WATER QUALITY
MANAGEMENT GUIDANCE
WPD EPA 440/9-76-022
RESIDUAL WASTE
Management
Practices
A WATER PLANNER'S GUIDE
TO LAND DISPOSAL
AUGUST 1976
Environmental Protection Agency
Water Planning Division
Washington, D.C. 20460
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RESIDUAL WASTE BEST MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES: A WATER PLANNER'S
GUIDE TO LAND DISPOSAL
Project Officer
Dr. M. Dean Neptune
Contract No. 68-01-3503
Modification No. 1
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Water Planning Division
Planning Assistance and Policy Branch
Washington, D.C. 20460
June, 1976
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ABSTRACT
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recognizes that water quality
may be adversely effected by nonpoint sources of pollution even after
significant measures have been taken and costs have been incurred for
controlling pollutants from point sources. Moreover, some pollutants
emanating from nonpoint sources result from improper deposition of
residual wastes. EPA contends that residual wastes can be more effi-
ciently managed and thus reduce deterioration of water quality by apply-
ing economical state-of-the-art practices termed Best Management Prac-
tices (BMP's). BMP's may be applied individually or in combination-
sequentially or simultaneously.
This Handbook, Residual Waste Best Management Practices: A Water Planner's
Guide to Land Disposal, describes residual wastes from nine most frequently
encountered sources and relates management of these wastes to exhaustive
enumeration of BMP's. This will provide the potential users - planners,
engineers, administrators, lawyers, elected officials and others, with a
reference for carrying out their residual waste management responsibilities
under areawide or State water quality management planning programs and
other regional/local activities.
This report is submitted in fulfillment of RFP No. WA-76-R045, Contract
No. 68-01-3503, Modification No. 1, by PEDCo-Environmental Specialists,
Inc. under sponsorship of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Work was completed March 14, 1976.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The direction and assistance provided by Dr. M. Dean Neptune, EPA
Project Officer, are gratefully acknowledged.
Cooperation of EPA professionals and others for reviewing drafts and
providing information is appreciated.
Direction of this project for PEDCo-Environmental Specialists, Inc.,
Cincinnati, Ohio, was conducted by Richard 0. Toftner. Principal
elements of the project were managed by Messrs. Charles Sawyer and
Thomas Janszen.
Subcontractors preparing specific Handbook elements were Mr. George
Wilson, Geraghty and Miller, Inc., Port Washington, N.Y., (Technical/
Scientific); Mr. Donald Macdonald, Science Applications, Inc., LaJolla,
Ca., (Legal/Institutional); and Dr. Samuel Fogel, Process Research
Division, Environmental Research and Technology, Inc., Concord, Ma.,
(state-of-the-art review). Technical editing was performed by Ms. Anne
Cassel of PEDCo.
in
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
2.0 RESIDUAL WASTE CATEGORIES 6
2.1 Wastewater Sludge 6
2.2 Septage Residuals 9
2.3 Water Treatment 12
2.4 Municipal Refuse 16
2.5 Combustion and Air Pollution Control Residuals 21
2.6 Industrial Wastes 25
2.7 Feedlot Residuals 30
2.8 Mining Wastes 39
2.9 Dredge Spoil Residuals 41
3.0 MANAGEMENT PRACTICES 51
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Residuals Utilization 52
3.3 Land Reclamation 57
3.4 Land Spreading 60
3.5 Sanitary Landfill 68
3.6 Ocean Disposal 93
3.7 Trench Sewage Sludge Disposal 93
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
3.8 Diversion and Drainage of Surface Runoff 95
4.0 TECHNICAL/SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS 103
4.1 Effects of Climate 103
4.2 Topography 111
4.3 Infiltration 113
4.4 Ground Water Hydraulics 118
4.5 Chemistry in the Subsurface 143
4.6 Vegetation 153
5.0 LEGAL/INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS 164
5.1 Introduction to Legal Aspects of Residual Waste 166
Management
5.2 An Introduction to Institutional Arrangements 188
6.0 APPLICATION OF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES 202
6.1 The Planning Process 202
6.2 Base Studies 203
6.3 Environmental Analysis 204
6.4 Organization 204
6.5 Financing 209
6.6 Case Study 211
APPENDIX A FIELD MONITORING AND SAMPLING A-l
APPENDIX B LABORATORY PROCEDURES FOR RESIDUAL WASTES B-l
APPENDIX C SITE EVALUATION CHECKLIST FOR LAND DISPOSAL OF C-l
RESIDUALS
APPENDIX D GLOSSARY D-l
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2-1 Geographic Distribution of Manure Production, 1975 36
3-1 Hydrogeology of Landfills with Ways of Using Under- 72
drains to Control Leachate Migration
3-2 Shredding and Material Separation Process 79
3-3 Pictorial Representation of Properly Designed Chemical 88
Landfill
4-1 The Hydrologic Cycle 106
4-2 Rock Texture in Major Aquifer Types 121
4-3 Diagram for Permeability, Transmissivity, and 126
Hydraulic Gradient
4-4 Coutour Map of a Ground Water Surface Showing Flow 127
Lines
4-5 Contaminant Flow in a Water-Table Aquifer 129
4-6 Plume of Contamination from an Industrial Waste 130
Disposal Site
4-7 Effect of Differing Coefficients of Transmissivity 132
Upon the Shape, Depth, and Extent of Cone of De-
pression.
4-8 Illustration of Interception of a Contaminated Ground 133
Water Plume by a Pumping Well
4-9 Dilution Effects of Natural Ground Water on Con- 134
taminants from a Disposal Area
4-10 Sectional View of a Ground Water Mound 136
VI
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LIST OF FIGURES (continued)
Page
4-11 Ground Water Flow in the Vicinity of a Mound 136
4-12 Comparison of Waste-Chloride Plumes in Snake River 142
Plain Aquifer for 1968-1969, Based on Well-Sample
Data and Computer Model
4-13 Soil Texture Triangle 147
4-14 The Nitrogen Cycle 149
6-1 The Planning Process 203
6-2 Environmental Analysis Flow 207
6-3 Central Region Organization of Governments Seven 214
County Area (CROG)
6-4 Location of the Ten Major Wastewater Treatment Plants 221
in CROG
6-5 Location of the Seven Water Treatment Plants 227
6-6 Areas Containing Sufficient Loess, Alluvium, and 232
Glacial Drift to Allow for Landfilling and Land
Spreading
6-7 Location of Abet Electric Power Plant 235
A-l Paths of Contaminants from Disposal Site to the A-2
Environment
vn
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2-1 Typical Composition of Domestic Sewage 8
2-2 Typical Composition of Septage 11
2-3 Composition of Water Treatment Sludges 14
2-4 Projected Annual Generation of Municipal Wastes in 16
United States
2-5 Municipal Refuse Generated in the United States in 18
1973 by Tons and Percentages
2-6 Typical Concentrations of Physical and Chemical 20
Parameters in Leachate from Land Disposal of Solid
Waste
2-7 Trace Elements in Fly Ash and Boiler Ash 23
2-8 Industrial Waste Parameters Having or Indicating 26
Significant Potential for Ground Water Contamination
2-9 Domestic Animal Population in the U.S.; Past, Present 33
and Projected Values
2-10 Annual Production of Livestock Manure: Past, Present, 34
and Projected in Millions of Wet Tons
2-11 Animal Waste Generation for Selected Animals in Con- 35
fined and/or Concentrated Areas
2-12 Manure Characteristics 37
2-13 Ranges of Minerals in AsJi Content of Coal 40
2-14 Typical Leachate Analysis Mine Waste 40
3-1 Potential Materials Recovery from Selected Industries 55
vm
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Page
3-2 Typical Dry Land Spreading Costs 67
3-3 Typical Solids Truck Transport Costs 67
3-4 Typical Landfilling Costs 77
3-5 Estimated Costs of Shredding and Material Separation, 80
and Lagooning and Landfilling of Ash from Combustion
in an Industrial Boiler
3-6 Estimated Costs of Incineration of Municipal Refuse 81
and Disposal of the Resultant Ash
3-7 Estimated Costs for Shredding and Landfill ing 82
3-8 Estimated Costs for Baling and Compacting Process 83
3-9 Typical Techniques Suitable to Treat Various Pollutant 85
Contaminants
3-10 Cost for Various Landfill Liner Materials 87
3-11 Estimated Order-of-Magnitude Costs to Operate a 100 90
Ton/Day Chemical Landfill Site
3-12 Total Cost for Chemical Landfill Operation at Union 91
Carbide's Institute, West Virginia Plant
4-1 Summary of Key Concepts Pertaining to Residuals Dis- 104
posal on Land
4-2 Recommended Determinations for Background Ground 112
Water Quality
4-3 Relation of Slope to Distance from Water Course 114
4-4 Relative Importance of Site Variables with Respect to 119
Disposal Methods
4-5 Comparative Properties of Soil Colloids 145
4-6 An Outline Showing, in a General Way, the Changes 151
that the Organic Compounds of Plant Tissue Undergo
in the Soil
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Page
4-7 Removal Efficiencies of Major Constituents for 154
Municipal Land-Application Systems
6-1 Items and Parameter of Items to be Considered in En- 205
vironmental Analysis
6-2 Guides Helpful in Environmental Analysis 206
6-3 Summary of Existing and Projected Population 215
6-4 Summary of Existing and Projected Employment 215
6-5 Existing and Future Land Uses, Percent by Major Use 217
6-6 Current and Projected Sludge Generation in the CROG 219
Area
6-7 Effects of Wastewater Sludges on Cost and Ground 224
Water Quality from Various Disposal Practices
6-8 Present and Projected Municipal Refuse Tonnages for 229
the Urbanized Areas of CROG
6-9 Ground Water Characteristics at the Landfill Site 233
6-10 Estimated Order-of-Magnitude Costs to Operate the 239
CROG Areawide Chemical Landfill Site
6-11 Number of Feedlots by Animal Type and County 241
6-12 Projected Annual Livestock Populations and Manure 243
Production
B-l Methods of Preservation B-2
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
This report has been formulated as a "handbook" to guide water quality
planners and decision-makers who are responsible in some way for manage-
ment of residual wastes. The responsibility may lie directly within the
structure of a State or areawide water quality management planning
agency, or it may relate to other regional/local agencies and activities.
We are concerned here not with limiting the applicability of the hand-
book, but rather with extending it to encompass all who may benefit from
the information presented herein. <
To exemplify the range of potential users, we cite the planning agency
administrator; the engineer, scientist, economist, attorney or other
legal specialist; the elected public official, the news media repre-
sentative, and the interested layman. These and all other persons
concerned with plans for meeting the mounting problems of residual waste
management are potential users of this handbook.
RESIDUAL WASTE CATEGORIES
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency defines residual wastes as
follows:
"Solid, liquid or sludge substances from man's activities in the
urban, agricultural, industrial, and mining environment not dis-
charged to water after collection and necessary treatment. These
wastes include, but are not limited to: sludges resulting from
water and domestic wastewater treatment, industrial sludges,
utility plant sludges, and mining sludges; solids resulting from
industrial and agricultural process waste materials and from
nonprocess industrial and commercial wastes (e.g., demolition
wastes, mine tailings, incinerator residues, dredge spoil, and
agricultural waste like crop residues, feedlot wastes and pesticide
containers); and liquids resulting from industrial side streams and
from agricultural processes."
This definition contrasts sharply with more restrictive earlier thinking,
in which the term 'residual wastes' denotes simply those wastes genera-
ted in treatment of wastewa'ters at municipal or areawide treatment
plants. The definition has been broadened to match the increasing scope
of residual waste problems. As a means of ordering this broader concept
into manageable segments, this handbook considers frequently encountered
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residual wastes sources in the following nine major categories:
1. Wastewater sludge
2. Septage
3. Water treatment residuals
4. Municipal refuse
5. Wastes from combustion and air pollution controls
6. Industrial wastes
7. Feedlot wastes
8. Mine wastes
9. Dredge spoil
MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS
The term 'management,1 as applied to residual wastes, implies a syste-
matic and integrated approach to problem-solving, in which the enviro-
nmental media (air, water, land) affected by man's disposal practices
are viewed as a whole and are related as fully as possible to the other
major facets of man's activities: the social, economic, institutional,
and political structures of present-day life.
With respect to this overview of the total environment, a management
practice cannot allow the simple shifting of a problem from one medium
to another as, for example, in contamination of water supplies by
residuals from devices installed to control air pollutants.
Planning for residual waste management involves consideration of these
principal factors:
0 Costs and benefits
0 Scheduling and logistics
0 Technological research and development
0 Institutional arrangements
0 Legal considerations
0 Socio/political structures
0 Public information and education
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BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
This handbook presents and exemplifies the concept of Best Management
Practices (BMP's), which entail the coordination of management expertise
with technology assessment to yield the best possible integrated manage-
ment scheme for each specific situation. BMP's refer to a practice or
combination of practices that is determined by a State after examination
of alternative practices to be practicable and most effective in prevent-
ing or reducing the amount of pollution generated by a nonpoint source
to a level compatible with water quality goals. BMP's involve applying
a full array of management skills toward a single goal: meeting water
quality and other environmental objectives at minimum cost. In applying
BMP's the planner will look at residual wastes in nontraditional ways:
he will consider waste materials not only as water quality problems but
as potential assets. He will therefore emphasize (1) when possible,
reducing at the source and recovering or beneficially utilizing resource
values contained in such wastes, and (2) satisfactory land disposing of
wastes presently unrecoverable. He will scrutinize closely the poten-
tial for reducing waste volumes at the source and intermediate handling
steps to alleviate ultimate disposal problems.
BMP's are situation-specific. What constitutes a best management prac-
tice in XYZ County may not, and probably will not, provide the best
solution for the problems of ABC County. Moreover, a single management
technique, such as land application of sludge, does not become a 'best1
practice until, having been evaluated among other alternatives, it is
determined to be the optimum method in terms of costs and benefits, and
is put into action.
A BMP may be applied on a short-term basis to resolve an existing problem
with residuals; plans may include eventual phaseout of the practice as
the situation is corrected or controlled. In such short-term applica-
tions to existing situations, the practices are constrained somewhat by
in-place facilities, such as treatment works and industrial plants, and
by existing governmental and administrative structures. In potential
polluting situations, however, such as the planning of a new residential
sector, an industrial/commercial complex, or a new town, the planner
deals with a wider range of options. He is planning for the long term,
and has opportunity for preventive application of best management
practices.
In working with specific problems the planner will hope, of course, for
an occasional breakthrough, an intuitive, thrust that resolves an unman-
ageable problem. We tend to think of these as occuring mostly in
technology - as sudden insights into materials, designs, and systems.
They may occur also in the administrative end of management, when the
planner detects a solution that has heretofore been hidden -- perhaps
the design of an institutional structure that will effectively mesh the
efforts of several fragmented groups.
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Although such events are hoped for and encouraged, they are not the only
form -- or even the major form -- of progress in residuals management.
Progress may be realized also with every patient and painstaking effort
of an individual planner. When he can elicit cooperative attitudes and
develop working relationships among rival institutions, agencies, or
groups, he is engaged in one phase of Best Management Practice.
PURPOSE OF THE HANDBOOK
This handbook is intended as a body of knowledge that can guide the
planner toward Best Management Practices. It is not a design/construc-
tion manual with schematics for building a treatment plant or grading a
landfill site. It is not an exhaustive treatise of legal ramifications
and institutional planning techniques or a professional hydrogeologist1s
manual on hydrogeology. The technical discussions will not eliminate
the planner's need for professional consultation. Rather, the level of
technical exposition is intended to provide a background that will
enable the planner to understand the problems of and to work knowledge-
ably with his technical consultants.
Organization of the handbook reflects the major elements involved in
Best Management Practices and the underlying theme that successful
management involves the continual integration of technical/administra-
tive functions and skills.
The handbook gives information that will aid the planner in identifying
problems. It provides guidance for the user in formulating preventive
and ameliorative programs, in assembling staff and consultants, in
developing and applying BMP's, and in assessing the degree of success
achieved in residuals management efforts.
A USER'S GUIDE TO THE HANDBOOK
Residual Haste Categories (Section 2)
What must be disposed of Defines nine major categories of residual
wastes:
0 quantities generated
0 physical and chemical characteristics
0 effects on the environment
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Management Practices (Section 3)
How residuals are reduced,
recovered for use, or
disposed.
Estimated costs
Describes basic techniques of residuals
processing, recovery if possible, and
disposal. Relates the management options
to the categories of residuals discussed
in Section 2. Gives estimated and
average costs.
Technical/Scientific Aspects (Section 4)
Resource information on
hydrogeology, topography,
climatology
Emphasis on groundwater
systems
Provides background information that is
useful in selecting technical consultants
and key staff. Also useful in evaluating
consultant and staff reports and perfor-
mance. Reviews the basic phenomena that
determine how residuals affect our water
resources.
Legal/Institutional Aspects (Section 5)
How to establish a region
wide management function
Common legal problems
how they are handled
Describes the principal constitutional and
environmental legal problems in terms of
liabilities, remedies, and institutional
arrangements encountered in residuals and
management. Describes the institutional
options: the principal mechanisms for
setting up a regionwide residuals man-
agement organization.
Application of Management Practices (Section 6)
Where to start and what
to do in achieving BMP's
BMP's exemplified in
study
case
Provides guidance for developing a manage-
ment program step by step.
0 the planning process
0 the base studies of a regionwide
locale
0 the full-scale environmental assess-
ment
0 the management organization
0 the financing options
Presents a case study in which BMP's are
developed from the planning stage through
application in a hypothetical region
exemplifying typical residuals disposal
problems.
5
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2.0 RESIDUAL WASTE CATEGORIES
The total body of materials encompassed by the term 'residual wastes' is
a complex assortment of substances of diverse characteristics and modes
of origin. The nine categories presented here are used throughout this
handbook as a means of identifying and discussing some of the more
prevalent types of residuals. These categories, based on source, are
not to be considered as exhaustive or limiting, since they do not
represent all possible types of residual wastes.
Each residual category presented here is analyzed in terms of sources,
quantities generated, characteristics, environmental effects, and com-
pliance requirements.
2.1 WASTEWATER SLUDGE
Sludge is the accumulated solids that are separated from liquids such as
water or wastewater during processing; in addition, it is the precipi-
tate resulting from chemical treatment, coagulation, or sedimentation of
water or wastewater. Although the solids carried in wastewater repre-
sent less than 0.1 percent of the total weight of the wastewater flow,
cost of their disposal represents 30 to 50 percent of the total cost
associated with wastewater treatment (Ref. II-l). If proper care is not
taken in handling and disposal, wastewater sludges can present a poten-
tial pollution hazard.
2.1.1 Sources of Wastewater Sludges
Currently there are over 21,000 publicly owned wastewater treatment
plants in the nation (Ref. II-2). Sludges from typical secondary
wastewater treatment plants come from the primary and final clarifiers.
In advanced wastewater treatment (also called tertiary treatment), large
quantities of chemical sludge are generated by the addition of lime to
remove phosphorous.
2.1.2 Quantity of Sludge
The quantity of wastewater sludge generated in the United States in 1972
was 4.7 million tons (4.3 million metric tons) on a dry basis. It is
estimated that sludge generation will increase to about 6.6 million tons
(6 million metric tons), dry basis, by 1985 (Ref. II-3). For planning
purposes, generation of primary sludge is typically about 0.12 pound
(0.05 kg) per capita per day of dry solids, and generation of secondary
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sludge is about 0.08 pound (0.04 kg) per capita per day. -Many secondary
and tertiary treatment processes require the addition of chemicals,
which greatly increase the solids content of wastewater and the amount
of sludge to be removed. Solids content ranges from approximately 0.04
to 0.35 pound (0.02 to 0.16 kg) of dry solids per capita per day (Ref.
II-4). Introduction of wastewater from industrial sources into a treat-
ment plant may increase the average sludge generation rate by 20 to 50
percent, depending upon the type of industry and its percentage contri-
bution to the total daily flow of solids into the municipal treatment
facility.
2-1-3 Characteristics of Sludge
Sludge is a mixture of organic and inorganic solid phases suspended in
an aqueous solution. Primary sludge is gray and has an offensive odor.
Solids content of primary sludge ranges from 2 to 7 percent. Activated
sludge is brown, with no characteristic odor. Solids content ranges
from 1 to 3 percent. Trickling filter humus is brownish. The fresh
trickling filter sludge has a less offensive odor than primary sludge;
its solids content range from 2 to 5 percent. Digested sludge is dark
brown to black. If thoroughly digested, it has an odor similar to that
of hot tar or burnt rubber.
Table 2-1 shows the typical composition of domestic sewage. The solids
fraction of wastewater sludge is primarily composed of biodegradable
organics (30%), stable organics (35%), and inorganic materials (35%)
(Ref. II-5).
2.1.4 Environmental Effects
The disposal/utilization of sludges affects both the environment and its
inhabitants in a variety of ways ranging from the nuisance of offensive
odors to the health hazards of contaminated water supplies. Most com-
plaints associated with sludge concern odors. The digestion process
entails reduction in volatile solids contents, which stabilizes the
sludge and reduces its odor potential. Of greater concern from the
health protection standpoint, however, are problems of disease trans-
mission, toxicities, and contamination of water supplies. The pos-
sibility of disease transmission resulting from disposal of sewage
sludge on the land surface ranks as one of the primary objections to
such practices (Ref. II-7).
Toxicity - Numerous heavy metals (zinc, copper, iron, lead, cobalt,
cadmium, barium, nickel, boron, and arsenic) are present in wastewater
sludge in varying quantities. The disposal of, for example, industrial
sludges on agricultural land may impair the growth of crops because of
the heavy-metal content or may endanger the food chain through excessive
accumulation of these metals in the edible portion of the crops. These
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Table 2-1. TYPICAL COMPOSITION OF DOMESTIC SEWAGE
(All values except settleable solids in mg/1).
Constituent
Solids, total
Dissolved, total
Fixed
Volatile
Suspended, total
Fixed
Volatile
Settleable solids (ml/liter)
Biochemical oxygen demand, 5-day,
20 C (BODs)
Total organic carbon (TOC)
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
Nitrogen (total as N)
Organic
Free ammonia
Nitrites
Nitrates
Phosphorous (total as P)
Organic
Inorganic
Chlorides'"1
Alkalinity (as CaC03)
Grease
Concentration
Strong
1,200
350
525
325
350
75
275
20
300
300
1,000
85
35
50
0
0
20
5
15
100
200
150
Medium
700
500
300
200
200
50
150
10
200
200
500
40
15
25
0
0
10
3
7
50
100
100
Weak
350
250
145
105
100
30
70
5
100
100
250
20
8
12
0
0
6
2
4
30
50
50
a Values should be increased by amount in carriage water.
Source: Ref. II-6.
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asepcts are reviewed in depth by Chaney (Ref. II-8), Chaney and Giordano
(Ref. II-9), Webber (Ref. 11-10), and Page (Ref. 11-11).
Ground and Surface Water Contamination - Surface waters can become
contaminated during periods of rainfall when recently applied sludge
materials are washed from the land surface.
The effects of groundwater contamination may not be immediately obvious,
and they may continue for some time after corrective measures are
instituted. The problem of groundwater contamination is highly complex,
as described more fully in the technical discussions in Section 4.
2.1.5 Compliance Requirements
There are no Federal regulations governing land disposal of wastewater
sludge. However, Section 405 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
Amendment of 1972 (PL 92-500) contains provisions enabling EPA to issue
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits for the
purpose of controlling contamination of navigable streams from improper
sewage sludge disposal. Some states, however, follow Federal recom-
mendations for various land disposal methods (Ref. 111-39). Ocean
disposal is regulated by the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries
Act, 1972 (40 CFR 220-227) and is discussed further in Section 3. The
following additional sections of PL 92-500 relate to the production and
disposal of wastewater sludges:
Section 201 - Construction of treatment works
Section 208 - Areawide waste treatment management
Section 301 - Effluent limitations
Section 306 - Effluent guidelines
Section 307 - Toxic and pretreatment standards
Section 402 - National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES) permit requirements
Section 403 - Ocean discharge criteria
2.2 SEPTAGE RESIDUALS
Septage is a residual waste product of septic tanks that is produced
nationwide in tonnages equal to the total production of sludge from
municipal waste treatment plants as stated in section 2.1. Although the
quantities are large, septage has received little-attention from environ-
mental engineers and scientists. Its fate in and effects on the envir-
onment are generally unknown (Ref. 11-12). Disposal of septage poses
many problems because regulatory agencies provide no detailed guidance
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on proper disposal methods. Some environmental problems .resulting from
septage concern artificial nutrients, pathogens and aesthetics (Ref. II-
13).
2.2.1 Sources of Septage
Septage is the material that is pumped from septic tanks or cesspools.
It is a sludge with solids content ranging from 1 to 8 percent, and is
made up of settled materials, scum- (floatable solids), and liquor.
2.2.2 Quantity of Septage
It is estimated that about 20 million dwellings in the United States
have septic tanks, which serve populations of 70 to 80 million people
(Ref. 11-12, 13).
2.2.3 Quality of Septage
Septage can be characterized as a gray to black liquor sludge. Hydrogen
sulfide, a product of anaerobic digestion, gives septage its character-
istic offensive odor. The composition of septage is highly variable.
Characteristic ranges of several septage parameters are presented in
Table 2-2, along with two sets of average values.
Because of the common practice of discharging septage into municipal
wastewater treatment plants, the septage composition shown in Table 2-2
can be compared with composition of a typical raw municipal wastewater
to illustrate the magnitude of the differences. The suspended solids
and nitrogen contents of septage are approximately 100 times and 20
times, respectively, more concentrated than those in raw domestic waste-
water. These differences can upset operation of treatment plants and
decrease treatment efficiencies.
2.2.4 Environmental Effects
Because of its anaerobic nature, bacteria inhabiting septic tanks must
be at least facultatively anaerobic to grow in this environment. High
counts of coliform bacteria, fecal streptococci, and pathogens such as
Pseudomonas aeruqinosa, staphylococci, salmonellae, and enteric viruses
have been found (Ref. 11-14). By any standards septic tank effluents
represent a potential public health danger when left exposed and untreated.
The most common environmental problem related to the disposal of septage
is artificial nutrient enrichment of surface and groundwaters. In areas
where proper disposal is not practiced, accelerated eutrophication of
ponds and rivers resulting from septage is common.
10
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Table 2-2. TYPICAL COMPOSITION OF SEPTAGE
Parameter
BOD5
Total solids
Total suspended
solids (TSS)
Volatile suspen-
ded solids
CODsoluble
CODtotal
Total Kjeldahl
nitrogen
Ammonia nitrogen
Total phosphorous
Iron
Manganese
Zinc
Cadmium
Nickel
Mercury
mg/1
Range values9
2,000-25,000
7,000-106,000
(46-82% of TSS)
5,000-80,000
Average values
41 ,900
39,100
30,100
3,360
Average values9
39,500
27,400
60,600
650
120
214
163
5.4
62
0.2
<1
0.02
Average of 21 different samples. Source: Ref. 11-16.
Average of 24 different samples. Source: Ref. 11-12, 15.
11
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Contamination of drinking water sources by nutrients contained in
septage is also common. Nitrates, in particular, formed by the nitri-
fication of ammonia, readily leach through soil and can contaminate
wells. In areas where nitrates exceed the U.S. Public Health Service
limit of 10 mg/1 N02-N, the possibility of infants contracting methemo-
globinemia is increased.
2.2.5 Compliance Requirements
There are no Federal requirements that deal with the disposal of septage.
Responsibility for providing means of septage disposal is generally
allocated to local boards of health, which are in turn responsible to
state officials.
2.3 WATER TREATMENT
The sources of a public water supply are atmospheric (precipitation),
ground (springs or wells), or surface waters (streams, rivers, lakes),
all of which usually require some form of treatment before release into
a modern water system. Atmospheric waters, generally understood to be
rainwater and groundwaters do not require purification as extensive as
that needed to prepare surface waters for domestic usage.
The residuals generated from water treatment processing are quantitatively
comparable to tonnages generated nationally in wastewater treatment. In
1975 approximately 5.7 million tons (5.2 million metric tons) were
generated. Much of the operation and maintenance of a normal treatment
plant is in fact concerned with the handling and disposal of sludge.
2.3.1 Number of Plants and Residuals Sources
Although the locations of water treatment plants are population depen-
dent, the Environmental Protection Agency currently estimates that some
240,000 public water systems will be subject to regulatory requirements
developed under the Safe Drinking Water Act (Public Law 93-523) of 1974.
From among this total distribution, about 200,000 are privately owned
noncommunity systems serving a transient population, as at camp grounds,
parks, and motels; the remaining 40,000 are community systems. Of the
latter figure, 58 percent are publicly owned and produce some 88 percent
of the total drinking water. A current EPA inventory of the national
public water supply indicates that approximately 177 million persons are
served by community water systems (Ref. 11-17).
Residuals from the processing of these waters are dependent on the type
of treatment. Most waste-producing water treatment plants use one or
more of the following processes: softening; removal of iron and mangan-
ese; and coagulation, followed by flocculation and sedimentation. The
12
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resultant sludge is normally collected in sedimentation basins but may
be secured through filtration. The process, therefore, affects the
composition of the waste.
2.3.2 Quantity of Sludges
The total quantity of sludge generated 1,i these waste-producing water
treatment processes is estimated at 15,670 tons (14,228 metric) per day
(1975) or a per capita rate of 0.177 pound (80.0 grams) per day. With
the expected continuing increase in population, the projected sludge
generation in 1995 will be about 18,717 tons (16,995 metric) per day,
assuming the same per capita rate (Ref. 11-18).
2.3.3 Quality of Sludges
Variability in the composition of water treatment sludges is shown in
the characteristic ranges of several parameters presented in Table 2-3.
Wastes resulting from different types of treatment processing can be
characterized accordingly.
Sludges derived from coagulation may contain sand or silt, dissolved or
colloidal organic material, microscopic organisms, and materials such as
aluminum hydroxides or polyelectrolytes that stem from the chemicals
used in the coagulation process. The sludge has a very low solids
content, ranging downward from 2 percent, and has a gelatinous texture
that makes dewatering difficult. The volume of sludge produced by a
coagulation-flocculation plant usually ranges from 1 to 5 percent of the
water treated. Water from filter backwash may contain particles of silt
and aluminum, activated carbon, and suspended organic materials.
Sludges generated in iron and manganese removal processes are highly
colored; they constitute a part of the filter backwash water. If the
ratio of both constituents to silt or other easily filtered matter is
high (as it is in some groundwaters), the sludges from iron and man-
ganese removal are usually gelatinous and may be almost as difficult to
dewater as sludges from coagulation plants.
Calcium carbonate is the main constituent in the sludges from chemical
softening operations, usually accounting for 80 to 95 percent of the
weight of solids in the sludge. Softening-derived sludges may also
include hydrated oxides of magnesium, iron, aluminum, silt, and organic
matter. They are usually easier to dewater than coagulant sludges, but
the ease of dewatering varies widely. Factors that affect the treat-
ability of the sludge include the ratio of calcium to magnesium and the
amount of gelatinous solids present. Gelatinous solids may stem from
colloids, iron and manganese, or other materials. The solids content of
settled softening sludges can range from 2 to 30 percent. Their volume
usually ranges from 0.3 to about 5 percent of the volume of water treated
(Ref. 11-20).
13
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Table 2-3. COMPOSITION OF WATER TREATMENT SLUDGES
Parameter
BOD5
COD
Total dissolved solids
PH
Total suspended
solids
Sulfate
Chloride
Fluoride
Cadmium
Copper
Nickel
Lead
Zinc
Mercury
Magnesium
Calcium3
Range
values
30-300 mg/1
30-500 mg/1
£4000 mg/1
5-11 (pH units)
1-8% of sludge by
weight
£990 mg/1
£990 mg/1
£0.01-3 mg/1
£0.01 mg/1
£0.23 mg/1
<0.10 mg/1
£0.05 mg/1
£0.67
0.001 mg/1
5-12% of sludge by
weight
80-90% of sludge by
weight
No. of plants
reporting the
constituent
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
246
21
90
21
43
44
1
-
-
Values obtained from personal communication with D. DeCarlo, Burgess
and Niple Ltd.
Source: Ref. 11-19.
14
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2.3.4 Environmental Effects
The ultimate disposition of dewatered sludge from water treatment plants
will require large land areas. These land requirements may prevent
maximum beneficial utilization of land, and the disposal sites may be
aesthetically unpleasant. Improper disposal can cause significant
degrada-tion of land surfaces. For example, the spray application of
alum sludges to soil can possibly plug the surface, preventing further
passage of water, and can kill vegetation or prevent its growth. Further
discussion of soils and hydrology is presented in Section 4.
Of major concern is the impact on public health if the sludges contain
toxic substances (heavy metals, e.g., cadmium, copper, nickel, lead,
zinc and mercury). Agricultural usage of land on such a disposal site
could result in toxic levels of these materials in edible foodstuffs.
Consideration must be given also to pathogenic organisms,carried in the
sludge. Both toxic and pathogenic substances can contaminate surface
and subsurface waters. Further, the attraction of insects and rodents
to the disposal site could lead to distribution of pathogens in the
surrounding area. Other possible effects involve changes in surface
elevation, changes in soil characteristics, and land erosion.
A secondary environmental effect entails dissipation of disagreeable
odors to the atmosphere from lagoon operations, for example. Landfill ing
operations may generate pollutants in the form of methane and other
gases as well as fugitive dust from the application of soil cover.
Disposal of water treatment residuals in oceans or rivers is not recom-
mended, because it may transmit toxic metals to the aquatic food chain.
Other possible impacts are the occurrence of pathogens or odors along
the shorelines, which usually include recreational and residential
developments. Occasional washup and deposition of waste components on
the shore also can detract aesthetically.
2.3.5 Compliance Requirements
There are no Federal regulations that deal with the disposal of water
treatment residuals. Most States have some form of solid waste legis-
lation, which is enforced with varying intensity. The residual most
commonly addressed in these regulations is municipal refuse. Some
States also regulate wastewater treatment sludges and septage; few
states regulate the disposal of water treatment sludge. It is antici-
pated that this situation will change as the Safe Drinking Water Act
(Public Law 93-523)-evolves into regulations that can be enforced at the
State level or by the local boards of health.
15
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2.4 MUNICIPAL REFUSE
Municipal refuse includes both residential and common commercial waste
materials. It is defined as any discarded solid materials, liquids
absorbed in solid materials, or substances produced as a result of
individual consumption, commercial enterprise, or institutional pro-
cesses. Municipal refuse therefore can include such materials as paper,
cloth, metals, glass, rubble, plastic, wood, food residuals, vegetable
matter, animal wastes, and lawn and garden wastes.
2.4.1 Source of Municipal Refuse
Municipal refuse is generated from households, institutions, and com-
mercial concerns such as hotels, department stores, schools, restaurants,
and markets.
2.4.2 Quantity of Municipal Refuse
According to recent reports, approximately 144 million tons of municipal
refuse was generated in the United States in 1973, giving a daily per
capita rate of 3.75 pounds (1.7 kg) (Ref.11-21). Table 2-4 lists pro-
jected annual quantities of waste generation and per capita rates for
the years 1980 to 1990. Metric equivalents are shown in parentheses.
Table 2-4. PROJECTED ANNUAL GENERATION OF MUNICIPAL WASTES
IN THE UNITED STATES
Quantity of wastes
generated, million tons
(metric tons) per year
Waste generation per
capita per day,
pounds (kg)
Less resources recovered,
million tons (metric
tons) per year
Net waste to dispose of,
million tons (metric
tons) per year
1980
175(159)
4.28(1.94)
19(17)
156(142)
1985
201(183)
4.67(2.12)
35(32.)
166(151)
1990
225(204)
5.00(2.27)
58(53)
167(152)
Source: Ref. 11-21.
16
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The amount of residential refuse generated in an area is almost always
directly proportional to the population, and per capita generation rates
are usually fairly constant throughout the U.S. For example, a midwest-
ern metropolitan area covering about 3.8 thousand square miles (9.8
thousand sq. km) having a population of about 1,471,000, generated
810,000 tons (735,480 metric tons) of municipal refuse in 1970. This is
equal to a per capita rate of 3.02 pounds (1.37 kg) per capita per day
(Ref. 11-22). An area in the eastern United States covering about 3.4
thousand square miles (8.8 thousand sq. km) and having a 1975 population
of 1,731,310 generated approximately 1,109,036 tons (1,007,005 metric
tons) of municipal refuse. This is equal to a per capita rate of 3.51
pounds (1.59 kg) per capita per day (Ref. 11-23). A rural area in the
north central United States covering about 140 square miles (363 sq. km)
with a population of 7,450 generated 4,245 tons (3,854 metric tons) of
residential refuse in 1975. This is equal to a generation rate of 3.12
pounds (1.42 kg) per capita per day (Ref. 11-24).
These values show the similarity of per capita generation rates through-
out the United States and the relationship of total quantities generated
to population density. It should be noted that if industrial wastes are
figured into the per capita rates, they become very irregular and fluc-
tuate greatly, depending on the types, sizes, and numbers of industries
in a given area.
2.4.3 Quality of Municipal Refuse
Municipal refuse is usually 70 to 80 percent combustible material, the
remaining 20 to 30 percent being comprised of glass, metals (ferrous and
nonferrous), ceramics, and other miscellaneous inorganic materials.
Municipal refuse has a moisture content of about 25 percent contained
mostly in the combustible fraction (Table 2-5) (Ref. 11-21, 11-22).
When separated from the noncombustibles, the combustible faction may
yield heat values as high as 8,000 Btu per pound, (4444 kilogram-cal-
ories/kilogram) with a mean somewhere around 5,000 Btu per pound (2778
kilogram-calories/kilogram) (Ref. 11-21, 11-22).
Recoverable materials account for approximately 20 percent of municipal
refuse by weight; glass and ferrous metals alone account for about 18.2
percent of the total recoverables (Ref.11-23).
2.4.4 Environmental Effects
How municipal refuse is handled and disposed of dictates the effects it
will have on the environment. Materials not reduced or recovered for
reuse must ultimately be disposed of on or in the land. For example,
incineration may be used to reduce the volume of refuse, with the result-
ing ash ultimately placed on or in the ground. If resource conservation
is practiced, the materials having no secondary use are ultimately
17
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Table 2-5. MUNICIPAL REFUSE GENERATED IN THE UNITED STATES IN
1973 BY TONS AND PERCENTAGES
Type of waste
Durable goods:
Major appliances
Furniture, finishings
Rubber tires3
Miscellaneous durables
Nondurable goods, except food:
Newspapers3
Books, magazines3
Office paper3
Tissue paper, including towels
Paper plates, cupsa
Other nonpackaging paper3
Clothing, footwear3
Other miscellaneous nondurables3
Containers and packaging:
Glass containers:
Beer, soft drink
Wine, liquor
Food and other
Steel cans:
Beer, soft drink
Food
Other nonfood
Aluminum:
Beer, soft drink
Other cans
Aluminum foil
Paper, paperboard:
Corrugated3
Other paperboard3
Paper packaging3
Plastics:
Plastic containers3
Other plastic packaging
Food wastes3
Yard wastes3
Miscellaneous inorganic wastes
Total
Quantity
tons (metric tons)
1,000's
2,200 (1,998)
3,400 (3,087)
2,000 (1,816)
7,100 (6,447)
10,400 (9,443)
3,720 (3,378)
6,390 (5,802)
2,320 (2,107)
600 (545)
1,300 (1,180)
1,300 (1,180)
1,900 (1,725)
6,100 (5,539)
1,970 (1,789)
4,330 (3,932)
1,550 (1,407)
3,140 (2,851)
960 (872)
440 (400)
50 (45)
330 (300)
15,100 (13,711)
6,925 (6,288)
6,205 (5,634)
510 (463)
2,580 (2,343)
22,400 (20,339)
25,000 (22,700)
1,900 (1,725)
144,200 (130,934)
Percent
of total
waste
1.5
2.3
1.4
4.9
7.2
2.6
4.4
1.6
0.4
0.9
0.9
1.3
4.2
1.4
3.0
1.1
2.2
0.7
0.3
<0.1
0.2
10.5
4.8
4.3
0.4
1.8
15.6
17.4
1.3
100.0
a Represents combustible factions with total 76.9 percent of total
generated municipal wastes.
Includes all aluminum cans and aluminum ends from nonaluminum
containers.
Source: Extrapolated from Ref.11-21.
18
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disposed of in the ground. The most common means of refuse handling and
disposal is land disposal; it is not sanitary landfill ing, since most
disposal operations do not meet the requirements for sanitary landfills.
Placement of municipal residuals in the ground may lead to problems such
as leachate from the refuse reaching ground and surface waters, attrac-
tion of vermin, and formation of methane gas and carbon dioxide at
dangerous concentrations. Leachates may contain heavy metals at levels
hazardous to health and also may contain disease-causing microbial life.
2.4.4.1
viable bacterial
organisms per
iota!
Microbial Life - Recent studies of municipal refuse show
populations that range from 4.0 x 10^ to 6.8 x 10B
_..._ . gram and total coliform densities of 3.4 x 10^ to 5.1 x
10/ organisms per gram. Fecal coliform population in raw refuse ranges
from 1.5 x 10^ to 8.1 x 106 organisms per gram. These values indicate
contamination of the refuse by fecal matter, which is one avenue of
transmission of pathogenic microorganisms to the environment and man.
These organisms are found in lesser quantities in dust from the refuse
and also in stack gases from refuse incineration (Ref. 11-25).
2.4.4.2 Physical and Chemical Parameters - Leachate from land disposal
concentrations of substances that can cause
Table 2-6 lists concentrations of various
measured in leachate from a land
11-26). The release of such
could cause a potential hazard
operations may contain high
adverse environmental impacts.
substances and other characteristics
disposal operation in the Midwest (Ref.
materials into ground or surface waters
to the environment and to public health.
2.4.4.3 Other Environmental Problems - Insects and rodents are poten-
tial disease vectors in improperly operated landfills, resource recovery
centers, and storage containers. In addition, to being aesthetically
displeasing, uncovered wastes provide excellent breeding sites and food
sources for rats, flies, and mosquitoes. Rats harbor ectoparasites
which are known vectors of disease including murine typhus, salmon-
ellosis, rat-bite fever, plague, tapeworm, and other diseases harmful to
humans.
Various fly species are mechanical carriers of a large number of patho-
genic agents. Typhoid, bacillary and amebic dysentery, diarrhea, and
possibly salmonellosis, hepatitis, and poliomyelites are believed to be
transmitted by flies.
2.4.5 Compliance Requirements
The Solid Waste Disposal Act, (PL 89-272), as amended authorizes the
Administrator of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to encourage
the enactment of improved and uniform State and local laws governing
solid waste disposal. As a result, some States have enacted laws
19
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Table 2-6. TYPICAL CONCENTRATIONS OF PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PARAMETERS
IN LEACHATE FROM LAND DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE
Parameter
COD
BOD
NH4
Total solids
Concentration (ppm)
8,123
23,938
80
6,207
Disolved solids 6,038
Alkalinity
Acidity
Hardness
Chloride
Sulfate
O-phosphate
PH
NO 2
NO 3
Aluminum
Sodium
Potassium
2,620
1,258
2,573
262
98
17
5.94 sU
0.036
4.1
1.1
207
197
Parameter
Calcium
Magnesium
Manganese
Iron
Zinc
Copper
Lead
Cadmium
Nickel
Chromium
Arsenic
Mercury
Barium
Selenium
Silver
Fluorine
Cyanide
Concentration (ppm)
9,862
62
18
472
0.31
0.05
0.04
0.01
0.17
0.05
0.06
0.04
0.49
<0.0015
0.04
0.06
0.02
Source: Ref. 11-26.
20
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regarding the disposal of solid wastes; solid waste legislation, how-
ever, is found in widely disparate portions of the various State codes.
Many of these laws and codes are synopsized in a publication of the U.S.
EPA (Ref. 11-27). The synopsis also refers to many States which have
developed solid waste regulations with standards for enforcement.
2.5 COMBUSTION AND AIR POLLUTION CONTROL RESIDUALS
The residuals from combustion and air pollution control systems are
generated primarily by power plants, municipal refuse incinerators, and
wastewater sludge incinerators. This section is concerned solely with
residuals resulting from power plants, since those produced by the
incineration of wastewater sludge and municipal refuse are discussed
in Section 3.5.4.
2.5.1 Sources of Power Plant Residuals
Power plant residuals are a result of the waste materials contained in
the fuels (oil and coal) used to fire power plant boilers. The major
residual waste components of fuel are noncombustible ash and sulfur,
which are concentrated by various collecting devices and pollution
control systems and are then reused or ultimately disposed of.
The noncombustible ash portion of fuel occurs as boiler ash and fly ash.
Boiler ash (bottom ash or boiler slag) is collected within the boiler.
Fly ash is a finely divided aerosol contained in the combustion gases
leaving the boiler. In facilities equiped with pollution controls, the
fly ash is concentrated by such devices as cyclones and electrostatic
precipitators. Because of the low ash content of fuel oil, the amount
of ash generated by oil-fired boilers is minimal compared with the large
volumes produced by coal-fired boilers.
Some power plants are equiped with systems for controlling emissions of
S02- These systems produce a sludge that results both from the S02
removed and the chemicals (lime and limestone) used as sorbents in the
removal system. The residuals generated in a power plant include the
boiler ash, the fly ash, and the concentrated sludge.
2.5.2 Quantities of Residuals
The quantity of residuals produced by power plants depends on such
factors as plant design, sulfur and ash contents of fuel, amount of fuel
consumed, and type of waste-concentrating devices utilized. The quan-
tities of ash and sludge generated on a nationwide basis therefore are
not accurately known, although reasonable estimates are available.
21
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2.5.2.1 Total Ash Quantities - Estimates based on coal consumption
rates and average ash contents suggest that total ash production (fly
ash and boiler ash) in 1975 totaled 44 to 50 million tons (40 to 45
metric tons) (Ref. 11-28, 29). Projected increases in coal consumption
indicate that this quantity could double by 1995 (Ref. 11-30).
The rate of ash production averages 0.05 kg/kWh (based on an average
fuel combustion rate of 0.4 kg/kWh and an ash content of 12%). Under
these assumptions a relatively large facility of 1000 megawatts (MW)
rated capacity would produce 287,000 tons (260,600 metric tons) of ash
annually (Ref. 11-28). The rate of ash production at a specific plant
can be estimated with reasonable accuracy from the coal consumption and
ash content data reported by that plant in FPC Report Form 67.
2.5.2.2 Scrubber Sludge Quantities - Because the technology is relative-
ly recent, few full-scale S0£ removal systems are in operation. Total
generating capacity controlled by such systems in 1975 was less than
10,000 MW (roughly 3% of total coal-fired capacity in the U.S.). By
1980, approximately 90,000 MW of capacity should be controlled. If all
new installations were to use lime or limestone additives, the total
sludge generation in 1980 would be 13.1 x 107 tons (11.9 x 107 metric
tons) (50% moisture). Sludge generation rates are expected to increase
by 3 to 5 percent after 1980 (Ref. 11-29).
2.5.3 Characteristics of Residuals
Fly ash is composed primarily of small-diameter particles ranging in
size from less than 1 micron (1 x 10-5 centimeter) to 50 microns
(5 x 10-4 centimeter). Most of the fly ash is in the 1 to 10 micron
range. Mineral phases comprising the bulk material include glass (50-
90%), hematite (1-8%), magnitite (0-30%), mullite (0-16%), and quartz
(0-4%) (Ref. 11-29).
The pH of fly ash ranges between 6.5 and 11.5, most samples showing a
value near 11.0. Specific gravity ranges between 1.9 and 2.4.
Average particle size of boiler ash ranges from 0.025 to 0.25 centimeter
(Ref. 11-29). Specific gravity is typically 2.5, somewhat higher than
that of fly ash.
The chemical constituents in fly ash that may pollute disposal areas or
affect its reuse are silica (30-50%), alumina (20-30%), and ferric oxide
(10-30%). Sulfur trioxide concentrations ranging from trace quantities
to 6 percent have been reported. The other major components include
lime (1.5 - 5%), moisture, and combustible matter (Ref. .11-32).
22
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Coal can contain a diversity of trace elements, concentrations of which
are highly variable. On the average, Eastern coals show relatively
higher concentrations of vanadium, mercury, lead, chromium, barium,
boron, and zinc (Ref. 11-28). Western coals may contain high concen-
trations of arsenic, selenium, antimony, and nickel (Ref. 11-28).
Concentrations of trace elements in fly ash are higher than in boiler
ash. Typical distributions of trace metals in fly ash and boiler ash
are shown in Table 2-7.
Table 2-7. TRACE ELEMENTS IN FLY ASH AND BOILER ASH3
Arsenic
Mercury
Antimony
Selenium
Cadmium
Zinc
Manganese
Boron
Barium
Beryllium
Nickel
Chromium
Lead
Vanadium
(mg/kg)
Fly ash
15.0
0.03
21.0
18.0
<0.5
70.0
150.0
300.0
5000.0
3.0
70.0
150.0
30.0
150.0
Boiler ash
3.0
<0.01
0.26
1.0
<0.5
25.0
150.0
70.0
1500.0
<2.0
15.0
70.0
20.0
70.0
Source: Ref. 11-28.
Approximately 1 to 5 percent of ash is water-soluble (Ref. 11-28). The
major dissolved species include sulfates, chlorides, and calcium ions.
Arsenic, mercury, and cadmium compounds also are moderately soluble
(Ref. 11-32).
The principal physical characteristic affecting workability and disposal
of scrubber sludge is the moisture content, which is primarily dependent
on the amount of calcium sulfite (Ref. 11-31,33).
The presence of fly ash in the sludge has a slight beneficial effect on
the dewatering properties. At solids contents below 65 percent the
scrubber sludge will not support equipment or personnel (Ref. 11-31,
33). Achievement of sufficient solids content requires high concentra-
23
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tion of CaSO/j. Otherwise sludges behave as bogs which rewater to solids
contents of 35 to 50 percent.
The bulk density of settled sludge ranges from 0.05 to 0.054 pound per
cubic inch (1.4 to 1.5 g/cm^), depending primarily on moisture content.
Specific gravity of the dry sludge material is about 0.09 Ib per cubic
inch (2.5 g/cm3) (Ref. 11-31)..
Analysis of a typical scrubber sludge at a plant burning eastern coal
would show about 65 percent calcium sulfite (CaS03'l/2H20), 5 to 7
percent calcium sulfate (CaSO^ZHgO), 3 percent unreacted limestone
(CaC03), 17 to 20 percent fly ash, and 3 to 5 percent other materials
(Ref. 11-31). Western coals yield sludges with somewhat more sulfate
than sulfite (Ref. 11-34).
2.5.4 Environmental Effects
The soluble portions of ash and scrubber sludge represent a potential
threat to both ground and surface waters. Because solutions resulting"
from these wastes are usually alkaline, they may have a caustic effect
on the receiving waters, possibly affecting the living organisms.
Release of trace elements to the environment is increasingly a matter of
concern. Originating in the coal, these trace elements may occur in the
fly ash or bottom ash, in the flue gas, or in the water used in system
operations.
2.5.5 Compliance Requirements
Primary responsibility for the control of solid waste disposal lies with
the States. However, guidance has been provided by U.S. EPA, Office of
Solid Waste Management Programs for disposal of ash or scrubber sludge
(Ref. 11-27). Potential leachate from these sludges may be hazardous
and ought to be regulated to protect water quality. Presently, few
States have adequate regulations or uniform enforcement.
24
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2.6 INDUSTRIAL WASTES
Industrial waste management problems are highly complex. A multitude of
industrial sources are daily producing tons of residuals of diverse
composition, many with high pollution potential. Table 2-8 lists the
industries having a propensity for contaminating ground water. Since
the destruction of chemical wastes still produces some residuals, these
materials must be disposed of at properly located, designed, and moni-
tored landfill sites.
2.6.1 Quantities
The current estimate of industrial waste generation, exclusive of
boiler and fly ash residuals (see section 2.5.2.1), is about 210 million
dry tons (190 million metric tons), per year (Ref. 11-36). Current
industrial growth and expansion indicate further increases. By means of
recovery of valuable chemicals at the source, together with innovative
process development and enforcement of pretreatment standards, indus-
trial waste residuals on an order-of-magnitude basis might be reduced
significantly.
2.6.3 Characteristics
Characteristics of industrial residual materials are highly variable.
They can include industrial wastewater, industrial wastes, hazardous
industrial wastes, and the residuals from treatment of industrial waste-
water. If at all possible, the residuals suitable for ultimate disposal
should be inert or nonreactive. Extreme care must be taken to prevent
the mixing of unknown material that might produce harmful reactions.
Typical residuals generated by the industries listed in Table 2-8 are
described below.
0 Distillation Bottoms/Tops - Distillation is the separation of
two or more materials in solution based on a difference in
boiling points. The bottoms is the high-boiler material that
is non-recoverable and must be properly disposed. Tops is the
low-boiler material that falls outside product specifications
(particularly during start-up) and if not reused, must be
properly destroyed or disposed. Both the bottoms and tops are
typically organic materials, the bottoms material being
particularly complex and difficult to characterize.
0 Oily Waste Residuals - In-plant sources of oily wastes include
machine shop or repair shop waste oils, lubricating oils from
process machinery leakage, refinery oil leaks or spills, and
waste process oils used as heat transfer media. Typically an
oil/water separator is utilized to separate oils from water-
entrained effluent. The oily residuals in turn must be dis-
posed.
25
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Table 2-8. INDUSTRIAL WASTE PARAMETERS HAVING OR INDICATING
SIGNIFICANT POTENTIAL FOR GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
1. CHEMICALS AND ALLIED PRODUCTS
Organic Chemicals Industry
COD
PH
Total
dissolved solids
TOC
Total phosphorus
Heavy metals
Phenol
Cyanide
Total nitrogen
Acidity/Alkalinity
Total dissolved
solids
Chloride
Sulfate
COD
TOC
Inorganic Chemicals, Alkalies and
Chlorine Industry
Chlorinated benze- Chromium
noids and poly- Lead
nuclear aromatics Titanium
Phenol Iron
Fluoride Aluminum
Total phosphorus Boron
Cyanide Arsenic
Mercury
Plastic Materials_and___Sy_nt_h_et:jc_s_ Indusjtry
COD
PH
Phenols
Total dissolved solids
Sulfate
Phosphorus
Nitrate
Organic nitrogen
Chlorinated ben-
zenoids and
nuclear
Aromatics
Ammonia
Cyanide
Zinc
Mercaptans
Nitrogen Fertilizer Industry
Ammonia
Chloride
Chromium
Total dissolved solids
Nitrate
Sulfate
Organic nitrogen
compounds
Zinc
Calcium
COD
Iron, total
PH
Phosphate
Sodium
Calcium
Dissolved'sol ids
Fluoride
PH
Phosphorus
Phosphate Fertilizer Industry
Acidity Mercury
Aluminum Nitrogen
Arsenic Sulfate
Iron Uranium
26
-------
Table 2-8 (continued). INDUSTRIAL WASTE PARAMETERS HAVING
OR INDICATING SIGNIFICANT POTENTIAL FOR GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
2. FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY
Canned and Preserved Fruits and Vegetables Industry
BOD
TOC
COD
BOD
TOC
COD
Turbidity
Color
Ammonia
Dairy Products Industry
Turbidity
Color
Phosphorus
3. PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS
COD
TOC
pH
Ammonia
Pulp and Paper Industry
Phenols
Sulfite
Color
Heavy metals
4. PETROLEUM AND COAL PRODUCTS
Ammonia
Chromium
COD
PH
Phenol
Sulfide
Total dissolved solids
5. PRIMARY METALS
PH
Chloride
Sulfate
Ammonia
Petroleum Refining Industry
Chloride
Color
Copper
Cyanide
Iron
Lead
Mercaptans
Steel Ind.usjfcri.es
Cyanide
Phenol
Iron
Phosphorus
Nutrients (nitrogen
and phosphorus)
Total dissolved
Solids
Nitrogen
Odor
Total phosphorus
Sulfate
TOC
Turbidity
Zinc
Tin
Chromium
Zinc
27
-------
Table 2-8 (continued). INDUSTRIAL WASTE PARAMETERS HAVING OR
INDICATING SIGNIFICANT POTENTIAL FOR GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
5. PRIMARY METALS (continued)
Metal Finishing Industry
Mineral Acids Chromate pH
Alkali Heavy metals COD
Chlorinated solvents Cyanide Turbidity
Hydrocarbon solvents Grease Color
6. TEXTILE INDUSTRY
Animal Fibers
BOD Grease
TOC Turbidity
Vegetable Fibers
BOD Sulfate Peroxide pH
TOC Sulfide Dyes Sodium
COD Chloride Alkali
Source: Ref. 11-35.
28
-------
0 Lime Sludged Materials - Treatment of wastewater effluent with
lime to precipitate heavy metals and control lime generates a
sludge cake material. For example, spent electro-plating^
baths could be treated with lime in conjunction with ferric
chloride or other coagulant aids to generate a sludge material
that is settled out in a clarifier and dewatered by use of a
rotary vacuum filter or centrifuge. The residual contains
primarily heavy metals meshed in a lime matrix.
0 Spent Filter Media - Media used to remove solids from gaseous
or liquid streams e.g. filter paper, filter cloth, sand-beds,
glass wool, spent carbon, and spent resins) periodically break
down from extended usage and must be replenished. These spent
media often contain entrained contaminants.
0 Spent Catalysts - Catalysts for chemical reactions are often
reused or recycled; however, it sometimes occurs that a
catalyst becomes 'poisoned' and loses its effectiveness. Suqh
'spent' catalysts must be adequately destroyed.
0 Dissolved Salts - Dissolved salts are often generated as un-
usable by-products from reactions in the inorganic chemicals,
food processing, paper, and metals industries. Such salts as
ammonium sulfate, and sodium nitrate, should be concentrated
prior to disposal.
0 Tank Storage Farm Runoffs - Stormwater runoff, leaks, or
spills from tank storage areas must be contained and sumped to
segregrated areas for pretreatment and disposal.
0 Cleanout Residuals from Process Equipment Washes - All in-
dustries require periodic cleanout of process equipment. Such
materials as solvents dilute acid solutions, dilute base
solutions, and detergent rinses are typically used to clean
process equipment. These washes must be contained, and pre-
treated and the residuals disposed of.
2.6.4 Environmental Effects
Case histories of industrial waste discharges into the environment are
legend. In countless instances, flora and fauna, ground water, drinking
water air quality, and human health have been affected negatively by
industrial wastes. Once industrial pretreatment standards are effec-
tively monitored and controlled, land application disposal of residuals
must ensure protection from environmental hazards. By definition,
'hazardous wastes' are those wastes or combination of wastes that pose a
substantial threat to human health or living organisms because they are
lethal, nondegradable, or persistent, can be biologically magnified, or
29
-------
otherwise can cause or tend to cause detrimental cumulati-ve effects.
Hazardous wastes are categorized as toxic chemical, flammable, explo-
sive, and biological (Ref. 111-48). The ultimate disposal methods for
industrial wastes must discern and separate hazardous from nonhazardous
residuals.
2.6.5 Compliance Requirements
Federal legislation delineating pretreatment standards for various types
of industries has not been enforced at the local level because compli-
ance is not required until January 1977 (Ref. 11-37). Some States have
legislative requirements pending to control the disposal of industrial
residuals in a specially designed chemical landfill. Among the differ-
ent States, however, such control is highly variable and laws are not
always enforced. Fewer than 10 States have authority to control hazardous
waste disposed at designated sites. On-site disposal is subject to
even less control.
2.7 FEEDLOT RESIDUALS
The United States industries involved in agriculture produce large
volumes of gaseous, liquid, and solid wastes annually. The greatest
amount of wastes generated in agriculture result from animal excreta
(feces and urine). The large quantities of manure generated on farms go
unnoticed by most of the public, and only recently have environmental
and agricultural specialists shown serious concern for the potential
problems. Some of these problems are health-related and result from in-
sufficient definition of local and national regulations and lack of
sound technology for reuse or disposal of the wastes.
2.7.1 Sources of Livestock Wastes
Cattle (beef and dairy), hogs, poultry, and a collective class comprised
of sheep, veal, and turkey are the major livestock animals contributing
to the production of raw manure. Other farm animals, relatively minor
contributors, are horses and ducks. The manure generated by farm
animals falls either on open pasture land or in confinement facilities
(feedlots). Confinement facilities are systems in which a large number
of animals are held in a small area during most of their growth period
and are provided with feed. In open confinement feedlots the livestock
is exposed to atmospheric and climatic changes; in closed feedlots the
humidity and temperature are controlled and the air is treated.
The animal excreta that falls on open pasture or grazing land presents
few problems because it is dispersed relatively widely and the locations
are usually remote from urban areas (Ref. 11-4). Watering places at
ponds .and streams may be affected. The waste generated in confined
facilities, however, is a highly concentrated source of potential pol-
lutants.
30
-------
The feedlot method of farming has developed into a large-scale enter-
prise in the United States; common in this industry are multihundred
cow operations, multithousand beef or hog feedlots, and poultry farms
involving many hundreds of thousands of birds. Moreover, as a result of
increasing urban growth, decreasing amounts of available pasture and
range, and increasing cost of farming, the number of animals fattened on
feedlots is rising annually. Since the mid-1940's the total number of
animals raised on feedlots or in confinement has nearly doubled (Ref.
11-4). As the number of animals in confinement has increased, the
number of operating feedlots has declined. Those involved in the
feedlot industry are therefore producing greater concentrations of
animal wastes, and this trend is expected to continue.
2.7.2 Quantity of Livestock Wastes
The steady rise in annual generation of raw manure is a result of the
constantly increasing livestock population. The total population of the
major classes of livestock on all farms (open pasture and feedlots) has
increased from 2.9 billion in 1965 to 3.9 billion in 1975 (Table 2-9).
This gain of approximately 1 billion animals represents an increase of
34 percent in 10 years. The rising trend of total livestock population
is also expected to continue.
Production of future livestock populations involves numerous related
factors, including human populations, per capita consumption of live-
stock products, yield per animal, grain supplies and prices, market
prices, and state of the economy. Just as it is difficult to predict
how these factors will change in the future, it is also difficult to
determine their potential influence on livestock populations. A simple
but realistic equation for predicting livestock populations can be
formulated, however, on the basis of the following assumptions:
0 per capita consumption of farm animal products will not change
substantially in the next 20 years,
0 yields per animal have also reached a peak, and
human population increase will be the major factor influencing
increases in farm animal production.
By use of projected human population values as estimated by the Bureau
of the Census, and with 1975 livestock numbers as a base, future popu-
lations of farm animals,can be calculated with the following growth
equation:
Nt = N0ert
31
-------
where,
Nj. = projected livestock population,
NQ = initial livestock population,
e = the constant 2.71828,
r = rate of population growth, and
t = amount of time elapsed between N0 and Nt (Ref. I I -8).
Projected livestock populations are shown by individual animal types in
Table 2-9.
The annual quantity of manure generated by livestock on all farms (con-
fined and unconfined animals) is calculated by selecting the appropriate
values from Table 2-9 for use in the following equation:
Annual wet tons of raw manure = animal population x
daily manure production x 365 days x
0
year 2000 Ib
Since 1965 the annual production of livestock manure on all farms has
been more than 1.0 billion tons, and current volume is greater than 1.5
billion tons (1.36 billion metric tons) (Table 2-10). The amount of
manure generated in confinement alone can be approximated by multiplying
the maximum percent of animals in confinement times the total amount of
waste produced annually on all farms. The annual manure production in
confined facilities in 1975 is estimated to be 430 million tons (390
million metric tons) (Table 2-11).
The geographic distribution of manure, like that of farms and farm
animals, is not uniform (Figure 2-1). It may be useful for the planner
to know that the greatest accumulation of wastes is found in the corn
belt, northern plains, and southern plains regions where large beef
cattle and hog farms contribute the greatest percentage of the total
manure produced. The mountain region and the lake states also generate
large amounts of wastes annually.
2.7.3 Quality of Livestock Wastes
The properties of manure (feces and urine) depend on numerous factors
such as animal species and age; digestibility, protein, and fiber con-
tents of rations; and environment and productivity. Because of the
variations in animal manures, the data describing manure characteristics,
as in Table 2-12, should be regarded only as guidelines or estimates.
Measured values in any specific manure analysis may easily deviate from
those in the table by plus or minus 20 percent.
32
-------
Table 2-9. DOMESTIC ANIMAL POPULATION IN THE U.S.; PAST, PRESENT AND PROJECTED VALUES
(in millions)
GJ
CO
All Cattle
Beef
Dairy
Hogs
Poultry (all)
Broilers
Others
Collective
class (all)
Sheep
Veal
Turkeys
Total
(billions)
1965a
109.00
81.05
20.16
50.52
2,634.65
2,333.60
301.05
58.05
25.13
7.79
105.91
2.57443
1970a
112.37
92.20
15.97
64.43
3,298.92
2,986.80
312.92
141.02
20.42
4.20
116.40
3.61564
1975b
131.82
1-13.54
15.31
48.17
3,285.22°
3,005.76
279.46
141.14
14.54
2.98
123.62°
3.60635
Projections
1980
135.85
119.71
16.14
50.79
3,464.03
3,169.16
294.67
148.82
15.33
3.14
130.35
3.79949
1985
144.76
127.50
17.26
54.09
3,689.29
3,375.46
313.83
158.50
16.33
3.35
138.82
4.04664
1990
153.57
135.32
18.-25
57.41
3,915.46
3,582.39
333.07
168.22
17.33
3.55
147.34
4.29466
1995
161.85
142.62
19.23
60.51
4,126.52
3,775.49
351.03
177.28
18.26
3.74
155.28
4.52616
3U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Agricultural Statistics 1974. Washington
.U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 630.
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. ERS/SRS. Agricultural Marketing Service.
Livestock and Meat Statistics, Statistical Bulletin No. 543. Washington,
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975. pp. 151.
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. SRS. Crop Reporting Board. Eggs, Chickens,
and Turkeys. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, January 1, 1976.
pp. 18.
-------
Table 2-10. ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF LIVESTOCK MANURE: PAST, PRESENT, AND PROJECTED IN MILLIONS OF WET TONS
(confined and unconfined animals)
All Cattle
Beef
Dairy
Hogs
Poultry
Broilers
Layers
Collective class
Sheep
Veal
Turkeys
Total (billions
of tons-wet)
Average
sizei
Ib
800-1000
L200-1400
150
2
4
100
150-250
18
Daily"
productioni a
lb/day-wet-
53.0
100.0
9.8
0.14
0.21
4.0
16.0
0.95
1965b
783.9
367.9
90.4
59.6
11.5
59.4
18.3
22.7
18.4
1.37
1970
891.8
291.5
115.2
76.3
12.0
47.4
14.9
12.3
20.2
1.43
1975
1098.2
279.4
86.2
76.8
10.7
40.7
10.6
8.7
21.4
1.59
Proiections c
1980
1157.9
294.6
90.8
81.0
11.3
43.1
11.2
9.2
22.7
1.68
1985
1233.2
315.0
96.7
8 6.. 2
12.0
45.8
11.9
9.8
24.1
1.79
1990
1308.9
333.1
102.7
91.5
12.8
48.6
12.7
10.4
25.5
1.90
1995
1379.5
350.9
108.2
96.5
13.5
51.1
13.3
10.9
26.9
2.00
OJ
aOate are derived from Table 2-11 of the Livestock Uaste Facilities Handbook. 1975. Midwest Planning Service.
Iowa State University, Ames. Iowa.
bData are derived from Table 2-9.
C0ata calculated using formula presented earlier In text. (N( • NQert).
-------
Table 2-11. ANIMAL WASTE GENERATION FOR SELECTED ANIMALS IN CONFINED AND/OR
CONCENTRATED AREAS (1975)
co
en
Animal type
Beef cattle
Dairy cows
Swine
Chickens
Sheep
Veal
Turkey
Average
size of
animal,
Ib
800-1000
1200-1400
150
4
100
150-250
18
Total number
of animals,
millions3
113.54
15.31
48.17
3285.22
14.54
2.98
123.62
Daily
production.
lb/day-wetb
53.0
100.0
9.8
0.17
4.0
16.0
0.95
Total amount
of waste
generated
annually,
millions tons
1098.2
279.4
86.2
87.5
10.6
8.7
21.4
Maximum
percent
confined0
12
50
50
100
20
50
100
Total annual
generation
of confined
waste,
millions tons
131.8
139.7
43.1
87.5
2.1
4.4
21.4
Percent of
total confined
waste
generated
30.7
32.5
10.0
20.3
0.4
1.0
5.0
aTotal numbers taken from those presented in Table 2-9.
boaily production calculation as follows: Ib/day « animal wt/1000 x raw manure in Ib/day per 1000 Ib.
CO.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste Management Program.
Land availability, crop production and fertilizer requirements in the United States.
EPA/530/SW-166. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975. pp. 99.
-------
99,954
129,762
118,584
268,758
a Values derived from: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Solid Waste Management. Land availability, crop production and ferti-
lize requirements in the U.S. EPA/530/SW-166. Washington, U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1975. 99 p.
Figure 2-1. Geographic distribution of manure production,
1975. Values in wet tons per year.3
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
36
-------
Table 2-12. MANURE CHARACTERISTICS'
CO
-•J
Animal
Dairy cattle
Beef cattle
V,
cow°
Swine
Nursery pig
Growing pig
Finishing pig
Ge state sow
Sow fc litter
Boar
Sheep
Poultry
Layers
Broilers
Horse
Size,
pounds
150
250
500
1000
1400
500
750
1000
1250
35
65
150
200
275b
37 5^
350b
100
4
2
1000
Total manure production.
Ib/day
(1)
12
20
41
82
115
30
45
60
75
63
2.3
4.2
9.8
13
8.9
33
11
4.0
0.21
0.14
45
cu ft/day
(2)
0.19
0.32
0.66
1.32
1.85
0.50
0.75
1.0
1.2
1.05
0.038
0.070
0.16
0.22
0.15
0.54
0.19
0.062
0.0035
0.0024
1.5
gal/day
(3)
1.5
2.4
5.0
9.9
13.9
3.8
5.6
7.5
9.4
7.9
0.27
0.48
1.13
1.5
1.1
4.0
1.4
0.46
0.027
0.018
11
Water ,
%
(4)
87.3
87.3
87.3
87.3
87.3
88.4
88.4
88.4
88.4
88.4
90.8
90.8
90.8
90.8
90.8
90.8
90.8
75
74.8
74.8
79.1
Density,
Ib/cu ft
(5)
62
62
62
62
62
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
65
60
60
30
TS,
Ib/day
C6)
1.6
2.6
5.2
10.4
14.6
3.5
5.2
7.0
8.7
7.3
0.20
0.39
0.90
1.2
0.82
3.0
1.0
1.0
0.053
0.036
9.4
vs,
Ib/day
(7)
1.3
2.1
4.3
8.6
12.0
3.0
4.4
6.0
7.4
6.2
0.17
0.31
0.72
0.96
0.66
2.4
0.84
0.85
0.037
0.025
7.5
BOD5,
Ib/day
(8)
0.26
0.43
0.86
1.70
2.38
0.80
1.2
1.6
2.0
1.7
0.07
0.13
0.30
0.39
0.27
1.0
0.35
0.09
0.014
0.0023
-
Nutrient content
N, Ib/day
(9)
0.06
0.10
0.20
0.41
0.57
0.17
0.26
0.34
0.43
0.36
0.016
0.029
0.068
0.090
0.062
0.23
0.078
0.045
0.0029
0.0024
0.27
P, Ib/day
(10)
0.010
0.020
0.036
0.073
0.102
O.C56
0.084
0.11
OM4
0.12
0.0052
O.C098
O.C22
0.030
0.021
0.076
0.026
0.0066
0.0011
0.00054
0.046
K, Ib/day
(11)
0.04
0.07
0.14
0.27
0.38
0.12
0.19
0.24
0.31
0.26
0.010
0.020
0.045
0.059
0.040
0.15
0.051
0.032
0.0012
0.00075
0.17
Data are derived from Table 2-11 of the Livestock Waste Facilities Handbook.
Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa.
1975. Midwest Planning Service.
(1) Ib/day = animal wt/1000 x R.M. in Ib/day per 1000 Ib.
(2) cu ft/day » Ib/day * density
(3) gal/day = 7.5 x cu ft/day
(4) Water % * 100 - « RM from Table 2-11, Livestock Waste Facilities Handbook.
(5) density = best estimate, not American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) data.
(6) TS = Ib/day x TS as % RH from Table 2-11, Livestock «"aste Facilities Handbook.
(7)-(11) Ib/day of element = TX x % TS of element.
Not ASAE data; assumptions:
cow - 1.05 cu ft/day
gestating sow •= 1/2 of ASAE data for her weight because she's limit fed.
sow « litter - ASAE data for her weight + 8 pigs (8 1.0 Ib/day).
boar - 1/2 of ASAE data for his weight because he's limit fed.
-------
Generally speaking, fresh manure contains 7t) to 88 percent water (Ref.
11-39). The remaining constituents are inorganic and organic solids,
liquids, gases and microbial cells. Estimates show that 90 percent of
the dry matter in manure is organic wastes from digestion of feeds (Ref.
11-40).
The large concentration of organic matter in animal manure presents a
major problem in treating this waste. The BOD in various animal manures
has been calculated to be 100 to 300 times greater than that occurring
in untreated domestic sewage (Ref. II-4Q). The COD content of animal
wastes is estimated to be 100 to 400 times greater than that in domestic
sewage.
Manure contains all the inorganic nutrients required by plants although
the proper quantities may not always be present.
The major microbial constituents of animal manure are bacteria, fungi,
actinomycetes, and protozoa. Enterococci and coliforms are very numer-
ous, some coliform counts showing as high as 18 billion excreted per
animal per day (Ref. 11-40). It is these organisms that are the car-
riers of various diseases associated with animal wastes.
The chemical and biological parameters presented here relate to raw
manure and are not representative of feedlot runoff. Detailed infor-
mation on the composition of feedlot runoff in areas' of different
climatic conditions (Nebraska and Colorado) is given in a recent EPA
publication (Ref. 11-11).
2.7.4 Environmental Effects of Livestock Wastes
The major hazards to surface and ground waters arising from animal
manures are oxygen-demanding matter (BOD's and COD's), plant nutrients,
dissolved and suspended solids, and pathogenic agents. Odor and color
are potential pollutants of lesser importance.
The flow of organic matter from livestock facilities into aquatic
systems places an oxygen demand on the receiving waters. If sufficient
organic matter enters these waters, oxygen concentrations may drop below
the levels necessary to support aquatic life; if this depletion of
oxygen continues, anaerobic conditions may develop. Several reports
have shown that fish kills in some streams resulted directly from
feedlot runoff (Ref. 11-40).
Pathogenic organisms in livestock wastes are another source of pollution
of aquatic environments. These infectious" agents may infect animals and
human beings. The potential water-borne diseases transmitted by live-
stock include anthrax, brucellosis, coccidiosis, encephalitis, erysipelas,
Newcastle disease, ornithosis, gastroenteritis, and salmonellosis.
38
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All of the parameters just described are potential polluters of ground-
waters as well as surface waters. As a result of soil compaction by
animal hooves, however, the percolation of hazardous materials into the
ground under the feedlot is minimal. Surface runoff occurs when pollu-
tants migrate from the feedlot to streams or are transported through
permeable soils to the aquifer (see Section 4).
2.7.5 Compliance Requirements
The U.S. EPA proposed regulations relating to concentrated animal feed-
ing operations and plans to promulgate these regulations in 1976. The
basic provisions of the proposed regulations appeared in the Federal
Register, November 20, 1975 (Ref. 11-42).
State agencies can impose additional or more stringent requirements,
such as greater runoff holding capacity, specified times for land appli-
cation, and procedures for groundwater protection. Other regulations,
such as zoning laws and public health laws relating to milk production,
may affect the design, construction, and operation of a livestock
facility and its manure management program. Some agencies attempt odor
control by regulating the distance between public housing and livestock
production and waste control facilities.
2.8 MINING WASTES
Mining wastes are residual products of mining and ore processing.
Various environmental and industrial groups have given significant
attention to the disposal of mining wastes, and to some extent disposal
in an environmentally acceptable manner is general practice among mining
companies. The characteristics of mining wastes and their effects on
the environment are being studied. In particular, much work has been
done on waste from bituminuous coal mines.
2.8.1 Sources of Mining Waste
Mining wastes result from the mining and processing of minerals. The
wastes consist of all nonore-bearing materials including rock, clays,
sandstone, and ore-related materials.
2.8.2 Quantity of Mining Wastes
Mining waste from fuel and nonfuel minerals in 1973 was estimated to be
2.5 billion tons, which resulted from producing approximately 2.9 billion
tons of mining products (Ref. 11-43).
2.8.3 Quality of Mining Waste
Mining wastes consist of rock and related ore-bearing materials. For
example, waste from mining of bituminuous coal contains sandstone,
shale, pyrites, clays, limestone, traces of coal, and locally occurring
39
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minerals associated with the coal seam.
The minerals associated with ores have been characterized and quantita-
tively analyzed, as shown in Table 2-13.
Table 2-13. RANGES OF MINERALS IN ASH CONTENT OF COAL
(percent)
Quartz
Calcite
Pyrite
Iron sulfate
Clay
Kaolinite
mite
Shale
2 -
0 -
8 -
0 -
24 -
7 -
8 -
5 -
22
17
40
32
71
17
36
27
Source: Ref. 11-44.
In addition to the solid waste material, mining operations produce
both gaseous and liquid wastes as decomposition products or leachates.
Gaseous decomposition products include H2S, CO, smoke, and S02- These
products result when combustible materials in mine waste piles begin
to burn.
Liquid wastes result from the leaching of water-soluble components of
mining wastes. Typical composition of the leachate is shown in Table
2-14.
Table 2-14. TYPICAL LEACHATE ANALYSIS MINE WASTE (ppm)
Mine Water A
Mine Water B
Fe
904
244
Al
74
8
Ca
189
181
Mg
66
74
Mn
14
4
Si
24
14
Ni
35
70
so4
1412
1127
PH
2.7
4.9
Source: Ref. 11-45.
Composition of the liquid waste varies with the associated mineral bed.
The heavy metals can include iron, zinc, and lead. The principal
contaminant is usually iron, present in the ferrous state, which is
oxidized in air to the ferric state. The ferric iron forms insoluble
hydrous iron oxide at pH above 3, producing a reddish liquid discharge.
40
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2.8.4 Environmental Effects
Burning mine waste piles emit CO, C02, ^S, S02, smoke, and unburned
hydrocarbons, some of which are known to produce adverse health effects.
Little work has been done in characterizing the quantity of emissions
and analyzing the minor constituents of gases emanating from mine waste
piles. These burning piles are predominantly located in coal mine
regions where the refuse contains significant amounts of combustible
material.
By far the most hazardous pollutants carried by mining wastes are the
liquid leachates. These wastes can contain heavy metals and hydro-
lyzable salts, which form suspended solids and acids. The suspended
solids can cause coloration of the receiving water and in 'great enough
quantities can settle and destroy the bottom life (benthos) of the
receiving stream.
2.8.5 Compliance Requirements
Some States (eg., W. Virginia, Wyoming, etc.) in which mining occurs
have regulations relating to the disposal of solid wastes from mining
operations. These regulations, which are often loosely enforced,
involve the use of impoundment, construction of waste piles, control of
burning waste piles, control of fugitive dust emissions, and control of
liquid discharges. In addition, some States (eg., Ohio) have regula-
tions concerning reclamation of mined land, especially of strip-mined
land. The Federal and State agencies involved in control of mine waste
disposal include the Federal and State environmental agencies, the U.S.
Bureau of Mines, the Federal Nine Environmental and Safety Administra-
tion, and State mine safety inspectors.
The U.S. EPA is now formulating effluent guidelines and standards for
mineral mining and processing point sources (Ref. 11-46). In addition,
EPA is establishing specific effluent guidelines and standards for coal
mining point sources (Ref. 11-47). The principal difference between
their regulations and existing State regulations is the inclusion of
proposed effluent limitations on aluminum, manganese, nickel, zinc,
dissolved iron, and total suspended solids. Current regulations concern
only total iron, pH, acidity, and alkalinity.
2.9 DREDGE SPOIL RESIDUALS
Dredge spoil is commonly any sediment removed from aquatic environments.
These sediments may be deposited by natural erosion and sedimentation
processes or by industrial or municipal discharges of sludge or sus-
pended solids such as street litter.
41
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2.9.1 Sources of Dredge Spoil
Most dredge spoil is generated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in
their channel maintenance projects. On an average, approximately 300
million cubic yards (229 million cubic meters) are generated annually by
maintenance dredging; 80 million cubic yards (61 million cubic meters)
are generated by new work dredging, i.e. construction of harbors and
channels, drainage ditching, channel realignment, and construction of
water supply storage facilities (Ref. 11-48).
Dredging operations range from small projects involving only a few
thousand cubic meters and lasting a few days, to extensive developments
involving millions of cubic meters and lasting years. Typical opera-
tions as reported by one large dredging firm generally range from 20,000
to 150,000 cubic yards (15,000 to 115,000 cubic meters) (Ref. 11-49).
2.9.2 Quantity of Dredge Spoil
From 1824, when the Army Corps of Engineers was authorized to develop
and maintain navigable waterways, through 1971 over 22,000 miles (35,000
km) of waterways have been dredged by the Corps. The Corps presently
maintains over 19,000 miles (30,000 km) of waterways involving about
1000 projects. In 1971, the Corps removed 390 million cubic yards (298
million cubic meters) of sediments from waterways. Sixty-nine percent
of this spoil was considered to be nonpolluted (Ref. 11-48).
Most dredging by the Corps takes place in the southeastern United
States, a significant portion in the Mississippi River valley (Ref. II-
50).
2.9.3 Quality of Dredge Spoil
The physical, chemical, and biological nature of dredge spoil is highly
variable. Spoil can occur in the form of clean sand or gravel with very
little organic matter. It can be made up of organic silts and clays of
natural origin or it can originate from municipal or industrial opera-
tions and consist of highly polluted organic sediments with a very high
BOD.
Chemically, the spoil may be relatively inert and free of pollutants or
it may contain high concentrations of exotic toxic chemicals such as
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's), chlorinated hydrocarbons, or organic
and inorganic chemicals. In harbors receiving overflows of stormwater
and sewage, heavy metals such as copper, chromium, lead, mercury, and
zinc may also accumulate to high concentrations in highly organic muds.
A direct correlation between percent organic matter and heavy metal
content has been demonstrated (Ref. 11-5.1, 52, 53).
42
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Biological activity in spoil varies with its physical and chemical
characteristics. Clean sands usually exhibit highly diversified types
of organisms, whereas polluted sediments contain "pollution tolerant"
organisms, such as tubifex worms and leeches, or marine polychaetes and
annelids. Sediments containing toxic substances contain only very few
"pollution tolerant" species or no organisms at all (Ref. 11-54).
2.9.4 Environmental Effects
Depending on the amount and type of spoil, some predictions can be made
relative to the ability of bottom dwelling (benthic) organisms to
respond to burial. Attached sessile (nonmobile) organisms are usually
killed by burial. Some oyster beds have been totally obliterated by
direct dumping of spoil material (Ref. 11-55).
Other organisms may survive burial at different levels. Organisms with
restricted mobility, such as hard-shelled clams, can survive burial only
to a few centimeters of spoil material. Benthic organisms with good
mobility, such as marine polychaetes, can survive burial with up to 21
cm of silt (Ref. 11-56).
Many dredging sites, especially inner harbors of large cities, yield
sediments that contain large concentrations of organic materials and
thus impose a high oxygen demand on the surrounding environment (Ref.
II-53, 57). When these organic-rich sediments are' disposed of in an
area inhabited by benthic organisms, the probability of suffocating them
is great (Ref. II
High concentrations of heavy metals, petrochemicals, or other toxic
substances, which occur most often in metropolitan or industrial regions,
will preclude the formation of viable populations of benthic organisms.
Lower concentrations can have sublethal effects, causing avoidance
reactions, reduced growth, or decreased reproduction. Bioaccumulation
of toxic substances through the food chain can render fish or shellfish
unfit for human consumption (Ref. 11-58).
Application of dredge spoil to the land poses potential pollution
problems, principally from heavy metals and nitrogenous wastes, both of
which can seriously degrade water supplies.
Nitrate-nitrogen is not acceptable in water supplies, at levels exceed-
ing 10 mg/1 (Ref. 11-58). It is imperative, therefore, to calculate
maximum loadings of nitrogenous materials and potentially toxic heavy
metals and to determine that safe levels 'are not exceeded when dredge
spoil is used for land reclamation.
43
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2.9.5 Compliance Requirements for Disposal of Dredge Spoil
Responsibility for the disposal of dredge spoil material is charged by
the Corp of Engineers and the EPA. Permits for ocean disposal must be
obtained from EPA or the Corps under EPA review. Disposal sites are,
selected in accordance with specific guidelines, and the EPA Admin-
istrator is authorized to deny or restrict use of a proposed disposal
site when he determines that discharge of dredge spoils will adversely
affect the aquatic environment. As a further safeguard, the Corps has
developed a "Standard Elutriate Test" to be performed on all dredge
spoil prior to its disposal (Ref. 11-59).
44
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REFERENCES
II-l Presecan, N.L. Sludge Disposal: Are We Solving the Problem,
Deeds and Data. Water Pollution Control Federation Supplement
to Highlights. Vol. 8, No. 10. October 1971.
11-2 Alternative Waste Management Techniques for Best Practicable
Waste Treatment. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
proposed for public comment. March 1974.
11-3 Farrell, J. B. Overview of Sludge Handling and Disposal.
Pretreatment and Ultimate Disposal of Wastewater Solids. Pro-
ceedings of Symposium, Rutgers University. May 1974.
II-4 Land Availability, Crop Production, and Fertilizer Requirements
in the United States. Office of Solid Waste Management
Programs. U.S. EPA EPA/530/SW-166. October 1975.
11-5 Levin, P. Disposal Systems and Characteristics of Solid
Wastes Generated at Wastewater Treatment Plants. Proceedings
10th Sanitary Engineering Conference. University of Illinois,
Urbana, Illinois. February, 1968.
II-6 Wastewater Engineering: Collection, Treatment, Disposal
Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. McGraw-Hill. 1972.
II-7 Henson, Brent. A Study of Land Disposal of Sewage Sludge.
Sanitation District No. 1 of Campbell and Kenton Counties,
Kentucky. July 1972. 83 p.
II-8 Chaney, R.L. Crop and Food Chain Effects of Toxic Elements
in Sludges and Effluents. Recydling Municipal Sludges and
Effluents on Land. National Association State University and
Land Grant Colleges; Washington, D.C. 1973. pp. 129-141.
II-9 Chaney, R.L. and P.M. Giordano. Microelements as Related to
Plant Deficiencies and Toxicities. Soils for Management and
Utilization of Organic Wastes and Wastewaters. L.F. Elliott
and F.J. Stevenson (Editors). Soil Science Society of America,
Inc; Madison, Wisconsin.
45
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REFERENCES (continued)
11-10 Webber, J. Effects of Toxic Metals in Sewage on Crops.
Water Pollution Control Federation, pp 404413. 1972.
11-11 Page, A.L. Fate and Effects of Trace Elements in Sewage
Sludge When Applied to Agricultural Lands. A Literature
Review Study. U.S. EPA Report No. EPA-670/2-74-005. 1974.
11-12 Jewell, W.J., J.B. Howley, and D.R. Perrin. Treatability of
Septic Tank Sludge in Water Pollution Control in Low Density
Areas, ed. Jewell and Swkn. Hanover, N.H., 1975.
11-13 Patterson, J.W., R.A. Minear, and T.K. Neyed. Septic Tanks
and the Environment, Washington, D.C National Technical Infor-
mation Service publication No. PB-204-519. 1971.
11-14 Ziebel, W.A., D.H. Nero, J.F. Deininger, E.McCoy. Use of
Bacteria in Assessing Waste Treatment and Soil Disposal
Systems. JWPCF Vol 43, 12:1971.
11-15 Kreissl, J.F., W.A. Flige, and E.T. Oppelt. An Alternative
Septage Treatment Methods. NERC EPA Cincinnati, Ohio.
September 1975.
11-16 Kreissl, J.F. Waste Treatment for Small Flows. Presented at
the 1971 Annual Meeting of American Society of Agricultural
Engineering. June 1971.
11-17 Environmental Protection Agency, National Interim Primary
Drinking Water Regulations. Volume 40, No. 248, Federal Regis-
ter. 1975. pp. 59566-59588.
11-18 Personnel Communications with George Kent. Water Supply,
Office of Programs and Evaluation. U.S. EPA. Washington, D.C.
11-19 Hecht, N.L., D.S. Duvall, and A.S. Rashide. Characterization
and Utilization of Municipal and Utility Sludges and Ashes.
Volume II. University of Dayton Research Institute, Dayton
Ohio. EPA-670/2T75-033b. p. 194-200.
11-20 Development Document for Effluent Limitations, Guidelines and
Standards of Performance. Environmental Protection Agency.
Washington, D.C. Report 6. Office of Water and Hazardous
Materials. 1975. 194 p.
46
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REFERENCES (continued)
11-21 Third Report to Congress, Resource Recovery 'and Waste Reduc-
tion. Office of Solid Waste Management Programs. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1975. 96 p.
11-22 Solid Waste Management Plan. Metropolitan Planning Commission,
Kansas City Region, Kansas City, Missouri. May 1971. 90 p.
11-23 Ridgewood Army Weapons Plant Evaluation and Resource Recovery
Feasibility Study. PEDCo-Environmental Specialists, Inc.,
April 1975.
11-24 Proposed Solid Waste Management System for Turtle Mountain
Reservation of North Dakota. PEDCo-Environmental Specialists,
Inc. March 1975.
11-25 Peterson, Mirdza L. Pathogens Associated with Solid Waste
Processing. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1971. 24
P-
11-26 Analytical Services, Solid, Aqueous, and Gaseous from a Sani-
tary Landfill. PEDCo-Environmental Specialists, Inc. Company
Files. 1975.
11-27 Procedures for the Land Disposal of Sulfur Oxide Sludge from
Coal-Fired Power Plants. Office of Solid Waste Management
Programs. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. August,
1975. 44 p.
11-28 Phillips, N.P., and R.M. Wells. Solid Waste Disposal, Final
Report, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Control Systems
Laboratory, Contract No. 68-02-1219 (Task 4). May 1974.
11-29 Hecht, N.L., and D.S. Duvall. Characterization and Utiliza-
tion of Municipal and Utility Sludges and Ashes, Volume III,
Utility Coal, Ash; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Solid
and Hazardous Waste Research Laboratory, Research Grant No.
R800432, Report EPA-670/2-75-0331. May 1975.
11-30 Rossoff, J. and R.D. Rossi. Disposal of By-Products from Non-
Regenerable Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems Initial Report,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Control Systems Labora-
tory, Contract No. 68-02-1010, Report No. EPA-650/2-74-037a.
May 1974.
11-31 Princiotta, F., Sulfur Oxide Throway Sludge Evaluation Panel,
Volume I - Executive Summary and Volume II - Technical Dis-
cussion, EPA Reports Nos. EPA-650/2-75-010a and EPA-650/2-75-
OlOb. April 1975.
47
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REFERENCES (continued)
11-32 Aerospace Corp. Technical and Economical Factors Associated
With Fly Ash Utilization, Final Report; U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Division of Control Systems, Contract No.
F04701-70-C-0059, July 1971.
11-33 Jones, J. W. Environmentally Acceptable Disposal of Flue Gas
Desulfurization Sludges: The EPA Research and Development
Program. Presented at the Symposium on Flue Gas Desulfuri-
zation, Atlanta, Georgia, Nov. 4-7. 1974.
11-34 Hecht, N.L., and D.S. Duvall. Characterization and Utiliza-
tion of Municipal and Utility Sludges and Ashes, Volume IV,
Muncipal Incinerator Residues U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Laboratory, Report
No. EPA-670/2-75-033d. May 1975.
11-35 Geraghty and Miller Inc. File.
11-36 Is Industry Managing Its Waste Properly? Environmental
Science,and Technology. Volume 9, No. 5. May 1975. 415 p.
11-37 40 CFR 128; 38 FR 30982. November 8, 1973.
11-38 Wilson, E.O. and W.H. Bossert. A Primer of Population
Biology. Sinover Associates, Inc., Stamford. 192 p.
11-39 Livestock Waste Facilities Handbook. Midwest Plan Service,
Iowa State University. 1975. 94 p.
11-40 Wadleigh, C. H., and C. S. Britt. Issues in Food Production
and Clean Water. In: Agricultural Practices and Water
Quality, Willrich, T. L. and G. E. Smith (ed.). Washington,
D.C., Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration. November 1969. p. xxiii.
11-41 Pollution Abatement from Cattle Feedlots in Northeastern
Colorado and Nebraska. U.S. 'Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Research and Development-: EPA-660/2-75-015.
Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975. 120 p.
11-42 40 CFR 124, 225 (November 20, 1975).
48
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REFERENCES (continued)
11-43 U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook 1973.
11-44 Occurrence and Distribution of Minerals in Illinois Coals,
Illinois Biological Survey. Circular 476.
11-45 Greater, R.C.S., Sulfide Treatment of Coal Mine Drainage.
3rd Symposium on Coal Mine Drainage Research. May 1970. pp.
152-168.
11-46 Federal Register, Volume 40. No. 201, October 16, 1975.
pp. 48625-48668.
11-47 Federal Register, Volume 40. No. 202, October 17, 1975.
pp. 48830-48840.
11-48 The Control of Pollution from Hydrographic Modifications.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Report No. EPA-430/9-
73-017. Washington, D.C. 1973.
11-49 Klubock, Personal Communication. Marine Division, Perlni
Corp., Boston. 1976.
11-50 Disposal of Dredge Spoil, Problem Identification and Assess-
ment, and Research Program Development. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Report No.
H-72-8, Vickerburg, Miss. 1972.
11-51 Lord, S., P. Dore, R. McAnespie. A Pollution Survey of Boston
Boston Harbor. Massachusetts Division of Water Pollution
Control. Boston 1972.
11-52 New England Aquarium. Trace Metal Analysis of Boston Harbor
Harbor Waters and Sediments. Boston. 1972.
11-53 White, R.J. The Distribution and Concentration of Selected
Metals in Boston Harbor Sediments. (Master's Thesis), Dept.
Civil Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston. 1972.
11-54 Stewart, R.K. Biological Aspects of Water Quality, Charles
River and Boston Harbor. Federal Water Pollution Control
Cincinnati, Ohio. 1968.
11-55 Masch, F. Shell Dredging - A Factor in Estuarine Sedimentation.
Proceedings of Specialty Conference on Coastal Engineering.
N.Y. American Society of Civil Engineers. New York. 1968.
49
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REFERENCES (continued)
11-56 Saila, S.B. Pratt and T.T. Polgar. Dredge Spoil Disposal in
Rhode Island Sound. Marine Technical Report No. 2. Sea Grant
Program, University of Rhode Island, Kingston. 1972.
11-57 Pararas-Carayannis, G. Ocean Dumping in the New York Bight:
An Assessment of Environmental Studies. Coastal Engineering
Research Center. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Springfield,
Va. 1973.
11-58 Water Quality Criteria, National Academy of Sciences, National
Academy of Engineering. 1972. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Pub. No. R3-73-033, Washington, D.C. 1973.
11-59 Keeley, J.W., R.M. Engler. Discussion of Regulatory Criteria
for Ocean Disposal of Dredged Materials: Elutriate Test
Rational and Implementation Guidelines. U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station. Miscellaneous Paper D-74-14.
Vicksburg, Miss., 1974.
50
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3.0 MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
We speak of 'management' of residuals rather than simply of disposal
techniques because the complexity of residuals handling on an areawide
or Statewide basis demands the ability to formulate and administer a
systematic program. The term 'management' implies an overview, in which
diverse components are integrated to yield efficient and effective
performance. In management of residual wastes, the options are many and
the relationships are complex.
As an example, consider a single management practice: the land applica-
tion of stabilized sludge from wastewater treatment. Management of such
a program would entail first, an evaluation of sludge to be disposed and
review of possible beneficial or adverse consequences of sludge applica-
tion. Second, there must be an evaluation of the sludge in terms of
proposed utilization or disposal sites and constituents, including
possible hazardous or toxic substances. If the sludge is produced by
treatment of wastewaters that include a contribution from industrial
sources, further complexities arise. Pretreatment of the industrial
wastewaters may be required, and such pretreatment usually entails yet
another residual, which in turn must be utilized or disposed of in a
manner protective of air and water quality.
When all required steps have been taken to reduce volume, recover valu-
able constituents, or to ensure the final suitability of the sludge for
disposal at the proposed sites, management of the program entails fur-
ther responsibilities: training of operators to ensure proper appli-
cation and maintenance procedures; establishment of a monitoring system
that will promptly detect any adverse effects of the operation (see
Appendix A); provision for occasional independent surveillance as backup
for the routine monitoring; formulation of procedures for cost account-
ing, record-keeping, and reporting; continuing assessment of developing
technologies. These activities represent some, but not all, of the
intricate aspects of residuals management.
This section of the-handbook is devoted to a review of current practices
for management of residuals of the nine categories described in Section
2. The intention is to acquaint the user of the handbook with the
fundamental methods of residuals management as an aid to his development
of an integrated program that exemplifies Best Management Practices (see
Section 6).
51
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Two further concepts are essential to analysis of residuajs management
practices. First is the distinction between preventive practices, aimed
at controlling recycling/disposal operations in the planning or design
phase, and ameliorative practices, which deal with improvements in
existing methods of disposal. In the design of a proposed new landfill
operation, for example, the planner engages in preventive management by
calling on all available technical/scientific expertise to ensure
optimum safeguarding of environmental quality. Faced with an ongoing
landfill operation, however, the planner must apply ameliorative prac-
tices to lessen already harmful environmental impacts by such means as
sealing, construction of diversion ditches, or other remedial techni-
ques.
A second concept basic to residuals management is the distinction be-
tween utilization and disposal. In utilization practices the residual
becomes a resource; it provides benefits or values, such as improvement
of soils or materials for construction. In disposal practices the
residual is not used for any beneficial purpose.
In residuals management the first goal is to initiate preventive prac-
tices. Utilizing the residual whenever possible rather than simply
disposing of it may be a preventive practice.
This section describes some of the principal methods of residuals
management: source reduction, recycling/recovery, reclamation, land
application, landfill, lagooning, and ocean disposal. These practices
entail a variety of auxiliary residuals-handling techniques, which are
described briefly. This total repertoire of management practices is
related also to the major categories of residuals, so that the planner
may determine the options from which to develop the Best Management
Practices in his given situation (See Section 6).
3.2 RESIDUALS UTILIZATION
The positive impacts of residuals utilization are impressive:
0 Natural resources are conserved.
0 Detrimental effects of disposal are reduced.
0 Consumption of energy is.reduced.
0 Net costs can be reduced as environmental benefits are accrued.
Although recycling of consumer goods, such as paper, cans, and auto-
mobiles has increased in recent years, the proportion of the nation's
material requirements that is satisfied by recycled materials has de-
creased or remained constant (Ref. III-l). Principal constraints to
extensive recycling programs are institutional, economic and technolo-
gical. The following discussion considers three classes of materials to
illustrate the positive environmental and energy-related effects of
residuals utilization.
52
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3.2.1 Utilization Practices for Specific Residuals
Wastewater and Water Treatment Sludges
Many wastewater and water treatment sludges are chemically treated to
aid in flocculation, coagulation, and resedimentation. Generally, the
chemical treatment consists of the addition of ferric or aluminum salts,
lime, or high-molecular-weight polyelectrolyte compounds.
Sludges containing alum may be treated with acid (Ref. III-2), to reduce
pH to 2.5 to 3.0, or with base (Ref. HI-3), to increase the pH to 12.0
to 12.5. Generally acid treatment is the more economical method,
giving an alum solution that can then be recycled into the-waste stream.
Lime may be recovered through the recalcination process, which basically
involves the heating of dewatered calcium-containing sludge to 1850°F in
a six-hearth recalcining furnace. Since 1968, the Lake Tahoe Wastewater
Treatment Plant has been able to recover 72 percent of its lime through
this process (Ref. III-4).
Sewage sludge also contains the major plant nutrients (nitrogen, phos-
phorus, and potassium) as well as large amounts of organic matter bene-
ficial to soil. Because of these constituents, stabilized heat-dried or
air-dried sludges are a desirable soil amendment. In 1975, the Metro-
politan Sewer District of Greater Chicago (Ref. IM-5) distributed to
gardeners over 213,000 cubic yards (162,860 cum) of a product of anae-
robic digestion of sewage sludge.
There is growing demand for stabilized liquid and dried sludge for use
on golf courses, park lands, sod farms, forest lands, cotton fields and
lands for growth of other crops not involved in the food chain (See
Section 4.6).
In any practice involving the land application of sludge materials,
preliminary evaluations are needed to determine the suitability of the
sludge for the soil structure at the site. Provision must be made for
attenuation or diversion of surface runoff, with drainage structures,
control of acidity, and monitoring of possible long-term environmental
impacts (See Sections 3.8, 4, and Appendix A).
Municipal Refuse
Generation of municipal waste is largely a function of the consuming
public. One of the best methods of reducing these wastes is reduction
at the source, a practice that depends strongly on consumer habits.
Consumers, for example, can refrain from buying vast quantities of
53
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consumable wastes, such as paper plates and nonreturnable.beverage
bottles and cans. Widespread and consistent use of products having
longer life or potential for reuse would contribute to reduction of
wastes at the source.
Although the consuming public has not taken initiative in source reduc-
tion of municipal wastes, the practice of recycling at municipal land-
fills or at recycling centers has gained adherents. This usually in-
volves the physical separation of wastes into individual containers for
paper (which can be separated into different grades), ferrous metals,
(tin cans), non-ferrous metals, glass (separable by color) rags, tires,
and large appliances. While many of these efforts have been small-
scale, they tend to focus attention on resource recovery opportunities
that can lead the way to large-scale source of refuse derived fuel and
materials.
Large-scale recycling projects are being demonstrated in Saugus, Massa-
chusetts, Baltimore, and St. Louis through EPA grants and under munici-
pal auspices in Ames, Iowa and Nashville, Tennessee (Ref. III-6). These
projects, include large-scale materials separators, pyrolysis units, and
the consumption of shredded material for energy production by combustion.
The materials separators incorporate blowers to remove paper and magnets
to remove ferrous materials, while other materials are separated manually.
Waterwall incineration of municipal refuse for steam generation is
becoming well-developed while pyrolysis offers a possible future energy
recovery method (Ref. III-7). Pyrolysis breaks down the organic frac-
tion of municipal wastes into simple compounds, such as gases that may
be burned as fuel.
Combustion and Air Pollution Control Residuals
Resource recovery from these residuals has a longer history in Europe
and Japan than in the United States but is potentially feasible here as
well. Residuals from the desulfurization process, when combined with
lime, fly ash and water, have potential for use as a roadbase material
and a synthetic building aggregate (Ref. III-8 and Section 6.6.5).
Industrial Wastes
There is potential for recycling of resources from industrial chemical
wastes. Industries presently recover scrap metals and commonly recycle
solvents and other organic and inorganic compounds. Although processes
are available for recycling of other industrial wastes, the economics,
in many cases, do not always justify the practice.
Although Strategic Environmental Assessment Systems (SEAS) is an economic
based (rather than a material balance) forecasting system, it has
indicated that there is significant potential for the recovery of
several metals that are in short supply (Ref. III-9). Table 3-1 shows
the material recovery potential from the three industries ranking
highest in the contribution of toxic substances.
54
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Table 3-1. POTENTIAL MATERIALS RECOVERY FROM SELECTED INDUSTRIES
Industry category
Blast Furnaces, Steel
Works and Iron
Foundaries
Primary Smelting/
Refining of Non-
Ferrous Metals
Industrial Inorganic
Chemicals
Substance
Chromium
Cadmium
Zinc
Lead
Arsenic
Zinc
Mercury
Lead
(short ton x 103)
U.S. Production3
0
3.65
500
552
N/A
500
0.684
552
(short ton x 103)
Imports
1,450
0.65
345 b
60 b
17.3.
345 b
1.03.
60 b
(short ton x 103)
Tons potentially
available by recycling
510
96
1,050
55
86
1,135
.37
2.05
en
in
3 1971 data.
In ore and concentrate.
c Totals reflect accumulated materials not presently recovered but available for recovery.
Source: Ref. III-9.
-------
Although chromium is not produced in the U.S., about 1/3 of the chromium
imports are potentially recyclable from the steel and foundries indus-
tries.
SEAS conclusion is:
"Based upon available data, the material recovery potential from
industrial residuals appears to be very great, yet it is an area
only modestly explored by EPA. For reasons of environmental
protection and resource recovery, as well as improvement of U.S.
balance of payments, further investigations are warranted."
Recently some large-scale resource recovery plants have gone into
commercial operation. These companies will consider most types of
materials except perhaps radioactitve wastes, pyrophoric elements, and
explosive residues. The materials not recyclable are either destroyed
or stored until a process is found for recycling. Typical operations
include the distillation of contaminated organic and chlorinated sol-
vents in fractionage towers. The recovered solvents are sold to chemi-
cal firms and the contaminants disposed of or converted into fuel.
For many other materials present in residuals, the economic feasibility
of recovery is a major issue. For some materials, however, economic
feasibility may not be far away. For example, zinc ores in the U.S.
generally contain 3 to 5 percent zinc metal (Ref. 111-10). Residuals
from electroplating plants can contain from 10 to 40 percent zinc (Ref.
III-ll). Therefore, recovering zinc from electroplating residuals may
be less expensive than recovering it from zinc ore. Incentive for such
recovery may arise from several factors. The U.S. Bureau of Mines (Ref.
111-12), estimates that only 23 years worth of zinc ore remains in the
world at present rate of consumption and cost of production (obviously
the supply of a material or of a suitable substitute is a major factor
in determining its cost). Further, it is estimated (Ref. 111-13), that
the consumption of zinc by the electroplating industry alone is approxi-
mately 17,500 tons per year. On the assumption that 5 percent of the
consumed zinc appears in the sludge, the annual amount recoverable is
about 880 tons, which is quantitatively significant in view of the
diminishing supply of zinc ores. As the supply for zinc ores diminishes,
the economic incentive to recover zinc from industrial residuals will
increase.
Mining Wastes
Although the research and development effort is relatively small, some
work has been done on techniques for reducing and utilizing the large
quantities of residual wastes from mining operations. Management prac-
tices for controlling pollution from mining operations include reclama-
tion techniques, such as sealing to control water discharge, burying
residuals, Degrading to original contours, and revegetation. Other
56
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utilization techniques include use of residuals as fill in road construc-
tion and combustion of the waste to produce heat for processing (Ref.
111-14).
3.3 LAND RECLAMATION
Land reclamation may be defined as the process by which productive land
areas are created by the addition of foreign matter such as stabilized
sludges, solid wastes, or dredge spoils. The improvements can yield
aesthetic, economic, or ecological values. Successful reclamation
projects include strip mine reclamation, urban expansion by filling of
marginal lands, wetlands and creation of wildlife habitats by the
filling of marginal land and creation of artificial islands. The planner
should be cognizant of Section 404, PL 92-500 regarding permits for
dredged or fill material in proposing reclamation alternatives.
3.3.1 Site Selection
Contamination of surface and ground water of reclaimed areas is possible
if the soil becomes overloaded with nitrates, pathogens, or metals. The-
planner therefore must consider a potential site in terms of soil and
substrata characteristics and climate in relation to the components and
volume of wastes to be disposed of (See Section 4.1). For disposal in
an aquatic environment, studies should be undertaken to evaluate al,l
possible substratum changes, potential release of sediment and/or toxic
substances to the water column, the effect of burying, turbidity, and
toxic substances on indigenous benthic organisms, the effect of turbi-
dity and toxic substances on local fish populations, and the potential
of recolonization by benthic organisms (See Section 6.3).
3.3.2 Reclamation Practices
Strip Mine Reclamation
The normal operation of a strip mine leaves vast amounts of unconsoli-
dated waste materials, known as overburden (See Section 2.8). In many
areas of the country strip mines have caused major environmental pro-
blems ranging from windblown erosion in the arid west to acid mine
drainage in the east. Only recently have we recognized the need to
reclaim these areas. Reclamation of strip mines has been studied
extensively to determine the environmental acceptability of such prac-
tices as mine sealing, contour restoration, revegetation, and sludge
disposal (Ref. 111-15).
In a case study at Palzo, Illinois, (Ref. 111-16) significant improve-
ments in acid drainage from the strip mine site have been achieved by
addition of sewage sludge. Analysis of the drainage waters showed
reductions of greater than 60 percent in aluminum and iron content and a
50 percent reduction in manganese. Concentrations of lead, copper, and
57
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sulfates also were reduced, whereas concentrations of cadmium, chromium,
and zinc increased. The Palzo study indicated that the treatment of
acid spoils must be at a level high enough to neutralize the spoil in
order to reduce the runoff of heavy metals and maintain vegetative
growth.
Problems with the release of ammonia-nitrogen and organic nitrogen often
occur during the first applications of wastes to acid spoil. The Palzo
study indicates that nitrification does not readily occur at low pH, and
runoff can contain large concentrations of'ammonia. When pH values are
increased sufficiently, ammonia levels can be expected to decrease.
The moisture-holding capabilities of many organic waste residuals make
them ideal as additives to soils in arid climates. Generally these
soils have low organic content (Ref. 111-17) and are deficient in nu-
trients. Addition of waste residuals can increase the erosion resis-
tance and water holding capabilities and thus increase the potential for
vegetative cover.
Margi niaj -L.and Re c 1 a ma 11 o n
Although reclamation is not their primary purpose, some sanitary land-
fills can be considered as land reclamation projects, since the ultimate
usage of a sanitary landfill is often as park, re,creati.on, or conserva-
tion lands.
Many land reclamation projects involving waterfront areas have wreaked
havoc on marine and fresh water environments because of improper manage-
ment practices. With full consideration of environmental consequences,
however, such projects can be highly beneficial.
The Port of Everett, Washington, expanded its ship docking facilities
with 260,000 cu yds (199,000 cubic meters) of dredge spoil. The opera-
tion involved two settling tanks, which accepted pumping from a hydraulic
dredge. Almost all of the suspended matter in the slurry was settled
out in the tanks, and excess water was discharged over a 200-foot
skimming weir. Oil booms and sorbent material were placed at the weir
to prevent the escape of oil slicks. When the cells were filled, they
were allowed to dry and the dredged material was compacted and used as a
foundation for further construction (Ref. 111-18).
The Massachusetts Port Authority used dredge spoil material to partially
fill the Bird Island Flats at Logan International Airport, Boston,
Massachusetts. In this project a clamshell dragline was used to remove
spoil from scows and place it within a diked area. No adverse environ-
mental effects were reported from the disposal of 60,000 cubic yards
(46,000 cubic meters) of dredge spoil (Ref. 111-19).
58
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Creation of Wildlife Habitats
When reclamation landfills are completed, the land can be deeded to a
municipality and held for conservation purposes. If properly reseeded
and/or reforested they could serve as local wildlife refuges or resting
areas for migratory birds. In 1973 and again in 1975, two new colonies
of roseate spoonbill, the only two in the United States, were found on
islands created by dredged spoil material. One, an island in Tampa Bay,
Florida, was created in 1931 from dredge spoil from the Alafia River; it
now houses up to 25,000 birds, including spoonbills, white and brown
pelicans, cormorants, egrets, herons, and ibis (Ref. 111-20). The Army
Corps of Engineers is investigating the possibility of creating new salt
marshes which are extremely important for fish spawning (Ref. 111-21).
3.3.3 Application Methods
The method of applying residuals for use in land reclamation projects is
highly site-specific. Some of the more common methods are spray applica-
tion, pipeline of slurries, and ocean dumping by large hopper scows..
Spray Irrigation
Spray irrigation systems have been used successfully for reclaiming
strip mined areas in Illinois (Ref. 111-16). In this application low-
velocity nozzles are used to reduce possible air contamination by
aerosols and if possible, the spray is directed downward. Spray guns
are used to disperse application over a wider area where there is a
possibility of ground water contamination due to high application rates.
Pipeline of Slurries
Pipelines are generally used to fill waterfront areas with dredged
material. They are also being used by the Corps of Engineers in salt-
marsh reclamation projects. In these cases the area must be diked to
create a detention pond so that suspended solids will settle out and
minimize possible water pollution.
Hopper Scows
Large hopper scows are used for aquatic disposal of residuals. They are
designed so that residuals can be disposed of without causing highly
turbid waters. Regarding ocean-dumping, the planner's attention is
directed to Section 3.6 of this handbook as well as Section 404 of PL
92-500 and the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act, 1972
(40 CFR 220-227).
With any method of applying waste materials for reclamation, the manage-
ment program should include the following (Ref. 11-48):
59
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1. Monitoring the accuracy of placement to prevent.movement of
wastes outside the area.
2. Use of large-bucket dredges or large-hopper scows to deliver
spoil to the bottom in a consolidated form and thereby reduce
resuspension and turbidity.
3. Covering of highly organic material or spoil containing toxic
substances with relatively unpolluted materials*.
4. Closing of fishing grounds during periods of dumping; these
should not be reopened until the local water column has been
proved free of toxic substances.
5. Maintaining of detailed records of volumes and composition of
wastes applied.
3.3.4 Reclamation Use of Specific Residuals
Wastewater Sludge, Septage, Water Treatment Sludge, Feedlot Wastes
These residuals may be used for land reclamation when they are stabilized
by digestion or chemical treatment prior to application. Wastewater
sludge has been used to reclaim sandy soils and strip mines by converting
them into valuable crop land or recreation parks. Numerous projects of
this type are under way throughout the United States {Ref. 111-22).
Land reclamation is a satisfactory method of sludge disposal to the
extent that it is relatively economical, and it recycles the organic
content of the sludge for beneficial purposes.
Dredge Spoil
As discussed earlier, land reclamation with dredged material has been
highly successful, however, careful management is critical. For ex-
ample, in salt marsh reclamation projects only unpolluted spoil without
the possibility of serious damage to the estuarine environment may be
used. Unconsolidated silt should not be used for foundation materials
in reclamation projects because of its instability.
3.4 LAND SPREADING
The practice of spreading waste residuals onto agricultural land has
been used on a limited basis for decades. This practice provides the
advantages of economy and the recycling of nutrients, water, and organic
matter. Although land spreading is a safe method of disposal if properly
managed, the possible negative effects include contamination of surface
and ground waters, accelerated eutrophication of streams and ponds, and
accumulation of toxic metals in soils and vegetation.
60
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3.4.1 Environmental Considerations
Nitrogen
Possible contamination of surface and ground water by nitrate-nitrogen
as well as other substances plays a significant role in determining the
maximum allowable application rates of waste residuals to soils. The
acceptable application rate is a function of the sludge's nitrogen
content and state (ammonia or organic), type of vegetation, crop yield,
soil, and climate. Nitrate contamination becomes a problem only when
the application rate exceeds the nitrogen uptake by plants and losses of
gaseous nitrogen to the atmosphere (Ref. 111-23).
It is often recommended, as a rule of thumb, that the nitrogen applica-
tion rate not exceed 2 times the crop intake of nitrogen. A more-pre-
cise guideline should be applied ^for large-scale projects (Ref. 111-24).
The rate of movement of soil nitrate is estimated by applying different
concentrations of fertilizer to test plots and measuring the Teachabi-
lity through the soil to depths of 35 and 47 inches (90 and 120 cm).
This procedure would involve a 2-year study, because nitrates cannot
reach these depths in 1 year. When land spreading operations begin, the
soil water should be monitored to determine whether application rates
must be adjusted to keep the nitrate concentrations in ground water
below the limits set by the U.S. Public Health Service for drinking water.
It has been shown that the accumulated organic nitrogen in the soil will
eventually buildup and become a major source of nitrogen available for
plants. As a result, moderation in sludge application rates should be
exercised to prevent accumulation of toxic levels of nitrogen (Ref. III-
23).
Pathogens
The typical microflora of many waste residuals may contain enteric or
pathogenic organisms with which workers may come in contact. It is
emphasized, however, that only one outbreak of disease has ever been
attributed to land application of sewage or sludge (Ref. 111-25). There
is also a possibility that surface waters may be contaminated by runoff
from disposal sites. Contamination of ground water usually is minimal
because of the filtering characteristics of soil, although that filtering
efficiency decreases with time.
Metals
Land application of waste residuals containing large amounts of metals
can entail many potential problems. The interactions of metals with
soils are extremely complex. Certain metals such as copper, molybdenum,
and zinc are plant micronutrients, whereas others such as cadmium,
chromium, and mercury have no known beneficial function in plants.
61
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Metals such as zinc, nickel, and cadmium can cause plant toxicities.
Perhaps the greatest concern is directed toward the cadmium content of
sludges, since the accumulation of cadmium in plant tissue can result in
significant transfer to higher animals (See Section 4.6).
In view of the potential toxicity of certain heavy metals to plants,
animals, and human beings, the metals content of sludges for land
application must be closely monitored (See Appendix A). Location of
land areas for receipt of metals-containing sludges should be carefully
identified and recorded. Finally, programs for pretreatment to remove
toxics should be considered (See Page C-3).
Site Selection
As in selection of sites for other disposal methods, the soil character-
istics, climate,, and residual components and volume are the variables
that most strongly determine acceptability for land application. If the
residual contains relatively low amounts of heavy metals, it may be
applied to agricultural lands, under some conditions, although not to
lands used for food production (See Page C-l). Residuals with high
metals content could be applied to sod farms, parks, golf courses,
forests, highway median strips, or land reclamation projects if pre-
cautions are taken to prevent runoff to surface waters or contamination
of ground waters (See Section 4).
3.4.2 Preparation of Residuals for Land Application
Prior to land application all waste residuals should be stabilized or
chemically treated to reduce public health hazards and odors. This can
be accomplished by a number of methods.
Anaerobic Digestion
Properly designed and operated anaerobic digesters can reduce influent
coliform bacteria by 97 percent or more (Ref. 111-26). Pathogens
usually are reduced significantly but some may persist, such as Ascaris
ova and Entamoeba Histolitica cysts. Odor control is attained by
volatilization or organic matter.
Because anaerobic digestion can decompose more organic matter per unit
volume than an aerobic process, anaerobic lagoons are often considered
for initial stabilization of strong (high BOD) organic wastes. BODc
conversion efficiencies up to 70 percent are obtainable routinely.
Proper loading rates are critical to a soundly functioning lagoon.
The most serious environmental threat from lagooning is the escape of
liquids by percolation or overflow. Percolation can be avoided by
locating lagoons over impervious soils, where bottom and sidewalls can
be made impervious. Lagoons constructed on highly permeable soils
62
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require sealing with liners, clay, or soil cement. Sealing can be
partially biological (animal waste solids provide a good sealant in many
soils) but time is required for such materials to form a good seal.
Runoff and overflow from lagoons are controlled by constructing dikes,
diversion channels, or terraces.
Aerobic Digestion
In an aerobic treatment system, biological oxidation converts organic
matter (mostly manure) to carbon dioxide, water, and microbe cells.
Oxygen must be supplied either naturally or artifically to maintain an
aerobic system.
Aerobic systems are considered feasible when the rate of oxygen transfer
to the waste stream has no upper limits. BOD reductions of 50 percent
can be expected if the system design provides for complete aeration with
sufficient detention time.
Aerobic oxidation can be achieved in shallow lagoons or ponds (3 to 5
feet deep) with large surface areas to accomodate aeration. The bio-
chemical reactions occurring in ponds and lagoons are not strictly
aerobic. As sludges and solids accumulate at the bottoms, some anaero-^
bic activities can be expected.
Design criteria for ponds range from 20 to 40 pounds of BOD per acre per
day, (22 to 45 Kg per ha per day) depending on geographic location (Ref.
111-23). On the basis of the top of this range (40 pounds (18 kg) per
acre per day), one can estimate the size of ponds required for aerobic
digestion of residuals, using feedlot wastes as an example. A confined
feedlot for 1,000 head of beef cattle averaging 1,000 pounds (454 kg) of
weight per head required approximately 40 acres (16 ha) of pond to
achieve aerobic digestion (See Section 2.7). Requirements for wastes
from other animals on a nonequivalent basis, are proportionately lower:
0 1,000 hogs require 7.5 acres (3 ha).
0 100 dairy cows require 6 acres (2.4 ha).
0 50,000 broilers require 3 acres (1.2 ha).
Thus, aerobic treatment systems require large areas of land for ponds
and lagoons, which sometimes must also be lined to retard the migration
of hazardous pollutants. In addition, these ponds should be bounded
with structures to control runoff such as dikes, diversion channels,
terraces or culverts. Finally, the ponds should be fenced to prevent
health and safety problems caused by easy access.
The sizes of ponds and lagoons can be reduced by designing and installing
mechanical systems for aeration (floating, vertical-shaft aerators).
63
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Long-term Storage
Long-term storage Is the simplest method of reducing pathogens. A
period of 60 days at 20C or 120 days at 4C normally kills most micro-
organisms (Ref. 111-26). Volatilization of organics over this period
will also significantly reduce odors.
Following are some guidelines for design of a waste storage facility.
0 Do not locate storages on creviced bedrock, gravel, permeable
soil, or below the water table.
0 Allow at least 100 feet (30 meters), between a water supply
and the nearest part of a storage facility.
0 Shield storages from public roads and family living areas.
0 Consider prevailing winds.
0 Plan the location, size, and design of storage for year-round
use.
0 Check with local environmental agencies and health officials
for assessment or regulatory requirements before construction
begins.
Storage facilities include storage gutters, below-ground tanks, silos,
earth solid manure facilities, earth liquid and slurry systems, and
holding ponds.
Chemical Treatment
Lime treatment (to raise the pH above 12), disinfection by chlorination,
or heat treatment of sludge also effectively reduce pathogens. Although
the organic matter is not volatilized, odors are controlled because
release of gases after spreading is slow.
3.4.3 Application Methods
Some sludges can be applied to soil by several techniques which are
highly dependent on its water or solids content.
Spray Irrigation
Spray irrigation of liquid digested sludge can be done only with slurries
of low solids content and with high-pressure sprayers to prevent clogging.
Mobile irrigation equipment such as the "rain gun" spray nozzle provides
operational flexibility and can be used in inclement weather (Ref. III-
27).
64
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Ridge and Furrow
The ridge and furrow method of sludge application is economical and
effective. The sludge flows into furrows, where the liquid portion
infiltrates the soil. After solids have built up in the furrows, the
sludge is incorporated into the soil by plowing.
Plow-Furrow-Cover
This method, using a 16-inch (41 cm) single-bottom moldboard plow, is
highly adaptable to most soil conditions. A slurry of up to 25 percent
solids is deposited in a plowed furrow 6 to 8 inches (15,to 20 cm) deep.
Immediately after deposition, in the same operation, the plow covers the
waste and opens the next furrow. Approximately 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to
5.08 cm.) (170-225 tons per acre) (154 to 204 metric tons) can be com-
pletely covered. This equipment operates at 3 mph (4.8 km/hr) and can
unload up to 200 gallons (.76 cu meters) per minute. After application
the soil is ready for disking and seeding (Ref. 111-28).
Plow Injection
Plow injection is another highly adaptable method. The sludge is pumped
through a flexible hose attached to a tractor. A spreader plate applies
the sludge to the soil just in front of a plow and disk which incorporate
the sludge into the soil (Ref. 111-28).
Sub-Soil Injection
A popular subsurface applicator, features a knife design that opens and
closes any tillable soil to a depth of 6 to 8 inches (15 to 20 cm),
while injecting material at a rate of 600 to 800 gallons (2.3 to 3.0 cu.
meters) per minute at speeds up to 6 miles per hour (9.6 km/hr) (Ref.
111-29).
Truck Application
One of the easiest methods of application of liquid wastes is direct
dumping in the field with trucks. Wet weather conditions can be over-
come by use of specially-wheeled,vehicles commercially available. A
deflector plate may be used or the truck may be fitted with a pumping
unit and spray nozzle to allow uniform application.
Manure Spreaders
Manure spreaders have been used for decades for spreading animal wastes
on farmland. Equipment for dispersing sludge cakes of greater than 25
percent solids has been field tested at the New Jersey Agricultural
Station. One such spreader can be adjusted for surface spreading or
converted to convey waste into a furrow (Ref. 111-28).
65
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Typical costs of dry land spreading and truck transport are given in
Tables 3-2 and 3-3. A further indication of total costs for land
application of septage residuals is given below. These are as reported
by Johnson (Ref. 1 1 1-30) regarding handling of septage from 40,000
persons whose septic tanks are pumped once every 5 years. All three
include an amortized cost of soil injector, which sells for about
$35,000 (1976).
1. Covered receiving tank
Lime stabilization
Diffused aeration
Soil injection
Total annual cost - $31,000 ($13/1000 gal. ($13/3.8 cu. meters),
$52/dry ton ($57/metric ton))
2. Covered receiving tank
Diffused aeration
Soil injection
Total annual cost - $24,000 ($10/1000 gal. ($10/3.8 cu. meters),
$40/dry ton ($44/metric ton))
3. Covered receiving tank
Soil injection
Total annual cost - $16,500 ($7/1000 gal. ($7/3.8 cu. meters),
$28/dry ton ($31 /metric ton))
3.4.4 Management Practices
Loading Rates
In terms of sludge deposition, nitrogen loading should not exceed the
sum of the losses through volatilization, denitrification, and plant
uptake, with a modest loss to ground water. Where higher volatilization
rates are desired, the wastes should not be plowed into the soil immedi-
ately. In this case measures should be taken to control surface runoff.
Stabilization-Conditioning
All residuals to be land applied should be stabilized, conditioned, or
chemically treated before application to reduce pathogens and control
odors.
In order to be alert to possible contamination of surface and ground
water, all lands used for waste residual application should be routinely
monitored to ascertain the movement of nitrates, persistent organics,
pathogens, and metals (See Appendix A).
66
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Table 3-2. TYPICAL DRY LAND SPREADING COSTS
Tons/day
100
200
300
•500
500
600
1000
Tons/year
31,200
62,400
93.600
124.800
156,000
187,200
312,000
Expenditure3
61,200
122,400
163,200
224,400
285,600
346,800
571,200
Amoritized .
capital cost
122,862
245,724
327,632
450,494
573,356
696,218
1,145,712
Annual amor-
tized capital
6.143
12,286
16,382
22.525
28.668
34,811
57,336
Annual 0&M°
36,018
72,036
107,488
143,506
179,524
215,542
359,048
Total annual
cost
42,161
84,322
123,870
166,011
208,192
250,353
416,384
Unit
cost/ton
1.35
1.35
1.32
1.33
1.33
1.34
1.33
a Includes cost of tractors, spreaders, and loaders. All costs adjusted to reflect 1976 dollars.
Amortized at 8% over 20 years level debt service.
° Includes salaries, fuel, equipment maintenance and replacement.
Source: Ref. 111-31
Table 3-3. TYPICAL SOLIDS TRUCK TRANSPORT COSTS
Truck capacity
tons
7
10
15
20
Tons/year a
14,560
20,800
31,200
41,600
Expenditure
44,800
112,000
135,300
140,000
Amoritized
capital cost
54,500
136,300
164,500
170,300
Annual amor-
tized capital
2,725
6,815
8,225
8,515
Annual OiMC
39,900
48,250
50,050
52,000
Total annual
cost
42,625
55,065
58,275
60,515
Unit
cost/ ton
2.92
2.65
1.8.7
1.45
aTonnage computed at 8 roundtrips per day, 260 days per year.
bCost amortized at 8% over 5 year term, level debt service. Cost presented represent the 20 year cost that will be incurred.
°Costs include labor, fuel, insurance, and maintenance of vehicles.
dBased on 8 roundtrips per day, 30 miles per roundtrip, 260 days per year.
Source: Ref. 111-31
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Records
Accurate detailed records of sludge characteristics and application
rates should be maintained. These records should include data from
monitoring programs. This information will aid research and more
significantly, will enable the user to project future loadings rates
accurately and provide a basis for levying fees.
3.4.5 Land Spreading of Specific Residuals
Sewage sludge, feedlot wastes, and septage may be safely land spread by
the management practices described earlier, including analysis of the
residuals for nitrogen and metals contents treatment to reduce micro-
organisms and offensive odors, careful application, and detailed record
keeping. No adverse effects have been reported from direct disposal of
septage on land at a rate equivalent to 300 pounds of nitrogen per acre
(336 kg/ha) (Ref. 111-32). These applications were done by ridge-
furrow-cover, surface soil injection and sub-sod injection.
Land application of feedlot wastes is increasingly popular because it
improves the soil texture, increases capacity for water retention,
reduces erosion, and promotes the population of beneficial soil micro-
organisms. As confinement feeding of livestock increases, however, the
problems entailed in seasonal disposal of the wastes may require instal-
lation of processing facilities at the feedlots.
Dredge spoil has been us'ed, on a limited basis as a soil amendment (Ref.
111-33). Generally only spoil from fresh water operations can be used
because of the high salt content in marine dredge spoil. Here again the
spoil should be analyzed for nitrogen and metal contents as well as
other toxics (See Appendix B).
3.5 SANITARY LANDFILL
A sanitary landfill is defined by the American Society of Civil Engineers
and later refined by EPA includes the following concepts:
A method of disposing of refuse on land without creating nuisances
or hazards to public health or safety, by utilizing the principles
of engineering to confine the refuse to the smallest practical
area, to reduce it to the smallest practical volume, and to cover
it with a layer of earth at the conclusion of each day\s operation,
or at such more frequent intervals as may be necessary (Ref. III-
34).
The EPA has published (Ref. 111-35), general requirements for operation
of a sanitary landfill:
68
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1. Wastes for which the specific facility has been.designed to •
hold are the only ones to be accepted -- usually bulky wastes,
digested and dewatered sludge, and septic tank pumpings.
2. If the facility is designed to handle special wastes, they
should be placed in special areas and marked.
3. Certain hazardous wastes should be excluded from municipal land-
fills -- toxic chemicals (e.g. PCB's, pesticides, radioactive
wastes, heavy metals, or any other which may contribute to
ground water contamination).
4. All waters discharged from the facility shall be sufficiently
treated to meet the most stringent of applicable water quality
standards in Federal Water Pollution Act.
5. Effluent waters should not be discharged indiscriminantly..
Where this is not done discharge should be monitored and means
to control excessive contamination should be available.
In addition to these general requirements, this section presents detailed
guidelines for the siting, design, and operation of a sanitary landfill.
3.5.1 Site Selection
The design of a sanitary landfill is site specific and dependent on the
hydrogeology, soils, topography, and climate of the area and on the type
and quantity of wastes to be handled.
The volume requirement of a sanitary landfill is site specific and
should be determined on the basis of the estimated amount and type of
solid wastes to be disposed. The volume requirement can be calculated
roughly from estimated values of 5.3 Ib/person/day (2.4 kg/person/day),
density of 500 lb/yd3 (297 kg/m3) and one part earth cover to four parts
waste (Ref. 111-36).
The site must be readily accessible to trucks that transport and dump
the wastes. It should be located in a nonresidential area to minimize
complaints regarding heavy truck and automobile usage, odor, and blowing
debris.
One of the most important aspects of site selection is the potential of
ground water and surface water contamination. The primary consideration
here is hydrogeology of the site, which is a major factor in leachate
formation and resulting water pollution problems. In some cases, leachate
has been collected for treatment in municipal wastewater plants prior to
discharge (Ref. 111-37).
69
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Generally, the site should be located in an area in which-the water
table is more than 5 feet (1.5 m) below the bottom of the cells. The
topography should be flat enough that runoff cannot contaminate surface
waters. The sub-surface soils should be of low permeability with no
joints or fractures. Such soils reduce movement of leachates and pro-
vide some protection against ground water contamination.
3.5.2 Application Methods
Surface Water Control
Surface runoff should be diverted from the landfill site by use of
pipes, drainage ditches, or dikes. In cases where surface water runoff
contains a heavy load of suspended solids, a detention pond is recom-
mended to settle out the solids prior to discharge to water courses.
Ground Water Protection
Leachate formation in landfills can lead to pollution of water resources.
Nutrient overenrichment of surface and ground waters, and bacterial and
chemical contamination of drinking water supplies are but a few of the
primary effects of leachate entering water courses. In arid and semi-
arid areas where evapotranspiration exceeds annual precipitation,
leachate formation is generally negligible. A leachate control system
usually is not required in such areas unless wastes with high water
(liquid) content are deposited.
In areas where precipitation equals or exceeds evapotranspiration, some
type of leachate control system is required. Control may take the form
of impermeable liners (bottom and/or top) or a subsurface collection
system. In either case, the leachate must be treated before release to
the environment.
Liners
A recently developed technique for aiding in the elimination of leachate
problems is installation of an impervious cell liner. The liner can be
made of asphalt, cement, compacted clay, treated soils, or any number of
polymeric materials, such as polyvinyl chloride or polyethylene. All of
these materials have been used as liners at one or more landfill sites
(Ref. 111-38).
The use of liners involves two problems. First, rigorous construction
standards must be observed to assure proper sealing of the cell.
Second, problems could arise from leaks if the leachate reacts with the
liner. The long-term effects of leachate on the aforementioned liners
is not well known, although some problems have been documented. For
example, polyvinyl chloride and polyethylene are susceptible to degra-
70
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dation from sunlight and ozone, butyl rubber and ethylene-propylene
diene monomer are not resistant to hydrocarbons and organic solvents,
and a clay-treated soil, requires the addition of special polymers when
contacting dissolved salt concentrations exceeding 1000 ppm (Ref. III-
38).
With flexible liners such as PVC or polyethylene, 1 to 2 feet (.3 to .6
m), of soil should be placed over the liner to protect it from punctures
during compaction or initial filling (See Table 3-10). If the liner is
not covered with soil, precautions should be taken to protect it from
materials with jagged edges; no vehicles with crawler tracks should be
used in the cell until a sufficiently thick base has been deposited.
Underdrains
Because of the uncertainty of liner effectiveness, in practically all of
the landfills requiring membrane liners and sealant additives some
method of underdrain catchment of generated leachates is required to
insure against excess ground water contamination from the disposal area.
Two especially descriptive discussions on this subject are contained in
recent works (Ref. 111-39,40).
If the landfill is always above the top of the zone of saturation, a
closely-spaced system of interconnected tile or gravel-filled ditch
underdrains may be necessary. If total leachate collection is essen-
tial, the drain system must be bedded in permeable material such as sand
and gravel and underlain by an impermeable liner. In this type of
underdrain system, some method for removal of the contaminated fluid
must be provided. If a natural ravine or hollow underlies the landfill,
the installed drainage system can be designed to divert all fluids
collected into a main collector tile laid along the base of this topo-
graphic low and directed from there to some downgradient removal point
near the downstream end of the filled area as is shown in Figure 3-1.
The accumulated fluids in a bowl-shaped liner can be diverted by the
tile drainage system to the center low and collected there in a specially
designed sump for pump removal (see Figure 3-1). The effectiveness and
efficiency of either of these types of underdrain systems located above
the water table depends primarily upon the placement and spacing of the
drains and the permeability of their bed material. In such systems,
care must always be taken to insure that appreciable quantities of the
leachates generated in the fill area will not move below the effective
reach of the installed drains. If this is not done, the uncaptured
liquid can readily migrate further downward, perhaps to cause serious
water-quality degradation in'underlying ground water reservoirs.
71
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LAND SURFACE
REFUSE
TOP OF ZONE OF SATURATION
REGIONAL WATER TABLE
LEACHATE REMOVAL
SYSTEM
ZONE OF SATURATION _,
REGIONAL WATER TABLE
LAND SURFACE
IMPERMEABLE
EARTH MATERIAL
COVER
(C)
_REGIONAL_
'WATER TABLE
LAND
SURFACE
Figure 3-1. Hydrogeology of landfills with ways of using underdrains to
control leachate migration. (A), above watertable in topographic low; (B)
above watertable where underdrain sump-tile laid collection is required; and
(C) below the zone saturation.
72
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If the landfill excavation extends below the water table and is finished
within the zone of saturation as is illustrated in Figure 3-1, a system
of underdrains can be installed near the bottom, or just below the fill
excavation, to capture any ground water that normally would enter the
landfill from the sides or below. By creating an inflow hydraulic
gradient of this type, movement of leachate out of the site is practi-
cally eliminated. In such systems, it is essential to always keep the
level of the collector systems' outlet below the elevation of its
laterals so that a continuous flow is maintained to the outlet point.
Only by so doing can an inflowing ground water gradient be assured. In
this regard, as the volume of flow to the collection point- is basically
controlled by the elevation differential, it follows that the lower the
outlet or sump-pump setting, the greater will be the leachate ground
water flow to the collection point. From a leachate-treatment cost
standpoint, this fact is especially significant for both the gravity and
sump-pump underdrain systems, because after leachates are collected,
they have to be treated; and the greater the volume of leachates collect-
ed, the higher will be the total cost of treatment (See Section 4.4).
Grouting
Grouting is the process of pumping fluid pastes through small-diameter
holes into pervious materials. The line of holes is so spaced that the
grout material introduced into each hole (ideally) meets the material
pumped in on either side. The resultant barrier, "formed" when the paste
sets, is known as a grout curtain. The procedure is widely used for
tightening dam foundations.
The use of a grout curtain to eliminate or reduce the migration of
contaminated ground water from a disposal area is subject to the same
basic restriction that applies to other methods of physical intercep-
tion; there must be no chance for the contaminant to pass around the
ends of the intercepting system. Grouting will be applicable only to
cases where the section of contaminant flow is relatively restricted.
Generally, the only case in which grouting can be used without the
additional use of pump-back wells is beneath the dike of a pond. Other-
wise, the curtain, if it is at all effective, will act as a ground water
dam, and if pumps are not installed upstream from it the ground water
will rise and eventually appear as surface flow.
The use of grout in cases where an absolute cutoff of contaminant flow
is required (as from industrial waste ponds) is generally impracticable,
since it is usually impossible to create a completely impervious curtain.
The aquifer may consist of unconsolidated material, fractured rock, or
a combination of the two. In the presence of fractured rock, it is
difficult to ensure that the entire fracture zone has been penetrated;
with fine-grained unconsolidated sediments the penetration of conven-
73
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tional grouting material (Portland cement) is inadequate.- Proprietary
chemical grouts, such as AM-9 (acrylamide methylene bisacrylamide) will
penetrate much smaller pores than will cement, but they are quite
expensive and there is still no assurance of 100 percent effectiveness.
Other grouts, such as bituminous emulsions and silicate solutions, may
prove both economic and offer similar penetrating ability. The impor-
tance of the degree of effectiveness is illustrated by the fact that to
achieve a 90 percent reduction of permeability in the grouted zone, more
than 99 percent of the cracks or pores must be grouted (Ref. 111-41).
Where there are large fractures or -solution channels, especially with
relatively rapid ground water flow, grouting may be impossible.
For cases where only a reduction in contaminant leachate is required,
and where sub-surface conditions are favorable, grouting may be a
satisfactory solution. One problem is that the effectiveness of the
curtain generally cannot be determined until the grouting has been
completed.
Other Leachate Control Measures
During operation of a landfill, a number of other methods can be employed
to control leachate. One is the addition of sand, fly ash, or other
material to absorb and neutralize some of the leachate until saturation
is reached. A major factor in reducing leachate production is the daily
and final cover material or plastic liner. The daily cover material
should consist of a compacted relatively impermeable soil that will
allow precipitation to run off the working face of the cell. Final
cover material should also be impermeable. In regions where clayey
soils for lining are scarce or not available, plastic liners covered
with a minimum of 2 feet (.6 meters) of soil can be used.
Gas Control
Decomposition of solid wastes can produce gases, generally methane,
which is explosive in concentrations greater than 5 percent and carbon
dioxide. It can also produce other gases such as hydrogen sulfide,
which is malodorus, toxic, combustible, and explosive (Ref. 111-39).
These gases usually pose no problems when they can disperse into the
atmosphere. If an impermeable cover material is used, however, gases
must be vented to the atmosphere by means of vent pipes or permeable
sand or gravel vents.
Monitoring Systems
Landfill operators should provide a series of observation wells to
monitor ground water quality. Upstream and downstream measurements
should be compared to evaluate any pollution problems (See Appendix A).
74
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3.5.3 Management Practices
Improper management can reduce the effectiveness of the best-designed
sanitary landfill. The consequences may be minor, such as blowing
litter or bad odors, or may entail major and extremely serious problems.
Liners can be destroyed by the addition of unauthorized chemicals. In
one instance an operator was killed in a municipal landfill when his
bulldozer ran over a 55-gallon (.2 m3) drum containing volatile indus-
trial wastes.
Detailed records of incoming waste material are required for evaluating
the landfill operation and planning future uses and/or expansion. The
records should include type, weight, and origin of the materials. This
information can then be used to determine compaction and operation
efficiency and to estimate the amount of decomposition and eventual
settling. Cost accounting records also are required for budgetary
planning and evaluation.
Any industrial or other potentially hazardous wastes must be inventoried
and their location in the landfill clearly identified so that the
materials can be removed in the future if pollution problems should
occur.
Operational Methods
Operation of a sanitary landfill consists of three basic steps after
wastes have been added: spreading, compaction, and covering.
After wastes have been dumped they must be spread onto the working face
of the landfill. As wastes are spread, the operator should ensure that
they are thoroughly mixed to facilitate uniform settling.
Compacting the wastes reduces the total volume of the wastes and also
reduces the potential for blowing litter.
Covering of wastes at the end of the working day can prevent or reduce
blowing litter, formation of odors, and use of the area by wildlife. A
minimum daily cover of 6 inches (15 cm) of compacted soil having good
compaction characteristics is recommended to conserve land and help pre-
vent subsidence. The cover should be graded to direct runoff from the
site. If the cell is not to have an additional lift added for 1 year,
12 inches of compacted cover material are recomni'en'ded. Final cover
should consist of 2 feet (.6 meters) of soil and be revegetated (Ref.
111-36)..
Completed Landfill
When the landfill is completed, maintenance of the site usually involves
75
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regrading and filling of small depressions that result from uneven
settlement. This must be done to maintain good drainage of the area and
prevent excessive generation of leachate. Typical costs for landfill ing
are presented in Table 3-4.
3.5.4 Disposal by Landfilling of Specific Residuals
Sewage Sludge, Septage, and Water Treatment Sludge
Many sanitary landfills accept sewage sludge and/or septage but do not
properly protect the environment from pathogenic organisms and possible
toxic compounds in these wastes that might leach into ground water.
It is recommended that sewage sludge and septage be dewatered and
stabilized (digested) before thqy are added to the landfill. Dewatering
by such means as centrifugation or vacuum filtration can reduce the
moisture content of sludges to 50 percent although typical costs effective
methods will not exceed 25 percent solids. The combined solid wastes
and sludge should be thoroughly mixed and covered immediately to control
odors and to prevent contact with vectors such as flies and mosquitoes.
Combustion Air Pollution Controls and Incineration Residues
The residuals in this category are mainly sulfur oxides sludges from
fossil fuel power plants; a highly variable inorganic residue from
municipal incinerators and sludge treatment plants; and fly ash from
pollution control devices. All of these can be disposed of in a sani-
tary landfill. Fly ash is often useful because of its moisture absorb-
ing characteristics.
Municipal Refuse
Landfill is the method most commonly used for ultimate disposal of
municipal refuse. Prior to disposal, municipal refuse may be processed
to obtain some type of beneficiation or reduction in volume. Following
is a brief list of processing methods and combinations thereof that are
commonly used in preparing municipal refuse before landfill. The list
is not exhaustive, since other methods are available and may be appro-
priate for specific applications (Ref. 11-23, 111-42,43).
A) Shredding ->• Material Separation -»• Combustion in
Industrial Boiler + Ash Lagooning •*• Landfill Ash
B) Incineration ->-Ash Lagoon ->- Landfill Ash
C) Shredding -»• Landfill
D) Baling and Compacting -»• Landfill
76
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Table 3-4. TYPICAL LANDFILLING COSTS
Tons/day
100
200
300
400
500
600
1000
Tons/year a
31,200
62,400
93,600
124,800
156,000
187,200
321,000
Estimated Costs
Expenditure0
1,077,115
1,145,964
1,556,145
2,007,398
2,383,621
2,762,964
4,244,287
Amoritized
capital cost
2,161,682
2,300,422
3,124,444
4,031,426
4,787,007
5,548,922
8,524,227
Annual amor-
tized caoital
108,084
115.021
156,222
201,571
239,350
277,446
426,211
Annual OSM6
180,600
191,520
240,504
283,872
327,240
366,864
525,360
Total annual
cost
288,64
306,541
396,725
485,443
566,590
644 .310
551,571
Unit
cost/ton
9.25
4.91
4.24
3.89
3.63
3.44
3.05
aBased on 312 days/year, 6 days/week, 8 hours/day.
All costs adjusted to represent constant 1976 dollars (i.e., 1976 = 100).
°Based on in-situ compacted density of 800 Ibs/yd , 12 feet operating depth, and site efficiency of 85% (6582 tons/acre).
Includes site work, scales, roads, fences, structures, materials, installation, surface surveys, subsurface investigations,
operating equipment, constractors1 overhead, ciay liner, monitoring wells, and profit, etc. Does not include engineering
and legal fees, contingencies, resource recovery, collection, land cost, and haul to the landfill, etc.
Amortized at 8% interest, 20 year term, level debt service.
elncludcs salaries and overhead, fuel, utilities, equipment maintenance and replacement, etc. Does not include collection
and haul to the landfill, etc.
fHo credit given for ultimate sale of completed sanitary landfill land after 20 years.
Source: Ref. 11-23
-------
The typical costs presented in this section are not site-specific; they
should be regarded only as order-of-magnitude indicators.
Shredding, Material Separation, Combustion in Industrial Boilers, Ash
Lagoon, Landfi11 of Bottom Ash from Lagoon
Shredding and separation are means of breaking down relatively large
materials into smaller particles to produce a more homogenous product
from which the combustible and noncombustible fractions are separated,
as shown in Figure 3-2. Noncombustible fractions can be sold if a
market is available, and combustible fractions can be fired in industrial
boilers as a supplemental fuel. Table 3-5 lists typical costs for such
an operation.
Incineration, Ash Lagoon, Landfill
Although the practice of incineration is severely criticized on environ-
mental and economic grounds, it remains a viable alternative in heavily
urbanized areas or in areas where land is at a premium. Incineration
reduces the volume of solid wastes by one-half or more, prior to ulti-
mate disposal. The lagoons are used merely as thickening basins for
slurried ash from the incinerators. The ash is periodically taken from
the lagoon to a landfill for ultimate disposal. Table 3-6 depicts
typical costs for such a process.
Shredding, Landfill
Shredding of municipal refuse and subsequent landfill ing is a process
adaptable to areas with large volumes of municipal refuse and limited
area for landfilling. Shredded municipal refuse lends itself to a
higher degree of compaction (approximately 25%) at the landfill thus
resulting in 25 percent less land required to landfill the refuse than
if it were not shredded. The planner needs to analyze the possible land
savings as an offset to the high cost of shredding. Table 3-7 lists
typical costs for this process.
Baling and Compacting and Landfill
Widely used for many years in industry and agriculture, baling is a
simple form of packaging. The baling and compacting of municipal refuse
reduces the volume of refuse, extends the life of the landfill and, with
proper equipment, facilitates handling. Cost of baling municipal refuse
is relatively high, however, and the method may be considered only in
situations where offsetting cost benefits from land use, handling, or
transportation can be realized. Table 3-8'gives estimated costs of
baling and compacting operations.
78
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AIR CLASSIFIER
STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION
PACKER VEHICLE
\*r ' ^J ^
RAW REFUSE DELIVERY
FEEDER HAMMERMILL
BELT SCALE, 1> T^TI ^*
TRACTOR/TRAILER
OR RAIL SHUTTLE
FERROUS METAL
TO STEEL MILL
NONMAGNETIC
RESIDUE
FERROUS METAL RECOVERY
NON MAGNETIC METALS,
GLASS. ANO WASTE TO
FURTHER SEPARATION.
STORAGE. OR TO SANITARY
LANDFILL
FUEL TO UTILITY OR
INDUSTRIAL USER '
Figure 3-2. Shredding and material separation process.
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Table 3-5. ESTIMATED COSTS OF SHREDDING AND MATERIAL SEPARATION, AND LAGOONIN6 AND
LANDFILLING OF ASH FROM COMBUSTION IN AN INDUSTRIAL BOILER
Input tons/day
100
200
400
1,000
Process
Shredding and mater-
ial separation
Ash lagoon
Landfill
Total
Shredding and mater-
ial separation
Ash laaoon
Landfill
Total
Shredding and mater-
ial separation
Ash lagoon
Landfill
Total
Shredding and mater-
ial separation
Ash lacoon
Landfill
Total
Expenditure0
$1,000
2,017
39
436
2,492
3,447
78
727
4,252
3,320
155
1,030
4,505
8,000
388
1,447
9,835
, Estimated costs3
Amortized
capital cost
51,000
',077
78
876
5,031
6,919
156
1,460
8,535
6,663
312
2,058
9,043
16,061
780
2,906
19,747
Annual airor-
tized capital
Si, 000
204.0
3.9
43.8
251.7
346.0
7.8
73.0
426.8
333.0
15.6
103.4
452.0
803.0
39.0
145.3
987.3
Annual
0 & Me
$1,000
207.0
11.3
73.2
291.5
344.0
22.5
122.0
488.5
399.0
45.1
172.7
616.8
1,100.0
112.7
242.8
1,455.5
Total annual
cost
$1,000
411.0
15.2
117.0
543.2
690.0
30.3
195.0
915.3
732.0
60.7
276.1
968. 8
1,903.0
151.7
388.1
2,442.8
Total cost/
input ton
20.89
17.60
9.32
9.40
CO
o
All costs adjusted to represent 1976 dollars.
.fraction not included.
Recovery fro:n sale of secondary material and co:nbustible
Based on 260 days/year, 5 days/week, 8 hours/day.
Includes site work, mechanical equipment, scales, roads, fences, structures, materials, clay liners,
installation, contractor's overhead, and profit, etc. Does not include special foundations, engineering,
,and legal fees, contingencies, rolling stock, etc.
Amortized at 8% interest, le?vel debt service, 20-year term (ash lagoon and landfill) , 15 year term
c(shredders). All costs, however, represent a 20-year cost.
Includes salaries and overhead, fuel, utilities, equipment maintenance and replacement, etc.
Source: Ref. 11-23, 111-44, 45, 46
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Table 3-6. ESTIMATED COSTS OF INCINERATION OF MUNICIPAL REFUSE AND DISPOSAL OF THE
RESULTANT ASH
Input tons/day
100
200
400
1,000
Process
Incineration
Ash lagoon
Landfill
Total
Incineration
Ash lagoon
Landfill
Total "
Incineration
Ash lagoon
Landfill
Total
Incineration
Ash 1 agoon
Landfill
Total
Expenditure
31,000
2, 719
34
509
3,262
3,499
69
763
4,3ol
4,006
138
944
5,088
8,943
345
1,496
10,784
Estimated costs
X-r.ortized
capital cost
51,000
5,459
69
1,022
6,550
7,026
138
1,531
8,695
8,045
277
1,897
10,219
17,957
693
3,004
21,654
Annual amor-
tized capital
SI, 000
273.0
3,5
51.1
327.6
351.0
4.2
76.6
431.8
402.0
8.3
94.8
505.1
898.0
34.7
150.2
1,082.9
Annual
0 & Ke
51,000
373.0
10.4
85.. 1
468.8
594.0
12.5
127.9
734.4
861.0
25.0
160.5
1,046.5
1,825.0
62.4
321.7
2,209.1
Total an.-.ual
cost
51,000
646.0
13.9
136.5
796.4
945.0
16.7
204.5
1,166.2
1,263.0
33.3
255.3
1,551.6
2,723.0
97.1
471.9
3,292.0
Total cost/
input ton
30.63
22.08
14.92
12.66
oo
?All costs adjusted to reflect constant 1976. Keat recovery value assumed at SO.OO/tcn.
Based or. 260 days/year, 5 days/week, 8 hours/day.
Includes site work, mechanical equipment, air pollution control equipment, scales, roads,
structures, fencing, materials, installation, contractor's overhead and profit, and clay liners.
Does not include land, engineering and legal fees, special foundation, cooling water, contingencies,
jincoming pick-up and haul, etc.
"Amortized at 8% interest, 20-year term, level debt service.
elncludes salaries and overhead, fuel, utilities, equipment maintenance and replacement, etc.
Source: Ref, 11-23, 111-42, 46
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Table 3-7. ESTIMATED COSTS FOR SHREDDING AND LANDFILLING
oo
no
Input tor.s/day
100
200
400
1000
Process
Shedding
Landfill
Total
Shedding
Landfill
Total
Shedding
Landfill
Total
Shedding
Landfill
Total
Expenditure0
1,000
2,017
1,077
3,094
2,361
1,146
3,507
3,320
2,007
5,327 •
8,000
4,244
12,244
Amortized
capital cost
$1,000
4,077
2,162
6,239
4,740
2,300
7,040
6,663
4,031
10,694
16,061
8,524
24,585
Estimated Costs3
Annual amoritized
capital 51,000
204.0
108.1
312.1
237.0
115.0
352.0
333.0
201.6
534.6
803.0
426.2
1,229.2
Annual
O&M
$1,000
207.0
130.6
387.6
204.0
191.5
395.5
399.0
233.9
682.9
1,100.0
525.4
1,625.4
Total
annual cost
$1,000
411.0
288.7
699.7
441.0
306.5
747.5
732.0
485.5
1,217.5
1,903.0
951.6
2,854.6
Total cost/
input ton
26.91
14.38
11.71
10.98
aAll costs adjusted to represent 1976 dollars. Recovery from sale of compost not included.
Based on 260 cays/year, 5 days/week, 8 hours/day.
clnclv:ces site work, mechanical equipment, scales, roads, fences, structures, clay liners, materials, installation,
contractor's overhead and profit, etc. Does not include special foundations, engineering and legal fees, contingencies,
rolling stock, etc.
nnortised at 8% interest, level debt service, 20-year tern (buildings and structures), 15-year tern (shredders),
10-year term (spreading equipment). All costs, however, represent a 20-year cost.
elncludes salaries and overhead, 'fuel, utilities, equipment maintenance and replacement, etc.
Source: Ref. 11-23, 111-45,46.
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Table 3-8. ESTIMATED COSTS FOR BALING AND COMPACTING PROCESS
00
co
bAll costs adjusted to reflect 1976 dollars.
C8ased on 260 days/year, 5 days/week, 8 hours/day.
Includes site work, mechanical equipment, air pollution control equipment, scales, roads,
structures, fencing, clay liners, materials, installation, contractor's overhead and profit, etc.
Does not include land, engineering and legal lees, special foundations, cooling waters, contin-
gencies, incoming pick-up and haul, etc.
Amortized at 8% interest, level debt service, 20-year tern (landfill), 10-year tern-, (balers and"
econ-.pactors) . All costs, however, represent the 20-year cost.
Includes salaries and overhead, fuel, utilities, equipment.maintenance and replacement, etc.
Source: Ref. 11-23, 111-42,
Input tons/day
100
200
400
1,000
Process
Balincr and coir.pactinc
Landfill
Total
Balinc and compacting
Landfill
Expenditure0
SI, 000
950
1,077
2,027
1,901
1,146
Total j 3,047
Baling and compacting
Landfill
Total
Baling and compacting
Landfill
Total
3,802
2,007
1 57809
9,504
4,244
13,748
, Estimated costsa
Amortized"
capital cost
,'1,000
1,384
2,162
Ar.nual amor-
tized capital
$1,000
Annual
0 4 Ke
$1,000
69.2 1 93.0
108. 1 • 180.6
Total annual
cost
$1,000
162.2
2S?.7
3,446 : 177.3 . 273.6 i 450. S
2,767
2,300
138.4 ; 186. .0
115.0 191.5
324.4
306.5
Total cost/
input ton
14.45
3.067 253.4 '• 377.5 i -630.9 ' 10.11
5,534
4,031
9,565
13,836
8,524
22,360
276.7
201.6
478.3
691.8
426.2
1,118.0
371.9
283.9
655. S
929.8
525.4
1,455.2
648.5 |
485.5
1,134.1
1,621.6
S51 .6
2,573.2
9.09
6.25
-------
Industrial Wastes
The residuals from pretreatment of industrial wastes must be contained
in a properly designed, adequately controlled and monitored, chemical
landfill. Hazardous waste residuals should be isolated from nonhazard-
ous waste residuals to ensure safe operation of the landfill. A chemi-
cal landfill is designed to provide indefinite storage of waste chemical
residuals and to protect the quality of ground water in or near the
area.
However, proper and acceptable techniques of industrial waste management
practices consist of intermediate practices, and ultimate disposal
practices for proper handling of any residual materials. Typical inter-
mediate practices seek to achieve the following:
1) Recover valuable chemicals at their source in the most concen-
trated state.
2) Analyze, revise, and up-date existing and projected chemical-
processes to achieve reduction of polluting materials at the
source.
3) Close-loop once through cooling water usage by installation of
on-site cooling towers, thereby reducing the hydraulic load to
the sewer.
4) Reduce the amount of ac[ JJJ^ washes of process tanks and equip-
ment (e.g. solvent wash, water wash, detergent wash, acid or
alkali wash), and suitably contain, pretreat, and remove
potential pollutants from the wash waters.
5) Adequately contain and dike all spills to insure their removal
of pretreatment prior to sewer discharge.
6) Establish and regulate programs of preventative maintenance
and housekeeping throughout the plant to reduce spills, leaks,
equipment malfunctions, etc.
Table 3-9 illustrates typical process techniques suitable to handle
specific pollution problems at the intermediate level of effort.
The typical costs associated with an intermediate industrial wastewater
step are highly variable and generally site-specific as are the resi-
duals that must be ultimately disposed of in chemical waste landfills.
Siting of the chemical landfill is critical (Ref. 111-49). Criteria for
site selection, although similar to those for general landfills, are
more stringent:
84
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Table 3-9. TYPICAL TECHNIQUES SUITABLE TO
TREAT VARIOUS POLLUTANT CONTAMINANTS
Processes
Neutralization (pH
adjustment)
Chemical oxidation
or reduction
Sedimentation
Clarification
Filtration
Flotation
Ion exchange
Lagooning
Emulsion breaking
Adsorption
Biological treat-
ment
Direct incineration
Sludge dewatering
Cooling towers
Desalinization
techniques
te
a
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I
X
a
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IH
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l-l
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spended
9
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u
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X
X
X
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X
X
N
l-l
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X
X
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X
8
o
£
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
II
•H
1
8
IH
s
X
X
X
X
X
i
1
w
«
&
X
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X
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X
4
IH
u
1
a
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w
rbicide
o
a
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*O
w
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4J
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trients
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A variety of unit processes are applicable for treatment of different contaminants.
Various combinations of these processes may be incorporated into any waste treatment
system. For instance, an organic waste containing solids above 65 to 70 ng/1 would
require clarification ahead of carbon adsorption.
Sources Ref. 111-56.
85
-------
Chemical waste landfills ideally should be located in areas of low
population density, low alternative land use value, and low ground
water contamination potential.
Sites should be located away from flood plains, natural depres-
sions, and excessive slopes.
Wherever possible, sites should be located in areas of high clay
content because of the low permeability and beneficial adsorptive
properties of such soils.
Major sources of waste generation should be nearby. Wastes trans-
ported to the site should not require transfer during shipment.
Sites should be located aVi adequate distance from wells that serve
as water supplies for human or animal consumption.
Detailed site studies and waste characterization studies are necessary
to estimate the long-term stability and Teachability of the waste sludges
in the specific site selected.
Design and operation of the chemical landfill are extremely important.
The site should be fenced to prevent public access. Where leachate may
cause ground water contamination the use of liners, encapsulation,
detoxification and/or solidification and fixation should be practiced
(Ref. 111-48). All liners, cover materials, and encapsulating materials
must be tested or have known chemical resistance to the substances they
will contain or otherwise come in contact with. Ideally, such materials
should have an effective life greater than the toxic life of the wastes
they contain. These precautions are needed to ensure that the chemical
landfill is truly sealed and that it will not contaminate ground or
surface waters by leaching or runoff.
Recent technological advances in liner fabrication provide a selection
of materials for sealing a chemical landfill. These include asphalt,
clay, concrete, rubber and a variety of plastics such as Hypalon or PVC.
The choice of liner depends on economics and on ability to ensure an
adequate seal given the chemical mix of the landfill. Table 3-10 sum-
marizes typical costs for several types of liners (Ref. 111-38). Figure
3-3 illustrates a properly designed chemical landfill.
Monitoring and Recordkeeping for the Chemical Landfill
Studies must be made to determine site monitoring requirements. Hydro-
geological monitoring will be required to detect routine and accidental
releases of liquid effluents. A system of observation wells should be
installed in aquifers around the site and concentrated in paths of
potential water and waste movement downstream from the site. A monthly
86
-------
Table 3-10. COST FOR VARIOUS LANDFILL LINER MATERIALS
Liner
material
InstallecLcost
($/yd2)
c,d,e
Polyethylene (10 - 20a milsb)
Polyvinyl chloride (10 - 30a mils)
Butyl rubber (31.3 - 62.5a mils)
Hypalon (20 - 45a mils)
Ethylene propylene diene monomer
(31.3 - 62.5a mils)
Chlorinated polyethylene
(20 - 30a mils)
Paving asphalt with sealer coat
(2 inches)
Paving asphalt with sealer coal
(4 inches)
Hot sprayed asphalt (1 gal/yd2)
Asphalt sprayed on polypropylene
fabric (100 mils)
Soil-bentonite (9.1 lbs/yd2)
Soil-bentonite (18.1 lbs/yd2)
Soil-cement with sealer coal (6 inches)
1.13
1.47
4.09
3.63
3.06
1.81
2.72
5.04
3.86
4.31
3.06 - 4.08
1.51 - 2.14
2.96 - 4.09
1.89 - 2.52
(includes earth cover)
1.59 - 2.36
0.91
1.47
1.57
Material costs are the same for this range of thickness.
One mil = 0.001 inches.
Q
Costs are updated to 1976, and do not include construction of subgrade
nor the cost of earth cover except where indicated. These can range
$0.58/yd2/ft of depth.
Materials and labor costs are included.
g
Land costs are not included.
Source: Ref. 111-38.
87
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LEACHATE
COLLECTION
IMPERVIOUS LINER
HAZARDOUS ! (MATERIAL
.IMESTONE-r
MONITORING
WELL
WATER TABLE
Figure 3-3. Pictorial representation of properly
designed chemical landfill.
Source: Ref. 111-48.
-------
sampling frequency is suggested. Downstream monitoring stations and a
bimonthly sampling frequency are suggested for surface streams in the
vicinity of the chemical landfill site (See Appendix A).
The locations of various hazardous wastes within the landfill should be
recorded to permit future recovery if economics permit. These results
will facilitate the analysis of causes if undesirable reactions or other
problems develop.
The capital and O&M costs associated with a chemical landfill are not
well documented. Assuming that the chemical residuals are handled
similarly and that loading factors are comparable to those for operation
of a sanitary landfill, costs can be generated that reflect the order-
of-magnitude costs for a chemical landfill operation. These costs are
summarized in Table 3-11; they include the cost of a 45-mil, highly
chemical-resistant, Hypalon liner. Land costs and transport costs are
included.
Since 1965 a plant at Union Carbide's Institute, West Virginia, has.
operated a state-licensed chemical landfill. Some 200 types of organic
residuals from the plant have been placed in this landfill. Leachate
from the landfill is contained and treated in the plant's 5.0 mgd
activated sludge system or is burned as a source of heat for steam
generation. Typically the landfill handles 10 tons (9.1 metric tons)
Per day of chemical waste sludges; the landfill is also sized to handle
28 tons (25 metric tons) of wastewater treatment plant sludges per day.
The Union Carbide landfill has a 2-foot (.6 meter) thick rolled-clay
liner to keep leachate from entering adjacent ground waters. A 20-year
life (based on 4,000 tons (3,632 metric tons) per year of chemical
residuals disposal) has been projected for the landfill. An internal
drainage system permits all-weather operation and collects the leachate
for treatment. The basic operating procedures for hazardous waste
disposal consist of strict segregation of in-plant wastes; deactivation
before landfill ing, where practical; continuous blending of wastes and
soil, and daily earth cover. Union Carbide indicates that not all
chemical wastes are degraded in the landfill. Some liquid flows out of
the landfill as an "oil" layer into a contaminated water basin, where it
"js skimmed for residue fuel. Other waste leaves as dissolved chemicals
in the leachate and goes to wastewater treatment.
Table 3-12 summarizes estimated costs for the expected 20-year life of
the landfill.
The ultimate long-term utility of a given chemical landfill depends upon
the assurance that leaching of chemical residuals does not occur.
Several companies have developed ways to reduce the leachate potential
of typical residuals by a chemical fixation process. Some companies
89
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Table 3-11. ESTIMATED ORDER-OF-MAGNITUDE COSTS TO OPERATE
A 100 TON/DAY CHEMICAL LANDFILL SITE
Tons/day
100
Tons/year3
31,200
Capital .
expenditure 'c
2,710,108
Total
amortized
capital
costs"
5,436,476
Annual
amortized
capital
costs
271,823
Annual
454,195
Total
annual
cost
726,018
Unit cost
per ton*
23.27
Based on 312 days/year, 6 days/week, 8 hours/day.
All costs adjusted to represent 1976 dollars (i.e., 1976 = 100).
Based on an in-situ compacted density of 800 lb/yd3, 12 feet operating depth, and site
efficiency of 85% (6582 tons/acre). Includes site work, scales, roads, fences, structures,
materials, installation, surface, surveys, subsurface investigations, operating equipment,
contractor's overhead, a 45 mil Hypalon lining, monitoring wells, and profit, etc. Does
not include engineering and legal fees, contingencies, resource recovery, land costs,
collection and haul to the landfill, etc.
Amortized at 8% interest, 20 year term, level debt service.
Includes salaries and overhead, fuels, utilities, equipment maintenance and replacement,
analytical services, etc. Does not include collection and haul to the landfill, etc.
No credit given for ultimate sale of completed chemical landfill site after 20 years.
Source: Ref. Ill-49.
-------
Table 3-12. TOTAL COST FOR CHEMICAL LANDFILL OPERATION AT
UNION CARBIDE'S INSTITUTE, WEST VIRGINIA PLANT
Tons/day3
13
Tons/year
4,000
Capital b c
expenditure '
314,928
Total
amortized
capital
costs^
631,745
Annual
amortized
capital
costs
31,587
Annual
O&M
181,682
Total
annual
cost
213,269
Unit cost
per ton
53.31
312 days/year be.sis.
All costs adjusted to represent 1976 dollars (i.e., 1976 = 100).
Costs include all site work, and materials, leachate control and monitoring system, two
foot rolled clay liner, oil skimmer device, etc. Does not include land costs and study or
design costs.
Amortized at 8% interest, 20 year term, level debt service.
Source :#Ref. 111-47.
-------
offer a chemical fixative capable of locking a chemical residual into a
solidified matrix. Following are typical materials that these companies
claim to have rendered mostly insoluble or nonleachable:
0 Heavy-metal wastes
0 Neutralized pickling liquors
0 American Petroleum Institute (API) oil-water separator sludges
0 Polymer processing wastes
0 Municipal sludges
0 Petrochemical residues
0 Flue gas desulfurization sludges.
One company claims that its fixative is nontoxic, noncombustible, and
resistant to leaching even in the presence of highly acidic materials.
It is also reported to reduce odors. The chemically-fixed materials
could be placed in a chemical landfill similar to that of Union Carbide.
Since the process represents a relatively new technology, cost data are
limited. Typical costs range from 2 to 10 cents per gallon ($5.28 to
$26.42/m3), but this cost is highly contingent upon the type of wastes
involved (Ref. 111-48).
If a cost of 10 cents per gallon ($26.42/m3), is assumed, and if half of
the annual chemical wastes generated at Union Carbide are assumed to be
suitable for this treatment (Table 3-12), an annual cost of $47,960
would be entailed in adding this process to the chemical landfill
operation.
It is certain that chemical fixatives should and can reduce leachate of
chemical residuals, but the permanence of the resulting structure and
the absolute environmental adequacy of these techniques have not been
fully demonstrated. When used with a well-designed and monitored
chemical landfill operation, however, chemical fixatives should strengthen
the protection of ground waters and streams (Ref. 111-49).
Feedlot Wastes, Mining Wastes
Feedlot wastes and mining wastes are not normally landfilled.
Dredge Spoil
A sanitary landfill is not normally used to dispose of dredge spoil
because of the typically large volumes. For small-scale dredging
operation, or those involving highly polluted spoils containing heavy
metals, disposal in a landfill may be considered with precautions to
prevent leachate from reaching water courses.
92
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3.6 OCEAN DISPOSAL
The Environmental Protection Agency controls the disposal of all wastes
except dredge spoil, in the marine environment by a system of permits
for discharge, transportation, and dumping. The U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers controls dredging, subject to EPA review. The Marine Protec-
tion, Research and Sanctuaries Act, 1972 (40 CFR 220-227) promulgates
strict criteria for the dumping of any waste to the oceans. These
sections also promulgate interim guidelines until such time as appli-
cants can bring their wastes within acceptable limits. At present there
are 119 approved interim disposal sites.
In general the Federal guidelines set the limiting permissible concen-
tration of pollutants as follows:
(a) That concentration of a waste material or chemical constituent
in the receiving water which, after reasonable allowance for initial
mixing in the mixing zone, will not exceed 0.01 of a concentration
shown to be toxic to appropriate sensitive marine organisms in a
bioassay carried out in accordance with approved EPA procedures; or
(b) 0.01 of a concentration of a waste material or chemical con-
stituent otherwise shown to be detrimental to the marine environ-
ment.
These guidelines, all but eliminate any type of disposal in the marine
environment except dredge spoil.
3.7 TRENCH SEWAGE SLUDGE DISPOSAL
Trenching is a modified landfill technique developed by the U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture (U.S.D.A.) at Beltsville (Ref. 111-50). Trenches 2
to 4 feet (.6 to 1.2 meters) deep and 2 feet wide are dug and filled
with digested and raw-lined dewatered sludge and covered by earth. The
soil cover prevents odor escape and contamination of surface water and
permits digestion of sludges in the field. Because the interior of the
trenched sluge mass is anaerobic, the rate of nitrate formation is slow
and restricted to the aerobic perimeter. Stabilization and dewatering
can take up to 5 years during which the land is out of agricultural use
for this period.
Trenching has not been extensively employed for sludge disposal. As
such, the information provided her? should be viewed as substantially
less than "state of the art" in usefulness. Additional guidance is
available from Maryland Environmental Se'rvice (MES). The information
presented below originates from a MES study (Ref. 111-51).
93
-------
3.7.1 Site Criteria
Site Size
An application rate of 1600 wet tons (1.453 metric tons) of filter cake
per acre (320 dry tons/acre (717 metric tons/ha)) is recommended.
Sites should therefore be chosen on the basis of maximum accommodation
in order to minimize the frequency of site change.
Geology
The basic geology of the site should provide an adequate buffer from
ground water. This would be particularly critical if the field capacity
of the soil was exceeded and vertical movement of water occurred.
Therefore, the ground water level should be 3 to 5 feet (0.9 to 1.5
meters), below the bottom of the excavated trench (Ref. IV-1).
Drainage and Topography
Sites should be relatively flat with no more than 7 percent slope in
order to insure equipment stability.
Present and Final Land Use
The application of raw sludge was, in the MES studies, limited to lands
on which edible crops would not be grown for a period of 5 or more
years.
3.7.2 Operating Procedures
Field Trenching
Trenches are constructed with a standard trenching machine with a
trencher wheel capable of indexing the full width of the machine from
crawler to crawler and a spoil conveyor which can discharge to either
side of the machine. Trenches are laid out to follow the contour of the
ground. The initial trench is constructed before any sludge is received
and the next consecutive parallel trench is escavated in a manner which
allows its excavation spoil to be directly conveyed as cover for the
sludge placed in the previously excavated trench. A trenching machine
with an 18-inch (45.7 cm), wheel with offset teeth to excavate a 24-inch
(61.0 cm), wide trench is considered adequate.
Environmental Considerations
The following practices are recommended for any trenching site: drainage
diversions, sedimentation ponds, clear water ponds, monitoring wells and
surface monitoring stations. If surface water in the ponds indicates
contamination, the water can be spray irrigated on the previously
•completed areas.
94
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Upon completetion of sludge application and cover, the surface should be
limed, fertilized, and seeded with an,annual rye grass mix until the
trench sludge has stabilized. When stabilization has occurred, the area
should be leveled and seeded with a permanent grass mixture.
Detailed costs for the trenching method are not available. Preliminary
estimates gave costs of $30.00 per wet ton ($33.00/metric ton) ($150/dry
ton ($165/metric ton)) which included hauling, disposal', and land
acquisition.
3.8 DIVERSION AND DRAINAGE OF SURFACE RUNOFF
One significant problem common to some management practices (MP's)
discussed in this chapter is the control of surface runoff in the
vicinity of treatment or disposal sites. The surface runoff at the site
of land spreading for sludge disposal or the facilities for feedlot
wastes disposal will tend to pick up and disperse pollutants in a manner
which is environmentally unsatisfactory. Pollution of the nearby
surface waters is a common and direct consequence. As to landfill sites
used for residual wastes disposal, especially during the active stage of
operation when the landfill site is not yet sealed off, any uncontrolled
runoff will tend to flood the site and increase the generation of
leachate.
The remedy to these problems usually requires a surface diversion and
drainage system properly designed for the specific site. Essentially,
this represents a basic engineering refinement for some of the manage-
ment practices although, unfortunately, it has been ignored in many
instances at the present time.
3.8.1 General Design of the Systems
In general, surface runoff may be diverted and drained by engineering
works such as dikes and/or channels, which will be discussed separately
in the following sections.
3.8.1.1 Dikes - Dikes are usually designed to protect lowlands against
Periodic innundation by storm floods or high water (Ref. 111-52). They
are most comonly constructed with earth although the use of other
materials such as concrete is also possible. The general design of
earth dikes involves the following considerations:
1. Location of Dike
The location of dikes is determined by the flood-protection requirements,
e.g. the location of the facility to be protection, topography, and
foundation conditions.
2. Cross-Section of Dike
95
-------
The most common cross section is usually in trapezoidal shape, with
slopes determined by the requirements of soil stability as well as
construction economics. Since the fill material must frequently be
derived from shallow borrow pits located near the site of the dike, the
stability requirements may dictate the degree of compaction for the fill
material and may thus affect the construction cost. If soil stability
is not a critical constraint, the land area available for dike construc-
tion will determine the steepness of the slopes and consequently the
construction cost.
3. Height of Dike
The height of the dike will be determined by the rate of surface runoff
which is to be dealt with. In turn, the rate of surface runoff depends
on the characteristics of the tdpography and hydrology of the specific
site.
4. Length of Dike
The length of dikes is determined by the area to be protected from the
surface runoff and the topography of its surroundings.
3.8.1.2 Channels or Ditches - Open channels or ditches, which are less
objectionable in rural rather than urban areas, are widely used for the
drainage of surface water, at a considerable cost saving over that of
buried pipes (Ref. 111-53).
Open channels or ditches are a common alternative to dikes for the
diversion of surface runoff. The choice between dikes and channels
mainly depends on the topography of the site and the economics of the
construction. The use of a combination of dikes and channels for
certain sites may well be a possibility. The major difference between
dikes and channels lies in the mode of construction, dikes are made of
filling material while channels are generally constructed by cutting
into the ground in accordance with the local topography.
The major considerations for the design of drainage channels are as
follows:
1. Design flows
/
The design capacity of drainage channels is influenced by (1) precipi-
tation, (2) size of the contributing area, (3) topography, (4) soil
characteristics, (5) presence of vegetation, and (6) degree of protec-
tion warranted.
Typical design has been to remove about one percent of the mean annual
rainfall in twenty-four hours, which is usually in the range of one-
quarter to one-half of the 1-yr, 24-hr rainfall (Ref. 111-53).
96
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2. Channel Lining
Channel lining refers to the lining of earth channels with materials
harder, more impermeable (impervious to water), and more stable than the
natural base soil. These linings are intended to achieve one of the
following two important objectives.
(a) To increase the channel's resistance to scour, or, in other
words, to increase the maximum permissible velocity;
(b) To prevent water seepage from the channel or, at least, to
reduce it.
According to these two objectives, linings may be classified as follows
(Ref. 111-54).
Increase in scour Reduction of
Type of lining resistance seepage losses
Vegetative lining yes no
Lining with a layer slightly yes
of impervious soil
Masonry lining yes no
Masonry lining with yes slightly
connecting mortar
Lining with a bitum- slightly yes
inous layer
Concrete lining yes yes
3. Maintenance
Timely maintenance is necessary for the continued satisfactory operation
of drainage channels. The principal causes for the failure of open
drainage channels are, in the order of decreasing seriousness, sedimen-
tation in the channel, excessive growth of vegetation, and channel and
bank erosion (Ref. 111-55).
3.8.3 Costs
As described in the preceding paragraphs, the capital cost of dikes and
channels has to be a function of the volume of earthwork involved, the
construction method used, the type of channel lining utilized, etc. In
general, these considerations are highly site-specific, depending on
local topography, soil characteristics, etc.
97
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REFERENCES
111-1 Office Solid Waste Management Programs. First Report to
Congress: Resource Recovery and Source Reduction. EPA Report
No. SW-118, Washington, D.C., 1974.
III-2 Roberts, J.M. and C.P. Roddy. Recovery and Reuse of Alum
Sludge at Tampa. JAWRA, June, 1960.
III-3 Culp, R.L. and G.L. Culp. Advanced Waste Treatment. Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1971.
III-4 Slechta, A.F. and G.L. Culp. Water Reclamation Studies at the
South Tahoe PUC. Jour. Water Pol. Cont. Fed. Vol. 39, No. 3,
1967.
III-5 Carlson, Robert. Personal Communication. Metropolitan Sewer
District of Greater Chicago. 1976.
III-6 Office Solid Waste Management Programs. Third Report to
Congress: Resource Recovery and Source Reduction. • EPA Report
No. SW-118, Washington, D.C., 1975.
III-7 Levy, Stephen. San Diego County Demonstrates Pyrolysis of
Solid Waste. EPA Report No. SW80d.2, Washington, D.C., 1975.
III-8 Evan, R.J. Potential Solid Waste Generation and Disposal from
Lime and Limestone Desulfurization Processes. NTIS PB-233975/2,
1975.
III-9 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Report of the Non-Sewage
Sludge/Residual Work Group. Washington, D.C. 1975.
111-10 Camnarota, A., U.S. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.C.,
Personal Communication, 1975.
III-ll George, L., U.S. Bureau of Mines, Rolla, Mo., Personal Communi-
cation, 1975.
111-12 U.S. Bureau of Mines, Mineral Facts and Problems. Washington,
D.C. 1970.
111-13 Ruhly, King, Metal Finishing Suppliers Association, Birmingham,
Michigan, Personal Communication, 1975.
111-14 First Symposium on Mine and Preparation Plant Refuse Disposal,
October 1974, National Coal Association.
98
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111-15 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Sludge. Internal
Memorandum, 1975.
111-16 U.S. Department of Agriculture. Final Environmental Statement:
Palzo Restoration Project, Shawnee National Forest. Forest
Service Eastern Region, 1972.
111-17 Atwood, Genevieve. The Strip Mining of Western Coal. Scienti-
fic America, Vol. 223, No.- 6, 1975.
111-18 Jeans, G.S., R.E. Pine. Environmental Effects of Dredging and
Spoil Disposal. Kour. Water Poll. Cont. Fed., Vol. 47, Nov. 3,
1975.
Hl-19 Klubock, Personel Communication, Marine Division, Perini Cor-
poration, Boston, 1976.
111-20 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Dredged Material Research -
Notes, News, Reviews. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Station. Miscellaneous Paper D-75-10. Vicksburg, Miss., 1975.
111-21 Meccia, R. Personal Communication. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station. Vicksburg, Miss., 1976.
Hl-22 Process Design Manual for Sludge Treatment and Disposal. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Technology Transfer. EPA
625/1-74-006. 1974.
111-23 Brown, R.E. Significance of Trace Metals and Nitrates in
Sludge Soils. Jour. Water Poll. Cont. Fed., Vol. 47, Nov. 12,
1975.
Hl-24 01 sen, R.J., et.al. Fertilizer Nitrogen and Crop Rotation in
Relation to Movement of Nitrate Nitrogen Through Soil Profiles.
Soil Science Society of America Proceedings, 34, 448, 1970.
II1-25 Dotson, G.K. Some Constraints of Spreading Sewage Sludge on
Cropland in Proc. Conf. on Land Disposal of Municipal Effluents
and sludges. Rutgers University. NTIS PB-227-115, 1973.
Hl-26 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Municipal Sludge Manage-
ment: Environmental Factors. Draft EPA 430/9-75-XXX.
Washington, D.C., 1975.
Hl-27 Manson, R.J. and C.A. Merritt. Land Application of Liquid
Municipal Wastewater Sludges. Jour. Water Poll. Cont. Fed.
Vol. 47, No. 1, 1975.
99
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111-28 Reed, C.H. Equipment for Incorporating Sewage Sludge and
Animal Manures into the Soil in Proc. Conf. on Land Disposal
of Municipal Effluents and Sludges, Rutgers University. NTIS
PB-227-115, 1973.
111-29 Advertisement, Pollution Equipment News, Vol. 8, Nov. 6, 1975.
111-30 Johnson, D.E. Treatment of Septage. Masters of Engineering
Report, Cornell University, 1975.
111-31 PEDCo-Environmental Specialists, Inc. Company Files, 1976.
111-32 Kolega, J.J., B.J. Cosenze, A.W. Dewey, R.L. Leonard. "Land
Disposal of Septage Septic Tank Pumpings" In Proceedings;
Sociate of Eng. Science 1st Int. Meeting on Pollution: Eng.
and Scientific Pollution, Tel Aviv, Israel, June 12-17, 1972.
II1-33 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The Control of Pollution
from Hydrographic Modifications. EPA 430/9-73-017. Washington,
D.C. 1973.
111-34 Committee on Sanitary Landfill Practice of the Sanitary Engi-
neering Division. Sanitary Landfill ASCE Manuals of Engineering
Practice No. 39. New York American Society of Civil Engineers,
1959. 61 p.
111-35 Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations Part 240, 1975.
\
111-36 Sorg, Thomas J. and H. Lanier Hickman. Sanitary Landfill
Facts. U.S. Dept. Health, Education and Welfare Publ No.
SW4ts, Washington, 1970. 30 p.
111-37 Battelle Memorial Institute, Municipal Sewage Treatment A
Comparison of Alternatives. G.P.O. Washington, D.C., 1974.
414 p.
111-38 Geswein, Allan J. Liners for Land Disposal Sites - An Assess-
ment. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Pub. No. EPA/530/SW-
137. Washington, D.C. 1975. 66 p.
111-39 Brunner, Dirk, R. and Oaniel S. Keller, Sanitary Landfill
Design and Operation. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1972. 59p.
111-40 Hughes, G.M. Hydrogeologic Considerations in the Siting and
Design of Landfills. Environmental Geology Note Number 51,
Illinois State Geological Survey, 1972.
100
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Hl-41 Cadergren, Harry R. Seepage, Drainage, and Flow Nets. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 1967.
111-42 Decision-Makers Guide in Solid Waste Management. Office of
Solid Waste Management Programs. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. 1974. 158 p.
Hl-43 Goldberg, Theodore L. Improving Rural Solid Waste Management
Practices. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1973. 83
P-
111-44 McMichael, W.F. Cost of Hauling and Land Spreading of Domestic
Sewage Treatment Plant Sludge. National Environmental Research
Center, Cincinnati, Ohio. February 1974. 5 p.
Hl-45 PEDCo-Environmental Specialists, Inc. Company Files 1975.
Based on previous personal communications with Bob Sutton,
Clermont County Agricultural Extension Agent, Clermont County,
Ohio; and Edward Moeller, Local Farmer.
Hl-46 Wyatt, J.M., and P.E. White, Jr. Sludge Processing, Transpor-
tation, and Disposal/Resource Recovery: A Planning Perspective.
Engineering Science, Inc. EPA Contract No. 68-01-3104. April
1975.
Hl-47 Lindsay, A.M. Ultimate Disposal of Spilled Hazardous Materials.
Chemical Engineering. Volume 82, No. 23. October 27, 1975.
p. 111.
Hl-48 Fields, T.F. and A.W. Lindsey. Landfill Disposal of Hazardous
Wastes: A Review of Literature and Known Approaches. U.S.
,. EPA. EPA/530/SW-165. September 1975.
111-49 Report to Congress, Disposal of Hazardous Wastes. Office of
Solid Waste Management Programs. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. 1974. 110 p.
50 Walker, J.M. Trench Incorporation of Sewage Sludge Management,
Proceedings of the National Conference on Municipal Sludge
Management. June 11-13, 1974. p. 139.
Bl Land Containment Sites for Undigested Sewage Sludges. Resources
Management Associates, Inc., 212 South Governa Ritchie Highway,
Glen Burnie, Maryland 21061. June 1974.
52 Terzaghi, K. and R. Peck, Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1967.
53 Linsley, R. and J. Franzini. Water-Resources Engineering,
McGraw-Hill, p. 524-550. 1972.
101
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111-54 Kinori, B.Z. Manual of Surface Drainage Engineering, Vol. 1 by
Elsevier Publishing Co. 1970.
111-55 Drainage of Agricultural Lands, edited by Luthin, James.
American Society of Agronomy, p. 287-296. 1957.
111-56 Lund, H.F. Industrial Pollution Control Handbook. McGraw-
Hill, Inc. New York, New York. 1971.
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4.0 TECHNICAL/SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS
This section of the Handbook is devoted to the technical and scientific
regimes that figure most strongly in management of residual wastes, some
examples of which are described in Section 2'. It focuses on the move-
ment and fate of residuals that are placed on or beneath the earth's
surface, citing some of the possible effects of climate, topography,
vegetation, soil chemistry, and, perhaps most importantly, ground water
hydraulics. A summary of key concepts is given in Table 4-1.
It is obviously impracticable to deal with the full range of technical
complexities that could be or are involved in site evaluation and re-
siduals management. The aim, rather, is to acquaint planners, engi-
neers, and others, with the nature of problems that may arise in using
management practices described in Section 3, how they may be diagnosed,
and how they may be dealt with. Examples applying technical and sci-
entific aspects in terms of BMP's are developed in hypothetical, but
realistic, case study scenarios in Section 6. In virtually all cases,
the planners will require professional assistance." A further aim of
this section of the handbook, therefore, is to acquaint the planner with
some of the basic technical terms and their application, so that in
discussions with specialists, he may understand their findings and the
logic applied in reaching them.
To reduce the number of possible combinations of technical factors to a
manageable level, various condensations have been made. For example,
because irrigation, infiltration-percolation, disposal, and some ponds
impose high liquid-loading rates on the soil, subsoil, and aquifer, they
can be considered together in discussing the effects of infiltration and
aquifer permeability on disposal. Although design and construction are
not specifically addressed, numerous suggestions and recommendations for
effective design of disposal facilities are inherent in the technical
discussions.
4.1 EFFECTS OF CLIMATE
Almost all ground water is part of the earth's water circulatory system
known as the hydrologic cycle (Figure 4-1)'. In this process, water is
continually evaporated from oceans and seas and-precipitated on land
surfaces. A portion.of this precipitation runs off overland and returns
to the oceans via rivers and streams; another portion infiltrates
103
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Table 4-1. SUMMARY OF KEY CONCEPTS PERTAINING-TO
RESIDUALS DISPOSAL ON LAND
1. One hundred percent containment of residuals disposed of on or in
the ground is, for all practical purposes, impossible.
2. In water-table (unconfined) aquifers, the flow pattern of ground
water is in general accord with the topography, i.e., from ridges
toward valleys (except in arid zones).
3. Residuals disposed of on or in the ground will contaminate ground
water, which in turn will contaminate surface water (except in some
arid regions). The degree of such contamination will depend upon
the disposal method and management practice.
4. Swamps and marshes are usually natural ground water discharge
areas.
5. Contaminated ground water moves through the aquifers as a discrete
body, and is not subject to rapid dilution.
6. The location of a disposal area downgradient from, or to the side
of, existing wells will not necessarily prevent contaminants from
moving to the wells when they are pumping.
7. The presence of trace amounts of heavy metals in ground water does
not necessarily indicate contamination.
8. A high infiltration rate in the soil profile at a proposed disposal
site where high liquid loading rates will be involved does not, of
itself, ensure that the site is hydraulically suitable.
9. Monitor wells must be properly located, and screened at the proper
depths, or they will fail in their purpose.
10. The reclamation of a contaminated aquifer is usually impossible,
for practical purposes, where the area involved is large (over a
few acres), or the contaminant persistent (as in the case of hydro-
carbons). If the source of contamination is removed, natural
recovery may take place over years or decades.
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11. Soil is a chemically and biologically dynamic medium! Soil min-
erals and organisms can react with residues in many ways to change
their physical and chemical characteristics.
12. Soil texture and clay mineral composition are important in selec-
ting residuals disposal sites because potential for attenuation
varies over a wide range with differing soils.
13. The attenuation capacity of a soil for metals is finite and gov-
erned by the cation exhange capacity (CEC). If the CEC is ex-
ceeded, migration of cations with percolate would occur. CEC is
further discussed in Appendix C.
H. Elements unaffected by cation exchange may contaminate ground water
if they are added in excess of crop needs and natural mechanisms
leading to loss as gases (nitrate and sulfate).
15. Cations which are adsorbed may be released by addition of other
cations, changes in pH, or changes in oxidation-reduction poten-
tial. Thus adsorption is not necessarily a permanent removal of
cations from soil solution.
16- Phosphate, unlike other negatively charged ions, is adsorbed or
fixed in most soils.
17. The chemical species of nitrogen or sulfur which are applied to
soil may be changed as percolation occurs and these elements enter
biochemical cycles.
18. Plant uptake of nutrients is not limited to those in soil solution.
Therefore, a portion of adsorbed heavy metals, for example, are
available to plants.
105
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-
Figure 4-1. The hydrologic cycle.
Source: Ref. IV-1
-------
through the unsaturated zone under the action of gravity and replenishes
ground water reservoirs or aquifers. Natural discharge of ground water
occurs as flow into surface water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, and
oceans, and as springs at the land surface. Water may return directly
to the atmosphere by evaporation or by transpiration from vegetation
(referred to collectively as evapotranspiration). Another climatic
effect on ground water is that of air temperature, which controls the
temperature of ground water near the earth's surface.
Patterns of precipitation, evapotranspiration, and prevailing air
throughout the nation are fairly well known; long-term basic data for
most regions are available from the National Climatic Center, from the
Agricultural Extension Service, Agricultural Experiment Stations, and
from local weather stations and airports. The effects of precipitation
and evapotranspiration as well as pumping on ground water are discussed
in greater detail in the following sections.
4.1.1 Precipitation
Records of rainfall and snowfall are required to estimate the rate of
ground water recharge in the general area of a proposed disposal site.
Many planning agencies routinely collect these records. If such records
are not available, estimates may be made by comparisons with nearby
areas having similar characteristics and for which data are available.
Because rainfall may vary greatly from month to month and year to year,
long-term averages should be used. Experience has shown that 'good
records covering 35 years are correct within 2 percent. For data
covering 20, 15, 10, and 5 years of record, the probable deviations from
mean rainfall will be 3.25, 4.75, 8.25, and 15 percent respectively (Ref
IV-2). In ground water investigations rain gauges are often installed
on a temporary basis to provide data for correlation of rainfall and
ground water fluctuations. Installation of rain gauges at potential
waste disposal sites to determine overall rainfall patterns is not
warranted, however, since long-term records are required.
The other major form of precipitation is snowfall. Although the water
content of snow varies greatly, 10 inches of freshly fallen snow is
generally considered equivalent to 1 inch of rainfall. Melting snow can
Provide considerable ground water recharge when it takes place gradu-
ally, since infiltration continues over a relatively long period of
time.
Overland runoff depends on precipitation and is affected by watershed
characteristics, including topography, geology, and soil conditions.
Runoff is an extremely important factor in site selection and design of
waste-disposal facilities. Disposal sites must be protected from
Blooding, which may interrupt disposal activities, damage facilities,
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and cause pollution of surface water bodies. Provisions must be made
for abnormal weather patterns and emergency situations. These may take
the form of extra land or storage facilities or large drainage and ditch
systems.
4.1.2 Evapotranspi ration
Evapotranspiration is the evaporation of moisture from water, soil,
snow, ice, and other surfaces, plus transpiration. In water-budget
studies or calculations of the balance between water gains and losses in
a particular basin, evapotranspiration is a key factor. The degree of
ground water recharge (R) depends entirely on precipitation (P), direct
runoff (R), and the amount of precipitation consumed by evapotranspira-
tion (ET) and returned to the atmosphere. The equation R=P-ET-RO ex-
presses this concept in the simplest terms, indicating that precipita-
tion not consumed by evapotranspiration and not discharged to rivers or
seas by direct runoff recharges the ground water reservoir. Information
on ground water recharge rates is useful in calculating infiltration
rates and movement of pollutants below waste-disposal sites. Unfor-
tunately, few studies have been made to determine recharge rates, which
vary enormously because of the wide variation of climatic conditions in
the nation. In the humid eastern seaboard region, precipitation is high
and evapotranspiration losses are low; thus, recharge rates are rela-
tively high (20 inches or over). In contrast, in arid western sections
of the country, precipitation is low and evapotranspiration rates are
high, resulting in zero or very low rates of recharge. In those "water
deficit" areas, replenishment of ground water reservoirs takes place
during rare periods of intense precipitation or through infiltration
from surface water bodies. In arctic areas, precipitation is generally
low (much of it in the form of snow) and evapotranspiration is low.
Infiltration is generally low because of frozen ground (permafrost) and
ice on the land surface.
Direct evaporation of ground water occurs where the water table is close
to the surface, for example, in swampy or heavily irrigated areas.
Where the water table lies more than 3 feet below the land surface, such
water losses are minimal.
Liquid industrial wastes are frequently disposed of in evaporation
ponds. At present, many of these lose much of the liquid through the
bottom of the pond, to ground water. Where such losses are controlled
by any method, however, accurate information on evaporation and pre-
cipitation is essential for both planning' and design, since the surface
area must be large enough to evaporate (on a yearly basis) a volume of
water equal to the input. The ponds must also have adequate volume for
storage during periods when evaporation is reduced or non-existent.
Other considerations are the very gradual reduction in evaporation rate
108
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as the liquor in the ponds becomes more concentrated, and the loss of
storage volume due to precipitation of solids from solution or the
direct introduction on insoluble material.
4.1.3 Ground Water Levels and Fluctuations
Evaluation of a potential waste-disposal site requires knowledge of the
elevation and shape of the water table and its fluctuation patterns.
The depth to water and the thickness of the unsaturated zone must be
known in order to assess the effect of leachate from waste disposal at
the surface on ground water and to assess the potential for renovation
of waste fluids. The position of the water table, or top of the satu-
rated zone, varies with topographic and geologic conditions, ground
water recharge, irrigation practices, and neighboring discharge zones
including rivers, lakes, and pumping wells.
The water table fluctuates in direct response to the amount of recharge
water. In the humid eastern zone of the nation, precipitation and
ground water recharge are highest during the early spring and lowest in
late summer and fall. Ranges of fluctuation are related to geologic
structure; in some poorly drained, closed basins the water table fluc-
tuates as much as 15 feet. In irrigated arid zones, water-table eleva-
tions generally decline during the growing season when evapotranspira-
tion losses are high. Because precipitation that falls during the
growing period is not sufficient to offset such water losses, recharge
in such areas takes place almost exclusively from ditch loss and excess
irrigation water.
Ground water levels also fluctuate as a result of changes in river
stages and nearby pumpage. For example, adjacent to rivers and lakes,
water levels in shallow wells will rise during periods of high runoff
and floods, then decline when streamflow diminishes. The magnitude of
such fluctuations is greatest in wells nearest the water bodies.
Pumpage from water-table aquifers or even artesian aquifers in the
vicinity of a disposal site may cause lowering of water levels, which
will rise again when pumping operations are halted. Site evaluation
should include an inventory of nearby wells to obtain details on loca-
tion, well construction, depth, water-bearing formation, pumpage, and
water quality. If good long-term records of water levels are needed,
one or more observation wells at or near the site should be equipped
with an automatic water-level recorder. Analysis of the fluctuation
recorded by these instruments will yield information on seasonal varia-
tions of water levels and effects of pumpage or irrigation.
4.1.4 Ground Water Quality
Climatic conditions strongly affect the quality of ground water.
Assuming similar geologic environments, shallow ground water in a humid
109
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or a high-recharge section of the country will be less mineralized than
that in an arid or low-recharge region as a result of dilution by
precipitation.
Contrary to common belief, rain and snow are not "pure" but contain
small concentrations of chemical constituents including dust particles
and gases that are collected from the atmosphere. The concentrations of
chemicals are low, however. On Long Island, New York, precipitation
contains about 10 ppm of dissolved solids, mainly sulfate, chloride, and
sodium (Ref. IV-3). Rain may also contain corrosive industrial air
pollutants, and highly acid rain has been encountered in much of the
Northeast (Ref. IV-4). From the planner's point of view, however, the
impact of the quality of precipitation on waste disposal and ground
water may be considered minute.
In semi-arid or arid zones, shallow ground water is often mineralized
because it moves slowly in such environments and is longer in contact
with the geologic formations. Further, in most environments, the dis-
solved-solids content of ground water increases progressively with
depth. Irrigation and evapotranspiration often contribute to minerali-
zation of ground water. Irrigation and successive recycling of water
also increases the concentration of minerals in water and at the root
zone of plants. Evapotranspiration causes an upward movement of shallow
ground water and deposition of mineral salts at or below the land sur-
face.
The importance of obtaining background water-quality data in the vicin-
ity of a proposed disposal site cannot be overemphasized. Without such
data it may be very difficult, or even impossible, to determine the
presence and extent of any except gross contamination. As has been
pointed out, the natural quality of ground water varies widely, some-
times over relatively short distances. Also, pre-existing sources of
contamination, if not recognized by the planner, could lead to the con-
demnation of a perfectly well-managed residuals disposal program. These
water quality investigations should be carried out regardless of the
types of prevention or mitigation procedures that are under considera-
tion.
As part of the water-quality survey, representative wells near the
proposed site should be sampled; the samples should be analyzed for a
broad spectrum of constituents,, since many natural waters contain minor
elements in detectable amounts. These trace elements are widely but
mistakenly considered to be absolute proof of contamination, primarily
because until recent years the quantitative determination of these
elements was so difficult, expensive, and error-prone that very few such
determinations were made. As a consequence, many persons believe that,
for example, zinc has not been commonly reported as a constituent of
110
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natural water, its presence must be an indication of contamination.
This has been refuted with respect to zinc and cadmium, and by inference
should apply to other trace constituents (Ref. IV-5). Thus if back-
ground levels of chemical constituents are established prior to the
institution of residuals disposal, it will be easier to determine later
whether the trace elements are valid indicators of contamination (see
Appendix A). Table 4-2 gives a list of recommended determinations,
which should be reviewed by someone knowledgeable of local conditions.
For example, selenium might be added in parts of the Southwest.
Prior use of the proposed disposal area should be considered by the
planner and in some cases may dictate the inclusion of analyses for
insecticides or other exotic organics (see Appendix C). The type of
disposal that is being planned will also affect the analytical plan.
Where major constituents can be used as tracers, they are preferable. A
comparison of 100 milligrams to 10 milligrams per liter of chloride can
be used with much more confidence than a comparison of 10 micrograms to
1 microgram per liter of cadmium, although the ratios are the same. For
despite the advances in instrumentation, the analysis of minor elements
remains difficult.
Samples should be taken only by a person experienced in the problems
that may be involved, preferably using bottles provided by the labora-
tory that will perform the analyses (see Appendix B). It is essential
that the laboratory be informed in advance of the determinations that
will be required. The selection of wells to be sampled should be done
by a hydrogeologist or ground water hydrologist.
4.2 TOPOGRAPHY
Also to be considered in selection of disposal sites are type and slope
of the land surface. Relationships between topography and ground water
are discussed briefly in this section.
4.2.1 Elevation
Below the hills and mountains, the water table is generally found at a
greater depth than in adjacent flat-lying regions. Topography of the
area surrounding a proposed site should be studied and the drainage
basin divides should be determined prior to calculating surface water
runoff. Poorly drained valleys or basins might not be suitable for
waste disposal because of the danger of flooding or large fluctuations
of ground water levels. Upland areas, in contrast, could provide a
visual barrier to unsightly waste-disposal practices and could serve as
a buffer zone. Swampy areas, where the water table is close to the
surface, are not suitable for waste disposal because of potential for
Pollution of surface waters.
Ill
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Table 4-2. RECOMMENDED DETERMINATIONS FOR
BACKGROUND GROUND WATER QUALITY
Primary Constituents9
Sodium Carbonate
Potassium Bicarbonate
Calcium Sulfate
Magnesium Chloride
Secondary Constituents^1
Iron Nitrate
Arsenic Nitrite
Manganese Fluoride
Chromium (total & hexavalent) Phosphate
Cadmium Copper
Zinc Mercury
Lead Ammonium
Other
pH and temperature (to be taken at the sampling point)
Specific conductance.
Any other constituents that may be expected to be
present in the disposed residual.
a
Indicates background constituents usually more prevalent
in ground water.
b
Although possibly more harmful to water quality, these
constituents are usually secondary in background occurrence.
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Relief of the land surface is a further important consideration.
Heavily incised terrain would require extensive filling; hilly or uneven
terrain might require levelling to allow for effective waste disposal
and optimum operation and maintenance. On crop-land irrigation sites,
topography must allow the use of farm equipment.
4.2.2 Slope
Most waste-disposal operations require level, or near-level terrain.
Liquid waste-disposal methods, however, which employ overland flow
require slopes of 2 to 4 percent (Ref. IV-6). For ridge-and-furrow
irrigation the slope of a site can be changed by terracing. Spray irri-
gation has been practiced in areas with slopes up to 30 percent (Ref.
IV-7). Flooding requires a slope of 0.2 to 0.3 percent. Low-contour
check ridges or terraces are required to allow uniform distribution of
liquid wastes.
The slope of a site has no immediate bearing on the position of the
water table except that in areas of steep slope the thickness of the
unsaturated zone may vary greatly. Slope, however, determines the
velocity of surface water runoff. Recommendations for minimum distances
between site and surface water course have been made to prevent poten-
tial surface water pollution from waste-disposal (Ref. IV-8).
As shown in Table 4-3, land slopes greater than 9 percent are not suit-
able for land application of processed organic wastes. The higher the
slope, the greater the required minimum distance between site and river
course.
4.3 INFILTRATION
Infiltration is the movement of water through the soil surface into the
soil, whereas percolation is the movement of water through soil and
subsoil into the ground water body. The two phenomena are closely
related, and there can be no rigorous separation. Accordingly, they are
treated together here, with a cautionary note to the planner that ref-
erence is to the behavior of water in the soil profile. Where disposal
methods involving high liquid loading rates are being considered, the
permeability (both vertical and horizontal) of the underlying rock must
be taken into account. This is because the application rate will con-
siderably exceed the natural rate of liquid application (precipitation),
and if a moderately permeable soil overlies a poorly permeable rock, the
latter may be unable to transmit the applied liquid to the water table
and thus away from the surface at a rate sufficient to prevent ponding
and surface runoff.
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Table 4-3. RELATION OF SLOPE TO DISTANCE FROM WATER COURSE
Maximum
sustained
slope, %
Minimum distance to
water course, ft.
Processed organic
waste application,
May to Nov.
inclusive
Processed organic
waste application,
Dec. to Apr.
inclusive
0 to 3
3 to 6
6 to 9
Greater
than 9
200
400
600
No processed organic
waste to be applied
except under special
conditions.
600
600
No processed organic
waste to be applied.
No processed organic
waste to be applied
Source: Ref. IV-8.
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4.3.1 Factors Affecting Infiltration Rates
The rate of infiltration, usually expressed in inches per hour or cm/sec.,
depends upon many factors: intensity and duration of precipitation;
surface slope; conditions of soil surface; temperature; type and stand
of vegetation; and porosity, grain size, aggregation, and moisture
content of the soil. The essential point is that there must be adequate
pathways through the soil surface to conduct the water. These pathways
are usually intergranular pores, but cracks in the soil may also be
effective and in clayey soils may be the principal avenue of infiltra-
tion (Ref. IV-9).
A bare soil surface is often subject to a rapid reduction of its rate of
intake of the beginning of a rainstorm, when a thin compact layer forms
on the surface. This surface-sealing effect is greatly reduced or
eliminated if the surface is covered with close-growing vegetation or
with a mulch, such as straw, sawdust, or leaves. These materials
absorb the energy of the raindrops, control the sorting effect of sur-
face flow, and help to maintain an open soil structure. The introduc-
tion of organic material (with the obvious exceptions of petroleum
products and many industrial organics) will improve and maintain soil
structure; hence the application of municipal sludges should be bene-
ficial to infiltration.
Disposal of residual wastes introduces other possibilities for altera-
tion of the soil structer, possibly unfavorably. Application of an
agricultural waste eventually has altered the soil so greatly that
infiltration and percolation were converted entirely to sheet runoff
(Ref. IV-10,11). The use of heavy equipment in the disposal area will
compact the soil and thus decrease infiltration. This latter is de-
sirable in landfill operations but could cause problems with sludge
disposal on land.
Constraints imposed by soil below the root zone are found primarily in
the C horizon as defined below:
A mineral horizon or layer, excluding bedrock, that is either like
or unlike the material from which the solum is presumed to have
formed, relatively little affected by pedogenic processes, and
lacking properties diagnostic of A or B but including material
modified by: (1) weathering outside the zone of major biological
activity; (2) reversible cementation, development of brittleness,
development of high bulb density, and other properties character-
istic of fragipans; (3) gleying; (4) accumulation of calcium or
magnesium carbonate or more soluble salts; (5) cementation by such
accumulations as calcium or magnesium carbonate or more soluble
•salts; or (6) cementation by alkali-soluble siliceous material or
by iron and silica.
115
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Various types of cementation may retard or prevent water penetration,
which in turn can result in mounding of water into the zone of aerobic
biological activity or to the surface. The effect of such cemented
zones, or pans, usually can be eliminated by proper land preparation and
management.
The term "gleying" denotes an intense reduction of iron to the ferrous
state during soil formation. This could affect the behavior of heavy
metals in the percolate.
Freezing of soils also reduces infiltration rates, the degree of reduc-
tion being roughly a function of the degree of saturation. A frozen
saturated soil permits virtually no infiltration, and even at maximum
retention capacity the infiltration rate is much lowered.
When considering the application of residuals to land in cases where
infiltration rates are a factor, consideration must be given to chemical
composition of the residual. A high sodium content relative to calcium
and magnesium contents is undesirable, since ion exchange processes may
cause the soil to become dispersed and puddled. This will adversely
affect plant growth as well as infiltration rates. The measure of the
degree of sodium hazard is the sodium-absorption-ration (SAR):
SAR = NaV/tCa"1"1" + Mg++)/2
where the concentration of the ions is expressed in milliequivalents per
liter. The SAR is then considered in conjunction with the electrical
conductivity of the water (a function of total dissolved solids), to
determine the classification of the water. This evaluation is well
known for irrigation waters, but it could also be applied to any liquid
residual.
4.3.2 Field Estimation of Infiltration Rates
Infiltration rates may be estimated from field experiments. The sim-
plest procedure involves two concentric metal rings, pressed into the
ground. Water is introduced into both, maintaining a level about a
quater of an inch above the soil surface. Measurements are taken of the
water required to maintain the level in the inner ring only, since the
water in the outer ring serves only to provide a buffer zone that in-
hibits lateral movement of water infiltrating from the inner ring.
Infiltration rates thus obtained are about twice those found with
sprinkler-type infiltrometers (Ref. IV-9), and hence the use of ring
infiltrometers should be restricted to cases where flood or furrow
disposal of effluent is planned.
116
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Sprinkler-type infiltrometers simulate rainfall, and can be adjusted to
provide various intensities. Plots used for such studies range from
about 2 to nearly 500 sq ft (Ref. IV-12). Nozzles are pr.ecalibrated for
discharge rates, and runoff is measured, infiltration being the dif-
ference between the two. The simulation of actual rainfall is imper-
fect, since (among other things) the drops do not reach terminal ve-
locity and drop-size distribution differs. Data provided by the sprin-
kler-type infiltrometers should be satisfactory, however, for evaluation
of plots for spray-irrigation disposal. Field experiments and inter-
pretation of data should be carried out by an experienced hydrologist.
The foregoing discussion is not intended to imply to the planner that
field experiements are required in all site evaluations. In some cases,
as with excavated ponds, preliminary evaluations by such methods would
be meaningless. Where infiltration rates are important (primarily in
disposal by spray irrigation and by infiltration-percolation) data
sources given in the following section will often provide adequate
information; otherwise field reconnaissance by an agricultural hydrol-
ogist or soils scientist may suffice.
A cautionary note: the "perc" test that is commonly used to determine
the suitability of soils for septic tank installations is absolutely
unsuited to evaluation of residuals disposal sites. Lateral flow gen-
erally constitutes a considerable portion of the measured percolation,
and since the maximum testing depth is about 4 feet, it would be pos-
sible that an impermeable layer at perhaps 6 feet would not be detected.
Good guides to the infiltration characteristics of the soils at proposed
land-disposal sites are the county soil surveys issued by the Soil
Conversation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. The newer series
incorporate photo-maps at scales as large as 1:15,840 (four inches to
one mile). The surveys include descriptions of the various soil series
and phases, information often useful for other purposes in the site
analyses (e.g., determining erosion hazards, seasonal high water tables,
and acceptable vegetation). In the absence of the newer series, other
maps are often available, together with the soil descriptions. In many
areas, however, no soil maps of any type are available. Complete in-
formation about the available data may be obtained from the nearest
office of the Soil Conservation Service, School of Agriculture, or
County Extension Service Agent.
4.3.3 Constraints Imposed by Geology
Even if the soils at a proposed disposal site provide suitable infiltra-
tion and percolation rates for land application of residuals at a high
liquid-loading rate, the nature of the underlying rocks may preclude use
of the site or require special facilities. As an example, the Pennsyl-
117
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vania Department of Environmental Resources Spray Irrigation Manual
(Ref. IV-13) comments on shales as follows:
Most shale terrains are poor site choices because high secondary
permeabilities, resulting from fracturing. Those that have open
fractures will short circuit wastewater directly to the ground
water. Some shales are deeply weathered and may provide adequate
renovation of the irrigated wastewater. Others may be so tight as
to reject infiltrating water, form a perched water table, and
eventually discharge this water to the surface or cause surface-
water ponding.
Some problems of poor percolation to the aquifer may be met by instal-
ling tile drains, if ground water recharge is not an important con-
sideration. This is not commonly done, however. Irrigation on slopes,
with subsequent return of the effluent as springs discharging to surface
water bodies, may also be acceptable providing that adequate renovation
is achieved through the land.
Geology at the site and in the vicinity will also dictate the most
effective use of wells to recover the renovated water or (if necessary)
to create enough drawdown to maintain the water table at a sufficient
depth. In some cases, the latter approach may be more effective than
the use of drains.
Although fissured or cavernous rock formations generally are to be
avoided, they do not' necessarily disqualify a site, provided that the
soil cover is sufficiently thick, and that the system is designed with
full knowledge of subsurface conditions. The effluent disposal area for
the University Park - State College, Pennsylvania, system is underlain
by solution-channeled limestone and dolomite, but a very thorough site
investigation prior to its establishment made it possible to avoid any
problems (Ref. IV-14).
A summary of the realtive importance of site variables is given in Table
4-4.
4.4 GROUND WATER HYDRAULICS
As in the earlier presentations, this discussion of ground water hy-
draulics is intended to provide for the planner an .understanding of
basic concepts. It will not equip him to perform the functions of a
trained hydrogeologist, but it should help him to appreciate the many
technical considerations that may affect a potential disposal operation.
By way of introduction, two points are emphasized. First, the disposal
of residuals on land, in the absence of impermeable barriers, may be
118
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Tab7e 4-4. RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF SITE VARIABLES WITH RESPECT TO DISPOSAL METHODS
Precipitation
Temperature
Ground slope
Infiltration
Soil chemistry
Depth to water table
Permeability of aquifer
Existing or potential
vegetation
Existing or potential well
fields
Evaporation
Landfill
XX
0
X
XX
0
XX
XX
0
XX
0
Land
spreading
X
X
X
X
XX
X
X
X
XX
0
Spray
irrigation
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
XX
X
XX
X
0
Infiltration
percolation
X
X
X
XX
XX
XX
XX
X
XX
0
Overland
flow
X
XX
XX
X
XX
X
X
XX
X
0
Ponds
and
lagoons
XX
X
0
XX
0
X
X
0
XX
XX
Burial
X
0
0
X
0
XX
0
0
XX
0
Explanation:
XX Primary importance
X Secondary importance
0 Negligible importance
Also see Appendix C
-------
expected (except in arid regions) to contaminate ground wa'ter, which in
turn will contaminate surface water. Until it is definitely proved
otherwise, this assumption should be made in all site investigations.
Second, unlike disposal into surface waters, the dilution of contami-
nants within an aquifer is generally insignificant and cannot be counted
on to mitigate adverse effects. Although both of these points are
discussed in detail in the following text, they are mentioned here for
emphasis, since failure to appreciate them is widespread.
4.4.1 Basic Hydrogeological Systems
Practically all ground water originates as precipitation during the
hydrologic cycle as briefly discussed earlier in connection with cli-
mate. Of the water reaching the land surface in the form of rain or
melting ice or snow, a portion infiltrates into the ground water res-
ervoirs and moves through these either a part of or all the way back to
the ocean. The water that infiltrates into the ground occupies voids
between rock particles. Permeable rock formations that serve as res-
ervoirs for the storage and transmission of water are called aquifers.
Several distinct aquifer types are recognized differing in rock type and
nature of their intensities, as shown in Figure 4-2.
4.4.1.1 Aquifer Systems - Once precipitation infiltrates into the
ground under the influence of gravity, it moves through the unsaturated
zone to the zone of'saturation, where it enters the ground water res-
ervoir, Unconfined water is found in this zone of saturation whenever
the upper surface (or water table) is at atmospheric pressure and is
free to rise and fall with changes in volume of stored water. Water-
table aquifers are of prime concern in site evaluation studies, since
the hydrologic impact of waste disposal on land occurs primarily within
the upper zone of the earth's surface. When a well is constructed in a
water table aquifer, the water in the well stands at the same level as
the water table immediately outside the well. This level fluctuates
seasonally in response to variations in rates of natural recharge, as
discussed earlier.
If deeper aquifers are present below a site, the water in such forma-
tions is likely to be confined to some degree. Confined or artesian
water occurs in aquifers that are separated from the zone of aeration by
rocks of markedly lower permeability. Confined water completely fills
the aquifer. The water level in a well drilled in an artesian aquifer
stands above the top of the ajquifer and is dependent on the artesian
pressure. When that pressure becomes high enough, the water in such a
well may rise above the land surface, causing the well to flow. Water
levels in artesian wells, referred to as potentiometric levels, fluc-
tuate in response to such natural factors as tides, barometric changes,
and variations in rate of recharge.
120
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ROCK TYPE
SAND AND GRAVEL
CONSOLIDATED ROCK
IGNEOUS, METAMORPHIC, SEDIMENTARY
$S^i|p^
INTERSTICES
PORE SPACES
FAULT
FRACTURES
CARBONATE ROCK
LIMESTONE, DOLOMITE
SOLUTION CHANNELS
VOLCANIC ROCK
LAVA FLOWS
SHRINKAGE CRACKS
INTRA-FORMATIONAL
CHANNEL
Figure 4-2!. Rock texture in major aquifer types.
121
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Semiconfined, or "leaky," artesian aquifers are also quite common. The
aquifers are bounded above by a semi permeable layer and below by a layer
that is either impermeable or semipermeable. The semi permeable zones
may generate vertical leakage to the aquifer under conditions of pump-
ing, for example.
4.4.1.2 Aquifer Types - The principal rock textures of aquifers, as
depicted in Figure 4-2, are discussed in the following paragraphs with
emphasis on their hydraulic characteristics and susceptibility to con-
tamination.
Sand and gravel deposits may underlie large plains and valleys or may
occur locally over small areas. Alluvial deposits laid down in stream
beds are often well sorted and therefore permeable. In the mountain
regions of the western United States, however, stream gradients are
steep, and the alluvial aquifers are typically composed of poorly sorted
material ranging from boulders and coarse deposits to clays and silts.
Deltaic deposits of large rivers such as the Colorado and Mississippi
contain numerous coarse-grained beds that form extensive aquifers.
Similarly, the coastal plains and the Great Plains are underlain by
thick wedges of streamlaid deposits which are excellent aquifers.
Sand and gravel deposited by glacial streams constitute exceedingly
important aquifers in the northern United States. Ancient river valleys
that have been filled with glacial outwash material form excellent
aquifers and are widely utilized for ground water development. Although
sand and gravel beds constitute only a very small proportion of the
total of unconsolidated sediments, they are of prime importance since
most of the ground water pumped in the nation is derived from these
formations.
The water in sand and gravel is contained in the pore spaces between the
individual grains. The porosity, or percentage of total volume of a
rock occupied by voids or interstices, ranges from 1 to 50 percent. In
a typical sand and gravel aquifer porosity is high, ranging from 20 to
30 percent. The permeability, or ease with which a fluid will pass
through it, indicates the capacity for transmitting water under a dif-
ferential head. (Rocks of low porosity generally have a low permeabil-
ity also, but high porosity does not necessarily imply a high perme-
ability.) Permeabilities in sand and gravel aquifers are generally high
and, under conditions of adequate recharge, large quantities of ground
water can be pumped from them.
Where they are exposed to the land surface or lie below thin layers of
soil, sand and gravel aquifers are extremely susceptible to contamina-
tion from wastes dumped on the land surface. Because of the hydraulic
interconnection of pore spaces, the ground water and any contaminant
122
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that has reached it can move easily through the aquifer. Although rates
of ground water movement in sand and gravel aquifers are relatively
slow, varying from inches to a few feet per day, contaminants can spread
over a considerable area before reaching the ultimate discharge point,
which is commonly a body of surface water. Frequently, however, ground
water flow patterns are modified by pumping from nearby wells, and the
contaminated ground water converges upon the center of pumping. Con-
fined sand and gravel' beds are less susceptible to contamination, but
pollutants can enter the aquifer either directly by infiltration on the
outcrop of the aquifer or indirectly, as a result of a vertical leakage
of contaminated water through the confining layer.
In addition to the unconsolidated deposits, the earth's crust is com-
posed of consolidated rocks, including sandstone, conglomerates, and
shales (the consolidated equivalents of sand, sand and gravel, and
clay), schist, gneiss, quartzite, slate, granite, and basic igneous
rocks. Carbonate rocks (limestone and dolomite) and volcanic rocks are
discussed separately because of their unusual water bearing features.
Individual consolidated rock formations range in thickness from a few
feet to thousands of feet. Except for those of igneous origin, these
rocks were originally deposited as sediments in a variety of geologic
environments. Igneous rocks, representing magmatic activity in^the
earth's crust, later intruded into these rocks. Tectonic activity, in-
cluding mountain building, has structually deformed the rock^sequence
and is responsible for widespread fracturing of these consolidated
rocks.
In sandstones and conglomerates, the individual particles usually have
been cemented together, and porosity is reduced to such an extent that
they yield very little water. Exceptions are sandstones that are only
partially cemented. Most metamorphic and igneous rocks have little or
no intergranular porosity, and their water-yielding characteristics are
based entirely on the nature and interconnection of bedding planes,
fractures, and joints within the rock. Ground water is contained in
these and in the weathered zones. Studies have shown that fractures and
permeability in consolidated rock are most common in the upper few
hundred feet of the aquifer.
Fractured rock aquifers exposed at the land surface are highly suscep-
tible to contamination. Waste fluids can enter the aquifer through
fractures and can be rapidly dispersed over considerable distances by
traveling along rock channels. Wher^ tb^ .fractures are open, contam-
inated fluids can move easily without tKe benefit of adsorption, ion
exchange, or filtration by fine-grained sedimentary material. Dis-
persion of contaminants that follow permeable fracture systems will tend
to be highly irregular in depth and extent; the exact paths of contam-
inant movement are practically impossible to determine. In many parts
123
-------
of the country, sedimentary and crystalline rock aquifers are overlain-
by glacial till or clays. In such cases, the underlying aquifers are
protected to some degree from contamination.
Carbonate rocks constitute 5 to 10 percent of all sedimentary rocks.
Some of these rocks have also been subjected to tectonic stresses
causing fractures. Moreover, since they are highly susceptible to .
solution by water, many formations contain large cavities and subter-
ranean channels. Notable limestone terraces are found in central
Tennessee, in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, and on the Florida
Peninsula.
The carbonate rocks vary widely in permeability. Solution channels and
cavities in limestone can be so large that the aquifers store vast
amounts of water and are extremely productive. In Pennsylvania, for
example, such water-filled conduits range from a few feet to over 70.
feet in height and range in length from thousands of feet to 10 mile's or
more (Ref. IV-15). Permeability development is highly irregular, and
channels may be separated by considerable amounts of solid rock.
Where limestone is exposed at the land surface, infiltration from rain-
fall and movement of ground water have created numerous passageways.
Contaminants can pass through the solution channels unfiltered to enter
the ground water reservoir. Dispersion of the contaminated ground water
is extremely irregular because of variation in permeability. Ground
water flow through channels may be so rapid that contaminated water
moves over great distances in a very short time.
Basalt, a dark volcanic rock, is an important aquifer in the western
part of the United States. Originating as lava flows, these basalt
deposits have spread out over large areas in successive sheets of vary-
ing thickness. On the Columbia Lava Plateau in Oregon, Washington, and
Idaho, individual lava flows are 20 to 500 feet thick, and the total
thickness is some 10,000 feet.
The porosity of basalt aquifers is generally less than that of sands and
gravels, but the permeability may be many times greater. Water moves
through porous zones between successive lava beds, and through lava
tubes, shrinkage cracks, and joints in a way similar to that in karstic
limestone reservoirs (see Figure 4-2). Permeability in some basalt
aquifers is so great that under natural conditions there is practically
no slope to the water table or to the potentiometric surface in artesian
systems. Where they are exposed or close to the land surface, these
aquifers are extremely susceptible to contamination if fractures or
shrinkage cracks provide direct access to the ground water reservoir.
Rates of ground water movement through the permeable zones are rela-
tively high, and dispersion of contaminants can be rapid if flow becomes
turbulent.
124
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4.4.2 Nature of Ground Water Flow
Except in special cases, ground water is constantly flowing from areas
of recharge to areas of discharge. This flow is normally nonturbulent
and is governed by Darcy's Law, which states that the quantity of water
that will flow across a section of an aquifer during any given period is
directly proportional to the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer
material, the hydraulic gradient, and the cross-sectional area. Fuller
discussions of Darcy's law and ground water flow in general are avail-
able to the planner in any standard text on the ground water or fluid
flow in porous media (Ref. IV-16,17).
The coefficient of permeability (often referred to simply as "perme-
ability") is a quantitative expression of the aquifer material's capa-
city for transmitting water. It should not be confused with porosity,
which is the percentage of voids (pores or fractures) in a unit volume
of the aquifer. There is no simple relationship between the two quan-
tities. Although a number of units of permeability are in common use,
in this report it is given as the rate of flow in gallons per day
through a cross-sectional area of 1 foot, under a hydraulic gradient of
1 foot per foot (Ref. IV-18).
In solution of ground water equations, transmissivity is commonly used
instead of permeability. Transmissivity is defined as the flow through
a vertical strip 1 foot wide, extending through the full saturated
thickness of the aquifer, under a hydraulic gradient of 1 foot per foot.
Field problems are often solved on the basis of an aquifer width of 1
mile and a gradient of 1 foot per mile, which is the exact equivalent of
the basic definition. A modified form of Darcy's law that is then used
in ground water studies is:
Q = TIL
Where Q is the flow in gallons per day, T is the transmissivity, I is
the hydraulic gradient, and L is the width of the cross section under
consideration. The physical significance of the terms involved is shown
in Figure 4-3.
The final physical characteristic fundamental to ground water studies is
the coefficient of storage (S), a dimensionless term defined as the
volume of water released or taken into storage by an aquifer per unit
change of head per unit area."
The rate of ground water flow varies enormously, since the permeability
of aquifer materials covers a range of 9. or 10 orders of magnitude.
Thus under hydraulic gradients commonly encountered in nature, veloc-
ities range from tens of feet per day to 1 foot in tens of thousands of
125
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OBSERVATION WELLS OR PIEZOMETER
UNIT HYDRAULIC GRADIENT, 1-FOOT /TUBES 1-FOOT APART
DROP IN 1-FOOT OF FLOW DISTANCE
OPENING B, 1-FOOT WIDE AND AQUIFER
HEIGHT TRANSMISSIVITY
OPENING A, 1-FOOT SQUARE PERMEABILITY
Figure 4-3. Diaaram for permeability, transnnssivity, and hydraulic gradient.
Source: P.ef. IV-19.
-------
years. Flow rates in most aquifers, however, range from a few feet per
day to a few feet per year.
4.4.2.1 Ground Water Flow Patterns - In water-table aquifers the flow
pattern is in general accord with the topography, i.e., from ridges
toward valleys, except in arid zones. Completely confined flow also
generally follows this pattern but on a much broader scale, being little
if any affected by minor topographic features. Cases of leaky artesian
flow can be complicated, and exhibit unexpected flow patterns. In all
cases, the true flow pattern may be established by preparing a ground
water contour map, using the water level elevations in existing wells
and observation wells or piezometers installed for this purpose. When
these elevations are plotted on the base map, the water-level contours
are plotted in exactly the same manner as topographic contours. Since
each contour represents a line of equal energy head, it is referred to
as an equipotential line. Ground water flow lines cross these equi-
potential lines at right angles (with some exceptions}, the direction of
flow being from higher to lower potential, or head. These two families
of lines form a flow net, an example of which is given in Figure 4-4.
Simple inspection of such a net provides information on relative trans-
missivities, as well as direction of flow. For example, the transmis-
sivity in square "b" is less than in square "a," since a greater hy-
draulic gradient is required to move the same amount of water across it,
the volume of flow between any two flow lines being a constant. Flow
nets may also be constructed in vertical section, providing a three-
dimensional display. These are sometimes essential to the proper con-
struction of observation wells and to an understanding of the overall
flow regime. Obtaining third-dimensional details, however, requires
installation of many more observation wells at various depths. These
usually are not needed to obtain information simply on direction of
flow. The observations that delineate ground water flow patterns
usually entail no great expense, but proper interpretation of the data
requires experience and judgement.
Figure 4-4. Contour map of a ground water surface
showing flow lines.
Source: Ref. IV-1.
127
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4.4.2.2 Flow Patterns of Contaminants - With respect to disposal of
wastes, the planner must understand that contaminated ground water moves
through the aquifer as a discrete body and is not subject to rapid
dilution by the full volume of uncontarninated water within the aquifer.
The body of contaminated water extending away from the disposal area is
referred to as a plume. The shape of the plume and its rate of movement
are determined by a complicated combination of factors, including ground
water velocity, mechanical dispersion at the microscopic level, macro-
scopic dispersion caused by inhomogeneities in the aquifer, differences
in density and viscosity, and molecular diffusion. Collectively, these
phenomena are referred to as hydrodynamic dispersion, which results in
the contaminant occupying an ever-increasing cross section of the
aquifer as it moves away from the source. The mathematical analysis of
this phenomenon is extremely complex for even the simplest system (Ref.
IV-17).
Figure 4-5 illustrates a typical flow path, in section, of a contaminant
from the disposal area to the discharge area. No attempt has been made
to show the effects of dispersion. In this case, these effects are
somewhat offset by the compression of flow lines as they approach the
discharge area.
Figure 4-6 is the plan view of an observed contaminant plume (Ref. IV-
20). It involves a plume of plating-waste contamination on Long Island
that probably has been studied longer and in more detail than the
effects of any other similar incident. Contamination started in 1941;
four studies of its extent and effects were carried out between 1949 and
1964, when the length of the plume was about 4300 feet. Movement is
through the highly permeable sands and gravels of an upper glacial
aquifer. The contamination limits were established from data provided
by about 100 small-diameter test wells. This figure also illustrates a
previously discussed factor affecting the flow pattern of contaminants:
the mounding of ground water. The flow has been superimposed upon the
natural flow pattern, and eventually has been swept away by it, but the
plume of contamination has been broadened, since it originates from a
base (the ground water mound) that is wider than the actual disposal
area. (Ground water mounds are discussed and illustrated further in
Section 4.4.2.5.)
4.4.2.3 Effects of Pumping - Pumping from an aquifer alters the natural
flow pattern of ground water, the degree of alternation depending upon
the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer, the rate of pumping, the
duration of pumping, and recharge characteristics. This alteration
consists of a cone of depression with the well at the center, towards
which water flows radially from all directions. Drawdown within the
well is required to create a sufficient gradient to move water towards
the well at a rate equal to the rate of pumping. The radius of the cone
128
-------
GROUND WATER
DIVIDE
ro
ID
LEGEND
FLOW LINES
-EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES
I I PLUME OF CONTAMINATION
NOTE: DRAWING NOT TO SCALE
CONSIDERABLE VERTICAL
EXAGGERATION
Figure 4-5. Contaminant flow in a water-table aquifer
-------
DISPOSAL
BASINS
NORTH
D = 200'+
GENERAL DIRECTION OF
GROUND WATER FLOW
•«MStf** '^SJi^ia -iiiiv^-ii^
MEAN LINE OF DISPERSION
0
500 feet
Figure 4-6.
Plume of contamination from an industrial waste
disposal site.
130
-------
is also called the radius of influence. The effect of transmissivity
on this radius is shown in Figure 4-7. Since the drawdowns required to
move water to the well are less in the more transmissive aquifer, but
the volume of water pumped is the same, the radius of influence is
greater. As a corollary, wells in highly transmissive aquifers will
capture contaminants at-greater distances than those in aquifers of low
transmissivity.
The rate of spread of a cone of depression, and its volume after any
given volume of water has been pumped, is much greater in a confined
aquifer than in a water-table one. The cone of depression around major
centers of pumping, especially in artesian aquifers, can extend over
hundreds (or even thousands) of square miles. One effect of this cone
of depression on wells pumping in the vicinity of a plume or source of
contamination is shown in Figurq 4-8, which illustrates that undesirable
effects cannot always be eliminated by locating a well or well field
either out of the line of the natural plume or upgradient from the
source.
On the other hand, Figure 4-9 illustrates that even in a direct-line
downgradient from the source only a portion of the water flowing to the
well will consist of contaminated water. Again, these diagrams show the
planner simple cases of perfect radial flow; the patterns would be
distorted by inhomogeneities in the aquifer; by streams, lakes, or im-
permeable rock barriers within the radius of influence; or by other
pumping wells nearby.
Pumping from aquifers in a multiple-aquifer system alters the head
relationships among them, and can reverse the naturally occurring in-
teraquifer transfer of water. Upward and downward leakage involving
both artesian and water-table aquifers can occur as the natural heads
are altered by pumping. Thus, even a confined aquifer is not neces-
sarily protected from contamination. If the overlying water-table
aquifer is contaminated, some of the contaminants may eventually reach
the confined aquifer and hence the well.
4.4.2.4 Hydraulic Boundaries - The general ground water flow patterns
can be much affected by the presence of hydraulic boundaries. This is
particularly true when active wells are involved, and hence such bound-
aries must be considered when evaluating the potential effects of re-
siduals disposal on adjacent wells or well fields.
Hydraulic boundaries are of two types: impermeable and recharging. An
impermeable boundary is defined as a vertical plane across which no flow
can occur, such as a granite ridge lying on one side of an alluvial
aquifer.
A recharging hydraulic boundary, also called a line source, is defined
as a vertical plane beyond which the pumping well can cause no drawdown.
Such conditions are created by streams or lakes.
131
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-RADIUS = 18,000 FEET
LJ
ro
o
a
10
ii
CO
o
Q
ti
CO
20 L
Or-
10
20
TRANSMISSIVITY = 10,000 gpd/ft
S = 22 FEET
-RADIUS = 40,000 FEET-
S = 2.5 FEET-
TRANSMISSIVITY = 100,000 gpd/ft
Figure 4-7. Effect of differing coefficients of transmissivity upon the shape, depth, and
extent of cone of depression. Pumping rate and other factors being the same in both cases.
Source: Ref. IV-21 .
-------
DIRECTION OF GROUND WATER FLOW
DIRECTION OF GROUNDWATER FLOW
CO
OJ
CONTAMINATED
GROUND WATER PLUMES
PRODUCTION WELL
(NOT PUMPING)
SLUDGE
DISPOSAL K
AREA
CONTAMINATED
GROUND WATER PLUME
PRODUCTION WELL
(PUMPING)
CONE OF DEPRESSION
Figure 4-8. Illustration of interception of a contaminated ground water plume by a
pumping wel1.
-------
.' •
n'
GROUND WATER MOUND
! 1.
ft.-ftt,
0|||SXRE$IDUALS DISPOSAL AREA
' -PLUME OF CONTAMINATION
CONTAMINATED
INPUT TO WELL
RADIUS OF INFLUENCE
PUMPING WELL
UNCONTAMINATED
.INPUT TO WELL
\
Figure 4-9. Dilution effects of natural ground water on
contaminants from a disposal area?
Note that if perhaps the only important contaminant were nitrate, at
? nig/1 as nitrogen, and the nitrate concentrations in the u neon laminated
water were 1 nig/1, the blend pumped from the well would easily meet
drinking water standards of 10 ing/1 .
134
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Since the mathematics of hydraulic boundaries can become highly complex,
this discucussion ends simply with an enjoiner to waste management
planners to-be aware of the possibility that impermeable hills or
neighboring streams, acting as hydraulic boundaries, may strongly affect
the siting of a disposal area.
4.4.2.5 Ground Water Mounds - A ground water mound is an elevated
portion of the water table caused by localized increases in recharge
rates due to such external influences as artificial lagoons or irriga-
tion. A sectional representation of a ground water mound is shown in
Figure 4-10. Note that the mound extends beyond the periphery of the
lagoon. The effect of mounding on ground water flow past the site is
illustrated in Figure 4-11. Flow within the mound is radially away from
the center. This is imposed upon the natural flow, and the resultant of
the two components is as shown.
Since a zone of aeration must be maintained to permit aerobic micro-
biological activity within the soil, the increase in the water-table
level that may be caused by mounding must be considered in site evalua-
tions for disposal by spray irrigation or infiltration-percolation, and
in unlined ponds or lagoons. All of these cause mounding by increasing
the liquid loading rate over the disposal area.
Mounds may also form beneath landfills. The concern here is primarily
with the effect upon subsurface hydraulics rather than with maintaining
a zone of aeration. The vertical flow component, as shown in Figure 4-
10, may mean that leachate will penetrate to the bottom of the aquifer.
Presence of a ground water mound is conclusive evidence of leachate
production (Ref. IV-22).
4.4.3 Ground Water - Surface Water Relationships
The belief is common that no contamination of surface waters can occur
if residuals are disposed of on the land surface and adequate steps are
taken to prevent surface runoff into streams or lakes. That belief is a
fallacy. Except in arid regions, streams and lakes usually are natural
discharge points for ground water. It is, in fact, this contribution
from ground water that maintains the flow of perennial streams between
runoff-producing storms. If the ground water becomes contaminated, so
will the streams and lakes. The degree of contamination and effects on
quality of surface water depend upon numerous factors:
0 The travel distance and time between the source of ground
water contamination and the surface water body.
0 The degree of hydraulic connection between the aquifer and the
surface water body.
135
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LAGOON
iiii".? •• .... —•—•
T=-f=
PERCOLATION
ORIGINAL WATER TABLE
IMPERMEABLE BASE
Figure 4-10. Sectional view of a ground water mound.
Finure 4-11. Ground water flow in the vicinity of a mound
136
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0 The nature and quantity of contaminants that enter the aqui-
fer.
0 The nature of the aquifer materials.
0 The ratio of discharge from upstream sources to the discharge
from the contaminated source.
0 Pumping wells between the area of contamination and the line
of discharge.
0 Aquatic biota.
0 If the receiving body is a lake, thermal stratification and
lake currents.
The range of possibilities is wide. At one extreme might be a case of
disposal over an aquifer consisting of coarse quartzitic sand, very near
to a stream whose base is low and whose quality is marginal. Trouble
will almost certainly ensue. On the other hand, a disposal area over an
aquifer containing appreciable silt and clay fractions, located 10 miles
from its discharge area (the Mississippi River, say) would not be ex-
pected to cause any measurable difference in the water quality of the
receiving stream. (These examples do not consider the detailed chem-
istry of the systems.)
Swamps and marshes constitute ground water discharge areas during much
or all of the year. Since there is little water movement within them
(in contrast to movement in streams), their biota are vulnerable to the
introduction of contaminants. Landfills from which leacha-te can enter
wetlands of any type are particularly undesirable.
In arid zones, the relationship of ground and surface waters is usually
different. In such areas most streams are ephemeral, with the water
table lower than the bottom of the stream bed, and hence flow only in
response to surface runoff. Here, surface water can contaminate ground
water. Given a runoff-producing storm, contaminants can be removed by
overland flow and transported for many miles, ultimately infiltrating
into the ground water beneath the stream bed. These phenomena are
episodic, however, rather than continuous and they too are difficult to
evaluate quantitatively.
The preceding discussion shows clearly that any site investigation must
include consideration of the possibility of contaminating surface waters
through ground water discharge. A preliminary assessment can be.made
from a map study and may be followed by field reconnaissance, all
supported by information on surficial and bedrock geology.
137
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4.4.4 Determination of Aquifer Coefficients
If investigation of a potential disposal site seems to require knowledge
of the aquifer coefficients mentioned earlier (permeability, transmis-
sivity), they may often be obtained at the nearest office of the U.S.
•Geological Survey or of the state agency that deals with ground water.
If they are not available, the hydrogeologist must perform one or more
controlled pumping tests.
A controlled pumping test is simply one that is run without interruption
for a specified period (usually several days) at a constant pumping
rate, with drawdown and recovery measurements taken at timed intervals.
Water-levels are measured to the nearest hundredth of a foot. One or
more observation wells are usually required for the best results, and
are essential for determination of the storage coefficient.
The value of a pumping test depends largely upon the knowledge and
experience of the hydrogeologist who plans and conducts it, and in-
terprets the data obtained. The difficulty of interpretation varies
widely, ranging from the simple case of an artesian aquifer with no
leakage and no nearby boundaries to the complexities of a water-table
aquifer with leakage from an underlying aquifer and with the. pumping
well affected by one or more hydraulic boundaries.
Analog and digital models are often well adapted to the-solution of
complex cases, but they are generally most applicable to regional water-
supply problems, Jt is unlikely that the expense of computerized
modeling by planners would be warranted in residuals disposal studies,
with the possible exception of those involving spray irrigation at
marginal sites. In any case, the use of models by no means obviates the
need for accurate information on aquifer coefficients, since the reli-
ability of the output depends completely on the reliability of the
input.
Some information on transmissivity may be obtained on the basis of
specific capacities of existing wells. Specific capacity (not to be
confused with specific yield) is the discharge of a well per unit draw-
down, usually expressed as gallons per minute per foot of drawdown. If
this unit is multiplied by 2,000, it gives an approximation of trans-
missivity. For example, a well that discharges 500 gpm with a drawdown
of 50 feet would have a specific capacity of 10 gpm per foot, indicating
an approximate transmissivity of 20,000. The transmissivity values
estimated in this manner are almost always too low, however, because
specific capacities are reduced by effects of several factors that may
not be readily apparent. More accurate use of specific capacities to
estimate transmissivities may be found from References IV-23,24.
138
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4.4.5 Geophysical Investigations
A geophysical survey can be useful in delineating subsurface geologic
and hydrologic conditions. Success of such a survey depends on having
valid subsurface control data and a good understanding of the limita-
tions of the method being used. The two major geophysical survey
methods are based on electrical resistivity and seismic refraction. The
former yields data useful in both site investigations and monitoring
programs; data obtained in the latter method are useful only in site
evaluation. The objectives of the proposed survey, therefore, must be
clearly defined.
4.4.5.1 Electrical Resistivity Method - The electrical resistivity
method depends upon the conductance of electrical current through the
subsurface, the measured values of resistivity being inversely propor-
tional to conductivity of the earth materials. For example, resistivity
values are low for moist clays and silts and are high for sand and
gravel containing good quality water. To measure these values, a known
current is introduced into the earth through two current electrodes and
the resulting potential drop is measured between a pair of potential
electrodes.
Certain conditions that can impair the success of any resistivity survey
include poor access to the site, presence of buried conductors such as
pipelines or wires, use of equipment not sensitive enough for the re-
quired depth penetration, and operator error. In addition, the success
of the survey depends on resistivity contrasts between' earth materials
and/or the ground water contained in the formations. If major contrasts
do not exist, differences in the earth materials cannot be interpreted.
Because the measured earth resistivity is inversely proportional to the
conductivity of ground water, bodies of water containing high concentra-
tions of conductive wastes will have lower resistivity values than the
surrounding natural ground water. Therefore, in some cases the resis-
tivity method also can be used to determine the boundaries of a zone of
contaminated ground water. This application, too, may be hampered by
certain adverse conditions. For example, if the contaminant does not
have a significantly greater conductivity than the natural ground water;
if the ground water is naturally highly conductive; or if the depth to
water is great, the resistivity contrast may not be large enough to
yield useful data. Also, an overly-complex geologic environment would
rule out comparison of resistivity ya^f* a^d profiles,.
The primary utility of the electrical earth resistivity method in ground
water contamination investigations is to provide information on the
lateral extent of pollution at a relatively low cost and within a short
time. It can also be helpful in the planning of a test-drilling and
water-sampling program by eliminating hit-and-miss drilling and thus
reducing the required number of test wells.
139
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4.4.5.2 Seismic Refraction - The seismic refraction method of subsur-
face investigation depends on measuring the velocity of elastic or sound
waves within earth materials. Therefore, it is limited to determining
the geometry and engineering properties of an aquifer or geologic layer;
it cannot indicate differences in water quality.
The velocity of elastic waves propagated in the seismic refraction
method can be timed from their Initiation to a receptor at a known
distance from the energy source. With known velocities and distances,
the depths to the various geologic interfaces can be calculated. Where
well data are available, they are correlated with results of the seismic
survey to provide a refined portrayal of the geologic environment.
The techniques of operation in the field depend on the various applica-
tions. In investigation of shallow depths (less than 100 feet), the
energy source is usually a hammer blow on a steel plate. For greater
depths, dynamite and multiple geophone configurations are used. With
the hammer source of energy, the investigator develops a seismic profile
by implanting the geophone firmly on the ground and moving the impact
point away from the geophone at measured distances. Thus, by observing
the energy arrivals for different separations between the impact point
and the receiver, he can construct a time-distance curve representing
variations of energy travel time with distance.
As the resistivity method depends on resistivity contrasts, so the
success of a seismic survey depends on velocity contrasts between earth
materials. If these contrasts do not exist, or are slight, the varia-
tions between subsurface materials cannot be determined.
The most common application of the seismic refraction method is to
determine the geometry of geologic formations. For example, seismic
data can be used to determine depth to bedrock and to water, or to map a
buried channel or bedrock valley. If can also be used to determine
engineering properties and characteristics of the subsurface materials.
4.4.6 Models and Prediction of Plume Extent
Changes in extent and shape of a contaminant plume with time are of
interest to planners in cases where the polluted medium cannot be con-
tained. Unfortunately, there is no known method of predicting the shape
and extent of a plume for various times in the future, starting from
time zero; moreoverj:it is unlikely that one will become available. The
reason is simply that there is no way in which to determine the loca-
tion, type, and extent of all of the many heterogeneities within an
aquifer.
Modeling studies are performed, however, despite these difficulties.
One of the most informative investigations of the spread of ground water
140
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contamination has been carried out at the (then) National. Reactor Test-
ing Station (NRTS) in Idaho (Ref. IV-25). Their findings show the state
of the art of digital modeling for such purposes, and demonstrate
clearly both the powers and the limitations of the method.
The NRTS site is on the Snake River Plain in southeast Idaho, overlying
an aquifer consisting of thin basaltic flows and interbedded sediments,
with a water table about 450 feet below land surface. Industrial and
low-level radioactive wastes have been discharged to the aquifer through
seepage ponds since 1952, and since 1964 cooling-tower blowdown has been
injected directly into the aquifer through an injection well. The U.S.
Geological Survey has monitored the facilities since their inception,
and has analyzed the fate of the wastes, using data from about 45
observation wells. The complexity of the subsurface regime, however, is
such that no explanation could he given for past behavior, and no pre-
dictions could be made about the future. To resolve these questions, a
digital model, simulating the aquifer, was developed. The modeling
included a hydrology phase to solve equations for ground water flow, and
a solute-transport phase to solve the equation for solute movement, both
of which were verified on the basis of historical behavior. The veri-
fication procedure was then used to adjust the values of various param-
eters.
The investigators point to large-scale inhomogeneities in the aquifer as
a detriment to effective modeling and caution against extending labora-
tory measurements to field conditions. They conclude that the model is
a valid tool for estimating waste distribution in the aquifer, again
warning that this is highly dependent upon future hydrologic conditions,
which can only be assumed.
A note of interest to the planner is that the transverse dispersivity
value (450 feet) required to give the best fit of the theoretical plume
to the observed plume is much larger than had been expected from either
classical theory or laboratory models. The actual chloride plume, after
16 years, extended about 5 miles downgradient and had a maximum width of
almost 6 miles, as shown in Figure 4-12. In contrast, a transverse
diffusity value of only 14 feet has been found in a study of chromium
contamination of a glacial aquifer on Long Island (Ref. IV-26).
A current assessment of plume prediction, then, seems to be that values
needed in digital modeling can be determined from data collected from a
number of observation points over a number of years (both numbers being
dependent upon the complexity of the system). These values may then be
used to predict the shape and extent of the plume in future years only
if it is assumed that there are no major lateral changes in the hydro-
geology of the aquifer. Such an assumption may be quite safe or it may
be invalid, depending upon the type of aquifer involved and how well its
hydrogeology is known.
141
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DISPOSAL WELL
,\
LEGEND
LINES FOR EQUAL CHLORIDE
CONCENTRATION IN mg/1 FOR 1968-69
-20- WELL SAMPLES
-- 20-- DIGITAL MODEL
2 Miles
Figure 4-12. Comparison of waste-chloride plumes in Snake River Plain
aquifer for 1968-1969, based on wel1-sample data and computer model.
142
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4.5 CHEMISTRY IN THE SUBSURFACE
The chemistry of soil formations at a given site strongly affects the
potential of that site for safe and effective disposal of residual
wastes. However, detailed descriptions of the many possible chemical
interactions and their effects on residuals will not necessarily enhance
the ability of the planner to formulate sound decisions with respect to
site selection and waste management (see Appendix C). As in other
instances cited earlier, the planner will most likely consult with
persons having the scientific/technical expertise required to provide a
firm base for site analysis and management planning. The discussion
that follows, therefore, presents only certain basic and pertinent
concepts of soil chemistry, in a manner intended simply to provide a
background against which the planner may more fully understand and
evaluate the findings of his technical consultants.
Initially, it is important to emphasize that although soil may appear to
be an inert, innocuous material, it is in fact a chemically and biolog-
ically dynamic medium. The first few inches of soil harbor a wide
spectrum of bacteria, actinomycetes, protozoa, and fungi, which function
in a habitat of inorganic mineral particles and organic matter. Macro-
organisms such as earthworms, nematodes, centipedes, millipedes, and
insects and their larvae also inhabit the upper-portion of a soil pro-
file.
The soil biota utilizes organic matter contributed by growing plants as
a source of energy. This utilization results in decomposition of the
organic matter into products of oxidation (carbon dioxide and water) and
stable organic residues. The organic residues, in turn, enhance the
physical structure of soil by stabilizing aggregates and coating mineral
particles. Organic residues are also chemically active.
Minerals comprise the bulk of soil mass; as they are slowly dissolved by
infiltrating rainwater, they contribute inorganic elements to the soil
biota and to growing plants. The overall results of the interaction of
infiltrating rainwater, soil minerals, soil organic matter, crops, and
soil biota are measured in chemically characterizing a soil. These
components in combination allow for the decomposition of organic sub-
stances and recycling of their decomposition products. Inorganic ele-
ments are likewise alternatively fixed and made available to plants or
microorganisms. It is this assimilative and recycliqg capability of
soil that qualifies it as a natural medium for treatment of waste re-
siduals. The ensuing discussion describes the soil components in more
detail and identifies their roles in determining the fate of residual
wastes that are placed on or incorporated into soil.
143
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4.5.1 Inorganic Components
Most soils are predominantly inorganic, being comprised of a variety of
minerals that fall into three general size ranges: sand (0.05 to 2.0
mm), silt (0.002 and 0.05 mm), and clay determine the textural class of
a soil. Plotting the percentages on triangular graph paper will char-
acterize the soil with respect to the given textural fields (clay, loam,
silt loam, sandy loam, and others), as shown in Figure 4-13.
Inorganic colloids exert the most" influence on physical characteristics
of most soils, colloids being defined loosely as particles intermediate
in size between particles in true solution and those comprising a sus-
pension (the upper limit on the size of mineral colloid particles is. 1
urn). The physical properties of soils depend on the extent and chemical
nature of the interfaces presented by the colloids. Shrinkage, swell-
ing, flocculation, and dispersion are surface-controlled phenomena that
are important in relation to residuals disposal. Soils containing
swelling clays may crack as deep as several feet when dried. Such
cracking allows direct migration of residuals downward into the soil
profile without an opportunity for chemical interaction with the soil
and could lead to a more rapid or larger-scale contamination of ground
water than would occur in a comparable nonshrinking soil. Flocculation
and dispersion can result in a reduction in soil permeability (sometimes
approaching zero) and a general degradation of the characteristics
(aeration, structure, nutrient balance) that provide for a "healthy"
soil.
More important than those physical phenomena in the relationship of soil
and residuals is the chemistry of the soil, particularly with respect to
the clay minerals and organic colloids. Clay minerals are secondary
minerals formed by weathering of primary minerals or precipitation of
dissolved mineral components. In some soils, the colloidal hydrous
oxides of aluminum, iron, and manganese have important effects.
The capacity of a soil to adsorb and exchange ions varies greatly with
the content of clay and organic matter and with mineralogical composi-
tion. This capacity is measured as "cation exchange capacity" (CEC),
which is expressed in units of milliequivalents per 100 grams (meq/100
g) of soil (See Appendix C, note C-l). CEC and other properties of soil
mineral and organic colloids are listed in Table 4-5. Mineral soils
range in CEC from a few to 50 or 60 meq/100 g.
Clay surfaces carry a net negative charge which attracts cations in
solution. This adsorption results in a cloud of cations around the clay
particles. Because the charges are produced by several mechanisms, the
strength and nature of the charges vary from place to place along the
crystal faces and edges. The cations, being held with less strength
144
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Table 4-5. COMPARATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOIL COLLOIDS
Property
Size (urn)
External surface
Internal surface
Swelling capa-
city
Cation exch.
cap. (meq/lOOg)
Humus
Subcoll oid-
visible
high
none
low
150-200
Montmoril-
lonite
0.01 - 1.0
high
high
high
80-100
Illlte
0.1 - 2.0
medium
medium
medium
15-40
Kaolinite
0.1 - 5.0
low
none
low
3 - 15
Hydrous
oxides
Amorphous-
microcryst
high
none
low
0-5
cn
-------
than that of chemical banding, are able to exchange for one another.
Usually the higher the charge on the cation, the more likely it is to
displace cations of lower charge.
The significance of a soil's CEC to residual waste management is that
cations present in the wastes may be incorporated in the exchange com-
plex and temporarily or permanently immobilized (see Appendix C, note
C-l). They also become part of the complex from which plants absorb
nutrients. Plant absorption may be desirable as a means of removing
certain elements from the system, or it may be undesirable if the ele-
ments are in concentrations sufficient to be toxic to either the plants
or animals that ultimately ingest them.
The adsorption and precipitation
-------
CLAY
1001*°
SANDY
407 LOAM
SILTY CLAY
LOAM
30/ SANDY CLAY
LOAM
IOOX90 SO70 SO 50 40
SAND
PERCENT SAND
100%
10 SILT
Figure 4-13. Soil texture triangle.'
Percentages of sand, silt, and clay when plotted delineate the
textural class of a given soil.
Source: Ref. IV-27.
147
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process. This may occur in waterlogged soils (where oxygen diffusion is
restricted) or in water. Controlled denitrification in wastewater
treatment plants is achieved by developing the appropriate microbial
population and injecting a carbon substrate such as methanol.
Nitrate forms soluble salts and does not interact significantly with
soil colloids. This is important in regard to management of land
spreading of residuals containing nitrogen. Nitrate added to soil in
excess of requirements for plant uptake or losses by denitrification is
subject to leaching and can be carried by percolating water into the
ground water system. As a health-protective measure, the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency has suggested a nitrate concentration limit for
drinking water of 45. mg/1 or 10 mg/1 as nitrogen (Ref IV-28).
Sulfur also undergoes geochemical cycling in the biosphere and is sub-
ject to many transformations as a result of activities of plants,
animals, microorganisms, and man (Figure 4-14). Oxidation and reduction
reactions of sulfur compounds affect the reactions of residuals in soil.
Oxidation of sulfur or sulfur compounds to sulfate frequently produces
sulfuric acid, which affects the soil pH and thus the reactions of heavy
metals, which can be made available for plant uptake or leaching.
Reduction of sulfate produces hydrogen sulfide, a toxic gas with the
odor of rotten eggs. Further, the reduction of iron under the same
conditions as sulfate often results in formation of 'black iron sulfide,
which colors soils or water. The production of sulfide in the presence
of other heavy metals also leads to formation of highly insoluble pre-
cipitates.
Phosphorus additions to soil occur both as inorganic forms and as
organic matter in the form of plant and animal residues. Mineralization
of phosphorus from these sources closely parallels mineralization of
carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur. Although such factors as soil pH, tem-
perature, aeration, and moisture influence the relative rates of miner-
alization, the extent of immobilization or mineralization depends
largely on the carbon:phosphorus ratio. At ratios above 100:1 phos-
phorus will be immobilized, whereas at lower ratios it will be released
(Ref. IV-29).
Iron receives considerable attention as a trace metal that is affected
by the metabolic activities of soil organisms. These activities are not
always welcome because they may lead to the dissolving of iron from
buried pipes or to its deposition on well screens.
Oxidation of iron in soils or water occurs" most rapidly when the reac-
tion is catalyzed by microorganisms. One widespread manifestation of
the oxidation of iron is the acidic drainage produced by abandoned coal
mines and coal spoils. Pyrite, a disulfide mineral associated with
coal, is opened to oxidizing conditions when coal seams are disturbed
148
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mFAIL_REDUCIION
PLANTS'
ANIMALS
HUMUS
I
ORGANIC RESIDUAL
, ORGANIC
2 RESIDUALS
PLANTS-*-ANIMALS
NITRATE REDUCTION
^
N|°3^—
Nf°2
^-
.«*/
COMBUSTION
ORGANIC
RESIDUALS
^HUMUS'-
X^ V ^
MANURE
Figure 4-14. The nitroqen cycle.
149
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and yields sulfuric acid as a product of the oxidation.
Although large quantities of ferric iron are usually present in soils,
crops may show iron deficiency symptoms because of its low solubility.
Anaerobic conditions allow reduction of ferric iron, resulting in an
increased concentration of ferrous iron in solution. Aerobic and
anaerobic zones in soil may cause leaching of iron from the reducing
zone and accumulation of iron in the oxidizing zone. Addition of iron
to soils as part of waste residuals does not pose a threat to fertility
or water quality. The added iron is simply subject to the same chemical
influences as native iron.
Manganese, like iron, is subject to microbial oxidation and reduction.
The oxidized manganic form of manganese is relatively insoluble and
unavailable for plant uptake. Manganese is present in agriculturally
productive soils and presents no toxicity problems. In waterlogged,
anaerobic soils, however, reduced manganese, which is more soluble, may
be toxic to plants.
The heavy metals native to soils are known as trace metals, since they
are usually present in very low concentrations. Toxic effects are
unusual, and deficiencies of the metals required for plant nutrition
(manganese, copper, iron, molybdenum, and zinc) are far more widespread
under natural conditions. Other common heavy metals include those
required for animal or human nutrition (vanadium, chromium, and cobalt)
and those having no established nutritional function (nickel, silver,
cadmium, tungsten, gold, mercury, and lead).
Heavy metal cations are strongly adsorbed on soil colloids. Quanti-
tative prediction of the fate of heavy metals in soil is difficult
because metal reactions do not necessarily follow expected patterns.
Particularly important in soil chemistry are the interactions of heavy
metals with organic soil components, which are discussed briefly in the
following section.
4.5.3 Organic Components
Organic components in soil are derived from plant residues. The process
of decomposition includes many chemical steps and usually a variety of
soil-dwelling animals and microorganisms. A generalized sequence of
decomposition is shown in Table 4-6. Plant components vary in their
ease of decomposition, whcih leads to accumulation of certain constit-
uents and rapid depletion of others.
Potentially significant to utilization of waste residuals in agriculture
is the formation of humus by decomposition of organic matter. At the
humus-forming stage of decomposition, all morphological identity of the
150
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Table 4-6. AN OUTLINE SHOWING, IN A GENERAL WAY, THE CHANGES THAT
THE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS OF PLANT TISSUE UNDERGO IN THE SOIL
I. Compounds Characteristic of Fresh Plant Tissue
Decomposed with difficulty Decomposed easily
Lignin Cellulose
Oils Starches
Fats Sugars
Resins, etc. Proteins, etc.
II. Complex Intermediate Products of Decay3
Resistant compounds Decomposition compounds
Resins Amino acids
Waxes Amides
Oils and fats Alcohols
Lignin, etc. Aldehydes, etc.
III. Products of Soil-Decomposition Processes
Resistant complex Simple end products
Humus - a collodial complex Carbon dioxide and water
in which the lignoproteinate Nitrate
is considered especially impor- Sulfate
tant Phosphate
Ca compounds, etc.
Refers to secondary compounds which are decomposition products of
fresh plant tissues or synthesized products of microbial population
during the decomposition.
Source: Ref. IV-27.
151
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original plant is gone. The residue, which is in part a product of
microbial synthesis, is a high-molecular-weight, polymeric material
containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Humic materials are
frequently complexed with clays, and their reactions with metals may
also involve clay surfaces. These interactions further exemplify the
complex and intimate relationships between the soil components.
A variety of simple and complex compounds are exuded from plant roots,
providing a source of organic matter that is usually ignored (Ref. IV-
30). The amounts are small, but the influence can be great, since these
compounds may complex with metals, rendering them soluble and available
for plant absorption. Other such compounds are toxic to some plant
species. The production of such compounds appears to inhibit growth of
competitive species and thus enhances the competitive advantage of the
exudate-producing species.
In recent years soil chemists have attempted to quantify the reactions
that occur in the soil and transform or influence chemical species that
percolate through it. Soil reactions are dependent upon the activity of
microorganisms and the soil colloids and for this reason the extrapola-
tion of results from a specific soil study to predict the behavior of
other soils is risky. One approach to the modeling of transport and
transformations in soil has been the study of the nitrogen cycle.
Laboratory studies with soil columns have measured the kinetics, net
gains, and net losses of the nitrogen species, ammonium, nitrite, and
nitrate (Ref. IV-31,32). Oxidation of nitrite to nitrate has been
studied and mathematically modeled under laboratory conditions (Ref. IV-
33,34). Oxidation of ammonium and nitrite with correlation of the
population of nitrogen oxidizers has also been modeled under field
conditions (Ref. IV-35,36).
The objectives of these studies have been to measure reaction kinetics,
the responses of the population of nitrifying bacteria to addition of
ammonium and nitrite, and the relative efficiency of biochemical con-
versions. These data are helpful in the interpretation of field re-
search where controls are less precise than the controls of the models.
Whereas the model provides quantitative results for the system being
studied, application to other situations is still qualitative.
The sorption of phosphate in soil has been studied, with development of
mathematical expressions to describe its behavior. The model simulates
phosphate concentration in soil solution and phosphate sorbed on the
soil particles (Ref. IV-37,38). The models can be used to determine the
response of the soil system to varying phosphate inputs and thus can be
applied in planning for waste water renovation by irrigation, or for any
other land-spreading disposal of phosphate-containing residuals. There
is no record of modeling programs that attempt to simulate the behavior
152
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of all chemical species in soils. The complexity of the soil system is
greater than that of the surface or ground waters, which have been the
subject of solute transport models. A combination of a suite of chem-
icals already being held in the soil with the many possible physical,
chemical, and biochemical transformations renders the soil system less
predictable.
4.6 VEGETATION
Vegetation may be used in conjunction with waste disposal for aesthetic
purposes, nutrient removal, soil stabilization, or amortization of
investment. Aesthetics and soil stabilization often are complementary.
For example, when wastes such as fly ash, mine spoils, or dredge spoils
are disposed of in piles or mounds, the side slopes are prone to ero-
sion; vegetation can both prevent erosion and camouflage the waste.
A number of residuals contain nitrogen, phosphorus, and other plant-
nutrient elements. Discharge of nutrients into surface waters causes
blooms of aquatic plants leading to eutrophication. Use of land as an
alternate disposal medium allows more profitable utilization of the
nutrients. Because nutrients such as nitrate can contaminate ground
water, their removal by a crop can increase the total that may be safely
supplied to a given site. Crops that produce maximum yields of dry
matter, thereby removing large amounts of nutrients, are preferable.
Such crops, of course, must be harvested at-least once.
Vegetation cover is vital for stabilizing soil against the erosive
forces of water and wind. Roots form a mesh that tends to bind the
soil; plant stems interrupt the flow of water and reduce its velocity.
Some residuals, however, contain salts or chemical elements that may
make it difficult to establish vegetative cover.
Another reason for integrating a cropping system or vegetative cover
with disposal of residuals is to recover part of the disposal cost.
Residuals that contain plant nutrients or have soil conditioning prop-
erties can be easily used in conjunction with horticultural or agronomic
crops, which can be harvested and sold.
The relationships of vegetation to the several types of residuals is
discussed from the points of view of site investigation, crop selection,
and crop response.
4.6.1 Effluent
Three application modes are associated with effluent: rapid Infiltra-
tion (RI), spray irrigation (SI), and overland flow (OF). These differ
with respect to the volume and the pathway of the liquid applied, and
renovation efficiency (Table 4-7). Sites for RI tend to be depressed to
enable ponding of water to maximize infiltration rate. Sites for SI
T53
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Table 4-7. REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES OF MAJOR CONSTITUENTS FOR
MUNICIPAL LAND-APPLICATION SYSTEMS3
Constituent
BOD
COD
Suspended sol ids
Nitrogen (total as N)
Phosphorus (total as P)
Metal s
Microorganisms
Rer
a
Irrigation
98+
95+
98+
85+
80-90
95+
98+
noval efficiency, %
ppli cation method
Overland
flow
92+
80+
92+
70-90
40-80
50+
98+
Infiltration
85-99
50+
98+
0-50
60-95
50-95
98+
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1975.
usually are potentially good agricultural sites. Sites for OF are
sloped slightly to allow flow, but are not steep enough to interfere
with mechanical harvesting equipment.
Infiltration basins for RI of effluent are frequently constructed with a
bare soil or gravel-layered surface. Bouwer, however, reports that
infiltration rates with a cover of bermuda grass were about 25 percent
higher than those in a bare soil basin (Ref. IV-39). The grass cover
necessitates special management because flooding must be restricted
during the spring growing period.
Vegetation may be desirable where effluent for RI Is applied with
sprinklers because it reduces disturbance of the soil surface by Impact
of the drops. Vegetation removes nitrogen and phosphorus from effluent,
as it would from any fertilizer. Higher rate infiltration, however, may
add so much nitrogen and phosphorus per unit area that the amount
removed by crops is insignificant relative to the total.
Spray Irrigation of effluent 1s well suited to the growth of row crops
and forests. Application rates can be adjusted to climatic variables
and crop needs. The total liquid volume applied by SI is a function of
154
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climate and crop type. Some crops tolerate more moisture than others,
and some transpire more water.
Pennsylvania State University has sponsored a long-term study of SI of
treated sewage effluent on cropped and forested land (Ref. IV-40).
Effluent has been applied at various rates ranging from 1 to 6 inches
per week. Irrigation periods have ranged from 16 weeks during the
growing season on crop land to the entire year in forested areas.
Crops irrigated with treated effluent at Penn State include wheat, oats,
corn, alfalfa, red clover, and reed canary grass (Ref. IV-40). Crops
projected for inclusion in a Muskegon, Michigan, waste-water study
include the cash crops, corn, beans, onions, winter wheat, and legumes;
sugar cane and grass crops were used in an effluent irrigation study in
Hawaii (Ref. IY-41,42). These examples illustrate the diversity of
crops evaluated in regard to effluent disposal.
Yield response at the Penn State site was highly dependent upon the
natural precipitation regime. Largest yield increases were noted in
years of below-normal rainfall. The maximum increases were 346 percent
for corn grain, 130 percent for corn silage, 191 percent for red clover,
and 139 percent for alfalfa (Ref. IV-40).
Nutrient compositions of crops from effluent-irrigated areas at Penn
State were not significantly better than those of crops grown in non-
irrigated, fertilized areas (Ref. IV-40). The irrigated crops do aid in
renovation of water by removing nutrients from the soil system and thus
from entry into ground waters.
Some crops, especially grasses can absorb more nitrogen and potassium
than is required for maximum growth. This phenomenon is termed luxury
consumption. In usual agricultural practice, this excess uptake is
costly in terms of fertilizer utilization. In the case of wastewater
disposal, luxury consumption may be desirable as a means of maximizing
nutrient removal. This type of absorption occurs when nutrient loading
is in excess of optimum crop requirements. However, too high a loading
of nitrogen can also result in excessive leaching of nitrate into the
soil profile and ultimately to ground water.
Maximizing nitrogen removal can also be accomplished by choosing crops
which utilize relatively large amounts of nitrogen. Coarse grass
species such as sudan grass or Sudax (sudan - sorghum) can be harvested
up to three times a year. These yield up to 6 tons (dry weight) per
year. Corn is another nitrogen-demanding crop particularly if the whole
plant is harvested for chopped feed or silage.
Selection of crops for use with wastewater irrigation should be based on
their nutrient utilization, tolerance to moisture, and options for
155
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utilization. The latter 1s particularly important if no animals which
can utilize the crop are available, or if uptake of such substances as
heavy metals restricts the use of the crop.
The microbial population in agricultural soil is large and vital.
Bacterial counts are typically ten million per cubic centimeter. In
addition, there are fungi, actinomycetes, protozan, and multi-celled
animals. Collectively these decompose organic residues added to soils
and effect the elemental transformations of the nitrogen, sulfur, and
carbon cycles. Adding microorganisms with waste water or residuals
usually has little effect on soil because competition and environmental
changes bring the added microorganisms into equilibrium with the in-
digenous population.
Coniferous trees treated by SI at Penn State Include European and
Japanese larch, two spruce, and four pine varieties. Irrigation aided
survival of the trees after planting and increased the growth of larches
and white pine (Ref. IV-40). In irrigation of hardwood forests, the
younger trees, particularly maples, showed the most growth response.
4.6.2 Sludge
Sludges are the accumulated solids precipitated from municipal or in-
dustrial wastewaters. Since most sludges contain plant nutrients,
including nitrogen and phosphrous as well as trace elements and organic
matter, they can act as a soil conditioner. (A detailed discussion on
the characteristics of sludges appears in Section 2.1.)
Sludge is usually land spread by means of tank trucks or wagons. It can
also be sprayed through large-bore sprayers, or used in ridge and furrow
irrigation.
The relationships between vegetation and sludge is most direct in
spreading of agricultural land or areas needing reclamation (see Section
3.0). In these circumstances, sludge is added to promote plant growth
as well as to to dispose of the sludge. Other sludge disposal methods
are independent of vegetation.
At reasonable application rates, the quantities of nitrogen and phos-
phorus are sufficient for agricultural row crops or forage. Because
potassium is in low supply, researchers suggest supplemental applica-
tions. Organic-bound nitrogen and phosphorus are not immediately avail-
able to plants but are slowly mineralized with microbial decomposition
of sludge organic matter.
Literature on land spreading of sludge has increased greatly since the
late 1960's. Recent publications that review various aspects of land
spreading include references IV-43 through IV-49, which give details of
crop yield responses and chemical quality in relation to sludge applica-
tion.
156
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Row and forage crops generally respond to sludge in about the same way
they would to commercial fertilizer, with perhaps an additional positive
response to sludge because of its water content and soil conditioning
properties. The latter properties make sludge useful in reclaiming land
that has been disturbed for strip mining or any other activity that
removes topsoil. In a number of demonstration projects 1n several
states, strip-mined land is being reclaimed with sludge and waste water
(Ref. IV-50,51).
One potential problem connected with land spreading of sludge is deposi-
tion of heavy metals. Some heavy metals originate in domestic sewage,
and from treated urban runoff, but more are added with industrial
effluents. Most of the metals present in sludge are not soluble, and
after addition to soil, they are not entirely available to plants (Ref.
IV-48). Many heavy metals, however, are biologically toxic (e.g., Cu,
Cr, Cd, Ni). If not toxic to plants, they may be toxic to the consumer
of the crops. Zinc, copper, cadmium, and manganese have been reported
as being preferentially absorbed by plants in sludge-amended soils (Ref.
IV-46,48). Because the heavy metal concentrations in sludge-fertilized
crops could conceivably restrict their use, it is important to include
plant analyses in any proposed land-spreading program (see Appendix C,
note C-l).
4.6.3 Feedlot Wastes
Cattle on large feedlots produce more manure than can conveniently be
disposed of on site. This manure is virtually the same as any other
cattle manure, but is too heavily concentrated in one place (See Section
2.7).
Costs, of distributing manure are high because it contains plant nutri-
ents in low concentrations. Although almost any crop can be fertilized
with feedlot wastes, many of the largest feedlots are located in semi-
arid areas where little annual cropping is done. Thus transportation
costs must be added to distribution costs for disposal by land spread-
i ng.
Animal manure, like sludge, adds organic matter as well as plant nutri-
ents to soil. Crops are therefore benefitted by more then nutrient
supply, since the organic matter improves soil structure.
Wherever possible, crop production should be Integrated with disposal of
animal wastes. In this way, nutrients are recycled and the waste
dispersed so that it no longer poses a pollution hazard. Corn has been
shown to recover 53 percent of the nitrogen, 23 percent of the phos-
phorus, and 73 percent of the potassium added with fresh steer manure
(Ref. IV-52). Crop selection and crop-waste interaction are essentially
the same as described under Effluent.
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4.6.4 Fly Ash
Fly ash can be added to soils to encourage plant growth. It tends to
neutralize acid soils and provides calcium and trace metals (see Section
2.5). On soils that could be treated with gypsum, fly ash is a useful
substitute. Use of fly ash as a soil nutrient or conditioner is not
generally a major method of disposal (see Section 3).
Vegetation is used in conjunction with fly ,ash disposal for aesthetic
purposes also, since piles of fine-particled fly ash are susceptible to
erosion by wind and water. Establishing a vegetative cover protects
against erosion and covers the unsightly pile. A soil cover is usually
needed for establishment of plants. Species tolerant to high pH,
boron, and salt are preferable because roots penetrate the fly ash. Ash
piles have been successfully vegetated with well-selected plant species.
4.6.5 Other Wastes
Wastes not now used for promotion of plant growth and not expected to be
so used are septage, mining wastes, liquid industrial wastes, and
municipal solid wastes (see Section 2.0). Vegetation is used to physi-
cally stabilize these wastes or to improve the appearance of disposal
sites (see Section 3). Revegetation is one means of reclaiming millions
of acres of land that has been degraded by strip^minesj spoil piles, and
gob heaps from coal mining. A successful revegetation program requires
careful planning, -knowledge of soils and plants, and sometimes land
contouring (Ref. IV-53).
158
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REFERENCES
IV-1 Todd, David K., Ground Water Hydrology, John Wiley & Sons. Inc.
New York, 1959, 336 p.
IV-2 Hardenburger, W.S., and E.R. Rodie. Water Supply and Waste.Dis-
posal, International Textbook Co., Scranton, Pa., 503 p. 1961.
IV-3 Cohen, Philip, et al. An Atlas of Long Island's Water Resources,-
New York Water Resources Commission Bull. 62, Prepared by the U.S.
Geol. Survey in cooperation with the New York State Resources
Commission. 1968.
IV-4 Cogbill, Charles V. and Gene E. Likens, Acid precipitation in the
Northeastern United States, Water Resources Research, v. 10.
1974. pp. 1133-1137.
IV-5 Hem, John Q. Chemistry and occurrence of cadmium and zinc in
surface water and groundwater, Water Resources Research, v. 8, pp.
661-679, 1972.
IV-6 U.S. EPA, Evaluation of land application systems, Technical Bul-
letin EPA-430/9-75-001, 1975.
IV-7 Sepp, E., Survey of Sewage Disposal by Hillside Sprays, Bur. of
Sanitary Engineering, Calif. State Dept. of Public Health, Berkeley.
1965.
IV-8 Black, S.A. Utilization of digested chemical sewage sludges on
agricultural lands in Ontario. Proc. National Conference in
Municipal Sludge Management. Pittsburgh, Penn. June, 1974
(referred to in draft as Proc. Nat Conf etc.).
IV-9 Gray, Donald M. (Ed.) Handbook on the Principles of Hydrology,
Water Information Center, Inc. Port Washington, N.Y., 1973.
IV-10 Sopper, William E. and Louis I. Kardos. Recycling Treated Muni-
cipal Wastewater and Sludge through Forest and Cropland, The
Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, 1973, 479 p.
IV-11 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Survey Manual, Agriculture
Handbook No. 18. 1951.
159
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IV-12 Schwab, G.O., R.K. Frevert, T.W. Edroinster, and K.K. Barnes. Soil
and Water Conservation Engineering, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New
York, 1966.
IV-13 Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources, Spray Irriga-
tion Manual. 1972.
IV-14 Parizek, R.R. et al. Wastewater renovation and conservation,
Pennsylvania State University Studies No. 23, The Pennsylvania
State University, University Park, Pa. 1967.
IV-15 Parizek, R.R., W.B. White, and Donald Langmuir. Hydrogeology and
Geochemistry of Folded and Faulted Rocks of the Central Appalachian
Type and Related Land Use Problems, Pennsylvania State University
Press, University Park, Pennsylvania, 175 p. 1971.
IV-16 Walton, William C. Ground Water Resource Evaluation, McGraw-Hill
Book Co. New York, 1970, 664 p.
IV-17 Bear, Jacob. Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, American Elsevier
Publishing Co., Inc. New York. 764 p. 1972.
IV-18 Lohman, S.W. Ground Water Hydraulics, U.S. Geological Survey
Professional Paper 708, 1972.
IV-19 Ferris, J.G., D.B. Knowles, R.H. Brown and R.W. Stallman, Theory
of Aquifer Tests, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1536-
E, 1962.
IV-20 Perlmutter, N.M. and Maxim Lieber, Dispersal of plating wastes and
sewage contaminants in ground water and surface water, South
Farmingdale - Massapequa area, Nassau County, New York, U.S.
Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1879-G, 1970.
IV-21 Johnson Division, Universal Oil Products Co. Ground Water and
Wells, St. Paul, Minn. 1972. 432 p.
IV-22 Hughes, G.M. R.A. Landon, and R.N. Farvolden. Hydrogeology of
solid waste disposal sites in Northeastern Illinois, Demonstration
Grant G06-EC-00006, U.S. EPA, 1971.
IV-23 Walton, William C. Selected analytical methods for well and
equifer evaluation. Bulletin 49, Illinois State Water Survey.
Urbana, 1962.
IV-24 Bentall, Ray. Methods of Determining Permeability, Transmis-
sibility and Drawdown, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper.
1536-1, 1963.
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IV-25 Robertson, J.B. and J.T. Barraclough. Radioactive and chemical
waste transport in ground water at National Reactor Testing Sta-
tion, Idaho: 20-year case history and digital model, jji Under-
ground Waste Management and Artificial Recharge, Vol. 1, pp. 291-
322. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, U.S. Geological
Survey, and International Association of Hydrological Sciences,
1973.
IV-26 Finder, George F. A Galerkin-finite element simulation of ground
water contamination on Long Island, New York, Water Resources
Research, v. 9. 1973. pp 1657-1669.
IV-27 Buckman, H.O.; and N.C. Brady. The Nature and Properties of Soil.
The Macmillan Company. N.Y. 1960. 567 pp.
i
IV-28 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Proposed regulations on
interim primary drinking water standards. Federal Register
40:141, March 10, 1975.
IV-29 Stevenson, I.L. 1964. Biochemistry of soil. Pages 242-291 in
Firman E. Bear ed. Chemistry of the soil. ACS Monograph Series
No. 160, Reinhold Publishing Co., N.Y. 515 pp.
IV-30 Stevenson, F.J.; and M. Sobhan-Ardakani. Organic matter in re-
actions involving micronutrients in soils. Pages 79-114 jm J.J.
Mortvedt, P.N. Giordano, and W.L. Lindsay eds. Micronutrients in
agriculture. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer., Madison, Wi. 1972.
IV-31 Misra, C. D.R. Nielsen, and J.W. Biggar. Nitrogen transformations
in soil during leaching; I. Theoretical considerations. Soil
Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 1974.
IV-32 Misra, C., D.R. Nielsen, and J.W. Biggar. Nitrogen transforma-
tions in soil during leaching: II. Steady state nitrification and
nitrate reduction. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 38:294-299. 1974.
IV-33 Ardakani, N.S., J.Z. rehback, and A.D. McLaren. Oxidation of
nitrate to nitrate in a soil column. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc.
37:53-56. 1973.
IV-34 McLaren, A.D., and N.S. Ardakani. Vector biochemical approach to
consecutive reactions of nitrogen in soil. Bull. Ecol. Res. Comm.
(Stockholm) 17:427-431. 1973.
IV-35 Ardakani, N.S., R.K. Schulz, and A.D. McLaren. A kinetic study of
ammonium and nitrite oxidation in a soil field plot. Soil Sci.
Soc. Amer. Proc. 38:273-277. 1974.
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IV-36 Duffy, J., C. Chung, C. Boast, and M. Franklin. A simulation
model of biophyBiochemical transformations of nitrogen in tile-
drained corn belt soil. J. Environ. Qual. 4(4):477-486. 1975.
IV-37 Shah, D.B., G.A. Coulman, L.I. Novak, and B.G. Ellis. A math-
ematical model for phosphorus movement in soils. J. Environ.
Qual. 4(l):87-92. 1975.
IV-38 Novak, L.T., D.C. Adriano, G.A. Coulman, and D.B. Shah. Phos-
phorus movement in soils: Theoretical aspects. J. Environ. Qual.
4(l):93-99. 1975.
IV-39 Bouwer, Herman. Renovating secondary effluent by ground water
recharge with infiltration basins. Pages 164-175 jm W.E. Sopper
and L.I. Kardos, eds. Recycling treated municipal wastewater and
sludge through forest and cropland. Pennsylvania State University
Press, University Park. 1973.
IV-40 Sopper, W.E. and Kardos, L.I. Vegetation responses to irrigation
with treated municipal wastewater. Pages 271-294 jm W.E. Sopper
and L.I. Kardos, eds. Recycling treated municipal wastewater and
sludge through forest and cropland. Pennsylvania State University
Press, University Park. 1973.
IV-41 Chaiken, E.I., Steven Poloncsik, and C.D. Wilson. Muskegon sprays
sewage effluents on land. Pages 285-300 j_n_ F.E. McJunkin and P.A.
Vesilind, eds. Ultimate disposal of wastewaters and their re-
siduals. National symposium, Research Triangle Universities,
North Carolina, April 26-27.
IV-42 Dugan, G.L. et al. Land disposal of wastewater in Hawaii. J.
Water Poll. Contr. Fed. 47(8):2067-2087. 1975.
IV-43 University of Guelph. Land disposal of sewage sludge vol. I.
Environment Canada, Research Report No. 16. 39 pp. 1973.
IV-44 Environment Canada. Proceedings sludge handling and disposal
seminar. Conference Proceedings. No. 2. 465 pp. 1974.
IV-45 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Proceedings of conference
on land disposal of municipal effluents and sludges. EPA-902/9-
73-601. 1973.
IV-46 Hinesly, T.D., O.C. Braids, R.I. Rick, R.L. Jones, and J.A.E.
Molina. Agricultural benefits and environmental changes resulting
from the use of digested sludge on field crops. NTIS PB-236402.
375 pp.
162
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IV-47 Information Transfer, Inc. Municipal sludge management. Wash-
ington, D.C. 218 pp. 1974.
IV-48 Page, A.L. Fate and effects of trace elements in sewage sludge
when applied to agricultural lands. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency EPA-670/2-74-005. 97 pp. 1974.
IV-49 Peterson, J.R., T.M. McCalla, and G.E. Smith. Human and animal
wastes as fertilizers. Pages 557-596 jjn Fertilizer technology and
use. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wis. 1971.
IV-50 Sopper, W.E., J.A. Dickerson, and C.F. Hunt. Revegetation of
strip mine spil banks through irrigation with municipal sewage
effluent and sludge. Compost Science, pp. 6-11, Nov/Dec. 1970.
IV-51 Peterson, J.R., and John Gschwind. Amelioration of coal mine
spills with digested sewage sludge. Proceedings research and
applied technology symposium on mined-land reclamation. Bituminous
Coal Research, Inc., Monroeville, Pa. March 7 and 8. 1973.
IV-52 Braids, O.C. Land disposal management of livestock wastes.
Livestock Waste Management Conference Proceedings. University of
Illinois, Urbana. March 1-2, 1972.
IV-53 Linstron, G.A., and G.H. Deitshman. Reclaiming Illinois strip
coal lands by forest planting. Illinois Agricultural Experiment
Station Bull. 547. 1951. 49 pp.
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5.0 LEGAL/INSTITUTIONAL ASPECTS
This section will introduce the State and areawide water quality planner
to the legal consequences of alternative residual waste management
plans. This information is designed to highlight the need for inclusion
of legal and institutional considerations, into the planning process..
The inclusion of the specific areas of law selected for this section is
for familiarity and is in no way exhaustive. The planner, therefore,
should consult qualified legal counsel prior to finalizing plans for
residual wastes management. The analytical approach used here is:
first, to consider the activity a State or areawide water quality manage-
ment program will involve, second, to determine what possible liability,
if any, will result, and third, to provide a legal explanation that will
lead to an avoidance of any potential liability and conformance with
regulations in implementation of BMP's. The planner should relate this
information directly to management practices,as described in Section 3
and as applied to BMP's in Section 6.
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW
Constitutional considerations are included to provide a primary under-
standing to the planner of where various institutions derive their
respective authority. It is intended to demonstrate that authority must
be founded upon some recognized delegation from the people.
TORT LAW
A Tort is defined as a compensable civil wrong and is sometimes referred
to as civil liability. The treatment of this subject is intended to
demonstrate how specific conduct can inter-relate or simply interfere
with other activities. Again, the discussion does not treat all possible
aspects of tort liability; it does point out that legal consequences can
and do flow from specific conduct; conduct may be regulated by statute,
an ordinance, or by common law principles.
ADMINISTRATIVE LAW
The rapidly expanding "fourth, headless branch of government" plays an
ever increasing role in environmental protection. The material on this
subject is presented to show that agency, bureau, and commission inter-
action must be considered in the planning of a State or areawide water
quality program, and that rules and regulations form an important part
of the law governing residual waste management.
This section of the Planners' Handbook presents a basic core of pertinent
law to acquaint planners with legal implications of residual waste
management decisions. With this information planners can .employ a more
complete application of BMP's to residual waste management problems.
164
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Moreover, information is provided the planner with regard to the common
law restrictions and the prevalent legislative approaches to solving
residual waste problems.
In addition to statutorily created remedies to redress harm caused to
the environment, most States have recognized the continuing viability of
existing common law remedies. The following paragraphs are examples
from current State statutes regulating waste management which retain the
common law rights to be exercised by injured parties:
0 California law states that new remedies provided in the legislation
are in addition to, and do not supersede or limit, any and all
other remedies, civil or criminal. Every civil action... brought
by the Attorney General shall be in the name of the people of the
State of California... (California Water Code, Chapter 5, Article
5, Section 13350).
0 Illinois provides that the Attorney General shall enforce the
provisions of the act by an action for mandamus, injunction, or
other appropriate relief at law or in equity. (111. Revised
Statutes, Chapter 111 1/2 Section 1022 Environmental Protection
Act, Title 5, land pollution and refuse disposal 1970.)
0 New Jersey enables the commissioner to institute an action... for
injunctive or other appropriate relief when residual waste collection
or a disposal facility creates a nuisance condition. (N.J. Statutes
Annotated Ch. 39 Section 13: 1E-9 Solid Waste Management Act,
1970.)
0 New York authorizes the Attorney General on his own initiative, or
at the request of the commissioner or of a private individual, to
initiate any appropriate action or proceeding to enforce any provi-
sion of this title... or to prevent, restrain the threatened...
pollution... or... if the board finds that a nuisance exists, it
shall declare the existence of a nuisance... and shall order a
suit to be brought in the name of the people for its abatement.
(N.Y. Codes Title 27, Section 27-0509, Collection, Treatment, and
Disposal of Refuse and Other Solid Waste, 1971.)
° Pennsylvania provides that the department may institute an action
in mandamus in the court of common pleas... In addition to any
other remedies, the secretary may institute a suit in equity... 1n
the court of common pleas., where the violation or nuisance exists
for an injunction to restrain a violation... (Pennsylvania Statutes
Sec. 6016 Solid Waste Management Act, 1968, Amend. 1970 and 1972.)
These examples show that, although administrative authority is enforced
through regulations promulgated in response to a law, most of the legisla-
tion preserves the right to bring a conventional common law action. In
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the absence of a statute that establishes new rules of conduct and
penalties for violation of those rules, a waste management activity is
regulated entirely by the duty of care imposed and other principles of
the common law. For these reasons, this legal section treats the non-
statutory, as well as the statutory, rights and duties that are associ-
ated with residual waste management (Ref. V-l).
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO LEGAL ASPECTS OF RESIDUAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
The conduct of a residual waste management activity (private or govern-
mental) can take many forms and be interpreted in many ways; these
depend upon the activity involved and the circumstances surrounding its
conduct. Two of the principal factors influencing the interpretation of
given conduct are the presence of enacted law, and the existence of
established practices (minimally acceptable conduct) being exercised
within similar circumstances. The law referred to here may be an ordi-
nance, statute, regulation, or the previous decision of a common law
court. These sources of law, supplemented by trade and social practices
prevalent in an area, may or may not establish a standard to be met by
the activity in question.
The law looks to the facts that are legally significant before it will
impose its judgement. Upon taking notice of these operative facts, it
looks to the parties involved and determines the character of the conduct
that has taken place. The law then looks to the relationship between
the parties involved and determines the standard of care to be met by
the parties; it considers the existence of any excuse or justification
applicable to any of the parties; it then evaluates the resultant harm
and concludes by formulating the most appropriate remedy.
In a residual waste management program (as with all conduct), the law
seeks to evaluate the "conduct" that has affected the rights of other
persons, or their property. A significant factor that must be considered
in evaluating certain conduct is whether or not the conduct was the
cause of a specific harm and the cause of other effects flowing naturally
and foreseeably from this conduct. Once the conduct is defined, then
the standard of care to be met by an activity must also be defined; upon
this analysis, the probability of liability attaching to an activity can
be established.
In seeking to evaluate the conduct of activities within a residual waste
management system, the standard of care and rules of conduct will possess
elements similar to those recognized in many other fields of activity.
For example, all transporters of materials have a duty of care which
must be met; it will change when society recognizes the need for varying
degrees of care. It follows that handlers of hazardous materials,
whether primary, secondary, or waste, are held to a higher standard of
conduct than handlers of nonhazardous materials. The standard either
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arises from the common law or is statutorily imposed; it must be recog-
nized that the common law apd statutory law are not mutually exclusive,
and that in most cases both will influence the waste management program.
The law imposes liability upon the conduct of activities of which do not
meet society's standard of care. To be legally actionable this conduct
must be labeled as either: Intentional conduct, negligent conduct,
conduct that is negligent per se (because it is in violation of a statu-
tory requirement) or conduct that is of such a nature as to make the
actor strictly liable, i.e. without the need of proving fault for the
damage (engaging in an ultrahazardous activity).
When addressing various aspects of the activities (conduct) associated
with a residual waste management system, a planner must be able to
employ the best possible measures to effectively implement his program.
In the planning of a residual waste management system, statutes, ordi-
nances, and administrative rules and regulations will play a significant
role in defining acceptable standards of conduct to be met by the activi-
ties within a planner's program. This legal section points out to the
planner that it is his responsibility to identify those areas of residual
waste management that are and are not effectively treated in statutes
and their accompanying regualtions, concurrently, common law considera-
tions must be examined in the respective jurisdictions. This insight
can be gained by a thorough research of federal, state and local legis-
lation and of common law decisions applying to a jurisdiction. As a
result of this heightened awareness of legal arrangements, the planner
will be able to more completely determine what new statutes and regula-
tions, if any, will be needed to enhance the management program.
The publication Residual waste: Model State Legislation, EPA/440/9-
76/004, concludes that the effectiveness of a given law or regulation is
dependent upon more than just the clarity and comprehensiveness of the
official text. The effectiveness of a waste management system is depen-
dent upon the application of available resources and the active support
given by the executive branch of State government. Additional strength
is created through the enactments of the legislature which express a
strong state policy to protect water resources from all forms of waste
deposited on or in land. A strongly worded statute will provide little
impetus to the waste management system if the executive branch does not
request, and if the legislature does not appropriate, the requisite
funds to support administration, research, facilities, technical assist-
ance and enforcement. All are necessary elements of an operative and
effective regional or local waste management program.
The planner, following his examination of existing legislation must
decide whether the current legislation is adequate, or whether new
legislation is needed to secure the use of Best Management Practices.
Residual Waste: Model State Legislation indicates that some States do
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not need more laws, but do need additional personnel to enforce the
existing laws. It goes on to state on page 5-1 that overall effective-
ness of one State's waste management program was improved by a modest
increase in staff, accompanied by a massive infusion of new interest
exhibited by higher level officials of the State. A planner can, there-
fore, recognize the responsibility placed upon him to evaluate the
effect that legislation will have upon a particular residual waste
management system. Additionally, a planner must be aware of the need to
consider the influence of case law decisions respecting each individual
program.
The planner should recognize further that environmental law draws its
strength from a mixture of traditional legal concepts. The combinations
and interactions of these established legal principles provide to society
and to its institutions the capability of redressing the wrongs that
have occurred and are occurring to the environment. Environmental law
is a delicate mixture of the rules of constitutional law, torts law,
civil procedure, conflicts of law, and administrative law. This section
of the Planners' Handbook is designed to provide an initial understand-
ing and comprehension of the legal authority relied upon to ensure a
sound environment. Not only must the State and areawide water quality
planner properly apply state-of-the-art, best management practices
(BMP's), he must also be aware of inherent social, political, legal and
institutional constraints that will limit his freedom in implementing a
water quality management program (See Sections 3 and 6). The planner
must understand the interacting special interests of various groups,
(i.e., environmentalists, private entrepreneurs, and public service
entities). He must, therefore, comprehend the effect that each of these
forces,will exert on the formulation of a residual waste management plan
and its implementation. Essentially, residual waste management plans
must be implemented by individuals, groups, and agencies having the
responsibility and legal authority to do so (e.g., sewer districts,
Corps of Engineers, State enforcement agency, etc.). The planner does
not have the authority to implement, but can guide and coordinate the
efforts of the implementing agencies.
5.1.1 Taking vs. Police Power
How to site, where to site, and who has the authority to site a facility
are all questions to be asked by a planner when implementing a residual
waste, management plan. The planner must realize that, in addition to
the federal government, the State and local governments have recognized
procedures for exercising their authority regarding eminent domain and
zoning. A search of the applicable federal, State and local legislation
by a planner will divulge how the existing Taws can be used to facilitate
siting activities within his planning area. A planner may discover that
land acquired by eminent domain may only be used for a disposal activity
if the zoning, at the time of condemnation, will allow suc-h use (Connec-
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ticut Solid Waste Management Services Act 1973). Conversely, the
planner may find that a State's laws permit even condemned land to be
used for waste disposal activities, irrespective of existing zoning,
upon a showing of necessity (Illinois Environmental Protection Act
V970). The planner must be aware that eminent domain proceedings can be
used to satisfy present and future demands for disposal facilities.
Once land has been acquired for the residual waste activity the planner
must be aware that the application of the power of zoning ordinances can
be used to rezone the surrounding area, thereby providing a buffer zo'ne
to protect the facility from future encroachment by non-compatible uses.
5.1.1.1 Eminent Domain - The Fifth Amendment provides that "private
property shall not he taken for public use, without just compensation".
The 14th Amendment has been interpreted to impose the same obligation
upon the States, Chicago, B&O R.R. vs. Chicago. 166 U.S. 266 (1897).
Accordingly, when government seeks to "take" property for public use
such as a park or a sanitary landfill, it resorts to the power of eminent
domain; the property is taken through condemnation, and the owner of the
property is entitled to "just compensation". It is well settled that
private property cannot constitutionally be taken by eminent domain
except for a public use. A planner's understanding of the limits on the
use of eminent domain will facilitate establishment of a residual waste
management system by government bodies.
5.1.1.2 The Constitutional Power of the Federal Government (Considerations
of Eminent Domain and Regulation of Land Use Through Zoning Restrictions) -
The Federal government, according to constitutional theory, is a creature
of limited authority able to act only on the basis of specific enumerated
powers. Thus, even though particular environmental objectives may be
within the reach of Congressional regulatory power, the means by which
those objectives are attained must still comply with specific constitu-
tional limitations. Accordingly, new initiatives that regulate the use
of property or impose criminal or civil sanctions on environmentally
undesirable conduct, are likely to lead to questions concerning the
"taking" of property.
The potential problem that may arise from the Fifth Amendment's provision
that private property shall not be taken for public use without just
compensation, is likely to become increasingly important as regulations
restrict the use of private property. The line between a constitutional
"taking" which requires compensation, and the exercise of "police power",
e.g. zoning, which does not, has not been drawn clearly. New interest
in a wide variety of land use regulations point to potential conflicts
between society's desire to regulate environmentally critical features
of land, and private landowners' desires to maximize the economic value
of such land.
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It is the owner's loss, not the taker's gain, which is the value of the
property taken (Ref. V-l). If a landowner could not use his land for
any purpose, then his loss would be total; it would be as if government
had entered upon the surface of the land and taken exclusive possession.
Action in the form of regulation can so diminish the value of property
as to constitute a taking. Additionally, environmental regulations
should have a rational relationship to a legitimate objective in order
to withstand attack based upon equal protection grounds. The selection
of a site for a waste management facility must be evaluated by the
planner in terms of how he can ultimately gain use of or title to the
land. It must be noted that State and local governments have varying
procedures to govern the exercise of eminent domain and zoning (Ref. V-
3).
5.1.1.3 Zoning - Under the authority of the "police power", the State
government may impose restrictions on property that may produce a substan-
tial diminution in the land's value; the Supreme Court of the United
States has held that government need not compensate the owner for losses
that are incidental consequences of valid regulations (Ref. V-2).
Zoning involves the determination by local governments of how local land
will be used. The State must confer the ability on cities and counties
to exercise the police power, thereby enabling the local legislative
body to set up zoning classifications by ordinance. Usually, the local
legislative body further delegates participation in this process to
appropriate administrative agencies who administer the ordinance and
recommend zoning changes. A residual waste management system planner
must consider the varying zoning requirements within a particular juris-
diction; additionally, the planner who is versed in the procedures used
to change existing zoning regulations will have a valuable tool to
assist him in implementing land use requirements of a waste management
program.
Various States have taken different positions concerning the question of
when the State may exercise its police power and thereby displace local
zoning requirements. The zoning authority conferred upon "general law"
cities is set out in the State zoning enabling act, and sometimes even
in the State's constitution. "Home rule" or "Chartered" cities are not
usually subject to the State enabling act because their charter includes
a complete delegation of zoning authority from the State. Some charters
do not permit pre-emption by the State; other States do permit such pre-
emption in "general law" cities, but not in "home rule" cities. A State
and areawide water quality planner must be alert to the possible restric-
tions that may be imposed by the city and State zoning laws and to use
the zoning regulations to his advantage.
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The lack of flexibility, encompassed in the traditionally practiced
"Euclidian Zoning Process," characterized by strict districting of land,
led zoning planners to provide relief in the form of variances and
special use permits. A special use permit allows a parcel of land to be
used differently from the basic used permitted by its zoning classifica-
tion, provided such use is compatible with the land and the surrounding
uses. Before a variance will be granted, the landowner must show a
special hardship caused by the restrictions established by the zoning
classification. Administrative agencies in some states have greatly
expanded the use of such permits in an effort to achieve zoning flexi-
bility (Ref. V-4).
5.1.2 The Allocation of Roles Between the Federal and State Governments
The Federal Government is increasingly exercising its broad power to
protect the environment. Thus1, the roles played by the State and Federal
levels of government, when controlling pollution that is a concern
common to both, must be understood by the State and areawide water
quality planner. The scheme of our Federal system and the "Supremacy
Clause" of the Constitution unambiguously assign to the Federal Govern-
ment the superior role by making the Constitution and Federal acts "the
Supreme Law of the Land."
The States possess all reserve powers, as expressed by the Tenth Amend-
ment to the Constitution. These broadly encompass the power "to prescribe
regulations to promote health, ... good order of the people, and to
legislate so as to ... add to the State's wealth and prosperity (Ref. V-
5).
When Congress has not exercised its overlapping power in the same area,
the question whether such power is vested exclusively in Congress is
presented, therefore, potentially barring State attempts at regulation.
Where Congress has acted, it must be determined how much room, if any,
has been left for further legislation in the same area by the States.
The doctrine of pre-emtion normally refers to the latter question,
regarding the effect of federal legislation on State power to legislate
in the same arena.
To determine the ability of a State to regulate in the absence of Federal
legislation, is to ask the question: Is the subject matter of the State
legislation national in nature, and does it admit to only one uniform
system or plan of regulation? If the sto&.fect is national in scope, then
the area requires exclusive legislation by Congress. Particularly
relevant in the presen.t context, is the Supreme Court's decision in
Huron Portland Cement Co. versus Detroit (Ref. V-6). In that case, the
Court upheld the local regulation of smoke pollution from ships licensed
and regulated by the Federal government, to operate in interstate commerce.
The Court emphasized the strong local interest in protecting the health
of its citizens. A planner should be familiar with the authority of
Federal, legislation and when the State and local governments have no
authority to act.
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Where a State law would otherwise be valid, it may conflict with Federal
legislation in the same area. In such cases the Supremacy Clause requires
that the State law yield to the Federal law. Where Congress1 decision
to regulate is made explicit, the pre-emption question is settled accord-
ingly. In most cases, however, courts must decide whether pre-emption
can be inferred from a Federal statutory scheme which has not clearly
evidenced a Congressional intent to pre-empt. In this case familiarity
with court decisions regarding pre-emption will add needed dimension to
the planner's residual waste management program decisions.
5.1.3 Civil Liability and Environmental Law
There is a wide variety of enforcement and penalty provisions encompassed
by the environmental legislation of the fifty states. States have
statutorily identified the parties subject to the legislation and the
procedures used to file complaints under the law; furthermore, in some
States, e.g. Oregon, there are scales established to determine the
degree of imposition of penalties (Oregon Administrative Rules, Ch.
340). The California Porter-Cologne Act has even established a "summary"
procedure for seeking injunctive relief and thereby obviate the tradi-
tional necessity of having to show an inadequate remedy at law and the
danger of irreparable injury in order to receive such injunctive relief.
However, the planner of a residual waste management program must be
congnizant of the fact that when legislation has not addressed problems,
the common law might be used to correct environmental wrongs. The
legislation of many States is very complete and has substantially addres-
sed abuses that can occur to the environment; yet again, there are
States whose legislation does not completely provide for remedies to
effectively reach activities polluting the environment. A planner
should possess the knowledge of how potential sources of water pollution
can be legally or legislatively attacked; the planner can then better
understand how existing legislation and Federal, State, and local adjudi-
cation affects residual waste management agencies and facilities and
decide if new legislation is needed to address problem areas.
Again, the planner should comprehend what rights are provided by the
common law. For example. Oregon Revised Statutes, Ch. 459 states that
the remedies expressly provided in the Act in no way derogate from other
remedies, such as use of common law remedies. For example, the common
law action for nuisance has traditionally been the most common method of
asserting an environmental right (Ref. V-7). Familiarity with the
concept of nuisance will enable a planner to better integrate the
activities within a management program into the activities and institu-
tional arrangements existing in those jurisdictions included within the
water quality management planning area.
5.1.3.1 Nuisance - Private and Public - A private nuisance arises from
a substantial interference with an individual's use and enjoyment of his
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property. A public nuisance, unlike the narrow restrictions of private
nuisance, may be virtually any form of annoyance or inconvenience to the
public at large. The public nuisance action may be brought by the
State; however, upon a showing of special injury, different in kind from
that suffered by the public in general. The conduct of a waste manage-
ment activity may also constitute a private nuisance. Some courts treat
a substantial interference with a citizen's enjoyment of the natural
environment as amounting to a public nuisance. In the City of Miami vs.
Coral Gables. 223 SE '2d. 7, 1 ERC 1184 (fla. Ct. App. 1970), the plain-
tiffs were the City of Coral Gables and twenty individual residents
seeking to enjoin the City of Miami from operating a municipal incin-
erator. The chancellor issued an injunction finding both a public and a
private nuisance; the Florida District Court of Appeals affirmed that
judgment. In reaching its decision, the court turned to what it took to
be the basis of the law:
Anything that annoys or disturbs one in the free use, possession,
or enjoyment of their property is a "nuisance" and may be restrained.
No doubt the instant litigation is representative of an assault
(semble) by the people of this nation in response to the "crimes
against the environment" which have been perpetrated by the users
of our amassed technologies. Recognition of the public's right to
pure air, soil, and water has been forthcoming from a vast segment
of the governmental agencies entrusted to protect these interests
for our country's people...
In Department of Health and Mental Hygiene vs. Galaxy Chemical Co., Inc.,
Civil No. 243-4 (Md. Cir. Ct., decided September 17, 1970), 1 ERC 1660,
the plaintiff, the Air Quality Control Division of the Department of
Health, sought to enjoin defendant from emitting gas vapors and odors
beyond its property lines; .in modified form the injunction was granted.
This is a classic public nuisance action. The court dealt with the
notion of nuisance in the following manner:
A nuisance is a thing or condition on the premises or adjacent
thereto, that is offensive or harmful to those who are off the
premises. 1 ERC 1668.
The above noted definition provides the tort of nuisance considerable
space in which to develop and adapt to the needs of the times. The tort
of public nuisance may be employed to protect from invasion those rights-
which we hold common as members of the public.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency has identified activi-
ties that can potentially cause a nuisance situation in its publication
entitled Residual Waste; Model State Legislation, water quality manage-
ment guidance, EPA/440/9-76/004. Some of these are hazardous wastes,
mine drainage, .animal feedlot wastes and industrial or mining waste
piles (See Section 2). State and areawide water quality planners must
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anticipate the new problems that could be created and thereby prevent a
program from being challenged because of potential injury to the environ-
ment. Effective .legislation can help ensure proper handling of residuals
and prevent the inception of a nuisance situation (Ref. V-8), and the
application of BMP's may help correct an existing nuisance problem (See
Section 6). Common law actions for nuisance may still be brought by
private citizens when they have suffered "particular damage."
Where an entire community is injured in the same manner by the nuisance,
public officials have been held to be the proper parties to seek redress.
In Kuehn vs. City of Milwaukee, a- professional fisherman sued to enjoin
the dumping of garbage into Lake Michigan. The right to sue (standing)
was denied him on the ground that he was not uniquely injured, i.e.,
anyone could fish in the lake (Ref. V-9). Experience has shown that
public officials, because of inertia, lack of resources, political
pressures, or vested interests, cannot always be relied upon to seek
redress for a community. Legislation can play a vital role; planners
should determine the extent of existing law and consider the possible
need for new legislation; the legislation desired should authorize ah
agency to require the operators of residual waste activities to take-
remedial action to correct pollution problems which may cause a nuisance
situation.
5.1.3.2 Examples of Nuisance Cases - In Karpisek vs. Gather & Sons
Constjruction, Inc. the court, in this action against emissions from an
asphalt plant, rejected the argument that this private action could not
be maintained because of the number of parties affected, thereby making
it a public action. The court relied upon the proximity of plaintiffs
to the asphalt plant to distinguish their injury from others (Ref. V-
10). Likewise, Wade vs. Campbell indicates that proximity alone to the
source of the harm may constitute a sufficient damage upon which to base
a suit (Ref. V-ll). These concepts could be applied by parties seeking
to remedy any harmful effect that could result from the operation of a
residual waste management system. In Ozark Poultry vs. Gorman, nine
homeowners in the vicinity of a rendering plant sought injunctive relief
contending that the odors from the plant were offensive causing them
nausea and inability to sleep. The court found the plant to be a public
nuisance and ordered it closed unless the conditions were corrected
within a reasonably fixed time. On appeal, the Supreme Court of Arkansas
additionally found the plant to be a private nuisance. Therefore,
this injury could be attacked both by a private citizen suit and by
state action (Ref. V-12). A planner, with an understanding of the court
rulings in his jurisdiction, can more adequately develop residual waste
management planning proposals that recognize standards to which they may
be subject.
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Simarlarly the Urie vs. Franconla Paper Corporation, a number of real
estate owners sued for injunctive-relief against pollution of the river
by the paper mill. They contended that offensive odors from the mill
affected them all and that sludge and organic matter made the river
unsightly and left foul deposits on the riparian owner's lands. The
court upheld the right of all of the plaintiffs to maintain the private
action (Ref. V-13). Activities of this nature can be analogized closely
with harmful effects resulting from a break in a sanitary landfill liner
or with ground water pollution caused by improper operation of a residual
waste management activity. As to whether or not a citizen will be
allowed to sue, the question is likely to be whether the plaintiff has a
sufficient stake in the litigation to insure the concrete adverseness on
which courts depend for the adequate presentation of issues. This
status may derive from personal or economic injury or from damage to an
even more intangible interest which the plaintiff has demonstrated as
being of great importance to him. The planner must be aware of the
effect of these common law actions which often provide the impetus for
new legislation that has an even more restrictive effect on waste manage-
ment than did the common law rule.
5.1.3.3 The Components of Negligence - The negligence concept will play
a vital role in determining the direction which a residual waste manage-
ment program will take. A planner should always consider that the
activities of the various components of a management program will have
to meet societal standards, and that in non-compliance to the standards,
they will be subject to sanctions. A planner must possess the capability
of projecting the probable conduct of waste management activities to
determine compatibility with neighboring activities. The standard to be
met will be defined by custom, statutes and the common law. To be
considered negligent conduct must be shown:
1. a duty or obligation, recognized by the law, which requires the
activity to conform to a certain standard of conduct, for the
protection of others against unreasonable risks.
2. a failure to conform to a required standard. (These two elements
make up what the courts usually have called negligence; but the
term quite frequently is applied to the second alone.) Thus, it
may be said that the defendant was negligent, but is not liable
because he was under no duty to meet a standard of care to this
plaintiff!
3. a reasonably close causal connection between the conduct and the
resulting injury, (i.e., The injury must result from the act and
must be the type of injury whose occurrence is foreseeable.)
4. actual loss or damage to an interest of another. (Proof of damage
is an essential part of the plaintiff's case. Negligence is action-
able only in the case where some individual's interest has suffered.)
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5.1.3.4 Reasonable Conduct - Negligence is a matter of exposing another
to an unreasonable risk of harm. It is conduct that falls below the
standard established by law for the protection of others; this standard,
imposed by society, is an external one. Failure to meet this standard,
is deemed negligence, even though it may be due to ignorance, forgetful-
ness or even sheer stupidity. The basis of negligence is not careless-
ness; the true basis is behavior which should be recognized as involving
unreasonable danger to others.
The concept of "risk" necessarily involves a recognizable danger, based
upon some knowledge of existing facts and some reasonable belief that
harm may follow. The culpability of the actor must be judged in the
light of the possibilities apparent at the time. Risks against which
the activity is required to take precautions are those which society
considers sufficiently great to .demand appropriate caution. Howc/er, no
man can be expected to guard against harm from events which are not
reasonably expected to be dangerous; such events are regarded as unavoid-
able accidents, for which there is no liability (e.g., act of God). A
planner must be aware that as the gravity of the possible harm increases,
the apparent likelihood of its occurence need be correspondingly less
for the conduct to be considered negligent. Stated another way, the
more dangerous the activity, the greater is the duty to exercise care.
Handling and deposition of residual wastes entails risks that must be
guarded'against. Management practices are available to reduce the
likelihood of some harmful events from occuring. Failure to employ
available methods may involve negligence. In Reinhart vs. Lancaster Area
Refuse Authority the court awarded verdicts for negligence in favor of
two property owners whose water wells were contaminated by refuse dumped
in a landfill which the Authority operated (Ref. V-14). Proper manage-
ment and containment of leachates may have reduced the likelihood of
water contamination in this case (See Section 3.5.2).
Against this probability of the harm, and gravity of the risk, there
must be balanced in every case the utility of the type of conduct in
question. Certainly it can be said that the utility of a residual waste
management system is great in this day of environmental control. The
planner must recognize that in proposing the implementation of a manage-
ment plan, the program must be compatible with other public and private
interests.
Foremost among the factors which the planner must consider is the social
value of the residual waste management activity; consideration must also
be given to any alternative courses. While mere inconvenience or cost
may not in themselves be sufficient to justify proceeding in the face of
injury or harm, they may justify taking other risks which are not so
extreme. It is seldom possible to reduce negligence to a set of definite
rules; it is relative to the need and the occasion. Conduct which would
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be proper under some circumstances becomes negligent under others. The
whole theory of negligence presupposes a standard of behavior, yet, the
infinite variety of situations which may arise makes it impossible to
fix definite rules in advance for all conceivable conduct. The standard
of conduct which society demands must be an external and objective one;
the conduct which meets the standard of care is the incorporation of a
community ideal of reasonable behavior. Regarding a residual waste
management system, the standard to be applied is still in a period of
formulation; the activities themselves may be establishing the standard
to be applied through their own conduct.' An awareness of complying to a
standard is to be incorporated into the planning process.
Since the standard is a community standard, evidence of the usual and
customary conduct of others, under similar circumstances, is relevant as
an indication of what the community regards as proper. Community customs
themselves are many and varied; some are the result of careful thought
and decision; others arise from inadvertence, carelessness, indifference,
cost-paring and corner cutting, which are normally associated with
negligence. Even an entire industry, by adopting careless methods in an
effort to save time or money, cannot be permitted to set its own uncon-
trolled standard. The holdings in the majority of negligence cases are
that every custom is not conclusive of establishing an adequate standard
of care. Certainly, the activity's own record of past conduct, (which
is commonly called "habit" rather than community custom), is not evidence
of a standard of reasonable care.
The EPA recommended Model Law (EPA/440/9-76/004) for residual waste
management describes a permitting system that sets standards for a
number of waste management operations. Where such laws are in force,
they may be regarded as an expression of the community standard (Ref. V-
15). -Most States utilize a system of permits that provide regulatory
agencies with significant authority over a wide range of residual waste
management activities. The legislation usually requires the activities
to submit operational data, thereby providing information needed by
states to establish control over the activities.
The requirement for permits allows agency control over residual waste
management by setting restrictive conditions prior to any use of the
activity; additionally the permits provide the basis for initiating
prompt remedial action. The legislation of the various States defines
the application, renewal and revocation criteria. Permit programs can
provide a wide scope of control; however, some State permit programs are
less effective because of substantial exemption provisions. The permit
system provides a structure to assist in defining the appropriate stan-
dard of conduct to be met by residual waste activities. A planner armed
with the knowledge regarding the effect of permitting programs in his
jurisdiction can more efficiently adapt the plan to the requirements
which will be imposed upon activities within that water quality manage-
ment planning area.
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The amount of care demanded by the standard of reasonable conduct must
be in proportion to the apparent risk. As the danger becomes greater,
the actor is required to exercise a commensurate degree of caution.
Those who deal with commodities, such as electricity, gas, or explosives,
are required to exercise a greater amount of care because of the in-
creased degree of risk. Likewise, a residual waste management system
may be expected to exercise greater care when dealing with hazardous
waste, than when disposing of ordinary refuse. A planner must take into
account the need for a< higher degree of care in selecting sites for the
disposal of material that may some day penetrate the boundaries of the
disposal site.
5.1.3.5 Imposition of Absolute Duty (Negligence Per Se) - It is entirely
possible that a statue may impose an absolute duty, for whose violation
there is no recognized excuse. The legislature, within its constitu-
tional powers, may see fit to place the burden of compensation for
injuries upon those who can measurably control their occurence, instead
of upon those who are helpless. In such a case the defendant may become
liable on the sole basis of a violation of the statute. No excuse is
recognized, and neither reasonable ignorance nor proper care will avoid
liability. However, no such interpretation will be placed upon the
statute, and no such conclusion reached, unless the court finds that the
protection of the complaining citizen(s) was clearly intended by the
legislature. An example of how such a statute would read is provided by
California's Porter-Cologne Water Quality Act, Chapter 5.5, Section
13385. This provision establishes that: "Any person who discharges
pollutants, except as permitted by waste discharge requirements... is
liable for the resultant injury." There is no mention that the activi-
ties' conduct must be found to be either negligent or intentional; the
California act attaches liability to the violator simply upon proof that
a discharge will be fined, up to $10,000 for each violation for the
damage caused to the envoronment. There need be no actual proof of
damage shown by either the State or a specific plaintiff. The planner
should consider requesting the enactment of a similar provision in his
jurisdiction to simplify the prosecution of persons guilty of promis-
cuous discharges. This summary approach, as exemplified in the above
cited California Act, is increasingly being used by States to attack
abuses that occur to the environment.
5.1.3.6 Strict Liability - Strict liability has been said many times to
be confined to activities which arc extra-ordinary, or exceptional, or
abnormal, and not to apply to the usual and normal. There must be a
special land use bringing with it an increased danger to others; the use
must be more than the ordinary use of land or a use that is proper for
the general benefit of th6 community. The storage in quantity of explo-
sives or inflammable liquids, blasting, the accumulation of sewage, the
emission of fumes — all, have the same element of the unusual, exces-
sive and bizarre; all, have been considered "non-natural" uses; courts
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may apply the concept of strict liability when these uses result in
harm. The place where the activity occurs, the customs of the community,
and the natural fitness for adaptation by the premises are each import-
ant in determining whether the rule of strict liability applies.
The basis of strict liability goes to the defendant's voluntary behavior
which exposes others to risk. The conduct associated with residual
waste management occupies something of a middle ground between inten-
tional and negligent conduct. It is conduct which does not depart so
far from social standards as to fall within the traditional boundaries
of negligence; this is usually because the advantages which it offers to
the defendant and to the community outweigh the risk. However, such an
activity can become socially unreasonable and the defendant is not
allowed to engage in this conduct without having to make good any actual
harm which the activity imparts to its neighbors.
In the United States, because of the pressure that was applied to the
development of the country's resources, a view point has matured that"
hazardous enterprises, even though socially valuable, must pay their-way
and make good any damage they inflict. These activities include: water
collected in quantity in a dangerous place or allowed to percolate,
explosives or inflammable liquids stored in quantity in the midst of a
city, and factories emitting smoke, dust or noxious gases in the midst
of a town (See Section 4). The planner should determine, based upon
local laws, whether or not the residual waste disposal practices, including
the application of sludge to land, and other like activities, are to be
considered extra hazardous and therefore subject the operator to strict
liability in the event that other persons are harmed. The planner must
also take into consideration the long range effects of these activities
and the harm that may result years after the closing of an activity.
(See Residual Waste: Model State Legislation. EPA/440/9-79/004 Ch. IV
Section XVII (A) - (L)).Many State statutes specify requirements that
must be met before closing a disposal site. Many other States have not
yet recognized the possible harm that can result from improperly closed
sites such as continued leaching, gas production, and subsidence.
Responding to this need, the Connecticut Solid Waste Management Regula-
tions, Sec. 19-524-9, (1975), define closing requirements and the owner/
operator responsibilities that are of a continuing nature after site
abandonment. The planner should be aware of methods for completing and
using closed landfills (See Chapter 8, Ref. 111-39).
5.1.3.7 Anticipating Challenges to Waste Management Siting Decisions -
The government exercises control of the environment largely through
administrative agencies. Statutes confer the right of a party to bring
a particular matter before the court to be heard (standing) to challenge
agency decisions upon any party who is aggrieved or adversely affected
thereby. In Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference vs. FPC, the court
declared that a conservation group had shown that its conservational
interests would be threatened by the proposed power plant in a scenic
area; this was sufficient injury, without demonstration of any economic
harm (Ref. V-16).
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The ultimate question in establishing whether an activity is environ-
mentally harmful is to determine if the challenged use is reasonable in
view of all the surrounding circumstances;, a significant factor regard-
ing the reasonableness of the activity involved would be its location.
It is important that the planner not propose facilities, such as a
transfer station, or a sanitary landfill in an area already developed
for a much higher land use. In the case of and unsightly operation, it
would be material if the owner, by use of artifical or natural barriers,
could screen the area and thereby reduce the unsightliness of the opera-
tion. Similarly, it would be important to establish whether the opera-
tors of the sanitary landfill could reasonably conduct their activity
without impairing the soundness of the environment. The maintenance of
this balance may be dependent upon soil conditions and the proximity of
surface water or ground water resources (See Section 4).
5.1.4 Effects of Statutes Upon Standard of Due Care
The standard of conduct required of an activity may be prescribed by
legislative enactment (i.e., statute, ordinance, etc.). When a statute
provides that under certain circumstances particular acts shall or.shall
not be done, it may be interpreted as fixing a standard for all members
of the community from which it is negligent to deviate. Within the
limits of municipal authority, the same may be true of ordinances. The
fact that such legislation is usually penal in character, and carries
with it a criminal penalty, will not prevent its use in imposing civil
liability and providing a gage with which to assess the conduct of waste
management facilities.
The courts, through what is termed judicial legislation, advance the
public interest, which they find underlying a statute, and which they
believe the legislature must have had in mind. Characteristically, the
courts have been careful not to exceed the purpose which they attribute
to the legislature. The plaintiff must bring himself within a particu-
lar class in order to maintain an action based upon the statute. How-
ever, the class of persons to be protected may be a very broad one,
extending to all those likely to be injured by the violation (Ref. V-
'') •
5.1.4.1 Negligence Per Se and its Effect on the Burden of Proof - The
person who suffers the consequences of another's breach of law may of
course recover under the doctrine of negligence per se if he is within
the class of persons whom a statute seeks to protect. In Gulf Oil vs.
Alexander this doctrine was applied to an environmental harm; a violation
of a State railroad commission's rule, that a company should not pollute,
was held to create a liability enforceable merely upon its breach (Ref.
V-18). So too, in Renken vs. Harvey Aluminum Inc. the court referred
to the 1955 and 1963 Federal Air Pollution Control Acts, as evidence of
the public's concern with air pollution, in allowing a trespass action
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by adjoining land owners for past damages to fruit trees and in granting
an injunction against further pollution. But negligence per se and
other doctrines which derive private rights from public prohibitions
have not been uniformly applied. In Renken it was suggested that the
public standard would not be used if the legislative remedy could be
shown to have pre-empted the field. This notion of official pre-emption
has been generally rejected, either because (as in Renken) the statute
contained a savings clause, or under the older doctrine that statutes in
derogation of the common law (i.e., statutes that would deprive a plain-
tiff of his normal tort action) should be strictly construed (ref. V-
19). In some instances, however, statutes are clearly and expressly
limited to public enforcement. For instance, the New York water pollu-
tion and air pollution control laws provide that no private litigant may
base an action on the provisions of the law or even on successful prose-
cutions brought under them (Ref. V^20). A planner should realize the
value of taking advantage of existing, or of proposing new, negligence
"per se" legislation; legislation which permits a private citizen to
seek judicial relief against an activity in violation of the statute,
would have additional force. When the conduct of an activity is made
subject to a negligence "per se" statute, the penalty imposed can be
structured so as to place a greater civil liability upon a polluter than
the small fines that currently fall upon a promiscuous discharger.
Effective redress of harm to the environment is made easier by private
parties not having the burden of proving the defendent's activities
negligent.
5.1.5 Enforcement Litigation by Public Agencies
In recent years, both State and Federal statutes designed to protect the
environment have fared increasingly better in the courts than they had
in the past. In upholding State statutes, these decisions constitute a
reaffirmation of the broad sweep of the State's police power. Federal
statutes have been upheld as falling within the delegated powers of
Congress. These decisions reflect a growing awareness in the courts of
the need for environmental controls. Thus, in earlier years a New York
court could invalidate a city smoke pollution ordinance as applied to a
vessel in foreign commerce; yet, years later in a case similar in its
cogent facts, the United States Supreme Court, in Huron Portland Cement
Company vs. City of Detroit, upheld Detroit's smoke abatement code
Against the argument that it created an undue burden on interstate
commerce. In holding the ordinance a valid exercise of the police
power, the Court relied on the legislative finding of the Federal Air
Pollution Control Act of 1955 as indicative of both a national concern
with air pollution and a congressional intent to leave the responsibility
for air pollution control primarily with state and local governments
(Ref. V-6 and V-21). Other constitutional arguments and challenges to
alleged unconstitutional exercises of administrative power have been
rejected in nearly every case in which they have been raised; this has
been the result of an exceedingly liberal application of the presumption
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in favor of the constitutionality of statutes involving the exercise of
the police power to protect the health safety and welfare of the general
public. Statutes are an important element in the control of residual
waste disposal, and the planner should use legislation to advance the
objectives of the water quality management program where suitable.
As with the regulatory agencies, planner's first course of action to
implement plans through regulatory means is to first exhaust administra-
tive remedies. Failure to achieve adequate results by these means will
leave recourse to litigation.
Enforcement litigation presents no legal problems that a well-drawn
statute, with an adequate range of authorized sanctions, and an admini-
stration which conscientiously follows its terms, cannot cure. However,
the effectiveness of enforcement litigation can be limited by several
other factors. One of these is the degree of willingness and the ability
of the appropriate agency to take action under the statute. Another is
the delay caused in the effective enforcement of such laws by challenges
based on the constitutionality of such legislation.
Related to the issue of administrative action is the effect to be given
to permits, licenses, variances and other forms of administrative approval.
A prosecutor must decide whether he wishes to raise in a court of law,
questions of the validity or effect of administrative licenses, when the
option exists to raise such questions before the licensing or administra-
tive entity. For example, if installation or operating permits for
pollution-related equipment are Issued or refused by an administrative
agency, it may well be that the integrity and coherence of the permit
system will be best protected by hearing complaints before the administra-
tive tribunal whenever possible. That tribunal presumably has a deeper
understanding of the purposes and details of such a system; the admini-
strative board itself can make the clearest record. This also holds
true for a polluter's compliance or non-compliance with the terms of a
variance or other exemption obtained through administrative means. This
means that rules and regulations, based on enabling legislation, provide
a method of enforcement that requires neither the support of the public
prosecutor, nor the use of the court system, unless and until the defen-
dant has exhausted his administrative remedies. Given the choice between
a law that prescribes specific conduct through rigid sanctions, and a
law that delegates control authority to an agency, the latter is preferred.
Through a law delegating control enforcement to prevent or remedy environ-
mental abuses, relief can be had without litigation. Such use of legisla-
tion can solve many problems outside of the courtroom.
5.1.6 Remedies
Three distinct types of cases have been identified under the heading of
environmental litigation. The first is simply litigation- between private
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parties - plaintiff sues for an injury caused to the environment for
which defendant allegedly bears responsibility. The second is comprised
of prosecutions and other enforcement actions brought by a public agency
against an activity for violations of laws and regulations designed to
protect the environment. The third, and perhaps only novel category,
involves actions by private citizens. Citizens frequently act through
organizations established to protect particular environmental interests,
against a public agency, either to compel it to take steps to protect
the environment, or more commonly, to stop a project or an activity
which will allegedly have an adverse environmental impact. Public
sentiment and public cooperation will take on1new meaning to a planner
who is versed in how the populace in his jurisdiction have reacted to
interference to change in the environment within their community. To
develop this appreciation a planner can look to the past legal actions
taken; the planner can then see what obstacles the activities in this
residual waste management area face, and he can better understand the
basis upon which challenges to environmental change or abuses have been
founded. This appreciation of the manner in which legal concepts have
been applied to protect the environment will add to a planner's capa-
bilities to achieve an integrated solution to the area residual waste
problem.
5.1.6.2 Public Prosecution - In most areas of the United States, prose-
cution of polluters is only beginning. At the state and local levels,
as well as at the federal level, only within the pa-st few. years have
substantial numbers of government initiated lawsuits been filed to halt
or punish pollution-causing activities. These public entities are
continually striving'to develop the best strategies (combination of
prosecution policies and technical assistance procedures) which will be
the most effective in abating pollution. Legislation that is not overly
prescriptive can be an asset to the planner in providing support to
coordinate technical assistance and enforcement measures (Ref. V-22).
The question is less whether or not the government can prosecute than it
is one of deciding when all alternative approaches have failed. If
prosecution of repeat violators is indicated, the statute should provide
for sanctions that will pique the attention of the offender. For example,
New Jersey Statutes Annotated, Ch. 40, Laws of 1970, Solid Waste Utility
Control Act provides that any person who knowlingly violates the provi-
sions of this Act is guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be punished by
imprisonment or fine or both. The Oregon Revised Statutes, Ch. 459,
additionally makes provision for suspension or revocation of a facility's
license which willfully violates its Act. It is to be emphasized that
such stringent provisions are used as a last resort.
"Prosecution" as used here refers to civil and aaministrative suits
seeking injunctive relief, monetary damage penalties, or a combination
of such relief against polluters. In many states, there is specific
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staturory power granted to the Attorney General to pursue such litiga-
tion; there usually is no question concerning either the common law or
the statutory basis for seeking injunctions and monetary penalties
against polluters. A prosecutor acting for any agency of government
will give careful attention to all possible basis for seeking relief,
whether his support be grounded in explicit legislative enactments, or
inferred from the language of statutes and judicial decisions.
Generally, the major objective of government prosecutors is to control
existing pollution problems being created by both governmental and non-
governmental entities. The question must be asked by the prosecutor
whether an immediate cessation of pollution is desired or whether a
gradual cessation should be sought so as to minimize the disruptive
effects on the pollution producing activities. Many of the activities
causing pollution will have some definite social value, and if it is a
municipal waste disposal operation, there may be no immediate alter-
native to the objectionable practice. An important policy consideration
is the extent to which litigation is to be pursued toward obtaining a
final judgement, as distinguished from conciliation or settlement. A
thinly veiled threat of court action, when supported by a statute such
as the New Jersey Code Section noted above, may result in "voluntary"
compliance with the regulations.
Prosecution, as desirable as it may appear under certain conditions, can-
not be relied upon to achieve the desired results in every instance. As
is noted in the Sommers case below, the court may find that the enforce-
ment agency is acting unreasonably. Flexibility, with a balanced program
of 'push1 and 'pull' is probably the best strategy. Existing statutes
or regulations may dictate or encourage compromises that could preclude
more stringent enforcement action. For example, California Administra-
tion Code, Title 14, Div. 7 Ch. 2, provides that "waivers or modifications
of mandatory standards may be made... upon recommendation by the Enforce-
ment Agency and the local land use authority having jurisdiction."
In the case of The Board of Health of the Township of Saddle Brook vs.
Sommers Rendering Company the board filed suit to close the rendering
operation. However, the court's response was to enjoin the rendering
company from using its premises and conducting its fat rendering business
in such a manner as to cause the emission and presence of foul and
noxious odors in the vicinity of its premises. This relief permitted
the plant time to comply to the board's standards rather than completely
closing the business. Although flexible with its relief, the court
further ordered that unless the defendent immediately remedy certain
conditions, it shall cease the operation of its rendering plant altoget-
her (Ref. V-23). In a similar action, Fortin vs. Vitali. the lower
court granted injunctive relief to the plaintiff to prevent the invasion
of their property by an odor emanating from residuals for composting on
the defendant's farm. However, the upper court reversed, concluding
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from the record that the necessity for such a drastic solution had not
been demonstrated. The appellate court determined that a satisfactory
means could be devised to abate the situation without requiring the
defendants to shut down the composting operation (Ref.V-24). The above
cited cases can be likened to the operation of a sanitary landfill,
transfer station operation or a sludge disposal program. An apprecia-
tion by a planner for the interaction of case law decisions and statutory
law will greatly facilitate implementation of a residual waste management
program; an activity will then be more compatible with a given commu-
nity's ability to comply with the plan, based upon the influencing legal
considerations.
5.1.6.3 Determining Liability - The threshold question to be asked is
whether the alleged invasion is sufficiently substantial to amount to an
actionable injury in the eyes of the law. Traditionally, there has
existed a notion which may be called equitable cost spreading. This
theory, sometimes seen in the case law decisions, contends that everyone
has a right to a clean environment; however, in a relatively homogeneous
community the benefit of damages collected for each invasion of that
right by polluters would be lost in higher prices; this increase in
price would essentially compensate an activity for its expenditures to
comply with the requirements of community demands; therefore, the cost
of the activity's services to the community would correspondingly in-
crease. The argument continues that by allowing the enforcement of the
right to a clean environment in these circumstances would require a high
cost in time and effort by both lawyers and litigants, with no advantage
to the plaintiff in the long run. Thus, the refusal of the courts to
entertain these claims results in a net saving to the affected parties
and to the community as a whole. However, in most of the cases which
come before the courts today, the activity of either the plaintiff or
the defendant varies sufficiently from the community norm so that the
defense of equitable cost spreading cannot be reasonably applied. Today
the right to a clean environment will not always be subrogated to the
needs of an expanding economy.
5.6.1.4 Balancing the Utility of the Conduct Against the Gravity of
the Harm - This balancing test requires that consideration be given not
only to the interests of the person harmed, but also to the interest of
the residual waste activity, and to the community as a whole. The
utility side of this balancing test includes both the utility to the
defendant and the utility to the public generally. In Madison vs.
Duckworth Sulfur, Copper & Iron Co., plaintiffs sought an injunction
against the operation of a smelting plant whose fumes and pollutants had
injured plaintiff's land and crops. The court considered the effect of
an injunction regarding the interests of both the defendants and the
town as substantially synonmous, "we are asked to destroy ... property
worth nearly $2,000,000 and wreck two great mining and manufacturing
enterprises, that are engaged in work of very great importance, not only
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to the owners, but to the state ...". It is, however, important to
differentiate the interests of the defendant and the public. The
benefits to a private defendant are obtained at the expense of other
land owners or members of the public (Ref. V-25). A look at these court
decisions by a planner can provide insight into the direction which a
community is taking (i.e. Does it favor industry? Does it favor change?
Does it wish to maintain the status quo? How effectively is it utilizing
statutory remedies? etc.).
When a court deals with an activity which has a recognized utility to
the local or national community that is greater than the harm it causes,
a permanent injunction is a severe and arguably an inappropriate remedy;
by definition the community would lose a net benefit. In some circum-
stances, a form of abatement which satisfies fairly the interests of
both parties may be possible. For instance, it may be adequate to
enjoin a heavy duty truck terminal from operating at night when it
affects the sleep of surrounding ^residents, or to restrain low flights
out of an airport which cause noise and annoyance to local landholders.
Where possible, such a solution is obviously to be preferred, but it is
not always available. A planner must be aware of how the jurisdiction
within a planning program has balanced the utility of the activity
against any harm it causes.
When the best practicable manner of conducting an activity whose utility
outweighs its harm still necessarily causes injury, the social balance
then points to the award of damages and refuses to issue an injunction.
This seems to be the direction in which some courts are now moving. For
instance, in the New York case of Boomer vs. Atlantic Cement, Inc.,
plaintiffs sought an injunction and damages for injury to their property
from the dirt, smoke, and vibration caused by the cement plant. The
court denied the injunction, finding that the plant was of net social
benefit to the public; instead, it awarded damages. Similar rulings
have been handed down in a number of jurisdictions (Ref. V-26). Certain-
ly, the above concept can be applied to the utility of initiating a
residual waste management system.
Relating to a residual waste management system, Boomer stands for the
proposition that in some instances even if residual waste disposal
facilities are not totally compatible with surrounding uses, the net
benefit of the facility might warrant interference with other citizen's
activities.
Once again, the planner must be aware of those legal, social, political,
and technical considerations in the jurisdiction to facilitate a recog-
nition of whether the facility in question will (1) impose a "social
injury", and (2) whether this injury, according to legal precedents and
existing legislation is such that it can be balanced against social
utility. If the precedents in the jurisdiction lead to the conclusion
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that citizen rights outweigh the potential harm that a residual waste
facility might impose, the planner will accordingly have to seek new
facility sites.
5.1.6.5 The Planner's Responsibilities - The water quality planner is
being asked to shoulder a heavy degree of responsibility. He must
remember, that he cannot be an expert in all areas, (e.g. the legal
profession); he should, however, be familiar enough with the legal
implications of decisions regarding a State and areawide planning program
to enable him to evaluate the need for a legal response to problem areas
and to advise waste management activities to seek legal solutions. A
planner should understand the standard which activities within a waste
management system are going to be held; it is this standard which is
going to be used by communities to evaluate the suitability of the
components of a water quality management plan.
Although this legal section has shown only the highlights of legal areas
significant to a water quality management plan, it has been emphasized
that legislation, and not litigation, is to be preferred in seeking
solutions to residual waste management problems. The concept of balancing
has been discussed, and a planner is in the position to use the balanc-
ing technique both at the planning and implementation stages. The
planner's decisions are not simplistic; they involve an interaction of
many concerns: the seriousness of the need for a waste management
system, the availability of technology, character of existing activities
within an area, the economic impact of a residual waste activity upon a
community, and perhaps most critical, the dependence upon regulation and
other agencies for implementing the residual management plan. The legal
considerations can provide solutions to some of the water quality planners
problem areas; the use of legislation, both existing and to be proposed,
can be a valuable tool to the planner. A planner should understand that
every aspect of a state or areawide water quality management plan will
not be able to meet all the threats to which an activity will be subject.
By carefully considering the role that new legislation can play, the
planner will have one more weapon in his arsenal with which to more
comprehensively discharge residual waste management responsibilities
under the water quality planning program.
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5.2 AN INTRODUCTION TO INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
Areawide water quality management planning agencies will be largely
dependent upon public and private institutional arrangements and indivi-
duals for plan implementation. State water quality agencies have partial
implementing capability typically in terms of regulation rather than
operating management. Planners must therefore become informed about
these constraints to implementation and possible alternative approaches
to implementing residual waste plans (See Section 6.4).
Therefore, the institutions referred to in this section are the operating
entities that collect, store, process, and dispose of residual wastes.
Many entities perform only one of these functions; some perform all of
these plus a series of planning and regulatory functions.
From among the many forms of institutions engaged in residual waste
management, the two primary categories are public and private. Public
institutions derive their authority from enabling legislation to perform
the waste management functions and to assess the beneficiaries for this
service. The State may ensure adequate level of performance and accept-
able disposal through regulations and its duty to protect the health and
welfare of its citizens. The private institutions derive their authority
from the right of private citizens to enter into contracts.
The simplest arrangements for waste management are the purely private
enterprises. As a common example, a farmer allocates some portion of
his land as a disposal area to which local residents haul their own
refuse; paying a fee to the farmer each time they use this private dump.
At the next level of refinement, a private collector removes the trash
from residential and commercial areas for a fixed fee and then in turn
pays the farmer for the use of the disposal area. Soon there are numerous
collectors working the same streets; the city or town then passes an
ordinance requiring a license or franchise, and each hauler is limited
to a section of the city. Later the health department starts to conduct
regular inspections of the trucks and the disposal area to ensure that
minimum sanitation requirements are met. All of these developments,
including the regulatory functions, do not change the nature of the
institutional arrangement - it is still purely a private contract system.
The great bulk of residual wastes are managed (if the operation rises to
the level of management) under private contractual arrangements.
Public institutional arrangements also take many forms, and often the
public and private institutions are combined in arrangements for disposal
of residual waste. Common examples of these combinations are found
where private trash collectors utilize a municipally owned and operated
landfill; alternatively, a district sewage treatment plant may dispose
of its sludge or ash in a city or county-owned landfill. Some of the
most popular institutional arrangements are described more fully in the
following section.
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5.2.1 Basic Institutional Arrangements
Unlike most public services, municipal solid waste management is often
conducted under a mixture of public and private organizations. Various
approaches and combinations of approaches offer advantages and disadvan-
tages to all of the participants. Key questions that must be asked by
the planner involve a compatible trade-off among cost-effectiveness,
relative levels of service, environmental acceptability, and legal
authority for conducting the service (Ref. 111-42). Other residual
waste management is traditionally and sometimes legally a responsibility
of individuals and specific agencies. Management and ultimate disposal
may be strictly enforced, but most often is not. For example, generators
of industrial or agricultural residuals must find acceptable ways of
disposal without regard to formal institutional arrangements as a private
responsibility. Dredge spoil disposal, on the other hand, is a formal
duty of the Corps of Engineers in its management of navigable waterways.
The planner must be aware of these existing distinctions, advantages,
and constraints, as well as possible other institutional arrangements
available. Some of the most basic forms and their usual variations are
described here for the planner. The planner may adapt some to specific
cases where applicable. However, the planner may desire to seek new
enabling legislation where an institutional arrangement cannot be
adapted. In this case, the planner must carefully evaluate the institu-
tional approach desired, efforts required to establish, costs of chang-
ing from existing arrangements, and balance expected benefits with costs
and efforts of establishing.
5.2.1.1 Private Ownership - Public Use - Private ownership of disposal
sites with private or municipal collection is still a common system for
management of solid wastes. Most modern landfills are regulated through
a permit system, either at the local or State level. Disposal is provided
through a private collection service paid for by each resident, or the
municipality operates the collection service and pays for it by a tax
levy. Private collections may be authorized by a franchise from the
city and may or may not be regulated by permits for the protection of
the public's health and safety. The current trend is toward more strin-
gent and more pervasive regulatory schemes (Ref. 111-42). The private
disposal sites are generally open for the public's use, and their opera-
tion and maintenance is funded by the imposition of a user fee. Not
only are these private disposal areas used by the general public but
frequently they are used by local industries and businesses. Without
enforcement of adequate standards there may be a tendency to be lax in
private opearation and possibly allow dumping of hazardous wastes with-
out the proper safeguards. On the other hand, because user charges are
directly assessed, actual costs to the user are visible and more equitably
applied. Because of the private ownership aspect, user charges may be
higher in order to pay taxes, absorb capital costs, and yield a profit
for the owner. However, the owner's requirements for a profit and a
desire to be competitive may result in efficiencies that could actually
keep user charges lower.
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5.2.1.2 Public Ownership - Public Use - In this arrangement, ownership
of the disposal area often resides in a single government, i.e., city or
county. Both private and public collection services have access to the
public facility. Private collectors are assessed tippage fees; a public
collector, however, commonly does not pay a tippage fee as such, since
the governmental entity often assesses utility charges to the beneficiary
of this public service. This disposal facility may be open for public
use and may also, by agreement, accept wastes originating in other
communities. While this form provides more uniform control and the
potential for more acceptable environmental considerations, actual costs
of operation are often buried in other budgets. Consequently, increasing
costs resulting form inefficiencies may not be Immediately apparent.
However, because taxes are not paid by a public entity and a profit 1s
not required, overall costs may be lower.
5.2.1.3 Private Ownership - Private Use - As noted elsewhere, 1n the
absence of a regulation directing a governmental agency to collect or
dispose of waste in a specified manner, every generator of residuals is
responsible for disposing of that which he creates. A major portion of
the residual wastes disposed of in this country are generated by private
mining, industrial, and agricultural operations, and almost all of these
are disposed of by private arrangements. Most of the residual wastes of
these activities come to rest on private lands, which are owned, leased,
or otherwise contracted for by the generators of the wastes. The disposal
methods may be regulated by a public agency, and better management
practices will most certainly be imposed upon many such disposal opera-
tions, but they are privately owned and operated and are almost always
reserved for the private use of the owner/operator. These classes of
waste generation are considered more fully under "Special Cases."
5.2.1.4 Mutlgovernmental Landfill Ownership - With this arrangement the
site is owned and operated under the authority of a single multigovern-
mental agency (e.g., county-county, city-county, etc.) (See Section
6.4). The facility is used by a number of municipal and private disposal
operators located within a reasonable distance from the site. All users
pay a fee in proportion to their use of the landfill. In conjunction
with the landfill area, intermediate waste transfer stations may also be
operated by the multigovernmental agency, again supported by tippage
fees. Several cities or sanitation districts may all contribute to the
original purchase price of the landfill site. The multigovernmental
agency is charged with daily operation of the facility. Tippage fees
collected from all users provide a fund from which operating expenses
can be drawn; this fund also provides a source of revenue for the purchase
of additional disposal sites when the need arises. This method offers
economies of scale, but may be difficult to form and to provide uniform
management among the various entities.
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5.2.1.5 Single Government Jurisdiction with Multigovernment Use -
Under this arrangement, use of the facility by several governmental
entities is, through approval of the lead governmental unit. The lead
unit may be the State, county, city, special district or other legal
entity used or established upon the consent of the participants.
Because of the mutual economic benefits that accompany a large-scale
operation of this type, the lead governmental unit may actively solicit
surrounding communities to participate in this arrangement. The facility
could be supported through users fees assessed to all participating.
This method offers economies of scale as well as uniform management.
The single governmental entity must possess good management and coordina-
tive skills to both form and operate such an operation.
5.2.1.6 Waste Disposal Utility (Nonprofit Corporation) - In this arrange-
ment the municipalities join together and form a corporation; the coopera-
ting members hold stock certificates and possesses shareholder rights.
The utility corporation functions autonomously: it processes wastes,
recovers materials, and disposes of the materials that cannot be recovered.
The revenues derived from the recovery operation are used to defray the
total operating cost; the remaining costs of operation are borne on a
per capita basis by the stockholding municipalities. Here again, collec-
tion service and equipment may be supplied either privately or govern-
mentally. Municipalities in the Muskegon area of Michigan are using
such an institution, and those in the Seattle-Tacoma area of Washington
have a similar arrangement (Ref. V-27). Many of the advantages and
disadvantages noted before are inherent in this form.
5.2.1.7 Interstate Compacts - Interstate compacts can be negotiated
through a River Basin Commission or other large areawide agency capable
of assembling multi-state resources to pass individual state statutes
for each State involved. Congress must ultimately pass enabling legisla-
tion forming the compact. Through mutual agreements all wastes, or
possibly only hazardous or toxic wastes are finally disposed of by two
or more States at an environmentally safe disposal site located within
the boundaries of one of the cooperating States. The incentive for the
State receiving the waste is that the entire region, of which the, receiv-
ing State is an integral part, will enjoy cleaner water as a result of
this areawide disposal plan. Without this arrangement water quality
could be substantially degraded. The disposal site under the jurisdic-
tion of the interstate compact may be privately or publicly owned.
Interstate compacts are not to be regarded as offering an "easy" solution
to the common problems of an area composed of segments of contiguous
States. The time and effort required to obtain passage of a statute by
U.S. Congress, is probably beyond the resources of even a bi-state
areawide planning agency. Where such a compact is in existence, such as
the "Tahoe Regional Compact", the functions to be performed in waste
management may already be prescribed in the legislation establishing the
Regional Planning Agency (Ref. V-28). Moreover, multigovernmental
functions operated jointly over State boundaries may be implemented
through other mechanisms (See Section 6.4).
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5.2.1.8 Regional Systems (Within a Single State) -
State-Operated Disposal System - The arrangement now conducted in the
State of Connecticut, in which the State owns and operates facilities
for materials recovery, conservation, and disposal, may be the form of
many arrangements to come. It provides both the essential economics of
scale and the borrowing power required for operation of new, advanced-
technology systems.
Special Districts - A number of cities and counties may form a "special
district" with powers to levy taxes and to provide solid waste or sludge
management services for a wide area. The State of California, for
example, places a growing emphasis on area-wide planning and the use of
special districts. As stated in the State Controller's Annual Report
concerning Special Districts of California, a special district is a
legally constituted governmental entity, which is neither city nor
county, established for the purpose of carrying on specific activities.
It may cover only a small portion of a city or county, or may encompass
several cities or counties. Its territory may be continguous or non-
continguous. It may be limited to a single function or may perform
several functions. The governing body may be the Board of Supervisors
or the City Council of the county or city within which it is located, or
it may be composed of elected or appointed members. The primary consider-
ation is that within the limits provided by the State constitution and
State law, it should be autonomous and have corporate and continuing
life.
The general governmental powers are substantially the same for all
special districts and are shared by most other local governments. Some
of the most common powers are: to have perpetual succession; the power
to sue and be sued; to acquire real or personal property of every kind
or any interest therein; to exercise the right of eminent domain; to
appoint and employ necessary employees; to employ counsel; to enter into
and perform all necessary contracts; to adopt a seal and to tax.
Depending upon the statutes under which it is formed, a district may
also have the power to adopt ordinances where violations are punishable
by law and the power to float bond issues. The planner should weigh the
advantages of special districts with their negative aspects before
considering the use of this institutional arrangement. Special districts
are often nearly anonymous entities with which citizens are often ignorant
of both the existence and the type of services they deliver. They
represent extra layers of government and often, an unnecessary increase
of public employment. They comprise another level of government with
which other units must coordinate, and there can possibly occur a duplica-
tion of efforts by co-equal levels of government. These arrangements
often result in an increase in the total cost of government, demanding
an increase in taxes and an increase in the cost of collecting these
assessments, much of which comes from the property tax base.
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State Financing of Public and Private Facilities - State financing of
local entitles is also a possible alternative for a state-controlled
system. For example, Arizona law Includes a provision for State finan-
cing for resource recovery facilities and pollution abatement equipment,
all within existing Institutional arrangements (See Section 6.5).
5.2.1.9 Cost Plus Fixed Fee (Arrangement between Local Governments
and a Private Contractor) - Another disposal management possibility is a
contract with a private firm to operate the collection and disposal
facilities on a predetermined "cost plus fixed fee" basis. Either the
government or the contractor may own the collection equipment, the
facility equipment, and the disposal site. Some cities currently contract
their mass transit and fire protection services with private contractors,
and many government agencies participate in a "facilities management con-
tract" under which a private company operates their computer system
(ref. V-29). Similar arrangements could be applied to waste disposal
services.
5.1.1.10 Public Marketing of Waste Products - Among arrangements for
disposing of reusable municipal residuals, the City of Milwaukee,
Wisconsin, sells or donates wastewater sludge to local farmers for
spreading on farm land. Milwaukee has also been involved for several
years in drying and bagging dried sludge as a fertilizer product called
Milorganite. While sludge produced exceeds Milorganite sold, benefits
are received from spreading upon County parks and offsetting some treat-
ment and disposal costs. Some smaller municipal wastewater plants have
successfully "sold" sludge to local farmers, but a much larger number
are satisfied tp donate the material to farmers who will receive it.
5.2.2 Special Categories of Waste Generation
The generators of residuals from dredging, mining, wastewater treatment
and certain industrial and agricultural activities are responsible for
disposal of all wastes resulting from their operations (See Section
2.0). Some of the special institutional considerations related to such
special cases are discussed here.
The generator of residuals often makes provisions on an ad hoc basis for
disposal of intermittent loads of waste materials. For example, the
local "sponsor" (e.g. port district or levee board) of a Corps of
Engineers harbor Improvement project 1s charged with finding an appropriate
disposal site before the dredging begins. Privately sanctioned dredge
projects, usually operating in compliance with a permit; also must find
appropriate and approved disposal sites. With bottrthe Corps and private
projects, if private property is to be used for disposal of the dredge
spoil, contracts must be arranged with the'Owners of the private land
before deposition can begin (See Section 6.6.9).
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Industrial operators often dispose of wastes into a public sewerage
system; an assessment is placed upon the discharger based upon the
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) or chemical oxygen demand (COD) loads
per pound that are discharged Into the system monthly (See Section 2.6).
As these sewerage systems become incapable of handling such excess
loads, however, the charges will increase and greater restrictions will
be placed on the types of material that may be discharged. Many industries
will then elect to arrange for private disposal or will start to preprocess
their effluent (the preprocessed effluent still may be a problem). The
generator of industrial wastes often acquires a right (as owner or
lessee) to land contiguous to his industrial site and uses that land as
a private dumping area; such use requires a permit in some states (See
Section 6.6.6).
Mine tailings represent a significant part of the total volume of residual
waste (See Section 2.8). Although regulatory bodies show growing interest
in controlling the leachate from these waste piles, the management
agencies with which regional planners must work are usually the private
mining companies.
Many waste piles are located on land long abandoned by the mining compan-
ies, sometimes referred to as "orphaned land" and often administered by
a special State commission. In this situation, an antileaching regula-
tion has little effect if no group or institution can be held responsible.
Innovative management approaches are needed to place these waste piles
within the jurisdiction of an institutional structure that has both a
vested interest to protect the environment and the technical skills
needed to solve the drainage problems (See Section 6.6.8).
As a final example of the special-case waste generator, even a municipal-
ity is held responsible for disposal of its own residual sludge (See
Section 2.1). In some instances other government entities, such as a
solid waste department, may be able and willing to accept the sludge.
If this is not the case, the residual waste problem is compounded, and
the local wastewater treatment plant, like the mine operator and the
dredger, must find its own solution. As mentioned earlier, private
contracts are often arranged for disposal of sludge by farmers. In
recent years, some treatment plants have established their own landfills
and land spreading sites, e.g., Blue Plains for metropolitan Washington,
D.C. and Fulton County Prairie Plan for metropolitan Chicago; these
facilities are integral parts of the waste management institution (See
Section 6.6.1).
5.2.3 Relationships with Existing Institutions
In.examining long-term site and facility requirements for safe disposal
of residuals, the State or areawide planner will be working closely with
personnel of the existing waste management and related institutions.
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The planner will be assembling data on present and future waste loads
and possible disposal options for the classes of residuals that represent
a water quality problem in his region.
The State and areawide water quality planner, specifically, is charged
with determining the magnitude of water quality impact from each of the
residual waste sources that is identified as a problem; selecting and
recommending to those responsible for impelmentation the Best Management
Practice that will bring these sources under control, and determining
the need for new legislation or intergovernmental agreements to implement
the recommended BMP (See Section 6.0). Usually the planner will be
constrained to work within the framework of existing institutions,
perhaps engrafting onto them the additional functions or territories
required to satisfy the needs of the entire planning area. In other
situations, existing approaches and institutions will be so inadequate
that the planner must innovate in order to effect a successful application
of BMP's. This may require modifying the existing institutional structure,
or possibly the creation of a new arrangement.
Historical practices in a given area and the political power of the
entities (private and public) that are currently managing the residual
waste activities will strongly affect the formulation of a workable (and
acceptable) institutional arrangement. One of the first obstacles that
a planner may meet is resistance of the local body politic to changes
(in any form) that may reduce or abrogate its influence. A key to
success, therefore, may be the degree to which water quality problems
can be resolved by expansion or minor reshaping of existing institutions.
Although it is inevitable that some provincial policies will have to
give way, the planner must actively educate, coordinate and seek consensus
(See Section 6.6).
In an area that has a well-organized multicity sanitation district that
has handled the disposal of solid waste and the sludge for many years,
the planner will be concerned primarily with those portions of the area
that are not part of the "sanitary district". In regions where rapid
growth has occured and institutions are not keeping pace, the planner
may be faced with the need to develop a completely new Institution.
5.2.4 Structuring a New Waste Management System
A completely new institutional arrangement would be considered when
numerous small systems must be combined to operate effectively. A new
arrangement might also be considered when the changes required for the
existing management system are so extensive that a fresh start is needed
to prevent a "patchwork" solution (Ref. VI-2). A new arrangement may
call for passage of new ordinances or statutes, creation of a new organi-
zation to operate facilities, definition of the limits and powers of the
institution and formulation of effective contractual relationships
between government units or between governments and private bodies.
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The structure of a new institutional framework must take into considera-
tion the following factors:
0 Mobilization or collection of residual wastes, areawide.
0 Acquisition of competent technical and management services.
0 Selection of the most appropriate and cost-effective transportation
channels.
0 Development of a system of incentives to promote the reduction of
waste loads and to provide for complete utilization of waste products.
0 Financing of new capital improvements.
0 Funding of the recurring operating expenses and amortization of
capital improvements.
0 Assurance of comprehensive planning arrangements to meet future
needs.
0 Participation of the constituency of the proposed service area'in
the planning and decision-making process. (This consideration is
principally important with respect to the pricing of services and
products and the development of an equitable scheme for distributing
the cost burdens).
0 Provision for the adequate research and system development.
The planner must perform activities related to all of these considerations
in an atmosphere of good faith and cooperation. The various governmental,
private, and industrial groups and individuals that will be affected by
the new institutional arrangement must be motivated to cooperate to
achieve the common goal: maintenance of water quality through environ-
mentally sound practices. The planner must keep all participating
organizations abreast of current progress and of changes that affect the
parties concerned. The planner must also make provision for any required
clearances of a local Agency Formation Commission or by any other State
body (Ref. V1-8),
5.2.5 Additional Factors Affecting Choice of an Institutional Arrangement
5.2.5.1 Existing Statutes for Intercity Cooperation - The existence or
nonexistence of a State'statute providing for the creation of "joint
powers agreements" or of "special districts" will greatly affect the
planner's line of action. Although both of these approaches can be very
useful, the lack of an enabling statute may preclude such a solution
(See Section 6.4).
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Legislative provisions that vest power in "Home Rule" or "Chartered
Cities" may result In such cities closely guarding their power to solve
their own problems. Depending upon precedent, however, such legislation
roay significantly assist in developing a new structure because such
cities may have the power to enter into joint powers agreements with
other entities. The ease with which a new statute can be enacted to
empower the establishment of a muHicounty type disposal operation may
control the rate of Implementation. The State of Minnesota has passed
such an act for the five-county Twin Cities Area and thus has created a
new institution capable of coping with the areawide problem of solid and
sludge residuals disposal (Ref. V-30).
In the event that a novel, intergovernmental institution appears to
offer the most cost effective solution to an area's residual waste
disposal problem and the entities do not have authority from the State
to enter into some form of agreement, a new law will be required to
"enable" the municipalities to cooperate. The procedure that is generally
followed is to enlist the aid of a member of the state assembly for your
district who is then assisted 1n drafting a bill for enactment by the
State legislature. Such an enactment could create a new entity spelling
out all of the powers and duties delegated by the State, or it could
simply delegate to the municipalities the authority to work out an
agreement to their liking.
5.2.5.2 Need to Acquire New Disposal Sites - If the current institutional
arrangements are primarily private, and if sites for new facilities are
not available for sale within an economical hauling distance, the power
of eminent domain will be required to obtain the needed sites. Although
it may be possible to use the power of eminent domain to condemn and pay
for land required by a private operator to serve the public purpose, it
is almost always easier to exercise this power on behalf of a public
entity to serve the same public purpose.
5.2.5.3 Desire of Local Government to Short-Cut State Requirements - In
Jurisdictions where State-level approval of special districts or similar
arrangements are difficult to achieve, intergovernmental service-contracts
toight offer a simple solution. Most States permit such a mechanism (See
Section 6.4). Some economies of scale may be achieved by entering into
a contract with a larger, neighboring county or other entity for disposal
of the area's wastes. Ongoing operation of an effective system and the
availability of suitable disposal sites are assumed. The cost sharing
of research and new high-technology resource recovery systems could make
this option mutually beneficial.
The negative side of this option is the probable resistance of an exist-
ing waste management agency that might foresee its influence and future
Qrowth being diminished by such a plan. If such an agency is well
entrenched, contracting might not offer an easy solution.
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5.2.5.4 Need to Increase or Avoid Debt Limits - Capital requirements
and the proximity of a government or agency to the limits of its permis-
sible bonded indebtedness could be important. If State laws or constitu-
tions limit the borrowing power of cities and counties, the local govern-
ments might opt for either a privately owned and operated disposal
operation or a franchised public utility (privately owned or owned by
the using governments). In this way they might either avoid a capital
investment or undertake the investment jointly but avoid the new incre-
ment of proscribed public debt (See Section 6.5).
5.2.5.5 Availability of Skills - Lack of personnel who are skilled and
experienced in waste management may dictate contracting with another
government (currently operating a disposal facility) or with a private
firm to manage the residual wastes disposal program.
5.2.5.6 High Cost Resulting from Labor Intensity - Waste management has
traditionally been labor intensive. In recent years this factor has
compounded already skyrocketing cost of waste disposal functions in some
of the larger metropolitan areas of the nation. Private firms contend
that they are able to contain costs better than publicly-operated waste
disposal systems. Therefore, they seek to encourage local government to
contract this service to them to save costs and provide efficiencies.
Many local governments, on the other hand, insist that private firms are
beset by the same problems as government in terms of labor activism,
growing wage and pension costs, and maintaining efficiency. Nevertheless,
private firms are enjoying a growing share of waste management activities.
Industrial waste collection and disposal is primarily conducted by
private firms (See Section 2.6). This is likely to be extended to
management of other residuals. Government's role is to ensure that this
service is provided equitably and properly.
5.2.5.7 Governmental Subsidies to Private Entitles - Where the economics
of resource recovery are marginal, areawide or local governments may
provide a partial subsidy to a private entity both to reduce waste loads
in landfills and to encourage recycling in the long term. An example of
this is the Minnesota Abandoned Vehicle Act, wherein the State pays to
the scrap metal company the difference between the value of secondary
materials recovered and the cost of salvage operations. Another subsidy,
in the form of low-cost or free combustible scrap materials, is provided
to power companies that have converted their boilers to burn the low-Btu
residuals. This form of "institutional arrangement" between a local
government and private utility is exemplified in St. Louis, Missouri.
5.2.5.8 Using Regulations to Implement Plans - The planner is usually
well-aware of how regulations can be used to implement plans. It has
been established practice to implement land use plans, the official map,
and housing quality with zoning ordinances, subdivision.regulations, and
building codes. These tools may be applied to residual waste management
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in some cases as well (See Section 5.1.1). Initially, the planner will
probably be dependent upon existing environmental laws and regulatory
agencies to implement plans (See Section 5.1.3). Changes should be
recommended by the planner if existing laws, regulations, administrative
procedures, and institutional arrangements are not compatible with plan
implementation. The role of the citizen participating as planning
advisory members or public interest groups will be important to the
planner in these situations.
The planner should recognize that clearly drafted enabling legislation,
lucidly-derived regulations, and skilled administrative procedures will
not necessarily solve the problem of plan implementation. A case filed
on January 16. 1976, State of^New Jersey/Department of Environmental
Protection vs. J.I.S. Industrial Service Company illustrates that even
with seemingly clear statutes and regulations, significant problems in
prosecution can be encountered. In this case, the State has alleged
that hazardous wastes being disposed in a landfill is contaminating the
aquifer through leaching (Ref. V-31). Despite tests showing that uncon-
taminated water entering the landfill is polluted when leaving, the
defendent is able to forestall any administrative or regulatory attempts
by the State to achieve water quality plan objectives in this location.
The State has been challenged on how its samples are being taken and not
maintaining a good chain of custody among other reasons (See Appendix
B).
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V-l Pennsylvania V. Mahon (1922).
V-2 D. Mandelker, The Zoning Dilema 4 (1971).
V-3 Residual Waste: Model State Legislation, EPA 440/9-76-004. Water
Quality Management Guidance. Water Planning Division. U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Ch. V, (§5.2.7). March 1976.
V-4 D. Hagmen, J. Larson and C. Martin, California Zoning Practice
§7.59. (Cal. Cont. Educ. Bar ed. 1969).
V-5 Barbier vs. Connolly, 113 U.S. 27, 31 (1885).
V-6 362 U.S. 440 (1960).
V-7 See V. Prosser, Torts §§87-92 (3rd ed. 1964).
V-8 Residual Waste: Model State Legislation, EPA 440/9-76-004. Water
Quality Management Guidance. Water Planning Division. U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Ch. IV, (§SVII). March 1976.
V-9 83 Wis. 583, 53 N.W. 912 (1892).
V-10 174 Neb. 234, 117 N.W. 2d 322 (1962).
V-ll 200 Cal. App. 2d. 54.
V-12 472 S.W. 2d 714, 3 ERC 1545 (Ark. 1971).
V-13 107 N.H. 131, 218 A. 2d 360 (1966).
V-14 201 Pa. Superior Ct. 614, 193 A. 2d 670 (1963).
V-15 Residual Waste: Model State Legislation, EPA 440/9-76-004. Water
Quality Management Guidance. Water Planning Division, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Ch. IV (§X). March 1976.
V-16 354 F. 2d 608 (2d Cir. 1965), cert, denied, 384 U.S. 941 (1966).
V-17 Residual Waste: Model State Legislation, EPA 440/9-76-004. Water
Quality Management Guidance. Water Planning Division, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Ch. V. March 1976.
V-18 Larkins vs. Kohlmeyer. 229 Ind. 391, 98 N.E. 2d. 896 (1951).
V-19 291 S.W. 2d 792 (Tex. 1956).
V-20 See People vs. Los Angeles, 160 Cal. App. 2d 494, 325 p. 2d 639
(Dist. Ct. App. 1958)7
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V-21 People vs. Cunard White Star. Ltd., 180 N.Y. 413, 21 N.W. 2d' 489
(1939).
V-22 Residual Waste: Model State Legislation, EPA 440/9-76-004. Water
Quality Management Guidance. Water Planning Division. U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Ch. V (§IVB and §XII). March 1976.
V-23 66 N.J. Super. 334, 169 A. 2d 165.
V-24 15 Mich. App. 657, 167 N.W. 2d 355.
V-25 113 Tenn. 331, 83 S.W. 658 (1904).
V-26 26 N.Y. 2d 219, 257 N.E. 2d 870, 309 N.Y.S. 2d 312, 1 ERC 1175
(1970).
V-27 McCall, J.H., Utility Concept and Solid Waste Systems - 4th annual
meeting of the Institute for Solid Wastes of the A.P.W.A. September
16, 1964, Cleveland, Ohio.
V-28 Tahoe Regional Planning Compact, PL 91-148, 33 Stat. 360, became
law on December 18, 1969.
V-29 Personal communication, A-T-E Management; operator of 28 large city
bus systems, Cincinnati, Ohio.
V-30 Minnesota. Session laws. An act relating to the Metropolitan
Council; providing for the creation of a sewer service board and
prescribing its duties and powers; providing for the collection,
treatment and disposal of sewage in the metropolitan area. Chap.
449, S.F. No. 237, 1969; (codified in Minnesota stat. annotated,
Chap. 473C. Metropolitan Sewer Service [new]).
V-31 N.J.S.A. 58:10-1, 58:10-23.1 and 23:5-28.
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6.0 APPLICATION OF MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Programs for management of vast quantities of residuals often fall short
of their goals, which is providing adequate protection of water quality.
Because residual wastes are the end products of all processes, the
management of residual wastes clearly cannot be considered separately
from the processes and systems that produce the wastes. Just as the
environment -- air, water, and land -- must be considered and treated as
a continuous whole, residual wastes cannot be successfully compartmented
for separate handling. For purposes of discussion in this Handbook we
are considering wastes in terms of nine major categories, based on
source, e.g., feedlot residuals, combustion residuals, etc. (See Section
2). In developing a management program, however, the planners must work
toward total waste management on a State or areawide basis, with emphasis
on (1) whenever possible, reducing at the source and recovering resource
values contained in residual wastes (Ref. VI-1) and (2) satisfactory,
land disposal of any element or fraction of the residual wastes not
amenable to economic recovery or utilization.
In this section of the Handbook we consider the planning process in
detail, showing how the diverse aspects of a comprehensive residuals
management program can be approached in a logical and systematic manner.
Planners using this Handbook should take into account information
presented in Sections 1 through 5 in approaching actual areawide or
State residual waste management problems. The discussion of planning
procedures is followed by a case study based on a hypothetical seven-
county region in the midwestern United States. A hypothetical case was
constructed in order to illustrate the variety of issues that must be
faced in areawide or State residual waste planning in the future and
because an actual model does not exist. The Section is not intended as
an exhaustive treatment of residual waste management as applied since
these aspects were covered in detail in the previous five sections. The
case study illustrates both the planning process and the application of
specific management practices to develop a total residuals management
system as part of water quality management planning. Many of the consider-
ations, approaches, and techniques presented earlier in this Handbook
are applied in the case study. The planning approach, data gathering,
and analyses described in the following sections was emulated in the
case study and may be useful to the users of this Handbook to understand
the mechanisms.
6.1 THE PLANNING PROCESS
Planning is a conscious process for achieving proposed objectives. In
this process any likely contingencies and alternatives are considered
rationally and fully. Implementation and the means for achieving it
must be kept in mind by the planner throughout the planning process.
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MCHIOH-W.IIW
AlltlMTIVIS
lS UCIINICN.,
ECONOMIC. SOCIO-
POLITICAL I
CN»l«Oh«fiI«.
MIKII*
rj[umo« of
I*P fLM
ALUI1ATIVE
(rujnc
ONVOULHEKTL
' l"'LtXEV«IIO. ,
UIVLTIK; ll A BEA->
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Figure 6-1. The Planning Process.
Planning is a systematic process that is dynamic rather than fixed (Ref.
VI-2). Implementation and planning may even occur concurrently with the
process allowing for feedback and adjustment. Figure 6-1 illustrates
the planning process as applied to residuals management. The objective
is the protection and improvement of water quality. Activities and
strategies involved in application of management practices to residual
wastes are conducted within a given time frame, and an order of priori-
ties is established. The first step is to gather the basic information
required for problem assessment. Amount and detail of data will be
determined by the extent of the problem.
Information required for planning may include the current residual
disposal practices, current and projected populations in the study area,
current and projected land use, costs and other economic factors, exist-
ing and potential institutional arrangements, transportation facilities,
and pertinent laws and regulations. Additional information essential to
proper planning a.nd implementation of residual waste management plans
include often overlooked public preferences. Failure to take public
preferences into account may prevent an otherwise feasible plan from
being implemented. Financing and operating residual waste management
programs will fall most directly upon individuals, firms, and local and
State government. Early measures to solicit information from these
individuals and organizations should be taken in the planning process.
Usually citizen advisory groups broadly representing those most affected
will provide one forum for developing planning information and data. At
pivotal points in the planning process, the general public should be
informed and consulted.
6.2 BASE STUDIES
Basic to the planning study is detailed information on residual waste
generation in the study area. Planners must know the residual waste
sources, characteristics of the waste materials, and the quantities that
are generated under various circumstances. These are primary data.
Other data may be obtained from secondary sources, such as local,
regional, and State planning agencies; agricultural extension offices;
State and Federal soils and geological survey agencies; health and
environmental agencies; consulting firms, libraries, and universities.
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The public agencies and the public service components of many industrial
and commercial firms continually perform the function of disseminating
information. Their services are of great value in the planning process.
Additional primary data can be derived by field survey. Site location,
which is one of the key elements of residuals management, will require
field studies to determine site characteristics, such as soils and
hydrogeology. Data related to the full range of environmental concerns
can be obtained both in the field and from the secondary sources men-
tioned above.
6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
Environmental analysis is a key element of the residuals waste manage-
ment program. The total program is environment-oriented, with emphasis
on water quality. Again, however, the planner must consider all aspects
of the environment that might be affected by the disposal practices
proposed. Table 6-1 lists environmental concerns to be considered in
planning and applying residuals management practices. The planner need
address only those concerns likely to be affected by implementation of a
specific management practice. The principle task of an environmental
analysis is to predict responses of the environment to specific activities.
Table 6-2 presents a guide by which to assess and analyze the potential
impacts of a residuals management program.
In order that the environmental analysis may fully reflect emerging
management and preferred BMP's, it must be conducted concurrently with
the planning of the proposed project. Figure 6-2 depicts the typical
phases in preparation of an environmental analysis.
Table 6-1 lists some concerns that should be considered in the environ-
mental analysis.
The analysis must be thorough. It should identify potential positive as
well as negative effects. In addition, it should characterize potential
impacts as short- and long term, reversible and irreversible, and
primary and secondary.
6.4 ORGANIZATION
Implementation of systems for residual waste management depends largely
upon public involvement and preferences and the institutional arrange-
ments and operating management (see Section 5.2). Day-to-day implementa-
tion of BMP's requires an efficient and effective organization. Six
points are crucial in developing an organization for residual waste
management: 1) it should be designed to achieve planned objectives; 2)
it should have concomitant authority and responsibility; 3) it should
fit, both legally and logically, into the overall jurisdiction of which
204
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Table 6-1. ITEMS AND PARAMETER OF ITEMS TO BE CONSIDERED IN ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
Item
subite
1. Climate
2.
3.
Topography
Geology
ro
CD
en
4.
5.
Soils
Hydrology
a) General
b) Hater
quality
c) Water
quantity
d) Water
quality
and
quantity
problems
e) Hater Uses
f) Hater
quality
manage-
ment
Parameters to be included
in description
temperature, precipitation, humidity,
wind directions and velocities and
frequency of inversions, fog, tornados
and hurricanes.
major and minor drainage basins, slope,
elevation, erosion and deposition.
geologic structures or formations,
area suseptible to earthquakes, land-
slides, or subsistance, effects on
ground and surface waters.
soil types, permeability, erosion
potential, expansion and compaction.
surface water bodies and groundwater
aquifers
physical, chemical, and biological
quality of existing surface and ground-
water quality.
Surface water volume, flow rates, seasonal
variations, .groundwater storage volume,
rate of recharge and/or depletion
of aquifers, structures influencing
stream-flow such as dams, locks,
tunnels and canals.
relevant point and non-point sources of
pollution (i.e. industry, municipalities,
combined sewers, storm water run-off,
agriculture, silviculture, mine
drainage, salt water intrusion)
type and extent of existing and future
surface and groundwater use (i.e.
recreation, industry, domestic,
agriculture).
areawide or basin water quality manage-
ment plans, permits or orders on specific
water resources.
Item
sub it era
g) Flood
hazards
6.
7.
8.
9)
10)
11)
12)
Biology
Air Quality
Land Uses
Significant
environmen-
tally sensi-
tive areas
Population
projections
and economic
forecasts
Other
programs in
the area
Aesthetics
Parameters to be included
in description
25, 50, and 100 - year flood, identify
any Corps of Engineers flood-plain
plan/plans or proposed project.
designated rare and endangered (state
level or nationally) . Wildlife habitate
or portions thereof to be affected.
factors affecting air quality, present and
anticipated future air quality in the
project area
present and projected land use maps,
include residential and commercial services,
industrial, cluster housing, strip
development, transportation routes,
open space, recreation, agriculture,
water, and other points of interest.
Regulatory land use controls not in effect.
Development trends in the area . Any
aspects which are or will cause environ-
mental impact.
Using a map show, identify, and describe
any sensitive areas which may be signi-
ficantly impacted by the proposed
action
5, 10, and 20 year projections, rates
of growth. Also using such reports from
Dept. of Commerce and the Economic
Research Service, Department of Agricul-
ture or Water Resources Council by the
Bureau of Economics.
local, state, or federal projects,
planned, a underway which may impact
on the area or the proposed project.
the area's general aesthetic quality,
noise levels, man-made objects, etc.
Source: R*f. IV-3
-------
Table 6-2. GUIDES HELPFUL IN ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
ro
o
en
A)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
B)
1.
2.
3,
4.
C)
1.
2.
IDENTIFICATION OF IMPACT
Compr ehens i veness
Specificity
Isolate project impacts
Timing and duration
Data source
consider full range of probable impacts
as derived from Table 1.
identify specific parameters to be
examined
identify project impacts as distinct
from future environmental changes
resulting front other causes.
identify time and duration of impacts
identify sources of data used to
identify impacts.
IMPACT PREDICTION AND MEASUREMENT
Explicit indicators
Magnitude
Objectivity
Predictive tools
indicators used to quantify
impact on parameters
measurement of iirpact magnitude
as distinct from impact signi-
ficance
emphasize objective rather than
subjective impact measurements
what tools are vised to predict
impact
IMPACT INTERPRETATION
Significance
Explicit criteria
explicit assessment of the significance
of measured impacts on a local,
regional, and if need be, national
seals
state criteria and assumptions used to
determine impact significance
3. Uncertainty
4. Risk
5. Alternative
comparison
assessment of the uncertainty or
degree of confidence in impact
projection made
identify impacts of low probability
but high damage or loss potential
compare alternatives a-s well as no-
project alternative
D) IMPACT COMMUNICATION
1. Affected parties
2. Setting description
3. Summary
4. Key issues
5. NEPA compliance
6. Aggregation
7. Public involvement
linking impacts to the specific
affected geographical or social
groups
a description of the project
sotting to aid statement users
in developina an adequate
overall perspective
present results in summary form
highlight key issues and impacts
identified in the report
summarize results in terms cf the
specific points required by NEPA
and subsequent CEQ guidelines
when and if possible aggregate
impacts into a new total (this
is usually not practible)
public involvement in the inter-
pretation of impact significance
Source: Ref. VI-4
-------
II
III
IV
ro
o
BACKGROUND
GENERAL
RESIDUAL
WASTE
PROBLEMS
OBJECTIVES
BRIEF DES-
CRIPTION OF
PROPOSED
HP'S
ENVIRONMENTAL
WITHOUT ALTERNATIVES PROPOSED
HP'S | ACTION
I
I
I
;
DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION OF
3Y ENVIRON- PRELIMINARY COMPARISON OF PREFERRED BMP
CENTAL CON- COMPARISON SYSTEMS, MP SYSTEM
51 DERATIONS OF MP OP-
TIONS PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
1
WATER
AIR
LAND
BIOLOGY
ENVIRON-
MENTALLY
SENSITIVE
AREAS
AESTHETICS
MANAGEMENT
RESOURCES
ECONOMICS
PUBLIC HEALTH
CULTURAL
OPTION f MP ' MP BMP
CATEGORY •, PYSTFM .,,r ., SYSTEM _ SYSTEM
// (PREFERRED
/ // COMBINATION
| 1 / // OF HP'S)
CATEGORY — (jS // SYSTEM
//
1 1 fTi / /
noTTnu — W / /
CATEGORY — Ql 1 SYSTEM
/ 3
/
OPTION _A
CATEGORY ""^
Source: Ref. VI-5.
EMVIRONMENTAL
EFFECTS OF PROPOSED
BMP APPLICATION
DESCRIPTION OF
IMPACTS BY
NATURAL CATEGORIES
ENVIRON-
MENTALLY
SENSITIVE
AREAS
AESTHETICS
MANAGEMENT
RESOURCES
ECONO.'-'.ICS
| PUBLIC HEALTH I
CULTURAL
Figure 6-2. Environmental analysis flow.
-------
it is a part; 4) it should be adequately staffed by qualified personnel;
5) it must have adequate capital and operating funds; 6) it should
conduct an integrated program of management practices both preventative
and ameliorative, involving proper recovery/utilization wherever possible
and ultimate disposal of nonrecoverable residuals (ref. VI-2).
In order to implement an integrated management program that is cost
effective, many communities are considering a regional organization
involving multijurisdictions. This approach permits control of residual
wastes over a broader area and provides a mechanism for communities to
accomplish together what they cannot do alo'ne (Ref. 111-42). Three
principal intergovernmental mechanisms may be used to implement a
regional approach: (1) joint operation of a service facility by two or
more units; (2) provision of a service on a contractual basis by one
governmental unit to at least one other governmental unit; (3) formation
of an overall operating district, authority, or utility supervised by a
board of commissioners or directors, with day-to-day operation delegated
to a manager and staff. All three of these basic mechanisms can be
modified to include combinations with private individuals or firms.
Many States enable local units of government and districts to perform
various public services jointly. Enabling legislation provides that
public agencies of a State may exercise powers and authorities for
sharing functions such as fire and police protection, hospital services,
communications, garbage collection and disposal, water service, waste-
water treatment, and waste management (Ref. VI-6). Examples of inter-
local cooperation acts in some states are cited below, with the year of
original enactment.' The planner should examine these provisions in the
State (or States) of concern and should be aware of possible amendments
and limitations (See Section 5.2). Not all State interlocal cooperation
statutes are equally broad, nor do they all extend authorization to both
agreements and service contracts (Ref. VI-7).
California - Government Code, Sec. 51300-51335,
(service contracts, Sec. 6500-6578
agreements) (1921).
Connecticut - General Stat. Ann., Sec. 7339a to
7339 1 (1961).
Indiana - Interlocal Cooperation Act, Ind.
Ann. Stat., Sec. 53: 1101-07 (1957).
i.
Louisiana - Local Services Law, La. Rev. Stat.,
Tit. 33, Sec. 1321-32-(1942).
Minnesota - Joint Exercise of Powers Act, Minn.
Stat. Ann., Sec. 471.59 (1943).
208
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North Carolina - General Stat., Sec. 153-246 (1933).
Ohio - Joint Municipal Improvement Act,
Ohio Rev. Code Tit. 7, Sec. 715-02
(1965).
Virginia - Virginia Code Ann. Sec. 15.1-21
(1958).
6.5 FINANCING
Early in program development, planners must address the financing of any
plan for residual waste management. Without an accurate assessment of
capital requirements and operating and maintenance (O&M) costs for a BMP
approach, implementation may be delayed or prevented. While the typical
State or areawide water quality planning agency will not implement a
residual waste management activity in the operational sense, it is
encumbant upon planners to provide estimated costs for implementing
plans. Implementing agencies, firms, or individuals have two basic
sources from which to obtain capital for facilities and equipment:
borrowed funds and current revenues. A third alternative for public
agencies is to contract with private firms to manage residual wastes and
shift the burden of capital-raising onto them (Ref. 111-42). An agency
cannot, however, escape paying the cost of such capital because costs
will be reflected in the service charges they must pay. Sometimes
public agencies may use State or Federal grant funds effectively.
6.5.1 Debt Financing
Governmental agencies and private firms utilize several mechanisms for
securing funds through borrowing. Bonds, bank and insurance company
loans, and leasing are common sources of funds. Governmental agencies
typically utilize general obligation (GO) bonds and revenue bonds in
generating funds for capital expansion. GO bonds are usually less
costly in terms of total costs of issuance and servicing. GO bonds are
secured through the full faith and credit of the agency and its ability
to retire the bonds through tax levies on real estate in its jurisdic-
tion. A major disadvantage is that many States limit GO debt as a ratio
of total GO debt outstanding to assessed valuation of real property. As
a practical matter sufficient GO bond capacity may not be available for
funding residual waste management because the agency may already be
using its debt capacity for schools, streets, water supply, and other
public services. Revenue bonds, on the other hand, are not usually
limited in this way. Municipal revenue bonds, however, are usually more
costly to issue and service, than either GO or industrial revenue bonds.
In addition, all revenue bonds must be self-liquidating through income
generated by the system facilities. Industrial revenue bonds issued by
a governmental agency on behalf of a private organization serving the
agency are usually less costly. Nearly all states allow this form of
debt.
209
-------
Cost of bond debt involves the various issuing costs, such as legal
fees, underwriting, printing, and possible public referendum (for GO
bonds) in addition to interest that must be paid. Interest rates vary
widely; the current interest depending partially on the rating of the
agency issuing the bonds. Two statistical organizations, Moody's and
Standard and Poor's, have been accorded official recognition for rating.
The ratings designate the likelihood of prompt payment of interest and
safaty of principal over a term of years. Moody's Investor Service
provides nine ratings running from the highest, Aaa down to the lowest,
C. Standard and Poor's gives eleven ratings, from AAA down to D.
Bank loans can be useful for short-term financing and for stabilizing
the cash flow of a residual waste management system. Long-term borrowing
is usually better facilitated through bond issuance. Likewise, leasing,
which is not technically borrowing, offers some of the same advantages
and disadvantages. Facilities and equipment needed immediately are
obtained by delayed payment through spreading over time. Also, interest
is an integral part of the lease payment. Leasing arrangements are
often more advantageous to small companies since no substantial cash
outlay is required initially. In addition, because lease charges are
treated as an expense, companies may reduce taxes by reducing the
taxable income.
6.5.2 Current Financing
Often termed 'pay-as-you-go1 financing, capital equipment and facilities
are purchased as needed. Although such financing has a ring of prudence
it is often unsatisfactory for large expenditures. Large amounts of
capital may be needed and may not be available from annual public
revenues or surplus funds. Current financing may be more appropriate
for covering O&M costs than for capitalization.
6.5.3 Grant Funds
Because availability of grant funds depends on governmental programs,
policies, and supplies of funds, grants are not considered in long-term
financing plans of agencies that need immediate facilities. Neverthe-
less, coincidence of needed facilities and availability of State or
Federal grant funds may result in a fortuitous match. For example, a
source of funding to provide land for land spreading is authorized under
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (PL 92-500)
according to a Decision Memorandum issued by the EPA Administrator in
late 1975. Federal funds not to exceed 75 percent of land costs may be
available for eligible projects that are considered cost-effective. The
cost-effectiveness test must precede the Federal funding and cannot
depend on it. Funds can be used for land purchase, but not for land
preparation, access roads, buildings, equipment, operations, and the
like. Grant funding has potential for regional application in a joint
operating approach as well as for single plant systems. However, the
210
-------
cost-effectiveness test may be more easily met through a regional
approach (Ref. VI-6). Regional approaches offer elimination of dupli-
cate services and staffs, provide uniform centralized management, and
lowered unit costs and other economies of scale. Residual waste manage-
ment and planning scenarios contained in the following case study will
acquaint the planner with the technique of applying BMP's in a hypo-
thetical, but realistic situations.
6.6 CASE STUDY9
The Central Region Organization of Governments (CROG) was formed for the
purpose of improving certain functions that are common to the seven
participating counties, but cannot be handled efficiently by any county
alone. The organization had begun in the early 1960's with informal
meetings of certain civic leaders who saw the potential benefits to be
derived from unified effort. As the concept became better defined, two
attorneys of the group researched the State codes to determine the
provisions of enabling legislation (See Section 5.1). Formation of CROG
resulted from many months of effort on the part of county officials and
representatives of the major municipalities. Although the initial need
was primarily for planning development of regionwide support services,
such as transportation, the organization now handles multiple regional
functions.
The institutional mechanism for a regional planning approach to residuals,
management was available within the framework of CROG. What was lacking,
however, was an organization under CROG jurisdiction whose specific
function is to develop and administer the residuals management program.
As CROG officials reviewed the six criteria (Section 6.4) applicable to
such an organization, they found that the existing CROG structure provided
for the required concomitant authority and responsibility to plan and it
also ensured that the residuals program would be logically tailored to
the CROG jurisdiction. Of the remaining organizational criteria beyond
the control of CROG, the two principal requirements involved staffing
and funding. Because CROG is not an operating agency with the, authority
to manage residual wastes as recommended in its plans, implementation is
dependent upon others (See Section 5.2). Implementing operations are
typically conducted by agencies, such as sewer districts, individuals
and firms, and State government enforcing adequate regulations. The
problem of implementation became readily apparent to CROC's Citizen
Advisory Committee (CAC). The CAC was established to provide public
participation in the areawide water quality planning program under
Section 208 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of
1972 (PL 92-500). The CAC therefore passed a resolution to form a law
a
This case study is hypothetical using fictitious data and other facts.
Nevertheless, the planner is provided a realistic demonstration of fun-
damental steps and considerations inherent in residual waste management
planning.
211
-------
review committee (LRC) to determine legal and institutional mechanisms
available to implement CROG's residual waste management plan. The LRC
was expected to review the statutes for enabling authority, examine
existing authority and mechanisms being exercised, and to determine new
legislative authority or regulations required. The CAC asked the LRC to
report back its findings and recommendations within six weeks as part of
the planning program base study phase. Later CAC expected to relay
these findings and its recommendations to the CROG Board of Commissioners
to help guide implementation of the areawide water quality plan. Mean-
while, the CROG areawide water quality planning base studies proceeded
with collection of the other data needed for planning.
Base Studies of CROG
Data gathering for base studies of the CROG area relied heavily upon
information provided by public agencies. Population and employment data
were obtained from city and county records, including registrations,
permits, and assessments. As in most areas, population and employment
data are summarized routinely for use by local promotional groups,
chambers of commerce, businessmens1 clubs, and similar organizations.
Land use information was assembled by county; information pertaining to
agricultural land use was verified and augmented by records of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service.
By arrangement with the Department of Environmental Sciences, Midland
University, a cooperative program was established whereby graduate
students could participate in field surveys and data analysis as part of
postgraduate programs. The students worked primarily on technical and
scientific aspects of the base studies, assuming responsibility for
basic descriptions of the biology, topography, hydrogeology, and clima-
tology of the CROG area. In this work they obtained information from
local offices of the U.S. Geological Survey, the Agricultural Extension
Service, U.S. Weather Service, and other local representatives of
Federal agencies. The students participated in field surveys and
contributed to the data base required for evaluation of potential sites
for landfill, land spreading, and lagooning. Further, they assisted in
the full-scale environmental assessment, which was performed for CROG by
contract with an environmental consulting firm.
It will be noted that the information generated in the base studies
constitutes much of what is required for the environmental assessment.
These data provide the base from which to estimate the environmental
impacts of proposed residuals management practices. Results of base
studies of the CROG area are summarized in the following paragraphs.
Residuals management practices, both current and proposed, are then
discussed in detail with respect to each of the major residuals cate-
gories.
212
-------
The CROG Region
The seven counties comprising CROG cover an area of approximately 3200
square miles. Figure 6-3 depicts the CROG area, showing locations of
the seven counties. The most urbanized portions of the area are Jeffer-
son, Lee, and Davis Counties and the southwest portion of Adams County.
Several of the urban centers, particularly Main City, are heavily
industrialized. Some suburban development is occuring in Washington
County. Quincy and Madison Counties remain largely rural, with consider-
able agricultural activity including the raising of crops and confined
feeding of livestock.
Population
Projections prepared by CROG indicate that by the year 1995, population
of the seven-county region will reach 2,934,000, which is twice the 1975
population, as shown in Table 6-3. About half of the current population
resides in Jefferson County. This proportion is expected to decline by
1995 as other CROG counties urbanize.
This projected growth will present challenges to preservation of the
region's environmental quality. The impacts of residual wastes will
increase, since many residuals are directly related to population. At
the local level, the categories most directly a function of population
are wastewater sludge, septage, water treatment residuals, and municipal
refuse. On a national basis, population secondarily relates to feedlot
waste generation, since the number of animals confined in feedlots is a
function of meat consumption. In addition, quantitative inferences may
be drawn for residuals from combustion and industrial sources as a
function of employment, although the relationship may be indirect. For
example, certain highly automated industries do not require large
numbers of employees but may generate large amounts of residual wastes
during processing.
Employment
The CROG region has grown and prospered as a result of its advantageous
location. Impetus to growth has come from processing industries,
commercial enterprises, agricultural product processing, and rapid
mechanization of farming operations including the feeding of beef cattle
and hogs. Employment is expected to grow steadily to 1995, as shown in
Table 6-4.
Physical Characteristics
Topographic features range from a minimum elevation of 690 feet Mean Sea
Level (MSL) along the Green River flood plain in Jefferson County to a
maximum elevation of 1160 feet MSL in northeastern Quincy County. The
greatest variations in topography occur adjacent to the flood plains of
the Green and Central Rivers.
213
-------
Figure 6-3. Central Region Organization of Governments
Seven County Area (CROG).
214
-------
Table 6-3. SUMMARY OF EXISTING AND PROJECTED POPULATION
ro
01
County
Adams
Davis
Jefferson
Lee
Madison
Quincy
Washington
Region
1975
Urban
113,264
204,233
726,397
216,853
15,314
24,143
38,525
1 ,338,729
Rural
28,736
8,767
17,603
19,147
26,686
13,857
17,475
132,271
Total
142,000
213,00
744,000
236,000
42,000
38,000
56,000
1,471,000
1995
Urban
275,017
313,500
1,174,424
588,036
56,529
68,083
63,332
2,538,921
Rural
94,983
16,500
75,576
41 ,964
43,471
90,917
31 ,668
395,079
Total
370,000
330,000
1 ,250,000
630,000
100,000
159,000
95,000
2,934,000
Table 6-4. SUMMARY OF EXISTING AND PROJECTED EMPLOYMENT
(Numbers of Employees)
County
Adams
Davis
Jefferson
Lee
Madison
Quincy
Washington
Region
1975
Manufacturing
12,157
24,267
89,226
8,856
1,012
271
1,595
137,384
Non-
manufacturing
30,308
58,404
297,033
43,241
9,874
11,621
11,531
462.012
Total
42,465
82,671
386,259
52,097
10,886
11 ,892
13,126
599,396
1995
Manufacturing
18,500
36,200
128,735
20,865
4,100
18,500
3,500
230.400
Non-
manufacturing
77,800
119,400
474,665
123,635
18,700
67,500
17,100
898,800
Total
96,300
155,600
603,400
144,500
22,800
86,000
20,600
1.129,200
-------
Consolidated rocks occur at shallow depths throughout most of the-region.
The rocks are primarily low-permeability shales, sandstones, and lime-
stone. The quantity of cover material available for sanitary landfills
is limited. In addition, the potential for ground water contamination
is high. The presence of bedrock at shallow depths creates an additional
problem because it impedes downward flow of ground water. At some sites
it may be impossible to maintain an adequate aerobic zone, and problems
will occur if liquid loading rates are high. Loess, alluvium, and
glacial drift are present in some locations in quantities adequate to
provide cover material or to receive spreading of residuals. Areas in
which the drift consists of thick till may be suitable for landfill
sites. The major loess deposits occur along the main river valleys. In
Jefferson County deposits in the bluffs adjacent to the Green River
reach a maximum depth of over 100 feet. Alluvial deposits occur along
the creek and river valleys. Depth of alluvium exceeds 100 feet in
parts of the Green River valley; \n much of the Central River valley it
exceeds 50 feet. Ground water from the alluvium is a major source of
industrial water and serves as a supplemental public water supply.
Glacial drift deposited by the Central and Green glaciers overlies
bedrock in a large part of CROC. The southern limits of glacial deposits
extend to Davis, Lee and Madison Counties and in some places a few miles
south into those counties (See Section 4).
Climate
The climate of CROG is marked by seasonal variations in temperature and
precipitation. The average annual temperature is 51.1 F. Average
daytime temperatures in midsummer range from 85 to 87 F. Average day-
time temperatures in winter range from 31 to 32 F, nighttime winter
temperatures average from 15 to 19 F. Humidity ranges from 55 to 60
percent from noon to midnight, and 75 percent to 80 percent from mid-
night to noon. The average annual precipitation is 28.83 inches, 75
percent of which falls between April and September. The average normal
snowfall is 28.50 inches. Northwest winds predominate in winter months,
and south and southeast winds in summer.
Land Use
Table 6-5 indicates major land uses for each CROG county. Jefferson
County is almost completely developed for urban use and presents little
possibility for land disposal of residual wastes. Although Adams,
Davis, and Lee Counties are urbanizing, suitable land disposal sites may
be available in outlying areas. Indeed, because of the rapidly urbanizing
trends in these CROG counties, land sites must be sought and selected
soon to accommodate the growing generation of residuals. Both Quincy
and Madison Counties are growing relatively slowly and will remain
agricultural for the foreseeable future. Washington County will grow
slowly in outlying areas and remain largely agricultural. -Population
will continue to be concentrated in the Main City area.
216
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Table 6-5. EXISTING AND FUTURE LAND USES,
PERCENT BY MAJOR USE
County
Adams
Davis
Jefferson
Lee
Madison
Quincy
Washington
Urban
1975
20.0
22.5
71.5
25.0
8.0
9.5
11.0
1995
26.5
29.0
79.0
31.0
8.5
10.0
14.5
Urbanizing
1975
6.5
6.5
7.5
6.0
0.5
0.5
3.5
1995
6.0
6.0
3.5
5.5
0.5
0.5
3.0
Non-urban
1975
73.5
71.0
21.0
69.0
91.5
90.5
85.5
1995
67.5
65.0
17.5
63.5
91.0
89.5
82.5
Legal/Institutional
As contended earlier by the CAC, the LRC determined through its studies
that implementation of the residual waste management plan will indeed
depend upon agencies and authorities lying largely outside the control
of CROG. Nevertheless, the LRC reported its findings to CAC emphasizing
that CROG could influence implementation of its plan through various
approaches. The LRC examined legal and institutional mechanisms for
nine predominent residuals (See Section 2). Basically, the LRC found
that management and disposal of sludges from wastewater and water
treatment plants and septage could be accomplished through the various
sewer districts in CROG. Employing interlocal or joint service agree-
ments sewer districts could accomplish centralized sludge disposal cost-
effectively while maintaining water quality (Ref. VI-7). The LRC
determined that this approach may be possible in many States although
not presently widely practiced (See Section 5). Likewise, the LRC
recommended that municipal refuse be similarly managed to provide
economies of scale. Private contractors, public crews, or a combination
arrangement may be employed. The LRC was basically satisfied that water
quality would be protected from disposal of municipal refuse. State
sanitary landfill regulations are rigorously enforced by State EPA dis-
trict officers. Strict design and review standards requiring lining to
impede percolation of leachates into ground water or diversion of leach-
ates to treatment control lagoons are routinely applied throughout the
State. State-enforced standards governing industrial wastes and residuals
from combustion and air pollution controls require employment of manage-
217
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ment practices protecting water quality. Because those involved in
industrial waste collection and disposal are largely individuals and
firms, CROG must rely upon State EPA enforcement to maintain standards.
However, future location of disposal areas could be controlled to some
extent by CROG through local zoning boards (See Section 5.1.1.3). While
zoning is traditionally a local power, CROG could use its persuasion to
influence local zoning boards to consider regional interests. This
could also affect location of future residential, commercial, and indus-
trial development and, therefore, indirectly affect residuals generation.
The LRC also recommended that county/local zoning boards be approached
to develop provisions prohibiting animal feedlots from certain locations,
particularly flood plains and other places where water quality may be
impaired. It was observed by the LRC that several feedlots are already
located on flood plains and that zoning provisions allow nonconforming
uses if operating before a zoning prohibition had been enacted. While
future feedlots could be prohibited from locating on flood plains or
other water quality sensitive areas, how could existing feedlots be
removed and relocated? The LRC reviewed a proposed EPA regulation
governing discharges from feedlots judged point sources thus requiring a
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit (40 CFR
125). While CROG cannot enforce the NPDES provision the LRC recommended
to CAC that support be given to EPA in approving this proposed regulation.
If promulgated, the regulation would require feedlot operators to either
meet discharge standards or relocate. Such a regulation could assist CROG
in proposing and implementing its land use plans.
Although mining in CROG is not a large economic activity, its impact
upon water quality is potentially significant. The LRC review of mining
laws in the State reveal a lack of sufficient protection to water
quality through the regulations themselves as well as a lack of diligence
in their enforcement. There is evidence that water quality in receiving
streams in parts of the State has deteriorated from acid mine drainage,
sulfates, and siltation. The LRC considered engaging the mining com-
panies in discussions leading to voluntary water quality control and
reclamation. However, LRC decided to recommend a more direct approach
as well. It was felt that more fundamental changes were needed in the
State Mine Reclamation Act and its enforcement. Therefore, the LRC
recommended to CAC that the State legislature be approached to amend the
Mine Reclamation Act and to renew budget commitment to its enforcement.
Protection of water quality from dredge waste is dependent upon the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers District for designated waterways in CROG.
Sufficient regulatory authority to protect water quality resulting from
dredge wastes is apparently available. Actual management of dredge
waste deposited upon the land does not always conform to provisions,
however. The LRC decided to recommend to CAC that the district office
of the Corps of Engineers be invited to place a member upon the CAC
218
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conservation sub-committee so that CROG plans can be conveyed into
action through management practice by the Corps of Engineers as well as
through its permitting authority (See Section 5.2.2).
Residual Waste Management
As a result of an extensive program of public information, the citizens
of CROG are acutely aware of the growing problems of waste disposal.and
they support the efforts of CROG planners in developing a comprehensive
residuals management program. In the following pages the residuals of
the CROG area are considered by category, by the CROG staff, with an
analysis of current disposal methods and proposals for improved manage-
ment practices (See Sections 2 and 3).
The BMP's emerging from this analysis by category represent the frame-
work of an integrated residuals management system for the CROG area.
Although recognizing that application of these BMP's individually or in
combination may not prove totally effective, the CROG planners antici-
pate sustantial improvement over present practices and significant
beneficial impacts on water quality.
6.6.1 Wastewater Sludge
Disposal of wastewater sludge is a growing problem for the CROG area.
In the past it has been disposed of by the lowest-cost methods possible,
with little regard to the environmental hazards involved (See Section
2.1). With the projected increase in population and the resulting
requirement of more advanced wastewater treatment facilities, disposal
of sludge will constitute a problem of major proportions.
6.6.1.1 Present and Projected Sludge Quantities for the CROG Area
Population - The total quantity of sludge generated in the CROG area is
shown in Table 6-6.
Table 6-6. CURRENT AND PROJECTED SLUDGE GENERATION IN THE CROG AREA3
Year
1975
1995
Population
1,471,000
2,934,000
Sludge quantity*3
2,758 110
6,876 275
a
Assume that 75% of the population are served by sewer lines in 1975,
and 90% in 1995.
b
Sludge quantities are shown in wet tons per day and dry tons per
day. Sludge production is assumed at 0.20 Ib/c/d in 1975 and 0.25
Ib/c/d in 1995. The quantities listed do not include sludge from
industrial wastewater sources. Industrial loadings are known only
for a few individual plants but the entire industrial loading for
the CROG area is unknown.
219
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6.6.1.2 Vlastewater Treatment Plants - The CROG area is served by 140
wastewater treatment facilities ranging in capacity from 0.05 mgd to 100
mgd. The treatment facilties serve approximately 75 percent of the
total population. Most of the plants are located in an area encircling
Main City, on the banks of the Central River and the Green River. The
facilities are capable of providing a minimum of primary treatment. By
1995, however, all the plants should be upgraded to provide a minimum of
full secondary treatment (i.e. primary plus secondary) and some must be
capable of providing advanced waste treatment for removal of nitrogen,
phosphate, and fine suspended solids.
Each of the wastewater treatment facilities in CROG is responsible for
handling and disposing of its sludge. At present the plants of less
than 1.0 mgd capacity, located in outlying areas some distance from Main
City dispose of their sludge by land application. The ten major plants,
as shown in Figure 6-4, are equipped with multi-hearth incinerators and
dispose of the slurried incinerator ash in on-site disposal ponds. The
rest of the plants have either no facilities for sludge processing and
disposal or minimal facilities.
6.6.1.3 Alternative Disposal Methods - Plant No. 2 (Figure 6-4) was
selected by CROG staff to test alternative BMP's that may be applied
elsewhere in the region. It is the largest wastewater treatment plant
in CROG, with an average daily flow of 100 mgd. It serves approximately
70 percent residential/commercial population and 30 percent industrial
population. The major industries served by the plant include chemical
processing, electronics, paper and allied products, food processing, and
metal fabrication. Plant No. 2 serves a domestic population of about
700,000.
No pretreatment standards have been promulgated in CROG. Plant No. 2
provides full secondary treatment followed by postchlorination of the
effluent. Sludge processing facilities include chemical conditioning
using lime and ferric chloride, vacuum filtration, and incineration.
On-site disposal ponds are used for ultimate disposal of slurried ash.
The ash ponds have a life of about 25 years.
Total daily production of sludge (raw plus secondary) amounts to 2250
wet tons (2043 metric tons), at 2 percent solids. Daily generation of
filter, cake amounts to 180 wet tons at 25 percent solids. Ash produc-
tion amounts to 13.5 dry tons (12.3 metric tons), per day.
220
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Figure 6-4. Location of the ten major wastewater treatment plants in CROC
221
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The management practices evaluated for plant No. 2 Include land spreading
(wet and dry), landfilling, and disposal ponds. Alternatives not
considered are land reclamation of strip mining areas (since mining
activities in the area are on a limited basis and reclamation is pre-
formed using overburden and processing wastes (See Section 3).
Land Spreading (Wet)
The nearest rural area suitable for wet land spreading of chemically
stabilized sludge is in Washington County, about 10 miles from the
plant. Since there are no rail facilities or navigable waterways from
the treatment plant to this area, transport must be by pipeline or
truck. Investigations indicated pipeline transport would not be econo-
mical because of the long distances, steep slopes, and associated
pumping costs.
Soils in the central portion of Washington County are acceptable for
land spreading, with little possibility of contaminating ground waters
(See Section 4).
Truck transport over 20 miles (32 km) round trip would cost $1.60 per
wet ton (1.76/metric ton) for the chemically stabilized sludge (Ref. VI-
8). Cost of wet land spreading is estimated to be $1.08 per wet ton
(1.19/metric ton) (Ref. VI-8). Total cost of transport and spreading is
therefore estimated to be $2.68 per wet ton ($2.95/metric ton), or on an
annual basis, $2,200,950. Processing equipment (chemical conditioning
unit) would add a capital cost of $380,000 and an operating and main-
tenance cost of $30,000.
Land Spreading (Dry)
The dry filter cake could be land spread in the same area in Washington
County, that is considered for wet land spreading. In order to preserve
local water quality contour plowing as well as dikes and detention ponds
will have to be utilized. Again trucking would be the most economical
means of transport. Cost of transporting the filter cake is estimated
to be $1.07 per wet ton ($1.18/metric ton) (Ref. VI-9). Spreading costs
are estimated at $1.00 per wet ton ($1.10/metric ton) (Ref. VI-10).
Total cost of transport and spreading is $2.07 per wet ton ($2.28/
metric ton), or on an annual basis, $135,999. Processing equipment
(chemical conditioners and vacuum filters) would add a capital cost of
$830,000 and operating and maintenance cost of $57,000.
Landfilling
A major, privately owned sanitary landfill is situated within 5 miles (8
km) of the plant. The estimated life of the landfill is 20 years. The
landfill is now used for disposal of solid waste (household"refuse and
222
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garbage), but could accomodate a mixture of solid waste and dewatereo
sludge. The addition of sludge to the landfill, however, may pose a
greater th'reat to local water quality. Liners of any type are not
presently utilized in the landfill. The addition of dewatered sludge
(25% solids) to the landfill would greatly add to the potential of
leaching into the ground water because of the increase in moisture
content of material being landfilled. Therefore in order to prevent
degredation of ground water the landfill would require a clay liner as
well as proper excavation to divert runoff over the filled areas. The
use of a leachate retention pond is also recommended as well as moni-
toring wells to detect possible leaching into ground water. Transporta-
tion by truck to the landfill site is estimated to cost $0.85 per wet
ton ($0.94/metric ton), (Ref. VI-8). The average cost of landfilling is
estimated to be $4.91 per wet ton ($5.40/metric ton) (Ref. VI-11).
Therefore, the total cost of transport and landfill ing would be $5.76
per wet ton ($6.34/metric ton), or $378,432 annually. Processing
equipment (chemical conditioning and vacuum filtration) would add a
capital cost of $830,000 and an operating and maintenance cost of
$57,000.
Disposal Ponds
The plant currently disposes of its slurried ash on-site. However, the
ground water monitoring program has shown some degradation in ground
water quality, particularly an increase in"alkalinity in the immediate
area of the disposal pond. The disposal pond is unlined. The lining of
the pond with clay would in all likelihood prevent further leaching into
ground water and contribute to recovery of ground water quality. Cost
of clay lining is estimated at $6,000. The average cost of ash ponding
is estimated to be $0.32 per wet ton ($0.35/metric ton) (Ref. VI-8).
Transport cost (piping) is estimated at $0.03 per wet ton ($0.03/metric
ton). Total cost of transport and ponding would thus be $0.35 per wet
ton ($0.38/metric ton), or $122,640 annually. Processing equipment
(chemical conditioning, vacuum filtration and incineration) would,add a
capital 'cost of $2,530,000 and an operating and maintenance cost,of
$1,110,000.
From a cost-effectiveness standpoint, the CROG staff determined that dry
land spreading is the BMP for sludge disposal. It is also the only
method by which some soil beneficiation may be achieved. At the same
time it will be imperative that the areas where spreading takes place be
monitored to detect any dangerous levels of heavy metals or other toxic
elements (See Appendix A). Even in properly operated disposal methods,
the possibility for ground water 'contamination exists (See Section 4).
For purposes of public presentation and consideration, the CROG staff
prepared information regarding cost and ground water factors for regarding
each sludge disposal alternative. This information is presented in
Table 6-7. CROG planners will present this technical information in
preparation for determining legal, institutional, and public acceptability.
223
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Table 6-7. EFFECTS OF WASTEWATER SLUDGES ON COST AND GROUND WATER
QUALITY FROM VARIOUS DISPOSAL PRACTICES
COSTS
Residual
Hastewater sludge
Total cost of alternative
Total cost of alternative
Total cost of alternative
Total cost of alternative
Landspreadlnq (Wet) _
Unit
Process
Transport & spread
chemical conditioning
Annual Capital
Cost
($1,000)
380.0
380.0
Annual 0 and M
Cost
($1,000)
2,201.0
30.0
2.231.0
Total Annual
Cost
($1,000)
2,201.0
410.0
2,611.0
Landspreadlng (Dry)
Transport & spread
chemical conditioning
& vacuum filters
830.0
830.0
136.0
57.0
193.0
136.0
887.0
1,023.0
Landfill Ing
Transport 4 placement
chemical conditioning
& vacuum filters
830.0
830.0
378.4
57.0
435.4
378.4
887.0
1,265.4
Disposal Ponds (ash)
Transport 4 ponding
chemical conditioning,
vacuum filtration,
& Incineration
2.530.0
2,530.0
122.6
1.110.0
1.232.6
122.6
3,640.0
3,762.6
EFFECTS
Land spread (wet)
Land spread (dry)
Landfill Ing
Disposal pond (ash)
Decrease In
dissolved oxygen
possible
possible
possible
none
Increase In
acidity
possible
possible
possible
none
Increase In
alkalinity
none
possible
none
possible
Increase 1n
ammonia
possible
possible
possible
none
Increase In
heavy metal
possible
possible
possible
possible
224
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6.6.2 Septage
About 20 percent of the CROG population is currently served by septic
tanks. This usage will decrease somewhat as sewer collection service is
extended to outlying areas.
6.6.2.1 Number of Septic Tanks - Approximately 84,000 households in
CROG are served by individual septic tanks. Most of these are located
in Quincy, Madison, and Washington Counties. The average volume of
wastewater directed to the septic tank system is estimated at 135 gallons
(0.51 m3) per day per household. Average solids content is about 4
percent (See Section 2.2).
6.6.2.2 Current Disposal of Septage - Septic tanks must be cleaned
about every 3 years. When the tanks are cleaned, the partially staba-
lized waste is transported in tank trucks to the nearest wastewater
treatment plant, where it undergoes stabilization, dewatering, and
disposal by land application (See Section 3). Fortunately the waste-
water treatment plants are not overloaded and can therefore accommodate
the septage. Agricultural and pasture lands in the outlying areas of
CROG can accommodate the septic tank wastes for the next 20 years.
Land Application of Septage
Soils in Madison, Washington, and Quincy Counties are acceptable for
land application of stabilized septic tank wastes; most of the soil is
fairly impervious. Ground water level ranges from 10 to 15 feet (3.05
to 4.75 M) below the surface. The population density in the three-
county area is relatively low. Since all of the septic tank waste and
most of the wastewater volume is from domestic population, there is
little danger of contamination of soil or ground water by heavy metals.
The average cost of treatment and disposal of septage by this method is
$8.91 per year per household. This cost includes annual amortized
capital and all operation and maintenance.
Landfill ing
Landfill ing of treated septic tank wastes (stabilized at 20% solids) is
possible at the several small sanitary landfills in CROG. Most of the
landfills take solid waste in the form of household refuse. However,
leaching into ground water is possible and suspected. Therefore, further
leaching must be prevented. Water quality could be projected from
further degradation if liners are installed as well as proper grading to
prevent runoff and erosion. At the same time this BMP would necessitate
the use of a monitoring system to detect any unsuspected contamination
of ground or surface waters. Thus the possibility of a long term
irreversible impact could be avoided. Landfill costs range from $3.05
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per ton for a 1,000-ton per-day ($3.36 per ton for 1,000 metric tons per
day) facility to $9.25 per ton for a 100-ton-per-day ($10.18 per ton for
100 metric tons per day) facility. This cost includes capital expendi-
ture, annual operating and maintenance costs, and amortization but
excludes the cost of land and the cost of transport to the landfill
site.
6.6.3 Water Treatment Sludges
The CROG area has seven major water treatment plants of capacity greater
than 1 mgd (3,800 nr/day). Locations of these plants are shown in
Figure 6-5. Besides the seven plants, which are publicly owned, several
privately owned, noncommunity systems serve campgrounds, motels, and
mobile home parks. The smaller of these plants generate relatively
insignificant quantities of sludge (See Section 2.3).
6.6.3.1 Present and Projected Sludge Quantities for the CROG Area
Population - Consultants retained by CROG estimate that in 1975 approxi-
mately 1,000 wet tons (908 metric tons) per day of sludge was generated.
Generation is projected to increase to about 3,000 wet tons (2,724
metric tons) per day in 1995.
6.6.3.2 Water Treatment Plants in CROG - Of the seven major water
treatment plants in CROG, three use the lime-soda softening process and
four use coagulation.
Some localities within the CROG area are without adequate supplies of
water. Although sources of water are plentiful over the area as a
whole, they are unevenly distributed.' Surface waters constitute the
primary source of water, providing about 75 percent of the total amount
of water processed. It is estimated that this ratio will hold during
the planning period (1970-1990).
6.6.3.3 Alternative Management Practices - Until recent years all of
the water treatment plants in CROG discharged their sludges into the
nearest watercourse. Current stream pollution regulations are curtailing
this practice and it is anticipated that by 1985 all water treatment
plants, large and small, will be required to refrain from discharging
any wastes into the rivers and streams.
Some of the smaller plants still discharge their sludges directly into
Main City's sewage system. This practice must soon be abandoned,
however, since Main City's wastewater treatment plant will no longer be
permitted to discharge sludge to the river.
Therefore, Plant No. 1 was suggested by CROC's Citizen Advisory Com-
mittee (CAC) as an example for consideration of management practices.
This plant has a capacity of 130 mgd (494,000 nvVday), and serves about
226
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Figure. 6-5. Location of the seven water treatment plants
227
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900,000 people. It provides coagulation treatment and now disposes of
its sludge by periodic discharge into the Central River. The alter-
native management practices evaluated for Plant No. 1 include land
spreading and lagooning.
Land Spreading
Wet land spreading pf the sludge is possible in the rural areas of
Washington, Quincy, and Madison Counties. The potential site nearest
plant No. 1 is in Washington County, about 15 miles (24 km) distant.
The site is remote from ground water courses. Soils in the area are
acceptable for land spreading. Surface waters could be protected from
degredation by employing contour plowing and excavation such that runoff
would be controlled. If necessary a detention pond could also be
constructed to intercept runoff before it reaches surface waters.
Surface waters in the area generally have a dissolved oxygen content of
9 mg/1 and BOD of 3 mg/1. If runoff to surface water is controlled
these values should remain unchanged. During and shortly after periods
of heavy precipitation some runoff from spreading sites may be expected
to reach local surface waters. This may cause a rapid rise in BOD (80
mg/1) but this will be short lived and return to normal in 48 hours or
less. An appearance of NH3 would also be short lived. Dissolved oxygen
may drop for this short period but also would return .to normal in 48
hours or less. Therefore no long term water quality deterioration will
result.
Transport of sludge to the area of land application would be by truck.
The average cost of disposal of the sludge by this method would be $19
per ton ($20.9/metric ton) of dry solids.
Lagooning
Lagooning of the sludge is possible at the same site in Washington
County. Lining of the lagoons would reduce the likelihood of ground
water pollution.
Transport of the sludge would be by tank trucks. Costs of disposal by
this method would range from $1.90 to $6.65 per dry ton ($2.09 to
$7.32/metric ton) of solids. These costs include capital and annual
operating and maintenance together with cost of short-distance transport
(generally by pipeline).
Protection of surface waters would become a.problem only If lagoons
received undue amounts of runoff during periods of precipitation. This
can .be easily avoided by diverting runoff through means of drainage
ditches and landscaping.
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The employment of either land spreading or lagooning of sludge at Plant
No. 1 is expected to increase the water quality of the stream presently
receiving the sludge. BOD is expected to decrease by 40 percent and SS
by 50 percent. Total coliform is projected to decrease by 85 percent
thus returning the stream to near normal conditions.
6.6.4 Municipal Refuse
In years past municipal refuse generated in the CROG area was disposed
of by open dumping and open burning. With the enactment of various
State and Federal laws, however, these methods became illegal. Though
some open burning and open dumping continued in isolated areas, the more
heavily populated municipalities began to use sanitary landfills. Main
City and its suburbs in Lee, Davis, Adams, and Jefferson Counties are
now experiencing further problems. The landfill that serves this
populated area has only 8 years operating life remaining. The nearest
site for location of a new landfill is about 20 miles (32 km), distant.
Thus trucking of refuse will require a 40-mile (64 km), round trip,
whereas only a 4-mile (6.4 km), round trip is currently required. -The
increased transport costs, coupled with ever increasing tonnage of
refuse and resultant operating costs will cause a drastic increase in
total disposal costs. Planners in the CROG area have therefore decided
to investigate other possible means of municipal refuse management.
6.6.4.1 Municipal Waste Generation - It is estimated that the urban
population served by the landfill is 1,260,747, with yearly qeneration
of 1,035,388 tons (940,133 metric tons) of municipal refuse. The per
capita generation rate is 4.5 pounds (2.04 kg) per day. Table 6-8 lists
the 1975 and projected 1995 waste generation tonnage for the urbanized
areas (-See Section 2.4).
Table 6-8. PRESENT AND PROJECTED MUNICIPAL REFUSE TONNAGES
FOR THE URBANIZED AREAS OF CROG
County
Adams
Davis
Jefferson
Lee
Total
Tons/year3
1975
93,018
167,726
596,553
178,091
1,035,388
1995
225,858
257,462
964,496
482,925
1,930,074
Estimated using the per capita generation rate of
4.5 Ib/day (2.0 kg/day).
229
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6.6.4.2 Possible Disposal Techniques - Several disposal techniques were
investigated to determine the best management practice: 1) baling and
compacting with subsequent landfilling of the bales, 2) incineration, 3)
shredding and material separation followed by composting and spreading
of the compost, and 4) shredding and material separation with subsequent
sale of the recovered commodities for reprocessing and combustion in
industrial or utility boilers as a supplement fuel (See Section 3).
After investigation, all but one of these alternatives were eliminated.
Baling and compacting would extend the life of the sanitary landfill by
only 4 years, which is not long enough to justify the high capital
investment. Incineration was eliminated because of high capital costs
and detrimental effect on local air quality. Also, incineration would
require an ash lagoon in which to thicken the slurried ash before it is
landfilled. Though some volume reduction would be realized, use of the
lagoons would extend the life of the landfill by only another 8 years
(16 years total life). Composting was eliminated because a market for
the compost could not be assured and the capital costs are high.
Manufacture^ a supplemental fuel after shredding and material separa-
tion appeared to be the most promising management practice for the
urbanized area. Various area specific circumstances contributed to this
situation. Solid waste collection in the area is controlled by three
private haulers and one public system of Main City, all of whom agreed
to deliver their municipal refuse to the central processing center at a
cost equal to or lower than tipping charges at the landfill. Several
large industries committed themselves to purchase of manufactured fuel
for the next 20 years. The cost on a million Btu basis would be about
half of their current fuel cost. In addition, all ferrous metals
recovered would be purchased by a local steel manufacturer for remelt.
With these substantial reductions in volume of waste for disposal, the
life of the landfill would be extended by as much as 24 years (32 years
total) and a secondary use would be found for as much as 80 percent of
the muncipal refuse. Moreover, because the residual waste for land-
filling would be relatively more inert than raw refuse, any leachate
should be less harmful.
Landfill Operation
Continued use of the landfill for residuals disposal will require only
minor changes. Soils at the landfill site are mostly silty clays with
minimal sand. For protection of ground water quality, a 2-foot-thick
(0.6 m) layer of clay will be compacted on the bottom and sides of the
landfill to form an impervious liner. As portions of the landfill are
completed the final cover layer will be laid such as to retard penetra-
tion of runoff into the landfill site thus reducing the amount of
leachate generated by the landfill. The land adjacent to the landfill
will be graded to divert overland runoff.
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Costs and Revenues from the Recovery Facilities
Estimated capital cost of shredders, mechanical separators, peripheral
equipment, buildings, and facilities, as well as operating and main-
tenance costs and income revenues are as follows:
Capital cost 98,569,000
(Amortized at 8% over 20
years level debt service)
Annual capital cost 4,928,450
Annual O&M 5,104.463
Total Annual Cost 10,032,913
Annual cash inflow from 13,967,383
tipping charges and fuel
sales
Net cash from Annual Operation 3,934,470
6.6.4.3 Rural Municipal Waste Management - CROG planners also sought
better management of refuse generated in the rural areas. Though the
efforts of county commissioners and the CAC all open dumps and burning
was discontinued and acceptable areas for landfills were located (Figure
6-6). One landfill was located in the northeast corner of Madison
county to serve the rural population of Lee and Davis counties and the
entire population of Madison county. The landfill is designed for 20-
year life, with a 2-foot-thick clay liner. A second landfill of similar
design was located in northwest Adams County to serve the rural areas of
Adams County and all portions of Washington and Quincy Counties.
Construction and operation of both landfills will be similar to that
discussed in Section 6.4.2.1 in order to reduce and control the leachate
in the landfill. Costs for these two landfills are as follows.
Landfill Tons/ Annual9 Annual Total
location day capital O&M cost/ton
Madison County 157 $111,553 $186,060 $6.08
Adams County 276 $143,774 $221,341 $4.24
a Amortized at 8% over 20 years level debt service.
In summary, the Best Management Practice for disposal of municipal
refuse in the CROG area consists of a blend of several management
techniques: (1) volume of wastes is reduced by shredding and material
231
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acceptable areas for sanitary
landfills or landspreading
N
Figure 6-6. Areas containing sufficient loess, alluvium, and
glacial drift to allow for landfill ing and land spreading.
232
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separation, (2) materials are recovered for reprocessing or combustion
values, (3) operation of the present landfill is improved by provision
of a clay liner and by grading to divert runoff from the site, and
(4) open burning and dumping in rural areas is discontinued and .two
well-designed landfills constructed for disposal of wastes in those
areas.
The blending of several management techniques to form this BMP will also
aid greatly in the preservation of water quality and in particular,
ground water. Table 6-9 lists the range of ground water characteristics
found in the area of the landfills. If the landfills are properly
operated this quality should remain unchanged.
Table 6-9. GROUND WATER
THE LANDFILL
CHARACTERISTICS AT
SITE
Characteristics
Conductivity
Chlorides
Total Hardness
Calcium
Alkalinity (methyl)
Caliform (Std.)
Nitrite - Nitrogen
Ammonia - Nitrogen
Nitrate - Nitrogen
COD
Value range
1700-1900 y mhos/cm
260-300 mg/1
345-390 mg/1 as CaC03
140-185 mg/1 as CaCOg
490-550 mg/1 as CaC03
0-25 colonies/100 ml
O.I mg/1
<1.0 mg/1
3.0-5.0 mg/1
3.0-5.0 mg/1
6.6.5 Combustion and Air Pollution Control Residuals
Electrical power stations are one of the major sources for generation of
combustion residuals in the CROG area. Most of the power stations are
coal-fired, and all operate high-efficiency fly ash control systems.
Therefore, ash is the basic residual to be dealt with by these plants
(See Section 2.5).
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6.6.5.1 Residual Ash Generation - The largest power plant in the CROG
area is the Abet Electric Plant located on the Central River, west of
Main City in Washington County (Figure 6-7). The plant has a rated
capacity of 1,000 megawatts (MW), consisting of one 500-MW unit and two
250-MW units. Ash residual from combustion is basically of two types,
bottom ash and fly ash. Approximately 200,200 wet tons (182,000 metric
tons) of bottom ash at 50 percent solids is produced annually. In
addition, 196,000 dry tons (178,000 metric tons) of fly ash is generated
annually. Also 1,454,000 tons (1,320,232 metric tons) of sludge at 50
percent solids is generated annually from SO,, emission control equipment.
6.6.5.2 Residual Ash Disposal - All residual ash and sludge generated
is now disposed of in an on-site lagoon. The slurried bottom ash and
sludge is pumped to the lagoon, and the fly ash is transported by
truck (See Section 3). This means of disposal is not considered accep-
table for several reasons. The lagoon is located on a flood plain and
is not lined. Periodic flooding causes the ash to wash into the river.
Further, the possibility of ground water contamination is high. Lastly,
the lagoon will be filled to capacity in 4 years.
6.6.5.3 Proposed Management Practices - After detailed investigation
planners in the CROG area as well as State officials and the CAC developed
a Best Management Practice based on two methods of disposal: (1) use of
fly ash as a bedding material in construction of roads and sewers, and
(2) improved lagooning of bottom ash and sludge. Because the CROG area
is developing rapidly, new roads are under construction and old ones are
being widened and repaired. In addition, new sewage lines are being
laid and old ones replaced. These activities require large volumes of
bedding material. Since fly ash makes for excellent bedding, CROG
planners decided to propose the power plant fly ash for this purpose.
In this way a residual is recycled, and the total volume requiring
disposal is reduced. A subcommitte of CAC was formed to negotiate an
agreement among highway and sewer district representatives with Abet
management to implement this BMP.
The presently operated lagoon will be shut down. A new lagoon for
disposal of bottom ash and sludge will be located approximately 5 miles
north of the present lagoon, away from the flood plains. Soils in the
area are acceptable for lagooning of the ash. The lagoon will be filled
to capacity, the excess water skimmed off, and the lagoon covered with
soil. Disposal wil] then be made in a second newly constructed lagoon.
Lagoons will be clay-lined and designed for 20-year life. Cost of the
lagooning operation is estimated as follows:
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MADISON
LOCATION OF ABET ELECTRIC PLANT
I
N
Figure 6-7. Location of the Abet Electric power plant.
235
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Total amortized capital cost $13,290,000
Annual capital cost 665,000
Annual 0 & M 1.515.000
Total annual cost $ 2,280,000
This BMP for disposal of combustion residuals exemplifies the integra-
tion of two disposal techniques - recycling and lagooning - into a
system that protects water quality of the CROG area. By applying this
BMP further addition of suspended solids from this source will be vir-
tually eliminated and ground water contamination will continue to be
prevented.
6.6.6 Industrial Wastes
The CROG area has a high concentration of industrial activity centered
in four counties: Jefferson, Lee, Davis and Adams. Major industrial
activity includes chemical processing, electroplating, plastics manufac-
ture, food processing, consumer product manufacture, and herbicide
production. Typically, these facilities discharge wastewater effluents
directly to municipally owned and operated wastewater treatment facilities.
Of the total daily flow treated by these facilities, the industrial
contribution averages 30 percent. Some of the industries in the CROG
area face extremely high sewage surcharges based on typical analyses of
COD, BOD, pH, and suspended solids made near the source of discharge
(See Section 2.6).
It is possible that by January 1977 industries will be required to
pretreat before discharge to municipal sewer systems. With this occur-
ance the practice of waste exchange may become feasible (See Section 3.5.4),
An example of waste exchange might be the exchanging of acid and alkaline
wastes by two industries for purposes of neutralization. Also resource
conservation such as reduction of hydraulic flows to reduce quantities
to be pretreated may also be practiced.
6.6.6.1 Industrial Wastes Residual Generation - Planners in the CROG
area are making a concerted effort to reduce pollution closer to its
source. Several of the CROG area industries .are attempting to pretreat
portions of their wastes on-site to reduce the level of contaminants
going down the sewers to the wastewater treatment plants. Such pretreat-
ment still creates residuals, which must be treated and handled separately
from the wastewater effluent. Other residuals are generated in certain
chemical process steps. Among the major residuals created by CROG area
industries are:
236
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0 Distillation bottoms/tops
0 Oily waste residuals
0 Lime sludged materials
0 Spent filter media
0 Spent catalysts
0 Dissolved salts
0 Tank storage farm runoffs
0 Cleanout residuals from process equipment washes
The amount of residuals generated by the CROC area industries is not
well-documented. A conservative estimate is 50 to 75 tons per day.
6.6.6.2 Industrial Waste Residual Disposal - Most of the CROG industries
are disposing of their residual wastes on an individual basis. Many of
the CROG industries operate chemical landfills on-site at the manufac-
turing facility. Such landfills are often unlined and are located on or
near floodplains, in sandy soils with high slope, and at minimum levels
above ground water. Some CROG industries are attempting to incinerate
their residuals, but such operations are energy-expensive and lead to
critical discharge of obnoxious and odorous gases. In addition to the
landfill and incineration practices, some industries are paying $1000
per truckload for hauling of less than a ton of residuals to a landfill
site across the State line. Industries paying for this service have no
idea where the residuals are disposed of, and are concerned that the
adjacent State officials may close the landfill.
These disposal practices are costly and are not environmentally safe.
One industrial spokesman indicates that whereas it costs only $2.50 per
ton ($2.75/metric ton) for him to dispose of his municipal refuse
(garbage, waste corrugate, packing materials, glass, etc.) it costs $75
to $100 per ton ($83 to $110/metric ton) to dispose of industrial refuse
in environmentally inadequate ways.
6.6.6.3 Proposed Industrial Residuals Disposal - The CROG has met with
major company officials from the four-county industrialized sector of
CROG to formulate a regional approach to handling of all industrial
wastes. The regional approach centers on a block of land located in
Madison County donated to the County in the estate of a wealthy resident.
Jt is stipulated that the land must be utilized by the County to esta-
blish a source of income for benefit of the people of Madison County.
Such derived income would be used for building recreational areas,
public transportation facilities, and other amenities generally unavail-
able to the rural people of Madison County.
The gently sloping land with highly impermeable soil is located away
from the floodplains. It is 2 miles (3,2 km) from the nearest concen-
tration of residents. The ground water table even at peak periods
seldom rises above 16 feet below the surface. Further, the site is
237
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accessible to highway transportation and can be reached in less than an
hour from any industrial site in the four-county area. CROG hopes to
eliminate individual chemical landfill operations by persuading Madison
County officials to establish a regional industrial chemical landfill on
this land.
This would be a positive step in the direction of water quality improve-
ment. Though it is not, collectively known what the water pollution load
is from the various industries it is suspected to be more than marginal
because of locations and mismanagement of individual lagoons and land-
fills. The use of one centralized landfill, properly located and
operated, would be a definite plus to water quality improvement.
Based on 100 tons/day, operating 312 days a year, CROC's consultants
believe that the industrial waste residuals generated over the next 20
years can be adequately landfilled on less than one-third of the land
available in Madison County. Industrial growth in the CROG area has
stabilized; current projections indicate only minor industrial expansions
over the next 20 years. CROG has recommended the establishment of a
service group, formed jointly by each county and operated by a private
contractor, to run the regional landfill (See Section 6.4). The service
group will be responsible for:
0 Safe and proper management of the chemica.1 lancjfill site.
0 Regular analyses in on-site laboratories of samples from
monitoring wells.
0 Segregation on the site of hazardous from nonhazardous residuals,
0 Record keeping, materials receipt, billing, and other adminis-
trative functions.
The industries will assume the cost of transport to the site and will
provide the service group with detailed analytical characterizations of
their residuals. Although responsibility for operation of the landfill
will be the service group's, industries will be held liable for any
problems resulting from unadequate characterization of their inputs to
the landfill. Since the industries will be hauling wastes to the
chemical landfill, any liabilities in this step rest with the hauler and
the industry {See Section 4).
Table 6-10 summarizes capital expenditures and operating and maintenance
costs associated with the proposed chemical landfill. One of the indus-
trial representatives familiar with a large chemical landfill operation
near Charleston, West Virginia, has stated that costs were as high as
$50 a ton, not including transport. CROG staff has determined that on
the basis of a high input rate per day and the economic savings of a
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Table 6-10. ESTIMATED ORDER-OF-MAGNITUDE COSTS TO OPERATE THE CROG AREAWIDE
CHEMICAL LANDFILL SITE
Tons/ day
100
Tons/year3
31 ,200
Capital b
expenditure *
2,710,108
Total
amortized
capital
costsd
5,436,476
Annual
amortized
capital
costs
271,823
Annual
O&Me
454,195
Total
annual
cost
726,018
Unit cost per
ton
23.27
ro
oo
vo
aBased on 312 days/year, 6 days/week, 8 hours/day.
bAll costs adjusted to represent 1976 dollars (i.e., 1976 = 100).
,3
GBased on an in-situ compacted density of 800 Ib/yd , 12 feet operating depth, and site efficiency of 85%
(6582 tons/acre). Includes site work, scales, roads, fences, structures, materials, installation, surface,
surveys, subsurface inventigations, operating equipment, contractor's overhead, a 45 mil Hypalon lining,
monitoring wells, and profit, etc. Does not include engineering and legal fees, contingencies, resource
recovery, land costs, collection and haul to the landfill, etc.
dAmortized at B% interest, 20 year term, level debt service.
Includes salaries and overhead, fuels, utilities, equipment maintenance and replacement, analytical
services, etc. Does not include collection and haul to the landfill, etc.
-------
regionalized operation, use of the proposed CROG facility should cost
only half as much on a unit basis as individual operation of facilities
with small daily inputs.
The State office of hazardous waste management intends to close all
landfills located on individual industrial properties. CROG planners
have met with State officials, and have received full sanction and
support for a regional chemical landfill. The CROG study shows that
nearly $2.00/ton ($2.20/metric ton), of the billed charges will be
returned to the County to fulfill the requirements of the late bene-
factor's will. The County will receive more than $60,000 per year for
use to improve the life and well-being of its citizens.
The efforts of the CROG planning staff have successfully brought together
local government and industry to create a regional entity to handle the
CROG industrial waste residuals. By overwhelming vote of representatives
from industry, from Madison County, and from other agencies in the CROG
area, the go-ahead has been given to develop the regional chemical
landfill.
The BMP for disposal of industrial wastes has resulted in this instance
from problem definition and technical evaluation, followed by administra-
tive efforts to achieve cooperation among groups having diverse interests.
The legal/institutional aspects of the project demanded considerable
skill in liaison among these groups to achieve a program that is bene-
ficial to the local industries, to the citizens of Madison County
through increased revenues to be expended on their behalf, and to all
citizens of the CROG area through improvement and protection of water
quality.
6.6.7 Feedlot Wastes
The livestock industry in CROG has evolved from small individual farm
operations to large-scale confinement feeding enterprises. Development
of confined feeding in CROG began in the mid-I9601s. Since then the
number of feedlots has increased by 5 percent and the number of animals
in confinement, by 60 percent.
Because of the advantages of confinement feeding it is predicted that
the trend will be towards fewer but much larger feedlots (See Section
2.7). Livestock producers will therefore be concentrating larger
volumes of livestock wastes into smaller areas. This problem will be
compounded by the progressively rising rate of urban growth in the CROG
region, since urbanization will reduce the amount of land available for
expanding feedlots and at the same time increase public contact with
feedlot operations. Disposal of livestock waste, therefore, is a
serious problem necessitating immediate action. The CROG CAC has begun
considering alternative plans with feedlot operators for developing
240
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sound management practices for the ultimate utilization and disposal of
animal wastes.
6.6.7.1 Feedlot Types, Locations. Numbers, and Sizes - Beef cattle and
swine are raised by confinement in CROG. Feedlots are operated in
Madison, Quincy, and Washington counties. All of the lots in Madison
County, and most of those in Quincy and Washington counties, are located
in exclusively agricultural areas. A few feedlots in Quincy and Washing-
ton Counties, however, are close to zones of increasing urban growth.
In addition, several of the lots of these two counties are located near
major lotic communities.
Of the 51 feedlots in CROG (30 beef, 21 hog, as shown in Table 6-11), 23
are located in Madison County. Beef cattle feedlots predominate in all
three counties.
In about 75 percent of the feedlots, livestock populations are 1000 head
or more. Each county includes several smaller lots (less than 1000 head
per lot), but most of the small lots are located on the flood plains of
Washington and Quincy Counties.
Table 6-11. NUMBER OF FEEDLOTS BY ANIMAL TYPE AND COUNTY
Washington County
Less than 1000 head
Greater than 1000 head
Subtotal
Quincy County
Less than 1000 head
Greater than 1000 head
Subtotal
Madison County
Less than 1000 head
Greater than 1000 head
Subtotal
Total
Feedlot number
Swine
3
5
8
2
2
4
2
7
9
21
Beef cattle
2
7
9
3
4
7
0
14
TT
30
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6.6.7.2 Quantities of Livestock Wastes - The present population of
cattle and hogs in the three counties of CROG is 300,000 head (Table 6-
12). Projections indicate that by 1995 the population will approach
400,000 head.
Annual production of feedlot manure can be determined by multiplying the
numbers and types of animals in Table 6-12 by their respective daily
manure production values. The current annual production of manure
(feces and urine) in CROG is approximately 1.9 million tons (1.7 million
metric tons) (Table 6-12). Manure quantities are expected to exceed 2.5
million tons (2.3 million metric tons) annually by 1995.
6.6.7.3 Problems Associated with Livestock Wastes - The major problems
arising from livestock wastes are due to the high total solids content
and large BOD and COD values. It is estimated that BOD concentrations
of livestock manure are 100 to 300 times greater than those of untreated
domestic sewage and that COD values are 100 to 400 times greater.
Microbial organisms in animal wastes present additional problems. Some
investigators have estimated that daily per capita discharge of total
coliforms in feces range from 5 x 109 to 10 x 109 cells for cattle and
hogs. Many of these cells are pathogenic. Color and odor are additional
but relatively minor problems.
Investigations have shown that after heavy storms the BOD values increase
substantially in the Central and Green Rivers at points where feedlots
are adjacent to the water. Measurements taken 15 hours after a 1-inch
rainstorm at a site 1 mile below a feedlot on the Central River showed
contents of 95 ppm BOD and less than 1 ppm oxygen. Such conditions
resulting from feedlot runoff have caused several fish kills in Washing-
ton and Quincy Counties.
In addition to the increase in BOD values in surface waters after storms,
enormous increases in fecal bateria counts have also been recorded. As
mentioned earlier many of these micro-organisms are pathogenic.
The potential for ground water contamination from runoff is relatively
great because of the high permeability of rock materials in the counties
of CROG (See Section 4).
6.6.7.4 Compliance Requirements - Both local and State environmental
and public health standards apply to feedlot wastes. Generally, the
regulations state that feedlot wastes should not be discharged into
public waterways unless they are pretreated sufficiently to meet the
established legal standards.
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Table 6-12. PROJECTED ANNUAL LIVESTOCK POPULATIONS AND MANURE PRODUCTION
Animal type
Beef Cattle
Number
Manure3, tons
Swine
Number
Manure , tons
Total number
Total manure tons
1975
200,000
1,934,500
100,000
18,740
300,000
1,953,240
1980
210,880
2,039,737
105,440
19,759
316,320
2,059,496
1985
224,580
2,172,250
112,290
21,043
336,870
2,193,293
1990
238,360
2,305,537
119,180
22,334
357,540
2,327,871
1995
264,620
2,559,537
132,310
24,795
396,930
2,483,332
ro
-P>
CO
Daily beef cattle manure production = 53 Ib per animal.
DDaily swine manure production = 9.8 Ib per animal.
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In addition to State and local regulations the U.S. EPA has recently
established several criteria for defining feedlots as point sources that
require a permit from the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES) (40 CFR 125). Most of the feedlots in CROG may be
affected by criteria that defines a feedlot as a point source. In
addition, several of the small lots in Washington and Quincy Counties
would be classified as point sources because they are located on the
floodplains and involve discrete discharges to a navigable stream.
6.6.7.5 Current Management Practices for Handling Livestock Wastes -
The predominant method of handling cattle feedlot manure in the CROG
counties involves anaerobic digestion with lagoons to catch the runoff.
The topography of the region permits gravity flow. Excess solids that
accumulate on the floor of the feedlots are spread on crop lands for
recovery of fertilizer values. (The total quantity of raw manure
produced in CROG in 1975 was equivalent to 15,800 tons (14,364 metric
tons) of nitrogen, 4,780 tons (4,340 metric tons) of phosphorous, and
10,600 tons (9,625 metric tons) of potassium). Periodically the lagoons
are drained and these wastes are irrigated to the land.
Management of hog manure in CROG involves the collection of wastes in a
shallow pit with an overflow to a lagoon, which is irrigated to crop
land when weather permits. When weather prevents irrigation the over-
flow is stored in the lagoon. The collection pits are drained with a
manure tanker periodically to remove settled solids.
Because of weather conditions, cropping practices, and availability of
labor, accumulated manure cannot be placed on fields daily. The required
temporary storage is usually accomplished simply by permitting the
manure to accumulate in the buildings or on feedlots.
The farming equipment used for other agricultural operations is also
used to handle feedlot manure. The wastes are removed and spread by
means of tractors, manure spreaders, and small irrigation equipment.
Some of the feedlots are encircled with dikes, terraces, or diversion
channels to control runoff. In the^areas of the CROG region where
limestone and sandstone are predominant, synthetic or earthen liners are
used to retard the migration of hazardous materials into aquifers (See
Section 3).
6.6.7.6 Typical Cost of Current Management Practices - Unit input costs
for wastes from beef cattle range from $0.82 per wet ton ($0.90/metric
ton) for a 100-head feedlot to $0.33 per wet ton ($0.36/metric ton) for
a 20,000-head lot. Costs for swine wastes range from $5.93 to $3/30 per
wet ton ($6.53 to 3.63/metric ton) respectively for 250-'and 1,000-head
lots.
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6.6.7.7 Potential Management Practices for Handling Livestock Wastes -
Some of the potential management practices for handling of livestock
wastes warrant further consideration. Among these, the recovery and
refeeding of foods and nutrients in fresh manures is a potential best
management practice. It would significantly reduce the volumes of solid
and liquid wastes, with potential economic benefits and conservation of
feed grains.
The industrial waste treatment method involving coagulation and clari-
fication coupled with vacuum filtration and/or centrifugation also has
potential for adaptation to treatment of agricultural wastes.
The overall management practices for handling livestock wastes in CROG
contribute to water quality degradation and present high potential to
continue particularly where feedlots are located near surface water.
Therefore, development of BMP's for collection and treatment of feedlot
wastes should continue {See Section 6.6.7.5). In addition, fundamental
change in permitted location of feedlots in CROG is required. Measures
should be taken to prohibit further location of feedlots on floodplains
and other water quality sensitive areas and to require removal of existing
feedlots to less sensitive areas. Preventive measures in the future may
take the form of changed zoning provisions. Corrective measures may
involve promulgation and enforcement of standards contained in EPA's
proposed feedlot regulations (40 CFR 125). Removal of feedlots from
flood plains would completely eliminate contaminents from those point
sources.
In the interim, the requirement for compliance with standards at the
local, State, and Federal levels will provide some protection for the
CROC water quality.
An ultimate BMP for handling of feedlot wastes probably will entail
development of recovery/refeeding and waste treatment technologies,
perhaps along with cooperative enterprise among livestock producers for
centralized processing facilities.
6.6.8 Mine Wastes
Located in the southeast corner of Madison County is a small 2,000 ton
(1,816 metric ton) per day coal strip mine. Though this mine is not
large by relative standards, it generates solid and liquid wastes in
substantial amounts (See Section 2*8).. Disposal of these wastes has
been a problem almost since the start of the mining operation. Over-
burden and processing wastes from the-stripped areas have been piled in
mounds. Runoff from the mounds and the stripped areas has seriously
polluted a nearby receiving stream. As a result of a sharp decrease in
the pH of stream water most vegetation and aquatic life has been elimi-
nated for 2 miles (3.2 km) downstream from the point of discharge.
245
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6.6.8.1 Corrective Action - Numerous complaints were registered from
local citizens, fishing and outdoor clubs, as well as the CAC concerning
the impacted stream. CROG area officials realized that some corrective
action must be taken to prevent further adverse environmental impact.
After conducting surveys of the strip mine area, the CAC met with
engineers, planners, state mine officials, an outside consultant, and
the strip mine owners to decide on a recommended method for management
of the mine wastes.
It was recommended that all areas thus far stripped be reclaimed by
grading the stockpiles of processing wastes (estimated at 2 tons (1.8
metric tons) for every ton of coal mined), and overburden. At the same
time grading will be done to divert runoff (estimated at 250 gallons/
minute), to one local facility for treatment before release into the
nearby receiving stream. The water treatment will consist primarily of
pH adjustment and to reduce the acidity and retention in a settling pond
to reduce the turbidity of the mine water. These fairly simple techni-
ques are considered as a BMP for disposal of mine wastes until such time
as the mine is depleted and more extensive reclamation and revegetation
are performed.
It is expected that the receiving stream will adjust itself back to its
normal pH value of about 6.5 and soon afterwards become repopulated with
aquatic life. Costs for reclamation are estimated at $1.05 per ton
($1.16/metric ton) of processing waste. Chemical treatment is estimated
at $1.46 per 1000 gallons (3785 liters). Total annual cost is therefore
estimated at $1,283,800. The approach to, and the results of the
technical BMP is clear. However, applying this BMP is constrained by
costs to the mine operator since public funds are not available for
reclamation. Moreover, these costs are probably unrecoverable because
uneven application of the State Mine Reclamation Act will prevent the
mine operator from raising coal price accordingly since other mine
owners will become more competitive. Therefore, application of the BMP
under these conditions appears unattainable.
Consequently, the CROG Board of Commissioners has decided to follow the
recommendation of the CAC and to petition the State legislature for an
improved Mine Reclamation Act and sufficient funds for its enforcement
(See Legal/Institutional Section 6.6). Successful passage of the Act
amendments and diligent enforcement will result in applying the desired
BMP in CROG as well as throughout the State.
6.6.9 Dredge Spoil Residuals
Several portions of the Central River have been dredged extensively so
that the river can be negotiated by heavy barges and other vessels. In
the past hydraulic dredges have merely pumped the dredge spoils behind
earthen dikes along the river bank. Spring floods have caused severe
erosion of these earthern dams and subsequent erosion of the dredge
materials.
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6.6.9.1 Quantity of Dredge Spoil - Of particular concern is that
portion of the Central River that enters into the CR.OG area to form the
common boundary of Washington and Davis Counties. River water quality
is becoming increasingly impaired as a result of erosion and subsequent
runoff. The earthen dams containing dredge spoils have been severely
eroded, while at the same time poor farming practices have also contri-
buted heavily to erosion, runoff, and subsequent sedimentation and high
suspended solids in the river. It is estimated that approximately
200,000 cubic yards (152,920 nr) of spoil must be dredged to make the
river safe for navigation (See Section 2.9).
6.6.9.2 Dredging and Dredge Spoil Disposal - The Army Corps of Engineers
is responsible for maintaining navigable channels in the CROG area. The
need for redredging the channel in this portion of the river was obvious,
but disposal of dredge spoil posed a problem. Also, control measures
were required to prevent rapid recurrence of sedimentation in the
channel.
Preventive measures were integrated into the overall plan for management
of dredge spoil residuals. Erosion from agricultural fields is being
dealt with through joint cooperation of the Corps, the State Department
of Conservation, and local farmers. By use of contour plowing, cover
crops, drainage, and other practices, the farmers can prevent excessive
and unnecessary erosion and runoff. In addition, the deposition of
dredge spoil on the river banks has been discontinued. Earthen dikes
were constructed in new areas above flood stage for deposition of the
dredge spoil. Hydraulic dredges pump the spoils to that point.
Before the dredging began, samples of the sediments were taken from the
river bottom and analyzed for potentially toxic heavy metals and nitro-
genous materials. Since the analyses indicated no dangerous level of
any of the constituents, the sediment was judged to be safe for land
disposal and pose no threat to the ground water quality. The,new
disposal area lies about 0.13 mile (0.19 km) south of the river. Since
the spoils apparently contain no dangerous constituents, the disposal
area was not lined.
6.6.9.3 Estimated Costs - Cost of dredging operations is estimated at
$118,000 or at a cost of $0.59 per wet ton ($0.65/metric ton). This
cost will be absorbed by the Army Corps of Engineers. Some assurance
that these costs will be well spent may result from close coordination
of CROG with a Corps representative recently appointed to CAC's conserva-
tion sub-committee (See Legal/Institutional in Section 6.6). In addition
these costs will insure reduced levels of turbidity in river water which
was often recorded during and after period of precipitation.
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6.6.10 Overview of BMP's In CROG
Planners in the CROG area have developed a comprehensive scheme for
management of residual wastes. Addressing all of the major waste
categories, they have initiated both preventive and ameliorative prac-
tices, including land spreading, landfilling, pond disposal, lagooning,
land reclamation, chemical treatment, shredding and separation, recycling/
recovery, centralization of treatment facilities, and relocation of
facilities within a feasible legal and institutional framework. These
practices are used in conjunction with secondary supporting techniques,
such as grading, lining, diking, trenching, and other structural methods
by which further degradation of water quality can be prevented.
Not all of these practices could be undertaken simultaneously; delays
resulted from both technical and institutional barriers to effective
action. Eliciting cooperation and maintaining the momentum toward
improvement has been a major aspect of the total planning effort.
Further, the CROG planners are aware that these Best Management Practices
are not static, but must undergo continual assessment as new problems
arise and new technologies appear.
Planners must recognize that an agency, such as CROG cannot presently
implement its plans directly. As was described earlier in the Handbook,
planning agencies are dependent upon other legal-ly-empowered agencies
and traditional organizations for plan implementation (See Sections
5.1.3 and 5.2.5.8). Planning agencies similar to CROG can organize and
analyze data on an areawide or State basis transcending traditional
jurisdictional interests and boundaries. Planning agencies can evaluate
broad concerns, such as a variety of residual waste categories and
problems, land use, transportation, finance, legal questions, and poten-
tial institutional arrangements and their interrelationships. This
broad view allows planning agencies to arrive at plans that incorporate
provisions for implementation by others, such as describing the appro-
priate form of intergovernmental mechanisms. Planning agencies can also
help coordinate these implementation efforts and serve as an arbitrator
in implementation. Agencies like CROG can provide the medium for citizen
participation and a forum for the public's preferences. These are
functions that are beyond the realm of any single implementing organiza-
tion, such as a sewer district.
248
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REFERENCES
VI-1 Neptune, M.D. Best Management Practices to Minimize Water Pollu-
tion Due to Residual Wastes. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Paper. Draft. February 1976.
VI-2 Toftner, R.O. Developing a Local and Regional Solid Waste Manage-
ment Plan. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. U.S. Government
Printing Office. 1973. 29 p.
VI-3 Cook, Peter L., and Ned Cronin. Manual for Preparation of Environ-
mental Impact Statements for Wastewater Treatment Works, Facilities
Plans, and 208 Areawide Waste Treatment Management Plans. Environ-
mental Protection Agency. August 1973. 35 p.
VI-4 Warner, M.L., and D.W. Bromley. Environmental Impact Analysis: A
review of Three Methodologies. Wisconsin University, Madison,
Institute for Environmental Studies. Office of Water Resources
Research. Grant No. 14-31-0001-3354. 1974. 68 p.
VI-5 PEDCo-Environmental Specialists, Company Files.
VI-6 PEDCo-Environmental Specialists, Inc. Demonstration of a Developed
Methodology for the Ultimate Disposal of Residual Wastes. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Contract No. 68-01-3503. 1975.
183 p.
VI-7 Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations. An information
report; a handbook for interlocal agreements and contracts.
Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967. 197 p.
VI-8 Wyatt, J.M., and P.E, White, Jr. Sludge Processing, Transporta-
tion, and Disposal/Resource Recover: A Planning Perspective.
Engineering-Science, Inc. EPA Contract No. 68-01-3104. April
1975.
VI-9 Ridgewood Army Weapons Plant Evaluation and Resource Recovery
Feasibility Study. PEDCo-Environmental Specialists, Inc. April
1975.
VI-10 McMichael, W.F. Cost of Hauling and Land Spreading of Domestic
Sewage Treatment Plant Sludge. National Environmental Research
Center, Office of Research and Development. U.S. EPA. Cincinnati,
Ohio. February 1974.
VI-11 PEDCo-Environmental Specialists, Inc. Company Files. 1975.
249
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APPENDIX A. FIELD MONITORING AND SAMPLING
INTRODUCTION
Before developing a monitoring system, the planner must determine exactly
what is expected of it. Is it merely to track the progress of expected
ground water contamination? Is it to serve as a warning that a containment
method has failed? An effective monitoring system for waste disposal
lands should provide adequate data to permit an accurate evaluation of
immediate and potential long-term contamination effects. In practice,
however, most monitoring facilities are designed to detect only surface-
water and ground water pollution, with little if any attention given to
possible short-term or long-term effects of background pollutants that
reenter the environment from soil or plant storage areas.
In design of the monitoring system. The planner should evaluate his
need for other than routine information, which will affect the kinds of
measurements taken as well as their frequency. If data are needed on
surface runoff, for example, the system should provide not only for
periodic water sampling and analysis but for concurrent volume-of-flow
measurements and perhaps for nonscheduled sampling immediately after
major precipitation periods.
The planner should consider the relative merits of the available moni-
toring techniques for application to his project. Recent studies, for
example, suggest that monitoring systems based on observation wells may
not be the most effective means of tracing contaminant flow or of
determining concentrations of chemicals in ground waters. Chemical
analyses of soil core samples are sometimes more effective in yielding
good data and usually provide a faster, easier, and less expensive
monitoring method (Ref. A-l, 2).
As a base for the following discussion of disposal site monitoring,
Figure A-l depicts the possible avenues by which contaminants from the
site can enter the environment. All of these avenues must be effec-
tively monitored to provide optimum detection results.
A-l
-------
ATMOSPHERE
OVERLAND
RUNOFF
0
o
LAND DISPOSAL
SITE
o
REMOVAL IN
CROPS
SOIL V PLANT RESIDUE
RETENTION GROUNOWATER RETENTION
RECHARGE
Figure A-l. Paths of contaminants from disposal site
to the environment.
SAMPLING POINT DISTRIBUTION
Distribution and number of sampling points usually are dictated by
geologic, hydrologic, and chemical complexities. Under ideal conditions,
where the underlying earth materials are fairly homogeneous, impermeable,
and uniformly sloping in one direction, only three sampling points
should be required. For optimum results, these three points are equally
spaced on a line through the center of the disposal area, extending from
the area of highest water table and earth material base elevation directly
downs lope to the area of lowest elevations on the property. Theoreti-
cally, under such an arrangement, the direction of ground water flow and
the changes in chemical concentration with distance of travel should be
readily discernible providing ground water flow is uniform. In nature,
however the earth materials are not homogeneous, and the flow paths of
ground water through any given profile may be extremely variable and
complex. In addition, more than one aquifer may be present, and if so,
each of these may have to be monitored by use of a number of three-
station lines. In complex systems such as these, the preferable pattern
of sampling stations is a square-grid network uniformly distributed
throughout the entire disposal area and the contiguous downgradient
lands likely to be adversely affected.
RECOMMENDED MONITORING PROCEDURES
Background data on all potential contamination-dissipation regimes
should be obtained at all sampling stations just prior to the first
application of waste material on the disposal land. At least one
sampling station should be positioned far enough upslope from the
disposal lands to ensure that its data always will be representative of
natural-state conditions in the area. Also, before disposal begins,
collection and evaluation of all available topographic, sail, vegetation,
fauna, geologic and hydrologic maps, and other published information of
this type is recommended. These data and a detailed inventory of all
surface-water bodies and wells in the immediate vicinity (including
complete chemical analyses of water samples from each of these) may
A-2
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prove to be invaluable later on if definition of environmental degrada-
tion from the waste disposal site ever is required.
After the site has been placed in service, sampling from all designated
sampling stations should be on a frequency that ensures accurate mean-
ingful data. Depending upon the facility to be investigated, some of
the six primary dissipation avenues shown in Figure A-l may not have to
be continuously monitored after operations begin. For example, solid
waste landfills that are properly installed and efficiently operated
should not cause significant degradation of air, surface water, soil, or
vegetational quality. On the other hand, monitoring instrumentation for
all six of the major dissipation regimes might have to be Installed at a
land spreading or irrigation disposal site.
VEGETATION
Plant uptake of toxicants can be effectively evaluated by chemical
analysis of composite vegetational samples collected periodically from
each of the regular sampling stations (Ref. C-l). The primary reason
for this sampling is to ascertain the quantity of pollutants leaving the
field in harvested portions of crops, or being returned to the field for
possible later recycling in unharvested plant residue. Plant samples
should be collected just at harvest time, or if the entire plant is left
in the field, after the plant becomes dormant in the late fall. At such
times, maximum toxicant accumulations should be present.
SURFACE WATER
Overland runoff from the disposal area may never occur. If it does
happen frequently and in appreciable amounts, monitoring facilities must
be provided to obtain representative water samples and corresponding
volume-of-flow measurements. Sampling should be done throughout the
entire period when overland runoff is occurring to provide data required
for plotting of meaningful concentration and volume-of-flow graphs. A
comparable procedure also must be followed to monitor any drainage-title
discharge that might be associated with a land-disposal project.
SOILS
Soil retention and possible later release of stored toxicants should be
monitoried periodically by chemical analyses of soil core samples
obtained from the entire vertical column of earth material likely to be
adversely affected. A minimum of three and no more than nine core test
stations are required on each parcel of land receiving waste material.
In arid regions, if waste liquid application rates always are maintained
below evaportranspiration losses, soil monitoring probably would not be
A-3
-------
required except possibly to define the potential for long-term plant
toxicity buildup (Ref. C-l). In humid regions, frequent soil sampling
may have to be considered as an essential part of all monitoring pro-
grams. In these regions normal precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration
rates at least part of most years so that periodic ground water recharge
and surface-water runoff inevitably occur. Thus, the potential is great
for soil- or plant-retained contaminants to migrate from the site. For
this reason, soil samples may have to be collected in humid regions as
often as twice yearly at each sampling stations. The samples should be
from depth intervals no greater than 5 feet apart and at every lithologic
change. Each test hold should extend into the uppermost dense, imper-
meable formation that everywhere in the area lies below the lowest
water-table elevation that is likely to ever occur.
Initial soil-core test probes made to obtain background data should be
placed at the center of each designated sampling station. Subsequent
cores may be taken at appropriately divided grid intersection points
within the allotted area of the station. If possible, each core hole
should be kept open for approximately 24 hours so that a meaningful
water-level reading can be obtained for use in defining the water-table
gradient. Then the hole should be refilled to the surface with com-
pacted clay or dry bentonite to prevent possible later entry of con-
tamination from the surface to underlying deposits via this excavation.
Several methods of soil sample collection are acceptable. For uncon-
solidated formations, dry-sampling techniques such as coring with
Shelby-tube or .split-spoon samples, drilling with air rotary equipment,
or augering with either hollow stem or solid flight augers are normally
recommended, usually in this listed order of preference. The wet-
sampling technique most commonly used in unconsolidated materials and in
most consolidated rock formations is cable tool or direct-circulation
mud rotary drilling. The wet-sampling technique normally is not as
preferable because the drilling liquids used during excavation may
infiltrate the formations being sampled.
As soon as possible after soil samples have been collected, they should
be sealed in appropriate airtight containers to prevent loss of moisture
content and to minimize atmospheric effects. The more complex contami-
nant constituents may require use of special preservation additives and
temperature-control measures. Glass containers with alluminum- or
teflon-lined caps usually must be employed for storing and transporting
soil samples containing hydrocarbon contaminats.
GROUND WATER
Ground water contamination from land disposal sites should be minimal if
the site and contiguous lands are underlain by only dense, impermeable
A-4
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clay or shale formations. In such earth materials, the rate of ground
water movement may be less than 10 feet per year; thus, toxic chemical
buildup and the movement of toxicants beneath such affected lands
usually can be effectively monitored by chemical analyses of earth
samples from only a few strategically placed core holes. If, however,
the unconsolidated earth material above impermeable bedrock contains
several extensive water-bearing stringers or beds of silt, sand, or
gravel, core-test monitoring may not be applicable or may have to be
supplemented by chemical analyses'of ground water samples. These are
obtained from properly positioned observation wells in each water-
bearing unit.
A dry method of drilling (hollow stem auger or air rotary) is preferred
for installation of observation wells to ensure minimal adulteration of
screened portions with liquids from external sources. In very permeable
aquifers however, a mud rotary type of excavation may have to be used to
prevent caving before the required casing, screen, and sealant materfal-s
are installed.
Monitor-well casing and screen must be of a material not readily affec-
ted by contaminants in the waters sampled. The inside diameter of the
casing should be large enough to permit ready collection of periodic
water samples with a pump, bailer, or some other water-extraction
device. A 2- to 4-inch diameter well usually is adequate, although
diameters as small as 1 inch have been successfully employed. Large
diameters wells generally are undesirable because they are difficult to
flush prior to sampling.
Most monitor wells now in service are samples with a bailer-type device
that is repeatedly lowered and removed from the well until all water
stored in the casing has been removed and the hole contains only fresh
water from the aquifer. When several feet of stored water must be
removed, considerable time and effort are required to obtain a sample by
the bailer method. Another disadvantage is that with repeated use
(often without proper cleaning) a dirty bailer may introduce contami-
nants from one installation into another.
For these reasons, permanently installed pumping equipment 1s desirable
for monitor wells that require frequent sampling. Pumps suitable for
this use may be prohibitive in cost, however, particularly if a con-
siderable number of wells must be pumped. In such cases an air-lift
pumping device may be appropriate.
After a monitoring well is installed, considerable well development work
may be required. Of primary concern 1s the removal of any surface-
derived contamination inadvertently introduced during construction.
Well development usually consists of frequent surging and flushing until
A-5
-------
the installation produces relatively clear and chemically stable water.
This may be accomplished in only a few hours if the well is screened in
sand or gravel, but may require a month or more if the well is finished
in predominantly silt or clayey water-bearing units. Routine monitoring
of an observation well should begin only after full development.
Every monitoring well should be flushed of its stored water immediately
prior to each sampling. When the well cannot be pumped dry, flushing
equivalent to about 5 well-casing volumes is usually considered adequate.
As with soil samples, the collected water samples should be preserved in
a state as natural as possible until laboratory analysis can be completed.
Preservation may require special chemical additives, storage containers
that are nonreactive, and temperature control measures.
Some parameters, such as pH, temperature, and alkalinity should be
determined .from a sample in the field. Further analysis of most of the
chemical constituents is usually done in a laboratory (See Appendix B).
PIEZOMETERS
Although the terms piezometer and observation well are commonly used
interchangeably, there is a significant difference between them. As
implied by its name, a piezometer is a pressure measuring device,
frequently used for monitoring: 1) water pressure in earthen dams or
under foundations, and 2) artesian pressure in confined aquifers. The
piezometer, a porous tube or plate in the former and a screened well or
open hole in the latter, is isolated from other pressure environments by
an impermeable seal of either clay or cement. Water samples represen-
tative of a specific horizon can be obtained from well-type piezometers,
a highly desirable factor in designing a monitoring program. Piezo-
meters can also be used to measure vertical head differences under
unconfined conditions if the well screen is properly isolated by an
impermeable seal immediately above the screen. Any well constructed
without this seal cannot be considered a piezometer. However, there is
a significant difference in application to landfill leachate monitoring
between a piezometer and a well screened over a single vertical inter-
val. The relatively impermeable annular seal will prevent downward
movement of leachate into contaminated zones of the aquifer.
TRENCH LYSIMETERS
Several investigators have used trench lysimeters to sample gravity
water from irrigation or rainfall in the near-surface zone of aeration.
In normal practice, a wood-reinforced trench or concrete-ring caission
is installed to a depth of 10 to 30 feet below land surface. Pans or
open end pipes are forced out of the trench or caissionv through access
ports into the subsoil. These collecting devices intercept percolating
A-6
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water and conduct it to sample bottles inside the trench. Only after
irrigation or precipitation is there enough water infiltrating the
subsoil to collect a sample (Ref. A-3, 4, 5).
Due to the potential accumulation of hazardous gases generated by decom-
position of landfill material, the use of an open trench or caisson to
sample leachate in or under a landfill can be risky. Artificial ven-
tilation and gas monitoring devices are required to prevent injury to
personnel collecting samples inside the trench. All in all, the method
has little to recommend it.
PRESSURE VACUUM LYSIMETERS
Suction lysimeters have been used by a variety of investigators, includ-
ing engineers, soil scientists, and hydrogeologists, to obtain samples
of in-situ soil moisture. They are predominantly in the zone of aera-
tion, but can easily be used to sample ground water. This device, in its
most improved form, consists of a porous ceramic cup capable of holding
a vacuum, a small-diameter, sample accumulation chamber of PVC pipe, and
two sampling tubes leading to the surface. Once the lysimeter is
emplaced, a vacuum is applied to the cup. Soil moisture moves into the
sampler under this gradient, and a water sample gradually accumulates.
The vacuum is then released and pressure is applied, forcing the accumu-
lated water to the surface through the sampling tube.
The technology of lysimeter utilization is well established. Lysimeters
have been used to trace: pollution from septic tanks, synthetic deter-
gents, and colliery spoil heaps (Ref. A-5, 6, 7, 8).
SURFACE WATER
Streams which are ground water discharge areas for disposal sites can
often be used to advantage in a monitoring program. Any deterioration
in quality between a point just upstream of the site to a point-just
downstream would be a direct indication of contamination. Prior to the
adoption of stream monitoring, however, it is essential to determine
that the residual site is the only potential source of contaminants in
the reach under consideration - a sewer outfall on the opposite bank,
for example, would probably make this approach infeasible. Sampling
points, methods, and frequency must be determined on the basis of the
characteristics of the stream involved. They are highly site specific.
Stream monitoring may also be used to determine the effects of deli-
berate or accidental surface runoff.
A-7
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Existing springs in the vicinity of the site are obvious candidates for
monitoring, as are seeps which may develop after the site becomes
operational.
ELECTRIC RESISTIVITY
The use of the electrical resistivity method to detect and delineate
ground water contamination is described in Section 4.4.5.1. Because of
the expense involved, it is not suitable as a routine monitoring method,
but in some cases it can be valuable in long-term studies.
A-8
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REFERENCES
A-l Walker, William H., Theodore R. Peck, and Walter D. Lembke, Farm
Ground water Nitrate Pollution - A'Case Study. American Socity of
Civil Engineers Reprint Series 1842. National Meeting at Houston,
1972.
A-2 Walker, William H., and J.P. Gibb., Field Verification of Industrial
Hazardous Material Migration from Land Disposal Sites in Humid
Regions. First Annual Progress Report for Grant R803216, EPA,
Cincinnati, Ohio (Unpublished Report).
A-3 Parizek, R.R., and B.E. Lane. Soil-water sampling using pan and deep
pressure-vacuum lysimeters. Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 11.
pp. 1-21. 1970.
A-4 Olien Braids, personal communication, August 1975.
A-5 Nassau-Suffolk Research Task Group. Final Report of the Long
Island Ground Water Pollution Study. New York State Department
of Health,'Albany, New York. 1969.
A-6 Manbeck, D.M. Presence of Nitrates Around Home Disposal Waste Sites.
1975 Annual Meeting Preprint, Paper No. 75-2066. American Society
Agricultural Engineers. 1975.
A-7 Annual Report on Dispersion and Persistence of Synthetic Detergents
in Ground water, San Bernardino and Riverside Counties. Department
of Water Resources, The Resources Agency of California. A Report
to the State Water Quality Control Board, Interagency Agreement
No. 12-17, 1963.
A-8 James, T.E. Colliery Spoil Heaps in J.A. Cole, Ed. Ground Water
Pollution in Europe. Water Information Center, Port Washington,
New York. 1974.
A-9
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APPENDIX B - LABORATORY PROCEDURES FOR RESIDUAL WASTES
The purpose of this section is to acquaint the planner with the proce-
dures, methods of collection and preservation of residual waste related
samples, and the basic analyses performed for determining residual waste
deposition effects upon water quality. It is assumed that qualified
laboratory personnel would actually collect the samples and analyze them
either in a field or permanent laboratory (Ref. B-l).
PRESERVATION
Preservation of samples is difficult because most all preservatives
interfere with some of the tests. Immediate analysis is ideal; however,
since this is usually impossible for most tests, storage at a low tem-
perature (4C) is perhaps the best way to preserve most samples until the
next day. No single method of preservation is entirely satisfactory,
and the preservative should be chosen with due regard to the determi-
nations that are to be made. Table B-l is a list of suggested preser-
vation methods for various parameters plus the length of time they can
be held prior to analysis. A general preservative for sludge and
sediment samples is to add 5 grams of sodium benzoate or 1 millilHer of
sulfuric acid for each 80 grams of sample, provided that these preserva-
tives do not interfere with the tests to be made.
CHAIN OF CUSTODY
It is possible that analytical results could be used as evidence in
legal proceedings. For this reason it is important that the presence of
the sample be accounted for from the time of collection until the sample
is analyzed.
This accounting is generally referred to as "chain of custody" (Ref. B-
2). Since most samples must be transported back to the laboratory for
analysis, it is good practice to treat each sample as though the results
will be used in legal proceedings.
The field notebook is an excellent and acceptable means of assistance in
the recall of facts and circumstances in the event of adjudication.
Examples of information to be recorded should include the following.
B-l
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Table B-l. METHODS OF PRESERVATION
Parameter
PH
Conductivity
Residue
COD
TOC
Kjeldahl nitrogen
Chloride
Sulfate
Phosphate
Alkalinity
Acidity
Nitrate
Nitrite
Ammonia
Metals
Hardness
BOD
Preservation
Cool 0 4°C
Cool 0 4°C
Cool 0 4°C
H2S04 <2pH
Cool 0 4°C
H2S04 <2pH
Cool 0 4°C
H2S04 <2pH
None required
Cool 0 4°C
Cool 0 4°C
Cool 0 4°C
Cool 0 4°C
Cool 0 4°C
H2S04 <2pH
Cool 0 4°C
Cool 0 4°C
H2S04 <2pH
HN03 <2pH
HN03 <2pH
Cool 0 4°C
Max. time3
4 hrs.
24 hrs.
7 days
7 days
24 hrs.
7 days
7 days
7 days
24 hrs.
24 hrs.
24 hrs.
24 hrs.
24 hrs.
6 mos.
7 days
24 hrs.
a While maximum times have been listed, samples should be analyzed
as soon as possible.
Source: Ref. B-l.
B-2
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Sampling location
Time and date
Weather conditions
Sampling method - grab sample, automatic
composites, etc.
Method of preservation
Disposition of sample - transferred to
John Smith for transport to lab, mailed
to lab, stored prior to transporting
to lab, etc.
The sampler should sign each page of his field notebook in order to
strengthen the case for its authenticity. If the sampler transfers the
samples to someone else, the person receiving the samples should indi-
cate so and sign the field notebook. If samples are sent through the
mail, they should be sent by registered mail. Another good practice
when shipping samples through the mail is to place a seal across the
access point to the container. This seal is signed and dated by the
person sending the samples and also by the person receiving the samples
prior to breaking the seal. This method is used by some agencies within
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Also, although not always
practiced, one of the people associated with the laboratory should be
designated to safeguard the sample in the laboratory. The sample cus-
todian should maintain a permanent record containing information such as
Type of sample
Sampling location
Date sampled
Date received
Sample number (assign one if necessary)
Sample assigned to whom
Date assigned
Unused portions of the sample should be stored for a specified time
period until results have been verified.
QUALITY CONTROL
A good quality control program in the laboratory has two primary func-
tions. First, the program should monitor the reliability (truth) of the
results reported. The second function is the control of quality in
order to meet the program requirements for reliability. Regardless of
the analytical method used in the laboratory, the specific methodology
should be carefully documented.
B-3
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TYPICAL TESTS
Some typical tests to indicate water quality may include the following.
pH - The logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen activity in
moles per liter. The pH range is 0-14 with 0 being extremely
acidic and 14 being extremely basic.
Conductivity - A measure of the capacity of the sample to convey an
electric current. This is proportional to the total concentration
of ionic solute.
Residue - The material left after evaporating or filtering the
sample. Determinations may include total residue, volatile resi-
due, filterable and non-filterable residue and settleable residue.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) - A measure of the organic matter that
is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant, expressed
as the oxygen equivalent.
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) - A measure of the amount of organic
carbon present in the sample.
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen - The sum of free-ammonia and organic
nitrogen compounds which are converted to ammonia sulfate under the
prescribed digestion conditions.
Chloride - A measure of the concentration of soluble chloride Ion.
Sulfate - A measure of the concentration of sulfate Ion (504*)
in mg/1.
Phosphate
Total - A measure of all forms of phosphate converted by
digestion to the soluble orthophosphate.
Ortho - A measure of those phosphates that respond to the
colorimetric test without preliminary hydrolysis or oxidation
digestion.
Alkalinity - A measure of the capacity of the sample to accept
protons. (Its ability to neutralize strong acids.)
Acidity - A measure of the capacity of the sample to donate protons.
(Its ability to neutralize strong bases.)
Nitrate - A measure of the concentration of nitrogen as the nitrate
ion (N03-).
B-4
-------
Nitrite - A measure of the concentration of nitrogen as the nitrite
ion (N02~).
Ammonia - A measure of the concentration of nitrogen as ammonia
(NH3).
Metals - A measure of the concentration of the specific
metal. Analysis may be for total, dissolved, etc.
Hardness - A measure of the concentration of polyvalent metals,
mainly calcium and magnesium, but will also include iron, zinc and
copper when present in significant amounts. Results are expressed
as calcium carbonate equivalents.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) - A measure of the oxygen demand exerted
by microorganisms during uptake of degradable substrates and by chemical
oxidation reactions.
B-5
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REFERENCES
B-l. Manual of Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Environmental
Research Center. Cincinnati, Ohio, 1974. 298 p.
B-2. Norman, Jeffrey. Chain of Custody and Holding of Samples -
Legal Considerations. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Air Programs, Program Guidelines and Information
Branch. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. November,
1972.
B-6
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APPENDIX C
SITE EVALUATION CHECKLIST FOR LAND DISPOSAL OF RESIDUALS
(Adapted form "Evaluation of Land Application Systems"
EPA-430/9-75-001)
All potential sites should be considered on the basis of the criteria
listed in this section, and should be reevaluated in the light of
design considerations and environmental assessment.
1. General description
a. Location
(1) Distance from collection area or treatment plant
(2) Elevation relative to collection area
b. Compatibility with overall land use plan
(1) Current use
(2) Proposed future use
(3) Zoning and adjacent land use
(4) Proximity to current and planned developed areas
(5) Is there room for future expansion?
c. Proximity to surface water
d. Number and size of available land parcels
2. Description of environmental characteristics
a. Climate
(1) Precipitation analysis and seasonal distribution
(2) Storm intensities
(3) Temperature, with seasonal variations
C-l
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(4) Evapotransplration
(5) Wind velocities and direction
b. Topography
(1) Ground slope
(2) Description of adjacent land
(3) Erosion potential
(4) Flood potential
(5) Extent of clearing and field preparation
necessary
c. Soil characteristics
(1) Evaluation by soil specialists
(2) Type and description
(3) Infiltration and percolation potential
(4) Cation exchange capacity (CEC)(see note C-l)
d. Hydrogeology
(1) Evaluation by hydrogeologist
(2) Description of geologic setting
(3) Depth to groundwater, and fluctuations
(4) Description of aquifer systems
(5) Background quality of groundwater
(6) Current and planned use
(7) Location and pumpage of existing wells
(a) On site
(b) Adjacent to site
C-2
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(8) Natural discharge areas for water-table aquifer
e. Receiving water (other than ground water)
(1) Type of body
(2) Current use
(3) Existing quality
(4) Is it water-quality limited?
(5) Is it effluent limited?
(6) Water rights
Note C-l: The CEC equation, developed by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, may serve as an approximate indicator of plant uptake
of heavy metals in soils that can be adjusted and held at a pH
of 6.5 or greater. As the equation may not yield precise indica-
tion of plant uptake it should be used with caution.
Total residual (dry wt tons/acre) =
36.000 x CEC
ppm Zn + 2 (ppm Cu) + 4 (ppm Ni) - 300
where:
CEC = cation exchange capacity of the soil prior to deposition of
residual meq/100 g.
ppm = mg/kg dry wt of sludge.
This equation limits the heavy metal additions calculated as zinc
equivalent to 10 percent of the CEC. The zinc equivalent takes into
account the greater plant toxicities of copper and nickel.
Residuals having a cadmium content greater than one percent of its
zinc content should not be applied to cropland except under controlled
conditions.
Source: Ref. C-l.
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REFERENCES
C-l Wyatt, J.M., and P.E. White, Jr. Sludge Processing, Transporta-
tion, and Disposal/Resource Recovery: A Planning Perspective.
Engineering Science, Inc. EPA Contract No. 68-01-3104. April
1975.
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APPENDIX D
GLOSSARY
Activated Sludge - Sludge floe produced in raw or settled wastewater by
the growth of zoological bacteria and other organisms in the
presence of dissolved oxygen and accumulated in sufficient concen-
tration by returning floe previously formed.
Aeration - (1) The bringing about of more intimate contact between air
and a liquid by one or more of the following methods: (a) spraying
the liquid in the air, (b) bubbling air through the liquid, or (c)
agitating the liquid to promote surface absorption of air. (2) The
supplying of air to confined spaces under nappes, downstream from
gates in conduits, etc., to relieve low pressures and to replenish
air entrained and removed from such confined spaces by flowing
water. (3) The relieving of the effects of cavitation by admitting
air to the section affected.
Aerobic Digestion - Digestion of organic matter by means of aeration.
Alum - A common name, in the water and wastewater treatment field, for
commercial-grade aluminum sulfate (Al£ (S04J3/14H20) used for
coagulation.
Amortization - The act or process of retiring a debt, usually with equal
payments at regular intervals over a specific period of time.
Anaerobic Digestion - The metabolism of organic matter brought about
through the action of certain microorganisms in the absence of
elemental oxygen.
Annelids - Comprises the segmented worms. Includes the familiar earth-
worms and leechs as well as a number of freshwater and marine
species.
Aquifer - A stratum or formation of permeable material that will yield
ground water in useful quantities.
Aquifer, artesian - An aquifer in which ground water is confined under
pressure greater than atmospheric. Also known as a confined
aquifer.
Aquifer, water-table - An aquifer in which the water is unconfined, with
the water table defining the upper surface of the zone of satura-
tion. Also known as an unconfined aquifer.
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Backwashlng - The operation of cleaning a filter by reversing the flow
of liquid through it and washing out matter previously captured in
it. Filters would include true filters such as sand and diato-
maceous-earth types but not other treatment units such as trickling
filters.
Basin - (1) A natural or artifically created space or structure, surface
or underground, which has a shape and character of confining
material that enable it to hold water. The term is sometimes
used for a receptacle midway in size between a reservoir and a
tank. (2) The surface area within a given drainage system.
(3) A shallow tank or depression through which liquids may be
passed or in which they are detained for treatment or storage.
Benthic Organisms - The aggregate of organisms living on or at the
bottom of a body of water.
Biodegradation (biodegradability) - The metabolic destruction or
of natural or synthetic organic materials by the microorganisms
populating soils, natural bodies of water, or wastewater treatment
systems.
Biological Oxidation - The process whereby, through the activity of
living organisms in an aerobic environment, organic matter is
converted to more biologically stable (less putrifiable) matter.
Biological Stabilization - Reduction in the net energy level, and the
tendency to purify, or organic matter as a result of the metabolic
activity or organisms.'
Biological Treatment - Organic waste treatment in which bacteria and/or
biochemical action is intensified under controlled conditions.
BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) - An indirect measure of the concentra-
tion of biologically degradable material present in organic wastes.
It is the amount of free oxygen utilized by aerobic organisms when
allowed to attack the organic matter in an aerobically maintained
environment at a specified temperature (20°C) for a specific time
period (5 days). It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per
kilogram of solids present (mg/kg = ppm = parts per millions).
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) - The capacity of a soil for replacing
adsorbed cations by cations in solution. Expressed in millequi-
valents per 100 grams.
Cellulose - Plant cell walls that are formed by the combination of many
molecules of glucose.
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Centrifugal dewatering of sludge - The partial removal of water from
wastewater sludge by centrifugal action.
Chemical Fixative - A-chemical material capable of locking-in and solid-
ifying waste residuals into a nonleachable state. These materials
are sometimes referred to as encapsulating materials.
Chemical Oxidation - Oxidation of organic substances without benefit
of living organisms. Examples are by thermal combustion or by
oxidizing agents such as chlorine.
Chlorine - An element ordinarily existing as a greenish-yellow gas about
2.5 times as heavy as aif. At atmospheric pressure and a tempera-
ture of -30.1°F, the gas becomes an amber liquid about 1.5 times as
heavy as water. The chemical symbol of chlorine is Cl, its atomic
weight is 35.457, and its molecular weight is 70.914. Typically
used for disinfection.
Clarification - Any process or combination of processes the primary
purpose of which is to reduce the concentration of suspended matter
in a 1iquid.
Coagulant - A material, which, when added to liquid wastes or water,
creates a reaction which forms insoluble floe particles that absorb
and precipitate colloidal and suspended solids. The floe particles
can be removed by sedimentation. Among the most common chemical
coagulants used in sewage treatment are ferric sulfate and alum.
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) - An indirect measure of the biochemical
load exerted on the oxygen assets of a body of water when organic
wastes are introduced into the water. It is determined by the
amount of potassium dichromate consumed in a boiling mixture of
chromic and sulfuric acids. The amount of oxidizable organic
matter is proportional to the potassium dicromate consumed/ Where
the wastes contain only readily available organic microbial food
and no toxic matter, the COD values can be correlated with BOD
values obtained from the same wastes.
Coliform Bacteria - A group of bacteria predominantly Inhabiting the
intestine of man or other mammals.
Colloids - (1) Finely divided solids which will not settle but may be
removed by coagulation of biochemical action or membrane filtra-
tion; they are intermediate between true solutions and suspensions.
Confined aquifer - See Aquifer, artesian.
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Dewater - (1) To extract a portion of the water present in a sludge or
slurry. (2) To drain or remove free water from an enclosure.
Diatomaceous-Earth Filter - A filter used in water treatment, in which a
built-up layer of diatomaceous earth serves as the filtering
medium.
Dissolved Oxygen - The oxygen dissolved in water, wastewater, or other
liquid, usually expressed in milligrams per liter, parts per
million, or percent of saturation. Abbreviated DO.
Dissolved Solids - Theoretically, the anhydrous residues of the dis-
solved constituents in water. Actually, the term is defined by the
method used in determination. In water and wastewater treatment
the Standard Methods tests are used.
Drawdown - The lowering of ground water levels in and around a well
caused by pumping the well.
Effluent - (1) A liquid which flows out of a containing space. (2)
Wastewater or other liquid, partially or completely treated, or in
its natural.state, flowing out of a reservoir, basin, treatment
plant, industrial treatment plant, or part thereof.
Enterococci - A group of cocci having its normal habitat in the intes-
tines of man or other animals.
Equipotential line - A line connecting all points of equal elevation of
the water table or potentiometric surface. A ground water contour.
Eutrophication - The natural process of the maturing (aging) of
a Jake; the process of enrichment with nutrients, especially
nitrogen and phosphorus, leading to increased production of organic
matter.
the
Evapotranspiration - The transfer of water to the atmosphere by
combined processes of evaporation and transpiration (g.v.).
Filtration - The process of passing a liquid through a porous medium for
the removal of suspended or colloidal material contained in the
influent liquid by a physical straining action. The trickling
filter process used in waste water treatment is a method of con-
tacting dissolved and colloidal organic matter with biologically
active aerobic slime growths, and is not a true filtration process.
Fixed Solids - The residue remaining after ignition of suspended or
dissolved solids according to standard methods.
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Flpeculation - In water and wastewater treatment, the agglomeration of
colloidal and finely divided suspended matter after coagulation by
gentle stirring by either mechanical or hydraulic means.
Fugitive Dust - Pollutant emissions which are not confined in process
streams. Major sources are: unpaved roads and airstrips; agricul-
tural tilling; land development; residential, industrial, highway,
and commercial construction; quarrying, mining, and tailings;
aggregate storage sites; and cattle feedlots.
Groundwater - Subsurface water in the zone of saturation.
Hardness - A characteristic of water, imparted by salts of calcium,
magnesium, and iron such as bicarbonates, carbonates, sulfates,
chlorides and nitrates, that cause curdling of soap and increased
consumption of soap, deposition of scale in boilers, damage in some
industrial processes, and sometimes objectionable taste. It may be
determined by a standard laboratory procedure or computed from the
amounts of calcium and magnesium as well as iron, aluminum, man-
ganese, barium, strontium, and zinc, and is expressed as equivalent
calcium carbonate.
Heavy Metals - Metals that can be precipitated by hydrogen sulfide in
acid solution, some of which include lead, zinc, cadmium, mercury,
arsenic, and copper.
Hydraulic Gradient - The difference in elevation of the water table or
potentiometnc surface over a unit horizontal distance along a flow
line.
Infiltration - Strictly defined, the movement of water through the soil
surface into the soil. As used herein, it includes percolation,
the movement of water through the soil and subsoil into the ground
water body.
Leachate - Water that has percolated through solid waste, from which it
has removed soluble components plus insoluble or poorly-soluble
material in fine suspension.
Leaching - The removal of soluble constituents (dissolved solids) from
soil, rock, or sludge deposits by percolating water. Also the
disposal of liquid through porous strata.
Liquid Manure - A suspension of livestock manure in water, 1n which the
concentration of manure solids is low enough so the flow charact-
eristics of the mixture are more like those of Newtonian fluids
than plastic fluids.
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Nonpoint Sources - For the purposes of this task they will be defined as
those infiltration, implace pollutants, and diffuse runoff sources,
induced by man's activities, which are directly or indirectly
related to meteorological events and result in the alteration of
the chemical, physical, biological and radiological integrity of
water.
Nutrient - As used herein, any element essential to plant growth, such
as nitrogen or phosphorus.
Pathogenic Bacteria - Bacteria which may cause disease in the host
organisms by their parasitic growth.
Percolation - See Infiltration.
Permeability - In a qualitative sense, the relative ease with which a
formation will transmit water. Quantitatively, the volume of water
transmitted per unit time across a unit area, under a unit hydrau-
lic gradient (Coefficient of permeability).
Plume - The path taken by the continuous discharges from a source of
contamination.
Polychaetes - Class of common marine worms.
Polyelectrolyte - (ORG CHEM) - A natural or synthetic electrolyte with
high molecular weight, such as proteins, polysaccharides, and alkyl
addition products of polyvinyl pyridine; can be a weak or strong
electrolyte; when dissociated in solution, it does not give uniform
distribution of positive and negative ions (the ions of one charge
are bound to the polymer chain while the ions of the other sign
diffuse through the solution).
Porosity - The percentage of voids in a volume of rock.
Primary Treatment - The first major (and sometimes only) treatment of
waste and wastewater, usually sedimentation. Involves the removal
of a substantial amount of suspended matter but little or no
colloidal and dissolved matter.
Protozoa - Any of a number of one-celled animals, usually microscopic,
belonging to the lowest division of the animal kingdom.
Pyrite - A hard, brittle, brass-yellow mineral with metallic luster.
Composition is iron disulfide which is the key to .Its Importance 1n
combination with oxygen to create acid-mine drainage.
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Raw Sludge - That which is settled out in the primary settling tanks.
Typical solids content ranges from 2 to 7%.
Raw Wastewater - Wastewater before it receives any treatment.
Raw Water - (1) Untreated water; usually water entering the first
treatment unit of a water treatment plant. (2) Water used as a
source of water supply taken from a natural or impounded body of
water, such as a stream, lake, pond, or underground aquifer.
Recharge - The addition of water to the ground water system by natural
or artificial processes. That portion of precipitation that enters
the ground water body.
Redox Potential (Eh) - Represents the relative intensity of oxidizing or
reducing conditions in solutions. Also known as oxidation-reduction
potential, or simply oxidation potential. It is defined by the
Nenust equation.
Runoff - Direct or overland runoff is that portion of rainfall which Is
not absorbed by soil, evaporated, or transpired by plants, but
finds its way into streams as surface flow. That portion which Is
absorbed by soil and later discharged to surface streams is ground
water runoff.
Secondary Sludge - That which settles out in the secondary settling
tanks. Solids content range from 1 to 5%.
Secondary Treatment - The treatment of waste and wastewater by blolo-
gical methods after primary treatment by sedimentation.
Sedimentation - The process of subsidence and deposition of suspended
matter carried by water, wastewater, or other liquids, by gravity.
It is usually accomplished by reducing the velocity of the Viquid
below the point at which it can transport the suspended material.
Also called settling.
Settleable Solids - (1) That matter in wastewater which will not stay 1n
suspension during a preselected settling period.
Sludge Cake - The sludge that has been dewatered by a treatment process,
the moisture depending on type of sludge and manner of treatment.
Soft Water - Water having a low concentration of calcium and magnesium
ions. According to U.S. Geological Survey criteria, soft water 1s
water having a hardness of 60 mg/1 or less.
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Specific Capacity - The yield of a well per unit drawdown, usually
expressed as gallons per minute per foot. For any given well it is
not a constant, but decreases with increasing yield-
Transmissivity - The rate at which water is transmitted through a unit
width of aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient. The coefficient
of permeability multiplied by the thickness of the aquifer. Called
transmissibility in older literature.
Transpiration - The process through which water is returned to the
atmosphere through the tissues of living plants.
Trickling Filter - Filter consisting of an artificial bed of coarse
material, such as broken stone, clinkers, slate or other porous
media, over which wastewater is distributed or applied in drops*
film, or spray from troughs, drippers, moving distributors, or
fixed nozzles, and through which it trickles to the underdrains,
giving opportunity for the formation of zoogleal slimes which
clarify and oxidize the wastewater.
Tubifex - An aquatic worm (oligochaete) which lives in stagnant mud and
lake and stream sediments.
Turbidity - (1) A condition in water or wastewater caused by the pre-
sence of suspended matter, resulting in the scattering and absorp-
tion of light rays. (2) A measure of fine suspended matter in
liquids. (3) An analytical quantity usually reported in arbitrary
turbidity units determined by measurements of light diffraction.
Unconfined Aquifer - See Aquifer, water table.
Volatile Solids - That portion of the total or suspended solids residue
which is driven off as volatile (combustible) gases at a specified
temperature and time (usually at 600°C for at least one hour).
Water Quality - The chemical, physical, and biological characteristics
of water with respect to its suitability for a particular purpose.
.The same water may be of good quality for one purpose or use, and
bad for another, depending on its characteristics and the require-
ments for the particular use.
Water table - The surface in an unconfined ground water body at which
the pressure is atmospheric. It defines the top of the zone of
saturation.
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Wet Scrubber - A countercurrent absorption tower using alkaline additives
to maintain S02 and/or particulate absorption from the combustion
gas stream.
Zone of saturation - The zone in which interconnected interstices are
saturated with water under pressure equal to or greater than
atmospheric.
•h U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1976- 626-975/949
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