of 418 questionnaire
returns, 100 indicated "known presence" and 64 indicated "suspected
presence" in the mill wastewaters. In the field sampling program, zinc
in the 12 water supply samples ranged from 10 to 4500 ug/1. Four had
levels above 100, and two were above 1000. For some mills, the water
supply must be considered in undertaking a program to control the discharge
of zinc. The levels measured in raw and treated mill wastewaters were
roughly equivalent with about 37 percent of the samples less than 100
ug/1, 39 percent in the 100 to 500 ug/1 range, 11 percent in the 500 to
1000 ug/1 range, and the remaining 13 percent above 1000 ug/1, including
3 percent over 5000 ug/1.
Group 2A - Potentially Significant in Textile Wastewaters: Detected
More Than Once
Group 2 comprises three subgroups, based on frequency of detection in
the field sampling program and information from the special industrial
priority pollutant committees.
VI-21
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The priority pollutants detected in the raw or treated wastewater from
at least two mills in the field sampling program, but at less than
10 ug/1 in secondary treatment effluents, are the following:
1. acenaphthene
7. chlorobenzene
9. hexachlorobenzene
11. 1,1,1-trichloroethane
27. 1,4-dichlorobenzene
31. 2,4-dichlorophenol
44. methylene chloride
62. N-nitrosodiphenylamine
67. butyl benzyl phthalate
68. di-n-butyl phthalate
70. diethyl phthalate
71. dimethyl phthalate
78. anthracene
84. pyrene
127. thallium (10 ug/1 limit exceeded)
Acenaphthene. Acenaphthene (1,2-dehydro-acenaphthylene or 1,8-ethylene-
naphthylene) occurs in coal tar produced during the high temperature
carbonization or coking of coal. Laboratory experimentation points out
the possibility of limited metabolism of acenaphthene to naphthalic acid
and naphthalic anhydride. Acenaphthene is used as a dye intermediate in
the manufacture of some plastics, as an insecticide, and as a fungicide.
The DETO survey results indicate that acenaphthene may be present in
some commercial dyes at concentrations less than 0.1 percent. Out of
418 questionnaire returns, 7 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill
wastewaters with 1 respondent citing "raw materials" as the source. This
pollutant was detected in the raw wastes of three mills with a maximum
level of 12 ug/1. It was also detected in treated effluents at two
additional mills where it was not detected in the raw wastes at the time
of sampling. In a secondary effluent, the level was 0.5 ug/1, and in a
polishing pond effluent, it was 2.0 ug/1. In no case was acenaphthene
detected in both the raw wastes and the treated effluent- at the same
mill in the field sampling program.
Chlorobenzene. The compound chlorobenzene (also referred to as monochloro-
benzene) is a chlorinated benzene and is one of a class of aromatic
organic compounds characterized by the substitution of from one to six
chlorine atoms on the benzene nucleus. The compound has seen use in the
synthesis of ortho- and para-nitrochlorobenzenes, as a solvent, in
phenol manufacturing, and in the manufacture of DDT. During the period
1973-1974, production and use of monochlorobenzene resulted in approximately
34,278 metric tons entering the aquatic environment, approximately 690
metric tons ending up as solid waste, and 362 metric tons entering the
atmosphere.
VI-22
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Chlorobenzene is used as a carrier in some textile dyeing systems. The
DETO survey results indicated that it may be present in some commercial
dyes at concentrations less than 0.1 percent. Out of 418 questionnaire
returns, 4 mills indicated "known presence" and 28 indicated "suspected
presence" in the mill wastes. In the field sampling program, chlorobenzene
was detected in the raw wastewaters of 5 mills with concentrations
ranging from less than 5 up to almost 300 ug/1. It was detected only once in
a secondary effluent sample and at 3.5 ug/1. It was not detected in the
raw waste at this mill at the time of sampling.
Hexachlorobenzene. The compound hexachlorobenzene is a chlorinated
benzene and is one of a class of aromatic organic compounds characterized
by the substitution of from one to six chlorine atoms on the benzene
nucleus. The compound has seen use as a fungicide to control wheat bunt
and smut on seed grains, in the manufacture of dyes, as an intermediate
in organic synthesis, as a porosity controller in the manufacture of
electrodes, as a wood preservative, and as an additive in pyrotechnic
compositions for the military. In 1973, approximately 318 metric tons
was produced in the U.S.
No very obvious sources of hexachlorobenzene in textile mill wastewaters
were found in this study. Individuals speculated that it may originate
as a trace ingredient or impurity in some dye carriers or specialty
chemicals and may be a fungicidal component of some industrial cleaning
compounds. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 1 indicated "known presence"
and 5 indicated "suspected presence," but no sources were suggested.
This priority pollutant was detected in the wastewaters of 5 mills in
the field sampling program. Two raw water samples had levels of 0.5 and
2.0 ug/1. An intermediate-level effluent had 0.5 ug/1, while it was not
detected in any secondary effluent samples. It was detected in two
polishing pond effluents at levels of 0.3 and 0.8 ug/1. At none of the
mills was it detected in both raw and treated waste samples.
1,1,1-Trichloroethane. The compound 1,1,1-trichloroethane belongs to
the chemical class known as chlorinated ethanes. The chlorinated ethanes,
which are produced in relatively large quantities, are used for the
production of tetraethyl lead and vinyl chloride, as industrial solvents,
and as intermediates in the production of other organochlorine compounds.
Chlorinated ethanes have been found in drinking waters, in natural
waters, and in aquatic organisms and foodstuffs.
1,1,1-Trichloroethane is reported to be used in some textile mills as a
carrier, a scouring solvent, and a cleaning agent. Out of 418 question-
naire returns, 5 indicated "known presence" and 34 indicated "suspected
presence" in mill wastes. In the field sampling program, it was detected
in the raw wastes of 4 mills with a maximum concentration of 17 ug/1.
In three of the mills, it was not detected in the secondary treated
effluent. In the fourth mill, this compound was detected after both
secondary and "tertiary" treatment, although at levels of "less than 5
ug/1."
VI-23
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1,4-Dichlorobenzene. The compound 1,4-dichlorobenzene belongs to the
chemical class known as dichlorobenzenes. This class of compounds is
represented by three isomers: 1,2-dichloro, 1,3-dichloro, and 1,4-dichloro-
benzene. Both 1,2-dichloro- and 1,4-dichloro-benzene are produced
almost entirely as byproducts from the production of monochlorobenzene.
Production in 1975 consisted of 24,801 metric tons of 1,2-dichlorobenzene
and 20,754 metric tons of 1,4-dichlorobenzene. The estimated losses of
dichlorobenzenes during the production of monochlorobenzene are 20.5
kg/metric ton to wastewater and 22.2 kg/metric ton to land disposal.
Because 1,4-dichlorobenzene sublimes at room temperature, this compound
probably enters the atmosphere in large quantities.
The major uses of 1,4-dichlorobenzene are as a process solvent in the
manufacturing of toluene diisocyanate, and as an intermediate in the
synthesis of dyestuffs, herbicides, and degreasers. The bulk of
1,4-dichlorobenzene usage (90 percent of the total consumption) is in
direct application as air deodorants and insecticides.
1,4-Dichlorobenzene is used for moth proofing of textiles, and may
possibly be an ingredient or impurity in some dye carriers, possibly
some of those used with polyesters. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 2
indicated "known presence" and 8 indicated "suspected presence" in mill
wastes. In the field sampling program, this priority pollutant was
detected in samples from three mills. Raw wastewater samples contained
concentrations of 6.5 and 215 ug/1, and secondary effluent samples
contained 0.2 and 1.5 ug/1. One raw and one treated effluent sample had
no detectable concentrations of this compound.
2,4-Dichlorophenol. The compound 2,4-dichlorophenol (DCP) is a com-
mercially produced substituted phenol used entirely in the manufacture
of industrial and agricultural products. These products include herbicides,
germicides, temporary soil sterilants, plant growth regulators, mothproofing
agents, seed disinfectants, miticides, and wood preservatives.
There were no sources for 2,4-dichlorophenol in textile mill wastewaters
cited or suggested by any industry representatives or questionnaire
respondents. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 2 indicated "suspected
presence" in mill wastes. In the field sampling program it was detected
in the raw wastewaters of two mills at levels of 41 and less than 10
ug/1. At a third mill it was detected in the effluent from a polishing
pond at 0.5 ug/1. It was not found in any secondary effluents.
Methylene Chloride. Methylene chloride belongs to the class of com-
pounds known as halomethanes, which are a subcategory of halogenated
hydrocarbons. It has been referred to as dichloromethane, methylene
dichloride, and methylene bichloride. It is a common industrial solvent
found in insecticides, metal cleaners, paints, and paint and varnish removers.
VI-24
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Methylene chloride is used to extract certain fractions of priority
pollutants from wastewaters in the EPA analytical protocol. It was
reported that some samples collected in the field sampling program were
found to have unusually high concentrations of methylene chloride and
these results were discarded because they were unreasonable and contamination
of the samples while in the analytical laboratory was suspected. Measures
to prevent such contamination have been taken. This priority pollutant
is a solvent and finds use in textile mills in dyeing and laboratory
operations and as a component of some coatings, degreasing compounds,
spot removers, and machine oils. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 3
indicated "known presence" and 17 indicated "suspected presence" in the
mill wastes. In the field sampling program, it was detected in the raw
wastewaters from three mills, ranging from less than 5 to 100 ug/1.
Secondary treatment effluent levels at these mills were all below 5
ug/1. At three additional mills, it was found in treated effluents, but
not in the corresponding raw waste samples. The level in one secondary
effluent sample was less than 5 ug/1, and the levels in two polishing
pond effluents were 10 and 48 ug/1.
N-nitrosodiphenylamine. The compound N-nitrosodiphenylamine belongs to
the chemical class known as nitrosamines. The organic nitroso-compounds
are a large group of chemicals characterized by a nitroso group (N=0)
that is attached to the nitrogen of a secondary amine.
Patent applications show potential uses of nitrosamines in the manufacture
of rubber, dyestuff, gasoline additives, lubricating oils, explosives,
insecticides, fungicides, dielectric fluids, acrylonitrile, plasticizers,
industrial solvents, and hydrazine. At present, two major industries
are involved in handling nitrosamines: organic chemicals manufacturing
and rubber processing. Diphenylnitrosamine is the only nitrosamine that
is produced in quantities greater than 450 kg. It is used as a vulcanizing
retarder in rubber processing and in pesticides. Other nitrosamines are
not produced commercially except as research chemicals.
N-nitrosodiphenylamine has been used as a pesticide and may be a contaminant
of some dyes, although such was not indicated in the DETO survey. Out
of 418 questionnaire returns, 4 indicated "suspected presence" in the
mill waste, but no possible sources were suggested. In the field sampling
program, this priority pollutant was detected in the raw wastewaters of
three mills at levels ranging from less than 10 to 72 ug/1. It was not
detected in treated effluents at any of these mills.
Butyl Benzyl Phthalate. Butyl benzyl phthalate belongs to the group of
compounds known as phthalate esters. The phthalic acid esters (PAE)
are a large group of substances widely used in the U.S. and the rest
of the world as plasticizers. In the plastics industry, they are used
to impart flexibility to plastic polymers, improve workability during
fabrication, and extend or modify properties not present in the original
plastic resins.
VI-25
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PAE are extensively used in polyvinylchloride plastics, which have a
wide variety of applications. They are contained in building and con-
struction materials (flooring, weatherstripping, wire and cable), home
furnishings (garden hoses, wall covering, upholstery), transportation
materials (seat covers, auto mats), apparel (footwear, outerwear, baby
pants), and food surfaces and medical products (food wrap film, medical
tubing, intravenous bags). Dioctylphthalate (DOP) and its isomer di-2-
ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) are probably the most widely used plasticizers
today. PAE also have minor non-plastic uses as pesticide carriers, in
cosmetics, fragrances, industrial oils, and insect repellents.
The PAE plasticizers, which can be present in concentrations up to 60
percent of the total weight of the plastic, are only loosely linked to
the plastic polymers and are easily extracted. PAE are known to be
widely distributed in the environment. They have been found in soil,
water, air, fish tissue, and human tissue.
Butyl benzyl phthalate is reported to be used in the textile industry as
a plasticizer for polyvinyl and cellulosic resins. Out of 418 questionnaire
returns, 3 indicated "known presence" and 2 indicated "suspected presence"
in the mill waste, with sources cited as dyestuff, dye carrier, and a
resin. In the field sampling program it was detected in the raw wastewater
samples at two mills at 10 and 73 ug/1. These mills were indirect
dischargers, and provided no significant pretreatment prior to discharge
to the POTW's.
Di-n-butyl Phthalate. Di-n-butyl phthalate belongs to the group of
compounds known as phthalate esters. The phthalic acid esters (PAE)
are a large group of substances widely used in the U.S. and the rest
of the world as plasticizers. In the plastics industry, they are used
to impart flexibility to plastic polymers, improve workability during
fabrication, and extend or modify properties not present in the original
plastic resins.
PAE are extensively used in polyvinylchloride plastics, which have a
wide variety of applications. They are contained in building and con-
struction materials (flooring, weatherstripping, wire and cable), home
furnishings (garden hoses, wall covering, upholstery), transportation
materials (seat covers, auto mats), apparel (footwear, outerwear, baby
pants), and food surfaces and medical products (food wrap film, medical
tubing, intravenous bags). Dioctylphalate (DOP) and its isomer di-2-
ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) are probably the most widely used plasticizers
today. PAE also have minor non-plastic uses as pesticide carriers, in
cosmetics, fragrances, industrial oils, and insect repellents.
The PAE plasticizers, which can be presenL in concentrations up to 60
percent of the total weight of the plastic, are only loosely linked to
the plastic polymers and are easily extracted. PAE are known to be
widely distributed in the environment. The have been found in soil,
water, air, fish tissue, and human tissue.
VI-26
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Di-n-butyl phthalate is reported to be used in the textile industry as a
plasticizer and resin solvent and may also find use as a textile lubricating
agent. It was also suggested that it may be an ingredient of some dye
carriers, specialty machine oils, insecticides, and, as a remote possibility,
some dyes. This last source was not indicated as a source in the DETO
survey. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 1 indicated "known presence"
and 6 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill wastes, but no specific
sources were suggested. In the field sampling program, di-n-butyl
phthalate was detected in the raw wastewaters of seven mills at levels
ranging from below 10 to 67 ug/1. It was found in only one secondary
effluent sample, at 3.6 ug/1. At three mills where it was not detected
in the raw wastes, it was found in treatment pond effluents at levels
ranging from 5 to 58 ug/1. These mills did not provide conventional
secondary treatment. Concentrations ranging up to 3.7 ug/1 were found
in 6 water supply and tubing blank samples.
Diethyl Phthalate. Diethyl phthalate belongs to the group of compounds
known as phthalate esters. The phthalic acid esters (PAE) are a large
group of substances widely used in the U.S. and the rest of the world
as plasticizers. In the plastics industry, they are used to impart
flexibility to plastic polymers, improve workability during fabrication,
and extend or modify properties not present in the original plastic resins.
PAE are extensively used in polyvinylchloride plastics, which have a
wide variety of applications. They are contained in building and con-
struction materials (flooring, weatherstripping, wire and cable), home
furnishings (garden hoses, wall covering, upholstery), transportation
materials (seat covers, auto mats), apparel (footwear, outerwear, baby
pants), and food surfaces and medical products (food wrap film, medical
tubing, intravenous bags). Dioctylphthalate (OOP) and its isomer di-2-
ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) are probably the most widely used plasticizers
today. PAE also have minor non-plastic uses a pesticide carriers, in
cosmetics, fragrances, industrial oils, and insect repellents.
The PAE plasticizers, which can be present in concentrations up to 60
percent of the total weight of the plastic, are only loosely linked to
the plastic polymers and are easily extracted. PAE are known to be
widely distributed in the environment. They have been found in soil,
water, air, fish tissue, and human tissue.
Diethyl phthalate may reportedly originate in uses as a plasticizer and
as a component of dye carrier systems, specialty machine oils, and
lubricants in the textile industry. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 7
indicated "suspected presence" in the mill wastes, but no sources were
suggested. In the field sampling program, this priority pollutant was
detected in the wastewaters of 17 mills, although only once was it found
in both the raw wastes and secondary treated effluents of a mill. It was
found in the raw wastewaters of 10 mills with most values below 10 ug/1 and
three mills at 34, 69, and 86 ug/1. It was found in four secondary
effluent samples at concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 9.4 ug/1; in two
polishing pond effluents at 2.6 and 11 ug/1; and in two pilot plant
tertiary treatment effluents at 3.2 and 12 ug/1. It was detected in 5
water supply and tubing blank samples at levels from 0.4 to 5.5 ug/1.
VI-27
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Dimethyl Phthalate. Dimethyl phthalate belongs to the group of compounds
known as phthalate esters. The phthalic acid esters (PAE) are a large
group of substances widely used in the U.S. and the rest of the world
as plasticizers. In the plastics industry, they are used to impart
flexibility to plastic polymers, improve workability during fabrication,
and extend or modify properties not present in the original plastic resins.
PAE are extensively used in polyvinylchloride plastics, which have a
wide variety of applications. They are contained in building and con-
struction materials (flooring, weatherstripping, wire and cable), home
furnishings (garden hoses, wall covering, upholstery), transportation
materials (seat covers, auto mats), apparel (footwear, outerwear, baby
pants), and food surfaces and medical products (food wrap film, medical
tubing, intravenous bags). Dioctylphthalate (DOP) and its isomer di-2-
ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) are probably the most widely used plasticizers
today. PAE also have minor non-plastic uses as pesticide carriers, in
cosmetics, fragrances, industrial oils, and insect repellents.
The PAE plasticizers, which can be present in concentrations up to 60
percent of the total weight of the plastic, are only loosely linked to
the plastic polymers and are easily extracted. PAE are known to be
widely distributed in the environment. They have been found in soil,
water, air, fish tissue, and human tissue.
Reported sources of dimethyl phthalate in textile mill wastewaters were
very limited. Two questionnaire respondents indicated its use as an
antimigrant in dyeing and as a component of a proprietary chemical.
Despite this limited response, out of 418 returns, 8 indicated "known
presence" and 17 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill wastes. In
the field sampling program, it was detected in the raw wastes of four
mills at levels ranging from 12 to 14 ug/1. It was not detected in the
secondary effluents at these mills. At another mill it was found only
in the secondary effluent, at a level of 1.0 ug/1.
Anthracene. Anthracene belongs to the chemical class of compounds known
as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's). PAH's are formed as a
result of combustion of organic compounds without sufficient oxygen.
This leads to the formation of C-H free radicals that can polymerize to
form various PAH's. Domestic and industrial soots, coal tar, and pitch
are the products of incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials such
as wood, coal, and oil. Naturally formed shale oil and petroleum contain
PAH.
The DETO survey results indicate that anthracene may be present in some
commercial dyes at concentrations less than 0.1 percent. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 2 indicated "known presence" and 8 indicated
"suspected presence" in the mill wastes, with direct dyes cited as
sources in two cases. Anthracene was detected in the wastewaters at two
mills in the field sampling program; one raw waste sample at 0.1 ug/1,
and one secondary treatment effluent sample at 4.4 ug/1. Interestingly,
it was detected in 10 water supply and blank samples at concentrations
ranging up to 0.6 ug/1.
VI-28
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Pyrene. Fyrene belongs to the chemical class of compounds known as
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's). PAH's are formed as a result
of combustion of organic compounds without sufficient oxygen. This
leads to the formation of C-H free radicals that can polymerize to form
various PAH's. Domestic and industrial soots, coal tar, and pitch are
the products of incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials such as
wood, coal, and oil. Naturally formed shale oil and petroleum contain
PAH.
The literature cites pyrene usage as a dye intermediate, but this was
not indicated by the DETO survey. No sources were suggested by the
textile industry representatives, other than its use in fire extin-
guishers. Of 418 questionnaire returns, 2 indicated "suspected presence"
in the mill wastes, but without suggesting possible sources. In the
field sampling program, it was found in the wastewaters of four mills.
At one, the raw waste sample contained 0.9 ug/1 and the secondary effluent,
0.2 ug/1. At the other mills it was not detected in the raw wastes, but
secondary sample concentrations of 0.1 to 0.3 ug/1 were detected. It
was not detected in any water supply or blank samples.
Thallium. Thallium is a silver-white metal that constitutes about 0.003
percent of the earth's crust. The average concentration of thallium in
seawater is reported to be 10 mg/1, while analyses of U.S. river water
during 1958 and 1959 detected no thallium.
Industrial uses of thallium include the manufacture of alloys, electronic
devices, and special glass. Many thallium-containing catalysts have
been patented for industrial organic reactions.
No specific sources of thallium peculiar to textile mill operations were
cited by industry representatives. It was speculated that it might be
found as "residue from catalyst or rodenticide." Out of 418 questionnaire
responses, 2 indicated "known presence" and 1 indicated "suspected
presence" in the mill wastes, with no potential sources suggested. In
the field sampling program, thallium was detected in raw wastewater
samples from two mills at levels of "less than 5 ug/1" and 9 ug/1. It
was not detected in the secondary treated effluent of the first of these
mills, but levels up to 18 ug/1 were detected in the secondary effluent
of the second mill. One laboratory reported "less than 3 ug/1" for
several samples. This is regarded here as virtually equivalent to "not
detected." The other analytical laboratory, using a minimum detection
limit of 0.05 ug/1, did not detect any thallium in 73 textile mill
wastewater samples.
Group 2B - Potentially Significant in Textile Wastewaters: Detected
Only Once
The priority pollutants detected in the raw or treated wastewaters at
only one mill and at less than 10 ug/1 in secondary treatment effluents
or established as potentially present by industrial reference sources
(DETO or ATMI) are the following:
VI-29
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5. benzidine
10. *l,2-dichloroethane
13. *1,1-dichloroethane
20. *2-chloronaphthalene
24. *2-chlorophenol
28. 3,3-dichlorobenzidine
29. *l,l-dichloroethylene
32. *1,2-dichloropropane
34. *2,4-dimethylphenol
36. *2,6-dinitrotoluene
37. *l,2-diphenylhydrazine
45. *methyl chloride
46. methyl bromide
48. *dichlorobromomethane
57. *2-nitrophenol
58. *4-nitrophenol
59. 2,4-dinitrophenol
61. N-nitrosodimethylamine
74. *3,4-benzofluoranthene
75. *11,12-benzofluoranthene
80. *fluorene
81. phenanthrene
88. *vinyl chloride
90. *dieldrin
92. *4,4'-DDT
117. *beryllium
* Detected at one mill
Benzidine. Benzidine (4,4'-diaminobiphenyl) is an aromatic amine. This
grayish, crystalline, slightly water-soluble compound is usually derived
from nitrobenzene. It is reported used in the manufacture of dyes,
especially Congo Red.
The DETO survey results indicated that benzidine may be present in some
commercial dyes at concentrations less than 0.1 percent. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 6 indicated "known presence" and 42 indicated
"suspected presence" in the mill wastes, with dyes cited as the probable
source in all cases. This priority pollutant was not detected in any
samples in the field sampling program.
1,2-Dichloroethane. The compound 1,2-dichloroethane (ethylene dichloride)
belongs to the chemical class known as chlorinated ethanes. The compounds
in this class are produced in large quantities and used for the production
of tetraethyl lead and vinyl chloride, as industrial solvents, and as
intermediates in the production of other organochlorine compounds. Some
have been found in drinking waters, in natural waters, and in aquatic
organisms and foodstuffs.
VI-30
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No particular usage of 1,2-dichloroethane in textile mills was cited by
representatives of the textile or dyestuff manufacturing industries,
although it was speculated that it might be used as a spot remover and
as a solvent in some epoxy formulations. Out of 418 questionnaire
returns, 1 indicated "known presence" and 6 indicated "suspected presence"
in mill wastes, with one respondent suggesting dyes and chemicals as the
source. This compound was detected at one mill in the field sampling
program; at "less than 5 ug/1" in the raw wastewater, at 5.8 ug/1 in the
effluent from an experimental DAF unit, and it was not detected in the
secondary effluent.
1,1-Dichloroethane. The compound 1,1-dichloroethane belongs to the
chemical class known as chlorinated ethanes. The chlorinated ethanes,
which are produced in large quantities, are used for the production of
tetraethyl lead and vinyl chloride, as industrial solvents, and as
intermediates in the production of other organochlorine compounds. Some
have been found in drinking waters, in natural waters, and in aquatic
organisms and foodstuffs.
There were no sources in textile mill wastewaters for 1,1-dichloroethane
cited or suggested by industry representatives. Out of 418 questionnaire
returns, 1 indicated "known presence" and 1 indicated "suspected presence"
in the mill waste. In the field sampling program, it was detected in
two raw wastewater samples collected on consecutive days at one wool
scouring mill at concentrations of 12 to 14 ug/1. It was not detected
in the secondary effluent.
2-Chloronapthtalene. The compound 2-chloronaphthalene belongs to the
chemical class known as chlorinated naphthalenes. These compounds
consist of the naphthalene double ring where any or all of the eight
hydrogen atoms can be replaced with chlorine. The commercial products
are usually mixtures with various degrees of chlorination; they are
presently marketed as halowaxes.
Tri- and tetra-chloronaphthalenes (solids) comprise the bulk of market
use as the paper impregnant in automobile capacitors. Lesser use is
made of the mono- and di-chloronaphthalenes as oil additives for engine
cleaning, and in fabric dyeing. Possible impurities of these products
are chlorinated derivatives, corresponding to the impurities in coal
tar, or petroleum-derived naphthalene feedstock which may include bi-
phenyls, fluorenes, pyrenes, anthracenes, and dibenzofurans.
The potential for environmental exposure may be significant when these
compounds are used as oil additives in electroplating, and in fabric
dyeing. The extent of leaching of chlorinated naphthalenes from discarded
capacitors and old cable insulation (manufactured prior to curtailment
of the chemical's use in such products) has not been determined.
VI-31
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No sources for 2-chloronaphthalene were cited or suggested in textile
mill wastewaters by either textile or dye manufacturing industry repre-
sentatives. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 3 indicated "known presence"
and 2 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill waste, with one respondent
each citing reactive and direct dyes as the probable source. This
priority pollutant was detected once at "less than 10 ug/1" in a raw
wastewater sample. It was not detected in the secondary effluent sample.
2-Chlorophenol. The compound 2-chlorophenol is a commercially produced
chemical used entirely as an intermediate in the production of other
chemicals. It represents a basic chemical feedstock for the manufacture
of higher chlorophenols for such uses as fungicides, slimicides, bac-
tericides, antiseptics, disinfectants, and wood and glue preservatives.
The compound is also used to form intermediates in the production of
phenolic resins and has been utilized in a process for extracting sulfur
and nitrogen compounds from coal.
The only suggested source of 2-chlorophenol in textile mill wastewaters
was as a constituent or impurity in dyes. This was not confirmed by the
DETO survey. Out of 418 questionnaire responses, 1 indicated "known
presence" and 8 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill waste, with
"dye and chemicals" cited as the probable source by one respondent.
This priority pollutant was found at one mill in the field sampling
program; at 73 ug/1 in the raw wastewater, and 5.9 ug/1 in the secondary
treated effluent.
3,3-Dichlorobenzidine. Dichlorobenzidine is used in the production of
dyes and pigments and as a curing agent for polyurethanes. This compound
is soluble in organic solvents, but it is nearly insoluble in water.
The ATMI Task Force suggested that 3,3-dichlorobenzidine might be present
in textile mill wastewaters as a trace impurity in some dyes, perhaps
azo dyes. This was not confirmed by the DETO survey results. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 1 indicated "known presence" and 10 indicated
"suspected presence" in the mill waste, with no probable sources suggested.
This pollutant was not detected in any samples in the field sampling program.
1,1-Dichloroethylene. The dichloroethylenes are 1,1-dichloroethylene,
(vinylidene chloride, 1,1-DCE), cis 1,2-dichloroethylene, and trans
1,2-dichloroethylene. Presently, only 1,1-dichloroethylene has commercial
or practical use because neither isomer of 1,2-dichloroethylene has developed
wide industrial use as a solvent or chemical intermediate.
1,1-dichloroethylene is used in the synthesis of methylchloroform and in
the production of polyvinylidene chloride copolymers (PVDC). Among the
monomers used in copolymer production are vinyl chloride, acrylonitrile,
and alkyl acrylates. The impermeability of PVDC make them useful, primarily
as barrier coatings in the packaging industry. Polymers with high 1,1-dichloro-
ethylene content (Saran) are widely used in the food packaging industry. The
heat-seal characteristics of Saran coatings make them useful in the manu-
facture of nonflammable synthetic fiber. 1,1-dichloroethylene polymers have
also been used extensively as interior coatings for ship-tanks, railroad cars
and fuel storage tanks, and for coating of steel pipes and structures.
VI-32
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No possible sources of 1,1-dichloroethylene in textile mill wastewaters
were found in this study. No questionnaire returns indicated either
"known" or "suspected presence." This priority pollutant was found in
one raw wastewater sample at one mill at "less than 5 ug/1." It was not
detected in the secondary effluent samples at this mill.
1,2-Dichloropropane. Principal uses of dichloropropanes are as soil
fumigants for the control of nematodes, in oil and fat solvents, and in
dry cleaning and degreasing processes. The presence of these compounds
in water can result from agricultural runoff and industrial and municipal
effluents. Dichloropropanes were detected in New Orleans drinking
water.
No specific sources of 1,2-dichloropropane in textile mill wastewaters
were found in this study. This solvent is mentioned in the general
chemical literature as a cleaning and degreasing agent, but textile
manufacturing is not cited as an area of use. None of the 418 question-
naire returns indicated either "known" or "suspected presence" in the
mill waste. In the field sampling program, this priority pollutant was
found at one mill in the raw wastewater samples on consecutive days at
levels of 100 and 36 ug/1. It was not detected in the secondary treated
effluent.
2,4-Dimethylphenol. The compound 2,4-dimethylphenol (2,4-DMP) is derived
from coal and petroleum sources. It finds use commercially as an important
chemical feedstock or constituent for the manufacture of a wide range of
commercial products for industry and agriculture.
Textile industry representatives suggested that possible sources of
2,4-dimethylphenol in textile mill wastewaters were its use as solvent,
plasticizer, additive to lubricants, component of carrier syterns, and
insecticide and fungicide. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 2 indicated
"suspected presence" in the mill waste, without citing possible sources.
In the field sampling program, this pollutant was detected in the waste-
waters at two mills. It was not found in the raw wastes, but was in one
secondary effluent sample at 8 ug/1 and in one polishing pond effluent
sample at 9 ug/1.
2,6-Dinitrotoluene. Dinitrotoluene (DNT) is an ingredient of explosives
for commercial and military use and is used as a chemical stabilizer in
the manufacture of smokeless powder. In 1975, the production of 2,4-
and 2,6-DNT in the U.S. was 264,030 metric tons. The production of DNT
is expected to increase yearly at a rate of 20 to 25 percent.
Possible sources of 2,6-dinitrotoluene in textile mill wastewaters
suggested by industry include trace levels in some dyes and in dye
testing, although these were not regarded as very common sources in the
industry. The DETO survey results did not confirm its likely presence
in dyes. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 3 indicated "suspected
presence" in the mill waste. In the field sampling program, this pollutant
was detected in one raw wastewater sample, at 54 ug/1. It was not found
in the pond treated effluent at this mill.
VI-33
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1,2-Diphenylhydrazine. Diphenylhydrazine exists in two structural
forms: 1,1-diphenylhydrazine and 1,2-diphenylhydrazine. 1,2-Diphenlhy-
drazine (hydrazobenzene) is insoluble in water; in air, it will oxidize
to form azobenzene, a compound with slight water solubility. When
reacted with HC1 or H^O^, hydrazobenzene will form benzidine.
The ATMI Task Force suggested that 1,2-diphenylhydrazine might find
limited use in textile mill laboratories and might be an impurity in azo
dyes. This latter use was not confirmed by the DETO survey. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 5 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill
waste, with no possible sources suggested. This compound was found in
one of two raw wastewater samples at one mill at 22 ug/1. It was not
found in the secondary treated effluent samples.
Methyl Chloride. Methyl chloride belongs to the class of compounds
known as halomethanes, which are a subcategory of halogenated hydrocarbons.
Methyl chloride is also known as chloromethane. It is a colorless,
flammable, almost odorless gas at room temperature and pressure. It is
used as a refrigerant, a methylating agent, a dewaxing agent, and a
catalyst solvent in synthetic rubber production.
The ATMI Task Force suggested that methyl chloride might be used as an
aerosol propellant. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 1 indicated
"known presence" and 2 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill waste.
One respondent cited laboratory and dyeing as sources, and another
reported intermittent use as a scouring chemical. In the field sampling
program, this volatile compound was detected in one of two raw wastewater
samples at one mill at "less than 5 ug/1." It was not found in the two
secondary effluent samples at this mill.
Methyl Bromide. Methyl bromide belongs to the class of compounds known
as halomethanes, which are a subcategory of halogenated hydrocarbons.
Methyl bromide has been referred to as bromotnethane, monobromomethane,
and embafume. It has been widely used as a fumigant, fire extinguisher,
refrigerant, and insecticide. Today the major use of methyl bromide is
as a fumigating agent.
The DETO survey results indicate that methyl bromide may be present in
some commercial dyes at less than 0.1 percent. No other likely sources
in textile mill wastewaters were found in this study. Of 418 question-
naire returns, 4 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill waste. No
sources were suggested. This priority pollutant was not detected in any
wastewater samples in the field sampling program.
Dichlorobromomethane. Dichlorobromomethane belongs to the class of com-
pounds known as halomethanes, which are a subcategory of halogenated
hydrocarbons. Specific industrial uses are not known.
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No sources of dichlorobromomethane in textile mill wastewaters were
uncovered in this study. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, none indicated
either "known" or suspected presence" in the mill waste. In the field
sampling program, this compound was found in one of two raw wastewater
samples at one mill at 6.6 ug/1. It was not found in the two secondary
effluent samples at this mill.
2-Nitrophenol. The compound 2-nitrophenol belongs to the chemical class
known as nitrophenols. The nitrophenols represent a generic class of
organic compounds that may contain from one to four nitro groups sub-
stituted on the phenol ring. They include the mono-, di-, tri-, and
tetra-nitrophenols in various isomeric forms. Isomers of the dinitro-
cresols are sometimes included within this class of compounds.
Nitrophenols and nitrocresols are widely used in the U.S. as inter-
mediates for the production of dyes, pigments, Pharmaceuticals, rubber
chemicals, lumber preservatives, photographic chemicals, and pesticidal
and fungicidal agents. Although some nitrophenols are not produced
commercially in substantial quantities, various nitrophenolic compounds
are inadvertantly produced via microbial degradation of the pesticides
parathion and 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol.
No sources of 2-nitrophenol in textile mill wastewaters were cited or
suggested by anyone in the industry contacted in this study. Out of 418
questionnaire returns, 2 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill
waste, but no sources were suggested. In the field sampling program,
this priority pollutant was detected in one secondary treated effluent
at 4.1 ug/1. It was not detected in the raw wastewater sample at this
mill.
4-Nitrophenol. The compound 4-nitrophenol belongs to the chemical class
known as nitrophenols. The nitrophenols represent a generic class of
organic compounds that may contain from one to four nitro groups sub-
stituted on the phenol ring. They include the mono-, di-, tri-, and
tetra-nitrophenols in various isomeric forms. Isomers of the dinitro-
cresols are sometimes included within this class of compounds.
Nitrophenols and nitrocresols are widely used in the U.S. as inter-
mediates for the production of dyes, pigments, Pharmaceuticals, rubber
chemicals, lumber preservatives, photographic chemicals, and pesticidal
and fungicidal agents. Although some nitrophenols are not produced
commercially in substantial quantities, various nitrophenolic compounds
are inadvertantly produced via microbial degradation of the pesticides
parathion and 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol.
The DETO survey results indicated that 4-nitrophenol may be present in
some commercial dyes at less than 0.1 percent levels. Out of 418
questionnaire surveys, 2 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill
waste, but no possible sources were suggested. In the field sampling
program, this pollutant was detected at "less than 10 ug/1" in one of
two secondary effluent samples at one mill. It was not detected in the
raw wastewater samples at this mill.
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2,4-Dinitrophenol. The compound 2,4-dinitrophenol belongs to the chemical
class known as nitrophenols. The nitrophenols represent a generic class
of organic compounds which may contain from one to four nitro groups
substituted on the phenol ring. They include the mono-, di-, tri-, and
tetra-nitrophenols in various isomeric forms. Isomers of the dinitrocresols
are sometimes included within this class of compounds.
Nitrophenols and nitrocresols are widely used in the U.S. as intermediates
for the production of dyes, pigments, Pharmaceuticals, rubber chemicals,
lumber preservatives, photographic chemicals, and pesticidal and fungicidal
agents. Although some nitrophenols are not produced commercially in
substantial quantities, various nitrophenolic compounds are inadvertantly
produced via microbial degradation of the pesticides parathion and
4,6-dinitro-o-cresol.
The DETO survey results indicated that 2,4-dinitrophenol may be present
in some commercial dyes at concentrations less than 0.1 percent. Out of
418 questionnaire returns, 4 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill
waste. No possible sources were suggested. This priority pollutant was
not detected in any sample in the field sampling program.
N-Nitrosodimethylamine. The compound N-nitrosodiphenylamine belongs to
the chemical class known as nitrosamines. The organic nitroso-compounds
are a large group of chemicals characterized by a nitroso group (N=0)
that is attached to the nitrogen of a secondary amine.
Patent applications show potential uses of nitrosamines in the manufacture
of rubber, dyestuffs, gasoline additives, lubricating oils, explosives,
insecticides, fungicides, dielectric fluids, acrylonitrile, plasticizers,
industrial solvents, and hydrazine. At present, two major industries
are involved in handling nitrosamines: organic chemicals manufacturing
and rubber processing. Diphenylnitrosamine is the only nitrosamine
which is produced in quantities greater than 450 kg. It is used as a
vulcanizing retarder in rubber processing and in pesticides. Other
nitrosamines are not produced commercially except as research chemicals.
N-nitrosodimethylamine is a possible trace constituent of some commercial
dyes. The DETO survey results indicate that concentrations should be
less than 0.1 percent. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 5 indicated
"suspected presence" in the mill waste. This pollutant was not detected
in any sample collected in the field sampling program.
Benzofluoranthene (3,4 and 11,12). The compounds 3,4- and 11,12-benzo-
fluoranthene belongs to the chemical class known as polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH's). PAH's are formed as a result of combustion of
organic compounds without sufficient oxygen. This leads to the formation
of C-H free radicals that can polymerize to form various PAH's. Domestic
and industrial soots, coal tar, and pitch are the products of incomplete
combustion of carbonaceous materials such as wood, coal, and oil.
Naturally formed shale oil and petroleum contain PAH.
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Using the EPA analytical protocol, the 3,4- and 11,12- isomers of benzo-
fluoranthene are not distinguishable. No possible sources of this
compound in textile mill wastewaters were found in this study. Out of
418 questionnaire returns, 1 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill
waste, without suggesting any possible source. This pollutant was
detected at "less than 10 ug/1" in one of two raw wastewater samples at
one mill. It was not detected in the two secondary effluent samples.
Fluorene. Fluorene belongs to the chemical class of compounds known as
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (FAH's). PAH's are formed as a result
of combustion of organic compounds without sufficient oxygen. This
leads to the formation of C-H free radicals that can polymerize to form
various PAH's. Domestic and industrial soots, coal tar, and pitch are
the products of incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials such as
wood, coal, and oil. Naturally formed shale oil and petroleum contain
PAH.
A possible source of fluorene in textile mill wastewaters suggested by
the ATMI Task Force was some sanitary cleaning agents. Chemical references
cite its use in dyestuffs, but this was not indicated by the DETO survey
results. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 1 indicated "known presence"
and 4 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill wastes. No sources
were suggested. This pollutant was detected in one raw wastewater
sample at 15 ug/1. It was not found in any treated effluent samples.
Phenanthrene. Phenanthrene belongs to the chemical class of compounds
known as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's). PAH's are formed as
a result of combustion of organic compounds without sufficient oxygen.
This leads to the formation of C-H free radicals that can polymerize to
form various PAH's. Domestic and industrial soots, coal tar, and pitch
are the products of incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials such
as wood, coal, and oil. Naturally formed shale oil and petroleum contain
PAH.
The only cited source of phenanthrene in textile mill wastewaters was
dyes. The DETO survey results indicated that levels in some commercial
dyes should be less than 0.1 percent. Out of 418 questionnaire returns,
3 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill wastes. This pollutant was
not detected in the field sampling program.
Vinyl Chloride. Vinyl chloride is used in the manufacture of polyvinyl
chloride, which is the most widely used synthetic plastic material
throughout the world. Of the estimated million metric tons of vinyl
chloride produced each year, 25 percent is manufactured in the U.S.
Polyvinyl chloride is used for numerous products in the building and
automobile industries, for electrical wire insulation, cables, piping,
household equipment, clothing, toys, packaging for food products and
medical supplies. The rubber, paper, and glass industries also depend
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heavily on the production of vinyl chloride. Polyvinyl chloride and
vinyl chloride copolymers are distributed and processed in a variety of
forms including dry resins, plastisol (dispersions in plasticizers),
organosol (dispersion in plasticizers plus volatile solvent), and latex
(colloidal dispersion in water). Latexes are used to coat or impregnate
paper, fabrics, or leather.
No likely sources of vinyl chloride in textile mill wastewaters were
suggested by any industry representatives. Out of 418 questionnaire
returns, 5 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill waste, but no
sources were suggested. In the field sampling program, it was detected
in one raw wastewater sample at 11 ug/1. It was not detected in the
treated waste effluent sample at this mill. There remains some question
as to the validity of this analytical result because of the nature of
this compound.
Dieldrin. Dieldrin has been one of the most widely used domestic pesticides.
It is a chlorinated hydrocarbon compound. Although aldrin (see Group
2C) is used in greater quantity than dieldrin, aldrin quickly transforms
into dieldrin in the environment. Hence, there is concern with both
compounds. The primary use of the chemicals in the past was for control
of corn pests, although they were also used by the citrus industry.
Uses are restricted to those where there is no effluent discharge.
Aldrin use in the U.S. peaked at 8.6 million kilograms (19 million
pounds) in 1966 but dropped to about 4.8 million kilograms (10.5 million
pounds) in 1970. During that same period dieldrin use decreased from 0.45
million kilograms (1 million pounds) to 304,000 kilograms about (670,000
pounds). The decreased use has been attributed primarily to increased
insect resistance to the two chemicals and to development and availability
of substitute materials.
No general sources of dieldrin in textile mill wastewaters were suggested
by any of the industry representatives. Out of 418 questionnaire responses,
1 indicated "known presence" in the mill wastes and cited moth proofing
as the source. Dieldrin was detected in one wastewater sample at 0.2
ug/1. This analysis was carried out on 10 selected textile mill wastewater
samples by EPA's Pesticide Monitoring Laboratory, and the finding of
this priority pollutant was confirmed by both GC/MS and FID-GC.
4,4'-DDT. Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) and its metabolites
are among the most widely distributed synthetic chemicals on earth.
These pesticides are found in soils, runoff water, air, rainwater, and
in the tissues of animals. Basic characteristics of DDT include per-
sistence, mobility, and a broad range of toxicological effects.
No known sources of 4,4-DDT were suggested by the textile industry
representatives other than the water supply and agricultural activities
in the vicinity of the mill. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 1 indicated
"suspected presence" in the mill waste, but suggested no potential
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source. This priority pollutant was detected in 1 of 10 selected textile
mill wastewater samples by EPA's Pesticide Monitoring Laboratory. The
concentration was 0.5 ug/1 by GC analysis. This was confirmed by FID-GC,
but could not be confirmed by GC/MS because of an interference. Florisil
cleanup of the sample did not remove the interference.
Beryllium. Beryllium is a naturally occurring element that constitutes
about 0.001 percent of the earth's crust. Environmental concentrations
of beryllium are reported at 0.6 ng/1 in seawater, while beryllium
concentrations in U.S. surface water samples ranged from 10 to 1,220
ng/1, with a mean of 190 ng/1 (20). Major uses of beryllium are in the
manufacture of X-ray diffraction tubes and electrodes, in nuclear reactors,
in the optical industry, and in the production of alloys.
No likely manufacturing-related sources of beryllium in textile mill
wastewaters were suggested by any of the industry representatives. Out
of 418 questionnaire returns, 2 indicated "known presence" and 5 indicated
"suspected presence" in the mill waste, but only one respondent cited
the potential source; "raw materials." In the field sampling program,
beryllium was detected in one raw wastewater sample at "less than 40
ug/1." Other samples analyzed by the same laboratory were reported as
"less than 5 ug/1." This was the lowest level reported by this laboratory,
and is here regarded as being equivalent to "not detected." Beryllium
was not detected in any of the samples (approximately 40 mills) analyzed
by another laboratory. The latter laboratory worked to a minimum detection
limit of 0.1 ug/1.
Group 2C - Potentially Significant in Textile Wastewaters: Not
Detected
The priority pollutants not detected in the field sampling program, but
suggested as possibly present in wastewaters as an intermediate or
contaminant in some textile mills are the following:
6. carbon tetrachloride
14. 1,1,2-trichloroethane
16. chloroethane
40. 4-chlorophenyl phenyl ether
50. dichlorodifluoromethane
54. isophorone
56. nitrobenzene
60. 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol
77. acenaphthylene
Also included in Group 2C are the remaining pesticides that could be
present because of contamination of raw materials or agricultural activities
that impact the mill:
89. aldrin
91. chlordane
93. 4,4'-DDE
94. 4,4'-DDD
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95. alpha-endosulfan
96. beta-endosulfan
97. endosulfan sulfate
98. endrin
99. endrin aldehyde
100. heptachlor
101. heptachlor epoxide
102. alpha-BHC
103. beta-BHC
104. gamma-BHC (lindane)
105. delta-BHC
113. toxaphene
Carbon Tetrachloride. Carbon tetrachloride is a haloalkane and is a
dense, colorless liquid at room temperature. Approximately 450 million
kilograms (one billion pounds) are produced annually in the U.S. The
bulk of this production is used in the manufacture of fluorocarbons (95
percent in 1973), which are used primarily as aerosol propellants.
However, the demand for carbon tetrachloride is expected to decrease as
the use of aerosol products decreases. Other uses of carbon tetrachloride
include: grain fumigation, where it is being largely replaced by other
registered pesticide products; fire extinguishers; and in the dry cleaning
industry as a degreaser, where it has been largely replaced by perchloroethylene.
Carbon tetrachloride has been used as a deworming agent and anesthetic,
but, because of adverse toxicity, these uses have been discontinued.
Carbon tetrachloride has been found at low levels in plant and animal
tissues, but does not appear to bioconcentrate to any appreciable extent.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 1 indicated "known presence" and 9
indicated "suspected presence" of carbon tetrachloride in the mill
waste. One respondent cited dyes and another "raw material" as possible
sources. This pollutant was not among those listed in the DETO survey
results as believed present in commercial dyes, although that survey did
not include dyes produced in smaller quantities.
1,1,2-Trichloroethane. The compound 1,1,2-trichloroethane belongs to
the chemical class known as chlorinated ethanes. The chlorinated ethanes,
which are produced in relatively large quantities, are used for the
production of tetraethyl lead and vinyl chloride, as industrial solvents,
and as intermediates in the production of other organochlorine compounds.
Some have been found in drinking waters, in natural waters, and in
aquatic organisms and foodstuffs.
This priority pollutant may find application in some textile mills in
scouring or as a spot remover. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 9
indicated "suspected presence" in mill waste, with one respondent citing
dyes as the potential source. This was not confirmed by the DETO survey
results.
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Chloroethane. Chloroethane belongs to the chemical class known as
chlorinated ethanes. The chlorinated ethanes, which are produced in
relatively large quantities, are used for the production of tetraethyl
lead and vinyl chlorides, as industrial solvents, and as intermediates
in the production of other organochlorine compounds. Some have been
found in drinking waters, in natural waters, and in aquatic organisms
and foodstuffs.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 1 indicated "known presence" and 8
indicated "suspected presence" of Chloroethane in the mill waste.
Potential sources cited by two respondents were "raw materials." No
other information about sources of this compound in textile mill waste-
waters was suggested by the industry.
4-Chlorophenyl Phenyl Ether. The compound 4-chlorophenyl phenyl ether
belongs to the class of compounds known as haloethers. These are com-
pounds that contain an ether moiety (R-O-R) and halogen atoms attached
to the aryl or alkyl groups. Chloroethers appear to be the most impor-
tant haloethers used commercially and can be divided into two categories,
alpha- and non-alpha- Chloroethers. Chloromethyl methyl ether (CMME) is
the only alpha haloether of commercial significance and is used primarily
in the synthesis of strong base ion exchange resins used in water condi-
tioning and for chemical separation processes. However, CMME preparations
are usually contaminated with 1 to 8 percent bis(chloromethyl)ether
(BCME) which has been demonstrated to be a potent carcinogen.
The beta-chloroethers are widespread environmental contaminants. It has
been suggested that they are produced or may be formed as by-products in
sizable quantities, are released to and appear to persist in the environment,
can pass through drinking water treatment plants, and may be carcinogenic.
Bis (2-chloroethyl) ether (BCE) is used as a dewaxing agent for lubricating
oils and is a useful solvent for naphthenic components. BCE has also
been used to separate butadiene from butylene. The second major use of
bis (2-chloroethyl) ether is in the textile industry as a cleaning
agent, a wetting agent and penetrant in combination with diethylene
glycol, sulphonated oils, etc. The compound generally is a good solvent
for tars, fats, waxes, oils, resins and pectins, and will dissolve
cellulose esters when used with 10-30 percent ethanol.
The ATMI Task Force suggested that this compound might find general
applications as a fungicide or bactericide, although not necessarily in
textile manufacturing operations. Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 4
indicated "suspected presence" in the mill waste. No potential sources
were cited. This compound is reportedly used in some proprietary sanitary
cleaning compounds.
Dichlorodifluoromethane. Dichlorodifluoramethane belongs to the class
of compounds known as halomethanes. These compounds are a subcategory
of halogenated hydrocarbons. Dichlorodifluoromethane has been referred
to as difluorodichloromethane, Freon 12, Acton 6, Genetron 12, Halon,
VI-41
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and Isotron 2. Freon compounds are organic compounds that contain
fluorine. They have a high degree of chemical stability, relatively low
toxicity, and are nonflammable. Freon compounds have found many applica-
tions ranging from use as propellants to refrigerants and solvents.
No specific uses of dichlorodifluoromethane were reported by any textile
industry representative, although it might have applications in textile
mills and their laboratories. It has no particular process-related appli-
cations, however. None of the questionnaire returns listed it as "known"
or "suspected presence" in the mill waste.
Isophorone. Isophorone is an industrial chemical synthesized from
acetone and is used commercially as a solvent or cosolvent for finishes,
lacquers, polyvinyl and nitrocellulose resins, pesticides, herbicides,
fats, oils, and gums. It is also used as a chemical feedstock for the
synthesis of 3,5 xylenol, 2,3,5-trimethyl cyclobexanol, and 3, 5-dimethyl-
aniline.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 1 indicated "suspected presence" in
the mill waste, citing dyes as the potential source. This was not
indicated as a common source by the results of the DETO survey.
Nitrobenzene. Nitrobenzene is a pale yellow liquid with a sweet but
sickening odor. It is produced by the reaction of nitrous and sulfuric
acid and benzene. Most of the nitrobenzene produced is reduced to
analine and other dye intermediates for use in soaps and shoe polishes.
On a small scale, it is used as a mild oxidizing agent.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 7 indicated "suspected presence" of
nitrobenzene in the mill waste, with 1 respondent citing defoamer as the
potential source, and another citing naphthol dyes. This latter source
was not indicated as common by the results of the DETO survey.
4,6-Dinitro-o-Cresol. The compound 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol belongs to the
chemical class known as nitrophenols. The nitrophenols represent a
generic class of organic compounds that may contain from one to four
nitro groups substituted on the phenol ring. They include the mono-,
di-, tri-, and tetra-nitrophenols in various isomeric forms. Isomers of
the dinitrocresols are sometimes included within this class of compounds.
Nitrophenols and nitrocresols are widely used in the U.S. as intermediates
for the production of dyes, pigments, Pharmaceuticals, rubber chemicals,
lumber preservatives, photographic chemicals, and pesticidal and fungicidal
agents. Although some nitrophenols are not produced commercially in
substantial quantities, various nitrophenolic compounds are inadvertantly
produced via microbial degradation of the pesticides parathion and
4,6-dinitro-o-cresol.
The use of 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol as a constituent of dyestuff was not
indicated as a common source by the results of the DETO survey. Out of
418 questionnaire returns, 2 indicated "suspected presence" in the mill
waste. No potential sources were suggested.
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Acenaphthylene. Acenaphthylene belongs to the chemical class of compounds
known as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's). PAH's are formed as
a result of combustion of organic compounds without sufficient oxygen.
This leads to the formation of C-H free radicals that can polymerize to
form various PAH's. Domestic and industrial soots, coal tar, and pitch
are the products of incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials such
as wood, coal, and oil. Naturally formed shale oil and petroleum contain
PAH.
Out of 418 questionnaire returns, 3 indicated "known presence" and 2
indicated "suspected presence" of acenaphthylene in the mill waste. Two
respondents cited direct dyes as the potential sources. This was not
indicated as a common source by the results of the DETO survey.
Group 3 - Not Considered Significant in Textile Wastewaters.
Based on the findings of this study, the following priority pollutants
are not considered significant in textile mill wastewater. They were
not detected in the field sampling program and were not suggested as
possibly present in mill wastes due to manufacturing operations or from
other sources. It should be noted that two of the Group 3 pollutants,
asbestos and dioxin, were not analyzed for in the field sampling program
because of analytical constraints. Asbestos fibers have been detected
in some municipal water supplies, but at this time there are no data to
suggest that asbestos is a significant pollutant in textile mill wastewaters.
It should be noted that asbestos textile products are covered by another
EPA point source category. Dioxin is extremely toxic, and there is no
evidence that it is commonly present in textile mill wastewaters.
Group 3 comprises the following priority pollutants:
2. acrolein
12. hexachloroethane
15. 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane
17. bis (chloromethyl) ether
18. bis(2-chloroethyl) ether
19. 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether
26. 1,3-dichlorobenzene
30. 1,2-trans-dichloroethylene
33. 1,3-dichloropropylene
35. 2,4-dinitrotoluene
39. fluoranthene
41. 4-bromophenyl phenyl ether
42. bis(2-chloroisopropyl) ether
43. bis(2-chloroethoxy) methane
47. bromoform
51. chlorodibromomethane
52. hexachlorobutadiene
53. hexachlorocyclopentadiene
69. di-n-octyl phthalate
72. 1,2-benzanthracene
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73. benzo(a)pyrene
76. chrysene
79. 1,12-benzoperylene
82. 1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene
83. indeno (1,2,3-cd)pyrene
106. PCB-1242
107. PCB-1254
108. PCB-1221
109. PCB-1232
110. PCB-1248
111. PCB-1260
112. PCB-1016
116. asbestos
129. dioxin
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SECTION VII
CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
This section describes the technologies that are available to conserve
water and reduce the constituents in textile wastewater discharges.
There are two major approaches available: 1) in-plant controls and
process changes and 2) end-of-pipe treatment. Programs combining
elements of both approaches are required for many mills in the industry.
Individual mills should consider both approaches and determine which
specific combination is best suited to their particular situation.
In-plant controls and process changes, which are described below, are
measures taken to reduce hydraulic and pollutant loadings originating
from mill operations. At the present time, the use of such measures is
limited. In general, most textile mills use water once and discharge
it. There may exist a lack of communication and coordination between
individuals and activities inside textile mills and personnel responsible
for end-of-pipe water pollution control. The lack of attention in such
mundane areas as housekeeping and leak control is an indication that
more sophisticated measures are also lacking. These situations can be
attributed to several factors, including low costs for water and lack of
recognizable incentives to practice conservation. These aspects are
changing today and much greater attention is being focused on in-plant
control measures because of economic, environmental, and energy considera-
tions.
End-of-pipe treatment technologies for textile mill wastewaters have
been researched and developed for decades. As described subsequently in
this section, most of the direct-discharge mills in the industry provide
end-of-pipe treatment and many indirect dischargers also provide treatment.
Preliminary treatment, biological treatment, chemical processes, physical
separation methods, and sorption systems are described after the discussion
of in-plant controls. Each system is described along with specific case
studies.
INPLANT CONTROLS AND PROCESS CHANGES
It is often more efficient to attack a pollution problem at its source,
i.e., to prevent the generation of waste, rather than to depend upon
treatment to alter or remove it. For this reason, investigation of
in-plant controls and process changes that might be instituted to reduce
the strength and/or volume of wastewaters is a logical first step in any
pollution control program at a textile mill. Conscientious implementa-
tion of in-plant controls and process changes can be very effective in
reducing water use and pollutant discharges.
It is convenient to divide in-plant measures into five types as follows:
1) water reuse, 2) water reduction, 3) chemical substitution, 4) material
reclamation, and 5) process changes and new process technology. Water
reuse and water reduction measures simply lower water usage rates. This
VII-1
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results in a lower hydraulic loading on treatment facilities that in
turn may yield an improved effluent quality. In other situations,
smaller treatment units may be used, involving less capital and lower
operating costs. Chemical substitution or material reclamation may
reduce conventional pollutant loadings on treatment facilities or
eliminate or reduce the levels of priority pollutants or other undesir-
able constituents in the wastewater. Process changes can result in
water and pollutant reductions through improved efficiency and process
control.
Summary of In-Plant Controls Data
Surveys from 541 textile mills were received during the initial phase of
the study. Of these, 152 provided relevant information about in-plant
production process control. In some instances, this information was
supplemented by telephone calls to knowledgeable mill personnel. A
summary of the responses, listed by subcategory, is provided in Table
VII-1. The number of controls cited totaled 195, with many facilities
identifying more than one control measure. However, the quantitative
accuracy of the in-plant control information developed from the survey
is somewhat questionable due to confusion as to what qualifies as an
in-plant control measure. The following is an example of the kinds of
problems encountered.
Forty-seven mills mercerize cotton to some extent. Twenty-six of these
practice caustic recovery while 18 do not. The practices at the other
3 mills are unknown. Eleven of the mills practicing caustic recovery
considered it to be an in-plant control measure. Evidently, the others
considered it to be a common and expected aspect of the mercerizing process,
since they did not list it as an in-plant control. This type of inconsis-
tency may exist elsewhere in the survey data. To date, most in-plant
control measures have been implemented for reasons other than, or in addi-
tion to, water pollution control.
Water Reuse
Water reuse, as considered here, includes those situations that reduce
hydraulic loadings to treatment systems by using the same water in more
than one process. Water reuse resulting from advanced wastewater treat-
ment (recycle) is not considered an in-plant control here, since it does
not accomplish such reductions. The two major water reuse measures
available to textile mills are: 1) reuse of relatively clean cooling
water.in operations requiring hot water, and 2) reuse of process water
from one operation in a second, unrelated operation.
Cooling water that does not come in contact with fabric or chemicals can
often be collected and reused directly. Examples include condenser
cooling water, water from water-cooled bearings, heat-exchanger water,
and water recovered from such equipment as cooling rolls, yarn dryers,
pressure dyeing machines, and air compressors. This water can be pumped
to hot water storage tanks for reuse in functions where heated water is
required, such as dye makeup water, bleaching, rinsing, and cleaning.
Energy and water savings can be substantial.
VII-2
-------
TABLE VII-1
REPORTED IN-PLANT CONTROL MEASURES - RESULTS OF INDUSTRY SURVEY
M
M
1
U)
1.
2.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Subcategory
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Woven Fabric Finishing
Knit Fabric Finishing
Fabric Processing
Hosiery Processing
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
All Subcategories
Water
Reuse
2
2
28
24
1
10
21
2
_2
92
Water
Reduction
1
4
20
8
0
2
9
1
0
45
Chemical
Substitution
0
1
17
9
1
3
3
1
1
36
Material
Reclamation
1
0
16
1
0
3
1
0
0
22
Total
4
7
81
42
2
18
34
4
3
195
-------
Reuse of certain process water elsewhere in mill operations can also
result in significant wastewater reductions. Many examples have been
cited in the literature regarding potential reuse possibilities. These
include reuse of wash water from bleaching in caustic washing and scour
make-up and rinse water, reuse of scouring rinses for desizing or washing
printing equipment, reuse of mercerizing wash water to prepare scour,
chlorine bleach, and wetting out baths, and similar activities. Careful
analysis will be required prior to implementation of these and similar
measures to determine the feasibility for each situation.
Ninety-two mills in the survey appear to have instituted some form of
water reuse. To be considered here, the water had to have been discharged
previously without reuse. By far the most common situation is the use
of cooling water a second time to utilize its energy value. The water
is often passed through a heat exchanger and temperature increases as
great as 33°C (91°F) have been reported. Although most mills identifying
this type of water reuse began the practice in the mid-seventies to conserve
energy, it is possible that similar systems were instituted elsewhere
earlier, and are no longer considered to be in-plant control measures by
mill personnel. At some mills, both energy and water savings were major
considerations in instituting reuse, while at other mills one or the
other predominated. Energy savings commonly varied from 1 billion to
100 billion Btu/yr, while water savings varied from a few thousand gpd
to 100,000 gpd or more. Costs to institute these controls were often
less than $5,000, although some facilities reported costs of more than
$50,000. The principal cost items were pumps, piping modifications, and
hot water storage tanks.
As energy costs rise and wastewater treatment requirements become more
stringent, reuse of cooling water is expected to become more widespread
in the industry. This is supported by the fact that many mills have
reported current engineering studies in this area. The reuse of water
from various textile processing operations is also practiced at a few
mills and is being investigated at a number of others. Savings similar
to those noted for cooling water reuse were reported so it is expected
that more reuse of this nature will also be forthcoming.
Water Reduction
Three in-plant control measures that are considered forms of water
reduction are: 1) countercurrent flow washing, 2) conservation, and 3)
process modifications. Just as water reuse results in water reduction,
certain water reduction measures (e.g., countercurrent flow washing) can
be considered water reuse techniques; the distinction between these two
areas is not sharply defined. However, in general, water reuse is the
use of the same water more than once while water reduction is the use of
less water.
The countercurrent-flow system is based on the principle that wash water
is not used effectively if it is cleaner than the fabric upon leaving
the washbox. In counter-flow processing, the water flows through the
VII-4
-------
process in the direction opposite to that of the material. For example,
in counter-flowing wash boxes on a continuous range, the water is reused
in each of the boxes counter-flowed. In this way, the water is discharged
after contacting the material when it contains the greatest amounts of
impurities and other undesirable matter. This system is considered
standard procedure in wool scouring and is not an uncommon practice at
finishing mills that scour, mercerize, bleach, or dye on continuous
ranges. In some of these mills, counter-flowing wash boxes have been in
use for a long time. However, many mills still do not counterflow wash
waters, especially where water is inexpensive; this can be expected to
change as water and waste treatment become more costly (60). In some
instances, wash and rinse waters may be used as make-up water for certain
processes, resulting in possible chemical savings as well.
Conservation measures include a variety of steps that can be taken to
reduce water use in textile mills. "Good housekeeping" has frequently
been cited as a valuable in-plant control. This consists of maintaining
close control over mill operations to avoid accidental loss of process
chemical baths and avoiding the preparation of larger batches than
required, with resultant wastage of the excess. Supervision for insuring
efficient operation of in-plant controls such as countercurrent flow
systems is included. It also includes reduction of such things as dirt,
grease, and rust in production areas to avoid unnecessary washing and
processing of soiled material. Other measures that have been advised
are the construction of retaining walls, splashboards, and sills, plus
proper maintenance of machinery and plumbing to minimize process fluid
losses through spillage and leaks. Greater use of liquid level controls,
flow indicators and meters, and automatic shut-off devices also reduce
water requirements at textile mills.
Process modifications (as opposed to changes) to reduce water use that
can be simply implemented include longer process runs between dumps and
modulation of water supply to match the speed of the textile products
being handled. Carefully supervised trials should be run to determine
minimum water requirements possible without reducing product quality.
Instrumentation and automation that can be incorporated into processes
to assist in uniformity of application, reduction of rework, control of
pH and temperature, or performance of similar functions may be employed
to achieve reductions in water and chemical usage. Another process
modification is to pump process liquor to a storage tank where it is
saved for reuse in the makeup of the next similar bath. This and similar
material recovery techniques are more appropriately considered as material
reclamation activities.
Based on questionnaire and telephone surveys, 45 mills have instituted
water reduction control measures. Tlie most common water reduction
measure identified was countercurrent flow of water during wet processing
operations. Countercurrent flow in scouring and desizing, and rinse
water use in bleaching, dyeing, and mercerizing have been instituted at
various mills. As discussed in the section on water reuse, energy
and/or water savings can be substantial and costs for implementation can
vary considerably.
VII-5
-------
Conservation measures include a variety of steps taken to reduce water
use. Use of automatic shut-offs, level and flow control valves and
meters, and similar modifications to existing equipment and plumbing
have been installed economically in terms of water and energy savings at
some mills.
Some process modifications have been implemented quite simply. A few
mills have found that they can utilize chemicals in operations such as
scouring and dyeing (continuous type) for longer periods without dumping.
For example, one mill has recently extended the time between scour dumps
from once every 2 hours to once every 24 hours without affecting quality.
More extensive modifications that result in lower water usage generally
require capital investments. Such modifications are considered to
be process changes and are discussed later in this section.
Chemical Substitution
The objective of chemical substitution is to replace process chemicals
having high pollutant strength or toxic properties with others that are
less polluting or more amenable to wastewater treatment. A number of
process chemical substitutions have been suggested or developed for the
textile industry, and it appears from the levels and numbers of priority
pollutants found in secondary effluents that this area of control may
play an important role in the future. For any substitution, however, a
careful evaluation should be made to ascertain that one pollution problem
is not being substituted for another. Some examples of process chemical
substitution are discussed below.
Foaming problems in treatment facilities and receiving streams have been
solved by substituting biodegradable, low-foaming detergents for the
so-called "hard" detergents. In another area, potentially toxic pollutants,
especially certain organics and heavy metals, have been reduced or
eliminated by substitution. One example is switching from chromate
oxidizers to hydrogen peroxide or iodates in certain dyeing processes to
eliminate chromium. The replacement of soap with sulfuric acid in wool
fulling operations is a substitution measure that has resulted in lower
BOD loadings. Mineral acids have been substituted for high BOD acetic
acid in various dyeing processes, offering an advantage in terms of
wastewater treatability. And, the substitution of mineral oils with
nonionic emulsifiers for the more traditional olive oil for carding wool
has also resulted in lower pollutant levels.
Starch wastes from desizing have been the single greatest source of BOD
at many mills. Consequently, low BOD substitutes, such as CMC, PVA, and
PAA, have become useful to reduce BOD loadings on treatment plants.
However, a secondary consideration should be the net effect on the
environment. These low-BOD, high-COD sizes contribute substantially to
the ultimate oxygen demand of the receiving stream. In view of this,
the following from a report prepared for the American Textile Manu-
facturers Institute (61) is pertinent.
VII-6
-------
"Substitution should assume the direction of easily treatable materials
in terms of waste control technology and recoverability. Chemists and
environmental engineers must work together in considering which process
chemical is best handled by the means or unit process most efficiently
suited to its recovery on removal. Certainly, in terms of conventional
biological systems, low-BOD chemicals will not lose their significance.
However, as physical-chemical methods are adopted, other characteristics
(COD, ultimate BOD, solids, toxic pollutants, etc.) will likely become
increasingly important. Additional research is necessary to determine
the viability of COD versus BOD substitutions and the economic and
treatability impact of such cursory changes."
Thirty-six mills noted that they had instituted chemical substitution as
an in-plant control measure. Substitution for dyes requiring chromium
mordants and chromate oxidizers are the most commonly cited such control.
One Wool Finishing mill reported that savings in labor and other processing
costs more than offset the higher cost of dyes substituted for the
traditional chrome dyes. BOD reductions were achieved at some mills by
the following substitutions: synthetic warp sizes for starch, low BOD
detergents for those with high BOD, and other pH adjusters for acetic
acid. In addition, nonbiodegradable chemicals were replaced with sub-
stances that are biodegradable, and certain undesirable compounds and
metals eliminated from process operations at some mills.
A more general chemical substitution known as solvent processing is more
accurately classified as a process change and was not identified as an
in-plant control by mill respondents.
Material Reclamation
Material reclamation measures are often implemented to reduce processing
costs, reduction of pollutant loadings being a secondary benefit. As
has been noted previously, caustic recovery after mercerizing is quite
common, especially in large finishing operations. Recovery of various
warp sizes has been investigated at length and shows promise. Size
recovery was identified at three facilities; two reclaim PVA and one
reclaims WP-50. While many Carpet Finishing mills segregate latex waste
streams for treatment, only two segregate for recycle. Some mills reclaim
scouring detergent or dye liquor for future batches. Reclamation of
print solvent is practiced at one mill. In all, some form of material
reclamation was noted at some 22 mills. It is anticipated that chemical
and wastewater treatment costs will make material conservation and
recovery more important in the future.
Process Changes and New Process Technology
Process changes comprise a group of related measures that may be used to
achieve benefits in the four areas noted. They result in reductions of
hydraulic and/or pollutant loadings to treatment systems, and, in some
cases, do so quite significantly.
VII-7
-------
Employment of process changes and new process technology holds great
promise for reducing hydraulic and pollutant loads from textile mills.
Technological advances in fibers, process chemicals and other raw materials,
and fibers process equipment are constantly being made, and in general
these changes have resulted in lower hydraulic and conventional pollutant
loadings (2). It is expected that this trend will continue, but the
nature of future textile processing is difficult to predict with certainty.
Some of the current process changes and trends available to the textile
industry are discussed below.
Solvent processing has been the most discussed of all the new process
technologies. In general it has not yet lived up to its early promise,
except for certain specialized processing and small batch operations.
Effective applications include solvent scouring of wool fabric and some
synthetic knit fabrics and solvent finishing of upholstery, drapery,
synthetic knits, and fabrics that are sensitive to water.
There are a number of reasons for the limited application of solvent
processing to date. The most convincing has been the inability to
achieve the required levels of solvent recovery necessary to make the
processes economically feasible. In addition, only a limited number of
the thousands of different dyestuffs and chemicals now used in commercial
textile processing can be transferred directly to solvent use. Another
problem has been the emission of unrecovered solvent to the work place
or the atmosphere. In spite of these problem areas, some textile equipment
manufacturers believe that research and development will overcome the
problems and result in processes and equipment for large, nonaqueous
systems that can be substituted for the various processes presently
being used (62). Thus, the potential of solvent processing for reducing
wastewater problems in the textile industry cannot be estimated at the
present.
A more feasible method of reducing hydraulic and pollutant loadings in
the industry at the present time is to change processes and material
flow procedures. It has been noted (63) that continuous operations
generally require less space, water, and process chemicals than do batch
operations. A second process change that may be employed to reduce
water use is to substitute standing baths and rinses for running ones.
Rope washers are reportedly more effective than open-width washers in
reducing water use. Significant water use reductions can also be achieved
by combining separate operations, such as scouring and dyeing in the
finishing of synthetic fibers and the desizing and scouring of cotton
fibers, whenever possible.
Some of the newer textile processing equipment results in lower water
and chemical usage. For example, pressure dye machines use dyestuff
more efficiently, reduce water requirements, and perhaps most importantly
reduce the level of toxic dye carriers, as compared to atmospheric
dyeing. Nevertheless, technological advancements in textile machinery
should be continually sought. Chemical manufacturers must be urged
to provide chemical modifications that assist in recovery or removal of
VII-8
-------
chemicals by unit treatment methods, and equipment manufacturers must be
urged to cooperate in design of equipment with an eye toward pollution
abatement. It is with the textile producer, however, that the responsi-
bility lies for defining the problem areas and offering the specific
direction for equipment manufacturers to follow.
END-OF-PIPE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
End-of-pipe treatment of combined waste streams is currently the principal
approach being taken by the textile industry to remove or reduce the
pollutant present in the waste from the various wet-processing operations.
This has been, and seems to remain, the approach because of the difficulty
of segregating waste streams at existing facilities. However, new
facilities will no doubt be designed so that the more concentrated and
more troublesome wastes can be segregated and treated independently.
This will certainly be the case if priority pollutants are to be con-
trolled and chemical substitutions are not available.
It is convenient to discuss the applicable end-of-pipe treatment tech-
nologies as: 1) preliminary measures (screening, neutralization, and
equalization), 2) biological processes (aerated lagoons, activated
sludge, biological beds, stabilization lagoons), 3) chemical processes
(coagulation, precipitation, and oxidation), 4) physical separation
methods (filtration, hyperfiltration, ultrafiltration, dissolved air
flotation, stripping, and electrodialysis), and 5) sorption systems
(activated carbon, and powdered activated carbon). A summary of the
current end-of-pipe treatment practices by the mills surveyed during
this study, and discussions of the individual technologies noted above
follow.
Summary of Current Practices
The information developed in this study on current end-of-pipe treatment
practices by the wet-processing mills surveyed is summarized in Table
VII-2. The table illustrates that for the direct dischargers, 20 percent
provide no wastewater treatment, 7 percent provide only preliminary
treatment (i.e., neutralization, screening, equalization, heat exchange,
disinfection, primary sedimentation, and/or flotation), 65 percent
provide biological or an equivalent level of treatment (i.e., aerated or
unaerated lagoons, biological filtration, activated sludge, and chemical
coagulation/flocculation without preceding biological treatment), and 8
percent provide an advanced level of treatment (i.e., activated carbon,
chemical coagulation following biological treatment, ozonation, filtration,
ion exchange, and membrane processes). For the indirect dischargers, 57
percent provide no treatment, 33 percent provide preliminary treatment,
9 percent provide biological or an equivalent level of treatment, and
0.1 percent (1 mill) provide an advanced level of treatment. Approximately
21 percent of the mills surveyed (72 percent of the direct dischargers
and 9 percent of the indirect dischargers) provide biological or an
equivalent level of treatment as a minimum.
VII-9
-------
TABLE VII-2
WASTEWATER TREATMENT STATUS - WET PROCESSING MILLS SURVEYED
1.
2.
4.
5.
< 6.
i i
i i
~ 7.
o
8.
9.
Subcategory
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Woven Fabric Finishing
Knit Fabric Finishing
Fabric Processing
Hosiery Processing
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
All Subcategories
No
Treatment
D I
1
2
9
10
4
1
3
9
1
40
5
9
128
135
101
6
108
11
1
504
Preliminary
D I
2
0
8
0
0
1
3
0
1
15
3
11
65
59
43
34
51
11
12
289
Biological or
Equivalent
D I
4
8
60
31
4
10
26
2
3
148
2
4
23
24
5
2
14
3
0
77
Advanced
D I
0
0
5
7
0
1
4
1
0
18
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
Treatment
Unclassified
D I U
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
3
2
0
2
0
1
16
0
3
30
13
0
3
6
1
1
57
Totals
D
7
10
82
48
8
13
36
12
5
221
I
10
24
224
221
152
42
175
25
14
887
All Mills
17
37
336
282
160
58
217
38
20
1,165
Note:
D refers to direct discharger, I to indirect dischargers, and U to unclassified mill
Preliminary - neutralization, screening, equalization, heat exchange, disinfection, primary
sedimentation, and/or flotation
Biological or Equivalent - aerated and unaerated lagoons, biological filtration, activated sludge, chemical
coagulation/flocculation without preceeding biological treatment
Advanced - activated carbon, chemical coagulation following biological treatment,
ozonation, filtration, ion exchange, membrane processes, etc.
-------
Specific quantitative information about the treatment technologies
employed by the mills surveyed is presented in Table VII-3 for mills
that discharge directly to a receiving water and in Table VII-4 for
mills that discharge indirectly through POTW's.
For both direct- and indirect-discharge mills that have treatment
facilities, well over half provide some form of screening, while less
than half have equalization and only about 20 percent neutralize.
Nearly 68 percent of the direct dischargers employ activated sludge in
their treatment system. For estimating the costs of additional treatment
technologies for the direct dischargers, the base for existing treatment
comprised a sequence of screening, activated sludge, and secondary
sedimentation as the major treatment units. Basically, this is the
recommended BPT. For the indirect dischargers, the base for estimating
costs assumed that no treatment was currently provided.
A detailed study of the effectiveness of the recommended BPT in the
textile industry was carried out using the questionnaire results and
supporting monitoring data reports. The extended-aeration mode of
operating activated sludge systems is commonly used by direct-discharge
mills. An analysis of the available data indicated that the two principal
design variables affecting the quality of an aeration basin effluent are
detention time (hours) and aeration horsepower per unit volume of the basin
(hp/1000 cu ft). An analysis of treatment plants with the recommended BPT
was carried out in order to determine a minimum horsepower:detention time
value for biological treatment systems that, when used, would effect an
effluent meeting the 1977 requirements. It was found that a total of 69
treatment plants in Subcategories 4, 5, 6, and 7 employed the recommended
BPT. A graphical optimization procedure was applied to this list of 69
plants with the results shown in Figure VII-1. It was found that 40 of 42
(95 percent) of those plants maintaining a minimum detention time of 40
hours, a minimum of 0.2 horsepower per 1,000 cubic feet of basin volume,
and a minimum of 30 horsepower-hours per 1,000 cubic feet met the 1977
effluent requirements.
It may be noted from Figure VII-1 that a very long detention time may
compensate for inadequate aeration horsepower, but that the reverse is
not true. This emphasizes the importance of designing aeration basins
with sufficient detention time.
The relative merit of polishing ponds as an effective treatment tech-
nology was examined in conjunction with the above investigation. Of the
69 treatment plants examined, 23 utilized polishing ponds. Ten of these
are among the 42 plants having at least the minimum recommended detention
times and aeration values; only one failed to meet the 1977 effluent require-
ments. The remaining 13 plants with polishing ponds do not have the minimum
recommended detention times and aeration values; 5 meet the 1977 effluent
requirements, indicating a benefit due to the polishing ponds. Closer
inspection, however, reveals that 2 of these 5 plants treat very weak
influent waste, 1 of the other 3 plants almost meets the calculated
minimum required detention time and aeration value, and the remaining 2
plants have aeration basin detention times in excess of 10 days. It
VII-11
-------
TABLE VII-3
EXISTING TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES - DIRECT DISCHARGERS
Physical
Treatment
Biological Chemical Tertiary Other
1
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
Subcategory
. Wool Scouring
. Wool Finishing
. Woven Fabric Finishing
. Knit Fabric Finishing
Fabric
Hosiery Products
. Carpet Finishing
. Stock & Yarn Finishing
. Nonwoven Manufacturing
. Felted Fabric Processing
Total
Note: Sc = Screening
Eq = Equalization
No. of
Mills
6
5
56
29
2
11
29
1
3
142
Sc
3
4
39
20
1
8
17
1
93
1° = Primary Sedimentation
2° = Secondary Sedimentation
Sk = Skimming
Eq
1
2
21
10
4
13
1
52
Fi =
AS =
Al =
A2 =
An =
1°
2
4
2
4
1
13
2° Sk
3
3
41
23 1
2
6
18
1
97 1
Fi AS
3
3
2 40
5 23
2
1 6
3 18
1
11 96
Al
2
13
5
4
8
1
33
A2 An
1
2
16
9
5
9
2
44 0
Filtration
Activated Sludge
Aerated Lagoon
Facultative or Tertiary
Anaerobic
Lagoon
Lagoon
TF Ne CC Ox AC PC
2
3 1
2 13 8 19 1
6 3 20
353
7 2 12
1
2
2 32 15 60 1 3
TF = Trickling Filter
Ne = Neutralization
CC = Chemical Coagulation
3
9
5
2
4
2
25
Ox = Oxidation, incl. Disinfection
AC = Activated Carbon
PC = Powdered Activated Carbon
-------
TABLE VII-4
EXISTING PRETREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES - INDIRECT DISCHARGERS
Physical
Treatment
Biological
Chemical Tertiary Other
1
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
Subcategory
. Wool Scouring
. Wool Finishing
. Woven Fabric Finishing
. Knit Fabric Finishing
Fabric
Hosiery Products
. Carpet Finishing
. Stock & Yarn Finishing
. Nonwoven Manufacturing
. Felted Fabric Processing
Total
Note: . Sc = Screening
Eq = Equalization
No. of
Mills
2
10
46
42
20
24
43
6
7
200
Sc
1
8
25
17
12
23
21
2
5
114
1° = Primary Sedimentation
2° = Secondary Sedimentation
Sk = Skimming
Eq
4
23
18
7
9
26
4
2
93
Fi =
AS =
Al =
A2 =
An =
1° 2° Sk
1
2
2 3
1 2
1
2 1 1
7 4
1
14 13 1
Filtration
Activated
Fi AS
1
1
1
3
Sludge
2
1
2
1
1
4
11
Al
2
6
11
2
2
23
A2 An
2
3
5
2
1
3
1
16 1
Aerated Lagoon
Facultative or Tertiary
Anaerobic
Lagoon
Lagoon
TF Ne CC Ox AC PC
3 1 1
8 4 1
3 1 3
2
222
13 2 4
2
5
0 38 10 11 0 0
TF = Trickling Filter
Ne = Neutralization
CC = Chemical Coagulation
1
1
3
4
1
1
4
15
Ox = Oxidation, incl. Disinfection
AC = Activated Carbon
PC = Powdered Activated Carbon
-------
FIGURE VII-1
DETENTION TIME VS AERATION HORSEPOWER PER UNIT VOLUME OF BASIN - PLANTS WITH BPT TECHNOLOGY
I 1.5
ft-
i-o-bo 6
0.8- -
0.6--
0.4- -
0.2-
A
u \
* NA
o o \
A \
1.9
A
O
A A
1.7
A
Legend
A Meeting 1977 regulations
O Not meeting 1977regulations
A 334
A514
A 417
A A 331,384,384
^^ ^B fl^ ^H ^^ ^^ ^^V
O381
O A703
H 1 1 1 i 1 1 h
. .513
, 7000
.1200
24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192
DETENTION TIME. hrs.
216 240 264 288 312
-------
seems possible that these 5 plants might meet the effluent requirements
without the polishing ponds. The 8 plants not having the minimum
detention time and aeration horsepower requirements were not benefited
by their polishing ponds. In addition, as noted above, 1 plant having
the minimum required detention time and aeration horsepower requirement
failed to meet the effluent requirements, possibly due to the polishing
pond. On the basis of these findings, the effectiveness of polishing
ponds in upgrading textile mill treatment operations must be questioned.
Screening
Screening is a physical unit operation and is usually the first operation
employed in wastewater treatment. Based on size of openings (1/4 inch
or greater or less than 1/4 inch), screens may be classified as coarse
or fine. Coarse screens typically consist of parallel bars, rods or
wires, grating, wire mesh or perforated plate. The opening may be of
any shape, circular or rectangular slots being the most common. They
may be "hand cleaned" or "mechanically cleaned" and have the primary
function of removing rags, sticks, and similar coarse solids that may
clog the pipes, pumps, valves, or other mechanical equipment of the
treatment system. Fine screens serve a more definite role in the removal
of pollutant solids and may include inclined disks or drums, static
plates and mesh units, and vibratory mesh units. These may be cleaned
by continuous water spray, by mechanically driven brushes, or, in the
case of the vibratory type, automatically by nature of the design. They
serve to remove floe, strings, short fibers, vegetable matter, or other
small solids that may also clog or damage equipment or may form a mat or
scum layer over aeration basins.
Industry Application. Both coarse and fine screening is practiced in
the textile industry. A summary of the application by each subcategory
for both direct and indirect dischargers is provided in Table VII-5.
The table represents those mills that returned detailed questionnaires
and involves the same data base noted previously in this section under
"Summary of Current Practices." Only the highest level of screening at
each plant is noted in the tabulation.
Coarse static screening predominates at the sole screening type for both
the direct and indirect dischargers. Approximately 40 percent of the
direct dischargers and nearly 25 percent of the indirect dischargers
report static coarse screening as the only screening in their treatment
systems. Fine screening (static, mechanical, hydrosieve, vibrating) is
practiced by 34 percent of the direct dischargers and 31 percent of the
indirect dischargers providing detailed survey information.
Nearly all of the mills in the Wool Finishing and Carpet Finishing sub-
categories provide some type of screening. This is believed to be
because, in both subcategories, fibers are apt to be more plentiful in
the wastewater. Another reason that may explain the high use of screens
by carpet mills is that most of these mills are indirect dischargers and
VII-15
-------
TABLE VII-5
WASTEWATER SCREENING BY TEXTILE INDUSTRY - RESULTS OF INDUSTRY SURVEY
Coarse
Mills Employing Screens
Fine
SN 6
1.
2.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Subcategory
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Woven Fabric Finishing
Knit Fabric Finishing
Fabric Processing
Hosiery Processing
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
All Subcategories
Static
D I
2
3
24
13
1
2
10
0
0
55
1
2
14
9
6
3
8
1
1
45
Mechanical Static
D I D I
1
0
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
4
0
3
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
5
0
0
7
4
0
3
3
0
1
18
0
0
5
5
4
12
10
0
0
36
Mechanical
D I
0
0
1
2
0
2
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
1
1
5
1
1
10
Hydros ieve
D I
0
1
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
6
0
0
2
0
0
2
1
0
0
5
Mills in
Vibrating Survey
D I D I
0
1
3
0
0
0
1
0
0
5
0
3
3
2
0
0
1
0
3
12
6
5
56
29
2
11
29
1
3
142
2
10
46
42
20
24
43
6
7
200
Note: D refers to direct discharger and I refers to indirect discharger.
-------
are required by the municipalities treating their waste to practice
screening.
Neutralization
Neutralization is the process of adjusting the pH so that the waste is
within acceptable limits for discharge to a receiving body or subsequent
treatment plant operations. Generally, a pH range of 6.0 to 9.0 is
considered acceptable. Neutralization of acidic waste may be accomplished
by: 1) mixing with an on-site alkaline waste stream; 2) passing
through beds of limestone; 3) mixing with lime slurries or dolomite
lime slurries; or A) adding solution of caustic soda (NaOH) of soda ash
(Na2C03). Alkaline waste may be neutralized by: 1) mixing with an
on-site acidic waste stream: 2) blowing waste boiler flue gas through
the waste; 3) adding compressed C02j or 4) adding sulfuric acid (H2S04).
Mixing of various streams is usually insufficient when the waste is
ultimately treated biologically and supplemental chemical addition
generally is required for proper pH control. Sulfuric acid is most
commonly used to neutralize alkaline waste and sodium hydroxide and
sodium carbonate are used to neutralize acidic wastes. Limestone is the
cheapest reagent for acidic wastes but is not generally satisfactory for
sulfate-bearing wastes because it becomes coated and inactive. If the
waste stream is nutrient deficient in either nitrogen or phosphorus,
ammonia or trisodium phosphate addition serves the dual purpose of
providing both alkalinity and the deficient nutrient.
Industry Application. Current wastewater neutralization practices
reported by the textile mills surveyed are summarized in Table VII-6.
Essentially the same percentage (21 percent and 19 percent) of direct
and indirect dischargers surveyed practice neutralization. Neutralization
of acidic waste by indirect dischargers represent the greatest total,
which is logical for several reasons. There is a greater total number
of indirect dischargers (approximately 80 percent of industry); textile
discharges are usually on the acidic side, and most municipalities are
apt to be more concerned about acidic discharges than alkaline dischargers.
Only a small percentage of both direct and indirect dischargers find it
necessary to provide both acidic and alkaline neutralizing capability.
Equalization
Industrial discharges that result from a diversity of processes can
often be treated more effectively when equalization is practiced as an
initial treatment step. This is so because subsequent physical unit
operation and chemical and biological unit processes are more efficient
if operated at or near uniform hydraulic, organic, and solids loading
rates.
Equalization of a variable nature discharge may be accomplished by
holding the waste for a period of time corresponding to the repetitive
processes of the manufacturing. Thus, facilities that discharge a
variable waste over an eight-hour period need to provide up to eight
VII-17
-------
TABLE VII-6
WASTEWATER NEUTRALIZATION BY TEXTILE INDUSTRY - RESULTS OF INDUSTRY SURVEY
Subcategory
Addition of Acid
Direct Indirect
Mills Practicing Neutralization
Addition of Base Addition of Both
Direct Indirect Direct Indirect
Mills in Survey
Direct Indirect
<
I-H
M
1
00
1.
2.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Woven Fabric Finishing
Knit Fabric Finishing
Fabric Processing
Hosiery Processing
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
All Subcategories
0
0
10
0
0
0
3
0
0
13
0
0
4
1
1
0
5
1
1
13
0
2
2
5
0
3
2
0
0
14
0
3
4
1
1
2
7
0
2
20
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
3
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
2
5
6
5
56
29
2
11
29
1
3
142
2
10
46
42
20
24
43
6
7
200
-------
hours of storage. Similar facilities that operate on two or three
shifts may need to provide equalization up to a corresponding time
period.
Holding basins may be earthen or fabricated of conventional treatment
plant construction materials and may be mixed or unmixed.
Industry Application. Current equalization practices reported by the
textile mills surveyed are summarized in Table VII-7. A higher percentage
of indirect dischargers (46 percent) than direct dischargers (37 percent)
provide some form of equalization. This is likely a result of two
factors. First, many of the direct discharge mills have extended aeration
activated sludge treatment systems with several days detention time and
do not require equalization. Secondly, many of the indirect dischargers
are required by the municipalities that treat their waste to equalize
their flow. However, a higher percentage of direct dischargers (approxi-
mately 15 percent) than indirect dischargers (approximately 4 percent)
provide mixed equalization. This is likely a result of the direct
dischargers wanting to level pollutional as well as hydraulic loads to
their subsequent treatment systems components and to give bio-oxidation
processes a head start.
Biological Processes
Biological treatment of industrial wastewater has been practiced for
decades. It is based on the ability of microorganisms to utilize organic
carbon as a food source. The treatment is classified aerobic or anaerobic
depending on the presence of free dissolved oxygen. Aerobic biological
treatment is accomplished by bacteria (aerobes) that utilize free dissolved
oxygen in breaking down (oxidizing) organic carbon. Anaerobic biological
treatment is accomplished by bacteria (anaerobes) that utilize "chemically
bound" oxygen in breaking down (oxidizing) organic carbon. The distinction
is not so clear-cut in real life in that a third class of bacteria,
facultative, is also usually active. These bacteria can act as aerobes
or anaerobes as the situation dictates, but will always act in a manner
yielding the greatest energy.
Unlike municipal wastewater, industrial wastes frequently lack the
necessary nutrients to sustain microbial growth. This deficiency can
often be overcome by mixing sanitary waste from the plant site with the
process waste, or by direct addition of chemicals (nitrogen or phosphorus)
containing the proper quantity of deficient nutrients.
A description and discussion of each biological process relevant to the
treatment of textile mill wastewaters follows (64).
Aerated Lagoons
An aerated lagoon is an aerobic biological process. It is essentially a
stabilization basin to which air is added either through mechanical
agitation or diffusion. The air provides the necessary oxygen required
VII-19
-------
TABLE VII-7
WASTEWATER EQUALIZATION BY TEXTILE INDUSTRY - RESULTS OF INDUSTRY SURVEY
Unmixed
Mixed
1.
2.
4.
5.
M ,
M 6.
NJ
° 7.
8.
9.
Subcategory
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Woven Fabric Finishing
Knit Fabric Finishing
Fabric Processing
Hosiery Processing
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
All Subcategories
Direct Indirect
LT 24* ETGT 24* LT 24 ETGT 24
0
1
4
4
0
2
3
0
0
14
0
0
8
3
0
1
4
1
0
17
0
1
19
10
3
7
21
2
0
63
0
3
3
4
4
2
5
2
0
23
Direct
LT 24 ETGT 24
0
1
4
2
0
0
3
0
0
10
1
0
5
1
0
1
3
0
0
11
Mills in
Indirect Survey
LT 24 ETGT 24 Direct Indirect
0
0
1
2
0
0
1
2
0
6
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
5
56
29
2
11
29
1
3
142
2
10
46
42
20
24
43
6
7
200
* LT 24 = Less than 24 hours; ETGT 24 = Equal to or greather than 24 hours.
Note:
For four direct discharge mills (two Subcategory 4 and two Subcategory 7) and seven indirect discharge mills
(two Subcategory 2, two Subcategory 5 - Fabric Processing, one Subcategory 5 - Hosiery Processing, one Subcat-
egory 6, and 1 Subcategory 7) the equalization detention times could not be calculated, so 24 hours was assumed.
-------
for aerobic biodegradation of the organic waste. If properly designed,
the air addition will provide sufficient mixing to maintain the biological
solids in suspension so that they can be removed efficiently in a secondary
sedimentation tank. After settling, sludge may be recycled to the head
of the lagoon to insure the presence of a properly acclimated seed.
When operated in this manner, the aerated lagoon is analogous to the
activated sludge process, which is discussed below. The viable biological
solids level in an aerated lagoon is low when compared to that of an
activated sludge unit. The aerated lagoon relies primarily on detention
time for the breakdown and removal of organic matter and aeration periods
of 3 to 8 days are common.
Industry Application. Thirty-three direct dischargers and 23 indirect
dischargers report using aerated lagoons as part of their treatment
systems. Of the direct dischargers, 12 employ aerated lagoons as their
primary means of treatment; 14 employ aerated lagoons followed by unaerated
aerobic lagoons as their primary means of treatment; 2 employ aerated
lagoons as polishing ponds following activated sludge biological treatment;
and 6 employ aerated lagoons in combination with advanced treatment (2
chemical coagulaton, 2 filtration, 1 chemical coagulation plus filtration,
and 1 activated carbon). Of the indirect dischargers, 21 employ aerated
lagoons as their primary pretreatment step, 1 employs an aerated lagoon
followed by an unaerated aerobic lagoon, and 1 provides multi-media
filtration following an aerated lagoon.
A close inspection of the operating characteristics of the lagoons
reported in use reveals that many indirect dischargers may more real-
istically be providing only mixed equalization. That this is likely is
demonstrated by the following tabulation:
Number hp/mil gal/day Detention Time, hr
Discharge of Mills Min Max Med Min Max Med
Direct 9 0.10 1000 38 0.5 2400 75
Indirect 20 5.0 2000 600 4 132 24
The 9 direct discharge and 20 indirect discharge mills are those that
reported the use of aerated lagoons as their principal treatment or
pretreatment component and for which data were available to calculate
horsepower application rate and detention time. While the median direct
and indirect dischargers provide similar hp/mil gal/day, the median
direct dischargers provide more than three times the detention period as
the median indirect dischargers. Since detention time is the primary
factor in effective operation of an aerated lagoon, it would appear that
many of the indirect dischargers are not operating their lagoons as aerated
biological lagoons in the true sense.
VII-21
-------
The effectiveness of aerated lagoons in the treatment of textile waste-
water is shown in the following tabulation for those mills that provide
wastewater monitoring data. The data reported are the average values for
each mill and generally represent that available for 1976.
Sub- Dis- hp/ Deten- BOD, mg/1 COD, mg/1 TSS, mg/1
category charge mil gal tion, hrs inf eff inf eff inf eff
Ac Direct 45.0 60 366 94 835 814 - 89
4a Indirect 400 24 69 69 644 581 54 68
4c Indirect 780 86 1742 157 - - 556 599
5a Indirect 150 18 388 189 1762 1215
7 Direct 25.0 75 108 14 - - 21 12
7 Direct 1000 0.5 252 249 556 429 - 110
The tabulation shows that mills providing long detention times are able
to effect good removals of BOD. Data are insufficient to project the
effectiveness on the removal of COD and TSS.
Activated Sludge
The activated-sludge process also is an aerobic biological process. The
basic components consist of an aerated biological reactor, a clarifier
for separation of biomass, and a piping arrangement to return separated
biomass to the biological reactor. The aeration requirements are similar
to those of the aerated lagoon in that they provide the necessary oxygen
for aerobic biodegradation and mixing to maintain the biological solids
in suspension.
The activated-sludge process is very flexible and can be adapted to many
waste treatment situations. Factors that must be considered in design
include: 1) loading criteria, 2) reactor type, 3) sludge production,
4) oxygen requirements and transfer, 5) nutrient requirements, 6) environ-
mental requirements, 7) solid-liquid separation, and, 8) effluent
characteristics. Depending on these factors, and combinations of these
factors, the conventional activated-sludge process or standardized modi-
fications of the conventional process can be selected as most appropriate.
The available processes that have relevance in the treatment of textile
wastewaters include the conventional, complete-mix, tapered-aeration, step-
aeration, modified-aeration, contact-stabilization, extended-aeration,
oxidation ditch, and pure oxygen.
In the conventional activated-sludge process, both influent wastewater
and recycled sludge enter the reactor at the head end and are aerated
for a period of about 4 to 8 hours. Aeration can be of the diffused or
mechanical type and is constant as the mixed liquor moves through the
tank in a plug-flow fashion. Oxygen demand decreases as the mixed
liquor travels the tank length. The mixed liquor is settled in a
conventional clarifier, and the activated sludge is returned at a rate
of approximately 25 to 50 percent of the influent flow rate.
VII-22
-------
In the complete-mix activated-sludge process, influent wastewater and
recycled sludge enter the reactor from several points along a central
channel running the length of the reactor. The mixed liquor is aerated
at a constant rate as it passes from the central channel to effluent
channels at both sides of the reactor. The contents of the reactor
are completely mixed and the oxygen demand remains uniform throughout.
The aeration period is from 3 to 5 hours, and the activated sludge is
returned at a rate of 25 to 100 percent of influent flow rate.
The tapered-aeration process is a modification of the conventional
process, with the arrangement of the aerators and the amount of air
supplied the primary differences. At the head of the reactor, where
wastewater and returned activated sludge come in contact, more oxygen
is required so the aerators are spaced close together. As the mixed
liquor traverses the aeration tank, the oxygen demand decreases so
aeration is decreased by spacing the aerators further apart. Since
the oxygen supply is decreased with the oxygen demand, a lower overall
oxygen requirement is a benefit of the tapered-aeration process.
The step-aeration process also is a modification of the conventional
activated-sludge process. In this modification, the wastewater is
introduced at several points in a compartmentized reactor while the
return activated sludge is introduced at the head of the reactor.
Each compartment of the reactor comprises a separate step, and the
several steps are linked together in series. Aeration can be of the
diffused or mechanical type and is constant as the mixed liquor moves
through the tank in a plug-flow fashion. The demand is more uniformly
spread over the length of the reactor than in the conventional activated-
sludge process, resulting in better utilization of the oxygen supply.
The aeration period is typically between 3 and 5 hours, and the activated
sludge is returned at a rate of 25 to 75 percent of influent flow rate.
The modified-aeration activated-sludge process is like the conventional
or tapered-aeration process, except that the aeration period is shorter
(usually 1.5 to 3 hours) and the food-to-microorganism ratio higher.
Activated sludge is returned at a rate of only 5 to 15 percent of
influent flow rate. The resulting BOD removal is approximately 70 percent
(for typical sanitary waste), so the process is not suitable where a
high-quality effluent is desired.
The contact-stabilization process takes advantage of the absorptive
properties of activated sludge by operating the process in two stages.
The first is the absorptive phase, in which most of the colloidal,
finely suspended, and dissolved organics are absorbed in the activated
sludge in a contact tank. The wastewater and return stabilized sludge
enter at the head of the contact tank, are aerated for a period of
20 to 40 minutes, and settled in a conventional clarifier. The second
is the oxidation phase, in which the absorbed organics are metabolically
assimulated providing energy and producing new cells. In this stage
the settled sludge from the absorptive stage is aerated for a period
VII-23
-------
of from 3 to 6 hours in a stabilization tank. A portion of the sludge
is wasted to maintain a constant mixed liquor volatile suspended solids
(MLVSS) concentration in the stabilization tank. Overall aeration
requirements are approximately 50 percent of those of the conventional
or tapered-aeration plant. However, the process is usually not effective
in treating industrial waste in which the organic matter is predominantly
soluble.
The extended-aeration process is a complete-mix activated-sludge process
in which the aeration period is relatively long (24 to 48 hours) and the
organic loading relatively low. Because of these conditions, the process
is very stable and can accept intermittent loads without upset. In smaller
applications, the reactor and clarifier are generally a single-fabricated
unit, and all sludge is returned to the reactor. The mixed liquor is
allowed to increase in solids concentration over a period of several
months and then is removed directly from the aeration basin. In larger
applications, the reactor and clarifier are separated and some means
of wasting and treating sludge is usually necessary. Reactors can
be concrete with diffused aeration or a lined earth basin with mechanical
aerators. The extended-aeration activated-sludge process is used by
the majority of direct dischargers in the textile industry.
The oxidation ditch activated-sludge process is an extended-aeration
process in which aeration and circulation are provided by brush rotors
placed across a race track-shaped basin. The waste enters the ditch
at one end, is aerated by the rotors, and circulates at about 1 to 2 fps.
Operation can be intermittent, in which case purification takes place in
the ditch, or continuous, in which case a separate clarifier and piping
for recycling settled sludge are provided.
The pure oxygen activated-sludge process is a modification of the complete
mix process in which high-purity oxygen, instead of air, is introduced
directly into the wastewater. Wastewater, returned activated sludge, and
oxygen gas under a slight pressure are introduced at the head of an-
aeration tank that is divided into stages by a means of baffles and
covered with a gas-tight enclosure. Oxygen may be mixed with the
mixed liquor by recirculation through a hollow shaft with a rotating
sparger device or by surface mechanical aerators. The mixed liquor
passes from compartment to compartment and is discharged from the
last compartment to a clarifier. Waste gas, which is a mixture of
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and 10 to 20 percent of the oxygen applied,
is exhausted in the last compartment. Reported advantages of the pure
oxygen process are high efficiency, decreased sludge volume, reduced
aeration tank volume, and improved sludge settleability.
Industry Application. Ninety-four direct, dischargers and 11 indirect
dischargers report using activated sludge as part of their treatment systems.
Of the direct dischargers, 55 employ activated sludge as their primary
means of treatment; 24 employ activated sludge followed by unaerated
VII-24
-------
lagoons; 3 employ activated sludge followed by chemical coagulation;
4 employ activated sludge with chemical addition to the activated
sludge effluent to aid in settling; 4 employ activated sludge followed
by filtration; 2 employ activated sludge followed by aerated lagoons;
1 employs activated sludge followed by filtration and aeration lagoons,
and 1 employs activated sludge followed by a trickling filter. Of the
indirect dischargers, 9 employ activated sludge as the primary means
of pretreatment, while 2 other mills employ activated sludge followed
by chemical coagulation.
The effectiveness of activated sludge in treating textile wastewater is
demonstrated in the following tabulation for those mills that have reported
historical monitoring data. The data reported are the average values
for each mill and generally represent that available for the year 1976.
Sub- Dis- hp/ Deton- BOD, mg/1
category charge mil/gal tion*, hrs inf eff
COD, mg/1 TSS, mg/1
inf eff inf eff
1
4c
4a
4c
4c
4c
4c
4a
4b
5b
5a
5a
5b
5b
6
7
7
7
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Indirect
Indirect
160
120
60
41
58
250
80
60
90
60
74
40
75
160
44
80
500
80
99
106
24
75
131
97
78
120
80
48
82
417
110
76
130
33
44
50
1563
475
133
267
400
329
640
180
250
272
190
198
181
1100
207
150
1631
125
125
19
22
24
8
23
105
9
5
45
19
13
5
11
29
6
233
5
16250
-
472
840
-
2970
1240
468
-
694
342
745
-
-
614
496
4756
-
2600
-
307
336
252
594
664
159
-
354
164
226
124
262
227
124
1844
158
3971
-
34
-
80
-
173
26
218
28
97
49
18
281
93
36
136
46
1231
91
38
27
8
44
176
18
48
55
63
62
18
45
50
27
195
21
* Calculated based on average flow and basin volume.
All the mills listed aie operating their activated-sludge systems in the
extended-aeration mode and employ surface aerators for mixing and oxygenation.
Many of the actual detention periods noted aze much longer than those used
in design because they are calculated based on present average flow
conditions and full basin volumes. Also, solids may settle in aeration
basins, resulting in shorter detention periods. Removals range from excellent
to somewhat poor for BOD and COD; for TSS, removals are generally poor or
solids increase due to generation of biomass. The effectiveness of the
extended-aeration activated sludge process in treating priority
pollutants is discussed in Section V.
VII-25
-------
Biological Beds
Biological beds are fixed-growth biological systems that contact wastewater
with microbial growths attached to the surfaces of supporting media. Systems
that are in common use include trickling filters, packed towers, and rotating
biological disks. While the physical structures differ, the biological
process is essentially the same in all of these systems.
As wastewater contacts the supporting media, a thin-film biological slime
develops and coats the surfaces. The film consists primarily of
bacteria, protozoa, and fungi that feed on the waste. Organic matter
and dissolved oxygen are extracted and the metabolic end products are
released. Although very thin, the biological slime layer is anaerobic
at the bottom so hydrogen sulfide, methane, and organic acids are
generated. These materials cause the slime to periodically separate
(slough off) from the supporting media and it is carried through the
system with the hydraulic flow. The sloughed biomass must be removed
in a clarifier.
Trickling filters are classified by hydraulic or organic loading as low-
er high-rate. Low-rate filters generally have a hydraulic loading
rate of 1 to 4 mil gal/acre/day, an organic loading rate of 300 to 1000
Ib BOD5/acre-ft-day, a depth of 6 to 10 feet, and no recirculation.
High-rate filters have a hydraulic loading rate of 10 to 40 mil gal/acre/day,
an organic loading rate of 1000 to 5000 Ib BOD5/acre-ft-day, a depth of
3 to 10 feet, and a recirculation rate of 0.5 to 4. High-rate
filters can be single- or two-stage. The most suitable media in both
the low- and high-rate filters is crushed stone, or gravel, graded to
a uniform size within the range of 1 to 3 inches. The material
must be strong and durable.
Biological towers are much like conventional trickling filters but with
manufactured media instead of crushed rock or gravel media. The
manufactured media can be corrugated plastic packing or rough-sawn redwood
slats, both of which are very effective in retaining biological films.
The advantages of this type of media are a high specific surface (sq ft/cu ft),
a high percentage of void volume, uniformity for better liquid distribution,
light weight facilitating construction of deeper beds, chemical resistance,
and the ability to handle high-strength and unsettled wastewaters. Biological
towers can be used in flow patterns similar to normal high-rate natural-media
filter systems. For strong waste, two towers may be set in series and settled
solids from the final clarifier can be returned to the first tower influent.
Because of the increased void space, activated sludge will build up in the flow
and the system will perform as both a filter, with fixed biological growth,
and as a mechanical aeration system. Biological beds generally have a
hydraulic loading rate of up to 2 gpm/sq ft, an organic loading rate of from
25 to 150 Ib BOD5/1000 cu ft/day, and a depth of 20 feet.
VII-26
-------
The rotating biological disk makes use of the advantages of the manufactured
plastic media used in the packed tower to increase the contact time between the
wastewater and fixed biological growth. A series of disks constructed of
corrugated plastic plate and mounted on a horizontal shaft are placed
in a contour-bottomed tank and immersed to approximately 40 percent of
the diameter. The disks rotate as wastewater passes through the tank
and a fixed film biological growth, similar to that on trickling filter
media, adheres to the surface. Alternating exposure to the wastewater
and the oxygen in the air results in biological oxidation of the
organics in the wastes. Biomass sloughs off, as in the trickling
filter and packed tower systems, and is carried out in the effluent for
gravity separation. Direct recirculation is not generally practiced
with the rotating biological disks.
Industry Application. Currently, there are only these textile mills that
utilize biological beds in their wastewater treatment systems. Two
systems are trickling filters and both mills employing them are direct
discharge woven fabric finishers. One of these mills uses a somewhat
modified approach to the standard filtration process. The beds are square,
14 to 16 feet deep, wastewater is applied continuously, and forced
ventilation insures aerobic conditions throughout. The system obtains
a very efficient 96 percent BOD5 reduction. The other mill employs a
standard high-rate trickling filter as a polishing process after activated
sludge treatment. The overall system performance effects a 98 percent
BOD5 and 93 percent COD removal. The third mill employs a rotating
biological disk as an intermediate step between filtration and biological
aeration. This mill is a direct discharger and practices recovery of
dyestuff.
Stabilization Lagoons
Stabilization lagoons are rather popular biological treatment processes.
They are often called lagoons or oxidation ponds and are classified
aerobic, facultative, tertiary (polishing), and anaerobic. They are
used extensively in the treatment of municipal waste in small com-
munities and in the treatment of some industrial and industrial-
municipal wastes that are amendable to biological treatment.
Aerobic lagoons contain bacteria and algae in suspension, and aerobic
conditions prevail throughout the depth. Waste is stabilized as a
result of the symbiotic relationship between aerobic bacteria and
algae. Bacteria break down waste and generate carbon dioxide and
nutrients (primarily nitrogen and phosphorus). Algae, in the presence
of sunlight, utilize the nutrients and inorganic carbon; they in turn
supply oxygen that is utilized by aerobic bacteria. Aerobic lagoons
are usually less than 18 inches deep (the depth of light penetration)
and must be periodically mixed to maintain aerobic conditions throughout.
In order to achieve effective removals with aerobic lagoons, some means
of removing algae (coagulation, filtration, multiple cell design) is
necessary. Algae have a high degree of mobility and do not settle well
using conventional clarification.
VII-27
-------
In facultative lagoons, the bacterial reactions include both aerobic and
anaerobic decomposition. The symbiotic relationship between aerobic
bacteria and algae exist, as in aerobic lagoons, and anaerobic decomposition
takes place by bacteria that feed on settled solids. Facultative lagoons
are up to 5 feet in depth and require the same types of provisions
for removing algae if effective pollutant removals are to be realized.
Most of the textile mills reporting use of stabilization lagoons are
operating facultative lagoons.
Tertiary lagoons serve as a polishing step following other biological
treatment processes. They are often called maturation or polishing
ponds and primarily serve the purpose of reducing suspended solids.
Water depth is generally limited to 2 or 3 feet and mixing is usually
provided by surface aeration at a low power-to-volume ratio. Tertiary
lagoons are quite popular as a final treatment step for textile waste-
water treated with the extended-aeration activated sludge process.
Anaerobic lagoons are anaerobic throughout their depth and have the
advantage of a low production of waste biological sludge and low
operating costs. Stabilization is brought about by a combination of
precipitation and anaerobic decomposition of organics to carbon
dioxide, methane, other gaseous end products, organic acids, and
cell tissue. Lagoons are constructed with depths up to 20 feet and
steep side walls to minimize the surface area relative to total volume.
This allows grease to form a natural cover, which retains heat,
suppresses odors, and maintains anaerobic conditions. Wastes enter
near the bottom and the discharge is located on the opposite end
below the grease cover. Sludge recirculation is not necessary
because gasification and the inlet-outlet flow pattern provides
adequate mixing. The anaerobic lagoon is not particularly suitable
for treating textile wastewaters, with the possible exception of wool
scouring waste.
Industry Application. Current utilization of stabilization lagoons by
the textile mills surveyed is summarized in Table VII-8. Forty-four
direct dischargers and 17 indirect dischargers report using stabilization
lagoons as part of their treatment system. Of the direct dischargers, 3
employ facultative lagoons as their primary means of treatment; 15 employ
facultative lagoons following aerated lagoons; 25 employ tertiary
lagoons following activated sludge; and one employs a tertiary lagoon after
activated sludge and prior to chemical coagulation. Of the indirect
dischargers, 15 employ facultative lagoons as their primary means
of treatment; 1 employs a facultative lagoon following an aerated lagoon,
and 1 employs two parallel anaerobic lagoons prior to activated sludge.
Only one mill reported both influent and effluent monitoring data for the
lagoon portion of their treatment system. However, several of the mills
employing facultative lagoons as their primary treatment, or pretreatment,
provided effluent data that can be used to give an indication of the
effectiveness. These data are presented in the following tabulation.
VII-28
-------
TABLE VII-8
USE OF STABILIZATION LAGOONS BY TEXTILE INDUSTRY INDUSTRY - RESULTS OF INDUSTRY SURVEY
Subcategory
Facultative Lagoon
Direct Indirect
Aerated Lagoon +
Facultative Lagoon
Direct Indirect
Activated Sludge
+ Tertiary Lagoon
Direct Indirect
<
M
M
NJ
-------
Subcategory
Discharge
Effluent Concentration, mg/1
BOD COD TSS
4c
4c
4b
5b
5b
5a
5c
7
7
8
8
Direct
Direct
Indirect
Indirect
Indirect
Indirect
Indirect
Indirect
Indirect
Direct
Indirect
53
35
482
325
145
141
211
233
111
17
79
175
115
2186
810
862
548
634
789
14
35
18
40
59
945
29
179
Literature/Research. Although a number of textile mills utilize tertiary
lagoons as a final treatment step (see Industry Application), there are
few historical data available that can be used to demonstrate the
effectiveness of the lagoons in treating conventional, non-conventional,
and priority pollutants. Sampling was conducted around the polishing
lagoons at two mills during this study. The results are summarized in
the following cases.
Case 1
This case discusses the results at a Subcategory 7 Stock & Yarn Finishing
facility that dyes stock (approximately 33 percent of production) and
yarn (approximately 67 percent of production) of wool, nylon, and acrylic
fibers. Production is reported to average 31,750 kg/day (70,000 Ib/day),
with a water usage and wastewater discharge of 90 I/kg (10.7 gal/lb) and
2,840 cu m/day (0.75 mgd), respectively.
Wastewater treatment at this facility consists of fine screening
(stationary), equalization (mixed with a power-to-volume ratio of
50 hp/mil gal), aeration (one basin with a volume of 1 mil gal),
secondary clarification, effluent polishing (parallel primary and
secondary oxidation ponds with a total volume of 15 mil gal), and
disinfection (chlorine). Aeration detention time is approximately
24 hours, and air is provided by surface aerators at a power-to-
volume ratio of 150 hp/mil gal.
Samples were collected (see Appendix D for sampling procedures) over
a typical 24-hour period of operation at the influent to the aeration
basin, at the effluent of the secondary clarifier, and at the chlorine
contact chamber. The results presented below demonstrate the effectiveness
of the polishing ponds in treating conventional, non-conventional, and
priority pollutants.
VII-30
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability
Influent and Effluent to Polishing Pond
Parameter Influent Effluent
COD, mg/1 78 142
TSS, mg/1 37 28
Phenols, ug/1 36 51
Sulfide, ug/1 2 ND
Color, ADMI 208 218
ND not detected
Priority Pollutant Treatability
Influent and Effluent to Polishing Pond
Priority Pollutant Influent, ug/1 Effluent, ug/1
Trichlorofluoromethane 48 ND
Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate 40 11
Lead 36 ND
Zinc 865 123
ND not detected
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
secondary clarifier effluent and the final effluent: 2,4-Dichlorophenol;
Phenol; Di-N-Butyl Phthalate; Toluene; Arsenic; Chromium; Copper, Silver.
Case 2
This case discusses the results at a Subcategory 9 Felted Fabric
Processing facility that manufactures papermakers wet felts and
dryer felts. Processing operations include weaving, scouring, fulling,
and functional finishing. Production at this facility is reported to
average 2,100 kg/day (approximately 4,600 Ib/day), and the facility
has a water usage and wastewater discharge of 116.6 I/kg (14 gal/lb) and
378.5 cu m/day (0.10 mgd), respectively.
Wastewater treatment at this facility consists of equalization (mixed
with a power-to-volume ratio of 50 hp/mil gal), aeration (one basin
with a volume of 1 mil gal), secondary clarification, effluent polishing
(one basin with a volume of 2.5 mil gal), disinfection (chlorine), and
land application (spray). Aeration detention time is approximately
160 hours, and air is provided by surface aerators at a power-to-
volume ratio of 60 hp/mil gal.
VII-31
-------
Samples were collected (see Appendix D for sampling procedures) over
a typical 24-hour period of operation at the influent to the equalization
basin, after the secondary clarifier, and following the polishing
pond. The results presented below demonstrate the effectiveness of
the polishing pond in treating conventional, non-conventional, and
priority pollutants.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutnat Treatability
Influent and Effluent to Polishing Pond
Parameter Influent Effluent
COD, mg/1 552 263
TSS, mg/1 91 22
Phenols, ug/1 52 28
Sulfide, ug/1 ND ND
Color, ADMI 283 303
ND not detected
Priority Pollutant Treatability
Influent and Effluent to Polishing Pond
Priority Pollutant Influent, ug/1 Effluent, ug/1
Naphthalene 56 ND
Bis(2-Ethylehexyl) Phthalate 18 ND
Chromium 35 ND
Copper ND 18
Selenium 32 18
Zinc 45 101
ND not detected
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
secondary clarifier effluent and the final effluent: Phenol; Toluene.
Coagulation
Suspended solids (SS) are a significant constituent of most textile mill
wastewaters. The larger solids are removed in preliminary treatment
steps but a variety of colloidal particulates remain even after secondary
treatment. Besides fiber, these solids include color bodies, soaps,
mineral fines, oil & grease, and microscopic organisms. The wastewater
VII-32
-------
from carpet mills, other adhesive-related processing mills, and nonwoven
processing facilities may, in addition, contain considerable amounts of
latex. In excess, these pollutants are not suitable for discharge to
receiving waters and can upset tertiary treatment processes or result in
inefficient operation of these processes. Coagulation often can be
employed to remove these pollutants.
Coagulation is the process by which chemicals are employed to destabilize
suspended material such that the particles contact and agglomerate. The
forces that act to keep small particles apart and hence lead to a stable,
colloidal suspension are hydration, which results in a protective shell
of water molecules, and electrostatic charge. Most colloidal particles
carry a characteristic negative charge and are thus unable to coalesce
due to this electrostatic repulsion. Neutralization of these repulsive
forces by the addition of multivalent cations enables the particles to
come together and thus settle out (64).
The most effective inorganic coagulants for wastewater treatment are
alum (aluminum sulfate), copperas (ferrous sulfate), lime (calcium
hydroxide), ferric chloride, and ferric sulfate. The multivalent cations,
Al+3, Fe+3_, and Fe+2 enter into a series of hydrolytic reactions to form
multivalent positively charged hydrous oxide species that are adsorbed
onto the negatively charged colloid. This neutralizes the colloidal
system and allows the particles to agglomerate.
Since these chemical reactions are virtually instantaneous, a rapid mix
process is used to mix the coagulant with the wastewater. This brief
mixing provides a complete dispersion of the coagulant throughout the
wastewater but is not long enough for agglomeration to take place.
The second stage of the process, flocculation, promotes inter-particle
contact of the stabilized colloids to form a floe that is, in turn,
removed in the final stage of the process, sedimentation.
In addition to the coagulants noted, polyelectrolytes (polymers) may be
used as coagulant aids or as the sole coagulant. These compounds contain
repeating units of small molecular weight, combined to form a molecule
of colloidal size. Each of the repeating units carries one or more
electrical charges or ionizable groups. Because of their large size,
the major benefit of polyelectrolytes is an increase in floe size. It
is generally agreed that a "bridging" mechanism is responsible for
flocculation enhancement. One end of the polymer molecule attaches
itself to the surface of a suspended particle at one or more sites and
the free end is able to adsorb onto yet another suspended particle
forming a "bridge" between the two. This union increases the mass of
the colloidal-polymer system and increases the settling velocity. As
the particle settles, it entraps other colloids and polymers and thus
clarifies the wastewater with a "sweep floe" effect.
VII-33
-------
Industry Application. Thirty-four of the wet-processing mills
surveyed report that chemical coagulation is employed in their waste
treatment systems. Sixteen of these mills are direct dischargers, 15
are indirect dischargers, 2 practice complete recycle, and 1 discharges
to an evaporation lagoon after coagulation. At 13 mills, the primary or
only portion of the flow treated by coagulation is latex or print waste;
all but 3 of these are indirect dischargers, and this accounts for two-
thirds of all the indirect discharge mills that identify coagulation as
part of their treatment system. Of the direct dischargers employing
coagulation for treatment of wastewater other than latex or print wastes,
2 employ it as a last step after biological treatment, 6 add polymer
and/or alum to the effluent from an aeration basin prior to secondary
sedimentation, 2 coagulate as an intermediate step between activated
sludge and filtration, and 2 coagulate in place of biological treatment.
At 2 mills, the information was insufficient to place the treatment
accurately.
Based on the above breakdown, there are only 2 mills that are presently
treating integrated textile wastewater using coagulation as their principal
treatment process and 6 mills (4 direct dischargers and 2 recycle) that
employ coagulation as a tertiary treatment measure. However, because of
the nature of the historical data available from these mills, i.e., influent
and effluent data for the entire treatment systems, the effectiveness
of the chemical coagulation process along cannot be demonstrated.
The following tabulation does demonstrate the overall effectiveness of
the treatment systems that include coagulation. The data represent
average values for those mills that provide historical monitoring
results and generally represent sampling during 1976.
Subcat-
egory
Treatment BOD, mg/1
Coagulants Step Inf Eff
4b
4b*
4c
4c
Alum,
Polymer
Alum
(Direct Dischargers)
150 11
Polymer
Secondary
Clarifier
Secondary
Clarifier
Flotation
Unit
Secondary
Clarifier
Secondary
Clarifier
83 14
51
200 51
COD, mg/1
Inf Eff
900
308 152
482
845 663
846 164
TSS, mg/1
Inf Eff
175 64
43 35
188
82 142
54
VII-34
-------
4c* Ferric Coag/Floc - 4 1400 99 168 30
Chloride, Raw Waste
Lime
4c*
Sa
5a
5a
7
7
8
-
-
Polymer
Polymer
Alum,
Polymer
Chlorinated
Copperas,
Lime
760
Coag/Floc 334
Secondary
Secondary
Clarifier
Injection 279
Pre-
Filtration
Secondary 327
Clarifier
Secondary 60
Clarifier
Flotation
Post-
Biological
12
24
24
5
20
15
6
1600 248
1265 206
272
934 196
1572 480
331 129
"
420 99
40
65
41 7
26 23
31 11
- ' 14
(Indirect Dischargers)
2
4a*
4c*
4a**
4a*
4a*
Lime
Lime, Alum
Ferric
Chloride
Aluminum
Chloride
Alum
Alum,
Coag/Floc
Raw Waste
Flotation
Coag/Clarify -
Print Waste
Flotation
Print Waste
Coag/Clarify 322
Print Waste
(Recycle
Flotation 298
-
250
420
341
126
Plant)
10
1328 556
400
- 695
- 885
1985 263
- 1550
- 560
30
- 118
- 206
460 72
5
* Fabric printing is a significant portion of production.
** Latex and PVC coating operation.
VII-35
-------
Literature/Research. Coagulation of textile wastewaters has received
considerable attention by the engineering and research communities.
Much of the work is general and does not address adaptability to textile
dischargers. Some of the studies are too specific and would not be
generally applicable. The following cases offer relevant information on
studies that appear to be both adaptable and generally applicable.
Case 1
This case presents the results of a laboratory study (65) performed in
1974 to evaluate the effectiveness of coagulation using alum in removing
color from a dyehouse effluent. The effluent was from a Woven Fabric
Finishing mill that processes cotton-polyester broadwoven fabrics. The
types of processing performed and the types of dye utilized were not
provided by the author.
The mill's dyehouse wastewater, boiler blowdown, and air conditioning
condensate were being treated in a two-stage aerated lagoon. Approxi-
mately 50 percent removal of BOD was being achieved prior to discharge
to a small creek.
The study utilized a jar test apparatus to conduct a series of coagulation
investigations using various dosages of alum. The results are presented
below and establish the feasibility of removing COD and color from the
dyehouse wastewater prior to biological treatment.
Alum Dosage, mg/1 Total Soluble
as A12(S04)3-18H20 COD, mg/1 COD, mg/1 TSS, mg/1 Color, APHA
inf* eff** inf eff inf eff inf eff
660 935 490 582 429 132 49 12,800 580
660 903 471 - - 10,200 .288
550 1,590 598 667 559 590 12 8,800 428
440 1,030 525 730 335 - 7,700 450
440 973 590 - - 11,000 442
440 954 573 740 519 - 12,200 340
330 805 398 - - 11,800 690
* "inf" represents dyehouse effluent
** "eff" represents supernatant from jar test after 1 hr settling
Case 2
This case presents the results of a laboratory study (66) performed to
evaluate the effectivness of coagulation of textile mill printing waste.
The waste studied was collected from the discharge line of the printing
department of a large Subcategory 4c Woven Fabric Finishing facility.
The facility dyes and/or prints sheets, and the waste streams resulting
VII-36
-------
from the dyeing and printing operations are segregated. At the time of
the investigation, the waste from the printing department contained
printing pigment, adhesives, an acrylic latex emulsion, and varsol (print
paste carrier). These constituents are typically suspended in the waste
in particulate or colloidal form and are not readily solubilized by micro-
organisms when subjected to biological treatment.
Samples of the waste stream were subjected to a series of jar test
experiments using the following coagulants: ferric chloride, ferric
sulfate, and aluminum sulfate. The experiments reported here consisted
of placing a one-liter sample into a standard flocculation vessel and
stirring at 100 rpm, adding the desired quantity of coagulant and adjusting
the pH with HC1 or NaOH, mixing for 1 minute after pH adjustment at 100
rpm and flocculating for 2 minutes at 10 rpm, and quiescent settling for
30 minutes followed by analysis. Results are presented below and establish
the feasibility of removing the suspended and colloidal materials.
Dosage, mg/1 Turbidity, JTU COD, mg/1
Coagulant of Metal+3 p_H inf eff inf eff
Ferric Chloride 25 6.6 270 19 2,100 665
Ferric Sulfate 25 7.1 270 26 2,100 155
Aluminum Sulfate 25 6.6 270 14 2,100 235
Case 3
This case presents a summary of the results of a full scale investiga-
tion (24) of activated sludge and alum coagulation treatment of the
wastewater from a Subcategory 5a Knit Fabric Finishing mill. The
investigations were supported by an EPA Demonstration Grant, and were
conducted over a 1 year period.
At the time of the study, the mill was producing velour fabric for the
apparel trade (approximately 56 percent), nylon fabric for the automotive
industry (approximately 13 percent), fabric of polyester/nylon blends
for the uniform trade (approximately 13 percent), and various other
fabrics each at less significant production levels.
During the study period, the mill's daily production ranged from a low
monthly average of approximately 14,790 kg (34,000) Ibs to a high monthly
average of approximately 24,800 kg (57,000) Ibs. Average daily production
was approximately 20,900 kg (48,000 Ibs). The production was pressure
beam-dyed (approximately 54 percent), atmospheric beck-dyed (approximately
27 percent), or pad-dyed (approximately 17 percent). Approximately 30
percent of the dyestuff utilized was of the disperse class and 20 percent
was of the acid class. Besides dyeing, the production was scoured and
various functional finishes (water repellents, softeners, and flame
retardants) were applied.
VII-37
-------
The wastewater treatment system, as studied, included heat reclamation,
equalization, activated sludge (aerated lagoon plus clarifier), alum
coagulation, chlorination, and mechanical sludge processing (horizontal
scroll centrifuge). The performances of each component of the treatment
system were studied and evaluated. The following tabulation presents
the performance of the alum coagulation component throughout the study
period for the parameters of primary concern here.
Influent Effluent
Parameter (yearly median)* (yearly median)"
BOD, mg/1 122 33
COD, mg/1 1,056 416
TOC, mg/1 200 105
TSS, mg/1 368 122
Dissolved Solids, mg/1 619 600
Phenolics, ug/1 30 40
Color, APHA 804 320
Chromium, ug/1 360 280
Copper, ug/1 30 ND
Lead, ug/1 28** 23**
Nickel, ug/1 10** 10**
Zinc, ug/1 220 110
Mercury, ug/1 1.8** 1.7**
* Samples were collected daily and daily analysis were performed
for all parameters listed except phenolics and metals; the
samples for these parameters were composited and analyzed once
per month.
** average values
ND not detected
EPA/Industry Field Studies. In a joint research effort between EPA and
the textile industry (ATMI, NTA, and CRI), pilot plant studies were
conducted during 1977 and 1978 at 19 textile mills to evaluate the
effectiveness of alternative advanced wastewater treatment technologies.
The studies were performed on the effluent from treatment systems employing
the recommended BPT level of treatment. One of the alternatives was
chemical coagulation using a 1,650 gallon reactor/clarifier. Prior to
initiating the pilot plant studies, jar testing was performed to determine
the coagulant(s) and dosage(s) most effective for removal of SS and
organic material. Among the coagulants evaluated were alum, ferric
chloride, polymers, and lime, both alone and in various pairings. These
jar tests determined operating conditions for the reactor/clarifier
during screening (comparison) experiments against other tertiary process
modes. Based on these comparisons, promising modes were selected to be
studied more extensively in candidate process evaluations. The effective-
ness of precoagulation on filtration effectiveness was also studied, but
these experiments are discussed under "Filtration." The available
results of the coagulation studies during the candidate process evaluations
are discussed in the following cases.
VII-38
-------
Case 1
This case discusses the results at Mill D, a Subcategory 4c Woven Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
The experimental testing was performed on secondary clarifier effluent
prior to chlorination. However, such high coagulant dosages (150 mg/1
as A1+3 with lime at 200 mg/1) were required during jar test studies to
achieve even partial TSS reduction, that no pilot scale experiments
using the reactor/clarifier were run.
Case 2
This case discusses the results at Mill B, a Subcategory 2 Wool Finishing
mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater
treatment of this mill is provided in Appendix F.
Secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination was used in the pilot
plant tests at this mill. The experimental runs during the candidate
mode operation utilized the reactor/clarifier unit for coagulation as the
first treatment process. Data on the effectiveness of the unit are
presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier*
_Influent _Effluent
Pollutant x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 130 50 9 27 14 9
COD, mg/1 827 447 9 229 5 9
TSS, mg/1 122 67 9 33 36 9
TOC, mg/1 236 103 6 76 28 6
* Loading rate of 400 gpd/ft2 with 35 mg/1 alum (as Al+3) added as the
coagulant (9/6 - 9/13/77, low underflow rate).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier*
_Influent _Effluent
Pollutant x SD n x SD n
BODS, mg/1 212 58 9 39 13 9
COD, mg/1 1161 192 9 194 68 9
TSS, mg/1 352 118 9 669
TOC, mg/1 398 98 9 68 29 9
VII-39
-------
* Loading rate of 400 gpd/ft2 with 35 mg/1 alum (as Al+3) added as the
_ coagulant (9/16 - 9/21/77, increased underflow rate).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Polltant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier*
_Influent _Effluent
Pollutant x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 248-1 17-1
COD, mg/1 769 170 3 216 137 3
TSS, mg/1 289 128 3 82 86 3
TOC, mg/1 260 50 3 77 45 3
* Loading rate of 520 gpd/ft2 with 27 mg/1 alum (as Al+3) added as the
_ coagulant.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility, samples
were collected over a 24-hr period to evaluate the effectiveness of the
candidate mode in treating priority pollutants. The candidate mode
tested included the reactor/clarifier followed by multi-media filtration
followed by carbon adsorption. The reaction/clarifier was loaded at
a rate of 400 gpd/ft2 with 35 mg/1 alum as (Al+3) added as a coagulant,
the multi-media filter was loaded at a rate of 5.4 gpm/ft2, and the
carbon columns were operated at an empty bed retention time of 25 to 30
minutes. Data on the effectiveness of the reactor/clarifier are
presented below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier
Priority Pollutant Influent, ug/1 Effluent, ug/1
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 1580 154
1,2-Dichlorobenzene 20 not detected
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate 32 44
Toluene 31 14
Antimony 22 23
VII-40
-------
Arsenic 60 62
Chromium 116 41
Copper 23 16
Lead 30 30
Nickel 76 57
Silver 140 172
Zinc 6400 5730
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Ethylbenzene, Phenol.
Case 3
This case discusses the results at Mill Q, which is actually two separate
Subcategory 5 Knit Fabric Finishing mills that discharge to a common waste
treatment plant. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this complex is provided in Appendix F.
Secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination was used in the pilot
plant tests at this mill. The experimental runs during the candidate
mode of operation utilized the reactor/clarifier unit as the first
treatment process. Data on the effectiveness of this process for treating
conventional and non-conventional pollutants are presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier*
_Influent _Effluent
Pollutant x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 7.4 2.6 7 5.4 1 7
COD, mg/1 254 39 7 195 78 7
TSS, mg/1 50 16 7 73 14 7
TOC, mg/1 ... - -
Color, ADMI 227 44 6 202 19 6
* Loading rate of 400 gpd/ft2 with 20 mg/1 alum (as Al+3) and 0.75 mg/1
_ anionic polymer added as the coagulants (Experiment 1).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
VII-41
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill A
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier*
_Influent _Effluent
Pollutant x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 8.6 1 5 2.9 1.5 5
COD, mg/1 278 15 5 173 51 5
TSS, rag/1 39 4 5 57 34 5
TOC, mg/1 - - - ...
Color, ADMI 150 32 3 209 132 3
* Loading rate of 320 gpd/ft2 with 30 mg/1 alum (as Al+3) and 1.0 mg/1
_ anionic polymer added as the coagulants (Experiment 2).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier*
_Influent _Effluent
Pollutant x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 8.5 2.2 5 4.6 3.7 5
COD, mg/1 283 19 5 182 77 5
TSS, mg/1 45 7.2 5 66 58 5
TOC, mg/1 30.3 14 4 21.5 10 4
* Loading rate of 320 gpd/ft2 with 30 mg/1 alum (as Al+3) and 1.0 mg/1
_ anionic polymer added as the coagulants (Experiment 2).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility, samples
were collected on two consecutive days to evaluate the effectiveness of
the pilot plant technologies in removing priority pollutants. One mode
of operation tested was the reactor/clarifier followed by the multi-media
filters. The reactor/clarifier was operated at a surface loading rate
of 320 gpd/ft2, with coagulant dosages of 30 mg/1 alum and 1.0 mg/1
anionic polymer. The multi-media filters were loaded at a rate of 3
gpm/ft2. Data on the effectiveness of this mode of treatment are presented
below. The data are presented here because it is expected that the
coagulation process, rather than the multi-media filtration step, is
most responsible for priority pollutant removals.
VII-42
-------
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier - Multi-Media Filter*
Influent** Effluent**
Priority Pollutant Min Max n Min Max n
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate - 15 Iff - 7 W
Antimony 660 680 2 620 670 2
Chromium 27 36 2 14 15 2
Copper 100 110 2 90 92 2
Lead - 48 1 46 53 2
Selenium 20 62 2 10 110 2
Silver - 13 1 9.4 12 2
Zinc 47 50 2 130 190 2
* Samples collected around candidate mode of operation; each sample
represents 24-hour composite
** Concentrations in ug/1
// Composite sample collected over 48-hour period
n number of sample
The following were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the influent and
effluent: 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol; 2-Nitrophenol.
Case 4
This case discusses the results at Mill V, a Subcategory 4c Woven Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
Secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination was used in the
pilot plant tests at this mill. The experimental runs during the
candidate mode of operation utilized the reactor/clarifier unit as
the first treatment process. Data on the effectiveness of this
process for removing conventional and Non-Conventional pollutants are
presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill V
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier*
Influent _ Effluent
Pollutant x 5D n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 9.3 8.5 14 3.6 2 14
COD, mg/1 393 110 14 352 35 14
TSS, mg/1 47 89 14 51 17 14
TOC, mg/1 76 11 14 72 9 14
Color, ADMI 247 43 13 274 57 13
VII-43
-------
* Loading rate of 400 gpd/ft2 with 40 mg/1 alum (as Al+3) added as
_ the coagulant.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility, samples
were collected over a 24-hour period to evaluate the effectiveness
of the candidate mode in removing priority pollutants. The mode included
the reactor/clarifier, multi-media filters, and activated carbon
columns. The reactor/clarifier was operated at a surface loading rate
of 400 gpd/ft2 with a coagulant dosage of 40 mg/1 alum (as Al+3).
The multi-media filters were loaded at a rate of 3.0 gpm/ft2, and the
carbon columns were operated at 0.46 gpm (empty bed retention time
of 45 minutes). Data on the effectiveness of the reactor/clarifier
are presented below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill V
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier
Priority Pollutant Influent, ug/1 Effluent, ug/1
1,2-Dichlorobenzene not detected 13
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate 8 34
Toluene 15 trace
Antimony 96 123
Chromium trace 17
Copper 57 10
Lead 27 66
Silver 80 72
Zinc 163 195
The following were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the influent and
effluent: 1,4-Dichlorobenzene; Ethylbenzene; Chlorodibromomethane;
Pentachlorophenol; Phenol; Di-n-butyl Phthalate; Anthracene; Arsenic,
Cadmium, Nickel.
Case 5
This case discusses the results at Mill E, a Subcategory 5 Knit Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
VII-44
-------
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment technologies
at this mill, samples were collected to evaluate the effectiveness of
the technologies in removing priority pollutants. The reactor/clarifier
was part of one mode of treatment, and testing was such that the unit
could be evaluated independently. Data on the effectiveness are presented
below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill E
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier
Priority Pollutant
Benzene
Chloroform
Phenol
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Influent*
Min Max n
ND
ND
ND
T
22
T
T
10#
22//
66
T
15 10
210 10
T 10
110 10
600 8
100 8
36 8
10# 10
34 8
190 8
73 8
Effluent*
Min Max n
ND
9
ND
T
10
T
T
10#
22#
43
T
3 3
73 3
670 3
18 3
43 3
T 3
12 3
10# 5
22# 3
77 3
23 3
155 5200 8
145 155 3
* concentrations in ug/1
T trace
# reported as "less than" value
n number of samples
ND not detected
The following were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the influent and
effluent: 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene; 1,2-Dichlorobenzene; Ethylbenzene;
Methylene Chloride; Naphthalene; N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine; Di-n-butyl
Phthalate; Diethyl Phthalate; Anthracene; Toluene; Beryllium; Cadmium;
Selenium.
Case 6
This case discusses the results at Mill A, a Subcategory 1 Wool Scouring
mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater
treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment technologies
at this mill, samples were collected over a typical 24-hour period of
operation to evaluate the effectiveness of the technologies in removing
priority pollutants. The reactor/clarifier was part of one mode of
treatment, and testing was such that the unit could be evaluated
independtnely. Data on the effectiveness are presented below.
VII-45
-------
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill A
Influent and Effluent to Reactor/Clarifier
Priority Pollutant
Phenol*
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Arsenic
Cadmium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Influent, ug/1
16
42
540
38
130
320
200
3500
2000
500
1500
Effluent, ug/1
17
23
T
39
ND
110
240
ND
ND
ND
190
* represents total of all priority pollutant phenols
T trace
ND not detected
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Ethylbenzene; Fluoranthene; Di-n-butyl Phthalate;
Benzo(a)Anthracene; Benzo(a)Pyrene; Benzo(k)Fluoranthane; Anthracene;
Toluene.
Case 7
This case discusses the results at Mill 0, a Subcategory 2 Wool Finishing
mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater
treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment technologies
at this mill, samples were collected over a typical 72-hour period of
operation to evaluate the effectiveness of the technologies in treating
priority pollutants. One mode tested included the reactor/clarifier
followed by multi-media filtration. Samples were collected around
this mode and data on the effectiveness are presented below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill 0
Influent and Effluent to Rea'ctor/Clarifier - Multi-Media Filter
Priority Pollutant
Methylene Chloride
Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Chromium
Copper
Influent*
Min Max n
46 46 3
230 760 3
158 206 3
4** 14 3
Effluent*
Min Max n
28 28 1
T 31 3
30 47 3
82 130 3
VII-46
-------
Lead
Nickel
Thallium
Zinc
22** 22** 3
36** 36** 3
50** 50** 3
639 1280 3
22** 22** 3
36** 36** 3
50** 50** 3
347 440 3
* concentrations in ug/1
** reported as "less than" value
T trace
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Acrylonitrile; Benzene; 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene;
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol; Parachloro-meta-Cresol; Chloroform; 2-Chlorophenol;
1,2-Dichlorobenzene; Ethylbenzene; Fluoranthene; Naphthalene; N-nitrosodi-
n-propylamine; Pentachlorophenol; Phenol; Di-n-butyl Phthalate; Diethyl
Phthalate; Dimethyl Phthalate; Anthracene; Pyrene; Tetrachloroethylene;
Toluene; Trichloroethylene; Antimony; Arsenic; Beryllium; Cadmium;
Cyanide; Mercury; Selenium; Silver.
Precipitation
Precipitation is a chemical unit process in which undesirable soluble
metallic ions are removed from water or wastewater by conversion to an
insoluble form. It is a commonly used treatment technique for removal
of hardness (calcium, magnesium, strontium, ferrous iron, and manganous
ions and other metals), phosphorus, and the heavy metals. The procedure
involves alteration of the ionic equilibrium to produce insoluble metallic
hydroxides that can be easily settled in a clarifier. The hydroxide is
usually supplied in the form of lime (Ca(OH)2).
A typical precipitation reaction involving the removal of magnesium ions
(Mg+2) is:
Mg
+2
SO
-2
Ca(OH),
Ca+2 +
SO,
-2
Mg(OH),
Metallic hydroxides have an optimal pH where they are most insoluble.
For Mg(OH)2, noted in the equation above, 10.8 is considered optimal.
When precipitation of several metals is required, a pH of about 9 is
often useful in practice.
Precipitation of chromium, a frequent constituent of some textile waste-
waters, sometimes requires an additional step when chromium exists in the
hexavalent state (Cr+6) in wastewater it must be reduced to the trivalent
state (Cr+3) before precipitation cau be achieved. The reducing agents
commonly used are ferrous sulfate, sodium metabisulfate, and sulfur
dioxide. If ferrous sulfate is used, acid must be added for pH adjustment.
VII-47
-------
Industry Application. Precipitation was not reported as a treatment
method by any of the direct or indirect dischargers surveyed. It is
suspected, however, that the distinction between coagulation and pre-
cipitation was not clearly established by at least some of those
reporting coagulation as a part of their treatment system. It is probable
that some of these mills may, in fact, be practicing precipitation for
the removal of toxic metals. One reason for the limited application of
precipitation may be that some of the auxiliary chemicals used in dyeing
can act as complexing agents with heavy metals. These chemicals act as
chelants and make the metals less susceptible to precipitation.
Literature/Research. Literature directly related to the treatment of
textile wastewaters by employing precipitation is generally limited.
The case presented below offers information on one investigation that is
relevant.
Case 1
This case presents the findings of a research study (67) conducted to
compare the effectiveness of chemical precipitation using lime and that
using sulfide.
The sulfide removes heavy metal from solution in the form of sulfide
precipitates and can be advantageous since metal sulfides are several
orders of magnitude less soluble than the corresponding metal hydroxides.
It is especially advantageous for the removal of hexavalent chrome because
the process does not require a separate pretreatment step.
A wastewater sample from the aeration basin of a Subcategory 5b Knit
Fabric Finishing mill was used in the comparison studies. The
mill dyes 95 percent of the production and uses acid (64 percent),
direct (32 percent), sulfur (2 percent), dispersed (1 percent), and
reactive (1 percent) dyes. Data on the effectiveness of each precipitant
are summarized below:
Metal
Raw Sample
Concentration, mg/1
Lime Effluent Sulfide Effluent
Zinc 3.2
Nickel 0.05
Iron 2.3
Cadmium 0.01
Copper 0.50
Lead 0.10
Silver 0.05
Total Chromium 0.93
0.11
0.17
0.03
0.08
0.09
0.19
0.01
0.05
VII-48
-------
The data indicate that for the most part, somewhat greater metals reduction
can be achieved with the sulfide precipitant.
Oxidation
Oxidation of wastewater is a chemical unit process that can be used to
remove color, to remove ammonia, to reduce the concentration of organics,
and to reduce the bacterial and viral content. It has been used for some
time in the form of chlorine for the disinfection of effluents. Other
available and tested oxidants include: hydrogen peroxide, potassium
permanganate, chlorine dioxide, and ozone.
Chemical oxidation can provide the more powerful action often necessary
to break down highly resistant industrial wastes. Potassium permanganate,
chlorine, and ozone also have been used to reduce organic loads prior to
biological treatment. In advanced wastewater treatment of industrial wastes,
oxidation with ozone has shown the most promising application.
Ozone (03) is a faintly blue, pungent-smelling, unstable gas that exists
as an allotropic form of oxygen. Because of its instability, ozone must
be generated on-site. Ozone generators utilize a corona discharge that
occurs when a high-voltage alternating current is imposed across a
discharge gap. The method is highly inefficient in that only about 10
percent of the applied energy goes into ozone. Improvement in efficiency
can be achieved if pure oxygen is used in the generator in lieu of air.
Ozone reacts rapidly with the majority of organic compounds and micro-
organisms present in industrial wastewaters. It is capable of removing
color in textile wastewaters but, because of the high dosages often
required, is not suitable for reducing the concentration of organics.
Industry Application. Sixty of the direct dischargers and 11 of the
indirect dischargers surveyed report using oxidation as part of their
treatment systems. All but one of the direct dischargers simply chlorinate
for disinfection purposes. The other mill reports adding chlorine in a
rapid-mix contact tank for both disinfection and decoloring. Four of the
indirect dischargers also simply chlorinate for disinfection purposes.
Five add chlorine, usually in the form of hypochlorite, to control color.
The other two mills recycle part of the discharge and are most likely adding
chlorine for disinfection purposes. There are no data available from the
survey that can be used to demonstrate the effectiveness of chlorine oxidation
for decolorization.
Literature/Research. Because of the desire to effectively remove color,
oxidation of textile wastewaters has received considerable attention by
the engineering and research communities. Ozone has been the primary
oxidant studied. The following cases present the findings of those
studies most relevant here.
VII-49
-------
Case 1
This case discusses the results of a laboratory investigation conducted
by Snyder and Porter (68) on the effect of pH on the ability of ozone to
reduce organic content and color from the dye wastes from three textile
mills. Ozone was produced from compressed air by a commercial electric-
discharge ozone generator and fed at a rate of 0.5 g/hr through an
experimental apparatus containing 500-ml samples of the dye wastes. The
studies were conducted at room temperature and usual contact time was one
hour. To check the effect of pH on ozone reactivity, each dye waste was
studied at near neutral, at acidic, and at basic pH values. Adjustments
in pH were made with sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide.
The results of the investigation indicate that there is no steadfast
rule concerning the effects of pH on the efficiency of the ozonation
process in reducing the organic content of textile dye waste. The
greater removals occurred in the acid pH samples, but, according to the
researchers, this is in contrast to the results obtained by other
researchers, where greater removals occurred in high pH samples.
The average removals of organic content, as measured by COD, for the
three samples were 8, 41, and 55 percent. This indicates that a low
concentration ozone stream (1 g/1) is not feasible for the removal of
the majority of organics in textile dye waste. However, in each sample
tested, excellent color removal was observed. The researchers attributed
the effective decolorization to the susceptibility of the amine function
in the dye molecules to ozone attack.
Case 2
The case discusses the results of a laboratory investigation conducted
by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources (69) on ozone treatment
and disinfection of tufted carpet dye wastewater. The investigations
were performed on effluent samples from the City of Dalton municipal
wastewater treatment plant. Approximately 90 percent of the plant's
flow originates from textile mills that are engaged in dyeing and other
carpet finishing operations. The waste from these mills contain significant
levels of unexhausted color bodies and auxiliary dye chemicals, which result
in a colored and moderately high organic content waste at the municipal
plant. At the time of the investigations, the plant was treating approximately
40 mgd by the extended-aeration activated sludge process.
The studies investigated the effectiveness of various dosages of ozone
by monitoring color, COD, organic carbon, suspended solids (SS), BOD5,
total and fecal coliform, anionic detergents, dissolved oxygen, and ozone
residual before and after ozonation.
Grab samples were collected from the treatment plant effluent on five
occasions between April 4 and June 21, 1973. Portions of the samples
were placed in a 10-gallon capacity plexiglas contact column and ozonated
gas was injected at a fixed feed rate. Samples were withdrawn from the
column at specified time intervals for analysis. Results of the investi-
gations are summarized for the parameters of most interest here in the
following table.
VII-50
-------
Ozone Parameter Concentration, mg/1
Parameter Dosage, mg/1 Dalton Effluent Ozonated Effluent
Color (filtered) 5 300* 125*
Color (filtered) 10 300* 95*
Color (filtered) 14 300* 60*
Color (filtered) 26 300* 32*
Color (filtered) 45 300* 18*
COD 3 130 125
COD 6 130 110
COD 20 130 100
COD 42 130 75
COD 60 130 75
SS 7 20 12
SS 19 20 8
SS 24 20 6
SS 52 20 2
BOD5 8 21 27
BOD5 14 21 53
BOD5 19 21 25
BOD5 25 21 20
BOD5 33 21 19
Biphenyl 5 2.0 1.98
Biphenyl 12 2.0 1.35
Biphenyl 20 2.0 1.62
Biphenyl 26 2.0 1.19
Biphenyl 42 2.0 1.21
Biphenyl 89 2.0 0.10
* APHA Units
Conclusions regarding these parameters were stated as follows:
1. True color was reduced to less than 30 APHA Units at an ozone
dosage of 40 mg/1; suspended solids reduction reduced the
necessary ozone dosage to 26.5 mg/1.
2. COD reductions of 40 percent were achieved at ozone dosages of 45
mg/1; suspended solids removal did not significantly enhance COD
reduction.
3. Suspended solids were reduced by approximately 90 percent with an
ozone dosage of 52 mg/1.
4. The BOD5_ was essentially unchanged at all ozone dosages.
5. Biphenyls were reduced from approximately 2 mg/1 to less than 0.1
mg/1 at an ozone dosage of 89 mg/1.
VII-51
-------
EPA/Industry Field Studies. In a joint research effort between EPA and
the textile industry (ATMI, NTA, and CRI), pilot plant studies were
conducted during 1977 and 1978 at 19 textile mills to evaluate the
effectiveness of alternative advanced wastewater treatment technologies.
The studies were performed on the effluent from treatment systems employing
the recommended BPT level of treatment. One of the alternatives was
ozonation using a 110-liter (416-gal) contactor (Schedule 80 PVC column,
77 inches high and 11.6 inches inside diameter). Ozone was generated
with a commercial ozone generator (PCI Ozone Corporation Model C2P-3C)
with a capacity of 6 g/hr (pure oxygen feed) and fed through diffusers
of 70 mesh stainless steel screen. The contactors could be operated in
either a batch or a continuous mode. The offgases were sampled to determine
concentration of ozone and thus permit calculation of ozone utilization.
The available results of the ozonation studies are summarized in the
following cases.
Case 1
This case discusses the results at Mill D, a Subcategory 4c Woven Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and waste-
water treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
Secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination was used in the
pilot plant tests at Mill D. One candidate mode of operation tested
included multi-media filtration, activated carbon, and ozonation.
The operating characteristics and data on the effectiveness of ozonation
during this mode are presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill D
Influent and Effluent to Ozone Contactor*
Influent _Effluent
Pollutant x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 13 7 21 47 12 18
COD, mg/1 422 143 22 349 115 17
TSS, mg/1 23 13 21 16 13 18
TOC, mg/1 101 40 14 106 31 13
Color, ADMI 825 239 14 149 149 14
* 427 mg/1 ozone utilized (continuous operation)
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
VII-52
-------
Case 2
This case discusses the results at Mill Q, a Subcategory 5 Knit Fabric
Finishing mill. This facility is actually two separate Knit Fabric
Finishing mills that discharge to a common treatment plant. A description
of the manufacturing operations and wastewater treatment at these mills is
provided in Appendix F.
Secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination was used in the
pilot plant tests at Mill Q. One candidate mode tested multi-media
filtration and ozonation. The operating characteristics and data on the
effectivness of ozonation during this mode are presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Ozone Contactor*
Influent _Effluent
Pollutant x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 4.2 1 8 4.9 2.8 8
COD, mg/1 206 16 8 17 6.5 8
TSS, mg/1 4.5 3.3 8 3 1.4 2
TOC, mg/1 22 1.4 2 15 7.1 2
Color, ADMI 179 109 3 51-2
* 1130-1500 mg/1 ozone utilized (batch operation)
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility, samples
were collected on two consecutive days to evaluate the effectiveness of
the pilot plant technologies in the treatment of priority pollutants. One
mode tested was multi-media filtration followed by ozonation. Samples
were collected before filtration and after ozonation. The filter was
operated at a surface loading rate of 3 gpm/ft2 and an ozone dosage
(utilized) between 1130 to 1500 mg/1 was applied. Data on the effec-
tiveness of this mode of treatment are presented below.
VII-53
-------
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter - Ozone Contactor Mode
Influent* Effluent*
Priority Pollutant Min Max n Min Max n
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate 15 1# 45 If
Tetrachloroethylene 17 1# ND I//
Antimony 622 684 2 687 I//
Cadmium ND ND 2 17 If
Copper 102 106 2 88 W
Cyanide ND ND 2 20 I//
Lead 48 If 53 W
Nickel ND ND 2 44 If
Selenium 20 62 2 ND W
Silver 13 W 19 I//
Zinc 47 50 2 180 If
* Concentrations in ug/1
# Composite sample, Day 1 and Day 2
ND not detected
n number of samples
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: 2-Nitrophenol; Arsenic.
Case 3
This case discusses the results at Mill A, a Subcategory 1 Wool Scouring
facility. A description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater
treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment technologies
at this mill, samples were collected over a typical 24-hour period of
operation to evaluate the effectiveness of the technologies in removing
priority pollutants. The ozone contactor was part of one mode of
treatment, and testing was such that the unit could be evaluated
independently. Data on the effectiveness are presented below.
VII-54
-------
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill A
Influent and Effluent to Ozone Contactor
Priority Pollutant
Phenol"
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Arsenic
Cadmium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Influent, ug/1
17
14
T
83
ND
120
260
ND
ND
ND
400
Effluent, ug/1
13
106
1200
43
250
590
ND
ND
ND
1300
460
* represents total of all priority pollutant phenols
T trace
ND not detected
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Ethylbenzene; Fluoranthene; Di-n-butyl Phthalate;
Benzo(a)Anthracene; Benzo(a)Pyrene; Benzo(k)Fluoranthene; Anthracene;
Toluene.
Filtration
Wastewater filtration is a physical unit operation that is used to
remove suspended materials. It may be employed to polish an existing
biological effluent to prepare wastewater for subsequent advanced treat-
ment processes, or to enable direct reuse of a discharge. Primary
applications that are discussed in this section include: 1) direct
filtration of secondary biological effluents alone or as pretreatment
for carbon or ozone, 2) filtration of chemically clarified effluent,
and 3) filtration of secondary biological effluents following in-line
chemical injection (precoagulation).
The filtration process separates suspended material from wastewater by
passing the waste through porous material. The mechanisms responsible
for removal include: straining, sedimentation, inertial impaction,
interception, adhesion, chemical adsorption (bonding and chemical
interaction), physical adsorption (electrostatic, electrokinetic, and
Van der Waals forces), and two accessory actions within the filter
bed-biological growth and flocculation. The mechanisms that will
predominate depend on the wastewater characteristics and the
characteristics of the filter (media composition; grain size, shape,
density, and porosity; bed depth; and filtration rate). (64, 70)
VII-55
-------
Filtration systems are broadly classified as either "surface" or "in-
depth." Surface filters include microscreens, diatomaceous earth filters,
and moving bed filters. These filters achieve solids removal primarily
by surface straining and, as a result, yield shorter-length runs between
backwashings. In-depth filters include deep-bed single-, dual-, or multi-
media units. Graded sand was commonly used in the past for in-depth
filtration but today, garnet, gravel, resin beads, activated carbon, and
anthracite coal are also commonly used. The use of multiple layers of
different media having specific gravities increasing in the direction of
flow permits gradation of the filter bed and allows more efficient
utilization of the total bed depth.
Industry Application. Sixteen mills report using filtration as part
of their treatment systems. Ten are direct dischargers, 3 are
indirect dischargers, and 3 practice complete recycle. All but one
of the direct dischargers employ activated sludge or a similar
biological process prior to filtration. Three of these dischargers
also perform chemical coagulation or add coagulants in-line prior
to filtration (precoagulation). Most of the direct dischargers report
that their filters are of the multi-media type with sand, gravel, and
anthracite media. They are operated as tertiary filters and are
pressurized.
The filter systems employed by the indirect dischargers include an in-depth
sand filter, a vacumite filter used to separate the floe from a chemically
treated (coagulation and flocculation) waste, and a system that included
a multi-media (sand and charcoal) filter following biological aeration.
Two plants practicing recycle are operated by the same company and both
employ multi-media in-depth filters using gravel, sand, and anthracite
media. In both cases the filtration systems follow extended-aeration
activated sludge and chemical coagulation. The third recycle plant
precedes filtration with air flotation, biological aeration, and
chemical coagulation/flocculation.
Although many of the filtration systems are operated to polish biological
and/or chemically treated effluents or to allow recycle, the available data
from these mills, i.e., influent and effluent for the entire treatment
system, do not presently demonstrate the effectiveness of the filtration
systems alone. The following tabulation does demonstrate the overall
effectiveness of the treatment systems that include filtration. The
data represent average values for those mills that provided historical
monitoring results and generally represent sampling during 1976.
VII-56
-------
Subcat-
egory Filter Type
5a
5a
5a
5a
5a
4a
Multi-media
In-depth
Dual-media
In-depth
Sand
In-depth
Multi-media
Pressure
Sand
In-depth
Multi-media
Pressure
Dual-media
In-depth
Dual-media
Pressure
Treatment BOD, mg/1
Step Inf Eff
(Direct Discharge)
Polishing - 159
Polishing
Post
Flotation
33
Polishing 334 24
Polishing 327 43
Polishing 279 5
17
Polishing 327 20
Polishing 218 23
(Recycle)
Polishing 298 10
COD, mg/1
Inf Eff
1265
1261
188
206
427
934 196
1572 480
800 312
TSS, mg/1
Inf Eff
65
55
40
119 88
41 7
21
26 23
12 93
1550
Literature/Research. Although considerable attention has been given to
filtration of textile wastewaters, very little historical or research
data exist that demonstrate the effectiveness of filtration systems.
While there are a number of filters in place to polish the effluent
from biological and biological/chemical treatment systems (see
Industry Application), none are routinely monitored for conventional
pollutants and no data exist on their effectiveness in treating priority
pollutants. Sampling was conducted at four mills during this study
to provide such information. The results are summarized in the following
cases.
Case 1
This case discusses the results at two Subcategory 5b Knit Fabric
Finishing mills that discharge to a common treatment plant. This
facility was part of the EPA/Industry pilot plant field studies (Mill Q);
a description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater treatment
is provided in Appendix F.
VII-57
-------
Samples were collected over a 48-hour period at the influent to the
treatment plant, following secondary clarification, and at the effluent.
The results presented below demonstrate the effectiveness of the
biological system and the multi-media pressure filter in treating
conventional, non-conventional, and priority pollutants.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability
Pollutant Raw
Parameter Waste"
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1 782
TSS, mg/1 17
Oil & Grease, mg/1 324
Color, ADMI 288
Phenols, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1 ND
Secondary
Effluent**
312
28
303
187
59
ND
Final
Effluent**
233
6
476
192
48
ND
* 48-hour composite sample
** average of two 24-hour composite samples
ND not detected
Priority Pollutant Treatability
Priority Pollutant
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
Ethylbenzene
Naphtalene
Phenol
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Tetrachloroethylene
Trichloroethylene
Antimony
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Silver
Zinc
Concentration, ug/1
Raw Secondary
Waste* Effluent**
2700
101
45
55
41
ND
840
95
14
44
10
36
36
15
12
56
ND
ND
ND
ND
15
17
ND
670*
32*
104*
ND
48*
ND
41*
13*
48*
Final
Effluent**
ND
ND
ND
ND
12
17
ND
700*
32*
79*
10*
33*
ND
102*
8*
84*
* average of two 24-hour grab samples
ND not detected
VII-58
-------
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the raw
waste, secondary effluent, and/or final effluent: 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol;
2-Nitrophenol.
Case 2
This case discusses the results at a Subcategory 4a Woven Fabric Finishing
mill that performs flat bed and rotary screen printing to produce sheets,
towels, and bedspreads. Rotary screening printing accounts for approxi-
mately 90 percent of the production, which was reported as 30,000 kg/day
(approximately 65,000 Ib/day). The processing operations result in a
water usage of 19.2 I/kg (2.3 gal/lb) and a wastewater discharge of
570 cu m/day (150,000 gpd).
Wastewater treatment at this mill consists of equalization (small holding
tank), grit removal, coarse screening, chemical addition (alum and caustic),
fine screening, (SWECO vibrating screens), chemical addition (cationic
polymer) and flocculation, dissolved air flotation (300 gpm), biological
aeration (2 lagoons in series with a total volume of 1.64 mil gal),
disinfection (chlorine), secondary clarification (reactor/clarifier in
which alum, caustic, and anionic polymer are added), and dual-media
gravity filtration (sand and carbon). Aeration detention time is
approximately 170 hours, and air is provided by surface aerators at
a power-to-volume ratio of approximately 18 hp/mil gal. The discharge
from the treatment plant is recycled for reuse in the printing operations.
Samples were collected (see Appendix D for sampling procedures) over
a typical 48-hour period of operation at the bar screen prior to the
air flotation unit, at the Parshall flume prior to the aeration basins,
at the chlorine contact chamber following aeration, and at the effluent
from the dual-media filter. The results presented below demonstrate
the effectiveness of the reactor/clarifier - dual-media filter in
treating conventional, non-conventional, and priority pollutants.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability*
Pollutant Biological Biological Filter
Parameter Influent Effluent Effluent
BOD5, mg/1 200»* 67** 20**
COD, mg/1 725 577 543
TSS, mg/1 32 17 4
Phenols, ug/1 26 18 14
Sulfide, ug/1 200** 200** 200**
* average of two 24-hour samples
** reported as "less than" value
VII-59
-------
Priority Pollutant Treatablity
Concentration, ug/1
Biological Biological Filter
Priority Pollutant Influent Effluent Effluent
Benzene 19 5* 5*
Ethylbenzene 160 ND ND
Methyl Chloride 56 5* 5*
4-Nitrophenol 13 10* 10*
Pentachlorophenol 34 ND ND
Phenol 32 24 16
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate 45 ND ND
Toluene 200 ND ND
Copper 81** 52** 27**
Lead NS 32** NS
Nickel 32** 32** NS
Thallium 14** 13** NS
* reported as "less than" value
** average of two 24-hour grab samples
ND not detected
NS no sample
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
biological influent biological effluent, and final effluent: 1,2-Dichloro-
ethane; 1,1,1-Trichloroethane; Tetrachloroethylene; Trichloroethylene;
Beryllium; Cadmium; Chromium; Cyanide; Mercury; Silver; Zinc.
Case 3
This case discusses the results at a Subcategory 7 Stock & Yarn Finishing
facility that performs package dyeing of polyester, cotton, and wool yarn.
Dispersed dye is the primary dye class employed, although some acid and
cationic dyes also are used. Average production is reported as 22,680 kg/day
(50,000 Ib/day). The processing results in an average water usage of 154 I/kg
(18.5 gal/lb) and a wastewater discharge of 3,500 cu m/day (925,000 gpd).
Wastewater treatment at this mill consists of coarse screening, neutrali-
zation, biological aeration (one basin with a total volume of 5,250,000 gal),
secondary clarification, dual-media gravity filtration (sand and carbon),
and disinfection (chlorine). Aeration detention time is approximately
120 hours, and air is provided by eight surface aerators with a total
power-to-volume ratio of approximately 114 hp/mil gal. The carbon in
the filter has not been changed within the past two years and may not be
functioning in an adsorptive capacity.
Samples were collected (see Appendix D for sampling procedures) over
a 72-hour period of operation of the raw wastewater, the secondary
clarifier effluent, and the filter effluent. The results presented
below demonstrate the effectiveness of the activated sludge system and
the dual-media filter in treating conventional, non-conventional, and
priority pollutants.
VII-60
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability
Pollutant
Parameter
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
Color, ADMI
Biological
Influent
226
25
810
44
131
Priority Pollutant
Priority
Pollutant
Acrylonitrile
1,2, 4-Trichlorobenzene
Bis(chloromethyl) Ether
2 ,4,6-Trichlorophenol
Parachlorometa Cresol
1 , 2-Dichlorobenzene
2 , 4-Dichlorophenol
1 , 2-Dichloropropane
2 ,4-Dimethylphenol
Naphthalene
Pentachlorophenol
Bis(2-ethylhexyl)
Phthalate
Di-n-butyl Phthalate
Dimethyl Phthalate
Tetrachloroethylene
Toluene
Trichloroethylene
Antimony
Arsenic
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Thallium
Zinc
Biological
Influent
ND
270
59
16
29
56*
20
56
190
18
ND
490
24
18
310
T
10
156
19
34
49
rt O J- J-
^""
36**
T
50**
493
Clarifier
Effuent
Min Max n
116 150 3
100 170 3
12 21 3
6 83
112 124 3
Treatability
Clarifier
Effuent
Min Max n
ND 100** 3
19 43 3
ND ND 3
T T 3
ND T 3
ND T 3
ND ND 3
ND ND 3
ND ND 3
ND 13 3
ND 23 3
76 340 3
ND T 3
ND ND 3
T T 3
T 38 3
ND ND 3
141 177 3
T T 3
68 91 3
110 132 3
22** 35 3
36** 36** 3
T T 3
ND 50** 3
228 283 3
Filter
Effluent
Min Max n
122 148 3
38 115 3
17 19 3
9 93
105 113 3
Filter
Effluent
Min Max n
ND 100** 3
T
ND
ND
ND
T
ND
ND
ND
T
ND
21
ND
T
T
T
ND
ND
ND
T
13
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
80 170 3
ND T 3
ND ND 3
T 93
T T 3
ND ND 3
150 162 3
T T 3
12 57 3
20 8A 3
22** 22** 3
42 50 3
11 15 3
ND 50** 3
139 436 3
* represent sum of concentrations of 1,2-Dichlorobenzene; 1,3-Dichloro-
bene; and 1,4-Dichlorobenzene
** reported as "less than" value
ND not detected
VII-61
-------
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
biological influent, clarifier effluent, or filter effluent: Benzene;
Hexachlorobenzene; Chloroform; Ethylbenzene; Fluoranthane; Methylene
Chloride; N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine; Phenol; Butyl Benzyl Phthalate;
Diethyl Phthlate; Anthracene; Fluorene; Pyrene; Beryllium; Cadmium;
Cyanide; Mercury; Selenium.
EPA/Industry Field Studies. In a joint research effort between EPA and
the textile industry (ATMI, NTA, and CRI), pilot plant studies were
conducted during 1977 and 1978 at 19 textile mills to evaluate the
effectiveness of alternative advanced wastewater treatment technologies.
The studies were performed on the effluent from treatment systems
employing the recommended BPT level of treatment. One of the alterna-
tives was downflow multi-media filtration using one of two filters 63
inches in height and 14 inches in diameter. Each filter provided one
foot of surface area and contained 12 inches of anthracite coal (0.9 -
1.5 mm effective size), 12 inches of sand (0.4 - 0.8 mm effective size),
and 16 inches of gravel (6 - 16 mm effective size). The available
results of the filtration studies are summarized in the following cases.
Case 1
This case discusses the results at Mill D, a Subcategory 4c Woven Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
Secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination was used in the
pilot plant tests at this mill. Two candidate modes were tested and
both included multi-media filtration. One mode consisted of multi-media
filtration followed by activated carbon; the other mode additionally
included ozonation. The operating characteristics and data on the effective-
ness of multi-media filtration are presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill D
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
_Influent _Effluent
Pollutant x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 24 14 17 19 9 15
COD, mg/1 814 284 19 630 177 19
TSS, mg/1 294 422 17 85 100 16
TOC, mg/1 179 65 14 157 64 32
Color, ADMI 1007 696 12 1070 - 2
* filter operated at an average surface loading rate of 4.4 gpm/ft2
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
VII-62
-------
Case 2
This case discusses the results at Mill DD, a two-facility complex
that performs woven fabric and stock & yarn finishing. A Low Water
Use Processing operation (griege mill) also is associated with this
complex. A description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater
treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
Multi-media filtration was part of both candidate modes at Mill DD.
However, the effectiveness of multi-media filtration alone cannot be
evaluated based on the available data.
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility, samples
were collected over a typical 8-hour operating period to evaluate the
effectiveness of the pilot plant technologies in treating priority
pollutants. One mode of operation tested was multi-media filtration with
alum added as a precoagulant. The surface loading rate to the filter
ranged from 1 to 4 gpm/ft2 and the alum dosage was 20 mg/1 as Al+3.
Data on the effectiveness are presented below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill DD
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter
Priority Pollutant Influent, ug/1 Effluent, ug/1
Chromium 58 110
Copper 59 28
Lead 37 31
Nickel 72 67
Silver 25 28
Zinc 190 280
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent to the filter: Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate;
Diethyl Phthalate; Dimethyl Phthalate; Arsenic; Cadmium.
Case 3
This case discusses the results at Mill B, a Subcategory 2 Wool Finishing
mill. A description of the manufacturing operation and wastewater
treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
Secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination was used in the
pilot plant tests at Mill B. Two candidate modes utilized multi-media
filtration. One mode included the Leactor/clarifier before filtration
with carbon adsorption afterwards. The other mode included the reactor/
clarifier multi-media filtration, and ozonation. The operating character-
istics and data on the effectiveness of multi-media filtration during
each mode are presented below.
VII-63
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant _Influent _Effluent
Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 39 13 9 31 1.4 9
COD, mg/1 194 68 9 174 72 9
TSS, mg/1 669 239
TOC, mg/1 68 29 9 65 29 9
* Filter operated at an average surface loading rate of 7.0 gpm/ft2^
_ (9/6 - 9/13/77).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant _Influent _Effluent
Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 17-1 23-1
COD, mg/1 216 137 3 157 124 3
TSS, mg/1 82 86 3 31 29 3
TOC, mg/1 77 45 3 69 38 3
* Filter operated at an average surface loading rate of 6.6 gpm/ft2
_ (9/11 - 9/12/77).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
VII-64
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant _Influent _Effluent
Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 27 14 9 20 10 9
COD, mg/1 229 5 9 203 54 9
TSS, mg/1 33 36 9 15 23 9
TOC, mg/1 76 28 6 41 16 4
* Filter operated at an average surface loading rate of 5.4 gpm/ft2
_ (9/13 - 9/21/77).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility, samples
were collected over a 24-hr period to evaluate the effectiveness of the
candidate modes in treating priority pollutants. The candidate mode
tested included the reactor/clarifier followed by multi-media filtration
followed by carbon adsorption. The reactor/clarifier was loaded at
a rate of 400 gpd/ft2 with 35 mg/1 alum as (Al+3) added as a coagulant,
the multi-media filter was loaded at a rate of 5.4 gpm/ft2, and the
carbon columns were operated at an empty bed retention time of 25 to 30
minutes. Data on the effectiveness of the multi-media filter are presented
below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter
Priority Pollutant Influent, ug/1 Effluent ug/1
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 154 94
Pentachlorophenol ND 10
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate 44 14
Toluene 14 12
Antimony 23 12
Arsenic 62 103
Cadmium T 105
Chromium 41 41
Copper 16 118
Lead 30 116
Nickel 57 73
Silver 172 158
Zinc 5730 5800
T trace
ND not detected
VII-65
-------
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: 1,2-Dichlorobenzene; 2,4-Dimethylphenol,
N-nitrosodiphenylamine; Benzo(a)Pryrene.
Case 4
This case discusses the results at Mill P, a Subcategory 4c Woven Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
Two candidate modes utilized multi-media filtration as the first treatment
operation at Mill P. One mode included filtration with precoagulation
and the other followed this treatment with activated carbon adsorption.
Testing was performed on the secondary clarifier effluent prior to
chlorination. The operating characteristics and data on the effectiveness
of multi-media filtration during the testing are presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill P
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant _Influent _Effluent
Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 11 9 5 964
COD, mg/1 122 54 5 98 15 5
TSS, mg/1 10 4 5 21 15 5
TOC, mg/1 20 7 5 23 4 5
Color, ADMI 138 21 3 141 28 3
* surface loading of 3 gpm/ft2 and a precoagulant alum dose of 1.5 mg/1
_ (as Al+3).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill P
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant _Influent _Effluent
Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 3 - - 38 -
COD, mg/1 122 - - 130 - -
TSS, mg/1 25 - - 10
TOC, mg/1 29 - - 25
Color, ADMI 163 - 162 - -
VII-66
-------
* surface loading of 3 gpm/ft2 and a precoagulant alum dose of 1.5 mg/1
_ (as Al+3).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill P
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant _Influent _Effluent
Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 11-2 11-2
COD, mg/1 85-2 118-2
TSS, mg/1 153-2 17-2
TOC, mg/1 36-2 27-2
Color, ADMI 154 - 161 - -
* surface loading rate of 5 gpm/ft2 and a precoagulant alum dose of
_ 1.5 mg/1 (as Al+3).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill P
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant _Influent _Effluent
Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 26 - - 8
COD, mg/1 109 - - 83 -
TSS, mg/1 11 - - 12 -
TOC, mg/1 29 - - 27 -
Color, ADMI 149 - 150
* surface loading rate of 5 gpm/ft2 and a precoagulant alum dose of
_ 2.7 mg/1 (as Al+3).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
VII-67
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill P
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant _Influent _Effluent
Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 11-2 10-2
COD, mg/1 85-2 113-2
TSS, mg/1 153-2 20-2
TOC, mg/1 36-2 25-2
Color, ADMI 154 - 160
* surface loading rate of 7 gpm/ft2 and a precoagulant alum dose of
_ 1.5 mg/1 (as Al+3).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Case 5
This case discusses the results at Mill Q, a Subcategory 5b Knit Fabric
Finishing mill. This facility is actually two separate Knit Fabric
Finishing mills that discharge to a common treatment plant. A description
of the manufacturing operations and wastewater treatment at these mills
is provided in Appendix F.
Multi-media filtration was used as part of the treatment in three
candidate modes tested at Mill Q. One mode consisted of the reactor/
clarifier followed by multi-media filtration, another consisted of
multi-media filtration followed by activated carbon, and the last
consisted of multi-media filtration followed by ozonation. Testing was
performed on the secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination, with
and without a precoagulant added. The operating characteristics and data
on the effectiveness of multi-media filtration during the testing are
presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant _Influent _Effluent
Parameter x 5D n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 10 4.3 4 7 1.3 4
COD, mg/1 338 36 4 258 26 4
TSS, mg/1 77 24 4 28 19 4
TOC, mg/1 18 0.6 3 18 0.6 3
Color, ADMI _ - - ...
VII-68
-------
* surface loading rate of 2.5 gpm/ft2 and a precoagulant alum dose of
_ 1 mg/1 (as Al+3).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant _Influent _Effluent
Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 8.51.46 40.76
COD, mg/1 273 15 6 202 10 6
TSS, mg/1 48 6.8 6 4.5 2.6 6
TOC, mg/1 ... . .
Color, ADMI 214 68 6 205 45 5
* surface loading rate of 2.0 gpm/ft2.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant _Influent _Effluent
Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 8 2 14 4 1 14
COD, mg/1 272 32 14 208 17 14
TSS, mg/1 45 11 14 4 1.5 14
TOC, mg/1 27 3.8 3 22 1.7 3
Color, ADMI 252 24 7 250 14 6
* surface loading rate of 2.0 gpm/ft2.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
VII-69
-------
Case 6
This case discusses the results at Mill V, a Subcategory Ac Woven Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
The candidate mode selected for Mill V consisted of the reactor/clarifier
followed by multi-media filtration followed by activated carbon adsorption.
Testing was performed on secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination.
The operating characteristics and data on the effectiveness of multi-media
filtration during the testing are presented below.
Conventional and NonConventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill V
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant _Influent _Effluent
Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 3.6 2 14 2.5 1.2 14
COD, mg/1 352 35 14 331 31 14
TSS, mg/1 51 17 14 20 8 14
TOC, mg/1 72 9 14 62 8 14
Color, ADMI 274 57 13 283 49 11
* surface loading rate of 3.0 gpm/ft2.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility, samples
were collected over a 24-hour period to evaluate the effectiveness
of the candidate mode in removing priority pollutants. The mode included
the reactor/clarifier, multi-media filters, and activated carbon columns.
The reactor/clarifier was operated at a surface loading rate of 400 gpd/ft2
with a coagulant dosage of 40 mg/1 alum (as Al+3). The multi-media
filters were loaded at a rate of 3.0 gpm/ft2, and the carbon columns
were operated at 0.46 gpm (empty bed retention time of 45 minutes).
Data on the effectiveness of the multi-media filter are presented
below.
VII-70
-------
Priority Pollutant Treatability of Mill V
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter
Priority Pollutant
1,2-Dichlorobenzene
Pentachlorophenol
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Silver
Zinc
Influent, ug/1
13
not detected
34
123
17
11
66
72
195
Effluent, ug/1
trace
12
trace
136
14
25
64
77
234
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Ethylbenzene, Di-n-butyl Phthalate, Anthracene,
Toluene, Arsenic, Cadmium, Nickel.
Case 7
This case discusses the results at Mill W, a Subcategory 5b Knit Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
Multi-media filtration was part of the treatment in both candidate
modes selected for Mill W. One mode consisted of multi-media filtration
followed by activated carbon adsorption. The second mode tested
multi-media filtration with precoagulation. Testing was performed on
secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination. The operating
characteristics and data on the effectiveness of multi-media filtration
during the testing are presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill W
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
Influent
x
4.6
73
26
14
140
SD
1.6
9
9
4.5
57
n
17
17
17
16
16
_Effluent
x SD n
3.4
55
9.5
11
118
1.2
7
4.7
3.3
42
17
17
17
16
16
* surface loading rate of 7 gpm/ft2.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
VII-71
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill W
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Pollutant
Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
Influent
X
4.6
73
26
14
140
SD
1.6
9
9
4.5
57
n
17
17
17
16
16
_Effluent
X
2.4
48
13
10
83
SD
1.2
7
6
4
30
n
17
17
17
16
15
* surface loading rate of 5 gpm/ft2 with a precoagulant dosage of
3 mg/1 of 572C polymer.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at Mill W, daily samples
were collected during the operation of each candidate mode to evaluate
the effectiveness of the modes in treating priority pollutants. The
operating characteristics of the multi-media filtration/activated carbon
mode were a 7 gpm/ft2 loading rate through the filters and an empty
bed retention time of 45 minutes for the carbon columns. The operating
characteristics of the multi-media filtration with precoagulation mode
were a 5 gpm/ft2 loading rate and addition of 3 mg/1 of anionic polymer.
Data on the effectiveness of the multi-media filter are presented below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill W
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Priority Pollutant
Benzene
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
Chloroform
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Arsenic
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Thallium
Zinc
Influent**
Mm Max n
Effluent**
Min Max n
ND 10
ND 29
ND 1020
ND 34
560 888
10# 100
18 323
9 82
36# 108
5// 30
50# 500
34 90
7
6
7
7
7
1
7
7
7
7
1
7
4
9
ND
ND
ND 790
ND 44
554 869
11 11
10 41
10 85
36# 114
5# 32#
50# 50#
40 86
7
7
7
7
7
1
7
7
7
7
1
7
* multi-media filtration/activated carbon mode
** concentrations in ug/1
VII-72
-------
ND not detected
# reported as "less than" valve
n number of samples
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Acenaphthene; Parachlorometa Cresol; 2,4-Dichloro-
phenol; 2,4-Dimethylphenol; Ethylbenzene; Naphthalene; Phenol; Di-n-butyl
Phthalate; Toluene; Trichloroethylene; Beryllium; Cadmium; Chromium;
Cyanide, Mercury; Selenium.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill W
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Priority Pollutant
Benzene
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
Chloroform
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Thallium
Zinc
Influent**
Min Max n
ND 10 7
ND 29 6
ND 1020 7
ND 34 7
560 867 7
18 323 7
9 82 7
36# 108 7
5// 30 7
50// 50# 1
34 90 7
Effluent**
Min
ND
ND
ND
11
479
9
28
34
5#
50#
48
Max
3
6
7
42
888
27
81
137
41
50#
93
n
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
1
7
* multi-media filtration with precoagulation mode.
** concentrations in ug/1
n number of samples
ND not detected
// reported as "less than" value
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Acenaphthene; Ethylbenzene; Naphthalene; Phenol;
Di-n-butyl Phthalate; Toluene; Trichloroethylene; Arsenic, Beryllium;
Cadmium; Chromium; Cyanide; Mercury; Selenium.
Case 8
This case discusses the results at Mill E, a Subcategory 5a Knit Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and waste-
water treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
VII-73
-------
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment technologies
at this mill, samples were collected to evaluate the effectiveness of
the technologies in treating priority pollutants. Multi-media filtration
was part of two modes of treatment, and testing was such that the units
could be evaluated independently. Data on the effectiveness of multi-media
filtration are presented below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill E
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Priority Pollutant
Benzene
Chloroform
N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
Phenol
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Influent**
Min
ND
ND
ND
ND
T
22#
T
T
10#
22#
66
T
55
Max
15
207
T
T
109
600
98
36
10#
34
187
73
5160
n
10
10
10
10
10
8
8
8
10
8
8
8
8
Effluent**
Min Max n
ND
ND
ND
ND
T
10*
T
T
10#
22*
36
T
155
T
10
26
2110
20
37
12
26
10//
27
188
68
204
10
10
10
10
10
8
8
8
10
8
8
8
8
* Multi-Media Filter - Activated Carbon mode
** concentrations in ug/1
T trace
# reported as "less than" value
n number of samples
ND not detected
The following were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the influent and
effluent: 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene; 1,2-Dichlorobenzene; Ethylbenzene;
Methylene Chloride; Naphthalene; N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine; Di-n-butyl
Phthalate; Diethyl Phthalate; Anthracene; Toluene; Beryllium; Cadmium;
Selenium.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill E
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Priority Pollutant
Benzene
Chloroform
Phenol
Influent**
Min Max n
ND
T
ND
T 3
73 3
669 3
Effluent**
Min Max n
ND 144 10
ND ND 10
ND T 9
VII-74
-------
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Copper
Cyanide
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
T
10*
4#
10#
22#
43
50
145
18 3
43 3
12 3
10# 5
22# 3
77 3
23 3
155 3
T 200 10
10# 48 8
4# 20 8
10# 10# 10
22# 27 8
36# 135 8
5# 59 8
144 160 8
* Reactor/Clarifier - Multi-Media Filter mode
** concentrations in ug/1
T trace
# reported as "less than" value
n number of samples
ND not detected
Case 9
This case discusses the results at Mill A, a Subcategory 1 Wool Scouring
facility. A description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater
treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment technologies
at this mill, samples were collected over a typical 24-hour period of
operation to evaluate the effectiveness of the technologies in treating
priority pollutants. Multi-media filtration was part of one mode of
treatment, and testing was such that the unit could be evaluated
independently. Data on the effectiveness are presented below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill A
Influent and Effluent Multi-Media Filter
Priority Pollutant
Phenol*
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Arsenic
Copper
Cyanide
Zinc
Influent, ug/1
17
23
39
110
240
190
Effluent, ug/1
17
14
83
120
260
400
* represents total of all priority pollutant phenolics
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Ethylbenzene; Fluoranthene; Di-n-butyl Phthalate;
Benzo(a)Anthracene; Benzo(a)Pyrene; Benzo(k)Fluoranthane; Anthracene;
Toluene; Antimony.
VII-75
-------
Case 10
This case discusses the results at Mill 0, a Subcategory 2 Wool Finishing
mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater
treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment technologies
at this mill, samples were collected over a typical 72-hour period of
operation to evaluate the effectiveness of the technologies in removing
priority pollutants. Multi-media filtration was part of two modes of
treatment, and testing was such that one unit could be evaluated
independently. Data on the effectiveness are presented below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill 0
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter*
Influent"- Effluent**
Priority Pollutant Min Max n Min Max n
Methylene Chloride 46 46 1 47 47 1
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate 230 760 3 16 80 3
Chromium 158 206 3 78 101 3
Copper T 14 3 105 130 3
Lead 22# 22# 3 22# 22# 3
Nickel 36# 36# 3 36# 36# 3
Thallium 50// 50# 3 50# 50# 3
Zinc 639 1280 3 371 594 3
* Unit 1
** concentrations in ug/1
n number of samples
T trace
# reported as "less than" valve
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Acrylonitrile; Benzene; 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene;
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol; Parachlorameta-Cresol; Chloroform; 1,2-Dichloro-
benzene; Ethylbenzene; Fluoranthene; Naphthalene; N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine;
Pentachlorophenol; Phenol; Di-n-butyl Phthalate; Diethyl Phthalate;
Phenanthrene; Pyrene; Tetrachloroethylene; Toluene; Trichloroethylene;
Antimony; Arsenic; Beryllium; Cadmium; Cyanide; Mercury; Selenium; Silver.
Hyperfiltration/Ultrafiltration
Hyperfiltration (reverse osmosis) is a physical separation process that
relies on applied pressure (greater than osmotic pressure) to force
flow through a semi-permeable membrane (permeable to water but not
dissolved materials of a specific molecular size). The process is
capable of removing suspended particles and substantial fractions of
VII-76
-------
dissolved impurities, including organic and inoganic materials. The
membranes are designed so that water and species smaller in size than
the rejection level of the particular membrane pass through while
larger species are rejected. The process results in two effluents, one
relatively pure, and the other containing the concentrated substances.
The membrane is the most important aspect of the reverse osmosis systems.
Those most widely used are manufactured from a mixture of cellulose
acetate, acetone, formamide, and magnesium perchlorate. Non-cellulose
synthetic polymer membranes have also been developed and are commercially
available; however, these are more often applicable in untrafiltration
systems. The most common commercially available hyperfiltration systems
include the tubular, spiral wound, and hollow fine fiber. The tubular
system has a typical membrane area per unit volume of 20 ft2/ft3 and
the membrane is situated along the inner wall of a 1/2-inch diameter
tube. The spiral wound system utilizes a number of flat membranes
separated by porous spacers and rolled into a spiral; these systems
typically provide 250 ft2 of membrane surface per ft3 of volume. The
hollow fiber system utilizes microscopic fibers that are essentially
tiny, thick-walled tubes. Pressure is applied from the outside of the
tubes and the filtrate (pure effluent) flows into the tubes. The hollow
fiber system can provide from 2000 to 5000 ft2 of membrane surface
per ft3 of volume. The tubular system is easiest to clean, or replace,
and is usually employed in wastewater applications.
Hyperfiltration systems usually operate at a pressure of 300 to 1,500
psi and have a flux rate on the order of 10 gal/day/ft2. They generally
require extensive pretreatment (pH adjustment, filtration, chemical
precipitation, activated-carbon adsorption) of the waste stream to
prevent rapid fouling or deterioration of the membrane surface.
Ultrafiltration is similar to hyperfiltration and relies on a semi-
permeable membrane and an applied driving force to separate suspended
and dissolved materials from wastewater. The membranes used in
ultrafiltration have pores large enough to eliminate osmotic pressure
as a factor and, therefore, allow operation at pressures as low as
5 to 10 psi. Sieving is the predominant mechanism of removal, and the
process is usually applicalbe for removal of materials above a molecular
weight of 500 that have very small osmotic pressure at moderate con-
centration. Because of the larger pore sizes, flux rates for ultra-
filtration are on the order of 20 to 50 gal/day/ft2. The systems
have been used for removal or concentration of macromolecules such as
proteins, enzymes, starches, and other organic polymers.
Industry Application. None of the textile mills surveyed during this
study report the use of hyperfiltralion or ultrafiltration in their
end-of-pipe wastewater treatment systems.
Literature/Research. Both hyperfiltration and ultrafiltration of textile
wastewater has been studied by EPA and others for several years. A research
project (71) funded by the EPA Office of Research and Development investi-
gated the feasibility of hyperfiltration membranes for the renovation of
VII-77
-------
composite textile dyeing and finishing wastewater from a Subcategory 4a
Woven Fabric Finishing mill. The processing at the mill included
piece dyeing of upholstery fabrics made of cotton, rayon, and nylon.
The general conclusion of the study is that the product water quality
is satisfactory for direct reuse in all dyeing and finishing operations
at the facility. The results of the study are available for information
on equipment performance and projected treatment cost.
A second research project (72), also funded by the EPA Office of Research
and Development, investigated hyperfiltration for renovation of composite
wastewater at eight textile finishing plants. The objective of the study
was to obtain results that when combined with the results obtained
from the project noted above (71) would permit a feasible assessment
of hyperfiltration as a general treatment technology for the textile
industry. The study involved the measurement of membrane performance
with minimum pretreatment, the evaluation of reuse of both the purified
product water and the concentrated residue, and the determination
of the treatability of the concentrate by conventional means. The
general conclusions of the study are that the product water is satis-
factory for reuse in scouring, bleaching, dyeing, and finishing and
that the residual concentrate is treatable by conventional treatment
equivalent to that used at each facility for treating the composite
wastewater. The results of the investigations are available for
information on equipment performance and projected treatment cost.
Based on the finding of the above hyperfiltration studies, a full-scale
demonstration project has been funded by EPA and is currently in the
design and construction phase.
Research has been conducted, and a full-scale ultrafiltration system
is in place, for recovery of synthetic sizes from scouring wastes.
Dissolved Air Flotation
Dissolved air flotation is a physical separation operation that is used
to separate solid or liquid particles from a liquid phase. A portion
of the flow is pressurized to 40 to 50 psi in the presence of sufficient
air to approach saturation. The pressurized air-liquid mixture is
released in a flotation unit through which the remaining waste stream
flows. The entrained air is released as fine bubbles that attach to the
particulate matter. The buoyant force of the gas bubbles causes the
particles to rise to the surface where they are skimmed off.
The performance of a flotation unit is related to the air-solids ratio,
which is defined as pounds of air released per pound of solids in the
influent waste. A typical range of the air to solids ratio is 0.01 to 0.1.
The primary variables for flotation design are the quantity of air used,
the influent solids and/or oil concentration, and the overflow rate.
When the flotation process is used primarily for clarification, a
detention period of 20 to 30 minutes is adequate for separation and
concentration. Rise rates of 1.5 to 5.0 gpm/sq ft are commonly
employed. (73)
VII-78
-------
The principal components of a dissolved air flotation system are a
pressurizing pump, air injection facilities, a retention tank, a back
pressure regulating device, and a flotation unit. The pressurizing
pump creates an elevated pressure to increase the solubility of air.
Air is usually added through an injector on the suction side of the pump.
Of the total air induced, 30 to 45 percent will usually be dissolved.
Chemicals such as aluminum and iron salts and activated silica are
commonly used in dissolved air flotation to increase the flocculent
structure of the floated particles and hence facilitate the capture of
gas bubbles. A variety of organic chemicals (polymers) may also be
employed to change the nature of either the air-liquid interface or the
solid-liquid interface, or both.
Industry Application. Five of the mills surveyed report that air flotation
is employed in their waste treatment systems. Two are direct dischargers,
two are indirect dischargers, and one practices complete recycle. One
of the direct dischargers separates print pastes from a segregated
print department discharge. The other direct discharger reclaims
indigo dyestuff for reuse from a yarn dyeing operation. One indirect
discharger separates print pastes from the discharge of a sheet
printing operation, and the other removes latex from a coating operation.
The recycle plant separate print paste from the discharge of large
woven fabric printing operation. Historical monitoring data are not
available to demonstrate the effectiveness of the air flotation units
alone.
Literature/Research. During this study, sampling was conducted at one
of the mills noted above to provide information on the effectiveness of
air flotation. The results are dissolved in the following case.
Case 1
This case discusses the results at a Subcategory 4a Woven Fabric Finishing
mill that performs flat bed and rotary screen printing to produce sheets,
towels, and bedspreads. Rotary screening printing accounts for approxi-
mately 90 percent of the production, which was reported as 30,000 kg/day
(approximately 65,000 Ib/day). The processing operations result in a
water usage of 19.2 I/kg (2.3 gal/lb) and a wastewater discharge of
570 cu m/day (150,000 gpd).
Wastewater treatment at this mill consists of equalization (small holding
tank), grit removal, coarse screening, chemical addition (alum and caustic),
fine screening, (SWECO vibrating screens), chemical addition (cationic
polymer) and flocculation, dissolved air flotation (300 gpm), biological
aeration (2 lagoons in series with a total volume of 1.64 mil gal),
disinfection (chlorine), secondary clarification (reactor/clarifier in
which alum, caustic, and anionic polymer are added), and dual-media gravity
filtrations (sand and carbon). Aeration detention time is approximately
170 hours, and air is provided by surface aerators at a power-to-volume
ratio of approximately 18 hp/mil gal. The discharge from the treatment
plant is recycled for reuse in the printing operations.
VII-79
-------
Samples were collected (see Appendix D for sampling procedures) over
a typical 48-hour period of operation at the bar screen prior to the
air flotation unit, at the Parshall flume prior to the aeration basins,
at the chlorine contact chamber following aeration, and at the effluent
from the dual-media filters. The results presented below demonstrate
the effectiveness of the dissolved air flotation unit in treating
conventional, non-conventional, and priority pollutants.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability
Influent and Effluent to Dissolved Air Flotation Unit*
Pollutant Parameter Influent Effluent
BOD5, mg/1 400 200**
COD, mg/1 1050 725
TSS, mg/1 195 32
Phenols, ug/1 92 26
Sulfide, ug/1 200** 200**
* average of two 24-hour samples
** reported as "less than" value
Priority Pollutant Treatability
Influent and Effluent to Dissolved Air Flotation Unit*
Priority Pollutant
Benzene
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
Ethylbenzene
Methyl Chloride
Naphthalene
Pentachlorophenol
Phenol
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Di-n-butyl Phthalate
Toluene
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Thallium
Zinc
Influent, ug/1
18
11
460
26
250
37
94
570
13
320
323
14
28
T
25
Effluent, ug/1
12
T
160
30
ND
30
26
45
ND
132
81
ND
32
14
T
* average of two 24-hour samples
ND not detected
T trace
VII-80
-------
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: 1,2-Dichloroethane; Chloroform; Tetrachloro-
ethylene; Beryllium; Cadmium; Chromium; Cyanide; Mercury; Selenium;
Silver; Thallium.
Stripping
Stripping here refers to the removal of relatively volatile components
from a wastewater by the passage of air, steam, or other gas through the
liquid. For example, ammonia-nitrogen has been removed from high-pH
municipal wastewater by air stripping in a limited number of applica-
tions. The exhaust gas is vented to the atmosphere without treatment
in most cases. Steam stripping of ammonia-rich water followed by
recovery of the ammonia as ammonium salt in an acidic absorbing liquid
is a newer process under development. (74, 75) Stripping odorous sub-
stances from kraft pulp mill waste streams by steam provides another
example (76).
Stripping of certain volatile priority pollutants from textile mill
wastewaters under controlled conditions that prevent release to the
atmosphere is theoretically a potential treatment process. Serious
questions about the economic feasibility must be addressed, however,
because of the relatively low concentrations typically present. At
this time, there is no information about design criteria, effectiveness,
or costs for any treatment systems, either in use in the textile
industry or transferrable from other applications, that are available
for stripping volatile pollutants from textile mill wastewaters.
Electrodialysis
Electrodialysis is a membrane separation process that is employed to
separate ionic components from a liquid phase. The process makes
use of an induced electric current that causes migration of cations
toward a negative electrode and migration of anions toward a positive
electrode. Separation is accomplished by alternately placing cation-
and anion-selective membranes across the current path. Because of the
alternate spacing, cells of concentrated and dilute solutions are formed.
Electrodialysis shares the same operating difficulties as hyper- and
ultra-filtration systems in that pretreatment is usually necessary to
prevent rapid fouling of the membranes.
Industry Application. There are currently no known textile mills that
employ electrodialysis as part of their waste treatment systems.
Since the process primarily is applicable to the separation of soluble
inorganic ions, it has not been given much consideration except in the
case of wastewater renovation for reuse.
Activated Carbon Adsorption
Activated carbon adsorption is a physical separation process in which
substances in water are removed on the surface of highly porous carbon
particles. Various raw materials are used in the production of activated
VII-81
-------
carbon. The carbonized material is activated, usually by steam, to remove
tars and other impurities and open up and enlarge the pores. Pore
size depends, in part, upon the source material and different activated
carbons are available for different applications, gaseous and liquid
systems, for example. Pore size is increased through regeneration, also.
(77)
The primary removal mechanism of activated carbon is termed "adsorption,"
the physical attraction and accumulation of the removed material on the
surface of the carbon. Activated carbons typically have surface areas
of 500 to 1,400 square meters per gram.
Many factors have been identified as important in describing the adsorption
of materials on activated carbon. It is not appropriate for this
discussion to include all of the factors relating to the nature of the
carbon and its surface area, particle size, pore size, etc. Instead,
the focus is on the materials in the water that are to be adsorbed.
General information has been developed about the molecular structure of
compounds, in relation to adsorbability, in terms of both polarity
and degree of ionization (78). Molecular structure, of course, is
reflected also in the solubility of the compound and materials that are
less attracted to water tend to be more attracted to activated carbon
surfaces.
In general, molecules are more readily adsorbed than ionized compounds.
The aromatic compounds tend to be more readily adsorbed than the
aliphatics, and larger molecules more readily adsorbed then smaller
ones, although extremely high molecular weight materials can be too large
to penetrate the pores in the carbon. Treatment of wastes with carbon
is generally considered for organic rather than inorganic components,
although metals and other inorganics may be adsorbed on carbon surfaces
or on organic solids that are removed in granular carbon filters.
The concentration level of the material is important in several ways
including competition for sites with other organic materials in the
water and also displacement of molecules already adsorbed by compounds
more favored by the carbon. A very important consideration relating to
concentration is that the behavior of the priority pollutants has not
yet been widely studied to any degree at the very low concentrations
that are likely in most wastewaters. The effects of competition with
other organics when the compounds of interest are at extremely low levels
is almost totally speculative at this time. A last, very important
factor in adsorption phenomena is the pH of the solution. Usually, the
lower the pH of the solution, the greater the adsorption of many materials
although, again, it depends upon the type of material being taken up.
As pointed out by Ford (79) and others, adsorption with activated
carbon cannot be regarded as a universal panacea capable of removing
all types of organics under all conditions. The process has limitations
and must be evaluated for particular situations. Preliminary treatment
of the wastewater, such as pH adjustment, coagulation, or chemical
oxidation may improve the adsorbability of some pollutants.
VII-82
-------
There are two forms of activated carbon in common use, granular and
powdered. To date, the granular form has been preferred for most waste-
water applications because it can be readily regenerated. Regeneration
of powdered activated carbon by steam is currently under development.
Granular carbon is commonly employed in columns operated in series.
The columns may be operated downflow packed bed, upflow packed bed,
or upflow expanded bed. Although the upflow expanded bed theoretically
is the best alternative due to its ability to process more turbid
wastewaters without clogging, operational difficulties have limited
its development. The upflow packed bed offers an important advantage.
The column can be operated continuously, with the exhausted carbon
being removed at the bottom of the column with virgin, or regenerated,
carbon added at the top. This eliminates the need for an auxiliary
column for use when an exhausted column is being serviced.
Spent carbon is commonly regenerated thermally at 1500°F in a multiple
hearth furnace in the presence of steam. Here, the adsorbed organics
are oxidized to gases in the form of either CO or C02. Some elemental
carbon is lost in the process, but this is usually limited to less
than 10% by weight. After regeneration, the carbon is returned to the
columns for reuse.
An aspect of granular carbon columns that is currently receiving
attention is the role and possible benefits of biological growths
on the carbon surfaces. In some applications, much of the removal
has been found to result from biodegradation rather than adsorption.
Powdered activated carbon (PAC) use in wastewater treatment applications
has increased rapidly in the past decade. Various application points
in the treatment sequence have been used, with the activated sludge
aeration tank being the most common. To date, the spent carbon is
discarded without regeneration in most systems. This amounts, in
effect, to a transfer of the removed pollutants from the water to the
carbon and biorefractory materials remain intact in the sludge or
other residue containing the spent carbon. Treatment using powdered
activated carbon is discussed as a separate topic below.
Industry Application. Only one of the mills surveyed in this study
reports the use of granular activated carbon in its waste treatment
system. Several additional textile mills also are using activated
carbon as part of closed (recycle) systems for at least a part of
their discharge on the characteristics of these systems. However,
information was not obtained during this study.
Literature/Research. Activated carbon adsorption has received considerable
attention with regard to treating industrial wastewaters. Much of the
information available on textile waste has to do with treatment of
individual waste streams to allow water reuse. The most applicable data
available on end-of-pipe treatment are those obtained during the
EPA/Industry field studies. The available results of these studies
are discussed below.
VII-83
-------
EPA/Industry Field Studies. In a joint research effort between EPA
and the textile industry (ATMI, NTA, and CRI), pilot plant studies were
conducted during 1977 and 1978 at 19 textile mills to evaluate the
effectiveness of alternative advanced wastewater treatment technologies.
The studies were performed with secondary clarifier effluent from treatment
systems employing the recommended BPT level of treatment. One of the
alternatives was granular activated carbon adsorption using three
carbon columns operated in series in the downflow mode. Each column is
7.75 ft in height and 7.5 in. in diameter. They are constructed of
Schedule 80 PVC pipe and have a carbon capacity of 40 Ibs, allowing for
sufficient expansion volume during backwashing. Depanding on the
results of isotherm testing, either Westvaco,ICI, or Hydrodarco granular
carbon was utilized. The available results of the activated carbon
studies during the candidate process evaluations are discussed in the
following cases.
Case 1
This case discusses the results at Mill D, a Subcategory Ac Woven Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
The experimental testing was performed on secondary clarifier effluent
prior to chlorination. Two candidate modes were tested, and both
utilized activated carbon. One mode consisted of multi-media filtration
followed by activated carbon; the other mode additionally included
ozonation. The operating characteristics and data on the effectiveness
of activated carbon adsorption are presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill D
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
_Influent _Effluent
Pollutant Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 19 9 15 13 7 21
COD, mg/1 630 177 19 422 143 22
TSS, mg/1 85 100 16 23 13 21
TOC, mg/1 157 64 32 101 40 14
Color, ADMI 1070 - - 825 239 14
* Westvaco WV-L activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 45 minutes.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
VII-84
-------
Case 2
This case discusses the results at Mill DD, a two-facility complex that
performs woven fabric and stock & yarn finishing. A Low-Water-Use
Processing operation (griege mill) also is associated with this complex.
A description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater treatment
at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
One of two candidate modes tested at this facility included activated
carbon. However, the effectiveness of activated carbon alone cannot
be evaluated based on the available data.
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility, samples
were collected over a typical 8-hour operating period to evaluate the
effectiveness of the pilot plant technologies in removing priority
pollutants. One mode tested included multi-media filtration followed
by activated carbon. The surface loading rate to the filters ranged
from 1 to 4 gpm/ft2 and the carbon columns were operated at an empty
bed retention time of 45 minutes. Data on the effectiveness are
presented below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill DD
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns
Priority Pollutant Influent, ug/1 Effluent, ug/1
Chromium 58 130
Copper 59 42
Lead 37 35
Nickel 72 81
Silver 25 32
Zinc 190 370
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent to the filter: Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate;
Diethyl Phthalate; Dimethyl Phthalate; Toluene; Arsenic; Cadmium.
Case 3
This case discusses the results at Mill B, a Subcategory 2 Wool Finishing
mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater
treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
Secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination was used in the pilot
plant tests at this mill. One candidate mode included activated carbon
columns and data on the effectiveness are presented below.
VII-85
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
Pollutant Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, 'mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Influent
X
31
174
2
65
SD
1.4
72
3
29
n
9
9
9
9
_Effluent
X
16
26
1
15
SD
12
22
1
8
n
9
9
9
9
* ICI Hydrodarco activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 30 minutes (9/6 - 9/13/77).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
Pollutant Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Influent
X
23
157
31
69
SD
_
124
29
38
n
1
3
3
3
_Effluent
X
11
21
5
17
SD
.
4
4
2
n
1
3
3
3
* ICI Hydrodarco activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 28 minutes (9/11 - 9/12/77).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
Pollutant Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
_Influent
x SD n
20 10 9
203 54 9
15 23 9
41 16 4
_Effluent
x
8
40
2
18
SD
7
12
2
2
n
9
9
9
5
* ICI Hydrodarco activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 25 minutes (9/13 - 9/21/77).
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
VII-86
-------
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility, samples
were collected over a 24-hr period to evaluate the effectiveness of the
candidate mode in removing priority pollutants. The candidate mode
tested included the reactor/clarifier followed by multi-media filtration
followed by carbon adsorption. The reaction/clarifier was loaded at
a rate of 400 gpd/ft2 with 35 mg/1 alum as (Al+3) added as a coagulant,
the multi-media filter was loaded at a rate of 5.4 gpm/ft2, and the
carbon columns were operated at an empty bed retention time of 25 to 30
minutes. Data on the effectiveness of the activated carbon columns
are presented below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill B
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns
Priority Pollutant
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
Pentachlorophenol
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Toluene
Antimony
Arsenic
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Zinc
Influent, ug/1
94
10
14
12
12
103
105
41
118
116
73
156
5890
Effluent, ug/1
ND
ND
5
ND
6
ND
13
29
51
12
82
151
5960
ND not detected
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: 1,2-Dichlorobenzene; 2,4-Dimethylphenol,
N-nitrosodiphenylamine; Phenol; Benzo(a)Pyrene.
Case 4
This case discusses the results at Mill P, a Subcategory 4c Woven Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
One candidate mode tested included filtration with precoagulation followed
by activated carbon adsorption. Testing was performed on the secondary
clarifier effluent prior to chlorination. The operating characteristics
and data on the effectiveness of the carbon columns are presented below.
VII-87
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill P
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
_Influent _Effluent
Pollutant Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 11-2 6-2
COD, mg/1 118-2 57-2
TSS, mg/1 17-2 19-1
TOC, mg/1 27-2 7-2
Color, ADMI 161-1 39-1
* Westvaco WL-L activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 45 minutes.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill P
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
_Influent _Effluent
Pollutant Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 38-1 15-1
COD, mg/1 130-1 70-1
TSS, mg/1 10-1 1
TOC, mg/1 25-1 11-1
Color, ADMI 162-1 44-1
* Westvaco WV-1 activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 23 minutes.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill P
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
_Influent _Effluent
Pollutant Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 964 855
COD, mg/1 58 15 5 93 32 5
TSS, mg/1 21 15 5 ...
TOC, mg/1 23 4 5 12 3 5
Color, ADMI 141 28 3 56 8 3
* Westvaco WV-1 activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 23 minutes.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
VII-88
-------
Case 5
This case discusses the results at Mill Q, a Subcategory 5b Knit Fabric
Finishing mill. This facility is actually two separate Knit Fabric
Finishing mills that discharge to a common treatment plant. A description
of the manufacturint operations and wastewater treatment at these mills
is provided in Appendix F.
One candidate mode tested included the reactor/clarifier followed by
multi-media filtration followed by activated carbon adsorption. Testing
was performed on the secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination,
with and without a precoagulant added. The operating characteristics and
data on the effectiveness of the activated carbon columns during the
testing are presented below.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
_Influent _Effluent
Pollutant Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 476 1.7 0.5 6
COD, mg/1 202 10 6 74 7 6
TSS, mg/1 4.5 2.6 6 2.3 0.8 6
TOC, mg/1 ... ...
Color, ADMI 205 45 5 137 26 4
* Westvaco WV-L activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 22 minutes.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
_Influent _Effluent
Pollutant Parameter x SD n x SD n
BOD5, mg/1 4.4 1 14 2.1 1.6 14
COD, mg/1 208 17 14 70 25 14
TSS, mg/1 4 1.5 14 2.5 0.8 14
TOC, mg/1 22 1.7 3 13.7 1.5 3
Color, ADMI 250 14 6 111 66 7
* Westvaco WV-L activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 30 minutes.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
VII-89
-------
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility, samples
were collected over a typical 48-hour period of operation to evaluate
the effectiveness of the pilot plant technologies in removing priority
pollutants. One mode of operation tested was multi-media filtration
followed by activated carbon adsorption. Samples were collected before
and after the mode only. The filters were loaded at a rate of 3 gpm/ft2
and the carbon columns were operated at an empty bed retention time of
22 minutes. Data on the effectiveness of this mode are presented below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill Q
Influent and Effluent to Multi-Media Filter - Activated Carbon Columns*
Priority Pollutant
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Tetrachloroethylene
Antimony
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Selenium
Silver
Zinc
Influent**
Min Max n
15 W
17 1
662 684 2
27 36 2
102 106 2
Effluent**
Min Max n
58 I//
ND 1
655 709 2
47
48
ND
13
50
1
2
1
2
18
42
52
44
18
65
21 2
51 2
65
44
21
2
2
2
72 2
* Samples collected around candidate mode of operation; each sample
represents 24-hour period.
** concentrations in ug/1
// composite sample collected over 48-hour period
n number of samples
ND not detected
The following were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the influent and
effluent: 2-Nitrophenol; Cadmium; Mercury.
Case 6
This case discusses the results at Mill V, a Subcategory 4c Woven Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
The candidate mode selected for Mill V consisted of the reactor/clarifier
followed by multi-media filtration followed by activated carbon adsorption.
Testing was performed on secondary clarifier effluent prior to chlorination.
The operating characteristics and data on the effectiveness of the activated
carbon columns during the testing are presented below.
VII-90
-------
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill V
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
Pollutant Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
Influent
X
2.5
331
20
62
283
SD
1.2
31
8
8
49
n
14
14
14
14
11
_Effluent
X
1.2
176
20
36
85
SD
0.3
58
9
10
20
n
14
14
14
14
12
* Westvaco WV-L activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 45 minutes.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
Case 7
This case discusses the results at Mill W, a Subcategory 5b Knit Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
One candidate mode tested included multi-media filtration followed by
activated carbon adsorption. Testing was performed on secondary clarifier
effluent prior to chlorination. The operating characteristics and data
on the effectiveness of the activated carbon columns are presented below.
In addiiton to the regular pilot plant studies at this facility, samples
were collected over a 24-hour period to evaluate the effectiveness
of the candidate mode in removing priority pollutants. The mode included
the reactor/clarifier, multi-media filters, and activated carbon
columns. The reactor/clarifier was operated at a surface loading rate
of 400 gpd/ft2 with a coagulant dosage of 40 mg/1 alum (Al+3). The
multi-media filters were loaded at a rate of 3.0 gpm/ft2, and the
carbon columns were operated at 0.46 gpm (empty bed retention time
of 45 minutes). Data on the effectiveness of the activated carbon
columns are presented below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill V
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns
Priority Pollutant
Pentachlorophenol
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Silver
Zinc
Influent, ug/1
12
trace
136
14
25
64
77
234
Effluent, ug/1
not detected
11
116
14
35
64
91
83
VII-91
-------
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: 1,2-Dichlorobenzene; Di-n-butyl Phthalate;
Anthracene; Cadmium; Nickel.
Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability at Mill W
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns*
Pollutant Parameter
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Color, ADMI
_Influent
x SD n
3.4
55
9.5
11
118
1.2
7
4.7
3.3
42
17
17
17
16
16
_Effluent
x SD n
1.5
19
2
2.9
29
1
4
1
3.5
13
17
17
18
16
15
* Westvaco WV-L activated carbon with an empty bed retention time of
_ 45 minutes.
x mean
SD standard deviation
n number of samples
In addition to the regular pilot plant studies at Mill W, daily samples
were collected during the operation of each candidate mode to evaluate
the effectiveness of the modes in treating priority pollutants. The
operating characteristics of the multi-media filtration/activated
carbon mode were a 7 gpm/ft2 loading rate through the filters and an
empty bed retention time of 45 minutes for the carbon columns. Data
on the effectiveness of the activated carbon columns are presented
below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill W
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns
Priority Pollutant
Chloroform
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Thallium
Zinc
Influent*
Min Max n
ND 7
11 42
479 888
9 27
28 81
34 137
5** 41
50** 50**
48 93
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
r 1
7
Effluent*
Min Max n
ND 56 7
2 407 7
588 848 6
4** 24 7
22** 87 7
36** 120 7
5** 38 7
50** 50** 1
16 88 7
* concentrations in ug/1
** reported as "less than" value
n number of samples
ND not detected
VII-92
-------
Case 8
This case discusses the results at Mill E, a Subcategory 5a Knit Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment technologies
at this mill, samples were collected to evaluate the effectiveness of
the technologies in treating priority pollutants. One mode tested
included multi-media filtration followed by activated carbon adsorption.
Data on the effectiveness of the activated carbon columns are presented
below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill E
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns
Priority Pollutant
Chloroform
N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
Phenol
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Cadmium
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Selenium
Silver
Zinc
Influent*
Hin Max n
ND 10 10
ND 26 10
ND 2110 10
T 20 10
10** 37 8
T T 8
T 12 8
T 26 8
22** 27 8
36 188 8
T 10 5
T 68 8
155 204 8
Effluent*
Min Max n
ND ND 10
ND ND 10
ND ND 10
T 222 10
10** 36 8
T 22 8
T 11 8
T 25 8
22** 22** 8
50 164 8
T T 5
T 63 8
T 53 8
* concentration in ug/1
n number of samples
** reported as "less than" value
T trace
ND not detected
The following were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the influent and
effluent: 1,2,4-Tnchlorobenzene; 1,2-Dichlorobenzene; Ethylbenzene;
Methylene Chloride; Naphthalene; Di-n-butyl Phthalate; Anthracene;
Toluene; Beryllium; Cyanide.
Case 9
This case discusses the results at Mill A, a Subcategory 1 Wool Scouring
facility. A description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater
treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
VII-93
-------
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment technologies
at this mill, samples were collected over a typical 24-hour period of
operation to evaluate the effectiveness of the technologies in removing
priority pollutants. Activated carbon adsorption preceded by multi-media
filtration and chemical coagulation (reactor/clarifier) was one mode of
treatment, and testing was such that the activated carbon columns
could be evaluated independently. Data on the effectiveness are presented
below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill A
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns
Priority Pollutant
Phenol*
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Arsenic
Copper
Cyanide
Zinc
Influent, ug/1
17
14
83
120
260
400
Effluent, ug/1
17
26
42
ND
40
210
* representa total of all priority pollutant phenols
ND not detected
Case 10
This case discusses the results at Mill 0, a Subcategory 2 Wool Finishing
mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater
treatment at this mill is provided in Appendix F.
During the pilot plant testing of the candidate mode treatment technologies
at this mill, samples were collected over a typical 72-hour period of
operation to evaluate the effectiveness of the technologies in removing
priority pollutants. One mode tested included multi-media filtration
followed by granular activated carbon adsorption. Data on the effectiveness
of the activated carbon columns are presented below.
Priority Pollutant Treatability at Mill 0
Influent and Effluent to Activated Carbon Columns
Priority Pollutant
Acrylonitrile
Methylene Chloride
Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Chromium
Copper
Lead
Influent*
Min Max n
ND 100** 3
47 47 1
16 80 3
78 101 3
105 130 3
22** 22** 3
Effluent*
Min Max n
ND 100** 3
27 27
T 28
T T
T 24
1
3
3
3
22** 22** 3
VII-94
-------
Nickel 36** 36** 3 36** 36** 3
Thallium 50** 50** 3 50** 50** 3
Zinc 371 594 3 331 434 3
* concentrations in ug/1
** reported as "less than" value
n number of samples
T trace
ND not detected
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: Benzene; 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene; 2,4,6-Trichoro-
phenol; Parachlorometa Cresol; Chloroform; 1,2-Dichlorobenzene;
Ethylbenzene; Fluoranthene; Naphthalene; N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine;
Pentachlorophenol; Phenol; Di-n-butyl Phthalate; Diethyl Phthalate;
Anthracene; Phenanthrene; Pyrene; Tetrachloroethylene; Toluene;
Trichloroethylene, Antimony; Arsenic; Beryllium; Cadmium; Cyanide;
Mercury; Selenium; Silver.
Powdered Activated Carbon Treatment (PACT)
Powdered activated carbon treatment refers to the addition of powdered
carbon to the activated sludge process. It is a recently developed
process that has shown to significantly upgrade effluent quality in
conventional activated sludge plants. A discussion of powdered activated
carbon, in general, is provided above under "Activated Carbon." In
the PACT process, the carbon concentration in the mixed liquor is
generally equal to or greater than the MLSS level. The carbon and
adsorbed substances are discarded as part of the biological sludge.
Industry Application. Three mills surveyed in this study report the
use of powdered activated carbon in the treatment of their wastewater.
Two mills manually add powdered carbon to their aeration basins and try to
maintain a specific concentration of carbon in the MLSS. The other
mill operates a semi-continuous system in which raw dyehouse wastewater
is pumped to a tank containing a designated amount of Dicalite (powdered
carbon), mixed to form a slurry, and pumped through a filter press.
The filter cake is discarded as solid waste. The operation and effective-
ness of one continuous system and the semi-continuous system are discussed
as case studies under "Literature/Research."
Literature/Research. Bench-scale laboratory studies have been conducted
by Engineering Science (80) on the wastewaters from 10 textile finishing
mills and the results are presented later in this section. The treat-
ment process at one of the textile mill reporting full-scale use of
powdered activated carbon addition to the activated sludge process (PACT)
and the semi-continous system treating raw textile wastewater were
sampled during the verification program. The results of these studies
are presented in the following cases.
VII-95
-------
Case 1
This case discusses the field sampling at a Subcategory 5a Knit Fabric
Finishing mill that knits, scours, and dyes synthetic bolt cloth of
polyester and acetate fiber. Pressure piece dyeing with dispersed
dyes is performed on the total production and 20 percent of the
production is scoured. During the field sampling, wastewater flow rate
averaged 984 cu in/day (260,000 gpd).
Wastewater treatment at this mill consists of fine screening (vibratory),
equalization (mixed with nitrogen added as nutrient), biological aeration
(two basins operated in series with powdered activated carbon added
to the first basin), secondary clarification, sand filtration, disinfection
(chlorine), and post aeration. Total detention time in the aeration
basins is approximately 48 hours, and air is provided by surface
aerators at a power-to-volume ratio of approximately 80 hp/mil gal. The
results below demonstrate te effectiveness of the PACT process in treating
conventional, non-conventional, and priority pollutants.
Conentional and Non-Conventional Pollutant Treatability
Before and After Activated Sludge Process
Pollutant Biological Clarifier Effluent**
Parameter Influent* Min Max n
COD, mg/1 1744 154 254 3
TSS, mg/1 204 44 60 3
Phenol, ug/1 34 3 15 3
Sulfide, ug/1 50 8 20 3
Color, ADMI 158 75 89 3
* 72-hour composite sample
** 24-hour composite samples
Priority Pollutant Treatability
Before and After Activated Sludge Process
Secondary
Biological Clarifier Effluent**
Priority Pollutant Influent* Min Max n
Acrolein 199 ND 87 3
Acrylonitrile 9C ND 100# 3
Chloroform ND ND 5# 3
Methylene Chloride 30 ND 28 3
Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate 430 8 50 3
Trichloroethylene 5 ND 41 3
Antimony 186 81 87 3
VII-96
-------
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Silver
Thallium
Zinc
17
99
69
19
50*
343
7
36
54
14
50#
48
8
44
65
17
69
3
3
3
3
3
3
* 72-hour composite sample; concentrations expressed in ug/1
** 24-hour composite camples; concentrations expressed in ug/1
# reported as "less than" value
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
biological influent and secondary clarifier effluent: Benzene;
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene; 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol; Parachlorometa Cresol;
1,2-Dichlorobenzene; Ethylbenzene; Naphthalene; N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine;
Pentachlorophenol; Phenol; Anthracene; Tetrachloroethylene; Toluene;
Trichloroethylene; Arsenic; Beryllium; Cadmium; Chromium; Cyanide;
Mercury; Selenium.
Case 2
The case discusses the results at a Subcategory 6 Carpet Finishing
facility that piece dyes and backs (jute using latex adhesive) carpet
made from polyester and nylon fibers. Reported production is approxi-
mately 20,400 kg/day (45,000 Ib/day) of finished carpet. The processing
results in a water usage of 36.7 I/kg (4.4 gal/lb) and a wastewater
discharge of 757 cu m/day (0.20 mgd).
Wastewater treatment at this facility consist of coarse screening,
equalization (storage tank), mixing (wastewater and powdered activated
carbon), and solids separation (filter press). The results below report
the effectiveness of the system in treating priority pollutants.
Priority Pollutant Treatability
Influent and Effluent to Powdered Activated Carbon System
Priority Pollutant
Naphthalene
Phenol
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate
Antimony
Zinc
Influent"
240
67
400
12*
20
Effluent**
Min
T
T
T
140
40
Max
T
T
T
160
120
n
2
2
2
2
2
* composite and grab samples during a 24-hour period; concentrations
expressed in ug/1
** two grab samples during 24-hour period; concentrations expressed in ug/1
// reported as "less than" value
VII-97
-------
The following pollutants were detected at less than 10 ug/1 in the
influent and effluent: 1,1,1-Trichloroethane; Methylene Chloride;
Cadmium; Copper; Mercury.
EPA/Industry Field Studies. As part of the joint research effort
between EPA and the textile industry (ATMI, NTA, and CRI), bench-scale
laboratory studies were conducted on the raw wastewater (influent to
the biological aeration system) at 10 of the 19 pilot plant locations
to evaluate the effectiveness of powdered activated carbon treatment
(PACT). Each textile mill shipped wastewater to the study laboratory
each week during a six-week study period. A description of the
experimental procedures employed on the waste from each mill is
summarized below:
1. Three 10-liter plexiglas bioreactors were seeded with activated
sludge from the study mill and a municipal/industrial treatment
plant and acclimated to the textile waste.
2. Following acclimation, the residual TOC of the bioreactor effluents
was established.
3. Carbon adsorption isotherms were performed on the bioreactor effluent,
and based on several considerations (the effects on residual TOC,
experience gained in past studies, flow of full-scale plant, sludge
age, economics), a high and low carbon make-up dosage was selected.
4. Two or three types of carbons were evaluated on an isotherm level
and the most effective was used in the experiments.
5. The three bioreactors were designated control (no carbon addition),
high carbon, and low carbon, and were operated for approximately
three weeks with carbon addition and sludge wastage each day.
6. Following the initial three-week period of operation (equilibrium
period), two weeks of testing was performed to evaluate performance.
It should be stressed that the testing performed was for determination
of technical feasibility and to provide an indication of the achievable
effluent quality. Long-term operating characteristics and costs
were not considered. The results of the studies during the final two
weeks of operation are summarized in the following cases.
Case 1
This case discusses the results at Mill D, a Subcategory Ac Woven
Fabric Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations
and wastewater treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
VII-98
-------
PACT Treatability Studies - Mill D*
Pollutant Influent** Effluent**
Parameter Control High Low Control High Low
BOD5, mg/1 1169 # # 46 24 24
COD, mg/1 2115 # # 556 447 390
TSS, mg/l## 4121 8514 5686 15 38 45
TOC, mg/1 624 # # 157 105 113
* Westvaco "SA" was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 6,000 mg/1 and 3,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 210 mg/1 and
105 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
# same as control
#// influent TSS is MLSS
Case 2
This case discusses the results at Mill B, a Subcategory 2 Wool Finishing
mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater
treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
PACT Treatability Studies - Mill B*
Pollutant Influent** Effluent**
Parameter Control High Low Control High Low
BOD5, mg/1 407 // # 27 18 29
COD, mg/1 1919 // # 148 73 107
TSS, mg/lM 2986 9774 7012 29 23 33
TOC, mg/1 461 # # 41 38 44
Color, ADMI 71 # # 114 64 81
* Westvaco "SA" was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 8,000 mg/1 and 2,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 388 mg/1 and
97 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
-------
PACT Treatability Studies - Mill P*
Pollutant Influent** Effluent**
Parameter Control High Low Control High Low
BOD5, mg/1 400 # # 8 8.5 8
COD, mg/1 572 # # 119 82 96
TSS, mg/lM 2310 4610 4052 30 10 18
TOC, mg/1 243 # # 57 34 42
Color, ADMI - 324 236 293
* Westvaco "SC" was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 5,000 mg/1 and 1,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 608 mg/1 and
122 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
# same as control
W influent TSS is MLSS
Case 4
This case discusses the results at Mill Q, a Subcategory 5b Knit Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
PACT Treatability Studies - Mill Q*
Pollutant Influent** Effluent**
Parameter Control High Low Control High Low
BODS, mg/1 318 # # 17 11 14
COD, mg/1 963 // # 215 119 175
TSS, ng/lfflP 4687 6577 5435 24 24 17
TOC, mg/1 383 // # 99 44 56
Color, ADMI - 387 242 325
* Westvaco "SC" was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 5,000 mg/1 and 1,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 173 mg/1 and
35 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
# same as control
## influent TSS is MLSS
Case 5
This case discusses the results at Mill E, a Subcategory 5a Knit Fabric
Finishing mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
VIII-100
-------
PACT Treatability Studies - Mill E*
Pollutant Influent** Effluent**
Parameter Control High Low Control High Low
BOD5, mg/1 505 # // 57 21 21
COD, mg/1 1737 # # 1765 69 103
TSS, mg/W 6086 8818 5978 26 28 17
TOC, mg/1 446 # # 91 40 52
Color, ADMI 61 # # 85 49 36
* Westvaco "SC" was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 5,000 mg/1 and 2,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 540 mg/1 and
216 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
// same as control
t# influent TSS is MLSS
Case 6
This case discusses the results at Mill A, a Subcategory 1 Wool Scouring
facility. A description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater
treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
PACT Treatability Studies - Mill A*
Pollutant Influent** Effluent**
Parameter Control High Low Control High Low
BOD5, mg/1 2580 # # 69 51 54
COD, mg/1 5542 # # 543 457 563
TSS, mg/l## 2977 14837 5295 568 402 366
TOC, mg/1 1784 # # 373 336 387
Color, ADMI ... 705 253 629
* Westvaco "SC" was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 10,000 mg/1 and 2,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 694 mg/1 and
139 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
# same as control
## influent TSS is MLSS
Case 7
This case discusses the results at Mill 0, a Subcategory 2 Wool Finishing
mill. A description of the manufacturing operations and wastewater
treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
VII-101
-------
PACT Treatability Studies - Mill 0*
Pollutant Influent** Effluent**
Parameter Control High Low Control High Low
BOD5, mg/1 247 // # 16 6.5 8
COD, mg/1 1098 # # 102 33 63
TSS, ng/lW 3360 7792 4373 30 11 16
TOC, mg/1 344 # # 30 11 23
Color, ADMI - 105 43 66
* Westvaco "SC" was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 5,000 mg/1 and 1,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 125 mg/1 and
25 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
# same as control
n influent TSS is MLSS
Case 8
This case discusses the results at Mill F, a Subcategory 6 Carpet
Finishing facility. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
PACT Treatabil]ty Studies - Mill F*
Pollutant Influent** Effluent**
Parameter Control High Low Control High Low
BOD5, mg/1 471 // # 11 4 6
COD, mg/1 1454 // # 127 40 67
TSS, mg/l## 5128 8488 6318 43 19 50
TOC, mg/1 390 // # 57 18 35
Color, ADMI 1000 # # 236 77 125
* ICI-KB was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 5,000 mg/1 and 2,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 694 mg/1 and
277 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
# same as control
n influent TSS is MLSS
Case 9
This case discusses the results at Mill S, a Subcategory 7 Stock & Yarn
Finishing facility. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
VII-102
-------
PACT Treatability Studies - Mill S*
Pollutant Influent** Effluent**
Parameter Control High Low Control High Low
BOD5, mg/1 95 # // 8.5 6 8.5
COD, mg/1 956 # # 143 35 74
TSS, mg/l## 3168 7183 4585 4 15.7 25
TOC, mg/1 390 # # 57 18 35
Color, ADMI - 512 140 263
* Westvaco "SC" was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 5,000 mg/1 and 2,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 304 mg/1 and
122 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
# same as control
## influent TSS is MLSS
Case 10
This case discusses the results at Mill Y, a Subcategory 4c Woven Fabric
Finishing facility. A description of the manufacturing operations and
wastewater treatment at this facility is provided in Appendix F.
PACT Treatability Studies - Mill Y*
Pollutant Influent Effluent**
Parameter Control High Low Control High Low
BOD5, mg/1 114 # # 645
COD, mg/1 301 // // 98 37 60
TSS, mg/l## 1538 4657 2070 29 60 51
TOC, rng/1 91 // # 24 9 12
Color, ADMI 268 # # 198 148 88
* ICI-Hydrodarco was the selected carbon; the high and low mixed liquor
carbon concentrations were 5,000 mg/1 and 2,000 mg/1, respectively,
with corresponding daily carbon make-up dosages of 526 mg/1 and
210 mg/1.
** mean of samples collected during two-week evaluation period
// same as control
## influent TSS is MLSS
VII-103
-------
SECTION VIII
COST, ENERGY, AND NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
This section presents detailed information about the estimated costs and
resulting benefits in terms of pollutant reductions achievable through
the application of selected alternative control technologies. As discussed
below, cost estimates are not provided for in-plant control measures,
but detailed cost:benefit information for end-of-pipe treatment technologies
is given. The bases used in developing the costs for the end-of-pipe treat-
ment technologies is presented first, followed by the estimated costs and
benefits for the alternatives for representative model plants in each
subcategory.
Existing mills that discharge directly to receiving waters are covered
first, followed by existing indirect-discharge mills, i.e., those that
discharge their wastewaters to publicly owned treatment works (POTW's).
The next subsections cover New Sources and address direct and indirect
dischargers. Energy, sludge management, air pollution, and other non-water
environmental quality considerations are also addressed.
EXISTING DIRECT DISCHARGE SOURCES
In-Plant Control Measures
The in-plant control measures that are generally available to mills in
the textile industry are described in Section VII. Some of these in-plant
control measures are suitable for specific subcategories, depending upon
product and processes in use. In developing a treatment program for
a given mill, in-depth analyses of various combinations of in-plant
measures and end-of-pipe treatment technologies should be carried
out by a team that includes expertise in both textile processing and
pollution control. Those characteristics and constituents of the
wastewater that are most troublesome and costly to treat should be
identified in terms of quantities and sources within the mill. An
evaluation should be made of alternative in-plant measures to eliminate,
reduce, and/or segregate these materials for separate treatment. The
cost analysis should include costs for management of sludges and other
residues and changes in air pollution control and energy requirements,
as well as the more obvious items relating to plant and process modifi-
cations, new construction, etc.
A recent report (25) listed good housekeeping, reporting of leaks,
countercurrent washing, and replacing of batch with continuous process
equipment as most important among steps to reduce water use in textile
finishing. These steps are widely recognized and indicate the general
direction that the industry is moving. However, there are no specific
control measures that are clearly needed in the industry as a whole or
in one or more particular subcategories.
VIII-1
-------
While no specific in-plant control measures were considered for existing
sources, it should not be inferred that such measures are unimportant or
should be eliminated from further consideration. In-plant measures can
effect savings both in manufacturing and in the costs of treatment. In the
future, in-plant measures may assume a much greater role in treatment
and may be instrumental in the conservation of materials and energy.
Selected End-of-Pipe Technologies
The results of detailed analyses to evaluate the cost effectiveness of
various end-of-pipe treatment technologies for existing direct-discharge
textile mills are summarized here. A model plant approach was used to
develop the costs. Included are analyses of the several most appropriate
treatment alternatives for BAT. From the questionnaire survey, it was
established that the majority of the existing direct dischargers have
BPT in place. For most subcategories, BPT includes screening, extended-
aeration activated sludge, and secondary sedimentation with solids
recycle to the aeration basin. This level of treatment was used as the
base, with the alternative BAT technologies added on. Mechanical sludge
dewatering is not provided at the majority of textile mill treatment
plants and is not included here as part of BPT. Reported current
sludge processing and disposal practices are discussed later in this
section under Sludge Management.
The alternatives for each level of control are given in Table VIII-1
(see page VIII-17). Some alternatives are based on individual technolo-
gies and others on combinations of technologies. These technologies
include chemical coagulation, filtration, flotation, activated carbon
adsorption, and ozonation. Each of these technologies is described below.
Chemical Coagulation. This technology utilizes alum as the coagulant
and includes sedimentation except for wool scouring, where dissolved
air flotation is included in the treatment sequence. Sludge dewatering
by vacuum filter is also included for chemical coagulation. Alum was
selected because of its proven effectiveness in the industry. It is
recognized that lime, iron salts, and sulfides may be more appropriate
in some applications, but it is believed that the costs based on alum
are representative of costs that would be experienced by individual
textile mills. For the vacuum filter, the filter area was determined
by using a dry solids loading rate of 19.5 kg/sq m/hr (A Ib/sq ft/hr)
and an operating period of 10 hr/day. Specific conditions given below
under Sludge Disposal for TSS removal were also factors in sizing
vacuum filters.
Multi-Media Filtration. This technology utilizes a granular media bed
with polymeric filter aids added in alternatives without prior chemical
coagulation. Filter backwash is pumped to the secondary sedimentation
tank. Existing sludge handling practices at mill treatment facilities
are assumed to be capable of handling filter backwash solids without
modification. The hydraulic loading rate is 9.78 cu m/hr/sq m (A gpm/sq ft.)
VIII-2
-------
Dissolved Air Flotation. This technology is utilized in Subcategory 1
(Wool Scouring) to remove suspended solids and oil & grease. The surface
hydraulic loading rate is 163.2 cu m/day/sq m (4000 gpd/sq ft).
Activated Carbon. This technology utilizes granular carbon columns
and on-site carbon regeneration for wastewater flows of greater than
450 cu in/day (0.12 mgd). Carbon for smaller flows is to be discarded
after use. An exhaustion rate of 0.66 kg/cu m (5500 Ib/mil gal) of
water treated was assumed (26).
Ozonation. This technology utilizes on-site generation of ozone from air
and is based on a generator producing 100 mg/1 of ozone.
The above treatment processes, alone or in combination, are believed
to provide a full range of end-of-pipe technologies for use in
applying the best available technology economically achievable for
control of priority pollutants.
Investment Costs
Investment costs include installed costs of treatment components and
monitoring equipment plus allowances for contingencies and engineering.
For the selected technologies (chemical coagulation, filtration, dissolved
air flotation, activated carbon, and ozonation), specific cost curves
were developed from literature and other information (27, 28, 29, 30,
31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39). The cost information was updated
by the EPA-STP and/or EPA-SCCT indexes to the 4th quarter of 1976.
Total installed costs are broken into equipment and construction fractions
as follows:
Process Equipment Construction
Chemical coagulation 20%
Filtration 20 80
Dissolved air flotation 35 65
Activated carbon 50 50
Ozonation 50 50
Vacuum filtration 35 65
A contingency allowance of 15 percent of the installed cost was used to
cover unexpected costs due to local mill conditions and differences
between the actual systems and those used for the cost estimates. No
allowance was made for mill shutdown during construction. Engineering
costs were estimated by using a percentage of installed costs plus
contingencies. For a total cost of $20,000 or less, 15 percent was
used. For larger projects a percentage to the nearest 0.5, from curve A
in "Consulting Engineering" (40), was used.
VIII-3
-------
Monitoring Equipment. The investment costs are based on collecting
samples of the influent and effluent streams of the treatment plant.
The sampling schedule comprises 24-hour composite samples taken at each
location twice weekly for direct dischargers and once per week for
indirect dischargers. For direct dischargers, grab samples are to be
taken once per week of the receiving water both up- and down-stream of
the discharge. Continuous monitoring of pH and flow is also provided
for the influent and effluent of all treatment plants.
The equipment items include two flow meters, two primary and one backup
refrigerated samplers, two pH meters, and refrigerated sample storage
containers. The costs were based on equipment manufacturers' price
lists (41, 42, 43).
It should be noted that the equipment described here is that required
for a complete monitoring program for major direct and indirect dischargers.
Existing facilities, especially larger direct discharge mills, generally
have most of the equipment on hand and the investment costs incurred by
them would be considerably less.
Land Costs. All of the alternative technologies have small space
requirements and the acquisition of additional land should not be
necessary.
Annual Costs
Capital. The cost of money was assumed to be 10 percent of the total
investment.
Depreciation. Estimated lives for the components of each alternative
were established and related to the investment costs to determine the
estimated design life for the alternative. The installed cost plus
contingencies was depreciated on a straight-line basis for the calculated
life of each alternative.
Operation Labor. Estimates of the annual man-hours required to operate
the various component systems were developed from the literature (30
44). A productive work value of 6.5 hr/day/man, or 1,500 hr/yr/man,
was assumed (44). A rate of $15/hr was used as the total cost for
wages, benefits, and payroll processing expenses. Laboratory man-hours
were developed for each model plant size and the associated costs were
included. It was assumed that supervisory, administrative, and clerical
costs would be covered by existing personnel.
Maintenance Labor. Maintenance labor costs were developed in the same
manner as operating labor costs. The annual costs of materials and
parts needed to maintain each technology were developed from the litera-
ture and equipment manufacturers (30, 37, 38).
VIII-4
-------
Sludge Disposal. Sludge disposal costs cover hauling dewatered sludge,
and exhausted activated carbon when applicable, to an approved sanitary
landfill. The hauling costs were obtained from the industry survey
questionnaires and were plotted as tons/yr of sludge hauled vs
dollars/ton. The costs ranged from 18 to 1 dollars/ton, decreasing with
increasing tonnage. The dewatered sludge was assumed to contain 20
percent solids by weight after vacuum filtration.
Sludge disposal costs associated with chemical coagulation and multi-media
filtration were developed based on the quantity of suspended solids in
the waste stream and the desired degree of removal. Specific conditions
were developed for both technologies by grouping similar influent waste
streams. For chemical coagulation, the following conditions are
represented:
Coagulation TSS Removed Effluent TSS Alum Added
Condition mg/1 mg/1 mg/1
1 3200 70 1000
2 630 70 1000
3 120 30 100
4 60 35 100
5 25 25 100
The cases developed for multi-media filtration represent the following
conditions:
Filtration TSS Removed Effluent TSS
Condition mg/1 mg/1
1 40 10
2 20 10
3 5 10
Values for specific conditions were used for each technology to
determine the weight of material that must be handled for each
alternative.
Costs to dispose of spent activated carbon are based on hauling to a
landfill. The carbon would be wet during hauling, containing its own
weight of water.
Information on current sludge management practices in the industry
is presented at the end of this section.
Energy and Power. Operation time for the equipment of each component of
all treatment alternatives, with the exception of vacuum filtration, was
assumed to be 24 hr/day and 300 days/yr. Vacuum filters were sized to
operate 10 hr/day, 300 days/yr.
VIII-5
-------
Annual electrical energy consumption values for the component equipment
items were developed utilizing applicable technical literature (36, 41, 45,
46, 47, 48, 49) and equipment manufacturers' specifications (50). In
developing the costs, all electric motors were assumed to have an effi-
ciency of 88 percent (51) and the cost for electricity was assumed to
be 2.4C/kwh. The cost value is a typical value taken from the question-
naire responses for the southeastern region of the U.S. This region was
chosen because the majority of the country's textile mills are located
there (Table III-l).
Fuel oil and natural gas costs were developed from questionnaire
responses and applicable technical literature (35). Costs in the
southeast were again used as a basis with 23C/therm for fuel oil and
19C/therm for natural gas established as typical costs.
Vacuum filtration energy consumption varies with filter area. The area,
or size of the filter, was found to be dependent on the specific condition,
treatment alternative, and flow rate being evaluated. Energy consumption
is dependent on these criteria also. Energy consumption for activated
carbon varies depending on the flow and whether the exhausted carbon is
regenerated or discarded. For the other technologies, consumption is
based solely on flow.
Information on the relative additional energy requirements of the alternative
end-of-pipe treatment technologies for selected subcategories is presented
near the end of this section.
Chemicals. Alum was the coagulant of choice based on its proven effective-
ness and reasonable cost, although other coagulants are used by the
industry and may be more applicable in specific cases. The costs of
polymeric filter aids are included whenever filtration is not preceded
by chemical coagulation.
Chemical costs are based on prices quoted in the Chemical Marketing
Reporter (52) for December 6 and 20, 1976. The following estimated
delivered costs are used:
;a:
- §174 to $185 per MT ($158 to $168 per ton)
- $2.20 per kg ($1 per Ib)
- $1.25 per kg ($0.50 per Ib)
Alum (technical)
Polymer - $2.20 per kg ($1 per Ib)
Carbon (granular) - $1.25 per kg ($0.50 per Ib)
The assumed alum dosages were 1000 mg/1 for coagulation conditions 1 and
2, and 100 mg/1 for conditions 3, 4, and 5. The assumed polymer dosage
was 1 mg/1 for all filtration conditions.
Monitoring. Monitoring costs include outside laboratory analytical
charges and time for reporting results to regulatory agencies. The
costs associated with collecting and delivering samples are included
under operation and maintenance labor.
VIII-6
-------
Separate monitoring costs were developed for direct and indirect
dischargers. Direct dischargers were assumed to sample in order to
comply with a discharge permit. This entails sampling influent and
effluent waste streams plus the receiving water regularly. Samples for
the conventional pollutants are collected twice weekly, and non-
conventional pollutants are analyzed once per week. Samples for priority
pollutants are collected and analyzed semi-annually. Indirect dischargers
were assumed to sample in order to comply with the local sewer ordinances.
Conventional and non-conventional pollutants are measured weekly, and
priority pollutants semi-annually.
Laboratory cost estimates were based on current (January-June, 1978)
commercial laboratory price lists (43, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59).
Reporting costs were based on $15/hr and allowed 1 hr/week for compiling
data plus 8 hr/month for preparing data reports.
Annual monitoring costs are based on a complete program for major direct
and indirect dischargers. As mentioned under "Monitoring Equipment,"
many of the larger facilities have existing programs that would result
in considerably less additional cost in this area. In addition, it
would not generally be necessary for smaller facilities to institute
such extensive programs.
Cost Curves
Cost curves for the individual treatment processes, including vacuum
filtration for processing sludge, are presented in Figures VIII-1 through
VIII-7. The curves, which represent 4th quarter 1976 dollars (EPA-SCCT
= 119), are plotted as flow (vacuum filtration is plotted as sq ft of
filter area) vs dollars of total installed cost. They provide the basis
for estimating the investment costs for the alternative treatment
technologies when allowances for contingencies, engineering, and land
are added. Figure VIII-8 is a curve for dewatered sludge hauling costs
and is used to estimate annual sludge disposal expenses for each alter-
native.
Model Plant Costs
In selecting model plants sizes, production as well as flow was considered.
Survey responses were initially grouped by subcategory and discharge
type, i.e., direct and indirect. The initial groups were further broken
down, generally into three groups, on the basis of production size.
Average percent utilization valves, which were determined from the
survey responses for the mills in each group, were applied to the average
production values for each group to obtain full capacity production
values for typical plants. These capacities were multiplied by the
median water usage rates for each subcategory to calculate a flow rate
for each production group. The calculated flow rates were subsequently
compared to actual reported flow rates and were found to accurately
represent the mills in each subcategory.
VIII-7
-------
FIGURE VIII-1
CHEMICAL COAGULATION - INSTALLED COST
1000
OO
M
.5
o
o
O
u
100
0.01
0.10
1.0
10
Flow, mgd
-------
FIGURE VIII-2
DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION - INSTALLED COST
1000
52
J2
"5
TJ
ro
o
CO
O
O
100
10
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
Flow, mgd
-------
FIGURE VIII-3
MULTI-MEDIA FILTRATION - INSTALLED COST
I
M
o
1000
(A
O
2>
(A
O
O
100
10
With polymeric filter aid
I I I I I I II
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
Flow, mgd
-------
FIGURE VIII-4
ACTIVATED CARBON - INSTALLED COST
1000
O
o
n
O
100
10
With on-site regeneration
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
Flow, mgd
-------
FIGURE VIII-5
OZONATION - INSTALLED COST
1000
e
o
OT
O
o
100
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
Flow, mgd
-------
FIGURE VIII-6
VACUUM FILTRATION - INSTALLED COST
1000
!2
-------
FIGURE VIII-7
ACTIVATED SLUDGE - INSTALLED COST
1000
CO
"5
TJ
ro
o
CO
O
O
100
10
24-hour aeration
(Constructed)-
24-houraeration
(Package)
8-hour aeration
(Package)
A 1 1
I 1 I
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
Flow, mgd
-------
FIGURE VIII-8
HAULING COSTS FOR DEWATERED SLUDGE
i
i1
in
2
3
3
20
15
10
I
\
\
o\
\
500
1000
1500 2000
Quantity, tons/year
2500
3000
-------
As presented previously, five treatment processes (chemical coagulation,
filtration, dissolved air flotation, activated carbon, and ozonation)
have been combined in various systems to provide the alternative end-of-
pipe treatment technologies. These alternatives are presented in Table
VIII-1 and are discussed in greater detail in following parts of this
section.
The textile mills included in the industry survey represent production
values ranging from 54 to 317,333 kg/day (120 to 700,000 Ib/day) and
flow rates ranging from 3,784 to 29,894 cu m/day (0.001 to 7.9 mgd).
Based on these ranges, eight model plant sizes were selected to represent
the industry. The sizes, based on flow rate, are: 189, 416, 946, 2,271,
3,785, 5,678, 11,355, and 18,925 cu m/day (0.05, 0.11, 0.25, 0.6, 1.0,
1.5, 3.0, and 5.0 mgd). The sizes representing direct and indirect
dischargers for each subcategory are given in Table VIII-2.
Cost estimates were developed for all of the selected model plant sizes
shown in Table VIII-2 and forwarded to a separate contractor for use in
evaluating the economic impact of possible effluent regulations on the
industry. Selected model plant sizes are included in this document to
illustrate the methodology used and the relative differences between
the alternative technologies.
Cost Effectiveness Summaries
Model plant control cost summary sheets were developed for each model
plant to provide a synopsis of the cost analysis for each alternative
technology. Total investment costs, including the installed cost of
each component of a given alternative, monitoring equipment, engineering,
and contingencies are provided. Also, total annual costs, including
cost of capital, depreciation, operation and maintenance labor, maintenance
materials, sludge disposal, energy & power, chemicals, and monitoring,
and the benefits in terms of effluent quality are detailed for each
alternative. For each subcategory/model plant combination, the
corresponding annual and daily production capacity is noted. The
summary sheets for the alternative end-of-pipe treatment technologies
are provided in Tables VIII-3 through VIII-14.
EXISTING INDIRECT DISCHARGE SOURCES
Selected End-of-Pipe Technologies
The major processes selected for pretreatment for indirect dischargers
are the same as for direct-discharge mills, namely; chemical coagulation,
dissolved air flotation, filtration, activated carbon adsorption, and
ozonation. The treatment goals, i.e., removal of priority pollutants,
are the same for both direct and indirect dischargers, and the available
technologies are the same. In addition, screening and equalization are
included in the cost estimates for pretreatment facilities. Screening
VIII-16
-------
TABLE VIII-1
ALTERNATIVE END-OF-PIPE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
EXISTING SOURCES
Technology
Description
A* Direct BPT - Screening, extended aeration activated sludge,
sedimentation, and solids recycle to aeration basin
Indirect No treatment
Chemical coagulation and sedimentation
Multi-media filtration
Chemical coagulation, sedimentation, and multi-media
filtration
Multi-media filtration and granular activated carbon
Chemical coagulation, sedimentation, multi-media
filtration, and granular activated carbon
Ozonation
Chemical coagulation, sedimentation, and ozonation
Multi-media filtration and ozonation
Chemical coagulation, sedimentation, multi-media
filtration, and ozonation
Chemical coagulation and dissolved air flotation
Chemical coagulation, dissolved air flotation, multi-
media fultration, and granular activated carbon
Chemical coagulation, dissolved air flotation, and
ozonation
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
J
K
M**
N**
* Alternative A is considered in place. All other alternatives are
added on to A and for indirect dischargers include screening and
equalization.
** Alternatives M, N, & P apply to Subcategory 1 only.
VIII-17
-------
VIII-18
-------
TABLE VIII-2
SELECTED MODEL PLANT SIZES
EXISTING SOURCES
Dis- Size, mgd
1.
2.
A.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Sub category
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing
Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
charge* 0.05
D X
I X
D
I
D
I X
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I X
D X
I X
D
I
D
I
D
I
D X
I
0.11 0.25
(X) X
(X)
X
X
(X)
X
X
X
X
(X)
(X)
(X)
X
X
X (X)
(X) X
X X
(X)
(X)
0.6 1.0 1.5 3.0 5.0
X (X) X
(X) X
(X) X
X
X (X) X
(X) X
X (X) X
X (X) X
(X) X
(X) X
(X) X
(X) X
X X
(X) X
(X) X X
X
(X)
X
* D refers to direct and I to indirect.
( ) Represents model plant size for which Cost Effectiveness Summaries are
included.
VIII-19
-------
I
NJ
O
SUBCATEGORY: Wool Scouring
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 10,700 kkg
Investment Costs
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
TABLE VIII-3
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - BATEA
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 416 (0.11) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 35.6 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 2
Treatment Alternative
M
N
11
43
19
34
19
34
_
-
-
-
-
-
15
20
26
11
43
19
34
19
34
12
47
32
33
-
-
15
33
45
11
43
19
34
19
34
_
-
_
-
42
42
15
28
39
Cost, thousands of dollars
Total Investment Costs
221
377
326
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Wool Scouring
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
5 Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD , kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 416 (0.11) cu in/day (mgd)
22
13
15
41
18
8
6
2
22
-
27
141
38
22
16
45
19
14
7
2
22
91
27
268
33
19
16
57
25
8
5
11
22
-
27
182
38
834
292
79
42
17
150
6
54
8
27
42
17
150
2
12
4
-
4
8
158
6
25
8
27
2
17
38
90
2000
700
190
100
40
360
15
130
20
65
100
40
360
5
30
10
-
10
20
360
15
60
20
65
5
40
72
Resulting Mass Loading
Resulting Concentration
-------
M
I
tsi
N>
SUBCATEGORY: Wool Finishing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 600 kkg
Investment Costs
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
TABLE VIII-4
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - BATEA
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 5678 (1.5) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 20 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 1
Treatment Alternative
A B D F G H K
Cost, thousands of dollars
50
200
20
38
-
_
-
-
-
15
33
48
50
200
20
38
52
208
_
-
-
-
15
50
87
50
200
20
38
52
208
540
540
_
-
15
134
249
-
-
_
-
_
-
310
310
15
58
95
50
200
20
38
-
_
-
310
310
15
81
141
50
200
20
38
52
208
_
-
310
310
15
104
180
Total Investment Costs
404
720
2046
788
1165
1487
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Wool Finishing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
M Effluent Quality
^^ ^^___
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 5678(1.5) cu m/day (mgd)
ro
OJ
BOD5, kg/day
COD , kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
40
25
15
67
3.0
42
7
7
30
-
27
245
72
45
15
79
3.5
68
7
8
30
-
27
336
205
106
18
115
5.0
86
7
39
30
99
27
719
79
36
20
33
1.5
6
-
126
_
-
27
307
116
60
18
89
3.9
47
7
133
30
-
27
509
149
77
18
100
4.5
74
7
134
30
-
27
598
Resulting Mass Loading
284
3,013
568
455
1,137
11,370
50
530
100
80
200
2,000
85
1,137
142
455
1,137
11,370
15
200
25
80
200
2,000
28
1,023
57
455
1,137
11,370
5
180
10
80
200
2,000
0-28
256
57
57
568
11,370
0-5
45
10
10
100
2,000
256
1,364
568
28
1,137
1,706
Resulting
45
240
100
5
200
300
85
512
142
28
1,137
1,706
28
460
57
28
1,137
1,706
Concentration
15
90
25
5
200
300
5
81
10
5
200
300
-------
TABLE VIII-5
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - BATEA
Woven Fabric Finishing-
SUBCATEGORY: Simple Processing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 8700 kkg
Investment Costs
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 29 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 8
Treatment Alternative
B
D E F G
Cost, thousands of dollars
H
K
30
120
19
34
-
_
-
_
-
15
24
33
-
-
_
32
130
_
-
_
-
15
20
26
30
120
19
34
30
120
_
-
_
-
15
38
55
-
-
.
32
130
340
340
.
-
15
74
128
30
120
19
34
30
120
340
340
_
-
15
90
157
-
-
_
-
_
-
150
150
15
33
47
30
120
19
34
-
_
-
150
150
15
48
78
-
-
_
32
130
_
-
150
150
15
47
72
30
120
19
34
30
120
_
-
150
150
15
61
100
Total Investment Costs
275
223
461
1059
1295
395
644
596
829
-------
SUBCATEGORY:
Annual Costs
Woven Fabric Finishing-
Simple Processing
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
< Effluent Quality
i
to
BOD5, kg/day
COD , kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, rag/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
28
17
15
52
2.3
20
4
3
-
12
-
27
163
22
14
15
13
0.6
14
1
0.3
2
-
-
27
93
46
28
15
58
2.6
34
4
3
-
12
-
27
212
106
52
19
32
1.4
21
1
13
-
-
41
27
293
130
67
18
77
3.4
40
4
16
-
12
40
27
413
40
18
20
25
1.1
2
-
50
-
-
-
27
162
64
33
18
70
3.1
22
4
54
-
12
-
27
286
60
30
18
32
1.4
16
1
51
2
-
-
27
219
83
45
17
77
3.4
36
4
54
-
12
-
27
388
Resulting Mass Loading
34
546
91
57
45
45
296
11
296
23
23
45
45
296
11
455
23
34
45
45
296
11
296
23
11
45
45
296
0-11
114
23
-
23
296
0-11
80
23
-
23
296
34
250
91
57
45
57
11
136
23
23
45
57
11
205
23
34
45
57
11
136
23
11
45
57
Resulting Concentration
15
240
40
25
20
20
130
5
130
10
10
20
20
130
5
200
10
15
20
20
130
5
130
10
5
20
20
130
0-5
50
10
-
-
10
130
0-5
35
10
-
-
10
130
15
110
40
25
-
20
25
5
60
10
10
-
20
25
5
90
10
15
-
20
25
5
60
10
5
-
20
25
-------
TABLE VII1-6
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - BATEA
Woven Fabric Finishing-
SUBCATEGORY: Complex Processing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 39,000 kg
Investment Costs
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
B
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 11355 (3.0) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 130 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 5
Treatment Alternative
CDEFGHJK
Cost, thousands of dollars
76
304
23
44
-
_
-
_
-
15
45
69
-
-
_
87
350
_
-
_
-
15
44
68
76
304
23
44
82
328
_
-
_
-
15
75
131
-
-
_
87
350
800
800
_
-
15
165
308
76
304
23
44
82
328
800
800
_
-
15
185
371
-
-
_
-
_
-
525
525
15
92
160
76
304
23
44
-
_
-
525
525
15
122
227
-
-
.
87
350
_
-
525
525
15
121
225
76
304
23
44
82
328
_
-
525
525
15
155
288
Total Investment Costs
576
564
1078
2525
3028
1317
1861
1848
2365
-------
SUBCATEGORY:
Woven Fabric Finishing -
Complex Processing
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 11355 (3.0) cu m/day (mgd)
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
M Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD , kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
58
35
15
88
3.9
77
7
14
-
60
-
27
366
56
35
15
34
1.5
43
6
2
8
-
-
27
211
108
67
15
105
4.6
120
7
16
-
60
-
27
510
252
139
17
95
4.2
76
6
61
-
-
206
27
862
303
158
18
166
7.4
153
7
75
-
60
198
27
1147
132
61
20
41
1.8
11
-
252
-
-
-
27
524
186
92
19
111
5.0
88
7
266
-
60
-
27
837
185
91
19
58
2.6
54
6
254
8
-
-
27
683
236
123
18
129
5.7
131
7
267
-
60
-
27
980
Resulting Mass Loading
284
2842
568
91
1251
341
682
114
1592
170
91
1251
341
682
57
2160
114
57
1251
341
682
57
1478
114
57
1251
341
682
0-57
568
114
-
114
170
682
0-57
398
114
-
114
170
682
284
1251
568
91
57
341
170
114
739
170
91
57
341
170
57
966
114
57
57
341
170
57
682
114
57
57
341
170
Resulting Concentration
25
250
50
8
110
30
60
10
140
15
8
110
30
60
5
190
10
5
110
30
60
5
130
10
5
110
30
60
0-5
50
10
-
10
15
60
0-5
35
10
-
10
15
60
25
110
50
8
5
30
15
10
65
15
8
5
30
15
5
85
10
5
5
30
15
5
60
10
5
5
30
15
-------
00
TABLE VIII-7
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - BATEA
SUBCATEGORY:
ANNUAL CAPACITY:
Woven Fabric Finishing -
Complex Processing Plus Desizing CONTROL LEVEL:
15,000 kkg
Investment Costs
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construct: on
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
B
BATEA MODEL FLOW: 5678 (1.5) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 50 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 8
Treatment Alternative
D E F G
Cost, thousands of dollars
H
50
200
19
34
-
_
-
_
-
15
33
48
-
-
_
56
223
_
-
_
-
15
32
44
50
200
19
34
52
208
_
-
_
-
15
53
87
-
-
_
56
223
540
540
_
-
15
111
206
50
200
19
34
52
208
540
540
_
-
15
133
249
-
-
_
-
_
-
310
310
15
58
95
50
200
19
34
-
_
-
310
310
15
81
141
-
-
_
56
223
_
-
310
310
15
79
137
50
200
19
34
52
208
_
-
310
310
15
103
180
Total Investment Costs
399
370
718 1691
2040
788
1160 1130
1481
-------
I
10
vO
SUBCATEGORY:
Annual Costs
Woven Fabric Finishing -
Complex Processing Plus Desizing
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 5678 (1.5) cu m/day (mgd)
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
£j Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD , kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
25
250
50
9
35
30
1100
40
24
15
67
3.0
42
6
7
-
30
-
27
243
37
23
15
23
1.0
27
4
1
4
-
-
27
146
72
44
15
79
3.5
68
6
8
-
30
-
27
334
169
93
17
59
2.6
44
3
32
-
-
103
27
530
204
106
18
115
5.1
86
6
39
-
30
99
27
712
79
37
20
33
1.5
6
-
126
-
-
-
27
308
116
60
18
89
3.9
47
6
133
-
30
-
27
508
113
55
19
45
2.0
33
3
127
4
-
-
27
407
148
76
18
100
4.5
74
6
134
-
30
-
27
595
142
1421
284
51
199
170
6254
57
796
85
51
199
170
6254
28
1080
57
28
199
170
6254
10
140
15
9
35
30
1100
5
190
10
5
35
30
1100
Resulting Mass Loading
28
739
57
28
199
170
6254
5
130
10
5
35
30
1100
0-28
284
57
-
28
85
6254
Resulting
0-5
50
10
-
5
15
1100
0-28
199
57
-
28
85
6254
142
625
284
51
-
170
1080
Concentration
0-5
35
10
-
5
15
1100
25
110
50
9
-
30
190
57
370
85
51
170
1080
10
65
15
9
30
190
28
483
57
28
170
1080
5
85
10
5
30
190
28
341
57
28
170
1080
5
60
10
5
30
190
-------
Ul
o
TABLE VIII-8
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - BATEA
SUBCATEGORY:
ANNUAL CAPACITY:
Knit Fabric Finishing -
Simple Processing
9,300 kkg
Investment Costs
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
B
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 3785 (1.0) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 31 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 13
Treatment Alternative
D E F G
Cost, thousands of dollars
H
40
160
19
34
-
-
-
-
-
15
29
40
-
-
_
43
174
-
-
-
-
15
25
35
40
160
19
34
40
160
_
-
-
-
15
46
70
-
-
_
43
174
415
415
-
-
15
92
159
40
160
19
34
40
160
415
415
-
-
15
112
195
-
-
_
-
_
-
230
230
15
46
71
40
160
19
34
-
_
-
230
230
15
67
109
-
-
_
43
174
_
-
230
230
15
64
104
40
160
19
34
40
160
_
-
230
230
15
80
139
Total Investment Costs
337
292
584 1313
1605
592
904
860
1147
-------
SUBCATEGORY:
Annual Costs
Knit Fabric Finishing
Simple Processing
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 3785 (1.0) cu m/day (mgd)
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
M Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD , kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
34
20
15
59
2.6
28
5
5
-
20
-
27
198
29
18
15
18
0.8
20
2
0.6
2
-
-
27
117
58
36
15
68
3.0
48
4
5
-
20
-
27
266
131
68
18
46
2.0
31
2
21
-
-
69
27
395
160
83
18
96
4.3
60
5
26
-
20
66
27
543
59
27
20
29
1.3
4
-
84
-
-
-
27
230
90
46
18
79
3.5
32
5
89
-
20
-
27
388
86
44
18
38
1.7
24
2
85
3
-
-
27
309
115
59
18
88
3.9
52
5
89
-
20
-
27
455
Resulting Mass Loading
57
1023
133
57
208
227
493
19
568
38
38
208
227
493
19
872
38
38
208
227
493
19
568
38
19
208
227
493
0-19
227
38
-
19
114
493
0-19
152
38
-
19
114
493
57
455
133
57
19
227
114
19
265
38
38
19
227
114
19
379
38
38
19
227
114
19
265
38
19
19
227
114
Resulting Concentration
15
270
35
15
55
60
130
5
150
10
10
55
60
130
5
230
10
10
55
60
130
5
150
10
5
55
60
130
0-5
60
10
-
5
30
130
0-5
40
10
-
5
30
130
15
120
35
15
5
60
30
5
70
10
10
5
60
30
5
100
10
10
5
60
30
5
70
10
5
5
60
30
-------
TABLE VIII-9
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - BATEA
u>
10
Knit Fabric Finishing -
SUBCATEGORY: Complex Processing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 5,600 kkg
Investment Costs
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu in/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 18.6 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 4
Treatment Alternative
CDEFGHJK
Cost, thousands of dollars
30
120
19
34
-
_
-
-
-
15
25
33
-
-
_
32
130
_
-
.
-
15
20
26
30
120
19
34
30
120
_
-
-
-
15
38
55
-
-
_
32
130
340
340
.
-
15
74
128
30
120
19
34
30
120
340
340
_
-
15
90
157
-
-
_
-
_
-
150
150
15
33
47
30
120
19
34
-
_
-
150
150
15
48
78
-
-
_
32
130
_
-
150
150
15
47
71
30
120
19
34
30
120
_
-
150
150
15
61
100
Total Investment Costs
276
223
461 1059
1295
395
644
595
829
-------
i
u>
u>
SUBCATE60RY:
Annual Costs
Knit Fabric Finishing
Complex Processing
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD , kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
28
17
15
52
2.3
20
4
3
-
12
-
27
163
22
14
15
13
0.6
14
2
0.3
2
-
-
27
94
46
28
15
58
2.6
34
4
3
-
12
-
27
212
106
52
19
32
1.4
21
2
13
-
-
40
27
293
130
67
18
77
3.4
40
4
16
-
12
40
27
413
40
18
20
25
1.1
2
-
50
-
-
-
27
162
64
33
18
70
3.1
22
4
54
-
12
-
27
286
60
30
18
32
1.4
16
2
51
2
-
-
27
220
83
45
17
77
3.4
36
4
54
-
12
-
27
338
Resulting Mass Loading
45
637
125
68
148
57
125
11
341
34
23
148
57
125
11
499
23
23
148
57
125
11
318
23
11
11
57
125
0-11
125
23
-
11
23
125
0-11
79
23
-
11
23
125
45
296
125
68
11
57
23
11
159
34
23
11
57
23
11
228
23
23
11
57
23
11
148
23
11
11
57
23
Resulting Concentration
20
280
55
30
65
25
55
5
150
15
10
65
25
55
5
220
10
10
65
25
55
5
140
10
5
65
25
55
0-5
55
10
-
5
10
55
0-5
35
10
-
5
10
55
20
130
55
30
5
25
10
5
70
15
10
5
25
10
5
100
10
10
5
25
10
5
65
10
5
5
25
10
-------
I
LJ
TABLE VIII-10
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - BATEA
Knit Fabric Finishing -
SUBCATEGORY: Hosiery Products
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 1,800 kkg
Investment Costs
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 416 (0.11) cu m/day (ragd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 6 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 1
Treatment Alternative
D F G H K
Cost, thousands of dollars
11
43
19
34
-
-
-
_
-
15
15
18
11
43
19
34
12
47
-
-
_
-
15
21
27
11
43
19
34
12
47
32
33
_
-
15
27
37
-
-
_
-
-
-
42
42
15
13
15
11
43
19
34
-
-
-
42
42
15
24
31
11
43
19
34
12
47
_
-
42
42
15
29
40
Total Investment Costs
155
229
310
127
261
334
-------
SUBCATEGORY:
Knit Fabric Finishing
Hosiery Products
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 416 (0.11) cu m/day (mgd)
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
£ Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD , kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, rng/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
16
9
15
38
1.7
6
1
1
2
-
27
100
23
14
15
40
1.8
10
1
1
2
-
27
118
31
18
16
41
1.8
12
4
1
2
91
27
227
13
6
20
15
0.7
0.4
-
9
_
-
27
70
26
14
17
53
2.3
6
1
10
2
-
27
139
33
18
17
54
2.4
11
1
10
2
-
27
156
Resulting Mass Loading
29
238
54
14
12
23
8
96
12
14
12
23
2
83
4
14
12
23
0-2
21
4
2
6
23
27
108
54
_
12
4
8
42
12
_
12
4
2
38
4
_
12
4
Resulting Concentration
70
570
130
35
30
55
20
230
30
35
30
55
5
200
10
35
30
55
0-5
50
10
5
15
55
65
260
130
_
30
10
20
100
30
_
30
10
5
90
10
_
30
10
-------
I
u>
SUBCATEGORY: Carpet Finishing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 6100 kkg
Investment Costs
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
TABLE VIII-11
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - BATEA
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 20 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 10
Treatment Alternative
BCDEFGHJK
Cost, thousands of dollars
18
70
19
34
-
-
-
-
-
15
19
23
-
-
_
21
82
-
-
-
-
15
15
18
18
70
19
34
19
77
-
-
-
-
15
28
38
-
-
_
21
82
300
300
-
-
15
66
108
18
70
19
34
19
77
300
300
-
-
15
73
128
-
-
_
-
-
-
80
80
15
12
26
18
70
19
34
-
-
80
80
15
34
47
-
-
_
21
82
-
-
80
80
15
30
42
18
70
19
34
19
77
.
-
80
80
15
40
62
Total Investment Costs
198
151
318
892
1053
213
397
350
514
-------
i
u>
SUBCATEGORY: Carpet Finishing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD , kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
20
12
15
41
1.8
10
2
2
-
5
-
27
119
15
9
15
5
0.2
8
1
0.2
1
-
-
27
66
32
19
15
45
2.0
18
2
2
-
5
-
27
150
89
43
19
16
0.7
11
1
5
-
-
17
27
209
105
52
19
55
2.4
21
2
7
-
5
16
27
290
21
10
20
18
0.8
1
-
21
-
-
-
27
98
40
20
18
58
2.6
11
2
23
-
5
-
27
186
35
18
18
22
1.0
9
1
21
1
-
-
27
134
51
28
17
61
2.7
19
2
23
-
5
-
27
216
Resulting Mass Loading
33
275
57
6
95
24
57
9
152
14
6
95
24
57
5
208
9
5
95
24
57
5
142
9
5
95
24
57
0-5
52
9
-
9
9
57
0-5
38
9
-
9
9
57
33
123
57
6
5
24
14
9
66
14
6
5
24
14
5
95
9
5
5
24
14
5
66
9
5
5
24
14
Resulting Concentration
35
290
60
6
100
25
60
10
160
15
6
100
25
60
5
220
10
5
100
25
60
5
150
10
5
100
25
60
0-5
55
10
-
10
10
60
0-5
40
10
-
10
10
60
35
130
60
6
5
25
15
10
70
15
6
5
25
15
5
100
10
5
5
25
15
5
70
10
5
5
25
15
-------
I
U)
oo
TABLE VIII-12
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - BATEA
SUBCATEGORY: Stock & Yarn Finishing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 6800 kkg
Investment Costs
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 23 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 6
Treatment Alternative
B
D E F G
Cost, thousands of dollars
H
K
30
120
19
34
-
_
-
_
-
15
24
33
-
-
_
32
130
_
-
_
-
15
20
26
30
120
19
34
30
120
_
-
_
-
15
38
55
-
-
_
32
130
340
340
_
-
15
74
128
30
120
19
34
30
120
340
340
_
-
15
90
157
-
-
_
-
_
-
150
150
15
33
47
30
120
19
34
-
_
-
150
150
15
48
78
-
-
_
32
130
_
-
150
150
15
47
72
30
120
19
34
30
120
_
-
150
150
15
61
100
Total Investment Costs
275
223
461
1059
1295
395
644
596
829
-------
LO
SO
SUBCATEGORY: Stock & Yarn Finishing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD , kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
28
17
15
52
2.3
20
4
3
-
12
-
27
163
22
14
15
13
0.6
14
1
0.3
2
-
-
27
93
46
28
15
58
2.6
34
4
3
-
12
-
27
212
106
52
19
32
1.4
21
1
13
-
-
41
27
293
130
67
18
77
3.4
40
4
16
-
12
40
27
413
40
18
20
25
1.1
2
-
50
-
-
-
27
162
64
33
18
70
3.1
22
4
54
-
12
-
27
286
60
30
18
32
1.4
16
1
51
2
-
-
27
219
83
45
17
77
3.4
36
4
54
-
12
-
27
338
Resulting Mass Loading
23
318
57
205
125
91
273
11
182
23
23
125
91
273
11
273
23
34
125
91
273
11
182
23
11
125
91
273
0-11
68
23
-
11
45
273
0-11
45
23
-
11
45
273
23
148
57
205
11
91
57
11
91
23
11
11
91
57
11
125
23
34
11
91
57
11
80
23
11
11
91
57
Resulting Concentration
10
140
25
90
55
40
120
5
80
10
10
55
40
120
5
120
10
15
55
40
120
5
80
10
5
55
40
120
0-5
30
10
-
5
20
120
0-5
20
10
-
5
20
120
10
65
25
90
5
40
25
5
40
10
5
5
40
25
5
55
10
15
5
40
25
5
35
10
5
5
40
25
-------
TABLE VIII-13
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - BATEA
i
JN
o
SUBCATEGORY: Nonwoven Manufacturing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 3120 kkg
Investment Costs
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 416 (0.11) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 10.4 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 5
Treatment Alternative
D
Cost, thousands of dollars
H
K
11
43
19
34
-
_
-
_
-
15
15
18
-
-
_
13
53
_
-
_
-
15
10
12
11
43
19
34
12
47
_
-
_
-
15
21
27
-
-
_
13
50
13
52
_
-
15
17
21
11
43
19
34
12
47
32
33
_
-
15
27
37
-
-
_
-
_
-
42
42
15
13
15
11
43
19
34
-
_
-
42
42
15
24
31
-
-
_
13
50
_
-
42
42
15
20
24
11
43
19
34
12
47
_
-
42
42
15
29
40
Total Investment Costs
155
100
229
181
310
127
261
206
334
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Nonwoven Manufacturing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD , kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 416 (0.11) cu m/day (mgd)
16
9
15
38
1.7
6
1
1
-
2
-
27
100
10
6
15
3
0.1
4
0.5
0.07
0.3
-
-
27
51
23
14
15
40
1.8
10
1
1
-
2
-
27
118
18
9
18
2
0.1
6
0.5
1
-
-
3
27
68
31
18
16
41
1.8
12
4
1
-
2
91
27
227
13
6
20
15
0.7
0.4
-
9
-
-
-
27
70
26
14
17
53
2.3
6
1
10
-
2
-
27
139
21
10
18
17
0.7
5
0.5
9
0.3
-
-
27
90
33
18
17
54
3.1
11
1
10
-
2
-
27
156
Resulting Mass Loading
15
235
31
8
8
2
4
96
8
8
8
2
4
198
4
4
8
2
4
94
4
4
8
2
2
50
4
0
0-2
0-2
2
23
4
0
0-2
0-2
15
106
31
8
0
2
4
44
8
8
0
2
8
89
4
4
0
2
4
42
4
4
0
2
Resulting Concentration
35
565
75
20
20
5
10
230
20
20
20
5
10
475
10
10
20
5
10
225
10
10
20
5
5
120
10
0
0-5
0-5
5
55
10
0
0-5
0-5
35
255
75
20
0
5
10
105
20
20
0
5
10
215
10
10
0
5
10
100
10
10
0
5
-------
TABLE VIII-14
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - BATEA
i
4>
to
SUBCATEGORY: Felted Fabric Processing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 585 kkg
Investment Costs
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 416 (0.11) cu m/day (ragd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 2 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 3
Treatment Alternative
H
B D F G
Cost, thousands of dollars
K
11
43
19
34
-
_
-
_
-
15
15
18
11
43
19
34
12
47
_
-
_
-
15
21
27
11
43
19
34
12
47
32
33
_
-
15
27
37
-
-
_
-
_
-
42
42
15
13
15
11
43
19
34
-
_
-
42
42
15
24
31
11
43
19
34
12
47
_
-
42
42
15
29
40
Total Investment Costs
155
229
310
127
261
334
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Felted Fabric Processing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD , kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: BATEA MODEL FLOW: 416 (0.11) cu m/day (mgd)
250
16
9
15
38
1.7
6
1
1
2
-
27
100
23
14
15
40
1.8
10
1
1
2
-
27
118
31
18
16
41
1.8
12
4
1
2
91
27
227
13
6
20
15
0.7
0.4
-
9
-
-
27
70
26
14
17
53
2.3
6
1
10
2
-
27
139
33
18
17
54
3.1
11
1
10
2
-
27
156
250
Resulting Mass Loading
15
127
40
8
62
4
67
10
8
62
4
62
4
4
62
2
17
4
0
6
15
56
40
8
4
4
29
10
8
4
4
29
4
4
4
250 250 50 50 50
Resulting Concentration
35
305
95
20
150
10
160
25
20
150
10
150
10
10
150
5
40
10
0
15
35
135
95
20
10
10
70
25
20
10
10
70
10
10
10
600
600
600
600
120
120
120
-------
is included because more than half of the direct dischargers provide
screening, and it is therefore regarded as a necessary form of preliminary
treatment. Equalization is included because the five basic pretreatment
processes operate more effectively if fluctuations in loading are minimized.
For the direct-discharge mills, the activated sludge aeration tank provides
equalization prior to treatment in the advanced units. Neutralization
is not included as part of the preliminary treatment sequence because
few direct-discharge mills so provide. Where necessary, neutralization
would increase investment and annual costs slightly.
As described previously, the current base level of treatment for direct-
discharge mills is the extended-aeration activated sludge process. The
question arises, therefore, as to whether similar biological treatment
should be included in the alternative pretreatment technologies. Before
evaluating the pros and cons of such inclusion, it is appropriate to
consider the positioning of a biological unit in the sequence of processes.
For all except Subcategory 1, the best position would be prior to any of
the advanced treatment units. It seems doubtful that there would be
sufficient organic food material to sustain the microorganisms in the
biological treatment unit if it followed chemical coagulation. There
would be little benefit in filtering the wastewater prior to biotreatment;
the reverse sequence would be more effective. As with chemical coagulation,
activated carbon adsorption and/or ozonation prior to biological treatment
would be counterproductive in that all three processes are aimed at
organic material. In the case of Subcategory 1, treatment by chemical
coagulation and/or dissolved air flotation prior to the activated sludge
unit could be beneficial in reducing the load on the biological system
so that it could remove organic matter more completely. In conclusion,
if biological treatment were to be included, its most logical position
is after preliminary treatment and prior to any additional processes.
In other words, if biotreatment were to be included, the pretreatment
systems would resemble the systems used by direct dischargers.
The benefits that would result from biotreatment as part of pretreatment
follow. Since it duplicates the removal mechanisms of secondary POTW's,
it might seem at first glance to offer no benefits. One benefit is that
it may accomplish removal of certain priority pollutants, e.g., phenol,
and cyanides that require an acclimated biomass. The continuous presence
of such compounds due to higher concentrations could help maintain the
state of acclimation. Acclimation could, at times, be lost at the POTW's.
Also, volatile priority pollutants may be removed during aeration in a
biological pretreatment process, and not be discharged to the POTW's.
The biological process coupled with that at the POTW's, in effect, provide
two stages of treatment and may effect greater removals than either alone.
It should be noted that the above applies to some priority pollutants, but
not to all.
VIII-44
-------
A second, and perhaps more important, benefit of biological pretreatment
is that the level of dissolved organics would be reduced and the effective-
ness of downstream activated carbon or ozonation units would be improved.
On the other hand, chemical coagulation, with or without filtration, is
believed to be effective in reducing the suspended and some of the
dissolved organic content of textile mill wastewaters, although probably
not as effectively as does activated sludge. A third benefit of biotreatment
is that it would provide equalization and a separate unit for this purpose
could be eliminated.
Among the disadvantages of including a biological process as part of
pretreatment is that it duplicates the function of the POTW's with only
marginal benefits, if any, in terms of priority pollutant control; it is
relatively costly in terms of construction and operation; it may require
much land, an unavailable commodity at many indirect-discharge mills;
and it is a more difficult process to operate efficiently than are the
physicochemical processes. It is also more affected by changes in
temperature, pH, toxic materials, and the food supply balance. It also
is unlikely to be effective for some of the priority pollutants found
in textile mill wastewaters, e.g., chloroform and trichloroethylene, and
may, in fact, cause these and other volatile priority pollutants to
escape to the atmosphere.
Based on the above factors, it was concluded that the benefits of inclu-
sion of biological treatment in the alternative pretreatment technologies
presented here were outweighed by the disadvantages. It is believed
that combinations of the five selected processes can be made to accomplish
the desired results without biotreatment.
The alternatives for each level of control include screening and equaliza-
tion along with one or a combination of the following technologies:
chemical coagulation, multi-media filtration, dissolved air flotation,
activated carbon adsorption, and ozonation. These five technologies
are described previously in this section. Descriptions of screening
and equalization are given below.
Screening. This technology utilizes mechanical fine screens to remove
coarse suspended solids. Screening facilities include intersection
of the existing sewer, pumping, and mecanical vibratory screens.
Equalization. Twelve hours detention and mixing by surface aerators
are provided based on an analysis of the survey questionnaires. The cost
estimates are based on lined earthen-wall basins with water depth of
3 meters (10 feet), freeboard of 1.5 meters (5 feet), and dike surface
slopes of 3:1. The basins are square in plan.
Investment Costs and Annual Costs
The same bases were used for the investment and annual costs for the model
indirect dischargers as previously described for the direct dischargers.
As noted, the indirect dischargers sample less frequently and at fewer
VIII-45
-------
locations in their monitoring programs. The cost curves described
previously and given in Figures VIII-1 through VIII-8 apply for indirect-
discharge mills also.
Model Plant Costs
As noted in the discussion of direct dischargers, model plant sizes were
developed for various production ranges, corrected to full mill capacity,
with the median water usage rates applied to derive raw wastewater flows.
As shown in Table VIII-2, the model treatment plant sizes used for indirect
dischargers are, in part, different from the sizes for the direct-discharge
mills.
Cost Effectiveness Summaries
As with the existing direct dischargers, cost effectiveness summary sheets
were developed for each model plant in the indirect discharge group to
provide a synopsis of the cost analysis for each alternative end-of-pipe
treatment technology. The summary sheets for indirect dischargers comprise
Tables VIII-15 through VIII-26. The letter designations for the alternative
technologies are the same for the direct and the indirect dischargers. In
other words, Alternative C is multi-media filtration in both situations, etc.
Also shown on the summary sheets are the estimated effluent qualities
resulting from each technology when applied in each textile industry
subcategory. That the values of some of the effluent pollutant parameters
are different from those for the direct dischargers reflects the different
influent concentrations resulting from the absence of biological treatment
in the pretreatment alternatives.
NEW SOURCES
Before discussing direct and indirect discharging new sources, some
introductory comments that apply to both groups are appropriate. The
term "new source" is defined in the Act to mean "any source, the
construction of which is commenced after the publication of proposed
regulations prescribing a standard of performance." In addition to
the control measures available to existing sources, changes in
manufacturing methods and equipment, more extensive use of in-plant
control measures and water recycling, and different end-of-pipe tech-
nologies may be available to new sources. Such additional opportunities
in the textile industry were evaluated based on available information.
Compliance dates differ for new and existing sources.
Textile industry sources indicate that very few new mills have been
constructed in the past few years. Consequently, there are relatively
few sources of data on water consumption rates, in-plant control
measures, and alternative manufacturing methods in use in new mills.
VI11-46
-------
VIII-47
-------
TABLE VIII-15
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSES
p-
00
SUBCATEGORY: Wool Scouring
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 24000 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu in/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 81 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 3
Treatment Alternative
M
N
Cost, thousands of dollars
20
37
18
70
38
72
25
46
_
-
-
-
-
-
15
35
51
20
37
18
70
38
72
25
46
19
77
300
300
_
-
15
78
156
20
37
18
70
38
72
25
46
_
-
_
-
80
80
15
49
75
Total Investment Costs
427 1271
625
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Wool Scouring
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
2300
7000
3300
600
120
500
43
26
15
57
2.5
14
4
6
50
-
13
213
127
66
18
71
3.1
24
4
12
50
16
13
383
62
34
17
73
3.3
15
4
27
50
-
13
278
60
300
20
140
120
500
20
50
10
60
500
Resulting Mass Loading
2179
6632
3126
568
114
474
57
284
19
133
114
474
19
47
9
-
57
474
52
142
19
133
114
95
Resulting Concentration
55
150
20
140
120
100
-------
TABLE VIII-16
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSES
i
Cn
O
SUBCATEGORY: Wool Finishing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 6000 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL:
DAILY CAPACITY: 20 kkg
B
PSES MODEL FLOW: 5678 (1.5) cu m/day (mgd)
NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 2
Treatment Alternative
F H J
Cost, thousands of dollars
o
F H J
49
92
50
200
19
34
-
_
-
_
-
15
45
69
49
92
50
200
19
34
52
208
_
-
_
-
15
66
108
49
92
50
200
19
34
52
208
540
540
_
-
15
145
270
49
92
50
200
19
34
-
_
-
310
310
15
93
162
49
92
_
-
19
34
56
223
_
-
310
310
15
96
166
Total Investment Costs
573
893 2214
1334
1370
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Wool Finishing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
w Effluent Quality
^^ ^_i
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, rag/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
g CONTROL LEVEL: PSES
A
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
966
3411
341
682
2842
19898
170
600
60
120
500
3500
B
57
35
15
92
4.1
42
6
13
30
-
13
288
199
1308
85
682
2842
19898
35
230
15
120
500
3500
D
89
55
15
104
4.6
68
6
14
30
-
13
379
170
1308
57
682
2842
19898
30
230
10
120
500
3500
F
221
115
18
128
5.7
86
6
45
30
99
13
743
57
341
57
57
1421
19898
10
60
10
10
500
3500
H
133
69
18
126
5.6
47
6
139
30
-
13
563
Resulting
199
568
85
28
2842
2956
Resulting
35
100
15
5
500
520
MODEL FLO'
J
137
76
18
114
5.0
46
4
133
4
-
13
527
Mass Loading
796
1478
57
28
2842
2956
Concentration
140
260
10
5
500
520
MODEL FLOW: 5678 (1.5) cu m/day (mgd)
-------
TABLE VIII-17
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSES
i
Ul
NJ
Woven Fabric Finishing -
SUBCATEGORY: Simple Processing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 3600 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL:
DAILY CAPACITY: 12 kkg
B
PSES MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 26
Treatment Alternative
[ H J
Cost, thousands of dollars
20
37
18
70
19
34
-
-
_
-
15
24
32
20
37
18
70
19
34
19
77
-
-
-
-
15
34
46
20
37
18
70
19
34
19
77
300
300
_
-
15
78
136
20
37
18
70
19
34
-
-
-
80
80
15
39
56
20
37
_
-
19
34
21
82
-
-
80
80
15
40
58
Total Investment Costs
269
389
1123
468
486
-------
Woven Fabric Finishing -
SUBCATEGORY: Simple Processing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
M Effluent Quality
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES
MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
OJ
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
27
16
15
52
2.3
10
2
4
5
-
13
129
39
24
15
55
2.5
18
3
4
5
-
13
161
112
55
19
66
2.9
21
3
9
5
16
13
300
47
25
17
69
3.0
11
2
25
5
-
13
197
49
25
18
67
3.0
14
1
24
0.7
-
13
194
Resulting Mass Loading
255
853
57
66
47
38
66
38
256
14
9
47
38
66
38
256
9
5
47
38
66
14
66
9
-
5
19
66
38
114
14
9
5
38
14
208
370
9
14
5
38
14
Resulting Concentration
270
900
60
70
50
40
70
40
270
15
10
50
40
70
40
270
10
5
50
40
70
15
70
10
-
5
20
70
40
120
15
10
5
40
15
220
390
10
15
5
40
15
-------
I
Ul
TABLE VIII-18
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSES
SUBCATEGORY:
ANNUAL CAPACITY:
Woven Fabric Finishing -
Complex Processing
7900 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL:
DAILY CAPACITY: 26 kkg
B
15
33
45
30
120
15
44
68
PSES MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 12
Treatment Alternative
[ H
Cost, thousands of dollars
29
55
30
120
19
34
29
55
30
120
19
34
29
55
30
120
19
34
29
55
30
120
19
34
30
120
340
340
15
98
170
150
150
15
55
90
Total Investment Costs
380
564
1400
747
-------
01
SUBCATEGORY:
Annual Costs
Woven Fabric Finishing -
Complex Processing
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES
MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
<
£ Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
796
2501
250
114
114
250
227
350
1100
110
50
50
110
100
102
637
68
23
114
250
227
45
280
30
10
50
110
100
91
614
23
11
114
250
227
40
270
10
5
50
110
100
140
72
18
94
4.1
40
5
19
12
40
13
435
34
159
23
-
11
125
227
15
70
10
-
5
55
100
75
41
17
87
3.8
22
5
57
12
-
13
312
Resulting Mass Loading
102
296
68
23
11
250
45
Resulting Concentration
45
130
30
10
5
110
20
-------
I
Ln
TABLE VIII-19
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSES
Woven Fabric Finishing-
SUBCATEGORY: Complex Processing Plus Desizing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 15,000 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES MODEL FLOW: 5678 (1.5) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 50 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 7
Treatment Alternative
B
F H
Cost, thousands of dollars
49
92
50
200
23
42
49
92
50
200
23
42
49
92
50
200
23
42
49
92
50
200
23
42
-
-
_
-
_
-
13
46
70
52
208
_
-
_
-
13
67
109
52
208
540
540
_
-
13
146
271
-
-
_
-
310
310
13
94
163
Total Investment Costs
585
905
2226
1346
-------
I
Ul
SUBCATEGORY:
Annual Costs
Woven Fabric Finishing-
Complex Processing Plus Desizing
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES
MODEL FLOW: 5678 (1.5) cu m/day (mgd)
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
<
M Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
2388
7049
853
398
853
568
9664
420
1240
150
70
150
100
1700
227
853
199
57
853
568
9664
40
150
35
10
150
100
1700
170
796
57
28
853
568
9664
30
140
10
5
150
100
1700
223
116
18
140
6.2
86
7
45
30
99
13
759
57
199
57
-
85
284
9664
10
35
10
-
15
50
1700
135
70
18
114
5.1
47
7
139
30
-
13
555
Resulting Mass Loading
227
398
199
28
57
568
1478
Resulting Concentration
40
70
35
5
10
100
260
-------
I
Cn
CO
TABLE VIII-20
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSES
SUBCATEGORY:
ANNUAL CAPACITY:
Knit Fabric Finishing -
Simple Processing
5600 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 18.6 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 34
Treatment Alternative
B
F H J
Cost, thousands of dollars
29
55
30
120
19
34
-
_
-
-
-
15
33
45
29
55
30
120
19
34
30
120
_
-
-
-
15
44
68
29
55
30
120
19
34
30
120
340
340
-
-
15
98
170
29
55
30
120
19
34
-
_
-
150
150
15
55
90
29
55
_
-
19
34
32
130
_
-
150
150
15
56
92
Total Investment Costs
380
564
1400
747
762
-------
Ul
VO
SUBCATEGORY:
Annual Costs
Knit Fabric Finishing -
Simple Processing
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES
MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu in/day (mgd)
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
£ Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
478
1978
114
182
250
182
3866
210
870
50
80
110
80
1700
38
23
15
68
3.0
20
4
6
12
13
184
91
591
34
23
250
182
3866
40
260
15
10
110
80
1700
38
23
15
68
3.0
20
It
6
12
-
13
184
56
35
15
75
2.8
34
4
7
12
40
13
236
140
72
18
94
4.2
40
4
19
12
-
13
434
75
41
17
87
3.9
22
4
57
12
-
13
311
76
39
18
87
3.9
24
2
54
2
-
13
297
91
591
23
11
250
182
3866
40
260
10
5
110
80
1700
Resulting Mass Loading
34
148
23
23
91
3866
91
273
34
11
11
182
591
409
864
23
34
11
182
591
Resulting Concentration
15
65
10
10
40
1700
40
120
15
5
5
80
260
180
380
10
15
5
80
260
-------
TABLE VIII-21
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSES
Knit Fabric Finishing-
Complex Processing
SUBCATEGORY:
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 5600 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construct ion
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu in/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 18.6 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 19
Treatment Alternative
B
F H J
Cost, thousands of dollars
29
55
30
120
19
34
-
_
-
-
-
15
33
45
29
55
30
120
19
34
30
120
_
-
-
-
15
44
68
29
55
30
120
19
34
30
120
340
340
_
-
15
98
170
29
55
30
120
19
34
-
_
-
150
150
15
55
90
29
55
_
-
19
34
32
130
_
-
150
150
15
56
92
Total Investment Costs
380
564
1400
747
762
-------
SUBCATEGORY:
Knit Fabric Finishing-
Complex Processing
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES
MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu in/day (mgd)
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
£ Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
38
23
15
68
3.0
20
4
6
12
-
13
184
56
35
15
75
3.3
34
5
7
12
-
13
237
140
72
18
94
4.2
40
5
19
12
40
13
435
75
41
17
87
3.9
22
4
57
12
-
13
311
76
39
18
87
3.9
24
2
54
2
-
13
297
Resulting Mass Loading
614
1796
136
114
227
182
341
91
591
34
23
227
182
341
91
591
23
11
227
182
341
34
148
23
-
23
91
341
91
273
34
23
11
182
68
500
773
23
34
11
182
68
Resulting Concentration
270
790
60
50
100
80
150
40
260
15
10
100
80
150
40
260
10
5
100
80
150
15
65
10
-
10
40
150
40
120
15
10
5
80
30
220
340
10
15
5
80
30
-------
TABLE VIII-22
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSES
Knit Fabric Finishing -
SUBCATEGORY: Hosiery Products
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 4100 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 13.6 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 7
Treatment Alternative
B
F H J
Cost, thousands of dollars
20
37
18
70
19
34
-
-
-
-
-
15
24
32
20
37
18
70
19
34
19
77
-
-
_
-
15
32
46
20
37
18
70
19
34
19
77
300
300
_
-
15
78
136
20
37
18
70
19
34
-
-
-
80
80
15
39
56
20
37
_
-
19
34
21
82
-
-
80
80
15
40
58
Total Investment Costs
269
387
1123
468
486
-------
U)
SUBCATEGORY:
Annual Costs
Knit Fabric Finishing -
Hosiery Products
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
M Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES
MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
27
16
15
52
2.3
10
2
4
5
-
13
129
39
24
15
55
2.5
18
3
4
5
-
13
161
112
55
19
66
2.9
21
3
9
5
16
13
300
47
25
17
69
3.0
11
2
25
5
-
13
197
49
28
18
67
3.0
14
1
24
0.7
-
13
197
Resulting Mass Loading
303
1298
76
95
57
76
531
52
275
19
9
57
76
531
47
265
9
5
57
76
531
19
66
9
-
5
38
531
47
123
19
5
5
76
104
256
568
9
14
5
76
104
Resulting Concentration
320
1370
80
100
60
80
560
55
290
20
10
60
80
560
50
280
10
5
60
80
560
20
70
10
-
5
40
560
50
130
20
5
5
80
110
270
600
10
15
5
80
110
-------
TABLE VIII-23
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSES
SUBCATEGORY: Carpet Finishing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 14,600 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL:
DAILY CAPACITY: 49 kkg
8
D
PSES MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 16
Treatment Alternative
H J
Cost, thousands of dollars
29
55
30
120
19
34
-
_
-
-
-
15
33
45
29
55
30
120
19
34
30
120
_
-
-
-
15
44
68
29
55
30
120
19
34
30
120
340
340
-
-
15
98
170
29
55
30
120
19
34
-
.
-
150
150
15
55
90
29
55
_
-
19
34
32
130
-
-
150
150
15
56
92
Total Investment Costs
380
564
1400
747
762
-------
i
o>
Ul
SUBCATEGORY: Carpet Finishing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES
MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
38
23
15
68
3.0
20
4
6
12
-
13
184
56
35
15
76
3.3
34
5
6
12
-
13
236
140
68
19
95
4.2
40
5
19
12
40
13
432
75
41
17
77
3.5
22
4
57
12
-
13
301
76
39
18
77
3.4
24
2
54
2
-
13
287
Resulting Mass Loading
1000
2706
159
45
296
68
398
68
386
45
23
296
68
398
57
364
23
11
296
68
398
23
91
23
-
34
34
398
68
170
45
23
11
68
80
864
1182
23
23
11
68
80
Resulting Concentration
440
1190
70
20
130
30
175
30
170
20
10
130
30
175
25
160
10
5
30
30
175
10
40
10
-
15
15
175
30
75
20
10
30
30
35
280
520
10
10
30
30
35
Disk 27(I)J Job J Draft #1 Ginny
11/3
Page 2
-------
M
l-l
M
TABLE VIII-24
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSES
SUBCATEGORY: Stock & Yarn Finishing
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 2800 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
DAILY CAPACITY: 9.4 kkg
MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 40
Treatment Alternative
F H J
Cost, thousands of dollars
20
37
18
70
19
34
-
-
-
_
-
15
24
32
20
37
18
70
19
34
19
77
-
-
_
-
15
32
46
20
37
18
70
19
34
19
77
300
300
_
-
15
78
136
20
37
18
70
19
34
-
-
-
80
80
15
39
56
20
37
-
-
19
34
21
82
-
-
80
80
15
40
58
Total Investment Costs
269
387
1123
468
486
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Stock & Yarn Finishing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES
MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
27
16
15
52
2.3
10
2
4
5
-
13
129
39
24
15
55
2.5
18
2
4
5
-
13
160
112
55
19
66
2.9
21
2
9
5
16
13
299
47
25
17
69
3.0
11
2
25
5
-
13
197
49
25
18
67
3.0
14
1
23
0
-
13
193
Resulting Mass Loading
170
644
38
19
161
95
190
33
227
9
9
161
95
190
33
227
9
5
161
95
190
9
57
9
-
19
47
190
33
104
9
9
9
95
38
142
284
9
9
9
95
38
Resulting Concentration
180
680
40
20
170
100
200
35
240
10
10
170
100
200
35
240
10
5
170
100
200
10
60
10
-
20
50
200
35
110
10
10
10
100
40
150
300
10
10
10
100
40
-------
TABLE VIII-25
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSES
oo
SUBCATEGORY: Nonwoven Manufacturing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 17,000 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 57 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 5
Treatment Alternative
B D F H J
Cost, thousands of dollars
29
55
30
120
19
34
-
-
-
-
-
15
33
45
29
55
30
120
19
34
30
120
_
-
-
-
15
44
68
29
55
30
120
19
34
30
120
340
340
-
-
15
98
170
29
55
30
120
19
34
-
_
-
150
150
15
55
90
29
55
_
-
19
34
32
130
_
-
150
150
15
56
92
Total Investment Costs
380
564
1400
747
762
-------
i
o
vO
SUBCATEGORY: Nonwoven Manufacturing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES
MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
38
23
15
68
3.0
20
4
6
12
-
13
184
56
35
15
75
3.3
34
5
6
12
-
13
236
140
72
18
94
4.2
40
5
19
12
40
13
435
75
38
18
87
3.9
22
4
57
12
-
13
308
76
39
18
87
3.9
24
2
54
2
-
13
297
Resulting Mass Loading
409
5367
182
136
91
23
80
591
45
23
91
23
68
568
23
11
91
23
23
136
23
-
11
11
80
273
45
23
-
23
318
2365
23
34
-
23
Resulting Concentration
180
2360
80
60
40
10
35
260
20
10
40
10
30
250
10
5
40
10
10
60
10
-
5
5
35
120
20
10
-
10
140
1040
10
15
-
10
-------
I
-o
o
TABLE VIII-26
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSES
SUBCATEGORY: Felted Fabric Processing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 1300 kkg
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Ozonation
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu in/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 4.4 kkg NUMBER OF MILLS REPRESENTED: 5
Treatment Alternative
B
15
24
32
19
77
15
32
46
F H
Cost, thousands of dollars
20
37
18
70
19
34
20
37
18
70
19
34
20
37
18
70
19
34
20
37
18
70
19
34
19
77
300
300
15
78
136
80
80
15
37
56
Total Investment Costs
269
387
1123
465
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Felted Fabric Processing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: PSES MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
1137
27
16
15
52
2.3
10
3
4
5
-
13
130
39
24
15
55
2.5
18
3
4
5
-
13
161
112
55
19
66
2.9
21
3
9
5
16
13
300
47
24
18
69
3.0
11
3
24
5
-
13
196
1137
Resulting Mass Loading
190
521
114
28
550
38
208
24
9
550
33
199
9
5
550
9
47
9
-
57
38
95
24
9
24
1137 1137 190
Resulting Concentration
200
550
120
30
580
1200
40
220
25
10
580
1200
35
210
10
5
580
1200
10
50
10
-
60
1200
40
100
25
10
25
200
-------
Zero Discharge
One of the solutions that is economically available to some industrial
plants is complete elimination of liquid process-related waste discharges
through in-plant measures, advanced waste treatment, and/or complete
water recycle programs. There is no evidence available that such a
solution is generally available to new sources in the Textile Mill
Point Source category. While much research is under way aimed at
conservation and reuse of certain materials, recovery of heat energy,
and reduction of water usage in a few processes, there are no typical
textile dyeing and finishing mills that are presently able to approach
zero discharge of process-related wastewaters. Exceptions to this
statement may include some mills in Subcategory 3 that contain all
wastes for land disposal rather than discharge to the sewer. There may
also be a few mills in other subcategories that have been able to
eliminate discharges of process-related wastes because of some unique
characteristics of their operation, but they do not represent most
mills in their subcategory.
In conclusion, the available information indicates that some form of
end-of-pipe treatment of textile mill wastewaters will be required
for the forseeable future, and that zero discharge cannot be included
as a control measure that is technically or economically available.
Before moving to consideration of end-of-pipe measures, the importance
of in-plant measures should be stressed again as a means of reducing
treatment costs. Treatment for relatively small concentrations of
priority pollutants in waste streams can often be very costly compared
to measures to eliminate their presence in the waste discharge initially.
In-plant control measures should be considered first in evaluating
solutions to waste control problems.
Water Usage Rates
In the past, the textile industry has done much to reduce water
consumption in its manufacturing operations. It is expected that this
trend will continue in the future, with water usage rates (I/kg or
gal/lb) gradually declining. For the cost estimates for new sources
in this report, however, the water usage rates are the same as those
for existing sources. There were no data available by which to estimate
what future usage rates may be for different subcategories and it was
determined that existing usage rates would be most appropriate.
Control Measures
An opportunity that is potentially available to new sources is the
separation of drainage piping in new mills so that waste streams with
significant amounts of priority pollutants can be segregated from those
without. The former could then be subjected to appropriate advanced
waste treatment processes with possibly improved efficiencies and reduced
costs due to the smaller volume of flow compared to treating the entire
volume of wastewater in the advanced processes.
VIII-72
-------
A review of the principal sources of priority pollutants in theoretically
typical mills in each subcategory was carried out based on the available
information about the chemicals used today in the industry. The major
sources appear to be certain dyes, dye carriers, solvents, preservatives,
and finishing chemicals. It was assumed that waste streams containing
significant amounts of priority pollutants would originate from dyeing
and rinsing, application of functional finishes, and solvent scouring
operations. Waste streams from bleaching, mercerizing, scouring,
acid treatment, and fulling and the associated rinses were assumed to
be free of priority pollutants except as tramp impurities in some
chemicals. It is recognized that some additives presently used in these
last listed operations may include priority pollutants. It was assumed
that chemicals without priority pollutants could be substituted for
these additives and for other preservatives, disinfectants, and plant
sanitary compounds presently in use. Laboratory wastes were assumed
to be included in the priority pollutant drainage system.
Based on available data, it was estimated that the priority pollutant
waste streams varied from about 10 percent to virtually 100 percent of
the total process-related waste flow among the "typical" mills in the
various subcategories. For the purposes of the cost estimates for
new sources, it was assumed that about two-thirds of the total waste
stream would contain significant levels of priority pollutants for all
subcategories. The precise flow split used varies slightly depending upon
the total model plant flow volume used.
The above assumptions were introduced in order to develop reasonable
cost estimates for new sources that are comparable to those for existing
sources. It is believed that further refinement of the assumptions
was not warranted in terms of the limited available information about
the sources of priority pollutants in textile mills or in terms of
improved accuracy of the estimated costs. The basic premise is that
savings in treatment costs, for larger systems, at least, will more than
offset the costs of installing and operating segregated drainage
systems for most new sources in the industry.
End-of-Pipe Technologies
The alternative end-of-pipe control technologies that are available
for existing sources cover the spectrum of processes that are presently
available for new sources. There is presently insufficient information
available by which to evaluate the efficiency of steam stripping
textile mill wastewaters as a means of removing low concentrations of
volatile priority pollutants that are refractory to other treatment
processes.
Each of the alternative end-of-pipe technologies described prevously
for existing sources was evaluated technically for application to new
sources. It was concluded that alternatives comprising treatment trains
similar to alternatives D, E, and F (Table VIII-1) were suitable for
use with new sources. Alternatives like B and C were judged not to
VIII-73
-------
be cost effective because they would require prior treatment of the
total waste flow by the equivalent of 8PT and would not provide complete
treatment of pollutants. Alternatives like G, H, J, and K were also
rejected because of the requirement for prior BPT-level treatment of the
whole waste stream and less than optimal removal of organic priority
pollutants.
Alternatives R, S, and T are designated for new sources and are roughly
equivalent to Alternatives D, E, and F, respectively. For each of these
three alternatives, comparisons at selected total flow levels were
made between the costs of treating segregated vs combined flow streams,
based on the assumption that two-thirds of the total flow required
treatment to reduce priority pollutants. It was determined that
segregation was significantly cheaper for Alternatives S and T for
direct dischargers and for all three alternatives for indirect dischargers.
NEW DIRECT DISCHARGE SOURCES
In-Plant Control Measures
As indicated elsewhere in this section, in-plant control measures will
become increasingly important in reducing end-of-pipe treatment costs
in all textile mills and especially in new sources. New mills should
be designed for pollution control in terms of manufacturing processes
and equipment selection. Design should include measures to contain
spills, require dry cleaning methods, and incorporate instrumentation
and other measures to conserve water. The benefits and costs of
segregating drains should be carefully evaluated so that potentially
toxic waste streams can be handled specifically and at minimum cost.
As with the existing direct discharge sources, the treatment alternatives
do not include any in-plant control measures.
Selected End-of-Pipe Technologies
Three alternative end-of-pipe treatment technologies are available
for direct discharging new sources in the textile mill category.
Alternative R (equivalent to Alternative D for existing sources)
comprises BPT, or its equivalent, plus chemical coagulation, sedimen-
tation, and multi-media filtration of the total (unsegregated) waste
stream. Segregation is not cost-effective for this alternative because
the entire waste stream must receive BPT-level treatment to reduce the
concentrations of conventional organic pollutants sufficiently to permit
discharge to a receiving water. Prior treatment by BPT should improve
the efficiency and/or lower the costs of the advanced treatment processes.
Alternative S provides screening, equalization, multi-media filtration,
and granular activated carbon adsorption of the priority pollutant waste
stream prior to discharge to the receiving water. The remaining waste
streams, without priority pollutants, are subjected to conventional,
8-hour aeration period activated sludge. For total mill flows of
946 cu m/day (0.25 mgd) and less, the priority pollutant waste streams
VIII-74
-------
are not segregated. It was judged that the smaller savings that would
result from segregated treatment would not offset the costs of separated
drainage systems. The total waste stream is treated by 24-hour
activated sludge, filtration, and carbon adsorption.
Alternative T combines the processes of Alternatives R and S and should
provide effective pollutant removals for discharge to receiving waters.
The segregated priority pollutant waste stream is treated in a train
comprising screening, equalization, chemical coagulation and sedimentation,
multi-media filtration, and granular activated carbon adsorption prior
to discharge to the receiving water. The remaining waste streams are
treated by conventional 8-hour activated sludge with prior screening
and return of biomass from a secondary clarifier. For total mill flows
of 946 cu m/day (0.25 mgd) and less, the priority pollutant waste
streams are not segregated, and the total flow is treated by 24-hour
activated sludge followed by chemical coagulation, sedimentation,
multi-media filtration, and carbon adsorption.
The three alternatives are described in Table VIII-27.
For all alternatives, thickened sludges are dewatered by vacuum filtration
prior to removal to disposal in off-site sanitary landfill. An additional
benefit of segregating the priority pollutant waste streams is that the
resulting sludges can be handled separately.
All but one of the individual processes comprising the three alternatives
are described previously in this section. Screening and equalization
are described under existing indirect dischargers.
Activated Sludge. Conventional activated sludge providing 8-hours
detention in the aeration basin is used for non-priority pollutant
waste streams when waste segregation is assumed (Alternatives S and T).
Extended-aeration activated sludge (24-hours aeration) is used for
unsegregated waste streams (Alternative R and smaller mill flows for
Alternatives S and T).
Investment Costs and Annual Costs
The same bases were used for the investment and annual costs for the
model direct new sources as previously described for existing direct
and indirect dischargers. Screening and equalization are covered under
existing indirect dischargers. Cost curves were also presented earlier
in this section (Figures VIII-1 through VIII-8).
Total installed costs are broken into equipment and construction
fractions as follows:
Process Equipment Construction
Activated Sludge 20% 80%
VIII-75
-------
TABLE VIII-27
ALTERNATIVE END-OF-PIPE-TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
NEW SOURCES - DIRECT DISCHARGE
Technology Description
R Screening, 24-hour extended-aeration activated
sludge with solids recycle, chemical coagulation,
sedimentation, and multi-media filtration.
S Larger flows: Priority pollutant stream - Screening,
equalization, multi-media filtration, and granular
activated carbon adsorption. Other streams -
Screening and 8-hour activated sludge with solids
recycle.
Smaller flows: Total mill waste flow - Screening,
24-hour extended-aeration activated sludge with
solids recycle, multi-media filtration and granular
activated carbon adsorption.
T Larger flows: Priority pollutant stream - Screening,
equalization, chemical coagulation, sedimentation,
multi-media filtration, and granular activated
carbon adsorption. Other streams - Screening and
8-hour activated sludge with solids recycle.
Smaller flows: Total mill waste flow - Screening,
24-hour extended-aeration activated sludge with
solids recycle, chemical coagulation, sedimentation,
multi-media filtration, and granular activated
carbon adsorption.
VIII-76
-------
Land Costs
Land requirements for waste treatment facilities will vary depending
upon the wastewater flow and whether or not segregation of waste streams
is instituted. The activated sludge process will dictate the overall
land needs in the larger faclities and they could range up to 5 hectares
(12.4 acres) or more, depending upon detention period, water depth, and
type of construction used for side walls. The land requirements for
wastewater treatment facilities would be included in the planning for the
new mill site.
Model Plant Costs
For new direct discharge sources, one representative model plant size
was selected for each subcategory from among the model plant sizes
developed for existing sources (Table VIII-2). As noted earlier, no
adjustment was made for improvements in water conservation practices
in new mills.
It was determined that it was very unlikely that new Wool Scouring mills
will be constructed in the forseeable future. Consequently, this
subcategory is not included in the model plant cost estimates.
The selected model plant sizes, expressed as wastewater flow rate are
presented in Table VIII-28.
Cost Effectiveness Summaries
Model plant control cost summary sheets were developed for each model
plant to provide a synopsis of the cost analysis and resulting benefits
are provided in Tables VIII-29 through VIII-39. As noted previously,
Alternatives R, S, and T in Table VIII-27 are equivalent to Alternatives
D, E, and F in Table VIII-1 for existing sources.
NEW INDIRECT DISCHARGE SOURCES
The discussion presented previously for existing indirect discharge
sources applies also to new sources. Also, the discussion presented
previously about zero discharge, water usage rates, and segregation of
waste streams containing priority pollutants applies equally to both
direct and indirect discharge new sources. The benefits of segregation
are more evident for indirect sources because the need for biological
treatment is eliminated when discharging to a POTW's.
In-plant control measures are discussed in Section VII and their impor-
tance is emphasized previously in this section. They should be explored
fully for new indirect sources to determine whether or not the discharge
of priority pollutants can be controlled adequately to eliminate the need
for substantial end-of-pipe treatment facilities.
VIII-77
-------
VIII-78
-------
TABLE VIII-28
SELECTED MODEL PLANT SIZES
NEW SOURCES
Size, mgd
Subcategory Discharge*
1.
2.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing
Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
D
I
Total Q
0.25
0.25
1.5
1.5
0.60
0.25
3.0
0.60
1.5
1.5
1.0
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.11
0.25
0.25
0.60
0.60
0.25
0.25
0.60
0.25
0.25
PPQ**
0.25
0.15
1.0
1.0
0.40
0.15
1.8
0.40
1.0
1.0
0.60
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.11
0.15
0.25
0.40
0.40
0.15
0.25
0.40
0.25
0.15
Q-PPQ
0.10
0.50
0.50
0.20
0.10
1.2
0.20
0.50
0.50
0.40
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.10
0.20
0.20
0.10
0.20
0.10
* D refers to direct and I to indirect.
** PPQ - Priority pollutant stream, segregated from other wastewaters
VIII-79
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Wool Finishing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 6,000 kkg
i
oo
o
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
TABLE VIII-29
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - NSPS
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS
MODEL FLOW: 5,678 (1.5) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 20 kkg
Treatment Alternative
R S T
Cost, thousands of dollars
15
60
260
1,040
50
200
20
38
26
106
23
92
_
-
_
-
26
106
23
92
40
160
19
34
52
208
15
158
294
40
160
415
415
15
111
194
40
160
415
415
15
124
232
Total Investment Costs
2,409 1,597 1,901
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Wool Finishing
Annual Costs
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS
MODEL FLOW: 5,678 (1.5) cu m/day (mgd)
GO
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
_
-
-
-
966
3,411
341
682
2,842
19,898
170
600
60
120
500
3,500
241
150
15
152
6.8
87
4
35
30
-
27
726
28
1,023
57
455
1,137
11,370
5
180
10
80
200
2,000
160
78
19
120
5.3
41
7
37
_
66
27
536
Resulting
284
795
57
57
1420
19,873 11
Resulting
50
140
10
10
250
3,500 2
190
99
18
170
7.5
69
8
42
20
66
27
690
Mass Loading
0-28
256
57
57
568
,370
Concentration
0-5
45
10
10
100
,000
-------
TABLE VIII-30
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - NSPS
i
oo
fo
SUBCATEGORY: Woven Fabric Finishing-
Simple Processing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 8,700 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS
Treatment Alternative
R S T
Cost, thousands of dollars
MODEL FLOW: 2,271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 29 kkg
7
30
48
192
30
120
19
34
30
120
15
59
97
20
78
13
54
24
98
320
320
15
81
141
20
78
13
54
23
92
19
34
24
98
320
320
15
96
167
Total Investment Costs
801 1,165 1,372
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Woven Fabric Finishing-
Simple Processing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
<
M
M Effluent Quality
CONTROL LEVEL: NfSPS
MODEL FLOW: 2,271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
CO
OJ
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
270
900
60
70
50
40
70
80
50
15
106
4.7
43
8
20
12
-
27
346
117
57
19
77
5.4
21
5
20
_
26
27
349
137
67
19
119
5.3
35
6
21
8
26
27
445
Resulting Mass Loading
11
296
23
11
45
45
296
5
130
10
5
20
20
130
0-11
114
23
-
-
23
296
Resulting
0-5
50
10
-
-
10
130
0-11
80
23
-
-
23
296
Concentration
0-5
35
10
-
-
10
130
-------
TABLE VIII-31
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - NSPS
i
GO
SUBCATEGORY: Woven Fabric Finishing-
Complex Processing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 39,000 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS
Treatment Alternative
S T
Cost, thousands of dollars
MODEL FLOW: 11,355 (3.0) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 130 kkg
22
88
420
1,680
76
304
23
44
82
328
15
30
462
41
162
40
160
58
232
590
590
15
152
283
41
162
40
160
57
228
21
40
58
232
590
590
15
180
335
Total Investment Costs
3,775 2,323 2,749
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Woven Fabric Finishing-
Complex Processing
Annual Costs
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS
MODEL FLOW: 11,355 (3.0) cu m/day (mgd)
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
M Effluent Quality
oo
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
3,974
12,491
1,249
568
568
1,249
1,136
350
1,100
110
50
50
110
100
378
236
15
209
9.3
152
6
55
60
27
1,122
57
1,478
114
57
1,251
341
682
5
130
10
5
110
30
60
378
236
15
209
9.3
152
6
55
60
-
27
232
114
19
167
7.4
679
3
64
_
117
27
275
143
18
225
10
116
4
73
35
117
27
793 1,015
Resulting Mass Loading
0-57
568
114
114
170
682
0-57
398
114
114
170
682
Resulting Concentration
0-5
50
10
10
15
60
0-5
35
10
10
15
60
-------
TABLE VIII-32
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - NSPS
i
00
SUBCATEGORY: Woven Fabric Finishing-
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS
Complex Processing Plus Designing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 15,000 kkg
Treatment Alternative
A R S T
MODEL FLOW: 5,678 (1.5) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 50 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
Cost, thousands of dollars
15
60
260
1,040
50
200
19
34
26
106
23
92
-
-
26
106
23
92
40
160
20
37
52
208
27
157
293
40
160
415
415
27
111
194
40
160
415
415
27
125
232
Total Investment Costs
2,403 1,597 1,906
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Woven Fabric Finishing-
Complex Processing Plus Designing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
M Effluent Quality
CO
BOD5, kg/ day
COD, kg/ day
TSS, kg/ day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols , g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS MODEL FLOW: 5,678 (1.5) cu m/day (mgd)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
2,388
7,049
853
398
853
568
9,664
420
1,240
150
70
150
100
1,700
240
150
15
152
6.8
87
3
35
30
-
27
759
28
739
57
28
199
170
6,254
5
130
10
5
35
30
1,100
160
78
19
120
5.3
41
7
37
_
66
27
536
Resulting
0-28
284
57
-
28
85
6,254 6
Resulting
0-5
50
10
-
5
15
1,100 1
191
99
18
170
7.5
69
4
42
20
66
27
688
Mass Loading
0-28
199
57
-
28
85
,254
Concentration
0-5
35
10
-
5
15
,100
-------
TABLE VIII-33
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - NSPS
i
oo
oo
SUBCATEGORY: Knit Fabric Finishing-
Simple Processing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 9,300 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS
Treatment Alternative
S T
Cost, thousands of dollars
MODEL FLOW: 3,785 (1.0) cu ra/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 31 kkg
10
40
200
800
40
160
19
34
22
99
20
80
-
-
22
99
20
80
30
120
19
34
40
160
15
122
228
30
120
340
340
15
91
158
30
120
340
340
15
109
189
Total Investment Costs
1,868 1,305 1,556
-------
M
I
oo
vO
SUBCATEGORY: Knit Fabric Finishing-
Simple Processing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS
MODEL FLOW: 3,785 (1.0) cu m/day (mgd)
V Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
187
116
15
129
5.7
63
6
27
20
-
27
576
131
64
19
99
4.4
29
6
27
_
40
27
422
156
80
18
144
6.4
48
7
33
12
40
27
547
Resulting Mass Loading
796
3,297
190
303
417
303
6,443
19
568
38
19
208
227
493
0-19
227
38
-
19
114
493
0-19
152
38
-
19
114
493
Resulting Concentration
210
870
50
80
110
80
1,700
5
150
10
5
55
60
130
0-5
60
10
-
5
30
130
0-5
40
10
-
5
30
130
-------
TABLE VIII-34
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - NSPS
i
v£>
O
SUBCATEGORY: Knit Fabric Finishing-
Complex Processing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 5,600 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
R
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS
Treatment Alternative
S T
Cost, thousands of dollars
MODEL FLOW: 2,271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 18.6 kkg
7
30
48
192
30
120
19
34
20
78
13
54
-
-
20
78
13
54
23
92
19
34
30
120
15
59
97
24
98
320
320
15
81
141
24
98
320
320
15
96
167
Total Investment Costs
801
1,165 1,372
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Knit Fabric Finishing-
Complex Processing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
£ Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS MODEL FLOW: 2,271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
270
790
60
50
100
80
150
80
50
15
106
4.7
43
7
20
12
-
27
345
117
57
19
77
-
21
5
20
_
26
27
349
137
67
19
119
-
35
6
21
8
26
27
445
5
140
10
5
65
25
55
Resulting Mass Loading
0-11
125
23
11
23
125
Resulting
0-5
55
10
5
10
55
0-11
79
23
11
23
125
Concentration
0-5
35
10
5
10
55
-------
TABLE VIII-35
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - NSPS
vo
NJ
SUBCATEGORY: Knit Fabric Finishing-
Hosiery Products
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 1,800 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS
Treatment Alternative
S T
Cost, thousands of dollars
5 5
21 No 21
Alternative
18 S for 18
72 this 72
Subcategory
11 11
43 43
19 19
34 34
MODEL FLOW: 416 (0.11) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 6 kkg
12
47
27
32
45
12
47
300
300
27
38
54
Total Investment Costs
374
454
-------
SUBCATEGORY:
Annual Costs
Knit' Fabric Finishing-
Hosiery Products
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS MODEL FLOW: 416 (0.11) cu m/day (mgd)
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
2 Effluent Quality
H * * ' '
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
133
570
33
42
25
33
233
2
83
4
-
14
12
23
320
1,370
80
100
60
80
560
37 45
23 26
15 16
64 65
2.8
13 15
4 5
8 8
2 2
91
27 27
179 284
Resulting Mass Loading
0-2
21
4
2
6
23
Resulting Concentration
5 0-5
200 50
10 10
35 5
30 15
55 55
-------
I
VD
P*
SUBCATEGORY: Carpet Finishing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 6,100 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
TABLE VIII-36
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - NSPS
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS
MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 20 kkg
Treatment Alternative
R S T
Cost, thousands of dollars
6
24
29
116
18
70
19
34
6
24
29
116
-
-
6
24
29
116
18
70
19
34
19
77
27
42
64
19
77
300
300
27
76
133
19
77
300
300
27
89
154
Total Investment Costs
532 1,095 1,270
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Carpet Finishing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
£j Effluent Quality
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
\o
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
416
1,126
66
19
123
28
166
440
1,190
70
20
130
30
175
53
33
15
77
3.4
23
5
12
5
-
27
235
5
142
9
5
95
24
57
5
150
10
5
100
25
60
110
57
18
48
2.1
16
4
16
_
17
27
293
Resulting
' 0-5
52
9
-
9
9
57
Resulting
0-5
55
10
-
10
10
60
127
66
18
87
3.9
26
5
17
5
17
27
376
Mass Loading
0-5
38
9
-
9
9
57
Concentration
0-5
40
10
-
10
10
60
-------
TABLE VIII-37
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - NSPS
i
vO
SUBCATEGORY: Stock & Yarn Finishing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 6,800 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS
Treatment Alternative
R 5 T
Cost, thousands of dollars
MODEL FLOW: 2,271 (0.6) cu in/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 23 kkg
7
30
48
192
30
120
19
34
20
78
13
54
-
-
20
78
13
54
23
92
19
34
30
120
27
59
97
24
98
320
320
27
81
141
24
98
320
320
27
96
167
Total Investment Costs
801 1,165 1,372
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Stock & Yarn Finishing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
£ Effluent Quality
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS
MODEL FLOW: 2,271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
M
VO
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
80
50
15
106
4.7
43
8
20
12
-
27
117
57
19
77
3.1
21
5
20
_
26
27
137
67
19
119
4.9
35
5
21
8
26
27
346
349
445
Resulting Mass Loading
409
1,546
91
45
386
227
455
11
182
23
11
125
91
273
0-11
68
23
-
11
45
273
0-11
45
23
-
11
45
273
Resulting Concentration
180
680
40
20
170
100
200
5
80
10
5
55
40
120
0-5
30
10
-
5
20
120
0-5
20
10
-
5
20
120
-------
TABLE VIII-38
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - NSPS
i
10
CD
SUBCATEGORY: Nonwoven Manufacturing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 3,120 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
R
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS
Treatment Alternative
S T
Cost, thousands of dollars
MODEL FLOW: 416 (0.21) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 10.4 kkg
6
24
29
116
18
70
19
34
6
24
29
116
-
-
6
24
29
116
18
70
19
34
19
77
27
42
64
19
77
300
300
27
76
133
19
77
300
300
27
89
154
Total Investment Costs
532 1,095 1,270
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Nonwoven Manufacturing
Annual Costs
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS MODEL FLOW: 416 (0.11) cu m/day (mgd)
M
M
VO
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
180
2,360
80
60
40
10
R
53
33
15
77
3.4
23
5
12
5
-
27
235
S
110
57
18
48
2.1
16
4
16
_
17
27
293
T
127
66
18
87
3.9
26
5
17
5
17
27
376
30
250
10
5
40
10
Resulting Mass Loading
23
241
4
0
2
2
Resulting
55
580
10
0
5
5
4
25
4
0
2
2
Concentration
10
60
10
0
5
5
-------
TABLE VIII-39
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - NSPS
SUBCATEGORY: Felted Fabric Processing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 585 kkg
o
o
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS
Treatment Alternative
S T
Cost, thousands of dollars
MODEL FLOW: 416 (0.11) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 2 kkg
6
24
29
116
18
70
19
34
6
24
29
116
-
-
6
24
29
116
18
70
19
34
19
77
27
42
64
19
77
300
300
27
76
133
19
77
300
300
27
89
154
Total Investment Costs
532 1,095 1,270
-------
i
i'
o
SUBCATEGORY: Felted Fabric Processing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: NSPS MODEL FLOW: 416 (0.11) cu m/day (mgd)
499
53
33
15
77
3. A
23
5
12
5
-
27
235
110
57
18
A8
2.1
16
4
16
_
17
27
293
127
66
18
87
3.9
26
5
17
5
17
27
376
Resulting Mass Loading
83
229
50
13
241
15
87
4
2
241
25
50
4
0
25
4
21
4
0
25
499 499 499
Resulting Concentration
200
550
120
30
580
35
210
10
5
580
60
120
10
0
60
10
50
10
0
60
1,200 1,200 1,200 1,200
-------
End-of-Pipe Technologies
Alternatives R, S, and T for new direct discharge sources are modified
for new indirect sources by eliminating the activated sludge process
and providing segregation of the priority pollutant waste stream in
all cases and for all model plant flows. Screening is provided for
all wastes prior to discharge and equalization is provided for the
priority pollutant stream prior to any advanced treatment processes.
The alternatives are described briefly in Table VIII-40.
The criteria used in sizing the various processes for Alternatives R,
S, and T are discussed under existing sources.
Investment Costs and Annual Costs
The bases used for estimating investment costs for new indirect discharge
sources were the same as those for existing sources and are discussed
previously in this section. The cost curves in Figures VIII-1 through
VIII-8 apply for new indirect discharge sources.
Land Costs
Without activated sludge facilities, the land requirements for new
indirect discharge sources will be considerably smaller than for new
direct discharge sources, i.e., less than 1 hectare (2.5 acres) for the
largest flows.
Model Plant Costs
The model plant sizes selected for new indirect discharge sources are
given in Table VIII-28.
Cost Effectiveness Summaries
Tables VIII-41 through VIII-51 provide synopses of the elements in the
estimated costs and the expected resultant benefits for the model plants
selected to represent new indirect discharge sources in each subcategory.
ENERGY ASPECTS
An analysis was carried out to estimate the energy requirements of
the end-of-pipe treatment alternatives in terms of reported total
mill energy usage for selected subcategories. The annual energy
requirements for each treatment alternative were derived in order to
estimate the cost for electrical power for the various equipment components.
For each of the selected subcategories, the estimated energy requirements
were expressed in terms of annual production for the model plant sizes.
From the detailed questionnaires, the reported total mill energy consumption
as electric power, oil, and gas was calculated in common units and expressed
in terms of annual production. The median value for the mills in each sub-
category, combining both direct and indirect dischargers, was then used as the
base value for that subcategory. The median total mill energy consumption
values per unit of production for the selected subcategories are as
follows:
VIII-102
-------
TABLE VIII-40
ALTERNATIVE END-OF-PIPE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
NEW SOURCES - INDIRECT DISCHARGE
Technology Description
Priority pollutant stream - Screening, equalization,
chemical coagulation, sedimentation, and multi-media
filtration. Other streams - Screening.
Priority pollutant stream - Screening, equalization,
multi-media filtration, and granular activated
carbon adsorption. Other streams - Screening.
Priority pollutant stream - Screening, equalization,
chemical coagulation, sedimentation, multi-media
filtration, and granular activated carbon adsorption.
Other streams - Screening.
VIII-103
-------
o
*«
SUBCATEGORY: Wool Finishing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 600 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
TABLE VIII-41
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSNS
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS MODEL FLOW: 5678 (1.5) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 20 kkg
Treatment Alternative
R S T
Cost, thousands of dollars
26
106
40
160
15
55
90
26
106
40
160
415
415
15
106
185
26
106
40
160
19
34
-
-
19
34
40
160
19
34
40
160
415
415
115
115
215
Total Investment Costs
745
1521
1760
-------
M
M
I
o
Ol
SUBCATEGORY: Wool Finishing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemi caIs: Polyme r
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS MODEL FLOW: 5678 (1.5) cu in/day (mgd)
75
43
16
111
4.9
50
7
7
20
-
13
327
152
75
19
130
5.8
43
6
24
_
66
13
507
176
86
19
139
6.2
61
8
28
20
66
13
596
Resulting Mass Loading
966
3411
341
-
682
2842
19898
170
1308
57
-
682
2842
19898
285
197
57
6
57
1421
19915
57
341
57
-
57
1421
19898
Resulting Concentration
170
600
60
120
500
3500
30
230
10
120
500
3500
50
140
10
10
250
3500
10
60
10
10
500
3500
-------
TABLE VIII-42
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSNS
SUBCATEGORY: Woven Fabric Finishing -
Simple Processing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 3600 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
16
65
14
56
15
31
43
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS
MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
16
65
14
56
280
280
15
67
117
DAILY CAPACITY: 12 kkg
Treatment Alternative
T
Cost, thousands of dollars
16
65
13
52
19
34
-
-
19
34
13
52
19
34
14
56
280
280
15
73
127
Total Investment Costs
358
963
1043
-------
SUBCATEGORY:
Woven Fabric Finishing -
Simple Processing
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
I
(-
O
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
36
19
17
69
3.1
13
2
2
3
-
13
156
96
47
19
72
3.2
12
2
4
-
10
13
257
104
51
19
76
3.4
15
2
5
3
10
13
279
Resulting Mass Loading
255
853
57
66
47
38
66
38
256
9
5
41
38
66
85
207
10
0
5
19
66
14
66
9
-
5
19
66
Resulting Concentration
270
900
60
70
50
40
70
40
270
10
5
50
40
70
90
220
10
0
5
20
70
15
70
10
-
5
20
70
-------
TABLE VIII-43
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSNS
o
00
SUBCATEGORY: Woven Fabric Finishing -
Complex Processing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 7900 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
R
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS
MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 26 kkg
Treatment Alternative
T
Cost, thousands of dollars
20 20 20
78 78 78
23 - 23
92 - 92
19 19 19
34 34 34
24 24 24
98 98 98
320 320
320 320
15 15 15
39 80 90
61 139 157
Total Investment Costs
503
1147
1289
-------
I
I>
SO
SUBCATEGORY:
Annual Costs
Woven Fabric Finishing -
Complex Processing
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS
MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
50
27
17
85
3.8
26
4
3
8
-
13
115
56
19
93
4.1
23
4
10
_
26
13
129
63
19
99
4.4
31
5
11
8
26
13
217 340 351
Resulting Mass Loading
796
2501
250
114
114
250
227
91
614
23
11
114
250
227
0-11
114
23
0
23
34
136
34
159
23
-
11
125
227
Resulting Concentration
350
1100
110
50
50
110
100
40
270
10
5
50
110
100
0-5
50
10
0
10
15
60
15
70
10
-
5
55
100
-------
TABLE VIII-44
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSNS
t
i-1
i-"
o
SUBCATEGORY: Woven Fabric Finishing-
Complex Processing Plus Desizing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 1500 kkg
Investment Costs
R
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
26
106
40
160
15
56
91
26
106
40
160
415
415
15
106
185
DAILY CAPACITY:
Treatment Alternative
T
Cost, thousands of dollars
26
106
MODEL FLOW: 5678 (1.5) cu m/day (mgd)
50 kkg
40
160
19
34
-
-
19
34
40
160
20
37
40
160
415
415
15
115
215
Total Investment Costs
750
1521
1765
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Woven Fabric Finishing-
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS
Complex Processing Plus Desizing
MODEL FLOW: 5678 (1.5) cu m/day (mgd)
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
75 152 1765
43 75 87
16 19 19
111 130 139
4.9 5.8 5.6
50 43 61
868
7 24 28
20 - 20
66 66
13 13 13
328 507 598
Resulting Mass Loading
2388
7049
853
398
853
568
9664
170
796
57
28
853
568
9664
0-28
284
57
0
28
85
6248
57
199
57
-
85
284
9664
Resulting Concentration
420
1240
150
70
150
100
1700
30
140
10
5
150
100
1700
0-5
50
10
0
5
15
1100
10
35
10
-
15
50
1700
-------
TABLE VIII-45
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSNS
SUBCATEGORY: Knit Fabric Finishing-
Simple Processing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 5600 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
R
20
78
24
98
15
39
61
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS
MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
20
80
24
98
320
320
15
80
139
DAILY CAPACITY: 18.6 kkg
Treatment Alternative
T
Cost, thousands of dollars
20
78
23
92
19
34
-
-
19
34
23
92
19
34
24
98
320
320
15
90
157
Total Investment Costs
503
1147
1289
-------
SUBCATEGORY:
Annual Costs
Knit Fabric Finishing-
Simple Processing
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
50 115 129
27 56 63
17 19 19
85 93 99
3.8 4.1 4.4
26 23 31
444
3 10 11
8-8
26 26
13 13 13
216 340 381
Resulting Mass Loading
478
1978
114
182
250
182
3866
91
591
23
11
250
182
3866
159
477
23
0
23
91
3859
34
148
23
-
23
91
3866
Resulting Concentration
210
870
50
80
110
80
1700
40
260
10
5
110
80
1700
70
210
10
0
10
40
1700
15
65
10
-
10
40
1700
-------
TABLE VIII-46
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSNS
SUBCATEGORY:
Knit Fabric Finishing-
Complex Processing
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 5600 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
20
78
24
98
15
39
60
20
78
24
98
320
320
15
80
139
DAILY CAPACITY:
Treatment Alternative
T
Cost, thousands of dollars
20
78
MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
18.6 kkg
23
92
19
34
-
-
19
34
23
92
19
34
24
98
320
320
15
90
157
Total Investment Costs
503
1147
1289
-------
SUBCATEGORY:
Knit Fabric Finishing-
Complex Processing
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BODS, mg/1
COD7 mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
50
27
17
85
3.8
26
5
3
8
-
13
217
115
56
19
93
4.1
23
4
10
_
26
13
340
129
63
19
99
4.4
31
5
11
8
26
13
351
Resulting Mass Loading
614
1796
136
114
227
182
341
91
591
23
11
227
182
341
204
431
23
0
23
91
341
34
148
23
-
23
91
341
Resulting Concentration
270
790
60
50
100
80
150
40
260
10
5
100
80
150
90
190
10
0
10
40
150
15
65
10
-
10
40
150
-------
TABLE VIII-47
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSNS
SUBCATEGORY: Knit Fabric Finishing-
Hosiery Products
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 4100 kkg
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 13.6 kkg
Treatment Alternative
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
16
65
14
56
15
31
43
16
65
14
56
280
280
15
67
117
Cost, thousands of dollars
16
65
13
52
19
34
-
-
19
34
13
52
19
34
14
56
280
280
15
73
127
Total Investment Costs
358
963
1043
-------
SUBCATEGORY:
Knit Fabric Finishing-
Hosiery Products
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
36
19
17
68
3.0
13
3
2
3
-
13
150
96
47
19
72
3.2
12
2
4
_
10
13
257
104
51
19
76
3.4
15
3
5
3
10
13
279
Resulting Mass Loading
303
1298
76
95
57
76
531
47
265
9
5
57
76
531
95
314
10
0
5
38
532
19
66
9
-
5
38
531
Resulting Concentration
320
1370
80
100
60
80
560
50
280
10
5
60
80
560
100
330
10
0
5
40
560
20
70
10
-
5
40
560
-------
TABLE VIII-48
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSNS
SUBCATEGORY: Carpet Finishing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 14600 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
20
80
24
98
15
40
61
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 49 kkg
Treatment Alternative
1
Cost, thousands of dollars
20
80
24
98
320
320
15
80
139
20
78
23
92
19
34
-
-
19
34
23
92
19
34
24
98
320
320
15
90
157
Total Investment Costs
503
1147
1289
-------
SUBCATEGORY: Carpet Finishing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS
MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
50
27
17
85
3.8
26
5
3
8
13
217
115
56
19
93
4.1
23
4
10
26
13
340
129
63
19
99
3.5
31
5
11
13
351
Resulting Mass Loading
1000
2706
159
45
296
68
398
57
364
23
11
296
68
398
341
658
23
0
34
34
397
23
91
23
-
34
34
396
Resulting Concentration
440
1190
70
20
130
30
175
25
160
10
5
30
30
175
150
290
10
0
15
15
175
10
40
10
-
15
15
175
-------
N>
O
TABLE VIII-49
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSNS
SUBCATEGORY: Stock & Yarn Finishing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 2800 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construction
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
R
16
65
14
56
15
31
43
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 9.4 kkg
Treatment Alternative
5 T
Cost, thousands of dollars
16
65
14
56
280
280
15
67
117
16
65
13
52
19
34
-
-
19
34
13
52
19
34
14
56
280
280
15
73
127
Total Investment Costs
358
963 1043
-------
I
I-1
NJ
SUBCATEGORY: Stock & Yarn Finishing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
36
19
17
68
3.0
13
2
2
3
-
27
170
96
47
19
72
3.2
12
2
4
-
10
13
257
104
51
19
76
3.4
15
2
5
3
10
13
278
Resulting Mass Loading
170
644
38
19
161
95
190
33
227
9
5
161
95
190
57
152
10
0
19
48
190
9
57
9
-
19
47
190
Resulting Concentration
180
680
40
20
170
100
200
35
240
10
5
170
100
200
60
160
10
0
20
50
200
10
60
10
-
20
50
200
-------
TABLE VIII-50
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSNS
SUBCATEGORY: Nonwoven Manufacturing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 17,000 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construct..on
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
20
80
24
98
15
40
61
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 57 kkg
Treatment Alternative
3 T
Cost, thousands of dollars
20
80
24
98
320
320
15
80
139
20
78
23
92
19
34
-
-
19
34
23
92
19
34
24
98
320
320
15
90
157
Total Investment Costs
503
1147
1289
-------
INJ
OJ
SUBCATEGORY: Nonwoven Manufacturing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, rag/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS MODEL FLOW: 2271 (0.6) cu m/day (mgd)
50 115 129
27 56 63
17 19 19
85 93 99
3.8 4.1 4.4
26 23 31
545
3 10 11
8-8
26 26
13 13 13
217 340 351
Resulting Mass Loading
409
5367
182
136
91
23
68
568
23
11
91
23
125
1317
23
0
11
11
23
136
23
-
11
11
Resulting Concentration
180
2360
80
60
40
10
30
250
10
5
40
10
55
580
10
0
5
5
10
60
10
-
5
5
-------
TABLE VIII-51
MODEL PLANT CONTROL COST SUMMARY - PSNS
I
l->
NJ
SUBCATEGORY: Felted Fabric Processing
ANNUAL CAPACITY: 1300 kkg
Investment Costs
Preliminary Treatment
Equipment
Construction
Activated Sludge
Equipment
Construction
Chemical Coagulation
Equipment
Construct]on
Vacuum Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Dissolved Air Flotation
Equipment
Construction
Multi-Media Filtration
Equipment
Construction
Activated Carbon
Equipment
Construction
Monitoring
Engineering
Contingencies
16
65
14
56
15
31
43
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
DAILY CAPACITY: 4.4 kkg
Treatment Alternative
5 T
Cost, thousands of dollars
16
65
14
56
280
280
15
67
117
16
65
13
52
19
34
-
-
19
34
13
52
19
34
14
56
280
280
15
73
127
Total Investment Costs
358
963
1043
-------
I
(-
ro
SUBCATEGORY: Felted Fabric Processing
Annual Costs
Capital
Depreciation
Useful Life (years)
O&M Labor
Employees (persons)
Maintenance
Sludge Disposal
Energy & Power
Chemicals: Polymer
Alum
Carbon
Monitoring
Total Annual Costs
Effluent Quality
BOD5, kg/day
COD, kg/day
TSS, kg/day
O&G, kg/day
Phenols, g/day
Chromium, g/day
Sulfide, g/day
BOD5, mg/1
COD, mg/1
TSS, mg/1
O&G, mg/1
Phenols, ug/1
Chromium, ug/1
Sulfide, ug/1
CONTROL LEVEL: PSNS MODEL FLOW: 946 (0.25) cu m/day (mgd)
1137
200
550
120
30
580
1200
36
19
17
69
3.1
13
4
2
3
-
3
158
96
47
19
72
3.2
12
2
4
_
10
13
257
104
51
19
76
3.4
15
4
5
3
10
13
280
1137
35
210
10
5
580
1200
1140
60
120
10
0
60
1200
Resulting Mass Loading
190
521
114
28
550
33
199
9
5
550
57
114
10
0
57
9
47
9
-
57
1137
Resulting Concentration
10
50
10
60
1200
-------
No. Median Mill Consumption
Subcategory of Mills gt/kkg* Btu/lb
1. Wool Scouring 8 18.7 8,100
2. Wool Finishing 15 16.0 26,000
5. Knit Fabric Finishing** 75 40.9 18,000
6. Carpet Finishing 25 21.2 9,100
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing 10 19.6 8,400
* gigiJoules (billions of Joules) per kkg of production.
** exluding Hosiery Products manufacturing.
The maximum energy requirement for each end-of-pipe treatment alternative
for each of the selected subcategories was expressed as a percentage of
the base value to determine the additional energy requirements per
unit of production. The results are presented in Table VIII-52. The
estimated additional energy requirements for Alternatives B, C, D, E,
and F (Table VIII-1) are all well under 2 percent. For Alternatves
G, H, J, and K, which involve ozonation, the additional energy requirements
range from 2.5 to 5.5 percent. For the New Source Alternatives R, S, and
T (Table VIII-27), the requirements range from approximately 1 to 2
percent of the total mill energy consumption.
SLUDGE MANAGEMENT
Current Practices
Useful questionnaire information on wastewater sludge management practices
was received from 78 mills; 15 indirect and 63 direct dischargers. In
addition, some mills indicated that their systems do not generate any
significant quantities of excess sludge. It is likely that the very
long detention periods employed in some biological treatment systems
in the industry result in very low sludge production levels. Also,
excess sludge may settle and gradually accumulate in some treatment
basins.
Sixty-seven of the 78 mills had biological sludges to be processed
and disposed of. Of the 11 remaining mills, one provides simple
screening and flotation of its wastewaters prior to discharge to a POTW.
The screenings and float are disposed of in a landfill without processing.
The remaining 10 mills produce a sludge through coagulation or chemical
pH adjustment. The effluent from 8 of these mills is discharged to
POTW's. In all cases, the sludge is removed to a landfill for disposal.
Six of these mills dispose of the sludge in a wet condition; two
dewater mechanically, one with a centrifuge and the other with a filter
press; and three dry the sludge on sand beds prior to disposal.
VIII-126
-------
TABLE VIII-52
ESTIMATED MAXIMUM ADDITIONAL ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
BASED ON MEDIAN TOTAL MILL USAGE
Subcategory
B
End-of-Pipe Treatment Alternatives
CDEFGHJKR*S*T*
Wool Finishing
Knit Fabric Finishing**
M Carpet Finishing
M
M
M Nonwoven Manufacturing
(Percent)
0.3 - 0.3 - 1.6 5.2 5.5 - 5.5 1.4 1.6 1.7
0.3 0.03 0.3 0.9 1.1 3.3 3.7 3.4 3.7 1.2 1.0 1.3
0.2 0.02 0.2 0.6 0.8 2.5 2.7 2.5 2.7 1.4 1.8 2.0
0.5 0.03 0.5 0.6 0.9 2.6 3.0 2.7 3.0 0.8 1.1 1.6
* Based on direct discharge models requiring biological treatment.
** Excluding Hosiery Products manufacturing.
-------
In evaluating the management practices of the 67 reported mill treatment
facilities that produce biological sludges, consideration was given
to both the processing and the disposal of the sludges. Processing
usually encompasses two aspects, stabilization and dewatering.
Stabilization, or digestion, of the putrescible organic materials in
biological sludges reduces the potential for odors and other
nuisance conditions and reduces pathogenic bacteria populations.
Dewatering removes excess free water to improve handling characteristics
and reduce transportation costs. Disposal refers to the final
disposition of the sludge.
Stabilizaton may be accomplished internally within the activated
sludge or other biological process by retaining the solids for extended
periods or externally in separate sludge digesters. Eighteen mills
have sludge digesters, all aerobic except one anaerobic unit. The
rest provide some degree of internal stabilization within the aeration
basins. For this study, internal aeration periods of greater than 48
hours were regarded as providing full stabilization; shorter periods,
as partial or no stabilization.
Dewatering usually refers to mechanical processes that force the excess
water out of the sludge producing a mass that does not flow or drip
and contains roughly 80 percent or less water by weight. Eight mills
provide mechanical dewatering systems; four vacuum filters, three centri-
fuges, and one filter press.
A more complete form of water removal is provided by the use of sand
drying beds. Twenty-four mills use sand drying beds prior to disposal.
The questionnaire responses about sludge disposal practices were classified
as landfill, land application, or on-site lagoons. The term "landfill"
refers to land disposal sites ranging from sanitary landfills to dumps.
Three of the mills reported the use of on-site landfills. Land application
refers to spraying wet sludge or spreading dry sludge solids over land
surfaces to reuse some of the organic components of the sludge.
The reported sludge processing and disposal practices are summarized
in Table VIII-53. Most of the mills provide full stabilization of
biological sludges and some form of excess water removal. Over 70
percent of the mills dispose of their sludge in landfills with the
remaining split about evenly between land application and long-term
on-site storage in lagoons.
Quantities
The questionnaire information on quantities of excess sludge to be
disposed of and the associated costs of processing and removal varied
widely among the mills that provided data. In most cases, the water
content of the sludge was not reported, and the questionnaire data,
expressed in terms of either volume or weight, could not be correlated
with other information about the type of treatment provided or the mill
production level.
VIII-128
-------
TABLE VIII-53
CURRENT SLUDGE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Numbers of Mill Treatment Facilities
Sludges Type Landfill Land Application Lagoons POTW's
Wet Biological
Partial Stabilization 7 1 31
Full Stabilization 10 6 61
Dewatered Biological
Partial Stabilization - - -
Full Stabilization 8 - -
Dry Biological
Partial Stabilization 2 - - -
Full Stabilization 19 3 -
Wet Chemical 5 - -
Dewatered Chemical 2 - - -
Dry Chemical 3 - -
VIII-129
-------
Fourteen mills reported biological sludge volumes ranging from 0.8
to 182 liters/cu m (0.2 to 48 gal/1000 gal) of wastewater treated.
The median value for these mills was approximately 23 liters/cu m
(6 gal/1000 gal). The wide range of values reflect differences in
aeration detention periods, loading rates, ambient temperatures, etc.
For reference, typical sludge production rates for conventional (8-hour)
activated sludge plants treating domestic sewage is 76 liters/cu m
(20 gal/1000 gal).
The estimated quantities of excess sludge generated by the various
end-of-pipe treatment alternatives for the model plants are presented
in Table VIII-54 for direct dischargers and Table VIII-55 for indirect
dischargers. The values are expressed in metric tons per year of
dewatered sludge containing 20 percent solids.
OTHER NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
At this time, there are be no known significant other non-water quality
environmental impacts in terms of air pollution, noise, or radiation from
application of any of the alternative end-of-pipe treatment alternatives.
A non-water quality aspect relating to air quality that is not peculiar
to the textile industry is the possible stripping of volatile priority
and other pollutants in treatment systems, particularly in activated
sludge aeration basins. A preliminary review of the data from the
field sampling program indicates that some of the Group 1 priority
pollutants that are generally regarded as being very resistant to
biodegradation are often removed substantially during passage of the
wastewater through secondary treatment systems. Release to the atmosphere
is theoretically'possible, but has not been measured at this time. The
possible impact on air quality has not been evaluated.
VIII-130
-------
TABLE VIII-54
ESTIMATED QUANTITIES OF DEWATERED SLUDGE FOR REPRESENTATIVE MODEL PLANTS*
DIRECT DISCHARGERS
Subcatetory
ABC
End-of-Pipe Treatment Alternatives
D E F G H** J** K**
R S T
(Metric Tons/Year)
1. Wool Scouring
Existing Sources
New Sources
2. Wool Finishing
Existing Sources
New Sources
4. Woven Fabric Finishing
M a. Simple Processing
M Existing Sources
,1 New Sources
h
b. Complex Processing
Existing Sources
New Sources
c. Complex Processing
Existing Sources
New Sources
5. Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
Existing Sources
New Sources
180
2200 890
670 930 670
1100
1100 0 890
1100
890 260 70 330 70 330 0 260 70 330
4000 1300 680 1600 680 1600 0 1300 680 1600
2200 640 340 810 170 810 0 640 340 810
1400 430 110 540 110 540 0 430 110 540
3200 1300 1700
1200 550 710
5300 2700 3600
2800 1300 2000
1900 950 1100
-------
TABLE VII1-54 (Continued)
Subcatetory
End-of-Pipe Treatment Alternatives
A B C D E F G H**J**K**R S T
u>
NI
b. Complex Processing
Existing Sources
New Sources
c. Hosiery Products
Existing Sources
New Sources
6. Carpet Finishing
Existing Sources
New Sources
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Existing Sources
New Sources
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
Existing Sources
New Sources
9. Felted Fabric Processing
Existing Sources
New Sources
(Metric Tons/Year)
890 260 140 330 140 330 0 260 140 330
1300 410 710
180 60
80
320 0 60
80
280
530
380 110 60 140 60 140 0 110 60 140
890 260 70 330 70 330 0 260 70 330
180 60 20 70 270 310 0 60 30 70
180 60
80
320 0 60
80
540 440 540
1200 410 710
540 440 540
560 440 560
* Quantities based on 20 percent solids content.
** Alternatives H, J and K represent alternatives M, N and P, respectively, for Subcategory 1 only.
-------
TABLE VIII-55
ESTIMATED QUANTITIES OF DEWATERED SLUDGE FOR REPRESENTATIVE MODEL PLANTS*
INDIRECT DISCHARGERS
Subcatetory
B
End-of-Pipe Treatment Alternatives
D E F G H** J** K**
R
(Metric Tons/Year)
I
I>
U)
Wool Scouring
Existing Sources
New Sources
Wool Finishing
Existing Sources
New Sources
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
Existing Sources
New Sources
b. Complex Processing
Existing Sources
New Sources
c. Complex Processing
Existing Sources
New Sources
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
Existing Sources
New Sources
640
150
490
1200
260
810
170
500
1260
330
810
170
500
1260
330
3950 4000 3950
640 340
150 60
490
1200
260 140
1100 750 1100
110 130 110
500 310 500
1400 750 1500
250 310 250
-------
TABLE VIII-55 (Continued)
Subcatetory
End-of-Pipe Treatment Alternatives
A B C D E F G H**J**K**R S T
(Metric Tons/Year)
10
b. Complex Processing
Existing Sources
New Sources
c. Hosiery Products
Existing Sources
New Sources
6. Carpet Finishing
Existing Sources
New Sources
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Existing Sources
New Sources
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
Existing Sources
New Sources
9. Felted Fabric Processing
Existing Sources
New Sources
360
150
360
110
360
200
490
170
420
140
490
230
490
170
420
140
490
230
360 140
150 60
360 140
110 60
360 140
200
470 310 470
200 130 200
470 310 470
110 130 110
470 310 470
240 130 240
* Quantities based on 20 percent solids content.
** Alternatives H, J and K represent alternatives M, N and P, respectively, for Subcategory 1 only.
-------
SECTON IX
APPLICATION OF BEST AVAILABLE TREATMENT ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
This section will be developed by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency upon review and evaluation of the technical infor-
mation contained in this document, the comments from reviewers of this
document, the economic impact on the industry if required to install
additional pollution control technology, and other information as
appropriate.
IX-1
-------
SECTON X
APPLICATION OF PRETREATMENT STANDARDS FOR EXISTING SOURCES
This section will be developed by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency upon review and evaluation of the technical infor-
mation contained in this document, the comments from reviewers of this
document, the economic impact on the industry if required to install
additional pollution control technology, and other information as
appropriate.
X-l
-------
SECTON XI
APPLICATION OF NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
This section will be developed by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency upon review and evaluation of the technical infor-
mation contained in this document, the comments from reviewers of this
document, the economic impact on the industry if required to install
additional pollution control technology, and other information as
appropriate.
XI-1
-------
SECTON XII
APPLICATION OF PRETREATMENT STANDARDS FOR NEW SOURCES
This section will be developed by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency upon review and evaluation of the technical infor-
mation contained in this document, the comments from reviewers of this
document, the economic impact on the industry if required to install
additional pollution control technology, and other information as
appropriate.
XII-1
-------
SECTION XIII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Hundreds of people have contributed to the development of this report
during the past months and years. They have included representatives of
several EPA Offices and Regions, State and municipal governments, the
textile and related industries, and other contractors. It is not possible
to recognize all of them by name, but some who have been expecially
helpful are noted below.
Dr. James Gallup and Mr. John Riley of the Wood Products and Fibers
Branch of the Effluent Guidelines Division who provided overall project
direction as well as guidance and much valuable counsel throughout all
phases of the study.
All members of the Textile Working Group; especially Lee DeHihns of the
Office of General Counsel, Tony Montrone and Jean Norioan of the Office
of Analysis and Economics, and Murray Strier of the Effluent Guidelines
Division.
Dr. Max Samfield of the Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory,
Research Triangle Park.
Ed Struzeski, Jr., of the National Enforcement Investigations Center in
Denver.
Robert A. Carter of the North Carolina Division of Environmental Management.
Charles R. Jeter of the South Carolina Department of Health and Environ-
mental Control.
Bill Jernigan of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources.
Erlina L. Patron of the Virginia State Water Control Board.
Charles R. Horn of the Alabama Water Improvement Commission.
Frank D'Ascensio of the Passiac Valley Sewerage Commissioners, New
Jersey.
0JJay Niles and others at the American Textile Manufacturers Institute,
Inc.
Wallace Storey and all the members of ATMI's Environmental Preservation
Committee.
William Sullivan and Karl Spilhaus of the Northern Textile Association
and the members of NTA's Water Pollution Control Advisory Committee.
XIII-1
-------
Barry Torrence of the Carpet and Rug Institute.
Dr. Roderick Horning, William Allen and the other members of the Water
Subcommittee of the Dyes Environmental and Toxicology Organization, Inc.
Robert Sullivan and Dr. Peter Britton of INDA - Association of the
Nonwoven Fabrics Industry.
Dr. Charles Tewksbury, Dr. Dennis Balmforth and Michael Bahorsky of the
Institute of Textile Technology.
Richard Seltzer of Development Planning and Research Associates, Inc.
Dr. Roger Holm and Dr. Gary Rawlings of Monsanto Research Corp.
A special note of appreciation goes to all the many textile mill operating
personnel who completed questionnaires, provided information by telephone,
and assisted us during inspection and sampling visits. Without their
cooperation, our task could not have been completed.
XIII-2
-------
SECTION XIV
REFERENCES
1. "Development Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
New Source Performance Standards for the Textile Mills Point
Source Category," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, Ref. No. EPA 440/1-74-022-a.
2. "In-Plant Control of Pollution - Upgrading Textile Operations to
Reduce Pollution," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, Ref. No. EPA 625/3-74-004.
3. "Draft Development Document: Pretreatment Standards for Textile
Mills (Addendum to the Development Document for Effluent Limita-
tions Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for the
Textile Mills Point Source Category)," Sverdrup & Parcel and
Associates, Inc., St. Louis, MO (November, 1976).
4. "Textile Industry Technology and Costs of Wastewater Control,"
Lockwood-Greene, New York, NY (June, 1975).
5. "Cost of Clean Water - Volume III, Industrial Waste Profiles -
No. 4, Textile Mill Products, The," Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration, Washington, DC (September, 1967).
6. "Census of Manufactures, 1972," Social and Economic Statistics
Administration, Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of
Commerce Publication (1975).
7. "County Business Patterns, 1975," County Business Patterns, Bureau
of the Census, Ref. No. CBP-75-1.
8. Davison's Textile Blue Book, lllth Edition, Davison Publishing
Company, Ridgewood, NJ (1977).
9. Wachter, R. A., Archer, S. R., and Blackwood, T. R., "Source
Assessment: Overview and Priorization of Emissions from
Textile Manufacturing," Ref. No. EPA 600/2-77-107h (September,
1977), pp. 1-131.
10. Trotman, E. R., Dyeing and Chemical Technology of Textile Fibers,
Fifth Edition, Chas. Griffin & Co., Ltd., London, GB (1975).
11. "Textiles - U.S. Industrial OuLlook," U.S. Department of Commerce,
Domestic and International Business Administration, Washington, DC
(1978), pp. 239-244.
XIV-1
-------
12. "Sources and Strengths of Textile Wastewaters," Lockwood-Greene
Engineers (Technology Transfer Report on Raw Waste Loads,
Chapter 4), pp. 4-1 to 4-65.
13. "Standard Industrial Classification," Office of Management and
Budget, Statistical Policy Division (1972).
14. MasseUi, J. W., Masselli, N. W., and Burford, M. G., "A Simplifi-
cation of Textile Waste Survey and Treatment," New England
Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission, Boston, MA (1959).
15. "Industrial Waste Studies Program: Textile Mill Products,"
Arthur D. Little, Inc., Draft Report for the Water Quality
Office, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
(May 28, 1971).
16. "Recommendations and Comments for the Establishment of Best
Practicable Wastewater Control Technology Currently Available
for the Textile Industry," Institute of Textile Technology,
Charlottesville, VA and Hydroscience, Inc., Westwood, NJ
(January, 1973).
17. Walpole, R. F., and Myers, R. H., Probability and Statistics
for Engineers and Scientists (1972).
18. Miller, I., and Freund, J. E., Probability and Statistics for
Engineers (1965).
19. Snedecor, G. W., and Cochran, W. G., Statistical Methods, 6th ed.
(1967).
20. "Quality Criteria for Water," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, Ref. No. EPA 440/9-76-023.
21. "State of the Art Textile Waste Treatment," Clemson University,
Department of Textiles, US EPA Water Pollution Control Research
Series, 12090 ECS 02/71 (1971), pp. 1-347.
22. Davis, G. M., Koon, J. H., and Adams, C. E., "Treatment of Two
Textile Dye House Wastewaters," Proceedings of the 32nd Industrial
Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN (1977),
pp. 981-997.
23. Kachel, W. M., and Keinath, T. M., "Reclamation of Textile Printing
Wastewaters for Direct Recycle," Proceedings of 27th Industrial
Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN (1972),
pp. 406-419.
XIV-2
-------
24. Rinker, T. L., "Treatment of Textile Wastewater by Activated Sludge
and Alum Coagulation," Ref. No. EPA 600/2-75-055.
25. Rennison, P. A., "Water Conservation in Textile Finishing,"
American Dyestuff Reporter, Vol. 66, No. 11 (1977).
26. Hager, D. G., "A Survey of Industrial Wastewater Treatment by
Granular Activated Carbon," 4th Joint Chemical Engineering
Conference, AIChE-CSChE, Vancouver, BC (September 10, 1973).
27. "Pilot Plant and Engineering Study of Textile Industry BATEA
Effluent Standards (Presentation Materials)," Engineering
Science, Inc., Atlanta, GA (June, 1976).
28. "Analysis of National Industrial Water Pollution Control Costs,"
Associated Water & Air Resource Engineers, Inc. (AWARE) (1973).
29. "Alternatives for Managing Wastewater in the Three Rivers Watershed
Area," (AWARE) (1972).
30. "A Guide to the Selection of Cost-Effective Wastewater Treatment
Systems," Bechtel, Inc., EPA-430/9-75-002 (1975).
31. Smith, R., "Cost of Conventional and Advanced Treatment of Wastewater,"
Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 40, No. 9
(September, 1968),,pp. 1546-1574.
32. "Capital and Operating Costs of Pollution Control Equipment Modules,"
Icarus Corp., EPA-R5-73-023a & b, Vol. 1 & 2 (1973).
33. Monti, R. P., and Silberman, P. T., "Wastewater System Alternatives:
What are they ... And What Cost?" Water & Waste Engineering
(March, 1974 et. seg.), pp. 32, et. seg.
34. "Process Design Manual for Removal of Suspended Solids," U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, Ref. No.
EPA 625/l-75-003a.
35. "Process Design Manual for Carbon Adsorption," U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC, Ref. No. EPA 625/l-71-002a
(1973).
36. Smith, J. E., "Inventory of Energy Use in Wastewater Sludge Treatment
and Disposal," Industrial Water Engineering (July/August, 1977).
37. "Ozone System Capital Cost Quotation," Infilco-Degremont (C. B. Smith
Company) (October, 1977).
XIV-3
-------
38. "Feasibility and Economics of Ozone Treatment," Emery Industries,
Inc., Data Sheet 789.
39. "Construction Costs for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants:
1973-1977," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
DC, EPA 430/9-77-013, MCD-37.
40. "Consulting Engineering - A Guide for the Engagement of Engineering
Services," Subcommittee on the Revision of Manual No. 45 of the
Committee on Standards of Practice of the ASCE, ASCE-Manuals and
Reports on Engineering Practice - No. 45 (1975).
41. Fisher Scientific Co., Catalog 77.
42. NUS/Rice Laboratory, Sampling Prices, Pittsburgh, PA (1978).
43. Product Bulletin No. 12-05.Bl (Shelter Houses), AFL Industries,
Inc., 1149 Howard Drive, West Chicago (12/29/77).
44. Estimating Staffing for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities,
CH2M/Hill & Assoc., EPA-Contract No. 68-01-0328 (1973).
45. Maggiolo, A., and Sayles, J. H., "Automatic Exchange Resin Pilot
Plant for Removal of Textile Dye Wastes," Ref. No. EPA 600/2-77-136.
46. "Water Supply and Pollution Control," Clark, Veissman, & Hammer,
International Textbook Company (1971).
47. Banerji, S. K., and 0'Conner, J. T., "Designing More Energy-
Efficient Wastewater Treatment Plants," Civil Engineering -
ASCE, Vol. 47, No. 9 (September, 1977) pp. 76-81.
48. 0"Donovan, D. C., "Treatment with Ozone," Journal of the American
Water Works Association (September, 1965), pp. 1167-1194.
49. Hann, V. A., "Disinfection of Drinking Water with Ozone," JAWWA
(October, 1956), p. 1316.
50. "New Technology for Textile Water Reuse is Available and Can Be
Very Profitable," U.S. Ozonair Corp., South San Francisco, CA.
51. Smith R., "Electrical Power Consumption for Municipal Wastewater
Treatment," Ref. No. EPA R2-73-281.
52. "Chemical Marketing Reporter," Schnell Publishing Company, New York,
NY (January 26, 1976).
53. NUS/Rice Laboratory, Sampling Prices, Pittsburgh, PA (1978), p. 1.
54. Pricing Lists and Policies, WARF Instruments, Inc., Madison, WI
(June 15, 1973).
XIV-4
-------
55. Service Brochure and Fee Schedule #16, Orlando Laboratories, Inc.,
Orlando, FL (January 1, 1978).
56. Water & Wastewater Analysis - Fee Schedule, St. Louis Testing Lab
(August, 1976).
57. Laboratory Services, Individual Component Analysis, Ecology Audits,
Inc., Dallas, TX (August, 1976).
58. Laboratory Pricing Schedule, Laclede Gas Company, Lab Division,
St. Louis (August, 1977).
59. Price List, Industrial Testing Lab, Inc., St. Louis (1975).
60. Faro, R. C., Kartiganer, II. L., Schneider, A., and Albano, D. J.,
"Pretreatment Provides Constant Effluent Quality," Water &
Wastes Engineering (October, 1974), pp. 52-55.
61. Stone, R., "Carpet Mill Industrial Waste System," Journal of the
Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 44, No. 3 (March, 1972),
pp. 470-478.
62. Throop, W. M., "Why Industrial Wastewater Pretreatment?" Industrial
Wastes (July/August, 1976), pp. 32-33.
63. Frye, W. H., and DiGiano, F. A., "Adsorptive Behavior of Dispersed
and Basic Textile Dyes on Activated Carbon," Proceedings of the
29th Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN
(1974), pp. 21-28.
64. Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., Wastewater Engineering; Collection, Treatment,
Disposal, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY (1972).
65. Mahloch, J. L., Shindala, A., McGriff, E. C., and Barnett, W. A.,
"Treatability Studies and Design Considerations for a Dyeing
Operation," Proceedings of the 29th Industrial Waste Conference,
Purdue University, Lafayette, IN (1974), pp. 44-50
66. Rinker, T. L., and Sargent, T. N., "Activated Sludge and Alum
Coagulation Treatment of Textile Wastewaters," Proceedings of
the 29th Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette,
IN (1974), pp. 456-471.
67. Feigenbaum, H. N., "Removing Heavy Metals In Textile Waste,"
Industrial Wastes (March/April, 1972), pp. 32-34.
68. Snider, E. H., and Porter, J. J., "Ozone Treatment of Dye Waste,"
Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 46, No. 5
(May, 1974), pp. 886-894.
XIV-5
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69. Stuber, L. M., "Tertiary Treatment and Disinfection of Tufted
Carpet Dye Wastewater," Proceedings of the 29th Industrial
Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN (1974),
pp. 964-977.
70. Hammer, M. J., Water and Wastewater Technology, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York, NY (1975).
71. Brandon, C. A., and Porter, J. J., "Hyperfiltration for Renovation
of Textile Finishing Plant Wastewater," Ref. No. EPA 600/2-76-060.
72. Brandon, C. A., Porter, J. J., and Todd, D. K., "Hyperfiltration
for Renovation of Composite Wastewater at Eight Textile Finishing
Plants," Ref. No. EPA 600/2-78-047 (March, 1978).
73. "Survey of Textile Wastewater Treatment, State of the Art, Add-on
Treatment Processes," Hydroscience, Inc., Westwood, NJ (April,
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74. "Process Design Manual for Nitrogen Control," U.S. EPA Technology
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75. Culp, R. L., and Culp, G. L., "Advanced Wastewater Treatment,"
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 310 pp (1971).
76. Hrutfiord, B. F., Johanson, L. N., and McCarthy, J. L., "Steam
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77. "Process Design Manual for Carbon Adsorption," U.S. EPA Technology
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78. Weber, W. J., "Physiochemical Processes for Water Quality Control,"
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79. Ford, D. L., "Putting Activated Carbon in Perspective to 1983
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80. "Activated Sludge with Powdered Activated Carbon Treatment of
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XIV-6
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XIV-10
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39. Domagala, R., "The 'Reemay' Challenge to Cotton," Wallcoverings,
Vol. 55. No. 5 (May, 1976), pp. 42-48.
40. Domey, W. R., "Design Parameters and Performance of Biological
Systems for Textile Plant Effluents," Proceedings of the 28th
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41. Douglas, G., "Modular Wastewater Treatment System: Demonstration
for the Textile Maintenance Industry," Ref. No. EPA 660/2-73-037.
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Industry," Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC,
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47. Encyclopedia of Textiles, Second Edition, Prentice Hall Publishing
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48. "Environmental Considerations of Selected Energy Conserving
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Report", Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory,
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49. "Facts About Contract Carpeting," The International Wool Secre-
tariat, London, England (November, 1975).
50. Faro, R. C., Kartiganer, H. L., Schneider, A., and Albano,
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51. Feigenbaum, H. N., "Removing Heavy Metals In Textile Waste,"
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XIV-11
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52. "Final Engineering Report, Modifications to Waste Treatment
Facility - Wool Scouring Pretreatment, Clarksville Finishing
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Effluence," Knitting Times (January 21, 1974).
54. Frye, W. H., and DiGiano, F. A., "Adsorptive Behavior of Dispersed
and Basic Textile Dyes on Activated Carbon," Proceedings of the
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55. Gaddis, L., "Rejection of Chemical Species by Membranes,"
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56. Gaffney, P. £., "Carpet and Rug Industry Case Study II: Biological
Effects," Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation
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57. Ghosh, M. M., Woodard, F. E., and Sproul, 0. J., "Treatability
Studies and Design Considerations for a Textile Mill Wastewater,"
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Industrial Wastes (January/February, 1976), pp. 34-35.
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ment Case Studies," New England Water Pollution Control
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Industries," International Research and Technology Corporation,
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61. Hagen, R. M., and Roberts, E. B., "Energy Requirements for Waste-
water Treatment, Part 2," Water & Sewage Works (December, 1972),
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62. Hager, D. G., "A Survey of Industrial Wastewater Treatment by
Granular Activated Carbon," 4th Joint Chemical Engineering
Conference, AIChE-CSChE, Vancouver, BC (September 10, 1973).
63. Hager, D. G., Rizzo, J. L., and Zanitsch, R. H., "Experience with
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Wastewaters," Prepared for EPA Technology Transfer Seminar,
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64. Hall, D. M., "Solvent and Hot Melt Slashing," Textile Industries
(January, 1973), pp. 30-32.
XIV-12
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65. Hannah, S. A., Jelus, M., and Cohen, J. M., "Removal of Uncommon
Trace Metals by Physical and Chemical Treatment Processes,"
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66. Hatch, L. T., Sharpin, R. E., Wirtanen, W. T., and Sargent, T. N.,
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67. Hentschel, R. A. A., "Spunbonded Sheet Products," Chemtech
(January, 1974), pp. 32-41.
68. Holliday, T. M., "Spunbonded Fabrics," Modern Textiles (November,
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Reduce Pollution," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
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XIV-13
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77. Kachel, W. M., and Keinath, T. M., "Reclamation of Textile Printing
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78. Kennedy, D. C., Rock, S. L., and Kerner, J. W., "A New Adsorption/
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80. Kreye, W. C., King, P. H., and Randall, C. W., "Polymer Aided
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86. Maggiolo, A., and Sayles, J. H., "Automatic Exchange Resin
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XIV-14
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89. Mark, H., Wooding, N. S., Atlas, S. M., Chemical Aftertreatment
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90. Maruyama, T., Hannah, S. A., and Cohen, J. M., "Metal Removal by
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92. Miller, E., Textiles, Properties, and Behavior, B. T. Batsford,
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95. "New Technology for Textile Water Reuse is Available and Can
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96. Newlin, K. D., "The Economic Feasibility of Treating Textile
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97. 0'Donovan, D. C., "Treatment with Ozone," Journal of the American
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98. "Organic Characterization Study - Coosa River Basin - Northwest
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Northwest Georgia," Surveillance and Analysis Division, Region
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100. Patterson, J. W., "Technology and Economics of Industrial Pollution
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XIV-15
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101. Perkins, W. S., Hall, D. M., Slaten, B. L., Walker, R. P., and
Farrow, J. C., "Use of Organic Solvents in Textile Sizing and
Desizing," Ref. No. EPA-600/2-77-126.
102. Phipps, W. H., "Activated Carbon Reclaims Water for Carpet Mill,"
Water & Wastes Engineering (May 1970), pp. C-22 to C-23.
103. "Pilot Plant and Engineering Study of Textile Industry BATEA
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104. Pollock, M. J., and Froneberger, C. R., "Treatment of Denim
Textile Mill Wastewaters: Neutralization and Color Removal,"
EPA 600/2-76-139.
105. Poon, C. P. C., "Biodegradability and Treatability of Combined
Nylon and Municipal Wastes," Journal of the Water Pollution
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105.
106. Poon, C. P. C., and Virgadamo, P. P., "Anaerobic - Aerobic Treat-
ment of Textile Wastes with Activated Carbon," Ref. No. EPA R2-
73-248.
107. Porter, J. J., "A Study of the Photodegradation of Commercial
Dyes," Ref. No. EPA R2-73-058.
108. Porter, J. J., "Stability and Removal of Commercial Dyes from Process
Wastewater," Pollution Engineering (October, 1973), pp. 27-28.
109. Porter, J. J. "State of the Art of Textile Waste Treatment,"
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110. Porter, J. J., and Snider, E. H., "Long-Term Biodegradability
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111. "Preliminary Engineering Report, Pretreatment Facilities, Dyers-
burg Fabrics, Inc.," J. E. Sirrine Co., Greenville, SC
(May 30, 1974).
112. "Process Design Manual for Carbon Adsorption," U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC, Ref. No. EPA 625/l-71-002a
(1973).
113. "Process Design Manual for Removal of Suspended Solids," U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, Ref. No.
EPA 625/l-75-003a.
XIV-16
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. "Process Design Manual for Sludge Treatment and Disposal,"
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC,
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115. Purvis, M. R., "Aerobic Treatment of Textile Waste," American Dyestuff
Reporter (reprint), (August, 1974).
116. "PVA Reclamation Solves Textile Mill Waste Treatment Problem;
Yields Substantial Savings," Union Carbide Corporation,
Tarrytown, NY (1975).
117. Qasim, S. R., and Shah, A. K., "Cost Analysis of Package Wastewater
Treatment Plants," Water and Sewage Works (February, 1975),
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118. "Quality Criteria for Water," U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, DC, Ref. No. EPA 440/9-76-023.
119. Rebhun, M., Weinberg, A., and Narkis, N., "Treatment of Wastewater
from Cotton Dyeing and Finishing Works for Reuse," Proceedings
of the 25th Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University,
Lafayette, IN (1970), pp. 626-637.
120. "Recommendations and Comments for the Establishment of Best
Practicable Wastewater Control Technology Currently
Available for the Textile Industry," Institute of Textile
Technology, Charlottesville, VA and Hydroscience, Inc.,
Westwood, NJ (January, 1973).
121. Rennison, P. A., "Water Conservation in Textile Finishing," American
Dyestuff Reporter, Vol. 66, No. 11 (1977).
122. "Report to Charlton Woolen Company, Charlton City, Massachusetts,
on Process Revisons - Pilot Plant Study of the Proposed Wastewater
Treatment Facility," Cullinan Engineering Co., Inc. Auburn, MA
(August, 1973).
123. "Revised Executive Summary to Economic Analysis of Proposed
Effluent Guidelines: Textile Industry," U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC, Ref. No. EPA 230/1-73-028
(1974).
124. Rhame, G. A., "Treatment of Textile Finishing Wastes by Surface
Aeration," Proceedings of the 26th Industrial Waste Conference,
Purdue University, Lafayette, IN (1971), pp. 702-712.
125. Richardson, M. B., and Stepp, J. M., "Costs of Treating Textile
Wastes in Industrial and Municipal Treatment Plants: Six Case
Studies," Water Resources Research Institute, Clemson University,
Clemson, SC (March, 1972).
XIV-17
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126. Rinker, T. L., "Treatment of Textile Wastewater by Activated Sludge
and Alum Coagulation," Ref. No. EPA 600/2-75-055.
127. Rinker, T. L., and Sargent, T. N., "Activated Sludge and Alum
Coagulation Treatment of Textile Wastewaters," Proceedings of
the 29th Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University,
Lafayette, IN (1974), pp. 456-471.
128. Rodman, C. A., and Shunney, E. L., "Bio-Regenerated Activated
Carbon Treatment of Textile Dye Wastewater," Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC, Water Pollution Control
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129. Sercu, C., "National Committee on Water Quality Report,"
Dow Chemical Co., Midland, MI (March, 1977).
130. Shelley, M. L., Randall, C. W., and King, P. H., "Evaluation of
Chemical-Biological and Chemical-Physical Treatment for
Textile Dyeing and Finishing Waste," Journal of the Water
Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 48, No. 4 (April, 1976),
pp. 753-761.
131. Shriver, L. E., and Dague, R. R., "Textile Dye Process Waste
Treatment with Reuse Consideration," Proceedings of 32nd
Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN
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132. Smith, J. E., "Inventory of Energy Use in Wastewater Sludge Treat-
ment and Disposal," Industrial Water Engineering (July/August,
1977).
133. Smith, R., "Cost of Conventional and Advanced Treatment of Waste-
water," Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation
Vol. 40, No. 9 (September, 1968), pp. 1546-1574.
134. Smith R., "Electrical Power Consumption for Municipal Wastewater
Treatment," Ref. No. EPA R2-73-281.
135. Snider, E. H., and Porter, J. J., "Ozone Treatment of Dye Waste,"
Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 46,
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136. Snyder, A. J., and Alspaugh, T. A., "Catalyzed Bio-Oxidation
and Tertiary Treatment of Integrated Textile Wastewaters,"
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137. "Specifications - 1976 ATMI/EPA Study of 1983 BATEA Effluent
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XIV-18
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138. Stark, M. M., and Rizzo, J. L., "Carbon Adsorption - Case
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139. Stone, R., "Carpet Mill Industrial Waste System," Journal of the
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140. Stuber, L. M., "Tertiary Treatment and Disinfection of Tufted
Carpet Dye Wastewater," Proceedings of the 29th Industrial
Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette, IN (1974),
pp. 964-977.
141. "Study of the Biological and Chemical Treatability of Hyper-
filtration (Reverse Osmosis) Textile Waste Concentrates, A,"
Texidyne, Inc., Clemson, SC (August, 1975).
142. Suchecki, S. M., "Canton's Futuristic Waste Treatment System,"
Textile Industries, Vol. 140, No. 3 (March, 1976), pp. 43-49.
143. "Supplemental Studies on the Vanity Fair Waste, Monroeville,
Alabama," Thompson and Tuggle Environmental Consultants,
Montgomery, AL (April, 1974).
144. "Survey of Textile Wastewater Treatment State of the Art, Add-on
Treatment Processes," Hydroscience, Inc., Westwood, NJ
(April, 1976).
145. Talbot, R. S., "Literature Review: Textile Wastes - 1976,"
Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 48, No. 6
(June, 1976), pp. 1282-1284.
146. Talbot, R. S., "Literature Review: Textile Wastes - 1977,"
Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 49,
No. 6 (June, 1977), pp. 1161-1163.
147. "Textile Industry Technology and Costs of Wastewater Control,"
Lockwood-Greene, New York, NY (June, 1975).
148. "Textile Technology Digest, Vol. 34," Institute of Textile
Technology, Charlottesville, VA (January, 1977).
149. "Textile Technology/Ecology Interface - 1977," (Environmental
Symposium), American Association of Textile Chemists and
Colorists, Research Triangle Park, NC (March, 1977).
150. Thiansky, D. P., "Historical Development of Water Pollution
Control Cost Function," Journal of the Water Pollution
Control Federation, Vol. 46, No. 5 (May, 1974), p. 813.
XIV-19
-------
151. Thompson, Barbara, "The Effects of Effluent from the Canadian Textile
Industry on Aquatic Organisms - A Literature Review," Fisheries
and Marine Service, Freshwater Institute, Winnipeg, Manitoba,
Canada (1974).
152. Throop, W. M., "Why Industrial Wastewater Pretreatment?" Industrial
Wastes (July/August, 1976), pp. 32-33.
153. Tincher, W. C., "Chemical Use and Discharge in Carpet Dyeing,"
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA (September, 1975).
154. Trotman, E. R., Dyeing and Chemical Technology of Textile Fibers,
Fifth Edition, Chas. Griffin & Co., Ltd., London, Great Britain
(1975).
155. "U.S. Industrial Outlook," U.S. Department of Commerce, Domestic
and International Business Administration, Washington, DC
(1978), pp. 239-244.
156. Van Note, R. H., Herbert, P. V., Patel, R. M., Chupek, C., and
Feldman, L., "A Guide to the Selection of Cost-Effective
Wastewater Teatment Systems," Ref. No. EPA 430/9-75-002.
157. Van Winkle, T. L., Edeleanu, J., Prosser, E. A., and Walker,
C. A., "Cotton versus Polyester," American Scientist,
Vol. 66 (1978), pp. 280-289.
158. Wachter, R. A., Archer, S. R., and Blackwood, T. R., "Source
Assessment: Overview and Priorization of Emissions from
Textile Manufacturing," Ref. No. EPA 600/2-77-107h (September,
1977), pp. 1-131.
159. "Wastewater Treatment Systems: Additional Case Studies," Metcalf
& Eddy, Inc., Boston, MA (January, 1975).
160. "Wastewater Treatment Systems - Upgrading Textile Operations to
Reduce Pollution," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, Ref. No. EPA 625/3-74-004.
161. Weeter, D. W., and Hodgson, A. G., "Dye Wastewaters - Alternatives
for Biological Waste Treatment," Proceedings of the 32nd
Industrial Waste Conference, Purdue University, Lafayette,
IN (1978) pp. 1-9.
162. Whittaker, C. B., "ITT Publications: 1944-1976," Institute of
Textile Technology, Charlottesville, VA (April, 1977).
163. Whittaker, C. B., "The Textile Library: A Selected List of Books,"
Institute of Textile Technology, Charlottesville, VA
(January, 1977).
XIV-20
-------
164. Wight, J. L., "Biological Treatment System Measures Up During
High Solids Load Condition," Pollution Engineering (October,
1977), pp. 52-55.
165. Williamson, R., "Handling Dye Waste in a Municipal Plant," Public
Works, Vol. 102, No. 1 (January, 1971), pp. 58-59.
166. Wynn, C. S., Kirk, B. S., and McNabney, R., "Pilot Plant for
Tertiary Treatment of Wastewater with Ozone," Ref No. EPA
R2-73-146.
167. Zwerdling, D., "Spraying Dangers in the Air," Washington Post
(January 25, 1976), Section F.
XIV-21
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SECTION XV
GLOSSARY
Animal Hair Fibers
Fibers obtained from animals for purposes of weaving, knitting, or
felting into fabric; some animal fibers are alpaca, angora goat hair,
camel hair, cashmere, cow hair, extract wool, fur, horse hair, llama,
mohair, mungo, noil, shoddy, silk, vicuna, and wool.
Anti-static Agents
Functional finishes applied to fabric to overcome deleterious effects
of static electricity. Compounds commonly used are PVA, styrene-base
resins, polyalkylene glycols, gelatine, PAA, and polyvinyl acetate.
Batch Processing
Operations which require loading of discrete amounts of material,
running the process to completion, and then removing the material.
This is in contrast to continuous processing in which material in
rope or open width form runs without interruption through one or more
processes, obviating the need for loading and unloading.
Best Available Technology Economically Achievable (BAT)
Level of technology applicable to effluent limitations to be achieved
by July 1, 1984, for industrial discharges to surface waters as defined
by Section 301 (b) (2) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, As
Amended.
Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available (BPT)
The level of technology applicable to effluent limitations to be
achieved by July 1, 1977, for industrial discharges to surface waters
as defined by Section 301 (b) (1) (A) of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act, As Amended.
Complex Processing
Woven or knit fabric finishing operations that may consist of fiber
preparation, scouring, functional finishing, and more than one of the
following processes each applied to more than five percent of total
production: bleaching, dyeing, or printing.
XV-1
-------
Consent Decree
The Settlement Agreement entered into by EPA with the Natural Resources
Defense Council and other environmental groups and approved by the
U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia on June 7, 1976. One
of the principal provisions of the Settlement Agreement was to direct EPA
to consider an extended list of 65 classes of pollutants in 21 industrial
categories, including Textile Mills, in the development of effluent
limitations guidelines and new source performance standards.
Conventional Pollutants
Constituents of wastewater as determined by Section 304 (a) (4) of the
Clean Water Act of 1977, including but not limited to, pollutants
classified as biological oxygen demanding, suspended solids, fecal
coliform, and pH.
Direct Discharger
An industrial discharger that introduces wastewater to a receiving
body of water or land, with or without'treatment by the discharger.
Effluent Limitation
A maximum amount per unit of production (or other unit) of each specific
constituent of the effluent that is subject to limitation from an
existing point source.
End-of-Pipe Technologies
Treatment processes used to remove or alter the objectionable constituents
of the spent water from manufacturing operations.
Environmental Protection Agency - Sewage Treatment Plant (EPA-STP)
A sewage treatment plant construction cost index originating in 1957
with a base cost index of 100.
Environmental Protection Agency - Small City Conventional Treatment (EPA-SCCT)
A sewage treatment plant construction cost index originating in the
3rd Quarter, 1973, and based on a cost index of 100 for St. Joseph, Missouri.
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972
Public Law 92-500 which provides the legal authority for current EPA
water pollution abatement projects, regulations, and policies. The
Federal Water Pollution Control Act was amended further in 1977 in
legislation referred to as The Clean Water Act.
XV-2
-------
Functional Finish Chemicals
Substances applied to fabric to provide desirable properties such as
wrinkle-resistance, water-repellency, flame-resistance, etc.
Mills
Facilities which manufacture unfinished woven or knit goods (greige
goods) for finishing at other locations. If process wastewater is
generated, it is usually small in quantity.
Indirect Discharger
An industrial discharger that introduces wastewater to a publicly-owned
collection system.
Inplant Control Technologies
Controls or measures applied within the manufacturing process to reduce
or eliminate pollutant and hydraulic loadings of raw wastewater. Typical
inplant control measures include chemical substitution, material
reclamation, water reuse, water reduction, and process changes.
Internal Subcategorization
Divisions within a subcategory to group facilities that, while producing
related products from similar raw materials, have differing raw waste
characteristics due to the complexity of manufacturing processes employed.
Low-Water-Use Processing Mills
Establishments primarily engaged in manufacturing greige goods, laminating
or coating fabrics, texturizing yarn, producing tire cord fabric, and
similar activities in which cleanup is the primary water use or process
water requirements are small.
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
A Federal program requiring industry and municipalities to obtain permits
to discharge plant effluents to the nation's water courses.
New Source
Industrial facilities from which there is, or may be, a discharge of
pollutants, and whose construction is commenced after the publication
of the proposed regulations.
XV-3
-------
Non-Conventional Pollutants
Parameters selected for use in developing effluent limitation guidelines
and new source performance standards which have not been previously
designated as either conventional pollutants or priority pollutants.
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact
Deleterious aspects of control and treatment technologies applicable
to point source category wastes, including, but not limited to, air
pollution, noise, radiation, sludge and solid waste generation, and
energy usage.
Physicochemical Treatment
Processes that utilize physical (i.e., sedimentation, filtration,
centrifugation, activated carbon, reverse osmosis, etc.) and/or
chemical means (i.e., coagulation, oxidation, precipitation, etc.)
to treat wastewaters.
Point Source Category
A collection of industrial sources with similar function or product,
established by Section 306 (b) (1) (A) of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act, As Amended for the purpose of establishing Federal
standards for the disposal of wastewater.
Pollutant Loading
Ratio of the total daily mass discharge of a particular pollutant to
the total daily wet production of a mill expressed in terms of (kg
pollutant)/(kkg wet production).
Pretreatment Standard
Industrial waste effluent quality required for discharge to a publicly-
owned treatment works.
Priority Pollutants
All compounds specifically named or referred to in the Consent Decree,
as well as recommended specific compounds representative of the non-
specific or ambiguous groups or compounds named in the agreement.
This list of pollutants was developed based on the use of criteria
such as known occurrence in point source effluents, in the aquatic
environment, in fish, in drinking water, and through evaluations of
carcinogenicity, other chronic toxicity, bioaccumulation, and
persistence.
XV-4
-------
Product Line
Goods which are similar in terms of raw materials, method of manufacture,
and/or function (e.g., scoured wool, wool goods, woven goods, knit goods,
carpet, stock and yarn, nonwovens, felts, etc.).
Publicly-Owned Treatment Works (POTW's)
A facility that collects, treats, or otherwise disposes of wastewaters,
owned and operated by a village, town, county, authority, or other public
agency.
Raw Waste Characteristics
A description of the constituents and properties of a wastewater before
treatment.
Simple Processing
Woven or knit fabric finishing operations that may consist of fiber
preparation, scouring, functional finishing, and one of the following
processes applied to more than five percent of total production:
bleaching, dyeing, or printing.
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC)
A numerical categorization scheme used by the U.S. Department of Commerce
to denote segments of industry.
Standard of Performance
A maximum weight discharged per unit of production for each constituent
that is subject to limitations. Standards of performance are applicable
to new sources, as opposed to existing sources which are subject to
effluent limitations.
Synthetics
As used in this report, synthetics refers to all man-made fibers,
including those manufactured from naturally occurring raw materials
(regenerated fibers). Strictly speaking, synthetic fibers are those
that are made by chemical synthesis.
Water Usage
Ratio of the spent water from a manufacturing operation to the total
wet production by the mill, expressed in terms of (liters of waste-
water/day)/ (kilogram of wet production/day).
XV-5
-------
Wet Processing Mills
As used in this report, it refers to all manufacturing facilities having
major wet manufacturing operations. Any mill in the following manufacturing
segments is a wet processing mill: Wool Scouring, Wool Finishing, Woven
Fabric Finishing, Knit Fabric Kinislung (including Hosiery Finishing),
Carpet Finishing, Stock & Yarn I-'Hushing, Nonwoven Manufacturing, and
Felted Fabric Processing.
Wet Production
Mass of textile goods that goes through one or more major wet processes
in a specified time period.
XV-6
-------
T3
"O
CD
Q.
X
Appendix
-------
APPENDIX A
SURVEY FORMS USED IN 308 DATA REQUESTS
FIGURE A-l - TELEPHONE SURVEY FORM
FIGURE A-2 - EPA INDUSTRY SURVEY - TEXTILE PLANTS: BAT - NSPS
PRETREATMENT (WET PROCESSING)
FIGURE A-3 - EPA INDUSTRY SURVEY - TEXTILE PLANTS: BAT - NSPS
PRETREATMENT (LOW WATER USE PROCESSING)
A-l
-------
FIGURE A-l
TELEPHONE SURVEY FORM
Company Name Plant Code No.
Plant Name Letter Date
City State Telecon Date
Contact Tele Time
A. Plant Classification (circle one or more numbers)
Subcategory A-pprox. Percent
0. Dry Operation
(no process-related wastewater)
1. Wool Scouring
2. Wool Finishing
3. Dry Processing
a. Greige
b. Adhesive related
4. Woven Fabric Finishing
5. Knit Fabric Finishing
6. Carpet Mill
7. Stock & Yarn
8. Nonwovens
9. Miscellaneous (describe reverse side)
B. Approximate Plant Capacity - (Ib per day; no. of employees; large, medium,
or small, etc.)
C. Wastewater Discharge
Direct
Indirect POTW Name
Other (describe reverse side)
1. Is treatment (pretreatment) provided? (circle) Yes No
Type of Treatment (describe units in sequence reverse side)
2. Discharge volume GPD
3. Is wastewater and/or treatment data available (circle) Yes No
4. General Quality of Data
5. Who has data?
D. Follow-up Questionnaire? Yes No
Check if additional information on reverse side of form.
A-2
-------
FIGURE A-2
EPA INDUSTRY SURVEY
TEXTILE PLANTS: BAT-NSPS-PRETREATMENT
Please complete as many of the questionnaire items as possible. It would be
most helpful if questionnaire is returned by to:
Dr. James C. Duzzcll
Sverdrup & Parcel and Associates, Inc.
300 N. 12th Blvd.
St. Louis, MO 6310]
Tel: (3U) 436-7600 Ext. 2/,3 or 34?
Company Plant
Plant Location
Part I - GENERAL PLANT INFORMATION
A. Please indicate method used to dispose of process-related wastewaters.
Direct Discharge - Discharge of treated or untreated process-
related wastewaters directly to a receiving body of water.
Indirect Discharge - Discharge of partially treated or untreated
process-related wastewaters directly to a Publicly Owned Treatment
Works (POTW) via municipal sewer system.
Other Dicchar/je such as septic tank, evaporation lagoon, irrigation
system, etc. Please explain briefly below.
B. If your plant is a Direct or Other Discharger do you have firm plans to
discharge process-related wastewater to a POTW in the future?
C. If your plant is an Indirect Discharger please provide as much of the
following information as possible. Please contact POTW if necessary.
POTW name and location
POTW type (e.g. primary clarification, activated sludge, trickling
filter, aerated lagoon, oxidation ditch, etc.)
POTW design flow POTW present average flow _
If POTW has biological treatment indicate year of completion.
Is POTW designed specifically to treat textile wastewaters? _
Did your plant participate directly in construction of POTW? .
Does your plant participate directly in operation of POTW?
Does your plant provide pretreatment? Is it required by POTW?
Does POTW currently meet EPA secondary treatment requirements?
( ) Yes ( ) No ( ) Don't Know
A-3
-------
Company
Plant
Part II - MANUFACTURING INFORMATION
EPA Subcategorization. Please indicate average pounds production per day.
Do not include redyes; they are covered separately below.
Subcategory Ib/dav Fiber Content Ib/day
1. Wool Scouring Wool
(Raw Grease Wool) _ ^
Cotton
2. Wool Dye/Finish Polyester
3. Dry Processing Rayon
Woven Greige Goods Nylon
Knit Greige Goods Acetate
Adhesive Products Acrylic
Carpet Backing Modacrylic
Other Other
4. Woven Fabric Dye/Finish Other
5. Knit Fabric Dye/Finish Other
6. Carpet Dye/Finish Total
7. Stock & Yarn Dye/Finish Fiber Blends (e.g. 65$
cotton/35$ polyester )
2. Nonwovens
Mechanical Entanglement
Wet Lay Process
Spun Bond Process
Dry Processed
9. Other
Other
Total
Final manufactured product(s) (e.p,. sheeting, hosiery, carpet, thread,
etc.)
Average Pounds RE-DYES per day
B. Process Wastewater. Please indicate the average gallons of process-
related wastewater discharged per day. gpd.
-------
C. Schematic. Please provide, by attachment or by sketch in the space belov,
a simple block diagram of your wet manufacturing processes.
A-5
-------
Company
Plant
Part II (Cont.)
D. Production Process Information. Please indicate approximate percent of
production through the following processes. Please do not include Re-dyes.
Percent Process
Wool Scouring
Slashing: ;
Weaving
Desizing:
Scouring:
Bleaching:
Mercerizing: I
Carbonizii:^
Stock Dyeing: .
Yarn Dyeing:
Fabric Dyeing:.
Starch;
PVA;
CMC;
other
Type of size
% Open width; % Rope Range
Bleach is
caustic recovered? ( ) Yes ( ) No
_% package (200°F);
J> package (200°F);
_$> atmospheric (200°F);
Dye machines are ^Continuous
% Beam
% Beck
Dye machines are % automated
Dye usage.
package (250°F);
package (250°F)
% pressure (250°F)
Jet
Jig
Other
% skein
manual
Please indicate average pounds per day or percent
per day for each dye class used.
Ib/day %_ Dye Ib/dav %_ Dye
Acid Naphthol
Cationic Reactive
Developed Sulfur
Direct Vat
Dispersed
Printing: Type(s)
Functional Finishes: Please identify types of finishes applied.
Crease-resistant Moth-proof
Water-repellant Mildew-resistant
Flame-resistant Other
Bacteriostatic Other
Please indicate the method(s) of disposal of concentrated dye and/or print
paste wastes
A-6
-------
Comparvy_
Plant
Part III- WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND IN-PLANT CONTROLS
A. Treatment or Pretreatment Information. Please indicate existing and/or
proposed treatment or pretreatment steps in sequence, i.e., 1 for first
unit, 2 for second unit, etc. Also please provide, by attachment or by
sketch on the follov/ing page, a simple block diagram of your waste treat-
ment system. Indicate non-process waste streams (sanitary sewage, cooling
water, etc.) if separate from process waste streams and identify waste-
water sampling locations.
Existing Proposed
Screening: Type Spacing
Equalization: Mixed Volume gal HP
Unmixed Volume gal
Neutralization: Acid feed
Tank volume
Primary Sedimentation:
No. of units Depth ft
Dimensions
Aeration:
No. of units Volume under aeration gal
Total aeration HP Detention period hr
Aerators are Surface Diffused Other
Typical MLSS mg/1
Secondary Sedimentation:
No. of units Depth ft
Dimensions
Is sludfje returned to aeration basins? yes no
Unaerated Ponds:
No. of units Total volume gal
Other: (If u-.in^ other steps, e.g., skimming, flotation,
coagulation, trickling filters, nutrient addition, dis-
infection, tertiary processes, etc., please describe.)
Approx. amount of sludge generated daily? (specify units)
Is sludge treated? If so, please describe process(es)_
Please describe ultimate sludge disposal method..
If removal is by outside contractor give approximate cost/ton $_
A-7
-------
Company
Plant
Part III (Cont. )
Note: Use this space to provide block diagram of your treatment or pre-
treatment system.
B. Studies. Please briefly describe any water pollution abatement studies
conducted by your plant during the past three years.
C. In-Plant Control Information. Does your plant practice in-plant production
process control such as water reuse, water recycle, material reclamation,
chemical substitution, etc? yes no
If so, please use the table below and estimate the reduction in water
usage and/or pollutant quantities for each control; if possible give an
estimate of the net cost for each control.
Year Approx. Flow BOD5 COD
Control Type Installed Cost Reduction Reduction Reduction
A-8
-------
Company
Plant
Part IV - V/ASTEV/ATER DATA
Please provide representative monitoring data that characterize the raw
(untreated) and treated wastewater discharged. Parameters of interest are
flow rate, BOD5, COD, TSS, sulfide, phenol, chromium and any other priority
pollutant listed in Part VI, for which data are available. Submit data
sheets as illustrated on the following page or submit copies of
monitoring reports. Data for 1976 is most desirable. Please indicate
approximate production levels that correspond to data provided; also
indicate sampling technique (grab, 24-hour composite, flow-proportional
composite, time composite, etc.).
Who is responsible for wastewater monitoring?.
Where are wastewater samples analyzed?
Part V - ECONOMIC DATA
A. Parent Organization
B.
C.
Please indicate:
Public corporation
Private "
Partnership
Plant Capacity - 1976
Proprietorship
Cooperative
Other
1.
hours
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Length of shift
Number of Weeks at 0 shifts
at 1 shift
at 2 shifts
at 3 shifts
Plant capacity
(shutdown)
Annual operating rate: 1975 % of plant capacity
1976 % of plant capacity
Average Number of Employees (1976)
Maximum Number of Employees (1976)
Age (Year of initial construction) of major
production facility
Average age of manufacturing equipment
Water Pollution Costs: Direct Discnargers
^^_V^^^^ MMMB^^HBB^^^H ^^^^^^^^ -^^^^^«-^^ »»^-^^^-^
Before
1975
1975 1976
Projected
1977 1978 - 83
Annual Operating Costs $
Capital Expenditures $
A-9
-------
oi-v
Samj'le
Collection
Date
Waste Stream
(Raw, Influent
or Effluent)
Sample Type
(grab, compo-
site, etc.)
tl
Q
1
t-
ti
X,
1-
g
d
01
Approximate
Corresponding
Production
(give units)
Average
Flow
Rate
BOD1
COD
TSS
Oil
&
fir-ease
Phenol
Total
Chromium
Sulfide
Color
pH
-------
Company
Plant
Part V (Cont.)
D. Water Pollution Costs: Indirect Dischargers
Sewer use charges are based on:
Water usage Wastewater concentration
Wastewater volume BOD COD
Other Basis
(Please describe)
Suspended Solids
E.
Before Projected
1975 1975 1976 1977 1978 - 83
Annual User Charges $ ^^_______
Annual Capital Cost
Recovery Charge $
Pretreatment System
Capital Cost $
Annual Operating Cost $
Other Regulatory Costs
Describe other regulatory controls (e.g. air, solid wastes, OSHA, etc.)
that have resulted in significant costs impact.
Estimate combined investment and annual operating costs for other
regulatory considerations over next 4 years.
Total investment cost per year $
Annual operating cost $
F. Energy Usage
Electric power usage for 1976
Fuel Oil usage for 1976
kwh
Cost: i_
_1000 gallons Cost: i_
Gas (natural, propane, etc. )
usage for 1976
1000 cu ft
Cost:
.Awn
/cu ft
Approximate percentage of total energy usage attributable to water
pollution controls %
Approximate percentage of total energy usage attributable to other
regulatory controls %
A-ll
-------
Company
Plant
Part VI - PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
Please complete the following Priority Pollutant listing. For each pollutant
please check whether it is Known To Be Present, Suspected To Be Present,
Suspected To Be Absent, or Known To Be Absent. Suitable responses should be
based on the following descriptions:
Known To Be Present: The compound has been detected by reasonable analytical
procedures in the discharge or by reference is known to be present in the
raw waste load.
Suspected To Be Present: The compound is a raw material in the processes
employed, a product, a by-product, catalyst, etc. Its presence in the raw
waste load and discharge is a reasonable technical judgment.
Suspected To Be Absent; No known reason to predict that the compound is
present in the discharge.
Known To Be Absent; The application of reasonable analytical procedures
designed to detect the material have yielded negative results.
Known Suspected Suspected Known
Priority Pollutant Present Present Absent Absent
1. acenaphthene
2. acrolein
3. acrylonitrile
4. benzene
5. benzidine
6. carbon tetrachloride
(tetra chloromethane)
7. chlorobenezene
8. 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene
9. hexachlorobenzene
10. 1,2-dichloroethane
11. 1,1,1-trichlorethane
12. hexachloroethane
13. 1,1-dichloroethane
14. 1,1,2-tricnloroethane
15. 1,1,2,3-tetrachloroethane
16. chloroethane
17. bis(chloromethyl) ether
18. bis(2-chloroethyl) ether
19. 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether
(mixed)
20. 2-chloronaphthalene
21. 2,4,6-trichlorophenol
22. parachlorometa eresol
23. chloroform (trichloromethane)
24. 2-chlorophenol
A-12
-------
Company
Plant
Part VI (Cont.)
Priority Pollutant
25. 1,2-dichlorobenzene
26. 1,3-dichlorobenzene
27. 1,4-dichlorobenzene
28. 3i3-dichlorobenzidine
29. 1,1-dichloroethylene
30. 1,2-trans-dichloroethylene
31. 2,4-dichlorophenol
32. 1,2-dichloropropane
33. 1i3-dichloropropylene
(1,3-dichloropropene)
34. 2,4-dimethylphenol
35. 2,4-dinitrotoluene
36. 2,6-dinitrotoluene
37. 1,2-diphenylhydrazine
38. ethylbenzene
39. fluoranthene
40. 4-chlorophenyl phenyl ether
41. 4-bromophenyl phenyl ether
42. bis(2-chloroisopropyl) ether
43. bis(2-chloroethoxy) methane
44. methylene chloride
(dichloromethane)
45. methyl chloride
(chloromethane)
46. methyl bromide (bromomethane)
47. bromoform (tribromomethane)
48. dichlorobromomethane
49. trichlorofluoromethane
50. dichlorodifluoromethane
51. chlorodibromomethane
52. hexachlorobutadiene
5 3. hexachlorocyclopentadiene
54. isophorone
55. napthalene
56. nitrobenzene
Known
Present
Suspected Suspected Known
Present Absent Absent
A-13
-------
Company^
Plant
Part VI (Cont.)
Known Suspected Suspected Known
Priority Pollutant Present Present Absent Absent
57. 2-nitrophenol
58. 4-nitrophenol
59. 2,4-dinitrophenol ZHZ
60. 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol
61. N-nitrosodimethylamine
62. N-nitrosodiphenylamine ^^
63. N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
64. pentachlorophenol
65. phenol
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
67. butyl benzyl phthalate
68. di-n-butyl phthalate
69. diethyl phthalate
70. dimethyl phthalate
71. 1,2-benzathracene
72. benzo (a)pyrene (3,4-benzo
pyrene)
73. 3»4-benzofluoranthene
74. 11,12-benzofluoranthene
75. chrysene
76. acenaphthylene
77. anthracene
78. 1,12-benzoperylene
79. fluorene
80. phenanthrene
81. l,2:5,6-dibenzanthracene
82. indeno(l,2,3-C,D) pyrene
83. pyrene
84. 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-
p-dioxin (TCDD)
85. tetrachloroethylene
86. toluene
87. trichloroethylene
88. vinyl chlorine (chloroethylene)
Pesticides and Metabolites
89. aldrin
90. dieldrin
91. chlordane (technical mixture
and metabolites)
A-14
-------
Company
Plant
Part VI (Cont.)
Priority Pollutant
92. 4,4'-DDT
93. 4,4'-DDE (p,p'-DDX)
94. 4,4'-DDD (p,p'-TDE)
95. a-endosulfan
96. B-endosulfan
97. endosulfan sulfate
Known Suspected Suspected Known
Present Present Absent Absent
98 .
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
endrin
endrin aldehyde
heptachlor
heptachlor epoxide
a-BHC
B-BHC
T-BHC (lindane)
PCB-1242 (Arochlor 1242)
PCB-1254 (Arochlor 1254)
108. Toxaphene
Metals
109. Antimony (Total)
110. Arsenic (Total)
111. Asbestos (Fibrow)
112. Beryllium (Total)
113. Cadmium (Total)
114. Chromium (Total)
115. Copper (Total)
116. Cyanide (Total)
117. Lead (Total)
118. Mercury (Total)
119. Nickel (Total)
120. Selenium (Total)
121. Silver (Total)
122. Thallium (Total)
123. Zinc (Total)
A-15
-------
Company
Plant
Part VI (Cont.)
For those Priority Pollutants which are known to be present, please
indicate to the best of your knowledge the prime source of the material.
Specific Pollutant Source (Raw Material/Process Line)
QUESTIONNAIRE COMPILATION
Please provide the following information regarding completion of questionnaire.
Compiler Title
Office Location Telephone
Date Completed
If you have questions, please contact Dr. James Buzzell or Larry Oliver at
(3U) -436-7600, Ext. 347 or 243.
A-16
-------
FIGURE A-3
EPA INDUSTRY SURVEY
TEXTILE PLANTS
BAT-NSFS-PRETHZATMENT
Please complete as many of the questionnaire items as possible and return
to:
Larry J. Oliver
SverdruD & Parcel and Associates, Inc.
800 N. 12th Blvd.
St. Louis, MO 63101
Tel: (314) 436-7600 Ext. 243 or 347
Company Plant
Plant Location
PART I - MANUFACTURING INFORMATION
A. Plant Classification (Please indicate average 1976 production per day
for the appropriate subcategory(ies).)
Subcategory ]b/day Subcategory Ib/day
1. V/ool Scouring 4. Woven Fabric Finishing
2. Wool Finishing 5. "'[nit Fabric Finishing
3. Dry Processing 6. Carpet Mill
Woven Greige Goods 7. Stock & Yarn
Knit Greige Goods 5. Momvovens
Other 9. Miscellaneous (describe on
reverse side)
B. Please indicate principal manufactured product(s) (e.g. knit fabric,
woven fabric, hosiery, carpet, thread, etc.)
C. Raw Materials (Please indicate average pounds fiber use per day.)
Fjber Content Ib/day Fiber Blends Ib/day
(e.g. 65$ cotton/35$ polyester)
Wool
Cotton
Polyester
Rayon
Nylon Other Fibers (identify)
Acetate
Acrylic
Modacrylin
A-17
-------
D. Production Process Information (Please indicate approximate percent of
production through the following processes.)
Percent Process
Slashing: % Starch; % PVA; % CMC; % other
Weaving: Type of machinery
Knitting: Type of machinery
Other (Desizing, Scouring, Bleaching, Mercerizing, Dyeing,
Printing, etc.) Please describe:
PART IT - WASTEWATER INFORMATION
A. Approximately how many gallons of v;astev/ater are discharged, on the
average, per day.
B. Please indicate the approximate percentage of the total flow from
each source:
_ % Process-related vastev/ater (slasher cleanup, contact cooling
water, equipment washdo\vn, other sources)
_ % Boiler blcrodowi
__ % Non-contact cooling waler
__ $ Sanitary sewage
_ % Cafeteria
_ % Air pollution control equipment
_ % Other (descrioe): ___
C. Process-related wastewater is discharged: (please check or indicate.)
Continuously
Times per day
Times per week
Intermittently (describe):
Other (describe):
D. Is v/astewater treated? (e.g., screening, holding tank, aeration, etc.)
NO (If yes, please attach a simple block diagram of the
treatment system.)
A-18
-------
E. Please indicate method used to dispose of process-related wastewaters.
Direct Discharge - Discharge of treated or untreated process-
related wastev/aters directly to a receiving body of water.
Indirect Discharge - Discharge of partially treated or untreated
process-related wastev/aters directly to a Publicly Owned Treatment
Works (POTW) via municipal sewer system.
Other Discharge such as septic tank, evaporation lagoon, irrigation
system, etc. Please explain briefly below.
F. Are monitoring data available for process-related wastewater discharge?
No - No monitoring js done.
Yes - Monitored by municipal water pollution control agency
Yes - Monitored and reported \u\der NPDES permit
Yes - Other reason
If yes, please attach copies of reports for 1976 and 1977 monitoring.
G. In-Plant Control Information: Has your plant instituted in-plant
controls to reduce Y/ater pollution? Yes No (Please check
those applicable.)
WP. ter reuse
WatCT recycle
Cher.ir.al substitution
Material reclamation
Other:
PART III - PLANT INFORMATION
A. Plant Capacity - 1976
1. 1976 production was approximately % of plant's full
production capacity.
2. 1976 operating experience:
Length of shifts - hours
Average number of shifts - per week
Plant shut down - weeks
3. Average number of employees:
1st shift
2nd shift
3rd shift
A-19
-------
4. Plant Age:
Approximate age of major production facilities -
Average age of manufacturing equipment - - years
Date of latest major remodeling or expansion -
years
B. Value of Production - (Please indicate the approximate value of principal
manufactured products or principal production services for 1976.)
_Less than j million $/year
J? to 1 million $/year
_1 to 5 million $/year
_5 to 10 million $/year
_10 to 25 million $/year
_Creater than 25 million $/year
Energy Usage - 1976
Average electric power usage -
Average fuel oil usage -
Average gas usage - 1000 cu ft/month
kwh/month Cost - $_
Cost - $_
Cost - $_
JLOOO gal/month
./month
_/month
/month
PART IV - PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
A. Please circle the reference number for each pollutant or pollutant
class listed below that you know or suspect are present in your raw
wastewater discharge.
1. acenaphthene
2. acrolein
3. acrylonitrile
4. benzene
5. benzidine
6. carbon tetrachloride
(tetrachloromethane)
7. chlorinated benezenes
8. chlorinated ethanes
9. chloroalkyl ethers
10. chlorinated naphthalene
11. chlorinated phenols
12. ehloroform
(trichloromethane)
13. 2-chlorophenol
14. dichlorobenzenes
15. dichlorobenzidine
16. d ichloroethylenes
17. 2,4-dichlcrophenol
18. dichloropropane and
d ichlorop ropene
19. 2,4-dimethylphenol
20. dinitrotoluene
21. 1,2-diphenylhydrazine
22. e thylbenzene
23. fluroanthene
24. haloethers
?5. halomethane
26. hexachlorobutad iene
27. hexachlorocyclopentad iene
28. isophorone
29. naphthalene
30. nitrobenzene
31. nitrophenols
32. nitosamines
33. pentacholorphenol
34. phenol
35. phthalate esters
36. polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
37. 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
(TCDD)
38. tetrachloroethylene
39. toluene
40. trichloroethylene
41. vinyl chloride (chloroethylene)
A-20
-------
Pesticides and Metabolites
B.
42.
43.
44.
45.
aldrin/ciieldrin
chlordane
DDT
endosulfan
Metals
51. antimony (total)
52. arsenic (total)
53. asbestos (Fibrow)
54. beryllium (total)
55. cadium (total)
56. chromium (total)
57. copper (total)
(PCB's) 58. cyanide (total)
59. lead (total)
60. mercury (total)
61. nickel (total)
62. selenium (total)
63. silver (total)
64. thallium (total)
65. zinc (total)
For those Priority Pollutants that are known or suspected present, please
indicate to the best of your knowledge the prime source of the material.
46. endrin
47. heptachlor
48. hexachlorocyclohexane
49. polychlorinated biphenyls
50. toxaphene
Specific Pollutant
Source 'Raw Material/Process Line)
COMPILATION
Please provide the following information regarding completion of questionnaire.
Compiler ____ Title _
Office Location
Date Completed _
Telephone
If you have questions, please contact Dr. James Buzzell or Larry Oliver
at (314) 436-7600, Ext. 34? or 243.
Additi oral comments
-------
APPENDIX B
WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION DATA
TABLE B-l - RAW WASTE CHARACTERISTICS - SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL DATA
TABLE B-2 - BPT EFFLUENT CHARACTERISTICS - SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL DATA
B-l
-------
TABLE B-l
RAW WASTE CHARACTERISTICS - SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL DATA
ISJ
Subcategory
Wastewater Discharge, 10 cu m/day
Min. Max. Avg. Med. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
0.038
0.189
0.023
0.057
0.042
0.034
0.011
0.114
0.004
0.076
0.045
0.011
0.053
2.84
15.8
1.05
20.8
28.9
20.8
10.6
13.2
1.54
6.92
9.65
1.51
1.89
0.503
3.02
0.30
1.97
4.28
1.89
2.13
2.41
0.227
1.91
1.59
0.620
0.685
0.193
1.89
0.23
0.636
1.53
0.636
1.51
2.00
0.178
1.59
0.961
0.564
0.378
11
15
13
48
39
51
71
35
57
37
116
11
11
-------
TABLE B-l (Cont.)
Subcategory
Min.
BOD5, mg/1
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
w
OJ
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
313
66
37
19
83
125
60
123
38
188
43
55
64
6680
750
2546
2050
2160
2600
1860
921
792
565
1630
376
633
2950
233
466
392
462
519
289
304
358
415
279
209
262
2270
166
293
269
350
416
209
266
323
439
185
203
176
9
10
13
32
23
36
35
19
39
10
62
4
4
-------
Table B-l (Cont.)
GO
Subcategory
1. Wool Scouring
2. Wool Finishing
3. Low Water Use Processing
4. Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
5. Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
6. Carpet Finishing
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
9. Felted Fabric Processing
BODS, kg/kkg of Production
Min. Max. Avg. Med. No.
3.80 207.09 54.15 41.79 9
22.36 139.51 69.54 59.77 10
0.22 22.36 6.57 2.32 13
3.77 215.35 36.75 22.64 32
3.59 96.05 36.99 32.74 23
5.90 188.51 53.57 45.12 36
4.44 85.06 31.49 27.74 35
8.04 137.69 32.51 22.10 19
1.59 138.33 34.19 26.42 39
13.73 40.78 24.86 25.57 10
0.75 113.00 28.18 20.74 62
15.43 309.97 116.46 70.23 4
3.27 16.14 8.19 6.69 4
-------
TABLE B-l (Cont.)
Subcategory
Min.
COD, mg/1
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
7
Ul
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
1140
280
115
203
244
372
342
545
450
281
136
230
205
17800
2000
2955
5020
5140
2780
19400
3150
4980
2120
4760
2090
3940
8260
818
873
1170
1470
1350
1630
1160
1500
1200
962
857
2170
7030
592
692
901
1060
1240
873
791
1370
1188
684
553
2360
4
7
8
28
12
29
29
11
27
14
46
4
3
-------
TABLE B-l (Cont.)
Subcategory
w
1. Wool Scouring
2. Wool Finishing
3. Low Water Use Processing
4. Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
5. Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
6. Carpet Finishing
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
9. Felted Fabric Processing
COD, kg/kkg of Production
Min. Max. Avg. Med. No.
20.10 749.73 256.92 128.93 4
97.35 445.11 222.43 204.81 7
2.74 25.96 14.20 14.50 8
12.70 436.82 108.00 92.40 28
10.18 388.01 128.28 110.62 12
48.04 798.32 157.27 122.63 29
17.90 378.79 121.51 81.11 29
49.43 503.01 139.75 115.45 11
26.05 625.76 126.70 89.38 27
21.88 134.89 73.82 82.32 14
2.46 380.40 90.12 62.71 46
63.97 379.96 703.97 185.98 4
10.38 99.44 49.40 38.39 3
-------
TABLE B-l (Cont.)
Subcategory
Min.
TSS, mg/1
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
120
17
10
16
40
1
21
18
9
37
2
68
59
13200
245
532
2440
866
1260
2160
742
182
208
4200
285
179
4210
89
181
266
177
214
147
137
83
81
142
147
98
3310
62
185
62
107
154
53
60
82
67
38
117
78
8
10
12
26
18
28
32
19
29
12
59
4
4
-------
TABLE B-l (Cont.)
Subcategory
Min.
TSS, kg/kkg of Production
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
7
00
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
1.91
9.53
0.33
0.81
1.95
0.20
2.91
1.32
0.32
1.55
0.09
15.94
0.24
235.55
97.10
4.03
222.11
61.68
83.50
41.50
110.04
23.59
9.27
478.45
119.72
14.81
64.92
27.42
1.73
27.23
14.95
23.17
9.55
17.97
7.84
4.93
14.42
65.97
4.85
43.10
17.20
1.58
7.96
9.63
14.76
6.34
6.95
6.73
4.66
4.57
64.11
2.19
8
10
12
26
18
28
32
19
29
12
59
4
4
-------
TABLE B-l (Cont.)
Subcategory
Min.
Oil & Grease, mg/1
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
w
VO
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
80
-
-
6
34
5
14
6
15
3
1
8
-
5000
-
-
1440
158
100
455
113
275
93
180
156
-
1560
70
-
271
69
57
123
58
113
30
36
64
81
580
-
-
69
46
68
83
52
99
18
21
28
-
7
1
0
11
6
5
9
6
13
5
18
3
1
-------
TABLE B-l (Coat.)
Subcategory
Oil & Grease, kg/kkg of Production
Min. Max. Avg. Med. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
i
H-
o
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
1.27
-
-
0.65
2.24
0.36
0.53
0.45
1.44
0.23
0.05
2.36
-
62.44
-
-
151.25
14.24
14.93
46.43
17.85
27.74
9.37
21.52
126.40
-
20.83
7.78
-
25.31
5.52
5.22
12.92
5.51
9.15
2.61
3.45
46.63
3.41
10.26
-
-
9.08
3.84
4.08
3.99
3.54
6.63
1.08
1.64
11.15
-
7
1
0
11
6
5
9
6
13
5
18
3
1
-------
TABLE B-l (Cent.)
Subcategory
Phenol, ug/1
Min. Max. Avg. Med. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
-
50
-
10
10
14
1
72
26
1
3
70
-
-
155
-
600
600
1220
1680
230
583
1140
621
1100
-
-
102
91
178
179
426
351
128
118
301
223
580
21
-
102
-
49
54
146
110
100
62
130
172
575
-
0
2
1
10
6
5
9
5
10
7
12
3
1
-------
TABLE B-l (Cont.)
Subcategory
Phenol, g/kkg of Production
Min. Max. Avg. Med. No.
1 . Wool Scouring
2. Wool Finishing
3. Low Water Use Processing
4. Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
to)
^L b. Complex Processing
NJ
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
5. Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
6. Carpet Finishing
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
9. Felted Fabric Processing
-
11.37
-
1.76
0.91
0.93
0.10
3.42
1.84
0.04
0.53
16.41
-
-
75.42
-
51.21
25.03
149.32
397.35
36.73
151.59
58.91
83.44
497.56
-
-
43.39
2.34
14.29
10.33
52.69
64.10
16.65
20.88
20.44
22.92
587.11
0.19
-
43.39
-
8.15
7.69
13.10
8.71
12.01
4.23
11.34
15.03
247 . 35
-
0
2
1
10
4
6
9
5
10
7
12
3
1
-------
TABLE B-l (Cont.)
Subcategory
Min.
Total Chromium, ug/1
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
1. Wool Scouring
2. Wool Finishing
3. Low Water Use Processing
4. Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
»
H- b. Complex Processing
OJ
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
5. Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
6. Carpet Finishing
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
9. Felted Fabric Processing
-
100
15
1
19
14
13
10
10
4
4
50
10
-
343
97
530
1180
m
12500
600
180
1200
300
1600
500
370
-
221
56
102
245
2050
119
72
213
96
344
275
143
-
221
56
38
110
100
78
80
80
30
100
275
50
0
2
2
16
7
11
13
8
17
7
25
2
3
-------
TABLE B-l (Cont.)
Dd
Subcategory
Total Chromium, g/kkg of Production
Min. Max. Avg. Med. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
-
65.77
1.47
0.07
2.37
0.57
0.64
1.35
0.35
0.22
0.83
11.72
0.43
-
162.89
3.42
43.76
49.23
1521.01
85.25
35.04
265.63
11.92
362 . 86
139.07
15.59
-
114.33
2.44
8.19
15.32
239.58
17.29
11.64
29.03
5.23
51.60
75.39
5.50
-
114.33
2.44
4.30
2.62
20.86
7.82
4.71
6.38
3.44
11.99
75.39
0.50
0
2
2
16
7
11
13
8
17
7
25
2
3
-------
TABLE B-l (Cont.)
Cfl
Subcategory
Min.
Sulfide, ug/1
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
-
25
100
100
20
50
10
10
1
-
-
-
580
120
4400
7100
1470
8000
450
4437
-
-
180
155
106
2260
2390
457
2280
202
869
500
10
;
72
100
2260
55
155
562
175
200
-
-
0
0
1
6
3
2
3
4
4
4
9
1
1
-------
TABLE B-l (Cont.)
w
Subcategory
Sulfide, g/kkg of Production
Min. Max. Avg. Med. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
-
0.58
7.84
15.73
3.12
8.34
1.98
0.77
0.55
-
-
;
128.21
19.88
293.72
769.42
110.39
400.53
22.00
169.30
-
-
3.79
28.24
13.41
154.72
261.86
36.70
151.59
10.40
48.43
117.27
0.50
-
7.59
12.51
154.72
13.04
14.04
101.94
9.42
27.81
-
-
0
0
1
6
3
2
3
4
4
4
9
1
1
-------
TABLE B-l (Cont.)
Subcategory
Min.
Color, APHA Units
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
1 . Wool Scouring
2. Wool Finishing
3. Low Water Use Processing
4. Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
^ b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
5. Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
6. Carpet Finishing
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
9. Felted Fabric Processing
;
20
317
-
170
37
40
65
57
-
-
;
10000
700
-
1460
937
1060
1900
3000
-
-
1500
2510
508
-
547
629
504
734
922
300
28
;
800
508
-
400
750
453
486
566
-
-
0
1
0
9
2
0
9
7
8
4
11
1
1
-------
TABLE B-2
BPT EFFLUENT CHARACTERISTICS - SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL DATA
Subcategory
Min.
BOD5, mg/1
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
1 . Wool Scouring
2. Wool Finishing
3. Low Water Use Processing
4. Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
w
,L b. Complex Processing
00
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
5. Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
6. Carpet Finishing
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
9. Felted Fabric Processing
60
24
7
4
3
3
4
5
44
27
3
-
-
125
76
100
124
101
151
143
45
98
54
29
-
-
92
50
30
33
35
36
32
24
71
36
13
-
-
92
50
24
15
24
24
13
21
71
34
11
-
-
2
2
17
7
7
17
13
5
2
6
10
0
0
-------
TABLE B-2 (Cont.)
Subcategory
BODS, kg/kkg of Production
Min. Max. Avg. Med. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
w
h
SO
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
0.40
12.22
0.03
0.79
0.54
0.51
0.30
0.25
1.82
1.01
0.23
-
-
7.66
37.95
4.88
18.77
15.40
13.65
9.97
8.31
6.18
4.77
3.31
-
-
4.03
25.08
0.86
4.78
4.94
3.12
2.84
3.09
4.00
2.02
1.17
-
-
4.03
25.08
0.14
2.59
4.05
2.14
1.62
3.17
4.00
1.59
0.82
-
-
2
2
16
7
7
17
13
5
2
6
10
0
0
-------
TABLE B-2 (Cont.)
ro
o
Subcategory
Min.
COD, mg/1
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
1440
-
51
141
86
155
154
124
-
227
96
-
-
2600
-
602
409
714
912
1750
597
-
546
268
-
-
2020
534
280
262
311
360
439
322
571
328
154
-
-
2020
-
223
242
246
252
274
277
-
286
140
-
-
2
1
9
6
6
13
11
5
1
5
10
0
0
-------
TABLE B-2 (Cont.)
Subcategory
Min.
COD, kg/kkg of Production
Max. Avg. Med. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
7
N>
1 '
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
8.93
-
0.56
17.67
17.87
4.69
8.68
5.84
-
8.72
4.91
-
-
155.11
-
20.89
71.71
109.98
82.03
122.10
68.26
-
33.71
42.94
-
-
82.02
273.09
5.72
38.43
47.59
34.49
48.67
33.76
23.73
17.61
15.63
-
-
82.02
-
2.68
33.62
39.03
29.40
28.58
40.45
-
15.31
11.38
-
-
2
1
9
6
6
13
11
5
1
5
10
0
0
-------
TABLE B-2 (Cont.)
Subcategory
Min.
TSS, mg/1
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
to
ro
N>
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
166
49
8
18
18
8
11
18
-
33
9
-
-
1230
141
159
56
95
176
187
116
-
113
71
-
-
698
95
35
39
45
65
57
62
129
69
30
-
-
698
95
28
38
48
49
34
55
-
63
25
-
-
2
2
16
7
7
17
13
5
1
6
10
0
0
-------
TABLE B-2 (Cont.)
N>
CO
Subcategory
Min.
TSS, kg/kkg of Production
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
1.00
24.48
0.03
2.27
3.20
0.65
1.56
1.00
-
1.58
0.34
-
-
74.69
68.22
3.61
11.26
10.11
19.38
12.83
17.17
-
10.93
7.24
-
-
37.84
46.35
0.63
6.31
6.65
6.00
5.81
7.39
5.35
4.03
2.95
-
-
37.84
46.35
0.22
4.76
7.55
4.56
3.53
5.89
-
3.11
2.09
-
-
2
2
15
7
7
17
13
5
1
6
10
0
0
-------
TABLE B-2 (Cont.)
Subcategory
OS
N5
1. Wool Scouring
2. Wool Finishing
3. Low Water Use Processing
4. Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
5. Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
6. Carpet Finishing
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
9. Felted Fabric Processing
Min.
Oil & Grease, mg/1
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
187
1
0
0
14
24
1
0
8 110 46
32
14
5
1
0
1
0
0
0
-------
TABLE B-2 (Cont.)
Subcategory
r
N>
Ln
1. Wool Scouring
2. Wool Finishing
3. Low Water Use Processing
4. Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
5. Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
6. Carpet Finishing
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
9. Felted Fabric Processing
Oil & Grease, kg/kkg of Production
Min. Max. Avg. Med. No.
11.22
1
0
0
0.42
3.30
5.18
1.29 1.05
1
0
5
0.75 12.35 4.47 1.07 5
5.93 - 1
0
0.71 - 1
0
0
0
-------
TABLE B-2 (Cont.)
Subcategory
Min.
Phenol, ug/1
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
101
81
29 100 64
10 87 34
25 250 129
2 347 85
8 323 93
30 100 65
34
80 370 155
40 186 82
_
_
-
-
64
20
112
34
56
65
-
100
56
-
-
1
1
2
7
3
8
6
2
1
5
5
0
0
-------
TABLE B-2 (Cont.)
Subcategory
Min.
Phenol, g/kkg of Production
Max. Avg. Med. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
-
-
0.54
1.57
3.42
0.24
0.61
2.26
-
2.46
3.19
-
-
-
-
0.59
14.15
73.80
72.79
21.08
19.10
-
49.06
18.90
-
-
6.16
39.62
0.56
5.63
31.52
13.63
8.47
10.68
1.44
13.68
9.79
-
-
-
-
0.56
2.78
17.35
3.01
7.80
10.68
-
4.76
6.58
-
-
1
1
2
7
3
8
6
2
1
5
5
0
0
-------
TABLE B-2 (Cont.)
Subcategory
Min.
Total Chromium, ug/1
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
1 . Wool Scouring
2. Wool Finishing
3. Low Water Use Processing
4. Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
tij b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
5. Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
6. Carpet Finishing
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
9. Felted Fabric Processing
-
24 366
-
14 182
8 118
1 11600
1 100
15 100
-
17 45
14 265
-
-
37
195
60
42
52
1000
44
46
30
28
97
-
-
1
195 2
1
20 7
27 5
29 12
58 7
25 3
1
25 4
42 5
0
0
-------
TABLE B-2 (Cont.)
Subcategory
Total Chromium, g/kkg of Production
Min. Max. Avg. Med. No.
1. Wool Scouring
2. Wool Finishing
3. Low Water Use Processing
4. Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
w
i!j b. Complex Processing
vo
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
5. Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
6. Carpet Finishing
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
9. Felted Fabric Processing
-
12.34 176.18
-
1.21 37.17
1.42 32.89
0.08 106.56
0.12 13.71
1.13 19.10
-
0.82 5.81
0.77 35.29
-
-
2.15
94.26
-
8.28
11.66
12.04
5.20
7.37
1.24
2.37
13.10
-
-
-
94.26
-
2.61
3.70
2.45
5.74
1.90
-
1.43
3.93
-
-
1
2
0
7
5
12
7
3
1
4
5
0
0
-------
TABLE B-2 (Cont.)
W
Subcategory
Min.
Sulfide, ug/1
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
365
_
32 148 90 90
57 200 128 128
28 133 73 60
224 1610 1020 1120
73 1110 324 126
10 100 55 55
56
60 67 63 63
27 185 111 116
- - - -
_
1
0
2
2
5
4
5
2
1
2
4
0
0
-------
TABLE B-2 (Cont.)
CD
Subcategory
Sulfide, g/kkg of Production
Min. Max. Avg. Med. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Wool Scouring
Wool Finishing
Low Water Use Processing
Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
Carpet Finishing
Stock & Yarn Finishing
Nonwoven Manufacturing
Felted Fabric Processing
20.73
_
0.62 0.82 0.72 0.72
8.93 24.24 16.58 16.58
3.74 27.57 12.09 9.60
33.57 155.93 93.53 92.31
5.75 78.40 27.75 20.79
0.75 19.10 9.92 9.92
2.33
1.82 8.48 5.15 5.15
1.46 29.67 13.82 12.07
_
_ _ _ _
1
0
2
2
5
4
5
2
1
2
4
0
0
-------
TABLE B-2 (Cont.)
Subcategory
UJ
ho
1. Wool Scouring
2. Wool Finishing
3. Low Water Use Processing
4. Woven Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Complex Processing Plus Desizing
5. Knit Fabric Finishing
a. Simple Processing
b. Complex Processing
c. Hosiery Products
6. Carpet Finishing
7. Stock & Yarn Finishing
8. Nonwoven Manufacturing
9. Felted Fabric Processing
Min.
Color, APHA Units
Max. Avg. Med.
No.
1890
1
0
0
337
118
1
0
1
52
321
186
186
225
719
309
472
472
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
-------
APPENDIX C
PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
1. acenaphthene
2. acrolein
3. acrylonitrile
4. benzene
5. benzidine
6. carbon tetrachloride (tetrachloromethane)
7. chlorobenzene
8. 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene
9. hexachlorobenzene
10. 1,2-dichloroethane
11. 1,1,1-trichloroethane
12. hexachloroethane
13. 1,1-dichloroethane
14. 1,1,2-trichloroethane
15. 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane
16. chloroethane
17. bis(chloromethyl) ether
18. bis(2-chloroethyl) ether
19. 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether (mixed)
20. 2-chloronaphthalene
21. 2,4,6-trichlorophenol
22. parachlorometa cresol
23. chloroform (trichloromethane)
24. 2-chlorophenol
25. 1,2-dichlorobenzene
26. 1,3-dichlorobenzene
27. 1,4-dichlorobenzene
28. 3,3-dichlorobenzidine
29. 1,1-dichloroethylene
30. 1,2-trans-dichloroethylene
31. 2,4-dichlorophenol
32. 1,2-dichloropropane
33. 1,3-dichloropropylene
34. 2,4-dimethylphenol
35. 2,4-dinitrotoluene
36. 2,6-dinitrotoluene
37. 1,2-diphenylhydrazine
38. ethylbenzene
3-9. fluoranthene
40. 4-chlorophenyl phenyl ether
41.. 4-bromophenyl phenyl ether
42. bis(2-chloroisopropyl) ether
43. bis(2-chloroethoxy) methane
44. methylene chloride (dichloromethane)
45. methyl chloride (chloromethane)
C-l
-------
46. methyl bromide (bromomethane)
47. bromoform (tribromomethane)
48. dichlorobromomethane
49. trichlorofluoromethane
50. dichlorodifluoromethane
51. chlorodibromomethane
52. hexachlorobutadiene
53. hexachlorocyclopentadiene
54. isophorone
55. naphthalene
56. nitrobenzene
57. 2-nitrophenol
58. 4-nitrophenol
59. 2,4-dinitrophenol
60. 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol
61. N-nitrosodimethylamine
62. N-nitrosodiphenylamine
63. N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine
64. pentachlorophenol
65. phenol (4APP)
66. bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
67. butyl benzyl phthalate
68. di-n-butyl phthalate
69. di-n-octyl phthalate
70. diethyl phthalate
71. dimethyl phthalate
72. benzo(a)anthracene (1,2 benzanthracene)
73. benzo(a)pyrene (3,4-benzopyrene)
74. 3,4-benzofluoranthene
75. benzo(k)fluoranthane(ll>12-benzofluoranthene)
76. chrysene
77. acenaphthylene
78. anthracene
79. benzo(ghi)perylene (1,12-benzoperylene)
80. fluorene
81. phenanthrene
82. 1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene
83. indeno (1,2,3-cd) pyrene
84. pyrene
85. tetrachloroethylene
86. toluene
87. trichloroethylene
88. vinyl chloride (chloroethylene)
89. aldrin
90. dieldrin
91. chlordane (tech. mixture & metabolites)
92. 4,4'-DDT
93. 4,4'-DDE (p,p'-DDX)
94. 4,4'-ODD (p.p'-TDE)
95. alpha-endosulfan
C-2
-------
96. beta-endosulfan
97. endosulfan sulfate
98. endrin
99. endrin aldehyde
100. heptachlor
101. heptachlor epoxide
102. alpha-BHC
103. beta-BHC
104. gamma-BHC (lindane)
105. delta-BHC
106. PCB-1242 (Arochlor 1242)
107. PCB-1254 (Arochlor 1254)
108. PCB-1221 (Arochlor 1221)
109. PCB-1232 (Arochlor 1232)
110. PCB-1248 (Arcohlor 1248)
111. PCB-1260 (Arochlor 1260)
112. PCB-1016 (Arochlor 1016)
113. Toxaphene
114. Antimony (Total)
115. Arsenic (Total)
116. Asbestos (Fibrous)
117. Beryllium (Total)
118. Cadmium (Total)
119. Chromium (Total)
120. Copper (Total)
121. Cyanide (Total)
122. Lead (Total)
123. Mercury (Total)
124. Nickel (Total)
125. Selenium (Total)
126. Silver (Total)
127. Thallium (Total)
128. Zinc (Total)
129. 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)
C-3
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APPENDIX D
PRIORITY POLLUTANT SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
The screening sampling, verification sampling, and analyses performed
in connection with the review of the effluent limitations guidelines,
new source performance standards, and pretreatment standards for the
Textile Mills Point Source Category, were according to the EPA protocol,
"Sampling and Analysis Procedures for Screening of Industrial Effluents
for Priority Pollutants," dated March, 1977. The procedures employed
are described below.
SAMPLING PROCEDURES
Collection Technique
Wastewater samples were collected by composite and grab sampling
techniques. Composite samplers (Isco Model 1680) were used to collect
raw waste and secondary effluent samples for analysis of nonvolatile
organics and metals.
Tygon sample tubing used was washed with detergent, rinsed thoroughly,
and given a final washing with organic-free water. A 1-liter sample
blank was then collected and analyzed for organic leachates. Organic-
free water was prepared by passing water, distilled in glass, through
a 0.6-meter-long activated cargon column. The blank was collected in
glass, sealed with a Teflon-lined cap, and stored in ice at 4°C until
analyzed.
Grab sampling techniques were used to collect raw waste samples for
other analyses, and for secondary effluent samples at some mills. Eight
individual grap samples were collected at equally spaced time intervals
during the normal working day. To insure that each of the eight labora-
tories received a sufficient portion of the same sample, grab samples were
collected in a Teflon-lined, 10-liter stainless steel bucket. A
specified aliquot was transferred to each of the sample bottles from
this container. Care was taken to insure that the sample remained
homogeneous throughout each of the 10-min pouring sessions. Containers
for volatile organics analysis were collected and sealed first to
minimize possible evaporation losses.
Sample Container Preparation
All glass containers were thoroughly cleaned with strong acid (50%
sulfuric acid + 50% nitric acid), rinsed, and heated in a glass annealing
oven at 400°C for at least 30 minutes. The rest of the glass containers
were rinsed with methylene chloride and dried in the oven at 100°C. All
glass bottles had Teflon-lined caps.
D-l
-------
Plastic sample containers were thoroughly cleaned before use. Each
bottle was washed with detergent and tap water, then rinsed with 1:1
nitric acid/tap water, 1:1 hydrochloric acid/tap water, and, finally,
deionized distilled water.
Sampling Logistics
The type and volume of sample container varied, depending on the
analysis to be made. Some samples required the addition of chemical
preservatives in the field to prevent deterioration during shipment
to the laboratory. A field sampling instructional worksheet was designed
to facilitate the arduous task of filling bottles of different sizes
requiring different sample volumes and preservatives at each location.
Each sampling day, before sampling, bottle labels were filled out and
affixed to the appropriate sample bottles.
Sample Shipping Procedure
Each bottle was capped and sealed with tape to prevent leakage. Glass
bottles were individually wrapped to prevent breakage. Sample bottles
were then packed in one-piece, molded, styrene foam shipping cartons
with 3.8-cm walls and fitted tops. Each such unit was then placed in
a corrugated cardboard box. Each carton was half-filled with sample
bottles, filled with ice, sealed with celophane tape, and reinforced
with 0.05-meter duct tape. Address labels were affixed to box tops and
warning labels"This Carton Contains Glass and Ice"--"Hold at airport
and call " messages were also put on the box tops.
All samples were shipped by conventional air freight on the day that
they were collected. The airlines selected offered the most direct
route without carrier changes.
WASTEWATER CHEMICAL ANALYSES
Effluent Guidelines Conventional and Non-Conventional Pollutants
Parameters determined under the category of effluent guidelines conventional
and non-conventional pollutants were: 5-day biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD5), chemical oxygen demand (COD), color, sulfides, total suspended
solids (TSS), pH, and total phenol. As sample shipments arrived at the lab,
they were logged in and distributed to the designated technicians for
analysis.
Conventional and non-conventional pollutants were determined on the raw
waste and secondary effluent streams from each of the treatment plants
samples by employing the procedures outline in "Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater, 14th Edition."
D-2
-------
Effluent values obtained from wastewater treatment facilities in some
plants were greater than those of the influent raw waste. This occurred,
in part, because the wastewater entered the treatment system 1 day to 5 days
prior to leaving the treatment plant. The hydraulic retention time in
textile wastewater treatment plants ranged from 1 day to 30 days, with
an average value of 5 days.
Most of the textile mills samples had a secondary wastewater treatment
facility that included a lagoon with several surface aerators, followed
by a clarifier. Several mills used equalization basins prior to the
aerated lagoons. Effluent samples were collected between the clarifier
and the polishing pond in treatment plants that had both. There were
two exceptions to this procedure however. At one mill, the effluent
sample was taken after the polishing pond, and at another mill the effluent
sample was inadvertently collected between the aerated lagoon and the
settling basin. All other effluent samples were collected after the
clarifiers.
Analysis Protocol For The 129 Consent Decree Priority Pollutants
Recommended analytical procedures developed by EPA were used throughout
this project. It is important to realize that these procedures were
still under development and require further verification and validation.
Therefore, the data generated as a result of the utilization of these
procedures only serve to identify which of the 129 chemical species are
present and to indicate the general concentration ranges within an
order of magnitude.
Adaptations of these procedures to accommodate the special requirements
of textile wastewaters and/or any ambiguities in analytical techniques
are discussed below. Three chemical species were not determined in this
project: endrin aldehyde, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-q-dioxin (TCDD),
and asbestos. EPA-Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory (EMSL)
recommended that TCDD should be omitted because of its extreme toxicity, and
the potential health hazard involved in preparing standard solutions
from the pure compound. Pure endrin aldehyde could not be obtained in
time to prepare standard solutions. Asbestos was eliminated, as
recommended by EPA-IERL-RTP and EPA-EGD, due to the presence of other
fibrous materials in textile wastewaters.
The analytical protocol divides the 129 chemical species into three
basic categories: volatile organics, nonvolatile organics, and metals.
The following sections outline the analytical procedures and modifications
for each category.
Volatile Organics. The recommended analytical method was designed to
determine those chemical species that are amenable to the Bellar purge
and trap method. Eight 40-ml, hermetically sealed glass vials, stored
in ice, were sent to the laboratory from each sampling site. The vials
were composited within 1 day of receipt at the laboratory. Two vials
of composited within 1 day of receipt at the laboratory. Two vials
D-3
-------
of composite solution were sealed and retained at 4°C as reserve samples.
Volatiles from 5-ml samples of composite solution were sparged with
helium onto two Tenax GC-silica-packed sample tubes. (Internal standards
were added to the solutions in the later stages of the program. The
majority of the samples had been sparged and stored before the protocol
was received and appropriate internal standard could be obtained.) The
second Tenax tube was used as a backup sample. Tenax tubes were sealed
under a nitrogen atmosphere in glass tubes and stored in a freezer at
-18°C until analyzed.
Analyses were carried out using a Hewlett Packard 5981 GC-Mass Spectro-
meter with 5934 Data System. Sample tubes were heated to 180°C over
a 1-min period and held at that temperature for 4 min to desorb the
compounds onto a Carbowax 1500 column held at -40°C. Cryogenic trapping
at -40°C (liquid nitrogen cooling) gave better reproducibility of
retention time than using the suggested temperature of 30°C, for compounds
with boiling points below room temperature. After desorption, the GC
column temperature was raised 3°C/min to 170°C.
The mass spectrometric analysis method involves fragmentation of
molecules using electron bombardment (70 eV). Masses and relative
intensities of the most characteristic molecular fragments for each
compound are listed in the protocol. The population of ion fragments
covering the mass range from 35 atomic mass units to 500 atomic mass
units was measured every 6 sec, and the data were stored on magnetic
tape.
These data allow the operator to reconstruct chromatograms of observed
intensity for an individual mass during the course of the scanning.
Specific molecules may be detected in the presence of other compounds
by examining the reconstructed intensity time plots of their character-
istic masses.
Qualitative identification of a compound was made using the three
criteria listed in the protocol: 1) retention time must coincide
with known retention times, 2) the three characteristic masses must
elute simultaneously, and 3) intensities of the characteristic masses
must stand in the known proper proportions.
Quantitation of volatile organics was initially made using peak area
counts and concentration calibration curves. Later in the program,
response ratios using the 1,4-dichlorobutane internal standard were
used in quantifying the concentrations. Base/neutral and acid organic
compounds were quantified using deuterated anthracene and response
ratios as prescribed in the protocol.
Nonvolatile Organics. This method determined the nonvolatile solvent-
extractable organic compounds that could be analyzed by gas chromato-
graphic methods. The 129 concent decree priority pollutants contain 81
organic compounds classified as nonvolatile organics.
D-4
-------
Nonvolatile organics are divided into three groups: base/neutral
fraction, acid fraction (phenols), and pesticides and polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCB).
The sample solution, 2 liters, was made alkaline (pH greater than 11)
with sodium hydroxide, and then extracted three times with methylene
chloride. Textile raw waste and effluent samples formed strong emulsions
upon extraction with methylene chloride. The problem was resolved by
drawing off small amounts of separated solvent and pouring the extract
through the sample in the separatory funnel. Separation was also
enhanced by slowly dripping the emulsion onto the wall of a slightly
tilted flask. This approach gives better separation by providing a
greated surface area for the solvent and water fractions. Some samples
required centrifugation at 1,500 rpm for 1 hr to break the emulsion.
Extracts were dried on a column of anhydrous sodium sulfate, concentrated
to 1 milliliter in a Kuderna-Danish (K-D) evaporator with a Snyder column
spiked with deuterated anthracene, sealed in septum capped vials, and
stored at 4°C until analyzed. Analyses were preformed on the GC/MS
system using SP-2250 and Tenax GC columns for base/neutral and acid samples,
respectively.
A separate 1 liter sample was used for analysis of the pesticides and
PCB (Aroclor fluids). These compounds were extracted with a 15 percent
methylene chloride and 85 percent hexane solvent mixture. The aqueous
phase was discarded, and the organic phase was analyzed by GC with an
electron capture detector. Where necessary, acetonitrile partitioning
and a Florisil chromatography column were used for further cleanup of
the sample. In 85 percent of the samples, additional cleanup was not
required.
Confirmation of identity and quantitation were made using two different
GC columns: SP-2550 and Dexil 410. Compound verification was made with
the MS when the concentration was greater than 10 ug/1. Concentrations
of pesticides ranged from 0.1 ug/1 to 10 ug/1; therefore, MS verification
was not possible in this study.
Metals. In addition to the volatile and nonvolatile organics, the 129
chemical species include 13 metals, asbestos, and cyanide. Each metal
is measured as the total metal. Asbestos was not determined in this
study; cyanide was measured by conventional wet chemistry techniques
outline in "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater,
14th Edition."
Eight metals were analyzed by the inductively coupled argon plasma
(ICAP) excitation technique: antimony, cadmium, chromium, copper,
lead, nickel, silver, and zinc. Five metals were measured by
conventional atmoic absorption techniques: arsenic, beryllium, mercury,
selenium, and thallium.
D-5
-------
ICAP forms an analytical system for simultaneous multi-element determinations
of trace metals at the sub-ppm level in solutions. The basis of this
method is atomic emission. Exicitation energy is supplied by coupling
a nebulized sample with high temperature argon gas which has been passed
through a powerful radio-frequency field. Emitted light is simultaneously
monitored at 22 wavelengths corresponding to 22 different elements.
All samples for metals analysis were acidified in the field by adding
5 ml of redistilled nitric acid to each 10 liters of sample. Nitric acid
blanks were also analyzed for metals.
D-6
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APPENDIX E
SUPPORTING INFORMATION ON THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
IN TEXTILE MILL WASTEWATERS AND TEXTILE DYES FROM THE AMERICAN TEXTILE
MANUFACTURERS INSTITUTE (ATMI) AND THE DYES ENVIRONMENTAL AND TOXICOLOGY
ORGANIZATION (DETO).
-------
AMERICAN TEXTILE MANUFACTURERS INSTITUTE, INC.
CHARLOTTE ^_ ^_ WACHOVIA CENTER 4DO 5 TRYON ST. CHAPLOTTE.N C 28295
WASHINGTON """^ TELEPHONE (7G4) 334-4734
NEW YORK
May 15, 1978
Dr. James C. Buzzell, Jr.
Sverdrup & Parcel & Associates, Inc.
800 North Twelfth Blvd.
St. Louis, Missouri 63101
Dear Jim:
Our special Task Group on Priority Pollutants recently completed a
further assessment of your findings on the presence or absence of
priority pollutants in textile plant waste waters identified under list
C -- presence in textile -water not yet defined. Their preliminary
findings were included in my letter to you dated December 29, 1977.
Following that preliminary review, the task group further classified
the pollutants in Text C as Probable, Possible or Not Likely to be found
in textile Affluent. Their h£ uc fear tfe*« elaaoifieatiim
Probable -- definitely established as present in a product or process.
Pollutant levels have been established in only a few cases but
the evidence is sound.
Possible -- known or suspected as an intermediate or contaminant of
products and processes being used. Many in this category could
be entering in an auxiliary manner such as maintenance products
and agricultural contaminants in process water.
Not Likely -- unable to find data to support the presence of these chemicals.
Using this rationale, the task group considered each of the compounds on
your List C, classified it according to the above definitions and attempted
to identify the source and relative amount of the compound. This information
is included in the attached table.
E-2
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AMERICAN TEXTILE MANUFACTURERS IN5TITUTE,INC.
We feel this is our best assessment of these chemicals in textile waste
waters and that further investigation would be somewhat meaningless until
we have some indication of the tolerance levels and/or parameters that
may or may not be acceptable. We hope that this information will be of
some significant use to you in preparation of your final report which we
understand is due in June.
Sincacely,
)
-------
Ko.
9.
10.
13.
14.
17.
21.
22.
24.
27.
23.
37.
40.
44.
45.
46.
43.
50.
52.
SVSRD3U? A\D ?A?iC3L LIST C
CLAJUi?:-.CA-Iff.\T BY
ATKI PRIORITY POLLUTANT TASK GROUP
NAM.
Hex£Chlorobenzene
1., ?- iichloroethane
1 , 1 - aichloroe thane
14 1 , 2-trichloroethane
"bis ( chlo rome thyl ) e the r
2, 4,5-trichlorophenol
parachloroaet acre sol
2- chlorophenol
1,4- dichlorobenzene
3,3-dichlorobenzidine
" ,4-crIr.ii: ll-yl-ohcri
1 , 2-diphenylhydrazine
4-chlorophenyl phenyl ether
ne'cliylene chloride
rr.atliyl chloricle
methyl bromide
cr i c'.ilo rof luo rome thane
aichlorodifluorome thane
hexac^lorobutadiene
PRESENCE
Possible
Probable
Not Likely
Possible
Not Likely
Possible
Possible
Not Likely
Possible
Probable
Possible
Possible
Possible
Possible
Possible
Possible
Not Likely
Possible
Possible
Not Likely
SOURCE AND AMOUNT
industrial cleaner or
preservative
Spot cleaners
Chemically unstable
Cleaning produces
Chemically unstable
Preservative
Industrial cleaner
Contaminant of Dyes or
Agricultural use
0.75 ppm5 ppm in pigments
being used for printing
applications
Dye Carriers
Manufacture of Sulpher Dyes
Laboratory chemical
Industral cleaning
Solvent femulations--
small amounts
Contaminant
Refrigerant
Ippb
Refrigeran
-------
'TO.
30.
J2.
53.
66.
"58.
'9.
Ai.
-'3.
n
98.
oo.
01.
_D2.
33.
104.
V """ "
i».ii.-.>-i
iso-phoror.e
*:-,c-
-------
110 . arse .lie
111. asbestos
112 . beryllium
116 . cyanide
llS . mercury
120 . selenium
121. silver
122. thallium
PRESENCE
Probable
Possible
Probable
Probable
Probable
Probable
Probable
Possible
SOURCE AKD AMOUNT
Fungicides-Dyes-Specialty
Chemicals- up to 4 ppm
Filters, Pipe Wrappers and
Heat Shields
Specialty Chemicals up to
3 ppm
Laboratory and Specialty
Chemicals up to 3$
Dyes up to 2 ppm
Specialty Chemicals up to
50 ppm
Dyes up to 5 ppm
Specialty Chemicals up to
10 ppm
Dyes up to 5
Specialty Chemicals up to
10 ppm
Contaminant
E-6
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AMERICAN TEXTILE MANUFACTURERS INSTITUTE, INC.
CHARLOTTE
WASHINOTON
NEW YORK
WACHOVIA CENTER. 400 S TflYDN ST. CHARLOTTE. N C 2B2B5
TELEPHONE f704) 334-4734
December 29, 1977
Or. James C. Buzzell, Jr.
Sverdrup & Parcel & Associates, Inc.
800 North 12th Boulevard
St. Louis, Missouri 63101
Dear Jim:
Back in September you wrote Wallace Storey with results of your findings on
the presence or absence of priority pollutants in textile plant wastewaters.
You asked for our review and comments on your assignment of those pollu-
tants in three lists, especially List C.
Such an assessment is beyond the expertise of our Environmental Preser-
vation Committee and a special Task Group on Priority Pollutants was
organized to review List C and to develop appropriate comments. They
have completed a preliminary assessment and we are pleased to enclose
a summary of their comments.
The task group is doing some additional work in trying to answer more of
the specific questions you posed in your letter to Wallace and we will pass
that information on to you as it is developed; hopefully this will be about
mid January.
We appreciate the opportunity to give you our views on this important work
and hope to maintain close liaison as you move forward with your investi-
gations. We're sorry this has taken a bit longer than we expected but the
issues are so important that we want to do a thorough job and it's neces-
sary to work with others outside the Environmental Preservation Com-
mittee.
Best wishes for the New Year,
OJN/lhb
CC: Wallace Storey
E-7
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PRELIMINARY REVIEW OF S & P's CLASSIFICATION OF PRIORITY
POLLUTANTS - LIST C, PRESENCE IN TEXTILE WASTEWATER
NOT YET DEFINED
Submitted by American Textile Manufacturers Institute
GENERAL COMMENTS;
1. The characteristics of incoming water must be identified;
this scorns to be a potential source of more than half of
the items on List C, also the persistency of environmental
contaminants, especially in agricultural areas, can be of
indefinite terms.
2. Nonr of Hie materials on List C are primary processing
chemicals in textile finishing.
3. Some materials could be present as contaminants of pri-
mary processing products, such as dyestuffs and aux-
iliaries.
4. Some materials on List C could be present as contaminants
of raw materials, such as fibers.
5. Some materials on List C could be from maintenance and
housekeeping practices within the plant, directly, or as
contaminants of products used.
E-8
-------
There is sonic question as to the accuracy of the most up-
to-date analytical procedures in the very small quantities
being considered, which is just what we talked about at the
table. That's the analytical chemists not being willing to
say there is nothing there. They are not even willing to
say there is something there.
SPECIFIC COMMENTS:
Item No. Priority Pollutant
9. hexachlorobenzene
10.
13.
14.
17.
21.
1,2 - dichloroethane
1,1 - dichloroethane
1,1,2 - trichloroethane
bis(chloromethyl)
ether
2, 4, 6 - trichloro-
phenol
Comments
A fungicide and not a direct proces-
sing chemical, but may be used in
industrial cleaning compounds: pos-
sibility of trace amounts of specialty
chemicals.
A solvent for fats, oils and waxes,
commonly used with epoxy formu-
lations, might be in spot removers
and remain in trace amounts on
fabric.
Chemically unstable with hydrolyzing
water to acid aldehyde and hydro-
chloric acid. No specific use in
textile processing.
Solvent for fats, waxes and alcoloids,
may be present in scouring products
or spot removers.
Hydrolyzes rapidly in water, it has
been studied by NIOSH and not shown
to be present in processing or waste
streams.
A fungicide, bactericide and preserva-
tive. Dowcidr 2F. Possible contami-
nant in specialty chemicals.
E-9
-------
Item No.
22.
24.
27.
28.
34.
36.
37.
40.
44.
45.
46.
Priority Pollutant
parachlorometacresol
2 - chlorophenol
1,4 - dichlorobenzene
3,3- dichlorobcnzidine
2, 4 - dimelhylphenol
2,6 - dinitrotoluenc
1,2 - diplie-nylhydrazine
4 - chlorophenyl phenyl
ether
methylene chloride
methyl chloride
methyl bromide
Comments
Antiseptic and disinfectant, possibly
in industrial cleaning agents.
Dactericidc, possible fungicide,
might be used in the manufacture
of dyes.
An insecticide used in mothballs,
suggest possibility of contamination
of incoming water from agricultural
use, possibly found in carriers.
May be used in azo dyes: trace con-
taminants at a very low level.
An insect iride, fungicide, plasticizer,
additive to lubricants and gasoline.
Suggest non-process use in contami-
nation. Had been used in dye carriers.
Possible use jn dyesluff manufacture,
mild oxidizing agent in dye testing
operations.
Impurity in a/.o dyes tuft', limited use
in textile laboreitories.
Fungicide, bactericide and lysol,
or an ingredient of lysol.
Solvent in binders, cleaning and
dcgre.asing products, machine oils
and spot removers.
Extremely volatile, possibly in the
aerosol propellants.
vSoil fumigant, using flammability
control of methyl chloride, so it
is also possible in the aerosol
propellant.
E-10
-------
Item No.
49.
50.
52.
54.
60.
61.
62.
63.
66.
68.
69.
79.
Priority Pollutant
trichlorofluoromethane
dichlorodifhioromethane
hexachlorobutadiene
isophorone
4, 6 - dinitro-o-cresol
N - nitrosodimcthylamine
N - nilrosodiphenylamine
Comments
Common refrigerant, Freon, possible
aerosol propellant, non-processing
use in textile plants.
Same as No. 49.
Rubber solvent.
Solvent for vinyl resins and other
synthetic resins, possible conden-
sation product is applicable.
Insecticide, herbicide used on peach
trees.
Relatively unstable compound and
possible dyestuff constituent.
An accelerator in vulcanizing rubber,
possible contaminant from equipment
and/or dyestuff.
N - nilrosodi-n-propylamine Possibly a dyestuff contaminant.
bis (2 - olhylhexyl)
phllmlalc
di-n-butyl phthalate
diethy phthalate
fluorcno
A common plasti.ci.zer for vinyls,
cellulose and acrylic resins. Pos-
sibly a product of a reaction between
trimer anrl polyester and ethylhexyl-
alcoliol which is a common antifoam.
A plaslicizer, possibly found in
speciality machine oils and lubri-
cants or in dye carriers, also in
insecticides.
Same as No. 68.
An insecticide which is present in coal
tar products up to 2% and possible in
some sanitary cleaning agents.
E-ll
-------
Item No.
Priority Pollutant
Comments
81.
83.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
98.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
110.
111.
1,2,5,6 - dibenzanthra-
cene
pyrene
chlordane
4,4' - DDT
4,4' - DDE (p, p1 - DDX)
4, 41 - DDD (p, p1 - TDE)
a - endosulfan
b - cndogulfan
endrin
hcplachlor
heptachlor epoxide
- BUG
- BUG
- BUD (lindane)
- BHC
arsenic
asbestos
Unknown.
Present in fire extinguishers.
Nos. 91 through 105 are insecticides.
Plant entry with raw materials or
process water possible. Could be
used as insect control. They could
be contamination from groxmd water
or possible insect control in factories.
No. 100 is a fungicide and it is listed
as control of boll weevil in cotton.
An impurity in pigments, it could be
a trace in polyester due to a catalyst
in synthesis. It is a rodcnticide and
is used in the manufacture of glass.
The presence of this might be from
a finnl product rather than a proces-
sing material in plants where they
use- asbestos and fibers and they
make an asbnptos fabric, or from
filters, insulation, internal or exter-
nal pipe wrapping, or heat shields.
E-12
-------
Item No. Priority Pollutant
112.
116.
118.
120.
121.
beryllium
cyanide
mercury
selenium
silver
122.
Ih.illium
Comments
An ingredient of ceramics and fiber
glass. Thai's all we found on that
one.
The most likely place for contami-
nation, if any, would be laboratory
waste.
Could bo an impurity in azo dyestuff
or residue from catalyst in synthe-
sis of various chemicals, or as a fungi-
cide. It is an ingredient of some older
fungicides.
Used in rubber processing, photography
bnlhs, pigments used for coloring glass
and also in laboratory work.
Could bo a trace from silver nitrate
either used in processing or in lab-
oratory work, or it could bo a residue
of t-nlalyst again from previous organic
synthesis.
Could bo. residue from catalyst or
rodenticidi-.
Following pollutants won- not classified by S & P: assignment to one of the
three'lists is requested ah soon as possible:
No. (>9 di-n-octyl phthalalc
108 PCI3-1221
109 PCTi-1212
110 PCIJ-U'IS
111 PCl',-1^.0
112 PCli-lOK,
E-13
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deto
DYES ENVIRONMENTAL AND TOXICOLOGY ORGANIZATION, INC.
1075 CENTRAL PARK AVENUE, SCARSDALE, N. Y. 10583 (914) 725-1492
April 19, 1978
Dr. James D. Gallup
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Effluent Guidelines Division (WH-552)
401 M Street, SW
Washington, D. C. 20460
Dear Dr. Gallup:
Since our recent attempts to communicate by telephone were unsuccessful, I
have elected to write concerning the DETO study of "Priority Pollutants"
believed to be present in large volume commercial dye products. We believe
the report will be useful in your development of guidelines for the textile
industry. A copy of the report is enclosed.
We would welcome the opportunity to meet with you to discuss the report and
to answer questions which you or your contractor may raise. Such a meeting,
which would include several members of the DETO Ecology Committee, could be
scheduled during the latter part of May. Please suggest two dates as early
as May 18, 1978.
Very truly yours,
William Allen, Chairman
Ecology Committee of DETO
WA/pmk
Enclosure
cc: Mr. Richard Hinds
Dr. Roderick H. Horning
Mr. Mark Thorn
Dr. Harshad Vyas
E-14
AFFILIATED WITH SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMICAL MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION, INC.
-------
deto
DYES ENVIRONMENTAL AND TOXICOLOGY ORGANIZATION, INC.
1075 CENTRAL PARK AVENUE, SCARSDALE, N.Y. 10583 (914) 725-1492
October 17, 1978
Mr. James Buzzell
Sverdrup & Parcel And Associates, Inc.
800 North 12th Boulevard
St. Louis, MI 63101
Dear Jim:
My apologies for taking so long to write. The delay was, at least in
part, caused by the fact that I have not located a spare copy of the
AATCC Buyer's Guide.
I should also have thought of it earlier; however, the Buyer's Guide
is available at $10.00 each from AATCC, Box 12215, Research Triangle
Park, NC 27709.
Concerning the report provided to you earlier by DETO, I should like
to ask that an additional statement be included at the end of the
report. The report indicates concentrations of priority pollutants
that may be found in dyes. Any one of these priority pollutants is,
however, likely to be present in only a relatively few of the total
number of dyes available. For example, there is a group of so-called
coppered dyes that may contain up to 3-4% of copper, a substantial
portion of which is exhausted onto the fabric. These are generally
well known.
There is another group, also limited in number for which copper is
used in the preparation and which may contain between 50 and 100 ppm
copper. And finally, the remaining dyes (which I would guess to be
as much as 85i% or more of the total) that contain only tramp copper in
the 1-2 ppm range. The data available at the present time does not
permit us to be more specific concerning how many dyes of those reviewed
fall into which class.
I trust that this additional information will be of value and that it
will be incorporated into your final report. If I can provide additional
information, please let me know.
Very-trjjly yours,
uuV
Roderick' H. Ho^ninV
Chairman, TechnleaJL-fcommittee
DETO
RHH/cw
cc: W. Allen E-15
S. Boyd
R. Hinds, S. Kasprzak
AFFILIATED WITH SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMICAL MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION, INC.
-------
REPORT ON SURVEY OF "PRIORITY POLLUTANTS"
BELIEVED TO BE PRESENT IN LARGE
VOLUME COMMERCIAL DYE PRODUCTS
APRIL 6, 1978
E-16
-------
I. Introduction
At the request of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
I/
the Dyes Environmental and Toxicology Association, Inc. (DETO) agreed to
assist EPA in its efforts to evaluate the role of commercial dye products
and certain "priority pollutants" therein, if any, in textile mill effluent.
This report is the result of that effort.
II. Summary
This report and the underlying survey demonstrate that relatively
few "priority pollutants" are likely to be present in large volume commercial
dye products. Those that are likely to be present are likely to be present in
small amounts which will not add significantly to the raw effluent wasteload
of textile mills.
III. Background and Methodology
In early December 1977, shortly after having met with EPA
representatives, DETO's Ecology Committee assembled to review how best to
assist the EPA. After extended discussion, the Committee concluded that a
survey of priority pollutants which might be present in large volume commercial
dye products was the best means to accomplish the necessary objectives. Be-
cause of EPA's short regulatory timetable and the necessity for a quick response
from DETO, the Committee decided to limit its survey to large volume commercial
dye products and to eliminate from its survey those priority pollutants which it
believed could not possibly be present in commercial dye products.
The Committee carefully reviewed each of EPA's priority pollutants
and eliminated from the list those which it believed were not present in or
I/ A short description of DETO, whose members account for over ninety percent
of the dyes produced in the United States, is attached hereto as Appendix A.
E-17
-------
formed during tne manufacturing process. Where the Committee was In doubt,
the pollutant was not eliminated. This review resulted in 40 priority pollu-
tants which the Committee believed could possibly be present in commercial dye
u
products.
Once the pollutants to be surveyed were ascertained, the Committee
excerpted from the International Trade Commission (ITC) report of 1976, dyes
listed therein. The dyes selected from the ITC report are those for which domes-
tic sales exceed 200,000 pounds per year and for which there are generally more
21 2t
than two producers. This list of dyes numbered 70.
A questionnaire was then prepared by the Ecology Committee
(Appendix B) which asked member companies to indicate for which of the 70 ITC-
listfed commercial dye products any of the listed 40 priority pollutants were
believed to be present and whether the amounts present were believed to be
57
greater than or less than 0.1%. The questionnaire also solicited the same
Information for commercial dye products for which domestic sales exceeded
200,000 but which were produced by two or fewer producers or not otherwise
listed 1n the ITC report.
IV. Responses
Responses were received by DETO from all eighteen member companies.
In addition to the requested responses for the 70 dyes listed in the question-
5/
naire, additional responses were received on 81 other dyes. The total
I/ See the attached DETO questionnaire (Appendix 6) for the list of the 40
priority pollutants surveyed.
2/ The ITC does not compile statistics on other producers or dyes because of
confidentiality problems.
3/ See the attached DETO questionnaire (Appendix B) for the list of 70 dyes
surveyed.
4/ No analytical laboratory work was requested of member companies.
5/ These dyes are not listed in the ITC report for confidentiality reasons.
E-18
-------
survey thus covered 151 dyes which represent total sales of approximately
138.3 million pounds or 55.3 percent of the 250 million pounds sold in 1976.
Many of the dyes are produced by several companies and processes may
differ. Therefore, independent evaluations were made for many dyes.
V. Results and their Significance
The survey demonstrates that relatively few priority pollutants are
likely to be present in large volume commercial dye products. Those that are
likely to be present are likely to be present in small amounts which will not add
significantly to the raw effluent wasteload of textile mills.
The results of the survey indicate that only 25 priority pollutants
were thought likely to be present in the 151 dyes surveyed. The majority of them,
19, were thought likely to be present below 0.1%. Only six were thought likely
!/
to be present in quantities greater than 0.1%. These six priority pollutants
consist of three metals (copper, chromium and zinc) and three biocides (phenol,
pentachlorophenol and parachlorometacresol). It should be emphasized that only
a few of the many dyes surveyed were thought to contain any priority pollutants,
and then only in these very small amounts.
Application of a dilution factor to the amount of pollutant thought
likely to be present in the commercial dye product to reflect the dilution which
might be expected in the effluent makes clear that the amount likely to be present
In the raw effluent for any of the 25 pollutants is not likely to add significantly
to the raw effluent wasteload. Wastewater treatment of effluent will, of course,
reduce this amount even further.
A. Metals
The significance of metals in dyes has been the subject of a recent
paper by Horning, Allen e_t al_. for the American Dye Manufacturers Institute en-
titled "The Contribution of Dyes to the Metal Content of Textile Mill Effluent"
I/ The 25 pollutants are listed in Table I.
E-19
-------
published in Journal of the American Association pf Textile Chemists and Colors
Vol. 4, p. 275 (December 1972) (Appendix C). This paper was based on actual
of dyes and their contribution to effluent wasteload. The results of the DETO survey
confirm many of the conclusions reached in this paper. The following discussion
draws heavily from this paper.
Copper and chromium are believed to be present in premetallized and
coppered dyes frequently in the vicinity of 3 to 4%. These metals are an intergral
part of certain dye molecules. Because these metals are a basic part of the dye,
they exhaust onto the textile fiber with the dye. Approximately 95% is believed
!/
to so exhaust onto the fiber. The potential for exhaustion into the effluent is
thus not likely to be more than 5% of the metal in the dye (i.e., 4%) or a total
of .02%.
Zinc is believed to be present because a number of basic dyes are
prepared as a double salt containing zinc. Jhe zinc content of these dyes is
frequently in the 3% range and is generally not exhausted onto the textile
fiber with the dye.
B. Biocides
The amount of phenol, pentachlorophenol and parachlorometacresol in
commercial dye products is believed to be in the approximate range of less than
y
0.1% to 0.5%. Fiber retention is not believed likely.
C. Dilution in Effluent
The considerable quantity of water generally used in the processing
of textiles reduces the concentration of waste products, including pollutants
\] Bird, C.L., Theory and Practice of Wool Dying. 4th Edition, 1972, Society of
Dyers and Colorists, p.104.
Kranrisch, B., "Methods of Assessing the Dying Properties of Wool Dyes"
Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colorists. £! P-242 (1959)
U.S. Patent 3,043,648, assigned to Sandoz
2/ Member company information _
-------
found 1n commercial dye products considerably. The above-referenced paper
concludes that a dilution factor of 10,000 is a good approximation.
For those few pollutants believed to be present in quantities below
0.1%, the suggested dilution factor would result in a concentration of no more
than 0.1 ppm in the untreated effluent.
For those six pollutants believed to be present in quantities of
greater than 0.1%, the approximate range of concentration in the untreated
effluent of selected dyes, based on the above figures, would appear to be as
follows: copper, .02 ppm; chromium, .02 ppm; zinc, 3 ppm; biocides, .1 to 1 ppm.
Wastewater treatment would, of course, reduce these amounts even
further.
E-21
-------
TABLE I
PRIORITY POLLUTANTS BELIEVED PRESENT IN COMMERCIAL DYES AT LESS THAN 0.1%
acenaphthene mercury
acrylonitrile methyl bromide
anthracene monochlorobenzene
arsenic naphthalene
benzidine nickel
cadmium 4-nitrophenol
1,2-dichlorobenzene N-nitrosodimethyl amine
2,4-dinitrophenol phenanthrene
ethyl benzene toluene
lead
PRIORITY POLLUTANTS BELIEVED PRESENT IN COMMERCIAL DYES AT GREATER THAN 0.1%
chromium pentachlorophenol
copper phenol
parachlorometacresol zinc
E-22
-------
Appendix A
OETO was formally organized on May 11, 1977, to represent dyes
producers in matters relating to the health and environmental impact
of dyes manufacture, distribution, use and disposal. DETO's eighteen
member companies account for over ninety percent of the dyes produced in
the United States.
The following are DETO member companies:
American Color & Chemical Corporation
American Cyanamid Company
American Hoechst Corporation
Atlantic Chemical Corporation
BASF Wyandotte Corporation
Berncolors-Poughkeepsie, Inc.
Ciba-Geigy Corporation
Crompton & Knowles Corporation
E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company
Eastman Chemical Products, Inc.
Fabricolor, Inc.
GAP Corporation
Harshaw Chemical Company
ICI Americas, Inc.
Otto B. May, Inc.
Martin Marietta Chemicals
Mobay Chemical Corporation
Sandoz Colors & Chemicals
E-23
-------
APPENDIX B
^J £V
-------
Your company should review the dyes listed on the
questionnaire to determine whether any of the numbered pollu-
tants in the attached list appear in its commercial dye prod-
ucts (including adjuvants) . If it is determined that one or
more pollutants may be present in your company 's^ dyes, you
should indicate whether you believe the amount present in the
commercial dye product is more or less than one-tenth of a
percent (0.1%), i.e., 1000 ppm. In responding to this ques-
tionnaire no analytical laboratory work is requested or re-
quired.
If there are other dyes which your company manufac-
tures for which total domestic sales (of all companies) ex-
ceeds 200,000 pounds per year that are not listed on the ques-
tionnaire because they are not included in the 1976 ITC Report,
you should also examine whether any of the numbered pollutants
appear in those commercial dye products.
All information submitted will be treated in con-
fidence by DETO. No information related to a particular
company v/ill be disclosed, directly or indirectly, without
that company's prior authorization. Further, if there is any
information which you believe is proprietary in nature, you
should feel free to submit such information to counsel Eric
Schwartz or Richard Hinds at Cleary, Gottlieb, Steen & Hamil-
ton.
Any questions on completing the questionnaire should
be directed to Mark Thorn.
We will keep you apprised of the status of this
project and will, of course, provide you with a copy of the
submission to EPA which will be based on the data you have
provided.
Your cooperation in this important project is very
much appreciated.
Sincerely,
William Allen .
Chairman, Water Subcommittee
Enclosure
E-25
-------
CONFIDENTIAL CONFIDENTIAL CONFIDENTIAL
DETO SURVEY OF PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
BELIEVED TO BE PRESENT IN COMMERCIAL DYES
All responses will be treated confidentially. If you are concerned about
the proprietary nature of any information you intend to submit, you may submit
it to DETO counsel Eric Schwartz or Richard Hinds at Cleary, Gottlieb, Steen &
Hamilton, 1250 Connecticut Avenue, N. W., Washington, D. C. 20036.
Directions
1. Complete company and company contact identification information.
2. Determine for each of your dyes listed below whether the pollutants
listed on Attachment A hereto are believed to be present in commercial
dye product (including adjuvants therein).^/
3. If one or more pollutants are believed to be present, please note
below the pollutant number(s) designated for that pollutant in
Attachment A and the quantity of pollutant believed to be present in
the commercial product (more or less than one-tenth of one percent
(0.1E). No analytical laboratory work is expected or required.
You may attach additional sheets if necessary.
4. If there are commercial dyes of which you are aware which are sold
in quantities in excess of 200,000 pounds per year that are not
listed below^/ and which you manufacture, please determine whether
any of the pollutants listed in Attachment A are present therein
and, if so, in what quantities. Such information should be added
to the end of the questionnaire using the same format as described
earlier.
5. Complete questionnaires should be returned to Mark Thorn, DETO's
Environmental Manager, at the DETO address. Questions about com-
pleting the questionnaire should be directed to Mark Thorn.
V The dyes listed on the questionnaire are those for which the 1976
International Trade Commission (ITC) Report reported sales in excess
of 200,000 pounds annually.
**/ These would be dyes not listed in the ITC Report but for which sales
nonetheless exceed 200,000 pounds per year.
E-26
-------
'stionnaire
Company Name:
Company Contact:
Name:
Address:
Phone :
Commercial Dye
I id Yellow 23
7 Id Yellow 151
*-id Yellow 159
Anid Orange 7
Acid Orange 8
Acid Orange 10
Acid Orange 24
Acid Orange 60
7._dd Orange 116
t id Red 1
Priority Pollutants
Believed to be Present
in Commercial Dye*
^/ Insert pollutant numbers from Attachment A.
* / Check appropriate column.
E-27 ..
Estimated
Quantity**
Less than More than
0.1% 0.1%
-------
Comrnercial Dye
Priority Pollutants
Believed to be Present
in Commercial Dye
Acid Red 114
Acid Red 151
Acid Red 337
Acid Blue 9
Acid Blue 25
Acid Blue 40
Acid Blue 113
Acid Black 52
Acid Black 107
Direct Yellow 106
Direct Orange 15
Direct Orange 72
Direct Orange 102
Direct Red 24
Direct Red 72
Estimated
Quantity
Less than More than
0.1% 0.1%
E-28
-------
Commercial Dye
Priority Pollutants
Believed to be Present
in Commercial Dye
Direct Red 80
Direct Red 81
Direct Blue 1
Direct Blue 2
E rect Blue 80
I rect Blue 86
I rect Blue 218
I rect Brown 95
T'.rect Black 22
Direct Black 38
Disperse Yellow 3
Disperse Yellow 23
Disperse Yellow 42
Disperse Yellow 54
Disperse Orange 25
Estimated
Quantity
Less than More than
0.1% 0.1%
E-29
-------
Commercial Dye
Priority Pollutant
Believed to be Present
in Commercial Dye
Estimated
Quantity
Less than More than
0.1% 0.1%
Disperse Red 1
Disperse Red 17
Disperse Red 60
Disperse Red 177
Disperse Blue 3
Disperse Blue 64
Acid Black 1
Azoic Diazo Component 9, salt
Azoic Diazo Component 13, salt
Basic Yellow 11
Basic Yellow 13
Basic Orange 2
Basic Orange 21
Basic Red 14
Basic Red 18
Basic Violet 1
E-30
-------
Priority Pollutant
Believed to be Present Estimated
Commercial Dye in Commercial Dye Quantity
B sic Violet 16
D cect Yellow 4
D* rect Yellow 6
Direct Yellow 11
Direct Yellow 44
Direct Yellow 50
Direct Yellow 84
Disperse Blue 79
\ut Yellow 2, 8-1/2%
\ it Orange 2, 12%
i it Green 3, 10%
i it Black 25, 12-1/2%
' it Black 21, 12-1/2%
Plourescent Brightening Agent 28
Less Than More than
0.1% 0.1%
E-31
-------
CONFIDENTIAL
CONFIDENTIAL
CONFIDENTIAL
ATTACHMENT A
LIST OF PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
APPLICABLE TO DYE MANUFACTURE AND USE:
DETO SURVEY OF PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
BELIEVED TO BE PRESENT IN COMMERCIAL DYES
«1) acrylonitrile
(2) anthracene
(3) arsenic
(4) benzidine
(5) bis (chlore-methyl) ether
(6) cadmium
(7) chloroethane
(8) 2-chlorophenol
(9) chromium
(10j copper
(11) cyanide (inorganic)
(12) 3,3'-dichlorobenzidine
(13) 2,4-dichlorophenol
(14) 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol
(15) 2,4-dinitrophenol
(16) 2,4-dinitrotoluene
(17) 2,6-dinitrotoluene
(18) 1,2-diphenylhydrazine
(19) lead
(20) mercury
(21) methyl bromide
(22) methyl chloride
(23) napthalene
(24) nickel
(25) nitrobenzene
(26) 2-nitrophenol
(27! 4-nitrophenol
(28* N-nitrosodimethylamine
(29) N-nitrosodiphenylamine
(30? parachlorometa cresol
(31) PCB-1016
(32) PCB-1221
(33) PCB-1232
(34) PCB-1248
(35) FCB-1242
(36) PCB-1254
(37) PCB-1260
(38) phenol
(39) 2,4,6-trichlorophenol
(40! zinc
E-32
-------
The'Contribution of Dyes to the
Msfel Content of Textile Mill Effluents
APPENDIX C
ABSTRACT
Heavy metal ions in dyehouse effluent
streams come from a variety of dyeing
end dyeing-related operations as well
as from soms nondyeing operations.
The primary objective ot this paper is a
realistic appraisal of the concentration
of eight important metal tons in textile
mill effluents which may be producsd
as a result or the presence of normally
small amounts of metals in commercial
d>es. This is done by correlating a
tabulation of typical concentrations of
each of thest eight metals in each of
the mot', important dye classes with
several typical dyeing operations. A
simple graphical method far relating
metal concentrations in the dye. pro-
cessing volumes of water per pound
o? fabric and metal concentrations in
the effluent stream is presented.
Tne appraisal is extended to show that
the same kind of evaluation can be
made for the higher metal concentra-
tions encountered in operations making
deliberateiuse of metals such as in
aftertreatftents. oxidations or the usa
of metalled dyes.
KEY TERMS
Catalysts
Dyes'
Metal -Content of Dyes
Tramp Metals
Waste Treatment
Water Consumption
HEAVY metals find their wjy into
textile mills in many wa>s. Vir-
tually no product used in a mill is total-
ly free of them. But this discussion is
concerned only with the u»uall> small
amounts oS tramp metal that get into
dyes. Some are from the water in
which the dye is prepared and some
from raw materialsi.e.. acids, alka-
lis, organic intermediates and materi-
als of construction. Heavy metal* are
also sometimes used as catalysts in the
synthesis of dyes and dye intermedi-
ates, and all traces of these catalysts
are not always removed.
The study on Mhich this report is
based was concerned with eight met-
als: arsenic.' cadmium, chromium.'
cobalt, copperr lead* mercury* and
zinc. They include those most likely to
be present and some that are cited for
special concern.
Table I is a composite of data from
1,293 dyes produced by eight manu-
facturers. It is doubtful that the re-
sults would be significantly different
if a larger number of dyes from a
greater number of manufacturers had
been used. Limited data (nor shown)
indicate that the average metal con-
tent of nine fluorescent brightening
agents and 18 solvent dyes is not
greater than the average metal con-
tent of any other class tabulated. Simi-
larly the data in Table I indicate that
there are relatively few significant dif-
ferences in the heavy metal content
of the various dye closes. Except for
the a\erage chromium content of the
>at dyes and the average zinc content
of the basic dyes, the differences are
less than ten-fold.
Most of the data presented in Table
I have heen obtained by X-ray fluores-
cence, emission spectrographic and
atomic absorption techniques. Many
of the arsenic measurements were
made by the Gutzeit method, dithuor.e
extraction was used to determine lead
content at low levels, and in some
cases colorimetric methods were used
to provide improved sensitivity. Where
emission spectrographic data arc used
and the metals are present in levels he-
low the usual 10-20 ppm sensitivity of
the technique, the result must he re-
ported as "not detected." For numeri-
cal calculations the result must be
considered as only less than the ap-
plicable sensitivity, not zero. .The
available data suggest strongly that the
actual metal content frequently was
well below the sensitivity of the mea-
surement made. For this reason some
of the metal concentrations presented
in Table I are somewhat higher than
the true value.
It must also be noted that there are
infrequent but important exceptions to
the average or typical heavy metal
content reported in Table I. In many
cases the realization that some dyes
contain appreciably high metal con-
tent has prompted the manufacturers.
where possible, to change their pro-
THIS REPORT WAS PREPARED BY the American Dye Manufacturers Institute.
an organization comprised of most of the major U.S. dye manufacturers. The
report was authored by William Allen of American Cyanamid Co, Eric Al-
therr of Sandoz Colors and Chemicals, Roderick H. Horning of the Dyes and
Chemicals Division of Crompton & Knowles Corp.. Joseph C. King of the
Verona Division of Baychem Corp., John M. Murphy of ICI America Inc.. Wil-
liam E. Newby of The Du Pont Co. and Max Saltzman of Allied Chemical Co.
The report was presented at AATCC's 1972 national technical conference, held
September 23-30 at Philadelphia. Pa., by its principal author, Roderick H.
Horning.
E-33
275/29
-------
total Content Of Eyes
costs so as lo reduce the amount of
contaminant present m th: dye or es-
tablish more stringent specifications
for the in::rmediat:s used to prepare
the d>cs. The occurrences of these ex-
ceptional cases is significantly random
and it would be misleading to try to
generalize concerning which dyes have
unusual amounts of which metals.
To avoid a possible misunderstand-
ing it should be acknowledged that
there are specific dyes in use that con-
tain appreciable amounts of heavy
metals as an integral part of the dye
structure. Thus the so-called coppered
dyes in the direct and fiber reactive
dye classes contain copper complexed
into the organic structure. Similarly
the neutral premctallized dyes contain
chromium or. less frequently, cobalt,
as an integral pan of the dye mole-
cule. The metal content of the cop-
pered and neutral premetallized dyes
frequently runs in the vicinity of 3-4%.
Because the metal is pan of the dye. it'
exhausts onto the fiber with the dye
during dyeing. Thus this metal is
found in the effluent ooly to the ex-
tent that the dye is not exhausted from
the bath. There are also a number of
basic dyes in use that are prepared as
a double salt containing zinc. The zinc
content of these dyes is frequently in
the range of 3% and is not exhausted
with the dye.
Heavy Metals From Nor. dye Sources
Heavy metals jrc u>eJ intentionally
for a wide variety of application* re-
lated to dyeing and finishing. Oxida-
tions incident to some dyeing opera*
tions are conveniently performed with
dichromatcs. and top chroming uti-
lizes compounds of chromium. A va-
riety of heavy metal compounds are
used to improve washfastneta or light-
fasiness on certain fabric, dye combi-
nations. Many wash-wear, durable
press and water repellent finishes
require the use of heavy metal
compounds as catalysts during their
application. Aluminum and antimony
compounds are used in some flame
retardant finishes. Fibers and fabrics
entering a mill sometimes tontain
appreciable quantities ol heavy metals.
Again it should be noted trial many
of these metals become attached to the
fabric, at least in part, and to (hit ex-
tent are not found in the mill effluent
Stream. The nature and concentration
of effluent metals from nonjve
sources varies greatly from mill in
mill. It is mentioned here only to
avoid giving the impression that since
most dyes do not appear to be serious
offenders regarding metals in typical
textile mill effluents that the mill*
have no problems widi heavy metal*
The dyer and finisher may wish to de-
termine the metal content of all of the
materials he is using so that he can
Table 1 Averajo Metal Concentration ol SeUctsd Dyst
I
Matal
Anemc
Cadmium
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Lead
Mercury
Zinc
Dyi data
Acid
Basic
Direct
Disperse
Fiber Ructive
Vjt
Acid
Basic
Direct
Disperse
Fiber Reactive
Vat
Acid
Basic
Direct
Disperse
Fiber Reactive
Vat
Acid
Basic
Direct
Disperse
Fiber Reactive
Vat
Acid
Basic
Direct
Disperse
Fiber Reactive
Vat
Acid
Basic
Direct
Disperse
Fiber Reactive
Vat
Acid
Basic
Direct
Disperse
Fiber Reactive
Vat
Acid
Basic
Direct
Disperse
Fiber Reactive
Vat .
N'jmbtr
el Oyts
Anal/»d
4»
137
31)
177 .
46
SB
417
137
313
177
46
SB
404
137
301
117
«0
99
300
135
.271
154
46
S3
399
13c
285
1S3
46
59
408
115
315
161
46
SB
460
132
350
196
46
94
421
122
311
166
46
59
A/erifi M«UI
Ceniantnlian
(Parts Per
Million)
^ I
^ I
^ j
i 1
1.4
^ j
^ j
^ I
<»
^ |
<1
»
25
ur
3.0
24
83
3.2
<1
<1
^ 1
^ j
79
33
35
45
71
110
37
6
28
37
52
e
e classes do not. of them*
30/276
E-34
003 Vol. 4. No. 12
-------
deto
DYES ENVIRONMENTAL AND TOXICOLOGY ORGANIZATION, INC.
1075 CENTRAL PARK AVENUE, SCARSDALE, N.Y. 10583 (914) 725-1492
November 8, 1978
An Addendum
To
DETO's "Report on Survey of 'Priority
Pollutants' Believed to Be Present in Large Volume
Commercial Dye Products"
I. Introduction
At a meeting on June 16, 1978, Dr. Gallup of the En-
vironmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Dr. Buzell of
Sverdrup, Parcel and Associates (EPA's contractor) request-
ed the Dyes Environmental and Toxicology Organization, Inc.
(DETO) to provide additional information about its "Report
on Survey of 'Priority Pollutants' Believed to Be Present
in Large Volume Commercial Dye Products" (Report).
In response to this request, DETO agreed to provide
further explanations about: (1) the rationale for the selec-
*
tion of the 40 priority pollutants used in the survey; (2) the
rationale for the selection of large volume commercial dyes
with domestic sales exceeding 200,000 pounds per year used
in the survey; and (3) the results with emphasis on the sig-
nificance of individual priority pollutants found in these
large volume commercial dyes. To provide these explanations,
the DETO Ecology Committee (Committee) thoroughly re-evaluated
the original responses to the survey and received answers to
an additional question from all its member companies.
E-35
AFFILIATED WITH SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMICAL MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION, INC.
-------
This addendum addresses the above items.
II. Purpose and Methodology of the Report and Survey
The Report and underlying survey were voluntarily
prepared by DETO at the request of EPA. The purpose of
the Report and survey was to assist EPA, given EPA's time
constraints, in determining whether dyes in general are
likely to be significant sources of priority pollutants
that may be found in textile mill effluent. The Report
was not intended to be a definitive sourcebook on the pre-
sence of priority pollutants in dyes utilizing time-consuming
and expensive analytical testing. Rather it was intended
to provide EPA with the best information available at the
time of the survey without requiring analytical testing.
To accommodate this purpose and to facilitate a quick
response necessary for EPA's short timetable, the Committee
decided to limit the survey on a reasonable basis. As de-
tailed below, the Committee utilized scientific and prac-
tical considerations in selecting only high volume commercial
dyes and priority pollutants which were likely to be present
in dyes for the survey. A questionnaire was sent
to each DETO member company asking which of the listed
priority pollutants were likely to be present in the listed
dyes and whether the amounts present were believed to be
greater than or less than 0.1%. The questionnaire also re-
quested the member companies to report on other large
volume commercial dyes not listed in the questionnaire.
E-36
-------
III. Selection of the Priority Pollutants
From EPA's list of 129 priority pollutants, the
Committee utilized its extensive expertise and experience
in selecting those priority pollutants, a total of 40,
which the Committee deemed likely to be present in dyes.
The Committee used the following criteria in carefully re-
viewing each of EPA's priority pollutants and then elimi-
nating from the list those which it believed were not
likely to be present in or formed during the manufacturing
process of dyes. When the Committee was in doubt, the
pollutant was not eliminated.
A. Criteria for Selection
Process Considerations. The Committee considered each
priority pollutant first with respect to its probable use
as a raw material or an intermediate in the synthesis of
dyes. It then considered each priority pollutant with re-
spect to the likely process chemistry and unit operations
including isolation steps such as precipitation, salting out,
and filtration and washing of filter presscakes in which
water-soluble unreacted raw materials are removed. The
Committee judged that starting raw materials going through
a series of chemical process steps or water-soluble inter-
mediates are not likely to be present, even in trace quanti-
ties, in a finished dye. Thus the Committee eliminated those
E-37
-------
priority pollutants that are starting raw materials or
reasonably water-soluble intermediates used in dyes.
Heavy Metals. The Committee noted that several metals
are used in the manufacture of dyes. Some metals such as
chromium and copper are used to form complexes with the
organic molecule and become an integral part of dyes. Others
such as zinc may be used to form suitable salts of dyes.
Several are present primarily as tramp contaminants in
trace quantities including arsenic, nickel, cadmium,lead
and mercury. Thus the Committee selected these metals from
the priority pollutant list for inclusion in the survey.
Solvents. Several priority pollutants are used in the
manufacture of dyes as solvents for chemical reactions.
After completion of reactions, these solvents generally are
removed from the products by distillation, steam stripping
and drying steps. The Committee believed that finished
dyes were not likely to contain priority pollutants used
as solvents, and therefore decided not to include such sol-
vents in the survey questionnaire.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs). Based on preliminary
data available about the production of phthalocyanine
organic pigments, the Committee decided that, under appro-
priate reaction conditions, PCBs conceivably could be gene-
rated in trace quantities during chemical processes using
chlorinated benzenes as solvents. For this reason, PCBs
E-38
-------
were included in the questionnaire. The responding member
companies, however, did not think the possibility of in-
situ formation of PCBs was very likely and did not report
any PCBs.
Adjuvants. During the formulation of commercial dyes,
certain chemicals are added to impart desirable properties
to the product. Among such chemicals are biocides and
fungicides. The Committee selected those priority pollu-
tants that were likely to be used as biocides.
B. Responses
The responses by the member companies indicate that
the Committee used a very broad and widely inclusive approach
in selecting the priority pollutants used in the survey. Of
the 40 priority pollutants listed in the questionnaire, the
member companies reported that only 18 of them were likely to
be present. An additional seven priority pollutants not list-
ed in the survey were reported so that the Committee received
evaluations on a total of 25 priority pollutants thought
I/
~~ After preparation of the Report, it came to the attention
of the Committee that certain alkyl phthalates, which are
priority pollutants, are sometimes individually used in
quantities of 1-2% as antidusting oils in dyes. These
phthalates typically are octyl, di-n-butyl or diethyl
phthalates. Because of inadequate information, this adden-
dum and attached Table 1 do not analyze the significance
of alkyl phthalates in large volume commercial dyes. It
should be noted, however, that mineral oils, which are not
priority pollutants, are more generally used as an anti-
dusting oil than alkyl phthalates.
E-39
-------
likely to be present in large volume commercial dyes.'
It should be reemphasized that none of the member companies
reported that PCBs were likely to be present in large
volume commercial dyes.
Of the seven additional priority pollutants listed,
it was reported that: (1) toluene, ethylbenzene, mono-
chlorobenzene, and 1,2, - dichlorobenzene are used as solvents;
(2) acenaphthene and phenanthrene are starting raw materials;
and (3) pentachlorophenol, which the Committee originally
thought was no longer used in dye manufacturing, is added as a
biocide adjuvant. As explained in Part V, the Committee does not
believe that these additional priority pollutants in dyes are
likely to be a significant source of such pollutants in textile
2/
mill effluent.-
IV. Selection of Large Volume Commercial Dyes
To meet the time constraints imposed by EPA, the
Committee selected only large volume commercial dyes.
~~ The 40 priority pollutants listed in the survey and the
additional seven priority pollutants reported are listed
in Table 1. This table also includes the reported con-
centration ranges and comments about these priority pollu-
tants with respect to large volume commercial dyes.
2/
See page 9.
E-40
-------
a total of 70, defined as those dyes having domestic sales
exceeding 200,000 pounds per year as reported by the Interna-
tional Trade Commission (ITC)- in 1976. To insure complete-
ness, the survey questionnaire also asked the member companies
to include in their responses those commercial dyes upon
which domestic sales exceeded 200,000 pounds but were not
otherwise listed in the ITC report.
A. Responses
In addition to the 70 dyes listed in the questionnaire,
the Committee received data from the member companies on an
additional 81 dyes for a total evaluation of 151 products.
In response to EPA's request for this addendum, the Committ-
ee also asked its member companies to determine how many of
the products reported were distinct dyes. Because some
of the additional products reported were generic in nature,
144 out of the 151 products evaluated were distinct dyes.
As stated in the original DETO report, the total
sales volume of those dyes reported represents 55.3% of all
domestic sales of dyes in 1976. Thus the survey cover-
ed a majority of dyes used in the United States.
V. Results and Discussion
In response to EPA's request for an additional expla-
nation regarding the significance of priority pollutants
~~ The ITC does not compile statistics on all dyes because
of confidentiality problems.
-------
found in large volume commercial dyes, the Committee felt
it would be helpful to determine the number of distinct
dyes which contain each priority pollutant. To obtain
this information, the Committee thoroughly re-evaluated
the data submitted by the member companies.
This re-evaluation revealed that of the 144 dyes
reported in the survey, 38 dyes were reported as not likely
to contain any of the priority pollutants. The remaining 106
dyes were reported as likely to contain some priority pollu-
tants. Only 31 of these dyes were reported as likely to
contain any of the priority pollutants in amounts exceed-
ing 0.1%. The priority pollutants contained in these
dyes were restricted to three metals and three intentionally
added biocides.
An analysis of the 106 dyes reported as likely to
contain priority pollutants show that most of these dyes
cannot be considered significant sources for priority pollu-
tants found in textile mill effluent. Many of the priority
pollutants likely to be present in these dyes were reported
in trace amounts far below 0.1%. For example, while 40 dyes
were thought likely to contain only metals as priority pollu-
tants, many of these metals are tramp contaminants in amounts
lower than 0.001%. Sixty of the 106 dyes were thought likely
to contain organic priority pollutants not intentionally
added as biocides and all in amounts of less than 0.1%.
I/ Table 2 contains a summary of the survey.
-------
Of the six priority pollutants estimated to be
present in concentrations exceeding 0.1%, chromium, copper
and zinc are metals that are integral parts of those dyes
in which they occur. Two of these metals, chromium and
copper, are exhausted onto the fiber with the dye. The
other three priority pollutants, p-chloro-m-cresol, penta-
chlorophenol and phenol, are phenolic chemicals intentionally
added as bactericides and/or fungicides.'
In responding to the original survey, DETO member
companies selected 18 of the 40 priority pollutants listed
as likely to be present in dyes and included an additional
seven priority pollutants not listed. It should be noted
that the seven additional priority pollutants reported are
all intimately tied to a specific process chemistry or are
added as adjuvants to the commercial products. Four of
these pollutants, toluene, ethylbenzene, monochlorobenzene,
and 1-2-dichlorobenzene, are solvents which the Committee
judged as being completely removed during drying steps. Two
others, acenaphthene and phenanthrene, are basic starting
raw materials which the Committee concluded would not pass
through the multiple chemical processes and unit operations
required to produce a finished dye. The last one, penta-
chlorophenol, is added after preparation of the dye as a
biocide adjuvant.
After the preparation of the Report, it came to the atten-
tion of the Committee that certain alkyl phthalates may be
present in concentrations exceeding 0.1%. See p.5 n.l.
E-43
-------
VI. Conclusions
The DETO priority pollutant survey has succeeded in
its stated objective. It has provided a guideline assess-
ing the likely presence of dyes in priority pollutants that
may be found in textile mill effluents. Given this objec-
tive and the time constraints imposed by EPA, DETO devised
a valid questionnaire requiring a reasonable and conscien-
tious response by its members to obtain the necessary data.
Furthermore, DETO conscientiously responded to EPA's further
request for additional information about the number of dyes
containing priority pollutants.
As detailed in the original report and this addendum,
the survey clearly demonstrates that, with the possible
exceptions of chromium, copper, zinc, p-chloro-m-cresol,
pentachlorophenol and phenol, large volume commercial
dyes are not likely to be significant sources of priority
pollutants in textile mill waters.
Respectfully submitted,
Stephen J. Kasprzak
Executive Secretary
- Certain alkyl phthalates also may be possible exceptions.
See p.5 n.l.
E-44
-------
TABLE 1
EVALUATION OF PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
LIKELY TO BE PRESENT IN MAJOR DYES
Nurcber of Dyes Reported as Likely
to Contain Priority Pollutants
iority
Pollutant
" rcber
'1
3
5
16
17
21
22
24
25
28
31
35
36
Substance
acenaphthene
acrylonltrlle
i
benzidlne
roonochlorobenzene
chloroethane
bis (chloromethyl) ether
2,4,6-trichlorophenol
parachlorometacresol
2-chlorophenol
1,2-dichlorobenzene
t
3,3-d1chlorobenz1d1ne
2,4-dtchlorophenol
2,4-dinitrotoluene
2,6-dinitrotoluene
Less Than
O.U
1
none
none
none
none
11
none
1
none
none
none
none
E-45
More Than
O.U
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
7.
none
i
none
none
none
none
i
none
.Comments of DETO
Screening Committee
Reported in quest ionnaii
Possible early inter-
radiate, ....j. ..'.". *."....
i*."
Can be used to make
couplers. ;;":»".
i* 4* « % 4 .1 I
>
Used in manufacture of
benzidine dyes* which
are being rapidly phase
out. ". . ' .......
' ' '
Reported in quest lonn air
Kay be used, as process
solvent. : ' .
ti
.Can be used as ethytatic
agent.. ' . ' ..: ' -.
Do not believe present;
. If so » as unintentional
1 by-product or 'for
chloroethylatipn (being
; phased out). ,',\
* * i
Kay be present as . .
bacteriostat/fungicide.
" ''.
Possible intermediate.
Also may be used-as '
biocide. :-. '' ' ': '-.'
:.. Possible intermediate.
i ' ' * * * '*
Reported in questionnait.
Hay be used as process
solvent. ; .!".;. . :
' '
Possible intermediate. :
> ' , . j
Possible intermediate, i
. . .. '
Possible early ; '' .
intermediate.-';
Possible early .' .
intermediate.
-------
TABLE 1
I . .'
' 1 ' » i
1
_!_
J ' '
EVALUATION OF PRIORITY
LIKELY TO BE PRESENT IN
POLLUTANTS
MAJOR DYES
i
»
i'.-i :'
Number of Dyes Reported as Likely : . ;
! ; to Contain Priority Pollutants
Priority
Pollutant.
Number
77
i
80
86
106
107
110
113
i
i \ t ' . i
114:,,
t t
. i
1 i
,115:
i ' i i
i ' * . i
116
i
117
. MB'.1 ; '
119' :
- 123
-.125-129
. i
Substance
anthracene
phenanthrene
toluene
PCB-1242
PCB-1254
arsenic
cadmium
chromium
copper
Less Than
0.1*
1
2
25
none
none
1
-
i
3
29
3B
cyanide (inorganic) none
lead
mercury
nickel
zinc
additional PCB's
:
-
28
39
26
27
none
E-46
More Than
0.1X
none
,.
'none
none
none
none
none
none
* >
i
':6 !' '
1 '
1 1 '
.10
i
1 none
none
,
none
' .'.-
.none , :
'4 :
none :.'
i
i :'-
: r
Comments of DETO
Screening Comments
Possible very early
intermediate.
i . ,
Reported In quest i onnu :<
Possible very early
Intermediate.
Reported in questionnaire
Hay be used as solven
Unlikely to be present
but may be formed as
trace by-product.
Unlikely to be present
but may be formed a^
trace by-product.
May be present as tra >.
impurity. .
.-
Kay be present as tra '.
impurity. !
i * ' ' I
Kay be a part of dye
structures : " '
r ' .
i i 'i * i
Kay b.e a part of dye.
structure;1/- .-.«..
i * " "
May be present as trace.
impurity. ' .
Nay be present as trace
impurity, i;;
Kay be present as tract
impurity. :t: '
Nay be present as tn.-fi
impurity. : - '
Kay be a part of dye
Unlikely to be prese
but may be formed as
trace by-product.
-------
TABLE 1
EVALUATION OF PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
LIKELY TO BE PRESENT IH MAJOR DYES
Number of Dyes Reported as Likely
to Contain Priority Pollutants
Priority
P llutant
Dumber
38
45
46
SO
62
r
Substance
1,2-diphenylhydrazine
ethyl benzene
methyl chloride
methyl bromide
naphthalene
nitrobenzene
2-nitrophenol
4-nitrophenol
2,4-dinitrophenol
4,6-dinitro-o-cresol
N-nitrosodimethylamine
N-nitrosodiphenylaroine
pentachlorophenol
phenol
Less Than
0.1S
none
25
none
5
2
none
none
2
none
1
none
2
20
More Than
0.1X
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
none
6
1
E-47
Comments of DETO ,
Screening Committee
Possible early inter- .
mediate in benzidine dy.'
which are being rapidly
phased out.
Reported in questionnaire
May be used as solvent.^
Can be used as
methylating agent.
Can be used as
methylating agent.
Possible very early
intermediate.
Possible very early in-
mediate or solvent.
Possible very early
intermediate.
Possible very early
intermediate.
Possible intermediate.
Possible intermediate.
Do not believe present;
if so, only as uninten-
tional by-product.
Do not believe present;
if so, only as uninten-
tional by-product.
Reported in questionnaire
May be used as biocide.
Possible intermediate,
process solvent, or
biocide.
-------
TABLE 2
SUMMARy OF RESULTS
DETO PRIORITY POLLUTANT SURUFY
TOTAL number of different major dyes reported: 144
- TOTAL number of different major dyes reporting priority pollutants: 106 " ' ''.'.'. .V;- 3
: .TOTAL number of' different major dyes reporting priority pollutants O.lJCr 31 v V-'.'. '
' : TOTAL number of different major dyes reporting only'metals:. 40 ' - - -: - v'' '-' :
: ' ' § - '... ' .' .':, -* . ' .> ^ ,-. . .';'>> r;.1 ,.".;'-.'.
. . TOTAL numBer'of additional'different major dyes reporting both' metafs and '' TV £'J :"^
. ..- . Phenolic bactenostats as pnly_ priority pollutants:. 6 :=.:..:':. JrS-i"
,.;'. TOTAL number of different major dyes reporting1 organic (non.bacterf6statyH:';^SS:?;>'
.-.'. '. ";'' \ -:'Pri°H*y pollutants"(all less than O.W): 60 . ' ..»'V'"-.'>:''.'*.£?<'&&''ii'
i"^'-^'"".'-"-'!".'" v';''-./-:--^'''' !-';;:.-v-;--'/_v-r/.:>:^;Vr--J''^-^;^₯^f^;
"^(ej-Priorlty'Pollutants' 'ollf.Chromiunil . ' ff"^-^. ''''"''-'.' "''-:-:":«-i^^i^^-Jfe
--.....'.> ':'-.T: - ::--::.r«««c.-. ..v. .I' :."-.. " ' "-. .*";:--.. >L^':-r-f.'^jr:-'^-
.:'.:.:.;,!:".-!-.«,:;..-.:: s- : v;'. .-.;-- : ,- V -..-!:;..-.-r-^. ;;.*;:; :, . ;.? ..;;..- ^^; »M;; if; j;-;]
! ..- : « ..-.- -: :- -,..:' ..::.;..:-..::«:.: ;«'-. .**ff\}\-*#\'''}{'.vtt$ll\-'$'
;:::!/:.;;llfl Additional 'Priority Pollutants (Many:trace quantities, about'oiiouy^i'i^liSljiESS
' ' '.'';'' : . ..''-. . ..;;.':.': .' .. -. ;. ;'/;.'.. ^-: :'''''"''.' V-'1'":' '''li'^r'/i*''V.
..-'. - ; r. ' -Acrylonitrile';:-';. ::, Kickel .-.--.' ; : -. " ''' -.-' i- :.l ^..":%Vf:^i:i ' -
'.. '/-. ..-' .Anthracene ;.'; v-.. -. 4-Nitrophenol -:'-- ' s:*.' - :- ..l '' '. .'.- i'::^&&'$ '
-->.;-. .'Arsenic- ''. -;-jr .- ;N-N>trosbdimethylamine =: ;*. v/fr .i- .i'-i'f^i^ii"
;".'.: ;. ^Benzidine ::/:, . -i^Toluene -., V-'. A', :;;.:.:; ;i/':l ":;.>*iH»r^
;:" . -\ ,' . Cadmiunr ' ' :-. *. Ethyl benzene '. '' '".?-
'./;/ .. 2,4-Dinitrophenpl; ' ; :.;Acenaphthene ' .-
'-.':. .'*':'..' .'-."Lead ' ': .^'. ' INonochlorobenzene
.' ;(':':' !', .-: ' Hsrcury ;' ""'';'' '=-" 1,2-Dichlorobenzene
.Kethyl bromide :"-: . ;5
'* L*_» ^ * '. *'
. I ' . . * . . .!: . i J»» % f *i " **
-^^-.,- -.' - ', -.-^ ..-^ ^- ;:M^i^|'i
T___.J ^ . ! * " '"*!, '.I!'.
~ ** =~ ---.-'-- -. _ r"?V- »Ttt*T..x''i/'\":-'.;
. -=-*. < - ' :--;'-- ':i"!?-:'::. I»:; :«i|.*!r^,K.':-.
V4.^V'V'r"^V^^^;:^i
' 1-\v" '- , ' -.:: : \1 '* ..-\ K'-:<;\..^^J^-.'
'". . ! .».-. ;. ; s* .-.--. -.:.!'.,'.v;-, \-' i:
-------
MILL A
MILL B
MILL D
MILL DD
MILL E
MILL F
MILL 0
MILL P
MILL Q
MILL S
MILL V
MILL W
MILL Y
APPENDIX F
DESCRIPTIONS OF EPA/INDUSTRY FIELD STUDY MILLS
F-l
-------
MILL A
Mill A is a Subcategory 1 Wool Scouring facility that performs raw
grease wool scouring. Reported average production is 23,600 kg/day
(52,000 Ib/day). The processing results in a water usage of 10.0 I/kg
(1.2 gal/lb) and a wastewater discharge of 1,380 cu m/day (364,000 gal/day),
Wastewater treatment at Mill A consists of primary sedimentation (grit
removal), biological aeration (1 basin with a total volume of 1.5 mgd),
secondary clarification scum removal, and disinfection (chlorine).
Aeration detention time is approximately 72 hours, and air is provided
by surface aerators at a power-to-volume ratio of 160 hp/mil gal.
F-2
-------
MILL B
Mill B is a Subcategory 2 Wool Finishing mill that is involved in manu-
facturing and finishing wool and blended wool fabrics. The primary fibers
finished are wool and cotton. An important feature of this mill it that
a large percentage of the wool used in from recycled woolen goods. The
principal manufacturing operations are scouring and both stock and fabric
dyeing. Production during the field studies averaged 30,380 kg/day
(approximately 67,000 Ib/day) with a water usage of 122 I/kg (14.6 gal/lb)
and an average wastewater discharge of 3,700 cu m/day (0.98 mgd) (less
than 1 percent sanitary waste).
Wastewater treatment at Mill B consists of fine screening (vibratory),
equalization (mixed), biological aeration (total volume under aeration
of 1.2 mil gal), secondary clarification, and disinfection (chlorine).
Aeration basin detention time is approximately 24 hours, and air is
provided by surface aerators at a power-to-volume ratio of 133 hp/mil gal.
However, this treatment fails to meet BPT guideline limitations for BODS.
Although more than 99 percent of the flow treated at this plant is process
wastewater from the mill, it is technically a POTW since the system is run
by the municipality in which the mill is located.
F-3
-------
MILL D
Mill D is a Subcategory 4c Woven Fabric Finishing mill that performs
desizing (PVA), bleaching, dyeing, and functional finishing. During
the field studies, the production averaged 31,900 kg/day (approximately
70,300 Ib/day) and included fabrics of 100 percent cotton, cotton/polyester
blends, cotton/rayon blends, and 100 percent polyester. The processing
resulted in an average water usage of 48.4 I/kg (approximately 5.8 gal/lb)
and a wastewater discharge of 1,550 cu m/day (0.41 mgd), a very small portion
of which was sanitary waste.
Wastewater treatment at Mill D consists of coarse screening, neutralization
(addition of acid), fine screening, aeration (two basins in series with
a total volume of 2.4 mil gal), secondary clarification, and disinfection
(chlorine). Aeration detention time is approximately 48 hours, and oxygen
is provided by surface aerators at a power-to-volume ratio of 125 hp/mil gal.
F-4
-------
MILL DD
Mill DD is actually two facilities that share a common wastewater treatment
plant. One facility is a Subcategory Ac Woven Fabric Finishing mill
that performs desizing (starch) scouring, bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing
(continuous), and functional finishing. The other facility includes a
Subcategory 3 Low Water Use Processing mill and a Subcategory 7 Stock &
Yarn Finishing mill that perform weaving and package dyeing of yarns,
respectively. During the field studies, 63,500 kg/day (approximately
140,000 Ib/day) of 100 percent cotton (17 percent), cotton/polyester
blends (79 percent), and cotton/polyester/nylon blends (4 percent) were
being finished by the two facility complex. Approximately 26 percent
of the fabric is woven with yarn that is package dyed. The processing
resulted in an average water usage of 250 I/kg (approximately 30 gal/lb)
and an average wastewater discharge of 20,400 cu m/day (5.4 mgd).
Wastewater treatment at Mill DD consists of coarse screening, neutralization
(addition of acid), aeration (one basin with a total volume of 12 mil gal),
secondary clarification, and disinfection (chlorine). Aeration detention
time is approximately 48 hours and air is provided by surface aerators at
a power-to-volume ratio of 87.5 hp/mil gal.
F-5
-------
MILL E
Mill E is a Subcategory 5a Knit Fabric Finishing mill that performs
scouring, dyeing, and functional finishing (crease-resistant, water-
repellent, and flame-resistant chemicals). Production is approximately
19,000 kg/day (42,000 Ib/day) of nylon apparel fabric and 680 kg/day
(1,500 Ib/day) of Nomex fabric. The processing results in a water usage
of 133 I/kg (16 gal/lb) and a wastewater discharge of 2,650 cu in/day
(0.70 mgd).
Wastewater treatment at Mill E consists of coarse screening, aeration
(one basin with a total volume of 3.7 mil gal), secondary clarification,
and disinfection (chlorine). Aeration detention time is approximately
48 hours, and air is provided by surface aerators at a power-to-volume
ratio of 240 hp/mil gal.
F-6
-------
MILL F
Mill F is a Subcategory 6 Carpet Finishing facility that is engaged
in dyeing tufted carpet made from polyester and nylon yarn. Production
during the field studies was reported to average 113,375 kg/day
(250,000 Ib/day). The processing results in an average water usage
of 46.7 I/kg (5.6 gal/lb) and an average wastewater discharge of
5,300 cu m/day (1.4 mgd).
Wastewater treatment at Mill F consists of aeration (one basin with a
total volume of 10 mil gal), secondary clarification, effluent polishing
(one 18 mil gal tertiary lagoon), and disinfection (chlorine). Aeration
detention time is approximately 190 hours, and air is provided by
surface aerators at a power-to-volume ratio of 40 hp/mil gal.
F-7
-------
MILL 0
Mill 0 is a Subcategory 2 Wool Finishing mill that converts wool and
nylon fiber into finished apparel and upholstery fabrics. Occasionally,
woolen blankets are manufactured. The processing includes spinning,
weaving, stock dyeing, piece dyeing, carbonizing, fulling, and functional
finishing. Average production is reported to be 7,700 kg/day (17,000
Ib/day) and wastewater discharge averages 3,785 cu m/day (1 mgd). The
mill has an average water usage of 475 I/kg (57 gal/lb).
Wastewater treatment at Mill 0 consists of neutralization (alkali feed),
fine screening (vibratory), biological aeration (1 basin with a total
volume of 1.5 mil gal), and secondary clarification. Phosphoric acid is
added as nutrient. Aeration detention time is approximately 36 hours,
and air is provided by surface aerators at a power-to-volume ratio of
66 hp/mil gal.
F-8
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MILL P
Mill P is an integrated facility that includes a Subcategory 4c Woven
Fabric Finishing mill and a Subcategory 7 Stock & Yarn Finishing mill.
Woven fabric finishing operations consist of desizing (PVA, starch),
scouring (caustic), bleaching (peroxide and chlorine), mercerizing
(caustic recovery practiced), dyeing, and functional finishing.
Yarn is dyed for the manufacture of denim fabric. During the field
studies, the production of woven fabric averaged approximately 77,000 kg/day
(170,000 Ib/day); yarn dyeing is generally less than 8 percent of the
total production. Production included sheeting, denim, shirting, and
broadcloth of 100 percent cotton and cotton/polyester blends. The
processing resulted in an average water usage of 100 I/kg (11.9 gal/lb)
and a wastewater discharge of 7,570 cu m/day (2.0 mgd); approximately
7.5 percent of which was sanitary waste.
Wastewater treatment at Mill P consists of coarse screening, neutralization
(addition of acid), equalization, aeration (two parallel basins with
a total volume of 14 mil gal), secondary clarification, and disinfection
(chlorine). Aeration detention time is approximately 72 hours and air is
provided by surface aerators at a power-to-volume ratio of 57 hp/mil gal.
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MILL Q
Mill Q is actually two Subcategory 5 Knit Fabric Finishing mills that
discharge to a common treatment plant. During the field studies, the
production of knit fabric averaged approximately 72,560 kg/day (160,000 lb/
day). Production included fabrics of 100 percent polyamide, 100 percent
polyester, 100 percent acetate, 80 percent acetate/20 percent nylon,
95 percent polyester/5 percent nylon, and 80 percent triacetate/20 percent
nylon. The processing resulted in an overall water usage of 130 I/kg
(15.6 gal/lb) and a wastewater discharge of 9,460 cu m/day (2.5 mgd),
approximately one percent of which was sanitary waste.
Wastewater treatment at Mill Q consists of coarse screening (bar and
basket), equalization (aerated), aeration (two 3.2 mil gal basins),
secondary clarification, disinfection (chlorine), multi-media filtration
(3.5 gpm/ft2 design with precoagulant and/or activated carbon injected
into the filter influent), and post aeration. Aeration detention time
is approximately 15 hours, and air is provided by surface aerators at
a power-to-volume ratio of 148 hp/mil gal.
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MILL S
Mill S is a Subcategory 7 Stock & Yarn Finishing facility that dyes and
finishes industrial sewing thread and hand knitting yarn. Processing
includes bleaching, mercerizing, package dyeing, and functional finishing.
Average daily production is reported as 32,200 kg/day (71,000 Ib/day).
The processing results is an average water usage of 161 I/kg (19.3 gal/lb)
and an average wastewater discharge of 5,300 cu ro/day (1.4 mgd).
Wastewater treatment at Mill S consists of equalization (mixed), aeration
(one basin with a total volume of 3.9 mil gal), secondary clarification,
effluent polishing (one 3.8 mil gal tertiary lagoon), disinfection
(chlorine), and post aeration. Aeration basin detention time is approxi-
mately 62 hours, and air is provided by surface aerators at a power-to-
volume ratio of 46 hp/mil gal.
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MILL V
Mill V is a Subcategory Ac Woven Fabric Finishing mill that performs
desizing (PVA, CMC, and starch), scouring, bleaching, mercerizing,
dyeing (continuous), and functional finishing (mildew, soil & water
repellents, and hand improvers). During the field studies, the
production averaged approximately 95,200 kg/day (210,000 Ib/day) and
included fabrics of 65 percent polyester/35 percent cotton (approximately
56 percent), 50 percent polyester/50 percent cotton (approximately 26
percent), 20 percent polyester/80 percent cotton (approximately 7 percent),
18 percent polyester/82 percent cotton (approximately 9 percent), and 15
percent polyester/85 percent cotton (approximately 2 percent). The
processing resulted in an average water usage of 122 I/kg (14.6 gal/lb)
and a wastewater discharge of 11,350 cu m/day (approximately 3.0 mgd); less
than one percent of the flow is sanitary waste.
Wastewater treatment at Mill V consists of coarse screening, neutralization
(addition of acid), aeration (2 basins operated in series with a total
volume of 10 mil gal), secondary clarification, and disinfection (chlorine).
Aeration detention time is approximately 60 hours, and air is provided by
surface aerators at a power-to-volume ratio of 41 hp/mil gal.
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MILL W
Mill W is a Subcategory 5b Knit Fabric Finishing mill that performs
knitting, bleaching, scouring, dyeing, printing, and functional
finishing. The primary fibers utilized are cotton, polyester, SEF,
Kohjin, and nylon. SEF and Kohjin are special flame retardant fibers.
During the field studies, production averaged 23,600 kg/day (approxi-
mately 52,000 Ib/day) and included fabrics of 100 percent cotton,
100 percent polyester, 100 percent Kohjin, 65 percent SEF/35 percent
polyester, and 82 percent Kohjin/18 percent nylon. The processing
resulted in an average water usage of 152 I/kg (18.2 gal/lb) and an
average wastewater discharge of 3,570 cu in/day (0.94 mgd).
Wastewater from the printing operation passes through an air flotation
tank that at the time of sampling was being used as a gravity separator.
It then combines with the wastewater from the bleaching and dyeing
operations for complete biological treatment. As an alternate route,
the wastewater from the air flotation tank can go to a distillation
column for solvent recovery. This mode of treatment was not in use
at the time of the sampling. Treatment of the combined waste stream
consists of coarse screening, equalization (nitrogen added as a nutrient),
fine screening (not in service at time of sampling) biological aeration
(one basin with a total volume of 2.7 mil gal), secondary clarification,
and disinfection (chlorine). Aeration detention time is approximately
72 hours, and air is provided by surface aerators at a power-to-volume
ratio of 37 hp/mil gal.
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MILL Y
Mill Y is a Subcategory 4c Woven Fabric Finishing facility that performs
desizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerizing, functional finishing, and
both yarn and fabric dyeing. The processing results in an average
water usage of 182 I/kg (21.8 gal/lb), and an average discharge of
7,950 cu m/day (2.1 mgd).
Wastewater treatment at Mill Y consists of equalization (mixed with
26 hp/mil gal), neutralization (acid addition) coarse screening,
aeration (two basins with a total volume of 10.5 mil gal), coagulation
(polymer addition before secondary clarification), and secondary
clarification. Aeration basin detention time is approximately 120
hours, and air is provided by surface aerators at a power-to-volume
ratio of approximately 58 hp/mil gal.
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