&EPA
             United States
             Environmental Protection
             Agency
            Office of Air Quality
            Planning and Standards
            Research Triangle Park NC 27711
EPA-450 3-80-006
March 1980
             Air
Source Category
Survey:
Refractory
Industry

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                                EPA-450/3-80-006
Source Category Survey
    Refractory Industry
     Emission Standards and Engineering Division
            Contract No. 68-02-3058
      U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
         Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation
      Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
      Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711

                March 1980

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This report has been reviewed by the Emission Standards and Engineering
Division, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Office of Air, Noise,
and Radiation, Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publica-
tion.  Mention of company or product names does not constitute endorsement
by EPA.  Copies are available free of charge to Federal employees, current
contractors and grantees, and non-profit organizations - as supplies permit
from the Library Services Office, MD-35, Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park,  NC 27711; or may be obtained, for a fee, from the
National Technical Information Service, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield,
VA 22161.
                      Publication No. EPA-450/3-80-006
                                     11

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                           TABLE OF CONTENTS
                                                                     Page
1.   SUMMARY	  1-1
     1.1   INDUSTRY DESCRIPTION	.-	  1-1
     1.2  PROCESS DESCRIPTION	  1-2
     1.3  EMISSIONS	  1-3
     1.4  CONTROL SYSTEMS	  1-4
     1.5  STATE REGULATIONS	  1-5
     1.6  RECOMMENDATIONS	  1-6
2.   INTRODUCTION	  2-1
     2.1   STUDY OBJECTIVE	  2-1
     2.2  SOURCE CATEGORY DEFINITION	  2-1
     2.3  LEGAL REQUIREMENTS	  2-2
     2.4  APPROACH	  2-3
3.   CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS	  3-1
     3.1   CONCLUS IONS	  3-1
          3.1.1  General	  3-1
          3.1.2  Source  Category Definition	  3-2
          3.1.3  Growth  Trends	  3-3
          3.1.4  Emission and Controls	  3-4
          3.1.5  NSPS  Emission  Reduction  Potential	  3-5
     3.2  RECOMMENDATIONS	  3-8
4.   DESCRIPTION OF  INDUSTRY	  4-1
     4.1  SOURCE CATEGORY DESCRIPTION	  4-1
          4.1.1  Definition		   4-1
          4.1.2  Classification	   4-2

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                       TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
                                                                     Page
          4.1.3  Extent of Production Facilities	  4-8
          4.1.4  Special  Industry Considerations	  4-9
     4.2  INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION TRENDS	  4-11
          4.2.1  Historical Patterns	  4-11
          4.2.2  Projections	  4-14
     4.3  PROCESS DESCRIPTION	  4-16
          4.3.1  Production of Fired Brick and Shapes	  4-18
          4.3.2  Production of Fused Products	  4-25
          4.3.3  Tar & Pitch Operations	  4-25
          4.3.4  Production of Ceramic Fiber	  4-26
     4.4  REFERENCES	  4-27
5.   AIR EMISSIONS DEVELOPED IN THE SOURCE CATEGORY	  5-1
     5.1  PLANT AND PROCESS EMISSIONS	  5-1
          5.1.1  Refractory Brick Kiln	  5-2
          5.1.2  Arc Furnace Emissions	  5-11
          5.1.3  Tar and Pitch Operations	  5-13
          5.1.4  Ceramic Fiber Emissions	  5-15
     5.2  UNCONTROLLED EMISSIONS FROM TYPICAL PLANTS	  5-16
     5.3  EMISSIONS FROM A PLANT CONTROLLED TO MEET A
            TYPICAL STATE  IMPLEMENTATION PLAN	  5-16
     5.4  TOTAL NATIONWIDE EMISSIONS	  5-19
     5.5  REFERENCES	  5-23
6.   EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEMS	  6-1
     6.1  CONTROL APPROACHES	  6-1
                                     IV

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                     TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
                                                                     Page
          6.1.1   Refractory Brick Kilns	  6-1
          6.1.2  Tar and Pitch Operations	  6-3
          6.1.3  Fused Cast Refractory Production	  6-3
          6.1.4  Ceramic Fiber Manufacture	  6-4
     6.2  ALTERNATIVE CONTROL METHODS	  6-4
     6.3  THE BEST SYSTEM OF CONTROL TECHNOLOGY	  6-4
     6.4  REFERENCES	  6-7
7.   EMISSION DATA	  7-1
     7.1  AVAILABILITY OF DATA	  7-1
     7.2  SAMPLE COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS	  7-1
     7.3  REFERENCES	  7-4
8.   STATE AND LOCAL REGULATIONS	  8-1
     8.1  REFERENCES	  8-4
APPENDIX A	  A-l
APPENDIX B	  B-l
APPENDIX C	   C-l

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                              LIST OF TABLES
TABLE                                                                 Page
3-1     Participate Emission Levels Based
        on Various Levels of Control	 3-7
4-1     Refractory Classification by Composition	 4-3
4-2     Revised and Simplified Classification of
        Formed Products	 4-5
4-3     Unformed Refractory Types	 4-7
5-1     Uncontrolled Emission Factors	 5-3
5-2     Uncontrolled Gas-Fired Tunnel Kiln Particulate
        Emission Factor Data	 5-6
                                         *
5-3     Uncontrolled Gas-Fired Tunnel Kiln SO
      ,  Emission Factor Data	 5-10
5-4     Uncontrolled Electric Arc Furnace
        Particulate Emission Factor Data	 5-12
5-5     Uncontrolled Tar & Pitch Operations
        Particulate Emission Factor Data	 5-14
5-6     Production Level s	 5-17
5-7     Uncontrolled Emissions from Typical Plants	 5-18
5-8     Emissions From  Plants Controlled to
        Typical State Regulation	 5-20
5-9     Total Uncontrolled Nationwide Emissions
        Mg/yr (tons/yr)	 5-21
5-10    Nationwide Emissions Assuming SIP Control	 5-22
6-1     Typical Arc Furnace Baghouse Specifications	 6-3
6-2     Best Systems of Control Technology	 6-6
7-1     Emission Source Test Data	 7-2
8-1     Summary of State Emission Regulations
        Pertaining to New Sources in the Refractory
        Industry	 8-2
8-2     Estimated National Emission For
        Uncontrol 1 ed and Control 1 ed Sources	 8-3
                                     vi

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                           LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE                                                            PAGE

4-1     Distribution of Refractory Plants
        in the United States	    4-10
4-2     Historic Value of Refractory Shipments,
        Constant 1967 Dollars	     4-12
4-3     Historic Shipments of Refractory Products	     4-13
4-4     Historic Shipments of Refractories
        Using Tar & Pitch	     4-15
4-5     Refractory Manufacturing Flowchart 	     4-19
4-6     Fired Products Flowsheet 	     4-21
                                 vii

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                              1 .   SUMMARY

     This report documents a study conducted to assess the need  for  new
source performance standards (NSPS) for the refractory manufacturing
industry.  These standards would  regulate airborne emissions  from new
point sources involved in the manufacture of refractory products.
     This chapter is provided as  a general  overview of the study.
1.1  INDUSTRY DESCRIPTION
     Refractories are defined as  any material designed to resist high
temperature environments.  In industry, refractories are used to line
furnaces, boilers, reactors, kilns, steel ladles, and other devices
where extremes of temperature, corrosion, and abrasion would destroy any
other material.  Raw materials used to make refractories are usually
ceramic in nature.  The most common are clays, bauxite, magnesite, sand,
dolomite, chromite, zircon, and various oxides and derivatives of these
minerals.
     The majority of refractories (59 percent) are sold as bricks and shapes
(in this study the term brick will refer to any structural shape).  The
remainder, termed unformed or specialties, are sold in bulk form.  Most
unformed products are designed to be mixed with water on the site where
they are used and poured into position in an analagous manner to con-
crete placement.
     A new and growing type of refractory product is ceramic fiber.  It
is similar in manufacture and appearance to mineral wool.  It is used as
an insulating material on high temperature devices where heat losses are
undesirable.  Additional markets for ceramic fiber are presently developing.
     The steel industry consumes approximately half of all refractories
sold in the U.S.  Other major consumers  are the glass, aluminum, boiler,
chemical, and petroleum industries.  Continual replacement of refractory
linings is common in most applications.
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     The industry is composed of approximately 250 plants located in 33
states.  The plants are concentrated in a tier of states located between
New Jersey and Missouri.  Total industry annual sales are currently
estimated to be approximately $1.2 billion dollars on shipments of over
4.2 Tg (5 million tons).  Plants and emissions tend to be highly specialized
depending on the type of products manufactured and local raw materials
used in manufacture.
     Demand for refractory products is not expected to increase in the
immediate future.  Little, if any overall industry growth is expected in
the source category.  Growth is anticipated in the unformed segment of
the industry, however, emissions from this segment are not covered in
this study.  The only other refractory product with growth potential is
ceramic fiber with indications of 15 percent annual growth.
1.2  PROCESS DESCRIPTION
     Refractory manufacture typically breaks down into four phases.
These are:  raw material processing, forming, firing, and final product
processing.  Some types of products omit one or more of these phases
altogether.
     The first phase involves the transformation of raw minerals of
irregular size, shape, and moisture content into a stable, uniform,
refractory grade material.  Operations involved in this phase include
crushing, grinding, size classification, drying, and calcining.
     The second phase takes appropriate mixtures of raw materials and
forms desired shapes.  Lower grades of refractories are formed by adding
water to the mix to form a wet slurry which is subsequently poured into
molds.  Medium grades of refractories mix materials and water in a pug
mill for subsequent extruding.  Higher grades of refractories are shaped
by extreme pressure in a brick press.  Many variations on these forming
processes are used.  One important variation is to use tar to hold the
brick together allowing skipping of the firing step.  Firing occurs in
place.
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     The third phase involves drying and firing of the brick.   The  most
common devices are tunnel  dryers and tunnel  kilns.  Dryers  reduce the
free moisture content of the brick to prevent excessive cracking and
spalling in the kiln.  Kilns subject the brick to high temperatures for
extended periods of time forming the ceramic bond which gives  the brick
its desired strength and resistance to high temperatures.  Molten cast
products melt materials in arc furnaces for subsequent casting into sand
molds.
     The final phase involves any steps necessary to prepare the product
for shipment.  Finishing grinding and sandblasting may be required.
Products are usually shipped in cartons or on pallets.  Some products
receive tar impregnation.
     Unformed products omit the forming and firing phases.  Processed
raw materials are mixed and packaged in bags or drums.  Firing occurs on
site when the vessel they are used  in is brought  up to working temperature.
     Ceramic fiber production is dissimilar to conventional refractory
manufacture and similar to mineral  wool manufacture.   Clay  is melted  in
electric arc furnaces  after which it is blown or  mechanically formed
into long, thin fibers.  After  fiberization, the  fibers  are either
shipped in bulk or formed into  batts, blankets,  rolls  or other  shapes.
Ceramic fiber products are  excellent high temperature  insulators and  are
very lightweight.
1.3  EMISSIONS
     Emissions  are  examined  from  the  following  sources:
    •Brick  Firing  Kilns - Used  in the  production of  fired  bricks and  shapes,
    •Electric Arc  Furnaces  - Used in  the  production  of fuse cast bricks
     and  shapes,
    •Tar  and  Pitch  Operations  - Impregnators and tempering ovens used to
      produce  tar  bonded and impregnated bricks and shapes,
    •Ceramic  Fiber Manufacture -  Electric arc furnaces, fiberization  devices,
      and  tempering  ovens  used to  make and form ceramic fibers.
      Other emission sources involved in refractory manufacture are not
 assessed.   Many are small  nuisance dust operations which are  presently
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well controlled.  Others are covered in other present and proposed NSPS
studies.
     On a national basis, three emission species are significant;
participates, sulfur oxides, and fluorides.  The majority of particulate
is generated in brick firing kilns and electric arc furnaces.  Sulfur
oxides are generated in the combustion of fuel oil, the firing of
sulfur containing clays, and the volatilization of plaster used in
manufacture of low and medium grades of insulating firebrick.  Fluorides
are produced in kilns and arc furnaces from the volatilization of fluorine
compounds present in clays.
     Total controlled national emissions of particulates, sulfur oxides,
and fluorides from the source category are estimated to be 1530 Mg/yr
(1680 ton/yr), 1610 Mg/yr (1770 ton/yr), and 1100 Mg/yr (1210 ton/yr)
respectively.  This estimate is based on total production of refractory
products from approximately 250 existing plants.
     Very little emission data is available.  EPA Method 5 was used to
determine particulate emissions from a periodic kiln.  In stack filters
and cascade irnpactors have been used to determine particulate weight and
size in the emissions from a tunnel kiln.  The particulate emissions
from an electric arc furnace have been tested, .however the method was
not EPA 5.  EPA reference methods for sample collection and analysis are
available for all of the emissions which are significant on a national
basis.
1.4  CONTROL SYSTEMS
     Uncontrolled refractory brick firing kiln emissions are typically
below the level  required by state regulations.  Nearly all tunnel kilns
are uncontrolled.  One exception is the use of an ionizing wet scrubber
installed primarily to reduce opacity.  The unusual clay being fired at
this plant tends to give rise to high opacity emissions.  Particulate
control with this device exceeds 85 percent.
     Electric arc furnaces used in fuse cast production generate sufficient
particulate emissions to require control.  Fabric filters are used
extensively.  Efficiency of the control  device is estimated to exceed
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99 percent, however, pickup of the particulate laden air above the
furnace is a problem.  No data is available to estimate this capture
efficiency.
     Tar and pitch operations emit higher molecular weight organic
aerosols.  Incineration is the most common control  technique.  Efficiency
is expected to exceed 95 percent.  Control may or may not be required
depending on local regulations.
     Ceramic fiber manufacture generates particulate from electric arc
melting, fiberization, and oven curing.  Fabric filters or lint cage
filters are the most common control although many operations do not
require control for existing regulations.  Incinerators are occasionally
used for control of organic aerosols from curing ovens.
1.5  STATE REGULATIONS
     For the most part, particulate regulations are the only state
regulations of concern to refractory manufacturers.  Most states regulate
particulates by a process weight formula.  The formulas are fairly
uniform from state to state.  Opacity is also regulated by most states.
A typical allowed opacity is 20 percent.
     Assuming state regulations are met, these regulations reduce total
national particulate emissions from 4100 Mg/yr (4500 tons/yr) uncontrolled
to 1500 Mg/yr (1700 tons/yr) controlled.  The majority of this reduction
is attained through the control of electric arc furnaces used in fuse cast
production.  In general, most plants observed during this study appear to
be meeting applicable state regulations.
     Sulfur oxides and fluorides are generally below levels requiring any
control.
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1.6  RECOMMENDATIONS
     It is not recommended that NSPS be developed for the refractory
manufacturing industry at this time for the following reasons:
     1.   Overall growth in total refractory production  is unlikely.  A
trend toward higher quality refractories which require less frequent
replacement will reduce consumption.  The only major addition of new
sources is expected to occur in the small ceramic fiber  segment of the
industry.
     2.   The industry is currently operating below capacity.  Considerable
demand could be accommodated by further use of existing  capacity.
     3.   Many particulate emission sources in the industry are being
addressed in other NSPS source categories.
     4.   The majority of emission sources examined have indefinite
lifespans.  Replacement of existing capacity is unlikely.
     5.   The potential for modification of kilns to fire with coal is
very small.  No trend toward conversion to coal is apparent.
     It is further recommended that drying and calcining of non-metallic
minerals used in refractory manufacture be examined in other NSPS
studies.  One option would be to include this examination in an already
proposed clay preparation study.
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                           2.   INTRODUCTION

2.1  STUDY OBJECTIVE
     The objective of this study is to determine the need for new source
performance standards (N.SPS) for the refractory manufacturing industry.
2.2  SOURCE CATEGORY DEFINITION
     A major problem in the development of this study has been the
multitude and diversity of products and processes in the refractory
industry.  Further complicating the issue is the overlap of several
other NSPS projects onto various emission sources in the industry.  The
Non-Metallic Mineral Processing NSPS and the Metallic Mineral Processing
NSPS studies cover the handling, crushing, grinding, conveying, and
storage of the majority of raw materials used in refractories.  Another
NSPS study is being planned to cover clay preparation which would
include the drying and calcining of refractory clays.
     In an effort to resolve these issues, the industry was examined to
determine what processes were indiginous to refractory manufacture or,
in other words, what exactly makes refractory manufacture different from
other ceramic industries.  The answer  is heat.  Refractories are  peculiar
in their ability to resist high temperature environments.  They acquire
this ability by being fired or fused at high temperatures.  Thus,  this
study focuses on heat processes.  This meshes well with  the Non-Metallic
Mineral study as it looks only at non-heat processes.
     Several emission sources were identified which  do not involve heat
and are not covered by other studies.  An  example is the finish grinding
and sandblasting of some  products after they leave the firing  kiln.
Another major source is  the bagging of unformed products.  Dust control
for these sources usually requires large volumes of  air  to be  captured
around the process.  After  pickup  in this  airflow, the dust  is a  point
source and requires a control device to meet state regulations.   Baghouses
are used extensively.  During this study many  of these operations were
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observed.  Pickup was usually good to excellent and baghouses were used
without exception.
     Fugitive emissions are not examined in this study.  Observations of
operating plants showed generally low outside fugitive emissions.
     Some heat processes are also excluded from this survey.  Rotary
kilns, shaft kilns, and multiple hearth furnaces are used extensively to
dry and calcine raw materials.  A proposed NSPS study of clay preparation
will cover those sources which process clay.  Several other refractory
materials are dried and calcined in these devices.  These include magnesite,
chromite, sand, dolomite, and limestone.  However, these materials are
heavily used in other industries.  Furthermore, many of these sources
are located in plants totally separate from refractory plants and supply
other users other than refractory manufacturers.  For these reasons it
is not appropriate for these sources to be included in the source category
examined in this study.
     The net results of these exclusions is a well defined source
category consisting of the following emission sources:
    •Brick Firing Kilns,
    •Electric Arc Furnaces,
    •Tar and Pitch Operations, and
    •Ceramic Fiber Manufacture.
     The complete process descriptions detailing where these sources are
involved in refractory manufacture are in Chapter 4.
2.3  LEGAL REQUIREMENTS
     The Clean Air Act (CAA), as amended in 1977, provides authority for
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to control discharges of
airborne pollutants.  The CAA contains several regulatory and enforcement
options for control of airborne emissions from stationary sources.
Section 111 of the CAA calls for issuance of standards of performance
for new, modified or reconstructed sources which may contribute signifi-
cantly to air pollution.  The standards must be based on the best demonstrated
control technology.  Economic, energy and non-air environmental impacts
of control technology must be considered in the development of standards.
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     To determine which processes and pollutants,  if any,  should  be
regulated by national  NSPS,  the following information has  been  provided
in this survey:
    •description of facilities included in source  category,
    •number and location of  facilities,
    •past and current  volumes of production and sales, products,
     and product uses,
    •past and future growth  trends in the industry,
    •description of the processing operations and  identification
     of emission sources,
    •characterization  of emissions from processing operations,
    •estimation of national  emissions from source  category,
    •identification and description of control techniques  currently
     used in the industry,
    •identification of the "best systems" of control,
    •description of state regulations applicable to the source
     category, and
    •preferred methods of sampling and analyzing the pollutants.
2.4  APPROACH
     Several information sources were used in the development of this
report.  Initially, a literature search was conducted to gather background
material on the refractory industry.  This material  provided a  basis for
further information gathering in the form of telephone and letter contacts
with manufacturers engaged in the production of refractory products,
regional offices of EPA, and state and local air pollution control
agencies.  The trade association for the industry, The Refractory Institute,
was also contacted.  Visits were made to six refractory plants.
     A list of people helpful in this study is given in Appendix C.
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                  3.  CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1  CONCLUSIONS
3.1.1  General
     The refractory industry manufactures a wide variety of high temperature
materials used to line furnaces, boilers, reactors, kilns, ladles, and
other high temperature equipment.  The majority of refractories are used
by the steel industry.  Bricks and shapes constitute the majority of
production at 59 percent of shipments; unformed products constitute the
remainder.
     The industry is large by any standard.  Over 250 plants are believed
to be operating in the U.S. producing over 4.5 Tg (5 million tons)
valued at over 1.2 billion dollars annually.
     Raw materials used in refractory manufacture are generally ceramic
in nature.  Clays are the most common raw material, however, the industry
uses a wide variety of other minerals.
     Refractories are a vital part of virtually every major heavy
industrial process.  Three factors are mainly responsible for refractories
being considered a critical industry in the economy.  First, refractories
play a role in the production of nearly every processed raw material
including steel, glass, copper, aluminum, zinc, and others.  In short,
the production of these materials is impossible without continued
supplies of refractory products.  Second, refractory production is
susceptible to cutoffs in  foreign minerals, particularly  bauxite and
chromite.   Finally, refractories are extremely energy intensive.
Rapidly increasing energy  costs hit this industry particularly  hard.
Curtailments  of fossil fuel sources have shut down production  in the
past and are  likely to do  so  again in the future.
     Refractory plants and refractory products in general  are  highly
specialized.  The number of types of products produced is  estimated  to be
over 25,000.  This  is in contrast to the concentration  of refractory
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consumers in the steel industry which uses over 50 percent of present
production.  The combination of diversified production and concentrated
market cause refractory producers problems in maintaining uniform
production schedules.  Because products are unstandardized, inventories
cannot be allowed to accumulate during periods when orders are slack.
Production tends to run in cycles reflecting the general state of the
steel industry and the economy in general.  Production has still not
recovered from drastic production cuts in the mid 1970's.  This downturn
was caused by the double blow of an economic recession coupled to severe
fuel shortages.
     Raw material usage is also highly unstandardized.  Many refractory
products are inherently low in value and are sold in a competitive
market which causes plants to be located in areas with specific combinations
of readily available local minerals and an adjacent consumer.  As a
consequence, emission sources and emissions in general vary tremendously
from plant to plant.
3.1.2.  Source Category Definition
     The following emission sources are defined as the source category
and are examined in this report:
    •Brick Firing Kilns,
    •Electric Arc Furnaces (used in fuse cast production),
    •Tar and Pitch Operations (impregnation and tempering
     ovens), and
    • Ceramic Fiber Manufacture (electric arc furnaces used to
     melt clay, blowchambers, and curing ovens).
     Other significant emission sources involved in refractory manufacture
are not examined.  These sources are excluded because of other NSPS
studies, presently being conducted or proposed, which will examine these
sources.  Additionally, a number of sources are not examined because the
process and material generating the emission are widely used in other
industries.  These sources are best examined under less industry specific
source category definitions.
     A more complete discussion of the source category definition is
contained in Chapter 2.
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3.1.3  Growth Trends
     The industry is still  undergoing a variety of changes begun in the
early 1960's.  The following outlines the major trends identified
during this study.
     The most important trend, from an industry growth standpoint, is
the shift toward higher quality refractories in lieu of lower grades of
refractories.  These higher grade products require less frequent replacement
than lower grade products.  This change can be noted from the long term
trend of dollar sales of products as opposed to the long term trend in
actual volume of shipments.  Constant dollar (adjusted for inflation)
sales of refractories generally show strong growth in the past ten years
while the actual volume of shipments show no growth over the same period.
     A second important trend is the shift toward unformed refractories
as opposed to conventional bricks and shapes.  Unformed products are
usually sold as dry granular mixes designed to have water added  or are
sold in a plastic state with water previously added.  Except for raw
material calcining, no firing of the product has occurred at the refractory
plant.  Instead, firing is accomplished insitu as the vessel they are
placed in is brought up to operating temperature.  Unformed  refractories
offer considerable fuel savings in manufacture over formed products.
They also allow customers greater freedom and flexibility in use and
placement.
     Another trend  is the shift toward basic products and away  from
silica products.  Basic refractories are noted for extreme refractoriness
and excellent resistance to decay in high pH environments.   The primary
impetus for  this  shift has been the  conversion of steelmaking operations
away from open  hearth  furnaces  and toward basic  oxygen  furnaces (BOF's).
As basic products have been produced  in  larger and larger quantities,
their price  has become competitive to  the point  where they are  now
economical for  a  variety of applications  apart from BOF's.
     A recent development  has  been the emergence of the ceramic fiber
product line.   These  refractories are  very  similar  in manufacture and
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appearance to mineral wool products.  Clays are the raw material as
opposed to rock and slag in mineral wool production.  The manufacturing
processes are very similar with one exception.  Electric arc furnaces
are used to melt clay for ceramic fiber production; cupolas are the
primary method of melting rock and slag in mineral wool manufacture.
     Ceramic fiber is the only refractory product with emission sources
examined in this report which is expected to experience overall growth
in production capacity.  However, ceramic fiber represents less than 1%
of present refractory production.  Thus, the potential number of new
sources is very small.
     Other than ceramic fiber, little if any overall growth in new
emission sources is expected.  A very small number of consolidations of
existing sources are possible.
3.1.4  Emissions and Controls
     Two sources are responsible for the majority of particulate emissions,
These are brick firing kilns and electric arc furnaces used in fuse cast
manufacture.
     Most kilns emit low levels of particulates.  The particulate
emission factor is estimated to be .5 kg/Mg (1.0 Ib/ton) which results
in an emission of approximately, 19.9 Mg/yr (21.9 tons/yr) for a moderate
to large uncontrolled kiln.  Kilns are not usually required to use
control devices to meet state regulations.  Only one refractory brick
kiln in the U.S. is known to be operating a control device.  This device
is a multiple stage scrubber installed to reduce opacity.  On a national
basis, refractory brick kilns can be considered uncontrolled.
     Electric arc furnaces emit relatively high levels of particulates.
The uncontrolled emission factor is estimated to be 25 kg/Mg (50 Ib/ton)
which results in an emission of approximately 284 Mg/yr (312 tons/yr)
for a moderate to large uncontrolled arc furnace.  This level of emission
has necessitated the use of control devices to meet state emission
regulations.  Baghouses are the usual method of control.  Capture of the
emissions as they leave the furnace is a problem, however.
     The net results of these factors is approximate parity between
particulate emissions from an uncontrolled kiln and an arc furnace
                                    3-4

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controlled to meet state regulations at 20 Mg/yr (22 ton/yr).   However,
since kilns outnumber arc furnaces by a wide margin, total  national
emissions are much greater for kilns at 1145 Mg/yr (1260 ton/yr)  versus
251 Mg/yr (276 tons/yr) for arc furnaces.
     Tar and pitch operations generate organic particulate emissions
during impregnation and tempering processes.  No data is available to
estimate the current level of control, however, regulations do not
typically require any control device.  Uncontrolled emissions  are estimated
at 88.3 Mg/year (97.1 tons/yr) nationwide.
     Ceramic fiber manufacture generates particulates during melting  of
the clay feedstock, during the fiber formation process, and in oven
curing processes.  Low levels of hydrocarbon emissions are also generated
during the later two processes.  State regulations may require some
particulate control of the melting and fiber formation processes.
Present national emissions from all ceramic fiber processes are estimated
at 120 Mg/yr (132 tons/yr).
     The only major sources of sulfur oxides in the source category are
firing kilns.  The majority of these emissions result from the burning
of sulfur bearing fuel oil.  However, the use of plaster in the manufacture
of insulating fire brick also contributes relatively large amounts of
sulfur oxides.  Since this production is usually concentrated  in a few
plants the local impact of this emission may be quite substantial.
National sulfur oxide emissions are estimated to be 1609 Mg/yr (1770
tons/yr).
     Fluoride emissions are generated in the firing and melting of
minerals containing fluorine compounds.  The emission level of fluoride
can be expected to be site and material specific.   The  national fluoride
emission production is estimated  to  be 1100 Mg/yr  (1210 tons/yr) from
the source category.
     In general, kilns seldom emit  enough particulate to cause a visible
emission problem.  A major exception  are  kilns  firing  ladle brick.   The
clay used  in ladle brick  produces a  submicron  particulate  fume which  is
highly reflective.
                                     3-5

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     As presently controlled, no other processes in the source category
are significant sources of visible emissions.
3.1.5  NSPS Emission Reduction Potential
     In order to assess the environmental impact of a potential NSPS
regulation, an estimate of the participate emission reduction potential
for each emission source under consideration is made.  This estimate is
presented in Table 3-1.  Uncontrolled particulate emissions are estimated
using uncontrolled emission factors developed in Chapter 5.  Present
controlled emissions are based on the allowed emissions from sources
meeting a typical state regulation.  State regulations are reviewed in
Chapter 8.  The NSPS control level is estimated assuming use of the best
control technology available for each emission source.  Control technologies
are reviewed in Chapter 6.
     Table 3-1 addresses reductions in particulate emissions only.  Data
is insufficient to assess the potential reduction for sulfur oxides and
fluorides.  Both emissions are very site specific depending on the raw
refractory material.  The emission reduction potential would depend on
the location of the new source.
     Concerning the nationwide reduction in particulate emissions through
implementation of NSPS, the low growth potential of the present re-
fractory industry precludes a major reduction.  No overall increase in
refractory production is anticipated through 1985.  Furthermore, present
production is approximately 85 percent of peak production levels reached
in 1974.  Thus, approximately 15 percent unused long term capacity is
available without expansion or construction of new emission sources.
     The only potential for new emission sources lies in the replacement
of existing emission sources, the conversion of existing production to
other types of production, or expansion into the very small ceramic
fiber market.   Replacement of existing kilns and furnaces is unlikely
since this equipment is reported to have long, indefinite lifespans.
Production conversion is possible and would probably occur in the basic
product or unformed product lines.  The number of new basic, unformed,
or ceramic fiber plants which would be built in the next five years,
                                    3-6

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                             TABLE 3-1.   PARTICULATE EMISSION LEVELS BASED ON VARIOUS LEVELS

                                           OF CONTROL     Mg/yr   (ton/yr)
OJ
i

Uncontrolled Emissions
Present Controlled
Emissions
NSPS Controlled
Emissions
NSPS Reduction
Potential
Firing Kiln Electric Arc Furnace
19.9 (21.9) 284 (312)
19.9 (21.9) 18.5 (20.3)
3.0 ( 3.3) 14.2 (15.6)
16.9 (18.6) 4.3 ( 4.7)

Notes: 1. Based on following production rates
Kilns - 5 tons/hr and 43,800 tons/yr
Arc Furnace - 2 tons/hr and 12,480 tons/yr
Fiber -.5 tons/hr and 3,120 tons/yr
2. Present control based on typical state regulation taken as
E = 4.1 P'67 (see Chapters 5 & 8)
3. NSPS control based on following overall efficiencies
Kilns - 85% reduction
Arc Furnaces - 95% reduction
Fiber - 95% reduction
Ceramic Fiber Plant
36.9 (40.6)
20.2 (22.2)
1.8 ( 2.0)
18.4 (20.2)












-------
however, is small with approximately one plant estimated to be built.
The possibility of major industry expansion is considered remote.
     In summary, the particulate emission reduction potential  of NSPS is
small due to the following factors.  First, the larger particulate
emission sources such as crushing and grinding of clays are currently
under NSPS regulatory review in other studies.  Second, the emission
reduction possible through a refractory NSPS is small due to generally
low uncontrolled emissions or a high level of current control.  Finally,
the growth potential in new emission sources is small with only one new
plant likely to be built during the next five years.
3.2  RECOMMENDATIONS
     It is not recommended that NSPS be developed for the source category
examined in this report.  The reasons for this recommendation are:
     1.   The industry shows little overall growth potential.   Long term
trends indicate no overall increase in total refractory shipments is
likely by 1985.  Furthermore, continued advances in refractory technology
are expected to result in higher quality products.  These products will
require less frequent replacement and will reduce overall consumption.
Any new sources possible will be the result of consolidation of existing
facilities and expansion in the small ceramic fiber segment of the
industry.  Any consolidation is likely to be very small.
     2.   The industry has still not recovered from production cuts in
the mid-1970's.  Thus, considerable unused capacity is available to meet
demand.
     3.   Several major particulate emission sources in the refractory
industry, such as crushing and grinding, are currently under NSPS
regulatory review in other source categories.  The remaining emission
sources are either small particulate emitters or are currently well
controlled.
     4.   Emission sources involved in refractory manufacture tend to
have indefinite lifespans.  Kilns are rebuilt in small sections and arc
furnaces have few components subject to wear or deteriorate.  Replace-
ment of existing capacity is unlikely.
                                    3-8

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     5.   The potential for modification of kilns to fire with coal is
very small.  Industries experience with coal firing has shown serious
technological problems which will constrain the use of coal.  Additionally
only a small part of the industry fires at a low enough temperature to
make coal firing feasible.
     It is further recommended that consideration be given to expanding
a proposed source category survey of clay preparation (primarily
calcining and drying) to include other major non-metallic mineral heat
processing.  This study identifies magnesite, dolomite, and chromite
drying and calcining as potentially significant emission sources which
should be examined.  If expansion of this clay preparation study is
deemed inappropriate, it is recommended these sources be examined under
a separate study.
                                    3-9

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                      4.   DESCRIPTION OF INDUSTRY

     The refractories industry in the United States  is  quite diversified.
It is estimated that over 25,000 different refractory products  are
produced by over 250 manufacturers located in 33 states.    While  many of
these products are quite similar, the industry remains  generally  unstandard-
ized with each manufacturer producing unique products to  suit individual
customer requirements.  This diversification complicates  a source category
emission assessment.
     This chapter is provided to give the reader a general overview of
the industry with respect to its definition, classification, growth
potential, and processes.  Because of the multitude of products involved,
simplifications are made in light of the general nature of the study.
The results may neglect to mention some products and processes, however,
the majority of the industry is covered.
4.1  SOURCE CATEGORY DESCRIPTION
4.1.1  Definition
     Refractories are defined, in the most general sense, as any material
designed to maintain structural integrity in high temperature environments.
In actuality, refractories are also called upon to resist extremes of
physical wear and corrosion.  They are used to  line furnaces, boilers,
reactors, kilns, steel ladles and other vessels where extremes of temperature,
pH, and abrasion would destroy any other material.
     Refractories are generally composed of non-metallic  ceramic materials
such as oxides of aluminum  (alumina - A1203), silicon  (silica -  Si02),
magnesium (magnesia - MgO), and other elements.   In addition, a  variety
of other materials may be used to give  the  refractory  its desired
properties  (called  refractoriness).  The  raw minerals  from  which refractories
are produced  include clay,  bauxite,  kyanite, magnesite,  chromite, sand,
dolomite, zircon and many others.  Additives are  also  used  to facilitate
production  or to give the product a  special  property desired for a
particular  application.

                                     4-1

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4.1.2  Classification
     The refractory industry is given two separate and mutually exclusive
codes in the U.S. Department of Commerce's Standard Industrial Classification
(SIC) system.2
    •SIC 3255 - Clay Refractories
    •SIC 3297 - Non-Clay Refractories
     The distinction between the two classes may be quite insignificant
from the manufacturers viewpoint.  For example, a refractory brick with
86 percent alumina content is classified as a non-clay refractory while one
with 84 percent alumina content is classified as a clay refractory.  The only
difference involved in manufacture is a slight readjustment of the raw
material  mix.  But in principle, SIC 3255 classifies a product whose raw
material  is primarily clay while SIC 3297 covers products with other
primary raw materials.  A basic refractory composed primarily of magnesite
is a good example of a non-clay refractory.
     The present terminology in use by the industry differentiates
products by names which may be based on material composition, form, or
intended use.  For example, the term ladle brick refers to a type of
refractory used to line pouring ladles in the steel industry, whereas
high-alumina refers to a refractory with a percentage of alumina which
falls into a specific range.  Ladle brick may be high-alumina yet
industry people generally consider high-alumina brick and ladle brick as
two separate categories intended for two different applications.
     A variety of classification schemes have been proposed which
categorize the various products according to composition.  A typical
scheme is shown in Table 4-1.  This classification has reduced the range
of products by classifying a wide range of products under one heading.
As can be seen, the variation in material composition is considerable.
     Refractories can also be classified by the form of the finished
product.   The historic nucleus of the refractory industry is the refractory
brick.  The term brick is rather misleading, however, as customers
require a myriad of different shapes to build walls, arches, curved
surfaces, and to conform to other irregular surfaces.  Brick, as used in
this report, identifies any structural shape.   Formed products are all
                                    4-2

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                  TABLE  4-1    REFRACTORY CLASSIFICATION  BY  COMPOSITION
       Refractor !••
                             Maximum useful
                             temoerstur*. * Fl
                                                Major chemical
                                                 constituents
                                                                          Ran •aorlali
                                                                                                        Typical application*
                                                                                                         (partial llttln*)
 Clay:
   Lav duty.
   Intermediate duty....

   ligh duty	

   Jmporduly	
   llgb-burned auperdut'y

   latmUtlng	
   Acid -resistant
    (typei).
   Semi*lllca.
   High alumina
    (SO-tS pereeac
    AltOi).

 Monday:
   extra-high  alumina
    (90.0-99.5 p«rc«nt
   Silica:
     Standard.
  Suparduty.
   Alumina-alllca:
    Mulllt*.
Magnesia and chromlt*
  Magnaalta	
    Magnaalta -chrome. . . .
    Chrome.
    Chroma-magn**lt*. . .
   Dolomltlc:  Dolomite-
       eslte.
   Carbonaceous:
     Carbon	
                                  2,410

                                  3,000

                                  3.130

                                  1,200


                                  3,200

                                  3,000


                                  3,000


                                  3,000



                                  3,500




                           Op to 3,630.




                                  3.000

                                  3.100




                                  3.300





                                  3.600





                                  3,200



                                  2,800



                                  3.200



                           V*ries--ov*r 3.300
                          6.000* und«r
                           r (due Ins
                           conditions.
                                             SlO.-Al.C,

                                             Sia,-A1.0,

                                             S1C,-AI(0*

                                             810,-Al.O.


                                             J10.-A1.0,

                                             •10,-Al, 0.


                                             giOa-Al.0,


                                             S10.-A1.0,



                                             Al(Oa'S10*
law and calcined fire clay.

	do	
         .do.
                                                HO,  (largely) -
                                                 CaO
                                                810,
                                                 Cao
                                             Al.0,-110,
                                               MfO  (largely)
                                             MgO-Cr.O,
                                                Cr.Q,
                                                Cr.O,-MgO
                                                M«0-CaO
taw and calcined fir* clay plu*
 additive*.

lav and caleiaed fire clay.


Sand end fir* clay mix tor *a.
Fir* clay, bauxite, dlaipor*,
 alttBloa.
                                                              AluBiaa  (high-puricy) .
                                                                 Cani*c*r-llB*.
Kyralt*. lilliBaalt*, baioit*,
 •iatared or fu**d nixtur** of
 •lUBlaeu* and lillceoua
 naterlali.
                                                                 Magnealte or •egoeala pin* bind'
                                                                  ing agent*.
Magnetite and ehromlt* plut
 (pecial addltlTM.
                                                              Chroait* plu*  (pecltl additive*.
                                                               Chreadta  and ••gneiit* plu*
                                                                •pecial  addltlY**.
                                                                  Ooloedt* and earnedt* plu*
                                                                   binder*.
                                                                  Petroleum coke, lov-uh netallur-
                                                                   gleal coke, tar, pitch, and
                                                                   other additive*.
    Craphlte.
  Special typeet
   Various.
                           To 5,000 or higher,
                            under special
                            condition*.
                                             c

                                             V«ri*«.
Natural and artificial graphite
 plu* bindtr* and additive*.
Especially (reduced tram (elected
 •aterlala:  Metal oxide* or
 their mixture* *uch ** alumina,
 chromla, lime, magneaia, and
 (Irconla; alee variant carbide*,
 nitride*, *lllcide*. borldet,
 and other material*.
lackup brick and  luw-tempereture
 working linings.
toller*, heat treating  fumacss,
 Inclneretors.
Xotary kiln hoods, boilers, cupo-
 las, combustion  chambers.
Electric furnace  roofs, aluminum
 furnacae,  steel  ladles, check-
 era, kiln  linings.
Checkers, aluminum furnaces, tree
 blast furnaeea.
Bollsrs, refinery haatart,
 annealing  furnaces, and wherever
 Insulation Is  a  consideration.
Chemical proceealng, application*
 requiring  realstance to eelds
 end alkalis.
Good load bearing properties.
 Better spell resistance then
 sillcs brick,  toller  piers,
 stove sldewalls.
Electric fumacu, sludgs bum-
 ars. laed  burners, leed fur-
 naeet, cement  kilns, lime kilns,
 aluminum furnaces.

For uses where  higher aervlce
 requirements ere indicated.
 Used in gless  melting  and other
 furnace*.

Coke ovens, gless tanks, copper
 reverberatory furnaces.
High-temperature  cones  of tunnel
 kilns and  in place of  standard
 silica when conditions warrant,
 electric end steelmaklng
 fumaeea.
Clan tanks, crucibles, ferrous
 and nonfarroua metal Industries
 for special uses, sleetrlc are
 furnace roof*, bleat furnace
 staves.

Class furnaca regeneratera, alec*
 trie and open hearth bottoma,
 wall* and roofs, copper furnaces,
 cement kilns,  high-temperature
 chemical processes, basic oxygen
 steelmaklng converters.
Open hearth walls and roof*,
 electric furnace wall*, cement
 kilns, gless tank regenerators,
 copper furnaces.
Steal furnaces, copper  furnaces,
 soaking pits, reheet  furnaces,
 neutral course between nagnaslts
 sad silica refractories.
Open hearth roofs, walls,  and
 bottoms; electric  furnace walls,
 glass furnace reganeretora, non-
 ferrous metallurgical  furnace*.
At the tar-bonded, high-dolomltic
 material mainly in  the basic
 oxygen ttctlmsklng  converter,
 cement kiln burning  tone*.

Slut furnace hearth, bosh,  and
 stack, refractory llnlnga and
 cathode* of aluminum pot Unas,
 furnace! for production of  fer-
 roalloys,  calcium carbide,  phos-
 phorous, phosphoric  acid.   Fer-
 roalloy casting mold*. Highly
 raslttant   to thermal  shock,
 high hot strength,  but attacked
 by  eir, water, end  carbon diox-
 ide at lev  tampencuro*.
Crucible* and ladla (topper
 haada, retort* and  other  shape*.
Very high temperaturee, unuaual
 corrosive conditions,  unuaual
 stnosphares and abrailv*  condi-
 tional  Reaction anginas, heet
 exchanger*, glaaa tank pavera,
 atomic reactor*, and aerospae*
 ana1leation*•
*H»y vary, depending en envir
Itftrenca  39
                                  ntal  and operating condition*.
                                                               4-3

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characterized in that they exist as individual structural units.
     Unformed products are sold as continuous mixtures of refractory
materials which may be poured, molded, rammed, gunned, or placed into
position by other means.  The earliest unformed products were primarily
refractory mortars used to place bricks and form continuous monolithic
structures.  Unformed refractories are now manufactured  in a variety of
types and are displacing increasing numbers of formed refractory products.
Their principle advantage lies in that they are not fired at the refractory
plant except for the calcining of raw materials.  Instead the ceramic
bond between the refractory grains is achieved as the vessel in which
they are placed is brought up to temperature in its first heat.  In
other words, firing takes place on site.  Energy saved by avoiding the
firing step at the refractory plant gives unformed products an economic
advantage.
     In order to facilitate discussion about various refractory types,
Table 4-2 presents a revised classification system which groups formed
refractories into large blocks of products.  This system differentiates
between products based both on composition and intended  use.  Table 4-3
outlines the various types of unformed refractories.  No raw materials
are given in this table.  Unformed products may be produced in virtually
any formulation for any application.
     One new class of refractory products, ceramic fiber, is not amenable
to classification as either a formed or unformed product.  Ceramic
fibers are similar to mineral wool or fiberglass and use essentially the
same basic production process as mineral wool.  They may be sold in bags
as bulk fibers or may be formed into boards, batts, or other products.
Ceramic fiber refractories are used to insulate high temperature vessels
and thus reduce heat losses.  The manufacturing processes and emissions
are entirely different from other refractories.  Therefore, ceramic
fibers are considered separate from formed and unformed  products in this
report.
     Many exotic products have not been mentioned.  Examples are silicon-
carbide and graphite refractories.  Exotics have highly  specialized uses
                                    4-4

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                             TABLE 4-2  REVISED AND SIMPLIFIED CLASSIFICATION OF FORMED PRODUCTS
     Refractory
        Type
Major Raw
Materials
Usage
Comments
-P.
C71
     Fireclay
     High-alumina,
     Xtra-High
     Alumi na
     Insulating
     Firebrick
       (IFB)
     Ladle
     (& pouring
      Pit)
Fireclays
additives
Fireclays, bauxite,
diaspore, refined
alumina
Fireclay, sawdust
or perlite added
in production for
low & medium
temperature.

Bloating
clays
Non-extreme conditions
without high or low pH's,
Nearly all applications
where a tougher lining
is needed than can be
made with fireclays.
Resistance to basic
solution is still poor.

Usually used to back up
a tougher, denser working
lining.  Resistance to
abrasion is poor,
especially in lower grades.

Used almost exclusively
to line ladles in the steel
industry.  Since conditions
are severe, consumption
is considerable.
Most fireclay products are made simply
by the mining, crushing,  forming, and
firing of fireclays.  This segment of
the market has steadily declined in the
past two decades in favor of tougher
high-alumina products.

The production of these refractories is
similar to straight fireclay.   Materials
are of higher purity.  These products
have experienced strong growth as they
displaced fireclays.
Sawdust burns inside the brick during
firing to create a light porous brick.
Perlite expands when heated.   Ceramic
fiber is beginning to displace IFB.
The bloating clays expand permanently
when first heated in service.   This
wedges the bricks together to  form a
a tight monolithic lining.

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                                             TABLE 4-2  Continued
Refractory
   Type
Major Raw
Materials
Usage
                                                                          Comments
Basic
    Alumina-Silica,
.p.   Silica,
dr>   Mullite,
    Zircon
Exotics
Magnesite
(Periclase),
chromite, dolomite.
Tar sometimes used
as binder.
                   Kyanite,
                   sillimanite,
                   sand, bauxite,
                   zircon
All previous
entries plus
graphite, carbide,
forsterite and
others.
Used primarily in steel
industry in basic oxygen
process.  Excellent
resistance to high pH
environments.  Extremely
dense, high-duty
refractory.  Fairly
expensive.

Excellent structural
strength.  Used
extensively in glass
industry.  Less steel
industry use than other
products.

Special extreme conditions,
                                                                          Basic  products  have  ridden the BOP
                                                                          conversion.   These are  some of the
                                                                          toughest refractories used in
                                                                          particularly  bad  environments.
                                                   This group of products includes a
                                                   wide variety of formulations and
                                                   most fuse cast production.
                                                                          Production  is
                                                                          specialized.
                                                                          extensively.
small and highly
Fuse casting is used

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                    TABLE 4-3   UNFORMED REFRACTORY  TYPES
Castables
Also called refractory concretes,  castables  are dry
granular  refractory mixes designed to be mixed on
site with water to be poured, pumped,  or troweled
into position.  They may be used for patch repair
as well as complete furnace linings.
Gunning Mixes
Gunning mixes are essentially similar to castables
except that they trust be able to be blown into
position by air pressure through a lance or nozzle.
They are usually designed to stick to surfaces as
they are applied.  They are often used in furnaces
for quick repairs while the vessel is still hot.
Mortars
Refractory mortars are usually similar in com-
position to the brick they are used with.  Mortars
compose the binder between bricks and shapes to
form a complete monolithic structure.
Plastics
Plastics differ from the previous entries in that
water is added during production resulting in a
plastic material similar in feel and appearance to
modeling clay.  Plastics may be troweled into place
or blocks of the material may be stacked to form
complete walls and linings inside furnaces.
                                     4-7

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such as nose cones on missiles designed to resist the heat of atmosspheric
reentry.   In general, emissions from this segment of the  industry are
negligible due to:
    •Small Production  -  Rough estimates indicate less than 1 percent
                             3
     of refractory shipments,
    •Refined Raw Materials  -   Impurities in the raw materials
     going into exotics cannot be tolerated due to degradation of
     the refractoriness.  Materials tend to be extremely  pure,
     stable, and inert.  Most arrive at the plant refined or
     preprocessed, and
    •Extreme Firing Temperatures  -  Because  the use of  natural
     gas or electricity for all heat processing is required,
     process fuel emissions are neglibible.
     This discussion of classification would not be complete without
mentioning the problems associated with the term "castable refractories."
The correct definition of a castable refractory, as recognized throughout
the industry and as used by the Department of Commerce, is a refractory
concrete usually mixed with water on site.  It is then poured into forms
or molds in much the same way as concrete would be placed.
     Other studies have assumed castable refractories to  be a variety of
totally different products.  For example, EPA document AP-42  uses the
term to describe fuse or molten cast products.
     The misunderstanding has caused problems when production data for
true castables was used with emission factors developed for fuse cast
products.  This error has resulted in serious overestimation of emissions
in past studies.
4.1.3  Extent of Production Facilities
     Data provided by The Refractory Institute indicates that there are
approximately 270 plants producing refractory products in the United
States.   Their information claims virtually complete coverage of the
industry.  Other sources indicate that the actual number of operating
plants may be lower; perhaps around 240.   Most sources seem to be in
agreement that the actual  number of companies operating these plants
                                    4-8

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                  o
number around 100.    Appendices A and B list the larger producers in
SIC's 3255 and 3297 respectively.  The ranking was done by using the
dollar value of product sales.
     Geographically, refractory plants are concentrated in the tier of
states running between New Jersey and Missouri.  Pennsylvania and Ohio
                                                        g
alone account for 43.6 perdent of the plants in the U.S.   Figure 4-1
illustrates the distribution of plants in the country.  The concentration
of plants is attributable to two major factors.  First, the steel industry
consumes approximately 50 percent of the output of the industry.    The plants
tend to be located adjacent to steel producing areas in Pennsylvania,
Ohio, and Illinois.  Second, one of the major raw materials for refractories
is clay.  Certain clay formations in Missouri, Georgia, and Pennsylvania
have particularly desirable properties.
     The industry is still undergoing changes started in the 1960's.
During this period, larger concerns began to consolidate smaller manufacturers
at a rapid pace.  Large corporations now control the majority of the
industry.  The largest refractory producer operates 17 plants across the
U.S.1'  Furthermore, these larger corporations are increasingly becoming
subsidiaries of large conglomerate corporations.  In many cases, the
same conglomerate will own the refractory company and the customers
using the refractories produced.  Another trend has been the gradual
decline in silica refractory plants located primarily in Pennsylvania.
These plants were abandoned as the steel industry switched over to the
basic oxygen process (BOP) for steelmaking which uses basic rather than
silica products.
     Total employment in the refractory industry numbers approximately
20.000.12  Dollar sales in 1977 totalled over 1.2 billion dollars for
total refractory shipments roughly estimated to be well over 5 million
     13
tons.    Present production is believed to be roughly equivalent.
4.1.4  Special Industry Considerations
     Two aspects of the industry deserve special attention.  First, the
refractory industry occupies a uniquely central role in the American
production system because of the vital role it  plays in the production
                                     4-9

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                                                                                                10
Reference 40
                              FIGURE 4-1   DISTRIBUTION  OF  REFRACTORY
                                    PLANTS IN  THE  UNITED STATES

-------
of the majority of industrial  raw materials.  A study by Battelle
Columbus Labs showed that each dollar of refractory output supports
$1266 of Gross Nation Product (GNP) in 1970.14  This figure ranks
refractories among the top ten industries in the U.S. based on leverage
ratios, higher than steel, glass, and cement.
     Second, the industry is presently beset with a serious problem  in
spiraling energy costs.  Refractories are extremely energy intensive.
For example, one of the most energy intensive refractories now being
produced is a basic brick composed primarily of magnesite.  Fired in the
most efficient manner possible with today's technology (a tunnel kiln),
the energy content of the finished product is estimated to be 19.2 MJ/kg
(8240 BTU/lb).15  To put this energy usage in perspective, approximately
2.4 cubic meters (85 cubic feet) of natural gas are required to produce
one standard nine inch brick.  Refractory manufacture approaches the
energy  usage in such traditionally energy intensive industries as
aluminum, steel, and copper.  Furthermore, the  industry is nearly
totally dependent on fossil fuels.
4.2   INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION TRENDS
     This section discusses historical and  projected production  trends.
Section 4.2.1 presents historical  production  patterns for segments  of
the refractory industry.  Section  4.2.2  projects  future production
trends  for  different products in the  industry.
4.2.1   Historical Patterns
      As can  be seen  in Figure 4-2, until  the first quarter of 1979, the
value  of  refractory  shipments,  in  constant  1967 dollars,  has  not exceeded
a  peak  achieved in  1974.  After  a  two or three  year period well  below
the 1974  peak the value  of  shipments  started to recover.   The nonclay
refractories  recovered somewhat  earlier and stronger than the clay
refractories.   Prior to  1974 the industry had shown substantial  growth
in the  1955 to  1965 period16 but leveled off until the  early 1970s  when
sales  started to  increase to the 1974 peak.
      As can be  seen 1n  Figure 4-3, the quantity of refractory products
shipped has,  with  the  exception of the unformed products, not been
                                     4-11

-------
ro
           700
           600
           500
   400

*o
TJ

«*-
O


1  300
           200
           100
             1967
68     69
                              70
71     72
73
74
75
76
77
78
       Reference  41
                             FIGURE 4-2  HISTORIC VALUE OF REFRACTORY SHIPMENTS,

                                           CONSTANT 1967 DOLLARS

-------
          7.0
CO
       o
       •M
       O
       to
       c
       o
          6.0
          5.0
          4.0
          3.0
      •  2.0
                                                                                                         6.0
                                                                                                         5.0
                                                                                                         4.0
                                                                                                         3.0
                                                                                        a>
                                                                                        Ql
                                                                                        to
                                                                                        O)
                                                                                                         2.0
         1.0
                                                                                                         1.0
           0
          1970
   0
1980
71        72       73        74       75       76       77       78
         FIGURE  4-3  HISTORIC  SHIWENTS OF REFRACTORY  PRODUCTS
             Production data  compiled using Department  of       .?
      Commerce  data  and average densities for each product line.
79

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                                           17  18
increasing in the period 1970 through 1978.  '     Clay refractories
(SIC 3255) such as fireclay brick and shapes, high alumina brick and
shapes, hot top refractories, and glass house items all had smaller
volumes of shipments in 1977 than in 1972.  The exception to this flat
trend was the unformed segment of the clay refractories.  Unformed
                                                   19
products increased 23 percent over the same period.
     Volume of nonclay refractories shipped has followed a very similar
pattern.  There has been very little or no growth in all areas except
                     20
the unformed segment.
     In an industry with over 250 plants there have been only two new
plants built in the past decade:
                                             21
    •Tar-Bonded Basic Brick Plant in Michigan  ,
                                     22
    •Ceramic Fiber Plant in Tennessee  ,
and one plant was recently reorganized and expanded:
                                        23
    •Fired Basic Brick Plant in Maryland  .
Thus, it is evident that in most segments of the refractory industry
there has been little or no growth over the last decade.  The only
significant growth areas which can be identified from these historical
records is the unformed segment referred to above.
     Those products using tar bonding or impregnating processes have not
been growing as can be seen in Figure 4-4.
     Shipment volume of those products manufactured in electric arc
furnaces are not available as a separate category in U.S. Department of
                                                                     t\ m
Commerce data.  However, they are included in a category SIC 32970-58
which has been decreasing in volume.  Therefore, it is unlikely that
there has been any significant growth in this segment of the industry.
     As will be seen in the next section there is a shift towards higher
quality, more costly products.  This trend and the increased volume of
unformed products, has contributed to the increase in value of shipments
over the last decade.
4.2.2  Projections
     The information and data gathered during this study indicates that
                                    4-14

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          .3
          .2
tn
       to
       c
       o
«*-
o
       o
          1970
              71        72       73       74       75       76       77       78



                FIGURE 4-4  HISTORIC SHIPMENTS OF REFRACTORIES USING TAR & PITCH
                                                                                                        .3
                                                                                                        .2
                                                                                                    r*

                                                                                                    (D


                                                                                                    o>

                                                                                                    (O
                                                                                                           
-------
the historical trends outlined in the previous section will continue.
There have been dramatic changes in the needs for many refactories.
Fireclay and silica brick are not used in the basic oxygen furnace
(EOF).  But these products are used in large quantities in the open
hearth.  As the steel industry changed over to the BOF, these refractories
were abandoned to be replaced by basic products.  These have often been
more costly on a dollars per pound basis but they have been overall  less
          nr                                                     nr
expensive.    This seems to be a basic phenomenon of the  industry    and
this trend is expected to continue.  The steel industry is operating
below capacity and demand for refractories used by the steel industry
has been flat through 1977 and 1978.27
     During the course of this study, 15 companies were contacted  by
                                                        27
phone and/or visited and asked about their growth plans.    Approx-
imately half of those questioned had no plans or would not make  any
specific comment.  Several mentioned possible production  cuts.   The
other half were considering possible increases in production, however,
any increases would probably be in the unformed segment of the  in-
dustry.  Plant visits indicate that some increase in production  could  be
accomplished by full use of existing capacity.  As can be seen  in  Figure
4-3, the industry is well below peak production achieved  in 1974.
     Only one company actually had firm plans to build a  plant.  This
                                 28
plant will produce ceramic fiber.
     In summary, no overall growth is expected in the source category.
Unformed products may experience some growth, however, emission  sources
involved in their manufacture are not considered in this  report.  Ceramic
fiber production is expected to experience some growth spurred  by  the
need for high temperature insulating materials.  One manufacturer
                                 2Q
expects 15 percent annual growth.     However, this growth  is not
considered typical for ceramic fibers in general.   In addition,  ceramic
fiber is a very small segment of the industry.
4.3  PROCESS  DESCRIPTION
     This study does not look at each and every emission  source in the
entire industry.  Instead, attention focused  on several major operations
                                   4-16

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which are not covered under present and proposed NSPS studies.   These
operations are:
    • Brick Firing in Kilns,
    •Electric Arc Furnace Melting (fuse cast),
    •Tar and Pitch Operations, and
    •Ceramic Fiber Manufacture.
The rationale behind the selection of this set of operations is contained
in Chapter 2.
     This section outlines the total  production processes that  include
the operations listed above.  The objective is to allow the reader to
place these processes into the total  production perspective.
     In each overall production process, up to four distinct phases may
be present.  These are:
    •Raw Material Processing - the preparation of raw
     materials to be used in manufacture.  This phase
     may include crushing, grinding, size classification,
     drying, and calcining.  The terms dead-burning and
     sintering are frequently used in the industry.  They
     refer to more intensive calcining.   In this study the
     term calcining is taken to include these operations.
     Materials in this phase of production remain largely
     segregated.
    •Forming - the mixing of raw materials under suitable
     conditions and subsequent forming into desired shapes.
     This step often occurs under wet or  damp conditions which
     tend to reduce emissions.
    •Firing - the heat process in which the refractory is
     brought up to high temperature to form the ceramic  bond
     (vitrification) which gives the product  its refractoriness.
     Additionally, melting of materials in arc  furnaces
     is included in this  phase.
    •Final Processing - the final, post-firing  steps  in
     which the product may receive milling, grinding, sand-
     blasting, tar impregnation and packaging.
                                     4-17

-------
Of course, some products skip some phases of the process altogether.  An
example is a tar bonded basic brick made from dolomite.  Its principle
advantage over other basic brick is the elimination of the costly firing
step.  Tar is used to hold the brick together until it is placed.
Firing occurs in service when the furnace is first heated.  In fuse cast
production, the firing and forming steps are essentially reversed.
     Figure 4-5 displays an overall process flowsheet for four major
types of refractory products.  The emission producing operations examined
in this report are indicated by a bolder box.
4.3.1  Production of Fired Brick and Shapes
     For the most part, fired brick is manufactured in a standardized
manner.  Product composition may range over all the compositions listed
in Table 4-1, however, the bulk of products tend to be clay based
firebrick and basic brick.  Production is typically automated and high
volume.
     Figure 4-6 details the standard production process for most fired
products.  The production of unformed products is also shown, illustrating
how this product bypasses the forming and firing steps.
     Raw materials range from fireclays to refined alumina, magnesite,
and zirconia.  Calcining may occur before or after the crushing and
grinding steps either at the refractory plant or the mine site.  Clays,
such as kaolin, in which high firing shrinkage is a problem, are frequently
calcined.  Occasionally, raw materials receive drying in rotary kilns to
bring the moisture content down.  These dryers typically operate on an
intermittent basis depending on the rainfall the material has received
in outside storage.  Emissions from dryers are usually significant.
However, these emissions are not considered in this study.
     Most refractory magnesite is produced from sea water or salt
brines.  Magnesite used in basic refractories is usually heavily calcined
and burned.  If the product demands extreme refractoriness, magnesite
may be first calcined at moderate temperatures of 1038 degrees C (1900
degrees F), then briquetted under high pressure.  The briquettes are
then refired at temperatures exceeding 1982 degrees C (3200 degrees
F).    This product is commonly termed periclase.  Calcining is usually
                                    4-18

-------
                                                 Figure 4-5    REFRACTORY  MANUFACTURING  FLOWCHART
               Raw  Material  Processing
         Forming
Firing
                                                                                                                                        Final  Processing
                     Firebrick
    Fireclays	i

      Kaolin

      Ball t
  flint clays'

Bau«tte clays•

     Refined
      alumina

      Other
    material
    'sawdust
Water   I  Plaster
    Perlclase

    Hagneslte


     Chromtte

     Dolomite


      Fluxes,
 bonding agents
                    Wet
                    Slurry
                    Holding


—






i
c
1
e

rushing
1




J
Calcining



*
Flna
Slzi
4

1
dl
ng
i


ng.
k
Groo re
lasic Brick

e 	

:u
•
i
» c
nitial
rushing











Calcining
T






Final
Grindim
Sizing


'



). .
'


r*
-*
urn


Wet .
Mixing

Damp
Mixing

-1
-»
L






Ex trud 1 ng .

Power
Pressing






-*•
->

Damp
Mixing
Hot
Mixing
h
1,



Power
Pressing

i



•'
	 p Drying 	 J Firing



1 Melting


— P Drying _ Casting
1
                                                                                Insulating
                                                                            —>• firebrick
                                                                         >Low, medium high
                                                                           and super-duty
                                                                           firebrick

                                                                           High, xtra-hlgh
                                                                           alumina firebrick
                                                                                 Fuse cast
                                                                                 basic brick
                                                                                 Tar Impregnated
                                                                                 "  sic brick
                                                                                                                                                  Fired basic
                                                                                                                                                   brick

                                                                                                                                                 Non-tempered
                                                                                                                                                 tar-bonded
                                                                                                                                                 basic brick


                                                                                                                                                 Tempered
                                                                                                                                                 tar-bonded
                                                                                                                                                 basic brick

-------
                                                                  Figure 4-5   Continued
        Refined
       Zlrcrona

        Refined
        Alumina

        Bauxite

         Zircon
          Sand
"f"   Granlster
ro
O    Sandstone

          Sand

        tyanlte
                     Raw Material  Processing
Forming
Firing
                                                                                                                                   Final  Processing
                           Ceramic Fiber
           Kaolln-

         F1 reel ays-
                                         Fusion
                                         Melting
                         I   Arc
                       -M Mel ting
^



Casting
1 	 1
Firing
1— «__„ _J

I
1
r*
r
Breakout,
Final Mllllm;

Final
Grinding

— >
1

                                                                         Fusion Cast
                                                                         Al-SI-Zr Brick
                                                                        . Fired
                                                                        Rl-SI-Zr Brick
                                                                     Ceramic  Fiber

-------
 I
ro
                                                           OtOUND SIORACE BINS
                                                        rrrrrrn



1
                                                       v\/\7
                                                              *    -4-
                                                RAW MATERIAL
                                                  BY TRUCK
                                                 * RAILROAD

                                                              *    *   O
                                                \
                  TO
               STOCK
                SHED
              OR FOR
             SHIPMENT
                       PALLETIZED   SACK FlATTfN£«  SACKINC MACHINE  DRV
                     SACKED MATERIAL                       MIXER
                                                                        I
                                                                                      DRY PAM STORAGE BIN* CRUSHER
                                                                          } WEIGH LARRY

                                                                          iMIXHtll
                                                 \^±J

                                                I a-.
                                                                     PORTABLE  PRESS LOADED I       KILN CAR DRYER    DRIED lOAOEO
                                                                      HOPPER       KH.N CAR*                     KR.N CAR

     S.M. PORTABI.E PRESS RACK
     MIXER HOPPER    CAR
            Qi
                                                                            CO-
                                                                                      RACK CAR DRYER
RESETTING  RESET
 STATION  KUN CAR
COMBINATION PUG CUTTER RACK
* AUGER MACHINE PRESS CAR
                       LOADED PALUTS  LOAD TUNNEL KILN
                                                                                                    TUNNEL KILN
                                                          J
                                                   FIGURE 4-6   FIRED PRODUCTS FLOWSHEET
             Reference 43

-------
done  in large rotary kilns although vertical kilns and shaft furnaces
are also used.  Emissions from rotary kilns are the greatest.  In fact,
the briquetting step is introduced in high-fired products to prevent the
entire magnesia input to the kiln from being reduced to dust and lost in
the kiln gas stream.  However, these emissions are beyond the scope of
this  project for reasons outlined in Chapter 2.
      Dolomite may be also used directly in tar-bonded dolomite refractories.
The dolomite is usually calcined.
      Forming can be done by a variety of processes; the most popular are
stiff mud extruding and power pressing.  Insulating firebrick (IFB) is
commonly molded by wet slurry molding.  Plaster, a sulfur bearing compound,
is sometimes used to set up the wet brick.  Other additives used in IFB
are sawdust and/or perlite.  The sawdust burns in the brick creating air
space while perlite serves the same purpose as it expands when heated.
Power pressing is accomplished at extremely high pressures using slightly
damp mixtures.  Occasionally, a combination of heat and pressure will be
used as in the production of high-duty insulating firebrick.  But the
majority of power pressing uses cool, damp mixtures.  Because most of
these processes use wet or damp mixtures, dust production is negligible.
However, the effect of adding plaster in IFB production is to drastically
increase SO  emissions during firing.  This emission is quantified in
           A
Chapter 5.
      In most cases, it is desirable to reduce the moisture content of the
formed brick before entering the kiln.  Drying at temperatures up to
                             TI
175 degrees C (350 Degrees F)   reduces energy consumption in the kiln
and prevents excessive warping and spelling which would occur if the
cool brick was immediately put in the kiln.  Tunnel dryers utilizing
waste heat from the cooling system of the kiln are the most efficient
and popular dryers.  However, direct-fired dryers burning natural gas
are also used.  The simplest (and least efficient) form of dryer observed
during this study was a semi-enclosed room with natural gas burners
scattered about.
                                   4-22

-------
     Dryers are not believed to be significant emission sources except
for emissions carried over from the kiln exhaust heat.  Airflow in the
dryer is low and dusting of the ware is unlikely.  Combustion product
emissions are small due to use of natural gas.  Therefore, dryer emissions
are not assessed as a separate emission source.
     Firing may be accomplished in periodic kilns or continuous tunnel
kilns.  Tunnel kilns are by far the most popular and are shown on
Figure 4-6.
     Periodic kilns are usually round in shape giving rise to the
popular terminology "beehive" kilns.  Ware is stacked inside the kiln
and the kiln opening is sealed with refractory brick.  Firing is done
through burner ports at a predetermined schedule to adhere to a temperature
versus time firing relationship.  Near the end of the cycle, the firing
is terminated and the kiln is unloaded after cooling.  Typical periodic
kiln cycles might run around 8 to 25 days.
     Tunnel kilns are fundamentally different in that the firing schedule
is accomplished by movement of the brick through different zones of
the kiln.  The kiln itself never changes temperature.  Brick is put on
kiln cars which roll through the kiln on rails.  Tunnel kilns are run
continuously because temperature changes can damage the kiln.  Shutdowns
occur only for accidents (car wrecks) or major repairs.  Residence time
in the kiln might range from 8 hours to over 4 days.
     Tunnel kilns enjoy several advantages over periodic kilns:
    •Lower Energy Usage - Because the kiln itself is  thermally
     static, losses involved in heating and cooling of the
     kiln are eliminated.  Tunnel kilns make use of the waste
     heat generated in the cooling zones by recycling it to
     the preheat and firing zones or by channeling the heat
     to dryers.  Also, circulation and heat distribution are
     decidedly better in tunnel kilns resulting  in more even
     and efficient heat use.
    •Easier Handling of Ware - Stacking the bricks on kiln cars
     lends itself to assembly line production methods.  Handling
     labor is considerably reduced.
                                     4-23

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    •Less Kiln Repair - The periodic heating and cooling of
     periodic kilns results in thermal shocks which cause
     cracking and spelling of the kiln structure and lining.
     Spot repairs are needed after every firing and regular
     rebuilding is required at much more frequent intervals
     than tunnel kilns.
     The primary disadvantages of tunnel kilns are high capital cost,
and inability to economically conform to changes in production type and
volume.  A special type of periodic kiln which mounts on hydraulic
struts and is lowered over small kiln cars, called a car-bell kiln, is
used for small specialized production.  Shuttle kilns are another option
for small batch production.  These specialty kilns are mainly used in
the manufacture of exotics and are not discussed further for the reasons
outlined in Section 4.1.
     Because of the advantages of tunnel kilns for most production, all
new non-specialized brick firing kilns are expected to be of the tunnel
kiln type.
     Maximum firing temperatures in refractory tunnel kilns range from
1100 degrees C (2000 degrees F)32 to 1870 degrees C (3400 degrees F).33
Exhaust gas temperatures average approximately 300 degrees  C (572
degrees F)34 with flow rates around 700 m3/min (24,720 cfm).35  The
longest kilns in the industry are over 190 meters (630 ft)  in length.
     Emissions from kilns are generally low except for process fuel
combustion products and kilns firing unusual ware.  Kiln emissions are
detailed in Chapter 5.
     In some products, a final grinding and milling step is required due
to warpage or shrinking of the brick.  Additionally, some form of
packaging usually occurs before the brick is shipped.  Common shipping
methods are pallets (often covered with heat shrink plastic), and
cardboard cartons.  Emissions from grinding and milling operations are
generally captured and ducted to baghouses to prevent nuisance dust.
These emissions were not examined due to reasons outlined in Chapter 2.
                                    4-24

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4.3.2  Production of Fused Products
     Fuse or molten cast products generally use the same raw material
preprocessing steps previously described.  Raw materials are typically
alumina, sand, zircon, and magnesia.  Fuse cast production is generally
lower volume and more specialized in nature than fired products.  In
contrast to the market for fired brick, the users of fuse cast refractories
are less concentrated in the steel industry.
     Electric arc furnaces are usually large steel pots lined with
refractory material.  Extending into the pot are three carbon electrodes
which generate the arc.  In one plant visited, charging was accomplished
by hoisting small buckets to the lip of the furnace while pouring was
accomplished by tipping the entire bucket.    Furnaces are usually
operated batchwise 24 hours/day but are shut down for weekends.  A
typical charging/pouring cycle might last 2.5 hours.  Temperatures
                                      •3O
approach 2500 degree C (4500 degree F)°° for some types of fuse cast
products.
     Arc furnaces generate high amounts of particulate which  boil off
the molten pool.  Control is accomplished by large, ducted airflow
immediately above the furnace routed to baghouses.  Capture  efficiency
may be considerably less than unity.  No data is  available to estimate
capture efficiency.
     Arc furnace emissions are considered in Chapter  5.   Other  emissions
from fuse cast production, such as sandblasting of finished  products,
are not covered for reasons outlined in Chapter 2.
4.3.3  Tar and Pitch Operations
     Basic brick is frequently manufactured or treated with  tar and
pitch derivatives for several reasons.  Often the tar serves  to add
carbon to the brick which improves the refractoriness in  basic  environments.
Also, the cohesiveness of the tar may be used to  hold the brick
together for handling and shipment, allowing the  firing step to be
bypassed at the refractory plant.  Tar-bonded dolomite  basic brick  is  an
example of this type of  product.
                                    4-25

-------
     Two processes are potential sources of tar emissions.  Impregnators
take fired basic brick and impregnate the pore space in the brick using
an autoclave process.  This process involves placing the brick in a tank
which is subsequently evacuated.  Pressurized tar is then pumped in
which fills the pore space in the brick.
     The second process involves passing tar-bonded bricks through a
tempering oven at temperatures of around 260 degrees C (500 degrees F).
Calcined dolomite is usually mixed with hot tar and the resulting
mixture is power pressed into bricks.  Press fumes are considered
negligible although no observation of this process could be made during
this study.  Some tar-bonded brick is shipped directly without tempering
although it appears that the majority of production (85 percent) receives
tempering.
     Both impregnators and tempering ovens are significant sources of
emissions.  These emissions are quantified in Chapter 5.
4.3.4  Production of Ceramic Fiber
     The recently developed ceramic fiber class of refractory products
is dissimilar to all the products previously described.  Production
methods are similar to the mineral wool industry.
     Calcined kaolin clay is the only raw material which was observed to
be used for ceramic fiber,  Electric arc melting of the clay is universally
used.  Two methods of forming the fibers are known.  The first involves
dropping the molten clay into an air jet where the clay is immediately
blown into fine strands.  This fiberization device is called a blow-
chamber.  Another method involves mechanically forming the fibers in a
centrifuge device which flings the molten mass from the center of a
drum.  After forming the fibers may be bagged for bulk use or formed
into blankets, batts, boards or other forms.  A light oil is usually
used in the forming process and is burned off in small ovens.
     Three processes in ceramic fiber are believed to be significant
emission sources.  These are the melting, fiberization, and the oven
curing processes.  The centrifuge forming does not appear to generate
significant emissions; only blowchamber fiberization, melting, and oven
curing emissions are covered in Chapter 5.
                                    4-26

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4.4  REFERENCES

1.   The Refractories Institute.   Product  Directory  of  the Refractories
     Industry in the United States.   Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania, The
     Refractories Institute, 1978.   274 p.
2.   Executive Office of the President, Office  of Management and
     Budget, Statistical  Policy Division.   Standard  Industrial Classification
     Manual.  Washington, D.C., U.S.  Government Printing  Office, 1972.
     p. 139-142.
3.   U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau  of the Census.   1977  Census of
     Manufactures, Industry Series,  Nonclay Refractories. MC77-1-32E-6(P)
     Washington, D.C.  June 1979.
4.   Environmental Protection Agency.  Compilation  of Air Pollutant
     Emission Factors.  3rd. Edition.  AP-42.   Research Triangle  Park
     N.C.  August 1977.  p. 8.5-1.
5.   Argonne National Laboratory,  Engineering  and Environmental  Systems
     Division.  Engineering Note:   Castable Refractory Plants,  Argonne,
     Illinois.  February 1978.
6.   Reference 1
7.   Arthur D. Little, Inc.  Impact of an OSHA Regulation for Crystalline
     Silica upon Refractories Industry.  Volume I,  C-80884.   Cambridge,
     Massachusetts.  Prepared for The Refractories Institute, Pittsburgh,
     Pennsylvania.  August 1978.  p. II-l.
8.   Reference 1
9.   Reference 1
10.  The Refractories  Institute.  Refractories.   TRI Publication 7901.
     Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania.  1979.  p.4.
11.  Reference 1
12.  Bozzelli, M.  A Review of the U.S. Refractories Industry.   General
     Services Administration,  Federal  Preparedness Agency.  Washington,
     D.C.  GSA/FPA TR-103.  August 1976.   p. 21.
13.  Reference 10
                                 4-27

-------
14.  BatteHe Columbus  Laboratories.   Summary Report on a Study of the
     Refractories Industry —  Its  Relationship  to the U.S. Economy
     and Its Energy Needs.  Columbus,  Ohio.  Prepared for The Refractories
     Institute.   October 1973.   p.  i.
15.  Storey, C.   Energy and the  Refractories Industry.  Refractories
     Journal.  52;   26-28.  November/December 1977.
16.  Bird, R.E.  Refractories in  Transition.  Reprint.  Iron and Steel
     Engineer, £3:   1-8.   October  1966.
17.  U.S. Dept.  of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.  1977 Census of
     Manufactures,  Industry Series, Clay  Refractories.  MC77-1-32B-4(P).
     Washington, D.C.   June 1979.
18.  U.S. Dept.  of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.  1977 Census of
     Manufactures,  Industry Series, Nonclay Refractories.
     MC77-1-32E-6(P).   Washington,  D.C.   June 1979.
19.  Reference 17
20.  Reference 18
21.  North American Refractories Company.  Sales Brochure.  Cleveland,
     Ohio.  1979.
22.  Jennings, M. S.  Trip Report:   C-E Refractories, St. Louis, Missouri.
     Radian Corp.  Durham, N.C.  December 11, 1979.
23.  Jeffers, P. E.  GREFCO Puts New Direct Bonded Brick Plant on Stream.
     Brick and Clay Record.  170:   16-19.  May  1977.
24.  Reference 2.  p.  142.
25   Kusler, D.  J.  and R. G. Clarke.  Impact of Changing Technology on
     Refractories Consumption.   U.S. Dept. of the  Interior, Bureau of
     Mines.  Washington, D.C.   Information Circular 8494.  1970.  68 p.
26.  Reference 16
27.  Telecon.  Jennings, M. S.,  Radian Corporation with 15 refractory
     manufacturers.  November, 1979.
28.  Telecon.  Jennings, M. S.,  Radian Corporation with  Besalke, R. E.,
     A. P. Green Company.  November 19, 1979.   Plans  for production
     expansion.
                                4-28

-------
29.   Jennings,  M.  S.   Trip  Report:   Babcock  and Wilcox Company,
     Refractories  Division, Augusta,  Georgia.  Radian Corp.,
     Durham, N.C.   December 3,  1979.
30.   Havighorst, C. R.  and  S.  L.  Swift.  Magnesia  Extraction from Seawater.
     Chemical  Engineering.   72;   84-86.  August 1965.
31.   Havighorst, C. R.  and  S.  L.  Swift.  The Manufacture of Basic
     Refractories.  Chemical  Engineering.  August  1965.
32.   Jennings,  M.  S.   Trip  Report:   Globe  Refractories, Newell, West
     Virginia.   Radian Corp.   Durham, N.C.   December 5, 1979.
33.   Norton, F. H.  Refractories.   4th ed.   New York, McGraw-Hill, 1968.
     p. 165.
34.   Moore, R.  F.   Dust and Pollution Control.  Globe Refractories, Inc.
     Newell, W.V.   (Presented at Technical Review  and Performance
     Assessment of Globe Refractories, Inc.   Air  and Water Pollution
     Control Facilities.  Chester,  West Virginia.   June 13, 1978.) p.  20.
35.   Reference 34
36.   Globe Refractories, Inc.  Pouring Pit Refractories.   Newell,  West
     Virginia.  December 1978.
37.   Reference 22.
38.   Reference 33.  p. 189.
39.   Reference 25.  p. 6.
40.   Reference 1.
41.   U.S. Department of Commerce, Social and Economic Statistics
     Administration, Bureau of the Census.  Current Industrial  Reports,
     Refractories, Summaries for 1967 - 1978, Series MQ-32C.   Washington,
     D.C.  1967 -  1978.
42.  The Refractories Institute.  Refractory Volume-to-Weight Conversion
     Factors.  TRI News Bulletin, i:  2.  June 1968.
43.  Reference 10.  p. 11.
                                  4-29

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          5.  AIR EMISSIONS DEVELOPED IN THE SOURCE  CATEGORY

     This chapter identifies the emissions  of concern  in  the  source
category and quantifies these emissions.  The sources  examined  are not
the only significant emission sources involved in refractory  manufacture.
The following sources are discussed:
    •Brick Firing Kilns,
    •Electric Arc Furnaces,
    •Tar and Pitch Operations, and
    •Ceramic Fiber Manufacture.
Other major sources are eliminated from this study for reasons  discussed
Chapter 2.
5.1  PLANT AND PROCESS EMISSIONS
     This section is concerned with the development  of emission factors
for the sources identified above.  The term emission factor,  as used in
this report, refers to a number which quantifies the emission per unit
of product passing through a process.  Both emission and process units
are usually given in mass units.  Thus, emission factor units typically
take the form of kg/Mg (Ib/ton).
     Six emissions are considered potentially significant:
    •Particulate - For the most part, particulate is the emission
     of primary concern in all refractory production processes,
    •Sulfur Oxides - Sulfur oxide compounds are a major emission
     from the combustion of sulfur bearing fuel oil.  The manufacture
     of two types of refractory brick also lead to significant sulfur
     oxide emissions.  In one case, the sulfur is found in the raw
     clays used; in the other case, it is introduced to facilitate
     manufacture,
    •Nitrous Oxides, Carbon Monoxide, Hydrocarbons - These gases
     are produced in the combustion of fossil fuels.  Additionally,
     several types of refractories are manufactured using tars, pitchs,
     and oils resulting in hydrocarbon emissions, and

                                     5-1

-------
    • Hydrogen Fluoride - The firing and fusing temperatures
     involved in refractory manufacture may cause significant evolution
     of fluoride gas if the raw materials contain fluoride compounds.
     This emission is briefly assessed.
     A variety of data sources are used to quantify these emission
species.  EPA documents AP-40 and AP-42 were consulted for emission
        1 2
factors. '   Only AP-42 factors are used directly.  Other emission
factors have been reported in previous studies and these are used where
possible.  The National Emission Data System (NEDS) reports emission
rates  and process rates in its listings;  these rates may be used to
                          3
estimate emission factors.   Finally, actual source test data was
acquired during the course of this study from both government and
industry sources.  Unfortunately, its availability is limited and its
accuracy is often questionable.
     Table 5-1 presents the final emission factors derived in this study.
In the following sections, the derivation of these factors is detailed.
5.1.1   Refractory Brick Kiln Emissions
     As mentioned in Section 4, two types of firing kilns are presently
in use in the industry; tunnel and periodic kilns.  For purposes of this
study, no distinction is made between the two methods of firing bricks
and shapes.  This decision is based on a variety of factors.  First, the
majority of products are currently fired in tunnel kilns.  One study of
brick kilns (including structural brick) showed over 75 percent of firing
occurring in tunnel kilns.   Since this study was conducted, additional
changeover to tunnel kilns is likely to have occurred.  This study
confirmed the preference toward tunnel kilns, especially in high volume
production.
     Second, emissions from tunnel kilns and periodic kilns firing the
same ware are not thought to be significantly different.  The two types
of kilns subject the brick to essentially the same firing environment.
                                                  c
Source test data tends to confirm this assumption.   AP-42 particulate
emission factors for gas fired tunnel and periodic kilns firing brick
products (including structural brick) are .02 kg/MG (.04 Ib/ton) and
                                    5-2

-------
                            TABLE 5-1  UNCONTROLLED EMISSION FACTORS  -  kg/Mg  (Ibs/tonJ

Process
Source
Participates
S0x
CO
HC
N0x
HF
en
Brick Firing Kilns

     Gas -  IFB
     Gas -  Ladle
     Gas -  other

     Oil -  IFB
     Oil -  Ladle
     Oil -  other

Arc Furnaces (non-fiber)

Tar & Pitch Operations
     Impregnators
     Tempering Ovens

Ceramic Fiber
     Furnace Melting
     Blowchamber
     Curing Ovens
.50 (1
.50 (1
.50 (1
.78 (1
.78 (1
.78 (1
• 0)
.0)
• 0)
.6)
• 6)
.6)
48
1.5
—
49
2.9
1.4
(96)
(3.0)

(98)
(5.8)
(2.8)
.02
.02
.02



(.04)
(-04)
(.04)
__
—
—
.01
.01
.01
.05
.05
.05
(.02)
(.02)
(.02)
(.1)
(.1)
(.1)
.075
.075
.075
.55
.55
.55
(.15)
(.15)
(.15)
(1.1)
(1.1)
(1.1)
.5
.5
.5
.5
.5
.5
0.0)
(1.0)
0.0)
(1.0)
(1.0)
(1.0)
                                           25 (50)
                                          .92 (1.8)
                                          .23 ( .45)
                                          5.2 (10)
                                          6.0 (12)
                                          2.0 (  4)
                      .65   (1.3)
.45 (  .90)
.50 (1.0)

-------
 .05 kg/MG  (.11 Ib/ton) respectively.  This difference is negligible based on
 the final  emission factors developed  in this section.  But, the emission
 rate  in periodic kilns is likely to be highly dynamic due to the cyclic
 nature of  the firing schedule.  Thus, periodic kilns with similar long
 term  emission volumes may have short  term emission rates many times that
 of tunnel  kilns.  These rates may lead to high opacity emissions for
 short periods.  However, since this report is primarily concerned with
 the estimation of overall annual emissions, this factor is not considered.
      For these reasons, kiln emission factors are developed using tunnel
 kiln  data.  The use of these factors  to approximate present periodic
 kiln  emissions is not likely to introduce serious error.  And it is
 likely the emission factors so developed will more closely estimate the
 emissions  generated from new sources  since major new kilns will likely
 be of the  tunnel kiln type.
      No simplifying assumption can be made concerning firing fuels.  Gas
 and oil fired kilns have decidedly different products of combustion.
 Separate emission factors are developed for each.
      The use of coal for refractory brick firing was investigated.  No
 use of coal in refractory firing nor  any plants to use were discovered
 during this study.  The Refractory Institute has consistently maintained
 that  the use of coal in tunnel kilns  requires the solution of numerous
 technical  problems the most severe being product contamination by fly
 ash.   One manufacturer has conducted a pilot plant operation producing
 ladle brick in a coal fired kiln.  The operation was shelved due to
 various problems, the most severe being fly ash buildup in the kiln.7
 Another deterrent to coal use is the  limited firing temperatures that
 can be attained.  It is estimated that only 35 percent of clay refractory
 production and virtually none of non-clay production could be converted.8
 Barring unforseen technological breakthroughs or astronomical gas prices,
 it is unlikely that coal  firing will  be used for tunnel kilns in the
 next five years.
     5.1.1.1   Particulate Emissions.  At the onset of this project, it
was generally assumed that refractory kilns would show lower particulate
                                     5-4

-------
emission factors than kilns firing other types of brick (primarily
structural brick) using the same firing fuels.  This assumption was
based on the argument that refractory kilns fire materials of higher
purity and quality.  The data collected during'this study did not demonstrate
any discernible difference between particulate emission factors and
brick types.  However, it should be emphasized that a kiln firing
structural brick generally fires a much greater amount of brick for a
given stack gas flowrate.  Refractory kilns use more air due to the
higher firing temperatures which require more fuel use (and thus combustion
air), and much longer residence time in the kiln.  The end result of
this difference in gas flowrate per brick is a much higher grain loading
for stack gases in structural brick kilns than is the case for refractory
brick kilns even though emission factors may be similar.  These loadings
may lead to very high opacity readings due to extremely fine, highly
reflective particles.  Because data on refractory kilns was lacking and
no correlation between particulate emissions and brick type could be
established, particulate emission factors for firing kilns were developed,
in part, using non-refractory brick kiln data.
     Table 5-2 represents the particulate source test£ and other data
collected for uncontrolled gas fired tunnel kilns.  As can be seen,
the scatter in data is considerable ranging from a low of .02 kg/mg
(.04 Ib/ton reported in AP-42 to a high of 1.19 kg/Mg (2.38 Ib/ton).
Initially an attempt was made to correlate the results to the type of
brick fired or pecularities of a given kiln.  Unfortunately, no clear
trend presented itself.  The scatter apparently results from two factors.
First, kilns fire a tremendous range of products from extremely dirty
clays containing high percentages of organic matter to highly processed
mixtures of aluminas and magnesltes.  The data sample is insufficient to
establish the complex relationships.  Second, evidence exists to suggest
that considerable organic matter may be existing as organic vapors under
                 9
stack conditions.   Whether this material shows up in a given particulate
test is questionable.  The variability in testing method and skill
Introduces considerable Inaccuracy in the results.
                                    5-5

-------
TABLE 5-2  UNCONTROLLED GAS-FIRED TUNNEL KILN PARTICULATE EMISSION
                   FACTOR DATA - kg/Mg (Ib/ton)
No. of Point
Sources Tested Emission Factor Range Average
4 .021 - 1.19 (.042 - 2.38) .360
1 .59 (1.17) .59
3 .08 - .5 (.16 - 1.07) .24
1 1.13 (2.25) 1.13
1 .57 (1.14) .57
7 .10 - 1.03 (.207 - 2.05) .56
1 .89 (1.78) .89
Unknown .02 (.04) .02
Notes :
a - Raw participate emission factors as reported
document 12 - Brick Kilns
b - Source Category Survey Report, Clay and Brick
c - Journal article on brick kiln emissions
d - Confidential data for basic brick kiln
e - Stack test data for Globe Refractories firing
f - Extracted from NEDS data base
g - Stack test data for Globe Refractories firing
h - AP-42
Emission Factor
(.719)
0.17)
(.48)
(2.25)
(1.14)
(1.13)
(1.78)
(.04)

in Appendix A, Monsanto
Manufacturing Industry
ladle brick, 1977
ladle brick, 1978
Reference Notes
27 a
28 b
29 c
30 d
31 e
32 f
33 g
34 h

Source Assessment


-------
     In deriving an average emission factor, a variety of weighting
schemes were used in order to express the confidence displayed in any
one data piece.  No coherent weighting scheme produced significantly
different results from a simple arithmetic average of the numbers in
Table 5-2.  Thus, an approximate value of .50 kg/Mg (1.0 Ib/ton) is used
as an uncontrolled particulate emission factor for firing kilns.
     Data on oil-fired kilns is insufficient to arrive at a particulate
emission factor.  Using the AP-42 factor for oil fired kilns would be
inconsistent with the previously derived factor as the AP-42 value is
lower.  The difference between the gas and oil factors can be expected
to quantify the addition of particulate combustion products from the
oil.  Therefore, the difference between the two factors quantifies the
additional particulate generated by  burning oil rather than gas.  Using
this logic, the particulate emission attributable to the oil can be
calculated:
     AP-42   oil fired factor   .3   kg/Mg (.6 Ib/ton)
     AP-42   gas fired factor   .02  kg/Mg (.04 Ib/ton)

     Difference attributable    .28  kg/mg (.56 Ib/tonj
     to oil particulate.
Adding this number to the  emission factor for gas  fired  kilns give  a
result of  .78  kg/Mg  (1.56  Ib/ton) for  an oil fired  kiln  particulate
factor.
     Visible emissions from uncontrolled refractory brick  kilns  observed
during this study were generally very  light.   In most  cases  no  visible
emissions were noted.
     5.1.1.2   Sulfur Compound  Emissions.  Three major sources of sulfur
emissions  in tunnel  kiln  firing are  identified:
     •Fuel  Oil  Combustion  - Refractory  kilns are fired by
     virtually all  types  of  residual and  distillate oil.
     Sulfur contents of these  fuels  typical range from .3 to
     2 percent by weight,
     •Sulfur Bearing  Clays  -  Many  types of clay contain con-
     siderable amounts  of sulfur.   But most refractory clays
                                     5-7

-------
     are calcined prior to use which oxidizes the sulfur.
     One major type of refractory, ladle  brick, uses a raw
     clay which usually is high in sulfur.  Sulfur oxide emissions
     from this product are considered separately, and
    •Plaster Addition - Low and medium temperature insulating
     firebrick (IFB) is commonly made by wet slurry molding.
     Plaster is added to the slurry to allow the green brick
     to be handled prior to firing.  The plaster oxidizes in
     the kiln resulting in high sulfur emissions.
     Since the majority of source tests on tunnel kilns have been
conducted on gas fired kilns, no test data is available to estimate
sulfur compound emissions due to oil combustion products.  AP-42 lists
an emission factor based on the percent sulfur in the fuel derived from
extensive fuel oil combustion testing.  Since data is available concerning
the distribution of oil use by type in the industry, a sulfur oxide
emission factor for oil combustion is determined using the factor in
AP-42.
     The Refractory Institute submitted information to the U.S. Department
of Commerce which indicated that 68.8 percent of fuel oil use in the industry
was distillate types #1 and #2 with the remainder residual types #3 thru
                                             rfn
                                              12
#6.    Exxon Corporation provided a leading refractory manufacturer the
following breakdown of sulfur content in oils.
     #2 fuel oil         -          .3 percent by weight
     #4 fuel oil         -         1.4 percent by weight
     #5 fuel oil         -         1.6 percent by weight
     #6 fuel oil         -         1.5 - 2.0 percent by weight
                                                                  i -j
     A telephone survey of the industry revealed no use of #1 oil.
Furthermore, .3 percent sulfur content is often required by state regulations
for sulfur emission control.  Therefore, .3 percent sulfur content is
judged to be representative of 68.8 percent of industry oil use.  An
average of the remaining residual percentages results in a sulfur content
of 1.58 percent for the remaining 31.2 percent of oil use.  Combining
the two sulfur contents by their weighted use results in an average
                                    5-8

-------
sulfur content in refractory kiln oils of .7 percent.  Using this percentage
in the formula in AP-42 results in a final  fuel  oil  combustion product
emission of 1.4 kg/Mg (2.8 Ib/ton).
     Gas fired sulfur combustion emissions  are assumed negligible in AP-42
and this study.
     The type of clay used to manufacture ladle brick is typically high
in sulfur.  The contribution of ladle brick to sulfur emissions is
estimated using stack tests from the largest ladle brick manufacturer in
the U.S. and emission factors reported in a journal  article.  Both kilns
are gas fired.  Table 5-3 shows this data.   These two factors are
averaged to arrive at an SO  emission factor for gas fired ladle brick
of 1.5 kg/Mg (3.0 Ib/ton).  For oil fired ladle brick, the fuel oil
combustion sulfur emission is added to this number to yield 2.9 kg/Mg
(5.8 Ib/ton).
     The plaster used in IFB production is  burned at tunnel kiln temperatures,
Data submitted to a state agency, believed  to use a mass balance analysis
(assuming total volatilization of the sulfur in the plaster), indicated
emission factors of 52.8 kg/Mg (105.6 Ibs/ton) and 42.8 kg/Mg (85.6
Ibs/ton).14  Given temperatures in the kiln of greater than 1427 degrees
C (2600 degrees F) and retention times on the order of eight hours,15 this
approach is judged to be sound.  Therefore, these two values are averaged
to arrive at a gas fired IFB emission factor of 47.8 kg/mg (95.6 Ibs/ton).
For oil fired IFB, the fuel oil combustion product emission is added to
this number to yield 49.2 kg/Mg (98.4 Ibs/ton).
     5.1.1.3  NO . HC, CO Emissions.  No source date is available to
quantify these emissions.  The production of these gases results almost
entirely from fuel combustion products.  AP-42 lists emission factors
for these gases and they are used in this study.  However, it should be
noted that variation in air-fuel ratio and burner system design could
alter these rates considerably.  All modern tunnel kilns observed in
this study are equipped for complete control of the ratio in various
firing zones of the kiln.16 Therefore, it is believed that the emission
factors in AP-42 are reasonably close to the actual  emission factors. ;
                                    5-9

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                            TABLE 5-3  UNCONTROLLED GAS-FIRED TUNNEL  KILN  SO   EMISSION
                                                                           A
                                            FACTOR DATA -  kg/Mg (Ib/ton)
No. of Point
Sources Tested


1
1
Emission Factor
1.39 (2.77)
1.66 (3.31)
Reference
35
36
Notes
a
b
       Notes:
j_        a - Stack test for S02 at Globe Refractories, 1977 (S03 assumed  negligible).
o

         b - Journal article on brick kiln emissions, Plant D data.

-------
     5.1.1.4  Fluoride Emissions.  Because of harmful  effects  on  animals
and vegetation, fluoride emissions are briefly assessed.   Judging from
the literature,  '   '    it would appear that fluoride emissions are
influenced by a complex set of factors including clay fluoride content,
sulfur content, lime content, fuel type used, firing temperature, and
other factors.  The assessment of this interaction is beyond the  scope
of this study.
     The average of four emission factors presented in one source indicated
                                   on
a factor of .24 kg/Mg (.47 Ib/ton).    AP-42 gives a value of .50 kg/Hg
(1.00 Ib/ton).  Because no conclusive data could be found to refute the
AP-42 value, it is used.
5.1.2  Arc Furnace Emissions
     Electric arc furnaces are used to melt (fuse) refractory materials
for subsequent pouring into sand molds.  The arc generated in the
furnace vessel creates a turbulent fluxing action which entrains  considerable
particulate.  This particulate escapes the arc furnace vessel as  a
fugitive and is usually drafted away with large volumes of air to a
control device.  The extremely high temperatures (up to 2482 degrees C
                 21
(4500 degrees F))  ' also result in fluoride emissions.  Other gaseous
emissions are possible, however, data was insufficient to estimate their
extent and magnitude.  Since most materials used in fuse cast refractories
are non-clay and of high purity, these emissions are believed to be
small.
     5.1.2.1  Particulate Emissions.  Table  5-4 displays the  available
data concerning particulate emissions.   The  average of the  data  was  very
close to the AP-42 value.  Therefore, the AP-42 factor of 25  kg/Mg
(50 Ib/ton) was used.
     5.1.2.2  Fluoride Emissions.  The only  source  reporting  actual  test
data is a fuse cast refractories  screening study.     Conducted in  1972,
it reported a test  in which the  fluoride emission  factor varied  between
.35 kg/mg (.7 Ib/ton) and  .95 kg/Mg  (1.9 Ib/ton)  expressed  as HF.  The
average of these two values  is the number found  in  AP-42.   This  factor
of .65 kg/Mg  (1.3  Ib/ton)  is  slightly higher than  the  kiln  fluoride
                                     5-11

-------
                             TABLE  5-4  UNCONTROLLED ELECTRIC ARC FURNACE PARTICULATE EMISSION
                                            FACTOR DATA - kg/Mg (Ib/ton)
No. of Sources
Tested
1
2
Unknown
3
Emission Factor
4.64
24.9
42.5
25
(9.27)
(49.8)
(85)
(50)
Reference
37
38
39
40
Notes
a
b
c
d
in
^     Notes:
        a - Stack test data from C-E Refractories, St. Louis.
        b - NEDS data base
        c - RTI Screening Study of Castable Refractories, 1972.
        d - AP-42

-------
emission factor reported earlier.  This is logical  due to the higher
melt temperatures leading to complete evolution of fluoride as HF as
opposed to the near complete evolution at brick firing temperatures.
This value is used in this study.  However, it should be emphasized that
the production of fluoride emissions is highly complex and varies
considerably.
5.1.3  Tar and Pitch Operations
     Several varieties of basic brick (used in applications with high pH
environments) use tar and pitch as an additive to the brick.  This
addition may serve two purposes.  First, it gives the brick coking
characteristics necessary for some applications.  The tar serves to add
carbon to the brick increasing its refractoriness.  Second, it may serve
as a cohesive agent to hold the brick together during transportation and
handling. This allows the brick to be shipped unfired to be fired on
site in its  intended application.  Energy savings are considerable.  Tar
bonded dolomite bricks are very popular in basic steel making operations.
     The classification of emissions from these operations as particulate
or hydrocarbons is difficult to determine.  The NEDS data used to
estimate emissions simply lists emissions as  particulates.   In reality,
emissions from these sources can  be  expected  to be high molecular weight
organic compounds existing in aerosol, and gaseous forms.   However,
these  emissions are classified as particulates because  of the manner in
which  the emissions are  listed in the NEDS data used.
     Two sources  are identified  as  potentially significant  emission
sources:  tar  impregnators and tempering  ovens.  The  only data  source
which  lists  emission rates is the NEDS data base.  This  data is  shown  in
Table  5-5.   Fortunately, most of  the entries  list  "Source Test"  as  the
emission estimation method and the  factors are  in  rough agreement.
Averages of  the values  are used.  For impregnators an emission  factor  of
 .92  kg/Mg  (1.84 Ib/ton)  is used.  For tempering  ovens a factor  of
 .23  kg/Mg  (.45 Ib/ton)  is used.
     Tar emissions  are  also  possible from melt  tanks  used  to prepare tar
for  use.   No data is available  to assess  this emission.
                                     5-13

-------
en
i
                         TABLE 5-5  UNCONTROLLED TAR & PITCH OPERATIONS PARTICIPATE EMISSION

                                            FACTOR DATA - kg/Mg (Ibs/ton)

No. of Sources
1
1
1
1
1
Emission
1.49
.354
.133
.233
.303
Factor
(2.97)
(.708)
(.265)
(.465)
(.606)
Device
Impregnator
Impregnator
Tempering Oven
Tempering Oven
Tempering Oven
       Note:


         All data extracted from NEDS data base.

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5.1.4  Ceramic Fiber Emissions
     An effort was made to acquire source test data for the rapidly
growing ceramic fiber industry. None was found during the course of this
study.  However, it is noted that the production of ceramic fiber is
essentially similar to the production of mineral wool.  A source category
                                                2?
survey was recently completed for this industry.    Two major differences
are noted between the two industries:
    •The mineral wool industry uses rock and slag
     for raw materials; ceramic fiber uses clays, and
    •The method of melting raw material in mineral
     wool manufacture is cupolas.  Ceramic fiber
     production uses electric arc furnaces.
     One piece of NEDS data is available.  A recently completed plant
lists furnace melting emissions and process rates resulting in a particulate
emission factor of 2.35 kg/Mg  (4.70 Ib/ton).
     Furthermore, the mineral wool report mentions the possible use of
arc furnaces to replace cupolas and potential emission reductions
through this conversion.  The  particulate emission factor  for cupolas is
given as 8 kg/MG  (16 Ib/ton).  As a rough estimate of arc  furnace
emissions, the two values are  averaged to yield  an estimate for particulate
emissions of 5.2  kg/MG  (10.4  Ib/ton).
      No data is available to  estimate  blowchamber and curing oven
emissions. However, the process description  in  the mineral wool study is
virtually identical to  the process observed  at  a ceramic fiber  plant
                          24
visited during this study.     Therefore, the mineral  wool  factors  for
these two processed are used  to estimate particulate and hydrocarbon
emissions from ceramic  fiber  manufacture.   The  particulate factors
adopted  are  6.0 kg/Mg  (12 Ib/ton) and  2.0  kg/Mg (4 Ib/ton) for  blow-
chambers and curing  ovens respectively.  Use of oils to  lubricate  the
fibers and the machinery used to  handle and form the fibers  results in
hydrocarbon  emissions  also.   The  mineral wool  factors adopted  are
.45  kg/Mg  (.90  Ib/ton)  and  .50 kg/Mg  (1.0  Ib/ton) for the two  processes.
                                     5-15

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5.2  UNCONTROLLED EMISSIONS FROM TYPICAL PLANTS
     Annual production data for typical plants is estimated by taking a
fraction of the total national production volumes.  These fractions were
based on the number of plants with the emission sources examined. The
total national production estimate uses the data for 1977 provided by
                           25
the Department of Commerce.    This was the last year that summary
statistics are available.  This data is provided in terms of standard
nine inch bricks, which are then converted to tons using average densities
                                                          oc
for various products provided by The Refractory Institute.    The
production data is summarized in Table 5-6.
     Using this data and the uncontrolled emission factors presented
earlier, emissions can be estimated for typical uncontrolled plants.
This data is presented in Table 5-7.  Readers should note that the
emissions are not totaled over all the processes.  Refractory plants are
usually highly specialized.  Each plant's product line is such that only
one of the four major processes is conducted on site.  Therefore, the
emissions are subtotaled for each process class but are not totaled
overall.  The subtotals can be considered representative of a moderate
to large plant specializing in a particular type of product.
5.3  EMISSIONS FROM A PLANT CONTROLLED TO MEET A TYPICAL STATE
     IMPLEMENTATION PLAN
     With few exceptions, the only state regulations pertaining to the
operations under consideration are process weight regulations for
particulates and visible emission standards.  In some cases, visible
emission standards have been the constraining factor on plant emissions.
In fact, the only operating control device on tunnel kilns was installed
to meet an opacity standard.  Kiln particulate emissions tend to be
submicronic in size with high reflectivity.
     Many states use a process weight regulation of the form E = 4.10P
where E is the allowable emission rate in Ib/hr and P is the process
rate in tons/hr.  Ohio uses this formula and has 18 percent of the
plants in the country.  This regulation is considered to be typical.
     Process rates in tons/hr are obtained by dividing the annual production
volumes by the number of hours the process operates in a year.
                                    5-16

-------
                                     TABLE 5-6  PRODUCTION LEVELS - Mg/yr (ton/yr)
      Process
National
Typical  Plants
Brick Firing Kilns
Gas - IFB
Gas - Ladle
Gas - Other
Oil - IFB
Oil - Ladle
Oil - Other
Arc Furnaces (non-fiber)
Tar & Pitch Operations
Impregnators
Tempering Ovens
Ceramic Fiber
Furnace Melting
B1 owchamber
Curing Ovens
9450
248000
1392800
2360
62000
348000
108000

88500
30200

13600
13600
1 3600
(10400)
(272800)
(1532100)
(2600)
(68200)
(383000)
(118800)

(97300)
(33200)

(15000)
(15000)
(15000)
189
4960
27860
47
1240
6964
10800

8850
3020

3490
3490
3490
(208)
(5456)
(30640)
(52)
(1364)
(7660)
(11880)

(9730)
(3320)

(3750)
(3750)
(3750)
01
I
     Notes:
             1.  Production levels based on 1977 data furnished by U.S.  Dept.  of  Commerce and
                 average densities furnished by The Refractory Institute.

             2.  Typical plant levels based on following plant fractions
                      Brick            -   2% of industry
                      Arc Furnaces     -  10% of industry
                      Tar & Pitch      -  10% of industry
                      Ceramic Fiber    -  25% of industry

-------
                                       TABLE 5-7  UNCONTROLLED EMISSIONS FROM TYPICAL
                                                    PLANTS   Mg/yr (tons/yr)
in

oo
Brick Kilns
Gas - IFB
Gas - Ladle
Gas - Other
Oil - IFB
Oil - Ladle
Oil - Other
TOTAL
Arc Furnaces
Tar & Pitch Operation
Impregnators
Tempering Ovens
TOTAL
Ceramic Fiber
Furnace Nelting
Blowchamber
Curing Ovens
TOTAL

.095
2.48
13.9
.037
.967
5.43
.105)
2.73 )
15.3 )
.041)
1.07 )
5.97
22.9 (25.2 )
270 (297 )

8.14
.69
8.96 )
.76 )
8.83 ( 9.71 )

17.7
20.5
6.82
19.5 }
22.6 )
7.50 )
45.0 (49.5 )

9.08 (10.0 )
7.44 ( 8.18)
2.30 ( 2.53)
3.60 3.96)
9.75 (10.7 )
32.2 (35.4 )
—

—
~

__
~

.0004 ( .004)
.099 ( .109)
.577 ( .613)
—
.68 ( .75 )
—

—
--

—
--

.002 ( .002)
.050 ( .050)
.278 ( .306)
.002 ( .003)
.062 ( .068)
.348 ( .383)
.74 ( .82 )
--

—
—

1.53 (1.69 )
1.70 (1.87 )
3.2 (3.6 )

.014 ( .015 )
.372 ( .409 )
2.09 (2.30
.026 ( .028 )
.682 ( .750 )
3.83 (4.21 )
7.0 (7.7 )
--

—
«

—
-"

.095 { .105)
2.48 ( 2.73 )
13.9 (15.3 )
.024 ( .026)
.620 ( .682)
3.48 ( 3.83 )
20.6 (22.7 )
7.02 ( 7.72 )

--
--

__
•—

-------
Tunnel kilns usually operate continuously 365 days/year and 24 hrs/day.
The other processes operate continuously except for weekends.  For
these, 260 days/year and 24 hrs/day are used.  The various types of kiln
production are summed for this determination.  This gives a process rate
typical for one large tunnel kiln.  Using these rates, the allowable
emissions are calculated using the typical regulation.  Table 5-8 shows
the maximum emissions from plants controlled to a typical state regulation.
In general, state regulations apply to particulate emissions.  Of these
emissions, only arc furnaces and ceramic fiber manufacturing operations
require any control.
5.4  TOTAL NATIONWIDE EMISSIONS
     Table 5-9 presents the total uncontrolled nationwide emissions from
the source category.  This data was compiled by multiplying the emission
factors in Table 5-1 by the national production volumes in Table 5-6.
     To estimate the actual nationwide emissions an attempt was made to
assess the present degree of control.  Kilns are almost totally uncontrolled.
Arc furnaces typically use baghouses which can be expected to give
excellent particulate removal efficiencies.  However, observation of a
working arc furnace during a plant visit indicated capture efficiencies
significantly less than unity.  No data is available to estimate an
average capture efficiency for the process.  As well, very little data
is available for tar and pitch and ceramic fiber processes.
      In the absence of good information to base an assessment of the
current degree of control, the typical state regulation  is used to
quantify actual nationwide emissions.  The results are shown  in Table  5-10.
                                    5-19

-------
                                        TABLE 5-8  EMISSIONS  FROM PLANTS CONTROLLED
                                                TO TYPICAL  STATE REGULATION
Process Source Process Rate
Mg/hr (ton/hr)
Brick Firing Kilns 4.71 (5.18 )
Arc Furnaces 1.72 (1.90)
Tar * Pitch Operations
Inpregnators 1.42 (1.56)
Tempering Ovens .484 ( .532)
Total
Ceramic Fiber
Furnace Melting .545 ( .600)
Blowchamber .545 ( .600)
Curing Ovens .545 ( .600)
Total
Participates S0y CO HC NOV HF
** X
Mg/yr (ton/yr)
22.9 (25.2)
17.8 (19.7)
8.14 ( 8.96)
.69 ( .76)
8.83 (9.71 )
11.6 (12.8 )
11.6 12.8 )
6.8 ( 7.5 )
30.0 (33.1 )
32.2 (35.4)
—
—

__
~
.68 ( .75)
—
—

_.
—
.74 ( .82)
—
~

1.53 (1.69)
1.70 (1.87)
3.23 (3.56)
7.0 (7.7)
«
~

~
~
20.6 (22.7)
7.02-{ 7.72)
_

—
--
01
I
ro
o

-------
                                           TABLE  5-9  TOTAL  UNCONTROLLED  NATIONWIDE
                                                    EMISSIONS Mg/yr (tons/yr)
          Process Source
Partlculates
SO.
CO
HC
                                                                      HF
Brick Kilns
Gas - IFB
Gas - Ladle
Gas - Other
Oil - IFB
Oil - Ladle
Oil - Other
Subtotal
Arc Furnaces
Tar & Pitch Oper.
Impregnators
Tempering Ovens
Subtotal
Ceramic Fiber
Furnace Melting
Blowchamber
Curing Ovens
Subtotal
OVERALL TOTAL
4.75 (5.23)
124 (136)
695 (764)
1.85 (2.04)
48.4 (53.2 )
272 (299)
1145 (1260)
2700 (2970)

81.4 (89.5)
6.9 ( 7.59)
88.3 (97.1 )

70.8 (77.9)
82.0 (90.2)
27-£ (29.9)
180 (198 }
4114 (4526)
454 (499)
372 (409)
115 (127)
180 (198)
488 (536)
1610 (1771)
—

—
—

—
— —
1609 (1771)
.20 ( .22)
4.9 5.4 |
28.9 (31.7 )
--
34.0 (37.4 )
—

.-
~

--
_-
34.0 137-.4)
.10
2.5
13.9
.10
3.1
17.4
.11)
7.8
15.3 )
.11)
3.4 )
19.1)
37.0 (40.7 )
—
—
—

6.1
6.8

6.7 j
7.5 )
13.0 (14.3)
50.0 (55.0 )
.70 ( .77)
18.6 (20.5 )
104 (115)
1.3 ( 1.4 )
34.1 37.5 )
192 (211)
350 (385 )
~

~
~

--.
--
350 C38J)
4.8
124
695
1.2
31.0
174
5.2)
136)
765)
1.3)
34.1)
191)
1030 (1133 )
70.2 (77.2)
—
—
--
—
1100 (1210)
cn
ro

-------
                                 TABLE 5-10  NATIONWIDE EMISSIONS ASSUMING SIP CONTROL

                                                 Mg/yr  (ton/yr)
      Process Source
Participate
SO.
CO
HC
NO.
HF
Brick Firing Kilns
Arc Furnaces
Tar & Pitch
Operations
Impregnators
Tempering Ovens
Ceramic Fiber
Furnace Melting
Blowchamber
Curing Oven
TOTAL
1145 (1260)
178 ( 197)

81.4 (89.6)
6.9 ( 7.6)

46.4 (51.0)
46.4 (51.0)
27.2 (29.9)
1531 (1685)
1610 (1771)
--

--

--
1609 (1771)
34.0 (37.4)
—

—

—
34 (37)
37.0 (40.7)
--

--

6.1 ( 6.7)
6.8 ( 7.5)
50 (55)
350 (385)
--

--

--
350 (385)
1030 (1133)
70.2 (77.2)

—

™ ™
1100 (1210)
ro
ro

-------
5.5  REFERENCES
1.   Daniel son, J.  A.,  (ed).   Air Pollution  Engineering Manual. 2nd ed.
     U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency.   Research Triangle Park,
     N.C.  AP-40.   May  1973
2.   Environmental  Protection Agency.   Compilation  of Air Pollutant
     Emission Factors.    3rd  Edition.   AP-42.   Research Triangle Park,
     N.C.  August 1977.
3.   U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency.   National Emission Data
     System.  Computer printouts for SIC  3255  and SIC 3297.  October,
     1979.  1187 p.
4.   Boyle, T. F. and Reznik, R. B.  Brick  Kilns  (Draft).  Monsanto
     Research Corporation.  Dayton, Ohio.  Source Assessment Document
     No. 12.  Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
     Research Triangle Park,  N.C.  August 1975.
5.   Environmental  Testing, Inc.  Source  Sampling Report  for North
     State Pyrophyllite Co.,  Inc.  Charlotte,  N.C.   August  1978.
6.   Letter and attachments from Hiding,  J.  W., Jr.,  The Refractories
     Institute, to Schechter, S., Energy  and Environmental  Analysis.
     June 27, 1977.  p. 2.  Preferred fuels for manufacturing  refractories.
7.   Globe Refractories, Inc.  Globe Refractories  Experiences  in Tunnel
     Kiln Coal Firing and Related Pollution Control.  Newell,  West
     Virginia.  No date.
8.   Letter and attachments from Porter,  S.C., Globe Refractories, to
     Schechter, S.,  Energy and  Environmental Analysis.  July 16, 1977.
     Attachment, p.  3.  Potential for coal  firing of refractories.
9.   Reference 4.  p. 471.
10.  Exxon Company,  Southeastern Region.   Flashnote!  Distillate and
     Residual  Fuels  Typical  Inspections.   Atlanta, Georgia.  September
     16,  1974.
                                  5-23

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11.  Letter and attachments from Tucker,  Bradford S.,  The  Refractories
     Institute to Federal  Energy Administration,  Voluntary Energy
     Reporting Program.  April  29, 1977.   Tables  1-4.   Voluntary
     Industrial Energy Conservation Progress Report.
12.  Reference 11
13.  Telecon.  Jennings, M. S., Radian Corporation with refractory
     manufacturers.  November,  1979.
14.  Babcock & Wilcox Co., Refractories Division.  Application  for
     Permit to Operate a Facility that is a Stationary Source of Air
     Contamination  at Augusta, Georgia.   Submitted to Georgia  Dept.  of
     Natural Resources,  Air Quality Control Section,  Atlanta,  Georgia.
     January 23, 1974.
15.  Jennings, M. S.  Trip Report:  Babcock and Wilcox Company,
     Refractories Division, Augusta, Georgia.  Radian  Corp.   Durham,
     N.C.   December 3, 1979.
16.  Jennings, M. S. and Laube, A. H.  Observations of six refractory
     plants.   November, December 1979.
17.  Wilson, H. H. and L. D. Johnson.  Characterization of Air  Pollutants
     Emitted from Brick Plant Kilns.  American Ceramic Society  Bulletin.
     54:  990-991,994.  November 1975.
18.  Semrau, K. T.  Emissions of Fluorides  from Industrial Processes —
     A  Review.  Journal of the Air Pollution Control  Association.
     ]_  (2):  92 - 108.  August 1957.
19.  Routschka, G., C. Buttgereit and V.  Berger.   Der Gehalt an Floor in
     feverfesten Tonen und Schamotte und die Beeinflussung der  Fluorabgabe
     beim Brand der Schamotteerzeugm'sse.  [Fluorine  Content of Refractory
     Clays and Fluorine Emission During Firing of Fire Clay Products.]
     Sprechasaal  fue Keramik Glas, Email  Silikate.  (Coburg,  W. Germany)
     103 (20):   901-906.
20.  Reference 17
21.  Norton, F. H.   Refractories.   4th ed.   New York,   McGraw-Hill,
     1968.   p.  189.
                                    5-24

-------
22.   Research Triangle  Institute.  A  Screening Study to Develop Background
     Information to Determine  the  Significance of Castable Refractories
     Manufacturing.  RTI  Project No.  41U-762-Task 1.  Research Triangle
     Park, N.C.  Prepared for the  U.S.  Environmental Protection Agency.
     December 1972.  p. 2-6.
23.   U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,  Emission Standards and
     Engineering Division.   Source Category Survey of the Mineral Wool
     Manufacturing Industry (Draft).   Research Triangle Park, N.C.
     October 1979.
24.   Reference 15
25.   U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau  of the  Census.  1977 Census  of Manu-
     factures, Industry Series,  Monday Refractories.  MC77-1-32E-6(P).
     Washington, D.C.  June 1979.
26.   The Refractories Institute.   Refractory Volume-to-Weight Conversion
     Factors.  TRI News Bulletin,  4_:   2.  June 1968.
27.   Reference 9.  p. 77 -78.
28.   Energy and Environmental  Analysis.  Source  Category Survey  for  the
     Clay and Brick Manufacturing  Industry  (Draft).  Prepared for U.S.
     Environmental Protection Agency, Contract 68-02-3061.   Durham,  N.C.
     September 1979.  Table 5-16.
29.   Reference 17.
30.   Jennings, M.  S.  Trip Report:  Kaiser Refractories, Moss Landing,
     California.   Radian Corporation.  Durham,  North Carolina.
     February, 1980.
31.   Moore, R. F.  Dust and Pollution Control.   Globe  Refractories,  Inc.
     Newell, W.V.   (Presented at Technical  Review and Performance  .
     Assessment  of Globe Refractories, Inc.  Air and Water Pollution
     Control  Facilities.   Chester, West  Virginia.  June 13, 1978.)
      20 p.
 32.   Reference 3
 33.   Ensor, David S.  Ceil cote  Ionizing  Wet Scrubber Evaluation.  U.S.
      Environmental Protection Agency.   Research Triangle  Park,  N.C.
      EPA-60017-79-246.  November 1979.  p. 5-2, 5-3.
                                  5-25

-------
34.  Reference 2.  p. 8.3-3.
35.  Reference 31.   p. 19.
36.  Reference 17.
37.  Ryckman, Edgerley, Tomlison and Associates.   Sampling  of Participate
     Emissions from an Electric Arc Furnace Ceramics  Operation at C-E
     Refractories,  St. Louis,  Missouri.   R.E.T.A.  -510.   St.  Louis,
     Missouri.
38.  Reference 3.
39.  Reference 22.   p. 2-5.
40.  Reference 2.  p. 8.5 -  1.
                                 5-26

-------
                     6.  EMISSION CONTROL SYSTEMS

     The various types of air pollution control  equipment currently in
use in the refractory industry to control airborne emissions are briefly
reviewed in this section.
     The three major refractory brick firing (kiln) emissions of concern
are: particulate matter, sulfur oxides, and hydrogen fluoride.  The
other pollutants resulting from kiln operations are primarily combustion
products.  If good combustion practices are followed, carbon monoxide
and nitrogen oxides are not emitted at levels which constitute a pollution
problem.
     Tars and pitch are used in the preparation of certain  products.
Particulate and higher molecular weight organic emissions are generated
from these processes.  Some of these emissions occur when the refractory
brick or shape  is impregnated with tar or  pitch,  and some occur when  the
tar bonded bricks are  tempered in an oven.
     When clays or nonclay minerals are  fused in  an  electric arc  furnace
there are particulates emitted from the  molten mass.
     A  molten stream  of  clay, such as  kaolin, may also  be  formed  into
very fine threads called  ceramic  fiber.   Particulates  and  higher  molecular
weight  organic  compounds  are  emitted from three  processes  involved in
ceramic fiber fabrication; melting,  fiberization and curing in  ovens.
     There are  many  types of  air pollution control  equipment available
to control emissions  from these  various  manufacturing processes.
Details of these  processes may  be found  in Chapter 4.   The most important
of the  control  devices now in use are  discussed  in the following sections.
6.1   CONTROL APPROACHES
 6.1.1   Refractory Brick Kilns
      Refractory brick kilns  are generally uncontrolled.  Kiln processes
emit  a  variety  of pollutants depending upon the composition of the clays
                                     6-1

-------
and other raw materials being fired.  But most formulas and processes
will result in a low level of particulate and an insignificant level  of
combustion products.  Specific levels are detailed in Chapter 5.
     However, if sulfur compounds are present in the clays or other raw
material or if sulfur containing compounds are added to the mixture used
to form the refractory, these sulfur compounds will be oxidized and
discharged in the stack gases.  Fluorides will also be found in the
stack gases if they are present in the raw materials.
     Controls are not used on refractory tunnel kilns because the levels
of particulate and gaseous emissions do not normally exceed state
regulations.  However, in one plant the combination of gaseous emissions
and particulates has caused opacity to exceed 20 percent and a control  device
is required.   An ionizing wet scrubber (IMS) is used to control  particulates
and gaseous emissions from kilns firing ladle brick.  Raw clay containing
sulfur and other acid producing compounds is used in the manufacture of
ladle brick.  This clay, frequently used for ladle brick, contains high
quantities of sulfides, fluorides, and nitrogenous compounds.  The use
of this clay is, in general, atypical of the clays used in refractory
brick.
     Each IWS unit is a multi-stage affair with a quench unit, three wet
scrubbers, and two separate ionizers.  With the exception of a few
critical components which must be metallic, each IWS is constructed of
Duracor fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP).  The ionizer sections
themselves consist of charging wires strung vertically between plates.
These components, like all other metallic parts in contact with the gas
stream, are constructed of Hastelloy C276 alloy for maximum corrosion
resistance.  A two-year life of the plates is expected.  Replacement
cost for the plates will run upwards of $60,000.  Total power consumption
of a single unit containing two ionizers is approximately 10 kw.  Wires
are replaced at more frequent intervals depending on wear and breakage.
All metallic parts are subject to corrosion.  Replacement of corroded
parts may be a significant problem and expense, depending upon the
                              2
actual gases being controlled.
                                     6-2

-------
     Participate removal  for the IMS system is about 87 percent.    Fluoride
removal  is better than 99 percent.   Sulfur dioxide removal  is 50  percent.  The
requirement at this plant was to reduce stack opacity and particulate to
                                            3
acceptable levels and this was accomplished.
     The IWS system generates an acidic liquor which must be treated
before disposal.
6.1.2  Tar and Pitch Operations
     As described in Chapter 4, tar and pitch are used for impregnation
and bonding of bricks.  Volatile organic aerosols are generated in the
impregnating pressure vessels and organic aerosols are produced when
these bricks are tempered in an oven.  If inorganic particulate is not
a problem an incinerator may be used.  Incinerators usually exceed 95 percent
                                                         4
efficiency based on destruction of such organic aerosols.
6.1.3  Fused Cast Refractory Production
     The electric arc furnaces generate particulates which are drafted
away from the furnace with large volumes of air.  These large volumes of
air, which are required to capture the emissions, also cool the airflow
so that fabric filters may be used.  A typical baghouse used in such an
application would have the specifications summarized in the following
table:5
                               TABLE 6-1
No. of Bags                        240
Air to Cloth Ratio:                2.5 to 1
Maximum Operating Temperature:     90 degrees C       -       (200  degrees F)
Normal Operating Temperature:      55 to 60 degrees  C        (130  to  140 degree F)
Baghouse Capacity:                 355 cubic meters/min.     (12,500  cfm)
Pressure Drop:                     1500 pascal               (6 inches  W.G.)
Dust Type:                         Alumina  Oxide
Blowing Pressure:                  6.2 to 6.9 xlO5  pascal   (90 to  100 PSIG)
Installed Cost:                    $37,000  (1976)  \

Efficiency of fabric filters often exceeds  99.5 percent.6   Overall
control efficiency would  depend upon how much of  the emission was
captured at the  source.   This data is  not usually available.  Two of
                                     6-3

-------
these filters would be used to control the emissions generated during
the production of approximately 6000 Ibs per hour of fused cast product.
6.1.4  Ceramic Fiber Manufacture
     A molten stream of kaolin is converted into very fine threads
called ceramic fiber as described in Chapter 4.  There are three steps
in the process:  melting, fiberization, and oven curing.
     The emissions generated in the melting process are similar to those
described in the previous section.  They are controlled with fabric
filters as described in 6.1.3.
     In the blowchamber small pieces of the fine thread are formed and
introduced into an air stream.  These particulates may be removed by
means of a filter.  The collected particles may be recycled.
     The emissions described above are controlled with fabric filters or
                o
similar devices.   Efficiency exceeding 99 percent is commonly achieved with
               8 9
such equipment. '   Similar efficiency would be expected in this
application.
     In the curing oven small particles of ceramic fiber are broken off
or separated during the handling and forming of the fiber blankets. An
oil is used in this process and higher molecular weight organics are
emitted.
     A fabric filter followed by incineration would be required.  Overall
efficiency exceeding 95 percent would be expected based on normal engineering
design practice.
6.2  ALTERNATIVE CONTROL METHODS
     As can be seen each process described above has certain requirements
which can be best met by the controls now in use.  Other methods of
control may be introduced as conditions warrant.  But the need for
developing any new control technology is not likely.
6.3  THE BEST SYSTEM OF CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
     The best control technology is summarized in Table 6-2 and discussed
below.  The item letters refer to the table as indicated.
     1.   The ionizing wet scrubber (IWS) is listed because this 1s the
only plant in the industry controlling brick kiln emissions.  This plant
                                    6-4

-------
uses a special  clay to produce ladle brick.  Particulate and opacity
exceeded the state limits.  This is not a recommendation to consider an
IWS for kiln emissions in general.  Kiln emissions do not generally
require control.
     2.   The low efficiency of sulfur dioxide removal is acceptable
because the control device is installed to reduce particulate and
opacity.  Reduction in sulfur dioxide is not a requirement.  The IWS is
not recommended as the best system of control technology for sulfur
dioxide.  Sulfur oxides are not generally at a level requiring control.
     3.   The IWS removes a high level of fluoride but fluorides are
generally not regulated.
     4.   The details of the control devices used by A.P. Green on tar
and pitch processes were not available at the time this report was written.
But incinerators on similar organic compounds in other industries achieve
95 percent efficiency of destruction for continuous operation.
     5.   Fabric filter efficiency was not available on this baghouse.
But 99 percent control device efficiency is commonly accepted engineering
practice. .   The capture efficiency of the associated hoods  is not
known.  Therefore this is not an overall efficiency.
     6.   No filter was used at Babcock & Wilcox on the melting furnace.
But the requirements would be similar to the other  electric  arc furnace
applications in the industry.
     7.   There was only one filter installed on one  of several lines  at
Babcock & Wilcox at the time of the plant  visit.  This was  a prototype
unit and efficiency of the device was not  available.
     8.   No filter was in use on the oven at Babcock & Wilcox but  a
fabric filter would be commonly accepted engineering  practice.  Efficiency
would  be expected  to  be at least  99 percent.
     9.   No incinerator was installed at  Babcock & Wilcox.  And  details
as to  the control  of these higher molecular  weight  organic  compounds  in
this industry  are  not available.  The Best System of  control would  involve
technology transfer.  Incinerators  are  being used on  similar compounds
at efficiencies greater than 95 .percent.18
                                    6-5

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                                              TABLE  6-2   BEST SYSTEMS  OF  CONTROL  TECHNOLOGY
           Process
 Emission
    Control
    Device
    Percent
  Efficiency
of the Control
    Device
Plant Location & Contact
           Refractory Brick Kilns
en
en
           Tar and Pitch
             Impregnates and
             Curing Ovens
Participate

Sulfur Oxide

Fluoride0
Higher Molecular
Weight Organic
Compounds
     IWS"

     IWS

     IMS



Incinerator
     87

     50b

     99



     95+d
Globe Refractories.  Inc.
P.O. Box 0
Newell, West Virginia
(304) 387-1160
Mr. S.C. Porter.  Vice President
                                      A.P. Green Refractories Conpany
                                      Green Boulevard
                                      Mexico, MO  65265
                                      (314) 473-3626
                                      Mr. Robert Besalke
                                      Environmental Manager
                                                                                                                                         12
           Electric Arc Furnace
Parti cu late
 Fabric Filter
     99e
C-E Refractories13
101 Ferry Street
St. Louis, MO  63147
Mr. D. Seets
Process Engineer
           Ceramic Fiber
             Melting Furnace
             Blowchamber
             Oven
Parti culate
Participate
Parti culate
High  Molecular
Weight Organic
Compounds
Fabric Filter
Lint Cage
Fabric Filter
Inclneratorl
     99f
      .9
      -h
      95+
Babcock & Wllcox14
Old Savannah Road
Augusta. Georgia  30903

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6.4  REFERENCES
1.   Moore, R. F.  Dust and Pollution  Control.   Globe Refractories, Inc.
     Newell, W.V.  (Presented at Technical  Review  and Performance
     Assessment of Globe Refractories,  Inc.   Air and Water Pollution
     Control Facilities.  Chester,  West Virginia.  June 13, 1978.) 20 p.
2.   Jennings, M. S.   Trip Report:   Globe  Refractories, Newell, West
     Virginia.  Radian Corp.   Durham,  N.C.   December 5, 1979.
3.   Reference 1
4.   Sidlow, A. F.  Source Test Report Conducted at Fasson Products,
     Division of Avery Corporation, Cucamonga,  CA.  San Bernadina County
     Air Pollution Control  District, San Bernadino, CA.   Engineering
     Evaluation Report 72.5.   January  1972.
5.   Jennings, M. S.   Trip Report:   C-E Refractories, St. Louis, Missouri.
     Radian Corp.  Durham, N.C.  December  11, 1979.
6.   Moore, W. W.  and N.  W.  Frisch.  Air  Pollution Control Programs and
     Systems.  In:  Industrial  Pollution Control Handbook, Lund, H. F.
     (ed.).  New York, McGraw-Hill. 1971.   p.  5 - 16.
7.   Ryckman, Edgerley, Tomlinson and  Associates.  Sampling of Particulate
     Emissions from an Electric Arc Furnace  Ceramics Operation at C-E
     Refractories, St. Louis, Missouri. R.E.T.A.- 510.   St.  Louis,
     Missouri.
8.   Jennings, M. S.   Trip Report:   Babcock  and Wilcox  Company, Refractories
     Division, Augusta, Georgia.  Radian Corp.   Durham, N.C.
     December 3,  1979.
9.   Reference 6
10.  Reference 4
11.  Reference 1
12.  Letter and attachments from Elder, H.  J.  Pennsylvania Bureau  of
     Air Pollution Control, to Ashbaugh, R.  A., A. P. Green Refractories
     Co.  October 4,  1974.  A. P. Green Co.  refractory  processes.
13.  Reference 5
14.  Reference 8
15.  Reference 4
                                 6-7

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16.  Reference 6
17.  Reference 6
18.  Reference 4
                                   6-8

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                          7.  EMISSIONS DATA

7.1  AVAILABILITY OF DATA
     Relatively few emission measurements are available for refractory
manufacturing processes.  There are four main sources of emission data:
1) National Emissions Data System (NEDS), 2) Compliance Data System
(CDS), 3) test data on file with state or local agencies, and 4) information
and test data obtained directly from the refractory companies.
     Emissions and emission rates by SIC number, for specific plants and
specific emission points can be obtained through the NEDS.  Other useful
information contained in NEDS reports include control equipment, collection
efficiencies, and fuel type.  NEDS is not always up-to-date and the
current test results are not always available.
     Information on the compliance status of point sources can be
obtained from the CDS.  By  SIC code, this system identifies the sources
and tells whether a point source is in compliance, out of compliance,  or
status unknown in reference to federal, state, or local  regulations.   As
with NEDS, CDS does not always have the most current data on  file. This
delay is caused by the time necessary for companies to file test  results
with the states and for the states to file  them on computer.
     State or local agencies have information  on the most current test
data and permit applications.  Emission test data may also  be obtained
directly from the companies involved.
     Available emission source test data for the refractories industry
has been summarized  in Table 7-1.   If this  project continues  on  into
Phase II a substantial amount  of emissions  test data must be  developed.
7.2  SAMPLE  COLLECTION AND  ANALYSIS
      Particulate,  S02, and  HF  sampling  and  analysis  techniques are all
EPA reference methods:
     Method  1:       Sample  and Velocity Traverses  for  Stationary Sources.
     Method  2:       Determination  of  Stack  Gas Velocity and Volumetric
                     Flowrate.

                                     7-1

-------
                                      TABLE 7-1   EMISSION SOURCE TEST  DATA
       Test
       Locations
Number
of Tests
Test Method
Comments
       Stack of
       perodic kiln1
                    EPA Method 5
                        Isokinetic  pljs  or
                        minus 10%
ro
       Stack of tunnel
       kiln to IWS and
       outlet of IWS2
  18
In-stack filters
For mass concentration
also included Orsat
C02, 02, CO.
       Stack of tunnel
       kiln to IWS and
       outlet of IWS3
  16
Particle size
Cascade impactors and
Aerosol size analyzer
       Exhaust stack over
       electric arc furnace^
                    Velocity and            (Not method 5)
                    particulate filter

-------
     Method  3:

     Method  5:

     Method  6:

     Method  8:  :

     Method  13a:

     Method  13b:
Gas Analysis for COg, O^, Excess Air and Dry
Molecular Weight.
Determination of Parti oil ate Emissions from
Stationary Sources.
Determination of S02 Emissions from Stationary
Sources.
Determination of HgSO^ Mist and S02 Emissions from
Stationary Sources.
Determination of Total Fluoride Emissions from
Stationary Sources   SPADNS Zirconium Lace Method.
Determination of Total Fluoride Emissions from
Stationary Sources   Specific  Ion Electrode Method.
     Particulate size is of importance because small particles, less
than 5 micrometers in size, are carried into the human lung.  There is
no standard EPA method for determining particle size.  However, the
Cascade impactor can be used for sizes between 0.4 and 10 micrometers
and recent developments such as the Coulter Counter and Thermosystems
aerosol size analyzer have been used for particles between 0.1 and 1
micrometer.
                                     7-3

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7.3  REFERENCES
1.   Environmental Testing, Inc.  Source Sampling Report for North State
     Pyrophyllite Co., Inc.  Charlotte, N.C.  August 1978.
2.   Moore, R. F.  Dust and Pollution Control.  Globe Refractories, Inc.
     Newell, W.V.  (Presented at Technical Review and Performance
     Assessment of Globe Refractories, Inc.  Air and Water Pollution
     Control Facilities.  Chester, West Virginia.  June 13, 1978.)  20 p.
3.   Reference 2
4.   Ryckamn, Edgerley, Tomlinson and Associates.  Sampling of Particulate
     Emissions from an Electric Arc Furnace Ceramics Operation at C-E
     Refractories, St. Louis, Missouri.  R.E.T.A.- 510.  St. Louis, Missouri
                                   7-4

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                    8.  STATE AND LOCAL REGULATIONS

     Essentially all of the states have some form of regulation to limit
the emission of particulates from industrial processes.  Particulate
matter is the primary pollutant of concern for the refractory industry.
     Particulates are generated during raw material processing.  Particulate
emissions resulting from fuel combustion are usually insignificant
because process heating requirements are met by combustion of clean
fuels such as natural gas and distillate oil.  Fuel combustion also
generates oxides of nitrogen, carbon and sulfur.  And higher molecular
weight organic compounds, fluorides and additional sulfur present in the
raw materials, may be emitted during processing.
     Most of the states where refractory plants are located regulate
particulates from processing operations by a process weight regulation
such as E = 4.1 OP0'67 or E = 3.59P0'69, where E equals the allowable
emission rate in pounds per hour and P equals the process weight in tons
per hour.  The allowable quantities of particulates, based on 4.5 Mg per
hour (five tons per hour) of process weight are presented in Table 8-1.
In addition to emissions based on process weight many states allow
emissions in proportion to the amount of fuel used in combustion.  The
exact wording of this regulation varies from state to state but it is
frequently restricted to indirect heating such as boilers.  Since the
fuel used in refractory kilns is for direct heating of the product it
has been assumed that only the process regulation applies.  (Emissions
based on indirect fuel combustion are the same order of magnitude as
those based on process weight).
      A summary of other current state regulations which would effect
the refractories industry is also presented.  Most states have some form
of visible emission regulation.  This is usually  twenty percent opacity,
corresponding to number one Ringlemann, as  an upper limit.  In one plant
                                     8-1

-------
                           TABLE 8-1  SUMMARY OF  STATE  EMISSION REGULATIONS PERTAINING TO

                                      NEW SOURCES IN THE  REFRACTORY  INDUSTRY
oo
i
ro
Participate
State
Georgia
Missouri



New Jersey
New York
Number
of
Plants
11
15



10
8
North Carolina 3

Ohio

Pennsylvania

Tennessee

50

69

6
General Process Visible
i \ Emissions
Regulation*8' (opacity)
E
E



= 4.1P0'67 20X
- 4.1P0'67 20*



NR NR
E
E

E

0

E
-.3.91P0'67 20X
- 4.1P0'67 20X

- 4. IP0'67 20X

.04 g/scf 20X

- 3.59P0'62 20X
(a) E « Allowable Emission (Ib/hr) P - Process rate (tons/hr) (e)
(b) Based on 20,000 scfm - except North Carolina (f)
(c) Based on Process weight of 33.730 Mg/yr (37,230 tons/yr)
or 4.5 Mg/hr (5 tons/hr)
(d) Based on fuel burning regulation
Fugitive
Dust
NR
No visible
partlculates
beyond
premi ses
NR
NR
Reasonable
Precautions
Reasonable
Precautions
Reasonable
Precautions
NR
From(c) Sulfur{b)
Process Oxides
gjfnin (Ibs/hr) g>Mn (Ibs/hr)
70
91



45
83
91

91

53

113
For new kaolin process
By formula depending on
using 50 ft. stack
NR » Not regulated
(9.3)(e) 454
(60)
(12) 756 (100)



(6) 3175
01)
(12) 52

(12)

(7) 756

(15) 756
stack height -



(420)

(6.9)



(100)

(100)
example

-------
in West Virginia the opacity regulation was the most restrictive regulation.
And the kilns in this plant have been equipped with IWS.    However,  most
uncontrolled kiln stacks and other point sources in the refractory
industry are below 20 percent opacity.  And thus, opacity is not normally
a restrictive regulation for this industry.
     Sulfur oxides are generally either not regulated or are not restrictive
at the levels found in most kiln stack emissions.  "Reasonable precautions"
are generally required to prevent fugitive emissions.  State or local
regulations controlling carbon monoxide, fluorides and the nitrogen
oxides for process emission sources are essentially nonexistent.
Therefore, the only effect of present regulations on the national
emissions from the refractory industry is to reduce the level of particulates,
The effect of these regulations on the three most important pollutants
is summarized below:
                               Table 8-2
  ESTIMATED NATIONAL EMISSION FOR UNCONTROLLED AND CONTROLLED SOURCES
                                             Mg/yr          ton/yr
Uncontrolled particulate                     4000           4500
Controlled  particulate                       1600           1800
Uncontrolled sulfur oxides                   1600           1800
Uncontrolled fluorides                       1100           1200

As  previously  indicated,  in the  refractory  industry,  the other  products
of  combustion  are  not generally  regulated.   In the  case of  fuel oil,
most  states require that  a specific level of sulfur content not be
exceeded  and this  in effect limits the  sulfur emissions from  this
source.
                                    8-3

-------
8.1   REFERENCE
1.   Jennings, M.  S.   Trip Report:   Globe Refractories, Newell, West
     Virginia.  Radian Corp.   Durham,  N.C.   December 5, 1979.
                                   8-4

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                              APPENDIX A
                      SIC 3255  CLAY REFRACTORIES
1.   A. P. Green Refractories
     Green Blvd
     Mexico, Missouri  65265
      (314) 473-3626

2.   Babcock & Wilcox Co. Inc.
     Old Savannah Rd
     Augusta, Georgia  30903
      (404) 798-8000

3.   Kaiser Aluminum  & Co.
     203 E Love Street
     Mexico, Missouri  65265
      (314) 581-1250

4.   Plibrico Co. Inc.
     1800 North Kingsbury
     Chicago, Illinois  60614
      (312) LI9-7014

5.   Harbison Walker Refractrs
     Vandalia Works, Box 29
     Vandalia, Missouri   63383
      (314) LY4--6425

6.   Harbison Walker Refract
     Bigler & 9th Ave
     Clearfield, Pennsylvania  16830
      (814) 765-4531

7.   Harbisonn Walker Refractor
     Westminister
     Fulton, Missouri  62251
      (314) 642-2276

8.   France J H Refractors Co.
     1969 France Rd
     Snow Shoe, Pennsylvania 16874
      (814) 387-6811

9.   Globe Refractories Inc
     Box D - Keniworth Plant
     Newell, West Virginia  26050
     (304) 387-1160
Sales:  $67.0
Industry %:  9.43
Employment:  1000 - 2499
Sales:  $52.6
Industry %:  7.41
Employment:  1000 - 2499
Sales:  $26.3
Industry %:  3.70
Employment:  500 - 999
Sales:  $20.5
Industry %:  2.89
Employment:  100 - 249
Sales:  $20.1
Industry %:  2.83
Employment:  250 - 499
Sales:  $18.7
Industry %:  2.63
Employment:  250 -
499
Sales:  $15.5
Industry %:  2.18
Employment:  250 - 499
Sales:  $14.1
Industry %:  1.99
Employment:  250 -
499
Sales:  $13.2
Industry %:  1.86
Employment:  250 - 499
                               A-l

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10.
11
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
C-E Refractories
Box 828
Valley Forge, Pennsylvania
 (215) 337-1100
C-E Refractories
101 Ferry St
St. Louis, Missouri
 (314) 421-3272
                          63147
Whitacre Greer Fireproofing
E. Lisbon St
Waynes burg, Ohio  44688
(216) 866-9331

Ferro/Amer Clay Formng Pit
E Duncan St
Tyler, Texas  75701
(214) 597-7237
C E Refractories
Highway 54 W
Vandal ia, Missouri
 (314) 249-2866
                         63382
           Sales:   $10.6
           Industry %:   1.49
    1942   Employment:   100 -  249
           Sales:   $10.6
           Industry X:   1.49
           Employment:   100 -  249
           Sales:   $9.9
           Industry X:   1.39
           Employment:   100 -  249
           Sales:   $9.8
           Industry X:   1.38
           Employment:   100 -  249
           Sales:   $9.6
           Industry X:   1.35
           Employment:   100  -  249
A P Green Refractories
P 0 Box 7
Woodbridge, New Jersey
 (201) 634-0900

Johns Manville Prod Penn
Front St
Zelienople, Pennsylvania
 (412) 452-8650

Freeport Brick Co Inc
P 0 Box F Mill St Ext
Freeport, Pennsylvania
 (412) 295-2111

Illinois Products Co
Goose!ake Twp
Morris, Illinois  60450
 (815) 942-0200

Harbison Walker Refctrs
838 Campbel1 Ave
Portsmouth, Ohio  4562
 (614) 354-3181
           Sales:   $9.3
           Industry X:   1.31
07095      Employment:   100  -  249
           Sales:   $9.1
           Industry %:   1.28
  16063    Employment:   100  -  249
           Sales:   $8.5
           Industry X:   1.20
16229      Employment:   100  -  249
           Sales:   $8.0
           Industry X:
           Employment:
                                                    1.13
                                                    Unknown
           Sales:   $7.8
           Industry %:   1.10
           Employment:   100 -  249
                                A-2

-------
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
General  Refractories Co
Folsom St N W
Warren,  Ohio  44483
(216) 847-0536

Kaul Clay Co. Inc
John F Kennedy Hwy
Toronto, Ohio  43964
(614) 537-1555

North American Refractories
Farber, Missouri  63345
(314) 249-2912

Findlay Refractories Co
Findlay & Greene Sts  X 517
Washington, Pennsylvania  15301
(412) 225-4400

Ferro Corp/Electro Dv
16th & Railroad Sts
Sebring, Ohio  44672
(216) 938-2101

Mount Savage Refractories
Grant Bldg
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania  15219
 (412) 281-0246
McDaniel Refractory Porcln
510  9 Ave
Beaver  Falls, Pennsylvania
 (412) 843-8300
                                  15010
 New Castle Refractories Co
 S  Swansea Ave
 New Castle, Pennsylvania  16103
 (412)  654-7711

 Harbison Walker Refractories
 P  0 Box 278  New Savage Wks
 Grantsville, Maryland; 21536
 (301)  895-5111

 A  P Green Refractories
 St Eunice Rd
 Fulton, Missouri   65251
 (314)  642-6667
Sales:  $7.4
Industry %:   1.04
Employment:   100 - 249
Sales:  $7.4
Industry %:  1.04
Employment:  100 - 249
Sales:  $7.3
Industry %:  1.03
Employment:  100 - 249

Sales:  $7.2
Industry %:  1.01
Employment:  100 - 249
Sales:  $6.8
Industry %:  .96
Employment:  100 - 249
Sales:  $6.7
Industry %:   .94
Employment:   100 - 249
Sales:   $6.7
Industry %:   .94
Employment:   100 - 249
 Sales:   $6.4
 Industry %:   .90
 Employment:   100  - 249
 Sales:   $5.8
 Industry %:   .82
 Employment:   100  -  249
 Sales:   $4.7
 Industry %:   .66
 Employment:   50 -
                                                             99
                                A-3

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30    Plibrico Co Inc
      Rte 3  State Rte 140
      Oak Hill, Ohio  45656
      (614) 682-3555

31.   Kittanning Brk Div Frport
      R D 1
      Reesdale, Pennsylvania  16229
      (412) 295-2111

32.   Green Refractories Co. Inc
      2800 Alabama Ave
      Bessemer, Alabama  35020
      (205) 428-9175

33.   New Castle Refractories Co.
      P 0 Box 415
      Newell, West Virginia  26050
      (304) 387-2980

34.   North American Refractories
      13th St & Ashtabula
      Ironton, Ohio  45638
      (614) 532-3621

35.   General  Refractories Co
      Main Road
      Salina, Pennsylvania  15680
      (412) 697-4547

36.   Drexel  Dynamics Corp
      RFD 2
      Kittanning, Pennsylvania  16201
      (412) 543-2911

37.   Chicago Fire Brick Co
      1467 Elston Ave
      Chicago, Illinois  60622
      (312) BR8-8000

38.   Harbison Walker Refractories
      Tempieton, Pennsylvania  16259
      (412) 868-2521

39.   AFC Corp
      5183 West Western Reserve
      Canfield, Ohio  44406
      (216) 533-5581
Sales:  $4.5
Industry %:  .63
Employment:  20 - 49
Sales:  4.4
Industry %:  .62
Employment:  50 - 99
Sales:  $4.4
Industry %:  .62
Employment:  50 - 99
Sales:  $4.3
Industry %:  .61
Employment:  50 - 99
Sales:  $4.1
Industry %:  .58
Employment:  50 - 99
Sales:  $4.0
Industry %:  .56
Employment:  50 - 99


Sales:  $4.0
Industry %:  .56
Employment 50-99
Sales:  $3.9
Industry %:  .55
Employment:  100 - 249
Sales:  $3.7
Industry %:  .52
Employment:  50 - 99

Sales:  $3.7
Industry %:  .52
Employment:  50 - 99
                                A-4

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40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46
47.
48.
49,
Swanks Hiram Sons Inc
Rt 480
Clymer, Pennsylvania  15728
 (412) 254-4178

A P Greene Div US Gypsum
Baker Hill Hwy
Eufaula, Alabama  36027
 (205) 687-5803

Kek Refractories
4140 Brownsville Rd
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania  15227
 (412) 882-9409

North State Pyrophyllite
3514 W Wendover Ave
Greensboro, North Carolina  27407
 (919) 299-1441

Electrical Refractories Co
550 E Clark
East Palestine, Ohio  44413
 (216) 426-9433

A P Green Refractories
FM 1870/P 0 Box 277
Sulphur Springs, Texas  75482
 (214) 488-3215

Louisville Fire Brick Wrks
Grahn, Kentucky  41142
 (606) 286-4436

Harbison Walker Refractories
Bakerhill Hwy/ P 0 Box 168
Eufaula, Alabama  36027
 (205) 687-3459

C E Raymond Bartlett Snow
333 State St
Chicago Hts, Illinois  60411
 (312) 757-7880
Plibrico Co Inc
1300 New York Ave
Trenton, New Jersey
 (609) 393-7461
                           08638
Sales:  $3.4
Industry %:   .48
Employment:   50 -
                                                            99
Sales:  $3.3
Industry %:  .46
Employment:  50 -99
Sales:  $3.3
Industry %:  .46
Employment:  50 -
                                                            99
Sales:  $3.3
Industry %:  .46
Employment:  50 - 99
Sales:  $3.3
Industry %:  .46
Employment:  50 - 99
Sales:  $3.3
Industry %: .46
Employment:  50 - 99
Sales:  $3.2
Industry %:  .45
Employment:  50 - 99

Sales:  $3.1
Industry %:  .44
Employment:  50-99
Sales:  $3.1
Industry %:  .44
Employment:  50 - 99
Sales:  $3.1
Industry %:  .44
Employment:  20 -
49
                              A-5

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50.  Mt Savage Refractories   Sales:  $3.1
     P 0 Box 576    Industry %:  .44
     Mt. Savage, Maryland  21545   Employment:  50  99
     (301) 2643571

51.  Green Refractories Co. Inc    Sales:  $3.0
     P 0 Box 128    Industry %:  .42
     Kimberly, Alabama  35091  Employment:  20  49
     (205) 6473861

52.  A P Green Refractories   Sales:  $2.8
     2900 Waterville Rd  Industry %:  .39
     Macon, Georgia  31206    Employment:  20  49
     (912) 7816228

53.  A P Green Refractories   Sales:  $2.8
     Climax Div/Box 44   Industry %:  .39
     New Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 16242  Employment:  20  49
     (814) 2751343

54.  Swanks Hiram Sons Inc    Sales:  $2.8
     Large     Industry %:   .39
     Clairton, Pennsylvania  15025 Employment:  50  99
     (412) 3844259

55.  General  Refractories Co.  Sales:  $2.5
     300 N Collie St     Industry %:  .35
     Troup, Texas  75789 Employment:  50  99
     (214) 8423184

56.  Drexel Refractories Inc  Sales:  $2.4
     723 High St N W     Industry %:  .34
     Carroll ton, Ohio  44615  Employment:  50  99
     (216) 6272184

57.  Colorado Refractories  Corp    Sales:  $2.3
     309 S llth St/Box 1001   Industry %:  .32
     Canon City, Colorado  81212   Employment:  20  49
     (303) 2751555

58.  DFC Ceramics   Sales:   $2.3
     515 S. 9th/Box 110  Industry %:  .32
     Canon City, Colorado  81212   Employment:  20  49
     (303) 2757525

59.  North American Refractors     Sales:  $2.3
     White Cloud, Michigan   49349  Industry %:  .32
     (616) 6896641  Employment:  20  49
                                    A-6

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60.   Pryor-Giggey Co
      10000 Santa Fe Springs  Rd
      Santa Fe Sprg, Claiform'a   9-670
      (213) 944-7981

61.   Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical
      165 E Park Ave
      Niles, Ohio  44446
      (216) 793-1339

62.   Osceola Fire Brick Co
      1012 Grant Bldg
      Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania   15219
      (412) 281-0246

63.   A P Green Refractories
      Pyro
      Jackson, Onio  45640
      (614) 286-3332

64.   A P Green Refractories
      P 0 Box 255
      Oak Hill, Ohio  45656
      (614) 682-7713

65.   Osceola Fire Brick Co
      Rt 56
      Osceola Mills, Pennsylvania  16666
      (814) 281-0246

66.   A P Green Refractories
      15225 Lincoln Way W
      Massillon, Ohio  44646
      (216) 832-7407

67    Whitacre Greer Fireproofing
      400 E Lisbon
      Magnolia, Ohio 44643
      (216) 866-9331

68.   Refractory Sales & Service
      Hwy 150/Box 885
      Bessemer, Alabama  35020
      (205) 425-2476

69.   Alsey Refractories Co  Inc
      Hwy 106
      Alsey, Illinois  62610
      (217) 742-5501
Sales:  $2.3
Industry %:   .32
Employment:   20-49
Sales:  $2.2
Industry %:   .31
Employment:   50 - 99
Sales:  $2.0
Industry %:   .28
Employment:   20 - 49
Sales:  $2.0
Industry %:   .28
Employment:   20 - 49
Sales:  $2.0
Industry %:   .28
Employment:   20 - 49
Sales:  $1.9
Industry %:  .27
Employment: 20 - 49
Sales:  $1.7
Industry %:  .24
Employment:  20 - 49
Sales:  $1.7
Industry %:  .24
Employment:  20 - 49
Sales:  $1.6
Industry %:  .23
Employment:  50 - 99
Sales:  $1.6
Industry %:  .23
Employment:  20-49
                             A-7

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70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
General Refractories Co
Rt 220
Sproul, Pennsylvania  16682
 (814) 239-2111

Hartford Refractories
31 To bey Rd
Blcornfield, Connecticut 06002
 (203) 677-4631

Riverside Clay Co Inc
Hwy 78/P 0 Box 551
Pell City, Alabama  35125
 (205) 338-3366

Columbia Fire Brick Co
Rt 21/P 0 Box 207
Dover, Ohio  44622
 (216)  878-5544

A P Green Refractories
Troy,  Idaho  83871
 (208) 835-2201

Refractory Products 2
12 E Main St
Carpentersville, Illinois 60110
 (312) 426-8191

Donoho Clay Co Inc
1100 W 10th St/ Box 843
Anniston, Alabama  36201
 (205)  237=8565

Chicago Fire Brick Co.
1269 W Lemoyne Ave
Chicago, Illinois  60636
 (312) 846-6501

Missouri Minerals Processg
High Hill, Missouri  63350
 (314) 585-2300

Applied Ceramics Inc
P 0 Box 29664
Atlanta, Georgia  30329
 (404) 448-6888
Darco Corp
160 Visger Ave
River Rouge, Michigan
 (313) 386-8300
                             48218
Sales:  $1.5
Industry %:  .21
Employment:  20 - 49
Sales:  $1.4
Industry %:   .20
Employment:   20-49
Sales:  $1.4
Industry %:   .20
Employment:   20-49
Sales:  $1.4
Industry %:  .20
Employment:  20-49
Sales:  $1.3
Industry %:   .18
Employment:   20-49

Sales:  $1.3
Industry %:   .18
Employment:   20-49
Sales:  $1.2
Industry %:  .17
Employment:  20 - 49
Sales:  $1.2
Industry %:  .15
Employment:  20-49
Sales:  $1.1
Industry %:  .15
Employment:  20 - 49

Sales:  $0.9
Industry %:  .13
Employment:  20-49
Sales:  $0.9
Industry %:  .13
Employment:  20-49
                              A-8

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                            APPENDIX B

                 SIC  3297  NONCLAY REFRACTORIES
1.    Babcock & Wilcox Co.
      Old Savannah Rd
      Augusta, Gerogia  30903
      (404) 798-8000
                                     Sales:   $61.1
                                     Industry %:   5.41
                                     Employment:   500-999
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Basic Refractories
Country Road
Maple Grove, Ohio 44815
(419) 986-5111

Harbison Walker Refractories
1200 Patapsco Ave
Baltimore, Maryland  21225
(301) 355-8500

Quigley Co Inc
Bordentown Ave
Old Bridge, New Jersey 08857
(201) 257-1227
CE Refractories
101 Ferry St
St Louis, Missouri
(314) 421-3272
                          63147
Harbison Walker Refractories
Mount Union , Pennsylvania  17066
(814) 542-2528

Kaiser Refractories
Chemical  Rd
Plymouth Mtg, Pennsylvania 19462
(215) 825-4500

Ferro Corp/Electro Div
Willett Rd
Buffalo, New York 14218
(716) 825-7900

Remmey Div A P Green Refractories
Hedley & Delaware River
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania  19137
(215) JE5-0100

General  Refractories Co
3401 7th St/Box 1673
Baltimore, Maryland 21225
(301) 355-8700

                              B-l
Sales:  $52.9
Industry %:   4.68
Employment:   500 - 999
Sales:  $42.3
Industry %:   3.75
Employment:   500 - 999
Sales:  $35.6
Industry %:   3.15
Employment:   250 - 499
Sales:  $35.2
Industry %:  3.12
Employment:  250 - 499
Sales:  $35.2
Industry %:  3.12
Employment:  250 - 499

Sales:  $33.7
Industry %:  2.98
Employment:  250 - 499
Sales:  $33.5
Industry %:  2.97
Employment:  250 - 499
Sales:  $32.4
Industry %:  2.87
Employment:  250 - 499
Sales:  $31.2
Industry %:  2.76
Employment:  250 - 499

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11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
North American Refractories
RFD 1
Womelsdorf, Pennsylvania 19567
 (215) 589-2535

Kaiser Refractories
41738 Esterly Dr
Columbiana, Ohio 44408
 (216) 549-3941

Swank Refractories Co
101 Swank Court
Johnstown, Pennsylvania 15902
 (814) 536-5321

Swank Refractories Co
101 Swank Court
Johnstown, Pennsylvania 15902
 (814) 536-5321

General  Refractories Co
Main St
Claysburg, Pennsylvania 16625
 (814) 239-2121

Kaiser Aluminum & Co
Highway 1
Moss Landing, California 95039
 (408) 633-2413

Corhart Refractories Co
1600 W Lee St
Louisville, Kentucky  40210
 (502) 778-3311

Charles Taylor Sons Co Inc
P 0 Box 457
South Shore, Kentucky 41175
 (606) 932-3131

Swank Refractories Co
24th & Clark Ave
Wellsville, Ohio '43968
(216) 532-1571
Corhart Refractories Co
Rt 1 Box 28
Buckhannon, West Virginia
(304) 472-4000
                                 26201
Sales:  $29.6
Industry %:  2.62
Employment:  250 - 499
Sales:  $26.3
Industry %:  2.33
Employment:  250 - 499
Sales:  $24.3
Industry %:  2.15
Employment:  250 - 499
Sales:  $24.3
Industry %:  2.15
Employment:  250 - 499


Sales:  $23.4
Industry %:
Employment:  250 - 499
Sales:  $20.3
Industry %:  1.80
Employment:  250 - 499
Sales:  $20.3
Industry %:  1.80
Employment:  250 - 499
Sales:  $19.3
Industry %:   1.71
Employment:   100 - 249
Sales:  $17.5
Industry %:  1.55
Employment:  100 - 249
Sales:  $15.5
Industry %:  1.37
Employment:  250 - 499
                               B-2

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  21.
 22.
 23.
 24.
 25.
 26.
 27.
28.
29.
30.
 Carborundum Co
 501 New York Ave Box 157
 Falconer, New York 14733
  (716) 665-2120

 Carborundum Co
 P 0 Box 187
 Keasbey, New Jersey 08832
 (201) 442-3380

 Taylor Chas Sons Co
 8361 Broadwell Rd
 Cincinnati, Ohio  45244
 (513) 251-4285

 Harbison Walker Refractories
 McDaniel  Station Rd
 Calhoun,  Georgia  30701
 (404)  629-0168

 Harbison  Walker Refractors
 U  S  31/Box  569
 Ludington, Michigan 49431
 (616)  843-2525

 Harbison  Walker Refractories
 P  0  Box 311
 Fairfield, Alabama  35064
 (205)  785-3132

 General Refractories
 1000 N Clark Rd
 Gary,  Indiana  46401
 (219)  949-8451

 Harbison Walker Refractories
 P 0 Box 397
 Windham, Ohio  44288
 (216) 326-2010
C-E Refractories
Farber, Missouri
(314) 249-2866
                        63345
Vesuvius Crucible Co
2216 Palmer St
Swissvale, Pennsylvania
(412) 351-3200
                               15218
                                            Sales:   $15.1
                                            Industry %:   1.34
                                            Employment:   250 - 499
                                            Sales:   $14.8
                                            Industry %:  1.31
                                            Employment:  250 - 499
                                           Sales:  $14.5
                                           Industry %:  1.28
                                           Employment:  100 - 249
                                           Sales:  $14.4
                                           Industry %:  1.27
                                           Employment:  100 - 249
                                           Sales:  $14.0
                                           Industry %:  1.24
                                           Employment:  100 - 249
                                           Sales:  $14.0
                                           Industry %:  1.24
                                           Employment:  100 - 249
                                           Sales:  $13.6
                                           Industry %:   1.20
                                           Employment:   100 - 249
                                           Sales:   $13.2
                                           Industry %:  1.17
                                           Employment:  100 - 249
Sales:  $12.3
Industry %:  1.09
Employment:  100 - 249

Sales:  $11.4
Industry %:  1.01
Employment:  100 - 249
                               B-3

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31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
Lava Crucible Refractories
Clay
Zelienople, Pennsylvania  16063
 (412) 452-6050

Carborundum Co Inc
Hill view Ave
Latrobe, Pennsylvania 15650
 (412) 537-3331

Harbison Walker Refractories
300 N 32nd St/P 0 Box B
Bessemer, Alabama  35020
 (205) 428-6371

A P Green Refractories Co
6th St & Center
Tarentum, Pennsylvania 15084
 (412) 224-8800
Interpace Corp
3000 1st Ave
Seattle, Washington
 (206) 682-9891
                           98121
Combustion Engineering
Indus Hwy
Eddystone, Pennsylvania  19013
 (215) TR4-0404

A P Green Refractories
2500 N Santa Fe/Box 1614
Pueblo, Colorado 81002
 (303) 544-9043

Harbison Walker Refractories
5501 Kennedy
Hammond, Indiana  46323
 (219) 932-8641

Kittanning Brk Dv Freeport
Adrian, Pennsylvania  16210
 (412) 868-2501

General Refractories Co
Lehi, Utah  84043
 (801) 768-3591
Sales:  $11.4
Industry 35:   1.01
Employment:   100 -
                                                             249
Sales:  $10.8
Industry %:   .96
Employment:   250 - 499
Sales:  $10.0
Industry %:   .89
Employment:   100 - 249
Sales:  $9.3
Industry %:  .82
Employment:  100 - 249
Sales:  $7.1
Industry %:  .63
Employment:  100
- 249
Sales:  $6.6
Industry %:  .58
Employment:  50 - 99
Sales:  $6.1
Industry %:  .54
Employment:  50 - 99
Sales:  $5.6
Industry %:  .50
Employment:  50 - 99
Sales:  $5.4
Industry %:  .48
Employment:  50 - 99

Sales:  $5.4
Industry %:  .48
Employment:  50 - 99
                              B-4

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41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
American Refractories Corp
Washington Ave
North Haven, Connecticut 06473
(203) 239-1624

Ross Tacony Crucible Co
Robbins & Mil nor
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19135
(215) MA4-1010

Dolomite Brick Corp
232 E Market St
York, Pennsylvania  17405
(717) 848-1508

Harbison Walker Refractors
U S 40 S - Hile Work
North East, Maryland  21901
(302) 287-8161

North American Refractories
Mount Union, Pennsylvania 17066
(814) 542-2551
J.  E. Baker  .
3964 County  Rd 41
Millersville, Ohio
 (419) 638-2501
                          43448
Sales:  $5.2
Industry %:   .46
Employment:   50 - 99
Sales:  $5.2
Industry %:  .46
Employment:  50 - 99
Sales:  $5.2
Industry %:  .46
Employment:  100 - 249
Sales:  $4.7
Industry %:  .42
Employment:  50 - 99
Carborundum Co Graphite Dv
P 0 Box 577
Niagara Falls, New York  14302
 (716) 731-3221

Corhart Refractories
Bayou Casotte Ind Area
Pascagoula, Mississippi  39567
 (601) 762-3122

Zirconium Corp of America
31501 Solon
Solon, Ohio  44139
 (216) 248-0500

Ferro/Electro-Refrctrs Dv
Fiber Glass Rd
Huntington Beach, California  92648
 (714) 847-3563
Sales:  $4.6
Industry %:  .41
Employment:  50 -
                                                             99
Sales:  $4.4
Industry %:  .39
Employment:  50 - 99
Sales:  $4.3
Industry %:   .38
Employment:   100 - 249
 Sales:   $4.3
 Industry %:   .38
 Employment:   50 - 99
 Sales:   $3.8
 Industry %:   .34
 Employment:   50 -  99
 Sales:   $3.5
 Industry %:   .31
 Employment:   20-49
                               B-5

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51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
Kaiser Aluminum & Chem Co
7501 W 5th Ave
Gary, Indiana  46406
 (219) 949-4507

Thermo Materials Corp
3584 McCall Place
Doraville, Georgia  30340
 (404) 451-6101

Thermotect Co Inc
Box 178
Gibsonia, Pennsylvania  15044
 (412)  443-5965

Allied Mineral Products
2626 Fisher Rd
Columbus, Ohio  43204
 (614) 272-1054

C E Minerals
Pidgeon Point Rd
New Castle, Delaware 19720
 (402) 652-3301

Universal Refractories
Wampum, Pennsylvania  16157
 (412) 535-4374

General  Refractories Co
1808 Moen Av
Joliet, Illinois  60435
 (815) 725-5300
Interpace Corp
Highway 27
Mica, Washington
 (509) 924-2120
                        99023
National Crucible Co Inc
Queen & Mermail Lane
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
(215)  CH7-9200

C E Refractories
625 Illinois Ave
Aurora, Illinois 60506
(312) TW7-8487
                                  19118
Sales:  $3.4
Industry %:  .30
Employment:  50 -
                                                             99
Sales:  $3.3
Industry X:  .29
Employment:  20 - 49
Sales:  $3.0
Industry %:  .27
Employment:  20 - 49
Sales:  $2.8
Industry X:  .25
Employment:  20 - 49
Sales:  $2.6
Industry X:  .23
Employment:  20 - 49
Sales:  $2.3
Industry X:   .20
Employment:   20 - 49

Sales:  $2.3
Industry X:   .20
Employment:   20 - 49
Sales:  $2.2
Industry X:  .19
Employment:  20-49
Sales:  $2.2
Industry X:  .19
Employment:  20 - 49
Sales:  $2.1
Industry X:   .19
Employment:   20 - 49
                               B-6

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61.    Refractory Products 1                 Sales:   $1.8
      120 S Lincoln Ave                    Industry %:   .15
      Carpentersville,  Illinois  60110     Employment:   20 - 49
      (312) 426-6744

62.    Interpace Corp                       Sales:   $1.7
      Victorville, California  92392       Industry %:   .15
      (714) 245-4262                       Employment:   20 - 49

63.    A P Green Refractories               Sales:   $1.7
      6315 Hiwhway 332 E                   Industry %:   .15
      Freeport, Texas  77541               Employment:   20 - 49
      (713) 233-5861
                                B-7

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                             APPENDIX C

                     List of Knowledgable Contacts

1.        Mr. Bradford Tucker
          The Refractory Institute
          1102 One Oliver Plaza
          Pittsburgh, PA  15222
          (412) 281-6787
2.        Mr. Robert Besal ke
          A. P. Green Refractories  Co.
          Green Blvd.
          Mexico, MO  65265
          (314) 473-3626
3.        Mr. Robert Moore
          Globe Refractories
          P.O. Box D
          Newell, WV  26050
           (304) 387-1160
  4.       Mr. H.  S. James
          Kaiser  Refractories
          Kaiser  Center:  300  Lakeside Drrive
          Oakland, CA   94643
           (415) 271-3463
5.        Mr. J.  T.  Elmer
          Kaiser  Refractories
          Moss Landing, CA   95039
           (408) 633-2413
6.        Mr.  G.  H.  Chesnut
          Babcock and Wilcox Company, Refractories Div,
          Old  Savannah Road, P.O.  Box 923
          Augusta,  GA  30903
           (404)  798-8000
                                    C-l

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7.        Dr.  Daniel  K.  Clift
          North American Refractories
          Hanna Building, E.  14th and  Euclid
          Cleveland,  OH  44115
8.        Mr.  Robert  Purcell
          Energy and  Environmental  Analysis
          2607A Carver Street
          Durham, NC   27705
          (919) 471-2506
                                    C-2

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                                   TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                           (/'lease read luanictioiu on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
 EPA  450-3-80-006
                                                           3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

 Source Category Survey:  Refractory Industry
                                                           6. REPORT OATE
                                                             March 1980
                                                           6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)

 M.  S.  Jennings and A. H,
                                                           8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
                           Laube
3. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
                                                           10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
 Radian Corporation
 3024 Pickett Road
 Post Office Box 8837
 Durham, NC  27707
                                                           11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
                                                              68-02-3058
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
 DAA for Air Quality  Planning and Standards
 Office of Air, Noise,  and Radiation
 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
 Research Triangle Park,  N.C.  27711
                                                           13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
                                                              Final
                                                           14. SPONSORING AGENCV CODE
                                                              EPA/200/04
16. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
 This report documents a study assessing  the need for new source performance standards
 (NSPS) for the  refractory industry.  The industry is examined  with respect to products
 product uses, plant distribution, and  growth potential.  Emission sources and species
 are identified  and emissions from these  sources are quantified.  Present methods  of
 air pollution control are examined along with their effectiveness.  State regulations
 applying to the industry are summarized.  Based on the estimated industry growth  in
 new sources and the emission reduction possible through the use of best demonstrated
 control, an estimate is made of the  total emission reduction achievable through NSPS.
 This estimate and other factors indicate that development  of NSPS for the industry is
 not warranted.
17.
                                KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                  DESCRIPTORS
                                              b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS  C.  COSATI Field/Group
 Refractories
 Castable Refractories
 Ceramic  Fibers
 Kilns
 Arc  Furnaces
 Particulate
 Control  Equipment
                                                                               13-B
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
 Unlimited
                                               19. SECURITY CLASS (TillsReport)
                                                 Unclassified
                                                                          21. NO. OF PAGES
                                                                              116
                                              20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
                                                 Unclassified
                                                                          22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (t-73)

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