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PROCEEDINGS
of the
SEVENTH SYMPOSIUM
on
WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH
WATER PROBLEMS IN WATERSHEDS
OF THE NORTHWEST
Assembled by
Edward F. Eldridge
Technical & Research Consultation Project
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE
Public Health Service
Region IX
Portland, Oregon
April, 1960
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FOREWORD
In May 1957 the Public Health Service initiated the "Technical and
Research Consultation Project" as a means of better reaching and
serving those engaged in water pollution research in the Northwest.
A series of symposiums have been held as one of the activities of
this Project, The purpose of these symposiums is to provide an
opportunity for a free and informal exchange of knowledge on sub-
jects related to water pollution, The following is a list of the
subjects covered by the seven symposiums held to date:
1. Research Relating to Problems of Water Pollution
in the Northwest
2. Financing Water Pollution Research
3. The Slime (Sphaerotilus) Problem
4. Short-term Bio-Assay
5. Siltation - Its Sources and Effects on the Aquatic
Environment
6, Oceanography and Related Estuarial Water Problems of the
Northwest
7. Status of knowledge of Water Problems of the Northwest
These proceedings are compiled from the prepared papers and dis-
cussions of the seventh symposium held in Portland, Oregon on
April 12, 1960. The agenda has four main parts each with a panel
of persons with special knowledge and experience in the specific
subject. These persons presented prepared statements which are
included as given. The discussions were recorded and are abstracted
in these proceedings.
-------
SEVENTH SYMPOSIUM ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH, PACIFIC NORTHWEST
SUBJECT:
DATE:
PLACE:
THEME;
Item 1
Item 2
Item 3
Item 4
Status of knowledge of Water Problems in Watersheds of the
Northwest
April 12, 1960
Room 104, U. S. Court House Building, S. W. Main & Broadway,
Portland, Oregon
What do we know and what further do we need to know about
watersheds as related to water quality.
AGENDA
Introductions
Purpose and scope of symposium, E. F. Eldridge, Public Health
Service, Portland, Oregon
Factors affecting water production in watersheds, (Types of
Watersheds, precipitation, retention and runoff).
Water supply watershed problems, (Domestic and industrial
supply sanitation, turbidity, etc.)
E. J. Allen Seattle Water Department
H. Kenneth Anderson, Bureau of Water Works, Portland, Ore.
(will show new color movie of Bull Run Watershed).
Problems of the aquatic environment
1. Primary productivity - light vs cover
Homer Campbell, Oregon Game Commission
John N. Wilson, Public Health Service
2. Spawning and growth of fish
Chuck Ziebell, Washington Pollution Control Commission
R. L. Burgner, College of Fisheries, University of Wash.
Correction or Control Through Management
1. Recreation
Wilson Bow, Washington Department of Health
2. Timber (Production, cutting, etc.)
W. K. Ferrell, School of Forestry, Oregon State College
3. Road and Highway Construction
R. L. Wilson, School of Forestry, Oregon State College
4. Mining Operations
Oregon Dept. of Geology and Mineral Industries
R. S. Mason
-------
OPENING REMARKS
E. F, Eldridge
This is the seventh of a series of symposiums which have been
held in this area on subjects relating to water pollution. The
theme, today, is what do we know or need to know about watersheds
and their management as related to the quality of water produced.
The watershed as considered in these discussions is not necessar-
ily synonymous with drainage basin. We are largely concerned with
the areas in the upper reaches of streams where a major portion
of the water for downstream use originates.
Activities in watersheds, whether they be timber production and
harvesting, agricultural, recreational, mining, road construction,
or any other major operation, have a most profound influence on
both the quality and quantity of the water produced. We cannot
cover all of the influences in the time we have available. Con-
sequently, we have selected two major areas for consideration,
namely water supply and fisheries. The problems involved with
these two uses of water from watersheds will be discussed, after
which we will consider methods of correction through management.
Since we are as much concerned with what we do not know, as with
what we do know, we should not hesitate to point out the limita-
tions in our knowledge. This, perhaps, may stimulate someone
to undertake research to enlarge our information in order that
we may better understand these problems and their solution.
To further stimulate thinking regarding research on the subject
of watersheds, I have prepared a prospectus containing my ideas
of the areas of needed study. This will be attached to the pro-
ceedings which will be sent to you as soon as possible after this
meeting.
-------
ITEM I
FACTORS AFFECTINS WATER PRODUCTION IN WATERSHEDS
W, E, Builard
What is a watershed?
Simply defined, a watershed Is an area drained by a stream. A water-
shed may be any size, any shape, in any location. Today, we are
primarily concerned with those watersheds producing water for use by
man; - for domestic use, in industry, for irrigated agriculture, for
recreation, and for development of hydroelectric power.
Where are the productive watersheds located?
In the Pacific Northwest, the moisture-bearing winds come from the
Pacific Ocean on the west. As they are lifted in crossing the coastal
mountain ranges, they drop a large part of their moisture load. This
precipitation in the Coast Ranges is largely rain, except in the higher
elevations of the Siskiyou Mountains on the south and the Olympics on
the north. Rivers draining the Coast Ranges have a high yield; but
most flow westward to the ocean through areas not yet extensively de-
veloped, and their waters are not intensively used.
The Puget Sound - Willamette trough just east of the coast ranges is
in a rain shadow and receives much less precipitation than the mountains
on either side. It is, however, an area intensively developed for
agriculture and industry, and contains the bulk of the population of
the Northwest. It is also the source of the greatest demand for and
most intensive use of water.
East of this trough lie the high mountains of the Cascades along a
north-south axis through Oregon and Washington. The western slopes
of the Cascade Range face the moisture-bearing winds from the Pacific,
and receive large amounts of precipitation both rain and snow. The
westward draining streams have a high water yield and are intensively
developed for hydroelectric power, irrigation, flood control, and
recreation.
The east side of the Cascade Range receives fairly great precip-
itation, mostly as snow, on its upper slopes. This snowpack is the
principal source of water for irrigation projects on the plateaus
and in the valleys to the east.
Since the high Cascade Range collects so much precipitation, there is
little left for the plateaus and valleys to the east which consequently
are arid and entirely dependent on water from the mountains. Agricultural
development is extensive, and the principal water demand is for irri-
gation.
Beyond the dry central plateau country, the Rocky Mountain chain trend-
ing northwest-southeast forms the eastern edge of the area. These
again are high mountains, and receive considerable precipitation, mostly
4
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snow, though not as much as the Cascades. The vast headwater area
of the Columbia River lies in these mountains, and most of the flow
at Grand Coulee Dam is derived from tha Rocky Mountain snowpacks.
Below the Grand Coulee Dam, the flow of the Columbia is doubled by
water received from the much smaller tributary area in the Cascade
ranges, and further increased by the Snake River. The greatest
development and the heaviest demands for water lie along both sides
of the Cascade ranges, and we may therefore consider the Cascade
watersheds to be of most concern to us as well as being among the
highest in water yield.
Physiography
Watershed size affects water yield. On the western slopes of the
Cascades, watersheds as small as half a square mile will have perman-
ent flow; though on the eastern slopes possibly two square miles would
be the minimum for permanent flow. Obviously, the larger the water-
shed, the greater the precipitation catch and the greater the yield.
However, there are many other modifying factors.
Shape of the watershed may be significant. A round or fan-shaped
watershed with most of the component tributaries about the same
length and joining at or near the same point will tend to have more
rapid concentration of flow and higher peak flows than along narrow
watershed with tributaries well spaced along the main drainageway.
This is particularly important in considerations of flood possibilities.
Orientation of a watershed relative to sun, wind, and direction
from which precipitation comes can be important. South-facing slopes
are warmer than northerly slopes; snow melts sooner and faster, and
evaporation and transpiration rates are greater on south slopes.
Oriertation may also affect runoff concentration times and flood
peaks, particularly in long narrow watersheds flowing away from
prevailing storm direction.
Topography, elevation, and gradient are also significant factors,
Water moves faster from steep slopes than from gentle, and flows
faster down steep channel gradients than on the flatter grades.
Erosion hazards are greater on steep slopes, whether from soil creep,
runoff, landslide or avalanche; and the cutting and carrying power
of streams is a power function of channel gradient and velocity of
flow. Since the higher elevations generally receive more precipitation,
they generally produce more water. At the highest elevations where
temperatures are low most of the precipitation is snow and the season-
al distribution of runoff is different.
Geology and soils
Geology may be a major control of topography and the surface move-
ment of water, and of subsurface movement as well* Certain rock
-------
formations are porous, with large cracks and tubes through which water
can flow underground. Both volcanic and limestone rocks are often of
this kind. Other formations may have small cracks and fractures through
which water can seep slowly. Still others are firm and practically
impermeable. Though scarcely rock formations, the strongly cemented
glacial drift of the Puget Sound area and the lake-deposited clays of
interior regions are in the impermeable group. Water moves along the
surface of such formations, rather than through them.
Covering the geologic structure in most areas is the soil mantle, Soil
may be developed in place by weathering processes, or moved in by
gravity, water or wind. In eastern Washington there are the wind-deposited
soils of the Palouse area; fine-grained, well sorted silts.
In eastern Oregon there are extensive areas of wind-deposited pumice
and volcanic ash from explosions of the ancient volcanos of the Cas-
cades. In the lower John Day River drainage in eastern Oregon there
are beds of lake-deposited materials with a rich fossil record. Every
valley has its accumulation of soil brought down by gravity or water
erosion from the slopes above and reworked and sorted by water into
alluvial clays, silts, sands, and gravels. Some areas are barren rock,
with soil particles carried away as fast as they are developed by
weathering; but most of the land surface of the region has a residual
soil developed by weathering in place.
Soil characteristics are to a great extent determined by Geology.
If the parent rock is coarse-grained, so is the soil developed from it.
Diorites and grandoriorites tend to produce sandy soils; shales to
produce clay soils. Climate has its effects, too; - volcanic rocks to
the wet coastal belt and on the west slope of the Cascades produce
permeable loam to shot loam soils, but in the dry climate east of the
Cascades produce fine-grained, less permeable clay soils.
Soil type and condition determine how much water will infiltrate, and
how fast it will percolate to the water table. Well developed loamy
soils with a high percentage of incorporated organic matter maintain
a porous structure and can accept water at high infiltration rates
and let it move along at a fairly high rate. Tight clay soils absorb
some water from the surface, but tend to swell and become impermeable.
Abused and degraded soils may become too compacted to permit percolation,
and the surface may become puddled and sealed against infiltration.
Compact soils freeze easily and to considerable depth; frozen soils is
usually impermeable.
Plant Cover
Vegetation on a watershed exercises the greatest control on water.move-
ment. Leaves and twigs and branches of the plant crowns form a canopy
that breaks the force of falling rain. Plant stems carry much of the
intercepted moisture to the ground. Plant roots provide avenues for
entrance of moisture into the soil. Litter from fallen leaves and twigs
-------
affords a protective barrier that cushions the impact of rain-drops and
keeps the soil surface open and porous.
Any typo of vagetattoo - desert ohrub, grass, brushs woodland, or forest
has these effects. Strength of the effect will depend on density of
the cover, and on the amount of litter deposited on the soil. Forest
cover has the greatest effect but grass is also very effective. The
tangle of aerial stems and the tight interlacing of the fibrous root
system of a dense grass cover provide ample protection against erosion^
a cushion against compaction, and insulation against freezing. It
also furnishes sufficient organic matter to maintain soil structures
and the root systems keep the soil porous for rapid infiltration and
percolation.
Forest cover provides shelter against wind and shade against the suns
permitting snow packs to accumulate and to melt slowly. Any plant
cover provides protection against evaporation from the soil, though
transpiration by the plants themselves may exceed evaporation losses.
Precipitation
Precipitation is the general term for moisture received from the atmos-
phere, whether fog drip, dew, rain, snow, sleet, or hail. Precipitation
is the source of all water flowing from watersheds. Volcanic waters
come to the surface in a few places, or are tapped by deep wells, but
they are insignificant in terms of total water supply. Even these may
at one time have been derived from precipitation.
Rain and snow are the most abundant forms of precipitation. Dew may
occur more frequently, but is of minor quantity and significance in
the Northwest. Strictly speaking, both dew and fog drip are direct-
ly condensed on vegetation and soil, rather than precipitated. Dew
and fog drip may locally be important in providing moisture for plant
growth during non-rainy periods, but do not add materially to useable
water supply.
West of the Cascades and in the higher elevations to the east, pre-
cipitation is plentiful. Along the coast and in the valleys it is
mostly rain, varying from 30 to 80 inches average annual fall. In
the mountains and high plateaus it is mostly snow. Mountain snowpacks
may reach several feet in depth and hold many inches of water, but over
most of the region east of the Cascades total precipitation is less
than 20 inches per year. Domestic, industrial, and irrigation demands
in these drier areas depend on streamflow from water stored in mountain
snawpacks,
Seasonal distribution of precipitation is dominated by the movement of
storms from the Pacific Ocean. Most of the rainfall and snowfall comes
in late fall and winter. Summers are dry, though in eastern parts of
the region summer convectional storms provide some moisture. Mountain
snowpacks accumulate during the winter, and melt in late spring and
summer to maintain streamflow during much of the dry season. Peak
7
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streamflow in mountain streams - particularly east of the Cascades «
usually occurs in late spring or early sumar, well past the season
of heaviest precipitation.
Rainfall intensity end snowmelt rates strongly affect runoff and
streamflow peaks, though subject to control by soil and cover con-
ditions. West of the Cascades rainfall intensity rarely reaches ona
inch par hour, and soil and cover conditions are generally adequate
to accept and Isold storm rainfall. In long-continued storms moisture
storage capacity is exceeded and ground^water movement to stx&smflow
is increased, but the soil and cover still exert a braking influence
on the rate of movement. East of the Cascades, particularly in spring
and summer convections! storms„ rainfall rates occasionally exceed
two inches per hour and cause local flash floods. Warm rain on snow
on frozen ground is another frequent source of flash flooding, severe
erosion, and mudflaws. Neither type of storm adds much to useabl©
water supply, except perhaps locally in stockw&tering ponds and for
meadow irrigation.
Wind and temperature
These climatic elements are significant with regard to snow melt rates
and to evaporation losses. Warm winds hasten spring snowmelt. Dry
winds increase evaporation from water surfaces and from soil, and
stimulate high rates of transpiration from vegetation. Evaporation
can remove soil moisture to a depth cf more than a foot; in shallow
soils the moisture held in retention storage against gravity will
be lost either by evaporation or by transpiration.
Plants can use tremendous amounts of water if the water is in plenti-
ful supply throughout the warm growing season. Plants along water-
courses with thair roots directly drawing on the permanent water
table, do decrease significantly the water available to support
strearaflow. But plants on watershed slopes draw mainly on what
moisture is in retention storage in the soil, to a lesser degree on
water in temporary detention storage. Part of the plant take would
be lost by evaporation, and the rest of it is a cheap price to pay
for the benefit's afforded by plant cover. These benefits include
protection against erosion, maintenance or soil structurefbr optimum
infiltration and percolation, accumulation of snowpacks* and pro-
longation of the snow-melt season*
It is the protection against wind and temperature that is highly
significant in snow zones. Small openings in the forest canopy
permit deep snowdrifts to build up. Mechanical interruption of wind
and provision of shade by the canopy extends the snowmelt season two
to three weeks longer than on exposed areas. Forest is cooler in
summer and warmer in winter than corresponding open area.
8
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Tho Soil reservoir
Depending upon where one chooses to set its boundaries, the Pacific
Northwest includes about 200,000,000 acres. Of this total, 65,000,000
is included in the drainage of the -Columbia River. Perhaps 3Q(000,000
acres lie in British Columbia; and nearly 30,000,000 acres more in the
Puget Sound and coastal areas of Washington and Oregon.
Over this 200,000,000 acres we may assume the average soil depth to
be three feet. We may further assume that this soil averages 40 per-
cent pore space, made up of three-quarters retention storage space,
and one quarter detention storage space. The soil of the Northwest
then has a moisture storage capacity of 0,4 x 3 x 200,000,000 or
240,000,000 acre-feet. Three-quarters of this is retention, and un-
available to support strearaflow though it does have (by subtraction
from water made available at the soil surface) a strong regulatory
effect. One quarter, or 60,000,000 acre-feet, is detention storage
space, from which water slowly percolates out to groundwater, springs
and streamflow.
This 60,000,000 acre-feet is sufficient to provide an average flow
of more than 80,000 cubic feet of water per second over the period of
a year. Comparatively, this equals about four times the average annual
flow of the Willamette River, or twice that of the Snake River. The
soil detention reservoir is obviously quite important, though accord-
ing to our assumptions it averages in water equivalent only 3Jj inches
depth.
At least a brief consideration of the disposal and replenishment of
water in the soil reservoir is in order. Retention storage water is
removed by evaporation and transpiration; it is in part replenished
with each new rain storm, and during the spring snowraelt season.
Detention storage operates only after retention storage space is
satisfied, and is similarly replenished. If we enter the winter season
with dry soil on the watersheds, much of the winter snowpack water
content must go to satisfy retention storage deficits before there
will be any surplus for streamflow.
Total stream flow in the Northwest is about double what we have es-
timated from soil detention storage. Since stream channels and lakes
represent about one percent of the total area, they receive a certain
amount of precipitation directly. During protracted storm periods and
at times of rapid snowmelt the soil may be temporarily saturated; at
such times there will be considerable surface runoff moving directly
to streamflow. We do not know nor can we adequately estimate the amount
of this runoff; it is possible, also, that the estimate of soil deten-
tion storage used here is too low.
Streamflow
The table below gives inforna tion on flow of several major streams
of the Northwest.
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AVERAGE ANNUAL YIELD
River
Skagit
Cowlitz
Willamette
Urapqua
Deschutes
Grande Ronde
Upper Snake
Clearwater
Kootenai
Methow
Yakima
Spokane
Columbia (Dalles)
Drainage
Area
sq. miles
2,970
1,170
7,280
3,680
10,500
2,555
35,800
9,570
13,700
1,810
3,560
4,350
237,000
Flow
cfs
16,200
5,210
22,100
7,066
5,826
1,967
10,530
14,410
14,500
1,660
3,840
6,930
194,600
Depth on
Watershed
inches
74
60
41
26
8
10
4
20
14
13
15
22
11
Volume
acre-feet
11,700,000
3,760,000
15,670,000
5,106,000
4,210,000
1,422,000
7S654,000
10,439,000
10,479,000
1,230,000
2,780,000
5,010,000
140,637,000
Variation around these averages from season to season is considerable.
Over a long period of record for most streams the low water year yield
is about 60 percent of the average, and the high water year yield about
160 percent of the average.
The figures on "depth on watershed, inches" show where the most produc-
tive watersheds lie. The Skagit, Cowlitz, and Willamette Rivers all
drain the west side of the Cascade Ranges. Streams from the Olympic
and Coast Ranges would show similar figures. The Methow, Yakima, and
Deschutes Rivers draining the east side of the Cascades show much lower
values. The Spokane and Clearwater Rivers draining the western Rockies
are a little higher. The Snake River, draining a large area of desert
as well as a part of the Rockies, has comparatively low yield.
What can we do to control water production?
Of the various factors we have considered, there are three upon which
we can exercise some control. On one of them - the soil - the control
is mainly negative or preventative. In its natural condition not sub-
ject to use or development by man, most soil is deep and has as good
hydrologic characteristics as may be expected for the climate and cover
and parent material that produced it. Under use, the plant cover may
be removed and the soil eroded so that soil depth is decreased. The
soil may be covered by impervious construction, and given no opportunity
to absorb water. The soil may be compacted by the trampling feet of
many grazing animals, or by the vibration of heavy machines when it ia
wet and soft, and lose its porosity. Denuded, less porous soil has low
acceptance for infiltrating water, and low transmission capacitys shallow
10
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eroded soils have less total storage capacity,, Proper management avoids
soil degradation. Rehabilitation can restore some of the desirable
hydrologic characteristics, improving infiltration and percolation* and
total storage capacity, but the process is slow and expensive. Deg-
radation, however, may be rapid and have severe effects even within a
single season.
On the positive side, particularly in the timber harvest, it is
possible to control the size and shape and location and orientation of
openings in the forest. These things strongly affect water yield from
snow country. Studies in the Rocky Mountains in Colorado indicate nearly
ten percent increase in water yield from forest openings in narrow strips
normal to prevailing wind direction. Fart of the increase may be attrib°
uted to reduced transpiration draft on soil moisture, but much of it
came from increased snow catch and shading of the snowpeak that reduced
evaporation and sublimation loss. Several studies, both here and in
Europe, indicate that the ideal cover for snow catch and retention to
improve water yield is forest with numerous small openings of an acre
or two in size. In the Douglas-fir region west of the Cascades and in
the high-elevation mixed conifer forest elsewhere, the usual patch
clearcutting system approaches this idea. A little more planning as to
shape and orientation of the clearcut patches, and restriction in size
to what can be logged from one setting, and we have accomplished it.
Fire control and pest control help maintain forest cover. We already
have and will continue these control programs in the interest of timber
supply, but they work equally well in the interest of watershed pro-
tection and maintenance of water yield.
Rehabilitation of areas denuded in the past by fire or grossly degraded
by long-continued overgrazing is proceeding, but at a rate too slow
to accomplish all the needed work in the near future. This program
offers definite benefits in terms of reduction of erosion9 control of
flash floods and sedimentation, and improvement of water quality. It
deserves to be speeded up; the more so because even with the work com-
pleted, the development of good cover and the restoration of desirable
soil conditions is a gradual process.
The last item of control of water yield factors is more or less in the
"possible but not fully proved" category. This is weather modification
by means of cloud seeding to produce rain or snow in above=normal ffiraerants.
Cloud seeding is currently in use, and undoubtedly will show greater
potential as we learn more about it. It is also used to break up
electrical storms to reduce hazards of lightning-started forest fires.
The greatest returns, though, still would be those gained through en-
lightened management of watershed cover and soils.
11
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FOREST AREAS
of the
PACIFIC NORTHWEST
y
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ISOHYETAL MAP
MEAN ANNUAL PRECIPITATION
PACIFIC NORTHWEST
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DISCUSSION - ITEM I
Q. Would it be of any value to point out the tremendous variations
in types of soil, even within short distances?
A. The variations in soils from one area to another is considerable.
There is a sharp line of demarcation between glacial drift flows
which are quite permeable and porous and the mountain soil which
may vary from reasonably coarse loam to rather light and impermeable
silty clay. These changes can take place over very short distances,
literally from one acre to the next. In forest management it is
important to take these local variations into account and to avoid
certain types of soil which may cause trouble. These variations
are just as troublesome for the water supply engineer as they are
for the engineers who are trying to keep a serviceable road. Water-
sheds on the east side of the Cascades are most heavily used and
the wide range of soils and vegetation strongly affects the water
flow regime and the type of management that is needed to protect the
watershed and maintain the soil in place and keep it out of the water-
supply.
Q. How significant is the control of vegetation in the watershed
with respect to ground water yield in this area? Is it an important
factor in ground water quality?
A. The only studies known were those made in the southern Appala-
chians of the effects of the different types of forest management
and the removal of the cover on ground water data. The wells
studied were shallow, not more than eight or ten feet deep. (No
data was available to answer the question.)
Q. What if anything has been done regarding the effect of the re-
moval of vegetation on ground water yield?
A. Trees like the alders, willows and cottonwoods grow with their
feet in the water table, on the edge of the stream. This type of
vegetation can be removed without doing any great damage watershed-
wise and especially in a hot dry climate, like that in Southern
California; the gains in water yield are significant. However,
removal of this stream-side vegetation may be undesirable from the
standpoint of aquatic life.
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ITEM 2a
WATER SUPPLY WATERSHED PROBLEMS - SEATTLE WATERSHED
E, J, Allen
Suppliers of water for domestic use have the moral responsibility
of providing a safe* potable water reasonably cool in temperature,
sparkling clear, free from tastes and odors and adequate in quantity
to meet not only the average demands, but peak hour requirements as
well, Federal and State statutes establish specific bacteriological
standards and chemical constituent limitations. Industrial water
requirements often Impose more restrictive limitations of clarity
and chemical constituents.
Surface waters are subject to variations in quality factors. Water-
shed conditions which cause major variations of water quality are
a particularly vexing problem to suppliers of water. Water treat-
ment facilities are engineered to properly treat water within pre-
determined limits of quality variation based upon the type of water
and history of its quality.
Watershed activities which have a deleterious effect upon the quality
of water used for domestic or industrial purposes or materially
deplete the quantity required, are the source of the watershed prob-
lems.
One of the major problems is turbidity, a conditions which can be
related to introduction of wastes into streams, presence of micro-
organisms, disturbance of soil, removal of cover crops and erosion.
A turbid water requires more extensive and costly treatment for
proper conditioning. Few domestic water supplies in the Pacific
Northwest presently require complete treatment and filtration with
the accompanying average construction costs of $100,000 per million
gallons capacity and $14. to $15 operating and maintenance costs
per million gallons of water treated. Removal of soil cover through
over grazing of watershed range lands is one of the problems causing
turbidity.
Road location and construction pose problems stemming from foundation
stability and soil overburden. Excessive cuts and fills, steep
gradients, rapid drainage concentrations, improperly sized or located
culverts and drain ditches create the potential for increased turbid-
ity.
Logging operations can be responsible for stream turbidity if im-
properly planned. The layout of cutting boundaries, landings and
roads, giving consideration to the topography and soil is essential
to avoid turbidity. Tractor logging on steep slopes or across water
courses are potential causes of turbidity as are undrained skid
trails or leaving abandoned skid trails without water bars.
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The burning of slash and forest fires Are potential causes of
turbidity problems; the resulting destruction of duff and organic
matter leaves an unprotected soil, easily eroded by rains and snow
run-off. Public highways crossing watersheds also provide the
potential for forest fires as well as sanitary problems. That
public highways pose a problem is evidenced by the following ex-
cerpt from a letter addressed to the Superintendent of the Seattle
Water Department by J. A. Kahl, Acting State of Washington Director
of Health, "In considering the potential effects on water quality
of the proposed highway construction through the Cedar River water'
shed, the most significant factors will be the sanitary quality and
turbidity."
Too often we are inclined to think of watershed sanitary problems
only in terms of bacteria. Of course water borne disease producing
bacteria are a continuing problem; as recently as November, 1959,
Keene, N. H. experienced a typhoid epidemic with resulting deaths,
traceable directly to watershed activities. Evidence points to
water as the mode of transmission for many diseases both bacterial
and virus, such as Infectious Hepatitis.
Recreational use of domestic and industrial water supply--Water-
sheds pose not only the sanitation and fire problem, but also the
problem of legal liability to the property owners. The compat-
ibility of recreational uses and water supply are directly related
to the existing water quality. Major treatment problems arise from
recreational use of certain watershed areas. Those waters normally
requiring full treatment and filtration would be little affected,
but those waters of such natural purity as to require only chlor-
ination would require additional treatment as proper safeguards
against the effects of pollution.
Public access to domestic supplies offers the potential for com-
munication of waterborne disease. Habitation exists on some water-
sheds, thus creating the problem of wastes disposal, a constant
source of concern to suppliers of water. Similarly the problem
of sanitation in watershed work areas requires constant vigilance.
Today man is faced with many new and exotic chemicals of complex
organic composition which are being used as cleansing agents,
pesticides, insecticides, weedicides and fertilizers. Very little
is known concerning the long term build up of these chemicals or
the effects. Certainly the use of such complex chemicals should
be limited to areas some distance removed from water courses or
impoundments. Experience has shown that some of the unsaturated
hydrocarbon ring compounds do combine with chlorine, commonly used
for water purification, to produce most unpleasant tastes.
Tastes and odors are usually considered as an aesthetic aspect
of water quality; our living standards today demand full consider-
16
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ation of the aesthetic values. Most tastes and odor problems of
water supply are linked to algae which exist by virtue of adequate
food supply and proper environment of light and temperature. De-
caying organic material provides the required food supply. Shallow
inundated areas created by beaver dams and logging debris in
streams are problem areas and locale for taste and odor problems.
Deciduous trees adjacent to water courses and impoundments not
only through their falling leaves provide the organic material
for algae growth with resulting taste and odor problems but
alder being subject to caterpillar infestation has created filth
problems from the caterpillars.
A little known yet factually documented source of a taste problem
has been the burning of alder slash at a time when rain carried
the tars and compounds from the smoke into a source of water
supply; subsequent application of chlorine to the water produced
a strong phenolic taste.
Many of the watershed problems can of course be resolved by
suppliers of water through treatment process of various kinds. Such
steps create the economic problem of costs and in no way does such
treatment resolve the effect of pollution upon the streams, lakes
or impoundments. The problem of proper management remains also
the problem of securing the greatest total contribution to the
public needs.
From the foregoing recitation of water supply watershed problems
it becomes apparent that multiple uses of our resources must be
managed to prevent conflicts of use and encourage compatible uses.
Multiple use has been described by J. Herbert Stone, of the United
States Forest Service (proceedings 38th Washington State Forestry
Conference 1959) "as a principle rather than a system of management.
As a principle it does not have a precise or universal meaning for
every area, nor is it applied to small areas.'1 Charles A. Connaughton
in his article "Wise Use of Wild Lands" (Proceedings 49th Western
Forestry Conference, 1958) states, "Multiple use is a concept of
Management, not a system...it presupposes that an area of land
from which a series of uses or services can be obtained will be
managed to secure the greatest total contribution of this land to
the public need."
The moot questions in solving watershed problems are economic and
involve proper planning and management.
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ITEM 2b
WATER SUPPLY WATERSHED PROBLEMS - PORTLAND WATERSHED
H, Kenneth Anderson
Mr. Anderson showed a recently developed color film entitled
"The Bull Run Story" which contained excellent pictures of the
watershed which serves the city of Portland, Oregon.
A brochure on "Water Supply, Portland, Oregon" is attached
as an addendum to these Proceedings through the courtesy of
Mr. Anderson and the Portland Bureau of Water Works.
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DISCUSSION - ITEM 2
Q. Was the taate of the water in Vancouver caused by the burning
of the alder slash?
A. The slash was burned on the banks above the high water eleva-
tions. The smoke from the fire carried over the impoundment and
an air inversion probably pushed it down close to the water, with
the rain falling. These factors were described as being the
source of phenolic tastes and odors. The problem ceased when the
burning was limited to times when winds would carry the smoke away
from the water impoundment and when there was no rain.
Q. Have other cities in the Tacoma-Seattie area experienced
tastes that might have been due to the burning of slash?
A. Slash is not burned in the Seattle watershed. Access is res-
tricted and any access into the area is controlled, therefore,
the watershed is not subject to carelessness which causes fires.
In the long run it is considered better economics not to burn.
Burning destroys the ground cover and in a sense sterilizes the
soil and retards future growth of trees, The logging slash is
allowed to lie and decay which provides better restoration of
the trees.
Q. What is your policy in Portland regarding the burning of
slash?
A. Practice in the Portland area is to burn only the smaller dia-
meter items and the debris. No problems of taste have been exper-
ienced.
Q. What is the minimum and maximum dosage of chlorine applied?
A. The minimum meets the standards of the States and the Public
Health Service. The maximum is the amount which can be applied
without too many complaints from the public. The water is soft
and non-buffered. Some problems with minor chlorine tastes and
odors are experienced, due to the interaction of the chlorine with
algae and micro-organisms. A residual of 0.2 ppm is carried in
the distribution system.
Q, To what extent is recreational use of watersheds compatible
with city water supply?
Q. It depends entirely upon the availability of other recreation-
al areas. In areas where there are ample recreational facilities
there is no reason to carry recreational facilities into water-
shed areas used to supply water for human needs. It is commonly
accepted that domestic water supplies for people is the highest
use of water and the highest use of the watershed. Logging and
timber production is compatible as long as the people and the
manner in which they cut timber and develop the watershed is con-
trolled without adverse effect on watersupply. Where complete
treatment and filtration is available there probably would be
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little ill effect from various types of recreation. In cases where
no facilities for filtration or treatment are available the expend-
itures of considerable sums of money to add those safeguards might
not justify opening the watershed to recreation—in areas where ample
facilities for recreation are available.
Q. Recently the East Bay area in California has opened their water-
shed to recreational use. The principal problem is turbidity, prim-
arily arising from the runoff of watersheds into the local storage
reservoirs in the East Bay and San Francisco areas. Comment?
A. No doubt the City of San Francisco will ultimately have to pro-
vide treatment. On the basis of a recent economic analysis it will
cost the City of San Francisco about 10% more to provide treated
water, because of the difference in size, it might cost Seattle
30% more.
Q, Is this price worth paying in order to assure water of high
quality?
A. It is essential to have water of continuing high quality. Two
factors are often controlling, namely pressure groups and politics.
Some persons in the East Bay district have definitely been opposed
to the utilization of the watersheds for recreation. However, they
usually agree that the day will come when the pressures will be so
great that it cannot be avoided and it will probably be so in the
Pacific Northwest too. It cannot be avoided, but the first con-
sideration is to protect the watersupply.
Q. Is there any danger of fire damage by leaving slash on the
ground?
A. There is no danger as far as the slash is concerned. There is
always the possibility of lightening starting fires by striking a
snag. The greatest hazard in the burning of slash comes from the
access of people into the area, the careless handling of trucks,
or the use of equipment without proper spark arrestors. These
factors are easily controlled.
Q. Is there greater problem about planting of the area, if this
slash has been left on the ground?
A. No, planting is usually done by seeding, as opposed to the use
of nursery stock, since the seed is now treated to prevent destruc-
tion by rodents. You Just can't afford to plant by hand except in
those areas which will not support seed growth or seed germination.
Q. Isn't it true that numerous times water users, in what they
like to consider the highest applicable use, normally go all out
to protect their source, but yet have complete disregard for down-
stream users who also get their domestic water supplies from the
same streams.
A. That is right. That is just exactly why there is a need for
proper management and why full consideration must be given to
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to multiple uses in order not to infringe upon or cause hardship
to other people. This matter of opening water supply watersheds
to recreation is a real problem for the Forest Service. The
Service managed many of the productive watersheds and the problem
is becoming acute.
The people who use the watersheds for water supply are the same
people who are asking that these watersheds be open for recreation.
These are the ones in the long run who will determine what is
done. If they want to invade the watersheds then they are going
to be faced with the problem of paying for the complete water
treatment which may cost about one hundred dollars per person for
the initial installation and about ten dollars additional per
year thereafter. It is strongly indicated that in the not too
distant future these areas will be opened to public recreation.
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ITEM 3a
PROBLEMS OF THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
John N. Wilson
We have noted earlier in this symposium that the characteristics
and patterns of usage of watersheds are basic to an understanding of the
quantity and quality of the waters in question. To the hydraulic engineer,
river forecaster and water supply specialist, the matter of total avail-
able quantity of water and seasonal flow characteristics are of paramount
importance. The quality of water is of lesser importance except to the
water supply specialist who is responsible for supplying a pleasant tasting
product to his customers.
But to the fisheries' biologist, the ecologist, the physiologist
and water pollution research specialist, this mere quantity-quality con-
sideration is only a part of a much larger concept inherent in all waters;
the aquatic environment) or, to quote famed Izaak Walton, "the watery
realm."
As water issues from springs it may be devoid of all life, but
usually contains some minerals in solution. As water flows toward the
sed more minerals are added by additional springs and from runoff and
soon small species of green algae including diatoms appear to start the
"web of life'* or food chain by using the dissolved minerals. The first
step in energy transformation is relatively simple. Radiant energy from
a single source - the sun - is fixed by these photosynthetic plants as
chemical energy in a variety of organic compounds. This constitutes the
primary production of the aquatic ecological system (ecosystem). The
net product so formed supports the pyramid of other organisms in the
food chain with fish at the top.
There is another important source of energy in Pacific Northwest
streams particularly, that contributes to the overall production, by-
passing the stage of primary production just described. Organic matter
from erosion of top soil, dead leaves, and rotting timber provide food
for bacteria, fungi, single-celled animals, stream bottom insects and
fish. In streams such as those in the Alsea watershed of western Oregon
which are presently under study by Oregon State College and other cooper-
ating agencies, a sizeable portion of the productivity in the headwaters
streams is attributed to this so-called allochthonous organic matter -
as over against autochthonous organic compounds that originate from the
primary producers.
The shading of steep canyon walls and dense foliage creates a
virtual "tunnel effect" in many headwaters streams of the Cascade and
Coastal ranges. The heavy moss and humus cover, profuse herbaceous
shrub and tree growth contributes substantial amounts of organic material.
Primary producers are present in the form of diatoms and other thread
and plate-like green algae attached to rocks on the stream bottom. True
plankters that grow independent of the stream bed are few in number.
Streams such as these in the headwaters of mountain ranges close
to the sea serve principally as spawning and nursery areas for anadromous
22
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fish, silver salmon and steelhead, and for some resident trout. Owing
to the low coffitdrat of dissolved inorganic salts from the igneous rocks
and extensive shading, there is a tendency to low primary productivity.
Fish spawned here depend upon more productive waters for completion of
their life cycle - the middle and lower reaches of streams, or the
ocean itself. Silver salmon in the Pacific Northwest normally complete
their sojourn in fresh water in little more than a year.
In Iceland where the streams are poor in nutrients and there are
no trees, the Atlantic salmon require up to six years to develop from
spawning to time of migration to the sea. In all that time, they grow
a scant four to six inches in length and are thin. As soon as they
reach the rich waters of the sea, they fairly "explode" - attaining a
length of about two - three feet and an an average weight of fifteen
pounds in one year.1
The aquatic environmental factors that favor the production of
fish also influence the capacity of streams for the assimilation of
wastes. Thus the water pollution research worker has an interest in
primary production and the whole food chain that ensues. In Odum's
paper entitled "Primary Production in Flowing Waters,"* there is an
excellent discussion of measurement of primary production and the
relation of this phenomena to stream pollution. The interplay of
photosynthesis and respiration are discussed in connection with down-
stream succession in polluted and unpolluted streams.
Odum further discusses productivity of streams in comparison
with that in lakes and the ocean. The earlier concept of standing
crops of fish and intermediate links in the food chain as a parameter
of production has been supplanted by measurements of rate of production.
This is accomplished by determining the rates of oxygen - versus carbon«
dioxide production, i.e. the metabolism of a body of water.
To sum up: the understanding of primary aquatic production is
the key to wise multiple use of our waters.
*0dum, H. T«, Limnology and Oceanography - 1 (2): 102 - 117.
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ITEM 3b
PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
Homer Campbell
From the previous discussion it is apparent that while primary
productivity is an important link in the aquatic food chain, those
in fisheries managment have given this link very little consider-
ation.
One of the principal uses of water is that of maintaining an adequate
commercial and sports fishery. This year, for instance, there will
be about 400,000 people buying fishing licenses in the State of
Oregon. This situation will be duplicated in other areas of the
Northwest and the numbers are expected to increase about five per
cent per year. It is the responsibility of fishery agencies
to maintain a fishery which will adequately serve this demand
and a fish population can be no better than the potential stream
productivity.
It is of interest to note that while ecologists and botanists have
been concerned with the basic study of productivity, those in
fisheries management have been occupied with the writing of a history
of the effects of the decline of fish populations without knowing
the causes.
The Northwest is in an era of rapid development. This development
will affect fisheries largely by changing the basic ecology of
habitat. It is not enough to know that salmon and steelhead are
on the decline, or holding their own, or that they will perish.
It is necessary to know and understand the factors involved in
primary biological production in order to better manage and main-
tain these species.
There are a number of definitions for the term primary productivity,
two of which are discussed here.
1. Basic or primary productivity of an ecological system, community
or any part thereof, is defined as the rate at which energy is
stored by photosynthetic and chemo-synthetic activity of producer
organisms (usually green plants) in the form of organic substances,
which can be used as food materials. This is the beginning of the
food chain in water. The ultimate animal consumer is the fish.
Primary productivity can be "gross," which is the total_rate of
photosynthesis, including the organic matter used up in respiration
during the measurement period, or it can be a "net primary produc-
tivity" which is the rate of storage of organic matter in plant
tissue in excess of the respiratory utilization by the plants.
There are a few ecologists and botanists who have studied produc-
tivity, but few fisheries people understand the various aspects of
basic primary productivity.
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2. A definition by Dice is similar, "The ultimate limit of produc-
tivity of a given ecosystem is governed by the total effective solar
energy falling annually on the area, by the efficiency with which the
plants in the ecosystem are able to transform this energy into organic
components and by these physical factors of the environment which
affect the rate of photosynthesis."
There are very definite differences between primary productivity in
the higher watershed streams and in ponds or lakes. In general, these
differences revolve around three conditions: (1) the current is
much more of a major controlling and limiting factor in streams (2)
land-water inter-change is relatively more extensive in streams,
resulting in a more open ecosystem, and (3) oxygen tension is generally
more uniform in streams and there is little or no thermal or chem-
ical stratification.
(1) Velocity of the current varies greatly in different parts
of the same stream (both longitudinally and transversely to the flow)
from one time to another. In large streams the current may be so
reduced that virtually standing water conditons result. Current as
a primary factor, however, makes a big difference between stream and
pond life and it governs differences in various parts of a given stream.
Where fish are concerned or where the general nature of the stream
community over an appreciable stretch is being considered, the surface
gradient alone gives a good index of average conditions. Correlations
have been developed regarding the species of fish and stream gradients
on the basis of their natural and inherent life requirements.
(2) Land-water interchange: Since the depth of water and cross-
sectional area of streams is much less than that of lakes, usually the
land-water surface junction is relatively great in proportion to size
of the stream habitat. Streams, therefore, are more intimately
associated with the surrounding land. Studies are underway in the
Alsea drainage basin in Oregon to relate fish populations to the phy-
sical attributes of the watersheds. The watersheds are short, yet
they contain most of the factors involved in larger streams including
the light intensity and cover situations as related to productivity.
It is already apparent that conditions in the main stream are dependent
upon what happens in these very small watersheds.
Most larger streams depend on land area and on the connected
ponds or lakes for a large portion of their basic energy supply.
Small streams, however, have producers of their own, such as fixed
filamentous green algae, diatoms, and aquatic mosses; but these are
usually inadequate to supply the large populations of consumers found
in streams. Many primary consumers in streams are detritus feeders
which depend, at least in part, on organic materials which are swept
or dropped from terrestial vegetation.
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(3) Oxygen: Because of the smaller depth, larger surface exposed
and constant motion, streams generally contain an abundant supply of
oxygen, even when there are no green plants. For this reason the stream
animals generally have a narrow oxygen tolerance and are especially
susceptible to any type of organic pollution which reduces the oxygen
supply.
Although surface water in streams may be saturated with oxygen, the
interchange between the stream and the subsurface gravel stratum will
not necessarily create high oxygen levels beneath the surface of the
gravel. Interchange is dependent on the permeability of gravel, the
gradient of the stream and configuration of the bottom. The bio-chem-
ical oxygen demand in streams will affect the levels of oxygen beneath
the surface. Wide variations in subsurface oxygen content have been
recorded in the Alsea watershed where repeated measurements have been
made.
One of the objectives of the Alsea watershed study is to be able to
predict the effects that might occur in any particular stream when
the natural virgin cover is removed by logging. It is important to
know what happens in streams in areas that are being stripped of their
timber, in relation to water quality, quantity and the ultimate pro-
duction of fish. It is hoped that future studies will add to the
presently limited knowledge regarding the function of primary produc-
tivity in the aquatic food cycle.
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DISCUSSION ITEMS 3a and 3b
Q. Is there evidence that the changes in primary productivity
could be the cause for the decline of fisheries?
A. Such evidence is not clear because of the lack of direct
information.
Q. Is there a relationship between primary productivity and
yield of fish?
A. Of course, there is a relationship, but again there is no
ready answer as to its magnitude. For instance, there is evidence
that the production of silver smolt correlates with minimum flows.
It is possible also to observe a relationship between any one
factor, such as temperature, flow, chemical content, number of
aquatic insects and the poundage of fish. One creek under
study in British Columbia was found to produce about 100 silver
smolt per 100 square yards. In a second creek the production
was around 40. Other streams in other parts of the coast pro-
duce about 20 smolt per 100 square yards. The latter appears
to be a fair average and one from which to start in making
comparisons. This figure is about the same as obtained for
Atlantic salmon in Scotland and in Eastern Canada.
Q. How is primary production measured?
A. Making such measurements is probably the biggest drawback
in approaching this problem. It largely involves a measure of
light energy vs production. Oregon State College is developing
a photo-chemical actinometer as a means of light energy deter-
minations. Primary production largely involves a measure of
organic material produced by photosynthesis. To make such
determinations in 150 to 200 places along a test stream is
expensive, if proper equipment is used. Further research is
needed to develop less expensive equipment and less complicated
methods before adequate information can be collected on the
subject of primary productivity.
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ITEM 3c
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SPAWNING AND GROWTH OF SALMONIDS IN NORTHWEST
WATERSHEDS
Charles D. Ziebell
1. Introduction
In the past twenty years or so, applied fishery research and
improved management techniques have done much to provide more fish
to many of our various fisheries. This is general common knowledge
among men in the fisheries field. However, even with the utilization
of the newest innovations in fisheries science, some fisheries have
shown a decline. Some of our anadromous fish fall into this category.
Many opinions have been expressed concerning the cause of the
decline of some of our fishes, particularly the Chinook Salmon. These
causes may differ from one area to another. Blame is often placed on
over-fishing, pollution or some other factor, but too often the water-
shed with its spawning tributaries is completely overlooked. The
assumption is made that conditions are adequate for normal reproduction
and sustenance of the fishery. This, however, may not be true and
before any premature conclusions are made, spawning and rearing areas
for salmon and trout in our watershed streams require investigation.
This possibly could be the origin of a problem.
Our problems in watersheds fall into two basic categories, one
being that of natural influences and the other of man-made influences.
The natural influences such as adverse weather conditions, of course,
we are not able to control. On the other hand, the man-made changes
that influence spawning and rearing such as poor logging or farming
practices, or highway construction can be prevented or controlled so
that no deleterious effects are experienced by our fish. Regardless
of whether or not the problems are natural or man-made, they are still
problems and cannot be overlooked.
2. Spawning, Incubation and Affiliated Problems
Today we are concerned with the problems that exist in the
spawning and rearing tributaries of the watershed. Let us delve into
these particular areas in more detail. In my discussion, I shall be
referring to theSilver Salmon, primarily because this is the species
that we have been studying.
The first of the two influences that I mentioned, namely natural,
I shall mention briefly because Mr. Burgner will go into more detail
in his presentation. Silver Salmon most frequently prefer to spawn
in depths of water between one and two feet. Also, they prefer to
spawn where water velocities are between 1.2 and 1.8 cubic feet per
second. From this you can plainly see how heavy rains could delay
or disrupt spawning activities. Another natural phenomenon that must
be recognized is that of occasional superimposition of redds. This is
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normally experienced on desirable spawning beds. The eggs depos-
ited by the initial spawners are relocated or completely extruded
from the original redd by the spawning activities of other salmon
coming in afterward. Consequently, eggs may be destroyed and high
mortalities could result. These aforementioned influences are
natural, and actually there is very little that we can do to
prevent their taking place, however, they must be recognized and
properly evaluated in any watershed research.
Han-made influences on the environment are another situation and
certainly must be given due consideration. There are many of man's
activities that have an influence on the environment in and sur-
rounding our spawning and rearing streams; namely, logging, dam
construction, farming, highway construction, and building of roads
for logging operations.
When uncontrolled logging occurs in the upper regions of a stream
where our salmon spawn and rear, there are many things that could
be harmful to fish spawn or to young fish as they are rearing.
Quite often logging commences directly adjacent to the spawning
tributaries, and heavy equipment may be run through the stream
bed where fish are spawning or have spawned. Stream banks are
denuded, slash is thrown into the creeks, and silt and organic
debris can be washed into the stream beds when rains occur. These
poor logging practices and operations can drastically change a
stream's ability to be a good fish producer. The clearning of
brush and trees along a stream reduces or eliminates shade, and
consequently may increase water temperatures to a point that a
problem would result in the late summer. Improperly constructed
logging roads usually are subjected to erosion by heavy rains
and silt finds its way to the stream bottom. Excessive siltation
can destroy good spawning beds, and may also reduce food populations
on which young salmon or trout depend for their livelihood during
their stay in fresh water. The abnormal deposition of organic
detritus and inorganic silt are the two substances with which we
are primarily concerned.
After excessive logging or poor logging practices have taken
place and heavy rains occur in the fall, the fine silt from the
logging roads and the organic debris that is washed into the
stream has a tendency to work its way into the gravel. If de-
position is heavy enough, it will actually cover the desirable
spawning beds. This silt finds the interstitial spaces in the
gravel, greater compaction results; and a reduction in permeability
is experienced. With this reduction in permeability, the retarded
sub-gravel flow influences two of the basic factors that fish
spawn need for proper incubation. These are sub-gravel dissolved
oxygen/percolation. With the addition of excessive siltation,
dissolved oxygen is either limited or reduced to the stage where
it is actually detrimental to proper survival of the eggs them-
selves.
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Now one might ask, "What if there is low permeability in the stream?
How is that going to affect the dissolved oxygen?" We know that
water can be in a quiescent state and still maintain adequate dissolved
oxygen. So there must be some influence by which the oxygen must
be reduced. The abnormal deposition of organic debris and detritus
washed into a stream normally will work its way into the gravel and
consequently will become part of the stream bed itself. With the
reduced sub-gravel flows caused by excessive siltation and lack
of or reduced percolation, this organic material is subject to bac-
terial decomposition. If there is not enough percolation in the
gravel to renew the redd with oxygenated water, then the bio-chem=-
ical oxygen demand becomes greater than that of replenishment. The
result is plain. Oxygen values are often reduced to levels at which
they can be detrimental to salmon spawn survival. With bacterial
decomposition occuring in these salmon redds, there may be various
other changes that may have some effect on the proper incubation
of the eggs. More knowledge needs to be acquired on this specific
phase. If the BOD exerted is great enough to completely eliminate
dissolved oxygen under the gravel, there are two things that can
result. One being the production of hydrogen sulfide, which in it-
self is a toxic substance, and methane gas also toxic to fish. If
these conditions would exist in the redd, it is very likely that
there would be little or no survival of the eggs or alevins.
These particular conditions are most apt to occur during the most
critical stage of incubation. For example, after a fish has
spawned, the gravel is loose and percolation and dissolved oxygen
are generally good. As the eggs lay in the gravel incubating,
heavy siltation could cause a reduction in permeability and per-
colation and the bio-chemical oxygen has a chance to exert itself
on the organic material, thus reducing the amount of dissolved
oxygen available to the eggs. Normal compaction also occurs in
the gravel which in turn accounts for some reduction in permeability.
At the most critical stage of the incubation period, which is nor-
mally just prior to hatching, the greatest amount of oxygen is
needed. This is the time at which the detrimental conditions are
most likely to show up. So it can be readily seen that abnormal
amounts of silt and organic debris are more serious and have
their most detrimental effects at the time when the eggs or emergent
fry need the best conditions. If this occurs, the survival rate
could be greatly reduced and consequently, the normal run of
fish is reduced.
3. Fish Growth Problems
The next aspect of our problem is that of growth. Once the fish
emerge from the gravel and are living in the stream, we are prim-
arily concerned with their growth and condition. Good growth is
mainly dependent upon adequate food and good water quality con-
ditions. Small aquatic insect larvae and nymphs, and phyto and
30
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zoo=plankton make up a good portion of the food of these small
salmon. Some terrestrial insects are utilized also. In order
for these fish to have sufficient food, the normal reproduction
cycles of fish food organisms must not be disrupted.
Again, natural influences come into the picture. These must be
recognized before conclusions can be made concerning man»made
influences. There are certain natural factors that are important
to consider when the growth of Juvenile fishes is concerned.
Heavy populations of salmon in certain streams can account for
reduced aquatic insect nymphs and larvae. Other larger species
inhabiting the same rearing area can be direct food competitors.
Consequently, the numbers of fish present in varying areas of
the stream definitely have a bearing on the growth and condition
of the fish present.
After completing one year of our study in the Cheha 1is Basin with
Silver Salmon, and after making some preliminary analyses of
condition coefficients in relation to the populations in particular
streams, there appears to be one important aspect that should be
mentioned. In two of the streams, where populations are relatively
low, the average condition factor of these groups was found to
be 1.54 and 1,68; in two other streams where there were greater
fish populations the average condition factor dropped to 1.40
for both streams. This is a natural phenomenon and must be
considered as part of the natural cycle and growth of the salmon.
If conditions factors are used to measure harmful effects to
fish they must be used with caution.
Taking into consideration again, the abnormal deposition of
siltation caused by poor logging practices, road building, or
dam construction, the siltation is definitely known to be of
detrimental nature. I would like to refer a study that I did
on the Wynooche River above and below a gravel drag line oper-
ation. In this particular study, the siltation influences upon
the aquatic insect population were determined. Samples of insect
populations were taken in similar areas both above and below the
gravel operation. After these samples were analyzed in the
laboratory there was a productivity decline of 85% below the
gravel operation when compared with that above the gravel oper-
ation. Turbidities were also increased tremendously from
practically zero to 91. Suspended solids increased from 1
or 2 ppm above the gravel operation to 103 ppm below the gravel
operation. As these solids were carried downstream and the water
velocities were reduced, settling occurred and siltation of the
stream bed was the result. The aforementioned reduction of
aquatic insect populations was the consequence.
With the food reduction such as it was, one can readily deter-
mine that there was less food for growth of the fish. It is
easy to see also, that the fish would either leave the area and
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go to a more desirable portion of the stream or have their diet
cut down considerably.
Good growth and good conditions of the fish are essential to
healthy normal populations. If food supplies are adequate, I
am sure that nature has provided these fish with the ability
to take care of themselves.
4. Conclusions
In conclusion, I would like to reiterate the two types of in-
fluences with which we are concerned in our spawning and rear-
ing streams. It is true we are not able to influence the rain-
fall, which produces adverse conditions in our streams. We also
have no way of controlling superimposition of spawning beds.
However, when it comes to the man-made influences we definitely
can do something about it. Logging operations should be con-
trolled so that abnormal amounts of silt do not get into the
streams. We should control the amount of growth left along
the stream banks, and prohibit the use of equipment in a stream
bed or spawning area.
We have made what we call sizeable strides in working with the
Highway Department of our State pertaining to this problem of
siltation. We are generally notified of operations that are
to commence prior to the actual date when the work begins. We,
in turn, try to take necessary precautions so that abnormal
siltation is kept out of our streams. This has worked fairly
well in the past and we hope that it will continue and get
better as time goes on. This is also needed with logging oper-
ations. Companies need to be told what is expected of them,
and an enforcement program must follow to keep them within
their boundaries and limitations. If this could be accomplished
the fishery and the stream could be protected.
In our studies on the Chehalis Basin we not only studied pop-
ulations, condition factors, and food indices* but also we stud-
ied the apparent velocity and dissolved oxygen in actual Silver
Salmon redds. After completing one year of field work, we have
not had the chance to evaluate any of the data other than a
few of the figures that I have mentioned pertaining to condition
factors of the fish. There are many problems involved in doing
research on this sort of program. We are constantly striving to
improve the equipment and methods used so that conditions can be
made known. In this way preventative measures can be taken so that
our watersheds can be kept under control and deleterious effects
will not be experienced by our spawning and rearing anadromous
fish. I would like to emphasize the fact that more research needs
to be done in this field in the future, and that better control
be maintained over logging operations in our watersheds.
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Item 3d
SPAWNING AND CROWTH OF FISH
Robert L. Burgner
The title of this panel is "Spawning and Growth of Fish." I am
going to broaden that slightly to include in my discussion "develop-
ment and survival." At the same time I am going to restrict my
topic essentially to the aquatic environment as it affects develop-
raent and survival of eggs and larvae of pink and chum salmon. The
same general relationships exist with the eggs and larvae of other
salmon and trout. With pinks and churns, which migrate almost im-
mediately to sea after emergence, the greatest influence of the
watershed is exerted while they reside as eggs and larvae in the
gravel of the spawning grounds.
Most of my information on water quality and survival of these two
species is based on my studies in Southeast Alaska. In this area
pink and chum salmon comprise about 852 of the salmon pack and play
a dominant role in the economy of the area. Problems of water pol-
lution in salmon streams of Alaska are becoming much more real than
in the past. Large-scale logging was initiated in Southeast Alaska
about 1952 with establishment of a pulp mill at Ketchikan. Another
has just been completed at Sitka and still others are planned for
Southeast Alaska and Prince William Sound. To furnish logs for
these mills operating today, logging operations are now conducted
on a scale that was unheard of in Alaska 20 years ago. The Forest
Service has set up a crop rotation schedule which will see nearly
all of the salmon stream watersheds with marketable timber in South-
east Alaska logged over during the next 100 years.
Mining operations have been sporadic over the past few years but
we anticipate mineral resources will be exploited on a large scale
in the future. Road construction can be expected to increase.
Increased multiple use of watersheds in Alaska means an increased
likelihood that salmon runs already depleted will be further affected.
A study of the effects of logging on the productivity of pink sal-
mon streams in Southeast Alaska is well under way. This is a coop-
erative study sponsored by the Forest Service and the Fish and
Wildlife Service, and being conducted by the Alaska Forest Research
Center and the Fisheries Research Institute.
In our part of the study our first task has been to determine the
natural factors which exert most influence on mortality. Logging
began in our study stream areas this year. The influence of logging
on survival will depend on the direction, extent and timing of
changes produced in the aquatic environment by logging practices.
The determinations of embryonic mortality are carried on at various
times through the development period in order to detect at what
stages mortality occurs and to relate them with routinely measured
33
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environmental conditions to determine cause. Mortalities have been
highly variable in time and area of occurrence in the streams under
study, The major mortalities in our study streams have been the
result of either (1) mechanical removal of the embryos from the
streambeds by floods or (2) poor water quality associated with low
stream flows.
Flooding of study area streams has generally been most severe in
late fall. Bill McNeil has found that gravel flow and resultant
loss of embryos has varied greatly from year to year depending upon
the severity of the flood stages. In 1956 and 1957 no detectable
loss of the eggs and larvae resulted from this cause. However,
floods in October 1958 caused extensive movement of gravel in Twelve*
mile Creek, one of our study streams, and resultant egg mortality
was estimated at 95 percent. This flood, however, did not affect
nearby Indian Creek which has a more stable streambed and there was
no loss detected at that time. In 1959, extreme floods caused
still higher egg mortality and even normally stable Indian Creek
was seriously affected. Yet, intertidal spawning areas of adjacent
Harris River escaped serious scouring in spite of the extreme
runoff conditions. 1 will come back to this matter of stream
stability a little later.
Poor water quality associated with low stream flows can result in
mortalities both in summer and winter. In the fall of 1957, for
example, stream levels were low. Through most of the September of
1957 the oxygen content of water in the gravel of our study areas
averaged less than 40 percent of that in stream water over the
spawning beds. (Fisheries Research Institute, 1959). This in-
dicated that water from the stream was not circulating properly
through the gravel. The mortality to salmon eggs associated with
these low oxygen conditions in 1957 exceeded 95 percent in our
study areas. We had no measure of the efficiency of yolk conver-
sion and condition of those embryos that did not survive. However,
in 1958 and 1959, stream levels were up during summer and dissolved
oxygen levels were high in all areas sampled during and after
spawning (Sheridan and McNeil, 1960), The higher stream levels in
the fall of 1958 and 1959 maintained a favorable interchange of
water between the stream and the streambed.
Low streamflow in wintertime has resulted in mortality through
freezing. Eggs and larvae in Indian Creek suffered considerable
mortality from this cause in the winter of 1959.
From these observations, it is quite apparent to us that stream
discharge exerts an important influence on mortality rate of eggs
and larvae of pink salmon in Southeast Alaska streams. Logging
adjacent to salmon streams can conceivably alter stream runoff
pattern. In this connection it will have an effect on salmon,
either favorable or unfavorable, depending upon the direction,
degree, and timing of change in stream flow.
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In studies in Indian Creek and other streams in Southeast Alaska,
Bill Sheridan has found that groundwater was generally low in dis-
solved oxygen, and that dissolved oxygen level decreased with
depth in the streambed gravel. His studies corroborate those by
Vaux and Sheridan (1960) that the primary source of intragravel
water of high oxygen content is the stream itself. Therefore,
if the interchange of stream and intragravel water is interfered
with, the amount of dissolved oxygen available to salmon eggs will
be decreased and the rate of flow past the embryos will be lowered.
Siltation of the streambed will, of course, reduce permeability and
interchange, as Chuck Ziebell pointed out earlier today.
Last year at the Fifth Symposium, Cooper explained some "of the
theoretical relationships between suspended sediment concentrations
and changes in permeability of gravel with time. We feel that
there is still much to learn about the process of streambed silt-
ation. I will illustrate from our experience this past fall. Our
personnel observed last fall that the suspended sediment load in the
Harris River and its tributaries appeared to be much heavier than
in previous years prior to logging and also comparatively heavier
than in adjacent Indian Creek, which is not being logged. The
silt load was observed to be noticeably heavier in tributaries
which drained areas where logging had taken place. In order to
detect changes in fines in the gravel, random streambed gravel
sampling was conducted in three study areas in the Harris River
before and after the period of observed increased suspended silt
load. A significant increase in fine materials was found in the
study area gravel farthest upstream; however, a reduction in the
amount of fines was measured in the lower and middle study areas,
Although data indicate that the suspended silt load was above
normal in Harris River, there is nothing to suggest accretion
to the two study areas farther downstream. On the contrary,
fine materials were lost from the lower spawning beds. Upon re-
sampling the upstream area still later in the season, we found
that the increased load of fine materials had vanished.
These were preliminary observations but they pointed out the
need to know how the settleable solids enter into and disappear
from the spawning beds; that is, the mechanics and dynamics of
the process. How is the rate of accretion affected by concen-
tration and composition of suspended settleable solids, composition
of streambed gravel, and flow velocity? What effect do the spawning
activities of salmon and the shift of nonstable beds have on the
deposited silt? Some of these factors can be predicted on a
theoretical basis. However, tests more closely tied in with field
conditions are necessary.
There is also a distinct need for study of the process of siltation
in intertidal zones of coastal streams in Alaska. Observations made
by Fisheries Research Institute personnel indicate that 70 to 80
percent of all pink salmon in Prince William Sound and 10 to 40
35
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percent of all pink salmon in Southeast Alaska spawn in the inter-
tidal zones of coastal streams. In many streams intertidal zone
gp&wners supply the complete production for the stream. The changes
in waterflow and salinity associated with the incoming tides and the
possibility of settling out of sediments during slack water periods
are considerations that are unique to the intertidal zones.
Finally, I would like to touch on some of the possibilities for
improvement of watershed conditions for survival of salmon eggs
and larvae. It may be possible to restrict improvement to relatively
small areas of the streams, Royce (1959) and Weave and Peerster
(1955) have pointed out that small areas of the natural environment
can be highly productive. We know fairly well the requirements of
salmon eggs and larvae in the gravel. We know that survival will
be high in natural unpolluted areas if the eggs remain undisturbed,
if there is an adequate flow of oxygenated water past them, and if
the temperature cycle is of normal character and provides rate of
development that results in proper timing of emergence of the young
fish.
Obviously the type of control most needed will depend on the stability
of the streambed and the runoff pattern of the stream, It will also
depend on the permeability of streambed gravels and the rate of
accretion of settleable solids into the streambed. We are finding
that these factors vary from stream to stream in southeastern Alaska
depending upon watershed characteristics, terrain, and streambed
composition. They also vary between intertidal and upstream spawn-
ing areas.
One method is, of course, to control stream discharge to avoid
periods of excessive flooding and excessively low water levels.
Although this is obviously desirable, the cost element is great.
A second consideration would be to study methods of increasing stream-
bed stability. It appears that with relatively little cost the
stream channels in some of our spawning areas under study could be
modified in such a way as to decrease the amount of gravel flow
and to provide more dependable low water flows over the spawning
areas.
We must also consider increasing streambed permeability. Royce
(1959) has pointed out that very large proportions of the eggs and
larvae die in the gravel and that most of the mortality is associated
with low water flow caused by silting and consolidation of fine
materials in the gravel. Tests In Hollis area streams in South"
east Alaska indicate that removal of part of the fine particles
from sampled areas is quite feasible. Others are also experimenting
with methods to remove the fines from the gravel. We believe it
will prove quite feasible to improve survival by this means part-
icularly in the more stable streams.
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However, we do not need to know the duration of the increased perm-
eability. It may be necessary to repeat the procedure each year.
In our study area streams in Southeast Alaska, the critical period
from the standpoint of low oxygen has occurred only during low flow
and high temperature, that is, during and shortly after spawning.
Cleaning of the gravels shortly before spawning should accomplish
this quite satisfactorily since in most instances the heavy siltation
is expected during the late fall periods of high water,
In summary, we can expect that there will be a certain conflict
between stream management by the biologists and the activities of
logging, mining, and road building. However, there is an excellent
possibility that production in many natural streams can be greatly
improved by controlling stability of the stream and by removing
fine materials. If this can be done, it may be possible to log
more economically and with less concern about damage to the streams.
However, before we proceed, we need some pilot plant operations to
test our procedures. The task ahead is actually experimentation
in the field where the salmon spawn and die.
Fisheries Research Institute
1959 Logging and salmon. Fish. Res. Inst. College of Fisheries,
University of Washington, Seattle. Circular 105, 12 pp.
Neave, Ferris and R. E. Foerster
1955 Problems of Pacific salmon management. No. Amer. Wildl.
Conf. Trans. Vol. 200 pp. 426-439.
Royce, William F.
1959 On the possibilities of improving salmon spawning areas.
24th No. Amer. Wildl. Conf. Trans., pp. 356-366.
Sheridan, William L. and William J, McNeil
1960 Effects of logging on the productivity of pink salmon
streams in Alaska. In Research in Fisheries, 1959.
College of Fisheries. University of Washington, Seattle.
Contribution No. 77, pp. 16-17.
Vaux, Walter and William L. Sheridan
1960 Interchange of flowing stream and intragravel water in a
salmon spawning riffle. Fish. Res. Inst., College of
Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle, Circular
115, 4 pp.
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DISCUSSION Items 3c and 3d
Q. Is it possible or practical to stabilize a stream bed or to
make it more permeable?
A. Certain areas of streams seem to escape erosion and scouring
while other areas are very unstable. This condition depends con-
siderably upon the configuration of the stream as regards the
stream banks and other factors affecting the current pattern. A
study of such factors may indicate methods by which some improve-
ment of bed stability can be obtained without a great deal of
expense. However, some ideas of stream bed improvement used
in the past have been erroneous and have resulted in decreased
stability rather than to increase it. Here again is an area
requiring further study. If stabilization can be accomplished,
it would be of considerable value to the fishery.
Q. How does logging affect the timing and changes of the stream
flow patterns?
A. The Forest Service along with the Alaska Forest Research
Center, in preliminary studies have found indications that the s
summer flows have actually been increased following the logging
of a watershed. It would be an advantage from the stream
standpoint, if the summer flows were increased. This is one
example of how logging could possibly benefit survival. On the
other hand, if the run-off pattern as a result of logging of a
watershed changes the sharpness of the peak of run-off (increases
it) so that the erosion is more severe, then a higher mortality
of eggs and larvae in the gravel can be expected.
Q. How far downstream would the effect of drag line operations
be evidenced?
A. In studies in Washington an 85% decline in fishery was ex-
perienced about 1.7 miles below the operation. However, the dis-
tance and magnitude of the effects are dependent upon many factors
and will vary with the specific conditions.
Q. Is there information on hand to tentatively, at least, say
that there is some correlation between turbidity of water and
productivity?
A. The problem is basically one of particle size, light re-
fraction, and the interference with water velocity and bottom
permeability. There are so many variations that it is difficult
to establish a turbidity-production correlation. However, in
the studies in Washington a 75 to 857. decline in fish food
organisms (aquatic insects and larva) that normally inhabit
the riffles was experienced with turbidities in the order of
26.
Q. Is the effect on aquatic insects a mechanical interference
such as the coating of rocks with mud or does the movement of
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particles in the water interfere with their respiration?
A. Certain types of aquatic insects have different types of gill
placement. The ones that are the least tolerant to adverse con-
ditions are the ones in which the gills are located on the ventral
side. These in turn are the ones which require the highest amount
of oxygen for survival. Silt works into the gravel, choking out
insects either mechanically or by reducing the flow of water and
reducing the amount of available oxygen.
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ITEM 4a
CORRECTION OR CONTROL THROUGH MANAGEMENT - RECREATION
Wilson Bow
Recreation.
The word "recreation" as defined by Webster's Dictionary is "the
act of recreating, or state of being recreated; the refreshment
of the strength and spirits after toil or diversion." A synonym
is the word "play", which could describe the diversion of activities
that human beings are likely to be doing in a watershed.
The problems that humans create wherever they go has not changed
through the ages. There is still disease. Some diseases are
controllable, with a bright future in this direction. There are
instances where man's inroads on nature by carelessness, such as
fire, erosion, etc., has caused great havoc to whole communities.
Let us look at some of the activities that we class as recreation
or play in the great outdoors in the Northwest:
Hunting of wild animals and birds
Fishing
Camping and picnicking
Hiking
Boating
Water skiing
Swimming and bathing
Snow activities - skiing, etc.
This list carries in its scope about every type of outdoor activity
in the way of recreation that we will need to deal with in this
discussion.
As a basis for this subject in an open-ended discussion, what should
we expect of the quality of the water for recreation for man and
what will recreational activity of man do to the quality of the
water?
To answer these paradoxical problems, we can see that you must
start with a definite watershed in mind. Therefore, before such
decisions can be made, the following basis should be considered:
1. A study of the hazards associated with the specific use.
2. Ways in which the hazard can be minimized.
3. The willingness of the taxpayer to pay the expenses in-
volved in providing such controls.
4. Additional treatment facilities and operational needs,
as the case may dictate, to provide the greatest degree
of protection to the water user.
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In the first part of this discussion, let us not forget the man
in his environment at play. Let us consider those activities of
man where he comes in direct contact with water, such as bathing,
swimming, or less frequently as boating and water skiing, together
with aesthetic enjoyment of recreation.
Water quality for this type of activity must be inoffensive to the
senses of smell, sight, feel and taste. It shall not be toxic upon
ingestion or irritating to the skin, eyes or nose and shall be
reasonably free of pathogenic organisms. There are exceptions in
these cases, such as high alkaline lakes; but, applying the general
criteria to watersheds, the above considerations are not unreason-
able when applied in light of the Water Quality Objectives of the
Water Supply and Watershed Protection Bulletin adopted by the Pol-
lution Control Council, Pacific Northwest Area, and published in
May of 1952. These criteria will not be repeated in this paper
for brevity's sake.
Some of the problems associated with each of the recreational
activities are listed below so that a broader view can be had of
the whole problem:
Hunting
By the very definition of the word, the "hunter" is free to roam
at will in all directions on the land, perhaps on water on occasion,
without restraint. No control can be had over his wastes or his
actions. That something could be done with special privileges in
the way of permits is countered by many, due to the fact that there
is no way to be sure of the hunter's actions once he is on his own
within a watershed. The chances that the hunter would pollute or
contaminate streams with human wastes may be small, but the danger
is still there, and when it is multiplied by hundreds of people
the chances certainly increase, just as man-made forest fires
increase during dry periods of the year.
Is there any way of knowing that the individual hunter will not
be a menace once he is allowed to roam at will?
Fishing
Like the hunter, the fisherman is free to roam the streams of a
watershed at will, if allowed in the watershed. There is no con-
trol over the individual's wastes once he is free in the watershed.
There is always the possibility that the fisherman's body wastes
will contaminate the waters. Also, like the hunter, he may be
told what to do with his wastes, but there is no assurance that
he will comply. What assurances does the water consuming public
have that the fisherman will comply to even minimum sanitary regu-
lations?
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Camping and Picnicking
The development and maintenance of these areas is the respons-
ibility of a number of federal, state, county and private groups.
The principal activities which can affect the quality of surface
waters are the construction of roads, buildings, parking areas,
picnic areas, camp grounds and drainage facilities; disposal of
wastes and locating tent camps.
Bacterial contamination and pollution may result from improper
maintenance of these grounds, or roads, buildings, parking areas.
Garbage, refuse and untreated domestic sewage may be discharged
or drained into streams from cabin camp facilities, hotels,
picnic areas or camping grounds.
Hiking
The hiker could be classed next to the hunter or fisherman as a
free roamer. However, generally speaking, the hiker will stay
to trails and usually will be in parties of two or more, but this
is not always the rule.
Where trails cross or are close to streams, there is always the
hazard of the disposal of human wastes, garbage and litter by
the hiker, in addition to damage to the forests by fires.
Boating
The boating problem in lakes, reservoirs and rivers has increased
due not only to the type of boats but to the new equipment used
to transport boats. In the trailer type outboard cruisers, whole
families and groups of people stay out in the water overnight
or even for several days at a time. The sanitary facilities are
portable type toilets with nothing more than a vessel that is
emptied overboard. This operation presents a serious hazard to
the water quality, when great numbers of these boats are plying
such waters as may be used for domestic purposes.
Water Skiing
This is a sport with direct contact with the water at times. It
might be classed as a minor as compared to bathing or swimming
activities.
Swimming or Bathing
The practice of bathing or swimming will certainly add some con-
tamination to the quality of the water, because it can be shown
that the coliform count will rise in water used by bathers. The
amount of contamination is probably directly in relation to how
well the bather is cleaned before entering the bathing area. The
correlation between bather and disease is extremely difficult to
prove, probably due to so many natural barriers and various con-
ditions not understood.
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Skiing in Watersheds
The skiing activity in watersheds, with the exception of major ski
areas, such as in the vicinity of a tow, probably is minor. The dis-
posal of wastes in the vicinity of tows can be controlled to some
extent by approved waste disposal centers, such as toilets, etc.,
but where skiing is allowed overland, there is no control over the
individual, as he may go any direction at will.
We should now look at the total recreation picture which presents
the problem, in our opinion, as it relates to watersheds, to see
if we can propose some guide lines to correct or control the hazards
presented here, through management of the watersheds.
We should all be aware of guides or policies set forth by such organ-
izations as the American Water Works Association, for example: "Rec-
reational Use of Domestic Water Supply Reservoirs", found in the
Journal of May, 1958. To briefly comment on this policy, it treats
equalizing terminal and upstream reservoirs in accordance with Class
A, B. and C. water quality and treatment to be received, and, in
summary, states: "The American Water Works Association registers
its opposition to legislation permitting or requiring the opening
of domestic water supply reservoirs and adjacent lands to recreational
uses. Control of water supply reservoirs must remain the prerogative
of the water purveyor,"
We should be familiar with our Pollution Control Council of the
Pacific Northwest Area's own bulletin on water supply and watershed
protection. For example, this bulletin states definite policies
on swimming, camping, hunting, and fishing. It states such activities
should be prohibited in watersheds yielding high quality water where
there is no treatment except disinfection.
We should all be aware of our State laws and rules and regulations
pertaining to watersheds. The point that should be noted here is
that these are different in each state. More could be done by the
management of watersheds than all the laws and regulations combined
if the real problems and people that cause these problems could be
fully understood.
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DISCUSSION ITEM 4a
Q. Has any agency conducted studies that would determine the
relative concentration of coliforms from human and animal sources?
A. Some studies are being conducted to differentiate between the
organisms from various sources, especially those from warm blooded
animals. This is one of the problems involved in the use of the
coliform tests and the interpretation of the results thereof. For
instance, the test is adequate in a captured body of water such
as a swimming pool where the source of contamination is established,
but it is not adequate for water such as that from a watershed.
There are other tests that are better than the coliform test for
the latter conditions, but they are not as well adapted to routine
testing. (Note: The Taft Engineering Center, Public Health Ser-
vice, Cincinnati, Ohio has developed a promising method which is (\
now being field-tested.) If a watershed is oppn to public access / V
it_is necessary to assume that any organlsm§_cjamine from the^^ f(j V
watershed are of humarL_ojrJLgia-and tha r
^ water purveyor must be sure. He
is responsible under law to provide safe water.
A number of surveys have been conducted by the Washington Pollution
Control Commission in streams of the Northwest. During all of
these surveys there were control stations at the head of all of
the streams surveyed. The data collected showed a significant
coliform concentration often was as high as 200 per 100 mil. In
these areas where there were no significant pasture lands the
concentration dropped to a few hundred.
Studies made in the San Francisco watersheds indicate that there
is a correlation between rainfall and bacteria count. When the
rainfall went up the bacterial count increased. The City of San
Francisco has experienced MPNs in its mains as high as 7000.
The Department of Health has made numerous tests of streams in
Washington during the summer periods and has found that the back-
ground coliform count averages about 50 per 100 mil. Much of
this contamination results from animal life along the streams and
in watersheds.
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ITEM 4b
THE CONTROL OF STREAM FLOW AND WATER QUALITY THROUGH TIMBER HARVESTING
W. K. Ferrell
The effects of timber harvesting on stream flow and water quality have
been matters of controversy since the beginnings of forestry practice
in this country. Between the extremes of the claims of those believ-
ing that the cutting of forests have caused all of the problems of
floods and siltation which may exist in the region and those who believe
that forest cutting has had no effect on streams and water, is a zone
where the truth must lie. The problem is to obtain the facts so that
we may learn where the truth is. In the Northwest, we are just begin-
ning to set up research to determine with some precision the effects
of cutting on water. Meanwhile, there is research information avail-
able from other areas from which we may draw some general conclusions,
there is preliminary information available from research in this
region, and there is a great deal of observational information from
logged areas which helps us to draw some general guidelines.
It might be best to consider the effects of timber cutting from the
standpoint of water regimen, quantity, and quality in turn. More is
known about the latter than about the first two and we will say more
about quality, but we are accumulating more information about all
of them.
Extreme cases of the disturbance of regimen are known to occur where
the land has been denuded by clearcutting followed by uncontrolled
fires. Increased flooding has followed such activity in some instances
and the effect on strearaflow is to decrease the time to peak flow
as well as to increase the peak. Other instances of alteration of
the pattern of flow have followed the extreme soil disturbance from
certain logging methods. Tractor logging on steep slopes, for example,
can result in a pattern of drainage to speed up runoff and in turn
disturb the pattern of stream flow. The data for the effects of
intermediate amounts of cutting on streamflow are not extensive and
here is the area where considerably more research is needed. A recent
analysis of the streamflow of two Oregon streamflow records by
Anderson, where one stream was progressively logged and the other
was not, gives more indication of the increased flow and alteration
of peaks one might expect from logging. Many more such studies are
needed, and the U. S. Forest Service is initiating such studies.
The problem of the effect of forests on the quantity of water yielded
by streams has been of great interest in the past in areas of low
rainfall and irrigation agriculture because of the possibility of
increasing water yield through forestry practices. From studies
in such areas we know that it is possible, through carefully regu-
lated logging, to increase the yield of water from an area without
causing appreciable disturbance to the regimen or to the quality.
This comes about primarily through decrease of interception of rain
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and snow, and some control over evaporation from the snow. Just
how much we can modify water yield in this region remains to be
determined. Increasing yield by this means has a great deal to
recommend it but the results to be expected in various forest
types in this region remain to be worked out. Another possibility
for modification here is to replace one forest type with another,
lower H20 using type.
The effects of forest practices on the quality of water have
probably been of the greatest interest in the Pacific Northwest.
The fisherman, the municipal water user, and industrial plants
all have an interest in maintaining the highest possible water
quality. Here is where the first and most obvious effects of
timber cutting may be felt. It is clear from work on municipal
watersheds such as those in Corvallis, Oregon, and others in the
state that it is possible to do considerable logging on a water-
shed including clearcutting followed by controlled burning, with-
out decreasing the water quality. The emphasis here is on care.
Some soils are much more credible than others and these must be
identified. Poor logging practices can lead to most disastrous
results, as common observation indicates. Logging across streams
with tractors, logging down excessive slopes with tractors, and
similar operations can lead to severe erosion into streams with
the consequent damage to many values downstream. The actual
falling of trees into streams is another practice which can be
avoided and thus prevent later difficulties with debris being
carried down the stream from the tops and branches. Similarly
logging debris should be removed from a stream after the logging
operation so that it will not cause later blocking and subsequent
bank erosion.
Perhaps the greatest improvements which might be made in logging
methods to improve the quality of water would be to perfect im-
proved yarding systems. At present, there are two so-called
sky-line systems being tried out experimentally in this country
which show promise. Both of these are systems in which the logs
are hauled up off the ground so that they «ake a minimum of
disturbance on the site. Economics will probably dictate whether
either of these systems, one American and one European, will be
used extensively. The point is that either one can be used
where a critical watershed situation exists and improvements will
no doubt be made so that these systems will come into common use.
At one time it was thought that burning of any kind was ^rimental
to water quality. Recent studies by Tarrant of the U. S. Forest
Service and Dyrness and Youngberg of Oregon State College have
hown^harcontrolled burning can be ac^pUshed without damage
to a significant amount of soil and without decreasing the water
quaUty8?rom the burned area. Such results must be checked on
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various types of soil to determine their general applicability
but they illustrate perhaps as well as anything that could be
presented the point that forest harvesting practices of many
kinds can be made compatible with watershed management if the
practices are carefully controlled by the operator and we are
willing to give enough thought to them.
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ITEM 4c
ROAD AND HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
Robert L. Wilson
The problems of watershed management can be compared to the three
blind men and the elephant. Each has his own idea of describing
the animal. We are fortunate in that it is possible for us to
see the overall problems that are involved but there are some,
myself included, who feel that certain phases are more important
and such problems should be given first priority. I feel that
much can be done to remedy many of the problems by proper road
location and design.
Perhaps we would not have the problems to deal with such as re-
creation, timber harvesting and mining that are being discussed
by other members of this panel, if we did not have roads to fur-
nish access to the areas which are considered as watersheds.
However, many more roads will be constructed and the problems
will multiply but the engineer can do his part to minimize them.
The first step is to see that the road is located in the proper
position in relation to the landscape.
This may appear to be a very easy thing to do but a wide and
varied background is needed by those who are to be considered
qualified to take the responsibility of this task.
Those responsible for this initial stage of development of our
forest resources should have a thorough background and appreciation
of geology and geomorphology and the ability to apply this science.
The proper location of the road is dependent on the landscape
and how it will react after the road is constructed. Closely
allied with this is aerial photo interpretation of landforms.
Many features of the area are not recognizable when making a
reconnaissance on the ground.
The study of soils should be given emphasis because it is closely
related to geology. The type and characteristics of soils vary
with the geological formation. Recognition of these soils and
how they will behave from the viewpoint of erosiveness and bear-
ing capacity is important.
I hope that everyone appreciates the problems of the road engineer.
Each of these sciences; geology, soil, and aerial photo interpre-
tation require/littie time in addition to all of the problems and
courses relating to forestry.
I feel that the location, design and construction of roads should
be predicated to the resources which they are to serve and it is
intolerable to exceed these limits. There is much more involved
in locating a road than running a grade line, and setting slope
stakes.
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The next point to consider is the design of the road. There is
no place in forestry for a road that is over designed. Why con-
struct a two lane road when a single lane with turn outs will
serve the purpose. Not only is the cost unreasonable but the
area that is taken out of production is not justified. It is at
this point that forest engineers and highway engineers part. In
highway design they speak of cutting the backslopes on a 2:1 or 4:1
slope to reduce erosion and to increase stability. The slope stabil-
ity will be increased but the erosion will not be lessened unless
you think of erosion as being only a function of the velocity of water.
Low back slopes would, of course, reduce the velocity of water that
runs off. Slopes* of this sort are impossible in mountainous terrain,
It is ironoical that one of the end products of good watershed
management is one of the forces which produces erosion. There are
two means of eliminating erosion by water. One is to cover the
soil and the other is to dike the area so that no water can leave.
One of the most serious forms of erosion is splash erosion which
is the first in a series of events that leads to more erosion.
What is the source of the sediment that reaches the streams? Does
it come from the area that has been logged or does it come from
the areas where the soil has been disturbed in the construction
of the roads? I do not know. Studies are being conducted on the
H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest at the present time on this prob-
lem.
Perhaps a step in the right direction to reduce sediment in streams
is the correct design of the logging road itself. As I have already
indicated accelerated erosion takes place when the soil is exposed.
Assuming that approximately 5 miles of road are required to log a
section of land, the area that is taken out of production is about
22 acres per section. This is based on the following: 14 foot
road width, 2 foot ditch, fill slopes 1%:1, cut slopes 1:1, 607.
ground slope, and half of the road constructed on fill. However,
if the backslope were reduced to %:1, the area taken out of pro-
duction by the road would be reduced by 35%.
Charles Fogelquist of the Bureau of Land Management computed the
differences between backslopes of %:1, and 1:1 per mile of road
on 80% ground slope for a 20 foot road to be 10.1 acres. Thus,
by increasing the angle of the cut slope, a considerable saving
can be made in excavation and at the same time reducing the area
of raw soil that is exposed to erosion. Taking this one step farther,
it is not unreasonable to cut the backslope almost vertically if the
cut does not exceed 10 feet. Hence, no soil would be exposed. Back
slopes which are cut vertically do not have the factor of safety that
is often desired and this would be evident by small slumps and fail-
ures. Temporarily these failures might be a nuisance but when the
road is maintained, this material, if not too great in volume, could
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be spread on the surface of the road where it would serve as an ex-
cellent binder for the surface rock. Where the cut is greater than
10 feet, the back slope might be made steeper than normal but this
should be accompanied by bench construction. Studies have shown that
the factor of safety on cut banks is increased more per cubic yard
of excavation by benching the slope than by reducing the angle of the
slope. Precaution must be taken to provide careful drainage of the
benches so that the water reaching them is drained away and not per-
mitted to infiltrate into the soil thereby reducing the resistance
of the soil to shear which would result in more failures.
If the road has been properly designed, there will not be an excess-
ive amount of waste material. However, the side cast material cannot
always be avoided when the road is fully benched. Where the ground
slope permits a portion of the road is constructed on fill, the slope
should be properly prepared. All of the organic material should be
removed from the area involved because if it is not removed, it will
only serve as a plane of failure which increases the chances of the
road failing by having the fill material slide down the cut.
Since many roads are constructed in clay type soils, the chances of
the above types of failures would be decreased if the slope on which
the fill is to be constructed is stepped or notched and covered with
a granular material before constructing the fill. This will tie
the fill material to the slope and it is easily done without an
increase in cost by the operator when the road is pioneered and
before the cut is started at the upper slope stake.
Clay soils create many problems in road construction, particularly
in fills. While clay has a low bearing capacity, this feature can
be overcome if the clay soil is covered by adequate material that
has more desirable characteristics. In fill sections, the clay
soils may be used to within 3 feet of the surface of the subgrade.
The fill itself should not be made by end dumping if it is to have
a height greater than ten feet but should be built up in lifts of
eight or ten inches and properly compacted the full width of the
fill.
Compaction is another part of the construction that has not received
adequate attention in the construction of logging roads. It is true
that optimum moisture conditions are difficult to obtain even to
approach them would limit road building to a short period during the
summer. Too much road construction takes place when conditions are
unfavorable. The type of compaction depends on the soil type. In
a sandy soil vibration of the caterpillar will provide compaction
but in most soils, operating equipment on the road is not enough to
provide proper compaction, and what compaction does take place is
concentrated in the two wheel tracks.
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The benefits of proper compaction are more than justified by the
increase in cost of construction for this operation. Compaction
reduces the void ratio of the soil and this retards capillary
action. Capillary water can cause a road to fail in spite of
the fact that it may have a near impervious surface. Compaction
increases the bearing strength of the soil which results in less
rock being required for surfacing. This means lower costs and
less maintenance to repair failures in the subgrade. A means of
compaction which involves no cost is to permit the road to set
through one or two winters before using. Time, rain, and gravity
will provide the compaction.
Many full bench failures result because of a lack of compaction.
Ruts are formed in the road which serve as collecting places for
water The water enters the soil and reduces the resistance of
the soil to shear. Compaction should be also applied to roads
that are fully benched.
Small intermittent drainages should not be diverted by ditch to
a large culvert in a fill to reduce costs. This excess water
can cause a fill failure by weakening the subgrade of the fill.
I realize that I have dealt in generalities but in summarizing I
would like to emphasize these points again.
1. Be sure that the road is properly located by consider-
ing the landscape and stability of the landforms.
2. Do not over-design the road.
3. Reduce to a minimum the area of raw soil exposed in
construction.
4. Give more consideration to compaction and construction
methods in building fills.
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DISCUSSION ITEM 4b and 4c
Q. What increase in yield can be expected by decreasing the inter-
ception of rain and snow through the controlled removal of the
forest cover?
A. The interception losses result from evaporation of rain and snow
intercepted by the forest cover. The evaporation rate is higher
than that of the snow pack due to the larger area exposed. Along
the Cascades the best figures available indicate a 207. loss due
to interception. In the Rocky Mountains the figures are consider-
ably greater, about 407e.
Q. At what elevation do these figures apply?
A. They apply to a 2500 foot elevation and perhaps will be lower
above this elevation and higher below it.
Q. Is there evidence of logging reducing run-off?
A. A study of the effect of logging in the Seattle Cedar River
watershed, an area of about 143 square miles, showed no indication
that there was any reduction in run-off due to logging.
Q. What are the relative merits of stream gravel vs crushed rock
for the construction of logging roads?
A. What is practiced and what is preached are two different things.
This is an economic problem. The logging companies are inclined
to take gravel from the most available area, which sometimes is
directly from the stream bed. On Federal forest lands the Forest
Service has complete jurisdiction and can demand that a company
use crushed gravel. Here the question is whether taking the stream
gravel is doing any harm.
The use of rock from the stream is not desirable from the standpoint
of the best road because of the rounded smooth surfaces. Even
crushed rock from the stream is not desirable as it leaves one
rounded side. For best results there should be complete fractures
on all sides of the rock.
A major factor in the selection of rock is the stability of the
logging operation. In the State of Washington logging is a long
term operation since much of the timber is on a sustained yield
basis. Higher costs for roads are more justified on a long term
operation.
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Item 3d
MANAGEMENT OF MINING OPERATION
R. S. Mason
Mining in Oregon began with the discovery of gold at Jacksonville in
1851. That same year gold was also discovered at Griffin Gulch not
far from Baker. The next quarter of a century saw a full-fledged
gold rush in Oregon. Placer gold, found in the streams and later
in the adjacent banks, formed the basis for this tremendous activity
which brought thousands of people to the State, provided a wilder-
ness society with art abundance of wealth, and established the first
semblance of a legal structure. It is significant that Oregon became
a State long before many of her sisters lying far to the east, due
in large part to the search for gold.
The abuses perpetrated by the early-day miners are common knowledge.
However they were not alone. The farmer, the stockman, the logger--
all moved to Oregon because of the land. They left behind wreckage
and brought injurious practices with them. The prospect of limitless
land and an abundance of natural resources made conservation of any
kind uneconomic and unheard of.
Once the easily obtainable stream placers were exhausted, miners
turned first to the gold-bearing stream banks and later to the rich
veins cropping out on the hillsides. To work banks required capital,
and in many cases water for the hydraulic giants. Ditches to supply
the water were dug by hand, often in record time, in mountainous,
unsurveyed areas. The Auburn Canalt the Rye Valley Ditch, the Sparta
Ditch, and the Eldorado Ditch were completed in the 1860's and '70's.
The Eldorado Ditch, incidentally, was 100 miles long, an engineering
feat which would be of major proportions today even with earth-moving
machinery. To mine underground required even more financing and for
the first time the large mining companies appeared. The completion
of the transcontinental railroad in 1885 signalled the beginning of
a period of intensive mining and milling which was to continue, with
some fluctuations, until World War II and the ill-advised government
order L-208 which permanently closed nearly all of the State's metal
mines. Gold dredging in Oregon began in earnest about 30 years ago.
In 1938 there were 12 dredges active in eastern Oregon; in 1939 the
State had 15 floating dredges and 13 non-floating washing plants.
Gold dredging came to an abrupt halt with World War II, and only
a few attempts have been made to revive it since.
Of all the mining activity in the State during the past 109 years,
none has been subjected to more criticism than gold dredging. Admit -
edly there were abusesa but the outcry has been largely based on an
emotional rather than a factual basis. In 1939, a total of .0015
percent of the State's crop land was dredged. Translated this amounts
to only 70 acres. It has been estimated that if all of the potential
dredgeable ground should be dredged it would amount to .04 percent
53
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of the State's crop land. Land abuse and stream pollution are always
related, The relationship is sometimes obvious, as in the case of
some dredging where water is muddied and silt introduced into the
stream. In other cases the tie between land abuse and stream pol-
lution is not so readily apparent. An over-cropped farm or a hillside
stripped of trees will eventually pollute the streams with topsoil and
silt. The big difference is that pollution from dredging occurs at
the time of the operation, but pollution from poor farming or logging
takes place during periods of heavy rain when the muddy water is assumed
to be due to "natural" causes. Dredging operations attract the public
because they are unique. Farming is conducted on private land often
protected by "No Trespassing" signs; and logging is carried out on
vast areas of the public domain to which the public is barred by locked
gates.
Today the mining industry presents a far different picture from that
of 50 years ago. Mining companies have largely replaced the individ-
ual operator who was primarily interested in immediate return rather
than a long-term investment. Mining has recognized that it must
accept its share of community responsibility, just as other manufacturers
and logging companies have done. Any well-established business real-
izes that good public relations are a "must." The high cost of set-
ting up any type of industry today requires a long period for amort-
ization--and the assurance that it will be permitted to stay in busi-
ness. The mining industry is particularly vulnerable to this sit-
uation, with amortization periods ranging from 20 years upwards re-
quired for most large-scale operations. Mining companies also have
learned that it is good business to police their own ranks rather than
to have punitive and restrictive legislation forced upon them. A
few examples of present-day mining company pollution-control practices
illustrate this point. In the southeastern United States, areas which
have been mined for bauxite by ALCOA have been reseeded to trees
which are tended every bit as carefully as our own tree farms in the
Northwest, Here in Oregon, ALCOA is also in the tree farm business -
before they have even started to mine. In Washington and Columbia
counties, where this company owns a considerable acreage of land
underlain by ferruginous bauxite, a two-fold planting program is under-
way. Much of the land is cut over, brush covered, nonproductive, and
only part of it has minable bauxite. Incidentally, a great deal of
this nonproductive area is the result of bad cutting practice by early
loggers. On the areas that are not underlain by bauxite, trees are
planted in the regular tree-farm way; on the areas which will be mined
eventually trees are planted for sale as Christmas trees. Sand and
gravel operators in the Middle East have found that unsightly gravel
pits can be landscaped and made into housing developments featuring a
boat landing for every home. The reclamation work of the Porter
Brothers in Bear Valley, Idaho, is well known. Twenty years ago
Harms & Larson dredged and then leveled and resoiled 100 acres along
Horse Creek in northern California. In this case it is interesting
to note that the cost of doing this work was exactly double the original
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value of the land. With these examples in mind it is difficult
to see why there should be any problem. Actually there is one.
Over the years, and in many parts of the world> the gold dredging
industry has been accused of despoiling the countryside when it
could have reclaimed much of it. The plain fact of the matter
is that in most cases the landowner did not want his land reclaimed-
if he had to pay anything to have it done. The economics are quite
clear: An acre of gold-bearing alluvial material containing the
least amount of gold that would make it economic to mine would
probably return the landowner about $850. A farm containing 100
acres would return $85,000 without one penny of expense. How
many farmers would be interested in farming any more if they
had that kind of money all in one chunk? The same problem exists
for land underlain with sand and gravel, bauxite, or any other
mineral product which must be mined from the surface. Host sur-
face-stripped land can be reclaimed and water pollution held to
an absolute minimum; the mining industry is willing and eager to
do it, but the sad fact remains that all too often the landowner
is more interested in immediate gain than in a long-term invest-
ment. Clearly something must be done.
The problems as we see them are these: (1) the failure by large
segments of the people to recognize that mining is an essential
industry, indispensable to our way of life and to our very exist-
ence. Since the invention of fire, man's eating habits have
Cahnged little. What sets modern man apart from his ancestors
is his use of metals, and metals also spell the difference between
the free nation and the conquered one. (a) Although mining oper-
ations on State and Federal lands can be controlled by existing
legislation and present mining practices, there is a real problem
when mining is conducted on privately-owned land. The landowner
needs to be educated in the value of his land, not just for his
own sake but as a community responsibility. The mining industry
will cooperate as fully as possible, but cooperation is a two-way
street. (3) Mining is not the only industry that has stream
pollution problems, and the matter should be viewed in its entirety.
Basically, stream pollution and land abuse are the by-products of
civilization, and the record dates back 7000 years. (4) Real-
ization that any regulatory measures to control mining activity
must be drawn with care lest they destroy the industry. Over the
past twenty-five years most of the legislation related to mining
has been of a restrictive nature. This is in sharp contrast to
the great number of laws passed to help nearly every phase of our
economy. It is not necessary to spend large amounts of taxpayers'
money on slogans such as "Keep Oregon Mineralized.'1 All that the
mining industry wants is the opportunity to "Keep Oregon Mining."
The economic impact of surface mining has been often obscured by
a flurry of criticism. The mining industry produces more dollars
per gallon of water used than nearly any other industry, and most
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of the water that is used can either be re-cycled or returned to
the stream in good condition. A few comparisons may be informative.
In 1957 the average return from an acre of agricultural land in
Oregon was $20.18. At this rate it would take 42 years of pro-
duction to equal the value of the gold royalty paid to a landowner
whose land contained the absolute minimum that could be mined econ-
omically. Farm land in the Salem Hills area would have to produce
crops continuously until the year 2439 to equal the monetary gain
from the sale of bauxite lying just below the surface. Over 100
years ago the gold rush leap-frogged Oregon and California into
statehood years ahead of some of the less minerally-endowed states.
Today the mining industry offers the same springboard opportunity
in our race against time. With proper care we can have our minerals
our productive land, and clear streams. Mining has learned to live
in its community as an active, potent, wealth-producing neighbor.
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Attendance at the Seventh Symposium
Allen, E.J.
Anderson, H. Kenneth
Benson, D. J.
Bow, Wilson
Boverman, H.
Brand, R. E.
Bullard, W. E.
Burgess> F. J.
Burgner, R. L.
Campbell, Homer
Charlton, David
Clapp, Nick
Clemetson, Tom
Cuyler, C. E.
Duns tan, G. H.
Eldridge, E. F.
Ferrell, W. K.
Haydu, E. P.
Holloway, J, H*
Kari, Earl H.
Katz, Max
Kelly, C. B,
Liggett, Al
Livingston, Al
Lucas, L. F.
Madison, Robert
Mason, R. S.
McHugh, Robert
Milliken, H. E.
Minnehan, Robert
Northcraft, M. E.
Norseth, B. Paul
Orlob, G. T.
Ovenell, F. J.
Pine, R. E.
Pintler, H.
Rulifson, R, L.
Stein, Jerry
Tatone, Ron
Wagner, R. A.
Wales, J. H.
Weathersbee, E.J.
Wickett, W. P.
Wilson, R, L.
Ziebell, Chuck
Water Department
Bureau of Water Works
Oregon Sanitary Authority
Wash. Dept. of Health
U. S, Forest Service
Oregon Dept. of Health
U. S. Forest Service
Oregon State College
Univ. of Washington
Oregon Game Commission
Char1ton Laboratories
Bureau of Water Works
Wash. Pollution Control C.
Public Health Service
Washington State Univ.
Public Health Service
Oregon State College
Weyerhaeuser Timber Co.
Rayonier Inc.
Public Health Service
Public Health Service
Public Health Service
Bureau of Water Works
Wash. Pollution Control C.
Crown Zellerbach Corp.
U. S. Geological Survey
Oregon Dept, Geology
Oregon Dept. of Health
Oregon Dept. of Health
Public Health Service
Oregon State College
Bureau of Water Works
University of California
Water Resources Adv.Com.
Washington Pollution C.C.
Seattle
Portland
Portland
Seattle
Portland
Portland
Portland
Corvallis
Seattle
Corvallis
Portland
Portland
Olyrapia
San Francisco
Pullman
Portland
Corvallis
Long-view
Shelton
Portland
Corvallis
Purdy
Portland
Olympia
Camas
Portland
Portland
Portland
Portland
Portland
Corvallis
Portland
Berkeley
Mt. Vernon
Olympia
California Dept. Fish & Game,Sacramento
Oregon Fish Commission
Rayonier Inc.
Bureau of Water Works
Wash. Pollution Control
Oregon State College
Oregon Dept. of Health
Canadian Fisheries Res.
Oregon State College
Portland
Shelton
Portland
C. Yakima
Corvallis
Portland
Br. Nana irao
Corvallis
Washington Pollution C.C. Olympia
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