UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION 1
BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS 02203
INFORMATION PACKET ON LEAF COMPOSTING FOR INDIVIDUALS
by the Research Library for RCRA
(617) 573-9687
Autumn, 1993
The following compilation of documents on the subject of leaf
composting has been assembled to assist residents in
Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire in complying with
new laws banning the disposal by landfilling of leaves and other
yard wastes. In some instances your request to a state agency
has been referred to the Research Library for RCRA at the US EPA
and this Information Packet is the result.
Materials on other subjects related to composting: how to set up
a municipal composting program, information about the problems
and successes experienced by large scale composting operations,
and the marketing of compost products are included in another
Information Packet that is available to municipalities on the
request of municipal officials. However, if you have a specific
question not covered in this Information Packet, call the
Research Library for RCRA or your State solid waste agency.
DISCLAIMER:
THE ENCLOSED MATERIAL HAS BEEN PREPARED BY THE UNITED STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, REGION 1, SOLID WASTE PROGRAM TO
DISSEMINATE INFORMATION FROM THE HOLDINGS OF THE RESEARCH LIBRARY
FOR RCRA AND OTHER SOURCES. INCLUSION OF INFORMATION ABOUT AN
ORGANIZATION, A PRODUCT, OR A SERVICE, DOES NOT REPRESENT
ENDORSEMENT BY THE UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
NOR DOES IT REPRESENT E.P.A. OPINION, POLICY, OR GUIDANCE UNLESS
SPECIFICALLY INDICATED. USERS OF THIS INFORMATION SHOULD BE
CAUTIONED TO CONDUCT THEIR OWN EVALUATION OF THE INFORMATION
PRIOR TO DEVELOPING CONCLUSIONS OR OPINIONS.
-------
Contents:
ENVIRONMENTAL FACT SHEET: YARD WASTE COMPOSTING by U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, January, 1991.
HOW DO I START BACKYARD COMPOSTING? by Ocean State Cleanup and
Recycling Program, 1992.
EASY BACKYARD COMPOSTING by New York State Department of
Environmental Conservation
COMPOST FOR THE HOME GARDEN by L. H. MacDaniels, et. al., Cornell
Cooperative Extension, [1992].
"Compost: A Report on How to Get Your Kitchen and Yard Wastes Out
of the Sick Bed, and Back To Producing Rich, Loamy Compost," by
Robert Kourik, in GARBAGE MAGAZINE, October/November, 1992.
"Expert Advice Sought on Eliminating Odor From Rotting Leaves,"
by Neal Learner, in ST. LOUIS POST-DISPATCH, May 20, 1993.
A GLOSSARY OF COMPOST TERMS by the Solid Waste Composting
Council.
RESOURCES: COMPOSTING [Bibliography], by Association of Vermont
Recyclers, 1989.
State Directory of Municipalities that Compost.
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Solid Waste and
Emergency Response
(OS-305)
EPA/530-SW-91-009
January 1991
Office ol Solid Waste
EPA Environmental
Fact Sheet
YARD WASTE COMPOSTING
Across the nation, composting is gaining increased attention as an environmentally
sound way to manage yard wastes. Yard wastes are such materials as leaves, grass
clippings, brush, and tree prunings. Many communities and 12 states have banned
yard wastes from landfills. Composting diverts yard wastes from landfills and combus-
tors. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommends composting yard
wastes. Not only is composting sensible from an environmental perspective, it also
effectively converts yard wastes into a useful soil additive or mulch.,
'hat Are the Facts
oout Yard Wastes?
Yard wastes account for
nearly a fifth (over 31 million
tons) of all garbage gener-
ated in the U. S. each year,
making yard wastes the
second largest component
(by weight) of the municipal
solid waste stream. The
amount of yard waste gener-
ated varies considerably
from region to region, during
different seasons, and from
one year to the next In fact
during peak months (primar-
ily summer and fall), yard
wastes can represent as
much as 25 to 50 percent of
municipal solid waste.
Why Not Put Yard
Wastes in Landfills?
Since these materials are
relatively clean and biode-
gradable, disposal in land-
fills may be unnecessary
and wastes space. In addi-
tion, as yard wastes decom-
pose in landfills, they gener-
ate methane gas and acidic
leachate. Methane is a
colorless, explosive gas that
is released as bacteria de-
compose organic materials
in landfills. If methane is
not controlled at a landfill, it
can seep underground and
Into nearby buildings, where
it has the potential to ex-
plode. Yard wastes also
contribute acidity that can
make other waste constitu-
ents more mobile and there-
fore more toxic.
Yard wastes also are gen-
erally unsuitable for com-
bustion in Incinerators due
to their high moisture
content, which can inhibit
complete burning. When
burned, yard wastes emit
certain gases which contrib-
ute to the formation of
smog-causing nitrogen
oxides.
Why Not Burn Leaves
And Other Yard
Wastes?
Burning leaves and other
yard wastes pollutes the air
and can lead to uncon-
trolled fires. Leaf smoke can
make breathing difficult for
people who suffer from
asthma, emphysema.
chronic bronchitis, or aller-
gies. A number of states
currently ban leaf burning.
and some communities
either ban leaf burning or
restrict when it can take
place.
Printed on recycled paper.
-------
What Is Composting?
iposting is the con-
trolled decomposition of
organic matter by micro-
organisms (mainly bacte-
ria and fungi) into a hu-
mus-like product. Many
home gardeners have
created compost piles in
their backyards. Towns
and cities have set up
community-wide
composting facilities that
furnish the finished com-
post to a variety of users.
How Can Compost
Be Used?
Compost can be used for a
va^^*v of gardening projects.
It enrich gardens, 1m-
pru~~ the soil around trees
and shrubs, and be used as
a soil additive for house-
plants and planter boxes.
Compost can enhance soil
texture, increase the ability
of the soil to absorb air and
water, suppress weed
growth, decrease erosion,
and reduce the need to apply
chemical fertilizers and peat
moss. Following are some
other successful uses of
compost:
• Farmers use compost for
enhancing crops and for
sod farms.
• Landscapers use compost
as a soil amendment and
:coratlve purposes at
irtles, golf courses.
and athletic fields. Land-
scapers also use compost
to cover landfills and carry
out reclamation projects.
• Nurseries use compost for
enhancing plant and forest
seedling crops in reforesta-
tion projects.
• Public agencies use com-
post for landscaping high
way median strips, parks.
recreational areas, and
other public property.
What Materials Can
Be Composted?
Yard wastes such as
leaves, grass, prunlngs.
weeds, and remains of gar-
den plants all make excel-
lent compost. To speed the
composting process, woody
yard wastes should be
clipped and sawed down, or
run through a shredder.
Vacuum cleaner lint, wool
and cotton rags, sawdust.
shredded newspaper, and
fireplace ashes also can be
composted. Although many
foods can be composted, you
should check with your local
Board of Health to see if any
sanitary code' restrictions
apply to food composting in
your area. Do not compost
meats, dairy foods, fats. oil.
or grease.
How Can I Set Up
A Compost Pile?
Composting is easy. You
can set up a compost pile In
a comer of your yard with
few supplies. Choose a level
spot about three-feet square
near a water source and
preferably out of direct
sunlight. Clear the area of
sod and grass. If you build
a composting bin..be sure to
leave enough space Tor air
to reach the pile. Materials
such as chicken wire, scrap
wood, or cinder blocks can
be used to build the bin.
One removable side makes
it easier to tend to the pile.
Place coarse brush at
the bottom of the pile to
allow air to circulate. Then
add leaves, grass, weeds.
etc. You may layer the yard
wastes with soil, if you
want. Keeping the pile
moist and turning it every
few weeks will help speed
up the natural decomposi-
tion process. In dry
weather, sprinkle water on
the pile, but don't let it get
too soggy. Don't be sur-
prised by the heat of the
pile or if you see worms.
both of which are just part
of the process. In most
climates, the compost is
done in three to six months.
or when It becomes a dark
crumbly material that is
uniform in texture.
Can Christmas Trees
Be Used?
Many communities have
begun programs to reuse
the more than 30 million
trees discarded each year
after the holiday season.
The trees are picked up at
-------
'ie curb or collected at
f opoff centers through the
second week of January.
Then they are ground into
small pieces by chippers,
and used as mulch in land-
scaping. To prepare your
tree for reuse, carefully
remove the ornaments.
especially strands of tinsel,
and any plastic wrapping or
other materials used to
transport the tree. You can
also chip the tree yourself
and use the mulch in your
own yard.
How Can I Learn More
About Composting?
EPA has developed several
jblications related to com-
>sting. EPA recently issued
a booklet entitled The
Environmental Consumer's
Handbook that describes
how to set up a backyard
compost pile. The Handbook
also contains over 75 prac-
tical tips for reducing and
recycling solid waste. An-
other publication, the Deci-
sion-Maker's Guide to Solid
Waste Management, devotes
an entire chapter to com-
post. This Guide is targeted
at local government deci-
sion-makers, and contains
solutions to many solid
waste management prob-
lems. Both of these publica-
tions are available at no
cost.
Contact the RCRA Hot-
line. Call Monday through
Friday. 8:30 a.m. to 7:30
p.m. EST. The national toll-
free number is (800) 424-
9346. For the hearing im-
paired, the number is TDD
(800) 553-7672. Copies of
these publications can also
be obtained by writing:
RCRA Information Center
(RIC), U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of
Solid Waste (OS-305), 401
M Street SW., Washington,
DC 20460.
Another report for deci-
sion-makers. Yard Waste
Composting: A Study of
Eight Programs, is available
for a fee from the National
Technical Information Ser-
vices (NTIS). Call (703) 487-
4650 and ask for publica-
tion number PB90-163 114.
EPA is also developing a
Guide to Composting that
will assist policy-makers in
determining what type of
composting they should
promote in their community
and in planning and operat-
ing compost facilities.
In addition, EPA has
drafted a report entitled
Markets Jor Compost, which
provides information on
markets and uses for com-
post. These two documents
should be available in early
1991 from the Hotline.
EPA Regions
-------
EPA Regional Offices
Region 1
U.S. EPA—Regjon 1
J.F.K. Federal Building
Boston, MA 02203
(617) 565-3715
Region 2
US. EPA—Region 2
26 Federal Plaza
New York. NY 10278
(212) 264-2657
Region 3
US. EPA—Region 3
841 Chestnut Street
Philadelphia. PA 19107
(215) 597-9800
Region 4
U.S. EPA—Region 4
345 Coin-Hand Street. NE
Atlanta. GA 30365
(404) 347-4727
RegtonS
US. EPA—RegtonS
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, IL 60604
(312) 353-2000
Region 6
US. EPA—Region 6
First Interstate Bank Tower
1445 Ross Avenue
Dallas. TX 75270-2733
(214) 655-6444
Region?
US. EPA—Region 7
726 Minnesota Avenue
Kansas City. KS 66101
(913) 551-7000
Regions
US. EPA—Region 8
Denver Place (811WM-RD
999 18th Street, Suite 500
Denver, CO 80202-2405
(303) 293-1603
Region 9
US. EPA— Region 9
1235 Mission Street
San Francisco, CA 94103
(415)556-6322
Region 10
US. EPA—Region 10
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle. WA 98101
(206)442-1200
OS-305
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(OS-305)
401 M Street SW
Washington. DC 20460
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use $300
FEED FRIEDMAN
RESEARCH LIBRARY FOR SOLID WASTE
U.S. EPA REGION 1
HER-CAN6
JFK FEDERAL BUILDINB
BOSTON, HA 02203
-------
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DIM!
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II I.
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-k«^ vr. i?»
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—I <: P.*. 1974.
u*f ••*. !~N«h«d monthly by Rodak
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.a rvom. KalaMloo. ML 1911.
— < o-p™.ta,. RuIknn (IS-1X by *•
••m»W < n^«u»« I jnouxm Sftnn. I9SS.
WHAT ABOVr BINS 7
Bins «ie not necessary, but can help large
piles stay neat Use a single bin 10 hold the
compost, or use two or three and lum the
compost from one bin into the next as it ages.
All bins should allow access for turning and
should have holes in the sides so air can
circulate into the pile. Bins can be made
from:
• stakes and chicken wire
• a gaibage can with holes in the sides.
and no bottom
• cinder blocks (allow space between
blocks)
• old pallets or scrap wood
rroublahooling Common Prablcrra
Symptom Ploblem
Solution
ratur.
N«cnou(th»ir
ra loo wrt
rftie f4oi enough
pile ii dry. wtler .
Toounill.
wann A damp
inmnhllr.hul
nowhere dse.
fomptm'froie ~1 oo inull.
Turn it
turningJhepUe.
' Mi« in nxire
ma in uls.
smcllini. but
won't heal up.
nitrogen.
material In ipring.
' 'irti^'^a^aTjaTM Timria"
PTIIH m gnssf uir«.
blood meal. etc.
How do I start
BACKYARD
COMPOSTING?
-------
WHAT IS COMPOSTING?
Composting is the biological break-
down of organic wastes like leaves.
brush, grass clippings and even food
scraps into a soil-like product called
humus. Composting is • form of
recycling, returning organic waste
to the earth.
WIIY SHOULD I COMPOST ?
Composiing at home:
• preserves landfill space
.. ' • saves waste collection costs
• reduces disposal costs
Adding compost to your soil:
• improves soil structure .
• helps retain moisture x\i
• adds organic mailer
• reduces the need for fertilizers
• helps regulate soil pll
• improves plant health
WHAT CAN I COMPOST?
Any organic material will breakdown, but
not everything belongs in your compost pile.
Do Use:
•leaves, grass clipping!
• garden wastes, weeds
• hedge trimmings
• manures from plant citing animals
• kitchen vegetable and fruit scraps
• lea leaves, coffee grounds
• egg shells, hair, saw dust
Do NOT Use:
• diseased plants
• plants which are toxic to other plants
(Ivy, English laurel, rhododendron)
• meau, fish or dairy products
• oily foods, fals or grease
• manures from meat-eating animals
HOW DO I COMPOST ?
Your compost pile will be a liule'ftrm".
teeming with "decomposers"-- bacieria,
fungi and worms. You must provide them
with food, waier and air as they work 10
break down your wastes into compost.
I . Choose a level spot in your yard that
is near a water source and that receives
about equal amounts of sunlight and shade
during the day.
2. Your wastes are the decomposers'
food. Place the materials in 2-6 inches
thick layers. Try to alternate "greens"
(food scraps, grass clippings, manure)
and "browns" (leaves, straw, woody
material) to help balance the proportion
of carbon and nitrogen. The ideal pile
size is 4 to 5 feel wide and high. An
occasional sprinkle of fertilizer, blood
meal or urea will speed the break down
by adding nitrogen, but it is not neces-
sary. Cutting or shredding the ingredients
helps speed the composting.
3. Now add water. The pile should he
kept moist but not soggy — like a wrung-out
sponge. Slowly dripping water onto the pile
is the most effective watering method.
4. Keep air in the pile by turning and
"fluffing'' the pile periodically -once a week
if possible, or whenever you can. Frequent
turning speeds the composting.
5. As you have more materials, mix
them in or start a new pile.
THE RESULTS
As the materials break down, hrai is
generated. You may see steam ruing
from the pile, especially when it i*
turned. If your compost pile is pro-
perly prepared, contains no animal fats
and is turned periodically, it will not
attract pests or create odors. Decom
position will be complete when ihc
compost is a rich dark brown color anil
has broken down into small panicles.
Compost is ready to use afier ii has
cooled. You may screen the compost
and return unfinished material 10 the
pile.
HOW CAN I USE THE COMPOS I 7
• mix several inches of it into soil
before planting
• lop dress lawns with a one-
quarter inch thick layer of composi
• work into top layers of soil
around established plants and
shrubs
• use up to 25% composi in
potting soil
-------
COMMUNITY COMPOSTING
Community composting is beneficial
because:
• Leaves take up too much space in
landfills—many communities now ban
leaves from landfills.
• Many householders do not have the
time or space to compost large quanti-
ties of organic waste, such as fallen
leaves.
• Composting is environmentally safer-
leaves in landfills generate dangerous
gases; burning leaves creates smoke pol-
lution and is unlawful in many commu-
nities.
• Some communities will accept leaves
and other yard wastes for community
compost heaps. Finished compost is
usually available free to residents. Find
out what's happening in your area. If no
program exists, urge your community
leaders to put one in place.
I
•i
t
. • •"••IlllV^jM
WHY SHOULD I MAKE COMPOST?
Composting benefits-you and your c
munity. i'
^^it£%WB«p»f *fgi*y
• Composting is an'easy,. practical way j
to recycle your organic yard and kitchen
wastes. ....
•>,
• Compost is an excellent soil condition-
er for even the smalle'st^yard'and'rr''1'- "
garden—it's safe to use and it costs prac-
tically nothing to ~~'"]HK frM,
I ••**.? •! .;, ' *((iW™. JrfjfPft.V* '• "f •'
• Compost grows healthy plants and .- • •
healthy plants improve the air by remov-'''
ing carbon dioxide and making fresh
• For serious gardeners/ compost Is an C
inexpensive alternative to peat and other
• Composting could iernove*rri6re than'iV
15 percent from the .solid waste stream, ,;
if everyone participated jSjS ;JJ, /»^;j,7 ^ ?
'
'
Many communities now ban leaves
from landfills forcing residents to find
other alternatives^ Some^communities
have started composting programs.; ,
• Composting eliminates .air pollution . • - ,
caused by burning leaves and other yard '
wastes-
vvfe; ;
• Composting recycles nutrients by <«.*>, f
returning them to the soil-. * }&** i>* >-J
NYSDEC=
Division of SolW: Waste' Bureaof « j h-i i» . .4
waste Reduction' -and Recycling tjS*.j}*;V*' ?'
(518)457-7337
DqxnmciH ot EnviwinKnul Contnvwkifl
Easy
Backyard
Composting
New York Stale
Depanmcnt of Environmenul Conservation
MARIO M. mur
THOMAS C. K tfiuofirr
-------
WHAT IS COMPOST?
Compost is a dark, crumbly, earthy-
smelling mixture that consists mostly of
decayed organic matler. Composting is a
simple, natural process. Nature's way of
recycling nutrients and returning them to
the soil so that they can be used again.
By taking advantage of this natural recy-
cling process, you can help lighten the
load of waste that would otherwise go to
<( landfill.
Compost is used for fertilizing and condi-
lioiting soil. It can be made from materi-
als that most households throw out.
WHAT CAN I COMPOST?
• Yard wastes, such as fallen leaves,
grass clippings, weeds and the remains
ol garden plants.
• Kitchen scraps EXCEPT FOR meat, fish,
hones and fatty foods (such as cheese,
salad dressing and leftover cooking oil).
• Woody yard wastes, chipped or shred-
ded, can be used as a mulch or for paths
where they will eventually decompose
and become compost.
HOW DO I MAKE A COMPOST PILE?
It's easy! Follow these simple steps and
in just a few hours, you'll be in business.
To build a simple compost bin, you'll
need:
• Small-mesh wire fencing or snow
fencing
• Seven or more rough boards or slakes,
depending on the shape of bin you
choose- see the illustration for sug-
gestions
< Cylinder
Compo* Bin
pound or 1 cup to each 3ft;lQ:3§Ii
feet Moisten thoroughly^
(3) Make a third layernviti
shovelsful of garden soil, about Tl
inches deep. This will.ensure I"
of decay organisms are present!
.compost pile..
K
< Rectangular
TypeBjn
_»
< Organic Matcriali
••'••;
< Fertilizer, tee text for amount, or
< Organic Materiab
composting. A compost pile should be
;".' .JfliPU-
• : ". >
COMPOSTING DO'S AND DON'TS
•
:'.?*??% DO add lime, small amounts of
wood asl-.es or crushed eggshells to the
compost pile to neutralize acids which
may, form and cause an odor problem.
Xiv DO mix grass clippings with other
wastes to loosen them up. They have a
tendency to compact
wr* DO keep compost pile damp, espe-
cially during dry spells.
DONT use unfinished compost. It
will rob your plants of nitrogen instead
of acting as a fertilizer.
DONT compost weeds that are
heavily laden with seeds. Some seeds
will not be killed during the heating
process.
DONT add meat, fish, bones or fat-
ty food scraps to the compost mixture.
'They will attract animals (dogs, cats, rats,
etc.) and they do not decompose readily.
DONT add diseased vegetable
plants to the pile if the compost will be
used on a vegetable garden.
FOR MORE INFORMATION
If you want to know more about com-
posting and about other, more elaborate,
ways to make good compost, consult
books or gardening magazines at your
local library— or call your county Cooper-
ative Extension office, listed in the tele-
phone directory.
-------
Cornell
Cooperative
Extension
Suffolk County
Education O'uer
<246 Gnffir.g \ven'je
Riverf.ead \Y IM,1
51b 727 7650
FVC -16-727 7130
J'«6
Compost for the
Home Garden
L. H. MacDaniels, Professor Emeritus
and R. E. Kozlowski
Dept. of Floriculture and
Ornamental Horticulture
Cornell University
Value of Compost
Compost is a valuable soil amendment for use within
earden and landscape plantings Its presence
proves soil tilth by binding soil particles together,
reases the soil's water-holding capacity, and
releases nitrogen and other nutrients for plant use
Carbon dioxide from decaying materials combines
with water to make a weak acid that promotes more
rapid movement of mineral nutrients into solution so
that they can be available to plants In this discussion
no distinction is made between humus, a relatively
stable organic constituent of soils that can be modified
only slowly, and crop residues in various stages of
decomposition: they, together with humus, form the
organic soil ingredients that give the beneficial effects
What Materials to Collect
Practically any plant material can be composted for
garden use. Leaves are ideal, but old sod, manure.
lawn clippings, find wood chips, straw, old hay, and
plant refuse from the vegetable garden or the kitchen
can be used. Mature cornstocks and woody prunings
should be mechanically shredded and may take more
than one year to form compost. Newspapers can be
I authors acknowledge the assistance of Robert Beyiuss.
^operative Extension. Greene County, in gathering information
.jr this fact shee.t.
composted provided they are finely shredded and
mixed with other material along with a supply of
nitrogen.
Diseased plants from the flower or vegetable
garden should not be used for composting if the
compost is to be returned to the garden later.
Although some diseases are killed by heating during
compost formation, unless the compost is turned
frequently and thoroughly and allowed to remain
unused for several years, some of these disease
organisms may be returned to the garden with the
compost. If diseases have not been a problem, this
precaution may not be necessary
Avoid composting weeds heavily laden with seeds.
Even though some weeds are killed during
composting, many may be returned to the garden with
the compost, an unnecessary weed problem being
created
Although most garbage can also be used in the
compost heap, grease, fat, bones, fish, and meat scraps
should be avoided. These attract dogs or other animals
and may develop an odor during decomposition. Fats
are slow to break down and greatly increase the length
of time required before the compost can be used. Pet
wastes and kittv litter should not be used.
Building a Compost Pile
Basically, composting is a disintegration process. The
structure of miscellaneous organic roughage is broken
down by the action of bacteria, fungi, and a host of
other soil-infesting organisms to a more or less
uniformly fine textured material valuable as a soil
amendment and fertilizer. In the process much of the
energy in the roughage is lost in the form of heat. The
volume is greatly reduced, and some nutrients are lost
by leaching or by escaping as ammonia gas. See cable
1 for the changes that occur in the nutrient content of
composted material of different ages.
To provide conditions for bacteria and fungi to
work, the composting material should be kept moist.
have access to oxygen, and be supplied with fertilizer
high in nitrogen. The fertilizer furnishes the nutrients
the soil organisms require for rapid growth If the
material used is largely leaves, straw, or other
substances low in nitrogen, additional nitrogen will be
Helping You Ptil Knowledge tn Work
' •>rni*ll(~wiper.iiitf>K\ierision I'tw irtrsequal |irr)Kniinaii(i< in;1 ".mem tinimriiimiii's SYSCnllpefurAjiriiulturrniii!' ifr t»iri«" MPCoilejiPnf Human Ecology, and
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-------
Table 1. Nutrient content of compost piles of different ages
Age of compost
3 years
2 years
1 year
Nitrates
20
38
137
Phosphorus
15
18
20
Potassium
40
50
250
pH
7.1
6.9
7.6
Soluble sa
39
53
130
its
.Vow: Content determined by Spurway test, parts per million ,n extract solution.
needed to prevent excessive loss of bulk, bulk is in part
determined by the nitrogen level present.
What goes on in the compost pile is a very
complicated chemical and biological process, and
various systems have been devised to shorten the time
to produce compost and increase its value. These are
mostly related to increasing the oxygen supply and
supplying nitrogen. For practical purposes, building-a
compost pile is not an exact process. The usual
practice is to accumulate the organic material in some
out-of-the-way corner of the garden or other
inconspicuous place. Fall is a convenient time to make
a compost pile because leaves and refuse from the
garden cleanup are available. The pile can be built on
open ground or in a bin made of rough boards or stakes
and small-mesh wire fencing. The sides of the bin
should not be tight, because oxygen is essential for
decay. To start a pile, part of the plant refuse is spread
out in a layer 6 to 8 inches deep. The pile should be
large enough for at least four or five layers to be made
from the material available. A high nitrogen fertilizer
of some readily available formula (10-10-10, for
example) should be spread on each layer at the rate of
about 1/2 pound or 1 cupful to each 30-35 square feet.
If an organic source of nitrogen is desired,
commercially available fertilizers such as dried blood
(13% nitrogen), cottonseed meal (6% nitrogen), alfalfa
hay 12.5% nitrogen), or poultry manure (1% nitrogen)
can be used. If alkaline compost is desired, ground
limestone can be spread on the pile at the same rate,
although this is usually not necessary Sprinkling a
few shovelfuls of garden soil over each layer will
ensure the presence of decay organisms.
The material in each layer should be moistened
thoroughly. Successive layers are built in this way
until all the plant refuse is used. Building the pile
with a flat top that slants toward the center to catch
rainfall is advantageous. Rapid decay does not usually
occur until the following spring and summer.
Undesirable heating may occur in a large pile not well
moistened. This is indicated by the pile's giving off
steam. Applying water stops the heating process.
Decay can be hastened by forking over the pile in
midsummer and supplying water to parts that have
remained dry. The compost will be ready for use at the
end of the first summer season. It is an advantage to
get it onto the land before it loses ail its structure. If
uniformly fine textured material is wanted, a longer
Cross section of layering in compost pile
-------
..r.e may be necessary Compost should not be allowed
o accumulate in the same place year after year
Whether or not pests and diseases persist in the
corr.post depends on the organisms present and the
hea: generated in the decay process. As a practical
matter compost is spread on the garden without
disinfestation. Soil sterilization is not feasible for the
amateur under present legal restrictions on the use of
effective materials. For sowing seeds indoors, a
practical solution to the disease problem is to buy
sterilized potting soil or sterile materials such as the
peat, perlite, and vermiculite mixes from the florist or
garden store. (See Flowers from Seed, Cornell
Information Bulletin 20.)
Organic matter can be used as a mulch without
composting, although uncomposted material is harder
to handle and may be unsightly. Lawn clippings,
leaves, and other fine material can be placed directly
around shrubbery or on garden plots where
appearance is not important. A discussion of the
materials and method of mulching is found in Growing
Vegetables Organically (Cornell Information Bulletin
39). Organic gardening emphasizes the need for
organic matter in soils and encourages soil
conservation and the recycling of organic waste.
Various aspects of composting are discussed in The
biochemistry and Methodology of Composting (Conn.
gr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 727), Ecology and Compost (N.Y.S.
allege of Forestry, Syracuse), and Natural Gardening
andbook'(Brooklyn Botanic Garden Rec. 31 (D).
Heavy mesh wire or snout fencing can be used to
construct a freestanding cylinder-shaped compost bin.
When it's time for the compost to be turned, the fencing
can easily be rolled away from the pile and set up in a
nearby location. The freed pile of partially decomposed
material can then be placed back into the empty bin.
A double-bin system facilitates the procedure of forking
over compost material. After the compost is allowed to
partially decompose in one bin. it can be mooed to the
adjacent empty bin, a lower center wall in the bin
making the transfer of compost easier. Bins can be
constructed of material such as scrap lumber, snow
fence, railroad ties, or cinder block. Bins constructed of
pressure-treated lumber are relatively expensive, but
will last for many years. The exact dimensions of the
bin are not critical. For a typical home garden a bin 3-4
feet in height and 5-8 feet square will suffice.
-------
N
A report on how to get
your pile o/kitchen and yard wastes out
o/tke sick kd, and tack to producing rich,
loamy compost, BY ROBERT KOURIK
ILLUSTRATION BY ALAN E. C O B E B.
ECAUSE I M SOMETIMES RECOGNIZED AS THAT
'•£ GARBAGE guy,"more than a few folks have
asked me to take a look at their backyard
compost piles. They think their ailing piles
-• r2 are In need of a little Rx. Seems plenty of
folks are composting kitchen and yard
waste, but they don't get that brown, rich stuff seen spilling
out of bins pictured in glossy magazine ads. Don't blame the
pile. Often, a novice expects too much from a random batch
of organic discards. Any heap of dead plants will rot... even-
tually. But only a rapidly composting pile, also called hot or
active composting, will quickly reduce organic waste and pos-
sibly conserve a few nutrients.
A healthy compost pile produces a valuable amendment
that Improves the soil's capacity to drain, hold moisture, retain
certain nutrients, and remain loose and friable. Composting is
a dynamic process — sometimes slow, sometimes East. Though
we may have great expectations, even "fast" composting won't
occur overnight
With active or fast composting, the gardener carefully
builds a pile of kitchen and yard waste and regularly turns it,
producing a hot interior temperature and a finished material
that's a good soil amendment (and a very weak fertilizer). Active
compost piles can sustain temperatures of 140 degrees F. or
more — thus the designation "hot composting." Depending
on the type of ingredients you put into the pile and the num-
ber of times you turn it. the fast track generally takes two to six
weeks to transform yard and kitchen waste into compost
Slow piles are also known as "passive" composting
(because the gardener doesn't have to do much) or "cool" com-
posting. Ths reason ? When the pile is Eirst thrown together, its
internal temperature can hit 160 to 180 degrees F. — stoked
by heat-generating bacteria feasting on organic matter. As the
bacteria are killed by high temperatures, the pile quickly cook
But composting continues (at a slower pace) thanks to bacte-
ria, microbes, and fungi which take over when the pile's inter-
nal temperature approximates cooler outside air temperatures.
To be a good compost doctor, you'll need to understand
how a pile transforms bulky garden wastes into a material resem-
bling the dark, loamy layer of a forest's floor (look under the
leaf layer). Composting is not the same as rotting, decompos-
ing, decaying, or moldering. But it does embrace a bit of all of
these processes. Here are a few crucial definitions and their
relationship to active and passive (hot and cold) composting:
• Decay - Usually, this refers to a cool process, where internal
temperatures roughly equal outside air temperatures. When
a pile decays, it loses some nutrients (nitrogen). This slow pro-
-------
cess allows nitrogen to be vented as gassy ammonia (volatilized)
or washed away (leached) by rain (especially when the pile is
uncovered). The end product may have fewer nutrients than
compost from a hot pile, and proportionately more minerals.
• Decompose - All forms of composting decompose the Irish
stew of raw garden wastes into basic nutrients such as nitro-
gen, phosphorus, and potash. Humus, an important end prod-
uct, is in some ways a more complex substance than the ingre-
dients that go into the bin. Humus is produced by the microbial
digestion of organic matter. It's composed of starch-like molecules
that possess a tremendous capacity for retaining moisture and
slowly releasing nutrients to a plant's root hairs. A soil's humus
content is, in great part, a measure of its fertility, friability, and
drought resistance. Passive composting eventually produces
some humus. Active composting quickly produces more.
• Molder - While bacteria often get the credit for devouring
a pile's organic ingredients, fungi also play an important role
in decomposition, particularly of manure. Caution: Fungi con-
sume nitrogen, a key element of fertility. Fungal activity usu-
ally appears as a white, filament-like "netting" which covers
leaves and other wastes. Sometimes, fungal activity in a dry
environment can result in crusty manure clods that look as if
they had been burned — that's a moldering process. (Cow
manure, an excellent nitrogen source, is often added to piles.)
Moldering can leave you with an end product that's a poor-
quality soil amendment.
• Oxidize - While all forms of composting are best done in
an aerobic (oxygen-filled) environment, oxidation is an oxy-
gen-rotation process which partly destroys valuable nitro-
gen. Think of oxidation as a fkmeless fire
that consumes fiber and incinerates
nutrients.
It's the pile's highly aerobic dry
edges that easily oxidize. This
reduces the amount of organic matter and humus and volatilizes
the ammonia (nitrogen), leaving you with more minerals (most-
ly ash). While minerals are important soil nutrients, they're
the third thing you should try to conserve — after nitrogen
and organic matter. (Contrary to popular opinion, "anaerobic"
or oxygenless digestion conserves the greatest amount of nitro-
gen and is a slow, heat-consuming process. Unfortunately, the
resulting stench can be overwhelming.)
• Rot - The key difference between composting and rotting is
time. Just about everything rots. If you have plenty of space to
store bulky garden wastes, then a cool, passive pile (or set of
piles) may be your most practical form of composting. Even
though a rotting pile will produce a finished material with few-
er nutrients, it involves much less work
An active compost pile is a three-legged chair, dependent
on the proper nitrogen content, moisture, and oxygen. If any
one of these ingredients is missing, the rKair topples. Two oth-
er important composting axioms: Always use a variety of raw
materials, and use everything
inmoderatioa All
aspects of com-
posting
involve a
golden
mean
1
-------
—too little of, say. carbon-heavy leaves and woody debris will
bring about failure, while too much of the same will also lead to
ruin. There is no rraeic formula. Composting is a craft, best per-
fected by casual practice.
Nitrogen and Carbon
GARDEN WASTES FALL INTO TWO MAIN CATEGORIES: FRESH GREEN
stuff and manure, with generous amounts of nitrogen; and
woody things with a high carbon but low nitrogen content. A
hot, active pile needs a certain amount of nitrogen to reach a high
temperature. The heat comes from jillions of bacteria, microbes,
and soil fauna furiously munching on organic matter. The pro-
tein for their microscopic bodies comes from nitrogen. With-
out fresh leafy greens, manure, kitchen scraps, or some other
nitrogen source, the micro-critter population can't increase
enough to quickly digest the tough, chewy carbon found in
woody material.
There are lots of confounding formulas for a good com-
post mix — such as the infamous advice of a carbon-to-nitro-
gen ratio of 30:1. Don't worry about these fancy "rules." In the
real world, you just mix up a pile with lots of what's available
... and watch. The pile will moderate itself. If there's too much
nitrogen, the pile will exhale the surplus nitrogen as a gas (it
smells like ammonia). If there's too little nitrogen, the pile will
heat just a little and will take longer to fully decompose. So you
change the mixing formula for the next batch of ingredients.
With time, you'll figure how much of each ingredient to include.
Moisture
IP THE MIOtOBES ARE GOING TO CHEW ON YOUR WASTES, THEY'LL
need plenty of water. This doesn't mean the perfect pile is sog-
gy. With a properly moist pile, you can't wring water out of the
organic matter.
In areas like the East Coast and Pacific Northwest, rain
may provide all the moisture your compost pile needs. Often.
high-carbon materials like straw, chipped limbs, and fallen
leaves are pretty dry. If rains haven't already moistened these
materials, you'll need to add some water while you're building
the pile. Use an automatic shut-off hose sprayer or a fine mis-
ter. Once the pile is built, cover it with a tarp to trap moisture.
If you get the pile too wet, the soggy, anaerobic mess will
emit a slightly sulfurous odor. If the pile is too dry, the materi-
al will be slow to rot and you may get a proliferation of a white,
filamentous mass due to fungi. In arid regions with little humid-
ity, insufficient moisture is the most frequent missing "leg" of
a stable compost "chair."
Oxygen
THE CRITTERS THAT INHABIT A HOT PILE ARE ENERGETIC, AEROBIC
little beasts. And they need plenty of oxygen to do their aerobics
A healthy compost pie requires
generous amounts of kitchen
scraps and other green materials.
There are bacteria
and microbes that work
in airless (anaerobic)
environments, but they
tend to be slower, smelli-
er, and messier. An
anaerobic pile often has
a noticeably foul odor
and is visibly mucky in
the pile's middle. To
miss out on this mess,
build your pile with a
wide variety of ingredi-
ents. A pile of nothing
but grass dippings will
certainly be reduced to
muck as it settles. A few
wood chips, some straw,
a few vegetable clip-
pings, and a bit of leaves
all mixed together is more likely to remain aerobic If not. turn-
ing the pile will probably correct the problem.
Remember, too much oxygen can be just as bad as not
enough. If the woody material seems fluffy and desiccated, or
the carbonaceous material hasn't browned, the pile's sides and
top should be covered to cut incoming air.
If you're considering buying an insulated bin for cold
weather composting, keep this in mind: Composting is due to
an internal process. A hot pile's high temperatures come from
the heat generated by hard-working, heat-loving (thennophilic)
bacteria and microbes. Even with a so-called insulated bin. a
compost pile will lose heat to cold winter temperatures. With
the help of cold-tolerant (cryophilic) bacteria and fungi, cold
piles do decay. They just take their time.
You were bom with all the diagnostic tools you need to
analyze an ailing compost pile — your eyes to gauge the ingre-
dients' quality, your nose to smell odors, and your hands to
sample the relative temperature inside the pile. (A compost
thermometer, which looks like a poultry thermometer with a
long stem, can help track the hearing and cooling process.) A
compost pile can turn sour on even the most practiced gardener.
The question is, "Will I swallow my pride, admit defeat, and
rebuild the unproductive pile ?"
Reconstructing a pile that's gone bad allows you to diag-
nose the problem, consider possible remedies, administer the
cure, and see how the patient responds. So in the words of W.
C. Fields, "Grab the bull by the tail and face the situation f The
effort will accelerate your learning curve, and you'll be better
versed in the craft of composting.
The following chart was compiled by consulting a number of
composting experts throughout the country. A sick pile's symptoms
are followed by a number of possible causes, each with a corresponding
corrective measure. 8
46.
.' i o r i f / N o i t m fc t r 1992
ROBERT KOURIK
-------
. .—. — . ..: .i_-~ --i «>.-..
HARTING A HEALTHY COMPOST PILE
M
otsulfurousodor
"?;'•*' .- •
J~&
Ups trade
a pile s heati
cooling process.
«•—-••*=,•. —. .-..- .. .w . .. - j -..,;,
, £. .. j, ^ .• » *.-(--•-• -. . . - . . . *
• f\t- ..~c>. •_"; ••—•
• Too many grass clippings in one mass, or
layered too thickly.
v»Too much manure; too many kitchen
". •
^^?3^ii«^
—•• Pile has Rn*Jv>1 composting. Not a prob-
lem, tune to use the material. ,.;. -_X.v
"-•Pile too small -^Vv:H^~v'/
-"->• Too much high-carbon
has low temperature.
POSSIBLE CAUSES
•••••Too many food soaps; or "lumping" food
' '
• Too wet.
• Too many grass clippings in a ™***
• Material shredded into particles which arc
too small.
• Anaerobic conditions.
Eliminate food scraps (put them in a worm
mix food wastes evenly through-
out the pile. Add coarser material to keep
moist food scraps more aerobic.
Torn pile while adding some dry, high-car-
bon material such as leaves or chipped
wood. Will eventually correct itself as the
pile drives off excess nitrogen. Cover bin
Curing rainy spells.
'-Mix grass clippings with coarser and dncr,
. high-carbon material.
"-•Turn pile while a^ing material of different
tion is due to a pile which is too big — the
';..- .^weight of the upper portion compresses the
lower layers. Make piles tmalW
i and coarseness. Layer pile with plenty
of loose, bulky material.
• Tear pile apart, diagnose problems, and
rebuild a loose pile with many types of
.an anaerobic condi-
All symptoms of too much nitrogen. If the
pile is left alone it sometimes self-corrects
-, ;-|jy volatilizing nitrogen. Leave alone. Or,
turn the pile while tearing apart any mat-
• ted lumps of high-nitrogen material
;, (adding coarser, high-carbon compostables)
gcfljjmd rebuild into loose, aerobic layers.
jf*» Often, due to one of the following: tmurfial
- material is overly shredded
{bits arc too small); pile is too large; pile is
'" overly moist Either leave alone until the
ceases; or rebuild using the guidelines
• Material too coarse or too fine.
' • Not enough nitrogen.
^B* fVuHf fpj ^la^jnq^ you're now a *f ^ in**?
-^Captain of Compost ' .
ifr The classic formula for hot compost recom-
.. meads a pik built with at least 27 cubic feet
;' X 3' — a cubic yard) of material
ive up nw materials until you have
enough to build a pik of one cubic yard.
b»o-R«4Tm'H T*]* mAArny nitmgrn—manure,
.:-• grass clippings, kitchen scops, or fresh garden
wastes.
._ . • If too moist you'll smell something awful.
>. "Rebuild and add dry, carbonaceous materi-
yr al. Cover when raining. A dry pile has no
"--odor—rebuild pile while misting the raw
' £ r^material. In arid regions, a cover may help
v.-cootain moisture.
>-v^> Overly coarse material can make a dry pile;
overly fine can make an anaerobic pile. Use
V'-\;;Bany different-sized materials. Rebuild
:: pile with a heterogeneous mix.
Otttlir/Ninmlir 1991
-------
CAUSBS_.
toohot.
i bursts into flames.
SPssS
^JV-iO. •?--v'..
S^5*>rv.-;':"-:'•
I growth.
rots.
tratsmi
• Temperatures above 160 degrees F. can loll
-• -AMi^fifial microoes. T> m ngfa tur^ above
180 degrees F. wiD sterihze the pile's core.
: hot pile wffl Idfl off a lot of the bacteria
I drop, then a few
izntngiracrolxswul re-inoculate the
jofonc
•F-'Tilewaytoobig.
• Enormous pile is too dry.
toe very large. It nrely bursts
, but can smolder.
1 .^bilejlots of nitrogen
Si*f&Ljmai3t . .
."'.^'•Not ""ally «n iflni^cf mrKt li'lpply rfii- fila-
ment ofbeneficul fungi as they help digest
frmprTt8!?!^* While there are fungi which I
thrive at all temperature levels, fungal
a^vgnwth is usually noticed when the pile B i
a mesophyllic condition (cooler than hot
--compost, but not a cold process).
» Too wet or too dry.
-r- «KU - jj jj ••*. ' - 'f
bilk piVadjust the
I ratio. ftyrV the mois-
efcwtandtHm the pile.
dry oonditkin often favors fungi. Either
tig the pile
t i_*\\ •
n» mrntt nr Ary matfrfa}
• Not enough moisture.
-•Material too woody or not enough nitrogen.
^y Notciwvirn fl^»«'"i^]^^'^1^^. -^-..
^Kle too sinalL •-^ : Si^? ^ x i.f - - ;
1 "Vf pile while mitring material.
ny-woody material which is too
i marc nitrogen-filled
.
«xvT" Jiard laves helps aero -
-;;;- •••-.*£-' •" •• ••*. •>•--.•
nu'it'ilif^ !?Zrf »••-.,.-.. . ^••.*
!*^1- •
•» -"- ^ -M i" -1 "V- ».r-.'^^. S,r'^*j.~ ,••.'*?-"*>'•
oo much food waste. ' .'-•••-•";'••<•••
' middle ofa hot pile. If that doesn't work, try
I **}mA*nA rnfJnM nilt Qyt ^ttrrnnutc
ytUMULuJtoci Bsctocmo a wonn .
inelaint are soU with tight fitting. ''
OUuooJcn polks
area good material
/or tuiUing inns.
-------
Services of Mead Data Central, Inc. \±
PAGE 6
25TH STORY of Level 1 printed in FULL format.
Copyright 1993 St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Inc.
St. Louis Post-Dispatch
May 20, 1993, THURSDAY, FIVE STAR Edition
SECTION: ZONE WEST? pg. 1
LENGTH: 65? words
HEADLINE: EXPERT ADVICE SOUGHT ON ELIMINATING ODOR FROM ROTTING LEAVES
BYLINE: Neal Learner Post-Dispatch Special Correspondent
BODY:
The foul smell coming from Ladue's leaf mulching facility continues to create
foul tempers among nearby residents.
Ladue's Superintendent of Public Works, Dennis Bible, presented the Ladue
City Council with several proposals to stop the vile smell caused by decaying
vegetation at the leaf composting site, 9810 South Outer 40 Road. But Bible
recommended seeking advice from several experts before going ahead with plans
that would cost the city nearly $ 200,000.
A number of residents from the adjacent neighborhoods of Twin Springs and
Tall Timbers expressed anger at a situation they felt had already gone on too
long. They demanded the board take immediate action or close down the facility.
Resident Alicia Tierney said, "It's unbearable. We're regularly prevented
from using our yards and opening our windows. Ue don't want to sacrifice another
summer." Others complained of headaches caused by the smell.
Council Member Joyce Merrill, 3rd Ward, said of her visit to the neighborhood
last Thursday, "I had trouble breathing. I thought I was going to be sick to my
stomach."
Bible said the smell comes from the huge stockpile of leaves at the site.
"When you dig into it, it really hits you. It's doubly bad because we've had so
much rain." He noted that the leaves were being sprayed with chemicals to knock
out the smell, but that the rain would "drive out the stuff we treated."
The runoff from the persistent rain has created a standing swill of
decomposing, rotten vegetation.
Mayor Edith Spink said, "The only way to get rid of the problem is to get rid
of the swill."
This is one of Bible's proposals. He explained that the stockpile lies on a
grade of only 2 percent, which does not allow water to drain quickly. The
proposal calls for placing the stockpile on a steeper 7 percent grade, creating
a more efficient drainage system for the swill.
Another possibility is to create more rows of leaves where the decomposition
Cakes place. According to Bible, these rows create no smell. With the facility
jsing less than 5 acres on a 14-acre plot, Bible said the area could accommodate
enough rows of leaves to eliminate any need for a stockpile.
LEXIS NEXIS LEXIS NEXIS
-------
Services of Mead Data Central, Inc. '07
PAGE 7
St. Louis Post-Dispatch, May 20, 1993
Councilman Robert Mudd, 3rd Uard, said, "I don't mind spending $ 200,000 for
the existing site if there is a 95 percent chance of success." Mudd agreed with
Bible that further opinions should be sought before funds could be allocated.
"I want to have tuo other opinions about the source of the smell by the next
meeting," he said.
Resident BurdicK Burtch said he appreciated the board's intentions to fix the
problem, but that if the city's efforts were unsuccessful, the city should
remove the facility from a residential neighborhood.
Bible has already looked into the possibility of hauling the leaves to a
landfill. The cost to do this would be more than $ 656,000. Other immediate,
less expensive options call for covering the stockpile with a plastic tarp or
shelter to keep off rain water.
The smell is not the only problem at the site. Noise from the facility's
hammer-mill, used for making wood chips, can be heard throughout the area. The
council is considering installing an innovative "living-wall" built of recycled
plastic segments that are filled with dirt. Harry Sanders, president of the
company that builds these earth-based walls, presented his product to the board.
He said this type of wall, which has been used in several European countries,
has never been built in America. The dirt in the wall absorbs the sound rather
than bouncing it back like traditional metal or plastic barriers. The barriers
can also be planted with vegetation to greatly improve its appearance.
The walls can be adjusted to a height of 21 feet, depending on the
recommendation of sound engineers.
SpinK noted that this type of wall was less expensive than the traditional
barriers.
LANGUAGE: English
LEXIS NEXIS LEXIS NEXIS
-------
A GLOSSARY OF COMPOST TERMS
by the
SOLID WASTE COMPOSTING COUNCIL
-------
COMPOSTING GLOSSARY"
AERATED STATIC PILE: composting system using controlled aeration from a series of perforated
pipes running underneath each pile and connected to a pump that draws or blows air through
piles.
AERATION: the bringing about of contact with air of composting solid organic matter, by means
of turning or ventilating to allow microbial aerobic metabolism (biooxidation).
AEROBIC: composting environment characterized by bacteria in the presence of oxygen (aerobes);
generates more heat and is a faster process than anaerobic composting.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION: the energy yielding chemical reaction in which the final electron acceptor
is oxygen.
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION: the energy yielding chemical reaction in which the final electron acceptor
is an inorganic molecule.
ARTIFICIAL SOIL: growth medium for plants obtained by mixing soil, or inert soil substitutes,
with stabilized organic matter.
BACTERIA: unicellular or multicellular microscopic organisms.
BATCH COMPOSTING: all material is processed at the same time, without introducing new
feedstock once composting has begun; windrow systems are batch systems.
BIOASSAY: a laboratory assay using a biological test organism.
BiOAVAiLABLE: available for biological uptake.
BiODEGRADABiLiTYT)he potential which an organic component has for being converted into
3y enzymatic activity.
BIOOXIDATION: aerobic microbial metabolism which involves the oxidation of organic or
inorganic compounds, for the purpose of supplying energy and precursors for the biosynthesis of
cell material.
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD): the amount of oxygen used in the biochemical oxidation
of matter.
CARBON TO NITROGEN RATION (C:N RATIO): ratio of organic-carbon to organic-nitrogen in
compost or in the organic matter of origin.
COMPOST (synonym of mature compost): the stabilized and sanitized product of composting which
is beneficial to plant growth; it has undergone an initial stage of decomposition and is in the
process of humification (stabilization).
COMPOST CLASSIFICATION: division into fresh, mature and cured compost, according to the
degree of stabilization.
COMPOST GRADE: division into very fine, medium and coarse compost according to its physical
and chemical characteristics.
COMPOSTING: controlled biooxidative process that 1) involves an heterogeneous organic substrate
in the solid state, 2) evolves by passing through a thermophilic stage and a temporary release of
phytotoxins, and 3) leads to the production of carbon dioxide, water, minerals and stabilized
organic compost matter (compost).
CONDENSATE: moisture in the air that is pulled through the compost pile.
CONTAMINANT: foreign metal lending impurity to a primary material; physical contaminants of
compost can include glass and plastic; chemical contaminants can include heavy metals and toxic
organic compounds.
CONTINUOUS FLOW: a system of composting in which material is continuously added to the
composting process and in which the end product is continuously removed; often used for large
operations.
• compiled from • variety of tourcei including Zucconi. Franco & Mirco de Bertoldi- Compost Specif caaons for At Production and
Oiamcttnzaaon of Compoa From Municipal Solid Waste and many critiques of earlier drafts of (hit document
-------
•ONTROLLED COMPOSTING: a process in which most important operating factors are controlled
.or the purpose of achieving maximum efficiency, reducing process time and sanitizing the
organic mass.
CONTROLLED DYNAMIC SYSTEM: compost piles receive forced aeration and periodic turning.
CURBSIDE PICKUP: the curbside collection of household solid waste material for removal by a
waste hauler to a centralized waste handling facility (municipal or private) such as a transfer
station, a materials recovery facility (MRF), an incinerator or landfill. Waste at curbside may be
mixed together in common containers or source separated by the householder into separate waste
fractions such as all newspapers together, all glass together or any variation of waste mix and
separation.
CURING: last stage of composting, after much of the readily metabolized material has been
decomposed, which provides additional stabilization and allows further decomposition of cellulose
and lignin.
DECOMPOSITION: the initial stage in the degradation of an organic substrate; characterized by
processes of destabilization of the preexisting structure; in properly controlled composting,
decomposition is conducive to a subsequent stage of stabilization (humification and
mineralization).
DENITRIFICATION: the biological reduction of nitrogen to ammonia, molecular nitrogen or oxides
of nitrogen resulting in the loss of nitrogen into the atmosphere.
DEWATERED SEWAGE SLUDGE: municipal sewage sludge with a total solids content of 6% or
greater that can be transported and handled as a solid material; usually done by belt press, screw
press, vacuum filtration or centrifuge.
DRUM COMPOSTING SYSTEM: enclosed cylindrical vessel which slowly rotates for a set period of
time to break up and decompose material.
DYNAMIC PILE SYSTEM: compost piles receiving forced aeration that are not turned.
FERMENTATION: the energy yielding chemical reaction in which the final electron receptor is an
organic compound.
FINISHING: post-processing, screening, air flotation, air classification, grinding or a combination
of similar processes to remove plastics, glass, bones, leather and metals remaining after
composting.
FOOD WASTE/SCRAPS: residual food from residences, institutions or commercial facilities; unused
portions of fruit, animal or vegetable material resulting from food production.
FOREIGN MATTER: non-biodegradable products contained in wastes such as glass, plastic, metals,
etc.; permitted only at low levels in market compost.
FRESH COMPOST: organic matter that has gone through the thermophilic stage of composting and
achieved sanitization; it has undergone a partial decomposition but it has not yet stabilized.
FRESH ORGANIC MATTER: raw organic substrate for composting before undergoing decomposition
(or at the beginning of it).
GREEN MATTER: portion of the municipal solid waste stream consisting of grass clippings, tree
trimmings and other vegetative matter.
IIAMMERMILL: powered machine using rotating or flailing hammers to grind material as it falls
through the machine or rests on a stationary metal surface.
HAZARDOUS COMPOUNDS: any organic or inorganic compound that may endanger life or health;
poisons, heavy metals, pesticides etc. which may be found in waste belong to this group.
HEAVY METALS: trace elements regulated because of their potential for human, animal or plant
toxicity, including copper, nickel, cadmium, lead, mercury and zinc.
HOT-BED: cultivation or rooting bed in which a layer of decomposing (heat producing) organic
matter underlies a layer of cultivated soil or artificial substrate.
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HUMIC ACID: the main constituent of humus, composed of proteins and lignins, dark brown to
black in color.
HUNflFlCATlON: the microbial synthesis of three dimensional polymers of saccharides and phenols
resembling gums and lignin; a process of storing organic energy as compounds of high molecular
weight which are slowly biodegradable.
HUMUS: a complex aggregate of amorphous substances, formed during the microbial
decomposition or alteration of plant and animal residues and products synthesized by soil
organisms; principal constituents are derivatives of lignins, proteins and cellulose; humus has a
high capacity for base exchange (cation exchange capacity), combining with inorganic soil
constituents and for water absorption; finished compost may be designated by the general term
humus.
INERTS: non-biodegradable products contained in waste (glass, plastic, metals, etc); permitted
only at low levels in market compost.
INOCULA: preconditioned microorganisms or compost product added to a raw material to provide
the appropriate microorganisms for decomposition.
INORGANIC: substance in which carbon-to-carbon bonds are absent; mineral matter.
LATENT METABOLISM: metabolic processes that remain to be completed before achieving
stabilization; latent metabolism may be measured by the evolution of respiration, heat production,
toxicity, etc. in appropriately set conditions.
LEACHATE: liquid which has percolated through solid wastes and extracted dissolved and
suspended materials; liquid that drains from the mix of fresh organic matter.
LIGNIN: the component of wood responsible for its rigidity.
MATURE COMPOST: (synonym of compost) the stabilized and sanitized product of composting
which is beneficial to plant growth; has undergone an initial stage of decomposition and is in the
process of humification (stabilization); is characterized as rich in readily available forms of plant
nutrients, poor in phytotoxic acids and phenols and low in readily available carbon compounds.
MESOPiflLiC PHASE: phase of composting during which the temperature of the organic mass is
between 30 and 45 degrees Centigrade.
METABOLISM: sum of the chemical reactions within a cell or a whole organism, including the
energy-releasing breakdown of molecules (catabolism) and the synthesis of complex molecules and
new protoplasm (anabolism).
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW): residential and commercial solid waste generated within a
community.
MUSHROOM COMPOST: Cellulose-rich organic matter that has undergone the initial
(decomposition) stage of a controlled composting process. The fungi bring about cellulolysis and
humification of the substrate (stabilization stage).
ORGANIC: substance which includes carbon-to-carbon bonds.
ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS: synthetic trace organics including pesticides and polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBS).
ORGANIC MATTER: includes synthetic organic matter and matter having a biological origin;
biodegradability is mostly confined to the second group.
ORGANIC SOIL CONDITIONER: stabilized organic matter marketed for conditioning soil structure;
also improves other (chemical and biological) properties of the soil.
PATHOGEN: any disease-producing microorganism.
PERSISTENCE: refers to a slowly decomposing substance which remains active in the natural cycle
for a long period of time.
PHYTOTOXIC: detrimental to plant growth and viability; caused by the presence of a contaminant
or by a nutrient deficiency.
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•RESPIRATION: the metabolic function of consuming oxygen.
ANITIZATION: the reduction of disease-producing organisms below the level of health risk.
SCREENING: the sifting of compost through a screen to remove large panicles and improve
consistency and the quality of the end product.
SEPTAGE: liquid and solid material pumped from a septic tank or cesspool during cleaning.
SHREDDER: powered mechanical device used to break waste materials into smaller pieces.
SIZE REDUCTION: generic term for separation of the waste aggregate or of breaking up solid
waste or other materials into smaller pieces through tearing, screening, tumbling, rolling,
crushing, chipping, shredding, grinding, shearing, etc.; the process makes waste easier to separate
and can increase surface area for composting.
SLUDGE: waste material deriving from the treatment of sewage.
SOIL AMENDMENT/CONDITIONER: soil additive which stabilizes the soil, improves resistance to
erosion, increases permeability to air and water, improves texture and resistance of the surface to
crusting, eases cultivation or otherwise improves soil quality.
SOLID WASTE: garbage, refuse and other discarded solid materials, including materials resulting
from industrial, commercial and agricultural operation and community activities.
SOURCE SEPARATION: the separation, by residents, of wastes generated within the household into
separate fractions such as newspapers, glass, etc. and the placement in separate containers at the
curbside for pickup by the waste hauler; the extent of source separation desired of residents varies
with local markets for recycled products and by municipal policy regarding waste disposal.
STABILITY: state or condition in which the composted material can be stored without giving rise
to nuisances or in which it can be applied to soil without causing problems; the desired degree of
stability for finished compost is one in which the readily decomposed compounds are broken
down - only the decomposition of the more resistant biologically decomposable compounds
remains o be accomplished.
TABILIZATION: second stage of composting (following decomposition); characterized by slow
metabolic processes, lower heat production and the formation of humus.
STATIC PILE SYSTEM: an aerated static pile with or without a controlled air source.
THERMOPinLiC PHASE: phase of composting during which the temperature of the mass exceeds
45 degrees Centigrade.
TOXICITY: reversible adverse biological effect due to toxins and other compounds.
TOXINS: unstable poison-like compounds of biological origin which may cause a reduction of
viability or functionality in living organisms.
VOLATILIZATION: gaseous loss of a substance to atmosphere.
WINDROW SYSTEM: waste/bulking agent mixture is placed in elongated piles or windrows and
aerated by mechanically turning the piles with a machine such as a front-end loader or specially
designed equipment.
YARD WASTE: grass clippings, leaves and weeds, and prunings from residences or businesses -
six inches or less in diameter.
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RESOURCES
C.6
COMPOSTING
Appelhof. Mary. Worms Eat My Garbage. Kalama-
ZQ 'ffl: Flower Press. 1982.*
C >st Toilets: A Guide for Owner Builders.
Bufle. MT: National Center for Appropriate Tech-
nology. 1978.
Composting Information Packet, 1987. Brief bro-
chure on home composting methods. Available
for $2.50 plus self-addressed stamped envelope
with $.50 postage from Seattle Tilth Association.
4649 Sunnyslde Avenue North. Seattle. WA
98103
Foster, Catharine Osgood. The Organic Gardener.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 1972.
Fulford. Bruce. Research Report On A Composting
Greenhouse. East Falmouth. MA: New Alchemy
Institute. 1987.
Hughey. Pat. Scavengers and Decomposers: The
Clean Up Crew. New York: Atheneum Publishers.
1984. Young audience.
Johnson. Cecil E. "The Wild World of Compost."
National Geographic. Vol 158. No. 2. August
1980. pp. 272-284.
Kitto. Dick. Composting: The Cheap and Natural
\ f Make Your Garden Grow.
N«.«aiighlin, Molly. Earthworms, Dirt and Rotten
Leaves: An Exploration in Ecology. 1986. New
York: Macmlllan Publishing Co.. 1986. Young
audience.
Rodale. J. I. ed. The Complete Book of Composting.
Emmaus. PA: Rodale Press. 1969.
Stoner. Carol. ED. Goodbye To The Flush Toilet
Emmaus. PA: Rodale Press. 1977.
Stop the Five-gallon Flush: A Survey of Alternative
Waste Disposal Systems. Quebec. Canada: McGill
University, School of Architecture. 1976.
Tonge, Peter. "Green Grows Garbage ~ 'Convertit
process turns municipal trash into fertilizer."
Christian Science Monitor. March 1988.
Van der Ryne, Sim. The Toilet Papers. Santa Bar-
bara. CA: Capra Press. 1978.
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PAGE NO.
10/14/91
NH Municipalities That Compost
Reg = Quantity included in community listed under market
Community Pop. Market Quantity
Alton
2 Andover
3 Antrim
4 Barnstead
5 Harrington
6 Bennington
7 Bridgewater
8 Canaan
9 Candia
10 Center Harbor
11 Chester
12 Chichester
13 Claremont
14 Derry
15 Dover
16 Dunbarton
17 Zpping
18 Epsom
19 Exeter
20 Farmington
21 Francestown
22 Gilsum
23 Goffstown
24 Gorham
25 Greenfield
26 Greenville
27 Hampstead
28 Hancock
29 Hanover
30 Hebron
31 Jaffrey
32 Keene
33 Lebanon
34 Lee
35 Litchfield
36 Littleton
37 Londonderry
38 Lyndeborough
39 Marlborough
40 Mason
41 Meredith
42 Milford
43 Milton
44 Mont Vernon
_45 Moultonborough
16 Nashua
"47 Nelson
48 New Boston
49 Northfield
3286
1883
2360
3100
6164
1236
796
3045
3557
996
2691
1942
13902
29603
25042
1759
5162
3591
12481
5739
1217
745
14621
3173
1519
2231
6732
1604
9212
386
5361
22430
12183
3729
5516
5827
19781
1294
1927
1212
4837
11795
3691
1812
2956
79662
535
3214
4263
Local Use
Local Use
Town Use
Pittsfield
Local Use
Town Use
Lebanon
Local Use
Meredith
Pittsfield
Town Use
Town Use
Town Use
Town Use
Local Use
Pittsfield
Town Use
Local Use
Wilton
Wilton
Local Use
Town Use
Lebanon
Town Use
Local
Town Use
Town Use
Town Use
Town Use
RCS
Wilton
Wilton
Town Use
Town Use
Local Use
Town Use
Keene
Local Use
Town Use
0
1
0
Reg
0
0
0
Reg
0
Reg
0
Reg
90
0
90
10
0
Reg
261
0
0
0
0
0
Reg
Reg
0
0
Reg
0
0
473
0
50
0
80
0
Reg
0
Reg
0
0
0
0
0
50
Reg
50
0
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PAGE NO. 2
10/14/91
NH Municipalities That Compost
Reg = Quantity included in community listed under market
Community Pop. Market Quantity
50 Northwood 3124 0
51 Nottingham 2939 0
52 Orange 237 Lebanon Reg
53 Peterborough 5239 Local Use 228
54 Pittsfield 3701 Local 0
55 Sanbornton 2136 Town Use 0
56 Sharon 299 Peterborough Reg
57 Shelburne 437 Local Use 6
58 Sullivan 706 Keene Reg
59 Surry 667 Keene Reg
60 Swanzey 6236 0
61 Temple 1194 Wilton Reg
62 Tilton 3240 0
63 Walpole 3210 0
64 Westmoreland 1596 0
65 Wilton 3122 Local Use 192
*** Total ***
399883 1581
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Q-ar.ti-.y
1 I Anssr.ia
2 JAshford
3 JAvor.
4 JBarkhampstead RcOD/1
5 [Beacon Falls*
6 [Branford
7 (Bridgeport
8 JBridgevater
9 (Bristol
10 JBrookfield
11 jCanaan
12 [Cheshire*
13 (Coventry*
14 [Cromvell
15 jDanbury
16 JDarien**
17 JDerby
18 JEast Haddam
19 JEast Hartford
20 [Enfield
21 JFaraington
22 JGranby***
23 (Proton
24 JGuilford*
25 JEaoden*
26 (Hartford
27 jHarvinton
28 jHebron*
29 jLebanon****
30 JLyme***
31 (Madison
32 {Manchester
33 [Mansfield
34 JMiddletovn
35 jMilford*
36 JMorris*
37 JNev Britain*
38 JNev Fairfield
39 JNev Milford****
40 [Nevington
41 jNorth Canaan
42 (North Haven
43 jNorth Stonington
44 jOrange*
45 (Plainville***
46 JFrospect*
47 jRocky Hill
48 [Shelton
49 jsimsbury
SO (South Vindsor
51 jsouthbury**
52 jSouthington*
53 jsouthington*
54 jStamford
55 jStamford
56 jStonington*
57 I Stratford
2.304 cy|
100 cy|
8,000 cyj
5.760 cy|
500 cy|
4,000 cyj
8.000 cyj
200 cyj
25.000 cyj
500 cyj
100 cyj
5.340 cyj
1.000 cyj
3.000 cyj
10,000 cyj
6.000 cyj
5.000 cy|
800 cyj
3.500 cyj
5.000 cyj
3.500 cy|
4,000 cyj
1.000 cyj
250 cyj
5,000 cyj
7.820 cyj
100 cyj
500 cyj
20,000 cyj
1.200 cyj
2.000 cyj
18.000 cyj
700 cyj
10.000 cyj
10.000 cyj
1\
15.000 cy|
3.000 cyj
10.000 cyj
10.000 cyj
3.200|
20.000 cyj
800 cyj
'I
3.600 cy|
1.500 cyj
5.000 cyj
3.000 cyj
300 cyj
12.000 cyj
2.500 cyj
12,140 cyj
18,840'cyj
9,000 cyj
20.000 cyj
1.000 cy|
9.000 cyj
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(Vest Hartford
(Vest Haven*
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jvolcott
jvolcott****
(Voodbury
Quant i-
10
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30
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Massachusetts Registered Leaf Composting Operations as of-n/i/90
1. Acton
2. (Acushnet)* 56.
3. (Adams)*
4. Amherst 57.
5. Andover 58.
6. Attleboro 59.
7. Auburn 60.
8. Avon 61.
9. Barnstable (Cape Resources Co.) 62.
10. Barnstable (municipality) 63.
11. Belchertown 64.
12. Bellingham 65.
13. Beverly 66.
14. Blackstone 67.
15. Boston 68.
16. Bourne 69.
17. Braintree 70.
18. Bridgewater 71.
19. Brockton 72.
20. Chatham 73.
21. Chelmsford 74.
22. Chicopee 75.
23. Cohasset 76.
24. Concord 77.
25. Danvers 78.
26. Dartmouth 79.
27. Dighton 80.
28. Duxbury 81.
29. (E. Bridgewater)* 82.
30. £. Longmeadow 83.
31. Easthampton 84.
32. Easton 85.
33. Erving 86.
34. Fairhaven 87.
35. Fall River (BFI) 88.
36. Falmouth 89.
37. Fitchburg 90.
38. Framingham 91.
39. Franklin 92.
40. Ft. Devens (U.S. Army Base) 93.
41. Gardner/Tempieton 94.
42. Granby 95.
43. Greenfield 96.
44. Harwich 97.
45. (Hatfield)* 98.
46. Kingham 99.
47. Holden 100
48. Ho11iston 101
49. Holyoke 102
50. Hopkinton (Weston Nurseries) 103
51. Ipswich (Appleton Farms) 104
52. Kingston (O'Donnell Sand and 105
Gravel) 106
53. Kingston (municipality) 107
54. Lawrence 108
55. Littleton (Cataldo Nursery) 109
Longmeadow (leaves disked
into farmland)
Lowell
Ludlow
MDC - Randolph
Marion
Mashpee
Maynard
Melrose
Methuen
Millis
Milton
Montague
Nahant
(Nantucket)*
Natick
Needham
New Bedford
Newburyport
Newton
N. Andover
N. Attleboro
Northampton
Northbridge
N. Reading
Norwood
Orleans
Oxford
(Peabody)*
(Pepperell)*
Pittsfield (VZCON)
Plainville - Laidlaw
Quincy
Randolph (BFI)
Reading
Rehoboth (Fine Tree Farm)
Sandwich
Saugus
Seekonk
Sharon
Shirley
(Shrewsbury)*
Southampton
Spencer
Springfield
. Sturbridge
. Sudbury
. Swampscott Landscapers
. Taunton
. Templeton (with Gardner)
. Tewksbury
. Uxbridge
. Wakefield
. Walpole
. Wayland
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Registered Communities page 2
110. Webster
111. Wellesley
112. Westboro
113. Hestfield
114. Westford (Laughton's Nursery)
115. Heston
116. Westwood
117. Weymouth
118. Wilbraham
119. (Williamstown)*
120. (Woburn)*
121. Worcester
122. Wrentham
123. Yarmouth
*Note: communities in parentheses are not yet composting
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