Water Temperature-Influences, Effects, and Control : Proceedings of the Twelfth Pacific Northwest Symposium on Water Pollution Research


     WAT  ER    TEMPERATURE
        INFLUENCES,EFFECTS, AND CONTROL
       Proceedings of the Twelfth Pacific Northwest
         Symposium on Water Pollution Research
                      November
i
                      Corval I i s , Or r <;<»ii
                      ( Reissue I 1 I I) S I A T I S I) I l» A K I M I N I  0 F  T II I. 1  N I  K K I 0 It
    Federal Water I'n I I u t i mi (.ontrul Admin i s t ra t i on , Nor thwes t Region
•

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            WATER   TEMPERATURE--
INFLUENCES,   EFFECTS,    AND   CONTROL
                           PROCEEDINGS
                             of the
               TWELFTH PACIFIC NORTHWEST SYMPOSIUM
                               on
                    WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH
                          Conducted by
       U. S,  DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
                      Public Health Service
                             at the
               Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory
                        Corvallis, Oregon
                        November 7, 1963
                          Assembled by
                 Edward F. Eldrldge, Consultant
                           Reissued by
                U. S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
         Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
               Northwest Region, Portland, Oregon
                           April 1967

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                            AGENDA
                  TWELFTH RESEARCH SYMPOSIUM
Introduction.  Edward F.  Eldridge.

Temperature as a Water Quality Parameter.   Curtiss M.  Everts.

Effects of Water Uses and Impoundments on  Water  Temperature.
     Robert 0. Sylvester.

Water Temperature Requirements for  Maximum Productivity  of  Salmon,
     Roger E. Burrows.

The Effects of Temperature on Disease in Fish.  Erling J.  Ordal  and
     Robert E, Pacha.

Temperature Studies on the Umpqua River, Oregon.  William H.  Delay
     and John Seaders.

Temperature Phenomena and Control in Reservoirs.  Jerome M. Raphael

Method of Computing Average Reservoir Temperature.  Peter B,  Boyer-

Some Observations of Columbia River and Reservoir Behavior From
     Hanford Experience.   R« T.  Jaske.

Instrumentation for Water-Temperature Studies.  A. M. Moore,

Summary of Current Theories and  Studies Relating  to Temperature
     Prediction.  Robert  Zeller.

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                         INTRODUCTION

                        E.  F.  Eldridge*
     As many of you know,  this is the twelfth  of  a  series  of  symposiums
sponsored by the Public Health Service during  the past  six years.  These
symposiums have been a phase  of a Research and Technical   Consultation
Project initiated in the Portland  office of the  Service in  May,  1957
They have had several  objectives:   First, to  bring together  persons  of
this area who are  involved in research in  the Water   quality  field  in
order that each may become acquainted with the respective  interests and
research activities of  others in this field.    Second,  to  investigate
the available knowledge regarding  specific water quality   problems and
to delineate those areas where  research is needed  to  supply  new or ad-
ditional knowledge.   And  third, to stimulate  researchers  in  all  scien-
tific disciplines to conduct such research.   In  my opinion,  the sympo-
siums have successfully accomplished these objectives.

     The initial meetings   were attended by a  comparatively small  group
(25  to  30) which was conducive to free  discussions  by most  of those
present.   Because of the  apparent interest created by  these meetings,
attendance has  increased  until approximately   150 persons were  at  the
last meeting.

     Since the Project to  which I referred is  to be incorporated in  the
activities of the  Water Laboratory of the  Public Health Service to  be
constructed here in Cor vail is,  future symposiums will  be  sponsored  by
this Laboratory.  Mr.  Curtiss Everts is Director  of the Laboratory and,
undoubtedly,  he will  tell you something about the scope and activities
planned for this facility.
     "Consultant, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Public Health Service, Water Supply and Pollution Control Program,
Pacific Northwest, Portland, Oregon.

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            TEMPERATURE  AS  A WATER QUALITY  PARAMETER

                      Curtiss  M. Everts*
      Everyone  engaged  in  the  field  of water  quality  control will quickly
 recognize temperature  as  one  of  the most  important measurements of  the
 physical  characteristics  of water.  In  fact,  the  temperatures of surface
 and  underground waters have probably been  recorded as  often, if not more
 so,  than  almost any  other physical, chemical  or biological measurement
 made.

      The  relationships of the temperature  of  surface waters to the
 enhancement  of fish  and other aquatic  life,  chemical and biochemical
 reactions, water  treatment, the  toxicity of  contaminants, tastes and
 odors  in  drinking water and to the  quality of domestic, industrial and
 agricultural water supplies have been explored by numerous invest'ga-
 tors.   Until recently  much of the data  and information obtained have
 not  always been put  to practical  use.   Even  now some areas need more
 precise evaluation and study  to  clarify the  divergent  opinions ex-
 pressed in some reports,  to correlate the  information  that has been
 obtained  so  that  it  may be usefully applied  to the problems of water
 quality control,  and to check laboratory results  under actual field
 conditions.  It is unlikely that  this will prove  to be a simple task
 for  as  we approach this point  it  may be expected  that  conflicts of
 special interest  will  arise that will require the judgment of Solomon
 to resolve.

      In the  hope  that  I will  not  transgress  too greatly on the remarks
 to be made by  the speakers that  follow, I  should  like  to offer a few
 examples of  the effects of temperature  on  water use-   You are familiar
with most of them, but  it is  believed that mention of  them may set  the
 stage for some of the  discussion  that we hope will take place during
 the  remainder  of  this  Symposium.

     Sphaeroti1 us, a troublesome  slime  in  the surface waters of the
 Pacific Northwest, is  reported to grow extremely well  in the waters of
 the  Columbia River at  temperatures  between 8 degrees and 12 degrees C.
 These same temperatures are highly  suitable  for salmon production.  At
 higher  temperatures  (summer 20-2^ degrees  C.) poor growth of Sphaerot-
 ilus is experienced,  but  these are  temperatures not so suitable for
 salmon.  Interestingly  enough growth in the  laboratory occurred quite
well throughout a range of 10 degrees to 2k degrees C.
     -'-Director, Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory, U. S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Division of
Water Supply and Pollution Control, Corvallis, Oregon.

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     The effects of rises in water temperatures on fish are well  known,
These include increases in metabolic rates and oxygen requirements,  in
sensitivity to toxic materials, in reduction in swimming speed,  and  in
increased avoidance reactions.

     Drinking water at a temperature of 50 degrees F. and below  is
usually considered satisfactory.  Temperatures in excess of 65 degrees
F. are likely to result in complaints, for tastes and odors become more
noticeable as temperatures increase.  On the other hand, pathogens
survive longer at lower temperature*.

     When treatment of water is necessary for domestic consumption,
floculation and sedimentation rates  increase with temperature, and the
bactericidal effects of chlorine are grearer ar temperatures above 20
degrees C,

     Agriculturists prefer water at  temperature* above 60 degrees F,
(15 degrees C.) and this is the sort of environment that the warm-water
fishes enjoy,  Return irrigation flows usually increase temperatures in
receiving streams.

     The effects that temperatures have on dissolved oxygen concentra-
tions, on the rates of biochemical oxygen demand, and on aquatic life
are well  documented and must be reckoned with in any water quality
control program.

     Thermal stratification in water  impoundments wi11 also cause
problems, particularly those with low-level turbine  intakes.  This was
well illustrated in the Lower Roanoke River Basin in North Carolina
where due to stratification in the impoundments, water released at
certain times during the year  was deficient in oxygen and adversely
affected downstream uses.  Use of submerged weirs to draw water of
satisfactory quality from a different level is reported to have cor-
rected this problem.,

     Heat added to water which has been used for industrial and power
plant cooling purposes has an adverse effect on aquatic life, and
reduces the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water.

     Thermal pollution is rapidly becoming a problem in the Delaware
River Basin where 3-1/2 billion gallons of water daily (5^00 cfs.)
are used for thermal electric power  in the basin.  In the Chicago a?-ea
where a number of steam power plants use from 50 to 90 percent of
water available for cooling on a once-through basis, thermal pollution
is reported to be equivalent to the  doubling of the organic waste load
the Illinois River now receives from the Chicago area.

     It should be obvious, therefore, that a rather concentrated effort
needs to be expended in gaining more useful knowledge on the effect  of

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water  use and watershed activity on water temperatures, so that reason-
able objectives can be established, and practical procedures for tem-
perature adjustment and control can be developed.  It may even be pos-
sible  to use temperature variations as a means of forecasting approach-
ing changes in other water quality parameters.

     The Federal Water Pollution Control Act makes such an effort a
responsibility of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Section 2 of this act directs the Secretary to develop comprehensive
programs for eliminating or reducing the pollution of interstate waters
and tributaries thereof.  In the development of these programs it is
required that due regard be given to the improvements necessary to
conserve such water for public water supplies, propagation of fish and
aquatic life and wildlife, recreational purposes, and agricultural,
industrial  and other legitimate uses.

     This section also provides that "in che survey or planning of any
reservoir by the Corps of Engineers, Bureau of Reclamation, or other
Federal Agency, consideration shall  be given to inclusion of storage
for regulation of streamflow for the purpose of water quality control"
and that "the need for and the value of storage for this purpose shall
be determined by these agencies, with the advice of the Secretary, and
his views shall be set forth in any report or presentation to the
Congress proposing authorization or construction of any reservoir" in-
cluding storage for low-flow augmentation.

     In carrying out research, and the responsibilities for special
studies and demonstration under the act, the Secretary is directed to
develop and demonstrate "Methods and procedures for evaluating effects
on water quality and water uses of augmented streamflows to control
water pollution not susceptible to othe" means of abatement."

     The Public Health Service has a wealth of experience in this field
beginning with its studies in the Ohio River Basin in 1938» '939 and
19^0 when the effects of temperature on water quality became increas-
ingly apparent.  The work of LeBosquet on the Mahoning River in the
vicinity of Youngstown,  Ohio,  in 19^2, where high water temperatures
from use and reuse upstream had threatened the shutdown of an impor-
tant steel  mill,  resulted in Congressional  approval  for the release of
flood control  waters from upstream impoundments for  temperature control.

     With the potential  hydroelectric power development in the Pacific
Northwest far from complete,  a much  more complete understanding must
be obtained of  the effects of  impoundments on downstream temperatures
so that suitable preventive or protective measures may be developed
for existing storage and incorporated into any new impoundments pro-
posed for the future.

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     With these facts in mind, the Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory,
scheduled for construction under Section U of the Federal  Water Pollu-
tion Control Act,  will have,  among its chief objectives,  a precise
study of the effects of multiple-purpose impoundments on downstream
water use.  We would also expect to carefully investigate the effects
of watershed use on water quality.  In both of these areas temperature
will be a most important area of concern.

     This work will not be exactly new to Oregon and the Pacific North-
west for it has already been recognized that at least one of the impor-
tant contributions that can be made by low-flow augmentation will be
that of temperature control.  Such a program is included for the im-
poundments  in the Rogue River Basin, and is now under study in the
Umpqua River Basin,

     Over ten years ago the Pollution Control Council, Pacific North-
west Area,  included the control of high temperature wastes as part of
its water quality objectives.  Similar criteria may be found in the
regulations of other water quality control agencies.

     Construction of  the  laboratory is expected to begin  in February,
1964 with completion  scheduled for the summer of 1965.  In the meantime,
the  task of assembling a  competent staff of engineers, scientists, and
supporting  personnel will proceed as rapidly as appropriations for this
purpose wi11 permit.  When the staff becomes operational, it will be
engaged in  a program  of research technical assistance on water quality
problems  in an area which includes Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Utah,
Washington, and Wyoming.  Training will also be an  important function
of  the  laboratory  staff.

     As one of the arms of the Public Health Service, we would expect
to  furnish  substantial support for any of our activities  in the field
of water  quality control, and would hope that through our efforts and
with your help some of the answers on temperature-water use relation-
shi ps wi11  be found.

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  EFFECTS OF WATER USES AND IMPOUNDMENTS ON WATER TEMPERATURE

                      Robert 0. Sylvester*


                          Introduction

     The natural temperature rise or fall  of a water body is established
by a number of meteorological and physical factors.  Meteorological  fac-
tors influencing water temperature are the amount of solar radiation,
wind velocity, air temperature and vapor pressure.  Physical  factors are
the surface area exposed,  water depth, water temperature, rate of water
exchange, mixing afforded, shading from vegetation or land masses,
impurities in the water, surface and subsurface inflows, and the temper-
ature of the surrounding land mass.  The most important factor is the
amount of solar radiation absorbed, which for a given mass of water  is
a function of the exposed water surface area.

     The amount of solar radiation striking a given body of water de-
pends upon the season of the year, geographical location, time of day,
elevation, shading, amount of particulate matter and water vapor in  the
atmosphere, and quantity of indirect solar radiation.  On striking a
water surface, a portion of the light is reflected, perhaps 5 to 35  per-
cent, depending upon the angle of incidence (1).  Light penetrating  the
water is absorbed at different depths depending upon the wave length of
the light and the amount of suspended and dissolved substances in the
water which limit the amount of penetration.  The longer wave lengths
(red and orange) and the shorter rays (ultra-violet and violet) are
reduced more quickly than the middle-range wave lengths of blue, green
and yellow.  The first meter of depth may absorb or extinguish 53 per-
cent (1) of the total incident light where it is transformed into heat.

     Water temperature is influenced by land temperature, especially in
the case of irrigated areas with their return flows.  The specific heat
of water is high compared with other materials and it thus becomes a
stabilizer of temperature and an important factor in soil temperature.
Evaporation from wet soil  surfaces together with the relatively high
specific heat of the wet soil, will cause it to have a temperature much
lower than that of a dry soil under the same conditions.  The original
source of energy for evaporation is solar radiation which can be di-
vided into three parts:  direct solar radiation; heat that reaches the
evaporating surface from the air; and heat that is stored in the evap-
orating body.  Part of the incoming solar radiation is reflected from
the surface back to the sky and may amount to 25 percent (k) for a sur-
face covered with vegetation.  Perhaps 10 to 15 percent of the incoming
Seattle
"'Professor of Sanitary Engineering,  University of Washington,
1e.

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radiation is radiated back to the sky, depending upon the temperature
of the earth's surface and of the atmosphere above.  The remainder  of
the solar radiation is used in evaporation and in heating the soil  and
the air in contact with the soil.  When the soil is very moist,  more
than 80 percent (*») of the net radiation is used in evaporation. When
the soil is dry, most of the radiation is used in heating the air.

                         Heat Budgets

     Included in the heat budget for a body of water would be the heat
gain from solar radiation, the heat loss by evaporation, the heat gain
or loss by conduction, the heat loss by radiation, and the heat  con-
tained in the inflow and outflow of the system.  With time and a uniform
meteorologic condition, a body of water would tend to come into equilib-
rium wherein the heat losses would balance the heat gains.  This condi-
tion is approached in large shallow reservoirs and in long streams  where
the diurnal  temperature changes become uniform and of about equal mag-
nitude.

     The amount of heat that a body of water will absorb or release can
be expressed as follows:

        H = f(A,M,V)

where   H = heat loss or gain

        A = surface area

        H = mixing afforded by advection, wind or channel configuration

        V = volume of water involved

     The rate of heat release or absorbence can be expressed as:

        Hr = f(Ta, Tw, W, Up)

where   Hr = rate of heat gain or loss

        Ta = air temperature

        Tw = water temperature

        W  = wind veloci ty

        Vp = vapor pressure of the atmosphere

     Velz (2) presents the following  equation for computing heat loss  in
a body of water.  Heat gain can be computed from  the  same equation  by  re-
versing the sign of the air and water  temperature; by making solar  radia-
tion and conduction a gain; and by subtracting  evaporation and  radiation.

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     H = To.00722 HVC  (1 + 0.1W) (Vw - Va)l + |"(0.8 + 0.16W) (Tw - Ta)~l

            + p.O (Tw  - Ta)1 -  Hs


     where the first term 1s heat loss by evaporation, the second 1s
     heat loss by conduction, the third Is heat loss by radiation and
     the fourth Is heat gain by solar radiation.

        H  = heat loss  In Btu per hour per sq. ft. of water surface

        Hv = latent heat of vaporization for a given water temperature

        C  = a constant ranging from 10 to 15> depending upon the
             depth and exposure of the water body

        W  = mean wind velocity In miles per hour

        Vw = vapor pressure of water In Inches of Hg near water surface

        Va = mean absolute vapor pressure In the overlying atmosphere

        Tw = water temperature at the surface, °F.

        Ta = mean air temperature, °F.

        Hs = Btu per hour per sq. ft. of solar radiation

                    Temperature Comparisons

     There Is a dearth of reported temperature data on Northwest streams
obtained prior to man-produced changes in the stream heat.budget.  Com-
parison of water temperatures before and after an act of man are subject
to question unless all  the variables can be held constant in the two
periods or can be accounted for by calculation.  In a natural stream
flowing from an upland to a lowland environment, there will be a normal
natural  temperature increase or decrease that must be known before arti-
ficial  causes of temperature change can be evaluated.  In the U2-mi1e
stretch of the Wenatchee River between Lake Wenatchee and Dryden, man's
activity has produced little effect on the river's natural temperature.
Thermograph records (5) of the Chelan County P.U.D. show average monthly
natural  temperature changes (Table 1) as the river flowed from the up-
land to the lowland environment.  These temperature changes might be
considered typical  of a moderate-sized stream in the Northwest as most
of our streams have storage on the headwaters, although they are not
all surface drawoff as in Lake Wenatchee.  Raphael (II) (12) has calcu-
lated that under natural conditions in August, the Columbia River tem-
perature will  rise about 1°F. in a 72-mile stretch below Chief Joseph
Dam and about  1°F.  in a 50-mile stretch below Rock Island.
                               8

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    Table 1  - Natural Temperature Changes in the Wenatchee River,
            Lake Wenatchee to Below Dryden,  1956 (5), °F.

                                      June   Aug.   Oct."    Dec.
                              ^^^^^•^W*»   I

    Lake Wenatchee     34.0
    Below Dryden       32.8
    Difference         -1.2
      *Year 1955

     In a computer analysis of Lower Columbia River water  quality  (8),
correlation analyses were made between the various quality constituents.
Table 2 shows these correlations with water  temperature for the entire
year of 1960,  using the power function equation since it gave the  best
correlations.   If one considers a correlation of 0.55 or above to  be sig-
nificant, then the only significant correlations with temperature, other
than dissolved oxygen, on a yearly basis are those involving activity of
the biota, such as phosphate, nitrite and nitrate, and chlorophyll.  Flow
rate very definitely affects water temperature as examined on a month-by-
month basis but not on a yearly basis, since low flows occur under both
warm and cold climatic conditions as may the higher flows.  Feigner (T5),
in an evaluation of temperature control by low-flow augmentation,  con-
cludes that flow requirements increase exponentially with temperature
rise.

    Table 2 - Correlation of Water Temperature with Water Quality,
                     Lower Columbia River, 196oi/
            p"
            Di
        Flow                                    0.22
        ,H                                      0.5ft
         issolved Oxygen                        0.81
        Total  Solids                            0.32
        Suspended Solids                        0.18
        Biochemical  Oxygen Demand               0.14
        Alkalinity                              0.22
        Hardness                                0.24
        Most Probable No.  Coliforms             0.29
        Sulfate                                 0.13
        Phosphate                               0.61
        Ammonia                                 0.40
        Nitrite                                 0.62
        Nitrate                                 0.76
        Total  Nitrogen                          0.55
        Pearl  Benson Index                      0.37
        Chlorophyll  a                           0.83

\J From reference (8), using power function equation Y = A + B(X)
   + C(X)2.   Highest correlation shown with temperature as the
   independent or dependent variable.  Correlations above 0.55
   are considered significant.

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     Figure 1 shows downstream temperature changes in August on four
different rivers east of the Cascades which are representative only
for the years indicated.  The Columbia River in the ^50 miles between
Grand Coulee Dam and Bonneville rose 5.^°^., the sharpest rise occur-
ring between Pasco, and Umatilla due to the warm inflow of the Snake
River.  In the warm year of 1958, while the Brownlee and Oxbow Reser-
voirs were first being filled on the Snake River, the mean August water
temperature rose to Jk^f. at Clarkston.  In the more moderate year of
1959, after the dams were in operation, a temperature drop of about 3°^-
was observed below the Brownlee Reservoir, rising another 2°F. through
the Oxbow Reservoir and then falling off to 69°F. at Clarkston.  The
Yakima River receives most of its irrigation return flow in the 80-mile
stretch between Parker and Kiona where the large majority of the flow
in August consists of irrigation return water.   Figure 1 shows a tem-
perature rise in this stretch of 12J2°F,  to a monthly average of 73.2OF.
at Kiona whereas in the preceding stretch of 90 miles, the river tem-
perature rose only 2.7°F-  The Wenatchee River  in flowing some 40 miles
from Lake Wenatchee to Oryden exhibits a gradual  temperature rise of
1.5°F. as there is little effect herein by man's activities.  This com-
pares closely with the temperature rise in the Upper Yakima River.  It
should be pointed out that these temperature changes vary, depending
upon the year in which the comparisons are made.

             Effect on Stream Temperature b-y Usage

     Data are sparse in showing specific changes in river water temper-
atures from various water uses.  Therma1  power  plants and return of
cooling water from various industries are perhaps the chief source of
temperature pollution.  Hoak (9) reports that the installed capacity of
thermal  power plants is doubling about every decade.  Monongehela River
temperatures have risen to 98°F- because of industrial water return,
and then cooled to 87°F. in a distance of 1 .*f miles.  He states that
because of the concentration of industry, the heat raised at one point
is not always dissipated before another temperature rise occurs.  In a
study of Columbia River water temperatures between Priest Rapids and
Umatilla, Rostenbach (13) concludes that natural  climatic and river
conditions caused a greater temperature variation in the Columbia River
for the 19M+-55 period than did the effluents from the Hanford reactors.
Oil refinery effluent temperatures observed in  the period of 1959-61
in northwest Washington ranged f>om 12,5 to 83.5°F.

     Water,  in passing through a municipal  water  system and subsequently
through a sewerage system,  experiences a rise in temperature that may or
may not be significant, depending upon the size of the receiving water.
Table 3 presents temperature data in the  Tacoma and the Seattle (Alki)
sewage treatment plant effluents.  Both plants  are of the "primary"
treatment type.   Although the years of comparison are different, both
plants have a similarity in effluent temperatures.  Tacoma's water sup-
ply is obtained largely from the Green River  and  Seattle's from the
                              10

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COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN WATER TBMPBRATURES IN AUGUST
Downs tream
66
64
62
Q>
Columbia River. 19SS (ref. 3)
o
•a
a
Snake River; 1958. 1959 (ref. 6)
74
72
70
68
H)
M

U
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40
39
37
41
39
41
43
43
43
44
44
48
48
50
54
55
57
57
59
58
59
50
58
60
46
49
55
41
43
--
42
39
--
adjacent Cedar River. The data in Table 3 for Puget Sound area condi-
tions indicate that the treatment plant effluents are warmer than the
diverted water by about 14°F. in the winter, 12°F. in the spring, 9°F.
in the summer, and 13°F. in the autumn. Additional data are needed on
water temperature increase through municipal use.
Table 3 - Sewage Treatment Plant Effluent Vs.
River Temperatures, °F.

Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Green River Intake

1961 i/ 41
1962 !/ kk
1963 !/ 36

Tacoma Sewage Treatment Plant

1961 54 54 57 59 62 64 64 67 65 62 61 54
1962 55 56 54 59 59 61 63 64 64 62 62 57
1963 57 57 58 57 60 68 67 67 65 61

Cedar River Intake

I960 39-5 40.1 40.6 44.6 48,5 52.8 56.4 54.0 51.1 48.8 43-3 ^0.3

Seattle Alki Sewage Treatment Plant I/

I960 53 53 52 55 58 60 63 64 62 61 55 55

]_/ Prior to Howard A. Hanson Dam Impoundment.
Temp, taken dai1y.
2/ After Howard A. Hanson Dam Impoundment (during period of
May to October) thermograph records,
3/ Daily thermometer reading.