A Critical Review of the
1157
Prepared for the Research Committee
of the
FEDERATION OF SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTES ASSOCIATIONS
January 1958
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center
Cincinnati, Ohio
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A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE OF
1957 ON WATER POLLUTION
by
M. B. Ettinger
W. M. Ingram
P. W. Kabler
M. Katz
F. W. Kittrell
R. Porges
C. M. Tarzwell
W. W. Towne
E. C. Tsivoglou
R. L. Woodward
Prepared for the Research Committee
of the.
FEDERATION OF SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTES ASSOCIATIONS
January
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF
HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center
Cincinnati, Ohio
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INDEX
1. Biology 1
2. Microbiology 33
3. Chemistry Ul
U. Oxygen Sag and Stream Self-purification 14;
5. Stream Studies and Surveys .»..t.............................. 52
6. Stream Standards 57
7. Effects on Water Supplies 59
8. Abatement and Control 60
9. References 65
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A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE OF 1957
ON WATER POLLUTION
by
M. B. Ettinger, W. M. Ingram, P. W. Kabler, M. Katz,
F. W. Kittrell, R. Porges, C. M. Tarzwell, W. W. Towne,
E. C. Tsivoglou, and R. L. Woodward
BIOLOGY
Pollution Surveys and Investigations
Cooperative state-industry stream studies are being carried out
on several rivers of Wisconsin (20U). Chemical, physical, and biological
conditions in the Fox River below Lake Winnebago, were studied intensively.
It was found that some stretches of the river may receive as much as
UOO tons of organic matter per day; that sludge deposits are formed, and
that in some sections D.O. is reduced to critical levels. Graphs of D.O.
concentrations indicate that lethal levels for fishes are reached in one
area.
A Fish and Wildlife Service report (I8li) points out that pollution
of the Delaware River in the Philadelphia area prevents its use by shad
as a spawning and nursery area. Pollution has been most severe on the runs
of shad in recent years, affecting spawners during the upstream migration
r-4
and both young and adults on their downstream migration. The Delaware
River fishery for shad has declined from a peak production of
19,000,000 Ibs. in 1896, to a level at which it is economically unfeasible
for fishermen to operate. Apparently the decline is due primarily to an
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oxygen block between Torresdale and Marcus Hook where the D.O. falls to
zero or near zero in the late summer. The period of low flow, low D.O.,
and downstream migration of juvenile shad occur simultaneously in Sep-
tember and October. There is also a high mortality of spawned out fish
as only 1.7 percent of adults are repeat spawners while in other
Middle Atlantic streams the percentage is 3^.6 to £l percent.
Many statewide surveys are being carried out through the use of
Dingell Johnson funds. These serve to indicate the condition of streams
and of fish populations. Hulsey (86) reports that the Red River watershed
is the most seriously polluted area in Arkansas. Oil field wastes pollute
111!? milesj silt and shifting sand pollute 136 miles, paper mill wastes,
110 miles, phenolic compounds, 2£ miles, and barite mine seepage waters,
20 miles. The Arkansas River watershed is the second most polluted with
silt and shifting sand being the main pollutant. In the Russell and
Levisa Forks of the Big Sandy River in Kentucky, pollution is due to coal
washings, acid mine waters, sewage, oil, silt, and sawdust« In some
sections of the streams coal deposits are four feet deep (101). Electric
seining operations indicated that U5 species of fish were present in these
streams.
A survey of the Bhadra River of India (lj.J>) indicated extensive
biological effects of industrial pollution. Fish found dying below paper
mills had not been feeding as their digestive tracts were empty. A stror^,
mixed odor of sulphides, sulphonates, and chlorine emanated on opening
these fishes. Heavy sewage pollution in the Schliersee brought about a
deterioration in condition and a decrease in numbers of ihe fish (169).
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The fish which were examined showed signs of starvation. Vivier found that
a rayon plant on the Sorame increased the mineral content of the stream
and encouraged slime growths which at times broke loose and caused sudden
fish kills (196). The discharge of organic wastes into lakes brought
about a decrease in the oxygen content of the deeper waters and caused the
near disappearance of salmon in Lake Eguaon and Annecy. Lake Leman is
affected most by the sewage of Lausanne which has caused a putrid slime
deposit on the bottom about 60 cm. deep.
Hawkes (75) presents and illustrates the use of a biological
method of classifying the pollution of streams. He stresses the need for
complementary biological and chemical examinations in all surveys of
pollution and points out that biological examinations have shown rivers
to be seriously polluted by toxic substances which were only subsequently
detected by chemical tests that were not practiced on a routine basis.
The Freshwater Biological Association (British) in its 23rd Annual Report
describes its continuing studies of pollution and the aquatic environment
(8). These studies deal with water movements in stratified lakes, the
source of dissolved solids, factors governing the abundance of algae,
composition of lake muds, and population studies of fishes and invertebrates,
In Great Britain there are several river boards which make annual
reports on their surveys and investigations. These reports contain much
-4
valuable information on the effects of pollution and the benefits of
various abatement methods. In their 1956 report (5) the Bristol Avon
River Board gives information on water use, floods, waste discharges,
pollution abatement, stream classification, waste treatment, fisheries,
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and toxicity.
Reports on pollution abatement and research activities in several
areas were made at the Seminar on Biological Problems in Water Pollution
at the Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center and are included in
the Transactions of the meeting. Research activities in Great Britain
were summarized by Beak (17) who pointed out that the research program is
shaped to meet the requirements of the 1951 River Pollution Prevention Acts
with special emphasis on standards of purity to be established. One team
has been carrying on fundamental research on the toxicity to fish of
various chemicals, particularly CN, 002, anc* ammonia. Another team has
been carrying on field studies of pollution biology, particularly as
pertains to fishes. In Ohio, the Division of Wildlife is responsible for
the protection and preservation of wildlife and thus the majority of their
studies are concerned with fish kills. An intensive study is being made of
the effects of acid mine drainage in the Racoon Creek basin and possible
corrective measures are under test. Studies are under way on the Little
Miami River to determine improvements, resulting from sewage treatment (l£8
In British Columbia, studies of the effects of wastes from forest
products industries on the marine environment are being stressed (198).
In Ontario, the most intensive investigation has been on the Spanish River
where it was found that the deposition of wood fibers was of prime
importance in the elimination of fish food organisms over an extended
area (llj.1). The mining industry has also created problems due to ore
pulverizing wastes which have produced turbidity and unstable bottom
conditions. The mining of uranium ores has added new problemsy namely,
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highly acid wastes and toxic mstals. Methods for the control of blue
green algae by the removal of phosphorus have been developed and tested.
Routine stream surveys are now complete in Wisconsin and more intensive
studies are now being made on the major waterways. These have indicated
that studies during the winter period are of importance (129). A cooper-
ative program of investigations in water pollution biology is being
carried out by the Dept. of Fish and Game Management of Oregon State
College and the Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center of the Public
Health Service, Complementary field and laboratory research designed to
provide basic information on pollutional problems in fresh and marine
waters is under way. Current field studies include physical, chemical,
and biological investigations of polluted streams and studies of small
streams, experimentally subjected to controlled pollution. Artificial
stream studies are being used to evaluate the effects of low level
pollution and studies are in progress on the influence of D.O. upon the
survival, development, growth, activity, and movement of fresh water
fishes (200). The relation of the various fish and game programs of the
Fish and Wildlife Service to the pollution problem was described by
Meehan (131). Acid mine drainage, mining wastes, oil pollution, lumbering
operations, pesticides, water development projects, and domestic and
industrial wastes all may have adverse effects on large segments of wild-
•«•*••
life populations. In the Missouri Basin wastes from the processing of
agricultural products are the main pollutants. Other sources of industrial
wastes are oil fields, refineries, steel mills, and chemical plants.
An unusual fish kill in the Yellowstone was directly occasioned by aerial
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spraying with DDT to control spruce budworm in the headwater areas (ll|.0).
Additional References
1. Pentelow, F. T. K., "The Biology of Rivers in Relation to Pollution."
Pub. Health Eng. Aba., 36, 11, 18 (1956).
2. Olson, T. A., "Biological Indicators in Stream Ecology."
Proc. llth Ind. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ. Series No. 91, 601 (1957).
Fish Kills
The use of a 30 percent DDT concentrate in an emulsifiable oil with
0.5 percent "Lissapol" as a spray to control Tanytarsus lewsii in the
Nile above Khartoum, resulted in an extensive fish kill. Labea were
killed in 8 hours and Synodontis in 36 hours (2U). Low oxygen levels
during the night and early morning hours due to excessive growths of
aquatic vegetation were responsible for heavy fish mortalities in
Madras State (30). A similar kill in a temple tank resulted from a
heavy growth of Micro'cystis aeruginosa (193). Methods for the investi-
gation of fish kills and steps to be taken when such a kill occurs are
outlined by Liebmann (117). In their "Fish Conservation Highlights of
1956" Stroud and Seaman list damage to fish populations throughout the
country by various pollutants„ Insecticides are becoming of increasing
importance in fish kills (181).
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Water Quality Criteria for Aquatic Life
General
Since the purpose of water quality criteria for aquatic life is to
maintain conditions which are favorable for aquatic organisms they must
be based on knowledge of the environmental requirements of these organisms.
While much is known concerning the environmental requirements of the
aquatic biota much remains to be learned. Ecological, life history, and
environmental studies are, therefore, pertinent and valuable. Studies
carried out in Belgium have lead to the conclusions that: alkaline waters
are most favorable for fishesj the optimum pH is between 7.0 and 8.0
although values of 5.0 to 9.0 are tolerated^ water passing over granite
rocks is usually acid and not favorable for breeding] D.O. content is very
important and should be fairly stable throughout the yearj trout require
more oxygen than do carp and tench, and the optimum water temperature for
trout breeding is 15° to 17° C. and for carp, 20° to 25° C. (85). A study
of mayflies in Douglas Lake, Michigan, has shown that Hexagenia nymphs
are limited by the oxygen concentration to that portion of the mud bottom
above the level of the hypolimnion(125).
In a general discussion of the subject, Tarzwell (185) states that
while much remains to be learned, enough information is now at hand for
the setting of tentative criteria. It is suggested that pH values should
not.fall below 5.0 or exceed 9.5, but for good production they should be
maintained between 6.5 and 8.5j that for Salraonoid fish 6.0 p.p.m. of D.O.
is desirablej that for a well rounded warm water fish population, D.O.
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levels should not fall below £.0 p.p.m. for more than 8 hours out of a
21; hour period, and at no time should they fall below 3 p.p.m. while for
coarse fishes they may drop to 2 p.p0m0j for warm water fishes temperature
should not exceed 93° F. in the northern portion of the country or 96° Fa
in the south, and for trout best production is obtained in streams having
summer temperature of 60° to 68° F. It is suggested the amount of toxic
wastes which can be added to a specific stream should be determined in
each case by means of bio-assay.
Suspended Solids and Turbidity
Studies in Oklahoma (23) revealed that high turbidities reduced
the growth and yield of bass and bluegills and favored the production but
not the growth of channel catfish. Clear reservoirs attracted more
anglers and yielded greater returns per unit of fishing effort as well as
more desirable species of fishes. Experiments in clear ponds, turbidities
less than 2£ p.p.m., intermediate ponds, turbidities from 25 to 100 p.p.m.,
and muddy ponds, turbidities over 100 p.p.m., showed that the average
total weight of the fish in the clear pond was 1.7 times that from the
intermediate pond and £.£ times that from the muddy pond. Wilson (207)
reviewed the literature on the destruction of aquatic life by turbidity
and silt and presented evidence of lowered productivity due to the
screening out of light and the abrasive and smothering action of sediment
on the bottom fauna and fish eggs.
Temperature
Experimsnts to determine the effects of temperature on the
respiratory movements of carp indicated that the upper lethal temperature
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is lower for the older heavier carp than for the smaller younger fish
which showed little change in respiration rate over a temperature range
of IS0 to 35>° C. (13U). Experiments with guppies have shown that in fresh
water the optimum temperature range for growth is 23° to 2£° C. and that
growth in 25 and £0 percent sea water is greater than in fresh water (65).
The upper temperature threshold for the normal development of Chinook
Salmon eggs was found to be 57.5° to 60° F. while the lower threshold was
liO° to 1*2.£° F. (37). It has been experimentally demonstrated that lobsters
can be acclimated to certain temperatures, acclimatization for transfer
from Hu5° C. to 23° C. being completed in 22 days. Moulting lobsters
are less resistant to high temperature, low salinity, and low D.O. -than
are hard-shelled lobsters. The upper IB thai temperature was raised by an
increase in thermal acclimatization, lowered by a decrease in the level of
oxygen acclimatization, and lowered by acclimatization to reduce salinity
(128).
Dissolved Solids and pH
Since the war industrial plants on the Werra River of Germany have
been discharging large amounts of chlorides and have brought about fish
kills in 19l*9, that were positively correlated with the increase in the
salt content of the river water. Fish that were moribund recovered when
placed in polluted water that was diluted 30 percent with tap water.
««i
Fish kills occurred in winter when the salt content exceeded 12,000 p.p.m.
The next spring surveys showed that fish were absent from the river
immediately below the industrial concentration. The resistance to salinity
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is greater at lower temperatures. The insect larvae disappeared from the
more saline regions and there was a reduction of fish food organisms
(170). A year round study was made of a prairie stream polluted with
brine wastes from oil wells and in which the concentration of chlorides
ranged from 20,000 p.p.m. at the headwaters down to 100 p.p.m. The 3h
species of organisms found in the stream throughout the year are arranged
according to their chloride tolerance. Fish were present only in the
section having chloride concentration of 100 to 1000 p.p.m. (3k).
Additional References
1, Lofts, B., "The Effects of Salinity Changes on the Respiratory Rate of
the Prawn Palaemonetes varians (Leach)," Jour. Exp. Biol., 33> 730
(I956)j Water Poll. Abs. (Brit.), 30, 229 (1957).
2. Seume, F. ¥., "The Rearing of Daphnia magna." Anz. Schadlingskunde
30, 25 (1957); Chem. Abs., 51, 9953 (1957).
Dissolved Oxygen and COg
Experiments were carried out to determine the respiration of aquatic
animals at different rates of flow and the relation of the lethal oxygen
tension to til e rate of flow and of the oxygen demand of larvae to the
oxygen tension and the rate of flow (91). In experimental studies with
caddis fly larvae, it was found that larvae normally inhabiting riffle
areas are readily immobilized at a relatively high oxygen concentration in
still waters but can tolerate low oxygen concentrations in flowing water
comparable to levels tolerated by the species found in pool areas (152).
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lt was found that goldfish acclimated for several days to low D.O.
levels, could withstand considerable lower D.O. concentrations than
goldfish which had not been acclimated. The goldfish acclimated to low
oxygen had increased hemoglobin and higher red cell counts and a lowering
of the oxidative activity of some tissues (15>3>), The maximum lethal
concentration of D.O. for yellow perch during short exposure periods
varied from 0.77 p.p.m. at 53° F. to 1.3k p.p.m. at 70° F., as determined
by turnover in a sealed container (26). It has been shown that concen-
trations of C02 which sometime occur in polluted streams can more than
double the minimum concentration of D.O. necessary for the survival of
half the rainbow trout during a 2li hour exposure period. In solutions
containing up to 67 p.p.m. C02, survival times are shortened by an
increase in temperature from 12.5° to 19.5° C. (2 )•
Studies of winter kills on six southern Minnesota lakes lead to
the conclusion that the dissolved oxygen level is the best basis for fore-
f
casting winter kills. High concentrations of C02, H2S, and ammonia are
concurrent phenomena of low oxygen conditions and are not the cause of the
kills, (172). In connection with a fish kill below a kraft pulping plant,
field bio-assays were run to determine the toxicity of free chlorine
(Cl2) at different D.O. concentrations. It was found that 0.2 p.p.m.
C12 killed all the test fish at D.O. levels of 1.0 to 2.0 p.p.m. but did
-4
not kill fish at 5.0 p.p.m. D.O. (15). The resistance of several species
of fish to low D.O. concentrations was tested at temperatures of 10°,
16°, and 20° C. Rise in temperature reduced the resistance of all species
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tested to low D.O. Tench were the most resistant to low oxygen and
in general trout were the most susceptible (U8).
Additional References
1. Hishida, T*, and Nakana, E., "Respiratory Metabolism During Fish
Development." Embryologia, 2, 12, 67 (195105 Chera. Abs., 5l>
15015 (1957).
2. Harts, J. S., "Seasonal Changes in Carbon Dioxide Sensitivity and
Blood Circulation in Certain Fresh-Water Fishes."
Can. Jour. Zool., 35, 195 (1957).
3. Fish, G. R., "Some Aspects of the Respiration of Six Species of Fish
from Uganda." Jour. Exp. Biol., 33, 186 (1956); Water Poll. Abs.
(Brit.), 29, 339 (1956).
U. Wittner, M., "Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Oxygen Poisoning
of Paramecium." Jour, of Protozoology, h, 1, 20 (1957).
5. Pentelow, F. T. K., Allan, I. R. H., Herbert, D. M. W., and
Alabaster, J. S., "Sewage Effluents and Their Effect on Fish."
The Surveyor, 116, 986 (1957).
6. Van Horn, W. M. and Balch, R., "The Reaction of Walleyed Pike Eggs
to Reduced Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations." Proc. llth Ind. Waste
Conf., Purdue Univ. Series No. 91, 319 (1957).
Toxic Wastes,
Methodst Bio-assay procedures are not in wide use for the determi-
nation of the toxicity of wastes and other materials to fish and other
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aquatic organisms. Work is also under way to develop methods for using
the results of short time tests to indicate safe concentration under
conditions of continuous exposure. Studies are being made of a great
variety of toxicants and the influence of various environmental conditions
on their toxicity.
Burdick (2JJ) suggests that the curvature found in logarithmic plots
of concentration against time for death in toxicity studies is induced
by failure of the effective range to conform to the axes of the paper.
Translation may be effected by subtracting the threshold value from
concentration and a minimum time from death time. When this is done the
curve becomes a straight line and represents a simple inverse proportion.
A graphical method is presented by which these corrections may be approxi-
mated and an equation for the original curve derived. The value of this
procedure lies in the evaluation of the threshold concentration which may
be used to establish safe disposal rates for toxic wastes.
Jferkens has described an apparatus which can be used with very
little manual attention to vary independently the temperature, pH, D.O.,
and concentration of toxicants in water supplied to six specially designed
aquaria (132). Halsband developed, a method for assessing the toxicity of
substances in water through changes in respiratory rates. Fish are kept
in a constant flow of water in a dark pipe. Their respiratory movements
.-••-I
are measured by a new electrical method first in normal water and then
after the addition of the toxic substance (71). As the result of tests
carried out in Belgium, the value of bio-assays in assessing water quality
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is discussed. It is concluded that fish toxicity tests are of use for
determining the effect of a given effluent on fish in a river and the
dilution or degree of treatment required to prevent fish mortality (111).
A field technique has been developed whereby the concentration of sodium
pentachlorophenate in natural waters can be determined by observing the
mortality rate of the common guppy and comparing it with standard mortali-
ty curves developed for known concentrations of the material under
conditions encountered in the field (102).
*
Henderson points out (76) that the toxicity of mixed industrial
wastes cannot generally be estimated from chemical composition. It is
necessary to conduct bio-assays with the mixed waste using for dilution
the water from the receiving stream or water with similar characteristics.
Further a numerical value called the application factor, must be developed
and applied to the TLm derived from short time tests to indicate safe
concentrations for aquatic life under conditions of continuous exposure.
In developing the application factor major consideration is given to
relating the test to actual conditions, the test fish to other aquatic
life, and to possible effluent fluctuations (76).
Garrett (61) points out that it is becoming increasingly important
to obtain biological information on a waste problem and in many cases
this information is as important as chemical and engineering data. Bio-
assay data on wastes from a Monsanto Chemical Company plant were used in
the design of waste treatment facilities. One-tenth of the 2k or lj.8 hr.
was set as the effluent standard. In another article (62) the same
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author points out that the most serious toxicity problem facing a manu-
facturing plant in providing for waste discharges is concerned with the
effects on aquatic life. One of the principal reasons for this is that
the appearance of dead fish in a receiving stream has long been considered
the ultimate evidence of bad industrial practice.
The use and value of bio-assays in meeting toxic industrial waste
problems, methods, equipment, supplies, procedures, and costs for carrying
on bio-assays, and the use of bio-assay results in meeting specific
problems are described by Henderson and Tarzwell (77). Several examples
are given of the use of bio-assays by industry in the safe disposal of
toxic wastes. Conventional physical and chemical tests of the effluent
of a large synthetic fiber plant gave no evidence of serious pollution.
Bio-assays showed this effluent to be highly toxic to fish under minimum
river flow conditions and also helped to locate the major toxic component.
Attention to the elimination of this material in the treatment process
restored the aquatic life of the river in a short time. According to an
article by Vinogradov (19U) the sanitary authority of the U.S.S.R. is
meeting toxic waste problems by limiting the concentration of certain
substances which may be discharged. The limit for lead, copper, nickel,
cyanide, and chromium is 0.1 p.p.m., and for other materials is as follows:
picric acid, di- and tri-nitrotoluol, dinitrochlprobenzole, tetrfcnitro-
methane, 0.5 p.p.m., mercury, 0.005, arsenic 0.05, carbon disulphide 1.0,
fluorine 1.5* carbon tetrachloride 5.0, DDT 0»2, dinitronaphthalin 1.0,
dichlorethane 2.0, and chlorine 0.0 p.p.nu This, approach disregards the
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quality of the receiving water, synergy and antagonism, wastes already
present, and size of the receiving stream but gives strict and uniform
regulations which are easier to enforce.
Tests indicate that the time of response of fish to Sarin decrease
relative to decreases in the D.O. content of the water. Fish used in the
studies were fathead minnows, green sunfish, and goldfish (203).
The toxicity to Gambusia of 86 compounds which may occur in oil refinery
wastes was determined by means of bio-assays. Because the waters of
Oklahoma, which were of chief concern, are mostly turbid, bio-assays were
conducted in turbid water. The results seem to suggest a protective
action of the turbidity (199). For that or some other reason some of the
results are at variance with those obtained by other workers. For some
years bio-assay tests have been carried out in an effort to find a specific
toxicant for the larvae of the sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus, in the
Great Lakes area. Tests were made with the lamprey > rainbow trout, and
the bluegill. Of the h,k36 chemicals so tested, 26k were toxic to only
one species and 333 were toxic to only two species (ill). This work has
lead to specific materials for the control of the lamprey larvaej namely,
the Nitrophenols.
Metals; Extensive experimental studies of the effects of dilute
solutions of toxic substances, discharged into the Kama River, on various
types of river bottom animals indicated that 0.01, 0.002, and 0.001
normal solutions of KgC^Oy were lethal in 25, Ii7, and 67 minutes re-
spectively, to Daphnia pulex. Similar tests were made with
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methyl violet, and other industrial wastes. Among other harmful industrial
wastes are those from dye plants, coke plants, oil refineries, soda works,
paint factories, and fertilizer works (18?). It.was found that a
\
5 x 10"^ M. sea water solution of uranyl nitrate inhibited the formation
of the fertilization membrane in Urechis eggs and lead to polys penny
(103). These findings indicate that in determining the effects of toxic
materials more than lethal effects should be considered. Experiments with
chum salmon, Oncorhunchus keta, 3.9 to f>.8 cm. in length in salinities of
17.9 to 18.1 p.p,t., at temperatures of ll|.U° to l£.0° C., and at D,0. level
of 8£ percent of saturation, indicated a 1*8 hr. TI^ value for AS2CU of
11 p.p.m. (U). There is now experimental confirmation of the hypothesis
that metallic cations are toxic because they combine with an essential
sulfhydryl group or a key enzyme. It is assumed that the affinity of the
cations for the sulfydryl group is a linear function of the insolubility
of the corresponding metal sulfide. Ifetal ions that form the most insolu-
ble sulfides will also be the most toxic. Experiments carried out with
distilled water indicate that the metals, listed in their order of toxidLty
are as follows: Ag, Hg, Cu, Cd, Pb, Zn, Ni, Co, and Mi (175). Experi-
ments with fish spawn, young fish, and Daphnia showed that Zn plates
placed in hard well water did not form poisonous salts but such salts were
formed in soft water ponds which were toxic (15U). Other experimental
studies indicated that temperatures as well as hardness, influence the
toxicity of Zn. In soft water the 96 hr. TI^ was 2.86 p.p.m. at 18°C. and
1.93 p.p.m. at 30° C. In hard water it was 10.13 p.p.m. at 18° C., and
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10.15 p.p.m. at 30° C. (29). Bio-assays to determine the effects of
various Cu and Hg compounds on Artemia salina, Elmihi'us modestus, and
Acartia clausi indicate that the latter two were more sensitive than
Artemia to all the materials tested. The mercuric compounds were more
toxic than Cu to Artemia. Mixtures of the two materials gave a synergistic
effect. Exposure of Artemia to Cu rendered it much more sensitive to
subsequent exposure to HgCl2, but not to Cu. The opposite was also true
(ill). Additional studies demonstrated that the toxicities of primary
alkylmercuric chlorides become considerably less when cystine and reduced
gluthathione are added to the toxic media. In general, a good measure of
agreement has been found between the relative lipoid solubilities of both
primary and secondary alkylmercuric chlorides and their respective
toxicities to Artemia (14.2). Many toxic materials are not avoided by fish.
Studies were made on the effects of periodic low oxygen and it was found
that when the D.O. was lowered to 2 p.p.m. for 2 hours in each 2lj. hr.
period the materials under study become considerably more toxic: KCN about
h times, Naphthenic acid, 2.5 to 3 times, and ZnCl2 about 1/3 more (28).
The accumulation of Zn in the clam, Meretrix meretrix, was high in the
gill, mantle, viscera, and other soft tissue, but there was very little
in the shell. About liO percent of the radioactivity was lost in 2 days
after removal to normal sea water. With the carp much of the radio-
activity was deposited in the gills and kidneys as was the Zn"5 injected
into the muscles. After U8 hours, Sr" injected into the muscles was
found largely in the hard tissues^ whereas Cs1^ was chiefly retained in
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the heart and kidney and found in both soft and hard tissues (165).
Phenol; Experiments with fractions of the black liquor from the
sulphate process demonstrated that there was no relation between phenolic
concentration and toxicity and that the most toxic fraction was the
residue after distillation, which contained no phenols (21).
Ammonia; Bio-assay studies with un-ionized ammonia indicated
that the period of survival for all species decreased as the concentration
of the toxicant increased, decreasing D.O. increased toxicity with the
greatest effects at the lower concentrations of un-ionized ammonia.
Resistance of perch and roach to lack of D.O. was not significantly
affected but that of rainbow trout was reduced significantly by a small
concentration of the un-ionized ammonia (133)*
Paper Mil Wastes! Sockeye fingerlings, Oncorhunchus nerka, were
exposed to various concentrations of full bleach kraft effluent under
experimental conditions simulating those anticipated in the estuary of the
Somass River, British Columbia. At 17.8° C. in sea water of 20 percent
salinity, the limiting concentration of toxicant below which survival was
complete and independent of length of exposure, was U.8 percent. However,
when D.O, requirements for respiration and oxidization of the waste were
considered, it was necessary to lower the concentration of the waste
effluent from U.8 to 2.5 percent (3). In studies carried on in Japan it
. --4
was concluded that the harmful effect of paper mill wastes on aquatic
organisms is mainly due to active Cl2 in the effluent from the beater,
in sediment of the bleaching liquor tank, and in the effluent from the
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factory (95).
Detergents: In an investigation of detergents it was found that
toxicity was mainly due to alkyl-aryl-sulphonate and that about 3 p.p.m.
of this material produce a 50 percent fish mortality in about 12 weeks.
When they are present more D.O. is required to sustain the fish. It is
stated, however, that detergents do not constitute a threat to fishes (79)«
Other Toxicants; Aquatic animals can tolerate concentrations of
tannery wastes up to U percent when chromates are not present. The tox-
icity of tannery wastes is attributed to reduction in B.O., changes in
salt concentration, and changes in acidity (209). Latex tubing used in a
recirculating experimental apparatus in which the water was not exchanged
proved toxic to stonefly nymphs. In jar tests the tubing caused the
death of stone flies in 72 hours and small Chinook salmon in 2ii hours
(U6), A three year study of fish populations in White Oak Lake which
received radioactive and chemical waste waters from Oak Ridge National
Laboratory showed that fish in the lake grew more slowly and did not live
as long as fish in nearby reservoirs of the T.V.A. Radioassay indicated
that radioactive materials were selectively concentrated in all tissues
of the body. Radioactive Sr and P were found in the hard tissues and
Cs and the rare earths in the soft tissues. The total radiation received
by the fish was estimated to be 5>7(rep)per year from external radiation
and several times that amount from internal radiation (10U). Fast swimming
carnivorous fish fed Sr ° excreted most of it in a few hours. The remain-
ing Sr ' was found mostly in the skeleton. Excretion was much slower and
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retention much higher in a small sluggish herbivore. About three times
as much Sr was found in the muscles of injected tuna as in those receiving
the isotope orally while the gills had only half the activity found in
orally fed tuna (19). When capsules containing £.£ ^ic. of Y7*1 were placed
91
in fishes stomachs it was found that the rate of loss of Y7 was very
high, only 2 percent of the dose being retained after two days (20).
Insecticidest
The widespread use of the new organic insecticides and their
increasing significance as water pollutants are indicated, in the literature.
The use of these materials for area control has resulted in several
extensive fish kills and a reduction in the fish food organisms.
The number and volume of aquatic insects emerging from tributaries of the
Miramichi River of northern New Brunswick, where forest-covered watersheds
had been sprayed from the air with 0.5? pounds of DDT per acre, were
compared with insects emerging from unsprayed streams. It was found that
there were fewer kinds of insects in the sprayed streams with the greatest
reduction occurring in the larger species which are the main food of the
young salmon (87). A sudden complete mortality of landlocked salmon
fingerlings in a commercial fish hatchery was believed to be due to
aerial spraying with-DDT. Bio-assay studies showed that landlocked salmon
are more sensitive to DDT than either rainbow or brook trout. Low D,0.
-4 . ......
levels .increase the toxicity of DDT. Under conditions of oxygen satu-
ration, 0.08 to 0.16 p.p.m., DDT is lethal to landlocked salmon but sub-
lethal for rainbow and brook trout (73). Two applications of BHC, DDT,
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and Strdbane at the rate of 0.1, 0,2, and 0.3 pounds per acre respective-
ly, were made to the tidal marshes of Bombay Hock National Wildlife
Refuge. At this low rate of application no damage of consequence was
observed from the two applications, with the exception of that to the
marsh fiddler crab (6k}• Bio-assay tests with toxaphene indicate a
three-fold increase in the toxicity to bluntnose minnows when the tempera-
ture is raised from 5>0° P. to 7?° F. Toxaphene was found to be more toxic
to the bluntnose minnow than to some of the aquatic invertebrates.
In treated lakes many groups of invertebrates were killed but they reap-
pered while the lake water was still toxic to fish. Detoxification in
water proceeds more rapidly when it is exposed to light and where the
temperature and D.O. were high (8U). In July 195$, the U. S. Forest
Service sprayed 132,8£6 acres of the upper Yellowstone River drainage with
approximately 133,000 pounds of DDT for spruce budworm control. First
observations of dead or dying fish in the area were made in mid October
19£5* Mortality was extensive but predominantly whitefish were affected.
Dead fish were in an emaciated condition and it is believed death was due
to reduced food supply. Comparison of sprayed with unsprayed areas
revealed a noticeable absence of stoneflies, caddis flies, and mayflies
in the treated area (Ili7). Bio-assays were made of the runoff water
from an experimental plot before and after treatment with dieldrin.
It was found that the runoff from the first rain from an area treated with
dieldrin at the rate of £ lb. per acre was toxic to fathead minnows in a
one in three dilution. Some toxicity to fish was still present in runoff
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from the third rain after treatment (186). The application of approxi-
mately 0.1 p.p.ra, of toxaphene had a marked detrimental effect upon the
Tendipedidae population of a northern Colorado lake. Living larvae were
absent three days after treatment and repopulation was not complete until
nine months later. The Oligochaetes exhibited no adverse effects from the
toxaphene. Rotenone had little adverse effect when applied at 1 p.p.m.
(U3). A very good summary of the pesticides, their use and toxicity to
wildlife, has been prepared by Rudd and Genelly (16U).
Additional References
1. Anon. "Report of the Water Pollution Research Board with the Report
of the Director of Water Pollution Research for the Year 1956."
Dept. of Sci. and Ind. Res. HMSO, 80 (1957). "Effects of Pollution
on Fish." Water Poll. Abs. (Brit.), 30, 137 (19^7).
2. Berezina, N. A., "Damage to Fish from the Use of Insecticides to
Control Biting Insects." Voprosy Ikhtiologii (Russian), 1_> 2°9
(19$6)j Biol. Abs., 31, 2£00 (19^7).
3. Blumenkrantz, B. L., "The Effects of Chloretone on Developing Fish
Embryos." Proc. Oklahoma Acad. Sci., 35, 62 (19$U) (Pub. 19£6)$
Chem. Abs., |1, 99^2 (19^7).
U. Fukuda, H., "Poisoning of Aquatic Animals with Some Toxic Substances -
I. Msthod of Estimation of Toxicity.11 tiull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish.,
21, U86 (1955); Biol. Abs., 31, 219U (19*7).
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-2U-
5. Jackson, C. F., "Control of the Common Sunfish or Pumpkiriseed,
Lepomis gibbosus, in New Hampshire." New Hampshire Fish and Game
Dept. Tech. Cir. 12, 16 (1956); Sport Fishery Abs., 2, 2, Jk6
(1957).
6. Loosanoff, V. L., Hanks, J. E., and Ganaros, A. E., "Control of
Certain Forms of Zooplankton in Mass Algal Cultures." Science, 125
(3257), 1092 (1957).
7. Lund, E. J., "Effect of Bleedwater, 'Soluble Fraction', and Crude Oil
on the Oyster." Pub. Inst. of Marine Sci., h, 328 (1957).
8. Parsons, J. D., "The Effects of Acid Strip Mine Pollution on the
Ecology of a Central Missouri Stream." Dissertation Abs., 16f
1301 (1956)j Sport Fishery Abs., £, 6 (1956).
9. Phillips, A. M., et al,, "The Nutrition of Trout." Fish. Res. Bull.
19, Cortland Hatchery Rept. 2U,1955 (1956).
10. Srinivasan, R., and Rajah, K. A. D., "Effect of Benzene Hexachlorlde
on Fish Life." Indian Jour. Malariol., 9, 203 (1955); Chem. Abs.,
51, 11598 (1957).
11. Starr, T. J., and Jones, M. E., "The Effect of Copper on the Growth of
Bacteria Isolated from Marine Environments.11 Jour. Limn, and Ocean.
2, 33 (1957).
12. Taga, N., "Studies on the Effect of Copper Upon Marine Bacteria. I.
The Depressing Activities of Copper Sulphate on the Development of
Bacteria in Sea Water." Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish., 20, 280
(195U)j Water Poll. Abs. (Brit.), 29, 338 (1956).
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-25-
13. Tauson, A. 0., "The Effect of Industrial Effluents on River-
Bottom Fauna. II. The Effect of the Discharge of Effluents from
Chemical Plants on the River-Bottom Fauna of the Kama and its
Tributaries»" lichen. Zap. Molotov. Gosudarst Univ, im. A. M.
Gor'kogo, (Russian) 7, 3, 71, (19$$)$ Water Poll. Abs. (Brit.),
30, 288 (19*7).
1U. Tinblin, L, 0., Jr., Garstka, W. U., and Moran, ¥. T., "Preliminary
Toxicity Studies with Hexadecanol ~ Reservoir Evaporation Reduction."
Chem, Eng. Lab. Rept. SI-10, U. S. Dept, of the Int., Bur. Rec.,
Div, Eng, Lab., Comm. Off., Denver, (19$7).
1$. Waugh, G. D., and Ansell, A., "The Effect on Oyster Spat Fall of
Controlling Barnacle Settlement with DDT." Ann. Appl. Biol., UU,
619 U9$6).
16. Weiss, C. M., and Botts, J. L., "The Response of Sore Freshwater Fish
to Isopropyl Methylphosphonofluoridate (Sarin) in Water."
Jour. Limn, and Ocean. 2, h, 363 (1957).
17. Wood, E. M., Yasutake, W. T., and Johnson, H. E., "Acute Sulfa-
methazine Toxicity in Young Salmon.11 Prog. Fish-Cult., 19, 6k
(1957).
18. Yoshihara, T., and Abe, H., "The Toxicity of Chemicals on Fish I.
Death of the Young Carp, Cyprinus earpio lAnne, by Chemicals."
Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fiah., 21, 9$0 (19$5)j Biol. Abs., 31,
2196(1957).
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19. Zimmermann, W., Lehmann, G., Schwille, F., and Schmeidler, E.,
"Effect on Water Supplies of Petroleum Products."
Z. Hyg. InfektKr. (Germany) li+2, 322 (1956); Water Poll. Abs.
(Brit.), 29, 395 (1956).
Putrescible Wastes
Effects of Organic Enrichment
A Field study of two stream sections, one in its natural state
and the other enriched by the sewage from a town of 500 people, showed
that trout grew much faster, were in better condition, and the bottom
fauna was more abundant in the enriched section (U9)» Physical, chemical,
and biological surveys of the Sone River which receives wastes from kraft
pulp mills, a sugar factory, and cement factory, show that the involved
portion of -the stream may be divided into five zones according to the
degree of pollution. Toxic constituents of the pulp mill are well
diluted even during the low flow period but the high organic content of
the wastes reduce the D.O. to near zero and change water quality and
bottom conditions for 15 miles, adversely affecting the fish and inverte-
brate habitat (138).
The production of oysters in the United States has declined to
half its former volume. Domestic and industrial wastes affect the oyster
bottoms by: direct poisoning of shellfish) smothering of shellfish
grounds by sludge; and rendering the water unsuitable for harvesting
shellfish because of the high bacteria content. Siltation has covered
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covered many beds. Sulfite mill wastes encourage the diatom Melosira,
which increases to the point where the oysters are smothered under a
thick blanket of diatoms. Overfertilization by duck farm wastes produced
a similar problem (?8). In Britain many formerly productive oyster beds
have either been abandoned or have declined in value as domestic and
industrial pollution has increased (35). A study of the process of
pollution and self-purification in oysters and mussels indicated that
when the water temperature is above 10° G. both pollution and cleansing
take place rapidly as the quality of the water overlying the bed alters
and that both types of shellfish may become highly polluted.. When the
temperature of the water is about 1° to 2° C. mussels continue to show
this same pattern of pollution and cleansing but oysters may not become
polluted (210).
It is pointed out that suspended matter may represent a greater
pollution danger than liquid effluents. The deposition of sludge on the
stream bottom has many biological effects and is of outstanding importance
(192). Fertilization can have very marked effects on plankton production
and general productivity, transparency, and pH (li;2). Investigations of
the area around three sewage outfalls in southern California indicated
discoloration of the water and increased plankton growths (1?8).
Investigation of a number of small ponds showed that the-addition of
sewage increased Daphnia populations (191). Experiments on eutro-
phication in mixtures of river water and effluents showed that algae
titre is affected by numerous factors and can be used as a criterion of
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tlie degree of eutrophication of water and mud (22).
Indicators of Organic Enrichment
The intestines of fishes caught off shore in the Mediterranean
are free of entero-bacteria whereas in those caught in the littoral
zone there is an intestinal flora similar to that in man or the warm
blooded animals. Laboratory studies have shown that the investigation of
the entero-bacteria and enterophages in fishes can give information as to
the pollution of the waters in which the animals live (70). Bottom samples
from Santa Monica Bay, California, indicate six biological zones, each
supporting a characteristic fauna which differs with depth of sea floor,
nature of sediments, and distance from the end of outfall sewers (72).
Bottom fauna studies in the Los Angeles Harbor area in the vicinity of
waste outfalls indicate that the area can be divided into five zones on
the basis of bottom conditions and bottom organisms. Samples taken in a
line away from the waste outfalls indicate that the number of species of
bottom organisms increased with distance. Capitella capitata was found
in the zone around outfalls and appears to occupy a position similar to
Tubifex in fresh water (160). In the Los Angeles Bay area dredging
provided new and clean bottom areas which were then colonized by benthic
organisms. Within a year conditions deteriorated and oil sludges deposited
on the bottom. The effects of the removal of contaminated bottom materials
and the progress of contamination thereafter were demonstrated by D.O.,
sulfide, odor, organic carbon content of deposits, and the makeup of
benthic populations (159).
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Weimann believes that organisms serve as indicators of different
degrees of organic enrichment or pollution and that the flora and fauna
can give more information than chemical and bacteriological examination
(202). From a bacteriological point of view the coliform group is
currently considered the best available indicator for use in the esti-
mation of pollution of waters and in the sanitary evaluation of pure
waters of potable quality. Only when the count exceeds a normally
expected minimum number of coliform organisms is pollution indicated (92).
Fungi which are very common in association with decaying organic matter
cannot be used as indicators of pollution because of their ubiquity
throughout nature. Pollution tolerances occur but must be evaluated care-
fully in regard to individual species. A negative approach can be used
wherein larger numbers of colonies of small numbers of species can be iso-
lated from samples obtained in the more polluted portions of a single
stream (38).
Results of river surveys have shown diatoms to be easy to collect
and study and good indicators of river conditions. It is believed that
similar relations hold for estuaries, bays, and ship canals as for fresh
water rivers (15>1). From many studies that have been made it is believed
that diatoms can be used as a group to indicate the ability of a water to
support aquatic life. From variation in the nunber of species and
individuals of each species, curves are developed which when compared may
reveal waters adversely affected by pollution, mildly affected, severely
affected, or not affected
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In Florida the indicator organism program is based on organisms
which are indicative of the absence of organic pollution rather than on
its presence (18). Number of species present and the abundance of
individuals appear to be a criterion of pollution in lakes as well as in
streams, In enriched areas the following forms were the most abundant:
Tubificid worms, Procladius midges, Tendipes plumosus, and Tendipes tentans,
Under conditions of severe pollution with organic wastes only Ihe
Tubificidae were able to survive (183). The genera of algae occurring most
frequently in enriched waters are Oscillatoria, Euglena, Navicula,
Chlorella, and Chlamydomonas^ The five most abundant species are
Nitzschia palea, Oscillatoria limosa, 0. tenuis, and Arthrospira jenneri
(llj.8). Immediate sewage pollution of a stream, resulting in oxygen
depletion, tends to eliminate all but a few species of anaerobic ciliates
and colorless flagellates. Certain species of algae and protozoa are
readily associated with sewage wastes but investigators should distinguish
between "characteristic of" and "indicative of" organic enrichment (105>).
Certain mollusks, as the Unionidae, are not associated with near septic
water resulting from organic enrichment. Such forms have an index value
in that their presence typically indicates good D.O. and attendant physical
and chemical conditions associated with clean water, and they may be
called index organisms of clean water (89). Studies in the River Mora vice
indicated that several species of Trichoptera were indicative of pure water
conditions. Among these are Pojycentropus flavomaculatus, Notidobia
ciliaris, Rhyacophila septentrionis, Glossosoma boltoni, and several
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others (116). In order to utilize macro-invertebrates as indicators of
environmental conditions in streams it is essential to have a knowldege
of the composition of the population and the abundance of the different
organisms under the various environmental conditions which prevail in
clean and organically enriched waters. Clean waters are usually charac-
terized by a great variety of invertebrates, consisting of herbivores,
carnivores, and omnivores, lung, tracheal tube, and gill breathers.
In general a population containing numerous gill breathing forms as may-
flies, stoneflies, and caddis flies, is indicative of clean water and their
absence denotes a superabundance of organic materials and/or low. D.O.
By contrast associations engaged in the utilization of excess organic
materials are characterized by few species but large numbers of individuals,
The macro-invertebrates most characteristic of septic zones are those which
can exist under conditions of low oxygen or have adaptations for breathing
atmospheric oxygen (63). The terms pollution and biological indicators
are often loosely used. Biological indicators are generally indicators
of organic enrichment. Pollution means damage to a beneficial use.
Changes in an aquatic fauna do not necessarily mean there has been damage.
It is believed that a more definite relationship must be shown between
changes in the biota and damage to beneficial use before certain organisms
can be referred to as pollution indicators. A study of the fish popu-
lation and the fish catch gives the best information on how wastes are
affecting sport or commercial fishing (U7).
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Additional References
1. Hohnl., W., "Biology of Waste-Water Fungi, with Special Reference
to Pulp and Paper Mill Effluents." Wochbl. Papierfabrik, 8U,
56U (1956)5 Chem. Abs., 51, 17163 (1957).
2. Mann, K, H,, "A Study of the Oxygen Consumption of Five Species of
Leech." Jour. Exp. Biol., 33, 615 (1956); Water Poll. Abs. (Brit.),
30, 13 (1957).
3. Muehlberger, C., "New Methods of Biological Investigation of
Ground Water." Wasserw.-WassTechn., 6, U5 (1956); Water Poll. Abs.
(Brit.), 30, U9 (1957).
U. Skerman, V. B. D., Dementjeva, G., and Carey, B. J., "Intracellular
Deposition of Sulphur by Sphaerotilus natans." Jour. Bact., 73,
50U (1957).
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MICROBIOLOGY
An explosive epidemic (1?£) of infections hepatitis in Delhi,
India was attributed to municipal drinking water, and showed that the virus
was not inactivated by the treatment methods used. This incident indi-
cated that contamination of the drinking water supplies by sewage should
be avoided, if at all possible.
Richter (162) has reported the presence of at least 8 species of
Salmonella present at various times in channel water in Buxtehude Rasch,
Germany. He noted the increasing occurrence of the Salmonella group in
western Europe as a result of intercontinental travel. Stoll (179) re-
viewed the legal provisions of the German Democratic Republic in an
attempt to prevent human infection through polluted waters from slaughter
houses. The conditions under which Salmonella can live and grow in water,
such as presence of protein materials, effect of salinity, influence of
movement and stagnation were discussed by Steiniger (177). He concluded
that the degree of pollution, oxygen demand, and coli content are not
suitable methods of determining the presence of infectious agents; more
Salmonella may be present in apparently clean water than in a polluted
water. Greenberg, Wickenden and Lee (69) have successfully identified an
S. typhi carrier in a town of 2200 by application of the swab procedure
~4
developed by Moore, in which gauze swabs were suspended in sewage at
various points through the sewer system and followed back through house
connections into the toilets. A new procedure for the more rapid isolation
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of Salmonella from polluted water was described by Kenner, Rockwood and
Kabler (99)» The technique combined the use of a selective medium,
selenite brilliant green, with membrane filter culture.
Gol'dfarb (67) demonstrated dysentery bacilli in low concentration
in water by the phage titre increase reaction. In experimentally infected
well water, bacteria were detected in lower concentration and over longer
periods of time than in tap or river water. Kenner and Kabler (98)
isolated five strains of Mlmeae from Ohio River water. All previous
isolations of these organisms have been made directly from specimens of
human origin, Greenberg and Kupka (68) have reviewed "Tuberculosis
Transmission by Waste Water". Hospitals treating tuberculosis patients,
as well as dairies and slaughter houses handling tuberculous animals may
be expected to discharge tubercle bacilli in their wastes. Conventional
sewage treatment is inadequate to significantly reduce the nunber of
tubercle bacilli in the sewage. In order to provide adequate disinfection,
complete treatment plus chlorination with 20 p.p.m. for at least 2 hours
contact time is necessary. Cooke and Kabter (lj.0) and Cooke and Busch (39)
found sewage polluted waters to be rich in certain strains of "plant
disease fungi" and cellulose-decomposing fungi which have become acclimated
to living in aqueous habitats, and which were able to use dissolved
oxygen in competition with other sewage organisms for reduction of organic
materials. During the treatment of sewage and wastes these fungi were
active in purifying sewage in which they were living.
Dauer and Sylvester (i4i) in their "1956 Summary of Disease Outbreaks"
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included nine water-borne outbreaks in which 1,719 persons were affected.
Two large and two small outbreaks were from contaminated public water
supplies, one of 800 cases was due to Shigella flexneri. One outbreak of
typhoid fever, 27 cases, was attributed to contaminated well water.
One outbreak of infectious hepatitis of 276 cases was considered water-
borne and E. coli was isolated from the supply.
Hendriksen (78) has extended his studies on coliform tests of
water carried out in mannitol broth at 30°C. followed by subcultures in
lactose broth at 39°C. The rate of coliform detection was higher by the
new method and seemed to give more reliable results than tests in lactose
broth at 37°C. Karakasevic (9k) made a comparative study of culture media
for the enumeration of coliform bacteria, and recommended that the technique
now in use in Yugoslavia be replaced by "Standard Methods" (U.S.). In his
study of the effect of storage temperature on toe survival of coliform
organisms in water, McCarthy (127) found that water samples with relatively
low coliform densities (23 or less) which had been in shipment up to
2l| hours at any reasonable temperature yielded results which statistically
correlated very well with the degree of pollution existing at the sampling
point at the time of collection. Samplss with higher initial coliform
densities, 230 or more, were more likely to exhibit decreases in coliform
content during 2h hours storage. Njoku-Obi and Skinner (1140 consistently
obtained lower counts of coliforms and Escherichia species in boric acid
lactose broth at U3°C. than when standard lactose broth was used at 3S>°C.
They concluded that boric acid lactose broth cannot be depended upon to
-------
-36-
detect fecal coliforms, although they did not clearly define their
criteria for differentiating Escherichia, Aerobacter and intermediate
forms.
Sullivan, Hartley and Slanetz (182) reported that the enterococci
occur in the feces of man and certain animals and in polluted water or
sewage in as great or even greater numbers than do the coliforra bacteria,
and that in some instances it may be possible to distinguish between
human and animal contamination of water based on the types of enterococci
present in the samples. In the examination of 1000 water samples in
Argentina, Leiguarda et al (113) demonstrated contamination in 332,
83.1$ contained coliforms and U5.8$ contained streptococci. Because
16.9$ of the contaminated samples contained streptococci only, they
considered the possibility of adding tests for streptococci to the other
methods used in the bacteriological examination of water.
Reitler and Seligmann (161) showed that Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
E^ coli can coexist in pure water, but in mixed cultures%in peptone water
Ps. aeruginosa can inhibit E. coli. Water supplies containing many
Ps. aeruginosa but few or no coli-aerogenes bacteria were found to be
relatively common in northern Israel and in view of Ps. aeruginosa'a fecal
origin and its potential pathogenicity, it was concluded that this
organism should be considered as well as the coli-aerogenes bacteria in
assessing the suitability of water for drinking purposes. Due to the high
concentration of cytochrome oxidase within the cells of Ps. aeruginosa a
practical differential test has been developed (5>7) based on the formation
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of indophenol blue from the oxidation of P-aminodiraethylaniline oxalate
in the presence of alpha naphthol. This test suggests the possibility
of a procedure for the selective enumeration of Pseudomonas in polluted
water,
Collin and Kipling (36) have devised a new technique for the
enumeration of water-borne bacteria by a "direct count method". Results
by the direct count were from six times to 11,000 times greater than by
the colony count. Fournelle (5>U) described a procedure for determining the
potability of water supplies in the field, which is said to be adaptable
to special areas for removal from a laboratory. Fournelle and Page (£5)
found the dye uranin and Streptococcus zymogenes to be satisfactory
indicator agents to determine the direction and rate of travel through
ground waters. Robson (163) added Serratia indica to sewage to determine
the distribution of effluent material discharged into the sea.
Willis (206) showed that black colonies 3 mm. or more in diameter,
which developed on Wilson and Blair's medium inoculated with untreated water
from a city's supply, signified the presence of Clostridia, usually Cl.
welchii.. He (205) also found anaerobic bacilli in the sand from .the filter-
beds of a city water supply, and thought it probable that these organisms
were being added to the water as it passed through because anaerobes were
present in the treated water. It was pointed out that the anaerobe test
on treated waters was useful in assessing filter efficiency.
Friberg and Hammarstrom (56) studied "the effect of free available
chlorine on bacteria and bacterial viruses". At pH 7.2 and temperature <
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of 6° C., exposure for 1 minute to a concentration of 0.025 to 0.05 mg/L
chlorine effected a thousandfold reduction of typhoid bacilli, S. sonnei
and coliform bacteria, but concentrations of 0.10 to 0.15 mg/L chlorine
were necessary to effect the same reduction in numbers of Sal, typhimurium,
Strep, faecalis and Staph. aureus. The coliform, sonnei and typhimurium
phages were reduced a thousandfold by concentrations of O.OU to 0.0? mg/L
free chlorine. Kelly and Sanderson (97) pointed out that chlorine residuals
found to be sufficient for bacterial disinfection were not similarly
effective as viral disinfectants, and that inactivation of Poliovirus by
chlorine may follow a course not strictly linear. Watkins, Hays and
Elliker (201) made a comparison under laboratory conditions of the relative
effectiveness of representative hypochlorite, quaternary and iodophor
germicides- in the destruction of Strep, cremoris phage. The results
suggested that an active hypochlorite preparation should provide the most
effective sanitizing procedure for control of bacteriophage in dairy plants.
Fetner and Ingols (52) determined the lethal concentration of ozone for
E. coll suspensions at 1° C. to be O.U to 0.5 mg/L. Ladendorf and Ladendorf
(106) have made similar observations on the efficiency of chlorine dioxide
for disinfecting water.
Lowe and Lindsten (120) have summarized the removal of GBR contami-
nants from water. Lewisite and nitrogen mustard can be effectively re-
moved by treatment with activated carbon followed by good coagulation and
filtrationj GA and GB were reduced by treatment with soda ash plus coagu-
lation and filtration. Sal, typhi, Coxiella burnette and Botulinum toxin
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-39-
were removed by coagulation, filtration and chlorination to 20 minute
residuals of 0.35 to 0.75 p.p.m.
Taylor in England (188), Schiavone and Passerini in, .Argentina
(168), Adams in Pennsylvania (1), and Gohar and Eissa in Germany (66)
have compared the membrane filter technique with other acceptable methods.
in the bacteriological examination of water. They have pointed out certain
advantages of the method and have also listed limitations. These ad-
vantages and limitations have been discussed by Clark, Kabler and
Geldreich (32). Felsenfeld and Rokkaku (51) have adapted the membrane
filter technique to the recovery of Vibrio comma from water supplies and
Papavassilion and Wegner (ll$) have used the technique for the detection of
sulfite-reducing Glostridia (01. perfringens) in water and other liquids.
Levin, Harrison and Hess (115) Have published further observations
on the use of radioactive culture media in the enumeration of coliform
organisms in water. pH exerts a pronounced biological and chemical effect
on the test. When the broth is alkaline, much of the carbon dioxide
remains in solution in the form of the bicarbonate ion,, The nonmetabolic
evolution of G^k)2 from the sterile 1-C^ lactose is the chief immediate
problem demanding attention in the development of the test.
Additional References
1« Cooke, W, B., "Nutritional Requirements of Nine Common Sewage Fungi]1
THIS JOURNAL,-29, 11, 121*3 (Nov. 1957).
2. Hurwitz, C«, Rosano, G, L., and Blattberg, B., "A Test of the Validity
of Reactivation of Bacteria." Jour. Bact., 73, 7h3 (1957).
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4*0-
3. Johannesson, J. K. and Martin, R. E., "The Determination of
Escherichia coli I in Sea Water." Jour. Appl. Bact. 20, 151 (1957).
h. Jones, G. E., "A Study of the Pectolytic Bacterial Population in
Some Farm Water Supplies." Jour. Appl. Bact. 19, 231 (1956).
5. Kelly, S., Winsser, J., and Winkelstein, W., Jr., "Poliomyelitis and
Other Enteric Viruses in Sewage." Amer. Jour. Pub. Health, U7> 72
(1957).
6. Rogovskaya, T. I,, "Influence of Andnocarboxylic Acid Lactarns on
Microorganisms in Water and Biochemical Processes in Self-purification
of Water." Microbiology (USSR), 23, U6U (1955)j Jour. Amur. Water
Wks. Assn., l£, 2, 66 (1957).
7. Slanetz, L. W. and Hartley, C. H., "Numbers of Enterococci in Water,
Sewage, and Feces Determined by the Membrane Filter Technique with an
Improved Medium." Jour. Bact. Tlf, 5, 591, (1957).
8. Stack, V. T. Jr., "Toxicity of Alpha, Beta-Unsaturated Garbonyl
Compounds to Microorganisms." Ind. Eng. Chem. 1*9, 913 (1957).
9. Woodward, R. L., "How Probable Is the Most Probable Number?"
Jour, Airer. Water Wks. Assn., 1$, 1068 (1957).
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•40.-
CHEMISTRY
Heukelekian (80) assembled a notable symposium in which it was
sought to present a review of the basic microbiological processes related
to purification of polluted waters. While many of the papers may be noted
elsewhere, the assembled symposium is deserving of attention. It includes
discussions by Wyss on "Microbial Adaptation" j Weindling on "Microbial
Associations and Antagonisms"j Nickerson on "Transformations of Carbon
Compounds"; Delwicke on "Biological Transformations of Nitrogen Compounds";
Starkey on "Transformations of Sulfur by Microorganisms"; Barker on
"Biological Formations of Methane"; Davis on "Microbial Decomposition of
Hydrocarbons"; and Krauss on "Photosynthesis in the Algae". Each article
is discussed by one or more authorities.
The direct chemical characterization of organic water pollutants has
found continued application and study. Middleton and Rosen (135) review
technique and discuss trends in organic industrial pollution which make
specific chemical characterization of pollution a matter of growing im-
portance. Holluta and coworkers (82)(83) have also presented the details of
techniques generally aimed at the recovery and characterization of organic
materials in surface water and water taken from infiltration galleries.
In a paper which was overlooked in the 1956 review, Sawyer (166)
and his students reported on the interrelationship of rates of biological
assimilation and. chemical structure of synthetic detergent materials.
An additional report considering the effect of commercial synthetic
detergent ingredients on water and waste quality was presented by Sawyer
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and Ryckman (167).
Hexadecanol (Cetyl Alcohol) has been investigated as a water
pollutant because of interest in the material as a possible suppressor
of evaporation. Lay cock (10?) commented on the effect of the material
on aquatic life. Ludzack and Ettinger (121) report laboratory studies
of the biological destruction of hexadecanol and point out that the
material undergoes biological destruction under laboratory conditions
which simulate proposed use conditions.
Other studies of the biological stability of various materials
appeared. Hatfield (?U) studied the biological stability of 23 compounds
produced by petrochemical processes, using activated sludge cultures
acclimated to the chemical for periods of a month. Ludzack and Kinkead
(123) made laboratory studies of the oxidation of hydrocarbons derived
from motor oil by microorganisms. They also presented analytical
evidence of the formation of intermediate oxidation products.
Mils and Stack (136) emphasized the importance of using acclimated
seeds when attempting to estimate the B.O.D. load caused by an industrial
waste,
In an interesting application, Christenson, et al., (31) proposed
the use of activated sludge using nitrate ion as an oxidant source,
methyl alcohol as organic feed, in a system where removal of nitrate from
a waste was sought.
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Additional References
1. Christ, ¥., "Phenols in Potable Water and Their Significance."
Freiberger Forschungshefte (Germany) 67 (1956)j Literaturberichte
(Germany) 5, 772 (1956); Pub. Health Eng. Abs. 37, 12, 25 (1957).
2. Davis, J. B., "Microbial Decomposition of Hydrocarbons."
Ind. Eng. Chem., 1*8, llM (1956).
3. Hoak, R. D., "The Causes of Tastes and Odors in Drinking Water."
Water and Sewage Wks., 10U, 6, 2U3 (1957).
U. Keilling, J., "The Contamination of Soil and Waters by Products
Used in Agriculture." Eau (France) h3t 277 (1956).
5. Starkey, R. L., "Transformations of Sulfur By Microorganisms."
Ind. Eng. Chem. 1*8, 11*29 (1956).
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-illl-
OXYGEN SAG AND STREAM SELF-PURIFICATION
In the third of a series of reports on comprehensive studies of
the character and stream self-purification characteristics of Wisconsin
rivers, Lueck et al (12lt) have presented analysis by several devices
of the stream self-purification capacities of the Fox and other Wisconsin
rivers. They have suggested that the self-purification capacity of streams
may be compared on the basis of pounds per day of ultimate BOD satisfied
per 1,000 cfs per mile, or on the basis of the time required to oxidize
90/6 of the ultimate BOD taken together with the deoxygenaticn velocity
constant ki, or on the basis of pounds per day of 5-day BOD per cfs per
part per million of D.O. removed. The capacity of the Lower Fox River
at various seasons and in several reaches is compared on the above basesf
This report represents a considerable amount of work, and some most
interesting data is presented.
On the basis of the third of the above noted units for comparison,
namely, pounds of 5-day BOD per day per cfs per part per million of D.O.
removed, the authors conclude that "at low temperatures, when the stream
purification proceeds at a slower rate, considerably higher loadings can
be supplied to the stream without adversely affecting downstream con-
ditions." And at a later point "it is evident from previous discussion
that the lower the purification rate, or k^ factor, the greater maybe
the load applied to the stream. Any factor such as limited biological
activity at lower temperatures or characteristics of the waste to be
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-US-
oxidized which tend to decrease purification rate, will improve
purification capacity and make possible the satisfaction of higher
loadings."
This concept is rather unusual in that it might imply, for
example, that unlimited loads could be placed upon a stream in the
event k-^ were reduced to zero - by the presence of sufficient amounts of
toxic materials, for example. The 5-day BOD is, of course, affected by
the course of reaction, or k^, while the ultimate BOD, at least in
principle, should not be thus affected. It is therefore difficult to .
understand why the authors chose to use the 5-day BOD in this case for
the purpose of interpreting self-purification capacity in terms of k^
It would be interesting to compare the stated stream self-purification
capacities on the basis of ultimate rather than 5-day BODs. Conceptually,
if the entire river is considered rather than a restricted reach, the
entire pollution load introduced at any point must eventually be satisfied,
and the critical point of the oxygen sag curve may or may not occur within
this restricted reach, depending upon the specific circumstances involved.
It is agreed that somewhat higher loadings may be tolerated at lower
temperatures, but the primary reason for this is the increase, in oxygen
saturation values, rather than the reduction of kj_. ;
The above paper also presents very interesting implications of the>,,
effects on .self-purification capacity •,of large concentrations of algae.
Hills and Stack (136) have presented an interesting discussion of
the effects of acclimation of seed on the course- of the BOD reaction in
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-U6-
the case of four pure petrochemicals. The £-day BODs of the petro-
chemicals are compared using both unacclimated and acclimated seeds.
The organic chemicals used were acrylonitrile, ethylene glycol, carbitol,
and acetone. Only the acetone yielded classical BOD behavior without
acclimation of the seed. In the other cases, the use of acclimated seed
resulted in higher BOD values, more closely approximating the oxygen
demands actually exerted in a stream. The authors suggest that, to
evaluate the effects of other organic chemicals on stream self-purification
capacity, the ultimate BOD should be determined by the use of acclimated
seed organisms.
That the potential pollutional effects of organic materials are
a function not only of their BOD as usually measured, but also of their
persistence and relatively slow oxidation, has been indicated by
Ettinger (5>0). It is indicated in this paper that the theoretical oxygen
demand maybe distributed at any time as: material oxidized to carbon
dioxide, unoxidized readily available food, cell material, and unoxidized
exotic food. The actual distribution among these four phases will, of
course, be dependent upon the characteristics of the material involved.
Selected examples are taken from the literature to demonstrate the effect
of acclimation of seeds on organic materials previously looked upon as
essentially unoxidizable.
Nickerson (1U3) has presented metabolic maps of various hydro-
carbons, oxygenated compounds, and amino acids as a basis for the under-
standing of sewage treatment and stream self-purification mechanisms.
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Leclerc et al (108) have provided an example of the determination of
self-purification capacity of a river for the purpose of obtaining water
of sufficient purity for the food industry. Pillai et al (15>3) present
an intensive reivew of the literature on the subject of stream self-
purification capacity, together with information regarding self-purification
of untreated sewage from Bangalore, India, in a series of open channels.
Muller (139) also presents a general review of -the factors involved in
stream self-purification, notes the inadequacy of even complete biological
treatment in densely populated regions, and discusses possible methods of
increasing the stream self-purification capacity.
Rand (l£6) has presented an excellent critical review of toe
available literature on theoretical aspects of the reaeration factor.
In doing so, he has traced the development of theoretical concepts on this
subject from their beginnings through the most recent work, including that
of O'Connor and Dobbins (1U6). The article provides an excellent review of
the available material and correlates the various concepts involved.
It is recognized that the work of O'Connor and Dobbins makes possible for
the first time predictions of k2 independent of observed data.- Rand
indicates that the effects of turbulence on the reaeration velocity
constant are only now beginning to be understood, and that much further
work remains on this phase of the problem. The evidence that he has
accumulated indicates that the effects of temperature on the reaeration
constant are adequately known, but that the effects of various pollutants
including ordinary sewage, as well as detergents, insofar as such
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-US-
pollutants affect reaeration, are not well known as yet. In another
discussion on this subject Rand (1^7) presents the results of some of his
own experiments on reaeration. Upon examination of various factors >hich
might affect the reaeration rate, he indicates that the BOD correlates
best with the observed reaeration rates. Both quiescent and agitated
systems were investigated with the same relative effects observed.
Gameson (60) has presented the results of a study of reaeration
occurring as the result of water passing over weirs in rivers. He re-
ports that the oxygen content of the water may be increased as much as
£0 percent of saturation, and an empirical equation to represent these
effects is presented. The effects of various types of weirs are dis-
cussed. Wagner (197) describes the use of turbines of water power works
for the purpose of oxygenating canalized streams. He discusses experi-
ments carried out on the River Brenz, the air requirements, and the effects
of various design features of the turbines.
The subject of estuarine pollution is receiving considerably more
attention in the recent literature. Kaplovsky (93) has described his
investigations of pollution of the Delaware River, using the "same-slack"
sampling technique, and his results are most interesting. The "same-
slack" method consists of taking from one to three surface water samples
in the ship channel at each sampling station just at the time that the
tide begins to turn. In other terms, a sampling run is made in which the
samples are collected at all stations at the slack of the same tide.
That such surface samples are representative of the ship channel water
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is demonstrated. Kaplovsky concluded that this method of sampling,
provided results more valid than those obtained by cross-sectional
sampling. His data indicate that the "same-slack "method eliminates much
of the effect of tidal periods and the results are therefore more easily
interpretable. He also indicates that has studies of the Lower Delaware
River indicate no appreciable deviation from the usual picture of self-
purification of inland streams, and the data regarding the nitrogen
balance is especially interesting in this regard.
Burt and Marriage (2?) have presented a theoretical analysis of the
distribution of pollution in the laquina River in Oregon on the basis of
Storamel's (180) equations. The study involved wastes from a proposed
pulp mill on the Yaquina River, and five possible outfall locations were
investigated analytically. The computations indicated that the,/pollution
concentration near any outfall, as well as the concentration: upstream: from
the outfall, would decrease rapidly as the outfall was moved toward the
ocean.i However, concentrations at any given point downstream from two -or
more outfalls were found to be esential]y independent of the position of
the outfalls. Following these analytical studies, it was decided to-pump
the pulp mill waste directly to the ocean and to thereby avoid significant
pollution of - the Yaquina River.
An analysis of factors affecting the oxygen balance in Ihe
River Thames Estuary has been presented by Gameson and Freddy (59).
The data include dissolved oxygen observations in the estuary over a
period of several years. The various sources of pollution have been
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considered and a theory of mixing outlined on the basis of which the
distribution of oxidizable material from different groupings of waste
discharges has been computed. The oxygen balance of the entire estuary
was then examined and an average rate of solution of oxygen from the
atmosphere estimated. The oxygen balance having been thus estimated, the
theory has been checked against a variety of observed conditions in the
estuary and agreement of observed and computed data obtained. On this
basis, it was then possible to predict oxygen changes most likely to occur
as the result of various alterations of pollution loads and other
controlling factors.
Ingram (90) has presented a general review of the factors which
affect estuarial capacity for receiving wastes. The factors considered
include tidal displacement, fresh water flow, tidal flow, wave action,
density currents, vertical and horizontal countercurrents, stratification,
and diurnal and nonperiodic wind effects. Combinations and complications
of these factors are also discussed. Mann (130) has also presented a
discussion of the general hydrologic conditions in a tidal river and
illustrated the principles involved by the example of behavior of sewage
from the City of Hairburg discharged into the River Elbe. The self-
purification capacity of the tidal stream and effects of polluted tribu-
taries are discussed.
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Additional References
1. Downing, A. L., and Melbourne, K. V., "The Effect of a Foam-suppressor
on the Aeration of Polluted Water." Water and San. Engr. (Brit.),
6, 1U8 (1956).
2, Grindley, J., and Wheatland, A. B., "Salinity and the Biochemical
Oxygen Demand of Estuary Water." Water and San. Engr. (Brit.),
1, 10 (1956).
3. Hagiwara, K., "Studies on the B.O.D. Velocity Constants and Immediate
Oxygen Demand." Bull. Inst. Pub. Health (japan), 5, k> (1956).
U. Krauss, R. W., "Photosynthesis in the Algae." Ind. Eng. Chem. 1$,
Ii0t9 (1956).
5. Lardieri, N. J., "Aerobic and Benthol Oxygen Demands of Cellulosic
Materials." Proc. llth Ind, Waste Conf., Purdue Univ., Series 91,
1, (1957).
6. Niles, T. M., "Dispersal of Pollution by Tidal Movements."
Jour. San. Eng. Div., Proc. Araer. Soc. Civil Engrs., 83, 1U08 (1957).
7. Simmons, J. D., Nemerow, N. L., and Armstrong, T. F., "Modified
River Sampling for Computing Dissolved Oxygen Sag." THIS JOURNAL,
29, 8, 936 (Aug., 1957).
8. Truesdale, G, A., and Knowles, G., "Some Recent Work on Dissolved
Oxygen in Natural Waters." Extrait Du Journal Du Conseil Inter-
national Pour L'Exploration De La Mer (France) ?1, 3, (19^).
9. Truesdale, G. A., and Gameson, A. L. H., "The Solubility of Oxygen
in Saline Water." Extrait Du Journal Du Conseil International
Pour L'Exploration De La Mer (France) 22, 2, (1957).
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STREAM STUDIES AND SURVEYS
Water resource development and conservation with associated
water pollution control continues to be of prime importance. Many stream
studies, however, fail to reach formal publication and therefore are not
reviewed. A greater effort should be made to encourage publication.
It may be noted this year that several studies of European waters have been
reported.
Tsivoglou, Harwood and Ingram (189) emphasize the importance of
stream surveys for adequate control of radioactive liquid waste discharges
associated with the rapidly developing private use of radioactive materials*
Excessive radioactive wastes from nuclear reactors, uranium mills, and
radioisotope research laboratories will interfere with other legitimate
stream uses. There is no stream self-purification capacity for radioactive
wastes as there is for ordinary organic pollutants. Control is based on
three types of stream samples - water, aquatic biota, and bottom deposits.
A survey was reported by Schneller (171) of a 25-mile stretch of
Salt Creek, Indiana, to examine the physical and chemical characteristics
of the water during the black-water period which persists during leaf-fall^
and to compare this condition with that during the remainder of the year.
The dissolved oxygen content was shown to decline to a minimum of 0.5 ppm
during the leaf-fall when free carbon dioxide was as high as 20 ppmj
during the remainder of the year the dissolved oxygen and free carbon
dioxide ranged from £-12 ppm and 5-15 ppm respectively. The effect of
extreme conditions on fish life is discussed, no serious fish mortalities
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normally occur. Wiley, et al (20ii) describe the combined chemical,
physical and biological studies on the Lower Fox River, Wisconsin, during
19?5-5>6 through the cooperative efforts of State and industry to determine
sources of pollution and the self-purification capacity of the stream.
Combined artificial and natural pollutants cause critical dissolved
oxygen conditions below major sources of wastes especially during hot
weather. Detail study of algae problems will be required to assess more
accurately the amount of organic matter derived from this source since it
appeared that algae contributes a substantial portion of organic load
during warm weather. Scott, et al (173) discuss the organization of
cooperative State-industry studies in Wisconsin. The cooperative approach
permits assembly of much more complete data covering more of the variable
factors than would otherwise be available to either industry or government
acting alone. Chemical, physical and biological characteristics of a
30-mile stretch of the Ottawa River below an oil refinery near Lima, Ohio
was presented by Ludzack, Ingram and Ettinger (122). Evidence indicates
that oil was not biologically assimilated but stored as oily sludge on the
river bottom and flushed by periodic river rises. Accumulated sludges,
as these, are believed to be responsible for extreme impairment of water
quality which sometimes occur when a river is flushed out following a long
period of low flow.
The effects of polluted waters of the Flon on Lake Geneva at Vidy
were studied by Konod (137). It vas concluded that the chemical composition
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of the lake water was not altered by the Flon but that turbidity and the
quantity of micro-organisms were increased greatly. Noisette (llii?)
conducted surveys on a continuing basis of the mineral content of the
rivers in France. The source of minerals was geological, urban and rural
sewage, and industrial wastes. The conclusions were that the sources of
salts are constant, variation in mineral content of the rivers depending
on rainfall and flow. The degree of variation requires precaution by
industrial users; geologic factors acting alone can cause high minerali-
zation.
Leclerc, Beaujean and Heuse (110) studied the pollution and self-
purification of the Geer River. They indicate that the principle observa-
tions guiding such a study should be based on temperature, time and
turbulence. Particular attention should be paid to gradient, flow and
temperature. Leclerc and Beeckmans (109) describe a series of studies on
the Sambre River. Data were gathered on flow, temperature, pH, settieable
and suspended solids, dissolved oxygen, £-day B.O.D., sulfates, iron,
chlorine and toxicity. The stream was found to be very polluted. LeStrat
(llU) observes that difficulties in sewage treatment attributed in the
United States to detergents have not been experienced in France because,
except in a few large cities, laundry water is dispersed to the ground via
gutters. As a check on detergents, surface tension determinations are
made constantly on the Seine, Marne and Olse rivers and on the Chicky
interceptor sewer. While the value for pure water is 7l*-75> dynes, the
rivers run to 70 dynes and the sewer is below 65, sometimes down to
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58 dynes.
An article based on the work of Kalweit and Brandt (10) indicates
that hardly a river in Central Germany reaches a scale of water quality
satisfactory for bathing purposesj ground water is being utilized to a
greater extent by industry and municipalities due to this condition.
Further it is shown that damage to fisheries on the streams of the'German
Republic can be caused by removal of oxygen, sewage fungus, presence of
metal salts from mining and metal industries, sand, clay, kaolin, coal
dust, and cyanide and phenol from chemical industries. Fijiwara et al
(53) state that the river Yukawa, Japan, contains sulfuric acid derived
from sulphur deposits in the Yatsugatake volcanoes districts. The add
is considerably neutralized when the Yuhawa River joins the Ghihuma which
is used for irrigation and fishing. If the sulphur deposits are mined, it
is believed that the increased concentration :of' add will damage the use of
water.
A summary (7) of a paper by Harwood and Wilson presents an
investigation, including a model study, which considered disposal of up -to
500,000 tons per year of power station ash by cooling water conveyance for
disposal by seaj barging to sea was the alternate. Eighty percent of the
ash would be borne away to sea in the cooling water stream and in calm
weather be deposited beyond the outfall. When waves are 2 ft. and upwards,
this deposit would be broken up and moved out to sea. Experiments in
the wave channel pointed to the material being distributed at depths as
great as I|0 fathoms and probably more, with likely dispersal over a wide
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area of the North Sea. Shapiro (17k) reported on pollution survey
sampling of N. Y. Harbor. The first problem dealt with the extent
New York Harbor and adjacent waters were actually polluted and the
second problem was concerned with the tidal and current distribution of
the polluting load. Extensive pollutional and hydraulic surveys were
necessary to ascertain details of the problem and background for
corrective measures.
The good and bad features resulting downstream from water storage
for hydraulic power generation is discussed by Ingols (88). On the good
side, water below a dam contains less sediment, color, bacteria, and has
a lower temperature. The bad features, oftentinss not fully appreciated,
are that directly below the dam, water may be devoid of oxygen during
the summer when water quality is critical, and may contain manganese or
sulphide. Furthermore, flow pattern of power generation may permit
slime development on the bottom during low flow and scouring off of slime
during high flcwj wastes may be stored in tributaries during high river
stages and discharged to the river during falling river stages, and, a
city may discharge its heaviest sewage load during minimum river stage if
located 12 or 36 hour flow time downstream from the dam.
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STREAH. STANDARDS
Vinogradov (19U) reports that the Sanitary Authority of the
U.S.S.R. regulates the concentrations of certain substances in waste
waters discharged to streams. These include:
Concentration,
Substance rog per liter
Lead, copper, nickel, cyanide, chromium 0.1
Picric acid, di- and tri-nitrotoluol,
dinitrochlorobenzole, tetranitromethane 0.5
Mercury 0.005
Arsenic 0.05
Fluorine 1.5
Carbon disulfide, dinitronaphthalin 1.0
Carbon tetrachloride 5.0
Dichloroethane 2.0
DDT 0.2
Chlorine 0.0
In Austria Liepolt (118) concludes that the primary importance of
hygienic considerations justifies the general aim of restoring all
Austrian surface waters to their natural condition. He suggests that the
Jiinimum standard should be the maintenance of beta mesosaprobic conditions
at all times. This biological classification, proposed by Kolkwitz and
Marsson, describes the zone of stream recovery, following severe pollution
in which mineralization is approached, blue-green algae, diatoms and varied
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animal forms occur, and dissolved oxygen nears saturation.
The Olio River Valley Water Sanitation Commissicn staff (6) has
proposed a plan for controlling chloride pollution of the river.
The average monthly chloride concentration on the main river should not
exceed 125 ppm, based on the most probable minimum monthly-average 10
year flow, and the maximum concentration should never exceed 250 ppm.
The commission's primary concern in selecting chloride limits was pre-
vention of corrosion of metal structures rather than protection of health.
The low limit needed to prevent corrosion assures chloride concentrations
below those acceptable in public water supplies. Alternate schemes for
computing allowable discharges of chloride wastes from individual sources
are described.
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EFFECTS ON WATER SUPPLIES
Kazuaki (96) attributes an outbreak of acute intestinal disease
to contamination of a water supply by wastes from a sweet potato starch
factory.
Zimmerman (211) reports on an incident of contamination of the
Trier (Germany) water supply due to explosion of a kerosene tank which
released terosene to a tributary of the Moselle above the town. He also
discusses the problems of both surface and undergound pollution by motor
fuels and precautions in choosing sites for and constructing storage
tanks for such fuels. The California State Water Pollution Control Board
(11) has published a report on an extensive literature survey on the
effects of oily substances on beneficial uses of water. Garrett (62)
discusses the problem of possible toxic effects of various chemical
pollutants in industrial wastes.
A report on the continuing struggle to protect the London (England)
water supply against pollution was made (9). The problem of protecting
water supplies against radioactive contamination resulting from nuclear
reactor operations was discussed at the Nuclear Congress (13).
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ABATEMENT AND CONTROL
The completion of the last link in the $80 million sewage
collection and treatment system in Philadelphia is reported on by
Baxter (16). Some 66 miles of collecting and intercepting sewers plus
three sewage treatment plants have been financed by sewer service charges
since 19l;6. Plans are underway between Philadelphia and neighboring
communities to bring sewage from outlying areas to the Philadelphia
plants. When these arrangements are completed practically all raw
sewage will have been eliminated from the Schuykill and Delaware Rivers
in the Philadelphia area.
Spies (176) reports on the progress in the stream pollution control
in Oregon. Since the initiation of the State program in 1938 an estimated
$50 million have been expended by municipalities, industries, and others
for pollution abatement. During this period the State's population has
increased more than $0 percent, however, the population equivalent of
municipal sewage discharged without treatment has decreased from U£0,000
in 1938 to 60,000 in 19£6. In 1938 less than 1 percent of the industrial
wastes was being treated while in 19£6 over 78 percent received treatment,
despite a 67 percent increase in population equivalent of industrial
wastes during this period. Much additional work is required, however, to
protect Oregon's waters. It is estimated that 100 communities require new
or improved facilities which will cost at least as much as has been spent
since the inauguration of the program, and several existing industries
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will likewise require new or improved treatment facilities.
Cleary (33) in reviewing the progress being made to clean up
the Ohio River points out that when the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation
Commission was established in 19li8 less than one percent of the popu-
lation on the Ohio River provided treatment. In 19^7 facilities are in
operation or under construction to serve 86 percent of the population.
Good progress is also being made by the industries as evidenced by the
fact that more than two-thirds of those plants discharging effluents into
the streams of the Valley now comply with Commission minimum requirements
for pollution control. Much more work remains to be done, however.
McCallum (126) reports on the first year of operation of the
Construction Grants program under Public Law 660. This section of -the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act authorizing construction grants has
been the subject of much controversy as to whether or not it would
stimulate or retard sewage treatment works construction. Because of the
time required for setting up procedures for administrative grants program
no grants could be offered until December of 1956. Reports from state
water pollution control agencies as well as Contract Awards data indicate
that the construction picture looks encouraging despite the advent of
factors tending to retard construction, the principal one of which is
the "tight" money market.
The Engineering News-Record (112) in evaluating the first year's
operation of the Construction Grant Program cites data indicating that
Federal Grants have stimulated sewage treatment construction.
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The restoration of an important water use as a result of effective
pollution abatement is reported in the case of the Bluepoint Oyster
industry (12) in Moriches Inlet and Great South Bay on Long Island.
Pollution from Long Island duck farms had practically wiped out the oyster
industry. Abatement proceedings initiated by the State in 195>1 together
with a flush-out of Moriches Inlet by the 195>3 hurricane have combined to
restore this area to favorable environment for the Bluepoint oyster.
Hoak (81) discusses a rational program for stream pollution control.
He feels there is no direct evidence that stream pollution is a significant
health factor and calls upon state water pollution control agencies to
apply the principle that treatment should be provided only to the extent
that it will adequately protect downstream uses in the receiving water.
He cites the need for the establishment of criteria to better define the
effects of pollution on various water uses and points out that the single
most important factor in pollution abatement is education — as the
benefits of the abatement program are properly explained, funds necessary
to finance construction in order to maintain these benefits will be
f or th coming.
Wisdom (208) presents an excellent and comprehensive review of
English water pollution law and Lovett (119) points out that the enactment
of legislation alone does not insure abatement of pollution. A realistic
approach and proper appreciation of the need for a policy of true
conservation of water resources is essential.
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The pollution of surface waters in 18 European countries is
discussed by Key (100). This very excellent summary supplies information
on population, industries, water quality, legal and administrative
control Measures, waste treatment facilities, sewage, and special national
and international problems for these several countries. The story of gross
pollution in Europe is largely the story of industrial areas. However,
serious problems resulting from bacterial pollution from domestic sewage
are prevalent in small localized areas. The author observes that the
pollution problem may be expected to increase as the general standard of
living increases and the final and permanent solution cannot now be
foreseen. The most difficult pollution control problems appear to be
associated with the paper and allied industries. Other important indus-
tries are sugar beet, dairy products, gas and coke, textiles, mining and
metallurgical.
In discussing pollution prevention philosophies and conflicts of
interest the author notes that several European countries have laws a
century or more old designed to protect fish from the effects of pollution.
The author points out that this may be understandable since the disap-
pearance of fish is often the most obvious effect of pollution and needs
no scientific test to establish the fact. The observation is made,
however, that over-stressing of this point may be in conflict with other
uses that may be more beneficial to mankind. The point is made that often
unrealistic laws have not prevented pollution. All of these facts point
up the need for better definition of the aims of pollution prevention in
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European countries. In many instances mistakes of ignorance were made
which now can be rectified only at an enormous expense. Had present
developments been foreseen definite approaches to protecting the water
resources would no doubt have been applied. Newly developing countries
should benefit from these unfortunate past experiences.
Tsivoglou and Towne (190) call attention to the need for state
water pollution control agencies to assume increased responsibilities in
the control of radioactive discharges to surface waters. The desirability
of basin-wide planning in establishing control measures is emphasized.
Additional References
1. Anon., "Ohio River Cleanup Progress." Amer. City, 72, 6, 33 (1957).
2. Anon., "165 Additional Municipalities Get Sewage Treatment Grants."
Amer. City, 72, 9, 171 (1957).
3. Evests, C. M., and Dahl, A. H., "The Federal Water Pollution Control
Act of 1956." Amer. Jour. Pub. Health, h7 (3), 305, (1957).
k. Hatch, N. E., "Hocking River Pollution Ends." Amer. City, 7£,
1, 129 (1957).
5. Hess, R. W., "Niagara River Pollution." Jour. San. Eng. Div.,
Proc. Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs., 83, lUlO (1957).
6. Kovrigina, M. D., "The Fight Against Pollution of Water in the U.S.S.R."
Stadtehygiene(Germany) !_, 103 (1956); Water Poll. Abs., 29_, 1+30
(1956); Pub. Health Eng. Abs., 37, 8, 25 (1957).
7. Young, L. A., "The U.S.P.H.S. Stream Pollution Abatement Program."
Jour. San, Eng. Div., Proc. Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs., 83, 1338 (1957).
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112. Leggiero, M., "The Pollution Control Act - A Year Later."
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113. Leiguarda, H. , et al., "Streptococci as Indicators of Water
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119. Lovett, M., "The Campaign for Cleaner Rivers." Surveyor,
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121. Ludzack, F. J. , and Ettinger, M. B., "Biological Oxidation
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12U. Lueck, B. F., Wiley, A. J., Scott, R. H., and Wisniewski,
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136. Mils, E. J., and Stack, V. T., "Biological Oxidation
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137. Monod, R., "A Contribution to the Study of the Variations of
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138. Motwani, M. P., Banerjea, S., and Karamchandani, S. J. ,
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139- Muller, W., "Preventing Deterioration of Streams in Densely
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Noisette, G., "Pollution of the Waters of Various Rivers
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Palmer, C. M., "Algae as Biological Indicators of Pollution."
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150. Patrick, R., "Diatoms as Indicators of Changes in Environmental
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151. Patrick, R., and Hohja, M. H. , "The Diatometer — a Method for
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152. Phillpson, G. N., "The Effect of Water Flow and Oxygen Con-
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15^. Podubsky, V., and Stredronsky, E., "The Effect of Zinc on
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155« Prosser, C. L., Barr, L. M. , Pine, R. D., and Lauer, C. Y.,
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156. Rand, M. C., "Concepts of Surface Reaeration - A Critical
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157' Rand, M. C., "Surface Reaeration of Water as Affected by
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158. Reis, J. H., "Current Investigations in Water Pollution
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159. Reish, D. J., "Effects of Pollution on Marine Life." Ind.
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161. Reitler, R., and Seligmann, R., "Pseudomonas aeruginosa in
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162. Richter, J., "Salmonellae in Sewage: A Local Sewage Problem
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163* Robson, J. E., "A Bacterial Method for Tracing Sewage Pollu-
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16k. Rudd, R. L., and Genelly, R. E., "Pesticides: Their Use and
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165. Saiki, M., and Mori, T., "Studies on the Distribution of
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166. Sawyer, C. N. , Began, R. H., and Simpson, J. R., "Biochemical
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167. Sawyer, C. N., and Ryckman, D. W., "Anionic Synthetic
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168. Schiavone, E. L. , and Passerini, L. M. D., "preliminary Notes
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169. Schmid, ., "The Schliersee, an Example of Damage by Sewage."
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170. Schmitz, W., "Salzgehaltschwankungen im der Werra und ihre
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171. Schneller, M. V., "Oxygen Depletion in Salt Creek, Indiana."
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172. Scldmore, W. J., "An Investigation of Carbon Dioxide, Ammonia,
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175. Shaw, W. H. R., and Grushkin, B., "The Toxiclty of Metal Ions
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176. Spies, K. H., "$50 Million Spent for Stream Purity." Oregon
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177* Stelniger, F. , "The Necessity for Taking Account of Free-
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178. Stevenson, R. E., and Grady, J. R., "Plankton and Associated
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179. Stoll, L. , "The Hygienic Importance of Drainage from Slaughter
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182. Sullivan, M. , Bartley, C. H., and Slanetz, L. W., "Numbers
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184. Sykes, J. E., and Lehman, B. E., "Past and Present Delaware
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188. Taylor, E. W., "The Results of the Bacteriological, Chemical
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191. Uhlmann, D. , "Mass Development of Daphnia magna and Daphnia
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192. Van Beneden, G., "The Effects of Sludge Discharge and Their
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195. Viswanathan, R., et al., "Infectious Hepatitis in Delhi
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199. Wallen, I. E., Greer, W. C., and Lasater, R., "Toxicity to
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200. Warren, C. E., and Doudoroff, P., "Cooperative Research at
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201. Watklns, S. H., Hays, H., and Elliker, P. R., "Virucidal
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203. Weiss, C. M. , and Botts, J. L. , "Factors Affecting the
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201*. Wiley, A. J., Lueck, B. F.,Scott, R. H., and Wisniewski,
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