EPA's Environmental
Progress Report:
May 1992
Draft
for Discussion
Strategies, Goals,
and Environmental
Results
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Executive Summary
ntroduction
Purpose of the Report
From the time of EPA's creation in 1972 until 1989. information on environmental conditions was either
not available, or not well enough organized, to measure the progress of most EPA programs. In re-
sponse to a challenge from the EPA Administrator in March of 1989. the Agency embarked on a new
approach of risk-based strategic planning This new approach requires that strategic choices be made
to give priority attention to problems posing the greatest risks, and that efforts are made to set goals in
terms of the environmental accomplishments we hope to achieve, with progress being evaluated in
terms of environmental indicators that correspond to those goals Establishing measurable environmen-
tal goals and adequate and reliable environmental indicators is vital to this new approach
To meet this challenge the EPA has. with increased effort since 1989, endeavored to establish adequate
and reliable environmental indicators, identify environmental trends, measure program success, define
the nature of the challenges that lie ahead, and modify our approach to meet those challenges This
report is a first effort to assess and present those environmental indicator results Agency-wide, and
where possible to relate the results to the goals and strategies the Agency has set forth
Report Preparation
This report was coordinated and prepared by OPPE's Office of Strategic Planning and Environmental
Data (OPPE/OSPED) OSPED provided technical assistance to programs in obtaining and analyzing
indicator data, drafted summaries of program strategies and goals (based primarily on program strate-
iic plans), and drafted comparisons of indicator results to goals and strategies for program review Indi-
ator data for this report were provided by headquarters programs and regional offices with lead for
geographic initiatives, as well as by external organizations, particularly other federal agencies Staff of
these programs and offices worked with OPPE to finalize the sections on strategies, goals, and compari-
sons of indicator results to strategies
Organization of the Report and Indicator Reliability
The report is organized by environmental problem area Within each area, each environmental problem
addressed by an EPA program is discussed in terms of the current program goals and strategies, and
what data are available on the status or trends of environmental indicators However, for reasons further
discussed in the Introduction of this report, adequate data have not yet been collected to establish
trends in all problem areas, therefore the depth of indicator analysis varies in this report as follows
1) For environmental problems where there are enough data to determine trends, indicator results are
evaluated and compared to program goals and strategies.
2) In cases where data provide a reliable indicator of current status, but is not adequate to indicate trends,
the current data are provided to serve as a baseline for future evaluation of progress
3) In problem areas where data are not adequate to serve as an indicator of current status, plans to
obtain better data for future reporting and evaluation are discussed.
Even in problem areas for which indicators are reported here, for many programs improvements in data
quality and a longer reporting period will be needed before we can derive a truly satisfactory measure of
program results; in some cases the technical quality of the data from which indicators were derived was
ar from ideal, other reporting offices noted incomplete or missing data For those reasons, data quality
Ind relevance to program goals are discussed for each indicator provided, as well as program plans to
improve many existing indicators.
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SUMMMI-IT
Highlights: Overview of Available Environmental
Indicator Data
1. Environmental Problems for Which Indicator Trends are Reported
Inland Waters. Overall, indicators for inland waters reflect program success in reducing conventional
pollutants, with the exception of nitrates The reduction of phosphorus levels is the most positive finding
in this area. Positive trends are also seen in fecal coliform and oxygen deficit reductions For nitrates,
more locations reported deterioration than improvement in the early to mid-1980s Sources of these in-
creased levels include nitrogen fertilizers, sewage and deposition of air nitogen from power plants and
cars Indicator data show that average nitrate concentrations may now be levelling off, but are not yet
improving. Water quality trend data were inadequate to identify trends or status for toxics levels, how-
ever, available information on toxics indicates that there are hot spots m many areas.
Coastal Waters In spite of increasing coastal populations, we have maintained levels of conventional
pollutants in most areas The exception is the Gulf of Mexico, where increased efforts to control sewage
and runoff are needed Data on toxic impacts are inadequate to assess status or trends.
Chesapeake Bay Indicators show that the Bay is responding to programs to reduce nutrient levels, es-
pecially phosphorous One fish species, the striped bass, shows signs of recovery However, we also
conclude from data that further control of nitrogen inputs (air deposition, agriculture and sewage) are
needed to continue the positive trends Physical habitat changes that interfere with fish migration also
need to be addressed.
Great Lakes. Remarkable progress has been made through successful point source phosphorous con-
trols, however local problems remain. Though fish tissues show reduced levels of PCBs, DDT. chlor-
dane and dieldnn (due to nationwide bans on production and use) widespread toxic contamination
problems persist The program is now focusing on areas of high toxic levels and habitat destruction
The problem of habitat destruction is at such an early stage of assessment that it has yet to be well-char-
acterized.
Criteria Air Pollutants. Decreases in lead levels are a major success story Trends in particulates are-
down, but they continue to pose health risks in some areas Areas of high ozone concentration are a
top-priority problem; in many spots concentrations have stabilized rather than decreased. This is attrib-
uted to increased vehicle and energy use
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion. While the U S has made a great deal of progress in reducing produc-
tion and emissions of CFCs. the most recent scientific evidence indicates that we and other nations still
must plan to do more if we are to prevent increases in skin cancer and other serious impacts of ozone
depletion.
Pesticides. In preparing information for this report, the Office of Pesticides Programs staff analyzed us-
age data of some of the major pesticides to provide a baseline from which future patterns in substitution
of less toxic pesticides on major U S crops can be determined Usage data are already available from
Resources for the Future research efforts suggesting that for certain major crops, some substitution of
pesticides which are less toxic to human beings has occurred in the past 10 years However, it is impor-
tant to note that some of the newer pesticides have very high toxicity to wildlife, such as birds and
aquatic life, so that there may be a need for extra caution in tracking possible increases in adverse eco-
logical impacts from pesticide substitutions. In the near future we hope to combine these toxicity values
with exposure data in order to create both human and ecological risk indices This emphasizes the need
to pay special attention to the trade-offs between potential ecological and human health effects when
one pesticide is replaced by another as a result of EPA's regulatory activities.
Lead Indicators show large drops in lead throughout the environment These improvements appear to
be primarily an outcome of the phaseout of leaded gasolines, which demonstrates the interconnections
ii
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
between the air, land, water and living organisms Nevertheless, residual lead in the environment, par-
ticularly deteriorative lead paint and in dust and soil, is responsible for high blood lead levels in very
arge numbers of children
2. Environmental Problems for Which Baselines are Being Established for
the First Time
Hazardous Waste This report presents for the first time an almost complete national status report of
indicators for waste minimization, safe management, and corrective action Nationally complete data will
be available later this year In future years trends will be assessed based on OSW reports for the same
indicators
Toxic Substances 33/50 Program and Pollution Prevention A baseline of data is now being established
to allow future evaluation of this program's success Based on OTS reports, a good start has been
made, although for the program to meet the goal of successfully reducing toxics through voluntary in-
dustry efforts, higher participation and greater reduction commitments will be needed
Superfund Several indicators document numbers of sites at which specific types of progress were
made in the cumulative time period 1980 to 1989. plus the additional numbers of sites at which progress
was made in 1990. Future data will be reported annually, so that year-by-year trends will be available
3. Environmental Problems for Which Adequate Data are Not Yet Available
Air Toxics Data are inadequate to characterize the extent of the problem at present OAR plans to be-
gin drawing upon data from EPA's Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) for an indicator of progress toward re-
ducing air toxics emissions Though TRI data are neither considered complete nor very precise, quality
control efforts will increase their reliability as an indicator over the next several reporting years OAR
also plans to develop more complete data on emissions from mobile sources and fixed sources not re-
porting to TRI
Ground Water The Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water (OGWDW) is now pilot testing environ-
mental indicators at the state level There are exceptional difficulties in extrapolating ground water moni-
toring data beyond site-specific situations due to the expense of monitoring, and the inherent heteroge-
neity of the natural resource It is not possible given reasonable expenditures to obtain a thorough snap-
shot of the quality of all the nation's ground water Instead. OGWDW plans to draw on existing informa-
tion from EPA programs, such as waste and pesticides programs, and other federal and state agencies,
to develop a composite picture of natural ground water status as it relates to human activities
Toxic Substances- Existing Chemicals A new index of toxic chemical releases, based on the Toxic
.Release Inventory, is being developed this year Based on results of peer review, results would be re-
portable in late 1992
in
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PROBLEM AREA/
Indicator
INLAND SURFACE
WATER
Designated use support
in rivers and steams
Percent of river miles
affected by sources of
pollution
Designated use support
in lakes
Percent of lakes acres
affected by sources of
pollution
Conventional pollutant
trends
Data
Source
EPA/States
EPA/States
EPA/Slates
EPA/Slates
uses
Type of Indicator and
Data Quality/Program Applicability*
Activity
Measure
Emission/
Waste Amount
Amb Pollution
or Habitat
Degradation
Lo/Hi
Lo/Hi
Lo/Hi
Lo/Hi
Hi/Mod
Body
Burden
Ultimate
Effects
Baseline or Time
Series = What is Trend?
Baseline or
Snapshot
Only
X
X
X
X
Time Senes
Trend
Improv.
X
(PO4 /sedimenl
/cohforms)
Trend Getting
Worse
NoSig
Trend
X
(NO3)
* Bused on indicator profile questionnaires prepared by data base managers for (ins report. "High" quality means no major known problems with accuracy, bias,
representativeness or named indicator variable, and other factors. "Moderate" quality means some problems with such factors (as noted m indicator figures), but still
probably provides quantitatively accurate information. "Low" quality means useful, but only for qualitative comparisons "Program applicability" refers to applicability
as an environmental indicator relevant to EPA's program. High applicability means indicator is an environmental rather than activity-type measure, and is closely
related to EPA's programs NR means not rated.
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PROBLEM AREA/
Indicator
COASTAL WATER
Designated use support
in estuaries
Sources of pollution-
estuaries
Total U.S. oyster harvest
Trends in classified
shellfish waters
Sources of pollution
affecting shellfish areas
EMAP Near Coastal
Demonstration Project
(Virginian Province)
Fish pathology
Sediment toxicity
Sediment metals
Dissolved oxygen
Marine Debris
Data
Source
EPA/States
EPA/States
NOAA
NOAA
NOAA
EPA
Type of Indicator and
Data Quality/Program Applicability*
Activity
Measure
Emission/
Waste Amount
Amb. Pollution
or Habitat
Degradation
Lo/Hi
Lo/Hi
Lo/Mod
Hi/Mod
Hi/Mod
Body
Burden
Ultimate
Effects
Mod/Lo
Hi/Mod
Hi/Mod
Hi/Mod
Baseline or
Series = What ij
Baseline or
Snapshot
Only
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Time
> Trend?
Time Series
Trend
Improv.
Trend Getting
Worse
X
No Sig.
Trend
X
* See page iv
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PROBLEM AREA/
Indicator
WETLANDS
Recent status and
historical trends
Acres of wetland lost by
state- 1970'sto 1980's
DRINKING WATER
Water systems with MCL
violations (number of
systems, duration of
violations, and
population served)
GROUND WATER
Data
Source
USFWS
Dahl. 91
USFWS
EPA
No data
(indicators)
under
development
Type of Indicator and
Data Quality/Program Applicability*
Activity
Measure
Emission/
Waste Amount
Amb. Pollution
or Habitat
Degradation
Mod/Hi
Mod/Hi
Lo/Mod
Body
Burden
Ultimate
Effects
Mod/Hi
Mod/Hi
Baseline or Time
Series = What is Trend?
Baseline or
Snapshot
Only
X
Time Series
Trend
Improv.
Trend Caning
Worse
X
X
No Sig.
Trend
' See page iv
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PROBLEM AREA/
Indicator
SUPERFUND
Actions to reduce
immediate threats at
Superfund sites
NPL sites with progress
toward permanent
clean-up goals.
Increasing use of
treatment at NPL sites
Waste volumes managed
at Superlund sites
SOLID WASTE
Trends in municipal
solid waste generation
Data
Source
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
Type of Indicator and
Data Quality/Program Applicability*
Activity
Measure
Hi/Lo
Emission/
Waste Amount
NR
Mod/Mod
Amb Pollution
or Habitat
Degradation
Mod/Mod
Mod/Mod
Body
Burden
Ultimate
Effects
X
X
Baseline or Time
Series = What is Trend?
Baseline or
Snapshot
Only
X
Time Senes
Trend
Improv.
X"
X"
X
Trend Getting
Worse
Xgen.
increasing
No Sig.
Trend
' See page iv
" See executive summary text for explanation
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PROBLEM AREA/
Indicator
SOLID WASTE Conf
Waste recovery for
recycling
Management trends
HAZARDOUS
WASTE
Hazardous Waste
generation
Hazardous
management
Status ol facilities in
corrective action
UNDERGROUND
STORAGE TANKS
Tank closures
Data
Source
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
Type of Indicator and
Data Quality/Program Applicability*
Activity
Measure
NR
Emission/
Waste Amount
Mod/Mod
Mod/Mod
NR"
NR"
Lo/Mod
Amb. Pollution
or Habitat
Degradation
Body
Burden
Ultimate
Effects
Baseline or Time
Series = What is Trend?
Baseline or
Snapshot
Only
X
X
X
Time Series
Trend
Improv.
X recycling
increasing
X
Rend Getting
Worse
No Sig.
Trend
X
* See page iv
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PROBLEM AREA;
Indicator
UNDERGROUND
STORAGE TANKS
Conf
Tank protected against
corrosion
Corrective action activity
PESTICIDES
Pesticide in Ground
Water Database
Food Salety
Pest usage data
1983-1989
Pest usage trend
analysis
1966 - 1989
Ecological Effects
Ecotoxicity Indices
Data
Source
EPA
EPA
OPP
Doane
Marketing, Inc
RFF & USDA
OPP
Type of Indicator and
Data Quality/Program Applicability*
Activity
Measure
NR
Emission/
Waste Amount
NR
Mod/Mod
Mod/Mod
Amb Pollution
or Habitat
Degradation
NR
Body
Burden
Ultimate
Effects
Lo/Hi
(Ecotox
mod)
Baseline or Time
Series = What is Trend?
Baseline or
Snapshot
Only
X
X
X
X
Time Senes
Trend
Improv.
X
X
Trend Getting
Worse
No Sig.
Trend
X
X
X
* See page iv
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PROBLEM AREA/
Indicator
PESTICIDES Cent-
Worker Exposure
Poison control center
analysis
Parathion poisoning
EXISTING
CHEMICALS
LEAD
Lead in air
Lead in fish tissue
Lead intakes in food
Data
Source
Poison Control
Center Data
Stale of Calif.
No data
(indicators
under
development)
EPA
USFWS
HHS/FDA
Type of Indicator and
Data Quality/Program Applicability*
Activity
Measure
Mod/Lo
Emission/
Waste Amount
Amb Pollution
or Habitat
Degradation
Hi/Mod
Mod/Hi
Body
Burden
Hi/Hi
Ultimate
Effects
Mod/Hi
Baseline or Time
Series = What is Trend?
Baseline or
Snapshot
Only
X
Time Series
Trend
Improv.
X
X
X
Trend Getting
Worse
X
No Sig.
Trend
X
* See page iv
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PROBLEM AREA/
Indicator
LEAD Conf
Average human blood
lead levels
Elevated blood lead in
children
STRAT. OZONE
CFG production
Ozone levels
Human cancers
GLOBAL WARMING
C02 emissions
Methane emissions
Atmosphere CO2
Data
Source
HHS/CDC
HHS/ATSDR
EPA
Academia
PMS/CDC
EPA
EPA
Academia
NOAA
Type of Indicator and
Data Quality/Program Applicability*
Activity
Measure
Emission/
Waste Amount
Hi/Hi
NR/Hi
NR/Hi
Amb Pollution
or Habitat
Degradation
NR/Hi
NR/Hi
Body
Burden
Mod/Hi
Mod/Hi
Ultimate
Effects
NR/HI
Baseline or Time
Series = What is Trend?
Baseline or
Snapshot
Only
Time Series
Trend
Improv.
X
X
X
'rend Getting
Worse
X
X
X
X
X
No Sig.
Trend
* See page iv
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a.
PROBLEM AREA/
Indicator
CRITERIA AIR
POLLUTANTS
Ozone ambient
Ozone non-attainment
Ozone emissions
CO ambienl
CO emissions
Participates ambient
Participates emissions
SO2 - ambient
SOX emissions
NO2 ambient
NOX emissions
Data
Source
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
Type of. Indicator and
Data Quality/Program Applicability*
Activity
Measure
Emission/
Waste Amount
Hi/Hi
Hi/Hi
Hi/Hi
Hi/Hi
Hi/Hi
Amb. Pollution
or Habitat
Degradation
Hi/Hi
Hi/Hi
Hi/Hi
Hi/Hi
Hi/Hi
HI/HI
Body
Burden
Ultimate
Effects
Baseline or Time
Series = What is Trend?
3aseline or
Snapshot
Only
Time Series
Trend
Improv.
X
X
X
X
X
X
Trend Getting
Worse
No Sig.
Trend
X
X
X
X
X
* See page iv
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PROBLEM AREA/
Indicator
CRITERIA AIR
POLLUTANTS Conf
Lead ambient
Lead emissions
AIR TOXICS
TRI emissions
ACID DEPOSITION
Sulfale deposition
Surface water acidity
Visibility
Inferred terrestrial
impacts
RADON
Radon in homes
Data
Source
EPA
EPA
EPA
NAPAP
NAPAP
NAPAP
NAPAP
EPA
Type of Indicator and
Data Quality/Program Applicability*
Activity
Measure
Emission/
Waste Amount
Hi/Hi
NR
Amb Pollution
or Habitat
Degradation
HI/HI
Mod/Hi
HI/HI
Lo/Mod
NR
Body
Burden
Ultimate
Effects
Mod/Hi
Baseline or Time
Series = What is Trend?
Baseline or
Snapshot
Only
X
X
X
X
X
Time Series
Trend
Improv.
X
X
X
Trend Getting
Worse
No Sig.
Trend
" See page iv
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PROBLEM AREA/
Indicator
GREAT LAKES
Phosphorus
concentrations
Oxygen depletion in
Lake Erie
Phosphorus loads to
Lake Erie
Toxics in fish tissue
Areas of concern
Zebra mussel infestation
Wetlands acreage
Data
Source
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
USFWS
Type of Indicator and
Data Quality/Program Applicability*
Activity
Measure
NR
Emission/
Waste Amount
Hi/Hi
Amb Pollution
or Habitat
Degradation
Hi/Hi
Hi/Hi
NR
NR
Body
Burden
Hi/Hi
Ultimate
Effects
Baseline or Time
Series = What is Trend?
Baseline or
Snapshot
Only
X
Time Series
Trend
Improv.
1970-1991
1970-1989
most lakes
most chem.
Trend Getting
Worse
X
X
No Sig.
Trend
1980s
X
1980s
* See page iv
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PROBLEM AREA/
Indicator
CHESAPEAKE BAY
Phosphorus in Bay
Nitrogen in Bay
P loads/pt sources
N loads/pt sources
P loads/NPS
N loads/NPS
1985 N&P sources
Dissolved oxygen in
Chesapeake Bay
Submerged aquatic
vegetation in Bay
Data
Source
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
EPA
Type of Indicator and
Data Quality/Program Applicability*
Activity
Measure
Emission/
Waste Amount
Mod/Mod
Mod/Mod
Lo/Mod
Lo/Mod
NR
Amb. Pollution
or Habitat
Degradation
Hi/Hi
Hi/Hi
Mod/Hi
Mod/Hi
Body
Burden
Ultimate
Effects
Baseline or Time
Series = What is Trend?
Baseline or
Snapshot
Only
X
Time Series
Trend
Improv.
X
X
X
X
X
Trend Getting
Worse
No Sig.
Trend
X
X
X
" See page iv
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PROBLEM AREA/
Indicator
CHESAPEAKE BAY
Con!'
Fish populations
(harvests)
Striped bass juvenile
index
Stream miles opened to
migratory fish
GULF of MEXICO
Classified Shellfish
Waters
Paper Industry TRI
Petrochemical industry
TRI releases
Data
Source
EPA
EPA
EPA
Type of Indicator and
Data Quality/Program Applicability*
Activity
Measure
Emission/
Waste Amount
Amb Pollution
or Habitat
Degradation
Hi/Lo
Lo/NR
Mod/NR
Mod/NR
Body
Burden
Ultimate
Effects
Mod/Hi
Mod/Hi
Baseline or Time
Series = What is Trend?
Baseline or
Snapshot
Only
Time Series
Trend
Improv.
mostly
long-term
decline.
recent Improv
X
Trend Getting
Worse
No Sig.
Trend
See page iv
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PROBLEM AREA/
Indicator
HABITAT
ALTERATION
Freshwater fish decline
Neotropical songbirds
Ducks
Forests (New England)
Coral
Data
Source
Amer Fisheries
Society
USFWS
USFWS
EMAP
Academia
Type of Indicator and
Data Quality/Program Applicability*
Activity
Measure
Emission/
Waste Amount
Amb Pollution
or Habitat
Degradation
Body
Burden
Ultimate
Effects
Lo/Hi
Mod/Mod
Mod/Mod
NR
NR
Baseline or Time
Series = What is Trend?
Baseline or
Snapshot
Only
X
X
Time Series
Trend
Improv.
("rend Getting
Worse
X
X
X
NoSig
Trend
See page iv
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PREFACE
Preface
Development of this Report
"his past fall OPPE was asked by the Deputy Administrator to assemble a report on the progress of
Agency programs at developing environmental indicators and assessing the links between that informa-
tion and EPA's environmental goals and strategies The following progress report is the product of this
relatively short, intensive effort to document and assemble available indicator information. The report
should serve primarily as the basis for "taking stock" of EPA's efforts and renewing the Agency's commit-
ment to using environmental indicators to assess progress towards measurable environmental goals It
is intended mainly as an internal working document, not as a source of public information
The report provides a variety of insights regarding the direction of EPA's programs In some cases, indi-
cators of the status and trends of environmental problems support the present emphasis of national pro-
grams In other cases, the data suggest a need to reevaluate our actions Furthermore, the very pro-
cess of developing this report has been beneficial Many of the staff and managers throughout the
Agency who participated in assembling the report have gained a sense of enthusiasm toward docu-
menting the progress of their programs It is hoped that EPA managers and staff will continue to meet
with the same enthusiasm future challenges to improve and use environmental indicators as a central
management tool.
Follow Up to this Report
The ultimate success of this report depends on the Agency's commitment to using indicators to inform
management decisions. OPPE believes the report itself can facilitate a transition from the largely devel-
opmental efforts of the past to a more active use of indicators by our programs In the short term, pro-
grams are encouraged to use the insights from this report to support their Fiscal Year 1994 Action Plans
and budget proposals In the longer term, however, the Agency must respond to the documented need
ibr taking better aim at the environmental problems we manage through improvements in environmental
goals and strategies.
To take full advantage of the opportunity presented by this report, the Deputy Administrator will convene
a management advisory group on environmental goals and indicators, composed of senior representa-
tives of program, support and regional offices. The advisory group will
Review the content of this report to assess strengths, weaknesses and opportunities for improving
environmental indicators as a management tool.
Evaluate the Agency's present institutional capacity for developing measurable environmental
goals, and indicators to evaluate progress towards those goals, and
Based on the information that is available, begin to make recommendations on environmental
trends that need to be addressed, and on opportunities to focus resources for continued develop-
ment of our environmental data bases.
This report represents an important milestone in our continuing efforts to improve the Agency's manage-
ment systems. OPPE welcomes your thoughts on all aspects of this progress report and looks forward to
working with you in the next year to improve the Agency's use of environmental indicators
XVIII
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Table of Contents
I. Introduction
II. Office of Water
Inland Surface Water 11-1
Problem Definition II-2
Goals, Objectives, and Strategies II-3
Environmental Indicator Results II-3
Rivers and Streams II-3
Lakes and Reservoirs 11-12
Conclusion-Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives . ... 11-14
Estuaries and Coastal Waters 11-16
Problem Definition 11-16
Goals, Objectives, and Strategies' . 11-16-11-17
Environmental Indicator Results 11-17
Estuaries and Coastal Waters . . 11-17
Shellfish Conditions and Trends 11-19
The Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program Near Coastal Pilot II-24
Conclusion' Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives . .. .II-29
Wetlands 11-31
Problem Definition 11-31
Goals, Objectives, and Strategies 11-31
Environmental Indicator Results II-32
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives II-33
Drinking Water 71-36
Problem Definition 11-36
Goals, Objectives, and Strategies 11-36-11-37
Environmental Indicator Results 11-37
Conclusion. Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives 11-41
Ground Water 71-42
Problem Definition 11-42
Goals, Objectives, and Strategies . 11-42
Proposed Environmental! ndicators . 11-43
III. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response
Superfund/Abandoned Sites 777-f
Problem Definition . |||-1
Goals, Objectives, and Strategies . . 111-1
x/x
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Environmental Indicator Results NI-2
Conclusion- Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives 111-8
Municipal Waste 111-9
Problem Definition 111-9
Goals, Objectives, and Strategies 111-9
Environmental Indicator Results 111-10
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives 111-14
Hazardous Waste 111-15
Problem Definition 111-15
Goals, Objectives, and Strategies 111-15
Environmental Indicator Results 111-16
Conclusion. Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives III-23
Underground Storage Tanks 111-24
Problem Definition 111-24
Strategies 111-24
Environmental Indicator Results 111-25
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives 111-27
IV. Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances
Problem Definition IV-1
Background Data Relevant to Multiple Strategies. Pesticides in
Ground Water Database IV-2
Pesticides: Food Safety IV-7
Goals, Objectives, and Strategies IV-7
Environmental Indicator Results:
Pesticide Usage Tracking. 1988 and 1989 IV-8
Pesticide Usage Trends Analysis, 1966 to 1989 IV-13
Conclusion. Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives IV-19
Pesticides: Ecological Effects IV-20
Gpals-, Objectives, and Strategies IV-20
Environmental Indicator Results IV-20
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives IV-27
Pesticides: Worker Protection IV-28
Goals, Objectives, and Strategies IV-28
Environmental Indicator Results: Pesticide Poisoning Case Study IV-28
Environmental Indicator Results Poison Control Center Data IV-31
Conclusion. Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives . IV-34
Toxic Substances: Existing Chemicals IV-35
Problem Definition IV-35
Goals, Objectives, and Strategies IV-35 - IV-36
Planned Environmental Indicator: Existing Chemicals IV-36
The 33/50 Toxics Reduction Program IV-38
XX
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Toxic Substances: Lead
Environmental Trends IV-41
EPA's Lead Strategy IV-4"
Evaluation of Progress . . .. .IV-4
V. Office of Air and Radiation
Stratospheric Ozone V-1
Problem Definition V-1
Goals. Objectives, and Strategies V-1
Environmental Indicator Results . ... . .... V-2
Conclusion Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives . V-8
Climate Change V-9
Problem Definition . ...... V-9
Goals, Objectives, and Strategies . .V-9
Environmental Indicator Results . . V-10
Conclusion. Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives V-10
Criteria Air Pollutants and Acid Deposition .V-13
Problem Definition . . . V-13-V-14
Goals. Objectives, and Strategies . .... . . V-13-V-14
Environmental Indicator Results V-15
Population Estimates for Counties Not Meeting NAAQS, 1990 V-16
Trends in Ozone . . .... . V-1,
Areas Designated Nonattainment for Ozone . . .... V-1
Other NAAQS Attainment V-20-V-27
Acid Deposition Monitoring ... . . - V-28
Surface Water Acidification V-29
Visibility Impacts of Sulfate Emissions . V-30
Terrestrial Impacts of Acid Deposition V-31
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives V-32
Air Toxics V-33
Problem Definition V-33
Goals, Objectives, and Strategies V-33
Environmental Indicator Results V-34
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives V-34
Indoor Radon V-36
Problem Definition ... V-36
Goals, Objectives, and Strategies .. ... . .... V-36
Environmental Indicator Results . . V-37
Conclusion Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives V-37
XXI
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
VI. Geographic Initiatives
oual
-at Lakes ....VM
ironmental Trends VI-1
itegy VI-5
Progress Evaluation Vl-8
Chesapeake Bay VI-10
Environmental Trends VI-10
Strategy VI-10
Progress Evaluation VI-16
Gulf of Mexico VM 7
Introduction VI-17
Goals, Objectives, and Strategy VI-17
Environmental Indicators VI-17
VII. Cross Program Initiative
Biodiversity and Habitat Alteration VII-1
Problem Definition VII-1
Goals, Objectives, and Strategies VII-1
Environmental Indicator Results VII-2
Declines in North American Duck Populations VII-2
Declines in North American Migrant Bird Species.... VII-7
slorth American Fish Extinctions and Declines VII-11
Conditions in Coral Reef Communities Worldwide VII-17
EMAP Forest Results. New England Pilot VII-22
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies and Objectives VII-24
Appendix A: Indicator Profile Used to Develop
Data Quality Descriptions
XXII
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Acknowledgments
The successful completion of this progress report is owed to the contributions of many
individuals and offices. While it is not possible to acknowledge each individual
contribution, acknowledgment is due to staff of the EPA Offices of Water, Air and
Radiation Programs; Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Prevention. Pesticides and
Toxic Substances; and Policy. Planning and Evaluation, EPA Region III, EPA Region IV,
EPA Region V. the EPA Great Lakes National Program Office, the USGS Water Resources
Division, the NOAA Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessments, and the U S Fish
and Wildlife Service Office of Migratory Bird Management Special recognition is due to
the support contractor. VfGYAN Incorporated, for persevering within a tight schedule to
produce a quality report
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INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Indicators and EPA's Strategic Vision
Efforts of the past year have added valuable clarity to EPA's strategic vision The Agency developed a
Strategic Direction Statement, which establishes systematic environmental risk reduction as the principal
measure of EPA's success. Ten strategic themes now provide a common language lor discussing ways
of energizing the Agency's statutory programs. The strategic planning efforts of media, support and
regional offices are forging environmental goals as the basis for a partnership between career managers
and staff. The Agency-wide Strategic Plan is reaching out to Congress and other key constituencies.
Finally, the strategic vision has made quality the embodiment of EPA's core values
A quality organization strives to manage based on factual information Nowhere is the importance of
managing based on factual information more evident than in our continuing efforts to develop and use
environmental indicators. Few people would dispute the value of EPA's strategic vision as a catalyst for
institutional progress. But for all of us the questions remain-
Has innovation resulted in demonstrable risk reduction?
How well does institutional progress translate into environmental progress9
Is environmental progress manly subjective, or can EPA measure and communicate it to the public?
Environmental indicators can provide answers to these questions Indicators, moreover, represent the
factual basis upon which EPA must continually question its motives and successes Such a process of
self-examination is vitally important to EPA's long-term institutional growth and awareness
Administrator Reilly spoke of the practical need for environmental indicators when, shortly after his arrival
at EPA. he said. "I believe EPA has made tremendous progress cleaning up the environment, but I can't
prove it." The importance of being able to show proof of EPA's effective stewardship of the environment
will only grow in the future It is safe to say that the environment will continue to be a central domestic
issue for the American public. But the federal budget deficit demands that all government agencies
clearly identify the taxpayer's return on investment. By meeting this agency need, environmental indica-
tors can play a key role in building the political support and understanding that will sustain EPA's strate-
gic vision in the years ahead.
Purpose of this Report
This progress report on environmental indicators was developed to achieve the following purposes:
1. To report the status of our continuing efforts throughout EPA to develop indicators of program
progress toward environmental improvement.
2. To place the indicators presently being developed and used by programs into a context of related
strategic planning goals and strategies for environmental improvement
3. To report, within the limits of available indicator data quality, the status and trends of environmental
problems we manage.
4 To kick off a high-level process of review and advice involving senior managers to identify opportu-
nities for improved indicator development, interpretation and use
A Framework for Environmental Indicators
The word "indicator" refers to a wide range of information collected to support the efforts of environmen-
tal programs implemented by EPA, states and other federal agencies There are four main kinds of indi-
cators as shown in Figure 1. The first and most common kind records activities undertaken by the pro-
grams themselves Examples of such activity measures include the number and type of permitting, in-
spection and enforcement actions taken A second kind of indicator records releases, or loadings, of
I-/
-------
INTRODUCTION
pollutants into the environment. Examples include the Toxics Release Inventory and NPDES discharge
limits. A third kind of indicator, ambient pollutant levels, records conditions in the environment that may
be caused by pollutant releases and that may contribute to adverse environmental effects. Examples
include air and water quality information The fourth kind of indicator, environmental effects information,
records human health effects and ecological damage Examples of environmental effects information
include: cases of respiratory illnesses associated with air pollution, population estimates for a threatened
or endangered species: and estimates of the rate of species extinctions as a surrogate for overall eco-
system health.
While only environmental effects represent true environmental indicators, the latter three of the four types
of measures described above are included in this report as environmental indicators However, all four
kinds of measures, including activity measures, play important roles in our efforts to measure progress
toward achieving environmental improvement Indicators of human activities - whether they be the ac-
tions of a polluter or those of EPA to control the polluter - record the believed causes of environmental
impairment and our response to them. When carefully chosen, indicators of human activity can provide
practical targets for environmental programs and visible evidence of progress Indicators of environ-
mental conditions - whether ambient pollutant levels or environmental damages - record the environ-
mental values we are trying to protect and impacts we are trying to prevent or reverse.
The challenge of environmental indicators is to combine indicators of human activities and indicators of
environmental conditions into a system that links measures of institutional progress as closely as pos-
sible with measures of environmental progress
Environmental Problems, Goals, Strategies and Indicators
This progress report is organized to emphasize the important relationships among the following
environmental problems and natural resources, as the targets of EPA's programs:
strategic planning goals and objectives, as statements of the environmental improvement we strive
through our programs to achieve;
strategies detailing how programs are intended to reach their stated goals and objectives; and
indicators of progress.
Environmental Problems and Natural Resources. This progress report is organized, at its most general
level, into discussions relating to environmental problems or natural resources The environmental prob-
lems are defined in terms generally consistent with those used to report the results of comparative risk
studies conducted for national programs (Unfinished Business and Reducing Risk), as well as the com-
parative risk studies conducted by each of EPA's ten regional offices.
The data on natural resources in the Chesapeake Bay and Great Lakes offer two examples of how strate-
gic planning is being used to coordinate EPA's efforts to protect specific geographic areas. These ex-
amples were chosen because they are among well-known efforts at geographic targeting. They also
were chosen because some indicator information was available for them. Other important geographic
targeting initiatives undertaken by EPA's regions will be included in future such progress reports.
Environmental Problem Profile. Information is presented in a box at the beginning of each problem area
section on the results relevant to that problem area from several comparative risk studies Unfinished
Business- A Comparative Assessment of Environmental Problems was prepared by EPA in 1987 and
compares the relative risks of environmental problems in terms of human health, ecological, and welfare
risks. Reducing Risk: Setting Priorities and Strategies for Environmental Protection (1990) presents the
results of an independent review that EPA's Science Advisory Board (SAB) conducted of the "Unfinished
Business" results, together with the SAB's own recommendations for reducing risk. Regional compara-
tive risk studies were undertaken by EPA's regional offices between 1989 and 1991 and rank the relative
risks of environmental problems in each region
-------
INTRODUCTION
Also presented in the box beginning each problem area section is a summary of the findings of the 1988
and 1990 Roper polls of public perceptions of environmental risk facing Americans Finally, there is a
brief listing of some of the recent agency initiatives related to the problem area.
Strategic Planning Goals. Objectives and Strategies Descriptions of strategic planning goals and strat-
egies are presented for most of the environmental problems and natural resources included in the re-
port The descriptions are taken from the strategic plans developed by program and regional offices.
and special geographic programs For some environmental problems, however, goals and strategies
were not presented in the strategic plans. If goals and strategies were not presented, but significant
activities were under way. program staff were asked to supply additional goal and strategy descriptions
for the report Nevertheless, a few environmental problems - most notably global climate change and
habitat destruction - do not as yet have clearly stated goals and strategies Activity measures are in-
cluded only where a program reported them as surrogates for environmental indicators. This was usu-
ally in cases where a program had no environmental indicators to report or had none in development for
reporting in the near term.
Activity measures are included only where a program reported them as surrogates for environmental
indicators. This was usually in cases where a program had no environmental indicators to report or had
none in development for reporting in the near term.
Environmental Indicators. Indicators of progress presented are, to the extent possible, those the pro-
grams have chosen to develop and use In most cases, the programs themselves were the source of
indicator data and interpretation In a few cases, however, the report includes indicators beyond those
being developed by programs, because the information enhances our understanding of program
progress Activity measures are included only where a program reported them as surrogates for envi-
ronmental indicators This was usually in cases where a program had no environmental indicators to
report or had none in development for reporting in the near term.
Indicator Data Completeness and Quality
A primary goal of this report is to encourage a process of indicator review, discussion and improvement
The report should help to determine what available indicators can tell us about program progress and.
as importantly, what they cannot tell us The report, therefore, intentionally includes information of widely
varied completeness and quality. An effort has been made to the extent possible, given time con-
straints, to evaluate and document the strengths and weaknesses in indicator data.
Assessments of data completeness and quality are reported using a simple pilot classification system
The classification of indicator data was based on detailed data profiles developed for each indicator
used in this report (see AppendixA for indicator profile questions) There is an inevitable trade-off, how-
ever, between the simplicity of a classification system and its comprehensiveness in conveying the many
important attributes of data quality. OPPE will use the comments received on this report to revise the
pilot classification system to find the proper balance to meet the needs of indicator users
Discussion Issues
This progress report places environmental indicators into their intended context of environmental prob-
lems, goals and strategies This presentation of information highlights the opportunities for strengthen-
ing the linkages between indicators and the other elements of strategic plans Efforts to improve those
linkages should be guided by following questions.
How can our strategic planning goals be expressed more closely in terms of improvement in envi-
ronmental problems7
Are the key activities and results clear from the descriptions of program strategies7
Do indicators measure progress toward completing key activities, achieving environmental goals,
or other important results7
I-IV
-------
1. Office of Water
Inland Surface Waters: Point Sources
RELATIVE RISK RANKING
Unfinished Business Report
SAB Reducing Risk Report
Regional Comparative Risk
PUBLIC CONCERN (ROPER)
From Industrial Waste
From Sewage Plants
Human Health
Low, cancer
Low. non-cancer
NR
1988
High
Medium
AGENCY INITIATIVES WITH STRONG CONNECTION
33/50 Project
Chesapeake Bay
Mexican Border
Federal Facilities
Clean Water Act
Pollution Prevention
Great Lakes
Multimedia Enforcement
Ground Water
Ecological
High
Medium
1990
High
Medium
Welfare
High
Medium
Caribbean
Gulf of Mexico
Indian Programs
Paper & Pulp Cluster
Inland Surface Waters: Nonpoint Sources
RELATIVE RISK RANKING
Human Health Ecological Welfare
Unfinished Business Report Low, cancer High High
Medium, non-cancer
SAB Reducing Risk Report
Regional Comparative Risk
PUBLIC CONCERN (ROPER)
From Urban Runoff
From Agricultural Runoff
NR
Med-High - Med
1988
Med-Low
Med-High
AGENCY INITIATIVES WITH STRONG CONNECTION
Agricultural Sector Pollution Prevention Leg
Geographic Initiatives (all) Clean Water Act
High-Low
High
1990
Med-Low
Medium
High-Low
Ground Water
-------
Problem Definition
Threats to lakes, rivers and streams are characterized as point or nonpomt in origin Point source dis-
charges include industrial and municipal effluent, pollutants of concern include total suspended solids;
BOD; toxic organics and inorganics and thermal pollutants. Nonpomt sources include runoff from agri-
cultural, urban, industrial, and silvicultural lands, surface discharge of septic tanks; contaminated sedi-
ments; acid deposition, solid waste disposal, hazardous waste sites, and pesticide runoff.
Inland Surface Waters - Lakes, Rivers and Streams
Goals/Obje c fives
In the Office of Water's FY 1993 - 1996 Strategic Plan, it is the goal to restore, protect, and enhance the
natural values and functions of the nation's lakes, rivers and streams as sustainable ecological systems,
recreational resources, and sources of drinking water and food supply
Specific objectives in the OW Strategic Plan include 1) through the Watershed Initiative, protect critical
habitat and ensure a healthy community structure of indigenous species in targeted lakes, rivers and
streams, 2) reduce the number of lake and reservoir acres threatened or impaired by harmful pollutants
from point and nonpomt sources in targeted lakes. 3) eliminate sediment contamination for point and
nonpomt sources. 4) reduce by 50% the releases of selected toxic pollutants from industries on the
Great Lakes. 5) eliminate the discharge of selected, highly persistent bioaccumulative pollutants cur-
rently in use. 6) eliminate all known impairments to river/stream sediments due to point source dis-
charges of toxic pollutants, ammonia, chlorine, and whole effluent toxicity, 7) reduce the threats or im-
pairments to targeted watersheds as a result of agricultural nonpomt source runoff, or by flow contribu-
tors from contaminated ground water, and 8) protect existing aquatic ecosystems and drinking water
supply sources by minimizing demand for new sources of water
Strategies
Strategies to achieve the goal and objectives emphasize the strategic use of statutory authority com-
bined with the development of more comprehensive approaches to ecological resource management.
the institutionalization of pollution prevention and multi-media management approaches, and assistance
to state and local level officials in achieving greater resource protection
Key directions necessary to achieve the eight strategic planning objectives are identified in the OW Stra-
tegic Plan. Selected highlights, corresponding to the objectives above, include 1) Coordinate surface
water programs to engage the appropriate mix of tools (regulatory, non-regulatory, enforcement, techni-
cal assistance, etc.) to solve the unique problems of individual ecosystems. 2) Reduce risk from con-
taminated stormwater runoff by combining the point source permitting and enforcement and nonpomt
source management techniques; implement NPDES stormwater permitting requirements and permitting
strategy for municipalities and industrial activity; promote nonpomt source techniques to prepare local
governments for compliance with new regulations to establish stormwater management plans in the
large and medium-sized municipal areas, target other stormwater nonpomt source (NPS) prevention
measures to high priority lakes based on problems identified in NPS and Clean Lakes assessments. 3)
Improve scientific and managerial knowledge of contaminated m-place sediments, develop sediment
quality criteria for metals, PCBs, PAHs and biological toxicity Develop low-cost methodologies to re-
store impaired lakes, work with state and regional authorities to put in place sediment quality-based per-
mit limits for point sources and sediment quality-based loading targets for nonpomt sources 4) Imple-
ment pollution prevention through a combination of regulatory approaches, economic incentives, and
public education strategies. 5) Identify a core list of highly persistent, bioaccumulative pollutants tar-
geted for zero discharge, working in concert with the pollution prevention strategy and utilizing sources
such as the Pollutant Ranking System 6) Promulgate new technology-based standards for industries
If-2
-------
INLAND SURFACE WATERS
that significantly threaten water quality 7) Implement conservation measures and improve water man-
agement techniques to ensure sustamability and renewability of water resources
Environmental Indicator Results
There are two categories of water quality indicators The first type are measures of actual physical,
chemical, and biological conditions, such as measures of individual water quality constituents The sec-
ond type are more aggregate or summary measures of water quality conditions, such as the degree to
which waters meet the uses assigned by states It may be based on a combination of physical, chemi-
cal, and biological data This section contains data on both types of measures, and the Office of Water's
strategic plan includes goals to improve both types of measures
Rivers and Streams
Degree of Designated Use Support
Designated use support is the standard measure of water quality reported by states It refers to the de-
gree to which waters support the uses for which states designate them, such as high-quality cold water
fishery, contact recreation, or drinking water supply This information is reported by states in their Sec-
tion 305(b) reports
In their 1990 State Section 305(b) reports, 51 states, territories, jurisdictions, and interstate commerce
commissions (hereafter referred to as states) provided use support information for rivers and streams
These states assessed a total of approximately 630.000 river miles. 121,000 more than were assessed in
1988 These miles represent 36% of the nation's estimated 1 8 million stream miles
Df those assessed waters, approximately 400,000 miles (63%) were found to be fully supporting their
designated uses (Figure 1) An additional 40.000 miles (6%) were identified as threatened waters that
currently support their designated uses but could soon become impaired if pollution control actions were
not taken. Twenty-one percent of assessed waters, or about 130.000 miles, were reported as partially
supporting uses, and 60.000 stream miles were reported as not supporting uses
Despite the increase in number of waters assessed, the Section 305(b) assessment and reporting pro-
cess has its limitations First of all. differences among states preclude comparisons States have
adopted different water quality criteria, water quality standards, and assessment methodologies, and
state capabilities to monitor water quality, fish tissue, and biological integrity also vary. Furthermore.
assessment methods and criteria may change within a given state over time, and states may assess
"different waterbodies from year to year Thus the information is only a "snapshot" of water quality condi-
tions and cannot be compared with previous years
Causes and Sources of Impairment
In their 1990 State Section 305(b) reports. 47 states provided information on the causes of impairment in
waters not fully supporting uses, while 42 states provided information on the various sources of pollution
contributing to use impairment. As any given stream mile can be affected by many different causes, a
single river mile affected by multiple causes is counted under several categories Likewise, river miles
affected by multiple sources are counted under several source categories.
Siltation, the smothering of stream beds by sediments (usually from accelerated soil erosion), is the most
commonly reported cause of nonsupport in the nation's rivers and streams, affecting 36% of impaired
iver miles Nutrients affect 28% of impaired river miles and most often consist of phosphorus and nitro-
gen compounds such as those used in agricultural fertilizers. Both siltation and nutrients are predomi-
nantly from diffuse nonpoint sources Organic enrichment/low dissolved oxygen, affecting 26% of im-
paired waters, may be linked to sewage treatment plants and feedlots Pathogen contamination, affect-
ing 19% of impaired waters, may impair drinking water and contact recreation uses and may come,
_ »
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11 ^ i_i"\ 1 1 U* OW I II
Figure 1. Designated Use Support in the Nation's Assessed Rivers
130,000 60,000
40,000
J Fully Supporting
Threatened
] Partially Supporting
| Mot Supporting
I Unassessed
Estimate ol total river miles (1.8 million miles)
based on State-Reported Information in America's
Clean Water, the States' Nonpoint Source
Assessment. ASIWPCA. 1935.
River Miles
(Values rounded to nearest 10,000 or 100.000 miles)
Data quality; Useful to describe relative proportions; not at
all precise, due to state sampling differences.
Relevance to EPA program; Very relevant to CWA goals.
Source: National Water Quality Inventory. 1990 Report to Congress
Environmental Results anO Forecasting Branch/1991
among other things, from inadequately treated sewage or runoff from pastures, feedlots, and urban ar-
eas. Other causes of impairment are metals (such as lead, copper, and mercury), salinity, habitat modi-
fication, pesticides, suspended solids, and flow alteration.
The most extensive source of pollution reported by states for the nation's rivers is agricultural runoff,
which affects 60% (103,439 miles) of the impaired river miles (Figure 2). Other extensive sources in-
clude municipal dischargers, affecting 16%; hydrologic/habitat modification, affecting 15%; resource
extraction, affecting 14%; storm sewers, affecting 11%; and industrial dischargers and silviculture, each
affecting about 9% of impaired river miles.
11-4
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INLAND SURFACE WATERS
Figure 2. Percent of Impaired River Miles Affected by Sources of
Pollution
Agriculture is the most extensive source of pollution states report for the nation's rivers.
Pollution Sources
Agriculture
Municipal
Hydro-logic/
Habitat Modification
Resource Extraction
Storm S«wers/Runofl
Industrial
Silviculture
Construction
Source: National Water Quality Inventory. 1990 Report to Congress
20 30 to SO SO 70
Data quality; Useful to
describe relative propor-
tions; not at all precise,
due to state sampling
differences.
Relevance to EPA pro-
gram; Very relevant to
CWA goals.
Environmental Results and Forecasting BrancrVl99i
Water Quality Trends at National USGS Stations
The United States Geological Survey (USGS) has been collecting water quality data from the nation's
rivers and streams for decades. 'A number of national sampling networks have been established to better
understand natural changes in hydrological characteristics, anthropogenic influences in the aquatic environ-
ment, and water quality trends and their relationship to upstream land and water use. Every two years
USGS publishes a document entitled The National Water Summary which examines different aspects of
the nation's hydrology.
Information presented in Figure 3a - e is a compilation of data from a number of USGS networks, indi-
. vid.ual USGS/state projects, and other special projects (USGS Open-File Report 92-70). The data repre-
sent over 400 sampling stations located at the downstream end of watersheds (hydrologic accounting
units) across the nation. Statistical analyses have been conducted by USGS to ensure the sampling
stations are nationally representative of waters at the downstream end of watersheds.
A broad range of parameters are collected at USGS water monitoring stations including: suspended
sediments, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, toxic substances, metals, bacteria, and physical characteristics
such as stream flow, basin characteristics, and land use. The data presented here are limited to con-
ventional pollutants during the time period 1980 to 1989. Note also that these trends were accompanied
by a nationwide increase in population of almost 10% between 1980 and 1990.
Figure 3a. Suspended Sediments (SS): There is a slight downward trend in the fraction of stations ex-
ceeding SS concentrations of 100mg/L, especially in the latter part of the decade. High con-
centrations of SS are usually due to soil erosion from agriculture and forestry practices and
runoff from urban development. High concentrations of SS can cause degraded municipal
and industrial water supplies, harmful effects on fish and invertebrate species, reduced pri-
mary productivity in aquatic vegetation, habitat loss, and additional substrate for pathogenic
organisms and toxic substances.
11-5
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INLAND SURFACE WATERS
Figure 3b Fecal Coliform (FC): There is a slight downward trend in the fraction of stations exceeding
FC concentrations of 200#/100ml throughout the decade. High concentrations of FC are
usually a result of inadequate sewage treatment or agricultural livestock waste runoff The
presence of fecal cohform is an indicator of fecal contamination and signifies the possible
existence of further contamination by pathogenic organisms
Figure 3c. Nitrate (N03-): There has been no observable trend in the fraction of stations exceeding N03-
concentrations of 1.0 mg/1 The fraction of stations exceeding this value has remained just
above 0.2 throughout the sampling period. Some of the many sources of N03- include mu-
nicipal and industrial waste water, septic systems, feed lot discharges, misapplication of
agricultural and lawn fertilizer, animal wastes, leachate from waste disposal, and air deposi-
tion from automobiles and other combustion sources Concentrations of N03- that would ex-
hibit toxic effects to humans or wildlife rarely occur in nature However, high concentrations
of N03- are a major contributor to the eutrophication of waterbodies. reducing water quality
and aquatic life support
Figure 3d. Total Phosphorous as P (P) There is a slight downward trend in the fraction of stations ex-
ceeding P concentrations of 0 1 mg/l throughout the decade Some of the many sources of
P include municipal and industrial waste water, feed lot discharges, misapplication of agri-
cultural and lawn fertilizer, animal wastes, leachate from waste disposal, and air deposition
High concentrations of P can contribute to the eutrophication of waterbodies, reducing water
quality and aquatic life support The downward trend nationwide presumably results from a
combination of reduced uses of phosphorus fertilizer, phosphate detergent bans, and ad-
vanced wastewater treatment
Figure 3e Dissolved Oxygen (DO). There has been no observable trend in the fraction of stations ex-
ceeding DO concentrations of 6 5 mg/l National criteria for DO are based on the physical
characteristics of the waterbody and species of fish present There are many factors that
influence the concentration of dissolved oxygen in aquatic systems Low DO concentrations
are often caused by high water temperatures, excessive decay of biological matter (large
algal blooms decaying in eutrophic waters), high concentrations of pollutants with high bio-
logical or chemical oxygen demand (BOD/COD).
Proportions of USGS Stations Showing
Improvement Versus Deterioration
Direction of Change, Rather than Absolute Level
Figure 4 shows a somewhat different way of analyzing USGS water quality data, reported by
Lettenmaier. et al. of the University of Washington. Included here are stations in the USGS National
Stream Quality Accounting Network (NASQAN), which make up the bulk of. but not all of, the stations in
the National Water Summary (NWS) data shown in Figure 3 (The NASQAN analysis was done for 1978
to 1987, the NWS is for 1980 to 1989). Figure 4 shows the proportion of stations reporting statistically
significant improvement versus deterioration. If stations did not exceed the EPA water quality criterion or
other guideline for a given pollutant, but the concentration was nevertheless increasing, or if they ex-
ceeded the criterion, and the exceedance was getting worse, they are reflected in the right side of the
bar graph in Figure 4, but would not make a difference in Figure 3. On the other hand. Figure 4 does not
show how often pollutants did or did not exceed criteria
Results
There is typically agreement between the pollutants for which more stations were improving than deteriorating
at NASQAN stations in 1978 to 1987, and pollutants for which the numbers of National Water Summary
II -6
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INLAND SURFACE WATERS
Figure 3. Water Quality Trends at USGS National Water Summary Stations
"Figure 3a. Fraction of Stations Exceeding Suspended
Sediment Concentrations of 100mg/l
05 .
04 _
03
02
01
00
1980
Figure 3c
1982
1984
1986
I
1988
Figure 3b. Fraction of Stations Exceeding Fecal
Coliform Concentrations of 200#/100ml
06 -
04
02
00
1990
1980
I
1982
I
1984
1986
1988
1990
Fraction of Stations Exceeding Nitrate
Concentrations of 10 mg/l
03
02
'01
00
1980
1982
I
1984
Figure 3d. Fraction of Stations Exceeding Total
Phosphorous Concentrations of 0 1 mg/l*
06 -
1986
1988
1990
Figure 3«. Fraction of Stations with Annual Rate of Viola-
tion Exceeding 20% for 6 5 mg/l of Dissolved
Oxygen
03
02
01
00
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
04 _
02
00
'based on annual mean cone
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
The exceedance values for Figures 3a - d were
taken from the 1986 USEPA Water Quality Criteria
guidelines Criteria are the recommended levels of
substances to ensure that designated uses for
waters are achieved The value for dissolved
oxygen in Figure 3e is an arbitrary value derived
form various sources by USGS hydrologists
Note: These data are still under review in
January 1992 and should not be copied or
cited. For more information about this
data contact: Richard Smith, Water Re-
sources Division, USCS.
Data quality; Good.
Relevance to EPA programs; Moderate;
selected stations are not a random
sample, but are a close representation of
the nation's waters.
11-7
-------
INUND SURFACE WATERS
stations exceeding criteria decreased (Chloride and dissolved solids are not included in the National
Water Summary data shown here.) For phosphorus, fecal coliform bacteria and suspended solid (or
"sediment") concentrations, more NASQAN stations improved than declined in 1978 to 1987, and the
fraction of the National Water Summary stations exceeding EPA criteria declined slightly but significantly
for these same pollutants.
However, for oxygen deficit, while the fraction of National Water Summary stations exceeding the USGS
guideline did not change significantly, more NASQAN stations improved than declined. The difference
could reflect the slight differences in time periods and stations in the two analyses. For whatever reason,
it indicates that we were making progress more places than not from 1978 to 1987.
Another notable difference in these two analyses is in nitrogen From 1980 to 1989, the proportion of
National Water Summary stations exceeding EPA's nitrate criterion did not change significantly. Yet,
from 1978 to 1987,21% of NASQAN stations had significant increases in nitrogen, while only 6% showed
improvement. Again, it is possible that some of the difference is due to the time periods and stations
Although the reasons are not clear, increases in nitrogen at NASQAN stations occurred much more often
than not in the 1978 to 1987 time period.
Geographic Trends in Water Quality
The USGS Open-File Report 92-70 provides national maps of trends in all the conventional pollutants
discussed above Three have been selected for discussion here because there were marked differ-
ences in conditions and/or trends from region to region
Geographic Comparisons for Phosphorus
phosphorus either decreased or showed no significant trend at almost all stations throughout the country
(Figure 5a). There were, however, clusters of stations with increases throughout most of Georgia, and in
south Texas.
Geographic Comparisons for Nitrogen
Nitrate nitrogen showed few significant trends, or a mix of increases and decreases, in most regions
(Figure 5b). However, along the mid-Atlantic seaboard and the California coast, while many stations
showed no trends, there were several stations with increases and none with declines
Geographic Comparisons for Dissolved Oxygen
The trend map (Figure 6a) shows that total dissolved oxygen (a desirable attribute, as opposed to the
'oxygen deficit discussed in Figures 3 and 4) usually increased or was stable in the midwest and north-
west, was stable in the east, and generally stable or mixed in the remainder of the country. However, a
second map (Figure 6b) shows that, even though there are not large numbers of locations with changes
in oxygen from 1980 to 1989, there are very large differences in the actual concentrations throughout the
country. There is a marked geographic shift from high oxygen concentrations of 9 0 or even 10.0 milli-
grams per liter in the northwest, west and upper midwest, to concentrations of 8.0 milligrams per liter
and below in the southeast. These differences result in large measure from natural influences
MATERIAL BELONGS TO '
US EPA TOXiCS LIBRARY
401 M ST SW / TS-793
WASHINGTON, DC 20460
(202) 260-3944
II - O
-------
INLAND SURFACE WATERS
Lakes and Reservoirs
Degree of Designated Use Support
In the 1990 305(b) reports, 46 states provided information on support of designated uses in their lakes
and reservoirs. A total of 18,500,000 acres were assessed, 2 million more than were assessed in 1988.
These assessed acres represent 47% of the nation's total 39,400,000 lake acres. Great Lakes are not
included in this assessment.
Of those assessed lake acres, approximately 8,000,000 acres (44%) were found to be fully supporting
their designated uses (Figure 7). An additional 3,000,000 acres (16%) are threatened (i.e., may not fully
support uses in the future if action is not taken to control pollution sources). Nineteen percent of as-
sessed lake acres, or about 3,500,000 acres, partially support uses, and 21%, or 4,000.000 acres, do
not support uses.
As described for rivers and streams, these data should be interpreted with caution and should not be
compared to those of previous 305(b) reporting cycles. Assessment methods and criteria may vary both
between states and within states over time. However, as with rivers and streams, the number of lake
acres assessed has increased over previous years.
Figure 7. Designated Use Support in the Nation's Assessed Lakes
3,500,000
3,000,000
8,000,000
] Fully Supporting
Q Threatened
Q Partially Supporting
Q Not Supporting
Unassessed
Estimate of total lake acres (39.400.CXXl) based
on State-Reported Information in America's
Clean Water, the States' Nonpoint Source
Assessment. ASIWPCA. 1985.
Lake Acres
(Values rounded to nearest 500.000 acres)
Data quality; Useful to describe relative proportions; not at all precise,
due to state sampling differences.
Relevance to EPA program; Very relevant to CWA goals.
Source: National Water Quality Inventory. 1990 Report to Congress.
Environmental Results and Forecasting Brancn/1991
-------
INLAND SURFACE WATERS
Causes and Sources of Impairment
In 1990, 35 states provided data on the causes of nonsupport in their lakes, as well as information on the
us sources of pollution. As described for rivers, any given acre of lake may be affected by many
es and sources. Thus, a single lake acre may be counted under multiple categories if it is affected
oy multiple causes and sources.
The most extensive causes of use impairment in lakes were metals (affecting 48% of impaired acres),
nutrients (affecting 32%). organic enrichment/low dissolved oxygen (affecting 19%), and suspended
solids (affecting 13%). However, it should be noted that this data was skewed by data from one state,
Minnesota, which changed its assessment approach in 1990 and reported a large number of lake acres
affected by mercury from atmospheric deposition. When data from that state are excluded, metals rank
sixth and nutrients are by far the leading cause of use impairment.
As shown in Figure 8, states report the most extensive source of pollution in lakes to be agricultural run-
off, affecting 57% of lake acres. Other leading sources in lakes include hydrologic/habitat modification
(affecting 40% of impaired acres), storm sewers/runoff (affecting 28%), land disposal (affecting 24%),
and municipal dischargers (affecting 17%). It should be noted that, as with the causes of impairment,
certain states predominate in the number of lake acres reported in each category and skew the
rankings. For example. Florida alone accounts for 66% of the total number of lake acres affected by
storm sewers/runoff and 70% of the lake acres affected by land disposal.
Figure 8. Percent of Impaired Lake Acres Affected by Sources of
Pollution
Pollution Source*
Agriculture
Hydrofogic/
Habitat Modification
Stofm Sewers/RunofT
Industrial
Resource
Ext radon
Data quality: Useful to describe relative proportions; not at all precise,
due to state sampling differences.
Relevance to EPA program; Very relevant to CWA goals.
National Water Quality Inventory. 1990 Report to Congress.
Environmental Results and Forecasting Branch/1991
H-13
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INLAND SUIirAUt WAItrtb
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to
Strategies and Objectives
Objectives with National Indicator Data: Some Positive Trends in
Conventional Pollutants
There are several positive implications of the water quality trend data. The most striking is the overall
reduction in phosphorus levels, which is presumably associated with the combination of detergent bans,
advanced wastewater treatment and fertilizer use reductions In addition, the large number of stations
with fecal coliform and oxygen deficit reductions from 1978 to 1987. and the decreases in the numbers
of stations exceeding the coliform criterion and the (arbitrarily set) oxygen deficit guideline, may repre-
sent modest success for the sewage treatment plant construction grants program in improving conven-
tional water quality nationwide. This is especially notable given an increase in population nationwide
over the last decade, and given that USGS sampling locations are not intended to focus on urban im-
pacts. but rather to reflect overall conditions in watersheds, integrating impacts from non-traditional
sources with the more traditional point sources such as factories and sewage treatment plants which our
regulatory programs have most strongly addressed
There are also indications from the trend data that some of our strategies are not yet succeeding and
may need re-evaluation The most important finding may be that we have not yet succeeded in de-
creasing the extent of nitrogen pollution, and that nitrogen levels increased significantly far more often
than they decreased from 1978 to 1 987 Given the information reported by states in their 305(b) reports
that nitrogen sources to inland waters are dominated by agricultural runoff, clearly we are unlikely to suc-
ceed in diminishing water quality impairment due to nitrogen without decreasing agricultural runoff of
nitrogen fertilizers. OW's strategic plan correctly identifies increased effectiveness in agricultural non-
point source controls to targeted watersheds as an important objective
Incomplete Data: Airborne and Ground Water Sources of Nitrogen
One important potential conventional pollutant source is not well addressed by current national indica-
tors or strategies. Based on data on the Chesapeake Bay from another section of this report, while exist-
ing 305(b) report data do not attempt to quantify air deposition, this might be an important source of ni-
trogen problems in surface waters in general. Airborne nitrogen comes primarily from combustion
sources such as power plants and automobiles, and is now recognized as an important part of the nitro-
gen problem in the Chesapeake Bay. The Chesapeake Bay watershed is not unique in the likelihood of
airborne nitrogen sources contributing to surface water problems Given this, evaluation of the nitrogen
aif deposition problem at the national level should be given serious attention. In addition. EPA's nitrate
strategy should be expanded to include detailed examination of relative costs and benefits of controlling
all major sources for areas with nitrogen impacts For example, airborne sources may be large and ex-
pected to increase in some target areas (i e areas with increasing populations, increasing automobile
use, large impacts from power plants) where it is not deemed economically and practically feasible to
adequately control the associated increases in air deposition of nitrogen to surface waters. Those areas
may be appropriate candidates for stronger controls from other sources, such as nitrogen removal at
sewage treatment plants, or more ambitious agricultural control programs.
A final source of nitrogen (and other pollutants) that is not well understood and not accounted for by cur-
rently available national indicators is ground water discharge to surface waters. Again, intensive studies
for water bodies such as the Chesapeake Bay and the Great Lakes reveal that ground water transport of
nutrients can be a substantial portion of the total loadings This is a factor that needs to be taken into
account in developing strategies for cleaning up individual water bodies, although typically there is little
possibility of addressing the problem once the pollutants have entered the ground water. It simply
means that target load reductions may require greater reductions in controllable sources than might be
realized if ground water contributions were not taken into account
II- 14
-------
INLAND SURFACE WATERS
Conclusions from Geographic Analysis
A few geographic situations of possible concern are revealed by recent USGS data Not surprisingly, in
eavily populated areas of the mid-Atlantic and California coasts, nitrates tend to be increasing, even
jh nationally'there is not a significant trend This indicates a possible need to consider increasing
nitrogen controls on sources associated with population centers, which include automobile and power
plant emissions (airborne sources of nitrogen deposition to surface waters) and sewage treatment
plants, few of which remove nitrogen in large amounts. Nitrogen fertilizers are also important sources in
parts of the Mid-Atlantic regions.
The second situation of concern is the increase in phosphorus in the southeast which may be contribut-
ing to some of the region's low dissolved oxygen concentrations The causes are not easily determined.
as the region is a mix of agriculture, suburban and urban development, and slow-moving, naturally low
oxygenated waters A regional assessment of phosphorus loading and possible impacts in the south-
east, and Georgia and Florida in particular, might be an appropriate screening project for EPA to con-
sider undertaking
Future Indicator Being Developed: Point Source Loadings
At present, loading data are not available on a national basis OW is. however, working with Region 5 to
develop a capability to estimate point source loadings from Permit Compliance System data, and hopes
to generalize this to the nation as a whole within several years The data will at first be most complete for
conventional pollutants As more NPDES permits with limits for more toxic pollutants are written, data on
toxics will become increasingly meaningful on a national basis
Objectives Lacking Indicator Data: Reduction of Toxic Impacts in
Sediments and Water
vo of OW's major objectives, relating to reducing toxic contamination in sediments and water, no
nal indicators are available on status or trends. OW has data sources that could be used to derive
some indicator data, although it is not known at this time whether they would support national status and
trend analysis. The STORET and ODES databases have substantial information on toxic pollutant con-
centrations in fish tissue, sediment, and water. Special analyses could be run on these data to evaluate
trends.
EPA's National Bioaccumulation Study was specifically designed to evaluate the occurrence and preva-
lence of fish contamination throughout the country. The final report on this major study will be available
to the public this year.
In 1987^-OW prepared a preliminary national inventory of contaminated sediment sites. As part of the
agency-wide contaminated sediment management strategy. EPA is committed to developing a much
more comprehensive national inventory over the next few years Regional contaminated sediment inven-
tories are already underway in Regions 4.5. and 6.
/;-
-------
Estuaries and Coastal Waters
RELATIVE RISK RANKING
Unfinished Business Report
SAB Reducing Risk Report
Regional Comparative Risk
PUBLIC CONCERN (ROPER)
Human Health Ecological
NR, cancer High
Medium, non-cancer
NR
NR
1988
Medium
Med
NR
1990
Med-High
Welfare
High
Med
NR
AGENCY INITIATIVES WITH STRONG CONNECTION
Agricultural Sector
Chesapeake Bay
Core Research
Estuary Program
Pollution Prevention Legislation
Gulf of Mexico
Multimedia Enforcement
Clean Water Act
Problem Definition
Threats to estuaries and coastal waters (collectively called "near coastal waters") are similar to those
affecting inland waters, that is. there are point source threats and nonpomt sources of pollutants (see
page II - 1). Problems of particular concern in coastal waters include contaminated shellfish waters, and
impacts on unique estuarine and marine ecosystems such as sea grasses, shrimp nurseries, and habitat
for anadromous (migratory) fisheries, such as shad and salmon.
Estuaries and Coastal Waters
Goals/Objectives
According to the FY 1993 -1996 Strategic Plan, the Office of Water's (OW) goal is to protect, restore.
and maintain the nation's coastal waters to sustain living resources, protect human health and the food
supply, and recover full recreational uses of shores, beaches and waters
Specific objectives in OW's strategic plan are to 1) decrease the temporal and spatial extent of hypoxic
and anoxic "dead zones" in coastal waters, 2) maintain the biotic integrity of benthic invertebrate and
pelagic fish communities in coastal waters; 3) maintain (and increase where feasible) the extent and
productivity of critical marine and coastal habitats, especially coastal wetlands, 4) remove all impair-
ments and minimize threats from point sources, reduce threats and impairments from nonpomt sources
in targeted watersheds, reduce (and eliminate where feasible) sediment contamination from point and
nonpomt sources; 5) increase the number of shellfish harvest areas open for harvest, 6) improve the
quality and consistency of fishing bans and advisories and beach closures in the short-term (including a
short-term rise in the number issued) and over the long-term, thus decreasing the need for fishing bans/
II- 16
-------
ESTUARIES AND COASTAL WATERS
advisories and beach closures, 7) eliminate the discharge of highly persistent, bioaccumulative pollut-
ants currently in use. 8) reduce the amount of debris in the marine environment; 9) eliminate all dumping
"'nicipal sev/age at the 106 mile site, and 10) minimize the impact of dredged material dumping at
ocean sites
Strategies
OW has identified a series of strategies and key directions to achieve their strategic goals and objec-
tives. The following identifies the major strategies and highlights some of the key directions discussed in
the OW Strategic Plan.
Promote Integrated Water Quality Management and Targets Based on Risk
OW intends to eliminate ongoing discharges of selected toxic, highly persistent pollutants, and reduce
the risk from in-place contaminated sediments. OW will identify a core list of highly persistent, bioaccu-
mulative pollutants targeted for zero discharge. This effort is being conducted in concert with the
Agency's pollution prevention strategy.
Educate and Empower Others
OW will work with others at the local, state, and regional levels as well as expand partnerships with other
federal agencies and other nations. Highlights include pressing state and local governments to imple-
ment effective land use policies and controls to assure that growth and development proceed in an envi-
ronmentally sound direction, issuing and enforcing NPDES stormwater permits in large municipalities in
all coastal counties: and using nonpomt source techniques lo prepare local governments for compliance
with new regulations. To improve knowledge of coastal waters, and protection of special high-value areas,
OW will work with other EPA offices/NOAA/other federal agencies/states to develop and implement credible
coastal waters monitoring programs, and to support an increase in the number of estuanne/marine sanc-
s, protected refuges, reserves and parks OW will also continue development and implementation of
^rehensive Conservation and Management Plans developed under the National Estuary Program.
Strategic Implementation of Statutory Mandates
A key direction for OW is developing and implementing strategies to meet the new provisions of the
Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments of 1990 To this end OW will develop a guidance speci-
fying management measures for nonpoint sources of pollution in coastal waters OW will also coordinate
with NOAA to assist states in developing coastal nonpoint pollution management programs which inte-
grate measures to address the Coastal Zone Management land use provisions with those addressing
Clean Water Act (CWA) water quality concerns, and which implement enforceable management measures
based on EPA's guidance. OW will also develop a risk-based guidance for issuance of CWA 403 permits.
Environmental Indicator Results
Degree of Designated Use Support
Twenty-two states provided use support information on their estuarme waters in their 1990 State Section
305(b) reports A total of approximately 26,500 square miles were assessed, representing 75% of the
estuarme waters in these states
Of these assessed waters, approximately!5,000 square miles, or 56%. were found to fully support desig-
nated uses (Figure 9). An additional 11% (3,000 estuarme square miles) currently support uses but
could become impaired if control actions are not taken. Twenty-five percent of assessed estuarme wa-
"5,500 square miles) partially support uses, and 8% (2.000 square miles) do not support their desig-
I uses
-------
ESTUARIES AND COASTAL WATERS
Figure 9. Designated Use Support in the Nation's Assessed Estuaries
6,500
3,000
Fully Supporting
Threatened
U Partially Supporting
| Not Supporting
I Unassessed
' Total U.S. estuary square miles (35.624 square
miles) based on 1990 State-reported Section
305(b) data and excluding Alaska. New
Jersey. Pennsylvania, and Island Territories.
Estuary Square Miles
(Values rounded to nearest 500 square miles)
Data qual'ttv! Useful to describe relative proportion*; not at all precise,
due to state sampling differences.
Relevance to EPA program: Very relevant to CWA goals.
Source: National Water Quality Inventory. 1990 Report to Congress
Environmental Results and Forecasting Branchy 1991
Causes and Sources of Impairment
For their estuarine waters. 16 states provided information in 1990 on the causes of non-support, while 15
states provided information on the sources of pollution. As with rivers and lakes, any given square mile
may be counted under several categories of causes and sources if it is affected by more than one.
Nutrients are reported by the states as the leading cause of nonsupport in estuaries, affecting 55% of
total impaired square miles. Organic enrichment/low dissolved oxygen was found to affect 31% of im-
paired waters, while pathogens were reported to affect 30% of assessed areas. These findings indicate
that eutrophication (caused by excessive nutrients) and high concentrations of bacteria - which can lead
to restrictions in shellfishing waters (see section on shellfish conditions and trends) - are the leading
threats to the Nation's estuaries. Other causes identified by the states were priority organics, affecting
15% of impaired waters; suspended solids, affecting 8%; metals, affecting 7%; and siltation, affecting 5%.
The sources of pollution in estuaries are somewhat different than those in inland waters. As shown in
Figure 10, the most extensive source of pollution cited by the states in estuarine waters is municipal dis-
charges (affecting 35% of impaired square miles), following by storm sewers/runoff (affecting 30%), land
disposal (affecting 19%), agriculture (affecting 18%), construction (affecting 11%), and industrial dis-
charges (affecting 10%).
These figures should be interpreted with care, as almost half of the states with estuarine waters did not
provide information on the causes of impairment. Also, the significance of causes affecting large estuar
ies such as the Chesapeake Bay may overshadow problems affecting smaller estuaries. For example,
Maryland alone accounts for 67% of the estuarine waters affected by nutrients and for 66% of the waters
II - 18
-------
ESTUARIES AND COASTAL WATERS
impacted by organic enrichment. Likewise, in the case of sources, the state reporting the most square
miles of impaired estuarine waters (Louisiana) did not report the sources of impairments. As a result,
r~- 'rces affecting large estuarine tracts, such as resource extraction in Louisiana, are not adequately
:ted in the rankings.
Figure 10. Percent of Impaired Estuarine Square Miles Affected by
Sources of Pollution
Municipal discharges are the most extensive source of pollution reported in estuaries.
Pollution Sources
Municipal
Storni SswerVRunoft
Land Disposal
Agricutura
Construction
Industrial
Combine Sewers
Hydrotogic/
Habrtat Modrtealion
10
20
30
Percent
40
50
60
Data quality; Useful to describe relative proportions; not at all precise,
due to state sampling differences.
Relevance to EPA program: Very relevant to CWA goals.
Source: National Water Quality Inventory. 1990 Report to Congress.
Environmental Results and Forecasting Branch/1991
Shellfish Conditions and Trends
The quantity of shellfish harvested and the water quality of shellfish growing waters are important envi-
ronmental indicators for near coastal waters. According to NOAA's 1990 National Shellfish Register of Clas-
sified Estuarine Waters these indicators show a steady nationwide decline over the past three decades.
Steady Decline in Harvest
Despite restoration efforts such as oyster reef replenishment, hatchery operations, and selective breed-
ing, commercial stocks of wild estuarine shellfish have steadily declined over the past 30 years. The rate
of decline is highest in the most productive estuaries such as Chesapeake Bay, the Mississippi Delta
region, and Puget Sound. In the Chesapeake Bay, for example, oyster harvest dropped from 32 million
DDunds in 1959 to 3.7 million pounds in 1990. Decline in oyster harvest in Chesapeake Bay has been
pd by a combination of hypoxia, over fishing, sedimentation, and a parasitic disease known as MSX.
irre most significant declines in commercial shellfish landings were in the Gulf of Mexico, which has tra-
ditionally lead the nation in oyster harvesting. Between 1985 and 1990 oyster landings declined 50% in the
Gulf of Mexico (Rgure 11). The Gulf is now the second largest oyster-producing region, following Washington
II -
-------
CO I U«nico MI^U
Figure 11. Total U.S. Oyster Harvest
Total U.S. oyster harvest declined (mostly in the Gulf of Mexico) between 1985 and 1989 due to disease,
habitat loss, and declines in approved waters
30.000
25,000 - -
20,000 - -
15.000 - -
10,000
5.000 --
Data quality! Moderate;
Includes estimates and
self-reporting by commer-
cial fisherman.
Relevance to EPA pro-
grams; Some relevance,
but many other factors
also Involved.
Gulf of Mexico
I a
1
~ ~ o
1 1
a
1
Southeast
1985 1986 1987 1988
Source NOAA The 1990 National Shellfish Register ot Classiliea Esiuarme waters. 1990
1989
Environmental Results and Forecasting Branch
State. In terms of oyster harvest. Willapa Bay is now the most productive estuary in the country account-
ing for half of Washington's oyster production and 20% of the national total. However, increased oyster
production in Willapa Bay is due to aquaculture rather than the harvest of wild oyster stock.
According to NOAA. declines in estuarine quality, primarily due to expanding coastal development, is a
major factor in harvest declines. Without increases in aquaculture it is considered likely by NOAA that
shellfish harvests will continue to decline Although trends in any given year are not especially dramatic.
NOAA projects that a long term continued decline in the water quality of productive estuaries in combi-
nation with over-harvesting and disease, would severely threaten all natural harvesting of U S. shellfish.
Decline in Approved Shellfish-Growing Waters
Between 1985 and 1990 there was a 6% decline (736.000 acres) in approved shellfish-growing waters
and a 1.2 million acre increase in prohibited waters.
Of the 17.2 million acres of classified estuarine waters in 1990, 63% were approved for harvest The
remaining harvest-limited waters includes 25% prohibited, 9% conditional, and 3% restricted due to poor
water quality Figure 12 shows classifications broken down by region
The increase in the number of prohibited acres is mostly due to management decisions based on in-
creased monitoring into areas not previously assessed. That is to say, it is possible that water quality
was equally bad in early years, but monitoring did not extend into as many areas with poor water quality,
so they were not identified as needing to be closed to fishing. It is also possible that conditions in gen-
eral are actually getting worse. Current data cannot distinguish between these two possibilities It is
hoped that future data will be more consistent from year to year, so that good data on trends in water
quality will be available from the Shellfish Register
11-20
-------
Figur . Trends in Classified Shellfish Waters 1 -1990
While tr is been a decrease in the amount-of shellfish waters not ap^, ^^ for harvesting in the South Atlantic, all other regions have 1 ei-
ther little change or a marked increase in the amount of waters not approved. The region with the largest total acreage, the Gulf of Mexico, has shown
a dramatic increase in non-approved ("harvest limited") waters but this is mostly due to management decisions based on monitoring in previously
unmonitored waters. According to NOAA. urban runoff, septic systems, and sewage treatment plants are the main sources of pollution that require
areas to be classified as prohibited.
I Approved
i Conditional/Restricted
Prohibited
Data quality; Useful for relative status Information; temporal Incon-
sistencies prevent trend analysis at present.
Rolevanco to EPA program; Moderately relevant; states and locals
responsible for management.
Acres
7.000,000
6.000.000
5.000.000
4,000,000
3,000.000
2.000.000
1.000.000
3,000,000
" 2.000,000
1.000.000
5
m
CO
>
o
8
to
GO
Hath MM* Souti Gullol W«l
Alanfc Almtc Almbc MBOCO COM)
1971
Halt MMt Souti C»i!ol Wnl
Alanfc Altntc ADantc Mudw Cout
1974
Nat) M*>« Scut! Gdlot w«i
Alwfc Alanle Atmtc Utaa> Cool
1980
Hall *»<« Sou*1 Gdld W«i
Alvfc Alwlc A(jnbc Mtaoo Conl
1985
Noll Mdd* Souti Gdlol Wejl
Almfc ABjrbc Alvte Muioa Co«)l
1990
Source: NOAA. 7?ie 1990 National Shelllish Register of Classified Estuarine Waters. 1990.
Environmental Results and Forecasting Branch/1991
-------
ESIUAHItb AND UUAblAT. WAItHb
Classification of Commercial Shellfish-Growing Waters
The quality of shellfish growing waters is affected by changes in livestock abundance, coastal develop-
ment, sewage treatment practices, dredging activities, the ability of states to conduct sanitary surveys,
economic importance of the available shellfish resources, and the ability of states to manage classified
waters. If shellfishmg in an area is not sufficiently profitable, a state may not spend the money to monito
that area. (This biases the classification data, as unmomtored waters are supposed to be classified as
prohibited to fishing according to federal guidelines.)
Approved Areas are waters determined by sanitary surveys to be free of hazardous concentrations of
pathogenic organisms, or pollution, or both Shellfish may be harvested from these areas at any time.
Prohibited Areas are closed due to hazardous levels of contamination, which is usually fecal coliform
bacteria. Prohibited areas may be upgraded when sources of contamination are eliminated, such as
through improved sewage treatment facilities.
Conditionally Approved Areas are closed intermittently during periods when they do not meet the criteria
for approved waters. For example, conditionally approved areas may be closed during rainy seasons when
fecal coliform levels are elevated. The areas can be reopened when fecal coliform levels return to normal
Restricted Areas are not approved for direct marketing of shellfish because of the presence of fecal col-
iform bacteria or toxic chemicals However, shellfish taken from restricted areas may be sold following
purification in a depuration facility or after being "relayed" to approved waters.
Harvest Limited \s a general term referring to areas that are either prohibited, conditionally approved, or
restricted
Sources Affecting Shellfish Growing Waters
As population grows in coastal areas. NOAA estimates that estuarine water quality will continue to decline fror
increasing urban runoff, faulty septic systems, marina development, and sewage treatment plant discharges.
For instance, there was a 50% increase since 1985 in harvest-limited waters affected by boating. In 1990.
pollution from boating and marinas affected more than 25% of harvest-limited waters (Figure 13).
North Atlantic: Pollution sources reflect the region's high coastal population density Sewage Treatment
Plants are the major source, (affecting 67% of harvest-limited areas) followed by septic systems, industry, and
urban runoff. In 1988. highly productive shellfish-growing waters (approximately $315,000 annual harvest)
were closed in Boston Bay because of major malfunctions m overloaded sewage treatment plants.
Middle Atlantic: Both sewage treatment plants and urban runoff affected 57% of the harvest-limited ar-
«as. Increasing demand for coastal recreation has resulted in increased marina construction since
'1985. Boating activities now affect 31% of the harvest-limited areas
South Atlantic: Sewage treatment plants affect 44% of the harvest-limited waters. Because of intense
population growth, more than half of the region's sewage treatment plants are located along Florida's
Atlantic coast. The natural harvest in these areas has been decimated. The South Atlantic ranks first
among regions in the percentage of harvest-limited waters affected by wildlife (36%) and livestock
(28%). Although human pathogens are not usually associated with coliform bacteria from wildlife and
livestock, the nutrients from wildlife sources, and pesticides and nutrients from agriculture (livestock) do
impair water quality and shellfish habitat.
Gulf of Mexico: NOAA estimates that about 80% of the fecal coliform loads to the Gulf are from nonpomt
sources. Among nonpoint sources, septic systems affect 48% of harvest-limited shellfish growing wa-
ters, which is indicative of the many small communities in the region Sewage treatment plants are a
significant source only in the most developed estuaries such as Tampa Bay, Mobile Bay, the Mississipf
Delta region, and Galveston Bay
Pacific: The Pacific region has the highest percentage (42%) of harvest limited shellfish-growing waters
affected by industry Three-quarters of the industrial dischargers are located in Puget Sound, Columbia
11-22
-------
Figure
Shellfish Harvest Areas Affected by Pol n Sources - 1990
Total HarvMt-LlmNed Area Includes Conditional, Restricted, and Prohlblud Watara
Conditional: waists do not meet criteria at all limes, but shelllish may be harvested
when criteria at a not mel
Restrict ad: shellfish may be harvested II subjected to suitable purification process
Prohibited: harvest tor human consumption cannot occur at any time
Multiple pollution sources are often kJen&lied lor a single Harvest-Limited Area, therefore the turn ol the
area affected by sources in an estuary is usually greater than the amount ol the Harvest-Limited Area.
The West Coasl
644.000 total areas are class rlied lor (hellish ha/vect (48% ate Ha/vacl-Llmlted)
The West Coasl. due to geomorphic differences, has lar less estuanne and shallow coastal
habitat than either the East Coast or Ihe Gulf ol Mexico. The major sources ol pollution are
urban runoll and industry.
The Northeast Region (Maine to New York)
2,410.000 total areas ara classified lor shellfish harvest (16% aie Harvest-Limited)
The Northeast Region is highly developed and is allected by a combination ol sources associated with urban areas
Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs), Septic Systems, and Urban Runofl.
AIM (IhouMnd acia«)0
Total Harvutt- Umflad AIM
Uit»n Runoff
Indurty
S«wag« Tf»«lm«rK PtarK
Sopilc Syalama
Boating
Agricultural Runoff
Wildlita
too
150
200
250
300
350
Aral (thouund aciai) 0
foul Harvan Lmtad Aral
SawagaTraabnanl Plintl
S»pt>c Syttama
Urban Runoff
Boung
Combm*d S*M»r>
Industry
InfildUl
Agricultural Runoff
Diracl Oocnarga
60 100 ISO 200 250 300 DM 400
Combined S«w«r»
The Gulf of Mexico
7.005.000 total aieas are clas&Hled lor chellllsh harvest (62% are Harvest Limited)
The Gull ol Mexico is Ihe fastest growing coastal region in the U.S. and Urban Runofl,
Septic Systems, and STPs are Ihe three major sources ol shellfish harvest area restrictions.
Aiaa (Ihousand acra») 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3SOO 4000
Total Harvest limflod Alal
Sawaga Tiealmanl Planti
Urban Runofl
S«plic Syrtami
W.ldl.l.
Ousel Oochaiga
Agncultural Runoff
Industry
Boating
Comblnad Sawtn
The Mid-Atlantic Region (New Jersey to Virginia)
6.608.000total aieas aie classified kn shellfish harvest (21% are Harvest-Limited)
The Mid-Ailantic Region includes Ihe Chesapeake Bay, the largest estuary in Ihe U.S.
STPs. Urban Runoll, and Recreational Boating are Ihe largest pollution sources.
A/*a (thousand aciaa)0
Total Karvasl-Umrtad Aiaa
Tiaatirwnl Planti
Urban FtunoH
Boating
Comblnad Sawan
Indutny
WMkta
Agricultural Runoll
Sapuc Synama
Dvad Ojcnaiga
200
400
«oo
tooo
1200
Source; NOAA. Tho 1990 National Shelllish Register of
Classified Esluarine Waters. 1990
Environmental Results and Forecasting Branch/1991
The Southeast Region (North Carolina to Florida)
2.940.000 total aieas are classified tor shelllish harvest (29*.; are Harvest-Limited)
The Southeast Region is the most rural region on Ihe east coast and it is dependent on agriculture and silviculture. In Ihe past few
years, Ihe Southeast has been experiencing rapid population growth and Urban Runoll. Septic Systems, and STPs are all increasing
as pollution sources.
Araa (thousand acres) 0 100 200 300 400 600 BOO 700 600 800
Total Hirvajt Umn.d Aral
Sawaga Teaatmant Plant*
Witdtto
Urban Runofl
S«pl« Syitams
Agricultural Runoff
Industry
Boiling
Direct Dischaiga
Combined Sowara
Data quality; Useful relative status
Information; not precise.
Relevance to EPA programs; High.
-------
ESTUARIES AND COASTAL WATERS
River, San Francisco Bay. and San Pedro Bay, but only Puget Sound currently has commercial harvest
Decline in Management Resources
As coastal development has grown, shellfish management resources were reduced in half of the shell-
fish-producing states between 1985 and 1990 Continued declines in the resources necessary for state
to monitor and manage waters could reduce once again the proportions of waters states can afford to
classify and thus to open for shellfish harvesting
Sources of Information
NOAA, TTie 1990 National Shellfish Register of Classifled Estuarine Waters. 1990
The Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
Program: Near Coastal Demonstration Project
Preliminary results of the first demonstration project of the near coastal component of EPA's Environmen-
tal Monitoring and Assessment Program (EMAP) are presented here. The EMAP-Near Coastal demon-
stration project was a coordinated activity led by EPA's Office of Research and Development, with par-
ticipation by the Office of Water. EPA Regions 1. 2. and 3. and NOAA. with relevant state agencies in-
volved and advising on planning and execution. Data included here represent preliminary findings.
Please note that the data have not been peer reviewed. Additionally, these data are from
the first year of monitoring out of a four-year rotating cycle.
Background
The Virginian Province Demonstration Project was conducted during the summer of 1990 to evaluate
indicators, logistics, assessments, and the EMAP design Five hundred sampling visits were completec
at 217 stations distributed throughout the Province from Cape Cod to the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay.
EMAP applied the probabilistic sampling design to stratify on 3 classes of estuaries in the Province: (1)
open waters of large estuaries (e.g.. Chesapeake Bay). (2) large tidal rivers (e g . Potomac River), and
(3) small estuarme systems (e.g.. Baltimore Harbor)
The unique feature of the EMAP design is that it is statistically driven using a population sampling ap-
proach. This means that the information is truly representative in reflecting the overall proportion of the
sampling area in which given conditions are occurring. A relatively small number of samples can be
used to extrapolate the entire area. However, the data are not intended to determine whether specific
locations have environmental problems. Thus EMAP data have been designed to provide broad-scale
depictions of environmental conditions, and can be viewed as a screening and scoping tool on smaller
scales. Therefore. EMAP data are not to be used for site-specific purposes
The indicators selected for this demonstration project were focused on two concerns of estuarme scien-
tists, environmental managers, and the public. These two features were'
1. Biotic Integrity -the existence of healthy, diverse, and sustainable biological communities
(e.g., fish and bottom-dwelling (benthic) invertebrates)
2. Human Use - values relating to the public's use of estuarme resources and aesthetics (e g ,
trash and water clarity).
Some of the indicators are still being validated and analyzed so data presented are only a fraction of the
entire data set collected, representing examples of the types of data summaries that EMAP-Near Coast?
could provide once the full indicator data set has been established Of the indicators related to biotic
integrity, results presented are: fish pathology, sediment toxicity. sediment metals, and bottom-water dis-
solved oxygen. Of the indicators related to human use, only the marine debris data are presented here.
If-24
-------
ESTUARIES AND COASTAL WATERS
Additional indicators still being analyzed include benthic biological diversity, fish species diversity, fish
tissue contaminants, sediment organic contaminants, and water clarity.
h Pathology
i_m/nP uses response indicators, characteristics of plant and animal communities, as the primary mea-
sure of ecosystem condition. One of the response indicators measured in EMAP Near Coastal is visible
signs of pathology on fish. The occurrence of pathological problems in fish provides a measure of eco-
logical condition at the level of the individual. Evaluation of the use of pathological disorders in fish as a
measure of biological condition suggested fish pathology may be better used to make statements con-
cerning condition when expressed in terms of prevalence. For the entire Virginian Province, less than
1% (6 fish per 1000 collected) of the fish collected during the Demonstration Project had visible patho-
logical disorders (Figure 14). Pathological disorders are more prevalent in fish that feed on or are asso-
ciated with sediments (bottom-feeding fish). The prevalence of pathological disorders in bottom-feeding
fish is almost 2% (18 fish out of 1000). For commercial and recreational fish, the prevalence of patho-
logical disorders is low (1 fish out of 1000). In 1990. over 12,000 individual fish were visually examined.
Figure 14. Visible Fish Pathology
199O Virginian Province
20
03
tfl
il
"o
15
10
(0.6%)
All
Fish
(1.8%)
Bottom
Dwelling
Data quality; Very good for single
year of sampling. One-year pilot
doesnt represent year-to-year vari-
ability.
Relevance to EPA programs; Mod-
erate; statistical design not in-
tended to give site-specific infor-
mation, but provides regional ex-
pectations of conditions.
(0.1%)
Commercial/
Recreational
Species
Sediment Toxicity
iment toxicity tests, using indigenous organisms in studying acute bioassays, are the most direct
isure available for estimating the potential for contaminant-induced effects in benthic communities.
based upon the preliminary results of these tests, 10% of the estuarine area in the Virginian Province has
sediments that are toxic to estuarine organisms (Figure 15). Within the Virginian Province, toxic sedi-
ments are more prevalent in small estuarine systems than in tidal rivers or large estuaries. Forty-two
-------
CO i UMHICO MINU
percent of the area in the smaJI estuarine systems of the Virginian Province has toxic sediments. In com-
parison, 2% of the sediments in large estuaries and only 1% of the sediments in tidal rivers are toxic.
Differences were also found in sediment toxicity among major estuarine systems in the Province (Chesa-
peake Bay 5%, Delaware Estuary 8%. and Long Island Sound 1%).
Figure 15. Sediment Toxicity
199O Virginian Province
Toxic
Sediments (10%)
Nontoxic Sediments (90%)
Data quality; Very good for single year of
sampling. One-year pilot doesn't represent
year-to-year variability.
Relevance to EPA programs; Moderate;
statistical design not intended to give site-
specific information.
100 r-
80
CO
O
< 60
o
§ 40
<5
Q_
20
(42%)
(2%)
Large
Estuaries
Tidal
Rivers
Small
Estuaries
100 r-
80
CO
0)
< 60
o
§ 40
I
20
(5%)
(8%)
Chesapeake Delaware
Bay Estuary
(1%)
Long Island
Sound
Sediment Metals
Five percent of the estuarine area in the Virginian Province has sediments with elevated concentrations
of metals that could be attributed to human activities. Metals examined included chromium, copper, iron
mercury, manganese, nickel, lead, and iron. Elevated concentrations were mainly due to the metals:
chromium, mercury, and zinc, and to a smaller extent to lead. Sediments having elevated concentra-
tions of metals are not equally distributed throughout the Province (Figure 16). Twenty-two percent of
the sediment area in small estuarine systems has elevated concentrations of metals. In comparison, 7%
of the area in tidal rivers has elevated concentrations of metals. None of the area in large estuaries
showed elevated concentrations of metals. Elevated sediment metals were found in 5% of the Chesa-
peake Bay area, 21% of the Delaware estuary area, and 2% of the Long Island Sound area.
11-26
-------
ESTUARIES AND COASTAL WATERS
Figure 16. Sediment Metals
1990 Virginian Province
Enriched
Concentration (5%)
Natural Concentration (95%)
100 i-
80
-------
ESTUARIES AND COASTAL WATERS
measurement methods because litter and other debris or concerns are so diverse in size and type. All
observable litter, floatables, and human discards, (e.g., large abandoned items) were counted equally,
with the constant unit simply being the size of the areas observed and whether litter or debris of any kind
were present.
It is estimated that trash or debris was present in 15% of the estuarine area in the Virginian Province in
1990. Paper and plastic wastes were found most frequently, followed by cans and glassware. Trash
that could be specifically identified as medical or hospital waste was not found. Long Island Sound had
the worst debris problem. Of the area sampled in the Sound, almost 25% had debris present. In con-
trast, both the Chesapeake Bay and the Delaware Bay had a lower percentage (11 %) of debris.
Figure 17. Dissolved Oxygen
1990 Virginian Province
100
90
80
70
CD
£ 60
o 50
§ 40
CD
°~ 30
20
10
0
> 5 mg/l
2 - 5 mg/l
/ra < 2 mg/l
Province
Chesapeake
Bay
Delaware
Bay
Long Island
Sound
Figure 18. Marine Debris
199O Virginian Province
Long Island Sound (23%)
Data quality: Very good
for single year of
sampling. One-year pilot
doesn't represent year-
to-year variability.
Relevance to EPA
programs; Moderate;
statistical design not
intended to give site-
specific Information.
Delaware River Estuary (11%)
Chesapeake Bay (11%)
II-28
-------
ESTUARIES AND COASTAL WATERS
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to
Q*rategies and Objectives
uajectlve for Which National Status is Reported: Amount of Shellfishing
Areas Open to Harvesting
For one specific objective in OW's FY 1993 - 1996 Strategic Plan, increasing the amount of coastal wa-
ters open for shellfish harvesting, one national status indicator is reported here. Although data go back
over 20 years, they can be misleading at this time if used to assess trends because of major changes in
the amounts of waters monitored over time, and because shellfish beds may sometimes be closed sim-
ply if they are not monitored. (It is hoped that in future years the year-to-year consistency problem will
be diminished.) However, the information on the types of sources contributing the most to water quality
impairments in different regions provides useful information on strategies needed to achieve OW's ob-
jective. And the information on which states or larger geographic areas have large amounts of impaired
shellfish harvest waters can be useful for geographic targeting For example, for a large proportion (over
50%) of waters in the Gulf of Mexico, shellfish harvesting must be prohibited or restricted This confirms
that OW's strategy of targeting areas most in need should be applied to increase controls of the principal
pollutant sources to the Gulf, as has been proposed in the Gulf of Mexico geographic initiative. The an-
thropogenic sources of greatest concern for this region are identified by NOAA as sewage treatment
plans, urban runoff and septic systems. (More specific information is available from the NOAA data set
about sources of concern for particular shellfishmg areas within each region.)
Objectives with Indicators Reported on Regional or Pilot Basis: EMAP's
Near Coastal Demonstration Project
>ther coastal objectives in OW's FY 1993 - 1996 strategic plan, national indicators are not yet avail-
. However, the EMAP near coastal demonstration for Mid-Atlantic estuaries (which was coordinated
with National Estuary Program and other special studies) provides an example of one year's indicators
for four of OW's other objectives- reducing hypoxia. protecting critical habitats, reducing sediment con-
tamination. and reducing marine debris. The statistically designed and highly quality controlled EMAP
data indicate that dissolved oxygen below 5mg/l occurs on average in a significant portion (26%) of the
Mid-Atlantic estuaries Sediment contamination by toxics is limited in extent, posing a significant prob-
lem primarily in "hot spots" in small embayments (sub-estuaries) Marine debris is observed in about
15% of the total area In future years, it will be possible to establish how much year to year variability
there is in the EMAP parameters Eventually, trends in these indicators will be available.
The' remaining coastal objectives involve reducing discharges Nationally consistent data are not yet
available for NPDES loadings, but OW has worked with Region 5 to pilot the development of a procedure
for calculating pollutant loadings from Permit Compliance System emissions data, and plans to expand
this to the country as a whole over the next several years
Objective for Which Indicator is Available but Not Reported Here
Data on the continuing decreases in sludge dumping at the 106 mile site off New York/New Jersey are
available from OW, but not included in this report due to space considerations
Objective for Which Future Indicators will be Available: Reducing Fishing
Bans Due to Toxic Contamination
on the number and locations of fishing bans and advisories due to toxic contamination are avail-
rom an electronic bulletin board maintained by EPA's Office of Science and Technology. The data-
is updated annually Currently, standards and monitoring programs vary across the states. The
Office of Science and Technology is developing uniform guidelines for tne sampling and analysis of fish/
shellfish tissues. If the states adopt these guidelines as expected, the number of (ishmg bans and
11-29
-------
ESTUARIES AND COASTAL WATERS
guidelines may prove to be a suitable measure of progress in the future.
Another indicator relevant to the objective of reducing fishing bans due to toxics will eventually be
NOAA's National Status and Trends data base, which is currently establishing a baseline of toxic con-
tamination of coastal fish, shellfish and sediments nationwide. NOAA Status and Trends toxics data are,
not presented in this report because, with the exception of a few cases of outright bans on chemical
uses (e g. lead in gasoline), they have not been tracked for a time period sufficiently long to reveal
trends in pollution. The NOAA monitoring design, with 250 to 300 stations nationwide, is not intended to
be used to compare locations to one another at a given time. It will, in the long run. establish whether
long-term trends are occurring at given stations or in broad regions of the country.
Objective for Which Indicator Not Proposed at This Time
No indicator of impacts of dredged material disposal has been reported at this time
Summary: Lack of Good Environmental Indicators of Coastal Status or
Trends Inhibits Geographic Targeting and Evaluation of Progress in
Coastal Protection
In summary, there are at present no high quality indicator data to evaluate national status or trends in
U.S. coastal conditions NOAA is working to establish baselines for toxic fish contamination, and shell-
fish closure data will hopefully be consistent enough in the future to permit evaluation of improvements
and deteriorations in pollutant levels affecting shellfishmg (primarily coliform bacteria) The lack of con-
sistent information on other types of degradation, including eutrophication and the resulting hypoxic
"dead zones." is serious, reduction of hypoxic "dead zones" is highlighted as a high priority objective in
OW's strategic plan Eventually, if EMAP were fully implemented for near coastal waters, very reliable,
broad-based data on coastal status and trends would become available on a national level, although the
spatial scale will not support detailed assessments
The absence of status and trend information at present makes it virtually impossible to evaluate the sue1
cess of the nation's efforts at coastal protection. It is also impossible at present for OW to obtain consis-
tent environmental data to compare coastal areas so that they can target their efforts to areas most in
need. (It should be noted that good indicator data are expected to become available in the next several
years to evaluate progress for some individual estuaries for which EPA's National Estuary Program is estab-
lishing Comprehensive Management Plans. This information will however be site-specific, and will not, accord-
ing to present plans, support general evaluation of estuarme conditions or trends for the nation as a whole.)
11-30
-------
WETLANDS
Wetlands
LATIVE RISK RANKING
Unfinished Business Report
SAB Reducing Risk Report
Regional Comparative Risk
PUBLIC CONCERN (CoC)
Wetlands
Human Healtn
NR, cancer
Low. non-cancer
NR
NR
1988
Med-Low
AGENCY INITIATIVES WITH STRONG CONNECTION
Ecological
High
High
High
1990
Med-Low
Medium
High
NR
Agricultural Sector
Geographical Initiatives (all)
Core Research
Pollution Prevention Legislation
Multimedia Enforcement
Clean Water Act
oblem Definition
A rarity of activities and physical alterations frequently result in damage to wetlands and habitat
Channelization, dam construction and operation, surface and ground water withdrawals, construction
and flood control, irrigation distribution works, urban development, and the disposal and runoff of
dredge and fill materials are among the disturbances which can alter the quantity and flow patterns of
ground water and surface water, and thus damage wetlands Chemical contamination which results
from physical changes of water flow and aquatic habitats (e g . dredging of contaminated sediments) is
also included in this problem area.
Wetlands
Goals/Objectives
The goal for wetlands, as stated in the Office of Water's (OW) FY 93 - 96 Strategic Plan, is to prevent
further net loss of the nation's wetlands, as measured by acreage and function, and, over time, to in-
crease the quality and quantity of wetlands Three specific objectives were established for the 1993 to
1996 time period- 1) Reduce the net rate of wetland loss in the U S to one-half of the 1985 rate (as mea-
sured by the physical inventory in acres) 2) See the first states move into the net gam column, with the
acreage of wetlands gained exceeding that lost. 3) Develop by 1996 a) a framework for identifying
high-risk threats to the functional integrity ("health") of wetlands, and b) a strategy for reducing those
i by fully applying the tools under the Clean Water Act to wetlands as waters of the U S
ategies
OW's principal strategies to achieve the wetlands goal and objectives include empowering others to
protect wetland areas, developing a more comprehensive approach to ecological resource management,
11-31
-------
VVCI LMINUO
and using existing statutory authority more effectively. Activities to empower others at the local, state.
and tribal level to better protect their wetlands include providing guidance, assistance, training, better
scientific tools, and creating opportunities for information sharing. OW is also working to greatly expand
its outreach program to help the public understand EPA's goals for wetlands protection and the rationale
for the Agency's actions. This is hoped to foster a better dialogue with those whose objectives may be
affected by wetlands programs A component of this strategy is to develop enabling and flexible guid-
ance for State Wetlands Conservation Planning that facilitates increased state, local and private leader-
ship. Activities include providing examples of how states have made progress' state wetlands forums.
statewide coordinating bodies, executive orders, consistency provisions, inventories, mapping and plan-
ning; public and private joint ventures; regulatory and non-regulatory approaches.
Another strategy to enable others is to enlarge partnerships with other federal agencies and other na-
tions. OW is working with the Corps of Engineers and other agencies to develop a program for restora-
tion of wetlands and other aquatic ecosystems in order to provide flood and erosion protection and in-
crease the nation's inventory of wetlands and associated habitat EPA will also exert leadership for wet-
lands protection within the Executive Branch by. 1) serving as a model agency incorporating wetlands
protection throughout EPA programs, and 2) working cooperatively with the USDA, the land manage-
ment agencies, and water resource agencies. Finally, the OW Strategic Plan identifies the need to de-
velop and implement international agreements to protect wetlands, and provide information transfer and
assistance to other countries.
OW will provide technical assistance and incentives for those involved in the restoration and creation of
wetlands to remove pollutants in a manner that provides other ecosystem functions (habitat, food chain
support, etc.) This serves the goal of developing a more comprehensive approach to ecological re-
source management. Statutory authority will be used to ensure environmentally appropriate protection of
all waters from discharges of dredged or fill material OW will strive to streamline §404 decisions, with
more pro-active approaches (in advance of permit applications) to better protect particularly valuable
and vulnerable sites They will develop regulations and/or guidance for more effective and efficient ad-
ministration of the §404 program, and improve §404 program management systems for training, complr
ance monitoring, data tracking, and consultant certification.
Environmental Indicator Results
The Importance of Wetlands
Wetlands are critical habitats for fish and wildlife They provide important habitat for about one third of
plant and animal species federally listed as threatened or endangered, and essential nesting, migratory,
'and wintering habitat for more than 50% of the nation's migratory bird species
Wetlands also help regulate and maintain the hydrology of rivers, lakes and streams by storing and
slowly releasing flood waters. They help maintain water quality by storing nutrients, reducing sediment
loads, and reducing erosion.
Historical Trends in Wetland Losses
Although the recognition of the importance of wetlands is relatively recent, the trend toward their de-
struction is not a product of recent times. Since Colonial times, wetlands have been regarded as a hin-
drance to productive land use. Swamps, bogs, sloughs, and other wetland areas were considered
wastelands to be drained, filled, or manipulated
In Colonial times, the area that now constitutes the 50 United States contained an estimated 391 million
acres of wetlands. Of this total, about a third occurred in Alaska Today the 50 states contain an esti-
mated 274 million acres.
11-32
-------
WETLANDS
Summary of Findings
The lower 48 states lost an estimated 53% of their original wetlands since the 1780s. On average over
cres of wetlands per hour have been lost in the lower 48 states between the 1 780s and 1 980s Fig-
9 shows losses by state California has lost the largest percentage of original wetlands (91 %)
Florida has lost the most acreage (9 3 million acres) One in two states has lost over a million acres of
wetlands.
Wetland loss data are presented as percentages of the estimated original wetland of each state The histo-
gram in Figure 20 provides a state by state absolute loss of wetland acreage and 1 780s acreage estimates
A follow-up study conducted by the USFWS in 1991 investigated wetland status and trends from the
1970s to the 1980s. The results document a continuing loss of wetland acreage An estimated 1 1 % of
estuarine wetlands and 2.5% of inland wetlands were lost from the lower 48 states during the nine-year
study period. Agncultural land uses accounted for 54% of the conversions from wetland to upland. Urban
expansion accounts for 5% of the conversion, with other land uses making up the balance of the losses
Trends in the estuarine system indicate that estuarine wetlands declined at about 6,600 acres/year
Most of these losses were along the Gulf Coast.
Methods for Estimating Wetland Coverages
Land use, soils and drainage statistics were used to augment and validate historical records to derive
the 1780s wetland acreage estimates Estimates for the 1980s were derived from the U S Fish and
Wildlife Service's (USFWS) National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) Coverage gaps in the NWI were filled in
by the USFWS by using the best available data.
Estimates were based on the definition of wetlands in use prior to 1991 . by the U.S Department of Interior.
irce of this Indicator Data
map and text explanation are derived from reports and data compiled by the U S Fish and Wildlife
Service. The results of this work have been published in the report Wetland Losses in the United States
1780s to 1980s, by Thomas E. Dahl. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands Inventory, 1990.
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to
Strategies and Objectives
Objectives for Which Indicator is Reported: Reducing Loss of Wetlands
'
For the objectives of reducing the net rate of national wetland loss to half the 1985 rate by 1995. and
moving some states to achieving net gains of wetlands, good indicators will be available based on the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service wetland loss data presented here Using data in this report, it is too early
to tell whether the rate of wetland loss has changed since 1985
Objective for Which Indicator is Not Available: Preventing Threats to the
Functional Integrity ("Quality") of Wetlands
No indicator data are yet available nationally to determine whether the functional integrity of wetlands is
being mantamed. All current indicator data refer to the quantity, but not the quality, of wetlands. EPA's
ORD and other agencies are currently developing procedures for classifying the integrity of wetlands
EMAP's planned wetlands component will incorporate these methods as they become available.
11-33
-------
Figure 19. U.S. Wetlands: Recent Status and Historical Trends
Data quality! Moderate; historical paleontology data cross-checked as
possible, some estimates Involved.
Relevance to EPA programs; Very relevant to "no net loss" goal.
54
28
37
Background Shading
Shading expresses percent
of state's total land mass
which was wetlands during
the 1980s.
B > 20%
H 11% -20%
Numbers
Numbers express percent of
wetlands lost between 1780s
and 1980s.
I Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Envlrc '"I Results and Forecasting Branch/1991
-------
Black-filled area
represents 1980s
wetlands acreage
estimate
End line represents
1780s acreage
estimate
WET1_ANDS
Figure 20. Wetland Acreage Lost in the Lower 48 States: 1780s to 1980s
Florida "lBMM^^Mi^^aaai^»Baai^^a~ I
Louisiana
Texas
Minnesota
Michigan
North Carolina
Mississippi
Arkansas
Wisconsin
Illinois
Alabama
Georgia
Maine
South Carolina
Indiana
Ohio
California
North Dakota
Missouri
Iowa
Nebraska
Oklahoma
South Dakota
New York
Oregon
Colorado
Wyoming
Tennessee
Virginia
Maryland
Kentucky
New Jersey
Washington
Montana
Pennsylvania
Arizona
Idaho
Kansas
Massachusetts
Utah
New Mexico
Connecticut
Nevada
Delaware
Vermont
New Hampshire
West Virginia
Rhode Island
I
I
White-filled area represents
acreage wetlands lost 1 780s
to 1980s
5,000,000
10,000,000 15,000,000 20,000,000 25,000,000
Acres
Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Wetland Losses in the United States: 1780s to 1980s. Dahl, 1991.
Environmental Results and Forecasting Branch/1992
11-35
-------
Drinking Water
RELATIVE RISK RANKING
Human Health Ecological Welfare
Unfinished Business Report Med-High, cancer NR Low
High, non-cancer
SAB Reducing Risk Report High NR NR
Regional Comparative Risk Med-High NR
PUBLIC CONCERN (ROPER)
1988 1990
Med-High Med-Low
AGENCY INITIATIVES WITH STRONG CONNECTION
Agricultural Sector Pollution Prevention Indian Programs
Ground Water Cluster Small Community Project State Capacity
Watershed Initiative
Problem Definition
As drinking water arrives at the tap, it may contain a wide variety of contaminants from both natural and
man-made sources, and point and non-point sources. Since many of the contaminants can be traced t
other problem areas, drinking water risk evaluation will involve much double-counting with those other
problem areas (Industrial Wastewater Discharges. POTW Discharges. Nonpomt Source Discharges.
Storage Tanks, and non-hazardous waste problem areas, etc.) Drinking water is included as a problem
area because remediation treatment options can occur either at the source of contamination (the other
problem areas) or at the delivery system of the drinking water (treatment or switch to alternative sup-
plies). The drinking water program's principal focus is on systems that serve 25 or more people and are
therefore covered by the Safe Drinking Water Act. A secondary non-regulatory emphasis of the program
is on those systems which serve fewer than 25 people. Pollutants of concern include microbial contami-
nants, disinfection by-products, lead, other inorganics (such as heavy metals), radionuclides. toxic or-
ganics. and fluoride from natural sources.
Drinking Water
Goals/Objectives
The goal for drinking water, according to the Office of Water FY 1993 - 1996 Strategic Plan, is to ensure
that all Americans receive high quality drinking water sufficient to protect their health. By 1996, three
objectives should be achieved: 1) reduce the number of people exposed to drinking water from public
water systems that violate national primary drinking water regulations through compliance with the new
drinking water regulations for: pathogen bacteria, viruses, protozoan cysts, etc.; lead, radionuclides -
radon; by-products of disinfection; organic chemicals; and other inorganics - nitrates; 2) report monitor
ing information on contaminants in drinking water provided by all but the smallest public water systems
to the public and regulatory agencies for the 83 contaminants listed in the 1986 SDWA amendments,
and 3) build stronger state drinking water regulatory programs with EPA primacy to provide increased
11-36
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DRINKING WATER
public health protection through expanded programs, including adoption and implementation of new
federal regulations.
afeg/es
strategies are identified to support the goal and objectives education and empowerment of states
and individuals, and strategic implementation of statutory mandates OW intends to work closely with
states to adopt and adequately implement new regulations, and therefore enable states to maintain pri-
macy. OW has also developed a "mobilization strategy" to build state capacity, address the problems of
small systems, and provide public education.
Strategic implementation of statutory mandates will be achieved through three key directions: 1) publish
regulations that set standards that are protective of public health, yet implementable, for a total of 108
contaminants, including new requirements for filtration and disinfection and expanded requirements for
control of disinfection by-products; 2) collect monitoring information to determine compliance status with
the 108 new standards that will be in place by 1996; and 3) increase the enforcement program at the
state and federal levels to return significant non-compliers of federal standards to compliance, and to
maintain an overall high compliance rate
Environmental Indicator Results
The principal risk reduction objective identified in the Drinking Water Strategic Plan FY 1992 - 1996 is to
reduce the population exposed to drinking water from community water systems that violate national
primary drinking water standards (NPDWR) Exceedances of maximum contaminant levels (MCLs)
which violate NPDWRs pose a direct risk to public health because the population is exposed directly to
harmful contaminants in the water they drink EPA requires that all violations of NPDWRs be reported
terly, this information is di/ectly retrievable though the Federal Data Reporting System (FRDS).
for FY 1991 Showing Population Exposed
OW prepared a report that showed population exposed to contaminants in drinking water during
FY 1991 , using FRDS information as the data source. Information on a national basis showed that over
18 million people (or about 8% of the population) were provided water from community water systems
that violated one or more MCLs at least once during FY 1991 .
The bar charts presented below display the FY 1991 exposure data in several ways Figure 21 shows
the population served by community water systems in violation one or more times in FY 1991. broken out
by major contaminant group and by type of violation (MCL, monitoring or reporting). Of the 46 million
peopjeserved by water systems in violation, approximately 12 million were exposed to water with micro-
biological MCL violations. This is by far the greatest exposure risk and with the related turbidity viola-
tions, represent population exposed to contaminants posing an acute nsk to public health. The other MCL
violations represent chemical or radiological contaminants, which generally represent a health risk to the pub-
lic from long-term, chronic exposure The population exposed to systems with monitoring and reporting
violations is much greater than MCL violations and indicates where drinking water quality is either un-
known or not properly communicated to the public at least part of the year
Figure 22 shows the duration of exposure (in months) to the violations reported in FY 1990. Although
FY 1991 data on duration of the violations was not available, the program believes this holds true for
FY 1991 as well This provides strong evidence that most of the exposure to water in violation of the
drinking water standards is of short duration and that most of the population is at risk for a short period
re 23 shows a comparison by EPA region of the size and percent of the population exposed to MCL
lions during FY 1991 Based on this information, the population exposed to contaminants from
drinking water ranged from about 4% in Region 3, to 15% in Regions 10 and 2. Note that data quality by
region varied considerably in FY 1991 and that this comparison may be partly due to the data quality
considerations rather than actual differences.
II -37
-------
Figure 21
25 -r
20 -
=§15
0)
CO
.9
Population Served by Community Water Systems in Violation of
Drinking Water Standards, FY 1991
10 -
! *
23.1
Monitoring/ Reporting Violations
Maximum Contaminant Level Violations
* Total population served by CWS is 233 million.
Total population served by CWS in violation is 46 million.
Data qual'rty: Useful.
Relevance to program; There are known problems with data
quality due to inconsistencies in self-reporting of regulated
facilities, state enforcement and reporting capabilities, and
laboratory practices.
2.1
0.4
0.5 0.3
Microbiological Turbidity
Inorganics Organics Radiological
Source: EPA.
Environmental Results and Forecasting Branch/1992
Figure 22. Population Served by Community Water Systems - Duration of
Violations, FY 1990
12 T
Source: EPA.
B Monitoring/ Reporting Violations
Maximum Contaminant Level Violations
Questionable coding of monitored/reported data by
Florida resulted m a large number of these violations.
Although data not available for 1991, pattern
expected to be similar to that in 1990.
Data quality; Useful.
Relevance to program: There
are known problems with data
quality due to inconsistencies in
sell-reporting of regulated facili-
ties, state enforcement and re-
porting capabilities, and labora-
tory practices.
45678
Violation Duration (in months)
10 11
12
Environmental Results and Forecasting Branch/1992
11-38
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2 Figur
. Percentage off Population Exposed to C
Violations, FY 1991
nunity Water Systems (CWS) with MCL
4,374,000
Total Population Exposed
to MCL Violations = 18.000.000
Total Population served by community water
systems = 233,000.000
1,120.000
Approximately 9% of the total population
is exposed to microbial violations
o
3D
I
5 6
EPA Region
8
10
Source: EPA.
Data quality; Useful.
Relevance to program; There are known problems with data quality due to Inconsistencies In self-reporting of
regulated facilities, state enforcement and reporting capabilities, and laboratory practices.
Environmental Results and Forecasting Branch/1992
-------
UMIfNMINlj WAItM
Usefulness of Indicator as Surrogate for Exposure
The indicator provides only a very rough surrogate for actual exposure and is not a surrogate for actual
public health risk. The degree of risk from drinking water with contaminant levels above the MCL varies
for several reasons (contaminant, whether the risk is acute or chronic, and the duration and degree of
exceedance) Information through FRDS shows only that the water system was in violation, not what
proportion of the population served by the water system consumed the contaminated water
Rnding adequate and comparable data for analysis of trends over time is also extremely difficult Use of
this information to compare progress from one period to the next must start from the same regulatory
baseline We are currently developing new and revised standards at a very fast pace At the end of FY
1990, regulations for 30 contaminants were in effect. At the end of FY 1992, regulations will be in effect
for 62 contaminants and much of the initial 30 will have been revised, some with new MCL levels
Finally, using exceedance of an MCL as the indicator for exposure ignores contaminants detected in the
drinking water but not as high as the MCL. More complete drinking water quality information could be
reported from a parametric database, similar to what is reported in STORET for an ambient water quality
data. No national drinking water quality database currently exists
The Issue of Data Quality
The quality, timeliness, and completeness of violation data and related system information is only as
good as the public water system self-monitoring, the capacity and capability of certified laboratories,
and the state primacy agency data management and reporting to EPA. At present, the data quality of
the information in FRDS is questionable in many states GAO concluded in a recent report that the com-
pliance rate is considerably overstated, raising questions about the integrity of the compliance monitor-
ing system and overall data quality control.
Data quality will also depend on the ability of the states to implement future compliance monitoring and report-
ing requirements from the many new regulations State oversight of future monitoring and reporting is more
complex, and in some cases requires greater expertise than is now available to meet current requirements.
Current and Future Activities to Improve Environmental Indicators
Improving Data Quality. Improvement in the quality of the drinking water environmental indicators
is based on the near-term and long-term improvements to the FRDS system. Several major initiatives are
underway to improve state data management systems The initial round of a mission needs assessment
to develop the next generation of the Federal Reporting Data System (FRDS) has been completed We
expect substantial improvements in data quality in the near term based on state data management im-
provements, but the ability to sustain this progress depends on improving the overall system integrity.
Currently, the activity is a very high priority but is extremely budget-limited No alternative source of in-
formation to report exposure is available without major new expenditures.
Better Surrogates for Exposure. Using FRDS. we can report population exposed to contaminants in
drinking water broken down by water source (surface and ground), by contaminant group, by new and old
standards, by state by urban vs. rural, etc. We could also report based on severity and duration of the viola-
tion (e.g., SNCs). Alternatively, reporting could be based on percentage of violations returned to compli-
ance in a certain time penod. We are looking at various cuts from the same database for FY 1992 and later.
Integration with Ground Water Program. Exposure to contaminants from drinking water is an
excellent indicator for progress in source control programs as well as a good surrogate for ambient ground
water and surface water quality. We are working closely with the ground water program to use the drinking
water indicator to describe and track changes in ground water quality Limits to use of FRDS to show
progress in other programs are1 (1) drinking water monitoring data in FRDS is on finished water only; (2
geographic comparisons are limited because no latitude/longitude information is available, and (3) date
quality may vary as information is disaggregated.
11-40
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DRINKING WATER
Conclusion: Comparison of Environmental
a"dicator Results to Strategies and Objectives
__,ecf/ve for Which Status Indicators Is Available: Reducing the
Populations Exposed to Conventional Contaminants
The indicator presented is a status measure only at this time, so it is not yet possible to evaluate
progress in diminishing public exposure to the conventional contaminants. OW plans to use these data
as a baseline for program evaluation in the luture And as standards (Maximum Contaminant Levels) are
set for increasing numbers of toxic chemicals. OW will report on the percentages of the population
whose drinking water does and does not comply with those standards
This is a step forward from previous data reported by OW. as it estimates the numbers of people ex-
posed to water not meeting standards. Previous indicator progress reports have typically provided the
numbers of public water systems in non-compliance, rather than the numbers of people exposed, so this
is a more risk-related indicator.
Making Information Available to the Public
Making information on public water system compliance with standards readily available to the public is
an objective in OW's strategic plan. As acknowledged by OW in the description of this indicator, there
are important problems with data accuracy and quality control that they would like to address in coming
years Meeting this objective is not presently assured, however, because OW is not sure they will have
the resources necessary to implement the compliance monitoring, quality control and system improve-
ments found necessary by their needs survey and a recent GAO report.
II-41
-------
>iL> vvm en
RELATIVE RISK RANKING
Unfinished Business Report
SAB Reducing Risk Report
Regional Comparative Risk
PUBLIC CONCERN (ROPER)
Ground Water
Human Health
Low. cancer
NR. non-cancer
NR
Med-High - Med
1988
NR
Ecological
Medium
Low
Low
1990
NR
Welfare
Minor
Low
AGENCY INITIATIVES WITH STRONG CONNECTION
Agricultural Sector
Chesapeake Bay
Mexican Border
Caribbean
Clean Water Act
Pollution Prevention Legislation
Gulf of Mexico
Ground Water
RCRA
Problem Definition
All forms of ground water pollution, including sources not counted in other problem areas, compose this
problem area. These pollution sources include fertilizer and pesticide leaching, septic systems, road
salt, all injection wells, waste treatment, storage and disposal sites. Superfund sites, nonwaste material
stockpiles, pipelines, and irrigation practices. The list of possible contaminants is extensive, including
nutrients, toxic inorganics and organics. oil and petroleum products, and microbes
Ground Water
Goals/Objectives
In the Office of Water's (OW) FY 1993 -1996 Strategic Plan, the goal for ground water is to prevent ad-
verse effects to human health and the environment and to protect the environmental integrity of the
nation's ground water resources. Four strategic planning objectives have been identified to support the
achievement of this goal. 1) ensure that currently used and reasonably expected drinking water sup-
plies, both public and private, do not present health risks and are preserved for future generations, 2)
ensure that ground water that is closely hydrologically connected to surface waters does not interfere
with the attainment of surface water quality standards; 3) establish indicators for assessing and tracking
reduction in risks to ground water by 1993. and 4) eliminate 100% of identified hazardous waste shallow
injection wells and other known endangering shallow wells and ensure continued compliance of all other wells
Strategies
Strategies to achieve the goal and objectives include, educating and empowering others, institutional-
izing pollution prevention and multi-media management approaches, and. developing more comprehensive
11-42
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GROUND WATER
approaches to ground water management through improved understanding of the resource and target-
ing activities based on risk The following highlights the key direction pursued by OW to implement
»h«oe strategies
is to educate and empower states and individuals include support for the development and imple-
mentation of State Comprehensive Ground Water Protection Programs, and support for State Wellhead
Protection Programs, as key components of Comprehensive Programs. OW is also working to provide
the scientific/technical, institutional, and financial tools necessary for state and local decision makers to
understand the risks and protect their ground water supplies from those sources not regulated by the
federal government. In addition, this strategy includes enlarging partnerships with other federal agen-
cies. The aim is to, in particular, further integrate other EPA/federal programs such as the agency's pes-
ticides in ground water strategy, SDWA, RCRA, Superfund, CWA. through the ground water policy activi-
ties including the ground water regulatory cluster and regional coordination initiative
OW is working to institutionalize pollution prevention and multi-media management approaches Priority
is being given to preventing pollution from runoff from transportation facilities, landfills, construction sites,
etc through implementing NPDES storm water permitting requirements for discharges associated with
industrial activities impacting ground water.
The strategy to develop a more comprehensive approach to ecological resource management is sup-
ported by efforts to increase the understanding of the ground water interrelationships. An approach is
being developed to focus on areas with multiple impacts, e g ground water, surface water, drinking wa-
ter contamination This strategy is further supported by efforts to target activities based on risk OW is
working to set national goals for collecting and analyzing ground water quality data by 1) testing, refin-
ing, and expanding EPA's existing set of ground water indicators; 2) providing a national baseline of
ground water quality data for reporting under §305(b), and 3) developing a uniform and accessible ap-
ch to ground water data collection and management
is also developing tools to define the inherent sensitivity of ground water systems to contamination
On-going risk-based targeting focuses on shallow Class IV/V wells that endanger drinking water sources
in geographically sensitive areas such as wellhead protection areas.
Proposed Environmental Indicators (Current/
Future Activities)
The Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water (OGWDW) has developed environmental indicators for
both the ground water and drinking water programs Currently available data for the surface and ground
water public water supplies indicator, which is MCL violations in relationship to population served, is
presented in the drinking water section. Future indicator refinement for both programs is now underway
Ground Water Environmental Indicators
The Ground Water Protection Division has been actively working on identifying, developing and testing a
group of environmental indicators which cross-cut ground water related programs
Background
Between 1986 and 1990, the Office of Ground Water Protection, now the OGWDW Ground Water Protec-
tion Division-
Conducted a workshop with EPA program offices, other federal agencies, state governments,
public interest groups, and technical organizations and identified five cross cutting ground water
environmental indicators.
- Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) violations by public drinking water supplies.
11-43
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- On-site and off-site contamination at hazardous waste sites;
- Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) concentrations in ground water (as an indicator or waste site
and industrial site activity),
- Nitrate concentrations in ground water (as an indicator of area-wide sources of contamination);
and
- Extent of pesticide use (as an indicator of area- wide pesticide contamination).
Requested voluntary state reporting of one or more of the indicators in the 1990 Clean Water Act,
Section 305(b) biennial National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress (34 states provided
some information)
Conducted three state ground water indicator pilot projects (ID. MN, NJ) during 1990 to test the five
indicators. The three pilot studies showed that there are enough sources of data available to begin
some indicator reporting right now. There is sufficient data available to partially meet the objectives
of the MCL and nitrate indicators. Waste site data was available but difficult to compile because it
was primarily located in paper files.
Participated in the USGS National Quality Assessment Program (NAWQA) Federal/State Workgroup
to select ground water chemical, physical, biological parameters for 60 ground water/surface water
study areas (data available for first 20 areas in 1996) This information will be used in future ground
water indicator reporting.
Current and Future Activities
In May 1991 EPA released the report. Protecting the Nation's Ground Water EPA's Strategy for the
1990s This is the result of an EPA Ground Water Task Force which, with state participation, developed
concrete principles and objectives to ensure effective and consistent decision-making in agency pro-
grams which affect ground water The strategy also endorsed Comprehensive State Ground Water Pro-
tection Programs to promote complete protection at the state and local level Collecting and reporting
ground water indicator data will help the agency and states track trends in ground water quality and
support better decision-making and priority-setting for their ground water protection efforts. Current and
future OGWDW activities to further refine and implement ground water indicators are:
Development of a technical assistance document (TAD), due early 1992. for states to use in future
305(b) reporting based on the results of the indicator pilot project findings with review by EPA
headquarter programs, regions and states
Regional Ground Water Round Tables with states to develop adequacy criteria for a State Compre-
hensive Ground Water Program which includes criteria for measures of success, and monitoring
and information management.
Coordinate with the other EPA headquarters, regional program offices, and states to develop and
implement a meaningful and practical strategy to further refine/develop, collect and report data on
cross-cutting ground water indicators of ground water quality This plan will be coordinated through
the EPA State Programs and EPA Ground Water Regulatory Cluster Workgroup
Development of consistent data collection protocols to improve the accessibility, quality, and use-
fulness of ground water indicator data. To begin moving toward data consistency, EPA along with
the states and other federal agency work group participants developed a set of the most critical
data elements for ground water quality information. The Ground Water Minimum Set of Data Ele-
ments for Ground Water Quality will be finalized in the 2nd quarter of FY92, and the EPA Order re-
quiring their use for EPA and contractors will be amended.
II-44
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III. Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
Superfund/Abandoned Sites
RELATIVE RISK RANKING
Human Health Ecological Welfare
Unfinished Business Report Med-High, cancer Medium Medium
Low, non-cancer
SAB Reducing Risk Report Low NR NR
RegionaJ Comparative Risk Med-Low Medium
PUBLIC CONCERN (ROPER)
1988 1990
High High
AGENCY INITIATIVES WITH STRONG CONNECTION
Federal Facilities Ground Water
RCRA Contaminated Media
Problem Definition
This category includes hazardous waste sites not covered by RCRA, but by Superfund. Most are inac-
tive and abandoned. Sites can be placed on the National Priority List (NPL). deleted from the NPL, can-
didates for the NPL, or simply be noted by the federal government or states as unmanaged locations
containing hazardous waste Sites may contaminate ground or surface water, pollute the air. or directly
expose humans and wildlife. There are many toxic pollutants and mixtures of pollutants. Radiation from
hazardous "mixed waste' in Superfund sites is also included in this problem area
Superfund/Abandoned Sites
Goals/Objectives
Superfund has several objectives identified under the strategic plan, including 1) improve the identifica-
tion and remediation of hazardous and petroleum waste sites. 2) ensure the long term effectiveness of
response actions under Superfund, 3) make greater use of innovative technology for site remediation,
4) better integrate OSWER's cleanup programs, and 5) enhance state capabilities to clean up hazard-
ous and petroleum waste sites.
Strategies
To improve identification and remediation of hazardous and petroleum, waste sites, the strategy includes
developing a risk-based approach that uses comparable standards and criteria to identify and focus
cleanup resources on the most environmentally significant sites, accelerating cleanups by increased use
of CERCLA enforcement authority and by rapid remedial response capability in redesigned emergency
response contracts; and reducing cleanup costs through streamlined processes and faster, more effec-
tive cleanup techniques. The enforcement strategy to reduce the use of public funds for cleanup includes
///- 1
-------
SUPERFUND / ABANDONED SITES
improved searches for PRPs, issuance of model orders for all response actions, and increased use of
unilateral administrative orders as necessary.
To ensure the long-term effectiveness of response actions, the strategy is to encourage the use of per-
manent remedies which use treatment technologies reducing the volume, toxicity, or mobility of signifi-
cant contaminants. OSWER plans to establish a data collection and analysis protocol to evaluate the
effectiveness and reliability of remedies used.
To help achieve environmentally sound waste management, OSWER will make greater use of innovative
technology for site remediation. This includes improving the awareness of such technologies among
private and other public sector entities; identifying impediments to the use of these technologies and
implementing an action agenda to reduce or eliminate these, and increasing state and industry capabili-
ties through focused, multi-party technical assistance projects.
To prepare for and respond to hazardous releases, the strategy includes better integrating the policies
and procedures of CERCLA with those of other cleanup programs authorized under the Oil Pollution Act,
RCRA's hazardous and petroleum waste subtitles, and the Clean Water Act. By FY 1994. OSWER plans
to develop a joint CERCLA/RCRA strategy and policy on lead in soil cleanups, a joint policy on cleanups
of ground water contaminated with DNAPLs; and a better integrated technical training program. More-
over, OSWER plans to establish EPA's position on the state role under CERCLA and to encourage the
use of Superfund Memoranda of Agreement to ensure mutually satisfactory region-state working relation-
ships. To bolster state capabilities. OSWER plans to identify and help address resource, staff and tech-
nical expertise constraints to increased involvement. States will be assisted through core program coop-
erative agreements, training, and pilot projects
Additional Comments
OSWER defined many measures of success for Superfund. including demonstrable annual progress to-
ward achieving faster time frames in both cleanup and enforcement, PRP activity levels, and state activity
Environmental Indicator Results
Superfund is the federal program for protecting human health and the environment from abandoned or
uncontrolled hazardous waste sites throughout the United States. Sites placed on the NPL pose the
most significant threats to human health and the environment. They are addressed through long-term
cleanup and monitoring. The Agency also addresses immediate health threats at hazardous waste sites,
including both NPL and non-NPL sites.
Reducing Immediate Threats
When an uncontrolled hazardous waste site is identified. Superfund's first responsibility is to respond to
immediate threats to human health and the environment Such activities include treating, removing or
containing wastes; installing site security; providing alternative water supplies, or relocating populations
In reporting progress toward the goal of reducing immediate threats. Superfund counts those sites
where acute threats have been addressed (both NPL and non-NPL sites) and where progress toward the
achievement of long-term health and environmental goals has been made (NPL sites only Figure 1)
These are the sites where progress is measured by the indicator "Reducing Immediate Threats: Control-
ling Threats to People and the Environment."
Since 1980, Superfund activities have resulted in making 1,760 sites safer by reducing acute threats
(Figure 2). Of the 1.760 sites. 507 are NPL sites, and 1.253 are non-NPL sites For the NPL sites, the
data reported reflects sites where acute threats have been addressed or where progress toward the
achievement of long-term cleanup goals has been accomplished Of the 507 NPL sites, 85 sites have
been made safer in the period between October 1989 and December 1990 Since 1980, alternative wa-
ter supplies have been provided to 411.000 people at 92 sites, and 4,000 people have been temporarily
III-2
-------
Figure 2. Actions to Reduce Immediate Threats at Superfund Sites
Since 1980. Superfund activities have resulted in making 1,760 sites safer by reducing acute threats. Of the 1.760 sites. 507 are NPL sites,
and 1.253 are non-NPL sites.
NPL SI(o8:Nature of Action* Taken to Protect
Human Health and the Environment
Reducing Immediate Threats: Total NPL Sites
= 507 NPL Sites
Removal, Treatment, or Containment
= 403 Sites
Site Security
264 Sites
Alternative Water
Data quality; Moderate;
data retrievals may differ
across sites.
Relevance as Indicator;
Moderate; a cross
between activity measure
and environmental
Indicator.
= 92 Sites
Population Relocation
= 26 Sites
411,000 people provided with an
alternative water supply.
4,000 people either temporarily or
permanently relocated.
1980-September 30. 1989 Q October 1.1989-December 31.1990
Note 1) Number ol actions add up lo more than total number ol sites.
Any site may have more than one kind ol cleanup action.
Note 2) Total number ol NPL Sites is 1236 as ol December 31. 1990
Non-NPL Sites
Nature of Action* Taken to Protect Human Health and the
Environment
Reducing Immediate Threats: Non-NPL Sites
= 1,253 Sites
Removal, Treatment, or Containment
Site Security
= 267 Sites
Alternative Water
Data quality; Moderate; data
retrievals may differ across
sites.
Relevance as indicator;
Moderate; a cross between
activity measure and
environmental indicator.
= 73 Sites
More than 37,000 people provided with
an alternative water supply.
Population Relocation
= 67 Sites
More than 25,000 people either temporarily
or permanently relocated.
1980 - September 30.1989 Q October 1,1989- December 31, 1990
Note 1) Number of actions add up to more than total number of sties.
Any site may have more than one kind ol cleanup action.
Note 2) Number ol sites with these actions is based on a study
universe ol 578 sites.
Source: Superfund: Repotting on Cleanup Activities through Environmental Indicators. FY 1991 Update. USEPA.
3
m
Environmental Results and Forecasting Branch/1991
-------
SUPERFUND / ABANDONED SITES
or permanently relocated away from 26 sites
The net result of Superfund cleanup work at NPL sites has been to reduce the potential risks from expo-
to hazardous waste for more than 23 5 million people who live within four miles of these sites This
includes the elimination of threats posed by direct contact with hazardous waste to more than
sou.OOO people. 580,000 of whom were threatened by contact with land contamination and 411,000 of
whom have had alternative water supplied.
Activities to reduce immediate threats at non-NPL sites includes emergency, short-term cleanup work
At the overwhelming majority of these sites, the actions taken either treated, contained, or removed the
hazardous wastes. Of the 1,253 non-NPL sites currently being addressed, 222 have been made safer in
the period between October 1989 and December 1990.
Progress Toward Permanent Cleanup Goals
When an uncontrolled hazardous waste site is identified as posing a severe and persistent threat to hu-
man health and the environment. Superfund places the site on the NPL It then studies the site, and in
coordination with other governmental agencies, sets long-term goals for site cleanup These goals are
defined in terms of the contaminant levels necessary to be protective of human health and the environ-
ment in each of the environmental media Progress in achieving these goals for each of three media -
land, surface water, and ground water - is measured with the indicator "Progress toward Permanent
Cleanup Goals."
Since 1980, Superfund has made progress toward achieving permanent cleanup goals at 373 NPL sites
(Figure 3) This is an increase of 55 sites since September 1989 At 97 of the 373 sites. Superfund has
fully achieved the goals for cleaning one or more of the affected media; at the other 276 sites, it has
made measurable progress toward cleanup goals. Cleanup activities have reduced or eliminated land
immation at 333 sites, surface water contamination at 64 sites, and ground water contamination at
;es. This represents increases of 59 sites with progress in the cleanup of land contamination, 21
ancs with surface water contamination, and 5 sites with ground water contamination. In addition, these
activities have eliminated the threat of direct contact with hazardous waste at 196 of the 333 sites with
land contamination, thereby protecting more than 580,000 people who live within a 1-mile radius of these sites.
Bringing Technology to Bear
Superfund uses a variety of technologies to reduce immediate threats and achieve permanent cleanup
goals. This variety reflects the diversity of contaminants that must be dealt with and the media in which
they occur Increasingly, Superfund relies on treatment technologies designed to reduce the volume
and toxicity of the hazardous wastes. For example, of sites where remedies were selected to control the
sourc.eof contamination (source control), the use of treatment-based remedies has been increasing
since 1982. with 79% of source control remedies using treatment in 1990 (Figure 4) In addition, treat-
ment technologies were utilized at 203 of the 373 NPL sites where progress toward long-term cleanup
has been documented, an increase of 52 since September 1989 (Figure 5).
The volumes of waste that Superfund has managed are another measure of the application of technologies
and the achievement of cleanup goals Although not a direct measure of risk reduction, the volumes
addressed indicate the magnitude of the Superfund program and help explain its duration and cost
III-5
-------
Figure 3. NPL Sites with Progress Toward Permanent Cleanup Goals
Since 1980. Superfund has made progress toward achieving permanent cleanup goals at 373 NPL sites.
Sites with Cleanup Progress
Land
Surface Water
64 Sites
Ground Water
= 373 Sites
: 333 Sites
: 97 Sites
| 1980-September30. 1989 Q October 1. 1989-December31. 1990
Note 1) Any site may have more than one medium contaminated.
Note 2) Total number of NPL Sites is 1236 as of December 31. 1990.
Data quality; Moderate; data retrievals may differ across sites.
Relevance as Indicator Moderate; a cross between activity
measure and environmental Indicator.
Source: Superfund: Reporting on Cleanup Activities through Environmental Indicators. FY 1991 Update. USER A.
Environmental Results and Forecasting Branch/1991
///- 6
-------
SUPERFUND /ABANDONED SITES
Figure 4. Bringing Technology to Bear: The Increasing Use of Treatment at
NPL Sites
iuperfund is increasingly relying on treatment technologies to reduce the volume and toxicity of the hazardous
vastes.
Percent of
Source
Control
Remedies
Using
Treatment
80 -
60 -
40 --
20 -
1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
Number of NPL Sites with Treatment Remedies Applied
= 203 Sites
1980-September 30. 1989 Q October 1, 1989- December 31. 1990
Data quality: Good.
Relevance as indicator Relevant more as activity measure than
environmental indicator.
Source: Superfund: Reporting on Cleanup Activities through Environmental Indicators. FY 1991 Update. USEPA.
Environmental Results and Forecasting BrancrV199l
III -7
-------
!}UH£HhUNU / AbAINUUNtU i>ll tb
figure 5. Bringing Technology to Bear: Volumes Managed at Super-fund
Sites
While not a measure of actual risk reduction, the sheer volumes of waste managed at Superfund sites
indicate the magnitude of the Superfund program
Pathway
Land Surface:
Soil
Solid Waste
Liquid Waste
Ground Water:
Surface Water:
Sediments
Cumulative Volumes
Managed
Cumulative Volume
1980 -December 31, 1990
5,930,000 cubic yards
7,000,000 cubic yards
1 ,055,000,000 gallons
6,350,000,000 gallons
31 6,000,000 gallons
15,000 cubic yards
Source Superfund Reporting on Cleanup Activities through Environmental Indicators FY 1991 Update USEPA
Environmental Results and Forecasting Branch/1991
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to
Strategies and Objectives
Objectives for Which Indicator Data is Reported
As described earlier, the Superfund program has taken a number of actions to address emergencies
and reduce acute threats, such as providing site security, providing alternate water supplies, relocation
of people near the site, and removal, treatment, and containment of wastes. These actions are consis-
tent with the broad objective to improve identification and remediation of hazardous and petroleum
' waste sites. In particular, they are consistent with the strategy to identify and address the worst sites first
and continue removal assessments to identify emergencies.
Data is also reported to demonstrate progress toward the objective of ensuring the long-term effectiveness of
response actions. Within this objective, the strategy is to encourage the use of permanent remedies to reduce
the volume, toxicity. or mobility of contaminants. Data shown earlier indicate that the use of treatment tech-
nologies has been increasing at sites where remedies are required to control the source of contamination.
Finally, data are reported to show progress in achieving long-term clean-up goals at NPL sites While
this indicates progress toward the the broad objective to improve identification and remediation of
sites, the strategy does not contain a more specific or quantitative objective related to this indicator,
such as increasing within a certain timeframe the number of sites achieving long-term goals
Objectives for Which Indicator Data is Not Yet Reported
OSWER's strategy includes a plan to establish a data collection and analysis system to evaluate the ef-
fectiveness and reliability of remedies being used This will require more direct environmental indicators
than those currently reported by Superfund
III-8
-------
MUNICIPAL WASTE
Municipal Waste
LATIVE RISK RANKING
Human Health Ecological Welfare
Unfinished Business Report Med-Low. cancer High-Med Med-Low
Med-Low. non-cancer
SAB Reducing Risk Report NR NR NR
Regional Comparative Risk Low Low
PUBLIC CONCERN (ROPER)
1988 1990
Non-Hazardous waste Med-Low Low
Litter & Trash - Medium
AGENCY INITIATIVES WITH STRONG CONNECTION
Environmental Labeling Great Lakes Mexican Border
Multimedia Enforcement Clean Water Act Indian Programs
Federal Facilities
3blem Definition
Municipal waste sites include open and closed municipal landfills, municipal sludge and refuse incinera-
tors, and municipal surface impoundments. These sources can contaminate ground and surface water
and pollute the air with particulates; toxics. BOD. microbes, and nutrients Contamination may occur
through routine releases, soil migration or runoff Most sites, except for operating municipal landfills and
surface impoundments, are regulated under Subtitle D This category excludes active and inactive haz-
ardous waste sites.
Municipal Waste
Goals/Objectives
OSWER has developed a strategy to address municipal solid waste which focuses on 1) waste minimiza-
tion, and 2) environmentally sound management of waste Under waste minimization there are three
objectives: 1) significantly increase source reduction activities by municipalities to prevent the genera-
tion of municipal solid wastes. 2) increase significantly the number of markets for secondary materials for
solid wastes, and 3) foster the development of state programs for municipal solid waste source reduction
and recycling. Under environmentally sound management there is one objective ensure the proper
management of municipal solid wastes in all states.
strategies
e Minimization- The strategy includes a strong public outreach and technical assistance program
10 reduce generation of wastes and help all sectors understand the benefits of source reduction A sec-
ond part of the strategy is to create economically viable markets for secondary materials such that recy-
cling does not raise false expectations. A third part of this strategy is to provide technical assistance to
III-9
-------
states including targeting opportunities, developing technical and administrative guidance on how states
should develop and manage a waste minimization program, developing staff expertise in designing and
developing clearinghouses, and developing guidance and outreach materials
Environmentally Sound Waste Management. This strategy is to build full state capability for proper man-
agement of municipal solid wastes by 1995. To do this would mean assuring states have primary re-
sponsibility for implementing this program. Also, it means developing and maintaining an expert techni-
cal workforce in regions and headquarters to provide technical assistance to states, working with states
to enhance their technical capabilities to promote timely and high quality applications for permit program
approval processing and approving adequate programs in a timely manner, and using federal enforce-
ment where state programs are inadequate.
Additional Comments
The program to address municipal solid waste is in its infancy. Much of the effort to reduce municipal
solid wastes may need to focus on education to change the behavior of individuals at the household
level. Since municipalities are strapped for money to carry out new programs or costly technical solu-
tions, such waste minimization outreach efforts may have a big impact
Environmental Indicator Results
The overall goal of the Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) program is to foster an Integrated Waste Manage-
ment (IWM) approach to safely and effectively handle the MSW stream An IWM system will contain
some or all of the following components source reduction (including reuse of products), recycling of
materials (including composting), waste combustion (with energy recovery) and landfillmg EPA is en-
couraging source reduction and recycling as preferred waste management approaches In addition.
EPA has.issued the Subtitle D Revised Criteria (October 1991) which set standards for MSW landfills.
and includes a corrective action component.
EPA's role is to promote IWM, set minimum national criteria for the safe management of MSW. review
and approve state MSW permit programs, and provide education and technical assistance to states,
Indian Tribes and others. States have primary responsibility for overseeing the management of MSW
and collecting and managing MSW data. Although EPA has conducted many studies of MSW genera-
tion and management, there is no nationwide reporting system from which to draw annual data. OSW is
beginning work to establish uniform standards for the characterization of MSW and measurement of re-
cycling at the state and local levels. It is hoped that during the next several years, states and communi-
.ties will voluntarily adopt these standards to report accurate and comparable data
For the RCRA Environmental Indicators project, the overall goal has been broken into three goals (similar
to those for hazardous waste):
Waste reduction: Reduce the quantity and toxicity of wastes generated and disposed, through
source reduction and recycling;
Safe management. Ensure that wastes are managed in an environmentally safe manner, and
Corrective action: Clean up environmental contamination from past and future waste management
activities.
OSW is developing short-term, medium-term, and long-term indicators for the MSW program (reflecting
the availability of data for reporting) This report presents short-term indicators for waste reduction and
recycling and safe management. EPA's recently-promulgated corrective action requirements for MSW
landfills will not become effective until October 9,1993. EPA will not report environmental indicators for
corrective action until after 1994.
Ill- 10
-------
MUNICIPAL WASTE
Environmental Indicator Results: Municipal Solid
Source Reduction and Recycling
irst goal of the MSW program is to reduce the amount of waste generated and disposed, thus re-
ducing waste management costs and potential threats to human health and the environment during manage-
ment and disposal. This report contains two relevant short-term indicators' (1) trends in MSW generation rate
and (2) trends in the amount of MSW recycled.
Per Capita Generation of MSW Continues to Increase
Figures 6 and 7 show trends in the quantity of MSW generated from 1960 to 1988 The nation currently
generates over 180 million tons of waste, up from 90 million tons in 1960 Increases in waste generation
rates are attributable to population growth and increases in per-capita waste generation. By encourag-
ing a variety of source reduction methods (e g , unit-based pricing, use of less packaging), EPA hopes
to reduce the amount of waste that people generate over time
Waste Recovery (Recycling, Composting) is Increasing
EPA studies show that the amount of waste recovered (primarily through recycling but also through yard
waste composting to a limited extent) has increased steadily over time (see Figure 8) Less than 7% of
our nation's waste was recovered in 1960, compared to over 13% today This success is due largely to
the states' strong efforts implementing recycling programs EPA's current recycling goal is 25% The
National Solid Waste Management Association reports that 33 states have comprehensive recycling laws
jre 6. Trends in Municipal Solid Waste Generation
Total Solid Waste Generation
200
180
o
"o
w
o
80
Data quality;
Moderate; involves
assumptions,
accuracy and
precision not
quantified.
Relevance to
program: Moderate;
EPA does not
directly regulate
waste generation.
1960
1970
1980
1988
Source EPA, Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States, 1960-2010, 1990 Update. June 1990
///- 11
-------
Figure 7. Trends in Municipal Solid Waste Generation
Per Capita Solid Waste Generation
CO
a
i
cu
Q.
C
o
CO
<
Q.
in
o
c
o
Q.
1 -
Data quality;
Moderate; involves
assumptions,
accuracy and
precision not
quantified.
Relevance to
program: Moderate;
EPA does not
directly regulate
waste generation.
1960 1970 1980 1988
Source: EPA. Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States. 1960 to 2010. (June1990 Update)
Figure 8. Trends in the Recovery of Municipal Solid Waste for
Recycling
o
2
QJ
S
o
' CO
CO
1
§
£
C
03
O
<5
CL
15
14
13
12
11
9
8
7
6
5
2
1
6.7%
1960
7.1%
13.4%
9.7%
yx*:i::sx^a^>:>i
' *:N,>>;>- :.7;>^
1970 1980
Year
1988
Data quality;
Moderate; involves
assumptions,
accuracy and
precision not
quantified.
Relevance to
program; Moderate;
EPA does not
directly regulate
waste generation.
Source: EPA, Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States. 1960 to 2010. (June 1990 Update).
Ill- 12
-------
MUNICIPAL WASTE
Environmental Indicator Results: Municipal Solid
Waste Safe Management
;ond goal of the MSW program is to ensure that wastes are managed in a manner protective of hu-
man health and the environment. The short-term indicator for safe management is the amounts of waste
managed by various methods. However, this is only half of the safe management story. In the future,
OSW will study the feasibility of reporting additional indicators regarding facility compliance and the
number of facilities with no releases of concern to ground water, surface water, air and soil.
Incineration and Recycling are Increasing Over Time
Figure 9 shows national trends in MSW management methods. While total generation rates of municipal
solid waste have been increasing over time, trends in percent managed by different methods have var-
ied over the past 30 years. An estimated 30% of MSW was combusted in 1960. mostly in incinerators
with no air pollution controls and no energy recovery. As old incinerators were closed, combustion
dropped steadily over the next 20 years, to reach a low of 10% of generation in 1980. Over the past
decade, however, combustion of MSW has been increasing again; almost all of the newer facilities have
energy recovery and meet air pollution standards.
The amount and percentage of MSW that was landfilled increased in the 1960s and 1970s, reflecting the
declining use of incineration and the low rates for recycling and composting. By 1980, the percentage
of MSW landfilled had increased to 81% of generation, from 72% in 1970 and 62% in 1960. In the
1980s, increased recycling and combustion caused the percentage remaining to be landfilled to de-
cline. By 1988. only 72% of MSW was landfilled.
Environmental Indicator Results: Corrective Action
hird aspect of the MSW program is to prevent future threat to human health and the environment
facilities which have past releases or may develop releases in the future. OSW is not presenting
any corrective action indicators for MSW at this time. While Subtitle D criteria including corrective action
standards were passed in September 1991, corrective action criteria will not be in effect until 1993.
Figure 9. Municipal Solid Waste Management Trends, 1960 - 1988
200
150
o
o
V)
o
100
50
Recovery for
recycling
Combustion
Landfill
Data quality; Mod-
erate; involves as-
sumptions, accu-
racy and precision
not quantified.
Relevance to pro-
gram; Moderate;
EPA does not di-
rectly regulate
waste generation.
1960 1970 1980 1988
Source. EPA, Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States. 1960 to 2010. (June 1990 Update)
III- 13
-------
MUNICIPAL WASTE
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to
Strategies and Objectives
Waste Reduction
The types of indicator data presented here, concerning the amounts of municipal waste generated and
recycled, will be suitable measures of the success of OSW's strategy to increase source reduction and
recycling Even though many years of data are presented, because much of the federal program for
municipal solid waste is in the early stages of implementation, it is too soon to fully evaluate the effects of
EPA's current strategies on these indicators.
Safe Management
The indicator data concerning municipal waste managed by various methods will provide complete
measures of the success of OSW's safe management strategy only when OSW completes their plan
(noted above) to add data collection on the numbers of facilities with no releases of concern Since the
revised Subtitle D rules have only been recently promulgated, the collection of this data will not be fea-
sible for a few years, at a minimum Current data do not distinguish waste combusted or landfilled at
facilities operated in the most environmentally sound ways from waste treated at facilities that do not use
the most effective procedures to prevent emissions to air or water.
I/I- 14
-------
HAZARDOUS WASTE
Hazardous Waste
.._LATIVE RISK RANKING
Human Health Ecological Welfare
Unfinished Business Report Med-High. cancer Low Medium
Low, non-cancer
SAB Reducing Risk Report NR NR NR
Regional Comparative Risk Medium-Low Medium
PUBLIC CONCERN (ROPER)
1988 1990
High High
AGENCY INITIATIVES WITH STRONG CONNECTION
33/50 Project Pollution Prevention Leg Environmental Labeling
Geographic Initiatives (all) Multimedia Enforcement RCRA
Indian Programs Federal Facilities Ground Water
Contaminated Media Economic Incentives
. . oblem Definition
This category generally includes the risks posed by active and inactive hazardous waste sites regulated
under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) These sites include RCRA operating and
closed landfills and surface impoundments, hazardous waste storage containers and tanks, hazardous
waste burned in boilers and furnaces, hazardous waste incinerators, and associated solid waste man-
agement units. Seepage and routine releases from these sources contaminate soil, surface water,
ground water, and pollute the air. Contamination resulting from waste transportation and current illegal
disposal are also included. Radiation from hazardous "mixed waste" from RCRA facilities is included in
this problem area.
Hazardous Waste
Coals/Objectives
OSWER has developed a multi-year strategy to address hazardous wastes under all four major goals of
1) waste minimization, 2) environmentally sound waste management, 3) preventing harmful releases;
and 4) preparing for and responding to hazardous releases
Strategies
e Minimization -The strategy includes a strong industry and public outreach and technical assis-
s program to reduce the generation of wastes and help all sectors understand the benefits of source
reauction, creating economically viable markets for secondary materials such that recycling does not
raise false expectations, and encourage pollution prevention through permitting and enforcement.
/// - 15
-------
WHO 1C
Environmentally Sound Waste Management. The strategy is to implement the recent RCRA Implementa-
tion Study recommendations for a "more rational RCRA Subtitle C (hazardous waste) program." discour-
age non-compliance through a strong enforcement program, and implement a strong outreach and tech-
nical assistance program to ensure the continued avalability of safe disposal and treatment capacity.
combined with waste minimization programs
Preventing Harmful Releases The strategy focuses on high risk-volume locations, identifying and using
financial incentives for industries to prevent releases, and identify media-specific pollution problems and
develop a strategy for addressing these situations
Prepare For and Respond to Hazardous Releases The strategy includes better integration of RCRA and
Superfund cleanup programs to ensure we use our resources effectively, reducing costs at sites so that
more sites can be addressed each year, reducing the time from site identification of contamination to
effective response, and focus on the highest risk sites first, and authorize more state corrective action
programs under HSWA, use Memoranda of Agreements for a working framework for increased state
involvement, and assisting states in building capacity through grants, training, staff exchanges, and
technical assistance.
Additional Comments
There are few measures of qualitative progress for any of the four strategies, such as the reduced time to
reissue a permit, or reduced time or cost of site cleanups. The development of success measures for
RCRA has just become a program area of focus with the environmental indicators initiative.
Environmental Indicator Results
The overall goal of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Subtitle C program is to assure
comprehensive hazardous waste management that is protective of human health and the environment
For strategic planning, EPA's Office of Solid Waste (OSW) has divided the overall goal into three por-
tions:
Waste minimization: Reduce the quantity and toxicity of wastes generated and disposed;
Safe management. Ensure that wastes that are generated are managed in an environmentally safe
manner; and
Corrective action. Clean up environmental contamination from past and future waste management
activities.
OSW is developing short-term, medium-term, and long-term environmental indicators for each of these
program goals (with time frames reflecting the availability of data for reporting). This report presents
initial work to explore short-term indicators.
RCRA hazardous waste indicators will be reported using two data systems - the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Information System (RCRIS) and the Biennial Reporting System (BRS) The BRS database
is updated every two years, while RCRIS is updated on a continuous basis Data presented here were
derived from the 1989 BRS database and the current RCRIS database (current as of January 1992) The data
presented here for BRS should be considered incomplete and are not nationally representative. The
RCRIS database is complete and includes data for 54 states and territories The 1989 BRS database
covers 43 of 54 states and territories (Figure 10) Data Submissions for the remaining states and territo-
ries will be complete in the spring of 1992.
//I- 16
-------
HAZARDOUS WASTE
Figure 10. States and Territories in 1992 Resource Conservation Act
Information System (RCRIS) and in 1989 Biennial Reporting
System (BRS) as of January 1992
States both
in RCRIS
and BRS
(American
Samoa. Trust
Territories)
States in
RCRIS not in
BRS (AL.CT,
FL, IN, KY,
MA, ME, MN.
NJ, Rl, TN, VT,
WA)
Hazardous Waste Minimization
Goal
"" goal of this component of the RCRA program is to reduce the quantity and toxicity of wastes gener-
and disposed, thereby reducing potential threats to human health and the environment. The short-
«,,,,, environmental indicator presented is the quantity of hazardous waste generated by industry type
(i.e., Standard Industrial Classification [SIC] code). OSW intends to develop a baseline of consistently
reported data, which will allow analysis of trends in generation rates over time.
Ill- 17
-------
Current Indicator for Waste Minimization: Baseline Hazardous Waste
Generations by Industry Group
A majority of most hazardous waste is generated by a few industry groups
Figure 11 shows RCRA hazardous wastes generated from various industries This includes only waste
defined in the 1989 Biennial Reporting System (43 of 54 states and territories) as primary waste hazard-
ous wastes generated on-site from production processes, service activities, or management of non-hazardous
waste. The analysis does not include wastes resulting from "secondary" generation, meaning hazardous
waste residuals resulting from treatment or recycling of previously existing hazardous waste Example of "sec-
ondary" generation waste are landfill leachate or a solid resulting from a stabilization process.
Figure 11 shows that the dominant industry in waste generation is "Manufacturing of Chemicals and Al-
lied Products" (SIC 28), representing 85% of total primary waste generated, more than seventeen times
the quantity of waste by the next largest known generator, "Manufacturing of Fabricated Metal Products"
(SIC 34) accounts for 5% of total generation. "Electric and Other Electric Equipment" (SIC 36) accounts
for 3%, and "Petroleum and Coal Products" (SIC 29) accounts for 2% The remaining SIC codes are 5%
of total primary hazardous wastes generated, and have been collapsed into the category "All Others "
Indicators Planned for Future Waste Minimization Goal
OSW is studying the feasibility of reporting additional indicators, such as the amount of waste minimiza-
tion reported, as well as changes in types, composition, and toxicity of wastes generated over time.
OSW will also consider options for normalizing data to account for economic or other factors having an
impact on waste generation, and to identify reduction in wastes resulting from minimization programs
versus outside factors.
Safe Management of Hazardous Waste
Goal
The goal of the "safe management" component of the RCRA program is to ensure that hazardous wastes^
are managed in a manner that protects human health and the environment
This report presents one short-term indicator for this component of the RCRA program, the distribution
of waste across various waste management practices. By tracking waste management practices over
time, OSW will show trends in shifts of waste management (i.e, reduced land disposal, increased treat-
ment prior to disposal). The objective will be for changes in management practices to result in reduced
potential for significant releases.
Safe Management Indicator (1): Amounts of Waste Managed Through Each
Management Practice
Most hazardous waste is managed through treatment.
Figure 12 shows the management methods used for the 145 million tons of hazardous waste managed
in 43 of 54 states and territories in 1989 Unlike the waste minimization chart, this chart includes primary
and secondary waste. The 1989 Biennial Reporting System shows that approximately 81% of all hazard-
ous wastes were treated, using such processes as biological treatment, chemical precipitation, and in-
cineration. Of waste undergoing treatment, 10% was treated through incineration, mostly liquid waste
reused as fuel. Materials recovery and reuse (predominantly metals recovery) accounted for 1% of the
waste managed. Eighteen percent of the waste was ultimately land disposed Of the waste land dis-
posed, 93% was placed in underground injection wells and the remainder was disposed in surface im-
poundments, land application units, and landfills
///- 18
-------
HAZARDOUS WASTE
Figure 11. Total Hazardous Waste Generation at RCRA Regulated
Facilities in 1989 by Industry Type
43 of 54 States and Territories
(130 million tons)
Primary* Waste Only
SIC 34 - Manufacturing
of Fabricated Metal
Products
5%
(7.1 million tons)
SIC 29 - Petroleum and
Coal Products
2%
(2.5 million tons)
All Others
5%
(6.2 million tons)
SIC 36 - Electronic and
Other Electric
Equipment
3%
(3.5 million tons)
SIC 28 - Manufacturing of
Chemicals &
Allied Products
85%
(110.7 million tons)
Data quality; Useful, relative information, but data not complete. All numbers
are partial national numbers, as only 43 of 54 states and territories are
currently in the BRS database. Data are considered draft. Nationally
complete data will be available later in 1992.
Relevance to program; Moderate; EPA does not directly regulate waste
generation.
'Primary waste is hazardous waste generated from on-site production processes,
service activity, or the management of non-hazardous waste.
Source: 1989 Biennial Reporting System (BRS).
Ill- 19
-------
Figure 12. Most Hazardous Waste is Managed Through Treatment. Amounts of Hazardous Waste
Managed by Each Treatment Practice by 43 of the 54 States and Territories in 1989
Incineration
8%
(12.1 million tons)
Recovery / Recycling
1%
(1.9 million tons)
Waste Water
67%
(96.4 million tons)
Land Disposal
r18%
(26.0 million tons)
Landfills
2%
(0.6 million tons)
Land Application Units
r- 2%
(0.6 million tons)
Surface Impoundments
3%
(0.7 million tons)
Underground Injection
Wells
93%
(24.2 million tons)
Other Treatment
6%
(8.2 million tons)
Land Disposal (26.0 million tons)
Sou
)89 Biennial Reporting System (BRS).
Data quality; Useful, relative Information, but data not complete. All
numbers are partial national numbers, as only 43 of 54 states and territories
are currently In the BRS database. Data are considered draft. Nationally
complete data will be available later In 1992.
Relevance to program; Not a direct environmental measure, but relevant to
safe management goal.
-------
HAZARDOUS WASTE
OSW will track this indicator over time to observe how waste management practices change in response
to regulations, economic conditions, waste minimization efforts, and other factors In the future, increased
lent of wastes prior to land disposal, and increased use of recovery and recycling, are expected
cators Planned for Future for the Safe Management Goal
OSW, in conjuction with OWPE. is considering using facility compliance status as a short-term surrogate
measure for safe management. In the future, OSW will study the feasibility of reporting more direct indi-
cators of environmental impact, such as the number of operating facilities with releases (i e., based on
ground water monitoring data) or other environmentally significant problems In addition. OSW will track
the number of facilities moving from interim status to permitted status, and will attempt to relate environ-
mental indicators to the effects of changes in enforcement and more stringent regulations
Corrective Action
Goal
The goal of the corrective action (CA) program is to prevent harm to human health and the environment
from releases that have occurred at RCRA facilities by maximizing the number of cleanup actions at these
facilities EPA identifies environmentally threatening sites, prioritizes the sites according to risk, and ad-
dresses the most threatening sites and areas of sites first While all sites with releases of concern will eventu-
ally be addressed, the process can often take a long time, depending on the complexity of the action, the
immediacy of the threat, the facility's priority for CA. and the financial viability of the owner/operator
This report presents one short-term CA indicator status of facilities in the CA program This is more of
-,« ^"-.tivity measure than an environmental indicator. Work is underway to develop measures of actual
ses and cleanup accomplishments Three steps in the CA process are presented here The first
_._,_. the RCRA Facility Assessment (RFA). is a general assessment of the site and important step in
identifying potential problems The second step, the RCRA Facility Investigation (RFI). is a more detailed
study of sites which may be of concern. The third step. Corrective Measures Study (CMS). Corrective
Measures Implementation (CMI) and stabilization measures (which are near term risk reduction actions)
- are activities that address the environmental release (To control releases and reduce risk in the early
phases of the CA process. EPA has implemented a Stabilization Strategy so that whatever action neces-
sary is taken to reduce risk and control the further spread of contamination )
Status of Facilities in Corrective Action Program
Facilities with releases are being systematically addressed to protect human health and the environment
Figure 13 presents activities being conducted at hazardous waste management facilities for the 54
states and territories whose data were presently retrievable from RCRIS. The data show that EPA. along
with states and territories, has systematically initiated the CA program and is working to control contami-
nant releases. EPA has completed RFAs (i e., has assessed problems) at 2.264 of 4.541 facilities OSW
estimates that 15 to 20% of these facilities have no need for further action at this time Conversely, an
estimated 80 to 85% of facilities will need further actions EPA has already imposed RFIs on 37% of fa-
cilities with RFAs In addition. 8% of facilities with RFAs are controlling contaminant releases
These data will constitute a baseline that OSW will use to track future trends In the future, EPA expects
to see increases in the number of risk reduction actions taken to control contaminant releases
Indicator Planned for Corrective Action Goal
i data on the number of facilities that have either on-site or off-site releases are not currently retriev-
:rom RCRIS. OSW is studying the feasibility of having this information reported This past summer,
through a separate data collection effort, information regarding on-site and off-site releases was com-
piled These data indicate that 370 facilities have known on-site releases to ground water, 120 facilities
have off-site releases to ground water
/// - 21
-------
Figure 13. Status of Hazardous Waste Management Facilities in the Corrective Action Program
(54 States and Territories)
Assessments
Investigations
Controlling Contaminant Releases
2,264 Facilities Have
Been Assessed
37% of Facilities
Assessed Have Begun or
Completed Investigation
(835 Facilities)
8% of Facilities Assessed Are
Controlling Contaminant Releases
(184 Facilities)
Data quality; Useful, relative Information, but data quality and accuracy are unknown. Data are from
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Information System (RCRIS) and are nationally complete.
Relevance to program; Not a direct environmental Indicator, but relevant to the corrective action goal.
Source Desource Conservation and Recovery Information System (RCRIS). 1992.
I
CO
m
-------
HAZARDOUS WASTE
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to
Qfrategies and Objectives
Minimization
Because these data are a baseline, evaluation of progress towards program goals will not be possible
until future years. The waste minimization indicator is directly relevant for evaluating the success of the
strategy of reducing the generation of wastes It will only indirectly capture information on the success of
the strategy of creating economically viable markets for secondary materials
One area in the strategy not addressed by current or planned OSW environmental indicators (based on
the OSW environmental indicator implementation plan) is to develop environmental indicators for mea-
suring pollution prevention resulting from coordinated permitting and enforcement authorities.
Safe Management
Because these data are a baseline, evaluation of progress towards program goals will not be possible
until future years. Over time. OSW will be able to use this indicator to track trends in waste management
practices which will hopefully demonstrate success of the strategy to increase use of management prac-
tices with reduced potential for significant releases. In FY92. data for hazardous waste managed by
method will be broken out by type of waste, which will make the data even more useful for evaluating
whether the most effective specific practices are being used
The plan to review ground water monitoring data for land disposal facilities, and develop a proposal for
incorporating some subset of these data into the indicator reporting process, would move the waste
management program towards having a more "direct" type of environmental indicator, which would be in
ing with the ultimate safe management goal of managing wastes in a manner which protects human
fi and the environment
Corrective Action
Because these data are a baseline, they cannot be used until future years to determine the rate at which
the program is moving towards its goal of eventually addressing all sites with releases of concern While
these data do demonstrate the frequency with which cleanups are occurring, and give a sense of other
aspects of program activity, it is not yet possible to quantify the direct environmental significance of the
actions tracked.
The RCRA corrective action program is only now beginning to be implemented in the regions and the
states. .-The Resource Conservation and Recovery Information System (RCRIS) tracks, on a national
level, the administrative actions completed for facilities in corrective action The challenge is measuring
the actual environmental impacts these actions have on sites needing corrective action. As with the Su-
perfund program, a great deal of contaminant data is available at the facility level In the future OSW
hopes to track on-site or off-site contamination of ground water at land disposal facilities, and number of
sites prioritized for corrective action Such data would also be useful to document the extent to which
the strategy of addressing highest risk sites first was being implemented As yet there is no nationally
organized, consistent database on actual environmental impacts as sites
III - 23
-------
Underground Storage Tanks
RELATIVE RISK RANKING
Human Health Ecological Welfare
Unfinished Business Report Low. cancer Low Low
Low, non-cancer
SAB Reducing Risk Report NR Low Low
Regional Comparative Risk NR NR
PUBLIC CONCERN (ROPER)
1988 1990
Med-High Med-High
AGENCY INITIATIVES WITH STRONG CONNECTION
Ground Water
RCRA
Problem Definition
This problem includes routine or chronic releases of petroleum products or other chemicals from undei
ground storage tanks Stored products include motor fuels, solvents and lubricants that can contami-
nate soil and ground water with such toxics as benzene, toluene, and xylene. This category excludes
hazardous waste tanks.
Underground Storage Tanks
'Strategies
In fulfilling its mission of cleaning up and protecting ground water from leaking underground storage
tanks (USTs). EPA faces some enormous challenges. An estimated 1.8 million regulated USTs are scat-
tered across the country at about 750,000 facilities Fifteen percent, or almost 300.000. of these tanks
may currently be leaking or may have already leaked various petroleum and other products into the sur-
rounding soil and ground water
The Office of Underground Storage Tanks (OUST) recognized that it would need the cooperation and
support of state and local governments nationwide to implement a program of such magnitude. Under
the OUST approach EPA provides funding, a flexible base of regulations, and technical support to state
and local governments that implement the program Fifty states, six territories and hundreds of local
governments have responded and have developed programs to find and clean up existing leaks and
prevent new releases.
OUST is working with numerous state and local tank programs to help improve their effectiveness and
efficiency The objective is to enable state and local programs to meet environmental challenges in sp
of shrinking budgets
III - 24
-------
UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS
Specifically. OUST is working with many states and local programs to "streamline" site assessment and
cleanup processes by helping them use total quality management techniques Early results are encour-
aging, and OUST is expanding its streamlining project to additional states OUST is encouraging the
)f innovative technologies that can improve cleanup quality and reduce cost In addition, OUST is
entratmg on improving compliance with leak detection requirements By cleaning up old releases
ana quickly identifying and addressing new ones OUST strives to achieve the greatest possible reduc-
tion of human health and environmental risks during the next few years
Environmental Indicator Results
Tank Closures and Protection Against Corrosion
EPA's underground storage tank regulations as well as most of the regulations promulgated by state and
local governments are designed to prevent the major cause of releases - corrosion of tanks and piping.
The bare steel components of most existing tank systems must be replaced or upgraded so that they
cannot rust. Because this is very costly for many small businesses owning tanks, EPA's regulations al-
lowed them ten years to replace or upgrade their systems and several options for protecting their tanks
The regulated community is making significant progress in removing or safely closing their old bare steel
tanks (Figure 14) Over 300.000 old tanks, or about one sixth of the universe have now been closed or
removed In addition, over 30% of all tanks in use are protected from corrosion (Figure 15) By 1998,
every tank must meet all of EPA's technical standards which guard against leaks The regulations re-
quire leak detection, overfill protection and other prevention measures on a much faster schedule
Corrective Action
State and local tank programs are rapidly finding new releases (Figure 16) Since many tank owners
ecently began required testing for leaks, the growing backlog of sites requiring cleanups is no sur-
. The total number of releases found by the end of the century may reach 300.000. making the UST
cleanup program both challenging and costly Catching up with this backlog is a top priority
Figure 14. Underground Storage Tank Closures
350
Cumulative
Total
(Thousands)
4th
Quarter
1989
4th
Quarter
1990
Data quality not rated;
This is a good activity
measure from which to
infer environmental
results, but doesnt
involve environmental
measurements.
4th
Quarter
1991
Source Office of Underground Storage Tanks
/// - 25
-------
Figure 15. Underground Storage Tanks Protected Against Corrosion
Spring 1991
Tanks protected
against corrosion
(461,428 tanks)
Data Quaiftv not rated;
This Is a good activity
measure from which to
Infer environmental
results, but doesn't
Involve environmental
measurements.
Tanks
unprotected or
unknown
(1,029.856 tanks)
Source: Office of Underground Storage Tanks.
Figure 16. Corrective Action Activity Through September 30, 1991
1st
Quarter
1989
Confirmed Releases
Data quality not rated:
Information not avail-
able when report went
to press.
4th
Quarter
1989
4th
Quarter
1990
O Cleanups Initiated
4th
Quarter
1991
Cleanups Completed
Source: Office of Underground Storage Tanks.
III - 26
-------
UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to
Strategies and Objectives
strated in Figure 16, a graph of UST corrective action activity, the gap between the number of re-
leases detected and cleanups completed is increasing According to the OUST strategy, OUST will ad-
dress this growing backlog by improving the efficiency of state and local cleanup programs and by en-
couraging the use of innovative technologies It will be a number of years before we can adequately
assess the effectiveness of this approach.
OUST's strategy also includes improving compliance with leak detection requirements According to the
data shown here, the regulated community is making progress replacing old tanks with newer protected
tanks. In addition, since the program began, the proportion of tanks protected against corrosion has
increased, although consistent data was not available for this report OUST is evaluating additional indi-
cators to assess progress in preventing future leaks.
/// - 27
-------
IV. Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances
RELATIVE RISK RANKING
Unfinished Business Report
in Foods
Other Exposures
(Applicator)
SAB Reducing Risk Report
Regional Comparative Risk
PUBLIC CONCERN (ROPER)
In Foods
Farm Worker
Pesticides
Human Health
High, cancer
High, non-cancer
Med-High, cancer
High, non-cancer
High (applicator)
High
1988
Med-High
Med-High
AGENCY INITIATIVES WITH STRONG CONNECTION
Agricultural Sector
Caribbean
Gulf of Mexico
Multimedia Enforcement
Food Safety & FlFRA-88
Ecological
High
High
Welfare
Minor
Medium
Medium Medium
High - Med-High
1990
Med-Low
Medium
Pollution Prevention Leg
Chesapeake Bay
Estuary Program
Indian Programs
Economic incentives Analysis
Environmental Labeling
Great Lakes
Wetlands
Ground Water
Problem Definition
This problem area addresses risks arising from the application, runoff, and residues of pesticides to hu-
mans and the environment. It includes risks to people applying agricultural pesticides, including farm
workers who mix, load, and apply them. Also included are risks to the public and non-target plants and
wildlife as a result of short range drift, overspray, and misuse Some of the more dangerous substances
include ethyl parathion, paraquat, dmoseb, EPN. aldicarb. and diazinon. Disposal of mixed pesticide
wastes has resulted in the generation of highly toxic, largely unknown by-products that have entered the
air and caused serious health problems Suburban spraying of property, often done with high pressure
systems, can result in contamination of neighboring property, residents, pets, and livestock. Aside from
direct exposure, additional pesticide risks stem from exposure through mgestion of residues on foods
eaten by humans and wildlife. Bioaccumulation and food chain effects are also included in this category
-------
Background Data Relevant to Multiple Strategies:
Pesticides in Ground Water Database
Introduction
The Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP) is responsible for protecting human and environmental health
from unreasonable risks due to pesticide exposure. Monitoring during the last decade has shown that
the nation's ground water is vulnerable to contamination by pesticides particularly in areas with vulner-
able aquifers and high pesticide use. Therefore, OPP has taken a preventive approach to the protection
of this valuable resource. Regulatory activities have evolved to include, as a condition of registration or
reregistration. a more rigorous evaluation of a pesticide's potential to reach ground water.
Background
The Pesticides in Ground Water Database (PGWDB) was created to provide a more complete picture of
ground water monitoring for pesticides in the U S Ground water data in the PGWDB have been as-
sembled from numerous sources including state and federal agencies, chemical companies, consulting
firms, and private institutions that are investigating the potential for ground water contamination by pesti-
cides. The Office of Pesticide Programs began collecting ground water studies for the Pesticides in
Ground Water Database in the early 1980s. In 1988, an effort was made to review and catalog this data.
Summary results of this effort were computerized and then published in the Pesticides in Ground Water
Database: 1988 Interim Report.
OPP uses the information provided in the PGWDB to indicate the effectiveness of regulatory policies and
to redirect the focus of regulatory activities when necessary The data collected has been used to sup-
port label advisories, requirements for increased monitoring, reregistration, and special review Combin-
ing the information in the PGWDB with usage data will assist OPP in refining criteria used to identify pes-
ticides, at an early stage, that tend to leach to ground water. Additional uses for the data in the PGWDB
include identification of areas in need of further study, identification of the intensity of monitoring for par-
ticular pesticides, and graphic display of ground water monitoring and/or contamination by pesticides
On a state or local level, the PGWDB can be used as a reference so that states will have access to data
from neighboring states. Evidence that pesticide residues occur in ground water can be used to target
a state's resources for future monitoring and to reassess pesticide management practices to prevent
future degradation of ground water quality The information presented in this database will also be use-
ful to state and regional agencies when implementing the two percent pollution-prevention measures; the
Restricted Use Rule and the State Management Plans for the Pesticides and Ground Water Strategy
Results Summary
The following data summary is taken from the DRAFT version of the 1991 Pesticides in Ground Water
DataBase Report. Data in all of the tables and figures are ESTIMATES because several states with large
datasets have recently sent OPP updated information. This information will be included in the final ver-
sion of the PGWDB fleportthat will be completed in early 1992 These summary data reflect sampling
from 1979to1990
Table 1 is a summary of well sampling information for the nation Figure 1 is a summary of well sampling
data, by state, for the 20 states with the most frequent pesticide detections Figure 2a and 2b are well
sampling data for the 20 most frequently detected pesticides nation-wide. These graphs are presented
for summary purposes only. Close examination of data used to generate them reveals that certain large
datasets have biased the ranking of states and pesticides An example of this is the Suffolk County, NY
data which is printed near the applicable bars on the graphs. The disproportionate sample intensity in
this small area of New York has altered the ranking of that state and several pesticides This illustrates
that, although these data can be used to place pesticides and states in general ranking groups, the ab-
solute position of one pesticide or state in relation to another is meaningless because monitoring has not
been performed in a uniform manner throughout the U S or even within each state
IV-2
-------
PESTICIDES IN GROUND WATER
Table 1. Pesticides in Ground Water Database
Accumulated Sampling from 1979 - 1991
WELLS'
Total Wells Sampled
Total Wells Positive
Total Drinking Water Wells Sampled
Total Drinking Water Wells Positive
SOURCE OF CONTAMINATION1
Normal Field of Use
Point Source2
Unknown
PESTICIDES3
Total Analyzed
Detected in 1 or more Wells
Detected in 100 or more Wells
Detected in 1000 or more Wells
STATES
States Submitting Data
States with Pesticide Detections
States with Pesticide Detections from NFU4
48.000
13.000
46.000
12.000
11.000
400
1.000
222
98
16
4
42
40
30
1 Values rounded to the nearest 1.000
2 Value rounded to nearest 100
3 Parent or metabolite
4 Known or suspected normal field use
Note Summary results expressed as rounded estimates
-------
Figure 1a. Ten States with Highest Number of Positive Wells
Well Status by State
Listed by Number of Positive Wells
NY
Data quality not rated;
Data base made up of
Individual data sets
with differing charac-
teristics.
200
600
400 600
Well Counts
3 Welts > Maximum Contaminant Level I Total Wells Sampled CD Welts Positive
Figure 1b. Ten States with Next Highest Number of Positive Wells
Well Status by State
Listed by Number of Positive Wells
1000
200
800
400 600
Well Counts
I Wells ^ Maximum Contaminant Level I Tola) Welts Sampled CD Welts Positive
1000
IV-4
-------
PESTICIDES IN GROUND WATER
Figure 2a. Ten Most Frequently Detected Pesticides
Pesticide Detections Listed
By Number Of Positive Wells
ALDICARB
CARBOFURAN
DBCP
ATRA2INE
EDB
OXAMYL
ALACHLOR
SIMAZINE
METRI8UZ1N
.
BROMACIL
fesa^
i
3 l>jHCT«. '4Y . 11
to? 1
W".
.«.
i oo&i rsr
-.* NT >&-'
'i I
lSwrj». NY . 2oes6)
(SJ'o*. NY . JOBiSl
(Suite* NY roBiS)
1
1
1
0 2000 4000 6000 8OOO 10000 12000 14000
Well Counts
W«lb > Maximum Cortaminanl Laval TolaJ Wells Sampled CD Wells Positive
Figure 2b. Next Ten Most Frequently Detected Pesticides
Pesticide Detections Listed
By Number Of Positive Wells
METOLACHLOR
1^-DICHLOROPROPANE (1.2-0)
CYANAZINE
2.4-O
CARBARYL
PCP
lo I
METHOMYL \L£
PICLORAM
CHLOROANE
DICAMBA
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Well Counts
Welb > Maximum Contaminant Level I Total Wells Sampled LJ Welts Positive
IV-5
-------
Data Interpretation
The PGWDB provides a relatively comprehensive overview of the pesticides that are being found in the
nation's ground water and what areas of the country appear to be the most vulnerable to contamination.
Despite their apparent usefulness, these data do have limitations and must be used and interpreted
carefully. Differences in study design, laboratory procedures or equipment and sampling practices can
produce anomalies which make interpretation difficult when data are combined This is not because the
individual datasets are poor, on the contrary, the vast majority of the studies were carefully planned and
well executed. Rather, it is because the datasets were not necessarily meant to be combined. Some of
the limitations governing the interpretation of these data are discussed below
1. The PGWDB is not a complete data set of all ground water monitoring for pesticides in the United
States. While we have attempted to include as many sources as possible, there are other data to which
we do not yet have access or that we have chosen to omit for the present
2. Monitoring for pesticides in ground water has not been performed in a uniform manner throughout
the United States or within each state. Some states have comprehensive monitoring programs for pesti-
cide residues, while others have more limited monitoring programs In general, more extensive ground
water monitoring programs tend to be found in the states where pesticide use is heavy This can create
an unrepresentative picture of pesticide detections across the nation.
3. Differences in ground water monitoring study design can radically afiect the results Many moni-
toring efforts were initiated in response to suspected problems and. therefore, yield a disproportionately
high number of positive samples These results cannot be extrapolated to represent a larger region or
state. Other efforts sampled a small number of wells or sampled under conditions in which contamina-
tion was unlikely. Still others were statistically designed studies, intended to be extrapolated to a spe-
cific population of wells. Each of these scenarios presents a vastly different view of the condition of sur-
rounding ground water
4. Analytical methods and limits of detection have changed over time' and also vary from laboratory
to laboratory. Therefore, comparisons between results of different studies and across years must be
performed carefully to avoid errors in interpretation.
These limitations apply to the database as it stands now. In the future some of these concerns will be
lessened. Over the past several years technology has advanced, our understanding of ground water
has improved and the quality and quantity of ground water monitoring data has increased Establish-
ment of minimum reporting elements for ground water monitoring is encouraging uniformity and good
laboratory practices are ensuring the accuracy and precision of analytical results. The result of these
improvements will be a future dataset with fewer problems and greater utility
IV-6
-------
FOOD SAFETY
Food Safety
G oals/Obje c fives
OPP's objective is to continue to ensure the safety of the food supply with special attention to pesticide
residues in the human diet
Strategy
The focus of the food safety strategy is to prevent or reduce risk due to pesticide residues on food and
feed. Actions will be undertaken to reduce uncertainties in risk assessment by developing better surro-
gates of food consumption for subgroups of the population and by placing added emphasis on measur-
ing residues closer to the point of consumption. Implementation activities of the strategy include statu-
tory mandated re-registration and registration activities, tolerance petition reviews, and emergency ac-
tions. Internationally. EPA is entering into MOUs with foreign governments which will result in collection of
higher quality of data by foreign governments during audits/inspections and increased government inter-
change of environmental data. Additionally. EPA will expand its environmental education program to
increase public awareness and knowledge and monitor trends in bioaccumulation of pesticide residues
in human food chains.
Additional Comments
There is growing public concern over the safety of food which has been treated with pesticides Several
congressional hearings have been held on the issue of food safety and the need to respond to the ero-
sion of public confidence in the regulatory process. The result has been mounting pressure on the
Agency to take major steps to accelerate its review of existing chemicals to determine the degree of
hazard they may pose to public health While new pesticides may not be marketed until they have been
'approved by the Agency, there are several hundred pesticide chemicals, some of which are used on
food, first registered prior to the adoption of contemporary scientific study requirements in 1984, which
have not been comprehensively reviewed to assess their potential to cause unreasonable adverse ef-
fects. Until the required studies have been conducted, reviewed and appropriate regulatory action
taken, these chemicals pose an unknown degree of risk to human health and the environment. OPP
projects that by 1997, 85% of these chemicals including the food use chemicals will have been re-
viewed. As regulatory action is taken, a strong enforcement program is essential to assure compliance
with statutory mandates.
Environmental Indicator Results: Pesticide
Usage Tracking, 1988 and 1989
Introduction
The OPP Environmental Indicators Workgroup tracked pesticide usage on seven crops for the purpose
of assessing changes in risk to humans and the ecosystem from pesticide usage over time This section
summarizes the results of pesticide usage tracking for FY 91 conducted by Biological and Economic
Effects Division (BEAD). Once the usage data was obtained by BEAD, it was forwarded to Health and
Effects Division (HED) and Environmental Fate and Effects Division (EFED) for an analysis of changes in
human and ecological toxicity. A preliminary version of such an ecological toxicity analysis based on
those data is presented later in this chapter. HED is investigating the possibility of developing a similar
rough index of potential health risk based on the usage data as well. (There are, however, important
issues concerning inadequate exposure data at present which are discussed further below, in the sec-
tion "Conclusions. Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategies ")
Methodology
BEAD analyzed pesticide usage data for seven major crops citrus, corn, cotton, potatoes, soybeans,
-------
tomatoes and wheat. These crops were chosen because (1) they represent a large portion of the U S.
diet, (2) they are grown in several regions of the country. (3) they constitute a large number of acres and
(4) an annual in-house usage data source for these crops was available.
The usage data was obtained from Pesticide Profile, a database developed by Doane Marketing Re-
search1 from a survey of a sample of agricultural producers in the U S. The data are presently reported
as pounds of active ingredient for each pesticide applied and as the number of acre treatments2 for
each pesticide applied. In addition to pesticide usage data, data on the number of acres planted for
each crop was obtained from the USDA's Agricultural Statistics Using 1988 usage data. BEAD estab-
lished a baseline of number of acre-treatments for the seven crops studies, and then analyzed 1989 data
for those crops for comparison purposes.
Because of the lack of a computerized database for 1988 data, pounds of active ingredient was not cal-
culated until 1989. Variables calculated from those data are (1) the average pounds of active ingredi-
ent applied per acre treatment, (2) the average pounds of active ingredient applied per acre of crop
planted. (3) the total pounds of all active ingredients applied per crop, (4) the average pounds of active
ingredient per acre treatment. (5) the percentage of crop acres treated with each pesticide and (6) the
average number of all acre treatments per crop acre. These variables are in turn used to calculate the
indicator variables shown in Figures 3 to 6 and discussed below.
Results - Pesticide Usage for 1988 vs. 1989
Both overall and on a per acre basis, pesticide usage increased from 1988 to 1989 for the seven crops
studied. As shown in Figure 3. the total number of pesticide treatments for the seven crops combined
increased from 449,906.000 acre treatments in 1988 to 489.712.000 acre treatments in 1989 Acre treat-
ments increased on each crop except for cotton. As shown in Figure 4 the average number of pesticide
treatments per acre also increased for each crop except for corn and soybeans Significant increases in
treatments per acre were seen for tomatoes (8.5 in 1988 to 14 5 in 1989) and citrus (7 4 in 1988 to 11.8
in 1989).3
Since data for pounds of active ingredient applied was not collected for 1988, the 1989 data creates a
base year for this variable. A total of 483.000.000 pounds of active ingredient was applied in 1989 for
the seven crops studied. Figure 5 shows that a majority of pounds of active ingredient applied to the
seven indicator crops in 1989 (52.3% or 252.000,000 pounds) was applied to corn. Soybeans were sec-
ond with 90.000.000 pounds or 18.6%. The remaining five crops each accounted for less than 10% of
the total pounds of active ingredient applied. On a per acre basis, tomatoes were first with an average
of 56 pounds of active ingredient per acre in 1989 as set forth in Figure 6 Citrus was second with an
average of 32.3 pounds of active ingredient, followed by potatoes with 15 7 pounds of active ingredient. The
remaining four crops had aggregate usage rates of less than 5 pounds of active ingredient per acre.4
1 Please note that individual pesticide data contained m this database are proprietary data and should not be released
to the public without the prior consent of Ooane Marketing Research. Inc
2 'Acre treatment" means the sum of all treatments of an acre of a crop with a particular pesticide Since many acres
are treated more than once a year, the number of acre treatments cannot be used to calculate the percentage of
crop treated unless there is an adjustment for the average number of applications The number of acres treated at
least once are referred to as "base acres treated " Base acres treated would be a more useful variable to calculate
the percentage of crop treated but it does not reflect the intensity of pesticide use (i e multiple treatments) How-
ever, since Pesticide Profile contains data on base acres treated only for crops in the aggregate and not for indi-
vidual chemicals, use of acre treatments is the best alternative available with respect to individual chemical analysis
3 Data for acre treatments for specific pesticides was also developed by BEAD but is not included in this report due to
space considerations It will be made available to interested parties within the EPA promptly upon request
4 Data for pounds of active ingredient for specific pesticides was also developed by BEAD but is not included in this
report due to space considerations It will be made available to interested parties within the EPA promptly upon
request
IV-8
-------
FOOD SAFETY
Pesticide Usage Tracking
Based on only two years of data, it is difficult to draw reliable conclusions as to the reasons for the
changes in pesticide usage from 1988 to 1989 For instance, it has been stated by some that 1988 was
an aberration for pesticide usage because it was a severe drought year for large parts of the country
However, it is very difficult to determine whether 1988 was an aberration without more data for compari-
son. BEAD intends to continue assessing these indicators in future years so that in time trends can be
evaluated.
Starting with 1990 data. BEAD will expand the existing database of seven crops to include apples Fur-
ther, the OPP Environmental Indicators Workgroup is currently assessing (1) additional expansions to the
database either to add additional crops to the database or to expand the database to non-agricultural
usage of pesticides such as golf courses or commercial turf farms and (2) further refinements to the ex-
isting database by either obtaining another source of the same data for comparison to determine the
confidence in the database or by obtaining additional information such as base acres treated BEAD will
support the expansions and refinements approved by the workgroup by providing pesticide usage data
consistent with available funding for this project
-------
FOOD SAFETY
Figure 3. Number of Acre Treatments on Indicator Crops
Acre
Treatments
in Thousands
180.000 -r
160.000 - -
140.000 --
40.000 - -
20.000 --
Data quality; Moderate; data collec-
tion involves self-re porting, preci-
sion and accuracy not well defined.
Relevance to program; Moderate;
relevant to risk-reduction goats but
not a direct measure. > ~_
Wheat Tomatoes Soybeans Potatoes Cotton Corn Citrus He
Source: Doane Marketing, Inc. Pesticide Profile. 1989.
IV- 1O
-------
FOOD SAFETY
Figure 4. Average Number of Pesticide Treatments Per Acre
18 -r
16 -
14 - -
12 -
Number of
Pesticide 10
Treatments
Data quality; Moderate; data collec-
tion involves self-reporting, preci-
sion and accuracy not well defined.
Relevance to program; Moderate;
relevant to risk-reduction goals but
not a direct measure.
Wheat Tomatoes Soybeans Potatoes Cotton Corn Citrus
Source: Doane Marketing, Inc. Pesticide Profile, 1989.
-------
I-U«JU
Figure 5. Percentage of Total Pounds of Active Ingredient Applied to
Indicator Crops in 1989
A total of 483,195,000 pounds of active ingredient were applied in 1989 to the crops in the graph below.
Soybeans
18.60%
Data quality; Moderate;
data collection involves
self-reporting, precision
and accuracy not well
defined.
Relevance to program;
Moderate; relevant to
risk-reduction goals but
not a direct measure.
Corn
52.26%
Wheat
5.83%
Tomatoes
4,59%
Citrus
5.58%
Potatoes
4.27%
Cotton
8.87%
Source: Doane Marketing. Inc. Pesticide Profile. 1989.
Figure 6. Average Pounds of Active Ingredient Applied to
Indicator Crops in 1989
Average Pounds
of Active
Ingredient Per
Acre
60 -r
50 -
40
30 -
20 -
10 -
Wheat Tomatoes Soybeans Potatoes Cotton Com Citrus
Source: Doane Marketing. Inc. Pesticide Profile. 1989.
Data quality; Moderate; data collec-
tion involves self-reporting, preci-
sion and accuracy not well defined.
Relevance to program; Moderate;
relevant to risk-reduction goals but
not a direct measure.
IV- 12
-------
FOOD SAFETY
Environmental Indicator Results: Pesticide Use
Trends Analysis, 1966 to 1989
Comprehensive pesticide use data is fundamental to environmental indicators for food safety, ecological
effects and worker exposure. It is intuitive that if usage patterns of more toxic pesticides decline or pes-
ticide usage overall declines, all three of the above pesticide strategic initiatives will be served (This
must be qualified by noting that in some cases a reduction in pounds applied does not always indicate
improvement in relative risk, just as in some cases high application rates are not necessarily indicative of
increased risk. Relative toxicity and exposure factors must be included for a true risk assessment) Re-
strictions imposed by US EPA have been a fundamental force (as well as market factors) in changing the
national use pattern for many active ingredients during the past 20 years The following graphs describe
national pesticide use and pesticide replacement analysis of selected large acreage crop pesticides
done by Resources for the Future To this usage analysis, we have applied human and ecological toxic-
ity values as a preliminary assessment of pesticide usage pattern alterations The human and ecological
toxicity data were provided by the Office of Pesticide Programs
Figure 7 displays the aggregate national usage estimates for the four pesticide use categories (herbi-
cides, insecticides, fungicides and other) for the time period 1966 to 1989 In the aggregate, pesticide
use on US crops doubled between 1966 and 1976 in terms of the volume of active ingredients applied
Much of this increase was due to herbicides for weed control in major field crops such as corn and soy-
beans. This increase continued until 1982 due to a steady increase in the proportion of field crop acres
treated with herbicides Herbicide use has declined in volume since 1982 due to the introduction of
lower use per acre compounds and reductions in per acre use amounts of older chemicals (i e., atr-
azme). Figure 7 also indicates that agricultural use of insecticides rose in volume from 1966 to 1971 and
then began a decline in usage which has continued to 1989 The increase in insecticide use between
1966 and 1971 was due to an increase in cotton acreage, a rise in insecticide use on sorghum acreage
and a large increase in the volume of oil to control insects in citrus and fruit and nut orchards The de-
creases in insecticide use between 1971 and 1982 were due almost entirely to changes in cotton. Lower
use volume synthetic pyrethroids (i e.. fenvalerate and permethrm) replaced toxaphene (EPA ban m
1982) and methyl parathion. The decrease in agricultural insecticide use between 1982 and 1989 is due
in part to a decline of the use of oil used to control insects.
Figure 8 illustrates the results of the 1986 EPA emergency suspension of the herbicide dinoseb - sus-
pended due to teratogenicity. reproductive and acute effects One of the major uses of dinoseb was to
control weeds in peanut fields in the Southeast Full registration of paraquat for peanuts was approved
by EPA in 1988 and has now replaced dinoseb for this use Paraquat does not appear to exhibit the
eh'fonic human health effects inherent to dinoseb but is very acutely toxic and controversial. Paraquat is
not highly toxic to birds and aquatic species.
Figure 9 shows the national use of five herbicides used primarily for grass weed control in corn acreage
Propachlor was the dominate herbicide for grass in corn in 1971 but has declined since then largely due
to the substitution of alachlor which is less of an irritant to eyes and noses then propachlor The decline
in alachlor use since 1982 is largely due to the substitution of metolachlor Alachlor is a "B-2" oncogen,
white metolachlor is a less potent C-non-quantifiable oncogen EPTC has in recent years displaced
much of butylates use with the introduction of a safener (a pesticide additive to prevent plant injury) and
reductions in EPTC's price
Figure 10 shows the use trend for five herbicides that are used primarily in corn for broadleaf weed con-
trol. Atrazine was introduced in 1959 and soon replaced 2,4-D as it provided better corn tolerance and
less risk of drift injury to other plants than 2.4-D. The decline of atrazme from 1976 to 1989 can be attrib-
uted to both the growth in the use of cyanazine and the reduction of atrazme's application rate per
treated acre Both atrazme and cyanazine are listed by EPA as human oncogens None of these broad-
leaf weed herbicides are highly toxic to wildlife species
IV- ifl
-------
Figure 7. National Agricultural Pesticide Use Trend, 1966-1989
600-
tr
500-
400-
£ 300
.g
1 200-
100-
0
_D
i::::"I--*
Herbicides
4....
Insecticides
*--
Fungicides
--B--
Other
1966
1971
1976
1982
1989
Source Resources lex the Future. U S Pesticide Use Trends 1966 - 1969. 1992
Data quality; Moder-
ate; data collection
Involves self.reporting,
precision and accu-
racy not well defined.
Relevance to program;
Moderate; relevant to
risk-reduction goals
but not a direct mea-
sure.
Figure 8- Herbicide Use In Peanuts: Georgia, 1966-1989
1969 1973 1975 1977 1980 1984 1987 1988
Source Resources (or the Future. U S Pesticide Use Trends 1966 - 1989.1992
IV-14
-------
FOOD SAFETY
Figure 9. Herbicide Use In Corn For Grass Weed Control:
National Use Trend,
1966 1971 1976 1982
Source Resources tor the Future. U S Pesticide Use Trends 1966 - 1989, 1992
1989
Propachlor
EPIC
Butylate
--Q--
Alachlor
Metolachlor
Data quality; Moder-
ate; data collection
Involves self-reporting,
precision and accu-
racy not well defined.
Relevance to program;
Moderate; relevant to
risk-reduction goals
but not a direct mea-
sure.
Figure 10. Herbicide Use In Corn For Broadleaf Control:
National Use Trend, 1966-1989
90
80
70
g W
2,4-D
+-
Dicamba
--*--
Atrazine
--Q
Cyanazine
Bromoxynil
1966
1971
1976
1982
1989
Source Resources for the Future. U S Pesticide Use Trends 1966 - 1989. 1992
-------
FOOD SAFETY
Figure 11 shows the use trend for herbicides that are used primarily in soy beans for grass weed control.
Trifluralin grew dramatically after 1973 because it could be tank mixed with broadleaf weed control pesti-
cides for one spray application. In recent years trifluraline use has declined due to substitution of
pendimethalin. Trifluralin is listed as a human oncogen, and is also highly toxic to fish.
Figure 12 shows the use trend for herbicides that are used primarily in soy beans for broadleaf weed
control. Chloramben was replaced in the 1970s by metribuzin. linuron and bentazon as these were less
expensive for broadcast spraying. Metribuzin and linuron use have declined in recent years due to the
introduction of new herbicides such as chomazone. chlonmufron. imazaguin and imazethapyr. None of
these four appear to present ecotoxicity concerns. The decreased use of metribuzin is due partially to
concerns regarding crop injury. Linuron is listed as a human oncogen.
Figure 13 illustrates pesticide substitution patterns as a result of the EPA ban on toxaphene in 1982
Toxaphene was cancelled due to concerns of oncogenicity. population reduction in nontarget species,
toxicity to aquatic organisms and chronic effects to wildlife. Toxaphene use declined from 1976 to 1982
due to both a decline in the effectiveness in controlling insects as well as the introduction of fenvalerate
and permethrin. (Methyl parathion shows a parallel decline with toxaphene as the two pesticides were
usually applied in tank mixtures.) Since 1982 the effectiveness of both permethrin and fenvalerate in
controlling cotton insects has declined (as insects developed resistance) which led to an increase in the
use of cyfluthrin, cypermethrin, lambdacyholothrin and thiodicarb. These compounds are effective at a
much lower application rate and are extremely toxic to aquatic species. Some of these new insecticides
are toxic at levels that are undetectable with current technology making field monitoring very difficult if
not impossible.
Figure 14 shows a significant rise in the use of 1.3 dichloropropene (1,3-D) following EPA's ban of EDB
due to concerns including oncogenicity, muta genicity and reproductive effects Acres of tomatoes
treated with 1,3-D fumigant has increased in the 1980s as it has proven to be a good nematodicide
IV- 16
-------
FOOD SAFETY
Figure 11. Herbicide Use In Soybean For Grass Weed
Control: National Use Trend, 1966-1989
1966 1971 1976 1982
Source Resources lor ttie Future U S Pesticide Use Trends 1966 - 1989. 1992
1989
Figure 12. Herbicide Use In Soybeans For Broadleaf
Control: National Use Trend, 1966-1989
Trifluralin
* -
Pendimethalin
--*--
Ethalfluralin
-B--
Metolachlor
Fluazifop
-A-
Alachlor
Data quality;
Moderate; data
collection in-
volves self-re-
porting, precision
and accuracy not
well defined.
Relevance to
program: Moder-
ate; relevant to
risk-reduction
goals but not a
direct measure.
Chloramben
__.^t....
--^
Linuron
--*--
Bentazon
--Q--
Metribuzin
Clomazone
-A-
Imazaquin
1966
1971
1976
1982
1989
Source Resources for the Future. U S Pesticide Use Trends 1966 - 1989.1992
IV _
-------
Figure 13. National Cotton Insecticide Use, 1966-1989
7000-
Toxaphene
Methyl Parathion
Fen/Esfenvalerate
Cyfluthrin
Cypermethrin
Pemnethrin
1971 1976 1982 1989
Source Resources tor trie Future. U S Pesticide Use Trends 1966 - 1989 1992
Data quality! Moder-
ate; data collection
involves self-reporting,
precision and accu-
racy not well defined.
Relevance to program;
Moderate; relevant to
risk-reduction goals
but not a direct mea-
sure.
Figure 14. Fumigant Use on California Tomatoes, 1966 - 1989
35-r
EDB
...^^...
...^^«...
1,3-D
-HK--
Methyl Biomide
--Gh-
DBCP
Metam Sodium
1977 1982 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988
Source Resources for the Future. U S Pesticide Use Trends 1966 - 1989. 1992
IV-18
-------
FOOD SAFETY
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to
Strategies and Objectives
OPP's major strategy for food safety is to prevent or reduce risk due to pesticide residues on food. A
starting point in the effort to develop related indicators is to analyze usage data With the 1988 and 1989
data shown here. OPP has begun to establish a baseline that will be useful in future years to show in-
creases or decreases in usage of pesticides on major crops. A next step will be to rank these pesticides
by human toxicity factors and track increases and/or decreases in usage.
The Resources for the Future 24-year trend data for pesticide usage are not known to be sufficiently
complete or precise to support a full risk assessment of all pesticides for a certain crop. However, the
data address all major pesticides used on each of the major U S crops discussed, and do demonstrate
a decline in use of pesticides very toxic to humans, which is the goal of the Office of Pesticides Pro-
grams safer pesticides strategy. In addition, the data remind us that some individual pesticide substitu-
tions are more toxic to test organisms than the chemicals they have replaced, so that increased efforts to
assess threats to wildlife species seem warranted This analysis also supports OPP's plan to continue
collection of more precise usage data for improving pesticide assessment in the future OPP's intention
to develop comprehensive usage data coupled with human and ecological pesticide risk indices will pro-
vide high quality environmental indicators to serve all the Office of Pesticide Programs strategic initiatives.
For OPP. risk ranking and tracking over time would require additional data. OPP plans to develop im-
proved food consumption models for population subgroups to better estimate exposure to pesticide
residues and reduce uncertainties in risk assessments There are no indicators in place for judging risk
over time because residue data currently available from other agencies such as Food and Drug Admin-
istration and U.S. Department of Agriculture are not of high enough quality for trend analysis. Collection
of more and better quality residue data is extremely costly There are no indicators in place to monitor
trends in bioaccumulation of pesticide residues in human food chains
IV- 1Q
-------
Ecological Effects
Coals/Objectives
The goal is to reduce ecological exposure and risk from pesticides in the environment.
Strategy
Activities to reduce ecological effects from pesticides include registration and special reviews of cur-
rently used pesticides, and certification and training of applicators, dealers, and designers to reduce or
avoid ecological exposure. Nationally, the EPA is promoting agricultural practices that reduce or elimi-
nate reliance on chemical input such as Sustainable Agriculture and Integrated Pest Management
(IPM). To increase local and state capacity the agency is promoting regional, state, tribe, and territorial
initiatives to reduce ecological exposure. Additionally, to reduce the burden to the environment caused
by pesticides, EPA is promoting: protection programs for ground water and endangered species and
outreach and education activities; reduction of the presence of pesticides in sensitive ecosystems; state
support for uniform fish action levels, and update mapping of pesticide usage and location of habitats
with USDA and FWS for endangered species. Numerous geographic initiatives such as the Chesapeake
Bay Program. The Great Lakes National Program, Wetlands Initiatives, and the Caribbean and Gulf of
Mexico programs are designed to reduce ecological exposure and burden.
Additional Comments -
Pressure has been mounting on EPA to take major steps to accelerate its review of existing chemicals to
determine the degree of hazard they may present to the environment and public health. In'1988. FIFRA
was amended to enable EPA to accelerate the re-registration review of existing chemicals and to assure
that their use does not pose unreasonable risks to humans or the environment. The majority of pesti-
cides used in the U.S were registered prior to the establishment of contemporary scientific standards for
evaluating their potential to cause unreasonable adverse effects These pesticides pose, and will con-
tinue to pose, an uncertain degree of hazard to the environment until required studies have been con-
ducted, reviewed and appropriate regulatory action has been taken By 1997, OPP estimates that 85%
of these existing chemicals will have undergone re-registration review In addition. EPA is actively pro-
moting changes in agricultural and urban pesticide practices to decrease the overall use.
Environmental Indicator Results: Ecological
Hazard Index of Status
This section presents an index that combines pesticide usage information and toxicity data for ecologi-
cal test organisms. The index has been developed as an environmental indicator for the safer pesticides
and reduced risk goals of OPP's strategic plan.
The usage information was developed by Biological and Economic Analysis Division (BEAD) for seven
major crops. This is the same usage data set reported in this report's section on Food Safety. The Eco-
logical Effects Branch compiled the acute toxicity information for birds, fish, and aquatic invertebrates
Methodology
Hazard Data
The top 15 pesticides (by poundage) for all seven crops were used to calculate the index.
1. These 15 pesticides were grouped by toxicity category for each type of test organism (see below);
2 The pounds of the pesticides within each group were added, and
3. The total pounds for each "toxicity group" was graphed.
IV-20
-------
ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Figures 15 through 18 are graphs showing pounds per category for each of the test organism groups
The goal for Safer Pesticides would be to have the column heights decrease for the highly toxic and very
highly toxic categories, while the pounds used column heights increase for the slightly toxic and practi-
cally non-toxic categories
No trend analysis is possible yet OPP intends to track this information over time to assess trends start-
ing with 1989 as a baseline
1988- 1989 Acre Treatment Index
The pesticides were categorized according to the following Toxicity Categories These are the standard
categories used by EEB to characterize pesticides for risk assessment purposes They refer strictly to
toxicity or hazard, and do not suggest risk since they do not take into account exposure
Fish and Aquatic Dietary Acute
Invertebrates Avian Avian Toxicity
LC5Q in PPM LC50 in PPM LD50 in mg/kg Category
<0.1 <50 <10 very highly toxic
0.1 -1 50-500 10-50 highly toxic
>1-10 >500.-1000 >50-500 moderately toxic
> 10-100 > 1000-5000 >500-2000 slightly toxic
>100 >5000 >2000 practically non-toxic
Note: Avian Dietary LC50 is the quantity of toxicant in the diet calculated to kill 50% of the test popula-
tion Avian Acute LD50 is the quantity of toxicant calculated to kill 50% of the test population given m a
single oral dose.
The top 15 pesticides (by acre treatments) for all seven crops were used to calculate the index
1 These 15 pesticides were grouped by toxicity category for each type of test organism (see below),
2 The acre treatments of the pesticides within each group were added, and
3. The total acre treatment pounds for each "toxicity group" was graphed
Figures 19 through 22 are graphs showing acre treatment per toxicity category for each of the test or-
ganism groups. The goal of the Safer Pesticides strategy would be to have the pounds used column
height decrease over the highly toxic and very highly toxic categories, while the pounds used column
height increases over the slightly toxic and practically non-toxic categories
D/scuss/on
The following caveats should be borne in mind when using and interpreting this index Caveats on this
data as noted on the Food Safety section of this report apply here as well.
The usage information was used as presented by BEAD The toxicity information was taken either
from the Branch Pesticide Rles or from publications providing scientifically sound toxicity informa-
tion. The toxicity values are from tests with the most sensitive representative test species for each
group, not the same species
Caution is advised in drawing any conclusions from the two years of acre treatment data Pesticide
use can be affected by factors other than pesticide regulation and EPA efforts to encourage use of
safer pesticides These include but are not limited to economics, efficacy and pest resistance, and
weather conditions (These factors are discussed further m the section of this report on long term
pesticide usage trends as estimated by Resources for the Future)
Because of some questions about the average application rate information, the EEB is proceeding
with a Hazard Index Additional work with BEAD is needed before developing a Risk Index (that is,
an index where ecological exposures estimates are taken mtc account) The additional work in-
volves determining confidence limits on the usage information
IV- 9.1
-------
ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
This hazard index does not take into account the level of exposure It is assumed generally that
more of a hazardous pesticide is undesirable. However, it is not assumed that more of a hazardous
pesticide always equals greater risk. Conversely, less of a hazardous pesticide is not assumed to
always equal less risk
While the same toxicity values were used for each pesticide chosen, the pesticides chosen for the
poundage index are not necessarily the same pesticides chosen for the acre treatment index For
example, there are two pesticides in the acre treatment group that are practically nontoxic to
aquatic invertebrates There are no pesticides in the poundage group that are practically nontoxic
to aquatic invertebrates.
IV-22
-------
ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Figure 15. Pesticide Used on Seven Indicator Crops (Wheat, Tomatoes,
Soybeans, Potatoes, Cotton, Corn, and Citrus) Grouped by
Acute Toxicity to Birds Indexed by Pounds
140
CD
T3
! 120 '
"GO
CD
100 '
o
c 80
o
I 60"
.c
^ 40-
o 20-
>>:^->'-:~y>:.;;^:V..;V.-': :.
v !-i::-:'-':^. ';'. < -\'?':-'
Practically Slightly Toxic Moderately
Non-toxic Toxic
;'-"- :-'!::\-l : '
Data quality; Useful
relative information, not
intended to be considered
a precise measure of risk.
Relevance to program:
High.
HI 989
lie
Highly Toxic Very Highly
Toxic
Toxicity Categories
Source: Ecological Effects Branch. Office of Pesticide Programs
Figure 16. Pesticides Used on the Seven Indicator Crops, Grouped by
Dietary Toxicity to Birds Indexed by Pounds
250
CD
.= . 200
'CD
a.
-3? 150
1 100
to
c 50
1
0
^:N::iv:-:: '-,>
,,: ^M;^;;;!
. "" V.,i '-: '--:' -v:.
. : ' ':' . -, ..-:x '- >>
'?_" ''!.: '^ '\'-' ''_''';'._ '-' '
Practically Slightly Toxic Moderately
Non-toxic Toxic
Data quality; Useful
relative information, not
intended to be considered
a precise measure of risk.
Relevance to program:
High.
111989
Highly Toxic Very Highly
Toxic
Toxicity Categories
Source: Ecological Effects Branch, Office of Pesticide Programs
-------
Figure 17. Pesticides Used on the Seven Indicator Crops, Grouped by
Acute Toxicity to Fish Indexed by Pounds
Pounds (in millions) of Pesticide
> 8 6 8 § 8 §
Practically
Non-toxic
Data quality; Useful relative
information, not intended to be
considered a precise measure of risk.
Relevance to program: High.
A 1989
Slightly Toxic Moderately Highly Toxic Very Highly
Toxic Toxic
Toxicity Categories
Source: Ecological Effects Branch, Office of Pesticide Programs
Figure 18. Pesticides Used on the Seven Indicator Crops, Grouped by
Acute Toxicity to Invertebrate Indexed by Pounds
200 '
n 180
<~l 1 OW
0
S 160 '
-------
ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Figure 19. Pesticides Used on the Seven Indicator Crops, Grouped by
Acute Toxicity to Birds Indexed by Acre Treatments
Data quality: Useful relative
information, not intended to be
considered a precise measure of risk.
High.
Relevance to program:
Practically
Non-toxic
Slightly Toxic Moderately Highly Toxic
Toxic
Toxicity Categories
Very Highly
Toxic
Source: Ecological Effects Branch. Office of Pesticide Programs
Figure 20. Pesticides Used on the Seven Crops, Grouped by Dietary
Toxicity to Birds Indexed by Acre Treatments
250
Practically
Non-toxic
Data quality; Useful relative
information, not intended to be
considered a precise measure of risk.
Relevance to program; High.
1988
1989
Slightly Toxic
Moderately
Toxic
Toxicity Categories
Highly Toxic
Very Highly
Toxic
Source: Ecological Effects Branch. Office of Pesticide Programs.
IV-25
-------
crrcuio
Figure 21. Pesticides Used on the Seven Indicator Crops, Grouped by
Acute Toxicity to Fish Indexed by Acre Treatments
Data quality; Useful relative
Information, not intended to be
considered a precise measure of risk.
Relevance to program; High.
Practically
Non-toxic
Slightly Toxic
Moderately
Toxic
Toxicity Categories
Highly Toxic
Very Highly
Toxic
Source: Ecological Effects Branch, Office of Pesticide Programs
Figure 22. Pesticides Used on the Seven Indicator Crops, Grouped by
Acute Toxicity to Invertebrates Indexed by Acre Treatments
Data quality; Useful relative
Information, not intended to be
considered a precise measure of risk.
Relevance to program: High.
Practically Slightly Toxic Moderately Highly Toxic Very Highly
Non-toxic Toxic Toxic
Toxicity Categories
Source: Ecological Effects Branch, Office of Pesticide Programs
IV-26
-------
ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to
Strategies and Objectives
The focus of the ecological risk strategy is to reduce ecological exposure to pesticides. Several indica-
tors are presented in this report; others ate being developed
OPP has developed an ecological toxicity indicator. It employs the pesticide usage data presented ear-
lier in this report. The chemicals used on major crops were ranked according to toxicity factors for birds,
fish, and aquatic invertebrates. An indicator of ecological risk is under development and is dependent
upon development of reliable residue and exposure data.
With this report, OPP is presenting state data on pesticides in ground water compiled from many
sources These data represent a variety of monitoring study designs, analytical methods, limits of detec-
tion, and other factors As such, they cannot be used for trend analysis or to draw conclusions about the
overall state of ground water in the U.S. They are useful, however, in support of other activities in OPP
such as development of State Management Plans for the Pesticides in Ground Water Strategy and tar-
geting areas in need of further study. Over time, improved technology and more uniform sampling and
analysis practices are likely to increase the utility of these data
As noted in the worker protection strategy, OPP is developing an incident data management system.
This will include ecological incidents (e g . fish kills, bird kills, other biological effects) as well as human
impact incidents. Although reporting inconsistencies limit the utility of the data for trend analyses, track-
ing of fish and wildlife mortality incident reports could become at least a qualitatively useful indicator for
the ecological effects strategy.
Future EMAP monitoring is considered a very promising source of data .on pesticide contamination of
biota and environmental compartments, and is potentially useful in inferring ecological effects of such
contamination Effective cooperation between the Pesticides Program and EMAP could facilitate the
collection of appropriate data. This would provide a powerful indicator of strategy success as safer pes-
ticides and safer usage practices (such as low input sustainable agriculture and integrated pest man-
agement) are substituted over time
-------
Worker Protection
Coals/Objectives
To safeguard farm workers' health from exposure to pesticides through a combination of regulatory, edu-
cational and research programs and to develop a multimedia strategy for worker protection programs by
coordinating with OSHA and state and federal labor authorities.
Strategy
EPA has proposed new Worker Protection standards which should be fma! in FY 1992. Implementation
will require extensive outreach and training efforts. Additional activities of the strategy include: improv-
ing the collecting pesticide misuse and incident data and other violation data gathered from states and
regions; preparing and updating regulations that reduce exposure in transportation, mixing/loading, ap-
plication and disposal of pesticides; and implementing Post Exposure Application Monitoring. While
increasing state, tribe and territory capacity, EPA is working to raise the minimum standards for worker
protection training programs to teach pesticide exposure reduction at all steps in production, transporta-
tion, application, and disposal. Chemical specific risk reduction measures have also been undertaken
such as the recent settlement agreement on parathion.
Additional Comments
There are both real and perceived unreasonable environmental and health risks from the use of currently
registered pesticides The introduction of new pesticides may also add to present risks unless careful
consideration is given to the introduction of safer pesticides. For both new and existing pesticides, meth-
ods must be devised to reduce pesticide exposure and the environmental burden that may result.
Effective program support and enforcement will require that regions provide technical assistance, out-
reach and education, track and analyze problem areas and oversee EPA's programs in the states.
tribes, and territories.
Environmental Indicator Results: Pesticide
Poisoning Case Study
The Parathion Problem
Early surveys of the nation's hospitals (1971 to 1982) consistently showed that parathion was the leading
cause of poisoning among workers handling pesticides, often far exceeding the other pesticides in
terms of the estimated number of workers hospitalized This led to two questions: is the parathion poi-
soning experience a function of widespread use or high toxicity. and what is the current situation with
poisoning?
Data Used for the Solution
California is the only state that collects comprehensive data on pesticide poisonings and pesticide us-
age on an ongoing basis. Examination of their data for the years 1982 through 1988 permitted a com-
parison between parathion and other pesticides in terms of numbers of poisonings and in terms of num-
ber of poisonings compared to number of applications reported (Figure 23). California law requires that
all applications of restricted pesticides, such as parathion, be reported. In addition, under workers com-
pensation, physicians are not reimbursed for treating worker poisonings unless they report cases as
required under state law. The analysis was based on over 2,000 cases of worker pesticide poisoning.
Results of the Indicator Analysis Prior to EPA Action
Parathion was the leading cause of agricultural poisoning in California in 1982 to 1988. Fifty other insec-
ticides likely to be used as alternatives to parathion were also considered. In each case the number of
IV-28
-------
WORKER PROTECTION
Figure 23. Parathion Poisonings Compared to 50 Alternative Insecticides
in California
140
120
w
en
I 100
o
9 so
I 60
J
40
20
0
Pata quality; Moderate; state
program encourages
appropriate reporting.
Relevance to program: High.
25th %tile 50lh %tile 75th %tile
Insecticide Percentiles
90th %tile
T 2
-1.5
3"
en
o
5"
CD
en
- 1
o"
CO
g"
0.5
Parathion
Number of Poisonings
Poisonings/Applications
Source: California data totaled for 1982-1988.
-------
WORKER PROTECTION
poisonings was divided by the number of applications during the time period to calculate a poisoning
ratio. With one exception (a pesticide responsible for a large cluster type poisoning), parathion had the
highest poisoning ratio of any pesticide examined When the 50 pesticides were ranked by percentile,
parathion exceeded the 90th percentile for number of agricultural poisonings by more than twofold and
exceeded the poisoning ratio (per 1.000 applications) for the 90th percentile by 60%. This demon-
strated that parathion poisoning in workers was severe (often resulting in hospitalization). frequent, and
not due to widespread use but rather due to the inherent extreme toxicity of the compound.
California has more restrictions than most states, such as closed mixing/loading system requirements,
medical monitoring, and longer re-entry intervals before workers can enter treated fields Therefore, it was
likely that poisoning rates in other states would be as high if not higher than those found in California
Resultant EPA Action
Through a negotiated settlement with the manufacturer, parathion use will be cancelled on 90 of the 99
crops where use was permitted by January 1992. Among the 90 crops eliminated were all fruit and veg-
etable crops where poisonings were most frequent and where worker exposure is known to be highesi
For the remaining 9 crops (principally small grains), closed mixing/loading, aerial application, and me-
chanical harvesting will be required. Even taking into account the poisonings that might occur from the
replacement insecticides, the overall number of worker poisonings due to pesticides is expected to de-
cline by over 10% with the removal of the more dangerous uses of parathion.
Future Planned Indicator Analysis and Indicator Development
EPA will closely follow California's incident data to track the effects of the parathion cancellation, and
ensure it has been effective at preventing worker poisonings Additional detailed analysis will be made of
other toxic pesticides used in California using the most current data to find out if other gains can be made in
terms of reduced worker poisoning The goal is to identify those situations where safer alternative pesticides
can be used to achieve the same degree of pest protection
OPP is sponsoring a conference in late April 1992 to help states other than California develop pesticide
poisoning reporting systems. EPA and states will exchange information on state-of-the-art surveillance
and investigation techniques. This will help states develop systems which enable EPA to assess pesti-
cide poisoning problems in key areas. To the extent that EPA can fund states with mandatory pesticide
poisoning requirements to develop reporting systems, this will facilitate the establishment of baselines and
trends which EPA can use in the future to monitor adverse acute health effects of pesticide exposure
IV-30
-------
WORKER PROTECTION
Environmental Indicator Results: Poison Control
Center Data
Development of National Poison Control Center Data
Starting in 1984. the American Association of Poison Control Centers created a National Data Collection
System. To participate, each Poison Control Center had to use a computer readable standardized form
for collecting information and follow-up on each case to determine the outcome. Poison Centers, usually
associated with universities or hospitals, provide a service to the public and to other health profession-
als. About three-quarters of the calls to Centers come from the public, often parents concerned about,
possible exposure in infants or young children. The remaining one-quarter of calls come from physi-
cians seeking advice on proper management of a poisoning case The majority of exposures involve
young children who did not develop symptoms Separate bars show the numbers of symptomatic poi-
sonings and cases treated in health care facilities.
Some parts of the country are not included in the current Poison Control Center data base. (Not in-
cluded are Oklahoma. Arkansas. Louisiana. Mississippi. North Carolina. Illinois, and North Dakota, most
of Iowa, and Nevada, and parts of Texas and Tennessee.) Facilities reporting serve over 70% of the U S.
population. Since the majority (90%) of the exposures reported to Poison Control Centers occur in the
home, the data complement state data sources which predominantly focus on occupationally-related poison-
ings. Centers cannot participate unless they are certified for certain standards of staffing, training, and
implementation of uniform quality control procedures for handling and follow-up on each case Records
show an increase in reported pesticide exposures that corresponds to the increased participation of
Poison Centers from 1984 to 1989.
Pesticide Exposures and Poisonings as Environmental Indicators
Trends cannot be assessed based on absolute numbers of reports to the National Data Collection Sys-
tem because of the increased participation of Poison Centers over the years However, trends can be
assessed using a proportionate analysis which shows how pesticide exposures (as a percentage) com-
pare with all other exposures to poisons, or by examining how exposures to specific pesticides (as a
percentage) compare to the total of all pesticide exposures in the numbers of people actually develop-
ing symptoms, and the numbers treated in healthcare facilities
Figure 24 shows the percent of people reported as exposed to pesticides who actually displayed symp-
toms. In keeping with the known high toxicity of parathion (discussed in the previous section), parathion
exposures were more likely to result in symptoms than exposures to insecticides or organophosphates
;ae general classes. This indicates the potential usefulness of this kind of information in screening pesti-
cides as potentially needing particularly close regulatory review Figure 25a gives the percent pesticide
exposures treated in a health care facility as a proportion of the total pesticide exposures for different
classes of pesticides. Treatment for herbicides and insecticides as a proportion of all exposures has
remained remarkably consistent over the 10 year period. Rodenticides and fungicides exposures, on
the other hand, appear to be receiving more treatment in later years
Similarly, in Figure 25b, the proportion of exposures receiving treatment is depicted for groups of pesti-
cides: 2.4-D and 2,4,5-T. organophosphates alone, carbamates alone, and organophosphates in com-
bination with other pesticides. OPP plans to conduct more specific analyses, especially for pesticides
currently under review by EPA. Human poisonings are preventable and these data may highlight oppor-
tunities for pollution prevention and risk reduction measures. Eventually, the data may be able to serve
as indicators of any success of such measures in reducing hazardous accidental exposures, if all states
reported in the National Data Collection System.
It should be noted that these data are independent of EPA; they are prepared by the private sector with-
out government funding. Reports on individual chemicals are available for purchase for chemicals in special
review. The figures presented here are based on the published annual summary data.
IV -31
-------
Figure 24a. Percentage of Pesticide Exposure Resulting in Symptoms, by
Pesticide Group 1985 - 1990
80
60
CO
40
20
o
CL
All Pesticides Insecticides Organophosphates Parathion
Pesticide Group
Source: American Association of Poison Control Centers.
Figure 24b. Percentage of Reported Pesticide Exposure
Resulting in Symptoms, by Pesticide Group
1985- 1990
100
1985 1986 1987 1988
Year
1989
1990
All Pesticides ^^ Insecticides 1 Organophosphates RSSJ Parathion
Source: American Association of Poison Control Centers.
IV -32
Data quality; Mod-
erate; possible
differences across
locations and over
time.
Relevance; only
partially related to
EPA's programs.
-------
WORKER PROTECTION
Figure 25a. Human Pesticide Exposure Reported to Poison
Control Centers, 1985 - 1990
TI
0>
in
CD
O
s
8*
40
30
20
10
1985 1986 1987 1988
Year
1989
Fungicides ty\ Insecticides I Herbicides
Source: Data from annual reports of the AAPCC
Figure 25b. Human Pesticide Exposure Reported to
Poison Control Centers, 1985 - 1990
1990
Rodenticides
Data quality. Moderate;
possible differences
across locations and over
time.
Relevance; only partially
related to EPA's programs.
CD
CD
CO
I
§
Q.
x.
30
20 --
10
I
Si
Tl
\i
\i
M
1985
1986
1987 1988
Year
1989
1990
2,4-0 or 2.4,5-T gggCarbamates Alone
Source: Data from annual reports of the AAPCC
Organophosphates 11| OPs in Combination
f V -
-------
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to
Strategies and Objectives
As in the food safety strategy, the pesticide usage indicator will be well suited for monitoring the intro-
duction and use of safer pesticides as this relates to worker exposures, provided usage data are consis-
tently obtained for chemicals with significant worker exposures.
Progress is currently being made to improve worker exposure incident data collection Improving inci-
dent data is an important component of the worker protection strategy Although there are some prob-
lems with incident data collection for indicator purposes the very high incident data reported for para-
thion from California is consistent with the cancellation of all but nine uses of parathion. This is an ex-
ample of how incident data collection, if well and consistently organized, can be one of the most power-
ful indicators for the worker protection strategy.
IV-34
-------
TOXIC SUBSTANCES
Toxic Substances
RELATIVE RISK RANKING
Human Health Ecological Welfare
Unfinished Business Report High to Medium. Medium Low
(Hazardous Waste, Air Toxics cancer
Combined) High, non-cancer
SAB Reducing Risk Report High Medium Medium
(Included Under Other Problem Areas)
Regional Comparative Risk Medium to Low
Med-High
PUBLIC CONCERN (ROPER)
1988 1990
Air Toxics Medium Med-High
Biotechnology Med-Low Low
Worker Exposure High High
Hazardous Waste High High
AGENCY INITIATIVES WITH STRONG CONNECTION
33/50 Project Pollution Prevention Legislation Great Lakes
Contaminated Media Gulf of Mexico Estuary Programs
Mexican Border Ground Water ' Clean Air Act
RCRA Multimedia Enforcement Indoor Air
Environmental Labelling
Problem Definition
This problem area includes effects from identified toxic chemicals through all media and all exposure
rou.tes. It does not include asbestos. There are overlaps with air toxics, inland waters, coastal waters,
'and Superfund and waste problem areas. Worker exposure to toxics other than pesticides and biotech-
nology programs are also included in this category.
Existing Chemicals
Goals/Objectives
A key objective is the integration of risk screening, testing, assessment, and management into a coher-
ent, productive, and continuous process. Elements focus on managing identified risks as early as pos-
sible in the chemical review process by streamlining administrative review and decision making within
the process, examining pollution prevention opportunities to reduce processing and use of toxic chemi-
cals; involving interested parties through early notification of intended action; applying non-regulatory
'alternatives and encouraging voluntary control actions; and considering a wide range of regulatory re-
sponses including the initiation of risk reduction actions early in the process.
Another important objective is to strengthen cooperation and coordination between headquarters media
offices, the regions, and other federal programs Elements supporting this objective focus on team
-------
building and enhanced communications. They included facilitating chemical nominations from the re-
gions and other federal programs for screening and controlling risk; planning and coordinating head-
quarters , regional, and other federal partnerships to encourage voluntary actions aimed at reducing
risk; and seeking opportunities to enhance communications, utilize education, and provide technical
assistance between headquarters and the regions and beyond the Agency to the general public and
the regulated community
Strategy
The Existing Chemicals Program strategy relies on chemical specific risk assessments and regulation
when it is appropriate and necessary. However, the focus of the strategy has shifted to include an em-
phasis on processing chemical clusters as an alternative to the chemical-by-chemical approach (this
includes both chemical use clusters and chemical class clusters) and on utilizing a much fuller range of
regulatory and non-regulatory options in risk management activities.
Additional Comments
Under the 1976 TSCA legislation, EPA ensures that chemicals in commerce do not present an "unrea-
sonable risk of injury to health or the environment." The Office of Toxic Substances Existing Chemicals
Program focuses on protecting human health and the environment from chemical risk by screening, test-
ing, assessing, and managing risks posed by chemicals currently in production. The traditional program
strategy involved chemical-by-chemical risk assessment and risk management with a distinct regulatory
emphasis.
Planned Environmental Indicator: Existing
Chemicals
Development of New TRI Environmental Indicator Underway
OTS is leading an agency-wide workgroup to create a multi-media indicator, based on the Toxic Release
Inventory. -Current plans are to have a draft report on the proposed design of the index ready for wide-
spread review by early spring. Reporting on the indicator may begin this fiscal year, depending "on the
results of the review.
The remainder of this section summarizes currently expected characteristics of the indicator Figure 26
provides a schematic of the model under consideration for calculating the indicator for human health
impacts. A separate model is being developed for ecological impacts.
The TFU Environmental Indicator provides an annual measure of environmental well-being by weighting
reported emissions by toxicity and exposure characteristics, and will be utilized to examine trends on a
national basis. The index will be calculated by combining the individual scores of the TRI chemical-facil-
ity-media components. Each component's value is a measure of a chemical's risk level to either human
health or the environment based on some measure of the volume of release from a facility, the
chemical's toxicity, and potential exposed population for the media of release. Utilization of existing data
bases, models, and established procedures will enhance acceptability of the indicator and minimize
resource requirements
The TRI Environmental Indicator will be used to: estimate human health and ecological impacts of TRI
emissions; allow annual comparisons to assess progress; and communicate information to the public on
progress in reducing risks from toxic releases.
IV-36
-------
Figure 26. Methodology for Calculating TRI Indicator for Human Health
offsite transfers
POTW transfers
offsite
Incineration
direct air
emissions
^-
POTW sludge
nclneratlon
>
\
fugitive air
emissions
1
Air
-<
onsite land disposal;
Includes
underground injections
offsite transfers
POTW transfers
offsite land
disposal; includes
underground Injection
POTW sludge
land disposal
Surface Water
Air
Index
facility.
chemical
Ground Water
Index
facility.
chemical
Sum over all facilities and chemicals
TRI Indicator
POTW
effluent
population
data
toxlcily
data
Exposure Evaluation
\.\ j
>.
>»
f
Exposure Weight
X
Population Weight
X
Toxicity Weight
Surface Water
Index
facility.
chemical
2
o
o
m
s
-------
The 33/50 Toxics Reduction Program
Strategy, Goal, and Objectives
The goal of EPA's 33/50 Program is to reduce toxic waste generation from industrial sources ambitiously.
quickly, and with a high degree of flexibility. The Program calls for voluntary industry reductions of the
generation of 17 high priority toxic chemicals, aimed at achieving an overall national reduction of 33% by
1992, and 50% by 1995. In 1988, over 6000 companies reported via the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI)
that 1.4 billion pounds of the 17 high priority chemicals were either released to the environment or trans-
ferred off-site to waste management facilities (Figure 27). The aim of the Program is to reduce this
amount by at least 50% (700 million pounds) and to make maximum use of pollution prevention in
achieving these reductions The interim objective is to reduce the amount by 33% (460 million pounds)
by 1992.
The 33/50 Program is an important model because industry participation is voluntary A secondary goal
of the Program is to demonstrate whether voluntary reduction programs can augment the Agency's tradi-
tional regulatory approach by achieving targeted reductions more quickly than would regulations alone
Environmental Indicator
The 33/50 Program was first announced in February 1991. As of February 1992, more than 700 compa-
nies had committed to an average reduction of 50% by 1995, for an overall reduction commitment of
more than 300 million pounds. The companies that have responded so far account for a disproportion-
ately large amount of total 1988 releases, 1 billion pounds out of the 1 4 billion pound total. The second
33/50 Progress Report, summarizing the reduction commitments made so far by these companies will be
released in March 1992.
Data Quality Factors
Certain factors will need to be considered in evaluating the environmental results of the 33/50 Program
'OPPT acknowledges that emissions data from the early years of the Toxics Release Inventory, 1987 and
1988, have large sources of error. In addition to ordinary problems associated with management of any
large database, there were additional errors associated with reporters' misunderstandings~of"emissions
calculation or estimation procedures. An important source of error in evaluating trends using early TRI
data was the provision that facilities could use estimates or actual monitored data, and that they might
use one in one year and another in another year, leading to apparent changes where real changes did
not occur. To evaluate the 33/50 Program results with a high degree of accuracy, corrections for such
sources of error will need to be applied by OPPT. For example, OPPT will need to document that facili-
ties rn the 33/50 Program did not switch from estimated data to monitored data between 1988 and later
reporting years, or if they did, that industry-specific correction factors are applied to account for possible
overestimates in the base year.
Comparison of Indicator Results to Strategy
It is too early to evaluate the results of the 33/50 Program in terms of actual reductions of generation or
emissions of toxics. The reported information, on amounts of toxic reductions to which companies have
committed, is the best available data at present. While reduction commitments to date are a substantial
step toward the overall national goal, the 33/50 Program needs more participants, and aggressive re-
duction commitments in order to successfully reduce toxics through voluntary industry efforts.
IV-38
-------
EXISTING CHEMICALS
Figure 27. 33/50 Program Chemicals: Total TRI Releases and Transfers
1988 vs. 1989
Data quality not rated; 33/5O Program
has not yet influenced these data.
Data quality may be different by 1992.
Trichloroethylene
Trichloroethane
Toluene
Tetrachloroethylene
Nickel and Compounds
Methylene Chloride
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
Mercury and Compounds
Lead and Compounds
Cyanides
Chromium and Compounds
Chloroform
Carbon Tetrachloride
Cadmium and Compounds
Benzene
200
Millions of Pounds
300
400
Source: U.S. EPA Office of TOXJC Substances, 33/50 Program Progress Report, July 1991
IV _ 10
-------
CAIOIIIMU
Figure 28. 33/50 Program: Reduction Commitments as of February 1992
1.4 Billion
700 Million
Total 33/50 Releases
& Transfers in 1988
50% Reduction
Goal By 1995
,304 Million by
February 1992
Million by
July 1991
Reduction
Commitments
Source U S EPA Office ot Toxic Substances. 33/50 Program Progress Report. March 1992
IV-40
-------
LEAD
Lead
"The lead problem in the United States can be expressed in a simple statement: Lead is potentially
toxic wherever it is found, and it is found everywhere."
ATSDR, The Nature and Extent of Lead Poisoning in Children in the United States. U S Dept of
Health and Human Services. 1988
Environmental Trends
Although lead is found virtually everywhere, national data show sharply declining trends'
Air. EPA's Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards reports ambient air lead concentrations in urban
areas decreased 85% since 1981 (Figure 29) while emissions decreased by 87% Lead emissions to
the air dropped 97% between 1970 and 1990, due mostly to the phaseout of leaded gasoline.
Fish. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Contaminant Biomonitonng Program reports lead
concentrations in freshwater fish decreased by about 66% between 1976 and 1986 (Figure 29). USFWS
notes that the decline "has been attributed primarily to reductions in the lead content of motor fuels."
which suggests that the air is an important pathway through which lead moves into the aquatic environ-
ment. (C.J. Schmitt. Persistent Organochlorine and Elemental Contaminants in Freshwater Fish of the
United States' The National Contaminant Biomonitonng Program, in R H Gray. Ed. Environmental moni-
toring, restoration and assessment: What have we learned7 US Dept of Energy. Twenty-eighth
Hanford Symposium on Health and the Environment. 1990.)
Food. Lead also has declined in food (Figure 29) As measured by the Food and Drug Administration's
Total Diet Study, mean lead intakes by young children declined 80% between 1982 and 1990 Intakes
by 25 to 30 year old women declined 75% during the same period The voluntary phaseout of leaded
solder in food cans appears to be mostly responsible for the drop, although the decrease in atmospheric
lead which lands on crops may also be a contributing factor.
Drinking water. There are no reliable data to determine trends in lead in drinking water However,
according to an OPPE analysis of lead in drinking water. 42 million people in the U S may receive drink-
ing water with lead levels that exceed 20 ug/l. (USEPA. Reducing lead in drinking water, a benefit analy-
sis. OPPE. 1986.)
People. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) estimates that average human blood lead levels in the
U S. have declined from between 15 to 25 ug/dl in 1960 to between 4 to 6 ug/dl in 1990 (Figure 29) The
second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES II) reported average blood lead lev-
els of 15 and 9 ug/dl in 1976 and 1980 respectively There is a strong correlation between declining
blood lead levels and declining use of leaded gasoline in the U.S
Blood lead levels in children, in particular, have declined sharply (Figure 30) This is an especially im-
portant indicator of the lead problem since "the primary target organ for lead toxicity is the brain or cen-
tral nervous system, especially during early child development. In children and adults, very severe ex-
posure can cause coma, convulsions, and even death. Less severe exposure of children can produce
delayed cognitive development, reduced IQ scores, and impaired hearing - even at exposure levels
once thought to cause no harmful effects. Thus, despite some progress in reducing the average level of
lead exposure in this country, it is increasingly apparent that the scope of the childhood lead poisoning
problem has been, and continues to be. much greater than was previously realized " (ATSDR, The Na-
ture and Extent of Lead Poisoning in Children in the U.S., 1988, p 1.)
The ATSDR estimates that the population of children with blood lead levels above 15 ug/dl dropped from
|50% in 1978 to about 17% in 1984, a trend attributed primarily to the drop in air lead as a result of the
leaded gasoline phaseout. The population of children with blood lead levels above 25 ug/dl decreased
from 15% in 1978 to 1.5% in 1984. The 1984 numbers are estimates, not precise measurements EPA's
OTS estimated that the population of children with blood lead levels above 10 ug/dl - CDC's recently
IV-41
-------
< Figure 29. Lead is Declining in Air, Food, Fish and People
Lead In Air (Ann. Max. Quarterly Average)
There has been an 85 percent decrease since 1981 in
maximum quarterly average lead concentrations at 202 urban
sites. The decrease has leveled off In recent years.
2i
o>
x_x
c
o
I
c
0)
o
o
O
1.5 NAAQS
1 -
0.5
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
Source: USEPA, National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report
1990, November 1991.
Mean Lead Intakes, FDA Total Diet Study
FDA's Market Basket Survey shows declining levels of lead
in people's diets.
25 to 30 year old females
Children, 2 yrs. old
82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89-90
Source: U.S. Food and Drug Administration Total Diet Study.
CO
15>
CU-'S
O)
CO
76-77 78-79 80-81 84
Source: USFWS. National Contaminant Biomonitoring Program.
Trends In Average Human Blood Lead Levels in
the U.S.
Blood lead levels are declining in people.
30 T
CDC
Estimate
10
' NHANES II
NHANES II
+
4-
I CDC
Estimate
H
1960 1970 1980 1990
Source: Personal Communication with Dr. Susan Binder, CDC.
-------
LEAD
revised Level of Concern - dropped from 91 % in the late 1970s to about 15% in 1990 (USEPA Strategy
for Reducing Lead Exposures, 1991).
^cording to ATSDR, exposures to lead are higher for poor, urban black children because of deteriorat-
ng lead paint and the prevalence of lead-contaminated dust and soil in and around older city homes, as
well as other factors. ATSDR estimates that in 1984. almost 70% of these children had blood lead levels
above 15 ug/dl. and 10% had levels above 25 ug/dl.
EPA's Lead Strategy
EPA's lead strategy was strongly influenced by the ATSDR data cited above, and it reflects the federal
government's recognition that damage to children from lead exposures is the most important risk from a
public policy standpoint.
The EPA strategy contains no quantitative targets for reducing lead risks. However, the Department of
Health and Human Services has established the following targets for year 2000 in their public health
plan. Healthy People 2000.
Reduce the prevalence of blood lead levels exceeding 15 ug/dl and 25 ug/dl among children aged
6 months through 5 years to no more than 500,000 and zero, respectively. (Baseline- An estimated
3 million children had levels exceeding 15 ug/dl. and 234.000 had levels exceeding 25 ug/dl. in
1984.)
Among inner-city low-income black children, reduce the prevalence of blood lead levels exceeding
15 ug/dl and 25 ug/dl to no more than 75.000 and zero, respectively (Baseline An estimated
234,900 had levels exceeding 15 ug/dl, and 36.700 had levels exceeding 25 ug/dl, in 1984)
The goal of EPA's lead strategy is to reduce lead exposures "to the fullest extent practicable." with par-
icular emphasis on reducing the risk to children One objective is to significantly reduce the incidence
3f blood lead levels above 10 ug/dl in children while taking into account the associated costs and ben-
efits. Another, somewhat broader, objective is to significantly reduce unacceptable lead exposures that
are anticipated to pose risks to children, the general public, or the environment
The strategy focuses on reducing exposures to deteriorating lead paint, lead in dust and soil, and lead in
drinking water, which are the three largest sources of elevated blood lead in children. Action elements
in the strategy include identifying geographic "hot spots," developing and transferring "m-place" lead
abatement technologies, implementing a lead pollution prevention program and encouraging recycling,
as well as other actions to increase regulation, enforcement, education and research The research pro-
gram, with other federal agencies, is designed to locate and assess serious lead risks and develop solu-
tions for reducing them. The abatement program addresses risk from exposures to lead-based paint,
urban soil and dust, and lead at Superfund sites. A regulatory and pollution prevention program in-
cludes efforts by various EPA offices to examine ways to reduce lead exposures.
Evaluation of Progress
Clearly, there has been remarkable progress in reducing lead in people and elsewhere in the environ-
ment Most of this progress is attributable to the phaseout of leaded gasoline and also, in the case of
human blood lead, to eliminating leaded solders in domestically-produced food cans.
Presently, there are no data to assist in examining trends in housing containing leaded paint, dust and
soil, and drinking water, which are the focus of EPA's strategy and Healthy People 2000. EPA is now
requiring states to report lead in drinking water data that will serve as a good environmental indicator to
evaluate future progress. The data will show lead concentrations in the top 10% of samples taken for
^ach public water supply system. This is a new monitoring requirement that is being undertaken despite
-resistance by water suppliers and states. The Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water will prepare a
report on the findings early next year (1993). Follow up reports every year or two thereafter will show
post-1992 trends in "high-end" (i.e., top 10%) concentrations as well as the types of treatment installed
in systems requiring abatement This information should enable EPA to determine how effective the pro-
gram is in reducing exposures to lead in drinking water
IV-44
-------
LEAD
With regard to dust, soil and paint, EPA does not have adequate national data to assess the extent of the
problems, to determine whether exposures are due to lead in soil or in paint, or to evaluate the success
<=^medial efforts. It is therefore difficult to estimate the likelihood that federal strategies will reduce
Iren's blood lead levels to the targets set in Healthy People 2000 The Office of Pollution Prevention
Toxics recognizes this difficulty and is now preparing a workplan to develop environmental indica-
tors to measure progress in lead in soil and lead paint abatement
FinaJly, various national blood monitoring efforts are underway, including NHANES III and CDCs lead
paint screening study of young children in 17 states.
i v -
-------
V. Office of Air and Radiation
RELATIVE RISK RANKING
Unfinished Business Report
SAB Reducing Risk Report
Regional Comparative Risk
PUBLIC CONCERN (ROPER)
Stratospheric Ozone
Human Health Ecological Welfare
Med-High, cancer NR Minor
Medium, non-cancer
NR
High
1988
Medium
High
High
1990
High
High
NR
AGENCY INITIATIVES WITH STRONG CONNECTION
Pollution Prevention Legislation Clean Air Act
Core Research Economic Incentives
Problem Definition
The stratospheric ozone layer shields the earth's surface from harmful ultraviolet (UV-B) radiation.
Releases of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen dioxide from industrial processes and solid waste
sites could significantly reduce the ozone layer. Although this is clearly a national and international
problem, regional projects may wish to estimate their region's contribution to the problem, and analyze
the effect of ozone depletion on their region
Stratospheric Ozone
Coals/Objectives
OAR's goal is to reduce cumulative chlorine concentrations in the stratosphere by 75% over the next 60
years. This would restore the earth's stratospheric ozone layer to its pre-Antarctic hole levels by the
middle of the 21st century. If no action is taken, over 3 1 million skin cancer deaths and 17 6 million
cases of cataracts in the United States are predicted by the year 2075
Strategies
The principal strategy for this goal is to reduce chlorine concentrations in the stratosphere to less than
two parts per billion by securing broad international participation in phasing out ozone-depleting chemi-
cals OAR will expand parties to the Montreal Protocol, use the multi-lateral fund established in June
1990 to increase the participation of developing countries, implement domestic responsibilities under the
protocol and Clean Air Act Amendments, develop regulations on recycling, labeling, and safe substitutes.
and ensure and promote effective, environmentally-sound substitutes and technologies, domestically and
-------
STRATOSPHERIC OZONE
overseas. OAR will also be attempting to improve EPA's science and data base by studying the role the
chlorine plays in the destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer to clarify policy options for stabilizing
and reducing ozone loss Activities attached to this strategy include ensuring that federal procurement
policy specifies energy efficient, CFC-free technology that is cost-effective, promoting technology trans-
fer among developing and developed countries, identifying forgotten technologies that will maximize
reductions in ozone depleting emissions, removing institutional/regulatory roadblocks to allow full imple-
mentation of CFC alternatives by reforming standards and codes that currently restrict the use of promis-
ing potential alternative refrigerants, foam blowing agents, solvents, and halons. OAR will conduct an
extensive outreach program to the regulated community to successfully implement the programs for safe
alternatives and national recycling.
Environmental Indicator Results
"Holes" in the stratospheric ozone layer (areas where ozone levels are low enough to allow far more dan-
gerous levels of UV radiation to pass through than previously) are growing in several portions of the
stratosphere. Figure 1 displays the extent of the hole over the Antarctic. In addition to the widely reported
ozone hole over the Antarctic, which is the most serious global stratospheric ozone impact, there have
been important ozone declines in northern hemisphere stratosphere as well. Figure 2 shows the declines
in concentrations of stratospheric ozone at three latitudes in the northern hemisphere since 1978.
The most precise currently available indicator concerning the United States' contribution to this problem
is the U.S production of CFCs, which are believed to be the primary cause of stratospheric ozone deple-
tion. Our production of CFC-11 and CFC-12 (Figure 3) peaked in the mid-1970s, and declined steadily
since. And. if Clean Air Act requirements are met we can project that our total CFC production will de-
cline to zero by the year 2000 (Figure 4). However, many nations' CFC production has not yet declined
to the same degree. Figure 5 shows the CFC emissions of the top ten countries in the world which col-
lectively emit 70% of the world total Globally, we would need to achieve significant further reductions in
total emissions from all countries to meet the goal of restoring the ozone layer to its pre-Antarctic hole
levels by the mid-21 st century.
The projected health effects of stratospheric ozone depletion are severe. Estimates of the increases in
skin cancer projected by models of expected future depletion of stratospheric ozone are shown
in Figure 6. Up to 12 million additional skin cancers and 210.000 associated fatalities would be ex-
pected if the ozone depletion continues unabated. Other significant impacts the Office of Air and Radia-
tion projects may occur include increases in crop damage, damage to aquatic organisms, increases in
cataracts, and decreased effectiveness of human immune responses.
-------
STRATOSPHERIC OZONE
Figure 2. Stratospheric Ozone Trends in the Northern Hemisphere
New Orleans
Houston
Mobile
Philadelphia
Columbus
Denver
Vancouver
Winnipeg
Calgary
8
4
0
-4
-8
8
4
0
-4
-8
8
4
0
-4
-8
T I
I I
I I I I
Slope - -3.9% / decade
i i i i i
i i i i
i i i
i i i
Slope - -46% / decade
i i i i r
Slope--4.7%/decade
i i i i i i i
78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
Cairo
Kuwait City
Chungking
Madrid
Beijing
Bursa
Franklurt
Prague
Krakow
Source: Ricnard Stolarski. Goddard Space Flight Center, 1990.
Data quality; High.
Relevance to program; High.
-------
STRATOSPHERIC OZCNE
Figure 3. Historical Production of CFCs in the U.S.
150
Data Quality: High.
Relevance to Program: High
1960 1965
Source: International Trade Commission, 1986
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
ure 4. U.S. Production of CFCs*
Calculated Based on Clean Air Act Requirements
350 T
Actua!
Actual
CAA
CAA
Data quality; These are
projections, not data; qual-
ity not rated here.
Relevance to program; Very
relevant.
1986 1989 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
-90
rotal CFC production is shown here. Values differ from Figure 3 because additional classes of CFC are included.
Source: EPA Office of Air and Radiation.
V-S
-------
Figure 5. CFC Emissions by Top Ten Countries in 1987
United States (38.8%)
U.S.S.R. (19.9%)
Brazil (1.8%)
China (3.5%)
India (0.1%)
Japan(lM%)
Data quality; Not rated; infor-
mation incomplete when re-
port went to press.
Relevance to program; High.
France (7.6%)
Indonesia (1.1%)
United Kingdom (7.9%)
Germany. Fed. Rep. (8.3%)
Other countries combined contribute 30%
Source: World Resources Institute. 1990.
V-6
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STRATOSPHERIC OZONE
Figure 6. Projected Skin Cancer Impacts of Future Depletion
Additional Skin Cancers and Fatalities
Persons born before 2030
w
o>
o
c
03
O
Skin Cancers Fatalities
Projected U.S. Annual Average = 5.200
Data quality; Projections, not
data. Quality not rated here.
avance to EPA Program;
h.
05
05
CD
CO
o'
CO
Source: EPA Office of Air and Radiation
Other Significant Impacts
UV Levels will exceed natural range
Increase in crop damage
Damage to aquatic organisms
Increase in cataracts
Suppression of human immune response
Source: EPA Office of Air and Radiation
V-7
-------
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to
Strategies and Objectives
Major CFC Reductions Have Been Accomplished
OAR's strategies generally seem to be appropriate. Domestically, major CFC reductions have been ac-
complished. An important component of OAR's strategic plan is influencing other nations, particularly
developing nations, to reduce emissions. These nations are currently the source of large CFC emis-
sions, and their emissions are declining less quickly than those of developed nations. When projections
of future population growth and industrialization are taken into account, CFC emissions from developing
nations will become the overwhelming source of ozone depletion.
In addition to assistance and influence abroad. OAR's strategies include working to reduce U.S emis-
sions through a combination of regulation and research into safe substitutes.
Issue of Setting Measurable Targets
There is, however, an important problem with the goal statement of the OAR strategic plan. The current
goal statement does not specify an actual target rate for U.S. CFC reductions. Therefore, it is not pos-
sible to use available indicator data to determine whether progress is rapid enough to achieve the U.S.
share of reductions necessary to restore the ozone layer by the mid-21 st century. Nor does OAR's stra-
tegic plan specify the rate of global emission reductions that would be expected to achieve the ultimate
goal. The objective of restoring stratospheric ozone to target levels is stated in measurable terms, but
we will not be able to evaluate our progress in terms of this indicator for years to come Measurable in-
terim indicator targets are needed to evaluate whether we are succeeding (based on our current scien-
tific modeling abilities) in reducing CFC emissions as fast as necessary
V-8
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CLIMATE CHANGE
ELATIVE RISK RANKING
Unfinished Business Report
(CO2 and Climate Change)
SAB Reducing Risk Report
Regional Comparative Risk
PUBLIC CONCERN (ROPER)
Climate Change
Human Health
NR. cancer
NR, non-cancer
NR
High-Low
1988
Low
AGENCY INITIATIVES WITH STRONG CONNECTION
Energy Green Lights
Global Climate Change
Core Research
Ecological
High
High
High
1990
Med-Low
Welfare
High
High
NR
Clean Air Act
Tech. Innov /Trade & Environment
Economic Incentive Analysis
oblem Definition
Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (C02) and other greenhouse gases are projected to in-
crease over the next century due to an increase in fossil fuel combustion and a decrease in tropical ram
forests and other C02 sinks. Higher levels of greenhouse gases may raise climatic temperatures glo-
bally, raising the sea level and disrupting weather patterns.
Climate Change
Goals/Objectives
EPA's primary goal is to achieve stabilization of greenhouse gas (ghg) concentrations in the atmosphere
at a level which would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with climate. A secondary goal is
to achieve reductions in global net ghg emissions resulting from human activities to levels consistent
with stabilization of atmospheric concentrations.
Strategies
EPA is seeking to achieve these goals by 1) improving and communicating the understanding of the
environmental and socio-economic consequences of climate change; 2) identifying and demonstrating
low cost technologies and approaches for reducing ghg emissions; 3) identifying and evaluating cost-
effective policies, particularly involving market mechanisms, for reducing ghg emissions and increasing
s (e.g., forests): 4) working with other federal agencies, countries, and multilateral organizations to
itate the transfer and financing of necessary technologies and approaches to other countries; and 5)
King through a number of domestic and international processes to resolve key scientific and policy
issues and achieve a global climate change convention Because soms anthropologically induced cli-
mate change is likely. EPA is also assessing measures to adapt to climate change
V-9
-------
WI.IIVU-M C ^l~
Environmental Indicator Results
In the past century, global temperature anomalies from the long-term average temperature have been
more likely to be above the average than below (Figure 7). Some scientists believe this is associated
with the last century's increases in gases that lead to so-called "greenhouse warming" of the atmo-
sphere. Concentrations of one "greenhouse gas," carbon dioxide (C02). have increased by 15 to 20%
over the same time period (Figure 8). Concentrations of methane have also increased significantly (Fig-
ure 9). The increases in C02 are due primarily to man's increased burning of fossil fuels, and the de-
struction of forests that would otherwise be removing C02 from the atmosphere. Increased methane
emissions are related to a variety of additional activities, particularly agriculture. Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), already discussed in the stratospheric ozone depletion section of this chapter, also function as
greenhouse gases.
However, it is important to note that many scientists feel that current global climate data do not demon-
strate that significant changes have occurred. Finally, most scientists agree that even if we were sure
changes had occurred, we are not yet able to determine whether they were due primarily to man's activi-
ties, or whether they were pan of a longer-term natural fluctuation.
Conclusion: Comparison of Indicator Results to
Strategies and Objectives
Scientific Controversy
This problem area is perhaps the single most controversial one being addressed by EPA. There is a
great deal of scientific dispute over whether significant global climate change is being or will be caused
by man's activities, let alone about the likely practical implications of such change for ecosystems, agri-
culture and other factors affecting human'quality of life Given a certain amount of uncertainty in what
strategies are prudent to pursue, the mam driving factor is the balance struck between being conserva-
tive in avoiding any climate change, and avoiding burdensome and expensive control measures that
may not be necessary.
Present Strategy Protective of Economic Productivity
It is beyond this report to present or interpret the full scope of the scientific debate on the likelihood of
increases in average global temperature, or on whether increased variability (for example, temperature
fluctuations and severe weather events) is already occurring and is a precursor of global warming. Our
.strategies avoid risking possible decreases in economic productivity to prevent environmental impacts
that we do not even know will occur, or if they do occur, will not necessarily be harmful. And we empha-
size strategies that enhance economic productivity while simultaneously limiting greenhouse gas emis-
sions. Nevertheless, EPA's Science Advisory Board (SAB), in its Reducing Risk report warned that EPA
may need to take stronger action to mitigate against the possibility of man-induced global climate
change. The SAB reasoned that, if global warming does occur, the effects could be very injurious, and if
we wait until we know for sure it is occurring, the amount of mitigation possible will be considerably less
than if we start now. Also, the SAB noted that if global climate change does occur, that could itself cre-
ate serious long-term decreases in economic productivity.
The reason for many scientists' concern is best displayed by the indicator of global CO2 concentrations.
No one knows for certain the implications for weather patterns and global temperatures. The one thing
we do know for sure is that man's burning of fossil fuels and deforestation (among other activities) have
increased the concentration of C02 throughout the global atmosphere so that in 30 years it has in-
creased by about 10%, and the rate of increase has itself increased To the SAB and many others, the
appropriate balance to strike in the face of uncertainty about the impact of a worldwide change of such
magnitude would be to err on the side of caution.
V-10
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CLIMATE CHANGE
Figure 7. Global Temperature-Anomalies
Hansen & Lebedeff
-0.8
1861 1881 1901
rce: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 1990.
1921 1941 1961
jure 8. Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Concentrations
CO
o
O vj .-
««' T3 4
C C
O 03
i 1
I 2
1
i
0
Global emissions
Mauna Loa concentrations
U.S. emissions
1981
370
360
350
J3
O
c
340 i
330 e.
320
es
C.
O
c
1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980
1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990
310 S
300
Source: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 1990.
V- 11
-------
Figure 9. Methane Concentrations
1.7 --
! 1-6
-------
CRITERIA AIR POLLUTANTS & ACID DEPOSITION
Criteria Air Pollutants & Acid Deposition
ELAT1VE RISK RANKING
Unfinished Business Report
(Excludes direct effects of
VOC emissions)
SAB Reducing Risk Report
(Defined as criteria air pollutants)
Regional Comparative Risk
PUBLIC CONCERN (ROPER)
From Vehicles
From Factories
From Acid ram
Human Health
Low. cancer
High, non-cancer
High
Med-High - High
1988
Medium
Med-Low
Ecological
Low
Welfare
High
Medium
Medium
1990
Medium
Med-High
Med-Low
Medium
AGENCY INITIATIVES WITH STRONG CONNECTION
Energy/Green Lights
Pollution Prevention Leg
Core Research
Mexican Border
Economic Incentives Analysis
Clean Air Act
Problem Definition: Ozone, CO and Particulafe
Matter
Ozone and carbon monoxide are major air pollutants in many areas, arising from both mobile and sta-
tionary sources. Damage to forests, crops, and human health can be severe. Note that volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) are critical precursors to ozone formation, but the direct effects of VOCs are in-
cluded m the Air Toxics problem area. Nitrogen oxides (N0x) also contribute to ozone formation. NOX
are also discussed in the following section. To the extent that VOCs result in ozone, those ozone effects
are c'aptured by this problem area. Both total suspended particulates and fine particulates/PM-10 are
included in this problem area. Major sources include motor vehicles, residential fuel burning, industrial
and commercial processes, and in some cases strip or open pit mining.
Goal/Objectives
OAR will reduce numerous types of human health risks for the millions of Americans in areas where lev-
els of ozone, carbon monoxide, particulate matter (PM-10), sulfur dioxide, lead, or nitrogen dioxide vio-
late the national standards This will reduce damage to crops and forests as well. OAR wants to
achieve and maintain the National Ambient Air Quality Standards in all nonattainment areas within 20
years.
strategies
} has developed a comprehensive strategy to reduce the emissions from stationary and mobile
sources which contribute to the NAAQS problems. For mobile sources, the strategy incorporates the
reformulated/oxygenated gasoline program that achieves significant reductions in vehicle emissions in
the most severe ozone nonattainment areas and facilitates changes in vehicle technology and fuels.
-------
i n i ui n/-t run
This will include inspection and maintenance programs as well as stage II vapor controls to reduce in-
use vehicle emissions; and the Federal Motor Vehicle Control Program which will contribute toward this
effort by including new tighter standards, to achieve reductions in emissions of VOCs. carbon monoxide,
and nitrogen oxides OAR will implement other planning and control efforts to address both stationary
and mobile sources of ozone precursors, carbon monoxide, PM-10, and other criteria pollutants. OAR
will help states develop and implement control measures to reduce emissions from important stationary
source categories and other categories with significant emissions. To enhance capabilities to measure
progress, OAR intends to work with states to replace 40% of the air monitoring networks in the 60 most
serious ozone and carbon monoxide nonattamment areas and augment the monitoring networks in the
30 most serious PM-10 nonattamment areas. OAR will work with states to establish effective and well-
targeted compliance programs.
Additional Comments
OAR will design a reformulated gasoline program by November, 1992, provide guidance for reducing
vehicle emissions in nonattamment areas and reduce the VOC emissions from consumer and commer-
cial products in ozone nonattainment areas.
Problem Definition: SO2 and NO2
Sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides cause a wide variety of primary and secondary effects. Primary ef-
fects include health, and welfare impacts Major secondary effects are acid deposition and visibility
which result from chemical transformation of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, producing acid ram, snow,
and fog. as well as dry deposition. Acid deposition alters the chemistry of affected aquatic and terres-
trial ecosystems, damaging plant and animal life. Sources are a wide variety of industrial, commercial.
and residential fuel and related combustion sources. This problem area also includes visibility effects
resulting from the long range transport of sulfates.
Strategy
OAR intends to augment current location-specific efforts to reduce S02 emissions within their national
strategy to reduce S02 and NOX emissions under the acid ram program. Through the acid rain program,
OAR will minimize or prevent damage to lakes, streams, trees, and soils in most sensitive areas as well
as visibility and structural materials due to acid deposition through a permanent.10 million ton per year
reduction in S02 emissions and a 2 million ton per year reduction in NOX emissions. For S02. market
mechanisms will drive the strategy. OAR will develop a program to distribute emissions allowances to
utilities and to facilitate active trading of these allowances to keep the program's cost to a minimum.
OAR will also promote use of energy efficient technologies as part of compliance plans for utilities.
Problem Definition: Lead
Air emissions of lead result from many industrial and commercial processes This problem area includes
both direct exposure to airborne lead and exposure to deposited lead from airborne sources It does not
include exposure to lead from drinking water delivery systems, or lead found in and around homes and
buildings from leaded paint and other sources.
Strategy
OAR intends to revise and implement the lead NAAQS consistent with the agency lead strategy, al-
though this is a second-level priority in OAR's strategic plan The agency lead strategy states that "en-
forcing the current NAAQS would provide a greater incremental public health benefit than any of the
completed NAAQS revisions." The focus of OAR's attention is therefore on expanded monitoring and
enforcement at all of the 29 large lead stationary sources, designation of non-attainment areas, and STP
revisions in order to achieve attainment by mid-1997
V- 14
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CRITERIA. AIR POLLUTANTS & ACID DEPOSITION
Environmental Indicator Results
oduction
for the Criteria Air Pollutants section come from OAR's 1990 National Air Quality and Emissions
Trends Report. The air quality trends are based on direct measurements at sites throughout the United
States. The National Air Monitoring Station (NAMS) sites were established through monitoring regula-
tions promulgated in May 1979 to provide data from a national air monitoring network The NAMS are
located in areas with higher pollutant concentrations and high population exposure These stations meet
uniform criteria for scale of representativeness, quality assurance, equivalent analytical methodology.
sampling intervals, and instrument selection to assure consistent data reporting among the states Other
sites operated by the state and local air pollution control agencies, such as the State and Local Air Moni-
toring Stations and Special Purpose Monitors, in general, also meet the same rigid criteria, except that in
addition to being located in the area of highest concentration and high population exposure, they are
located in other areas as well.
Trends are also presented for annual nationwide emissions. These are estimates of the amount and
kinds of pollution from stationary and mobile sources based upon the best available engineering calcula-
tions for a given time period.
The ambient air quality and emission data were obtained from EPA's Aerometric Information and Re-
trieval System (AIRS). Air quality and emission data are submitted to AIRS by state and local agencies
as well as federal agencies. At present, there are about 500 million air pollution measurements on AIRS.
The vast majority represent the more heavily populated urban areas of the nation
pulation Estimates for Counties Not Meeting
1990
Figure 10 provides an estimate of the number of people living in counties in which the primary health
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) were not met by measured air quality in 1990. These
estimates use a single-year interpretation of the NAAQS to indicate the current extent of the problem for
each pollutant. The figure demonstrates that ozone was the most pervasive air pollution problem in 1990
for the United States, with an estimated 62.9 million people living in counties which did not meet the
ozone standard. This is slightly lower than the 1989 estimate of 66.7 million people. However, the popu-
lation estimates for the past two years are substantially lower than the 1 12 million people living in areas
which did not meet the ozone NAAQS in 1988. This large decrease is likely due in part to meteorological
conditions in 1988. which were more conducive to ozone formation than in recent years (for example, the
hot. dry summer in the eastern U.S.), and to new and ongoing emission control programs.
Carbon monoxide follows in number of people living in areas with NAAQS exceedance, with 21 .7 million
people. Paniculate matter (PM-10) exceedances were in areas with 18.8 million people; N02 ex-
ceedances in areas with 8.5 million people; lead in areas with 5.3 million people and S02 in areas with
1 .4 million people A total of 74 million people lived in counties that did not meet at least one air quality
standard during 1990 (out of a total 1987 population of 243 million).
These population estimates are intended to provide a relative measure of the extent of the problem for
each pollutant. The limitations of this indicator should be recognized An individual living in a county
that violates an air quality standard may not actually be exposed to unhealthy air. For example, if CO
[ions were confined to a traffic-congested center city location during evening rush hours in the wm-
is possible that an individual may never be in that area, or may be there only at other times of
the day or during other seasons However, it is worth noting that ozone, which appears to be
the most pervasive pollution problem by this measure, is also the pollutant most likely to have
V- 15
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Figure 10. People in Counties with 1990 Air Quality Above Primary National Ambient
Air Quality Standards
S02 1.4
Lead
PM-10
Ozone
Any NAAQS
0
20
Note: Based on 1987 county population.
Source: EPA/OAR.
40
Millions of People
74.4
60
80
EnvlropmaQja| Results and Forecasting Branch, 1992
-------
CRITERIA AIR POLLUTANTS & ACID DEPOSITION
fairly uniform concentrations throughout an area The estimate of 63 million people only considers
data from the single year, 1990. and only considers counties with ozone monitoring data. In contrast,
~--e nonattainment areas are typically based upon three years of data to ensure a broader representa-
)f possible meteorological conditions There were only 812 ozone monitors reporting in 1990
e monitors were located in 467 counties, which clearly falls far short of the 3,186 counties in the U S
(We monitor in 27% of the counties for at least one pollutant, these counties contain 75% of the population)
Trends in Ozone
The 03 NAAQS is defined in terms of the daily maximum, that is. the highest hourly average for the day.
and it specifies that the expected number of days per year with values greater than 0 12 ppm should not
be greater than one.
The ten-year trend in ozone (Figure 11) is displayed using boxplots which show the inter-site variability of
the annual second highest daily maximum concentrations for the 471 site database The 1990 compos-
ite average is 10% lower than the 1981 average. These 1990 values are the lowest composite averages
of the past ten years The 1990 composite average is significantly less than the 1988 composite mean,
which is the second highest average (1983 was the highest) during this period The distribution of sec-
ond daily maximum 1-hour concentrations in 1990 is similar to that recorded in 1989 and 1986 The rela-
tively high ozone concentrations in both 1983 and 1988 are likely attributed in part to hot. dry. stagnant
conditions in some areas of the country that were more conducive to ozone formation than other years
Peak ozone concentrations typically occur during hot. dry, stagnant summertime conditions (high tem-
perature and strong solar insolation).
The interpretation of recent ozone trends is difficult due to the confounding factors of meteorology and
'"-^sion changes Just as the increase in 1988 is attributed in part to meteorological conditions, the
) decrease is likely due. in part, to meteorological conditions being less favorable for ozone forma-
roii in 1989 than in 1988. This pattern was followed by summer 1990 which nationally was warmer and
drier than the long-term climatological means Also, precursor emissions of nitrogen oxides and volatile
organic compound emissions from highway vehicles have decreased in urban areas'. The volatility of
gasoline was reduced by new regulations which lowered national average summertime Reid Vapor Pres-
sure (RVP) in regular unleaded gasoline.
Areas Designated Nonattainment for Ozone
The ozone nonattainment designation is the result of a formal administrative process but, for indicator
purposes, may be viewed as simply indicating areas that do not meet the ozone air quality standard.
The Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) of 1990 further classify ozone nonattainment areas based upon
the magnitude of the problem. Depending on the particular nonattainment classification, the area must
adopt, at a minimum, certain air pollution reduction measures. The classification of an area also deter-
mines when the area must reach attainment.
Figure 12 depicts the nonattainment areas for ozone and also indicates the CAAA classifications which
are based upon the design value, a concentration indicating the magnitude of the problem. There are
98 areas designated nonattainment for ozone. Unclassified areas and transitional ozone areas are not
included in this total and are not displayed on the map States containing nonattainment areas are high-
lighted in yellow.
V-17
-------
Figure 11 a. Ozone Trend, 1981
CONCENTRATION, PPM
- 1990 (Annual 2nd Daily Max Hour)
0.30
0.25 -
0.20 -
0.15 -
0.10 -
0.05 -
0.00
471 SITES
NAAQS
1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
Source: OAR, National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report. 1990
Figure 11b. VOC Emissions, 10s Tons/Year
Data quality; Good.
Relevance to program: Good.
30
25 -
20 -
15 -
10 -
5 J
SOURCE CATEGORY
TRANSPORTATION
FUEL COMBUSTION
888 INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
SOLID WASTE & MISC
1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
Source: OAR, National Air Quality and Emissions Trends Report, 1990.
Data quality; Moderate, involves
estimates.
Relevance to program! Good.
V- 18
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