-------
TRAINING PROGRAMS
There are many reasons for training wastewater treatment plant personnel.
They include investment protection, efficient plant operation and maintenance,
and promoting a good self-image. Today's treatment facilities are more complex
and difficult to operate than the majority of the treatment plants constructed
prior to passage of PL 92-500. The more complex plants require more skilled
operators to meet discharge standards. The importance of training operators has
been analyzed (23) in terms of the amount spent on training programs for those
plants meeting and not meeting the design BOD removal criteria. The results of
this analysis, shown on Figures 20 and 21, indicate a direct relationship between
the amount spent on training and the number of treatment plants meeting the
criteria. The analysis shows that "the average training expenditure was in every
case higher at the facilities operating at or above the design level for BOD
removal." Other results of this analysis were that the training expenditures at
small plants with satisfactory treatment performance were twice those where
design removal efficiencies were not reached, and that the average treatment
plant performance improved by about 24 percent when the plant was operated by
satisfactorily trained personnel. The training cost as a percentage of salary
budget will vary significantly with the size of the plant and the skills and
abilities of the operators.
There are other benefits from proper training of plant personnel. These
include avoiding damage to expensive machinery, the ability to troubleshoot a
plant and the ability to fine tune a plant for good treatment at minimum cost.
There are three types of training:
Preparatory training involves training a new recruit entering the
wastewater treatment profession. The training might take the form of a
two-year course at an accredited community college or vocational
school. The course should provide the fundamentals of wastewater treat-
ment technology. Preparatory training may also be useful for experi-
enced operators wishing to improve their positions by promotion or
transfer to other plants.
Skill maintenance training is the training needed to help plant opera-
tors maintain skills necessary to perform their work. This might take
the form of on-the-job training sessions or short courses at local or
nearby community colleges.
Skill improvement training is similar to the first training program
except it would involve short courses, correspondence courses, and on-
the-job training. This program might be used to teach existing person-
nel how to operate a treatment facility that is being expanded, or to
operate a particular piece of equipment.
The methods, aids, and personnel used for operator training are very impor-
tant. A recent study for the EPA evaluated the problems being experienced at many
wastewater treatment plants (24). The plants were evaluated in detail and items
most commonly limiting the performance of each plant were determined and ranked.
The top ten items are given here in Table 7. The first four are related to plant
operation. The study showed that in many Instances the problem was caused by
75
-------
SATISFACTORY
PERFORMANCE
UNSATISFACTORY
PERFORMANCE
$285
$115
$444
$996
$335
1 MOD 1-10 MGD
Source: Reference 23
10 MGD
Figure 20. Average annual training expenditures.
'"
$1.38
$0.65
(0.94
iO.84
1 MGD 1-10 MGD
Source: Reference 23
SATISFACTORY
PERFORMANCE
UNSATISFACTORY
PERFORMANCE
$0.59
$0.24
10 MGD
Figure 21. Average annual training expenditure
per $100 salary cost.
6
-------
improper guidance or training. In nearly all facilities surveyed existing person-
nel had the aptitude to learn how to achieve better plant performance.
TABLE 7. RANKING OF FACTORS LIMITING PERFORMANCE FOR THIRTY EVALUATED FACILITIES
Item
no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Ranking
(total
points)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
9
Factor
Operator Application of Concepts
and Testing to Process Control
Sewage Treatment Understanding
Technical Guidance
Process Control Testing
Sludge Wasting Capability
Process Flexibility
Process Controllability
Clarifier (Secondary)
Sludge Treatment
Aerator
No. of
times
cause
occurred
28
20
17
21
18
16
20
11
15
9
No. of
times
cause
ranked #1
6
4
5
0
3
2
0
2
0
2
Total
points
53
42
37
34
33
32
31
21
19
19
On-The-Job-Training
On-the-job training can be a formal classroom approach or through individual
instruction as part of a normal daily routine. The classroom approach should be
arranged at the end of one shift and the beginning of the next shift in order to
have as many people as possible attending the class.
The principal reasons for training and, more particularly, for on-the-job
training include:
To transfer ideas from the design engineer to the plant staff
To provide information on specific unit processes used at the plant
To show methods for optimizing the efficiency of unit processes using
the actual treatment units involved
To provide "hands-on" training with feedback at a full scale, operating
facility
To use the classroom and "hands-on" approach to minimize trial-and-
error plant operation
To increase operator confidence by giving "hands-on" experience in the
presence of the instructor
77
-------
Miscellaneous Training Courses
There are several other methods available for training wastewater treatment
plant operators. These include short schools; correspondence courses; college
extension classes; and classes at community colleges, vocational schools, and
special schools offered by many state agencies. Many of the schools offer con-
tinuing education units for their courses. A certain number of these units may be
required for certification renewal in your state. These alternates are briefly
discussed below.
Short Schools - Offered by state pollution control agencies or univer-
sities, short schools are usually held once per year. They are usually
classroom-type courses taught by experienced, certified operators who
may also have college degrees. You should check with the local state
regulatory agency or local Water Pollution Control Association to find
out about the courses held in your area.
Correspondence Courses - Correspondence courses are completed by mail.
The type of course allows self-pacing and the chance for the student to
test the course material at his facilities. The student must work
alone, without personal contact from an instructor. Correspondence
courses include those offered by the Water Pollution Control Federa-
tion, California State University of Sacramento, and International
Correspondence School.
College Extension Courses - These courses are similar to the short
schools, but are offered by the extension division of local universi-
ties. The extension classes are frequently geared to more specialized
skills and can be taken for college credit.
Community Colleges - The community colleges or two-year schools that
serve your area may offer a complete two-year associate degree in
wastewater treatment plant operation. These courses provide ideal
training for those people starting a career in the wastewater treatment
field. Part-time or evening courses are also suitable for the fully
employed operator. You should contact the local community college for
more Information about these classes.
Vocational Schools - One- or two-day schools or seminars are often held
throughout each state. These schools are put on by state agencies as
well as by the EPA and private consultants. You can get the school
schedules from your state pollution control agency. In some instances,
you can arrange to hold these special schools at your plant.
Local Association Schools - The local Water Pollution Control Associa-
tion and other such organizations hold schools for operator training.
Information on times and locations can be obtained from the magazines
or bulletins published by the local association or from the Association
secretary.
78
-------
Selecting a Training Approach
There are several factors to consider in deciding which training approach to
use. You must compare the advantages and disadvantages of each approach. Some
are listed below (25):
Type of Course
On-the-job training
by the use of the
demonstration
approach.
Advantages
Learning in a practical
situation, trainee can see
and hear the operation.
Disadvantages
Self-instruction by Cost/man hour is usually
correspondence course low, trainees are actively
or other educational involved, instruction is
packages. self-paced and consistent,
and materials have been
pre-tested and their
effectiveness proven.
Classroom approach.
Less time-consuming, more
material can be covered
quickly, fewer inter-
ruptions allow instruc-
tor to pursue objectives,
and the same lecture can
be given to more than one
group with little in-between
preparation.
May be one-way communica-
tion, difficult to set up,
may place heavy demands on
instructor, limited number
of trainees can partici-
pate.
Slow feedback, no instruc-
tor for supplemental guid-
ance, requires high level
of motivation, and can be
difficult to teach "hands-
on" experience because
specific self-instruc-
tional materials are not
always available.
Communication may be one-
way, opportunities for mis-
understanding information
are great, and lectures
cannot be tailored to in-
dividual needs and may
lack trainee involvement.
Planning a lecture that
will hold the interest of
the trainees is difficult.
SAFETY PROGRAMS
A WPCF Safety Survey taken in 1978 (26), shows an increasing trend in the
injury frequency at wastewater treatment plants, as can be seen in Figure 22.
Figure 23 shows that the injury frequency rate increases sharply until the
population served is about 250,000. The decline for the larger plants may be due
to having a full-time safety officer at the plant. This information points out
the need to pay more attention to safety in the small- to medium-sized municipal
wastewater treatment plants. The following suggestions on how to set up a safety
program and the benefits to be derived from them may be helpful to you in
assessing your safety needs.
A good safety program at a wastewater treatment facility can reduce the
frequency and seriousness of accidents. A successful safety program must start
with management; it is up to you to start and follow the program. A good program
will accomplish three goals: reduce the total cost of operations, Increase
79
-------
CL
s
UJ
HI
o
UJ
s
DC
UJ
0.
CO
UJ
UJ
O
UJ
8
UJ
cc
u.
DC
D
5
COLLECTION SYSTEMS
ALL WASTE WATER WORKS
TREATMENT PLANTS
LEGEND
ANNUAL AVERAGE
LONG TERM TREND: 1967 TO PRESENT
1968
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
YEAR
Sources Reference 25
Figure 22. Injury frequency rate vs. year.
80
-------
Ul
LU
o
0.
UJ
8
or
UJ
Q.
CO
UJ
UJ
O
UJ
cc
u_
DC
3
~3
0.1
10
100
1,000
10,000
POPULATION SERVED BY SYSTEM IN THOUSANDS
Source: Reference 25
Figure 23. Injury frequency rate vs. population served by system.
81
-------
productivity (the level of utilization), and provide a feeling of security and
well-being for plant personnel. Safety is the common sense approach to any task,
but the real key to safety is the individual worker (13).
At the start of the program, you should explain it completely, name a person
to be in charge of it, describe the advantages of it, and finally, spell out the
responsibilities of each individual. At smaller treatment plants, you may be the
supervisor and, therefore, have the complete responsibility for directing the
safety program. You should encourage the plant staff to take a course in safety
and first aid taught by a qualified safety engineer and first aid instructor. An
outside safety consultant should be hired about once a year to check on your
safety program. This person should also make periodic checks of operational pro-
cedures and report any safety hazards or areas in need of improvement. The safety
engineer or technician should also establish a set of safety rules for each part
of the plant.
After the safety program has been prepared you should have regular safety
meetings at the plant. These meetings should be held monthly, or more often,
depending on the potential hazards at the plant. The meetings should be 10 to 30
minutes long and the employees should be encouraged to actively participate.
You should have the meetings at the beginning or end of a shift, but always on
paid time to indicate the importance you place on the program. Films on safe
driving, slips and falls, gases, danger of fires, etc., are very helpful instruc-
tional aids.
You have the primary responsibility for safety at your treatment facility.
It covers four major areas (27):
Providing a safe place to work
Providing safe equipment and tools
Hiring only qualified personnel, or personnel with an interest and
aptitude for learning
Training workers for job skills as well as safety precautions
Some safety features of the plant that must be maintained are:
A minimum of two employees should be assigned for any work' that is
potentially dangerous such as manhole inspections, machinery mainte-
nance, etc.
Handrails should be provided around all basins and openings.
All stairs, walkways, and platforms should be free of grease, oil, and
debris, and well lighted.
Adequate ventilation systems should be provided for all enclosed
spaces.
Life preservers and throwlines should be provided adjacent to all
basins, ponds, and lagoons.
82
-------
Protective guards should be provided on all rotating machinery*
Protective guards and handrails which can be removed for maintenance
should be replaced af.ter maintenance work is complete.
Where flammable gases may be present, explosion-proof electrical equip-
ment should be provided and all bolts, gaskets, globes and guards
should be intact.
Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers should be provided adjacent to motor
control centers and automatic control systems.
Signs should be provided at the entrance of all wet wells and rooms in
which toxic or flammable gases may be present.
Instrumentation for the detection of toxic and flammable gases and low
oxygen levels should be provided and should be operational.
All boats at lagoons should be provided with a life jacket for each
person.
All vehicles should be equipped with appropriate safety equipment,
including lights, horns, windshield washers, and fire extinguishers.
Pressure vessels should be operated within their design rating and
should have a pressure relief valve.
Ear muffs should be provided at the entrances of all rooms that are
excessively noisy.
A list of minimum recommended safety equipment is given in Table 8.
After a new employee has been hired, you must be sure that he is given the
proper training in both the work skill for the position and in the safety pro-
gram. This will greatly reduce the chance of accidents.
In case of accident, the immediate supervisor and safety officer should be
informed. The supevisor should investigate each accident thoroughly and complete
an accident report similar to the one shown on Figure 24. In the event an
employee needs medical attention, he should be taken to a specified doctor,
clinic, or hospital. The accident report should show the doctor's name and diag-
nosis, the cause of the accident, and what has been done to prevent it from hap-
pening again.. The information on these forms can be used to prepare a monthly
summary of all accidents. A form such as the one shown on Figure 25 can be used.
should review these reports to find ways of decreasing accidents.
83
-------
TABLE 8. MINIMUM RECOMMENDED SAFETY EQUIPMENT FOR
WASTEWATER WORKS PERSONNEL
Equipment
Use
Portable air blower (gas motor or
electric motor operated)
Electric explosion-proof lantern
Safety harness
Hose mask with hand blower and
50-ft hose
Two self-contained air packs for
plants using chlorine
Ventilating manholes and other enclosed
subterraneous structures
Illumination in tanks or sewers where
gas may be present
For workers entering deep manholes or
tanks
Respiratory protection in all gas and
vapor atmospheres including oxygen
deficiency
Respiratory protection against chlorine
gas leaks
84
-------
CITY OF PORT ARTHUR No.
SUPERVISOR'S ACCIDENT REPORT
A.M.
Name of Injured Date of Injury Time P.M.
Department_ Division
Location Occupation__
Doctor Hospital Estimated Lost Time_
Describe the Injury
Describe fully how accident happened, and what employee was doing when injured:
CAUSES OF ACCIDENT
Unsafe Equipment Unsafe Conditions Unsafe Act
Explain the above:
What has been done to prevent a recurrence of this type of accident?_
Witnesses:
Reported by:
Approved by Dept. Head
Approved by city Manager
Source: Reference 13
Figure 24. Supervisor's accident report form.
85
-------
CITY OF PORT ARTHUR MONTHLY ACCIDENT SUMMARY
00
Department & Divisions
General Government:
City Manager
City Secretary
City Attorney
Finance
Tax
Personnel
Inspection & Permits
Public Safety:
Police
Fire
Civil Defense
Health:
Electrical :
Public Works:
Engineering
Street Maintenance
Street Construction
Urban Renewal
Drainage
Bridge
Sanitation
Administration
Parks & Recreation:
Library:
Water & Sewer:
Water Office
Water
Sewer
rOTALS
THIS MONTH
Man Hrs
Worked
Minor
Ace.
L.T.
Ace.
Days
Lost
Fre-
quency
Sever-
ity
c
Man Hrs
Worked
tJMULA1!
Minor
Ace.
IVE I
L.T.
Ace.
HIS ^
Days
Lost
EAR
Fre-
quency
Sever-
ity
Source: Reference 13
Figure 25. Monthly accident summary form.
-------
["9 EMPLOYEE RELATIONS |
RECRUITING
NEW EMPLOYEES
Application
forms
- Interviews
- References
- Conditional
period
COMMUNICATIONS
SALARY & BENEFIT
JTRUCTURE
- Must be
competitive
Written policy manual
Day-to-day contact
Performance
evaluations
-Example form
-Private interview
PERSONNEL RECORDS
Application forms
Interview notes
Salary records
Vacation and sick
leave records
1
MOTIVATION
Individual
needs
Recognition
- Positive
leadership
ABSENTEEISM
~ Set a good example
- Require medical
certification o f
illness
- Accumulate unused
sick leave
PROMOTION
POLICIES
- Merit not
seniority
COLLECTIVE BARGAINING &
CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION
Uriiori negotiating
- Employee grievances
~ Labor contracts
-------
SECTION 8
EMPLOYEE RELATIONS
RECRUITING NEW EMPLOYEES
Staffing a plant with well-trained employees with high morale and a desire
to do a good job will get the most out of your plant (18).
Good recruitment and selection of employees is a key to successful operation
and maintenance. You must remember that sewage treatment plant employment is not
attractive to most people unless there is no other source of similar employment
or the salaries being offered are comparatively high. A survey (29) found that in
half of the wastewater treatment plants studied, it was difficult to recruit
people* Notices and advertisements announcing the job openings should stress pos-
itive aspects such as the technical challenges, the chance for training and
advancement, fringe benefits, the steady nature of the work, and salaries. Good
salaries are a key, of course, in attracting personnel. Poor salaries make
recruiting good personnel difficult.
In planning and implementing a recruitment program, you must consider the
requirements of affirmative action hiring. If you do not have an affirmative
action program, you should look into developing and implementing one. The first
step is to examine your recruitment and hiring policies to see how they might be
changed if they are not in compliance with the Equal Employment Opportunity Com-
mission (EEOC) guidelines. You should then adopt measures to make up for past
weakness and promote equitable hiring practices. Remember, however, it is crucial
that your staff be properly qualified for the jobs they hold. Underqualification
or overqualification can present serious operating problems.
The first step in hiring is to have the applicant fill out an application
form. Your community may already have developed a form which you can use with
little change. It should include a work history, references, and educational sum-
mary. You must recognize that some applicants will exaggerate their qualifica-
tions. The application form should state that false statements are grounds for
discharge. When this warning is printed on application blanks, it tends to mini-
mize such statements; it also provides a sound basis for discharge.
Applicants typically give people who are especially friendly to them as ref-
erences. You should talk with an applicant's former employers and also with his
references in person or by telephone. These persons will be more frank and honest
in a confidential personal conversation than they will In general letters of ref-
erence. Many bad personnel selections have been made by accepting the statements
on applications, in reference letters, and in interviews at face value.
The best of the applicants are usually interviewed. Interviews offer some
hazards because of possible prejudice on the part of the interviewer, whether it
be the color of the skin, the sex of the person, the way he looks or talks, or
something else.
87
-------
One method of selecting employees is the use of an examination on basic
mathematics, mechanical aptitude, and general intelligence coupled with a medical
examination. Experience (30) has shown that most people recruited with this
approach show good interest in their jobs. You should work with your city's civil
service personnel to set up appropriate testing procedures. If you don't have a
civil service department, contact a nearby city or your Water Pollution Control
Association for example exams.
Even a good, honest, and complete evaluation of an applicant is no substi-
tute for personal experience with the individual. A period of trial or probation-
ary employment gives you the chance to measure the employee's ability. If the
employee proves inadequate, he should be dismissed or assigned to a more suitable
position.
In the event an employee leaves, you should have an exit interview with him.
This will be useful to you in finding out why he's leaving and determine any
problems he sees with his job and your management policies. It is useful for the
employee since he will get a final evaluation of his performance. Every effort
should be taken to see that both of you remain calm and unemotional, but frank.
COMMUNICATIONS
Employee Manual
You should have a manual for your employees which has written policies on
sick leave, vacation, training, insurance, holidays, etc. The manual need not
be elaborate. However, it is important to give written personnel policies to all
employees.
Day-to-Day Contacts
Keep in mind the following general guidelines (31) in your day-to-day deal-
ing with your staff:
People need to feel significant. They need to belong; they need secu-
rity and opportunity. When you help people meet these needs, you are
being a good manager. It is not enough to feel these things - action
must reflect attitude.
Use praise and sincere appreciation rather than criticism.
Know and be known by your people - let your actions honestly represent
your attitudes.
Stress advantages, not punishment and penalties.
Learn to listen as well as to talk. If you are getting a negative reac-
tion from your listeners, change your approach.
Maintain self-control.
88
-------
Repeat directions and explanations until they are remembered and
understood.
Encourage employees to discuss their problems with their supervisor.
Performance Evaluations
A good evaluation of performance of each employee is important* A regular,
formal review of performance can be a good communication and management tool*
Many managers don't like this task, but it can be of value if properly used.
The goals of performance evaluation include: improved employee performance,
motivation, and morale; employee development; better supervisor-employee communi-
cations; and good basis for assignments, promotion, merit increases, layoff,
transfer, and the like. Other benefits include discovering areas in which train-
ing is needed, and finding all of the employee skills and talents* Some general
points to keep in mind on performance appraisals are:
Performance refers to what an employee has done or is doing. Don't
guess about what the employee might be capable of doing or what you
would like him or her to do. Performance is on-the-job behavior that
can be recorded and evaluated.
Evaluation is measuring what a person does in relationship to what he
is supposed to do in his job.
Potential is an estimate of how a person will perform in a new posi-
tion. It is based on accurate records of past and present performance.
Don't confuse performance with personality unless you can show that a
personality trait, or its absence, affects performance*
Measure what is accomplished rather than how it is accomplished. Dif-
ferent people achieve results in different ways, and the result is what
counts. If a method is unsafe, however, it must not be permitted.
Single out the key factors which make the difference between superior
and average performance. Poor self-discipline, for example, may make a
person unsuitable for certain assignments, even though he or she is
good in other respects.
Make certain that the evaluator does not let prejudices influence his
judgments. This is no easy task. All people are affected by certain
characteristics, mannerisms, or physical aspects of other people. By
concentrating on results, prejudices will be less likely to affect the
evaluation.
Always think of performance. One-time errors or achievements will be
less likely to distort long-term evaluation.
Keep ratings private.
89
-------
Many different types of forms have been developed for use in performance
appraisals. Table 9 is an example form.
The following steps are involved in an effective appraisal (32).
Before you discuss the review with the employee, collect facts and make a
careful appraisal. When you list areas in which the employee is weak, give
specific examples. For example, if you feel he lacks initiative, be ready to
point out instances where he failed to show initiative. Simply telling him he
needs more initiative will be of little help to him. In making your evaluation,
you should ask yourself if you have done all you can to help the employee do a
good job.
The next step in preparing for the interview is to decide what you want to
accomplish. Do you want to help the employee understand what his faults are and
why he should correct them? Do you want to let him know how effective he is and
that you are thinking of giving him added responsibility? Do you want to get him
to agree with you on specific steps for his own improvement? Knowing your basic
aim will enable you to organize your remarks more effectively. In planning what
you're going to say, consider his personality and try to use an approach that
will put him at ease.
The interview should be conducted in private. Make sure that you will not
be interrupted by phone calls or visitors.
Use an informal tone and emphasize that the purpose of the interview is to
help the employee help himself. Ask the employee how he is coming along on the
job and what problems or obstacles he feels he has. Encouraging him to talk may
help him understand his position better and it will help you understand his atti-
tudes and outlook. Let him know you are interested in what he is saying. Here
are a few pointers on being a good listener:
Listen attentively so he feels you are eager to understand every word
he says.
Nod or say "I see" or "I get what you mean" from time to time. This
will encourage him to keep on talking.
When he has finished talking, summarize what he has said. Then give
him time to make corrections or additions.
What the employee tells you may force you to make some changes in your eval-
uation of his performance. Some problems that you were unaware of may have
affected his work. Do not launch into your appraisal without considering what you
have just learned.
Discuss the employee's strong points early in the interview. Mention exam-
ples of outstanding performance that you have observed. Encourage him to keep
working on his stronger characteristics.
//hen reviewing weak areas, discuss only weaknesses for which you can provide
examples. Without examples, the employee may feel that you are being unfair.
90
-------
TABLE 9. ILLUSTRATIVE PERSONNEL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION FORM
Name: Date:
Date of Entry
Job Title: Into Present Job:
Organization
Name and title of person making performance appraisal:
MAJOR CATEGORIES (FROM LOW TO HIGH)
Job Knowledge: the information on work duties which an employee should know
for a satisfactory job performance.
Poorly informed about work duties
^^ Lacks knowledge of some phases of work
Moderately informed; can answer most common questions
Understands almost all phases of work
Has complete mastery of job
Quality of Work: doing work that meets or exceeds quality standards.
Usually below minimum acceptable quality
~~~~ Often below minimum acceptable quality
3^2 Acceptable quality most of the time
Often above acceptable quality
High quality work consistently exceeds acceptable standards
Quantity of Work: the amount of work an individual does in a normal day.
Does not meet minimum requirements
~^^_ Does just enough to get by
Volume of work is satisfactory
Very industrious; does more than is required
Superior work production record
Stability: the ability to withstand pressure and to remain calm in a crisis
situation.
Goes "to pieces" under pressure; is "jumpy" and nervous
~^2. Occasionally "blows up" under pressure; is easily irritated
' Has average tolerance for crises; usually remains calm
Tolerates most pressure; likes crises more than the average person
Thrives under pressure; really enjoys solving problems
91
-------
TABLE 9. (Continued)
Accuracy: the correctness of work duties carried out
Makes many and frequent errors
Makes recurrent errors; is generally careless
Usually accurate; makes only a limited number of mistakes
Is exact and precise most of the time; requires little supervision
Is almost always accurate; requires absolute minimum of supervison
Alertness: the ability to meet changing conditions and to solve new problem
situations, and to grasp instructions.
Slow to grasp a situation
Requires extensive and detailed instructions and explanations
Grasps instructions with average ability
Usually quick to understand and learn
Exceptionally keen and alert
Creativity: the capacity for having new ideas for finding new and better ways
of doing things and for being imaginative.
Rarely has a new idea; unimaginative
Occasionally comes up with a new idea
Has average imagination; has reasonable number of new ideas
Frequently suggests new ways of doing things; is very imaginative
Continually seeks new and better ways of doing things
Dependability: the ability to do assigned jobs well with a minimum of direction;
reliability.
Requires close supervision; is unreliable
Sometimes requires prompting
Usually takes care of necessary tasks and completes with reasonable
promptness
Requires little supervision; is reliable
Requires absolute minimum supervision; highly reliable
Drive: the desire to attain objectives and to achieve assignments.
Has poorly defined goals and acts without purpose; puts forth little or not
effort
Sets goals too low; does little to achieve
Has satisfactory goals and usually acts to reach them
Strives hard; has high desire to achieve
Sets high goals and strives to reach these
92
-------
TABLE 9. (Continued)
Courtesy: the polite attention an Individual gives to fellow workers, superiors,
and to other people*
Discourteous and sometimes antagonistic
Sometimes tactless, thoughtless, or too blunt
Agreeable and pleasant under most situations
Almost always very polite and willing to help
Inspiring to others in being regularly courteous and pleasant in work
relationships
Sociability: the friendliness and warmth which an individual imparts in his
attitude toward customers, other employees, his supervisor and the persons he
may supervise.
Distant and aloof; these qualities adversely affect work
Approachable; friendly once known by others
Warm, friendly, and sociable most of the time
Sociable and out-going
Extremely sociable; excellent at establishing good will
Personality: an individual's behavior characteristics or his personal
suitability for the job.
Personality is unsatisfactory for this job
Personality is questionable for this job
Personality is satisfactory for this job
Desirable personality for this job
Outstanding personality for this job
Personal Appearance: the personal impression an individual makes on others.
(Consider cleanliness, grooming, neatness, and appropriatness of dress, if these
are relevant to this job.)
Very untidy or poor taste in dress
Sometimes untidy and careless about personal appearance
Generally neat and clean; satisfactory personal appearance
Careful about personal appearance; good taste in dress
Unusually well groomed; very neat; excellent taste in dress
Physical Fitness: the ability to work consistently and with only moderate
fatigue. (Also consider and weigh physical alertness and energy.)
Tires easily; low on energy
Frequently tires and is slow
^^ Meets physical and energy job requirements
Energetic; seldom tires
Excellent health; little fatigue; highly energetic
93
-------
TABLE 9. (Continued)
Attendance: frequency and punctuality in coming to work, conforming to work
hours, and not abusing sick leave.
Often absent without good excuse and/or frequently reports for work late
Lax in attendance and/or reporting for work on time
Usually present and on time
Very prompt; regular in attendance
Always regular and prompt; volunteers for overtime when needed; highly
conscientious about attendance and punctuality
Housekeeping: the orderliness and cleanliness in which an Individual keeps his
work area.
Disorderly or untidy
Some tendency to be careless and untidy
Ordinarily keeps work area fairly neat and clean
Conscientious about neatness and cleanliness; above average
Unusually neat, clean, and orderly; outstanding
Overall Evaluation: in comparison with other employees with the same length of
service on this job.
Definitely unsatisfactory and far below average
Substandard but making progress
Doing an average job; satisfactory performance
Definitely above average
Outstanding
SPECIFIC COMMENTS
Major points, subjects, or areas for improvement are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
These can be strengthened by doing the following:
-------
TABLE 9. (Continued)
Major strong points are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
These can be used more effectively by doing the following:
RATED BY
(NAME) (DATE)
A copy of this report has been discussed with me and has been given to me.
( EMPLOYEE' S SIGNATURE ) DATE
If the employee disagrees with this rating in any way, he will note specifically
the points of difference, attach a sheet, and sign it.
95
-------
Don't make unfavorable comparisons with the work of others, don't blame the
employee for poor performance, and don't talk down to him.
Before you offer any suggestions for improving performance, ask the employee
for his ideas. If he has none, put your suggestions in the form of a question:
"Do you think you could do a better job if...?" or "Is there anything I can do to
help you?" When he has agreed with you on the steps to be taken, tell him what
standards you want him to meet and how you will measure achievement. Be sure he
feels they are reasonable.
In ending the interview, review the points that have been made and encourage
the employee to summarize them in his own words. Assure him that you are inter-
ested in his progress and tell him you are ready to talk to him at any time.
If the employee is cooperative and you have handled the interview with
skill, everything should go smoothly. Occasionally, however, an employee may give
you a hard time. He may be angry when he hears your appraisal of his work. At
such times, do not become emotionally involved. Renain calm. Do not attempt to
force him to agree with you. If he starts to argue with you, it is best to end
the interview.
No matter how well you conduct the interview, you must follow through after-
wards. After you have worked out an improvement plan with an employee, make a
point to see how he is doing. Praise him for any progress he has made. If he
still has difficulties, try another approach. Unless you follow through,
employees may decide that the interviews do not mean much and they will be less
cooperative the next time.
PERSONNEL RECORDS
An elaborate set of personnel records and forms is not needed, but there is
certain information on each employee that should be kept as part of a permanent
record:
Original application form
Your notes from the initial interview
Insurance and tax forms
Performance appraisal forms
Salary history
Sick leave and vacation history
Training and/or certification achievements
Notes from an exit interview if the employee leaves for any reason
SALARY AND BENEFIT STRUCTURE
In order to attract and retain good people, it is necesary to have a com-
petitive salary and benefit structure. If you are part of a municipal govern-
ment, the general structure may be city-wide. A separate wastewater utility has
more direct control over the structure.
The WPCF conducts a national survey of salaries and fringe benefits of water
pollution control facilities personnel every two years. The survey is summarized
96
-------
in "Deeds and Data" (33), and the full report ("Personnel Advancement Committee's
Wastewater Treatment Facilities Salary and Fringe Benefits Survey") may be
ordered from the WPCF. Among the fringe benefits studied in the survey are vaca-
tion time, holidays, sick leave, sick leave carryover, vacation carryover,
retirement pension programs, health insurance, surgical insurance, major medical
insurance, life insurance, types of working agreements (union, non-union, civil
service), educational expenses, technical organization membership dues, work
clothes expense, etc.
Your review of the WPCF survey will provide an estimate of competitive sala-
ries and fringe benefits in wastewater treatment facilities similar to yours. You
must also, of course, be aware of the salary and fringe benefits of local indus-
tries which may compete for the same type of personnel you seek.
Document your arguments if you find that your salary and fringe benefit
structure is not competitive. This documented case should then be presented to
your governing board. If an effective public relations program has resulted in an
educated board and public, a well documented problem will have a better chance of
being resolved. Without documentation and education, an inadequate salary struc-
ture is likely to persist and result in maintenance costs which might be higher
than if salaries are competitive.
MOTIVATION
You can use your position to improve motivation of your staff. First, you
must recognize the aspects of work that most people consider important. Accord-
ing to a U.S. Department of Labor survey (34), the eight most important factors
in order of performance are:
1. Interesting work
2. Enough help and equipment to get the job done
3. Enough information to get the job done
4. Enough authority to get the job done
5. Good pay
6. Opportunity to develop special abilities
7. Job security
8. Seeing the results of one's work
Of course, each individual has his own set of needs. Status may be important
to one but not to another. You should recognize the needs of each individual in
deciding how to motivate him.
Many studies have shown that workers want to feel important* Remember these
needs and try to meet them. People want to be treated as individuals; they want
to know that they and their work are important; and may want to have more chal-
lenging work. These are important needs (35).
Motivation studies have found that higher pay usually motivates individuals
for a period of time, but then it loses force without even more economic rewards.
In time, economic rewards are taken for granted. Still, even if their effect is
only for a short period, such incentives will continue to play a strong motivat-
ing role, for inadequate pay causes worker dissatisfaction.
97
-------
As part of a public utility, you don't have much freedom to use pay raises
as incentives. You must use other ways to reward workers such as certificates
and letters of recommendation, testimonial dinners, or public recognition for
outstanding job performance. The average individual likes recognition.
Your leadership characteristics will be a strong factor In determining the
motivation of your staff. The following comparison (34) of positive and negative
leadership characteristics will provide some practical guidance to you In terms
of motivating your staff:
4.
5.
Positive Leadership Action _
Consistency. The able leader is
consistent in his behavior pat-
tern. For example, he is not warm
and friendly one day and cold and
distant the next; a tough and
then an easy disciplinarian. He
knows that people like to know
what behavior to expect.
Negative Leadership Action
Inconsistency. People do not know
how to react when a leader varies
his behavior pattern widely. If he
is a firm disciplinarian on one
occasion and soft on another, he
will confuse his staff and cause
hard feelings.
Friendliness. He does not overdo 2. Aloofness. People like to have
their boss act in a friendly,
informal manner towards them. The
friendliness. Genuine friendliness
means neither over-familiarly
nor an attempt to win a cheap
popularity. It Is a sincere
liking of people.
An Individual approach. The good 3.
leader tailors his approach to
each person on an individual basis.
He knows that what works well with
one person may not go over with
another. He studies each individual
who is assigned to him so that he
knows well how he acts and reacts.
For a leader to influence people in
a highly successful way, he must
treat each differently.
A good listener. When someone is 4.
talking to him, the leader is
alert and shows It. He concen-
trates on what the speaker is say-
ing. He knows something about
listening skills in man-to-man
communications .
A prompt disciplinarian. The com- 5.
petent leader knows that he should
.apply disciplinary action as soon
manager who rarely says a friendly
word is rarely liked and is often
not trusted.
A standard approach to dealing with
people. This approach gives little
or no consideration to the differ-
ences in individuals.
A poor listener. This person has
never learned how to listen. He
is a poor communicator because he
is a bad receiver.
A procrastinator in matters of
discipline. Long delays in
applying needed disciplinary
98
-------
Positive Leadership Action
Negative Leadership Action
7.
8.
as possible for maximum effective-
ness and consistency of action. He
also makes his action impersonal.
Straightforwardness-openness. A
good leader gives an individual
a straight answer or he refuses
comments if he cannot give such
an answer. This does not mean,
however, that he is blindly blunt
or that he is undiplomatic. But
he does not manipulate the truth
to serve his own purposes.
Supports his staff. The strong
leader builds loyalty by giving
solid and consistent support to
his staff. They know they can
count on him in tough situations
even at the risk of his own
position.
Gives credit when credit is due.
The strong confident leader always
seeks to give his staff and others
credit for achievements. He makes
it a point to always acknowledge
their contributions. He is gener-
ous in sharing credit'even when he
himself is mainly responsible for
an accomplishment.
Provides opportunities for growth
and development. The alert leader
is always looking for ways in
which he can help individuals to
develop and advance. He is not
only highly receptive to training,
but actively promotes it.
action cause it to lose some of its
effectiveness and often awakens
deep resentment in the individual.
Deviousness. Some individuals
almost always act in a devious
manner. One is never certain
whether they are telling the
whole truth or partial truths.
One never knows what underlying
purpose they have in mind. They
are often schemers whose actions
are either unethical or lie in
that gray zone between ethical and
unethical conduct. Once a leader
gets a reputation as a devious per-
son, he is not trusted.
Wishy-washy in his support of
staff. There are few patterns
of leadership action that hurt
morale and damage loyalty more
than taking a wishy-washy, non-
commital stand. Besides weakening
loyalty, the staff will avoid
necessary risks if they think
that their leader will not
support them.
Hogs the credit or falsely takes
credit. Some individuals who
hold managerial positions are
very stingy in acknowledging the
contributions of others. This
type not only creates resentment'
but kills initiative.
Takes little or no interest in
the growth and development of the
staff. He is indifferent. His
interest is sometimes solely the
job, not people. To this individ-
ual, training is largely a waste of
of time and money.
99
-------
Positive Leadership Action
Negative Leadership Action
10. A cooperator and team player. The J.
competent leader knows that coop-
eration and teamwork are
essential for organizational
effectiveness and accomplishment
of objectives. Although he does
not compromise his principles,
he does try to find common
grounds for acceptable compro-
mises in areas of differences.
11. Receptive to new ideas. The LI.
leader is willing to look at a
new idea on its merits. His
people know that he welcomes new
ideas, will try to evaluate them
carefully and impartially, and
will try to put them into effect
if they are worthwhile. As a
result he creates a positive
climate for new ideas within
his organization.
12. An innovator. The modern leader 12.
knows that he must not only be
receptive to new ideas but must
find and apply new approaches
and techniques.
13. Recognizes and praises good work 13.
and outstanding accomplishments.
The leader knows that people both
need and want recognition as indi-
viduals and acknowledgement of
good work.
14. A firm stand. The strong leader 14.
takes a stand on issues. He is
not blindly stubborn but holds
fast to his position when he
thinks he is right.
15. Objectivity. The good leader 15.
tries to minimize his bias and
to deal with issues and people
in an objective way.
A loner. This person is so much of
an individualist that he cannot
act as a good team member, nor does
he know how to compromise when com-
promise is essential.
Negative toward new ideas. He has
a constantly negative attitude
toward ideas. His first reaction
almost always is, "It won't work."
He is basically a negative person.
Sometimes he is a jealous person
who does not want anyone to receive
credit for something new.
A standpatter. This person is the
type who says, "The method has
worked O.K. for the past fifteen
years. Why should we change now?"
Indifferent. Rarely utters a word
of praise or looks at people as
individuals, but is often quick
to critic i. Basically, this
person d iOt like people.
Rarely takes a strong stand. This
individual wants always to be on
the winning or the popular side.
He wets his finger and holds it
up to see which way the wind is
blowing. Gets the reputation as
an opportunist.
Lets personal bias, likes, and dis-
likes unduly influence him. Some-
times he actually takes pride in
his prejudices.
100
-------
ABSENTEEISM
Absenteeism by people who are not sick can upset the operation and mainte-
nance of your system and undermine the moral of those staff members who report to
work regularly. Some employees believe that they have the right to use sick leave
for additional paid time off. Such absences are annoying, increase costs, and
upset other staff members. Increasing the size of the staff to cover these
absences is uneconomical and foolish. Many approaches have been taken to curb
unjustified absences (30). The degree of success of each approach depends on
staff attitudes, the firmness with which the approach was applied, the support of
the policy makers, and where they are involved, the unions.
Various techniques can be used to curb absenteeism.
The supervisor must set an example by coming to work regularly and on
time.
Any unauthorized absence must be reported at least two hours prior to
the scheduled start of a shift. Failure results in loss of pay or
suspension.
An employee absent two or more days in a row must present a medical
certificate before returning to work.
Spot checks should be made by having a supervisor or physician visit
the home of the chronically absent employee. If he is not found at home
or does not have an adequate excuse, he should be reprimanded and
cautioned that a repetition could result in a suspension with a loss in
pay or possible dismissal.
Require a medical certificate for each leave, with or without pay,
taken by an employee whose record shows frequent absences. Further,
penalize his service record by adjusting for absences. This particular
technique is important because the good worker will not develop a
"taken for a sucker" attitude.
Permit the accumulation of unused sick leave time up to sixty or more
days with the understanding that this accumulated time would be added
to an employee's terminal leave upon retirement, or paid to his estate
upon his death.
Establish a policy to provide additional paid sick time where an excel-
lent attendance record has been maintained and the work performance has
been satisfactory.
Experience has show that when the last two items are properly publi-
cized they are effective in reducing absenteeism. They overcome the
employee's fear that he may lose accumulated sick leave credit. The
knowledge that additional sick leave may be granted during a long ill-
ness serves as an incentive to accumulate sick leave credit and to
maintain a satisfactory performance record.
101
-------
PROMOTION POLICIES
In every organization, a major factor in maintaining employee morale is the
promotional system. It should be fair and impartial. There are few things that
discourage an ambitious and competent person more than to believe that the system
of promotion is unfair and not merit-oriented. He will often seek employment
elsewhere. It is not enough for you to know that the system operates without
bias; it is equally important that the employees believe and know that it is
impartial. This does not mean that you should attempt to convince employees that
a promotion system is fair when it is not. It must be truly one without bias of
any kind.
You must let the employees know what the standards are, what promotional
factors are involved, and how selections are made. It is always important to
indicate what weight various factors receive. It is sometimes desirable, too, to
tell people who fail to get promoted exactly why they fail. This task is often a
distasteful one. Many managers do not like it and avoid it. Although a manager
may not convince a doubting employee of the reasons he was denied promotion, the
majority of employees will appreciate this information, provided they have confi-
dence in the integrity of the manager himself. The failure to tell employees why
they fail has two consequences. First, they do not know where they should try to
improve their performance and they must fall again. Second, they will sometimes
lose faith in their supervisor.
Seniority-oriented promotions are often made when they should be merit-
oriented. Such promotions reduce employee initiative and ambition. If an organ-
ization is unionized, the seniority problem is even worse. Seniority often should
be given some weight for certain positions. However, giving seniority too much
weight will discourage younger, ambitious people. It will discourage work per-
formance and self-development efforts. It will eventually lead to a mediocre
organization.
COLLECTIVE BARGAINING AND CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION
For many years, city employees were represented by employee associations
when they discussed matters pertaining to salaries, working hours, working con-
ditions, and fringe benefits with the city council. In recent years, there has
been a major effort by labor unions to organize public employees (36). Even the
small- to medium-sized municipal wastewater treatment plant staff may now be part
of a public employees union. You may have to conduct union negotiations.
Unions may influence the attitudes of your personnel. If the unions impose
limitations on work areas, they can create an air of non-cooperation* On the
other hand, they can also help promote a good relationship between management and
labor, stressing the need for teamwork.
If your personnel are unionized, you must deal with the union business agent
and sometimes with one or more representatives of the union who are public works
employees. They are often called "shop stewards." Whatever their title, you will
have contact with these individuals and must learn how to work with them. Besides
good working knowledge and negotiating skill, good labor-management relations
102
-------
depend heavily upon the personalities involved. If there are personality clashes,
there is bound to be trouble.
There are two major areas of labor-management relations: collective bargain-
ing to establish contracts, and administration of the contract. Knowledge, skill,
and experience are needed in the contract negotiations. Some practical points
related to negotiating (34) are:
Think in terms of good-faith collective bargaining. Give reasons for
proposals offered, and present reasons why proposals are opposed. In
this connection, do not assume that "inability to pay" is a good answer
to a demand for raises. Even if there is a legal limit to raising
taxes, there is great danger in relying on it as the answer. Such an
"answer" implies that the economic demand is justified and it is just a
question of "finding the money." When this is done, little or no effort
is given to the analysis as to the real merits of the demand.
Recognize unions as essentially political in nature and respect their
chosen representatives. Do not surprise the union, and do not be
tricky. Think of the long-term effects of actions you take, and the
way you take them.
Fight if you know you are right. Tools to manage and a merit personnel
system are examples where a good rational fight can be waged. Remem-
ber, the burden of proof is initially on the party proposing any
change.
Avoid proposals that use a simple formula to solve a union request on a
permanent basis. A proposal of 5 percent extra pay for shift differen-
tial or longevity is an example of this. You will get more mileage out
of a cents-per-hour adjustment for such an item, since, as wages go up
in the years ahead, you will have the opportunity to renegotiate the
item.
Remember, the management pay plan is stronger than anybody's word. The
pay plan should not be "union made," but should reflect equity, merit,
and performance.
Subjects outside the scope of bargaining should be handled in a common
sense way with a sincere public-interest orientation to keep them out-
side the scope of future bargaining.
After the labor contract is negotiated and signed, it must be administered.
This takes skill and good faith on the part of both management and labor. Public
vorks managers need training to know how to deal with labor representatives;
otherwise, friction, and bad working relations are likely to occur.
Employee grievances may take a lot of time and effort. In unionized organi-
sations, grievance procedures will often be spelled out in labor contracts. It is
" important that grievances be handled quickly and in an impartial manner. Undue
-------
Never make false promises.
Whatever the provocation, keep your temper in leash.
Do an adequate job of documenting disciplinary cases and other prob-
lems; you are likely to lose grievance cases if you do not.
Catch and treat personnel problems early, otherwise they may become
larger.
Always stick to facts in labor disputes and insist that labor union
representatives do likewise.
Anticipate areas or situations where trouble is likely to arise with a
union and prepare your strategy well ahead of time.
At the end of every year give each employee a statement of the amount
of money in the form of fringe benefits that has been spent on him.
Many employees are unaware of these figures.
Be careful not to overstaff; it will be difficult in unionized organi-
zations to reduce labor forces.
Do not surrender your rights to install work measurement and perform-
ance standards, ways to increase employee productivity, or ways to
reduce labor costs in collective bargaining negotiations.
Hold fast to the right to have contracts with individuals or private
consultants to carry out any type of work for your organization.
104
-------
9 PUBLIC RELATION;
ROUTINE PUBLIC
CONTACTS
-Telephone colls
-Correspondence
-rUnplanned visits
PUBLIC INFORMATI
News release
-Example
Public preser.
Plant tours
Annual reports
-Major eve
-Service pr-
-Financial
-Operating
-Summary
_L
DELATIONS WITH OTHER
DEPARTMENTS OR AGENCIES
-Don't air internal conflicts
-Maintain good relations with
other agencies
\MS
-------
SECTION 9
PUBLIC RELATIONS
Your wastewater system exists to serve the needs of the public and you will
have truly public relations. Whether these relations are good or bad can have
a major influence on how successfully your system will operate. Good public
relations greatly improve the chances that you will be able to have competitive
salaries and be able to obtain funding for system Improvements. Good public
relations depend on many factors other than your ability to Issue good press
releases and compete for news media attention - factors which often are first
throught of when the term "public relations" is used. Sound and efficient opera-
tion are essential to good public relations (37). No amount of publicity can hide
poor operations. However, sound policies and efficient service alone may not win
public support. It is important to both do a good job and to let the public know
about it. A key to good public relations is the routine public contact during the
course of billings, handling complaints, answering inquiries, etc.
ROUTINE PUBLIC CONTACTS
Many of your contacts with the public occur when a customer calls by tele-
phone. Your telephone manners are very important in creating a friendly atmos-
phere. The following guidance has been developed (38):
Answer calls promptly. Your conversation Is off to a favorable start if
you answer promptly, on the first or second ring, if possible.
Extend a pleasant greeting. You will make friends by greeting the
caller in a friendly, courteous manner. Be alert, enthusiastic, and
sincere.
Answer by identifying yourself. It is easier if the caller knows at
once to whom he is speaking. Say: "Wastewater Department, Allen (or Mr.
Allen) speaking."
Leave word when away from the phone. Leave word where you can be
reached and when you will be back with the person who answers your
phone while you are gone.
Show real interest in the conversation. Don't handle it as just another
crank call.
Be sympathetic. Don't take the attitude that your utility never makes
mistakes.
Be responsive. If you can't answer the question on the spot, call back.
Don't make the customer call again.
105
-------
Be patient. Don't cut the call short; let the caller finish what he has
to say.
Handling customer complaints offers an opportunity to improve your public
relations. Most customers don't call unless they receive poor service or are
faced with an immediate problem. Since the customer feels he has a justified
complaint, it won't do any good to bluntly tell him he is mistaken. Courtesy and
diplomacy are more effective. When a citizen has aired his complaint, he feels
better about it, especially if he has a receptive listener.
It takes self-control to listen to complaints, but this is what must be
done. If the complaint is valid, you should acknowledge it and say what correc-
tive action you will take. You should not make promises just to get rid of the
individual or forget what you said you would do.
You should set up adequate procedures to handle citizen complaints and
decide how much time to spend on them. Most citizens who telephone or who call
in person want to talk to the "head man." Some of this is necessary, but don't
let your management duties suffer because of it.
While you are correcting a problem, the complaining customer should be kept
informed of what is being done in his behalf. When the problem is solved, give
him a brief, accurate and easily understood report. Several weeks after the con-
dition has been corrected someone should make a telephone call to ask if every-
thing is satisfactory.
Some of these procedures may seem so obvious or unimportant that it is dif-
ficult to understand why they are frequently neglected. Some of these sugges-
tions may add steps to existing procedures for handling complaints. Even if your
complaint-handling procedures seem satisfactory, re-examine them periodically to
see if they can be improved.
Your correspondence is also an important public relations factor. Many
officials who are concerned about the citizen's interests in face-to-face con-
tacts are very careless in their correspondence. They will allow letters to go
unanswered; they are abrupt or even rude in their wording; they use dull,
stilted, "business English;" and they add the final insult by using a rubber
stamp signature. Letters are substitutes for face-to-face contacts; the public
relations requirement in face-to-face contacts also applies to correspondence.
The following are points to remember:
Write in a friendly style
Be clear, brief and accurate
Put the most important points first
Use non-technical language
Check facts and review letters carefully
Don't send out letters with messy corrections, typographical errors,
smudges, etc.
106
-------
You must also remember that the public will form impressions of your opera-
tion from what they observe when they come to your office, plant, or city hall.
The employees they encounter should provide prompt, courteous attention.
The behavior of personnel will have a bearing on the citizen's impression.
Employees who are reading or eating at their desks or who are engaged in lengthy
personal conversations with their colleagues or on the telephone create a poor
impression. A room should be set aside in which employees can take their lunch or
coffee breaks*
Citizens will also carry away a favorable or unfavorable impression of a
government from the appearance of its buildings, offices, and equipment. Build-
ings and grounds should be well maintained, offices should be clean and neat, and
equipment should be kept in good condition.
RELATIONS WITH OTHER DEPARTMENTS OR AGENCIES
A factor having an important bearing on public relations is the relationship
between your department and the other departments and agencies of the municipal
government. Some shortsighted department officials make public issues out of
internal conflicts (5). They carry on feuds with other departments; they make
derogatory remarks about other departments when talking to people; and they
announce that their department is the one bright spot in the municipal picture.
The result of these conflicts is usually that the public believes most of the
unfavorable things said about the others and little of the good that a department
claims for itself. Friction between departments cannot be eliminated entirely,
but there is no excuse for ruining the public relations of the entire local
government by public exposure of internal disputes.
To improve public relations, establish cordial relations with your govern-
mental neighbors and don't try to improve your image at the expense of other
departments. This advice applies to relations with other municipalities and with
agencies of federal, state and county governments.
PUBLIC INFORMATION PROGRAMS
A good guide to public information programs is "Public Information Hand-
book," (39) available from the Water Pollution Control Federation. It tells how
to run an organized public information program without hiring a professional
public relations consultant.
Among the key ingredients in an effective public information program are:
News releases
Public presentations
Plant tours
Annual reports
107
-------
News Releases
The news release is probably the most commonly used method of getting Infor-
mation to various news outlets such as newspapers, magazines, radio and tele-
vision. A news release is a written version of the story you wish covered by
the news media. In most cases all the basic information will be contained in the
first few sentences or paragraphs. These are the "who, what, why, where, and
when" that should be in the opening sentences of any release. The remainder
should further discuss these facts, simply and clearly, without repetition.
A news release should include the name, address, and telephone number of the
originator or someone who can supply additional data or answer questions, and
when the story can be released (such as "For Immediate Release").
Figure 26 is an example news release. The release should be typed on your
letterhead. News releases, such as the example, describing the achievements of
the utility staff serve the purposes of both public information and employee
recognition. Other activites which may justify news releases include plans for
plant expansions, plant open houses, planning meetings, presentations at state or
national meetings, and construction contract awards.
Some key points to remember about news releases are:
The story must be timely - not old news.
Type the release in double-spaced format with wide margins.
Double check the release for spelling, facts, and figures - never
exaggerate the facts.
The first paragraph should answer the questions: who, what, where,
when, and why.
Don't use too much detail - use a separate data sheet for the editor's
reference if the story requires such backup.
Keep a current list of newspapers and radio or TV stations that may be
interested in your stories.
Make sure that the release is sent to news outlets that can use it and
is addressed to the staff member who is most concerned.
Frequently, a release will be accompanied by one or more photographs. In
fact, a photograph with a short descriptive caption can in itself be a news
release. For example, a picture of a ground breaking ceremony or a ribbon cutting
announces that work is underway or a job is completed and in service. Some points
to remember in using photographs:
Try to avoid obviously posed pictures
Use a professional photographer
Provide 4" x 5" or 8" x 10" glossy prints
108
-------
Mlllbrook Wastewater Utility District
246 Main Street
Millbrook, California
916-421-5711
March 15, 1979 Contact: R.J. Smith, Manager
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE
MILLBROOK'S WASTEWATER OPERATORS RECEIVE RECOGNITION
Millbrook, California - Two of Millbrook's wastewater
treatment plant operators, Bill Johnson and Tom Wilson became
certified operators under a State of California certification
program. R.J. Smith, Wastewater Utility District Manager,
said that their certification at the highest level (Grade V)
recognized by the State reflects the unusual skill and dedi-
cation of Millbrook's staff. "Of the 600 certified operators
in California, only 41 are certified at the Grade V level and
most of these are working in communities far larger than
Millbrook," Smith reported.
Johnson and Wilson, who have been on the District staff
since 1968 when the most recent District plant expansion was
completed, have received awards from the California Water
Pollution Control Federation for their operation of the
Millbrook system.
Figure 26. Example news release.
109
-------
Make sure the picture background is clean and neat and doesn't show
fire or safety hazards.
Take two of every key photograph
Keep a current file of plant and personnel photographs
Use black and white film for prints to be published
For any photograph issued with a release, prepare a caption on a sep-
arate sheet of paper and paste it to the print.
Public Presentations
Speaking before local groups can be valuable in winning support for a pro-
gram or spreading specific information. Many clubs, social organizations,
political groups, and the like have a program chairman who schedules speakers.
The early fall is a good time to approach local organizations, either by mail or
telephone, with a proposal that water pollution control be included in the pro-
gram plans. It is wise to include a list of possible topics, making sure it is
flexible enough to fit the interests of the specific group. In identifying poten-
tial groups for presentations, do not neglect the young people. Speaking at
schools can be a most rewarding experience to speaker and audience alike.
Some key points related to public presentations are:
Use staff members who make interesting presentations for public
speaking - you should listen to their presentations prior to the public
meeting.
Keep a good file of slides and other good visual aids. Do not over
crowd the slides - make sure they can be read from the back of the
room!
Do not talk down to your audience regardless of their age or attitude.
Keep the tone of the talk conversational to maintain the listener's
interest.
Be prepared to answer questions.
Be sensitive to time constraints - running over your allotted time
(especially at groups who meet at lunch time) leaves a bad impression.
Plant Tours
Plant tours are exceptional opportunities for talking to a "captive" aud-
ience with an expressed interest in what's happening. Giving tours depends on
the accessibility of the plant, its physical arrangement, considerations of
safety and good sense, sufficient parking facilities, etc.
A plant visit must be interesting, informative, and of some value to both
the visiting group and the plant. If these requirements cannot be satisfied, it
may be advisable to avoid tours.
For plant tours, keep the following in mind:
110
-------
Plan your tour presentation in advance. Place yourself in the position
of an uninformed visitor and go through the plant from end to end.
Prepare a plant map and tour summary to hand out to visitors.
Be prepared to answer pointed questions - somebody in the group may be
hostile to public employees.
If there are more than 15 people in the group, split up into two or
more groups each with a tour guide.
Tailor the length of the tour to the interest and age of the group -
one or two hours may be appropriate for engineering students, but not
for a junior high group.
Do not "snow" the audience with technical terms.
Make sure there are no safety hazards along the tour route.
If your normal housekeeping is not something you want the public to
see, correct the housekeeping rather than eliminate tours. Obviously, a
poorly kept plant will make a poor impression.
Send a follow-up letter thanking the group for their interest and
extending an invitation for another visit.
Keep a log of plant visitors.
Annual Reports
An annual report on the wastewater system offers an excellent chance for
positive public relations. The report should have a narrative discussion on the
year's activities, the plans for service, and interesting statistics. Small util-
ities have found the following approaches useful for distributing their annual
reports:
Present a summary report in the daily paper or as a Sunday supplement.
Print the summary report so it is a self-contained mailer for distribu-
tion to all customers.
Have a printed and bound copy of the complete report available at the
utility offices.
The annual report should contain (the last item may be only in the full
report and not the summary report):
A discussion of the major events (for example, major additions to the
plant, major repairs or replacements, etc.) of the past year and the
plans for the next year. You may want to Include a comparison of your
wastewater service charges with those of neighboring towns.
Ill
-------
A summary table showing the population and industries served, the
number of connections, the average daily and per capita flows, and the
treatment standards versus treatment performance.
A description of the receiving water body quality and the contribution
that the treatment system makes to maintaining uses of the receiving
water.
The financial balance sheet for the last year - preferably the last
three to five years with a description of the meaning of the balance
sheet items. "Pie charts" showing costs and revenues may also be useful
(Figure 27).
Monthly operating data for the major unit processes and/or treatment
parameters (see Table 10 for an example) and an overall summary (Table
11).
The report organization, typography, illustrations, and arrangement should
be carefully and neatly done to make a favorable impression. If your utility has
not previously used the annual report as a public relations tool, you should con-
tact other utilities to get copies of their reports.
112
-------
PRIMARIES, THICKENING
ZIMPRO & DECANT
SECONDARY
17.9%
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
13.7%
ADMINISTRATION, ACCOUNTING,
GENERAL EXPENSES
PHOSPHATE
CHLORINATION 0.5%
INDUSTRIAL WASTE
GRIT & SCREENING 0.3*
ORDINANCE SUR VEIL LANCE O3*
Source: Reference 40
Figure 27. Expenditure distribution of operating funds.
113
-------
TABLE 10. TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS (NON-FILTERABLE RESIDUE)
Raw influent
July '77
August
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan. '78
Feb.
March
April
May
June
77-78 Avg
76-77 Avg
75-76 Avg
74-75 Avg
mg/1
501
438
483
489
441
402
405
515
489
461
689
382.
438
436
486
408
Ib/day
13,610
11,950
13,770
15,160
12,790
12,080
12,460
12,730
13,070
13,980
20,540
10,690
13,569
11,915
15,070
12,569
lb/cap/
day
1.18
1.04
1.20
1.32
1.11
1.05
1.08
1.19
1.14
1.22
1.79
.93
1.19
1.04
1.30
1.09
Primary effluent
mg/1
127
126
123
132
115
106
126
130
132
131
116
100
122
122
116
125
Ib/day
3,360
3,370
3,450
3,910
3,220
3,150
3,280
3,210
3,510
4,020
3,600
2,780
3,405
3,269
3,598
3,736
% rem
75
72
75
74
75
74
74
75
73
71
83
74
75
72
76
70
Final effluent
mg/1
14
18
13
16
16
18
16
16
20
18
17
12
16
14
16
16
lb/
day
374
464
364
463
445
521
437
403
523
544
557
346
453
356
519
495
% rem
97
96
97
97
97
96
96
97
96
96
98
97
97
96
95
95
Source: Reference 40
114
-------
TABLE 11. SUMMARY OF OPERATING RESULTS
POPULATION
Estimated connected - Grand Haven 9,000
Estimated connected - Spring Lake 2,500
11,500
Population Equivalent - BOD 63,359
Population Equivalent - SS 61,667
(Population Equivalents are calculated on the basis
of raw sewage - 0.17 Ib of BOD/cap/day and 0.22
Ib of SS/cap/day)
RAINFALL
Monthly average, in. 3.05
SEWAGE
Total mil gal treated 1,216
mil gal per day 3.3
gal/cap/day 290
ACTIVATED SLUDGE
mil cu ft used 3.170
cu ft air/gal sewage 2.6
cu ft air/lb BOD fed It332
cu ft air/lb BOD removed 1,413
cu ft air/lb MLVSS under aeration 423
Aeration, hr 5-28
Percent return sludge 58
Sludge age, days 7»9
5-DAY BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
Raw, mg/1 382
Prmary Effluent, mg/1 235
Final Effluent, mg/1 l2
Influent, Ib/day 10,771
Influent, Ib/cap/day °-9A
Primary Effluent, Ib/day 6,643
Percent primary removal 38
Final Effluent, Ib/day 40A
Final Effluent, Ib/cap/day 0-0*
Total plant percent removal 96
Lb applied per 1000 cu ft of aeration tank 44
Lb applied per 100 Ib MLVSS under aeration 33
115
-------
TABLE 11. (Continued)
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
Raw, mg/1438
Primary Effluent, mg/1 122
Final Effluent, mg/1 16
Influent, Ib/day 13,569
Influent, Ib/cap/day 1.19
Primary Effluent, Ib/day 3,405
Percent primary removal 75
Final Effluent, Ib/day 453
Final Effluent, Ib/cap/day .04
Total plant percent removal 97
Lb removed per mil gal treated 3,938
PHOSPHORUS
Raw, mg/1 5.5
Primary Effluent, mg/1 3.3
Final Effluent, mg/1 0.7
Influent, Ib/mo 4,641
Final Effluent, Ib/mo 586
Total plant percent removal 87
Fe applied, mg/1 4.3
Total Ib Fe used 43,307
Cost of Fe $3,681.14
SLUDGE
Primary Sludge, mil gal 6.34
Primary Sludge, mil Ib 3.83
Waste Activated, mil gal 63.14
Waste Activated, mil Ib 4.12
Wet Air Oxidation, mil gal 18.50
Wet Air Oxidation, mil Ib 6.71
Rate, gpm 63
Reactor Temperature, °F 383
Reactor pressure, psi 309
Decant overflow, mil Ib 2.20
Thickener overflow, mil Ib 1.68
Vacuum filtered, mil Ib 4.62
^Filtrate, mil Ib .24
UTILITIES
Electrical Energy
Grand Haven Pumping Station total KWH used 250,080
Cost per KWH 5.09$
Cost per mil gal pumped $17.01
116
-------
TABLE 11. (Continued)
Electrical Energy (continued)
Spring Lake Pumping Station total KWH used 82,269
Cost per KWH 3.933*
Cost per mil gal pumped $25.30
Plant use total KWH 5,506,800
Cost per KWH 3.00$
Cost per mil gal treated $135.26
Total electric cost for plant use and pumping $178,981.14
Total KWH used 5,839,149
Total cost per XWH 3.07$
Total cost per month $14,915.10
Total cost per day $490.36
Total cost per mil gal $147.21
Gas
Cubic feet for heating and operating 15,835,100
Total gas cost $34,013.92
Cost per 100 cu ft 21.404
Water
Gallons plant use 18,118.00
Total water cost $4,413.43
Cost per 1000 gal 24.40+
COST
Net cost of wastewater treatment $756,303.03
Cost per mil gal wastewater treated $622.12
Cost per ton of influent BOD $384.75
Source: Reference 40
117
-------
SELECTION AND USE OF CONSULTANTS
TYPES OF CONSULTANTS
SELECTION PROCEDURE
Qualifications
statements
-Proposals
Interviews
-Method o f payment
WHY HIRE A CONSULTANT?
-Special skills
Independent opinion
-Lack of manpower
or time
-Authoritative report
WORKING WITH
THE CONSULTANT
-------
SECTION 10
SELECTION AND USE OF CONSULTANTS
TYPES OF CONSULTANTS
Consultants may be used for the following purposes:
Planning and design of new facilities
Solving operation and maintenance problems (See Section 11)
Operating the treatment plant (see Section 11)
Providing financial audits
Advising on financial matters such as bond issues
Improving public relations
Solving management advice
Managing the construction of a project
WHY HIRE A CONSULTANT?
You may decide to hire a consultant because you (41):
Need skills that are not available on your staff
Need an independent opinion
Do not have the time or staff available to work on the problem
Need an authoritative report for your superiors or a state or federal
agency
SELECTION PROCEDURES
The first step in selecting a consultant is to write down what you want him
to do and what qualifications he should have. You should then let consultants
know you may be needing their services. This can be done by advertisements In
major metropolitan newspapers in your area and in professional trade journals.
You may also send the proposed scope of work directly to consultants which have
been recommended to you by other towns or districts. You should ask those that
respond to send their general qualifications to you.
The qualification statements should be reviewed by at least a three-person
review board. At least one of the board should be a professional in the consult-
ant's field. Take the time to call some of the firm's other clients. Ask these
other clients:
Did the firm perform as expected?
Was the work done on time?
Was the work done within budget?
Would you use the firm again?
119
-------
You should make a list of criteria which will be used to rank the firms
(such as specialized experience in your problem area, location, adequate staff
size to do your work, ratings by other clients, etc.). You may wish to use more
professionals in the consultant's field to serve as (or on) the review board.
Nearby universities, professional associations, and other government agencies are
possible sources of professionals for your review board. After rating the quali-
fication statements, select 3 to 5 firms to prepare detailed proposals and to
interview for the work. The same review board should be used for the interviews.
In reviewing the proposals, concentrate on the qualifications of the firm's
people that will be assigned to your project. Insist that the proposed project
manager for your work be present at the interview.
After the proposals and interviews are evaluated, negotiations with the top-
rated firm should be held to finalize the scope and cost of the work. There are
several basis for calculating costs (42):
Per Diem - A certain cost per day is paid for services with this
approach. The daily rate includes overhead and profit but not expenses
such as travel or meals. This approach is often used for work which
is hard to define in scope and is only a few days in duration; for
example, troubleshooting an O&M problem or testifying in court.
Cost Reimbursement - Services are paid on the basis of salary cost,
overhead, and a fixed profit. This is often used for design contracts
and studies. A cost ceiling or budget amount which cannot be exceeded
is often established.
Lump Sum or Fixed Price - The scope of work is accomplished for a spec-
ified dollar amount. This approach is often used for routine sampling
programs or reports of clearly defined scope.
Retainer - This method is used when the need for a consultant's serv-
ices is expected to last for a long time. It insures that a certain
person will be available as needed. To guarantee these services, a cer-
tain amount is paid at regular intervals for which the consultant pro-
vides certain specified services as well as being available, generally
on a per diem basis, as required by the client.
If EPA grants are involved, there are regulations related to consultant
selection and contracts that must be followed. These regulations affect:
Method of payment - for example, per diem contracts are usually limited
to $10,000 or less; percentage of construction costs as a basis for fee
is prohibited
Public notice - procedures vary with the size of the project
Evaluation procedures - certain criteria must be used
Negotiation procedures
120
-------
Basis for cost proposals and cost review
Required contract provisions
You should obtain a copy of the current EPA regulations from your EPA
regional office (40CFR, part 35.937).
A useful reference for consultant selection and contracts is "Consulting
Engineer-A Guide for the Engagement of Engineering Services (47), available from
the ASCE.
WORKING WITH THE CONSULTANT
Once the consultant is under contract, you should:
Review with him what you want done once more to make sure there is no
confusion.
Make sure the consultant knows who to report to on your staff and which
staff members have information he may need.
Provide any facilities or services (such as office space or secretarial
help) that will make it easier for the consultant to do the job.
Meet regularly to discuss his progress to make sure that he stays on
the track.
Don't treat the problem as solved just because you've hired a con-
sultant. You must have a continuing commitment to solve the problem
and work with the consultant until the solution is developed.
121
-------
CONTRACTS FOR OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
FULL OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE CONTRACTS
Reason for private 0 & M contracts
How are these contracts established?
-Scope of services
-Treatment conditions
-Plant staffing
-Sludge handling
-Plant improvements
-Terms and conditions
-Regulatory reporting
-Performance guarantee
Disadvantages of full 0 & M contracts
OPERATIONAL
ASSISTANCE CONTRACTS
-Federal grant funding
to 75% for plant
startup and operator
+r« i n i n n
training
-------
SECTION 11
CONTRACTS FOR OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
Operating and maintaining today's complicated wastewater treatment facili-
ties can be a major problem for the small- to medium-sized community. The skills
required for new plants are often considerably higher than in the past. Many
communities don't have the financial resources to hire, train, and keep adequate
personnel. Some may overlook the need for upgrading staff to operate the new
facilities. As a result, many new facilities may fail to meet discharge
standards. An approach to consider is to hire someone on a contract basis to
operate and maintain the treatment plant.
The concept of contracting areawide management is currently being studied
and tested. Such a plan would be highly site specific and affect only a few
plants nationwide. Detailed discussion of this concept is not included since it
may lead to confusion among the plant managers not affected by it.
Several private organizations have been formed to contract operating and
maintenance services ranging from full-service contracts to giving special advice
on operations. Under a full-service contract, the contractor has complete respon-
sibility for operation and maintenance of the plant. The plant personnel become
employees of the management organization. Several consulting engineering firms
and other consultants provide advice on operations. These firms review practices
and procedures and advise the plant staff of changes to improve performance,
reduce operating costs, etc. The firm has no managerial responsibility for plant
operations. These approaches are described in greater detail in the following
sections.
FULL OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE CONTRACTS
There are several organizations that provide full operation and maintenance
service. The extent of services can be tailored to the specific desires of the
community. One organization provides full operation and maintenance for five
municipal wastewater treatment plants ranging in size from 4.7 to 21 mgd. Another
provides varying levels of operation and maintenance service at six facilities.
.Reasons for Private Operation and Maintenance Contracts
Under what conditions should a community consider contracting with a private
firm to operate and maintain the wastewater treatment facilities? What are the
key factors contributing to such a decision? You must analyze physical, finan-
cial, legal, and political factors to determine what is in the best Interest of
your community.
Currently, less than two dozen community treatment plants are operated by
contractors* In all but a few cases, the contractor was hired because the
123
-------
municipality didn't or couldn't operate the plant satisfactorily. For example,
effluent discharge standards weren't met or persistent odor problems caused com-
plaints. In several of these installations, the staff didn't have the skills to
operate complicated solids handling facilities; this led to overloading the plant
and odor problems. One community hired a contractor to eliminate a complex union
problem. It wanted to prevent potential labor problems from leading to violations
of discharge standards. At a new regional plant without previous staff, the
elected directors chose to contract operations and maintenance with a private
organzation. High operating costs have caused others to consider the contract
approach.
How Are These Contracts Established?
What is involved in establishing a full operation and maintenance contract
with a private organization?
Once the community has decided on a full operation and maintenance contract,
it requests proposals from organizations that offer these services. The prepara-
tion of a detailed proposal requires a review of the operation and management of
the plant and an inspection of the facilities. This analysis will reveal whether
the plant is physically capable of meeting treatment objectives if operated and
maintained properly. From this information, a plan outlining proper operation and
expected performance can be developed. The contractor must also decide if the
facilities can be operated within the existing budget. The contract will be for a
fixed annual fee and will have a performance guarantee.
Competitive proposals should be sought from several organizations. You
should prepare detailed specifications to compare the proposals. Major items in
the specifications may be:
Scope and extent of services
Treatment conditions
Plant staffing
Sludge handling and disposal
Plant improvements
Terms and conditions of the contract
Reports to regulatory agencies
Performance guarantee
Owner's rights of inspection
Scope and Extent of Services
The requests for proposals must completely define the scope and extent of
services to be provided and must contain guideline specifications to allow bid
comparisons. Most full-maintenance contracts are similar; however, there are some
differences in the services being offered. For example, some contractors will
assume operation and maintenance responsibilities for the collection system and
pumping stations, as well as for the treatment plant.
The extent of financial responsibility for repair and replacement of equip-
ment during the contract period can vary. Some organizations assume full finan-
cial responsibility for repair or replacement of an equipment item; others estab-
lish a maximum allowance determined by equipment age, physical conditions, etc.
124
-------
Some organizations provide a performance guarantee which includes the finan-
cial responsibility for fines levied for effluent discharge violations. Any
limitations on the amount of the fine must be clearly defined in the proposal. It
is important to remember that the owner has the ultimate legal responsibility for
compliance with discharge requirements, regardless of what contractual arrange-
ments have been made for operation and maintenance.
The requests for proposals must state what portion of the costs of utili-
ties, chemicals, maintenance materials, etc*, will be paid by the management
organization.
Treatment Conditions
The contract should state the wastewater flows and characteristics to which
the performance guarantee applies. Such factors as the average daily flow, peak
daily flow, peak hourly flow, influent pH range, total and soluble BOD (30-day
average), suspended solids (30-day average), and ratio of peak daily to average
daily loading must be specified.
Plant Staffing
You must consider how and to what extent the contractor proposes to use
existing staff. Since private 'operation of publicly-owned treatment facilities
can be a sensitive issue, maximum support for private operation must be gained by
assuring employees of the city that they will not lose their jobs.
Generally, the contractor will utilize as much of the existing staff as pos-
sible. The contractor will use one of its trained employees to manage the plant
and train an assistant. The services of home office support personnel will be
used to train existing staff and establish new operation and maintenance proce-
dures. Most of the plant operation staff will likely be existing employees of the
city.
Sludge Handling and Disposal
The handling and disposal of waste solids and sludges must be defined in the
request for proposals. If waste solids are to be hauled from the plant and
disposed of by landfill or land spreading, the procedures for this service must
be defined in the scope of the contract.
Plant Improvements
Full operation and maintenance contracts don't include construction of plant
improvements or additions. The contract may include minor plant or process mod-
ifications required to meet performance standards. If, for example, during a con-
tract period a major plant modification is required (such as the addition of a
new clarifier or pump station), the contractor will often define what is needed
and provide design recommendations for the Improvement. The contractor will then
give the responsibility of design, equipment purchase, and construction to the
owner. However, in some cases, the contractor will design minor improvements with
its own engineering staff and will assist the owner in obtaining the equipment
and administering a construction contract. These services are outside the general
scope of the management contract and must be negotiated separately. In developing
the contract specifications, the limits of responsibility for capital improve-
ments must be clearly defined*
125
-------
Terms and Conditions of Contract
The contract must fully define the terms and conditions covering financial
and legal responsibility of each party, such as price, duration of contract, and
method of payment.
Provisions for cancellation of the contract by either party and any finan-
cial liabilities of either party at time of cancellation must be included. Gen-
erally, contract cancellation can be initiated by either party after filing writ-
ten notice 90 to 180 days prior to the cancellation date.
All contracts will have clauses for inflation in the cost of utilities,
materials, chemicals, and, in some cases, labor. Some organizations offer an
annual fee with fixed labor costs for the duration of the contract, in which case
the contractor absorbs increases in labor costs. Others include inflation
factors which are tied to national indices, such as the Consumer Price Index.
These inflation factors can have a significant effect on the cost over the life
of the contract and should be established and agreed upon when negotiating the
contract.
Public liability and property damage insurance covering operations of the
contractor at the publicly-owned wastewater treatment plant must also be
provided. The amount of this insurance must be clearly established during
contract negotiations.
A performance bond should also be considered to insure that the contract is
carried through to completion. In the case of a default, the bond would be used
to pay off the community to restore the plant to public operation.
Contracts must contain a "hold harmless" clause protecting the community
from any liability for death, injury or personal property damage caused by the
contractor's operation of the treatment facilities. Further, liabilities should
also be assigned for any damage or injury occurring from the accidental discharge
of wastewater.
The contract should contain provisions for inspection of books and records
to determine if increases in compensation are justified and for general compli-
ance with provisions of the contracts.
Reports to Regulatory Agencies
The contract should define the nature and extent of operation and monitoring
reports to be prepared and submitted to regulatory agencies. Generally a con-
tractor will do this in a full operation and maintenance contract.
Performance Guarantee
In addition to full financial responsibility for operation of the treatment
facilities, some contractors will offer a performance guarantee. This guarantee
transfers the responsibility for meeting effluent standards from the community to
the contractor. However, the legal responsibility for meeting discharge require-
ments is still the owner's, regardless of the contractual arrangements which have
been made for plant operations and maintenance. Within certain limits, the con-
tractor may assume financial liability for any fines for nonaccidental violations
of the discharge standard. The extent to which the contractor will stand behind
126
-------
his performance guarantee and his responsibility for any possible fines must be
clearly established during contract negotiations.
Disadvantages of Full Operation and Maintenance Contracts
There are certain disadvantages in contracting with private firms for opera-
tion of publicly-owned treatment works. Since the contractor operates with a
profit incentive, there is a danger that a certain amount of corner-cutting may
occur. One area of particular concern is mechanical equipment maintenance. Some
contracts exclude the cost of equipment repair or replacement or provide only a
limited allowance. Under these conditions, the community doesn't have assurance
that the equipment will be properly maintained. The contract should clearly
describe the type and amount of maintenance to be provided. Equipment repair and
replacement allowances should be realistic and enough to offset the anticipated
expense. The higher the allowance, the greater the incentive for the contractor
to maintain the equipment. Prior to the negotiation of a service contract, the
community should perform a detailed invent6ry, inspection, and assessment of the
condition of all plant equipment. At this time, assistance from equipment manu-
facturers or special consultants will be helpful. A specific maintenance program
must be detailed and agreed upon during contract negotiation.
There is another potential disadvantage of a full maintenance and operation
contract. Where prior operating history and costs are not available (such as for
a new plant or for one with major improvements), it is difficult to know whether
the fee being proposed by a private organization is reasonable. Securing a fair
price for the services is a problem, unless they are sought on a competitive
basis. Presently, there is only one major national firm offering full services.
Under these circumstances, you should ask a consultant experienced in treatment
plant operation and management to help evaluate the proposed cost. The consultant
should review the proposed management and staffing requirments, operational
costs, and maintenance requirements and advise the owner as to whether the
services being offered and the associated fee are reasonable.
OPERATIONAL ASSISTANCE CONTRACTS
An operational assistance contract is quite different rrom a full operation
and maintenance contract. The main difference is that the private organization
doesn't assume administrative and financial control of the wastewater treatment
facilities. Rather, this organization serves as a consultant, furnishing tech-
nical help to solve any treatment problems. It is retained by the community in a
manner similar to the consulting contracts discussed in Section 10.
There are numerous organizations that offer operations review and consulting
services to identify and solve treatment problems. These organizations have
gained practical experience in the operation of treatment facilities. In addi-
tion, numerous consulting engineering firms have recently established operation
and maintenance specialty groups. Some equipment manufacturers offer plant
operational assistance services as well.
As in the case with the full operation and maintenance contracts, the con-
sultant trains plant personnel and sets up proper operating and maintenance pro-
cedures. These services are often provided for a fixed fee negotiated annually.
127
-------
With this type of contract, the community makes all management decisions and has
the full responsibility for paying all operating costs such as salaries, utili-
ties, chemicals, etc.
One firm indicated that at the request of a community, it will place one of
its personnel in charge of plant operations to correct operational problems.
Although plant staff are responsible to this manager for direction, he has no
authority to hire or fire personnel. He has little power to correct plant prob-
lems related to personnel.
Plant performance guarantees are not usually offered by operational assist-
ance consultants since they don't have total control over operation and manage-
ment. One firm will assume limited financial responsibility toward meeting a
plant performance guarantee if given enough authority by the community to have
management control of the treatment facilities.
Correcting problems is more indirect with a plant operational assistance
contract. The problem must be presented to the community official responsible for
taking corrective action. Correcting process or mechanical problems may be fairly
easy. Solving a personnel problem which is contributing to poor performance may
be considerably more involved.
Operational assistance service can be very useful at plant startup. Under
current EPA grant funding provisions, the federal government will finance up to
75 percent of an operator training program for the start-up of a community waste-
water treatment plant currently under construction with an EPA grant. The consul-
tant can provide on-site classroom instruction and "hands-on" experience in pro-
cess and mechanical operations, maintenance, and safety and emergency procedures.
The laboratory staff must also be Instructed in sampling and testing procedures,
data collection, and regulatory monitoring and reporting. The operations and
maintenance manual is an important tool in plant start-up and must be updated and
revised on a regular basis. The operations consultant can be very helpful in pre-
paring this document.
To obtain operational services, you should contact various organizations
Offering them. Discuss your problems with them and decide if they offer appro-
priate services. Once you have narrowed the list to a responsive group of poten-
tial service consultants, ask for proposals defining the scope and extent of the
services and a general fee structure. Compare the proposals using a standard set
of guidelines to insure that all contractors will be furnishing the same ser-
vices. From this review, you can select the firm best suited to your needs and
negotiate with them. The fees and terms and conditions of the contract would be
similar to other professional service contracts discussed in Section 10.
128
-------
fi2
ENERGY CONSERVATION
JL
THE NEED FOR
CONSERVATION
Shortages
and rising
costs
_L
ENERGY USES IN
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
~ Liquid and solids
handling processes
_L
RESOURCE RECOVERY PROGRAMS
Anaerobic digester gas
Gas production
Systems to use gas
Sludge utilization
_L
_L
CONSERVATION POSSIBILITIES
& PRACTICES
Pump adjustments
Pump maintenance and
operation
Plant lighting, heating &
ventilation
Screening & grit removal
Sludge pumping
Trickling filters
RBCs
Activated sludge
Solids retention time
Sludge dewatering
Anaerobic digestion
SOLAR ENERGY
_L
MANAGEMENT OF
OPERATION
Operating
records
- Contingency
plans
-Operator
training
-------
SECTION 12
ENERGY CONSERVATION
THE NEED FOR CONSERVATION
Many secondary and tertiary treatment plants require from 4 to 15 times more
electrical power than the primary plants of the past. Because of this, there is
a real need for energy conservation. Recent shortages and the high costs of
electricity, fuels, and chemicals have become important influences in plant
design and operation.
Until recently, little or no attention to the availability of the consumable
supplies and utilities needed for plant operation has been given in treatment
plant design. However, the fuel shortage in 1973-74 demonstrated how sensitive
the supply of products and utilities is to a dependable supply of crude oil (43).
In addition, there were shortages of some chemicals including lime and chlorine
needed at wastewater treatment plants. While most chemicals and utilities are
available in 1979, their costs have increased greatly over the last five years
and will continue to increase in the future. You can make an important energy
and resource conservation effort in your plant operation.
ENERGY USES IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Energy requirements in wastewater treatment are for wastewater pumping, pri-
mary treatment, secondary treatment, tertiary treatment in some cases, disinfec-
tion, building heating and cooling, and sludge treatment and disposal. Energy
requirements for almost all wastewater and sludge treatment processes are given
in a recent EPA report on energy, "Energy Conservation in Municipal Wastewater
Treatment" (MDC-32), EPA 430/9-77-011 (44).
The EPA report showed that trickling filters with rock media require' the
least amount of energy of any secondary treatment method. Only a relatively
small amount of energy is required for preliminary and primary treatment, disin-
fection by chlorination, and for building heating and cooling. Most of the
energy required in a conventional wastewater treatment plant is for the secondary
treatment system. Aeration energy requirements in activated sludge treatment are
often the single largest energy use in a typical wastewater treatment plant.
Sludge treatment processes also require a lot of energy. Energy required
for anaerobic digestion Is affected by air and sludge temperature. Most energy
is required to heat anaerobic digesters in colder climates.
CONSERVATION POSSIBILITIES AND PROGRAMS
This section discusses things that you can do to conserve energy in your
treatment plant. These suggestions should be carefully considered for their
129
-------
full effect on the wastewater treatment system. Measures which may help one
plant may not save energy in another or may cause process control problems.
You should be careful when reducing electrical power supplied for treatment
equipment operation. Some may cause some loss in treatment efficiency.
Pump Adjustments
One of the major users of energy in most plants is pumping. Typically,
centrifugal pumps use most of the total pumping energy. For a centrifugal pump,
as the pumping head is increased, both flow and power consumption may be
decreased. By partly closing (or throttling) the discharge valve, an artificial
head is created. This causes a lower flow to be pumped and the power consumption
may be reduced depending on the characteristics of the pump curve and the opera-
ting point. Such adjustments can be made during low flow periods or in initial
phases of plant operation when flows are low. Be careful not to close valves so
far that they plug or that velocities are reduced so low that solids settle in
pipes. Any adjustments or changes in pumping should be very carefully assessed by
someone familiar with your system and knowledgeable about pumping. Poor judgement
may lead to increase in energy consumption and possibly dangerous operating
conditions.
Changes in the type, number and speed of pumps may reduce pumping energy.
If a pump is to be operated at a reduced capacity for a long time, energy can be
saved by installing a smaller impeller in the same pump. This method reduces
power consumption more than throttling.
Perhaps the most common method to vary pumping rate and conserve pumping
energy for larger plants is control of pump speed. One way to do this is to
change pulley sizes for belt-drives or reduce motors to lower speeds. Drives
using manually adjustable pulley and belt systems, two speed motors, and various
types of electronic drives can also be used. These methods require only that
operating personnel turn a handcrank, push a button or turn a knob to adjust pump
speed.
For centrigual pumps, reducing pump speed allows the use of the more effi-
cient, full-size impeller and at the same time provides a quick, easy way to
increase pumping capacity when it is needed. Operation at lower speed also
results in a longer pump life.
When the replacement of existing pumps is being planned, consider variable
speed pumps. Pump speed is regulated automatically by changing motor speed or
using a variable speed drive between the pump and motor. Speed is controlled to
pace the pump flow to items such as wet well level or discharge pressure. This
method can save a lot of energy. However, the initial cost of the drive and con-
troller and increased maintenance costs may be more than the savings in energy
costs. Your consultant can determine if variable speed drives will save you
money.
Propeller or axial flow pumps normally use more power when the discharge
head goes up. Power used by positive displacement pumps is almost directly
related to discharge pressure.
130
-------
Energy savings with these pumping systems, particularly from positive dis-
placement systems, can be obtained by varying pump speed. Nearly all of the speed
control methods for centrifugal pumps may also be used for positive displacement
pumps. Small positive displacement pumps, such as those used for chemical feeding
or sludge pumping often have a built-in way to control either the length or
timing of pumping strokes. Adjustments to these types of pumps are easy and
quick. An adjustable timer can be used to control the percent of time the pump
operates.
Energy savings can also be accomplished by sharing the pumping load among
several pumps in a system. Use only the number of pumps necessary to handle the
required volume at any time (44).
Pump Maintenance and Operation
Besides the adjustments to pumps discussed above, operation and maintenance
can also affect energy consumption. Some items to regularly check are:
Partial clogging or closures in valves, pipelines and pumps.
Wear on pump Impellers and casings which lowers effclency. Installa-
tion or replacement of wear rings or adjustment of the impeller setting
is all that may be required to regain original efficiencies.
Improper adjustment of packing causing binding of pump shaft.
Improper settings for start-stop controls causing too frequent cycling
of pumps.
Dirty or loose electrical contacts.
Plant Lighting, Heating, and Ventilation
Past practice in many multi-shift plants has been to have all lights burning
continuously regardless of the needs of the area* Non-work areas and yards are
often highly illuminated. The electricity required for lighting in many plants
could be reduced 20 to 30 percent without any loss in work efficiency or safety.
Your ventilation equipment may provide 4 to 6 fresh air changes per hour.
Most industrial plants are designed for 1.5 fresh air changes per hour. If pos-
sible, the number of fresh air changes should be reduced for structures such as
headworks, solids processing, tunnels, and digester control rooms; however, care
must be taken to keep a safe working atmosphere in the various buildings. When
ventilation rates can be safely reduced to 2 to 3 changes per hour, the building
heat requirement may be reduced 25 to 30 percent.
Some energy conservation measures that are applicable to all large buildings
are (7):
Reduce corridor, room, and outdoor lighting levels as much as possible
considering operational requirements, safety, and security.
131
-------
Shut down air conditioning equipment and reduce heating levels in unoc-
cupied buildings as much as possible on weekends and holidays.
Reduce the normal heating and cooling to unoccupied spaces such as
storerooms.
Reduce the amount of outside ventilation air used in heating, ventilat-
ing, and air conditioning systems to meet the minimum safe ventilation
requirements.
For predicted hot days, consider cooling the building below normal at
night and during early morning hours and allowing the temprature to
rise during the afternoon.
Keep air filter systems clean for better circulation and to reduce fan
horsepower.
Inspect and repair, if necessary, insulation, caulking, weather-
stripping, and storm windows of buildings.
Check pipe insulation on all steam or hot water lines passing through
air conditioned spaces and on all chilled water lines or cold air ducts
passing through non-air-conditioned space*
Regularly clean lighting fixtures, lamps, reflectors, and shades to
keep up maximum lighting efficiency.
Post instructions concerning operation and maintenance procedures for
all employees.
Turn off air conditioning shortly before the end of the working day in
areas not used around-the-clock.
For individual air conditioning units, close the damper admitting out-
side air to the minimum position.
To reduce air conditioning loads, close blinds, shades, and draperies
on the sunny side of the building.
Keep outside doors and windows closed during heating and cooling
seasons.
Use a minimum amount of lighting during daylight hours in rooms which
have adequate windows or skylights.
Keep unnecessary lights turned off and shut off lights when leaving
office or other work areas.
Turn off electric fans, coffee makers, and other appliances when not
needed, especially during peak demand periods.
132
-------
Screening and Grit Removal
If you have a sludge incinerator, consider burning your screenings rather
than hauling them to land disposal. If you do haul them, provide enough storage
so that you don't waste any trips.
For grit removal, don't make any extra effort to produce a "clean" grit,
which is later disposed of at a landfill. Washing grit may often be unnecessary.
Sludge Pumping
Over-pumping of sludge from settling basins wastes energy. Over-pumping
often occurs during low-flow periods and results in sludge which is too thin.
Pumps should be reset to reflect the low flow.
In addition to increasing the energy required to pump the sludge, there can
be a chain effect throughout the plant. For example, the effects of pumping
sludge with A percent solids versus 5 percent solids include: an increase of 20
to 25 percent in initial pumping energy; increased volume of sludge can affect
loadings, efficiencies and energy requirements for thickeners, supernatant return
pumps, chemical feeding and mixing equipment, digester heating systems and
dewatering systems; and adverse effects on digester gas production and incinera-
tor operation.
Trickling Filters
The major energy consumption in trickling filter operation is the electric-
ity required for recirculation pumping. Attention to pump and motor efficien-
cies is important. The actual effect of increasing and decreasing recirculation
rates should be determined at each plant. Plants which meet effluent discharge
requirements at 1:1 recirculation ratios may also do so at 0.75:1 or 0.5:1 ratios
(7)-
Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC)
Energy consumption is largely for media rotation. If an RBC plant is opera-
ting at less than full design capacity, energy can be saved by leaving a portion
of the contactor units idle, or by reducing the rotational speed. Adjusting
rotational speed of individual stages to meet the discharge requirements should
be done at each plant (7).
Activated Sludge
Energy required for aeration in an activated sludge plant usually exceeds
all other uses in the plant. Because of this, the possibility of energy savings
deserves a great deal of attention.
In diffused-air plants, the major energy user is the blower. Like pumps,
blowers can be either centrifugal or positive displacement. Centrifugal blowers
are most commonly used in large plants but are also used in small plants.
133
-------
Centrifugal blowers can be controlled in much the same way as centrifugal
pumps. Air flow can be controlled by partial closure of a throttling valve on the
blower suction or discharge, by changing impeller design, or by changing speed.
One of the easiest, most efficient ways is to adjust the valve on the suction
side of the blower. This method reduces energy consumption more than throttling
the discharge valve for the same reduction in air flow. Because most blower
installations already have the necessary valving, the only cost is for operating
labor. Control of the suction valve can also be made automatic. Seek help from
your consulting engineer to do this; he will be aware of some of the problems
associated with this, such as blower surge and its control.
Air flow and energy consumption can be controlled for positive displacement
blowers by control of speed or the use of several units. You must also consider
the side effects of reducing aeration. It could result in loss of treatment
efficiency and in higher total plant energy uses as a result of an increased
loading on solids processing. Thus, the overall effects of unit energy conserva-
tion on the total activated sludge process 'must be considered.
Proper maintenance of blower bearings, seals, and clearances can reduce
energy use. Mr filters and diffusers must be kept clean. If left dirty they
can account for increased pressure drops of up to 20 percent (44).
Effects of Solids Retention Time on Overall Energy Utilization
Conserving electrical energy use by manipulating the solids retention time
(SRT) results in a tradeoff between aeration basin power and additional sludge
production. The higher the SRT, the larger the aeration energy requirement. The
tradeoff is that sludge production decreases as the SRT increases. So at a higher
SRT, the aeration energy requirements are higher, but the sludge treatment energy
requirements are lower.
The practical limits of SRT vary from 3 days to about 15 days. By varying
the SRT, the energy requirements may vary more than 20 percent. Overall, a lower
SRT should reduce the overall energy requirements if the sludge handling system
is a low energy use system. However, if the sludge produced is treated in an
energy-intensive system, it may be more energy efficient to increase the SRT to
reduce solids production (44).
Sludge Dewatering
Intermittent operation of sludge dewatering processes can save energy
because equipment operated near design capacity has greater efficiency. If your
plant is not yet fully loaded, operating intermittently at full load uses less
energy than running all the time at low loadings.
The following example of a dewatering system consisting of chemical condi-
tioning and vacuum filtration shows the potential for energy savings. Table 12
shows the energy requirements for 1 and 10 mgd plants operated intermittently and
continuously. Intermittent operation could reduce energy consumption by approxi-
mately 45 percent for a 1 mgd plant and by over 20 percent for a 10 mgd plant.
As the size of the plant increases, the saving continues to decrease, but at 100
mgd the saving is still about 15 percent. The total operating and maintenance
134
-------
costs would also be reduced through intermittent operation. The savings are
approximately 20 percent for both 1 and 10 mgd plants (44).
TABLE 12. ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR CONTINUOUS AND INTERMITTENT
OPERATION OF A VACUUM FILTER SYSTEM*
^^_^*M>iM^Mi^Mi^_«MM^B^^^^^Bm^BWW
Energy required, kwh/yr
Treatment plant size 1 mgd 10 mgd
Operation
Vacuum Filtration
Chemical Conditioning
Storage
TOTAL
Continuous
32,000
2,800
34,800
Intermittent**
17,400
1,200
500
19,100
Continuous
145,000
7,800
800
153,600
Intermittent
108,300
5,200
4,200
117,700
* Based on treatment of digester primary and waste activated sludge.
** Intermittent operation is for five, 8-hour shifts per week.
Source: Reference 44
Anaerobic Digestion
The digester heating requirements can be reduced by Increasing the solids
concentration in the sludge pumped to the digester. In some cases, the
operating temperature in a lightly loaded digester may also be lowered without
hurting the performance of the digester.
RESOURCE RECOVERY PROGRAMS
Use of Anaerobic Digester Gas
One of the best ways to reduce energy used in wastewater treatment is to
recover and reuse the energy available in sludge digesters. Digester gas can be
used for on-site generation of electricity or for digester and building heating.
Digester gas can also be used off-site in a natural gas supply system. This will
require treating the gas to remove hydrogen sulfide and moisture. Also, in most
cases, the heat value of the digester gas must be increased by removing carbon
dioxide before it is used in a natural gas system. It is very common for digester
gas to be used for digester and building heating and on-site to generate elec-
tricity and drive pumps.
Gas Production
Gas produced by anaerobic digestion is about two-thirds methane and one-
third carbon dioxide with relatively small amounts of water, hydrogen sulfide,
ammonia, and other gases. The heat value of the gas varies from one plant to
another, but is typically about 600 Btu/standard cubic foot (scf). In some
installations the gas is used directly from the digester. In others, water and
hydrogen sulfide are removed to protect engines and other equipment.
135
-------
The volume of gas produced in the digester is usually at least 15 scf gas
produced/lb volatile solids (VS) destroyed. For a typical activated sludge
plant, this means about 11,000 scf of digester gas will be produced per million
gallons treated. The heat value of this gas may be high enough to supply about
75 percent of the electrical power needed in the typical activated sludge plant.
Systems to Use Gas
A system to use anaerobic digester gas is shown in Figure 28. Gas from the
digester is cleaned, compressed, and stored. After storage, the gas can be used
directly as fuel to heat the digesters or buildings or as fuel for an internal
combustion (1C) engine coupled to an electric generator. The 1C engine could be
used to generate electricity for general uses or directly coupled to an air
blower or water pump to supply some of the aeration or pumping requirements. The
engines can be equipped with heat recovery systems and the recovered heat used
for building or digester heating. Such systems have been used for over 20 years
in several treatment plants in the United States and other countries (45). Your
consulting engineer can advise you if such a system might be economical in your
plant.
Sludge Utilization
The use of sludge as fertilizer or soil conditioner saves energy two ways;
it can eliminate energy used by some processes such as dewatering and incinera-
tion, and it reduces the need for energy to manufacture chemical fertilizers.
Using sludge on pasture and farm land is simple and relatively low in cost.
Land application has been used to reclaim strip mine spoils or other poor land.
Composted sludge is a good soil conditioner.
There are many local, state, inter-state and federal regulations on the use
of sludge. Information on these rules can be obtained from the wastewater or
solid waste agencies in your area and the local or state public health depart-
ments. These agencies are concerned about ground and surface water pollution
from infiltration and runoff of sludge contaminants. This potential can be kept
to a minimum with proper design, site selection, and operation, and depends upon
soil type, climate, type of crop, application technique, and whether the sludge
is liquid, dewatered, or dry.
If you dry digested sludge on sand beds, you should let the public know it
is available for private use. With good publicity, some towns get rid of all
their dried sludge this way. The most successful programs give the sludge away
and have suggestions on how to best use it.
SOLAR ENERGY
There has been a great deal of publicity about solar heating. It may be use-
ful in your plant for digester hot water or building heating. A system for hot
water and space heating is shown in Figure 29. Solar energy has been proposed for
use in digester heating, but no full scale plants use such a system at present.
One study found (46):
136
-------
GAS FROM DIGESTER
0.2 psi 95^ F
STEAM OR HOT
WATER TO
DIGESTER OR
OTHER USE
i
HEAT
RECOVERY
UNIT
Source: Reference 45
SCRUBBER
ALTERNATE
FUEL
SYSTEM
INTERNAL
COMBUSTION
ENGINE
COMPRESSOR
/ STORAGE \
ELECTRICAL GENERATOR
AIR BLOWER
WATER PUMP
EXCESS GAS
BURNER
Figure 28. Anaerobic digester gas utilization system.
-------
AUXILIARY HEAT
SOLAR
RADIATION
03
I
HOT AIR TO
SPACE
HEATING
HOT WATER
STORAGE
HEAT
EXCHANGER
COLD
WATER
HEAT
EXCHANGER
COLD
'AIR IN
t
TO HOT WATER
SYSTEM
AUXILIARY HEAT
Source: Reference 45
Figure 29. Solar energy system for water and space heating.
-------
It is technically and economically feasible to heat digesters with
solar energy.
The lowest cost method is to supply about 90 percent of the annual
digester heat requirement with solar energy.
Preheating raw sludge before it enters the digester is the best method
of using solar energy.
Solar heating of anaerobic digesters is economically feasible at all
locations in the United States, including Alaska.
The best size solar heating system would supply 82 to 97 percent of the
annual heat requirement.
Your consulting engineer can advise you if solar heat would be economically
attractive at your plant.
MANAGEMENT OF OPERATIONS
Your main responsibility in management of energy conservation efforts is to
ensure that they do not reduce plant effluent quality or performance of solids
handling systems. You should:
Be aware of changes in the availability of critical supplies.
Keep operating records for all electrical power, fuel and chemical uses
for the entire plant and for individual unit processes, where
possible.
Develop a contingency plan for operating the plant at various levels of
reduced electrical power, fuels, and chemicals in case shortages
occur.
Explore the possibility of making fuel or chemical substitutions in
case of prolonged shortages.
Provide training on energy aspects so that your operators can carry out
energy conservation practices.
139
-------
REFERENCES
-------
REFERENCES
1. Pierce, D.M., "Responsibilities of a Sewage Treatment Plant Operator,"
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, p819, 1957.
2. Quartly, E.V., "The Responsibility of the Administrator and Operator,"
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, p!080, 1955.
3. "A Training Course in Water Utility Management," American Water Works
Association, Manual M5.
4. Bargman, R.D., "Organization and Management Control in a Sewage Treatment
Plant, "Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, pllAS, 1953.
5. Graeser, H.J., "Sewage Works Management," Journal Water Pollution Control
Federation, p!33, 1953.
6. "Urban Public Works Administration," International City Management
Association, 1976.
7. "Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants," Manual of Practice No. 11, Water
Pollution Control Federation, 1976.
8. "Estimating Laboratory Needs for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities,"
EPA Report 430/9-74-002, June, 1973.
9. "Maintenance Management Systems for Municipal Wastewater Facilities," EPA
Report 430/9-74-004, 1973.
10. "Emergency Planning for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities," EPA
Report 430/9-74-013, February, 1974."
11. "Emergency Planning for Water Utility Management," American Water Works
Association, Manual 19, 1973.
12. "Financing and Charges for Wastewater Systems," Joint Committee Report
American Public Works Association, American Society of Civil Engineers,
Water Pollution Control Federation, 1973.
13. Billings, C.H. and Smallhorst, D.F., eds., "Manual of Wastewater Opera-
tions," prepared by the Texas Water Utilities Association, Fourth Edition,
Lancaster Press, Inc., 1971.
14. "Municipal Sewer Service Charges," American City Magazine.
15. Culp, G.L., Benjes, H.H., Jr., and Puntenney, J., "Evaluating Wastewater
Facility Staffing Needs," Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, p226,
November 1977.
141
-------
16. Dames & Moore, "Analysis of Operations and Maintenance Costs for Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Systems," prepared for Office of Water Program Opera-
tions, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, MCD-39, EPA No. 430/9-77-015,
May 1978.
17. Bauman, E., et al, "Estimating Staffing and Cost Factors for Small Waste-
water Treatment Plants Less than 1 mgd. Part I. Staffing Guidelines for
Conventional Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants Less than 1 mgd," pre-
pared for Office of Water Program Operations, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency by Iowa State University, EPA Grant No. 5P2-WP-195-0452, June 1973.
18. CH2M Hill, "Estimating Staffing for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facili-
ties," prepared for Office of Water Program Operations, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Contract No. 68-01-0328, March 1973.
19. Patterson, W.L. and Banker, R.F., "Estimating Costs and Manpower Require-
ments for Conventional Wastewater Treatment Facilities," prepared for Office
of Research and Monitoring, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Project
No. 17090 DAN, Contract No. 14-12-462, October 1971.
20. Gulp, Wesner, Gulp, "Comparative Cost Estimates for Competitive Suspended
Growth Biological Processes," prepared for Municipal Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Contract No. 68-03-2556,
June 1978, Final Draft.
21. "Operator Certification - 1975 Status Report," by Association of Boards of
Certification for Operating Personnel in Water and Wastewater Utilities,
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, p!862, 1977.
22. Baxter, S.S., et al, "Personnel Training, Utilization, and Policy," Journal
Water Pollution Control Federation, pi, January 1968.
23. Gilbert, W.G., "Relation of Operation and Maintenance to Treatment Plant
Efficiency," Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, p!822, July 1976.
24. Hegg, B.A., et al, "Evaluation of 'Operation and Maintenance1 Factors Lim-
iting Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant Performance," presented at 41st
Annual Meeting of the Rocky Mountain Water Pollution Control Association,
Albuquerque, New Mexico, October 1977.
25. J.L. Krantz, "Planning Training to Achieve Objectives," Deeds and Data,
Water Pollution Control Federation December, 1978.
26. Winkelhaus, C., "Safety Performance of Wastewater Facilities Remains Poor
through Overall Injury Rates Decline Slightly," Deeds and Data, Water
Pollution Control Federation, October, 1978.
27. Gulp, Wesner, Gulp, "Procedures for Operation and Maintenance Evaluation at
Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities," prepared for Municipal Opera-
tions Branch, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Contract No. 68-01-4727,
October 1978, Final Draft.
142
-------
28. Gerdel, W. E., "Management and Management Responsibilities in Water Pollution
Control," Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, pl!46, 1963.
29. Longino, C.F., Jr., et al, "Sewage Treatment or Pollution Control - Trainees
View Their Job," Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, p41, 1972.
30. Sparr, A. E., "Personal Relations In Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations,"
Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, p!443, 1963.
31. Graeser, H.J., "The 'Mf Factor in Wastewater Treatment," Journal Water Pol-
lution Control Federation, p564, 1965.
32. "How to Improve Individual Manager Performance," American Management
Association, 1969,
33. "1978 WPCF Salary Survey of Water Pollution Control Facilities Personnel,"
Deeds and Data, September, 1978.
34. Sheeran, F. B., "Management Essential for Public Works Admnistrators,"
American Public Works Association, 1973.
35. Laehy, G.J., "Wastewater Treatment Plant Personnel: Image and Training,"
Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, p!439, July, 1971.
36. Morrison, D.R., and Bacon, V.W., "Union Management Relations in Public Serv-
ice," Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, p7, 1968.
37. Mashaw, L.H., "Public Relations - A Self-Analysis," Journal Water Pollution
Control Federation, p354, 1970.
38. "Public Relations Handbook," Water Pollution Control Federation, 1964.
39. "Public Information Handbook," Water Pollution Control Federation, 1977.
40. "Annual Report on the Operation of the Grand Haven-Spring Lake Authority
Wastewater Treatment Plant at Grand Haven, Michigan for the Year 1977-1978,"
1978.
41. Edwards, J.A., "Selecting an Environmental Consultant," Pollution Engineer-
ing, p30, June 1978.
42. "Consulting Engineering - A Guide for the Engagement of Engineering Serv-
ices," American Society of Civil Engineers Manual 45.
43. Voegtle, J.A., "Be Conservative About Energy," Deeds and Data, Water
Pollution Control Federation, February, 1975.
44. Wesner, G.M., et al, "Energy Conservation in Municipal Wastewater Treat-
ment," MCD-32, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, March, 1978.
143
-------
45. Wesner, G.M., et al, "Evaluation of Energy Efficiency in Planning Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Facilities," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Draft Final Report, December, 1978.
46. Cassel, D.E., "An Anaerobic Digester Heated by Solar Energy," U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Contract No. 68-03-2356, June 1976,
47. Benjes, H.H. Jr., "Attached Growth Biological Wastewater Treatment Estimat-
ing Performance and Construction Costs and Operating and Maintenance
Requirements," prepared for Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Contract No. 68-03-2186, January 1977,
Final Draft.
48. Gulp, Wesner, Gulp, "Cost of Chemical Clarification of Wastewater," U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Contract No. 68-03-2186, January 1976,
Final Draft.
144
-------
OBTAINING REFERENCES
Most of the references cited in this report can be obtained from one of the
following sources:
American City Magazine; Buttenheim Publishing Corp; 470 Park Avenue South;
New York, NY 10016
American Public Works Association (APWA) 1313 E. 60th Street; Chicago, IL
60637.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE); 345 E. 47th Street; New York, NY
10017
American Water Works Association (AWWA); 2 Park Avenue; New York, NY 10016
International City Management Association; 1140 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.;
Washington, DC 20036
U.S. Department of Labor; Occupational Health and Safety; Washington, DC
20037
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA); Office of Water Program
Operations; Washington, DC 20460
Water Pollution Control Federation (WPCF); 2626 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.;
Washington, DC 20037
145
-------
APPENDICES
-------
APPENDIX A
EXAMPLE ALLOCATION OF COSTS
-------
Basic data:
Design plant flow = 5 mgd; design sewer system flow = 10 mgd
Population served = 30,000
mg/1 Ibs/day
Volume, mgd BOD SS_ BOD SS
Flows:
Wastewater (non-industrial) 3.25 300 350 8,130 9,500
Industrial 0.75 750 450 4,690 2,800
Infiltration 0.50 -
4.50
Assessed valuation:
Community $80,000,000
Industry 4,000,000
Design loadings:
BOD 16,500 Ibs
SS 15,500 Ibs
Construction Costs
Collection System $2,000,000
Treatment Plant
Primary
Sedimentation Tanks 260,000
Aeration Basins 360,000
Aeration Equipment 230,000
Secondary Sedimentation
Tanks 330,000
Return Activated
Sludge Pumping
Station 160,000
Waste Activated
Sludge Pumping
Station 170,000
A-l
-------
Primary Sludge
Pumping Station 93,000
Chlorine
Contact Basins 140,000
Chlorination
Equipment 37,000
Gravity
Thickener 72,000
Dissolved Air
Flotation
Thickener 180,000
Vacuum Filter 250,000
Polymer Feed
and Storage 50,000
Incineration 1,900,000
Subtotal $4,232,000
Yardwork 592,000
TOTAL
CONSTRUCTION COST $4,824,000
Engineering,
Fiscal, Legal 579,000
Interest During
Construction 482,000
TOTAL CAPITAL
COSTS $5,885,000
Operating Costs (Annual)
Power & Maintenance
Labor Fuel Materials Chemicals
Plant
Primary Sedimentation $10,800 $ 65 $1,600
Aeration Equipment 24,300 22,000 6,400
Secondary Sedimentation 12,600 65 2,000
Return Activated Sludge
Pumping 8,370 840 840
Waste Activated Sludge
Pumping 1,900 90 4,000
A-2
-------
Operating Costs (Annual) (Continued)
Labor
Power &
Fuel
Maintenance
Materials
Chemicals
Plant
Primary Sludge Pumping
Chlorination Equipment
Gravity Thickener
Dissolved Air
Flotation Thickener
Vacuum Filter
Polymer Feed
and Storage
Incineration
Collection System
1,200
10,400
3,600
6,900
22,500
2,800
44,100
6,000
30
-
30
3,800
'2,400
40
38,000
-
1,900
2,500
130
120
17,000
50
6,800
4,000
-
16,700
-
400
64,400
-
-
-
$155,470
$67,360
$47,340
$81,000
Allocate Collection System Costs
The capital costs can be allocated as follows:
Total System
Current Domestic Users
Industry
Infiltration
Future Use
Design Flow, mgd
10.00
3.25
0.75
0.50
5.50
Allocation
32.5%
7.5%
5.0%
55.0%
The costs for future use (55%) should be recovered through property
taxes while the costs for current use (45%) would be recovered from service
charges. In terms of annual revenue:
Annual debt service and coverage on local
capital cost of $2,000,000 for collection system
Required revenue from property taxes (55%)
Required revenue from user charges (45%)
$226,540
124,600
101,940
A-3
-------
The operating costs for the collection system are primarily related to
flow.
Annual O&M costs for collection system from current users
$10,000
Allocate Treatment Plant Costs
A fair allocation of treatment plant costs is more complex because the costs
of some treatment units are primarily determined by flow, some by BOD, and some
by suspended solids. The costs can be categorized by treatment process as
follows:
Total
Capital*
Local
Annual**
Capital
Annual
O&M
Primarily Affected By Flow:
Primary Sedimentation
Secondary Sedimentation
Activated Sludge Pumping
Chlorination
$ 361,400
458,700
458,700
246.000
$1,524,800
$43,200
$12,465
14,665
16,040
29.600
$72,770
Primarily Affected by SS:
Primary Sludge Pumping
Thickeners
Vacuum Filter
Polymer System
Incineration
129,300
350,300
347,500
69,500
2.641.000
$3,537,600
$100,175
3,130
14,580
106,300
2,890
88.900
$215,800
A-4
-------
Total
Capital*
Local Annual** Annual
Capital o&M
Primarily Affected By BOD:
Aeration Basins
Aeration Equipment
TOTAL
$ 502,900
319,700
$ 822,600
$5,885,000
$ 23,265
$166,640
52,700
$ 52,700
$341,270
*Including allowance for yardwork, engineering, fiscal, legal, interest,
etc. requirements of 20%
**Reflects 75% grant funding, and debt coverage
The first step is to allocate these costs between present and future design
loads for each category of costs:
Flow related costs:
Current flows « 4.50 «
Design flows 5.00
BOD related costs:
Current load - 12.820
Design load 16,500
SS related costs:
Current load - 12,300
Design load 15,500
90% to current users
= 78% to current users
= 79% to current users
Capital costs from current users would be recovered through user charges
while costs for future users would be recovered from property taxes:
Local
Capital Costs
From
Current Users
From
Future Users
Flow Related
BOD Related
SS Related
TOTAL
$ 43,200
23,265
100.175
$166,640
$ 38,900
18,150
79.140
$136,190
$ 4,300
5,115
21.035
$30,450
A-5
-------
Plant O&M costs are recovered from current users.
O&M Costs
Flow Related $ 72,770
BOD Related 52,700
SS Related 215.800
TOTAL $341,270
In addition, the reserve fund contribution of $25,000 per year must be
allocated. This requires a judgment as to fair distribution between current and
future users for each system. In this case, 75 percent of the reserve fund is
estimated to be for the benefit of current users.
From Current From Current
Users & Future Users
Collection System
Capital $124,600 $101,940
O&M 10,000
Treatment Plant
Capital 136,190 30,450
O&M 341,270
Reserve Fund 18,750 6,250
TOTAL $630,810 $138,640
User Charges
The revenue to be generated from property taxes for benefits which are
realized by present and future users was $138,640. Based on the total assessed
valuation of $84,000,000, this would require a property tax of $1.65 per $1,000
of assessed valuation.
A-6
-------
The bulk of the revenue ($630,810) is to be raised through charges to the
users who are currently realizing benefits from the system. One approach is
based on the allocation of costs to BOD, SS, and flow as calculated earlier:
Costs Allocated
Quantity
Cost
Flow (4.0 rail gal domes-
tic & industrial)
Sewers
Treatment
Reserve Fund
BOD
Suspended Solids
$134,600
111,670
18,750
70,850
294,940
$630,810
1,460 MG
4,679,300 Ib
4,489,500 Ib
$0.182/1,000 gal
$15.14/1,000 Ib
$65.70/1,000 Ib
The cost for domestic users per 1,000 gal is then:
Flow related
BOD related @ 300 mg/1, 25 Ib/1,000 gal
SS related 6 350 mg/1, 29 lb/1,000 gal
TOTAL
$0.1820/1,000 gal
0.0379/1,000 gal
0.1906/1,000 gal
$0.410/ 1,000 gal
The charge to the industrial user would be:
Flow related
BOD related @ 750 mg/1, 6.25 lb/1,000 gal
SS related @ 450 mg/1, 3.75 lb/1,000 gal
TOTAL
$0.179/1,000 gal
0.095/1,000 gal
0.246/1.000 gal
$0.520/1,000 gal
The total annual revenues would then be:
Domestic User Charges $410/mil gal x 3.25 mgd x 365
Industrial User Charges $520/mil gal
x 0.75 mgd x 365 -
Property Taxes
TOTAL
$486,360
142,350
138.640
$767,350
A-7
-------
APPENDIX B
EXAMPLE STAFFING CALCULATIONS
-------
EXAMPLE DETERMINATIONS OF STAFFING
To supplement the staffing estimation procedures outlined In Section 7,
several examples are presented. The information used in the examples wast derived
from EPA reports (20, 47, 48). The treatment plants included are used only as
examples to show the staffing selection procedure.
The level of utilization of plant personnel was assumed to be 1,656 hours/
year, from Table 1, and the job descriptions in Section 7 were used to specify
job titles. Each of the examples is described briefly in the following para-
graphs. For these examples, the curves used don't separate operation and mainte-
nance labor requirements. Thus, judgment was used in classifying the labor
between operation and maintenance.
Example No. 1 - This example is based on a 1 mgd capacity oxidation ditch
extended aeration plant. The plant doesn't have much mechanical equipment, there-
fore the maintenance requirements are not great. The operational requirements
are estimated to be 70 percent of the total operation and maintenance man-hours.
The annual labor requirement is shown in Table B-l and required staff in Table
B-2. An organizational chart is included to show how the staffing could be set
up, as seen in Figure B-l.
Example No. 2 - The plant is a conventional 1 mgd activated sludge plant
using submerged aeration. The plant is more difficult to operate than an extended
aeration plant and includes more mechanical equipment which requires more mainte-
nance. An operation to maintenance ratio of 0.65 to 0.35 was used. The resulting
labor requirments, job classifications, and organization chart are shown in
Tables B-3 and B-4 and Figure B-2, respectively.
Example No. 3 - The third plant is a 1 mgd rock media trickling filter
plant. The plant is simple to operate and does not contain complex machinery.
Operation requires more labor than maintenance. The annual labor requirements,
the job classifications, and an organizational chart are shown in Tables B-5 and
B-6 and Figure B-3.
B-l
-------
TABLE B-l. EXAMPLE NO. 1 - OXIDATION DITCH
(1 mgd average day flow)
Functional Unit
Unit Parameter
Quantity
Labor,
hr/yr
Raw sewage pumping
Preliminary treatment
Aeration
Final sedimentation
Return sludge pumping
Waste sludge pumping
Chlorination
Sludge drying beds
Sludge hauling
Administrative
Laboratory
Site work
Capacity/flow, mgd 3.5/1.0
Flow, mgd 1.0
Horsepower 60
Area, sq ft 2,916
Capacity/flow, gpm 500/250
Capacity, flow, gpm 25/11
Tons/yr 7.7
Tons/yr 168
Volume, cu yd/yr, 10 mi 670
Capacity, mgd 1.0
# samples*/day 2
# days/yr 100
Site area, sq ft 200,000
1,050
900
1,700
800
300
85
450
200
90
500
TOTAL
8,275
* Samples of influent, effluent, oxidation ditch, and sludge hauled
B-2
-------
TABLE B-2. EXAMPLE NO. 1 - 1 MGD OXIDATION DITCH
Project Example #1; 1 mgd
Oxidation Ditch
Staff position
Administration & General;
Superintendent
Assistant Superintendent
Clerk Typist
Storekeeper
Subtotal
Estimated plant staffing complement
Computed by RBW
Estimated annual
payroll requirements
Man hours
500
Operation Labor;
Operations Supervisor
Shift Foreman
Operator II
Operator I
Automotive Equipment Operator
Subtotal 3.902
Maintenance Laborj
Maintenance Supervisor
Mechanical Maintenance Foreman
Maintenance Mechanic II
Maintenance, Mechanic I
Electrician II
Electrician I
Painter
Maintenance Helper
Subtotal
1,673
Laboratory;
Chemist
Laboratory Technician
Subtotal
Site Work;
Laborer
Custodian
Subtotal
Total Labor Requirements
500
1,700
8,275
Number of
employees*
0.3
2.4
1.0
0.3
1.0
5.0
Date 11/22/78
Suggested
staffing
Number of
employees
J
1.5
0.5
* Man-hours divided by level of utilization (1656 hrs/yr)
B-3
-------
OPERATOR 11(1)
1
OPERATOR I (1.5)
MAINTENANCE HELPER (1)
LABORER (1)
LAB TECH (0.5)
Figure B-l. Example No. 1 - organization chart.
B-4
-------
TABLE B-3. EXAMPLE NO. 2 - 1 MGD CONVENTIONAL ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANT
Functional Unit
Unit parameter
Quantity
Labor,
hr/yr
Raw sewage pumping
Preliminary treatment
Primary sedimentation
Raw sludge pumping
Aeration
Final sedimentation
Return sludge pumping
Waste sludge pumping
Chlorination
Anaerobic digester
Sludge drying beds
Sludge hauling
Administrative
Laboratory
Site work
TOTAL
Capacity/flow, mgd
Flow, mgd
Area, sq ft
Capacity, gpm
Horsepower
Area, sq ft
Capacity/flow, gpm
Capacity, flow, gpm
Tons/yr
Volume, cu ft
Tons/yr
Cu yd/yr,
Capacity, mgd
# samples*/day
# days/yr
Site area, sq ft
3.5/1.0
1.0
1,607
50
50
2,916
500/250
25
7.7
48,000
125
500
1
2
100
200,000
1,050
900
630
120
1,550
800
300
85
450
1,400
190
80
500
10,155
* Samples of influent, effluent, return activated sludge, digester contents
B-5
-------
TABLE B-4. EXAMPLE NO. 2 - 1 MGD CONVENTIONAL ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANT
Estimated plant staffing complement
RBW
Project Example #2; 1 mgd Computed by
Activated Sludge Plant
Staff position
Administration & General;
Superintendent
Assistant Superintendent
Clerk Typist
Storekeeper
Subtotal
Estimated annual
payroll requirements
Man hours
500
Operation Labor;
Operations Supervisor
Shift Foreman
Operator II
Operator I
Automotive Equipment Operator
Subtotal 4,910
Maintenance Labor;
Maintenance Supervisor
Mechanical Maintenance Foreman
Maintenance Mechanic II
Maintenance Mechanic I
Electrician II
Electrician I
Painter
Maintenance Helper
Subtotal
2,645
Laboratory;
Chemist
Laboratory Technician
Subtotal
Site Work;
Laborer
Custodian
Subtotal
Total Labor Requirements
600
1,700
10,355
Number of
employees*
0.3
3.0
1.6
0.4
1.0
6.3
Date 11/22/78
Suggested
staffing
Number of
employees
1
1.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
* Man-hours divided by level of utilization (1656 hrs/yr)
B-6
-------
1
OPERATOR I (1.5)
AUTO EQUIPMENT
OPERATOR (0.5)
OPERATOR II (1)
1
MAINTENANCE MECH. I (1)
MAINTENANCE HELPER (0.5)
LABORER (1)
LAB TECH (0.5)
Figure B-2. Example No. 2 - organization chart.
B-7
-------
TABLE B-5. EXAMPLE NO. 3 - 1 MGD, 21-FT FABRICATED MEDIA TRICKLING FILTER PLANT
Labor,
Functional Unit Unit Parameter Quantity hr/yr
Raw sewage pumping
Aerated grit removal
Primary sedimentation
Raw sludge pumping
21' fabricated media TF
Recycle pumping
Final sedimentation
Waste sludge pumping
Chlorination
Anaerobic digestion
Sludge drying beds
Administrative
Laboratory
Site work
Capacity/flow, mgd
Flow, mgd
Area, sq ft
Capacity/flow, gpm
Volume, cu ft
Capacity/flow, mgd
Area, sq ft
Capacity flow, gpm
Tons/yr
Volume, cu ft
Tons/yr
Capacity, mgd
# samples*/day
# days/yr
Site area, sq ft
3.5/1.0
1.0
1,670
100
103,600
5.5
1,820
50
7.7
15,000
92
1.0
2
100
200,000
1,050
900
630
150
450
1,050
660
110
450
1,150
170
500
TOTAL
9,570
* Samples of influent, effluent, trickling filter influent and effluent, final
effluent, digester.
B-8
-------
TABLE B-6. EXAMPLE NO. 3 - 1 MGD, 21-FT FABRICATED MEDIA TRICKLING FILTER
Estimated plant staffing complement
RBW
Project Example //3; 1 mgd Computed by
Fabricated Media Trickling Filter
Staff position
Administration & General;
Superintendent
Assistant Superintendent
Clerk Typist
Storekeeper
Subtotal
Estimated annual
payroll requirements
Man hours
500
Operation Labor;
Operations Supervisor
Shift Foreman
Operator II
Operator I
Automotive Equipment Operator
Subtotal 4,739
Maintenance Labor;
Maintenance Supervisor
Mechanical Maintenance Foreman
Maintenance Mechanic II
Maintenance Mechanic I
Electrician II
Electrician I
Painter
Maintenance Helper
Subtotal
2,031
Laboratory;
Chemist
Laboratory Technician
Subtotal
Site Work;
Laborer
Custodian
Subtotal
Total Labor Requirements
600
1,700
9,570
Number of
employees*
0.3
2.9
1.2
0.4
1.0
5.8
Date 11/22/78
Suggested
staffing
Number of
employees
* Man-hours divided by level of utilization (1656 hrs/yr)
B-9
-------
OPERATOR II (1)
OPERATOR 1
(2)
MAINTENANCE HELPER (1)
LABORER (1)
LAB TECH (1)
Figure B-3. Example No. 3 - organization chart.
B-10
-------
Example No. 4 - The fourth plant is a 5 mgd rotating biological contactor
plant. It is simple to operate and does not contain complex machinery. A 65 to
35 ratio was used to determine the breakdown between operation and maintenance
personnel. The annual labor requirements and the job positions suggested are
shown in Tables B-7 and B-8, and an organizational chart in Figure B-4.
Example No. 5 - This example is a 10 mgd rock media trickling filter plant.
Operation is simple and there is no complex machinery. The annual labor
requirements, a suggested staffing guide and an organizational chart are shown on
Tables B-9 and B-10 and Figure B-5.
Example No. 6 - This plant is a standard 10 mgd air activated sludge plant
including sludge digestion and dewatering. Operation is more complicated and the
process is subject to upset. Maintenance is also more demanding due to the addi-
tional equipment required. Annual labor requirements and the suggested staffing
level are as shown on Tables B-ll and B-12, and the organizational structure is
shown in Figure B-6.
B-ll
-------
TABLE B-7. EXAMPLE NO. 4 - 5 MGD ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTOR
Unit
Raw sewage pumping
Aerated grit removal
Primary sedimentation
Raw sludge pumping
Rotating media TF
Final sedimentation
Waste sludge pumping
Chlorination
Anaerobic digestion
Sludge pumping
Vacuum filtration
Sludge hauling
Administrative
Laboratory
Site work
TOTAL
Unit Parameter
Capacity/flow, mgd
Flow, mgd
Area, sq ft
Capacity/flow, gpm
Volume, cu ft
Area, sq ft
Capacity, flow, gpm
Tons/yr
Volume, cu ft
Capacity/flow, gpm
Tons/yr,
Area, sq ft
Volume, cu yd/yr
Capacity, mgd
# samples*/day
# days/yr
Site area, sq ft
Quantity
13.5/5.0
5.0
8,330
80
185,000
8,330
100
40
75,000
25
506
400
2,044
5.0
3
300
300,000
Labor ,
hr/yr
1,300
1,900
1,400
140
2,500
1,400
160
780
1,700
85
1,700
380
1,600
2,400
2,100
19,545
* Samples of influent, effluent, trickling effluent, digester, vacuum filter
B-12
-------
TABLE B-8. EXAMPLE NO. 4 - 5 MGD ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTRACTOR
Estimated plant staffing complement
RBW
Project Example #4; 5 mgd Computed by
Rotating Biological Contactor
Staff position
Administration & General;
Superintendent
Assistant Superintendent
Clerk Typist
Storekeeper
Subtotal
Estimated annual
payroll requirements
Man hours
1,600
Operation Labor;
Operations Supervisor
Shift Foreman
Operator II
Operator I
Automotive Equipment Operator
Subtotal 8,739
Maintenance Labor;
Maintenance Supervisor
Mechanical Maintenance Foreman
Maintenance Mechanic II
Maintenance Mechanic I
Electrician II
Electrician I
Painter
Maintenance Helper
Subtotal
4,706
Laboratory;
Chemist
Laboratory Technician
Subtotal
Site Work:
Laborer
Custodian
Subtotal
Total Labor Requirements
2,400
2.100
19,545
Number of
employees*
1.0
5.3
2.8
1.5
1.3
IVH^H^H^^~
11.9
Date 11/22/78
Suggested
staffing
Number of
employees
1.5
J
0.5
12
* Man-hours divided by level of utilization (1656 hrs/yr)
B-13
-------
I
I-1
^
SUPERINTENDENT
I OPERATOR II (1)
ELECTRICIAN II (1)
MAINTENANCE MECHANIC I (1)
OPERATOR I (3)
MAINTENANCE HELPER
LAB TECH (1.5)
LABORER (1)
CUSTODIAN (0.5)
AUTO EQUIPMENT
OPERATOR It)
Figure B-4. Example No. 4 - organization chart.
-------
TABLE B-9. EXAMPLE NO. 5-10 MGD ROCK MEDIA TRICKLING FILTER
Unit
Raw sewage pumping
Aerated grit removal
Primary sedimentation
Raw sludge pumping
8' rock media TF
Recycle pumping
Final sedimentation
Waste sludge pumping
Chlorination
Anaerobic digestion
Sludge pumping
Vacuum filtration
Sludge hauling
Administrative
Laboratory
Site work
TOTAL
Unit Parameter
Capacity/ flow, mgd
Flow, mgd
Area, sq ft
Capacity/flow, gpm
Volume, cu ft
Capacity/flow, mgd
Area, sq ft
Capacity flow, gpm
Tons/yr
Volume, cf
Capacity/ flow, gpm
Tons/yr, area
Area, sq ft
Volume, cu yd/yr
Capacity, mgd
# sample s*/day
# days/yr
Site area, sq ft
Quantity
25
10
16,700
100
1,412,000
50/50
16,700
150
77
150,000
50
1,012
200
4,088
10
4
300
300,000
Labor ,
hr/yr
1,700
3,000
2,100
160
2,500
2,500
2,100
160
1,100
2,200
110
2,600
500
3,000
3,300
2,800
29,830
* Samples of influent, trickling filter influent effluent, final effluent,
digester, vacuum filter
B-15
-------
TABLE B-10. EXAMPLE NO. 5-10 MGD ROCK MEDIA TRICKLING FILTER
Estimated plant staffing complement
RBW
Project Example //5; 10 mgd Computed by
Rock Media Trickling Filter
Staff position
Administration & General:
Superintendent
Assistant Superintendent
Clerk Typist
Storekeeper
Subtotal
Estimated annual
payroll requirements
Man hours
Number of
employees*
3,000
Operation Labor;
Operations Supervisor
Shift Foreman
Operator II
Operator I
Automotive Equipment Operator
Subtotal 13.474
Maintenance Labor;
Maintenance Supervisor
Mechanical Maintenance Foreman
Maintenance Mechanic II
Maintenance Mechanic I
Electrician II
Electrician I
Painter
Maintenance Helper
Subtotal
7,246
Laboratory;
1.8
8.1
4.4
* Man-hours divided by level of utilization (1656 hrs/yr)
Date 11/22/78
Suggested
staffing
Number of
employees
0.5
0.5
1
1.5
1
Chemist
Laboratory Technician
Subtotal 3,300 2.0
Site Work:
Laborer
Custodian
Subtotal 2,800 1.7
Total Labor Requirements 29,830 18.0
1
1
1
0.5
18
B-16
-------
CO
[SUPERINTENDENT (i)|-
CLERK TYPIST (0.5)
STOREKEEPER (0.5)
SHIFT FOREMAN (3)
MAINTENANCE MECHANIC II
(D
OPERATOR I (4)
AUTO EQUIPMENT
OPERATOR (1)
1
ELECTRICIAN II (1)
MAINTENANCE MECHANIC I
(1.5)
CHEMIST (1)
LAB TECH (1)
LABORER (1)
CUSTODIAN (0.5)
MAINTENANCE HELPER (1)
Figure B-5. Example No. 5 - organization chart.
-------
TABLE B-ll. EXAMPLE NO. 6-10 MGD ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANT
Unit
Unit Parameter
Quantity
Labor,
hr/yr
Raw sewage pumping
Aerated grit removal
Primary sedimentation
Raw sludge pumping
Aeration, including
aerobic digester
Return pumping
Final sedimentation
Waste sludge pumping
Chlorination
Anaerobic digestion
Flotation thickener
Sludge holding tank
Sludge pumping
Vacuum filtration
Administrative
Laboratory
Site work
Capacity/flow, mgd
Flow, mgd
Area, sq ft
Capacity/flow, gpm
cfm
Capacity/flow, mgd
Area, sq ft
Capacity, gpm
Tons/yr
Volume, cu ft
Area, sq ft
Volume, cu ft
Capacity/flow, gpm
Tons/yr,
Area, sq ft
Capacity, mgd
# samples*/day
# days/yr
Site area, sq ft
25/10
10
16,700
50
16,450
4,830/3,500
20,845
240
77
130,000
110
37,000
40
1,675
153
10
4
300
400,000
1,700
3,000
2,100
120
5,500
700
2,300
200
1,100
2,000
500
1,200
100
3,200
3,000
3,300
2,800
TOTAL
32,820
* Samples of influent, effluent, return activated sludge, digester, thickener,
vacuum filters.
B-18
-------
TABLE B-12. EXAMPLE NO. 6-10 MGD ACTIVATED SLUDGE PLANT
Project Example //6; 10 mgd
Activated Sludge
Staff position
Administration & General;
Superintendent
Assistant Superintendent
Clerk Typist
Storekeeper
Subtotal
Estimated plant staffing complement
Computed by RBW
Estimated annual
payroll requirements
Man hours
Number of
employees*
3,000
Operation Labor;
Operations Supervisor
Shift Foreman
Operator II
Operator I
Automotive Equipment Operator
Subtotal 14,239
Maintenance Labor;
Maintenance Supervisor
Mechanical Maintenance Foreman
Maintenance Mechanic II
Maintenance Mechanic I
Electrician II
Electrician I
Painter
Maintenance Helper
Subtotal
9,493
Laboratory;
1.8
8.6
5.7
* Man-hours divided by level of utilization (1656 hrs/yr)
Date 11/22/78
Suggested
staffing
Number of
employees
JL
0.5
0.5
4.5
1
2.0
Chemist
Laboratory Technician
Subtotal 3.300
Site Work:
Laborer
Custodian
Subtotal 2,800
Total Labor Requirements 32,832
2.0
1.7
19.8
1
1
1
0.5
20
B-19
-------
ffl
t
to
o
SUPERINTENDENT
CLERK TYPIST (0.5)
STORE KEEPER (0,5)
SHIFT FOREMAN (3)
MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE
FOREMAN (1)
ELECTRICIAN II (1)
OPERATOR I (4.5)
MAINTENANCE MECHANIC I
(2)
AUTO EQUIPMENT
OPERATOR U)
CHEMIST (1)
LAB TECH (1)
LABORER (1)
CUSTODIAN (0.5)
MAINTENANCE HELPER (2)
Figure B-6. Example No. 6 - organization charts
-------