EPA-66Q/2-75-010
JUNE 1975
Environmental Protection Technology Series
Research Status on Effects of Land
Application of Animal Wastes
National Environmental Research Center
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, have been grouped into
five series. These five broad categories were established to
facilitate further development and application of environmental
technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in
related fields. The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
TECHNOLOGY STUDIES series. This series describes research
performed to develop and demonstrate instrumentation, equipment
and methodology to repair or prevent environmental degradation from
point and non-point sources of pollution. This work provides the
new or improved technology required for the control and treatment
of pollution sources to meet environmental quality standards.
EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the Office of Research and
Development, EPA, and approved for publication. Approval does
not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention
of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
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EPA-660/2-75-010
MAY 1975
RESEARCH STATUS
ON
EFFECTS OF LAND APPLICATION OF ANIMAL WASTES
By
William L. Powers
G. Walter Wallingford
Larry S. Murphy
Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas 66506
Project #803021
Program Element #1BB039
ROAP/TASK NO. 21BEQ-015
Project Officer
Lynn R. Shuyler
National Environmental Research Center
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
P.O. Box 1198
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97330
For Sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 Stock No. 055-001-01026
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ABSTRACT
The primary purpose of this report was to review the literature and
analyze research needs on the effects of land application of animal waste.
An additional purpose was to assemble published information on application
guidelines for animal waste. Included in this report are information on
the characteristics of waste, effects of waste on soil and water near
application sites, application rates, application techniques, and research
needs.
This report is organized into six main topics: (1), climate, waste, and
soil classification; (2), waste composition; (3), effect of waste on the
environment; (4), application rates based on waste constituents; (5),
application techniques; and (6), research needs. The climate, waste, and
soil classification systems were developed to allow comparison of the
effects of animal waste applications on land in various parts of the country.
The composition of the waste in each climate was tabulated and values
compared. Comparisons between climatic regions were not possible because
the large variability within regions. Because of this variability no
average composition for a given waste in a given climatic region was
possible. The effect of the waste on the environment was measured in terms
of the possible final disposition of the waste constituents. These
constituents could accumulate in the soil, move to the groundwater, runoff
the soil surface, or be taken up by plants. Attempts were made to assemble
application guidelines from the various parts of the country. It was
believed that guidelines should be based on nitrogen content with secondary
consideration to accumulation of soluble salts of toxic elements in the
soil. In the section on application techniques, various methods of applying
the waste to the soil were discussed in terms the layman should be able to
understand. In the section on research needs, research needed to develop
application guidelines were stressed.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Project #803021 by Kansas State
University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506 under the sponsorship of the
Environmental Protection Agency. Work was completed as of February 1, 1975.
ii
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CONTENTS
Page
I Conclusions 1
II Recommendations 2
III Introduction 4
IV Climate, Waste, and Soil Classification Systems 5
V Waste Composition 10
VI Effect of Waste on the Environment 29
VII Application Rates Based on Waste Constituents 49
VIII Application Techniques 68
IX Research Needs 72
X References 75
XI List of Publications 94
XII Glossary 95
iii
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FIGURES
No. Page
1 Climatic regions of the United States 6
2 Coarse, medium and fine soil textures In relation to
USDA texture classification system 8
3 Schematic summary of factors affecting waste compo-
sition and Influencing the efficiency of Its use on
cropland 11
4 Annual manure application rates for resulting low
salinity on a medium textured soil 62
5 Annual application rates on nonirrigated land using
air-dry manure 66
iv
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TABLES
No. Page
1 The Minimum and Maximum Total Nitrogen Content of
Animal Wastes 12
2 The Minimum and Maximum Values Found for Various
Animal Waste Constituents 14
3 The Minimum and Maximum Phosphorus Content of
Animal Wastes 19
4 The Minimum and Maximum Potassium Content of Animal
Wastes 22
5 The Minimum and Maximum Calcium Content of Animal
Wastes 23
6 The Minimum and Maximum Magnesium Content of Animal
Wastes 24
7 The Minimum and Maximum Sodium Content of Animal
Wastes 25
8 The Minimum and Maximum Electrical Conductivity of
Animal Wastes 26
9 References on Microorganism Content of Animal
Wastes 28
10 References on Soil Properties Affected by Animal
Waste Application 35
11 References on Crop Yields Affected by Animal Waste
Application 46
12 Manure Application Rates Needed to Insure 50,100 or
200 Pounds of Available Nitrogen per Acre 61
13 Conversion Factors from Dry Weight to Wet Weight 64
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Early in the life of the project, an advisory committee of 11 scientists
met in Denver, Colorado on March 13 and 14. The committee discussed
pertinent literature and organization of the report. Later, on
September 19 and 20 the committee again met to review the first draft
of the completed report. The following people served on this committee
and the project's leaders wish to express their appreciation for the help
of this committee:
Domy C. Adriano, Michigan State University
Frank J. Humenik, North Carolina State University
J. Ronald Miner, Oregon State University
William L. Powers, Kansas State University
Parker F. Pratt, University of California, Riverside
Burns R. Sabey, Colorado State University
Lynn R. Shuyler, EPA, Ada, Oklahoma
B. A. Stewart, USDA, Bushland, Texas
Dale H. Vanderholm, University of Illinois
G. Walter Wallingford, University of Minnesota
Dan M. Wells, Texas Tech University
The project leaders also express their appreciation to Nancy Johnston for
without whose patient search and assemblage of pertinent literature, this
report could not have been so readily prepared.
vi
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
Animal wastes were found to be extremely variable in their chemical
composition. This necessitates the analyses of wastes before application
so that rates can be based on nitrogen or salt content of the waste.
Variability of the chemical composition and the necessity for chemical
analyses before application precludes the use of specific application
rates that can be used nationally.
Numerous literature is available on the short term effects of applying
animal waste to land, but there appears to be little information available
on the long term effects of animal waste on the physical, chemical, and
biological properties of the soil. Even fewer publications are available
on guidelines which provide methods of calculating animal waste applica-
tion rates. Because of the lack of data on long term effects on the fate
of nutrients and soluble salts added to the soil, it appears that the best
and safest application rate is one which supplies just enough nitrogen to
maintain optimal plant growth so that the maximum amount of this nutrient
can be recycled. Few states have published guidelines on the application
of animal waste to land. In areas where guidelines are not available,
many agricultural scientists use rule of thumb figures for application
rates of animal wastes. In order to avoid errors inherent in rule of
thumb figures more experimental data are needed so that guidelines can
have a wider applicability.
The research needed to obtain this wide range of applicability is included
in the section on Recommendations where specific research needs are
enumerated.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
One of the basic objectives of this report was to recommend needed research.
These recommendations are listed, not in order of their importance, below.
Additional research is needed on:
1. The denitrification process as affected by soil temperature,
climate, and waste composition. While it is recognized that this process
can cause large losses of soil nitrogen into the atmosphere, little is
known on how animal waste applications affect this process. In some cases
denitrification may account for large errors in underestimating the
application rate for a given agronomic system. For this reason, addi-
tional research is needed on the denitrification process in soils that have
received animal wastes.
2. The fate of soluble salts in manure upon addition to land. In
many parts of the United States there is sufficient precipitation to move
the soluble salts in manures below the root zone. The ultimate fate and
pathways of these salts should be known. Often salts may leach into
groundwater by percolation and into surface streams through underground
recharge. Insoluble salts may lower the quality of groundwater and
surface streams. For this reason, additional research should be done on
the fate of inorganic salts upon addition and incorporation to the soil.
3. The long term effect of manure application on crops. There are
numerous publications on the effects of animal waste on crop growth. In
particular, there was a great deal of research done on fertilization of
crops with animal manure during the early part of this century. Additional
information on build-up of toxic chemicals in plants such as copper, arsenic,
and the accumulation of nitrates in plant material and their effect on
foraging livestock is needed. For this reason, some long term studies on
the effect of animal waste application to land on crop growth and crop
quality should be made.
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4. Methods of standardizing animal waste analyses and research
reporting. In order to compare research results and establish application
rates there must be a standardization of data. Analyses should be expressed
on a dry weight basis except possibly for liquids of low solids content
(approximately 1% or lower). Data on the location of research by climate
and soil characteristics should also be made. Depth of impervious layers,
water tables, and other pertinent information should be reported. It
is only with these standardizations that meaningful comparisons can be made
and guidelines established. Therefore, it is suggested that a standard-
ization of data be established.
5. Nitrogen mineralization and decay rates of manure under different
climatic and soil conditions. Because much of the nitrogen contained in
animal waste is in an organic form, the decay rate, or the rate at which
nitrogen is mineralized in the soil, becomes an important factor in the
availability of the nitrogen for plant uptake and for leaching into
groundwater. For this reason, more information is needed on mineralization
or decay rates in various parts of the country.
There are several areas in which it is felt that additional research is not
needed. One of these is additional characterization of beef, dairy, swine,
and poultry wastes. The numerous publications on the characterization of
these wastes all show extreme variability and, as mentioned in this report,
they are difficult to classify by climate. There has been little research
done, however, on the characterization of sheep, horse, and fish hatchery
wastes. Knowledge of the composition of these wastes must also be known
before disposal.
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
The primary purpose of this project was to review literature and analyze
research needs on the effects of land application of animal wastes. An
additional purpose was to assemble published information on application
guidelines for animal wastes. Included in this report are information
on the characteristics of wastes, effects on soil and water near appli-
cation sites, application rates, application techniques, and research
needs. The report was organized into six main topics: (1), climate,
waste, and soil classification; (2), waste composition; (3), effect of
waste on the environment; (4), application rates based on waste con-
stituents; (5), application techniques; and (6), research needs.
This report was restricted to literature which, in the authors' judgment,
best exemplified current research on land application of animal wastes.
It was not intended to be a complete literature review of all information
on animal waste application. Comprehensive listings of research have been
published by Wells (220), Miner et al. (130), and Azevedo and Stout (15).
This report was intended to provide a summary of research on land appli-
cation of animal wastes.
Not all available literature was usable because of the method in which the
data were reported. For example, if solid manure application rate and
analyses data were reported on a wet weight or "as is" basis without giving
the dry weight or solids content, the data were not usable.
The basic approach for this report was to search for a rationale for
application rates in terms of climate, soil and waste composition and to
determine the research needed to fill the information gaps. Although
several regions in the United States have very little information, the
amount of animal production in those areas may be too small to justify
concern. This document is not a guideline for animal waste application; the
intent was that this document be used to point out information needed to
develop guidelines for animal waste application.
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SECTION IV
CLIMATE, WASTE, AND SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION
Because climate influences the decay rate of organic matter in animal
wastes and the accumulation and movement of waste constituents, it was
necessary to divide the United States into several climatic classific-
ations. The two basic parameters of the classification system are annual
precipitation and temperature, both of which affect the percolation
rate of waste constituents through soil, organic matter content, decay
rates, and such processes as denitrification and salt accumulation.
Temperature, precipitation, and evaporation have been used by Shuyler
et al. (178) to classify the United States into 12 climatic regions.
Those same 12 climatic regions were used in this report (Fig. 1). The
regional divisions are based on temperature, annual precipitation, and
moisture deficit (annual lake evaporation minus annual precipitation).
Although this climatic classification was originally intended as an aid
to feedlot site selection, it serves the purpose of this report and
avoids creating another system.
As an example of this classification system, Minnesota is in region 1
while North Dakota is in region 5 (Fig. 1). Although they both have
approximately the same annual temperature patterns, North Dakota has
a higher annual moisture deficit which could, for example, cause manure
in North Dakota to have characteristics different from manure in Minnesota.
It could also mean that there is less water available in North Dakota to
remove soluble salts from the soil profile after land application.
WASTE CLASSIFICATION
The physical and chemical properties of animal wastes can influence the
effect of land application on the environment. For example, liquid
runoff from beef feedlots generally has lower fiber content than solid
manure. Because of the fiber in the solid manure, it will be less likely
to adversely affect the physical properties of the soil after land
application.
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10 Moist.
Deficit
30"Moist
Deficit
^ 32PF
Jan. Avg.
Jan. Avg. 20°F
20°F
^
Jan. Av g.
80° F
July Avg.
80°F
July Avg
30
Moist.
Deficit
Figure 1. Climatic regions of the United States. Adapted from Shuyler et al. (178),
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SOIL CLASSIFICATION
No less than the climate and the type of waste, the soil also can
influence the rate of biological decay, chemical reactions, and water
movement. The influence of the soil type on animal waste application
is related to its water holding capacity, water permeability, and other
textural properties. For example, more accumulation of inorganic salts
would be expected in a fine-textured soil with high exchange capacity
and low water permeability than in a coarse-textured soil with low
exchange capacity and high water permeability.
In this report we have classified soils into three broad categories:
coarse-textured soils (sands, loamy sands, and light sandy loams);
medium-textured soils (heavy sandy loams, loams, silt loams, light clay
loams, light silty clay loams, and silts); and fine-textured soils
(heavy clay loams, heavy silty clay loams, silty clay loams, sandy clays,
and clays). For the convenience of the reader, the classifications are
shown superimposed on the USDA textural triangle in Fig. 2. The classes
are enclosed by dashed lines.
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O A 1°°
too
/ SANDY T
/ _v, -._____ .»i»_
so
10
ea
30
so
BO
70
BO
so too
PERCENT BILT
Figure 2. Coarse, medium and fine soil textures (outlined by dashed
lines) in relation to USDA texture classification system. Adapted
from USDA Handbook No. 18 (181).
8
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SECTION V
WASTE COMPOSITION
INTRODUCTION
A prediction of the effects of animal waste application on soil
properties and plant growth requires a foreknowledge of the composition
of the waste material. Only if the concentrations of the constituents
in the waste are known can one estimate reactions such as solute
movement in the soil and plant nutrient availability or toxicity.
Waste composition data in the literature were compiled by recording all
usable data and classifying them by climatic region, species, and type
of waste. To eliminate variation due to water content, data were
recorded on a dry-weight basis (DWB). Data reported on a wet-weight
basis (WWB) were converted to DWB when possible. If the reference used
the WWB and did not state the dry matter or total solids content, the
data were not used. Approximately 25% of the data found were not usable
for that reason. An exception was made for the beef runoff waste
because practically all characterization data found for that particular
classification were given on a WWB.
Tables 1 to 8 contain the final compilation of data for each constituent
according to climatic region and waste characterization. Only the highest
and lowest values found are included in the tables. Mean values are
not given because of the lack of accuracy obtained when data (some of
which themselves are mean values) from divergent sources are averaged,
and because the tremendous variability in waste composition makes land
application calculations based on mean values subject to large errors.
Generally the value of these tables will be to illustrate that the range
in composition for all constituents is so great that analysis of the
specific waste is an absolute necessity before land application.
The composition tables contain many blank spaces because no data were
found for those particular combinations of climatic regions and waste
types. While it may appear at first glance that little characterization
-------
work has been done on a national scale, it can be seen from the
1969 Census of Agriculture (209) that some climatic regions contain
too little livestock production to justify land application research.
If the waste composition data were constant from one animal production
site to the next, then the task of determining application rates would
be less complicated. Unfortunately, there are several factors that can
influence waste composition, and these factors work together to make
the composition of waste extremely variable. Climate, species, ration
and management are the four general factors that can influence waste
characteristics. A summary of these factors is shown in Figure 3.
These factors will be considered according to how they affect the
concentration of each constituent.
NITROGEN
Range of Nitrogen Concentrations by Animal and Climate
Table 1 contains the minimum and maximum percent total nitrogen content
of the 16 animal waste types in the 12 regions. No consistent trends
attributable to climatic regions are evident. Data are not available
for regions 5, 8, 9, and 12,
Considerable variability in the data exists within most classifications.
Solid poultry manure has been considered to have the highest nitrogen
content of the four species, but Table 1 shows it to have minimum values
as low as, or lower than, the other three species. The digested beef,
swine, and poultry slurries generally had high nitrogen contents which
under certain circumstances might be due to the gaseous loss of non-
nitrogen solids, which increased nitrogen on a dry-weight basis.
The large differences between the low and high values in most classifi-
cations point out the potential errors that could be made if an average
nitrogen concentration were used in making application rate calculations.
For example, assume that the average nitrogen content of solid poultry
waste in region 1 was found to be 5%. If a poultry facility were
producing solid waste with a nitrogen content of 11% (the maximum value
found for that region), an application rate based on the 5% average
value would be 2.2 times larger than what it would be if the actual 11%
10
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Figure 3. Schematic summary of factors affecting waste composition and
influencing the efficiency of its use on cropland.
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Table 1. THE MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM TOTAL NITROGEN CONTENT OF ANIMAL WASTES.
(percent)
to
Species
and Type
of Waste
Beef
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)°
Slurry (U)d
Dairy
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Swine
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (0)
Poultry
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Climatic Region
1 2 3 46 7 10 11 NoneC
2.5-4.2
__
--
7.5-9.0
1,5-3.7
_-
1.8-5.1
__
--
9.8-19
2.7-11
__
*mm*
2.0-3.7
.0022-. 048
11
4.4
2.5
4.8
._
2.4-3.6
2.8
4.8
8.8-12
11
--
2.2-7.8
7.4
--
__
-.-.
--
_-
.40
--
6.3
1.1-6.7
«
V M
-~
.H
--
--
--
--
1.1-6.7
*"""
--
.0011-. 86
__
1.9
--
--
--
--
2.0
_«
.
--
--
--
"
.60-2.0
«
_
__
--
--
--
--
mm w
2.8-3.6
.<*
^_
4.8
1,8-2.0
--
4,8
--
--
--
--
--
2.2-4.9
mi mm
-^.
3.3
2,7-3.9
-.
2.4
2.0-7.5
--
3.4-17
3.4-7.8
--
**
Beef runoff data on wet weight basis, all other on a dry weight basis, single values indicate only one
.reference found.
No data were found for regions 5, 8, 9, and 12.
cClimatic region not given in reference.
D refers to digested and U to undigested slurries.
References used: beef, 12, 27, 42, 44, 61, 107, 112, 113, 114, 122, 144, 158, 167, 175, 189, 196, 198,
203, 207, 214, 216; dairy, 8, 17, 19, 37, 51, 60, 113, 118, 128, 144, 158, 160, 189, 190, 192, 203;
swine, 44, 73, 113, 144, 189, 191, 198, 203; and poultry, 25, 63, 99, 138, 142, 144, 172, 177, 182, 189,
y,9&
-------
value were used. If the actual value were 2.7% nitrogen (the lowest
value found for that region) then the application rate based on the
average value wot.tld be 0.54 times smaller than what it would be if the
actual 2.77, value were used.
Those examples represent the extremes in possible errors, but they also
illustrate what could happen if average values were used. The method
used in calculating average values will, of course, affect their
reliability. An average of multiple samples from one animal production
site would be less subject to error than one obtained from multiple
samples taken from a region, if that average value from the production
site were used for calculating application rates for that site only.
The factors influencing waste composition are more likely to be
consistent within a single production site than between different
production sites.
The ammonium-nitrogen and nitrate-nitrogen content of animal wastes
were also found to be extremely variable, with no trend evident because
of climatic region. The data were combined over all regions and were
presented according to waste type in Table 2.
Factors Affecting Nitrogen Concentration
Climate - Total confinement livestock housing in which the waste is
stored until spread on the land, will produce wastes that are generally
unaffected by climate. Climate can influence nitrogen content of manure
produced from livestock operations located outside or that involve waste
storage outside.
Climate can affect the nitrogen composition of animal wastes by several
methods. If the waste is stored where it is exposed to rainfall, then
the natural precipitation can dilute the waste if it is liquid or remove
soluble nitrogen compounds by leaching if the waste is solid. Those two
processes proceed at greater rates in regions of higher rainfall.
In climatic regions that are characterized by hot, drying conditions,
waste material can lose large quantities of nitrogen by ammonia
13
-------
Table 2. THE MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VALUES FOUND FOR VARIOUS ANIMAL WASTE CONSTITUENTS/
Species
and Type
of Waste
Beef
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Dairy
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Swine
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U]
Poultry
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D
Slurry (U
BODg
(gm/gm)
23
__
38
17
..
__
13-34
33
2.0
__
30-90
27
__
38
COD
(gm/gm)
15-100
.13-7.7
120-390
78-98
M
--
99-210
95-108
6.0
..
88-220
90
m «,
--
130
Fe
(mg/kg)
195-33100
1.3-4170
--
660-1280
190-1760
mttm
354-1330
1100
--
600-1800
65-8890
v_
Zn
(mg/kg)
25-401
.04-415
65-320
8.51-79.6
93.2-135
--
_-
--
380-1800
65-309
_-
«
"
Mn
(mg/kg)
24-163C
.1-146
64-224
110-131
MW
94.2-110
--
--
--
200-380
135-525
«
"
Cu
(mg/kg)
1.5-177
.05-28
14-45
20.3-21.0
~
21-24.8
--
10
116-189
100-1400
3.7-1000
B
(mg/kg)
15-137
25-38
49.3-59.8
«
55.9-73
--
*
78-270
15-60
« *
**^
NO.-N
(mg/kg)
0-180C
0-280
0-38
0-5.0
~
0-49
~
1000
.04-. 18
0-43
0
«
0-1300
6.3
V
.62-1.1
.0002-. 20
--
.33-5.7
.62-. 87
.05
-_
1.0-1.8
~
.20
.02-6.9
3.8-7.6
7.2
_.
.38-5.2
Cl
(%)
1.1-2.7
.034-. 07
2.9-4.3
1.0-2.8
~
.88-1.2
--
4.4
--
--
Beef runoff data on vet weight basis,
reference found.
all other on a dry weight basis, single values indicate only one
References used: beef, 42, 44, 112, 113, 114, 122, 144, 158, 167, 175, 196, 203, 214, 216, 217; dairy,
19, 37, 51, 59, 113, 128, 144, 158, 190, 192, 203, 204; swine, 43, 44, 72, 73, 113, 144, 191, 203; and
poultry, 47, 99, 142, 144, 172, 177, 203.
-------
volatilization. It has been estimated that under Southern California
conditions, about 50% of the nitrogen in dairy manure is lost to the
air by ammonia volatilization and denitrification between the time of
excretion and the time manure is incorporated into the soil (7).
Adriano et al. (6) also obtained nitrogen losses approaching 50%.
The effect of climate on nitrogen content is not seen in Tables 1 and
2 because ration and management are so dominant that they obscure the
climate effect.
Species - Poultry and swine are generally considered to produce waste
highest in nitrogen. Inspection of Table 1, however, shows that the
nitrogen content of wastes from all species can range from relatively
low to high values. Even though the fresh excrement from some species
may be higher in nitrogen than that from other species, factors such as
climate and management can create such variability that the waste when
finally applied does not resemble the original in nitrogen content.
Analyses of poultry wastes in Georgia has shown broiler manure to be
generally higher in nitrogen than hen manure. There were, however,
large variations in the composition of both types of manure (152, 154).
A study in Michigan by Adriano (4) revealed no meaningful relation
between the type of ration and beef manure composition.
Ration - No research was found that dealt with the effect of ration on
the nitrogen content of animal waste. Because nitrogen is one of the
most expensive components of animal feeds, rations generally contain the
minimal amounts of nitrogen that will give optimal performance. For that
reason, ration will not likely be used as a method for controlling
nitrogen content of waste.
Management - The method of waste handling and storage between the time
of excretion and application can have a major effect on the quantity of
nitrogen contained in that waste. Nitrogen content, more than any other
constituent, is sensitive to management. Nitrogen can be lost by
ammonia volatilization, leaching of soluble nitrogen compounds, dilution,
and microbial utilization.
15
-------
Several researchers have shown that up to 50% of the nitrogen excreted
by cattle can be lost through ammonia volatilization (7, 126, 174).
Most of the ammonia volatilized came from the urine fraction of the
waste. In poultry manure, up to 60% of the nitrogen can be lost by
ammonia volatilization (47, 151).
Prediction of the magnitude of nitrogen loss by ammonia volatilization
is difficult because ammonia volatilization is affected by both weather
fluctuations and how the waste is handled. If the waste is to be stored
in the open and exposed to drying conditions, then some nitrogen loss
should be expected. In Michigan, Adriano (4) found lower nitrogen
contents in beef manure from open lots than from total confinement
housing systems. In this study, manures from open lots had about half as
much nitrogen than manures from total confinement systems.
Loss of nitrogen to the atmosphere before land application will lower
the amount of nitrogen entering the soil system and lower the potential
for groundwater contamination. The ammonia volatilization does represent,
however, a loss of a valuable plant nutrient that should be minimized if
the waste is to be used as a fertilizer source. When the waste is
sampled for nitrogen analysis, the sampling should be done as nearly as
possible to the time of application so that the sample will represent
the nitrogen content of the waste applied to the soil.
If a waste is exposed to rainfall during storage, its nitrogen content
will be lowered. Leaching of solid waste can remove much of the water
soluble nitrogen, which can comprise as much as 50 to 60% of the total
nitrogen in steer manure (174). Simple dilution of liquid waste lowers
its nitrogen concentration.
Degradation processes that occur naturally in storage lagoons or that
occur under controlled conditions in treatment systems can alter the
nitrogen content of the liquid waste. Up to 80% of the nitrogen in swine
waste can be removed by treatment in an oxidation ditch (180). Digestion
processes can also have the opposite effect and raise the nitrogen content
of wastes on a dry weight basis as solid matter is converted to water and
gases.
16
-------
HEAVY METALS AND TRACE ELEMENTS
Range of Heavy Metals and Trace Elements Concentration by Animal and Climate
The heavy metals and trace elements that have received attention in
animal waste application research are iron, zinc, manganese, copper, and
boron. Table 2 contains the range of concentrations found in the waste
types combined over all climatic regions. Elements other than those five
were mentioned in the literature3 but not frequently enough to justify
further discussion here.
There were large differences between the low and high values for all
elements in most classifications. No trends by waste type are evident.
The very high iron concentrations found in several classifications could
be explained by soil, which is high in iron being mixed with the waste
after excretion or cattle being fed iron salts.
Factors Affecting Heavy Metal and Trace Element Concentrations
Climate - No research was found that reported the effects of climate
on the heavy metal or trace element content of animal wastes.
.Species T Ration - Swine rations can contain copper as a feed additive.
Hogs will excrete, mostly in the manure, approximately 80% of the copper
they consume. Animals fed rations higher in copper will produce wastes
that contain correspondingly greater amounts of copper (13, 57, 73, 74).
Management - There was little definitive research found that dealt with
the effect of management on the heavy metal or trace element content of
animal wastes. Because most are multivalent cations, their solubilities
in aqueous solutions are generally lower than that of the monovalent cations
such as sodium and potassium. Management practices that separate the
solid portion of liquid wastes should, therefore, segregate these elements
into the solid portion. It has been estimated that 85% of the copper
entering a swine-waste lagoon is tied up with the solid matter at the
bottom of the lagoon because it does not appear in the lagoon effluent
(72, 73).
17
-------
PHOSPHORUS
Range of Phosphorus Concentration by Animal and Climate
Minimum and maximum total phosphorus contents of the various waste-
climate classifications found in the literature are presented in Table
3. No data were found for regions 5, 8, 9, and 12. There is no
evidence of trends in phosphorus data due to climatic region.
Considerable variation exists within most waste-climate classifications.
Swine and poultry wastes generally had higher phosphorus content than
did beef and dairy wastes.
Factors, Affecting Phosphorus Concentration
Climate - No evidence was found to indicate that phosphorus content is
influenced by climate. This is reasonable since phosphorus is a
(
conservative constituent.
Species - Data in Table 3 shows that poultry and swine wastes are
generally higher in phosphorus than beef wastes. With regard to
poultry wastes, work in Georgia has shown hen manure to contain more
phosphorus than broiler manure, although there was large variation in
the analyses of both types of manure (152, 154).
Ration - No research was found that dealt with the effect of ration on
the phosphorus content of animal waste.
Management - Most phosphorus in animal wastes is bound to or is a part of
the structure of large, relatively insoluble compounds. Gaseous losses
of phosphorus have not been reported. Phosphorus content is, consequently,
not affected by management practices that enhance leaching or digestion.
Handling systems that remove solids from liquid wastes will lower the
phosphorus content of the supernatant, but the phosphorus in the solid
portion remains for application. Dilution, which can occur from cleaning
operations or from rainfall, will lower phosphorus concentrations in wastes
but will not lower the total quantity of phosphorus.
18
-------
Table 3. THE MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM TOTAL PHOSPHORUS CONTENT OF ANIMAL WASTES.'
(percent)
Species
and Type
of Waste
Beef
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Dairy
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Swine
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Poultry
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Climatic Region
1
.69-. 89
__
--
2.0-2.3
.41-1.6
-_
--
.54-. 87
__
--
--
2.8
__
2 3
.11-1.4
.32-.72fl
3.2
.69-1.5
.56
2.4
.43-1.2
1.1
1.2
3.1-6.4
3.6
1.4-2.6
--
1.5
--
--
--
--
-.-
-.
__
0.1
2.1
.38-6.3
-_
"
4
--
--
--
_-
--
1.4-6.3
--
~
6
H
.95-520
--
.52
--
~
"^
7
.27
.-
--
--
--
""
10
.31-. 80
--
--
--
--
--
11
.60-. 71
--
1.2
0.7
--
--
-
--
--
--
None0
.28-1.6
--
1.4
.48-. 7
--
~
.87
.56-2.5
--
--
1.2-3.7
1.5-2.8
--
2.3
afieef runoff data on wet weight basis, all other data on a dry weight basis, single values indicate only
.one reference found.
No data were found for regions 5, 8, 9, and 12.
^Climatic region not given in reference.
Values X 103 (i.e. 0.00032-0.00072 and 0.00095-0.520).
References used: beef, 4, 12, 27, 42, 44, 61, 79, 107, 112, 113, 114, 122, 144, 158 167 189 196, 198,
203, 207, 214, 216; dairy, 8, 17, 19, 37, 51, 59, 60, 113, 118, 128, 144, 158, 189, 190 192, 203; swine,
44 73 113 144, 189, 191, 198, 203; and poultry, 25, 47, 63, 142, 144, 172, 177, 182, 189, 198, 203, 223.
-------
BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD,.), CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD), AND
TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON (TOC) D
Range of BOD,., COD, and TOG Concentrations by Animal and Climate
Table 2 contains the minimum and maximum BOD- and COD data combined
over all climatic regions. Too little TOC data were found to justify
its inclusion. No trends related to waste type or climatic region are
apparent in the BOD and COD data. The sparsity of data found for these
two constituents makes it difficult to analyze their variability.
Factors Affecting BOD,., COD, and TOC Concentrations
Climate, Species, and Ration - No research was found on the effects of
climate, species, or ration on the BOD,, or COD of animal wastes.
Management - The BODg and COD of animal wastes are reduced through
digestion processes. Improvement of the quality of liquid wastes by
digestion is desirable if the waste should mistakenly be discharged
directly into surface waters or if runoff occurs from the application
site. The effect of lowering the BOD5 and COD on the land application
properties of the waste has not been established.
INORGANIC SALTS
Range of Inorganic Salts Concentration by Animal and Climate
Tables 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 contain the potassium, calcium, magnesium,
sodium, and electrical conductivity (EC) data, respectively, for the
various waste-climate classifications. The EC of a solution is an
estimation of the total soluble salt content. The large range between
the minimum and maximum values in most classifications shows that
inorganic salt concentration can vary widely. Examination of data
provides no trends related to type of waste or climate classification.
The variation within most classifications obscures any differences that
might exist between classifications.
Factors Affecting^ jEnorganicSalts Concentration
Climate - Solid wastes that are exposed to the leaching action of rainfall
will lose some inorganic salts to the leachate. The leaching volume is
20
-------
one factor that determines the quantity of salts lost, so wastes
stored in the open in climates with relatively high rainfall are
likely to contain fewer salts.
Species - Swine and poultry wastes contain more potassium than beef
and dairy wastes, according to Table 4. No other species differences
are evident in the inorganic salt data.
Ration - The quantity of inorganic salt fed to an animal will affect
the amounts excreted. Sodium chloride or "table salt" is added as a
supplement to most livestock rations and some beef producers provide
additional sodium chloride in free choice salt licks. The salinity of
the waste will increase with increasing amounts of sodium chloride fed
to beef cattle (85, 110), while other work has shown no benefit,
measured by daily gain and feed efficiency, in adding salt supplement
to the ration of beef cattle (98).
Vegetative plant parts have a higher concentration of potassium than
does the grain. Animals being fed a roughage ration will consequently
excrete more potassium than if the same animals were being fed a high-
concentrate ration.
Management - Volatilization losses of inorganic salts have not been
reported. Alteration of the inorganic-salt concentrations of animal
wastes after excretion is usually caused by leaching or dilution with
watet.
Of the four inorganic salts (cations) being considered here, potassium
and sodium are the most soluble in water because they are not bound in
the structure of organic molecules and because they are less attracted
to colloidal particles than are calcium and magnesium. Also calcium and
magnesium have a greater tendency to form inorganic precipitates than
either sodium or potassium. Consequently, management practices that
allow leaching of wastes with water will allow removal of larger portions
of the sodium and potassium salts than of the calcium and magnesium salts.
21
-------
Table 4. THE MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM POTASSIUM CONTENT OF ANIMAL WASTES.'
(percent)
NS
Species
and Type
of Waste
Beef
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (u)
Dairy
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Swine
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Poultry
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Climatic Region
1 2 3 4 6 7 10 11 None0
1.5-1.9
.018-. 048
~
.24-3.1
1.4-3.3
-_
-.
1.9-5.0
__
__
-_
3.3
__
.41-4.0
__
9.6
.44-3.4
2.2
4.8
--
2.0-3.6
1.9
3.6
2.9-8.3
4.8
2.4-5.2
--
2.5-4.3
-_
__
--
-.
__
--
-_
0.2
--
3.3
.73-4.8
--
--
__
--
--
«
1.4-4.8
..
"
.053-1.0
.0097-. 19
1.7
--
6.9
--
--
1.1
.11-. 19
~
~
.30-1.8
.026-. 20
--
-
«
«
--
--
--
1.9-3.8
.048
3.3
2.0-3.4
-
--
«
--
~
--
.92-3.6
__
--
.79
2.4-2.6
2.7
1.5-4.9
1.0-4.5
1.5-2.4
--
--
SBeef runoff data on wet weight basis, all other on a dry weight basis, single values indicate only one
.reference found.
No data were found for regions 5, 8, 9, and 12,
Climatic region not given in reference.
References used: beef, 12, 27, 42, 44, 61, 79, 107, 112, 113, 114, 122, 144, 158, 167, 175, 189, 196, 198,
203, 207, 214, 216, 217; dairy, 8, 17, 19, 37, 51, 59, 60, 113, 118, 128, 144, 158, 189, 190, 192, 203,
204; swine, 44, 73, 113, 144, 189, 191, 198, 203; and poultry, 25, 47, 63, 99, 142, 144, 172, 177, 182,
189, 198, 223.
-------
rafale 5. THE MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM CALCIUM CONTENT OF ANIMAL WASTES.
(percent)
Species
and Type
of Waste
Beef
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Dairy
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Swine
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Poultry
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Climatic Region
1 2 3 6 7
.68-1.8
--
--
3.0-3.5
2.1-2.5
1.6-2.4
--
3.5
"
.67-9.3
--
-
.60-1.0
2.2
--
1.7-11
-
__
--
--
--
-
--
.62-5.
""
.03-. 48
.0075-. 35
--
--
--
2.8
-
--
__
2.8
.031-. 052
--
--
--
10
.36-1.4
.011-. 062
--
--
--
--
--
11
1.9
.010
2.7
3.2
--
^
--
-
-
None
.60
-~
1.3
--
~
2.3
--
.24-. 36
*
~~
"«
K)
U)
SBeef runoff data on wet weight basis, all other on a dry weight basis, single values indicate only one
.reference found.
No data were found for regions 4, 5, 8, 9, and -12.
Climatic region not given in reference.
References used: beef, 4, 27, 44, 112, 113, 122, 158, 175, 207, 214, 216, 217; dairy, 19, 37, 59, 113,
118, 128, 158, 204; swine, 44, 73, 113; and poultry, 25, 47, 142, 172, 177, 223.
-------
Table 6. THE MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM MAGNESIUM CONTENT OF ANIMAL WASTES/
(percent)
tsJ
Species
and Type
of Waste
Beef
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Dairy
Solid
Runoff,
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Swine
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Poultry
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Climatic Region
1 2 3 6.7^
,44-. 65
__
1.0-1.1
.36-, 90
-.
mem
.68-. 91
--
--
1.4
_.
-»»
.33-2.62
--
--
.48-. 63
.25
-
__
.47-1.0
"
»_
--
--
?-
--
--
--
.04
.63
.06-1.7
~
.032-. 32
.0049-. 235
--
--
.50
--
--
--
--
--
1.5
.015-. 017
~
--
--
--
--
10
.30-. 50
.0098-. 024
--
-.
-
--
*
**"
"
""
11
1.0
.0064
1.3
.73
--
--
"
--
--
«
~^
^^
None
.20
«
.52
--
,03-. 12
^
^
"* ^
only one
.reference found.
No data were found for regions 4, 5, 8, 9, and 12.
CClioatic region not given in reference.
References used: beef, 4, 44, 112, 113, 122, 158, 175, 207, *w, "Sj,"'5
128, 158; swine, 44, 73, 113; and poultry, 25, 47, 142, 172, 177, 223.
-------
Table 7. THE MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM SODIUM CONTENT OF ANIMAL WASTES.3
(percent.)
Ln
Species
and Type
of Waste
Beef
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Dariy
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Swine
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Poultry
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Climatic Region
1 2367 10 11 NoneC
,26-. 76
__
*
1.6-1.9
.35-. 46
--
--
.34-. 42
__
--
--
2.0
--
--
"
.05-. 69
-_
__
.09-. 24
__
--
.092-. 31
__
--
.60-2.9
--
.66-. 89
* w
--
_-
--
__
--
__
.04
--
.63
""
.055-. 17
.0090-. 28
--
11
to
--
--
«
2.8
.065-. 13
--
--
--
--
--
--
.15-. 49
.011-. 17
--
--
--
--
.76-1.9
.032
1.9
.90
--
--
._
--
--
1.3
__
.12
1.3
1.6
--
--
SBeef runoff data on wet weight basis, all other on a dry weight basis, single values indicate only one
.reference found.
No data were found for regions 4, 5, 8, 9, and 12.
CClimatic region not given in reference.
References used: beef, 4, 27, 44, 107, 112, 122, 158, 167, 175, 203, 207, 214, 216, 217; dairy, 19, 128,
158, 190, 192, 203, 204; swine, 44, 73, 191, 203; and poultry, 172, 177.
-------
Table 8. THE MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF ANIMAL WASTES.
(nmho/cm)
Species
and Type
of Waste
Beef
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Dariy
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Swine
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Poultry
Solid
Runoff
Slurry (D)
Slurry (U)
Climatic Region
1 2 6 7 10 11
1.3-2.3
Ml M
3.6
1.0-2.3
--
1.8-3.7
--
--
«
5.6
--
--
M-
1.1-12
5.4-6.9
--
--
__
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
""
--
0.9-20
4.5
13
--
--
--
--
-
--
" ^
'
8.6-13
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
1.6-13
--
--
--
--
-...
""
_-
1.4
--
--
__
«
--
--
--
«
"
--
CT
.Single values indicate only one reference found.
No data were found for regions 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, and 12.
References used: beef, 4, 27, 44, 112, 114, 175, 196, 217; dairy, 128, 204; swine, 44.
-------
MICROORGANISMS
Range of Microorganisms Concentration by Animal and Climate
Because several methods of reporting the microorganism content of
animal wastes were found in the literature, only the references are
given here (Table 9).
Factors Affecting Microorganisms Concentration
Climate. Ration - No research was found that dealt with the effect of
climate or ration on the microorganism content of animal wastes,
Species - Reference should be made to the literature cited in Table 9
for microorganism analyses data on various animal species.
Management - Some microorganisms, such as fecal coliform, are naturally
occuring and are found in all animal manures. Management of the animals
for disease prevention and control will, therefore, be an important
factor affecting the content of animal wastes.
Survival of microorganisms in animal wastes is quite variable and
depends upon both the disease organisms and the method of waste handling.
An excellent review of the literature dealing with survival of
microorganisms in animal wastes has been prepared by Azevedo and Stout (15),
MEDICINAL
An excellent review of research dealing with fecal residues resulting
from the feeding of hormones, antibiotics, and other medicinals to
animals has been published (11). Although it has been shown that a
large portion of medicinals fed passes through the animal, it appears
at this time that the relatively small amounts of chemicals involved
will not affect the land application properties of the waste.
27
-------
Table 90 REFERENCES ON MICROORGANISM CONTENT OF ANIMAL WASTES.a
Species
and Type
of Waste
Microorganisms
Coliform
Fecal Coliform
Bacteria
Salmonella
to
00
Beef
Solid
Runoff
Dairy
Solid
Slurry (U)
Swine
Solid
Slurry (U)
Poultry-
Solid
46
133
46
46
46
81
133
40
72
115
115
164
73
47
132
40
89
Numbers indicate references in Bibliography.
-------
SECTION VI
EFFECT OF WASTE ON THE ENVIRONMENT
EFFECT OF LAND APPLICATION ON SOIL PROPERTIES
Physical Properties
Infiltration Rate - The rate at which water moves into the surface of
the soil is called the infiltration rate, measured in length per unit
time such as centimeters per hour. Applications of animal waste will
usually increase the infiltration rate of a soil, but some work has
shown a decrease in infiltration rate after waste applications.
The organic matter content of the animal waste is largely responsible
for increasing soil infiltration rates. Zwerman et al. (232) found that
a single application of 13.5 t/ha of solid dairy manure increased soil
infiltration rate by 27% in a continuous corn culture. Manure did not
increase infiltration significantly when the same rate of manure application
was used on four crop rotations, three of which included legume crops.
It was suggested that because legume crops add organic matter to soil,
the effect of manure on infiltration was not measureable.
Swader and Stewart (195) applied up to 112 wet t/ha of solid beef manure
to a soil in Texas and found that the infiltration rate of the soil was not
affected significantly by the feedlot manure, although a trend in increased
infiltration rate was noted. Infiltration into the B horizon of the soil,
however, was increased by all application rates. The B horizon was
thought to be the soil layer most restrictive to water movement.
In a laboratory study, Travis et al. (204) measured the infiltration rate
of lagoon water into soil columns. Infiltration into all columns ceased
before 2 pore volumes (a pore volume is the volume of liquid equivalent
to the pore space in the column) of leachate were collected. Because
a prepared water solution containing only the inorganic salt caused
similar results, it was suggested that increased concentrations of the
monovalent cations sodium, potassium, and ammonium dispersed the soil
29
-------
aggregates, which stopped the movement of water through the columns.
Manges and Eisenhauer (101) studied the effects of beef-feedlot-lagoon
water on the infiltration rate of a furrow-irrigated soil. When the
infiltration of well water and lagoon water were added together, it was
found that total infiltration was reduced by intermediate lagoon water
application rates (10.2 and 20.3 cm/yr) compared to plots receiving well
water only, lower application rates (5.1 cm/yr), or high application
rates (40.6 cm/yr). Beef-feedlot-lagoon water contains high concen-
trations of monovalent cations (Na , K , NH, ) and does not contain the
large amount of organic matter contained in solid waste. In a related
study, Manges et al. (102) found an opposite trend in the infiltration
rate of irrigation water into soils that had received applications of
beef-feedlot manure. Infiltration rates increased with manure application
rates up to treatments ranging from 93 to 269 t/ha/yr, but decreased
with higher manure application rates.
Hydraulic Conductivity - Hydraulic conductivity is a measure of the rate
of water flow in the soil. Hydraulic conductivities have been increased
or decreased by applications of animal wastes.
Azevedo and Stout (15) measured the hydraulic conductivity of three soil
mixtures of 57, chicken manure, 5% cattle manure, and 5% fibers from dairy
cattle manure. It was found that chicken and cattle manures decreased
hydraulic conductivity, while the 5% fibers mixture increased hydraulic
conductivity compared to the untreated soil. It was concluded that the
fiber content of animal manures is the most important constituent controll-
ing soil hydraulic conductivity after waste applications.
In further work, Azevedo and Stout (15) investigated the effects of
cattle manure on the hydraulic conductivity of soils that had been
altered previously to known concentrations of exchangeable sodium. At
all levels of exchangeable sodium, beef manure improved the hydraulic
conductivity of the soils studied. The positive effects on hydraulic
conductivity offset the deleterious effects of increased concentrations of
monovalent cations.
30
-------
In a study by Cross et al. (35), three rates of beef-cattle manure of
up to 583 dry t/ha were applied to a Nebraska soil. No significant
differences in hydraulic conductivity were found. Concern was expressed,
however, that the large amounts of the monovalent cations sodium and
potassium could lead to deterioration of the physical properties of soil.
In another Nebraska study, Hinrichs et al. (69), applied beef-feedlot-
lagoon water to a silty clay loam soil for 2 years at rates of up to 5
cm per week. The hydraulic conductivity of the soils receiving the
lagoon water was lowered significantly. Hydraulic conductivity
measurements taken after winter rainfall were close to pretreatment
values, indicating that leaching improved the soil hydraulic conductivity.
Powers (155) studied the effects of beef-feedlot-lagoon water and beef-
feedlot manure on the hydraulic conductivity of the surface 10 cm of an
irrigated soil. On plots that had received the solid manure, it was
found that application rates of up to 179 dry t/ha/yr over a four-year
period did not affect hydraulic conductivity significantly, while
application rates of from 359 to 717 dry t/ha/yr generally increased soil
nydraulic conductivity. The intermediate rates of lagoon water (10.2 and
20.3 cm/yr) reduced soil hydraulic conductivity compared to plots receiving
no treatment, lower treatments (5.1 cm/yr), or plots receiving higher
treatments (40.6 cm/yr). Manges and Eisenhauer (101) measured infiltration
rates on the lagoon water plots and found the same trend. Accumulations
of monovalent cations resulting in the dispersion of soil aggregates was
suggested as the reason for the lowered hydraulic conductivity in the
soils that had received the lagoon water.
Bulk density - The bulk density of a soil is its mass per unit volume.
Soils with lower bulk densities are usually easier to till, have a higher
water holding capacity, and are more easily drained. Applications of
animal wastes to soils decrease the bulk density of soils because of a
dilution effect resulting from the mixing of the added organic matter with
the more dense mineral fraction of soils. How much the bulk density is
lowered depends on the amount of waste applied, the organic matter content
of the waste, and the original soil bulk density. Because a large portion
of the organic matter of liquid wastes has been removed before application, the
effect of liquid wastes on soil bulk density will generally be less than
31
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that of solid wastes.
Several researchers have measured decreased bulk densities in soils
treated with animal waste. Evans et al. (44) found that solid beef and
manure slurry decreased the bulk density of the 0 to 15 cm layer of the
soil they studied, and that the solid beef manure decreased the bulk
density in the 15 to 30 cm layer. Unger and Stewart (208) applied solid
beef-feedlot manure to a clay loam soil and found that the two highest
rates of manure, 134 and 268 t/ha, decreased the bulk density relative
to the control soil and to soils that received two lower rates of manure
applications. It was suggested by Unger and Stewart (208) that improved
soil aggregation and organic matter contributed to the lower bulk density.
Applications of 269 and 583 t/ha of beef manure were found by Cross et al.
(35) to decrease soil bulk density.
Solid animal waste will not always decrease the bulk density of soils.
Swader and Stewart (195) could not detect any differences in the bulk
density of soils treated with beef-feedlot manure. Broiler litter had
no effect on soil bulk density in a study by Hileman (67). Runoff from
a beef feedlot, a material that is low in organic matter, did not lower
the bulk density of a silty clay loam soil in a study by Hinrichs et al.
(69).
Water holding capacity - In some of the earlier research on the effects
of manure applications on the fertility of soils, it was found that yield
increases could not be accounted for entirely by improved levels of
nutrients in the soil. It has been suggested that this unexplained yield
increase could have been due to improved soil physical properties, and
specifically to improved water holding capacity. Several researchers
(14^ 55, 56, 71) found that because of improved water availability manure
treated plots had larger yield increases in dry years than in wet years.
There have been successful attempts at measuring increased available water
in soils treated with animal wastes. Gingrich (50) showed that manure
increased the available water capacity of some soils. Salter (173)
measured little variance in available water capacity, but found manure
decreased the force with which the water was held in the soil (soil
32
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moisture tension). This would have increased water availability and
improved crop yields,
Swader and Stewart (195) investigated the effects of beef-feedlot manure
on the A and B horizons (first two layers) of a Texas soil. Application
rates of up to 112 t/ha of manure had no effect on the water holding
capacity of either horizon. The organic matter content of the soil,
however, was not significantly increased.
Aggregate stability - The resistance to disintegration of soil aggregates
upon wetting is called its aggregate stability. Animal wastes act to
improve aggregate stability through the addition of soil organic matter.
Organic matter helps to bind soil particles together and improve physical
properties by encouraging a greater proportion of the larger aggregates
to remain intact after wetting. Other beneficial soil physical properties,
such as percent pore space, infiltration rates, and hydraulic conductivity
tend to increase along with increases in aggregate stability.
Aggregate stability is commonly measured by the wet sieve method, in which
the percentage of different size particles are determined after wetting.
Unger and Stewart (208) found that application of 134 and 268 t/ha of
beef-feedlot manure to a clay loam soil decreased the proportion of
aggregates smaller than 0.25 mm and increased the proportion of aggregates
greater than 4.0 mm. Similar results were found by Cross et al. (35) when.
269 t/ha of solid beef manure were applied to a Nebraska soil. The 269
t/ha rate mixed with the top 10 cm increased the water stability of the
soil aggregates.
Chemical Properties
Most of the early research involving the effects of animal wastes on soil
chemical properties dealt with the availability of the major plant nutrients,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. It was repeatedly shown that soil
fertility was improved by the addition of these nutrients to the soil.
When soil is used as a medium for waste application, however, amounts of
Plant nutrients added are frequently in excess of what can be used by the
growing crop. More recently, researchers have begun to study the possible
deleterious effects of accumulations and movements of these plant nutrients
33
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on the environment, while continuing to recognize that land application
remains the most efficient method of recycling these nutrients.
To review all the published data pertaining to the effects of animal
wastes on soil chemical properties would be beyond the scope of this
publication. Listed in Table 10 are references that have measured
specific soil chemical characteristics after land application. The effects
on chemical constituents most often emphasized in those references will
be summarized in the following discussion.
Accumulation and movement of waste constituents Nitrogen - Nitrogen
seems to have received the most attention in research dealing with the
effects of land application on the environment. Nitrogen in either
inorganic or organic forms can be transformed by the microbial population
in the soil in,to nitrate nitrogen. Because nitrate is an anion, it is
not absorbed on soil particles, does not form insoluble precipitates and
is easily leachable through soil. Movement of nitrate nitrogen into
ground or surface waters creates an environmental hazard because it, along
with other nutrients, can cause algal blooms in surface waters. The United
States Department of HEW standard for nitrate-nitrogen concentration
in drinking waters is less than 10 parts per million. Consequently, there
has been interest in measuring the accumulation and movement of nitrogen,
particularly nitrate nitrogen, in soil after land application of wastes.
Several researchers have measured increases in total soil nitrogen after
heavy applications of solid feedlot wastes (61, 108, 138, 184, 216) and
dairy-manure slurry (40). Large amounts of native soil nitrogen are
present in most soils; a mineral soil with a 0.1% nitrogen content on a
dry-weight basis will contain approximately 4200 kg of nitrogen in the top
30 cm of one hectare. Applications of animal waste will generally not
*
increase the measureable amount of total nitrogen in soil with time
unless large quantities are continuously applied.
Numerous researchers have measured the accumulation and movement of
nitrate nitrogen in soils after animal waste applications (Table 10).
The production of nitrate nitrogen in soil is a complicated process (18),
but even though the factors that influence this process are understood,
it is very hard to predict in a given situation the magnitude of nitrate-
34
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Table 10. REFERENCES ON SOIL PROPERTIES AFFECTED BY A1WML WASTE APPLICATION,'
Lo
Constituent
Total Nitrogen
Nitrate Nitrogen
Nitrite Nitrogen
Amnonium Nitrogen
Trace Elements
(Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu)
Phosphorus
Inorganic Salts
(K, Ca, Na, Mg)
Electrical Conductivity
PH
Organic Matter
Species
Beef Dairy Swine Poultry
61, 108, 138, 216
44, 51, 93, 97, 106,
107, 108, 109, 122,
138, 184, 186, 188,
216, 217, 230
44, 51, 107, 186, 216
44, 51, 106, 107, 108,
138, 184, 186, 204,
216
122, 200, 216
61, 87, 93, 138, 184,
188, 207, 215, 216,
217, 230
108, 109, 138, 188,
204, 207, 215, 216,
217, 230
44, 51, 93, 107, 108,
138, 184, 186, 188,
204, 207, 216, 217
93, 200, 215, 216
97, 215, 216
8, 40
7, 8, 19, 83, 94,
105, 128, 190,
192
128
7, 128, 190
119
8, 40, 148, 190,
192
8, 19, 119, 148,
190, 192
7, 8, 128
40, 148
40, 119
22, 23, 72
44, 51, 191
44, 51
44, 51, 191
57, 72, 74, 191
22, 23, 57, 74,
191
22, 23, 57, 72,
74, 191
22, 23, 44, 51
22, 23
70
21, 29, 47, 66, 70,
99, 172, 185
47, 99
66, 70, 77, 91, 99,
179, 185
66, 172
47, 66, 67, 70, 91,
154, 172, 177
47, 65, 66, 67, 91,
154, 172, 177
65, 66, 67, 91, 99,
177
65, 66, 67, 154,
172, 177, 218
67, 172
1Numbers indicate references in Bibliography.
-------
nitrogen accumulation and the depth of downward leaching, if any, that
will occur after applications of animal wastes. Mineralization of
organic nitrogen into nitrate nitrogen is most rapid during the first
year following application of a waste and steadily declines in
subsequent years. A decay series concept of nitrogen mineralization
developed by Pratt et al. (159) recognizes this declining rate of
nitrate-nitrogen production with time. The rate of mineralization of
nitrogen remaining in the soil is determined experimentally each year
for the first four or five years after the waste is applied. These data
then can be used to estimate the amount of nitrate nitrogen that will come
into solution and be available for plant uptake and/or leaching downward
through the profile.
Even though nitrogen may be added in excess of that removed by the
growing crop, conditions may not be present in the soil which allow
mineralization of the organic nitrogen (which is relatively water
insoluble and does not leach) into nitrate nitrogen. Nitrate nitrogen
can also be removed from the soil solution by denitrification reactions.
Both nitrification, an aerobic process of nitrate-nitrogen production
from organic and other inorganic nitrogen forms, and denitrification,
an anaerobic process by which nitrate nitrogen is converted to various
nitrogen gases, are strongly influenced by the oxygen status of the soil.
Factors that influence the oxygen content of soils, such as the amount
of rainfall, soil texture, drainage, and the rate of oxygen usage by soil
organisms, will in turn affect those two processes.
The references listed in Table 10 contain data which verify that nitrate
nitrogen will sometimes be leached to lower depths in soil profiles when
excess amounts of nitrogen from animal wastes are applied. In some cases,
however, there was little if any movement of nitrate nitrogen even when
large quantities of wastes were applied. Much of this variability in
research results can be explained through differences in soil-water
relations. Soils that are well drained usually have a greater potential
for nitrate movement after applications of animal waste. Soils that have
restricted drainage will usually have a lower potential for nitrate
leaching because of insufficient leaching volume or anaerobic conditions
which can lower nitrification and increase denitrification. Unfortunately,
36
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there are many soil types which cannot be classified in either of these
two general categories. Changing weather conditions add another dimension
of variability; extremes of natural rainfall can drastically alter the
potential for nitrate movement of a given soil. To summarize, movement
of nitrate nitrogen in soil is governed by several factors that together
make its prediction difficult.
The potential for nitrate movement on a given soil will be greater with
higher rates of waste application. Numerous researchers have compared
different magnitudes of waste application on soils receiving the same
management in the field and have found that nitrate-nitrogen movement is
greater with increasing rates of applied beef waste (107, 108, 122, 216,
217, 230), dairy waste (19), and poultry waste (70). Those data show
that more nitrate will be leached if the rates applied at a given site
are increased. Care must be taken, however, when extrapolating from
one site to another, the effects of a given application rate on depth of
nitrate leaching because of the natural variability that exists between
soils and local conditions.
Several researchers have measured nitrogen losses in soil after animal
waste has been applied. In the greenhouse,Olsen (148) found that 20 to
76% of the nitrogen in dairy manure added to soil was lost through
volatilization. Koelliker and Miner (87) reported an unaccountable
nitrogen loss of 2,307 kg/ha in a field treated with anaerobic-livestock-
lagoon effluent by a sprinkler system. From 31 to 58% of the nitrogen in
beef-feedlot manure added to a field in Southern California was unaccounted
for in a study by Meek et al. (122). Wallingford et al. In Kansas (216),
also applied beef-feedlot manure to a field and measured unaccountable
nitrogen losses ranging from 6.7 to 100%. The above losses were attributed
to denitrification and illustrate that it can lower significantly the
Potential for leaching nitrate nitrogen after land application.
Heavy metals and trace elements - Research dealing with the effects of
animal waste on the trace element content of soils has been aimed primarily
at effects on the availability of these nutrients for plant growth. It
37
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has been shown that animal waste can improve the plant availability of
iron, zinc, manganese, or copper in soils (216). With the exception of
copper, toxic accumulations of these trace elements does not appear
likely. Because copper is added at high concentrations to some swine
rations, concern exists that swine waste applications could be toxic to
plant growth or cause plant accumulations of copper toxic to animal
health.. What little research has been done to date on this subject has
shown no effect (191) or slightly increased (57, 74) concentrations of
copper in soils.
Phosphorus - Concern over the fate of phosphorus applied to the soil
in animal waste has led to several researchers measuring the accumulation
and movement of phosphorus after land application (Table 10). Unlike
nitrogen, phosphorus does not undergo oxidation-reduction reactions in
soils. The water solubility of phosphorus is low whether it is bound in
organic molecules or in the form of orthophosphates (PO,). Any ortho-
phosphate released from organic matter breakdown quickly enters into
reactions which form phosphate precipitates of low solubility.
Increasing rates of waste application on a given site have been shown to
increase the accumulation of phosphorus in the zone of waste-soil contact.
The magnitude of phosphorus accumulations in soils has increased with
increasing application rates of beef waste (61, 70, 138, 188, 207, 215,
216, 217), dairy waste (40, 148, 192), swine waste (23, 72, 74, 191), and
poultry waste (66, 67, 154, 177). No significant downward movement of
phosphorus has yet been measured in soils after application of beef waste
(87, 138, 184, 216, 217, 230), swine waste (72, 74), or poultry waste (47).
Inorganic salts - Applications of animal waste can improve soil fertility
through the additions of the inorganic salts potassium, calcium and
magnesium. Accumulations of those salts, along with the inorganic salt
sodium, have also been implicated in reducing the fertility of soil through
their effect on soil salinity. The electrical conductivity (EC) of a
water extract from a soil sample is a measurement of soil salinity. The
EC, along with the effect of specific inorganic salts, has been evaluated
by several researchers after waste applications (Table 10).
38
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The main factor that influences accumulation and movement of inorganic
salts in soils after land application is the adsorption of these
Positively charged ions onto the negatively charged exchange sites
found in the mineral and organic-matter fraction of all soils. The
amount of each cation that is adsorbed onto exchange sites depends upon
the complex factors that control colloidal chemistry, which makes
prediction of the accumulation and movement of inorganic salts difficult.
However, computer models that predict salt accumulation are available.
Accumulation of inorganic salts in the soil is expected to be a more
serious problem in the drier regions of the United States where less
natural precipitation is available for leaching the salts from the root
zone. If specific data regarding the accumulation and movement of
inorganic salts is needed, reference should be made to the publications
listed in Table 10.
The form of the salt in animal waste can affect the accumulation and
movement of that salt in the soil. Most of the calcium and magnesium
in wastes are bound in organic molecules which makes their solubilities
dependent on the rate of organic matter breakdown. On the other hand,
sodium and potassium exist primarily in ionic forms which makes them
immediately water soluble and susceptible to leaching.
Measurement of soil EC values have been used by many researchers to
evaluate the effect of animal waste applications on the total inorganic
salt content of a soil and to relate any build up of inorganic salts to
reduced crop growth. High correlations have been found to exist between
EG measurements and waste treatment and/or crop growth (5, 44, 65, 91,
108, 177, 204, 207, 216, 217). Other work, however, has shown no effect
of animal waste on soil EC measurements (93, 99, 184). Those contrasting
EC responses could have been the result of variability in the amount of
waste applied, the salt content of the waste, or the amount of soil
leaching. In attempting to pinpoint the inorganic salt most responsible
for increased EC values after poultry waste applications, Liebhardt and
Shortall (91) found that potassium was the salt most highly correlated
to EC.
j>oil pH - The pH of a soil is a measurement of the acidity or baslty of
the soil solution. Depending on the previous amount of digestion or
39
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decomposition before application, the soil pH can be quickly raised
after animal waste applications due to release of ammonium nitrogen
from organic matter breakdown (65, 148, 154). Oxidation of the
ammonium nitrogen through nitrification reactions is an acid forming
process and can lower the pH (6, 65, 154). Most researchers have
measured no change in pH after waste applications (22, 23, 65, 154,
215, 216, 218), indicating that generally soil pH will not be greatly
affected by waste applications. Exceptions do exist, however, in that
beef wastes have increased soil pH (93, 148, 200), and poultry wastes
have decreased soil pH (67, 172, 177). The status of the soil pH
before treatment has not been shown to determine whether there will
be a pH change.
Biological Properties
The effects of animal waste applications on the total numbers and
survival of organisms living in the soil have been studied by several
researchers. Giddens et al. (47) found that the numbers of fungi and
bacteria were increased in a soil after applications of poultry litter,
but the increased population decreased rapidly with time. In a soil
percolation study conducted by McCoy (117), it was found that the top
35.6 cm removed bacteria added in dairy manure. Dazzo et al. (40) found
that higher rates of dairy manure applications prolong the survival of
salmonella and fecal coliforms, suggesting that higher rates of applied
waste reduce the ability of a soil to remove organisms.
Beneficial effects of waste application on soil organisms have been
reported. Chiang (26) found increased mite predation of corn rootworm
and Giddens et al. (47) measured increased numbers of earthworms after
animal waste applications.
EFFECT OF LAND APPLICATION ON GROUNDWATER
Applications of animal waste can exceed the capacity of the growing
crop to remove waste constituents. Movement of these constituents
downward can lead to contamination of groundwater. Because of its ease
of movement through soil profiles (see section on Effect of Land
Application on Soil Properties - Physical) and because .of its ability
to lower groundwater quality at low concentrations, nitrate nitrogen is
40
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often regarded as the constituent posing the greatest threat of ground-
water contamination. In some regions, groundwater contamination by
soluble organic salts is considered to be a threat to groundwater
quality. Because phosphorus moves through soil slower than salts or
nitrate it is generally not considered a threat to groundwater quality.
The factors affecting nitrate-nitrogen movement in soils, discussed
previously in this report, also apply to groundwater contamination.
After nitrate nitrogen has moved below the root zone, there is little
likelihood of its being removed from the soil by means other than
leaching. Denitrification is not likely at these lower depths because
it requires an ample supply of easily oxidizable carbon sources which
are seldom found at lower soil depths in most regions.
Once it has moved beneath zones where it is susceptible to biological
removal, the time needed for nitrate nitrogen to reach groundwater is
determined by the rate of downward water movement and the depth to the
water table. The factors affecting the rate of downward movement have
been and are continuing to receive active investigation. A review of
research relating to nitrate-nitrogen movement has been published (18).
Many researchers have shown that applications of animal waste to soils
can cause accumulation and downward leaching of nitrate nitrogen (Table
10) and soluble salts. An example is some work done in California (7, 9)
in which nitrate nitrogen and soluble salts were found in shallow wells
below dairy waste application sites. Nitrate-nitrogen contamination of
groundwater is one of the most potentially damaging environmental effects
resulting from animal waste applications at rates which provide nitrogen
and salts in excess of that which can be immobilized or removed
biologically from the soil.
EFFECT OF LAND APPLICATION ON RUNOFF
After an animal waste has been applied to a soil the possibility exists
that some of this waste may be transported by rainfall, snowmelt, or
irrigation runoff into surface waters. Runoff losses should be minimized
41
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because of possible surface water quality deterioration and because it
represents a loss from the soil of potential plant nutrients. Runoff
loss of animal waste constituents is a function of runoff quantity and
quality. The effects of animal waste applications on the quantity and
quality of runoff will be considered separately.
Quantity
The quantity of runoff leaving a field is a function of slope, rate of
water application, and soil infiltration rate. Animal waste applications
can affect runoff quantity by altering the soil infiltration rate. As
was discussed in the section on the Effect of Land Application on Soil
Physical Properties, it has been shown that infiltration rates will gener-
ally be improved after applications of animal waste. Although liquid
wastes that are high in the monovalent cations sodium, potassium, and
ammonium potentially could lower infiltration rates by causing the soil to
disperse, only lowered runoff losses have been measured by researchers who
have applied beef waste (186, 231) and dairy waste (60, 116, 229). In
drier regions reduction of surface runoff is an important agronomic
benefit of land application because of the moisture conservation that
results. Cases of increased runoff losses are less common; beef-feedlot
runoff water was found to increase irrigation runoff (101).
Quality
The quality of runoff leaving a field that has been treated with animal
waste has been found to be dependent upon time of application, presence
of vegetative cover, degree of incorporation, and the amount applied.
Other controlling factors such as intensity of rainfall and slope of the
field are likely to affect the amount of nutrients lost in runoff, but
these factors have not been investigated in relation to animal waste
applications.
Several researchers have examined the effect of applying dairy waste to
frozen soils during the winter. In earlier work on runoff losses of manure
spread during the winter, Midgley and Dunklee (125) found that significant
quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium were lost in the runoff.
The loss of potassium was greater than that of nitrogen and phosphorus
-------
because of the greater solubility of potassium in the manure.
!n a study conducted by Button et al. (192), it was found that liquid
dairy waste applied to frozen ground at a rate of 130 cumulative wet t/ha
increased ammonium nitrogen and total coliform in the runoff, but did not
affect total nitrogen measured in the runoff.
A. comparison of runoff quality from plots of frozen soil receiving dairy
waste applications in the winter and from plots receiving summer appli-
cations was made by Minshall et al. (134). It was found that up to 20%
°f the nitrogen, 13% of the phosphorus, and 33% of the potassium added
in the manure was lost in runoff from winter-applied manure plots, while
losses in surface runoff from plots receiving the summer applications
Were less than from plots receiving no manure.
Hensler et al. (58) compared the effects of winter to spring dairy manure
applications. They found that nutrient losses from manure applied in
winter were extremely variable; 3.4 to 26.9 kg/ha of nitrogen was lost
from the winter-applied manure plots. Applications of manure in the
spring did not result in any runoff loss of nitrogen, phosphorus, or
Potassium.
The effect of vegetative cover on fields receiving waste applications on
runoff losses was studied by Young (229). When dairy manure was applied
to frozen alfalfa land 30% of the applied nitrogen and 6% of the applied
orthophosphate was lost in spring runoff, and total nutrient loss from
the alfalfa plots was greater than from the check plots. However, when
the same rate was applied to frozen, plowed land, total nutrient losses
were only slightly greater than those from the check plots which received
no treatment. This was probably due to the rougher surface of the plowed
land which reduced total runoff. Hensler et al. (58) also found that
applying dairy manure to sod covered fields created a greater likelihood
of nutrient loss than from applying the same waste to fallow fields. It
was suggested that the vegetation prevented the waste components from
coming in contact with the soil, thereby increasing the likelihood of waste
43
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constituents being removed in the runoff.
When animal wastes are incorporated into the soil after application,
nutrient losses in the runoff are usually low. Nutrient losses in snow-
melt runoff were found by Young (229) to be only slightly higher from
ground that had received 44.8 t/ha of dairy waste in the fall and plowed
under than from plots that received no treatment. Minshall et al. (134)
found that nutrient losses in runoff from check plots were greater than
from plots having received manure in the summer and plowed under. In a
study where up to 67 t/ha of beef-feedlot manure were applied for two
years and plowed under, Mathers and Stewart (186) found fewer nutrients in
irrigation tailwater than was applied by the irrigation water itself.
Increasing the rates of manure applied at a given site can increase the
amounts of nutrients lost in surface runoff. McCaskey et al. (116) found
that plots receiving low rates of applied dairy waste did not contaminate
surface water as much as plots receiving higher rates of application.
Research has shown that applications of animal waste to frozen ground
or to ground with vegetative cover will increase the likelihood of
lowering the quality of surface runoff. Incorporating the waste after appli-
cation is a management practice that reduces surface runoff contamination.
EFFECT OF LAND APPLICATION ON PLANTS
Crop Yield
Positive results - Improved soil productivity is the most beneficial
result of applying animal waste to soils. Enhanced soil availability of
plant macro- and micronutrients has been shown to be the major factor
improving plant growth after waste applications. Positive effects on
soil physical properties, such as those discussed in the section on the
Effect of Land Application on Soil Properties, have also been shown to im-
prove soil productivity.
Some of the first soil productivity experiments involved the use of
44
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animal manures, and more recent research has further shown that crop
yields can be increased after applications of beef, dairy, swine, and
poultry waste (Table 11).
When optimal rates of chemical fertilizer and animal waste are applied on
separate plots, in most years the effects on yields will be equal. It has
been shown, however, that comparative yields can be affected by extremes
of soil moisture. In dry years plots receiving manure have out-yielded
those receiving chemical fertilizer, while on the same plots in wet years
chemical fertilizer has been superior (118, 218). An explanation offered
was that manure improved soil moisture availability which increases yield
in dry years, while in wet years manure promotes denitrification which
lowers nitrogen availability and lowers yields.
Negative results - Several researchers who applied large amounts of
animal wastes have measured yields that were depressed relative to control
plot yields or relative to plots obtaining maximum yields (Table 11).
Increased soil salinity was thought responsible in many studies in which
yields were found to decrease (107, 108, 109, 138, 177, 216, 217), and in
only one case (23) was there found no accumulation of soluble salts in
soils that had showed depressed plant growth. Several experiments have
shown no negative effect on yields due to heavy rates of animal waste
applications (23, 51, 59, 93, 167, 172, 196), but when soil salinity was
measured no build-up of soluble salts was found (51, 93, 196).
Seed germination and seedling growth can be lowered by saline soil
conditions and by toxicity from high ammonium concentrations in the soil.
Reduced germination or slow seedling growth has contributed to reduced
yields of crops grown on soils that had received large applications of
animal wastes (5, 107, 177, 216). Seigel et al. (179) attributed plant
toxicities specifically to the ammonium released by decomposition of the
uric acid in poultry manure. Because the rate of ammonium production is
greatest soon after application or during the spring after winter
applications, plant toxicities are most likely to occur during those periods.
Because no other negative plant growth factor has been reported at this
45
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Table 11. REFERENCES ON CROP YIELDS AFFECTED BY ANIMAL WASTE APPLICATION.
a
Reference numbers
Beef
Dairy
Swine
Poultry
Yields increased
ON
Yields decreased
1, 35, 44, 51,
60, 61, 108,
138, 167, 175,
188, 196, 207,
216, 217
35, 107, 108,
109, 138, 167,
216, 217
1, 59, 60, 118,
150, 206
44, 51, 54
25, 67, 121, 127,
154, 218
23
177
a
Numbers indicate references in Bibliography,
-------
time, the main agronomic concerns about applying large amounts of
animal wastes should be decreased plant growth due to soil salinity
and ammonium toxicity. Management of soil receiving high application
rates of manure should be similar to management of irrigated soils where
the salt concentration of irrigation water is high.
Nutrient Recovery
Removal of plant nutrients applied in animal waste is an important
consideration in maintaining soil viability. Maximum removal is
desirable so that a build-up of excess plant nutrients is minimized.
Maximum recovery of plant nutrients occurs usually at application rates
which give maximum crop yields (61, 216, 217). Nutrient recovery can
be depressed by application rates which cause yield decline (59, 150,
216, 217).
Animal Toxicities
Nitrate nitrogen - Forages high in nitrate nitrogen can be hazardous to
animal health if ingested. Major factors influencing the accumulation of
nitrate nitrogen in plants are moisture stress on the plant and nitrate-
nitrogen availability in the soil (228). Release of nitrate nitrogen
from decomposition of animal manures will increase the concentration of
this ion in the soil solution and increase the likelihood of uptake by
plant roots. Applications of beef waste (108, 160, 167, 216) and dairy
waste (160, 206) have increased the nitrate-nitrogen content of plants to
levels potentially toxic to animal health. In other studies, nitrate-
nitrogen content has not been increased by applications of beef waste
(109, 138, 167). It has been recommended that forages grown on soils
receiving greater than 30 t/ha/yr of dry beef-feedlot manure or on soils
that have received large single applications of manure be analyzed for
nitrate nitrogen before being fed to livestock (216).
Copper and arsenic - Copper is sometimes added to swine rations as a
growth stimulant. Plants high in copper concentrations can be toxic to
animal health if ingested (202). Consequently, there has been concern
over the possibility of copper accumulations in plants grown on soils
47
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receiving swine wastes. Humenik et al. (74) reported copper concentrations
in grasses grown on lysimeters receiving waste from swine grown on high
copper rations were above 30 ppm, the toxic threshold reported for sheep.
Hedges et al. (57) found a trend toward higher copper in corn grown on a
plot that had received high copper feces. Applications of poultry manure
increased the copper content of coastal bermuda grass in a study by
Wilkinson et al. (222), but not to toxic levels for sheep.
The fate of arsenic added to poultry rations as a feed additive has been
studied by Morrison (135). It was found that the arsenic content of
legumes was unaffected by applications of poultry litter that contained
measureable amounts of arsenic.
Grass tetany - Grass tetany has been reported in animals grazing on pastures
that had previously received poultry litter. Grass tetany is a nutritional
disease occuring when there are low blood levels of magnesium. Several
factors ate thought to cause this disease, one of them being a low
magnesium to potassium ratio in forages consumed by the affected live-
stock. Applications of poultry litter can aggravate the disease by raising
soil potassium more than soil magnesium, resulting in an antagonistic
effect on magnesium uptake (80, 224). As one preventive measure, it has
been recommended that poultry litter not be applied to pasture at rates
greater than 9 t/ha (80).
48
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SECTION VII
APPLICATION RATES BASED ON WASTE CONSTITUENTS
INTRODUCTION
One objective of this project was to gather existing experimental data
that could be used to formulate application guidelines for the 12
climatic regions. It was thought that by eliminating the variation due
to climate and waste type, specific application rates could be formulated
for each region based on that region's experiment results. Examination
of the published research has shown, however, that variability existing
between the characteristics, management, and application of the wastes
produced at different livestock production sites does not allow
application rate recommendations based only on climate and waste type.
Most research on land application of animal waste has been aimed at
finding application rates which provide ample nutrition for a growing
crop without creating soil conditions that are toxic to plant growth.
Many researchers have compared different rates of waste application at
a given location where the soil, crop, and management practices were held
constant. Certain application rates in a given study have usually
produced maximum crop yields or have reduced crop growth. Most researchers,
however, have been reluctant to base application rate recommendations on
research findings because of the tremendous variability that exists
between local waste composition, management practices, soil types, and
weather. When recommendations are published, they are usually based on
factors which the researcher has found experimentally to be of primary
concern or that he felt would be Important in the future.
There have been several criteria used to formulate application rates.
A discussion of criteria that have been published will be followed by a
discussion of criteria judged to be the most acceptable on a nationwide
basis.
49
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EXISTING APPLICATION RATE CRITERIA
Nitrogen
Most application race recommendations are based on achieving maximum yields
due to improved availability of plant nutrients in the soil. Because
nitrogen is frequently the nutrient that limits plant growth and because
nitrogen poses a great threat to groundwater contamination, this element is
most often used as the basis for determining application rates.
Plant availability of nitrogen is controlled by the inorganic nitrogen content
of the waste before application and by the rate of mineralization of organic
nitrogen into inorganic nitrogen forms in the soil after application. The
factors that influence nitrogen mineralization have been discussed in the section
on the Effect of Land Application on Soil Chemical Properties in relation to
movement and accumulation of nitrate nitrogen in the soil. Because nitrate
nitrogen is the predominant form of nitrogen taken up by plants, factors that
control accumulation and movement of nitrate nitrogen will also control plant
availability of nitrogen.
Several researchers have published ways to calculate application rates for
specific waste types based on the plant availability of the waste nitrogen. In
Kansas Herron and Erhart (61) found that from two-thirds to three-quarters of
the nitrogen in beef-feedlot manure was available to grain sorghum over a
four-year period. Koelliker et al. in Iowa (88) measured the nitrogen balance
of a soil receiving swine-lagoon effluent and concluded that yearly applications
should be limited to 30.5 cm or less based on a nitrogen application rate of
672 kg/ha/yr. Marriott and Bartlett in Pennsylvania (105) estimated that in order
to prevent movement of nitrogen below the root zone, application rates of dairy-
manure slurry should not supply more than 560 to 672 kg/ha/yr of nitrogen.
The extension services of several states have developed animal waste appli-
cation guidelines based partly on the nitrogen content of the waste. Indiana
(30) has published application rate guidelines for beef, dairy, swine, and
poultry wastes. Recommended application rates are expressed in animals per
hectare and are based on the waste adding 252 kg/ha of nitrogen. It is
assumed that 50% of the nitrogen is lost between excretion and application.
50
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North Carolina (140, 141, 142, 143) determines application rates by
calculating the quantity of waste needed to satisfy a nitrogen soil test.
The swine, dairy, or poultry waste must be analyzed for nitrogen before
application.
Iowa (211) has developed tables that can be used to determine the acres
of land needed for application of swine and beef waste. These tables are
based on the waste handling system and the pounds of nitrogen to be added
to the soil.
Ohio (139) uses a decay series concept of nitrogen mineralization to
calculate the application rates for animal manures. This concept is
further explained in a following section entitled "Proposed Criteria:
Nitrogen Availability". Ohio assumed that 30% of the nitrogen is
mineralized the first year and that 5% of the remaining residual
nitrogen will be mineralized each subsequent year. Application rates
can thus be reduced each year while maintaining a constant availability
of nitrogen in the soil.
Kansas (157) also used a nitrogen decay series concept to. develop
application guidelines for beef-feedlot manure. Decay series constants
which vary according to the nitrogen content of the waste were borrowed
from Pratt (159). Wastes with higher nitrogen contents will have a
higher percentage of nitrogen becoming available each year.
Maine (92) guidelines for application of animal wastes are based partly
on the nitrogen content of the waste. Recommended application rates
range from 0 to 560 kg/ha of nitrogen depending on the soil type and
whether the management objective is complete recycling of the nitrogen
through the crop or simply disposal of the waste.
Soluble Salts
It has been shown that large applications of animal waste can be toxic
to plant growth by creating saline soil conditions (see the section on
the Effect of Land Application on Plants). Application rates based on
the salt content of the waste have been developed so that decreased crop
51
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growth after land application can be avoided. Except for wastes low
in nitrogen, application rates based on salt content generally provide
nitrogen in excess of crop usage. Application guidelines based on a
salt content of the waste will, therefore, not be used as a means to
determine the most efficient use of the nitrogen, but as a method to
determine maximum amounts that can be applied without decreasing crop
growth.
Powers et al. developed guidelines for application of beef-feedlot
manure (157) and lagoon water (156) based partly on the total salt
content of the waste. Maximum application rates permissible without
causing excessive salt build up in the soil are calculated by determining
the salt (Na, Ca, K, and Mg) content of the waste, the salt content of
the irrigation water, soil type, and the amount of irrigation water that
is applied. It is ^recognized that crops vary in their ability to
withstand salt accumulations in the soil (see 156 and 157), and that
maximum tolerable salt levels in the soil will be determined by the type
of crop grown. An example calculation will be discussed in the section
on Application Techniques.
Soil Type
Soil type influences the application rate because it controls the amount
of salt leaching out of the root zone, nitrate-nitrogen movement to
groundwater, and nitrogen that is lost to the air through processes of
volatilization and denitrification. The soil property most important
here is drainage or lack of drainage because of its influence on aeration
and water movement.
The variability existing between soils makes the task of basing application
rates on soil type difficult. The extension service of North Carolina
(140, 141, 142, 143) has listed in their animal waste application guide-
lines the relative nitrate leaching potential of typical soil series found
in that state. It was noted that soils of high nitrate leaching potential
should receive smaller applications of animal waste, but no attempt was
made to quantitate application rates based on soil type.
52
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Maine's (92) guidelines for animal waste application have an extensive
listing of the maximum nitrogen application rate for each soil series
found within that state. The maximum rates are based on decriptions
by Soil Survey of the physical and chemical characteristics of each soil
type and on research results.
If the entire nitrogen requirement of a crop is to be satisfied by animal
waste applications, very high rates of applications may be needed for the
first several years before sufficient residual nitrogen is built up in the
soil. In such cases it is possible that toxic levels of salt may
accumulate in the soil and reduce crop growth during the first couple of
years. For that reason, it is necessary that guidelines have the ability
to detect application rates that might cause toxic salt accumulations in
the soil. Such guidelines should include salt balances based on the
soluble salt content of the waste, salt concentration of any added
irrigation water, the amount of salt leaching out of the profile, and the
salt tolerance of the crop. This type of guidelines has been described by
Powers et al. (156).
Crop Quality
Applications of animal waste can lower crop quality by causing toxic
accumulations of nitrate nitrogen and by creating nutrient imbalances
that can cause grass tetany. Pratt et al. (160) in Southern California
found that in order to avoid accumulation of nitrate nitrogen in sudan-
grass in a particular management system studied, 8.6 and 29 dry t/ha
were safe limits for applying undigested dairy cattle slurry and solid
dairy manure, respectively.
Potentially toxic levels of nitrate nitrogen were found by Wallingford
et al. (216) in corn forage grown on soil that had received applications
of solid beef-feedlot manure. It was recommended that irrigated forage
grown on soils receiving greater than 30 t/ha/yr of dry manure, on soils
that had received large single applications of manure, or those grown
under moisture stress be analyzed for nitrate nitrogen before being fed
to livestock.
53
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Wilkinson et al. in Georgia (224) has recommended that no greater than 9
t/ha/yr of poultry manure be applied to tall fescue pasture systems in
order to avoid animal toxicities from nitrate-nitrogen accumulations and
from potassium-magnesium imbalances that could cause grass tetany.
PROPOSED CRITERIA: NITROGEN AVAILABILITY
An estimation of nitrogen mineralization coupled with the nitrogen usage
of the crop, with an awareness of potential salt toxicities, appears at
this time to be the best criteria on which to base application rate
calculations. From the standpoint of obtaining optimal crop nutrition
and minimizing the potential for groundwater contamination, nitrogen is the
most logical constituent on which to base application rates.
The amount of available nitrogen present in the soil before application
must be known so that application rates can be adjusted according to the
amount of additional nitrogen needed to obtain optimum yields. Krlz et
al. (140, 141, 142, 143) proposed using soil test values as part of the
criteria for establishing application rate guidelines in North Carolina.
This data can be obtained from soil testing laboratories which can analyze
soil samples to determine the kg/ha of available nitrogen. These tests
are relatively simple and rapid.
Once the available nitrogen content of the soil has been determined, it
is necessary to find the recommended rate of inorganic nitrogen fertilizer
needed to satisfy demands of the particular crop. These data are available
through state extension agencies. Animal waste application rates can
then be calculated based on the nitrogen requirement of the crop, the soil
test value, and estimation of the mineralization rate for that particular
waste, and estimated losses of nitrogen from the soil due to volatilization
and denitrification. The individual operator can determine for himself
whether to supply all of the needed nitrogen by applying animal waste or
by supplementing the waste nitrogen with inorganic nitrogen fertilizers.
At the present time, the best method to express the estimation of nitrogen
mineralization is one which uses a decay series. As described by Pratt et
al, (159), the decay series concept is based on mineralization of organic
54
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nitrogen into inorganic or available nitrogen. The rate of mineralization
will be most rapid in the first year after application, and will decrease
in subsequent years. For example, 40% of the applied nitrogen might
become available in the first year, 25% of the residual nitrogen in the
second year, 6% of the residual nitrogen in the third year, and 3% of the
residual nitrogen in the fourth and all subsequent years. That decay
series would be expressed as 0.40, 0.25, 0.06, 0.03. The percentages
after the first year refer to the organic nitrogen remaining in the soil
and not to the original amounts of nitrogen applied.
Wastes that are higher in nitrogen content will have a faster rate of
decay; a dry-beef manure with a 1.5% nitrogen may have a decay series of
0.35, 0.15, 0.10, 0.05, while a similar manure with 1.0% nitrogen may have
a decay series of 0.20, 0.10, 0.05.
Climate affects decay series by increasing the decay constants for the
later years in the series, but does not affect the decay constants for the
first several years. For example, a decay series from a warm climate
where nitrogen mineralization would proceed for a larger portion of the
year might be 0.35, 0.15, 0.10, 0.075, 0.05, 0.04. In contrast, the
decay series of the same waste applied in a colder climate might be 0.35,
0.15, 0.10, 0.05, indicating a slower rate of decay in the later years.
Animal wastes with a large percentage of the nitrogen in the form of
inorganic nitrogen or in the form of chemicals such as uric acid or urea
which are quickly broken down into inorganic nitrogen, will have high
decay constants for the first several years of the series. In contrast,
wastes that have lost significant quantities of nitrogen through ammonia
volatilization, or wastes that have lost nitrogen through leaching after
decomposition during storage, will have decay constants that are low for
the first years of a series.
A nitrogen decay series concept of determining application rates could have
widespread adaptability because the decay constants can be determined by
experimental data. Some existing data on nitrogen availability might be
55
-------
used to calculate decay series constants, but most of these constants
must come from experimental data yet to be gathered. Variables such as
soil type, waste nitrogen content, and climate, must be accounted for
when determining decay series constants.
The expected nitrogen loss from volatilization and denitrification must
also be considered when applying animal waste. If significant quantities
of nitrogen are lost in this manner, larger quantities of nitrogen can
be applied to the soil. If the soil is to be used as a disposal medium,
losses of nitrogen from volatilization and denitrification may signifi-
cantly Increase allowable application rates. When animal waste is to be
used as a nitrogen source, additional quantities may be needed to compensate
for the nitrogen lost through volatilization and denitrification.
If the entire nitrogen requirement of a crop is to be satisfied by animal
waste applications, very high rates of applications may be needed for the
first several years before sufficient residual nitrogen is built up in the
soil. In such cases it is possible that toxic levels of salt may
accumulate in the soil and reduce crop growth during the first couple of
years. For that reason, it is necessary that guidelines have the ability
to detect application rates that might cause toxic salt accumulations in
the soil. Such guidelines should include salt balances based on the
soluble salt content of the waste, salt concentration of any added irri-
gation water, the amount of salt leaching out of the profile, and the salt
tolerance of the crop. This type of guideline has been described by
Powers et al. (156, 157).
Example Formulation
Several formulas can be used to determine application rates based on waste
constituents. These should incorporate the nitrogen requirement of the
crop, the available nitrogen in the soil, expected nitrogen loss from
denitrification and volatilization and the mineralization rate of nitrogen
(decay series). If the nitrogen content of the waste is constant from
year to year, a possible formula expressed in English units might be
56
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N - N + N
Rj = jiTa ]
20C[D.. + £ D.... (1 - ED.)]
1 j-1 j+1 1=11
where R = application rate for the Jth year of application (T/A)
J
N = nitrogen used by the crop (Ib/A)
N = nitrogen available in the soil (Ib/A)
S
N = nitrogen loss expected from denitrification and
L volatilization (Ib/A)
C = concentration of nitrogen in waste (percent)
D. - first term in decay series (dimensionless)
D.+1 = (j+l)th term in decay series (dimensionless)
D£ = ith term in decay series (dimensionless)
The application rate Rj. of the Jth year may be limited to a maximum value
R because of plant-toxic substances in the waste. The value of R might
m m
also be determined by a potential for water pollution from substances in
the manure other than nitrogen. Limits on RT are expressed by
R D /ON
T ^ K. ( L I
J m ^ '
If there is potential for plant toxicity from the build-up of inorganic
salts, R is a function of the soil texture T, the quality of the irri-
gation water I, the annual precipitation P, and the salt concentration
S in the waste. The value of R is a function of S, I, P, and S
expressed as
Rm ^ f(T, I, P, S) (3)
The function f(T, I, P, and S) is usually obtained from graphs based on
local data as seen in a later example.
To use this proposed system, it is seen from equations (1) and (2) that
values of N , N , N,, C, D. and R must be known. The nitrogen
c' s L 1,2... m °
used by the crop N is known for most climatic regions, soils, and
crops. The nitrogen available in the soil N and the concentration of
S
the nitrogen in the waste C can be obtained by analysis. However, the
57
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expected nitrogen loss N ; the decay constant D.. «...» an<* the limiting
rate R are not well-known for each region and may need to be obtained
through additional research (See the section entitled "Research Needs").
If a value for NT Is not known, it is safest to assume It to be zero.
Ij
Agricultural extension agents are usually the best sources of Information
on how to obtain values of N , N , N , C, D- 2... and R for local soil
and climatic conditions.
Solutions for equations (1) and (3) have been determined for Kansas
conditions and are presented in Tables and Graphs by Powers et al. (156,
157). An example calculation for beef-feedlot manure application in
Kansas is given below.
Example Calculation
Introduction - This example calculation of RT is based on the amount of
-^ j
nitrogen in the manure. The calculation of R is based on the need to
m
avoid adding more salts than can be leached from the profile by natural
precipitation. Generally salt build-up may be a problem west of about
the 98th meridian. The term salt refers to the inorganic salts of sodium,
potassium, calcium, and magensium. A salt build-up in the soil will limit
the uptake of water by plants. A measure of the salt build-up (salinity)
is the electrical conductivity of the soil water measured on a saturation
extract from the soil. The soil having a saturation extract with an
electrical conductivity of 4 or more millimhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm)
is classified as saline. Because irrigation water also contains soluble
salts, its salt concentration must also be considered when manure is
applied to irrigated land. The operator wants to manage his manure and
water applications to prevent these salt accumulations. The following
example shows how to apply manure to the soil to supply proper amounts of
nitrogen while avoiding salt build-up.
Necessary Information - In order to determine the application rate from
equations (1), (2), and (3) several factors must be known. These factors
are (1), the nitrogen use of the crop to be grown on the area of
application; (2), the soil test giving the available nitrogen in the soil;
(3), the quality of the irrigation water, i.e. the electrical conductivity
58
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or soluble salt concentration; (4), the manure analyses (This analyses
should include the percent nitrogen, the percent water, and the percent
salts of calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium); (5), the texture of
the soil upon which the manure will be applied; and (6) the expected
nitrogen loss from volatilization and denitrification.
For this example assume that the crop to be grown is sorghum>120 Ibs. of
nitrogen are needed for the growth of the sorghum, and the electrical
conductivity of the irrigation water is 0.65 mmhos/cm. The manure is
typical of Western Great Plains beef-feedlots and contains 50% water,
1.3% nitrogen, 0.5% phosphorus, 1.09% potassium, 0.23% sodium, 0.78% cal-
cium, and 0.4% magensium. This manure is to be applied upon a soil of
medium texture having 20 pounds of available nitrogen. It is assumed
that there will be no loss of nitrogen from volatilization or denitri-
fication.
In this example, first calculate the amount of manure that will supply
the desired amount of nitrogen, and then see if that amount of manure
will supply excessive amounts of toxic substances such as soluble salts.
Rate Based on Nitrogen Content - Equation (1) can now be used to calculate
the application rate RT provided values of D are known for C equal to 1.3.
J
Only values of D for C equal to 3.5, 2.5, 1.5, and 1.0 are known for our
example. Therefore, RT for C equal to 1.3 will be estimated by linear
J
interpolation between values for C equal to 1.5 and 1.0. The values of
D for C equal to 1.5 and 1.0 are 0.35, 0.15, 0.10, 0.05, and 0.20, 0.10,
0.05.
Using values of N -N +NT = 120-20+0 > 100, C » 1.0, D. = 0.20, D0 » 0.10,
C S L -L I
and D- = 0.05 it is seen from equation (1) that the application rate R_
for the first, second and third years is given by:
Rl ' (20)(1?0)[0.20] = 25 Tons/Acre
R2 S (20)(1.0)[0.20+0.10(1-0.20)] = 17'8 Tons/Acre
59
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R
__ __
3 (20) (1.0) [0.20+0. 10(1-0. 20)+0. 05(1-0. 20-0. 10)]
100 15.6 Tons/Acre
(20)(1.0)[0.32]
Simarly for NC - Ng + NL = 120 -20 + 0, C = 1.5, V.^ = 0.35, DZ = 0.15,
D. =0.10 and D, = 0.05 it is seen that the application rate Rj for the
first, second and third years is 9.6, 7.4, and 6.7 tons/acre.
Linear interpolation between 25 tons/acre when C is 1.0 and 9,6 tons/acre
when C is 1.5 yields 16 tons/acre as the application rate R for the
J
first year of application of our manure with 1.3 percent nitrogen.
For convenience, solutions to equation (1) have been tabulated for
N - N + N = 50. 100, and 200 Ibs. of nitrogen and for C = 3.5, 2.5,
c s L
1.5, and 1.0. These solutions are presented in table 12 for up to the
20th year of application.
Maximum Rate for Irrigated Land - To calculate the maximum rate (R of
equation 2 and 3) to avoid a salt build-up, the salt concentration of the
irrigation water and the salt concentration of the manure must be known.
Salt concentration in the manure is estimated by the sum of the percentages
of the sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. In this particular case,
add the sums of 1.09% for potassium, 0.23% for sodium, .78% for calcium
and 0.40% for magnesium to obtain a total of 2.5% salt on a dry weight
basis.
This data along with the texture of the soil can now be used to determine
the maximum amount of salt which can be applied to a soil for a given year.
Several figures have been prepared (157) which can be used to determine
the maximum amount of manure to be applied to the soil. Figure 4 is for
a low salinity and on a medium textured soil. Although sorghum can be
grown on a soil of medium salinity, (that with a saturation extract of
6 mmhos/cm) the low salinity level, (that with a saturation extract of less
than 4 mmhos/cm) was chosen here. From Figure 4 it is seen that for an
electrical conductivity of .65 for the irrigation water and 2.5% salt in
manure that the maximum annual application rate of dry manure should not
exceed 19 tons per acre. The dashed line in the figure illustrates how
this value was determined.
60
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Table 12. MANURE APPLICATION RATES NEEDED TO INSURE 50, 100, OR 200 POUNDS OF AVAILABLE NITROGEN PER ACRE.'
Nitrogen
Desired
(lbs/A)
50
100
200
Nitrogen fa
In Manure
(percent)
3.5
2.5
1.5
1.0
3.5
2.5
1.5
1.0
3.5
2.5
1.5
1.0
Year of Application
lst(T/A) 2nd(T/A) 3rd(T/A) 4th(T/A) 5th(T/A) 10th (T/A) 15th(T/A) 20th (T/A)
1.0
2.5
4.8
12.5
1.9
5.0
9.6
25.0
3.8
10.0
19.1
50.0
0.9
1.8
3.7
8.9
1.8
3.6
7.4
17.8
3.6
7.3
14.8
35.7
0.9
1.7
3.4
7.8
1.8
3.4
6.7
15.6
3.5
6.9
13.1
31.3
0.9
1.6
3.1
7.2
1.8
3.3
6.3
14.3
3.5
6.6
12.6
28.6
0.8
1.5
3.0
6.6
1.7
3.1
6.1
13.1
3.4
6.3
12.1
26.3
0.8
1.4
2.6
4.8
1.6
2.7
5.1
9.6
3.3
5.5
10.3
19.3
0.8
1.3
2.3
4.0
1.6
2.5
4.6
7.9
3.2
5.0
9.1
15.9
0.8
1.2
2.1
3.5
1.5
2.4
4.2
6.9
3.1
4.7
8.4
13.9
Application rates are on the dry weight basis.
Nitrogen contents are on the dry weight basis. Adapted from Pratt (159).
-------
o
Q.
0_
X
<
LOW SALINITY
MEDIUM TEXTURED SOILS
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
ELECT. COND. IRRIG. WATER (mmhos/cm)
Figure 4» Annual manure application rates for a resulting
LOW SALINITY (electrical conductivity of the soil water,
saturation extract, of 4 or less) on a MEDIUM TEXTURED
SOIL. The rates are on the dry weight basis0
62
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Because this value is more than the 16 tons per acre needed to supply 100
Ibs. of nitrogen, a saline soil is not expected to develop in this case.
The calculations are on the dry weight basis and so we need to calculate
the tons of manure to be added on the wet weight basis. The data show
that the manure is 50% moisture using Table 13 we see that 32 tons of
material with 50% moisture should be added.
The Dispersion Hazard For Irrigated Land - Salt build-up is not the only
hazard when applying manure to the soil. An improper balance of sodium
and potassium in relation to calcium and magnesium salts can cause soil
aggregates to break down into the individual clay particles, i.e. cause
soil aggregates to disperse. The dispersed clay then moves down into the
profile, blocks soil pores, and reduces infiltration of water into the
soil. Some irrigation water is high enough in sulfates to cause soluble
calcium to precipitate. That may reduce the amount of soluble calcium
and cause an imbalance between soluble sodium plus potassium and soluble
calcium plus magnesium. Such an imbalance would again cause the soil to
disperse.
If the ratios of the weight of sodium and potassium to the total weight
of the salt (in the manure plus irrigation water), are more than 0.65,
dispersion might occur on a medium textured soil maintained at low
salinity. When the ratio of sodium plus potassium to total inorganic
salts exceeds the above value, or the irrigation water is high in soluble
sulfates, seek professional advice from a county agent or from state
soil testing laboratories.
To calculate the ratio of the weights of potassium plus sodium to total
salts, determine the weight of the sodium plus potassium and the weight of
all salts added to the soil. In our manure we would have .0109 tons of
potassium, 0.0023 tons of sodium, and 0.025 total tons of salt in each ton
of dry manure solids. Sixteen tons of dry manure solids would supply
0.1744 tons of potassium, 0.0368 tons of sodium, and 0.4 total tons of
salt. Total tons of salt added from the irrigation water is estimated by:
0.95 x electrical conductivity x the acre feet of water added, or for 2
acre feet (0.95 x 0.65 x 2 = 1.24) tons of salt from the irrigation water.
63
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Table 13. CONVERSION FACTORS FROM DRY WEIGHT TO WET WEIGHT.
% Water Factor
Water
Factor
% Water Factor
10
15
20
25
30
1.11
1.18
1.25
1.33
1.43
35
40
45
50
55
1.54
1067
1.82
2000
2.22
60
65
70
75
80
2.50
2086
3.33
4.00
5.00
EXAMPLE: If the application rate for dry manure is 20 tons per acre,
the application rate for manure containing 30% moisture is 1.43 X 20
= 28«6 tons per acre.
-------
If the water analyses shows that 25% of the salt is soluble sodium, there
is (0.25 x 1.24 = 0.31) tons of sodium added from the irrigation water.
Using these data one can find the ratio of the sodium plus potassium to
the total salts added. This would be (0.1744 + 0.0368 + 0.31)/(0.4 + 1.2)
=0.32 which is below the critical ratio of 0.65.
Maximum Rate R for Nonirrigated Land - Because irrigation water helps to
""" ""' lit """""
leach soluble salts from the soil profile, manure application rates must
be reduced if irrigation water is not added. However, natural precipit-
ation helps to leach soluble salts. In areas of higher rainfall, more
manure can be added than in low rainfall areas without creating saline
soils. We use the ratio of the average annual precipitation to percentage
of salt in the manure and the soil texture in Figure 5 to find maximum
application rates on nonirrigated land. The salt concentrations in the
manure and the texture of the soil are determined as previously described.
Assume that you want to apply the manure above to a medium textured soil
in an area where the annual precipitation is 28 inches. Again using the
concentration estimate of 2.5% for total salts find the value to use on
the horizontal axis of Figure 5 by dividing the annual precipitation by
the manure salt percentage (28/2.5 = 11.2). Using 11.2 in Figure 5 it is
seen that the annual application should be less than 14 tons per acre of
dry manure solids. This is equivalent to 28 tons of manure having 50%
moisture. At first it appears as though 100 Ibs of nitrogen cannot be
supplied to the nonirrigated land because it was earlier established that
16 tons per acre of dry manure is needed and if this amount is used a
salt build-up will result. However, on further examination of Table 12
we see that to supply 100 Ibs. of nitrogen per acre continuously over a
20-year period that the second year application will be considerably
less than the first. Also this maximum level is the maximum annual
application rate. Therefore in this particular case, the value of 14 tons
could be exceeded by 2 tons for nonirrigated soils the first year without
causing serious salt build-up.
The Dispersion Hazard for Nonirrigated Land - To calculate the dispersion
hazard add the total concentrations of the calcium and the sodium divided
by the total salts which would be (0.174 + 0.037)/(0.40) = 0.527. Again
65
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DRYLAND MANURE APPLICATIONS
70
SOIL TEXTURES
C- COARSE
M- MEDIUM
F- FINE
r1 50
MEDIUM SALINITY
LOW SALINITY
, 40
48 12 16
PRECIPITATION (inJ/SALT (%)
Figure 5. Annual application rates on nonirrigated
land using air-dry manure
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this is less than our ratio of 0.65 established for medium textured soils
and low salinity levels. Therefore, this application would not be expected
to cause a dispersion hazard.
gummary of Calculation Procedure - In summary the following steps should
be followed when applying beef cattle feedlot manure to soils of Western
Kansas.
1. Decide on the crop to be grown, have a soil test performed, and
estimate nitrogen losses to establish the amount of nitrogen (N -N +N )
C S L
to apply.
2. Have the manure and irrigation water analyzed.
a. Analyze the manure for percentages of nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, and moisture.
b. Analyze the irrigation water for electrical conductivity and
percent soluble sodium.
3. Determine the texture of the soil receiving the manure.
4. Use Equation (1) or Table 12 to determine the application rates
V
5. If the manure is applied to irrigated land determine the maximum
annual application rate R from Figure 4.
6. If the manure is applied to nonirrigated land determine the
maximum annual application rate R from Figure 5.
7. Compare the rate RT from step 4 to the maximum allowable annual
J
rate R in steps 5 and 6 to see if the planned rate will cause a salt
build-up in the soil.
8. Calculate the dispersion hazard. If a hazard exists see your
county agent.
9. Have annual salt alkali and soil fertility tests performed on
the soil to check for possible salt build-up and nitrogen accumulation.
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SECTION VIII
APPLICATION TECHNIQUES
The nitrogen fraction of animal waste should receive primary consid-
eration when applying wastes to agricultural land. In the drier regions
of the country the soluble salt fraction is also important. These two
constituents are used as primary criteria for determining application
rates and attempts to apply animal waste to land without this information
is not likely to produce the desired results. The composition of the
waste, therefore, must be determined by analysis.
Animal waste contains nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, calcium
and magnesium as well as a number of other elements of minor importance.
Waste composition varies considerably from location to location as well
as within a given stockpile at one location. The variability in composition
is a result of different management systems, climate, animal species, and
ration. If some soil is scraped from the lots along with the manure, the
percent of each component will reflect that of the added soil. Waste
taken directly to the field will have a higher nitrogen content than that
which is stockpiled where leaching and decomposition can lower the
nitrogen content. The concentration of soluble salts of potassium, sodium,
magnesium and calcium depend on the type of ration being fed the animal.
The concentration may be reduced in humid regions by leaching the salts
from the manure.
Because of composition variability, animal waste should be analyzed for
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium. Proper
sampling of a stockpile is very essential. Several samples each from
various locations and depths within the stockpile or a lot should be taken
and mixed in a container. A sample from this mixture should then be
analyzed and an average composition determined. It is desirable to take
samples at two, three, or more different times during the year to further
establish the average composition of the waste. Commercial testing
laboratories are available for analyzing the waste. Animal waste analyses
are usually expressed on a dry matter basis except sometimes in the case
of slurries or liquids.
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In order to calculate proper application rates several factors must be
known. Among these are the soil type, nutrient needs of the crop, the
nitrogen and salt contents of the waste, and the climate of the area.
The nitrogen content of the material affects the rate at which the waste
will decay; wastes with high nitrogen content decay faster. The nitrogen
is mineralized only as the material decays so some of it is not released
until the second, third or even fourth year after it is applied.
The salt concentration of the material is important in drier areas of
the United States because excess salts in the soil can reduce plant growth.
Because decomposition rates are affected by temperature and moisture,
climate is an important factor. Climate is also an important factor in
determining the amount of leaching from a given application site or from
a given stockpile.
Because of the wide variability in soil type, fertilizer needs, and decay
rates across the United States, it is difficult to give a universal
formula for application rates. Some states have published guidelines for
applying animal wastes. Among these are Indiana (30, 31, 32, 33), North
Carolina (140, 141, 142, 143), Ohio (139), Maine (92), Oregon (225), Iowa
(211), and Kansas (156, 157). We recommend that interested readers refer
to these guidelines for their area. An example calculation based on
Kansas guidelines is given in Section VII. If necessary, one should
consult his county agent for recommended application rates. The safest
application rates are the lowest rates which produce the best agronomic
results, although some operations may wish to exceed these limits and use
fields as disposal areas rather than using animal waste as a source of
nutrients. Also some may wish to make large applications every few years
rather than smaller applications each year. There is a potential hazard
of salt build up in the soil and nitrate leaching following these large
application rates. These practices cannot be recommended and if done, the
soil and water in these areas should be monitored.
Proper and timely spreading and incorporation of a waste into the soil is
important because it can prevent reduced crop yields and decrease the
pollution potential. Spreading should be as uniform as possible to prevent
local concentrations of ammonium and other inorganic salts which can
69
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reduce germination and yields. Piles or windrows in the fields should be
avoided. Sprinkler application of the liquid materials insures a uniform
distribution, but gravity flow systems are workable. Incorporation
immediately after application prevents rain and snowmelt from washing
pollutants from the manure into streams, lakes, and domestic wells.
This is of particular importance on sloping land. Application on
frozen soil where manure cannot be incorporated is not recommended.
Lowered germination and reduced seedling growth could occur if planting
takes place soon after application of animal waste (220). This toxicity
is usually due to either increased soil salinity or high levels of
ammonium nitrogen in the soil coming from organic matter breakdown.
This problem can be reduced or eliminated by observing the following
proper management practices: (1), apply the wastes well ahead of
planting time; (2), do not apply excessive amounts of wastes to soils;
and (3), pre-irrigate with good quality water, if available, before
planting.
If animal wastes of low nitrogen content are applied, there is an additional
reason for applying the waste well ahead of planting. If the waste has a
low nitrogen content, there will be a period of several weeks when there is
immobilization rather than mineralization of nitrogen in the soil. Ideally,
planting should follow this immobilization so that mineralization is taking
place at the time the crop starts to grow.
Ease of application depends to a great extent upon the physical condition
of the waste. A friable material that has been allowed to decay and dry
in a stockpile is much easier to load and spread than large chunks or a
semi-solid material taken directly from the feeding area. However, some
nitrogen and potassium can be lost from stockpiles by volatilization and
leaching. Liquid material is best spread by irrigation systems or tank
wagons with injection systems.
Land application can be beneficial to most crops. There are, however, some
crops which are more readily adapted to waste application than others.
70
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Silage crops such as forage corn and sorghum are best adapted for recycling
nutrients because of their high dry matter yields which removes more
nutrients from the application area. Avoid applications on sugar beets
because release of nitrogen late in the season can lower sugar contents in
beets. Also, manure application on soils planted to tobacco, tomatoes or
oranges is not recommended. Annually cultivated crops are well adapted to
waste application because of the ease in which waste can be incorporated.
71
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SECTION IX
RESEARCH NEEDS
The ultimate objective of research is to discover the relationships
needed for the development of application guidelines for animal waste
application to land. Therefore the research needs mentioned here are
those that will yield information needed to establish guidelines. These
guidelines should establish application rates which maintain maximum
productivity and nutrient recycling while avoiding increased soil salinity
and contamination of surface water and groundwater. The plant uptake
segment of the nitrogen cycle must remain efficient, since excess nitrogen
could become a water pollutant.
In order to compare research results and to establish application rates,
there must be a standardization of data. Analyses should always be
expressed on a dry weight basis except possibly for liquids of low solids
content (approximately 1% or lower). The location of the research should
always be included when reporting data so that the climatic region can
be determined. Soil characteristics which might influence application
rate calculations should be given: slope, soil texture, presence of
impervious layers in the profile, and depth to water table. With these
standardizations, meaningful comparisons can be made and guidelines
established.
In most regions of the United States nitrogen appears to be the best
constituent upon which to base application rates. Although management
practices and climate may determine the limiting constituent, other
constituents such as salt build up in the soil, high copper and nitrate
accumulation in plant tissues, or grass tetany in cattle may become the
limiting constituent in some regions. In arid or semi-arid regions where
lack of natural precipitation reduces leaching of salts out of the profile,
the total inorganic salt content of the waste might become the limiting
constituent. Studies on the mechanism of salt toxicity on plants is
needed so that specific salts that cause the toxicity can be pinpointed.
There has been considerable information obtained on the characterization
72
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of animal waste. From our review it appears that any differences in
constituent concentrations due to climatic regions are overshadowed by
the extreme variability of animal waste within a region. These differences
preclude any use of an average value to establish application guidelines.
Therefore, further information on characterization will do no more than
verify the extreme variabilities that exist.
The variability of the composition of animal waste necessitates analysis
of the waste before application. Sampling techniques and analytical
procedures should be standardized so that errors in application rate
calculations can be minimized. These standardized procedures need to be
developed.
If nitrogen is to be used as a basis for establishing application rates,
it is necessary to know the amount of nitrate nitrogen becoming available
for plant uptake and movement with soil water. There are numerous
published results on nitrogen transformation in soil and still numerous
studies are underway. However, more information is needed on organic
nitrogen decay rates. Experimental data must be gathered which can be
used to determine nitrogen decay constants for different soil types, for
wastes of different nitrogen contents, and for different climates.
Denitrification can affect determination of animal waste application
rates. While it is recognized that this process can cause large losses
of soil nitrogen into the atmosphere, little is known on how animal waste
application affects this process. Such variables as soil texture, climate,
and waste composition need to be examined as to how they affect denitri-
fication. In some cases denitrification may account for large errors in
underestimating the application rate of a given agronomic system.
Most data shows that if an animal waste is incorporated after application
and soil erosion prevention is practiced, there is little loss of waste
constituents into surface runoff. Some data has shown that surface runoff
is reduced by waste applications because of increased infiltration rates
associated with it. However, it needs further investigation because of
its positive aspect of land application. More long-term experiments are
needed to study the effects of various application rates on crop yields,
73
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nutrient availability, and soil salinity. Only by continuing experiments
on a long-term basis can the validity of application rate guidelines
be evaluated.
74
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SECTION IX
REFERENCES
1. Abbott, J. L. Use Animal Manure Effectively! Agricultural Experi-
ment Station and Cooperative Extension Service Bui. A-55, University
of Arizona. 1968. 11 p.
2. Abbott, J. L. and J. C. Lingle. Effect of soil temperature on the
availability of phosphorus in animal manures. Soil Sci. 105:145-152.
1968.
3. Adams, R. S., Jr., and C. T. Behren. Personal communication.
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4. Adriano, D. C. Chemical characteristics of beef feedlot wastes as
affected by housing type. In. Beef Feedlot Design and Management,
L. J. Connor and H. Koenig (ed.). Michigan Agricultural Expt.
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5. Adriano, D. C., A. C. Chang, P. F. Pratt, and R. Sharpless. Effect
of soil application of dairy manure on germination and emergence of
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manure as influenced by moisture and temperature. J. Environ.
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7. Adriano, D. C., P. F. Pratt, and S. E. Bishop. Fate of organic forms
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75
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12. Albin, R. C. Handling and disposal of cattle feedlot waste. J.
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25. Carreker, J. R., S. R. Wilkinson, J. E. Box, Jr., R. N. Dawson, E. R.
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34. Cross, 0. E., and P. E. Fischbach. Water Intake Rates on a Silt Loam
Soil with Various Manure Applications. ASAE Paper No. 72-218
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36. Dale, A. C. Farm animal wastes should be returned to the soil.
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37. Dale, A. C. Status of dairy cattle waste treatment and management
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49. Gilbertson, C. B., T. M. McCalla, J. R. Ellis, 0. E. Cross, and W.
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61. Herron, 6. M. and A. B. Erhart. Value of manure on an irrigated
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excreta. Transactions of the ASAE 9:374-376. 1966.
199. Taiganides, E. P., R. K. White, and R. L. Stroshine. Water and soil
oxygen demand of livestock wastes. Livestock Waste Management and
Pollution Abatement, Proc. Int. Symposium on Livestock Wastes, p.
176-179. Amer. Soc. of Agr. Eng., St. Joseph, Michigan. 1971.
200. Taukabong, T. M. The Effect of Incorporated Animal Manure on pH on
the Solubility of Soil Manganese. Master's Thesis. Tuskegee
Institute. 1973.
201. Tietjen, C. Plant response to manure nutrients and processing of
organic wastes. Management of Farm Animal Wastes, ASAE Pub.
No. SP-0366. p. 136-140. Amer. Soc. of Agr. Eng., St. Joseph,
Michigan. 1966.
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202. Todd, Jr. R. Chronic copper poisoning in farm animals. Veterinary
Bulletin 32:574. 1967.
203. Townshend, A. R., K. A. Reichert, and J. H. Nodwell. Status report
on water pollution control facilities for farm animal wastes in
the province of Ontario. Animal Waste Management, Proc. 1969.
p. 131-149. Cornell Agricultural Waste Management Conf. 1969.
204. Travis, D. 0., W. L. Powers, L. S. Murphy, and R. I. Lipper. Effect
of feedlot lagoon water on some physical and chemical properties
of soils. SSSAP 35:122-126. 1971,
205. Tsao, Ter-Fung. Cattle Feedlot Wastewater Salinity. Master's Thesis.
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado. 1972. 80p.
206. Turner, D. 0., and D. E. Procter. A farm scale dairy waste disposal
system. Livestock Waste Management and Pollution Abatement, Proc.
Intl. Symposium on Livestock Wastes, p. 85-88. Amer. Soc. of Agr.
Eng., St. Joseph, Michigan.
207. Tyler, K. B., A. F. vanMaren, 0. A. Lorenz, and F. H. Takatori.
Sweet corn experiments in the Coachella Valley. University of
California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 808. 1964. 16pp.
208. Unger, P. W. and B. A. Stewart. Feedlot waste effects on soil
conditions and water evaporation. 1974 Nov.-Dec. SSSAP (In press).
1974.
209. U. S. Bureau of the Census. Census of Agriculture, 1969. Volume 5.
Special Reports. Part 15: graphic summary. U. S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D. C., 1973.
210. University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension Service. Pub.
444. Farm Manure - its handling and use. 1971. 18p.
211. Vanderholm, D. H. Area Needed for Land Disposal of Beef and Swine
Wastes. Iowa State University, Cooperative Extension Service,
Ames, Iowa. Pm-552. (Rev.). 1973. 2p,
212. Vanderholm, D. H., and C. E. Beer. Use of soil to treat anaerobic
lagoon effluent: Design and operation of a field disposal system.
Transactions of the ASAE 13:562-564. 1970.
213. Viets, F. G., Jr. Cattle feedlot pollution. Proc. National
Symposium on Animal Waste Management, Warrenton, Virginia, p. 97-
105. Council of State Governments, Washington, D. C. 1971.
214. Vitosh, M. L., J. F. Davis, and B. D. Knezek. Long-term effects
of fertilizer, manure and plowing depth of corn. Research Report
198, Michigan State University, Agricultural Experiment Station,
East Lansing. 1972. 6p.
215. Vitosh, M. L., J. F. Davis, and B. D. Knezek. Long-term effects of
manure, fertilizer, and plow depth on chemical properties of soils
and nutrient movement in a monoculture corn system. J. Environ.
Quality 2:296-299.
91
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216. Wallingford, G. W. Effects of Solid and Liquid Beef Feedlot Wastes
on Soil Characteristics and on Growth and Composition of Corn
Forage. Ph.D. Thesis, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
1974. 289p.
217. Wallingford, G. W., L. S. Murphy, W. L. Powers, and H. L. Manges.
Effect of beef-feedlot-lagoon water on soil chemical properties and
growth and composition of corn forage. J. Environ. Quality 3:74-
78. 1974.
218. Ware, L. M., and W. A. Johnson. Poultry Manure for Vegetable Crops
- Effects and Value. Bui. 386. Agricultural Experiment Station,
Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama. 1968. 31p.
219. Wells, D. M., G. F. Meenaghan, R. C. Albin, E. A. Coleman, and W.
Grub. 1972. Characteristics of wastes from southwest beef cattle
feedlots. Waste Management Research, Proc. 1972 Cornell Agricultural
Waste Management Conf. p. 385-404. Graphics Management Corp.,
Washington, D. C. 1972.
220. Whetstone, G. A., H. W. Parker, and D. M. Wells. Study of Current
and Proposed Practices in Animal Waste Management. EPA Report
430-9-74-003. January 1974. 420pp.
221. Wilkinson, S. R. Poultry Manure: Waste or Resource? Soil, Water
and Air Sciences, Southern Region, Agricultural Research Service,
USDA, in cooperation with the University of Georgia Agricultural
Expt. Stations. 4p. 1974.
222. Wilkinson, S. R., W. A. Jackson, R. N. Dawson, R. Montgomery, J. B.
Jones, and E. R. Beaty. The effect of heavy rates of poultry house
litter on coastal bermudagrass and fescue grass. Southern Piedmont
Conservation Research Center, Watkinsville, Georgia. 1973. 19p.
223. Wilkinson, S. R., W. A. Jackson, R. N. Dawson, and D. J. Williams.
Progress report: Pasture fertilization using poultry litter, p. 24-
28. Proceedings Poultry Waste Management Seminar, Univ. of Georgia,
June 2-4, 1970.
224. Wilkinson, S. R., J. A. Stuedemann, D. J. Williams, J. B. Jones Jr.,
R. N. Dawson, and W. A. Jackson. Recycling broiler house litter on
tall fescue pastures at disposal rates and evidence of beef cow
health problems. Livestock Waste Management and Pollution Abatement,
Proc. Int. Symposium on Livestock Wastes, p. 321-324. Amer. Soc.
of Agr. Eng., St. Joseph, Michigan.
225. Willrich, T. L., D. 0. Turner, and V. V. Volk. Manure Application
Guidelines for the Pacific Northwest. ASAE Paper No. 74-4061
Presented at the 1974 Annual Meeting ASAE. Stillwater, Okla. June
23-26, 1974. 12p.
226. Wilson, B. R., C. H. Reed, J. E. Steckel, E. Genetelli, and M.
Finstein. Poultry manure disposal by plow furrow cover. Summary
report. Rutgers, The State University, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
1967. 25p.
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227. Witzel, S. A., E. McCoy, L. B. Polkowski, 0. J. Attoe, and M. S.
Nichols. Physical, chemical and bacteriological properties of
farm wastes (bovine animals). Management of Farm Animal Wastes,
Proc. National Symposium on Animal Waste Management, p. 10-14.
Amer. Soc. of Agr. Eng., St. Joseph, Michigan. 1966.
228. Wright, M. J. and K. L. Davison. Nitrate accumulation in crops and
nitrate poisoning in cattle. Advances in Agronomy 16:197-247.
229. Young, R. A. Nutrients in runoff from manure spread on frozen
ground. Transactions of the ASAE (In press). 1973.
230. Young, R. A. Progress report on a field trial in Fallen, Nevada.
Division of Plant, Soil and Water Sciences, University of Nevada,
Reno. 1973. 6p.
231. Young, R. A. Crop and hay land disposal areas for livestock waste
management. Processing and Management of Agricultural Wastes, Proc.
1974 Cornell Agricultural Waste Management Conf. p. 484-492. Graphics
Management Corp., Washington, D. C. 1974.
232. Zwerman, P. J., A. B. Drielsma, G. D. Jones, S. D. Klausner, and D.
Ellis. Rates of water infiltration resulting from applications of
dairy manure. Relationship of Agriculture to Soil and Water Pollution,
Proc. 1970 Cornell Agricultural Waste Management Conf. p. 263-270.
Graphics Management Corp., Washington, D. C. 1970.
233. Zwerman, P. J., S. D. Kausner, D. R. Bouldin, and D. Ellis. Surface
runoff nutrient losses from various land disposal systems for dairy
manure. Waste Management Research, Proc. 1972 Cornell Agricultural
Waste Management Conf. p. 495-502. Graphics Management Corp.,
Washington, D. C. 1972.
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SECTION XI
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
Wallingford, G. W., W. L. Powers, and L. S. Murphy. Present knowledge
on the effects of land application of animal waste. To be presented at
the International Symposium on Livestock Waste, April 21-24, 1975, at the
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
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SECTION XI
GLOSSARY
Algal bloom - The growth of algae on streams or lakes usually caused by
excess nutrients in the water.
Beef runoff - Runoff from beef feedlots caused by precipitation or
melting snow.
BODg- Biological oxygen demand. The quantity of oxygen used in five days
in the biochemical oxidation of organic matter.
Bulk density - Density of the soil expressed as the dry weight per unit
volume.
CEC - Cation exchange capacity. The capacity of the soil to attract and
hold cations, usually in terms of millequivalents per hundred grams.
COD - Chemical oxygen demand. The quantity of oxygen used in the chemical
oxidation of organic matter.
Colloid - Small individual particles of soil, very small In size.
Decay rate - The rate at which organic material decays.
Decay rate constant - The fraction of the remaining material which decays.
Denitrification - The process by which nitrate is converted either to
nitrogen, nitrous oxide, or other gases, usually under anaerobic conditions.
Digested slurry - That slurry which was intentionally subjected to digestion
such as aeration or anaerobic treatment and material removed from this
digestion system in a scheduled manner.
Grass tetany - A disease of animals thought caused by an imbalance between
magnesium and potassium in the feedstuff.
Heavy metals - Those metals such as copper, lead, zinc, iron, cadmium, and
nickel.
Hydraulic conductivity - The ease with which water will be transmitted
through a soil.
Infiltration rate - The rate at which water will enter a soil.
Inorganic salts - Those salts of the inorganic cations calcium, sodium,
potassium, and magnesium and of the inorganic anions chloride, carbonate,
and sulfate.
Leaching - The movement of materials such as calcium, magnesium, sodium,
nitrate, or chloride through the soil with water.
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Micronutrients - Nutrients needed in small amounts.
Microorganisms - Bacteria or small organisms.
Mineralization - The process by which organic compounds are converted to
inorganic compounds, such as the conversion of organic nitrogen into
nitrate nitrogen.
Nitrification - The formation of nitrate from the decay of organic
nitrogen or from the biochemical change of ammonia to nitrate.
Nutrients - A compound or element needed by plant or animal for metabolism
and growth.
Percolation - The process of water moving downward through the soil profile.
£H - A measure of the hydrogen ion concentration.
Fore space - That area between the aggregates or individual soil particles
which can contain either air or water.
Saline soil - One which is high in inorganic salts; one which has an
electrical conductivity of the water-saturated-parts extract of 4 millimhos/cm
or greater.
Soil aggregates - Those particle in the soil formed by various arrangements
of sand, silt, clay, and organic matter.
Soil horizon - The horizontal layers in a soil profile.
Soil microbes - Microorganisms which live in the soil.
Soil texture - The percent sand, silt, and clay in the soil.
Solid manure - That manure in the solid form which cannot be pumped through
pipelines.
TOG - Total organic carbon.
Undigested alurry - A liquid mixture of manure that has not been digested
through intentional means.
Volatilization - The process by which materials are converted to vapor.
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing}
1. RCPOHT NO,
EPA-660/2-75-010
2.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Research Status on Effects of Land Application
of Animal Wastes
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOItNO.
5. REPORT DATE
January 31, 1975
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
William L. Powers
Larry S. Murphy
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO,
G. Walter Wallingford
9. PERFORMING ORG \NIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas 66506
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1 BB039
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
R-803021-01-1
12, SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Protection Agency
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
16. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
10. ABSTRACT
The primary purpose of this report was to review the literature and analyze
research needs on the effects of land application of animal waste. An additional
purpose was to assemble published information on application guidelines for animal
waste. Included in this report are information on the characteristics of waste,
effects of waste on soil and water near application sites, application rates,
application techniques, and research needs. This report is organized into six
nain topics: (1), climate, waste, and soil classification; (2), waste composition;
(3), effect of waste on the environment; (4) application rates based on waste
constituents; (5) application techniques; and (6) research needs. The climate, waste,
and soil classification systems were developed to allow comparison of the effects of
animal waste applications on land in various parts of the country. The composition
f the waste in each climate was tabulated and values compared. Comparisons between
climatic regions were not possible because the large variability within regions.
Because of this variability no average composition for a given waste in a given clima-
tic region was possible. The effect of the waste on the environment was measured in
:erms of the possible final disposition of the waste constituents. These constituents
ould accumulate in the soil, move to the groundwater, runoff the soil surface, or be
taken up by plants. Attempts were made to assemble application guidelines from the
/arious parts of the country.
7.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
Farm wastes, Soil disposal fields,
Pollution, Runoff
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
Groundwater Pollution,
Soil Contamination,
Soil Disposal Fields,
Soil Properties
c. COSATI Field/Group
2/1
8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report}
21. NO. OF PAGES
102
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage}
22. PRICE
CPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
* U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1975-698-637 /I6I REGION 10
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