DRAFT
Development Document for
Effluent Limitations Guidelines
and Standards of Performance
BUILDERS, PAPER AND
BOARD INDUSTRY
Prepared by WAPORA, Inc.
for the
'-r0 United States
g Environmental Protection Agency
Under Contract Number 68-01-1514
Dated: June 1973
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NOTICE
The attached document is a DRAFT CONTRACTOR'S REPORT. It includes
technical information and recommendations submitted by the Contrac-
tor to the United States Environmental Protection Agency ("EPA")
regarding the subject industry. It is being distributed for review
and comment only. The report is not an official EPA publication and
it has not been reviewed by the Agency.
The report, including the recommendations, will be undergoing exten-
sive review by EPA, Federal and State agencies, public interest
organizations and other interested groups and persons during the
coming weeks. The report, and in particular the contractor's rec-
ommended effluent limitations guidelines and standards of performance,
is subject to change in any and all respects.
The regulations to be published by EPA under Sections 304 (b) and 306
of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended, will be
based to a large extent on the report and the comments received on it.
However, pursuant to Sections 304(b) and 306 of the Act, EPA will also
consider additonal pertinent technical and economic information which
is developed in the course of review of this report by the public and
within EPA. EPA is currently performing an economic impact analysis
regarding the subject industry, which will be taken into account as
part of the review of the report. Upon completion of the review pro-
cess, and prior to final promulgation of regulations, an EPA report
will be issued setting forth EPA's conclusions concerning the subject
industry, effluent limitations guidelines and standards of performance
applicable to such industry. Judgments necessary to promulgation of
regulations under Sections 304 (b) and 306 of the Act, of course,
remain the responsibility of EPA. Subject to these limitations, EPA
is making this draft contractor's report available in order to en-
courage the widest possible participation of interested persons in
the decision making process at the earliest possible time.
The report shall have standing in any EPA proceeding or court proceed-
ing only to the extent that it represents the views of the Contractor
who studied the subject industry and prepared the information and
recommendations. It cannot be cited, referenced, or represented in
any respect in any such proceedings as a statement of EPA's views
regarding the subject industry.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air and Water Programs
Effluent Guidelines Division
Washington, D.C. 20460
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D-
, DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT FOR
' { EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
AND STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE
FOR THE
BUILDERS PAPER AND BOARD INDUSTRY
Prepared For
The
United States Environmental Protection Agency
and Ch»
n h»
June 1973
WAPORA, Inc.
6900 Wisconsin Avenue
Betheada, Maryland 20015
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DRAFT
ABSTRACT
This document presents the findings of an extensive study of the building
paper and roofing felt segment of the builders paper and board industry by
WAPORA, Inc. for the purpose of recommending to the United States Environ-
mental Protection Agency effluent limitations guidelines and standards of
performance in compliance with Sections 304(b) and 306 of the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (the "Act").
The building paper and roofing felt segment of the industry is defined as
one discrete subcategory in this study.
Effluent limitations guidelines are set forth for the degree of effluent
reduction attainable through the application of the "Best Practicable Con-
trol Technology Currently Available," and the "Best Available Technology
Economically Achievable," which must be achieved by existing point sources
by July 1, 1977 and July 1, 1983, respectively. The "New Source Standards
of Performance" set forth the degree of effluent reduction which is achiev-
able through the application of the best available demonstrated control
technology, processes, operating methods, or other alternatives. The pro-
posed guidelines recommend biological waste treatment as the base technol-
ogy for 1977, and major internal mill improvement and biological waste treat-
ment as the base control and treatment technologies for both existing and
new mills in 1983.
Supportive data and rationale for development of the proposed effluent
limitations guidelines and new source performance standards are contained
in this report.
Ill
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
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Dj
CONTENTS
Section Page
I. CONCLUSIONS 1
II. RECOMMENDATIONS 3
III. INTRODUCTION 5
Purpose and Authority 5
Summary of Methods Used for Development of
the Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
Standards of Performance 6
General Description of Industry Segment 7
Production Processes 10
Stock Preparation 10
Papermaking 11
Production Classification 11
Capacity Projections 13
IV. SUBCATEGORIZATION OF THE INDUSTRY 15
Factors of Consideration 15
Rationale for Selection of Subcategories 15
Raw Materials 15
Production Processes 16
Size and Age of Mills 16
Geographical Location 16
V. WATER USE AND WASTE CHARACTERIZATION 17
Process Water Utilization 17
General Use 17
Specific Process Use 18
Unit Process Waste Lands 20
Total Raw Waste Land 20
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CONTENTS (Continued)
Section Page
VI. SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS 23
Wastewater Parameters of Significance 23
Rationale for Selection of Identified Parameters . . 23
Biochemical Oxygen Demand 23
Suspended Solids 23
pH 24
Other Parameters Indicating Presence of Pollutants . 24
\
VII. CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES 25
Summary 25
In-Plant Measures 25
Recovery and Recycle Concepts 25
In-Plant Recovery Equipment 27
External Treatment Technology 30
Removal of Suspended Solids 30
BOD Reduction 31
4
Sludge Dewatering and Disposal 34
Color Removal 38
Sources of Color 39
Lime Treatment 39
Other Color Removal Systems 41
Comparison of System Efficiencies 45
Operation Considerations 51
Advanced Waste Treatment 54
Introduction 54
Turbidity and Colloidal and Suspended Solids . 55
Dissolved Salts and Dissolved Solids 58
Trace Refractory Organics 63
Monitoring 75
Flow Measurement 75
Sampling 76
Analysis 76
Records and Reporting 77
vl
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CONTENTS (Continued)
Section Page
VIII. COSTS, ENERGY, NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS, AND
IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS 79
Costs 79
Energy Requirements 81
Non-Water Quality Aspects of Control and
Treatment Technologies 81
Air Pollution Potential 81
Noise Potential 82
Solid Wastes and Their Disposal 83
Implementation Requirements 83
Availability of Equipment 83
Availability of Construction Manpower 87
Construction Cost Index 87
Land Requirement 88
Time Required to Construct Treatment Facilities . 88
IX. BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE . 93
Introduction 93
Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the Applica-
tion of Best Practicable Pollution Control Tech-
nology Currently Available 94
Identification of Best Pollution Control Technology
Currently Available 94
Internal Control 94
External Treatment 95
Rationale for the Selection of Best Pollution Con-
trol Technology Currently Available 96
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities .... 96
Process Change 96
Engineering Aspects of Control 96
Technique Applications 97
Non-water Quality Environmental Impact 97
Cost of Application in Relation to Effluent
Reduction Benefits 98
Processes Employed 98
vii
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DRAFT
CONTENTS (Continued)
Section Page
X. BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE 99
Introduction 99
Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the Application
of Best Available Technology Economically Achievable. . 99
Identification of the Best Available Technology
Economically Achievable 100
k *_
Internal Controls 100
External Treatment 101
Rational for the Selection of Best Available Tech-
nology Economically Achievable 101
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities 101
Process Changes 101
Engineering Aspects of Control Technique
Applications 102
Non-water Quality Environmental Impact 102
Cost of Application in Relation to Effluent
Reduction Benefits 102
Processes Employed 103
XI. NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS 105
Introduction 105
Recommended New Source Performance Standards 105
\
Identification of Technology for New Source Perform-
ance Standards 106
Rationale for Selection of Technology for New Source
Performance Standards 106
Type of Process Employed and Process Changes . . . 106
Operating Methods 107
Batch as Opposed to Continuous Operations 107
Use of Alternative Raw Materials and Mixes
of Raw Materials 107
Use of Dry Rather than Wet Processes (Including
Substitution of Recoverable Solvents for Water) . . 107
Recovery of Pollutants as Byproducts 107
Pre-treatment Requirements for Discharges to
Municipal Systems 107
vlil
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CONTENTS (Continued)
Section Page
XII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 109
XIII. REFERENCES Ill
XIV. GLOSSARY 115
APPENDIX 119
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DRAFT
FIGURES
1 DISTRIBUTION OF BUILDING PAPER AND ROOFING FELT
MILLS IN THE U.S. (1973) 9
2 BUILDING PAPER AND ROOFING FELT PROCESS DIAGRAM 12
;
3 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM OF A BUILDING PAPER AND FELT MILL . . 19
4 EFFLUENT TREATMENT AT BUILDING PAPER MILLS 35
5 SLUDGE DEWATERING AND DISPOSAL 37
6 MASSIVE LIME PROCESS FOR COLOR REMOVAL 42
7 EFFLUENT TREATMENT PILOT PLANT 44
8 COLOR REMOVAL IN LIME TREATMENT AS A FUNCTION OF
SOLUBLE Ca IN WATER 46
9 ECONOMY IN SCALE - CARBON ABSORPTION SYSTEMS 72
i
10 TOTAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL EXPENDITURES 85
11 WASTEWATER TREATMENT EQUIPMENT SALES 86
12 ENGINEERING NEWS RECORD CONSTRUCTION COST INDEX 89
13 LAND REQUIRED FOR WASTE WATER TREATMENT 90
14 TIME REQUIRED TO CONSTRUCT WASTE WATER FACILITIES
CONVENTIONAL & TURNKEY CONTRACT 91
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TABLES
Page
1 Values for Color Discharged from Various Pulping
Processes 40
2 Unit Process Flow and Color Distribution in Individual
Kraft Pulping Effluents 40
3 Color Removal in Biological Oxidation - Carbon
Adsorption Sequence at 15 GPM 47
4 Color Removal By Primary Clarification - Carbon
Adsorption Sequence 47
5 Color Removal By Lime Treatment - Carbon Adsorption
Sequence at Soluble Calcium Range of 69-83 mg/1 48
6 Removal of Color and TOC By FACET Carbon Adsorption
Following Lime Treatment for 12-Day Period 49
7 Waste Water Renovation - Summary of Results 50
8 Renovated Water Analysis - Unbleached Kraft Llnerboard
Total Mill Effluent (Pilot Plant Run No. 2) 52
9 Renovated Water Analysis - Unbleached Kraft Linerboard
Total Mill Effluent (Pilot Plant Run No. 2) 53
10 Summary of Results of Treatment By Reverse Osmosis .... 57
11 Total Solids Removal - Reverse Osmosis 59
12 Behavior of Major Chemical Constituents in Renovation
System 62
13 Pretreatment Requirements for Ion Exchange 64
14 Results of Granular Activated Carbon Column Pilot
Plant Treating Unbleached Kraft Mill Waste 66
15 Results of Activated Carbon Pilot Plants Treating
Unbleached Kraft Mill Effluent 70
16 Treatment Costs 80
xi
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DRAFT
SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
Notice
This document is a preliminary draft. The conclusions
which have been reached reflect the technical judgment
of WAPORA, Inc. based on information developed in con-
junction with our subcontractors, and with the assis-
tance of the Environmental Protection Agency and the
cooperation of the National Council of the Pulp and
Paper Industry on Air and Stream Improvement. It is
being circulated for comment on its technical accuracy
and policy implications.
The subject of this report is the builders paper segment of the builders
paper and board industry. The other segment of this industry, builders
board, including hard board, is covered in a separate report on the tim-
ber products industry. For the purpose of establishing effluent limita-
tions guidelines and standards of performance, the builders paper segment,
commonly referred to as the building paper and roofing felt segment, is
a single discrete subcategory.
Within the building paper and roofing felt subcategory, factors such as
age, size of plant, process employed, climate, and waste treatability
confirm and substantiate this subcategorization for the purpose of es-
tablishing effluent limitations and performance standards to be achieved
through the application of recommended treatment and control technologies.
At this time, some mills within the subcategory are achieving the 1977
requirement of best practicable technology currently available. It is
estimated that increases in production costs to achieve this level will
average $8.60 per metric ton ($7.80 per short ton) but will vary depend-
ing upon specific mill conditions relating to available technologies at
that location. This technology level suggests biological waste treatment
as the basic treatment process and limitations on 8005, suspended solids,
and pH range are set forth.
Best available technology economically achievable is a requirement for
1983, and a few mills in the subcategory studied are currently achiev-
ing this for most identified pollutants. The estimated increases in
production costs of upgrading existing mills from the 1977 requirements
to those of 1983 will average from less than $11.58 per metric ton
($10.50 per short ton), but will vary depending on specific mill condi-
tions. This technology level suggests major internal mill improvements,
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
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DRAFT
biological waste treatment, and some physical-chemical waste treatment
as the basic treatment and control processes, and limitations on BOD^,
suspended solids, and pH range are set forth.
New source performance standards are proposed which reflect internal
improvements which can be achieved through effective design and layout
of mill operations. Effluent limitations are set forth on BODg, sus-
pended solids, and pH range at levels above those cited for existing
mills by 1977. The basic treatment and control processes which are
suggested as a means of meeting these effluent standards are similar
to those proposed for existing mills by 1983.
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
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DRAFT
SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based upon the information in the body of this report, the following
effluent limitations guidelines and standards of performance are rec-
ommended for the building paper and roofing felt subcategory.
Recommended Effluent Limitations Guidelines
and New Source Standards of Performance
Pounds Per Short Ton of Production
/ Suspended
Level BODS Solids pH Range
Best Practicable Technology
Currently Available 5.0 3.0 7.5-8.5
Best Available Technology
Economically Achievable 2.5 1.5 7.5-8.5
New Source Standards of
Performance 4.0 2.5 7.5-8.5
The allowable pounds of pollutants per ton of production are to be based
upon monthly averages of daily values as determined from industrial
records. It is expected that values on any given day could exceed these
guidelines. Further, values may be adjusted to reflect variations in
performance as a result of changes in materials mix, ambient air temper-
ature effect on waste treatment process performed, and other local condi-
tions .
Production capacity is defined as the total production off the machine,
including reprocessed broke. Daily production, in air dry tons, is de-
fined as the highest average level sustained for seven consecutive
operating days of normal production.
Values are intended to reflect the net pounds per ton of product which
are attributed to the industrial operation, and do not account for
"background" pollutional loads which may have existed in the process
water prior to use by the industry.
These recommended levels can be achieved through the application of avail-
able treatment and control technologies, and no extensive research into
new methods is required.
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
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DRAFT
SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE AND AUTHORITY
Section 301(b) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended
in 1972, requires the achievement by not later than July 1, 1977, of
effluent limitations for point sources, other than publicly owned
treatment works, which are based on the application of the best practi-
cable control technology currently available as defined by the Adminis-
trator pursuant to Section 304(b) of the Act. Section 301(b) also
requires the achievement by not later than July 1, 1983, of effluent
limitations for point sources, other than publicly owned treatment
works, which are based on the application of the best available tech-
nology economically achievable which will result in reasonable further
progress toward the national goal of eliminating the discharge of all
pollutants, as determined in accordance with regulations issued by the
Administrator pursuant to Section 304(b) of the Act. Section 306 of
the Act requires the achievement by new sources of a federal standard
of performance providing for the control of the discharge pollutants
which reflects the greatest degree of effluent reduction which the
Administrator determines to be achievable through the application of
the best available demonstrated control technology, processes, opera-
ting methods, or other alternatives, including, where practicable, a
standard permitting no discharge of pollutants.
Section 304(b) of the Act requires the Administrator to publish within
one year of enactment of the Act, regulations providing guidelines for
effluent limitations setting forth the degree of effluent reduction
attainable through the application of the best control measures and
practices achievable including treatment techniques, process and pro-
cedure innovations, operation methods, and other alternatives. The
regulations proposed herein set forth effluent limitations guidelines
pursuant to Section 304(b) of the Act for the builders paper segment
of the builders paper and builders board point source category.
Section 306 of the Act requires the Administrator, within one year af-
ter a category of sources is included in a list published pursuant to
Section 306(b)(l)(A) of the Act, to propose regulations establishing
federal standards of performance for new sources within such categor-
ies. The Administrator published in the Federal Register of January 16,
1973, (38 F.R. 1624), a list of 27 source categories. Publication of
the list constituted announcement of the Administrator's intention of
establishing, under Section 306, standards of performance applicable to
new sources within the builders paper and builders board point source
category, which was included within the list published January 16, 1973.
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This report proposes such standards for the building paper and felts
segment of this point source category.
SUMMARY OF METHODS USED FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
GUIDELINES AND STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE
The effluent limitations guidelines and standards of performance pro-
posed herein were developed in the following manner. The point source
category was first subcategorized for the purpose of determining whether
separate limitations and standards are appropriate for different seg-
ments within a point source category. Possible subcategorization was
evaluated upon raw material used, product produced, manufacturing pro-
cess employed, and other factors. The raw waste characteristics for
each possible subcategory were then identified. This included an
analysis of 1) the source and volume of water used in the process em-
ployed and the sources of waste waters in the plant and 2) the con-
stituents (including thermal) of all waste waters including toxic con-
stituents and other constituents which result in taste, odor, and color
in water or aquatic organisms. The constituents of waste waters which
should be subject to effluent limitations guidelines and standards of
performance were identified.
The full range of control and treatment technologies existing within
each possible subcategory was identified. This included an identifica-
tion of each distinct control and treatment technology, including both
inplant and end-of-process technologies, which are existent or capable
of being designed for each subcategory. It also included an identifica-
tion in terms of the amount of constituents (including thermal) and the
chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of pollutants, of the
effluent level resulting from the application of each of the treatment
and control technologies. The problems, limitations, and reliability
of each treatment and control technology and the required implementa-
tion time were also identified. In addition, the non-water quality
environmental impact, such as the effects of the application of such
technologies upon other pollution problems, including air, solid waste,
noise, and radiation were also identified. The energy requirements of
each of the control and treatment technologies were identified as well
as the cost of the application of such technologies.
The information, as outlined above, was then evaluated in order to de-
termine what levels of technology constitute the "best practicable
control technology currently available;" "best available technology
economically achievable;" and the "best available demonstrated control
technology processes, operating methods, or other alternatives." In
identifying such technologies, various factors were considered. These
included the total cost of application of technology in relation to the
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effluent reduction benefits to be achieved from such application, the
age of equipment and facilities involved, the process employed, the
engineering aspects of the application of various types of control
techniques or process changes, non-water quality environmental impact
(including energy requirements), and other factors.
The extensive data base for identification and analyses was derived
from a number of sources. These sources included EPA research and
demonstration project information, including previous EPA industrial
waste and state-of-the-art treatment studies of the pulp and paper in-
dustry; published literature; Refuse Act Permit Program (RAPP) applica-
tions; and National Council of the Pulp and Paper Industry for Air and
Stream Improvement(NCASI). This data base was verified by on-site
surveys of two mills which included sampling and analysis of waste
streams. References used in developing the guidelines for effluent
limitations and standards of performance for new sources reported here-
in are included in Section XIII of this document.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF INDUSTRY SEGMENT
This report pertains to the builders paper segment of the builders paper
and board point source category. The terms building papers and roofing
felts are more commonly applied to the products of this segment and are,
of course, aptly descriptive of heavy papers used in the construction
industry. As a group, they are identified more by nomenclature appro-
priate to their use rather than by significant variations in the raw
materials or the process used to manufacture them. Both products are
composed of varying combinations of wood, waste paper and/or rags, and/
or asbestos fibers. The process used for the production of both types of
product is similar in concept, differing basically to accommodate the
particular combinations of raw materials used. Each of the raw mate*
rials described above requires different equipment to reduce the mate-
rial to individual fibers. The fibers are then blended in varying pro-
portions and formed on a paper machine which is common to both types
of product.
Building papers are generally characterized as saturating papers, floor-
ing paper, and deadening papers which are used in the construction and
automotive industries. They differ from unstructured roofing felts
only in thickness and possible chemical additives added to the process
in order to achieve a specific property, i.e., strength, density, wet
strength, water repellant capability, or similar physical qualities.
The function of dry roofing felt is to provide a strong, highly absor-
bent material as support and backing for the bituminous coatings neces-
sary for the water-proofing characteristics essential to the finished
product (1). One or more saturating coats of melted asphalt are applied
to the finished roll of felt in a process which follows the paper-
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DRAFT
making process. If the product is a roofing roll, the sheet is given a
thin coat of mica and talc after the saturating process and is then the
finished product. "Mineral-surfaced" products used as roof-flashing
rolls or shingles, are surfaced with granules of slate, stone, or ce-
ramic following the saturating and talc processes (2) . This coating
provides resistance to weathering and" to damage caused by roof maint-
enanance activities. Roll roofing does not require this granular coat-
ing since it is protected by gravel placed in a heavy coat of bitumen
when installed. Roll roofing felts of wood and asbestos fibers are
exceptionally strong and weather and heat resistant, making it possible
to install them without providing a protective coat of gravel or
granular material. The roofing materials described above account for a
high percentage of the production of the mills which are the subject of
this report.
The objective of this project is to study mills that generate a waste-
load that is attendant to the manufacture of building paper and roofing
felt. Some of these products are made by mills which also produce
other paper and paperboard products manufacturing building paper and dry
felt only on an intermittent basis. These products also derive from
mills which produce both building paper and building board, insulating
board, or other combinations of products. In keeping with the objective,
therefore, this report deals exclusively with those mills which produce
building papers and felts as their primary product.
Sixty-two mills which exemplify this group are listed in Appendix 1. Al-
though there is some overlapping, they are divided generally in accord
with their announced production as follows:
Dry Roofing Felt 7 mills
Saturated/Coated Roofing Felt 40 mills
Asbestos Paper and Gasket 6 mills
Combination of The Above 9 mills
It was found during the course of this study that these mills quite
frequently change their production, discontinuing one or more products
and introducing new ones. Thus, this list is illustrative only.
The total daily production capacity of these 60 mills is approximately
5447 metric tons (6,000 short tons) per day. The daily capacity of the
largest mill is 295 metric tons (325 short tons) and the smallest out-
put is 20 metric tons (22 short tons).
They are geographically distributed over most of the United States as
illustrated in Figure 1. The majority of them are located in or near
metropolitan areas where the quantity of waste paper required is
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Figure 1
DISTRIBUTION OF BUILDING PAPER AND ROOFING FELT
MILLS IN THE U.S. (1973)
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available. Because they are so located, many of them, 60 to 75 percent
is estimated, dispose of their wastes in municipal sewerage systems.
Total annual U.S. production of construction paper, the term utilized
by the Bureau of the Census and the American Paper Institute (API) in
1971 was 1,473,316 metric tons (1,622,952 short tons) (3).
PRODUCTION PROCESSES
In terms of quality, raw material requirements for building paper and
felt are not, generally, as demanding as those for finer grade papers.
Thus, more flexibility exists in those that can be used and in the way
they are prepared. These products generally consist of waste paper and
defibrinated wood, wood flour, or pulp mill rejects although some rags,
asbestos, or other materials can be employed.
Some mills receive wood as logs which are chipped on the premises.
Others purchase wood chips, sawdust, or wood flour. Or in the case
of many mills, equipment is available to handle these materials alter-
natively.
Rags and waste paper arrive at the mill in bales. Old, low grade rags
not suitable for recycling into fine paper may be utilized for building
paper and felt. Similarly lower specifications for reclaimed paper
result in frequent variations in quality of this raw material.
Various specifications require different preparations of raw materials
to impart desired characteristics such as strength, absorptive capa-
city, heat and flame resistance, and flexibility.
The furnish for roofing felt must be such that the product can meet
specifications of weight, tensile strength, and flexibility to enable
it to withstand any strain to which it may be later subjected in the
roofing plant (2). It must be able to absorb from two to three times
its weight in bitiminous saturants and six times its weight in saturants
and granule coatings.
Stock Preparation
Fibers are prepared for use by various methods which are determined by
the fiber source. Wood chips are pulped mechanically in an attrition
mill. This is a refiner containing fixed and rotating discs between
which the chips pass on a stream of water. In some operations, this is
preceded by cooking, or steaming, the chips with water for a short
period in a digester, a large metal pressure vessel. This softens the
chips and reduces the mechanical energy required. Chemicals are not
generally utilized.
10
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The pulp is discharged from the attrition operation as a slurry which
goes to a stock chest for storage. It is then blended with other raw
materials. Wood flour requires no pretreatment and enters the system
in the blending chest.
After they are cut and shredded, rags are placed, along with fresh and/
or process water, in a beater tank at about six percent consistency.
Here a rotating cyclindrical bladed element, which operates in con-
junction with stationary blades, both impacts the fiber and causes its
continuous circulation around the beater and back through the attrition
zone. Thus, progressive fiberizing occurs. After a period of several
hours, when the charge is sufficiently defibered, the pulp is diluted
and removed to a dump chest (3).
Waste paper is similarly treated in beaters or pulpers. In the pulper
operation, the paper follows the water circulation in a large open vat
and is repeatedly exposed to rotating impeller blades. Over a period
of time it is ripped, shredded, and finally defibered (1). Accessory
equipment separates and removes metal and other contaminants.
After the stock is blended, it is subjected to refining and screening
ahead of the forming process.
Some building papers are highly sized with resins and alum. Felts may
be sized with bituminous materials or contain mold-proofing or fungi-
cidal materials.
Papermaking
These products are manufactured principally on single-cylinder paper
machines from the raw materials reduced to fiber in the stock prepa-
ration area and transported to the machine in a dilute slurry. A
rotating wire-covered cylinder retains the fibers which form a sheet on
its surface and permits water to drain through. This sheet is then
removed from the wire by a cloth felt which carries it through a press
section where additional water is removed from the sheet. It is self
supporting as it leaves the press sections and passes through the
steam-heated multi-drum drier section from which it is cut to width
and rolled. At this stage it is considered a dry or unsaturated felt.
The above paper forming and drying process is the type used by all
manufacturers treated in this study.
A process flow diagram of a building paper and roofing felt mill is
shown in Figure 2.
PRODUCTION CLASSIFICATION
The U. S. Bureau of the Census, Census of Manufactures (4), classifies
construction paper (dry basis before saturating) as Product Code No.
26612 under the four-digit category 2661, building paper and board.
11
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FIGURE
BUILDING PAPER AND ROOFING
FELT PROCESS DIAGRAM
WOOD CHIPS
I STEAM!" H
WASTE
PAPER
DEFIBRINATOR
PULPER
STOCK
CHEST
REFINER
CHEST
WHITE
WATER
CHEST
SAVE-ALL
SCREEN
FORMING
MACHINE
BUILDING PAPER
or
UNSAT. FELT?
1
DRIER
EFFLUENT
SATURATING &
COATING
STOCK
CHEST
JORDAN
CHEST
REJECTS
PROCESS
WATER
ROOFING FELTSI
SHINGLES
LEGEND
PRODUCT a RAW MAT'L -
PROCESS WATER -
BACK WATER
STEAM
REJECTS **.»»
EFFLUENT
12
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DRAFT
CAPACITY PROJECTIONS
Only a very minor increase in construction paper capacity is forecast
through 1975 (5). The percentage of waste paper used as a constituent
is projected to rise from 27.1 percent in 1969 to 40 percent in 1985 (6)
Research, development, and implementation of programs in response to
environmental problems associated with the disposal of solid wastes, to
which "paper" makes a large contribution, may support this projection.
13
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SECTION IV
SUBCATEGORIZATION OF THE INDUSTRY
FACTORS OF CONSIDERATION
This study is concerned with the building paper and roofing felt segment
of the builders paper and board mills point source category. In order to
identify any relevant discrete subcategories within this segment, the fol-
lowing factors were considered:
1. Raw materials
2. Production processes
3. Products produced
4. Size and age of mills
5. Waste water characteristics and treatability
6. Geographical location
After analyzing these factors, it is concluded that this segment consti-
tutes one discrete subcategory defined as BUILDING PAPER AND ROOFING FELT,
which is the production of heavy papers used in the construction industry
from cellulose and mineral fibers derived from waste paper, wood flour and
sawdust, wood chips, asbestos, and rags, without bleaching or chemical
pulping.
RATIONALE FOR SELECTION OF SUBCATEGORY
Raw Materials
Cellulose fiber is the principal raw material used. Asbestos fiber is used
to a much lesser degree. While there are differences in the sources of
these fibers, as noted above and in Sections III and V, such differences
have only a minor impact on waste water characteristics and treatability.
All raw waste containing cellulose respond to the same treatment tech-
niques for removal of suspended solids and BODe. Raw wastes containing
asbestos respond to the same suspended solids removal techniques, and have
no 8005. The details of these techniques are described in Section VII.
Other raw materials, such as asphalt used in some roofing felt mills, do
not contribute significantly to waste water characteristics, as described
in Section V.
15
-------
Production Processes
As delineated in Section III, there is a wide variety of products produced,
ranging from roofing felts to gasket materials. As shown in Section V,
waste water characteristics do not vary significantly as a function of pro-
duct produced*
Size and Age of Mills
While older mills tend to have higher levels of pollutants in the waste
water than newer mills, there are "old" mills which have applied available
technology, principally in the area of recycle, to reduce such pollutant
levels to approach those obtained by "new" mills. Size of most mills
varies only within a relatively narrow range from about SO to about 250
tons per day.
Geographical Location
Waste water characteristics and treatability do not differ significantly
with geographical location. Climatic differences, however, have an impor-
tant effect upon treatability due to the effect of temperature upon some
biological treatment methods used to remove 8005. This accounts for the
inclusion of temperature effects as an Influencing factor in the effluent
limitation guidelines and standards.
16
-------
DRAf
SECTION V
WATER UTILIZATION AND WASTE CHARACTERISTICS
PROCESS WATER UTILIZATION
General Use
A building paper and/or roofing felt mill utilizes water in its process,
exclusive of steam generation, for the following purposes:
1. To act as an agent for separating the raw materials into
discrete fibers which is essential for: the formation of the end
product; the removal of contaminants and undesirable fibers from the
stock system; and the control and metering of stock to the paper
machine. This water, which is generally recycled, acts as a vehicle
for transporting the fiber to the process.
2. To clean those areas, particularly on the wet end of the
machine, which tend to develop fiber buildup. These areas are the
paper forming section of the machine and the felts used to carry
the formed sheet through the machine and press sections. This
water enters the system via shower nozzles and represents the
largest contribution to the volume of raw waste water generated
since it is nearly all excess water in terms of process water needs.
3. To keep production equipment throughout the mill opera-
tional or permit the equipment to perform its design function.
Typical applications are the seal and cooling waters used on pumps,
agitators, drives, bearings, vacuum pumps, and process controls.
Also cooling water is required by those mills that include the
asphalt saturating process for the production of roofing felts and
shingles. This water represents the second largest contributor to
the volume of waste water generated by the process.
4. To supply emergency make-up water, under automatic control,
to various storage tanks to avoid operational problems resulting in
reduced production and/or complete mill shut down.
5. To provide power boiler condenser, heat exchange condensate,
and non-contact cooling water that can be segregated and discharged
separately without treatment. However, there are many mills that
still permit all or part of this water to enter the waste water sewer
system which increases the volume of water requiring treatment.
17
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Specific Process Use
The manufacture of building paper involves three relatively discrete pro-
cess systems in terms of quantity and quality of water utilization: stock
preparation and the wet end and dry end of the machine. An illustrative
process flow diagram is shown in Figure 3.
Stock Preparation Area
The stock preparation area uses water for purposes described in Items 1, 3,
4, and 5 of the General Use section. Water in the form of steam may also
be used directly to maintain stock temperature which contributes to the
volume of waste water generated since it represents excess water in terms
of the process water balance.
Process water is mixed with baled waste paper in the pulper or beater and
the resulting slurry is then carried through the stock cleaning system
where additional process water is introduced. The stock is then thickened
to reduce consistency for refining or jordaning (fiber control). The
process water removed by the thickener or decker is recirculated back to
the pulper and cleaning system. A mill utilizing wood flour Instead of
wood pulp from an attrition mill adds the flour in the above waste paper
stock system ahead of the Jordans or refiners. However, those that use
wood chips and/or rags and/or inorganic materials such as asbestos require
a preparation process for each type of furnish used. These are generally
low volume water users although each system contributes to the waste load
generated. The various stock components are blended and passed through the
refiners and discharged to a machine stock chest.
Wet End Area
The stock is pumped to a head box which meters the quantity of stock to the
paper machine. At this point process water is added to reduce the stock
consistency to 0.25-0.5 percent in the vat which is the forming section of
the machine. The stock deposits on a cylinder wire and the excess machine
white water passes through the wire. A large portion of this white water
is recycled back through the machine stock loop and the excess is pumped to
a white water collection chest for reuse in the stock preparation area. It
is on the wet end that excess water is created by the use of fresh water
showers as described in Item 2 of the General Use Section. The sheet is
carried by felts to the press sections where additional quantities of water
are removed. Felt cleaning showers add more excess water, but are necessary
for the maintenance of the drainability of the felt.
Dry End Area
The sheet passes through the drier section to the dry end where water use
is generally low in volume consisting principally of cooling water and
sheet moisture control. The product at this point may be the finished
product or it may be subject to additional processes in the mill. For
18
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WASTE PAPER 1 BROKE
AND/OR RAGS \
^80 Tons
| 0.6
5 Tons
WOOD
CHIPS
30 Tons
MG 0.025 MG~| 0.09 MG~1
PULPER 1 . DUMP CHEST
2 Tons Rejects
3 Tons
2.8 MG
1
II
1
L==
Fi
PROCES
Z!
RIFF
Rejects
2.9 MG
SCRE
2 Tons
WHITE
-tKo
2.9 MG
ENS
Rejects
UflTFP
CHEST
l
VACl
SAVE-
IUM
ALL 1.2 MG
gure 3
3 FLOW DIAGRAM
CHEST
-
STEAM
0.625 MG 0.74 MG 0.12 MG
2.17 MG i
DrcTuroc - Bl FNnTN^
RS CHEST
SHOWERS
0.8 MG EVAPORATION
| | 0.06 MG
^ FORMING DRYING
SECTION J PRESS J SECTION
1 t
3-5 MG VACUUM «.
PUMP
i E
CLEAR [ I 1.0 MG §
" WELL "?T
2 MG! |
j .1
f 1.2 MG
[!
10(
SHORT-COOK
DIGESTER
1 ^
...1 L.
I
ATTRITION
MILL
1
1 Ton Rejects
tLTERNATE FOR CHI
WOOD FLOUR
FRESH
WATER
D Tons
UNSATURATED
PRODUCT
\
!
If -fe
II
II 0.05 MG
PS
m
*
SATURATING
& COATING
ii
it |
"T" i
1! f
ROOFING FELT
OR SHINGLES
SEWER
CTfW-y
|| SETTLING
|| BASIN
I' "*RIVER
||
MISC.&FLOOR
DRAINS
lizJ COOLING
| TOWER
BUILDING PAPER AND FELT MILL
===== EXTENSIVE WATER RE-USE
<^
5r
^
-------
'ff
some products, the saturating process is the next waste generating step
after the papermaking process. However, the production of deadening or
flooring felts from the paper produced does not require processing which
generates a waste water load.
Asphalt Saturating Process
The paper is carried through one or two stations for asphalt saturation
and application of a coat of talc on one side of the sheet. This requires
the utilization of cooling water applied by spray nozzles after each satu-
ration which represents the waste load sewered from the area. This process
has the capability of making roofing shingles as well as roofing felts,
therefore a section for coating the saturated felt with a granular stone
and/or mica is part of the operation. These particles fall to the floor
and are washed to the sewer and represent the principal source of inert sus-
pended solids in the waste water generated in the area. As explained in
Section VII, the volume of water used for this application varies widely,
and the resulting waste water is very low in BODe.
UNIT PROCESS WASTE LOADS
Definitive data on individual waste loads from each of the above process
sources do not presently exist, and are difficult to develop: First, many,
if not most, mills in this subcategory change raw. materials and products
manufactured in response to short term pricing, availability, and demand.
Figure 3 demonstrates the complexity of processs options which may be used
in even a single mill in response to these factors. Second, the pronounced
tendency in these mills toward Increased recycle could erroneously attribute
a waste load to one unit process which actually originated in another. Such
recycle, as explained below and in Section VII, reduces pollutant levels in
the raw waste and in the final discharge.
TOTAL RAW WASTE LOAD
Definition of "total raw waste load" from mills in this subcategory is
subject to interpretation dependent upon the particular scheme of recycle
used. Four principal schemes have been identified, each being effective
insofar as reduction of final discharge pollutants is concerned, and each
dependent upon product quality, mill layout, and other factors:
1. An internal device such as a save-all or DSM screen is
used to remove suspended solids. Both the solids and the clarified
process water may then be recycled, at least in part, resulting in a
low "raw waste" level of suspended solids.
2. An external device such as a mechanical clarifier is used
to serve the same functions. The influent to the clarifier may tech-
nically be called "raw waste," but any effluent not reused would be
the definition comparable to scheme #1.
20
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3. In both above CAMS, suspended solids removal nay be followed
by biological treatment. The third scheme employes recycle of a por-
tion of the effluent after biological treatment, in which case, the
remaining effluent may be termed "raw waste."
4. The fourth scheme relies principally upon internal recycle,
with internal or external storage facilities to hold surge flows due
to grade changes and other process upsets. Most of these surge flows
are then returned to the process as production equilibrium is again
approached, with only a small and sometimes intermittent final waste
flow occurring.
Thus, raw waste loads from mills in this subcategory vary widely, depending
upon the definition used. Data developed in 1971 illustrate this point.
Of 13 mills in this subcategory, raw waste suspended solids varied typically
from 2.5 kilograms per metric ton (5 pounds per short ton) to 30 kilograms
per metric ton (60 pounds per short ton).
A further example taken from two surveyed mills illustrates the same point,
and also emphasizes the effect of grade changes. The first mill utilized
extensive internal recycle, as well as recycle of some biologically treated
waste water. Its raw waste contained 4.5 kilograms per metric ton of
suspended solids (9 pounds per short ton). The second surveyed mill
utilized only minimum recycle, and relied upon extensive external solids
and 8005. Raw waste from the second mill contained a much higher 42
kilograms of suspended solids per metric ton (84 pounds per short ton)
while making one grade. After a grade change, its raw waste suspended
solids decreased markedly to nine kilograms per metric ton (18 pounds
per short ton).
Although no definition of "total raw waste load" fits all cases, the
"primary effluent not recycled" probably meets most field conditions as
the best definition.
Final effluent flow is a measure of the degree of reuse employed by a given
mill. The first surveyed mill employed extensive recycle and used only
4200 liters per metric ton (1000 gallons per short ton) during the' four days
of the survey. The second mill, which did not employ extensive recycle,
used 54,000 liters per metric ton (13,000 gallons per short ton) during the
survey.
Longer term data from the 13 mills mentioned above show a wide variation in
water usage, primarily as a function of recycle. The typical range among
these mills was from 8400 liters per metric ton (2,000 gallons per short
ton) to 42,000 liters per metric ton (10,000 gallons per short ton).
As the above discussion indicates, BOD~ and suspended solids are the two
primary pollutants identified in the waste water discharged by this indus-
try. No problems associated with heavy metals have been identified and the
21
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mills surveyed had low concentrations of such metals. These concentrations
ranged from a few parts per billion (ppb) for the more toxic metals such as
mercury and chromium, to 0.5 to 1.7 parts per million (ppm) for iron, well
within the range of many natural waters. Nor has color been a problem, as
substantiated by survey data which show an average color unit loading below
two kilograms per metric ton (four pounds per short ton). In common with most
most pulp and paper effluents, nutrients discharged by this industry are low
in nitrogen and phosphorus. As described in Section VII, these nutrients
must usually be added to promote the necessary activity within biological
treatment systems for the removal of 8005.
22
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DRAFT
SECTION VI
SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
WASTE WATER PARAMETERS OF SIGNIFICANCE
A thorough analysis of the literature, mill records, sampling data which
has been derived from this study, and the Corps of Engineers permits
demonstrates that the following constituents represent pollutants accord-
ing to the Water Pollution Control Act for the subcategories under study:
BOD
suspended solids
PH
RATIONALE FOR SELECTION OF IDENTIFIED PARAMETERS
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (5-day. 20°C)
This parameter is a measure of the amount of biologically degradable or-
ganic matter which is present in the waste stream. Failure to substan-
tially reduce the amount of BODC in the waste stream before discharge to
receiving waters would adversely affect water quality by consuming large
amounts of dissolved oxygen. Although the amount of BODS per ton of
product in the discharge from an industrial process varies to a signif-
icant degree between mills, its treatability is essentially constant.
Measurement of BODc requires uniform procedures and trained personnel.
It is difficult to use as a control indicator of waste treatment per-
formance because of the five day test period which is required.
Suspended Solids
Building paper effluents contain appreciable organic matter in solution.
However, suspended solids can represent up to 30 per cent of the total
BODc. Suspended solids are those solids which can be removed from the
waste stream by sedimentation in a quiescent zone, and are usually
determined in the laboratory by filtration. Coarse and floating matter
is not included in an analysis of suspended solids. Removal of suspend-
ed solids, including biological solids, substantially reduces both the
organic and inorganic pollutant load otherwise existent in the effluent
from a mill.
23
-------
DRAFT
The effluent from a typical biological treatment process will normally
have a pH in the range of 6.0 to 8.5, which is not detrimental to most
receiving waters. However, the application of some technologies for the
removal of solids and trace organics can result in major adjustments
in pH. The effluent limitations which are cited insure that these ad-
justments are compensated prior to final discharge of treated wastes in
order to avoid harmful effects within the receiving waters.
OTHER PARAMETERS INDICATING PRESENCE OF POLLUTANTS
Both COD and TOC are indicators of the presence of pollutants and of the
efficienceies of the treatment and control technologies being applied.
Therefore, effluents from treatment facilities should be monitored for
each of these parameters. Both COD and TOC are a measure of organic and
some inorganic matter in the waste stream. As such, they are more inclu-
sive than BODc. Unfortunately, no consistent ratios have been estab-
lished within the building paper industry between BODc and these other
two parameters. However, properly developed COD and TOC results can be
an effective control indicator of waste treatment performance since
tests can be completed rapidly and can be generally related to BOD,.
within a given mill.
-------
DRAFT
SECTION VII
CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
SUMMARY
Waste waters discharged from mills in the building paper and roofing felt
Industry to receiving waters can be reduced to required levels by con-
scientious application of established in-plant process loss control and
water recycle measures and by well designed and operated external treat-
ment facilities.
This section describes both the in-plant and external technologies which
are either presently available or under intensive development to achieve
various levels of pollutant reduction. External technology is used to
treat the residual waste concentration levels to achieve the final re-
duction of pollutants discharged to the environment.
IN-PLANT MEASURES
Recovery and Recycle Concepts
Generally, mills that reduce effluent volume through recycle reduce raw
waste pollutant loads concommitantly. As discussed in Section V, in some
cases a mill may employ extensive suspended solids removal equipment in-
ternally, reusing both the clarified water for manufacture and the
recovered solids in the product, whereas another mill depends on an
extensive primary clarlfier for suspended solids removal. This study
indicates that similar reductions in pollution loads are achieved by
both methods of treatment.
Large quantities of water are necessary to form a sheet of paper. Typi-
cally, the fibrous stock is diluted to about 0.5 percent consistency
before entering the paper machine itself. Such dilutions are necessary
in order to provide uniform dispersion of the fibers in the sheet forming
section. Most of this water must be removed in the wet end of the machine
since only a small amount of moisture, typically five to eight percent
by weight, is retained in the product at the dry end.
After leaving the forming section of the machine, the sheet of paper or
board contains about 80 percent moisture. A press section employing
squeeze rolls, sometimes utilizing vacuum, is used to further reduce
moisture to a level of about 60 percent. The remaining moisture is
evaporated by steam-heated drying rolls.
25
-------
DRAFT
Water leaving the forming and press sections is called white water, and
approximates 104,325 liters per metric ton (25,000 gallons per short ton)
of product. Due to recycling, only a relatively small portion of
the total is wasted. Typically, in a mill utilizing extensive recycle,
only 2087 to 20,865 liters of white water per metric ton (500 to 5000
gallons of white water per short ton) is discharged from the system.
Recycling of this white water within the stock preparation and wet end
of the papermaking machine has long been practiced in the industry. How-
ever, in recent years very extensive reuse of treated white water has
been achieved. The replacement of fresh water with treated white water
is the mechanism by which final waste water volume is reduced. It has
been demonstrated that with a closed water system the concentration of
solids increases significantly to a high level at which plateau it
remians, varying only plus or minus lo to 15 percent. Thus, a significant
result of total or near total recycle of process water is that dissolved
solids, derived primarily from raw materials, are removed from the pro-
cess water system via the product manufactured rather than in the waste
stream.
Problems are experienced, however, as near total recycle of process wa-
ter is approached. It appears, though, that the production process and
product quality of mills in the building paper industry, and particu-
larly those manufacturing roofing felt paper, are such that with good
system design these problems can be overcome. This posture is sup-
ported, to some extent, by a report from one Bill in the industry.
In this instance both in-plant and external biological treatment facil-
ities, using the activated sludge process and final chlorination, were
installed. After a year of operation, the mill is near a decision to
eliminate their discharge to the environment and operate a completely
closed process water system.
Saturated roofing felt mills have a water use requirement which is in-
dependent of that for the papermaking process. This water is essentially
cooling water that becomes contaminated by the granular particles used
to coat the saturated felts. The cooling water is applied across the
festooned sheet immediately after it passes through the hot liquor
asphalt saturation bath. This study indicated that there is no measur-
able contamination of the watar due to its contact with the hot asphalt.
The volume required depends entirely on the type of showers used and
therefore varies over a wide range, perhaps as low as 209 liters per
metric ton (50 gallons per short ton) to as high as 4173 liters per
metric ton (1000 gallons per short ton) of paper saturated. There are
mills that segregate this water and convey it to a settling pond for
the removal of readily settleabla suspended solids. However, in order
to reuse it as cooling water it is necessary to employ a cooling tower
in order to achieve the reduced water temperature necessary for the
process application. The success of this recycle system, on a year-
round basis, is not well documented since the reduction in pollution
load that can be achieved does not necessarily warrant the capital
investment, increased operating costs, and potential loss of production
26
-------
DRAFT
inherent ln tne operation of such a system. Those systems that have
been installed have not been operated on a continuous basis by virtue of
the weather-dependent nature of a cooling tower.
In-Plant Recovery Equipment
Most mills employ a save-all to recover fibrous and other suspended
solids from the process water of which there are three principal types.
One is the gravity or vacuum drum type which employs a rotating screen-
covered drum immersed in a vat containing the waste water. The water
passes through the drum, leaving a mat of fiber which is removed con-
tinuously for reuse. The vacuum disc filter is another type of save-all
which utilizes a series of screen-covered discs on a rotating shaft
immersed in the vat. Both types filter the white water through a filter
mat; however, the disc type has the advantage of greater filtering area
or capacity per unit volume. The filtering medium in each case is pro-
vided by a side-stream of "sweetener" stock added to the influent to act
as a filtering mat for the removal of suspended solids. The recovered
fiber and sweetener stock is returned for reuse directly to the stock
system. A third type is a stationary bar screen with very fine slots
between the bars which has in recent years been employed by mills in
this industry for the recovery of fiber from the process water system.
There is a significant economic advantage in this type of system. However,
the quality of the effluent is not as high in terms of suspended solids as
that generated by vacuum filters.
All or a part of the effluent from a save-all may be discharged directly
to a sewer, but most mills reuse a significant portion for such services
as ( ):
1. Machine showers 4. Vacuum pump seals
2. Stock cleaner elutriation 5. Wash-ups
3. Pump and agitator seals 6. Consistency regulation dilution
Machine Showers
Machine and felt showers are used in both the forming and press sections
to clean the wire, felts, and other machine elements subject to contact
with the stock. Formerly, large volumes of fresh water were used for this
purpose, but in recent years, attention has focused on the use of recycled
white water. However, a suspended solids content of less than 120 milli-
grams per liter (one pound per thousand gallons) is generally required to
avoid plugging of shower nozzles. Concurrently, the use of high pressure
(up to 52 atm. or 750 pslg), low volume showers using fresh water has
increased. These are employed where product, operability, cleanliness,
or other factors mitigate against the use of white water showers. These
high pressure showers are operated on a time cycle, so that flow occurs
27
-------
DRAFT
only a small percentage, 10 to 20 percent, of the time.
Whether recycled water or lover volumes of fresh water are used for
showers, a reduction in fresh water usage and its concomitant waste
water flow results. Significantly, this reduction also decreases the
fiber losses to sewer.
Seal Water
Vacuum pumps are essential to the paper forming process as presently
practiced to provide a vacuum source to accelerate the removal of water
from the sheet as formed, and to dry the felts for each pass through the
wet end. Most such pumps are of the ring seal type, which requires water
to provide a seal between the moving parts of the pump and avoid backflow
of air to the vacuum side. Water used for this purpose must be suffi-
ciently free of suspended solids to avoid plugging of the orifices or
other control devices used to meter it to the pump. Further, it must
not be corrosive to the mechanical parts of the pump, and it must be
relatively cool (typically less than 32°C (90°F)) to permit development
of high vacuums of 0.67-0.74 atm. (20-22 in. Hg.) For lower vacuum
requirements 0.17-0.40 atm. (5-12 in. Hg.), somewhat higher temperatures
are permissible.
Seal water is also used on packing glands of process pumps, agitators,
and other equipment employing rotating shafts. It cools bearings, and
lubricates the packing, and minimizes leakage of the process fluid. Even
though the amount of water used per packing is small generally in the
range of 1.86 to 11.34 liters per minute (0.5 to 3 gpm) the total
usage is quite extensive because of the large number of rotating shafts
required in the processes. The total usage may approximate 4173-8346
liters per metric ton (1000-2000 gallons per short ton) of product.
Methods used to control and reduce the quantities of water required in-
clude proper maintenance of packings and flow control of individual seal
water lines.
As more intensive recycle is employed the significance of the quantity
of seal water used for all purposes in the mill increases in terms of
waste water volume. The use of mechanical seals has reduced the amount
of seal water, but they have so far not proven satisfactory in terms of
maintenance and reliability for many applications.
The replacement of fresh water with clarified waste water in the building
paper industry is dependent largely on maintaining a level of suspended
solids in the recycled seal water at 120 mg/1 or less. The vacuum required
on the paper machines in these mills indicates that a seal water tempera-
ture of 49°C can be tolerated. The limits to recycle in the water use
area will be more completely documented as more mills develop reuse systems.
28
-------
DRAFT
Stock Cleaning Systems
A majority of mills in this Industry employ a stock cleaning system that
dates back many years, the riffler. This is a simple device that removes
sand* grit, metals, and other readily settled contaminants from the stock
slurry. This system subjects the process water system to insignificant,
if any, fresh water requirements and satisfies the cleaning needs of the
production quality. The contribution to the waste water load is also
small since the solids removed from the stock can be removed at in-
tervals from the bottom of the riffler trough, generally at most once
a week. This material is disposed of by trucking to a plant-owned
or municipal land disposal area.
If cleaning at the machine is practiced, flat bed slotted plate vi-
brating screens are generally employed. This method of cleaning, as
with a riffler, has been in use for many years. Again, rejects are
removed in a relatively dry state for truck disposal and the impact
on the waste water generated by the mill is negligible.
The trend toward replacement of these older cleaning systems with more
modern equipment will increase in this industry as labor and maintenance
costs exceed the increased power costs associated with the new equipment.
With the newer cleaning equipment there is potential for increased
quantities of rejects and, more importantly, fiber discharged to the
sewer. This phenomenon has already been experienced by many mills in
the waste paperboard industry. The effect on the waste water load
generated can be minimized or eliminated by the inclusion of a well de-
signed rejects handling system along with an improved cleaning system.
The effectiveness of these systems becomes more significant to a mill
as it approaches near total recycle of process water. In fact, under
this condition it becomes of paramount importance since rejects can-
not escape from the mill in the waste water, and therefore build up
in the system unless removed in a relatively dry state by an adequate
rejects handling system.
Cooling Water
Cooling water is used for bearings, particularly in older mills using
sleeve bearings Instead of the anti-friction bearings employed in new or
rebuilt mills. Cooling water is not contaminated and can be collected
and reused either directly (after heat removal), or indirectly by dis-
charge into the fresh water system, if heat buildup is not a problem.
Similarly, water used to cool brake linings in paper rewind applications
may be reused. Water used to cool.condensate from the steam dryers can
also be reused, but because of high heat loads cooling of this water
by cooling towers or other means would usually be necessary. None of
the mills surveyed in this study cooled this water. However, one mill
surveyed returned dryer condensate directly to the feed water heater at
the boiler plant under 1.20-1.34 atm. (three-five psig) pressure,
29
-------
thereby reducing the cooling water requirement. This approach could be
used more generally where dryers are operated at pressures above 1.34 atm.
(five psig).
While reduction of cooling water usage does not, per se, reduce the
level of pollutants in the waste water, it does reduce the volume of
waste to be treated, thereby reducing the capital and, in some instances,
operating cost of waste treatment facilities.
Asphalt Cooling
The volume of waste water generated in the felt saturating cooling
process is entirely dependent on the type of shower nozzles used to
spray the sheet. A very high reduction in water requirements with
increased cooling efficiency i.e., temperature drop per unit
time has been achieved with special nozzles. The need to settle
the waste water generated by this process is established, and the
ability to recycle after cooling has been demonstrated. However, be
cause of its low pollutant load, the need to recycle this waste after
settling versus discharge to the environment appears to be an issue
to be determined on an individual mill basis.
EXTERNAL TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
Waste treatment requirements do not vary appreciably among mills in the
building paper industry. Although there are variations in concentrations
and specific waste constituents, the general classes of compounds which
can be expected to occur in their wastes derive from the pulping of wood
fiber or repulping of waste fiber and are, thus, characteristic of them
all. These substances are dissolved organic components of wood and
cellulose degradation products. They make up the bulk of the oxygen
demanding wastes of this subcategory. The pulping of rags and/or
asbestos adds to the waste load generated. In addition, other compounds
such as adhesives, sizing material, and resinates are used by the indus-
try depending on product. The residual of all of these substances in
the waste load, or combinations of them, appears to be amenable to the
various biological treatment processes used by the industry.
Removal of Suspended Solids
The physical process of removing suspended organic and inorganic mate-
rials, commonly termed primary treatment, is generally accomplished by
sedimentation. Screening ahead of treatment units is necessary to remove
trash materials which could seriously damage or clog succeeding equip-
ment. Automatically cleaned screens, operating in response to level
control, are commonly employed and represent preferred practice.
30
-------
DRAFT
Primary treatment can be accomplished in mechanical clarifiers or sedi-
mentation lagoons. Although the latter enjoyed widespread use in the past,
the large land requirement* coupled with inefficient performance and
high cost for cleaning, has made them less popular in recent years (7).
The most widely used method for sedimention in this industry is the
mechanically-cleaned quiescent sedimentation basin (7). Large circular
tanks of concrete construction are normally utilized with rotating sludge
scraper mechanisms mounted in the center. Effluent usually enters the
tank through a well which is located at the center of the tank. Settled
sludge is raked to a center sump or concentric hopper and is conveyed
back to the process system. Floating material is collected by a surface
skimmer attached to the rotating mechanism and discharged to a hopper.
This material may be brought back to the process or carried to land dis-
posal.
A properly designed and Installed mechanical clarlfier is capable of
removing over 95 percent of the settleable suspended solids from the
effluents produced. The removal efficiency of this fraction of the total
suspended solids Is the true measure of performance for this device since
it cannot be expected to separate those solids which will not settle under
the most favorable conditions.
Because of the biodegradable nature of a portion of the settleable solids
present in the effluents of these mills, clarification results in some
BOD reduction.
BOD Reduction
BOD reduction is generally accomplished by biological means, again be-
cause of the relative biodegradability of most of the organic substances
in the waste. Advances in reduction of internal losses and recycling of
process water have increased BOD concentrations in the waste to be treated.
However, this, in general, seems to improve the removal efficiency of the
process. While BOD reduction by biological methods represents common
practice today, it should be understood that other methods discussed tinder
"Advanced Waste Treatment" may, in the future, avoid the need for biologi-
cal treatment to reduce BOD.
Current biological treatment practice includes the use of very large
storage oxidation basins, aerated stabilization basins, or the activated
sludge process and modifications thereof. The storage oxidation basin
and the aerated stabilization basin because of their large land
requirements have not found wide application in this Industry. Most
of the mills are located in relatively populated areas with minimum land
availability, therefore, the activated sludge process has had wider accep-
tance.
31
-------
DRAFT
The land requirements of the oxidation basin are due to the fact that
it is a relatively low-rate process. Because of the availability of
land, and the warmer climate which helps to maintain consistent bio-
logical activity* most natural oxidation basins are found in the southern
states ( 7 ). Design loading rates of 56 kilograms BOD per hectare per
day (50 pounds BOD per acre per day) for natural oxidation basins to
achieve 85-90 percent removal in warm climates have been reported (8)
By installing aeration equipment in a natural basin, its ability to
assimilate BOD per unit of surface area is greatly increased. The
aerated stabilization basin originally evolved out of the necessity of
increasing performance of existing natural basins due to Increasing
effluent flows and/or more stringent water quality standards. Due to its
inherent acceleration of the biological process, the aerated stabiliza-
tion basin requires much less land than the natural stabilization basin
and because of the long reaction period less nutrient addition than that
required for activated sludge. Typically, 0.21 hectares per million
liters (two acres per M6D) of the aerated stabilization basin compared
with 4.8 hectares per million liters (40 acres per MGD) for natural basins
for equivalent treatment levels (9). Detention times in the aerated
stabilization basin normally range from five to 15 days, averaging less
than 10 days.
Due to the relatively long aeration time, the buildup of sludge solids
is considerably less than for higher rate processes, particularly where
primary clarification is employed. Typical rates are 45.4 to 90.8 grams
(0.1 to 0.2 pounds) of sludge generated for each 454 grams (pound) of
BOD removed ( 7 ). The sludge is removed as formed by endogenous respira-
tion, sludge loss in the effluent, and sedimentation within the aeration
basin. However, discharge of untreated waste to an aerated stabiliza-
tion basin without prior clarification can result in a buildup of sludge
which after a period of time will Impede its efficiency.
Most mill wastes are deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus, therefore, the
addition of nutrients to the aeration basin is generally practiced. Re-
ported optimum ratios of BOD to nitrogen are 50:1 with four days aeration,
and 100:1 with 10-15 days aeration (8).
Aeration is normally accomplished using either gear-driven turbine-type
aerators, direct-drive axial flow-pump aerators, and, in a few cases,
diffused aerators. Oxygenation efficiencies under actual operating con-
ditions range from 0.61 to 1.52 kilograms of oxygen per kilowatt per
hour (one to 2.5 pounds of oxygen per horsepower per hour), depending on
the type of equipment used, the amount of aeration power per unit lagoon
volume, basin configuration, and the biological characteristics of the
system. A dissolved oxygen level of 0.5 mg/1 remaining in the lagoon
liquid is required to sustain aerobic conditions (10)« Design experience
32
-------
DRAFT
Indicates Chat 1.1 to 1.3 kilograms of oxygen per kilogram 8005
(1.1 to 1.3 pounds oxygen per pound 8005) are required to maintain
adequate DO for waste oxidation and endogenous respiration at the bio-
logical mass produced.
Although the activated sludge process has been employed for many years
to treat domestic sewage, it was first applied to pulp and paper mill
waste in 1953 ( 8), and in the building paper Industry only very recently.
The process is similar to the aerated stabilization basin except that it
is much faster, usually designed for four to eight hours of total deten-
tion time. The biological mass grown in the aeration tank is settled in
a secondary clarifler and returned to the aeration tank, building up a
large concentration of active biological material. Since there is
approximately 2000-4000 mg/1 of active sludge mass in the aeration section
of this process, as opposed to 50-200 mg/1 in the aerated stabilization
basin, dissolved and suspended organic matter are removed much more rapid-
ly, greatly reducing necessary tank volume as well as required de-
tention time. Since biological organisms are in continuous circu-
lation throughout the process, complete mixing and suspension of
solids in the aeration basin is required. The active microbial mass
consists mainly of bacteria, protozoa, rotifers, fungi, and cyntomnemo-
todes. Because the process involves intimate contact of organic waste
with biological organisms, followed by sedimentation, a high degree of
BOD and solids removals are obtained.
The contact stabilization process is a variation of activated sludge
wherein two aeration steps are utilized rather than one. First, the
incoming waste is contacted for a short period with active organisms
prior to sedimentation. Settled solids are then aerated for a longer
period to complete waste assimilation. Contact stabilization has been
applied successfully, however, conventional activated sludge has found
more accepted use in this industry.
The secondary clarifier in the activated sludge process performs the
function of sedimentation of the active microbial mass for return to
the aeration tank. Rates of about 211 liters per day per square meter
(600 gallons per day per square foot) have been suggested (9). For a
more conservative approach, secondary clarifler rise rate should not
exceed 141 liters per day per square meter (400 gallons per day per square
foot) (7). It Is advisable to design secondary clarifiers for lower
loading rates as periodic episodes of sludge bulking or poor sedimen-
tation arising from variable loading and aeration can occur.
Due to the fact that the sludge volume is greatly reduced in the acti-
vated sludge system, the endogenous respiration of the sludge mass is
considerably lessened. Thus, there are additional quantities of excess
sludge, one kilogram of excess sludge per kilogram of BOD (one pound of
excess sludge per pound of BOD), which must be disposed of.
33
-------
DRAFT
As in the case of the aerated stabilization basin, aeration can be
accomplished by mechanical or diffused aeration. The more efficient and
more easily maintained mechanical method is generally preferred by the
industry. Oxygen requirements where activated sludge processes are
utilized are in the range of one kilogram of oxygen per kilogram of BOD5
(one pound of oxygen per pound of 8005) removed.
Short detention times and low volumes make the activated sludge process
more susceptible to upset due to shock loads. When the process is dis-
rupted, several days are usually required to return the biological activ-
ity and high BOD removal rates back to normal. Thus, particular atten-
tion is required to avoid such shock loads in mills utilizing this process.
A flow diagram of waste treatment at a building paper mill is shown in
Figure 4.
SLUDGE DEWATERING AND DISPOSAL
Due to their high organic content, the dewatering and disposal of sludges
resulting from the waste treatment of mill effluents can pose a major
problem and cost more than the treatment itself. In early practice,
these sludges were placed in holding basins from which free water from
natural compaction and rainfall was decanted. When a basin was full, it
was abandoned, or, if sufficient drying took place, the cake was excavated
and dumped on waste land. In this case, the basin was returned to service.
Odor problems from drying, as well as land limitations, have demanded the
adoption of more advanced practices. These are covered in detail in
NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 190 (11) and are described briefly below.
Depending on the performance of dewatering equipment, in some cases it is
either necessary or desirable to prethicken sludges. This is accomplished
by gravity thickeners of the "picket-fence" type or by providing a high
level of sludge storage capacity in mechanical clarifiers. Small mills
sometimes employ high conical tanks which serve as both storage tanks and
thickeners. These have side wall slopes in excess of 60* but contain no
mechanism.
Sludges from building paper mills can generally be thickened to a con-
sistency in excess of four percent dry solids by pre thickening. If acti-
vated sludge from secondary treatment is included, this figure can be
somewhat lower.
Vacuum filters are in use for dewatering sludges and produce filter cakes
ranging from 20 to 30 percent solids. Observed capacities for the poorly
filterable sludges can generally be about doubled by chemical conditioning
34
-------
MILL
EFFLUENT
1 ,
BAR 1
SCREENS |^
-J CLARIFIER 1
1 WASTE
1
i
H AERATION
TANK
H SECONDARY m
CLARIFIER |^
RETURN ACTIVATED SLUDGE 1
1
i 1 A
LTERNATE
H AERATED 1 J SETTLING 1
BASIN \\ ..BASINS |
SLUDGE 1 -J LAND
BEDS | | DISPOSAL
OUTFALL | '
FIGURE 4
EFFLUENT TREATMENT AT
BUILDING PAPER MILLS
-------
DRAFT
with ferric chloride, alum, or polyelectrolytes at a cost of from $2.72
to $4.54 per metric ton ($3.00 to $5.00 per short ton) of dry solids.
Such treatment is generally necessary when activated sludge is included
in the sludge to be dewatered since the addition of 20 percent of this
material on a dry solids basis can reduce filtration rates as much as
50 percent.
Complete vacuum filter installations, including all accessories, range
from $4306 to $5382 per square meter of filter area ($400 to $500 per
square foot of filter area). Although a number of different types of
filters are in service, coil or belt types are the most popular among
recent installations. At one mill using coil filters, average cake
content of 23 percent was reported, with an Influent sludge concentration
of 3.3 percent. Loading rates averaged 27.37 kilograms solids per square
meter of filter area per day (5.6 pounds solids per square foot of filter
area per day).
Centrifuges are also used for sludge dewaterlng. In practice, the higher
the consistency of the feed, the more effective they are in terms of sol-
ids capture in relation to through-put as well as to reduced cake moisture.
Moisture is generally lower than in cakes produced by vacuum filters.
Cakes range from 25 to 35 percent dry solids content and are in a
pelletized easily handleable form. To operate effectively, centrifuges
must capture in excess of 85 percent of the solids in the feed stream.
Centrifuges cost from $106 to $159 per liter per minute ($400 to $600
per gpm) of feed capacity. At a two percent solids feed consistency,
this is equivalent to 97.6 kilograms of dry solids (215 pounds of dry
solids) daily at 90 percent capture.
Although drying beds are employed for dewatering sludges, they are not
constructed as elaborately as are those employed for sanitary sewage.
They generally consist only of multiple earthen basins without a complex
underdrain system.
Detailed experiments on this method of dewatering sludge set forth
parameters of good practice and area requirements (12). The latter vary
naturally with the climate, although adjustments as to the depth of
sludge deposited and its initial moisture content are also involved.
The most effective depth is less than one foot.
Sludge generated by mills in this industry can be removed for disposal
on the land as soon as it becomes "spadeable" or handleable with earth
moving equipment, which is about 25 percent solids content. Further
drying occurs upon the land if initial drying is sufficient. A sludge
dewatering and disposal operation is shown in Figure 5.
36
-------
SLUDGE FROM
TREATMENT PLANT
1
WASTE SLUDGE
METER
I
GRAVITY
THICKENER
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
L
i
-
«"j FILTERS
ALTERNATE
» «
1 CENTRIFUGES
ALTERNATE
H DRYING BEDS
_1
1
1
1
1
1
1
*
m
^^H
FILTRATES TO ,
TREATMENT PLANT
STACK
(OFF-GASES)
1
1
INCINERATOR f
ALTERNATE
LAND
DISPOSAL AREA
1
1
1
1
1
* J
H
ASHES
SLUDGE DEWATERING AND DISPOSAL
FIGURE 5
-------
DRAM
COLOR REMOVAL
The building paper and roofing felt subcategory has practiced the use of
biological treatment on Its waste water to a relatively limited extent.
Therefore the basis for demonstrating the applicability of advanced
waste treatment concepts, including color removal, In the industry is
not readily established. It appears that, in view of the industry's
potential for the development of total or near total recycle of process
water, advanced treatment concepts would be most valuable as a tool to
control the concentrations of dissolved solids and color buildup attend-
ing close-up to levels that can be tolerated by the process system and
product quality.
It is in this context that the performance of advanced waste treatment
studies are presented below. This data was generated as applied in the
pulp and paper Industry and the municipal waste treatment field. How-
ever, due to the similarity of waste constituents it is apparent that
the technology described may be applicable to the building paper and
roofing felt subcategory.
For more than twenty years, the pulp and paper Industry has been active-
ly engaged in research for the reduction of color, primarily in kraft
mill effluents. These efforts have been directed particularly to those
cases where color discharge has created aesthetic problems due to the
high clarity of the particular receiving waters. The bulk of the re-
search has concentrated on development of lime precipitation techniques
because of the relative economics of this compared to other techniques?
and the familiarity with and availability of lime handling systems in
kraft mills. The overriding Initial problem with the lime approaches
was the generation of large volumes of gelatinous, difficult to dewater
sludges. Several schemes were developed to overcome this problem and
full-scale systems have been Installed In recent years. Color removal
efficiencies of 85 to 90 percent are being achieved. In two unbleached
kraft mills, the lime sludge is recovered, dewatered, and Incinerated
in the lime kiln.
Considerable research has been performed on other color removal tech-
niques, principally activated carbon, reverse osmosis, and alum preci-
pitation. Alum precipitation was found to be economical in one Instance
where alum mud from the nearby manufacture of alum is the primary
chemical source. A full-scale installation of this system is planned.
Activated carbon and reverse osmosis have been considered as polishing
treatment In conjunction with other processes, for producing a highly
treated effluent for discharge. Additionally, they have been considered
as a treatment process producing an effluent suitable for recycling.
The latter concept appears promising. However, full-scale testing has
not been tried to date.
38
-------
DRAf
Sources of Color
In the various chemical pulping processes, llgnln and llgnln derivatives
are solublllzed and removed from the wood during the cooking process.
The spent cooking liquors, containing these highly colored compounds,
are removed from the pulp in a washing sequence following the cooking
process. The wash water is highly colored. In the kraft process,
however, this wash water is sent to the recovery area where the cooking
chemicals are recovered and the organic materials are burned in the
recovery furance. The washing and recovery operations are efficient;
however, losses of cooking liquor and the discharge of evaporator con-
densate result in a reddish brown effluent. Additionally, most un-
bleached kraft mills discharge the water removed from the pulp on the
last operation before going to the paper mill known as the unbleached
stock decker. The discharge from this operation is the most significant
colored effluent from the production of unbleached kraft pulp. Average
values of color discharged from kraft and NSSC pulping and from un-
bleached kraft papermaking operations are shown in Tables 1 and 2 (9).
Lime Treatment
The development of the lime color reduction process has been traced by
several authors (I3)(l4)<9 )(?) A brief review of this history is in
order. In the early 1950's, Mbggio reported the results of a laboratory
program In which several coagulants were tested for their effectiveness
in reducing the color of kraft pulping and bleaching effluents (15). This
investigation measured the effectiveness of alum, ferric sulfate, lime,
sulfuric acid, char, clay, activated carbon, activated silica, ferric
chloride, chlorinated copperas, phosphoric acid, waste pickle liquor,
and a barium alumina silicate compound. In general, Mogglo found that
good color reduction could be obtained with several of the agents. It
was concluded, however, that the cost of chemical treatment was prohib-
itive with the exception of lime treatment which afforded the possi-
bility of lime recovery in the normal mill process. In addition to the
prohibitive costs of chemical treatment, a large volume of difficult
to dewater gelatinous sludge formed in the chemical treatment processes
was cited as a major problem.
Based on the results of this early work, research continued towards
development of the lime precipitation process. The overriding problem
in this work continued to be the difficulty of dewaterlng the lime-
organic sludge. Specific studies were conducted for resolving the
sludge problem with limited success (16)(l?) In an Investigation of the
surface reaction process (18(19(20)* in which effluent was filtered
through a precoat of hydrated lime, it was successful in the laboratory.
However, operational problems with the pilot plant scale system forced
this process to be abandoned.
Continuing efforts to improve the dewatering of the lime sludge led to
39
-------
DRAFT
TABLE 1
VALUES FOR COLOR DISCHARGED FROM VARIOUS PULPING PROCESSES (9)
Pounds of Color Units*
Effluent Per Ton of Product
Kraft Pulping 50 to 300
Kraft Papermaklng 3 to 8
* Pound of color units (APHA color Units) x 10~6 x 8.34
TABLE 2
UNIT PROCESS FLOW AND COLOR DISTRIBUTION
IN INDIVIDUAL KRAFT PULPING EFFLUENTS (9)
Flow Thous. Gal/Ton Color Units
Paper Mill 11.4 10
Pulp Mill 0.9 520
Evaporators 0.1 3760
Recovery 0.2 20
40
-------
DRAFT
consideration of using large dosages of line for color reduction. It
was believed that a large quantity of rapidly draining material would
reduce the effect of the organic matter on dewatering. This thinking
led to the development and patenting of the "massive lime" process by
the National Council for Air and Stream Improvement (21). In this pro-
cess the mill's total process lime is slaked and reacted with a highly
colored effluent stream. The lime sludge is then settled, devatered,
and used for causticizlng green liquor. During the causticizing process,
the color bodies are dissolved in the white liquor and eventually burned
in the recovery furnace. A flow diagram of the patented process is shown
in Figure 6.
Although the massive lime process had been demonstrated as an effective
color removal system, the process was not taken beyond the pilot stage
for several years. The first large scale application of the process
was at the Springhill, Louisiana mill of International Paper (22). This
plant was operated from February, 1970 to August, 1971. The results of
this operation are presented in a later section.
The massive lime process, as developed, relied on high concentrations of
lime (on the order of 20,000 mg/1). Because of this, only a relatively
small effluent stream could be treated with the quantity of lime used
for causticizing green liquor. Additionally, the use of this process
required modifications to the recovery system. These restrictions and
the need for color removal from total unbleached kraft mill effluents
led to the independent development of three lime precipitation pro-
cesses employing a "minimum" lime dosage for decolorlzation followed by
various methods of sludge disposal or recovery. Two of these systems
are now in full-scale operation on the total mill effluent from the
production of unbleached kraft pulp at Interstate Paper Co., in Riceboro,
Georgia and Continental Can Company in Hodge, Louisiana ( 23)( 24). The
Hodge mill also produces NSSC. Lime dosages at both mills are about
1000 mg/1. At the Interstate mill, the lime sludge is not recovered.
Continental Can, however, dewaters the lime sludge by centrifuge and
recovers the lime in the process lime kiln.
Other Color Removal Systems
Although lime treatment methods have been the only color removal pro-
cesses installed on a full scale basis to date, research is ongoing for
other processes. These include activated carbon, reverse osmosis and
other membrane techniques, resin separation, ion exchange, and other
coagulation systems.
Activated Carbon
Timpe and Lang ( 9 ) have reported on the use of activated carbon in
combination with other treatment processes on a pilot scale for the
treatment of unbleached kraft mill effluent. The treatment sequences
were:
41
-------
I
LIME
MAKE-UP
LIME
STORAGE
SLAKER
BLEACHERY EFFLUENT
UNDERFLOW
VftCUUM
FILTER
CLARIFIER
FILTRATE
-GREEN LIQUOR
LJ
WHITE LIQUOR
CLARIFIER
CAUST1CIZING
C02
UME RECLAIMER
DECOLORIZED
EFFLUENT
LIME MUD
-------
DRAFT
1. Primary clarification; activated carbon
2. Lime treatment; clarification; activated carbon
3. Clarification; biological oxidation; activated carbon
The flow diagram of the pilot system is shown in Figure 7. TWO carbon
systems were evaluated. The first used four standard down-flow columns
for series or parallel operation. The second system is called the
FACET (Fine Activated Carbon Effluent Treatment) system and is a multi-
stage countercurrent, agitated system with continuous countercurrent
transfer of both carbon and liquor from stage to stage. It uses a
carbon size between standard granular and powdered classifications.
The system is the subject of a patent application.
In the lime-carbon system, lime dosages were from 318 to 980 mg/1 CaO,
and is referred to by the authors as "micro" lime treatment as compared
to the "minimum" lime treatment used by others ( 22 ) ( 23 ) ( 24 ) . With
these dosages, the authors state that recarbonation of the effluent is
unnecessary for reuse of the treated effluent. It should be noted that
the Intent of this investigation was to treat the effluent to a degree
allowing reuse in the mill. In this respect they were not necessarily
looking for a combination of systems capable of producing an effluent
suitable for discharge.
Smith and Berger ( 25 ) investigated the efficiency of activated carbon
absorption preceded by massive lime treatment, carbonation, and extended
aeration in a batch treatment pilot plant. This process was also
evaluated without the extended aeration step.
Thibodeaux and Berger (26) made similar studies on a pilot scale. They
investigated the effects of massive lime treatment, biological oxida-
tion, and absorption in granular carbon columns. McGlasson, et al.(27)
Investigated the effect of activated carbon as a polishing step follow-
ing biological oxidation and lime treatment. This process was tested on
total kraft mill effluent on a semi-pilot plant scale and was also run
without the lime treatment step to test the effectiveness of carbon in
reducing the effluent color.
Coagulation Techniques
Smith and Christman ( 58 ) tested the effects of alum and ferric chloride
for the removal of color from kraft mill effluents in the laboratory.
Tests were run on both hard and softwoods. The optimum dosage of alum
on hardwood wastes was found to be 150 mg/1. A color reduction of
89 percent was achieved from an initial color of 710 units. Softwood
kraft effluent was found to require a dosage of 300 mg/1. Ferric
chloride coagulation of softwood waste required an optimum dosage of
286 mg/1 and produced 87 percent removals.
-------
LIME
f
LIME TREATER
CARBONATOR pH
ADJUST
MENT
FILTER ACTIVATED CARBON COLUMNS
STOKAQC
TANK
p ACTIVATED CARBON
No. 2 MILL
EFFLUENT
EQUILIBRATION OR
BIO-OXIDATION BASIN
SPENT
CARBON
FACET
CONTACTORS
FILTER
STORAGE
TANK
FIGITRE 7 - EFFLUENT TREATMENT PILOT PLANT
-------
Middlebrooks, et al. reported on the laboratory investigation of alum
and six organic polyelectrolytes for the removal of color from kraft
mill vastevater ( 28 ). They report little difference in the perfor-
mance of the six polyelectrolytes. Alum produced good results, but
resulted in approximately three times the volume of sludge. Color
removals averaged 95 percent.
Comparison of System Efficiencies
Timpe and Lang ( 29 ) report that the biological-carbon treatment sequence
utilizing four columns in series reduced color of total kraft effluent
to 212 units which they state is too high for reuse in some areas of the
mill. This is shown in Table 3. They estimate an additional three
columns would be required to produce the goal of 100 color units.
The primary clarification-carbon system tested by Tlmpe again used
four columns. Color was reduced to 185-202 units. This is shown in
Table 4. As with the biological-carbon system, it was estimated
that an additional three columns would be required to reach 100 color
units.
The clarlflcation-llme-carbon system produced the best results of the
three systems. In the lime treatment system, the investigators found
that color removal increased from 70 percent at a dissolved Ca concen-
tration of 80 mg/1 to 86 percent at a Ca concentration of 400 mg/1.
Lime dosages ranged from 318 to 980 mg/1. This reduction is shown
graphically in Figure 8. Color removal in the carbon columns
(2 columns in series) was also found to be dependent on Ca concentra-
tion. Color in the effluent remained at about 60 units at calcium
concentrations above 80 mg/1. TOC levels after carbon treatment also
varied with Ca concentration, remaining fairly constant with Ca con-
centrations above 80 mg/1. TOC levels after carbon treatment also
varied with Ca concentration, remaining fairly constant with Ca concen-
trations above 40 mg/1. Color removal through the carbon columns in
the soluble calcium range of 69-83 mg/1 averaged an additional 21 per-
cent, to give an overall reduction of 90 percent. This is shown in
Table 5. Water of this quality was considered suitable for reuse.
Operation of the FACET system following lime treatment, as reported by
Tlmpe, produced similar results to the two carbon columns after filtra-
tion. This is shown in Table 6.
Smith and Berger (25) report a total color removal in the four stage
(lime - carbonation - oxidation - carbon) system of 99.5 percent. In
the three stage system (no oxidation) the total removal was again 99.5
percent. This is shown in Table 7.
Thibodeaux and Berger (26) report that the color of unbleached kraft
effluent was reduced to 10 and 15 units in two separate pilot runs
45
-------
. 100
<£>
^ 90
or
O
o
O
UJ
Cd
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
L
I
40 120 200 280 360
0 80 160 240 320 400
SOLUBLE CALCIUM FROM LIME TREATER, MG/L
FIGURE 8 COLOR REMOVAL IN LIME TREATMENT AS A
FUNCTION OF SOLUBLE Ca IN WATER (2?)
-------
DR/1FT
TABLE 3
COLOR REMOVAL IN BIOLOGICAL OXIDATION -
CARBON ADSORPTION SEQUENCE AT 15 GPM (2.3 GPM/FT2) ( 9 )
Range Average
Feed to bio-oxidation, AFHA CU 430-2500 1100
Feed to carbon, APHA CU 460-1100 740
Product from carbon, APHA CU 42-400 212
Removal by bio-oxidation plus filter,% - 33
Removal by carbon, % of feed to carbon - 71
Total removal % feed to bio-oxidation - 81
Rate of removal by carbon, CU/g hr 0.51-1.00 0.77
Note: Color measured at pH 7.6 after 0.8 micron Millipore filtration.
TABLE
COLOR REMOVAL BY PRIMARY CLARIFICATION -
CARBON ADSORPTION SEQUENCE ( 9 )
Trial 1 Trial 2
Flow rate, gpm 10 5
Flow rate, gpm/ft2 1.42 0.71
Feed to carbon, APHA CU 925 1160
Product from carbon, APHA CU 185 202
Removal by carbon, % 80 83
Rate of removal by carbon, Cu/g hr 0.69 0.46
Note: Color measured at pH 7.6 after 0.8 micron Millipore filtration.
47
-------
DRAFT
TABLE 5
COLOR REMOVAL BY LIME TREATMENT - CARBON ADSORPTION
SEQUENCE AT SOLUBLE CALCIUM RANGE OF 69 - 83 mg/1 (29)
lime dosage, CaO, mg/1 523
pH of feed to carbon adsorption 11.3
flow rate to carbon adsorption, gpm 10
No. of carbon columns 2
Color, TOC,
Concentrations: APHA pH 7.6 mg/1
to lime treatment 852 272
to carbon columns 252 177
from carbon columns 76 100
% removals from feed to lime treatment:
in lime treatment 70 35
in carbon adsorption 21 28
total 91 63
48
-------
TABLE 6
REMOVAL OF COLOR AND TOG BY
FACET CARBON ADSORPTION FOLLOWING LIME TREATMENT FOR 12-DAY PERIOD
10/20 THROUGH 11/6 (29)
Conditions:
Water feed rate 10 gpm
Carbon feed rate 2.7 Ib/hr - 4.5 lb/1000 gal
Carbon in system 605 Ib
Carbon slurry density 14.3 g/100 ml slurry
Stages 3
Color, C.U. TOG
Removals: APHA pH 7.6 mg/1
Feed 157 158
Product 73 101
Percent removal 54 36
Removed, mg/g carbon 214 136
Removal rate, mg/g x hr 0.71 0.46
-------
TABLE 7
WASTE WATER RENOVATIONSUMMARY OF RESULTS (25)
5-DAY BOD.
Treatment
Step
Raw
Line
Biol.
Carbon
Total
Max.
Mln.
Avg.
Max.
Mln.
Avg.
Max.
Mln..
Avg.
.
Max.
Mln.
Avg.
Four-stage process
nut/liter Z Removal
1430
225
723
740
170
395 45.5
135
21
48 88
80
0
23 53
23 97
Three-stage process
me/liter Z Removal
265
206
221
144
69
102 54
84
15.
32 68.5
32 85.5
COLOR
Four-stage process
Units % Removal
12,000
1,000
5,200.
1,000
90
358 93
l.OOQ
200
365 0
15-
10
13 96.5'
13 99.5
Three-stage
process
Units % Removal
5250
240
3558
450.
10'
185
55.
a
23
23
95
87.5
99.5
Tests Conducted on Bleached and Unbleached Kraft Effluents.
-------
DRAFT
using the massive lime-biological-carbon system. Raw effluent color
was 4800 and 3000 units respectively. This is shown in Tables 8 and 9.
McGlasson, et al.report that final color of 40 units was readily achiev-
able by a biological oxidation -lime -carbon treatment system.
Operation Considerations
Tlmpe and Lang (29) concluded that the use of a sand filter ahead of
the carbon system did not provide enough benefit to warrant considera-
tion in a full-scale installation. They also noted concentrated bio-
activity in the top one- or two-foot layer of the first column in
series which caused plugging. Backwashing was required every one or
two days. It was also noted that mechanisms other than adsorption con-
tributed substantially to color removal. One mechanism has been
referred to as a coagulation of the colloidal color bodies at the surface
of the carbon particle. In the section on "System Efficiencies," it was
explained that in Tlmpe's lime-carbon system, lime dosages were recom-
mended to control the dissolved calcium concentration at about 80 ppm.
A benefit of this, as reported, is the elimination of the necessity to
carbonate the effluent to remove the calcium. Higher dosages could make
carbonation required prior to reuse of the effluent. The lime treatment
system also produced a sludge that dewatered readily to 70 percent
solids. The authors also state that lime treatment to higher dissolved
calcium levels of 400 mg/1, followed by carbonation and carbon treat-
ment did not improve color reductions.
Timpe and Lang are enthusiastic about the possibilities of the FACET
system. They state that the rate of TOC removal was 4.7 times the rate
of removal In columns. Also, the degree of color removal was the same
as in the columns, butvwith one-fifth the amount of carbon. More work
is planned.
The work performed by Timpe has been directed towards reuse of the
treated effluent. As such, the degree of treatment obtained is less
than typical discharge standards. At this time, the effect of recycled
effluent on mill processes has not been tested. Tlmpe and Lang are
confident the kraft process contains unit processes by which any buildup
In contaminants due to recycling can be purged from the system (30).
Smith and Berger (25) found that elimination of biological oxidation in
the lime - carbonation - biological - carbon sequence did not affect
color reduction and BOD reduction remained about 85 percent when treat-
ing effluents with a moderate raw BOD. They point towards further
research toward Improved BOD reduction in the lime stage and use of
more effective carbons. They also look to requirements for advanced
treatments leading to recycle of waste waters and see the possible
elimination of biological systems as recycle becomes more Important.
51
-------
DftAfj
TABLE 8
RENOVATED WATER ANALYSIS (26)
UNBLEACHED KRAFT LDIERBOARD TOTAL MTT.T. EFFLUENT
PILOT PLANT RUN NO. 1 SO GALLON BATCH OPERATION ( )
Constituent
Turbidity, ppm
Color, units
PH
Hardness, ppm CaC03
Dissolved solids, ppm
Chloride, ppm
COD, ppm
BOD, ppm
Na, ppm
Desired Range
5-25
0-80
6.5-7.7
5-200
50-500
10-150
0-12
0-5
Effluent
4800
8.7
107
3380
110
818
1400
Obtained, by Treatment .
LlmetaJ
^
140
11.5
7.1
2510
140
-
460
1130
Bio*-0'
65
200
9.1
86
2650
36
201.
8
1600 (d)
Carbon w
10
10
8.7
61
2500
36
1
2
1400
Notes: (a) 8.40 Ibs, reburned lime slaked and added to raw 'effluent (equivalent to
20,000 ppm Ca(OH)2).
Ob) Extended aeration for 10 days. One gallon fertile lake water added as seed
material. NH^OH, HN03 and H3?04 added as nutrient. ^SO^ added to neutralize.
(c) Carbon columns containing 12x40 mesh activated carbon furnished by Pittsburgh
Carbon. Contact time in the carbon bed was 8.2 minutes.
CM
(d) Possible NH4+ interference.
-------
TABLE 9
\
in
01
RENOVATED WATER ANALYSIS (26)
UNBLEACHED KRAFT LINERBOARD TOTAL HILL EFFLUENT
PILOT PLANT RUN NO. 2 50 GALLON BATCH OPERATION
Obtained by Treatment
Constituent
Turbidity, ppm
Color, units
pH
Hardness, ppm
Dissolved Solids, ppm
Chloride, ppm
COD, ppm
BOD, ppm
Na, ppm
Notes: (a) 2.87 Ibs. reburned lime slaked and added to raw effluent (equivalent to 7500 ppm
Ca (OE)2).
00 Extended aeration for 8 days. One gallon fertile lake water added as seed
material. HNOj, H^PO^ added as nutrient. I^SO^ added to neutralize.
islred Range
5-25
0-80
6.5-7.7
5-200
50-500
10-150
0-12
0-5
-
Effluent
^
3000
7.5
-
4190
160
1430
320
Lime(a)
^
100
12.1
964
2610
200
740
230
Bio
_
200
8.2
1000
3070
130
(135) (d)
230
Carbon (c-
.
15
8.5
866
2800
130
(80) W
230
(c) Carbon columns containing 12x40 mesh activated carbon furnished by Pittsburgh
Carbon. Contact time in carbon bed was 1.6 minutes.
(d) Estimate, incubator problems.
-------
DRAFT
ADVANCED WASTE TREATMENT (AWT)
Introduction
In order to establish reasonable effluent guidelines, the current and
future status of various Advanced Haste Treatment systems, and the
applicability to the subcategories of the pulp and paper industry must
be evaluated. Specifically, areas of concern are:
1. Removal of turbidity and colloidal and suspended solids
2. Removal of dissolved salts and dissolved solids
3. Removal of refractory organics
4. Removal of nutrients
High rate filtration, either sand or mixed media, has been used for
effluent polishing in the domestic field, but to date has not been used
in the pulp and paper industry subcategories under study for effluent
treatment. Reverse osmosis has been extensively investigated for possi-
ble application within the pulp and paper industry. All of the work,
however, has been undertaken on a pilot plant basis. The progress made
with reverse osmosis systems within the past five years suggests that it
could in the future be a very valuable tool In waste treatment for
removal of color and suspended and total dissolved solids. At present
this method seems particularly applicable to NSSC mills. While many of
the mechanical problems have been solved, membrane life and flux rates
have not progressed to the extent where large scale applications can be
considered. If membrane life can be improved and flux rates increased,
then the total costs could be lowered.
The AWT system which has been evaluated for the removal of dissolved
salts and dissolved solids Incorporates unit operations of reverse
osmosis and ion exchange. In addition, specific methods for the removal
of phosphorus and nitrogen compounds have been considered.
Ion exchange has been extensively employed for treating water, but its
application to waste treatment has been negligible. Research and pilot
plant projects have been undertaken to determine its efficiency for
removing dissolved salts and dissolved solids from waste streams. De-
pending on the type of ion exchange process, regenerate disposal could
be a problem. In addition to the removal of total dissolved solids and
dissolved salts, specific ion exchange processes for the removal of
nitrogen and phosphorus compounds have been employed in several domes-
tic facilities but not In the treatment of pulp and paper waste flows,
primarily because only the ammonia NSSC base mills are high In nitrogen.
The AWT systems which have been considered for the removal of trace
refractory organics are activated carbon, chlorlnation, and osonation.
The activated carbon process has demonstrated its applicability to the
treatment of municipal wastes at full plant scale while pilot and labora-
tory studies have shown the potential of its use in the treatment of
54
-------
DRAFT
pulp and paper mill wastes. The potential of chlorlnation and ozonation,
however, is not well documented. While there has been limited investi-
gations concerning the general use of chlorination or ozonation for the
removal of trace refractory organics, there are no plant scale operations.
Turbidity and Colloidal and Suspended Solids
The primary advanced waste treatment systems for the removal of turbid-
ity and colloidal and suspended solids are: 1) sedimentation, coagula-
tion, and flocculation followed by settling; 2) filtration; and 3) re-
verse osmosis. The majority of the work undertaken for coagulation and
flocculation of pulp and paper mill wastes has been undertaken in con-
junction with color removal.
Filtration, either sand or multi-media, is a commonly used process in
the advanced waste treatment of domestic waste waters for removal of
suspended solids. Its use, however, for the removal of turbidity and
colloidal and suspended solids from mill effluents is not documented in
the literature.
The reverse osmosis (hyperfiltration) process has received considerable
attention within the pulp and paper industry during the past several
years as a possible economic means of sufficiently treating the spent
pulping process waters for major Internal reuse. The initial work with
membranes was In conjunction with an electrodialysis system (31).
Electrodialysis investigations of pulp liquors provided important back-
ground on new membrane processes such as ultraflltration and reverse
osmosis. The application of reverse osmosis membranes has been centered
on concentrations of dilute streams in the range of one-half to one per-
cent suspended solids ( 32 ) ( 33 ).
The Pulp Manufacturers Research League and The Institute of Paper
Chemistry have investigated the reverse osmosis process for treatment
of pulp and paper mill waste waters under a project partially sponsored
by the Office of Research and Monitoring of the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency (33). Their studies led to confirming trials conducted In
field demonstrations ranging from 18,900 to 189,300 liters per day
(5000 to 50,000 gallons per day) on five different waste flows. The
five field demonstrations were undertaken on:
1. Ca Base Pulp Washing and Cooling Waters
2. NSSC White Water
3. NH3 Base Pulp Wash Water (also Calcium Hypochlorlte Bleach
Effluent)
4. Kraft Bleach Effluent (also Kraft Rewash Water)
5. Chemlmechanical Pulping Wash Water
55
-------
DRAFT
Their study concluded that the reverse osmosis process is an inportant
new tool for concentrating and recovering solutes in dilute pulp and
papernaking effluents ( 33 ). They obtained membrane rejections of 90
to 99 percent for most components in the feed with the exception of low
molecular weight salts and volatiles which were less well rejected.
One mill has also undertaken detailed studies for the use of reverse
osmosis as a unit operation for producing water suitable for process
reuse under a program alao partially funded by the office of Research
and Monitoring of the Environmental Protection Agency ( 32 ). This study
included the operation of proprietary reverse osmosis equipment on a
pilot basis by vendors simultaneously and continuously on the same feed.
This allowed the development of operating techniques applicable to the
particular feed and development of design criteria for the design of a
full scale production facility. This study also concluded that the
reverse osmosis process is effective in concentrating the dilute waste
stream while producing a clarified water flow that can be recycled for
process purposes ( 32 ). The concentrated stream would be directed to
the fluidlzed bed reactor operating as part of their chemical recovery
system. Three basic types of reverse osmosis membrane surfaces are
available:
1. Capillary fiber
2. Sheet membrane (spiral round)
3. Tubular
Tubular membranes have been found to be the most suitable in the work
that has been undertaken because capillary fiber and sheet membranes
were more subject to clogging problems (33). Most of the work with
reverse osmosis has been concerned with the use of cellulose acetate
membranes, but some work with dynamic membranes, or replaceable mem-
branes, is receiving more attention as it could substantially reduce
the cost of reverse osmosis systems ( 31) ( 34).
It is stated by Beder, et al.that the reverse osmosis process would
best fit into a treatment scheme following primary treatment, prior to
activated carbon polishing if the benefits derived from the Improved
solids removal and the elimination of pretreatment with massive lime
and large scale activated carbon are greater than the Incurred loss of
membrane capacity resulting from lower flux rates (35). While hyper-
filtration is very effective in removing color and macromolecular
organic compounds, certain lower weight molecular organic compounds
are not rejected by the reverse osmosis process and activated carbon
polishing would be required, for certain uses.
Johnson, et al. state that if color removal only is necessary, the ultra-
filtration which is not as effective as hyperfiltration In removal of
organic matters and solids, but is very effective in color removal,
would be satisfactory (34).
56
-------
DRAFT
The efficiency of the reverse osmosis process for several pulp and
papermaking waste waters are presented in Table 10 (33).
TABLE 10
SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF TREATMENT BY REVERSE OSMOSIS (33)
REPORTED REJECTION -
WASTE
FLOW
TOTAL
SOLIDS
BOD
COD
BASE
COLOR
WATER RECOVERY
Calcium Sulfite 87-98 69-89
NSSC 96-98 87-95
Ammonium Sulfite 93-96 77-94
Kraft Bleach 91-99 85-97
87-95 95-99Ca 99 80-90
96-98 82-95Na 99+ 72-92
92-97 92-98NH3 99 65
97-99 83-95Na 99+
The waste flows had to be pretreated by passage through a 40 mesh
screen and the temperature adjusted to a safe operating range to
protect the cellulose acetate membranes (below 40*C) ( 33 ).
The extensive pilot testing undertaken by a sodium base NSSC mill
showed general rejections by the reverse osmosis process as follows
(32 ):
Total Solids
BODs
Color-Optical Comparator -
Na
Color-Spectrophotometer -
99.7%+
98.6%+
99.6%+
99.5%+
99.8%+
The mixed media polishing filters can be used with or without addition
of chemicals. This polishing filter is necessary when high quality
water is required, but if the water is to be used for discharge to a
natural stream, the use of such a filter is probably not justifiable
(36).
The work by the Institute of Paper Chemistry Indicated that fouling of
reverse osmosis membranes by suspended particles, colloidal suspenseids
of large molecular weight organlcs, etc., could be partially controlled
by pretreatment, by periodic pressure pulsations, and by periodic wash-
ing of the membrane surfaces (33). Self-cleaning, high velocities of
flow were found to be the most likely means of maintaining high flux
rates through the membrane, especially with the newer high performance,
tight surface membranes that became available in 1971. It was reported
that minimum velocities of 0.61 meters per second (2 feet per second)
overcame concentratlve polarization, but 0.91 meters per second (3.0
feet per second) were required to maintain adequate mass transfer
rates (32 ). It was also stated that concentration polarization did
not appear to seriously affect performance at operating pressures below
55.4 atm. (800 psig).
57
-------
Present commercial hyper filtration membranes cannot be operated at tem-
peratures much above ambient and cooling of many pulping effluents is
therefore necessary. -Dynamically formed membranes, however, have been
shown to suffer less from these disadvantages and may be preferrable
when a high degree of salt removal is not required ( 34 ). In addition,
ultrafiltration membranes are more open than the tighter reverse
osmosis (hyperfiltration) membranes and while rejection for colored
ligonsulfonates are high, other components are rejected to a much less
satisfactory degree. Research is being carried out to develop improved
rejection with ultrafiltration membranes because it has higher flux
rates than hyperfiltration and the advantages of simplified equipment
design (31). In addition, a major roadblock delaying the practical
use of reverse osmosis in waste treatment lies in the several causes of
short life expectancy in the membrane system. Membrane manufacturers
should be encouraged to obtain goals of a minimum three-year life
expectancy for these membranes (33). In addition, membrane develop-
ment should include a capability for operating at wider ranges of pH
and temperature ( 33) and higher flux rates.
Dynamic membrane studies should be advanced to achieve higher levels of
solid rejection without serious reduction in permeate rates and flux
rates. The development of these membranes could substantially Improve
performance and cost parameters ( 34)( 39)( 36).
Dissolved Salts and Dissolved Solids
Processes which can be used for the purposes of removing dissolved salts
and dissolved solids from pulp and papermaking waste flows are of pri-
mary concern. In work undertaken by Beder and Gillespie (35), it is
stated that process water for bleached and unbleached kraft production
should contain less than 500 and 250 mg/1 of total dissolved solids,
respectively. In addition, chlorides, because of their corrosive nature
should be less than 150 mg/1. The ultimate goal of the current federal
water pollution control legislation will require that certain portions
of the waste stream be treated to achieve the above IDS and chloride
levels if substantial reuse is undertaken. The prime unit processes
that could be employed to achieve high degrees of TDS and chloride re-
movals are reverse osmosis and ion exchange.
Pilot work at a sodium base NSSC mill (38) showed average soluble solids
rejections of 99+ percent, with product water soluble solids ranging
from below 100 mg/1 to about 760 mg/1 depending on the percent of feed
solids. Average rejection of sodium was 99+ percent, with product water
sodium ranging from less than 20 mg/1 to about 180 mg/1 depending on
the percent of feed solids.
Table 11 shows the total solids removals with reverse osmosis achieved
in the work undertaken by the institute of Paper Chemistry (33).
58
-------
TABLE 11
TOTAL SOLIDS REMOVAL (34)
REVERSE OSMOSIS
Waste Flow Feed g/1 % Rejection Effluent Cone. Range g/1
Calcium Sulfite 18.47-11.05 87-98 2.04 - 0.37
NSSC 10.75-5.72 96-98 0.68 - 0.32
Ammonium Sulfite 10.31-50.48 94-97 6.44 - 0.66
Kraft Bleach x
59
-------
DRAFT
The reported data from pilot and laboratory work Indicated that reverse
osmosis is very effective in removing IDS and chlorides from selected
pulp and paper industry flows. The ultimate concentration of each
element* however* will be dependent on the initial concentrations and
the recovery, and treatment processes preceding reverse osmosis.
Ion exchange has been a well-known method for softening and de-ionizing
water, but application to wastewater treatment has been negligible pri-
marily because high molecular weight organic compounds present in waste-
water have a deleterious effect on most anion exchange materials and
disposal of regenerates is a major problem. New types of resins have
been developed* however* that are less affected by organlcs. As pointed
out by the work undertaken by Kreusch and Schmidt ( 37 ) separation
techniques .using ion exchange, demineralizatlon are known* but their
application to waste treatment is not generally practiced, nor is there
sufficient information on such a system to predict' performance.
As pointed out' in the work undertaken by Timpe * et al. ( 9 ), the DESAL
process is a de-lonixation technique based upon two weak electrolyte
ion exchange resins. The advantages of this process over conventional
ion exchange process are claimed to be:
1. Ability to treat brackish waters at concentrations of 500
to 3000 ppm dissolved solids with negligible leakage.
2. Stoichiometric amount of regenerates required for regen-
eration versus conventional methods which require 200 to
300 percent of Stoichiometric amount; therefore* regenera-
tion costs are significantly less.
3. High degree of utilisation of theoretical capacity.
The DESAL Process uses three beds of weak ion exchange resins in a cyclic
process. The first bed is a weak base anion exchange resin; the second
bed* a de-alkallzation unit, is a weak acid cation exchange resin; while
the third bed is in the free base form for carbonation. The alkaliza-
tlon and de-alkalization units can be regenerated with ammonia and
sulfuric acid, respectively. At exhaustion, the third unit is in the
bicarbonate form* so the direction of flow through the three units is
reversed and the cycle repeated.
The work undertaken by Kreusch and Schmidt ( 37 ) involved ion exchange
studies on sewage effluent from an activated sludge plant. The waste
was pretreated prior to ion exchange with a system that consisted of
lime clarification, dual media filtration, and granular activated carbon
filtration to reduce the total phosphate, suspended solids, and total
organic carbon of the wastevater prior to ion exchange. The investiga-*
tions included the performance of the following resins:
60
-------
DRAFT
1. Weak Base Anion Exchange - Bicarbonate Form
2. Strong Acid Cation Exchange - Hydrogen Form
3. Weak Base Anion Exchange - Free Base Form
4. Weak Acid Cation Exchange - Hydrogen Form
5. Weak Acid: Strong Acid Cation Exchange - Hydrogen Forms
Kreusch and Schmidt's ( 37 ) work concluded that the ion exchange pro-
cess with the weak base anion exchange resin - bicarbonate form was not
sufficiently established to use on domestic sewage containing less than
500 mg/1 of dissolved solids. Their work did show, however, that a
system using a strong acid cation exchange resin and a weak base anion
exchange resin can be used without difficulty for a waste water contain-
ing as much as 500 mg/1 of total dissolved solids. In addition, a weak
acid cation exchange resin can be very efficient as the first resin to
demineralize certain waste waters.
The work undertaken by Linstedt et al. (39) showed that a cation-anlon
exchange system was very effective in the removal of major ions from a
domestic secondary effluent. The results of this work are shown in
Table 12 ( 39).
Timpe et al. (9 ) state that ion exchange for the de-ionizatlon of par-
tially renovated waste waters is technically feasible for domestic and
pulp and paper mill wastes. In order to successfully use ion exchange
processes, the majority of organics and suspended solids must be re-
moved from the waste stream. In the laboratory work undertaken by
Gregory and Phond (40), the effluent from a well-operated domestic
activated sludge plant was used without any additional treatment. In
the work reported by Berger and Thibodeaux (26) which consisted of
laboratory sized columns and equipment, the selected kraft mill waste
stream was clarified and treated with lime and activated carbon prior
to ion exchange, while the domestic waste used by Kreusch and Schmidt
(37) was similarly treated.
If the waste streams are not properly pretreated prior to ion exchange,
severe operational problems due to clogging will be encountered. With
biological treatment, the waste stream probably would require a minimum
of mixed media filtration for suspended solids removal as pretreatment.
Depending on the organic nature of the secondary effluent, it may have
to be pretreated with activated carbon, or reverse osmosis. If the
total dissolved solids of the waste stream exceeds 3000 mg/1, pretreat-
ment with reverse osmosis may be necessary to keep cost of ion exchange
within reason.
Proper disposal of waste regenerates associated with the use of ion
exchange treatment of waste waters must be fully recognized. Effective
61
-------
TABLE 12 (39)
BEHAVIOR OF MAJOR CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS IN RENOVATION SYSTEM
Concentration or Value
Ca-H- as CaCO, (ag/1)
Na+ (mg/1)
Cl~ (mg/1)
SO." (ng/1)
Alkalinity as CaCO.fag/l)
COD (ng/1)
Solids
Total (ng/1)
Fixed (mg/1)
Volatile (Z)
Turbidity (JTU)
pH
Before
Coagu-
lation
62
49
53
145
175
131
431
312
27.6
16
7.3
After
Settling
205
44
48
130
260
102
377
257
31.8
1.5
11.4
After
Recar-
bonation
62
44
42
127
139
-
336
237
29.7
2.3
7.6
After
Sand
-
-
»
-
61
254
172
32.3
4.1
8.0
After
Carbon
Adsorption
-
-
-
-
16
233
170
27.0
0.23
8.8
After
Cation
Exchange
0
0.7
-
-
-
12.5
68
42
38.2
0.25
3.0
After
Anton
Exchange
-
2.5
0
5.9
10.8
24
15
37.5
0.23
4.8
(M
I
Tl
-------
DRAFT
regeneration requires regenerate volumes in excess of stoichiometric
quantities. Strong resins require large excesses while weak resins
only require snail excesses. In order to greatly reduce the regenerate
volume to be treated, the ion exchange process should consider fraction-
ation of the total effluent during regeneration and use ( ). Acid
wastes are easily neutralized, but precipitated sludges and neutral
brines must be satisfactorily disposed of. Waste regenerant ammonium
hydroxide from the anion exchange resin can be treated with hydrated
lime, with the liberated ammonia recovered and reused.
A summary of common pretreatment requirements prior to the ion exchange
process is presented in Table 13 ( 41).
Trace Refractory Organics
The advanced waste treatment systems studied for the removal of trace
refractory organics include the following: 1) activated carbon, 2)
chlorinatlon, and 3) ozonation. The activated carbon process has
demonstrated its applicability to the treatment of municipal vastewater
at full plant scale. Pilot plants and laboratory studies have shown the
potential for treatment of pulp and paper mill wastes with activated
carbon. However, the potential of the other processes is not well docu-
mented and there are no plant scale operations utilizing them. The
removal of one specific refractory organic, color, is discussed in de-
tail in a separate subsection.
Activated carbon has been used at water treatment plants to remove or-
ganics that caused taste and odor problems in drinking water supplies.
The use of activated carbon as a step in the physical-chemical treatment
process for domestic waste waters or as an add-on to an existing biolo-
gical treatment system is well documented (37 ). Many researchers have
studied the use of activated carbon as a tertiary process for the treat-
ment of pulp and paper mill wastes (42 ) (43 ) (44 )(45 ) (46 ) (29 )
Coates and McGlasson (46 ) found that activated carbon was capable of
reducing color, COD, BOD, and odor in kraft mill effluents to very low
concentrations.
One of the highest concentrations of BOD in the whole kraft pulp mill
waste discharge is contained in the evaporator condensate (42 ). Most
of the BOD and COD of the condensate waste is exerted by dissolved
organic material. Hansen and Burgess (42 ) found that 75 percent of
the BOD, COD, and TOD could be removed from the condensates by activated
carbon adsorption.
Activated carbon is characterized by an extremely large surface area per
unit weight (450-1800 sq. m/g) (29 ). This large surface area is one
feature of activated carbon which results in its large adsorption
capacity. It can be separated into two general classifications; powdered
and granular. The ultimate adsorption capacities of both powdered and
63
-------
TABLE 13 (41)
DRAFT
Constituent
Suspended Solids
Organics
Oxidants
PRETREATMENT REQUIREMENTS
FOR ION EXCHANGE
Problem
Blinds resin particles
Large molecules (e.g.,
humic acids) foul strong
basic resins
Slowly oxidizes resins
Functional groups
become labile
Iron and Manganese Coats resin particles
Pretreatment Required
Coagulation and filtration
Carbon adsorption or use-'of
weak base resins only
Avoid prechlorination
Aeration
64
-------
DRAFT
granular carbons are essentially equal (29); however, powdered carbon
has faster adsorption rates than granular ( 46 )( 47 ) There are oany
carbon manufacturers with numerous specifications. The selection of
a specific carbon cannot be made, however, without first testing the
carbon under consideration with the particular effluent to be treated
(48).
The activated carbon process has various configurations which include:
use of granular or powdered carbon, contact in a column or slurry,
fixed or moving beds, upflow or downflow of influent, series or parallel
arrangement, and continuous or periodic wasting and regeneration of
spent carbon. Treatability of a particular waste by activated carbon
is described by various analytical adsorption isotherm equations which
are covered in depth in the literature. The Freundlich equation is
probably the most frequently used to determine adsorption isotherm.
However, poor correlation between isotherm results and column tests
have been reported. This is partially due to the fact that adsorption
is not the only mechanism responsible for the removals of organics
through carbon columns. Three functions describe the operation of
carbon columns (49); adsorption, biological degradation, and filtration.
Most of the researchers studying activated carbon have made one common
assumption i.e., that the effluent from the carbon system should be
of a sufficient quality to permit reuse as process water. According
to Smith and Berger (44 )t renovated waste water suitable for reuse can
be obtained without a biological oxidation step, particularly if the
renovation process starts with a moderate 6005 of 200-300 mg/1. Table 14
presents the pilot plant results obtained by Smith and Berger.
Weber and Morris (50 ) and others found that adsorption equilibrium in-
creased with a decrease in pH. The effect on the rate of adsorption
with changes in temperature is not well defined.
Activated carbon will not remove certain low molecular weight organic
substances, particularly methanol, a common constituent of pulping efflu-
ents (45). Also, carbon columns do a relatively poor job of removing
turbidity and associated organic matter ( 48 ). Some highly polar or-
ganic molecules such as carbohydrates will not be removed through
carbon columns (48 ) (42 ) . However, most of these materials are bio-
degradable and would not be present in appreciable quantities in a
well bio-oxidized secondary effluent ( 48 ).
Results of laboratory rate studies, by Davies and Kaplan (47), using
powdered activated carbon to treat municipal secondary effluents,
showed that 90 percent of equilibrium adsorption capacity could be
obtained in less than five minutes using turbulent nixing. Davies and
Kaplan considered five different contact systems during their labora-
tory investigation. The systems considered were:
1. Countercurrent agitated tank adsorption
65
-------
TABLE 14 (44)
RESULTS OF GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON COLUMN
PILOT PLANT TREATING UNBLEACHED KRAFT MILL WASTE
BOD, mg/1
COD, mg/1
SS, mg/1
Turbidity, J.U.
Color, Units
Odor
PH
T.S. mg/1
Columns*
Preceded by Lime
Precipitation and
Biological Oxidation
Influent
48
365
*
Effluent
23
~
13
^
Removal
52Z
~
96Z
-1 -
Columns*
Preceded by Lime
Preci
Influent
102
-
185
" ~
Effluent '
32
23
^
Removal
69Z
88Z
**
itation
Influent
82
320
115
35
28
'
11.9
1285
Effluent
12
209
74
35
0
10.5
1205
Removal
85%
35%
36%
0%
100%
12%
6Z
*Colunas loaded at 3.6 - 4.0 gpm/ft*
-------
DRAFT
2. Flotation adsorption
3. Diffusion adsorption
4. Packed bed columnar adsorption
5. Upflow column adsorption.
Based on their Investigation, Davles and Kaplan considered the counter-
current agitated tank system the most promising of the five systems for
the following reasons:
1. The secondary effluent did not have to be filtered prior
to contact.
2. Variable secondary effluent flow rates and effluent COD
concentrations could be readily handled.
3. Maintenance costs were low.
4. Design and operation was simple.
5. The system was truly continuous.
6. COD removals to approximately 5 mg/1 could be achieved.
7. The potential existed for treating primary treatment
plant effluent.
8. Both suspended solids and colloidal material were brought
down with the carbon due to flocculation.
Davies and Kaplan reported that the processes investigated for separat-
ing the powdered carbon from the treated wastewater were not 100 per-
cent effective and filtration of the wastewater was necessary to
remove the carbon. In a full scale operation, the necessity to filter
the effluent might make the use of powdered carbon economically
impractical.
Tests by Hansen and Burgess ( 42 ) showed that 70-75 percent of the or-
ganic matter from kraft evaporator condensate could be removed with 0.46
kilograms of carbon per kiloliter (3.8 pounds of carbon per 1000 gallons)
of waste water. It was also determined that an extended contact time
(over 1 hour) showed insignificant additional COD removal. However,
even after six hours of contact there was an effect on the removal of
toxicity which was attributed to other various constituents. The re-
sults of the work by Hansen and Burgess conflict with that reported
by Tlmpe and others. Other researchers have reported that activated
carbon is not effective in removing low molecular weight organlcs such
as methanol and other major constituents of evaporator condensetes from
67
-------
DRAFT
the kraft pulping operation. The condensate used by Hansen and Burgess
may have been contaminated with black liquor carry over.
Tlmpe and Lang (29) ran extensive pilot plant tests for treating un-
bleached kraft mill effluent with activated carbon. Their 114 liter
per minute (30 gpm) pilot plant utilized four different treatment pro-
cesses. They were as follows:
1. Clarification followed by downflow granular carbon columns.
2. Lime treatment and clarification followed by granular carbon
columns.
3. Biological oxidation and clarification followed by granular
carbon columns.
4. Lime treatment and clarification followed by FACET (Fine
Activated Carbon Effluent Treatment). (Subject of a
patent application.)
All treatment processes were operated in the attempt to obtain a treated
effluent with less than 100 APHA color units and less than 100 mg/1 TOC
which would be suitable for reuse. The lime-carbon treatment achieved
the desired effluent criteria and was considered the most economical of
three processes utilizing carbon columns. A relatively small lime dos-
age of 320-600 mg/1 CaO without carbonation prior to carbon treatment
was reported to be the optimum operating condition for the lime-carbon
process. It should be emphasized that the lack of carbonation was a
criteria for optimum treatment. It was determined that the effluent
should contain about 80 mg/1 Ca for successful optimization of treatment.
The required fresh carbon dosage was 0.30 kilograms of carbon per kilo-
liter (2.5 pounds of carbon per 1000 gallons) treated.
With biological oxidation and clarification followed by carbon columns,
the fresh carbon dosage was 0.96 grams of carbon per liter (eight pounds
of carbon per 1000 gallons) treated.
It was found that non-adsorptive mechanisms accounted for a significant
amount of color and TOC removal in the clarification-carbon process.
It was felt that the removals were not due to any biological degradation
which might have occurred within the carbon columns. It was determined
that the color in colloidal form coagulated on the carbon surface. The
color colloids were subsequently removed as large settleable solids
during the backwashing process (29). The method of disposal or recycle
of the backwash water was not discussed. The disposal of backwash water
is a major item and cannot be ignored on full scale designs.
The FACET system studied by Tlmpe and Lang is the subject of a patent
application (29). It Is a multi-stage, countercurrent, agitated system
with a continuous transfer of both carbon and liquid. One of the major
68
-------
DRAFT
aspects of the FACET system is the use of an intermediate size carbon
endeavoring to combine the advantages of both powdered and granular
carbon while minimizing their limitations. Equipment size and carbon
inventory are decreased due to the increased adsorption rate of the
Intermediate carbon. Timpe and Lang reported that the FACET system
showed distinct advantages over the column adsorption system. Table 15
tabulates the pilot plant results obtained from Timpe and Lang's investi-
gation.
The use of granular activated carbon for the removal of trace refractory
organics is technically sound. However, when this degree of treatment
is obtained, the ability to reuse the effluent for process water is
desirable. Powdered activated carbon has not been widely utilized be-
cause of difficult handling problems encountered in carbon recovery and
regeneration (47). Davies and Kaplan (47) reported that the control
of pH or temperature, though advantageous to the operation of the pro-
cess, would be economically impractical.
Beebe and Stevens (51) utilized a carbon slurry to treat municipal
wastes. They reported a tendency of the compacted slurry in the quie-
scent concentrator to form a gelatinous mass. It became necessary to
agitate the gel to reliquefy It for easy removal.
Davies and Kaplan (47) studied the use of powdered carbon columns.
They found that the columns became clogged with colloidal matter within
a few hours of operaton and pressure drops became prohibitive. They
tried the upflow contact process, but the bed could not be stabilized
and serious channeling occurred resulting in poor COD removal efficien-
cies. Polyelectrolyte flocculatlon was determined to be the most econom-
ical method to recover spent powdered carbon. It was also determined
that a suspended solids concentration of 500 mg/1 or more must be main-
tained in the carbon slurry to assure flocculatlon efficiency.
Bishop et al. (48) ran pilot plant tests on domestic secondary effluent
and reported that organic matter which was adsorbed on the carbon went
septic and produced a breakthrough of turbidity and organic matter.
Timpe and Lang (29) reported similar results. They observed an H2&
odor in the treated effluent which indicated some biological activity
within the first two feet of the carbon column which caused some plugging
problems if the columns were not backwashed every day or two. They
felt because of the low dissolved oxygen concentration that the bio-
logical activity was anaerobic. Chlorination of the influent to the
carbon columns appears to eliminate sliming problems caused by bio-
logical activity within the columns.
Timpe and Lang (29 ) reported lower rates of adsorption, resulting in
larger projected capital and operating costs, for the biological-carbon
and primary-carbon processes for treating unbleached kraft mill effluent.
The lower rates of adsorption were believed to be caused by coagulation
69
-------
TABLE 15
RESULTS OF ACTIVATED CARBON PILOT PLANTS
TREATING UNBLEACHED KRAFT MILL EFFLUENT
Description Of
Carbon Process
Hydraulic
Load, gpm/ft2
Carbon
Contact Time, Kin.
BOD, mg/1
TOC, mg/1
Turbidity, J.U.-
Color, Units
Fresh Carbon
Dosage
Ib. carbon/
1000 gal.
PH
Columns
Preceded By
Biological
Oxidation &
Clarification
Inf.
2
Eff.
.13
Granular
140
148
740
57
212
B
Removal
61Z
71Z
Columns
Preceded By
Prlaary
Clarification
Inf.
1.
Eff.
f2
Granular
220
925
2
83
185
).5
Removal
62Z
80Z
Columns
Preceded By
Primary
Clarification
Inf.
0
Grai
310
1160
i
Eff . i Reaoval
.71
1
lular
121
202
!8
61Z
83Z
Columns
Preceded By
Lime Treatnenc
& Clarification
Inf.
1.4
Grar
Eff.
2
ular
108
26Z Rex
177
252
2
11.3
aval
100
5-15
76
.5
Removal
44Z
70Z
FACET Systaa
Inf.
K.
Eff.
A.
Intermediate
158
157
101
73*
3.9
I
Removal
36Z
54Z
Filtered
-------
DRAFT
of colloidal color bodies on the carbon surface. They also determined
that the use of sand filters prior to the activated carbon was not
necessary. The carbon columns operated with a suspended solids concen-
tration of 200 mg/1 without problems when backwashed every day or two.
Filtration or coagulation of the effluent from the FACET process was
necessary in order to remove that formed on the outer surfaces of the
activated carbon granules.
Figure 9 ( 41) indicates the estimated cost per pound of COD removed
for various Influent and effluent COD concentrations and various design
flows.
Chemical oxidation using chlorine or hypochlorite is an accepted means
of disinfection for water supplies and wastewater effluents. Chlorina-
tion has also been found useful for the removal of ammonia nitrogen and
odors from wastewater. However, the use of chlorination for the removal
of trace refractory organics is not a well-documented process. Gulp and
Gulp ( 52 ) report that the costs indicate that chlorine oxidation is
not competitive with activated carbon adsorption for removal of relative-
ly large quantities of COD from municipal wastes. It may offer an
alternate for the removal of very small quantities of organics which
have not been removed by activated carbon or as a temporary means of
reducing the soluble BOD in the absence of adsorption equipment. No
literature has been found that directs its attention specifically to the
applicability of chlorination to the pulp and paper industry.
Holm ( 53 ) conducted a seven-month study of chlorination of approximately
303 million liters per day (80 mgd) of effluent from a conventional
activated sludge process treating municipal wastewater. He determined
that chlorination caused a substantial reduction in the 8005. The BOD
decreased an average of 34.5 percent. Very good effluent or effluent
from a bulking plant was not significantly improved. Effluent of 12 to
30 mg/1 of BOD was noticeably improved. Holm also monitored the suspended
solids, P(>4, and TOD. He found that the suspended solids concentration
Increased about 20 percent. He theorized that some of the soluble com-
pounds were "precipitated" into a suspended state by the chlorine. The
P04 and TOD were not significantly affected by chlorination. Meiners
( 54) studied chlorine oxidation, catalyzed with ultraviolet radiation,
for the treatment of domestic wastewater. He found that chlorine will
slowly oxidize only a small fraction of dissolved organic material in
the dark, but in the presence of ultraviolet radiation, rapid elimina-
tion of large amounts of COD and TOC is possible.
The most important factor involved in the process was the selection of
the source of radiant energy. Meiners determined that short-wavelength
radiation (below 300 mu) is more effective than long-wavelength radia-
tion in promoting the chlorine oxidation process. Radiation of 254 mu
was about six times more effective than polychromatic radiation between
300-370 mu. He found that the rate of organic oxidation was Increased
by Increased radiation intensity; however, lower intensities produce
71
-------
FIGURE 9
ECONOMY IN SCALE - CARBON ADSORPTION SYSTEMS
INFLUENT COD 200mq/l
(EFFLUENT COD 50mq/l)
INFLUENT COD = 50O-70Omq/l
(EFFLUENT COD 150 mq/l)
0
40 60 80 MGD
PLANT DESIGN CAPACITY
1. Costs based on ENR = 1400.
2. Unit costs assume an annual capital recovery
. factor of 0.0877.
3. Costs Include Initial carbon inventory, carbon
handling system, and regeneration facilities.
-------
DRAFT
more overall organic oxidation for a specific amount of absorbed radiant
energy than do higher intensities. It was also established that the
chlorine consumption was directly proportional to the amount of radiant
energy absorbed, regardless of intensity. The effectiveness of treat-
ment is dependent on the penetration achieved by the ultraviolet radia-
tion. However, the correlation of treatment efficiencies with influent
color and turbidity concentrations was not reported.
Quantum efficiency is the amount of organic oxidation obtained from a
given amount of absorbed radiant energy. Meiners observed higher
quantum efficiencies at low intensities and an increase in quantum
efficiency as the oxidation proceeded.
Meiners determined that mercury-arc lamps were the most practical source
of radiant energy. However, the ideal mercury-arc lamp is presently
not commercially available. Of those presently available, the low
pressure mercury-arc is probably the most practical.
The most rapid rate of oxidation and the most efficient use of chlorine
was obtained at pH 5. However, the most economic operation may be at
ambient pH values without the addition of caustic for pH control.
Meiners also determined that chlorine concentrations above 5 mg/1 pro-
duced no significant increase in the oxidation rate. High concentrations
of chlorine were wasteful of chlorine and wasteful of radiant energy.
It was concluded that an optimum chlorine concentration below 5 mg/1
might be established where oxidation rates could be maximized and
chlorine consumption minimized.
Ozone has been used for a number of years at water treatment plants as
a deodorant and disinfectant. It has recently been utilized at munici-
pal wastewater treatment plants to deodorize gases which are emitted
and to disinfect the effluent. Ozone is a very effective disinfectant
and oxidizing agent. It is about thirteen times more soluble in water
than oxygen (55). Huibers et al. (55) have determined that ozone
effectively reduces the COD and TOC content of effluents from municipal
wastewater treatment plants, as well as odors, color, and pathogenic
organisms.
Residual ozone decomposes very rapidly. It has a half-life in drinking
water of about 20 minutes (55 ). Because of the instability of ozone,
it must be produced at Its point of use. The most common methods of
producing ozone are ( 55 ):
1. Silent electric discharge in air or oxygen
2. Photochemical conversion of air or oxygen
3. Electrolysis of sulfuric acid
73
-------
DRAFT
Photochemical conversion is used only where small quantities in very low
concentrations are required. Silent electric discharge is the only
practical and economical method for large-scale production of ozone. In
general, for large ozone usage, use of oxygen with recycle is a more
economical system than using air (55).
Because of the expense involved, the use of ozonation to oxidize organics
has not in the past been considered a practical form of tertiary treat-
ment. Huibers et al. (55) have studied the use of ozone as a tertiary
treatment process for domestic secondary wastewater effluent. .However,
no investigation of its applicability to the pulp and paper industry
has been found.
Huibers et al. (55) conducted laboratory scale tests, about 37.85 liters
per hour (10 gallons per hour), on the use of ozone to oxidize organics
remaining in effluent from municipal secondary wastewater treatment
plants. Effluent from a treatment plant using trickling filters was
treated with ozone and virtually all the color, odor, and turbidity were
removed. No living organisms remained, and the COD was below 15 mg/1.
Ozone concentrations from 11 mg/1 to 48 mg/1 as oxygen proved equally
effective.
Rates of COD and TOG removal were very dependent on agitation rates.
Removals were Increased approximately twofold using high-shear contacting
rather than low-shear countercurrent contacting. Cocurrent contacting,
mixing effluent and ozone in an Injector, proved more desirable than the
use of a turbine agitator. For effective ozonation, good agitation must
be considered the prime objective in contractor design (55).
Low pH resulted in lower reaction rates, but higher ozone utilization
efficiencies.
Ozone oxidizes many compounds which resist biological oxidation. However,
the most readily bio-oxidizable organics also consume ozone the most
efficiently (55 ). Chemical clarification prior to ozonation will re-
move a portion of the TOG that is resistant to oxidation by ozone result-
ing in lower final TOC level and less ozone consumption. Ozonation
efficiency was high when COD and TOC concentrations were high. However,
the effluent had an unacceptably high COD and TOC content. Huibers et al.
concluded that effluents having high organic content (COD above 40 mg/1)
are more economically treated by a combination of chemical clarification
and ozonation. Effluents with a low organic content require only ozona-
tion.
Because of the short life of ozone and the slow reaction of ozone with
many organics, it was concluded that the best treatment would be achieved
with multi-stage, high-shear, gas-liquid contacting. The half-life of
ozone is approximately twenty minutes. From this, they determined that
a residence time of ten minutes per stage was reasonable. One hour was
74
-------
needed for a COD reduction from 35-40 mg/1 to 15 mg/1. Therefore, six
stages were necessary. With the required amount of ozone being added
to each stage as it was needed, an overall ozone efficiency as high as
90 percent was obtained.
Chen and Smith (56) reported that ozonation, catalyzed with activated
Raney-Nickel removed 85 percent of the COD and 60 percent of the TOC
from secondary treatment effluents in two hours under favorable condi-
tions.
Huibers et al. (55) concluded that tertiary treatment with ozone has
potential of an automated, trouble-free operation with low maintenance.
Initially, they thought that the ammonia in the waste would react with
the ozone but found that this was not the case.
The reduction of TOC Is caused by organic molecules decomposing and
giving off carbon dioxide (55 ) This rate of decomposition was reduced
only at a pH below 7. A lower pH resulted in lower rates of COD
removal because the activity of dissolved ozone was enhanced by higher
pH. Lime dosage resulted in high pH, while alum-acid coagulants gave
the lowest pH. A pH from 6.0 to 7.0 seemed to be optimum for multistage,
cocurrent ozonation.
MONITORING
A necessary element of effective Implementation of a program on efflu-
ent limitations guidelines and standards of performance Is proper moni-
toring of effluent waste characterises by Individual mills. The
following procedures are recommended.
Flow Measurement
A properly designed, installed, and operated flow sensing device should
be utilized to measure the entire flow at each point source. Such
device should be capable of measuring flow over the entire flow range
encountered. The sensing device should be recalibrated at least once
each calendar quarter. More frequent recalibrations may be required if
necessary to assure the required accuracy. Detailed records of all
recalibrations should be maintained.
Each flow sensing device should be equipped with a flow integrator capa-
ble of totalizing flow over the required composite period, and over the
entire flow range. Accuracy of the flow senslng-totallzing train should
be at least within the limits of accuracy of best practicable equipment
currently available, which normally will not exceed +6 percent of actual
flow. Each such device should be equipped with an accurate means of
indicating instantaneous flow rate, and should be located near the
flow sensing device. A flow recording device capable of recording flow
rate over a 24-hour period should also be provided for each flow sens-
Ing device.
75
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Each such device must be kept as clean as possible, and protected inso-
far as feasible from the weather and from all factors which may adversely
affect its operation, maintenance, or accuracy.
Sampling
An automatic compositing sampler should be installed at or near each
flow sensing device to take a periodic or continuous and representative
sample of the flow passing through the flow sensing device at the time
the sample is taken. The sampling interval should not exceed five
minutes at normal average flow rate. Each liquid withdrawal should be
a quantity whose volume bears a constant relationship to the flow rate
at the time the withdrawal is made. Each such withdrawal should be
deposited in a light-free compositing container which is maintained at
the temperature prescribed by "Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater" (57). All materials in contact with the sample
should be corrosion-resistant, non-contaminating to the pollutant
analyses described below, and easily cleanable. All surfaces of
the sampling train exposed to the sample must be kept as clean as is
reasonably possible and all reasonable precautions should be utilized
to maintain the sampler in correct and continuous operation.
The composite sample (or a representative alliquot of the composite)
should be removed at least every 24 +2 hours for analysis, on operating
as well as non-operating days. The flow integrator reading should be
recorded at this time. Persona handling samples shall be trained and
competent in such procedures.
Analysis
Each composite sample (or alliquot) should be analyzed as prescribed by
"Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater" for
the following constituents:
1. BOD5;
2. Suspended solids;
3. pH;
4. Total phosphorus;
5. Total kjeldahl nitrogen;
6. The sum of nitrite nitrogen plus nitrate nitrogen.
All analyses should be conducted by trained and competent personnel.
76
-------
Records and Reporting
The following detailed records should be maintained and kept available
for inspection for at least three years:
1. Flow meter calibration, recalibration, and malfunction records;
2. Sampler maintenance and malfunction records;
3. Analytical methods used, bench records, results, data, and
summaries;
4. Production tonnage data, how and where measured, and con-
version calculations to moisture-free basis.
Reports should be submitted to the appropriate agency by certified
mail on a monthly basis.
77
-------
DRAFT
SECTION VIII
COST, ENERGY, NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS,
AND IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS
COSTS
Actual treatment costs vary to a significant degree from mill to mill,
depending upon the design and operation of production facilities and
other local conditions. Effluent treatment costs which have been re-
ported by the industry itself demonstrate this variance. The projected
costs of achieving the effluent limitations which are proposed herein
have been developed for a typical mill size in the subcategory under
study.
Frequently there is more than one combination of unit processes avail-
able to achieve the proposed effluent limitation guidelines. Where this
is the case the more expensive combination has been considered from a
cost standpoint.
Costs of effluent treatment which are presented have considered the
following:
Investment Cost
Design
Land
Mechanical and electrical equipment
Instrumentation
Site preparation
Plant sewers
Construction work
Installation
Testing
Annual Cost
Interest
Depreciation
Operation and maintenance
Operation and maintenance costs include labor, parts, chemicals, insur-
ance, taxes, solid waste disposal, quality control, monitoring, and
administration. Cost of energy is broken out as a separate item. Pro-
ductivity increases or byproduct revenues as a result of improved ef-
fluent control are subtracted so that the operation and maintenance
79
-------
costs reported are the net costs.
Table 16 illustrates the costs for the recommended treatment and con-
trol technologies for the subject subcategory. Each cost shown reflects
the total amount necessary to upgrade a mill which has only minimal in-
ternal control of spills, minimal recycling and recovery, and no treat-
ment of waste waters to the specified technology level. It should be
recognized that most mills have some existing capability beyond this
base line, thus resulting in reduced costs over those shown.
TABLE 16
TREATMENT COSTS, $000
100 Short Ton Per Day Mill
Technology Level
Type of Cost
Total Investment Cost
Total Annual Cost
Depreciation and Interest
Operation and Maintenance
Energy
I
915
235
126
66
43
II
1,463
315
202
68
45
III*
624
141
85
34
22
Costs for Level III treatment and control technology do not include
expenditures necessary for internal mill improvements. Sufficient
data was not available to establish this portion of the costs.
All costs are expressed in terms of August 1971 prices. This is compar-
able to the following cost indices:
Index Index & August 1971
EPA Treatment Plant Construction Cost 164.5 *
Index (1957-59 = 100)
EPA Sewer Line Construction Cost . 166.8
Index (1957-59 = 100)
ENR*Construction Cost Index (1913 = 100) 1614
ENR Labor Cost Index (1949 = 100) 420
*Engineerlng News Record
80
-------
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Specific energy and power prices shown in Table 16 above were based on the
following and are reported as annual expenditures.
External treatment
power cost = l.lC/KWH
fuel price = $0.24/mill Kg Cal ($0.95/mill BTU)
Internal treatment
steam = $1.86/metric ton ($2.05/short ton)
power = 0.6C/KWH
The lower power unit price used for internal treatment takes into con-
sideration the lower cost of power generated by the mill, while power
from external sources is assumed for external treatment.
NON-WATER QULAITY ASPECTS OF CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
Air Pollution Potential
There is virtually no potential for an air pollution problem arising
from the external treatment of effluents from building paper mills,
although such problems are encountered in sludge disposal.
The physical processes employed in suspended solids removal do not
involve any activity which would create air pollution, since detention
times rarely exceed six hours which is not conducive to development of
anaerobic or other odors. The subsequent biological processes are
aerobic in nature when properly designed and operated, and the prod-
ucts of decomposition consist almost entirely of carbon dioxide, water,
sulfates, and a trace of nitrates, all of which are odorless. The ab-
sence of objectionable odor has been confirmed by innumerable field
observations by contractor personnel and regulatory officials. The
only odors detectable were the characteristic odor associated with
fresh natural water bodies and a faint aromatic odor of wood extractants.
These are similar both in terms of character and intensity to those
present in nature.
Odors can arise from land disposal of liquid sludges as a result of
their anaerobic decomposition. These derive primarily from organic
acids and hydrogen sulfide produced on reduction of sulfates dissolved
in the water content of the sludges. Dewatering prior to disposal
81
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on the land arrests such decomposition and represents an adequate odor
control measure, as do land fill practices.
Incineration of sludges produced in the effluent treatment processes
can, without appropriate control equipment, result in the discharge of
particulates to the atmosphere. However, emission control devices are
available to meet state regulatory requirements in most instances.
Incinerators are either sold with integral emission control appliances
or are equipped with them on installation. Gaseous pollutant emissions
from such incinerators are negligible.
In-mill controls which effect a reduction in fiber and additive losses
such as save-alls and recycling of process waters do not generate an air
pollution problem.
Noise Potential
There are no official records of public noise problems arising from the
operation of effluent treatment by building paper mills. However,
based on many years of contractor association with industry operations,
it can be stated that public complaints engendered by such noise are
very infrequent. This is due in part to the'ir confinement, in some
instances, to manufacturing or utility areas and to the fact that the
noise level of most of the devices employed for treatment are generally
lower than that of some manufacturing machinery.
The sources of noise are for the most part air compressors or mechanical
surface aerators supplying air to treatment processes, vacuum pumps and
centrifuges involved in sludge dewatering, and fans serving sludge
incinerators. With the exception of surface aerators, these devices are
most frequently operated in buildings which serve to muffle their noise.
Since many building paper mills are located in populated areas, noise
from surface aerators could be a problem. However, these mills are
small and employ small aerators which, if not driven through gear boxes,
produce little noise. The problem of noise emanating from gear boxes
used in these aerators and elsewhere is the subject of an extensive
investigation by the Philadelphia Gear Company which manufactures many
of these units. It is anticipated that this study will lead to a re-
duction in noise from these sources.
It can be concluded that noise produced by equipment used for treating
building paper mill effluent is not a major public problem at present.
Effort being made to reduce the noise level of mechanical equipment in
general, motivated by industrial health protection programs, will lend
assistance in preventing it from becoming one.
82
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D*Afj
Solid Wastes and Their Disposal
Solid wastes generated by building paper mills, in addition to sludges
produced by effluent treatment, are trash, waste paper, ash, and gar-
bage.
Trash such as metals, glass, and plastics is removed from waste paper
and used rags in the beaters and/or pulpers and in stock cleaning opera-
tions. This material and grit from the rifflers are disposed of by land
fill on the mill premises or hauled to a suitable location for disposal
in this manner.
Wood rejects occur only in small quantities since less than 50 tons of
wood a day is generally processed. In most instances, the rejects can
be recycled in the process.
Ash from coal-fired boilers can be discharged hydraulically to ash ponds.
There the solids settle and compact and the clear supernatant water is
discharged to the mill effluent system. If ash is hauled to a disposal
area, these materials should be transported wet in order to avoid being
blown into the atmosphere.
Waste paper and garbage are either incinerated on the site or hauled
away for disposal by contractors engaged in this business. Particulates
from incineration must be controlled by effective devices such as bag
filters or wet scrubbers.
Research has recently been conducted on solid wastes generated in the
pulp and paper industry and their disposal for EPA's Office of Solid
Waste Management Programs (EPA Contract No. 68-03-0207).
IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS
Availability of Equipment:
Since 1966, when major federal water pollution control expenditures began,
various federal and private organizations have analysed the projected
levels of water pollution control activity and their economic impact on
the construction and equipment industries. As a result, a plethora of
studies has been developed which is related to the levels of municipal
and industrial water pollution control construction and the respective
markets for waste water treatment equipment. Less information is avail-
able concerning the actual and anticipated levels of expenditure by any
specific industry.
83
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DRAFT
In recent years, the trend in the waste water equipment industry has
seen the larger firms acquiring smaller companies in order to broaden
their market coverage.
Figure 10 shows graphically past expenditures and projected future out-
lays for the construction of industrial waste water treatment facilities,
as well as total water pollution control expenditures. Obviously, the
level of expenditures by industry is related to the federal compliance
schedule. This will increase until industry is in compliance with
federal standards. Once that occurs, the level of spending will return
to a level commensurate with the construction of new facilities, replace-
ment of existing facilities, and the construction of advance waste
treatment facilities.
Figure 11 shows past expenditures for and projected future trends in
total sales of waste water treatment equipment and the dollar amounts
attributable to industrial and municipal sales. This curve closely
follows the trend shown in Figure
The data in Figures 10 and 11 related to industrial water pollution
expenditures include only those costs external to the industrial activ-
ity. Internal process changes made to accomplish water pollution control
are not included.
Recent market studies have projected the total available production
capacity for water and waste water treatment equipment. Most of them
have indicated that the level of sales is currently only 30-40 percent
of the total available plant capacity. Several major manufacturers were
contacted to verify these figures and indications are that they are
still accurate. A partial reason for this overcapacity is that the de-
mand for equipment has been lower than anticipated. Production capacity
was increased assuming federal expenditures in accord with funds author-
ized by Congress and conformance to compliance schedules.
For the immediate future, increased demands for waste water treatment
equipment can be absorbed by the existing overcapacity. Long term
requirements will probably necessitate expansion of production capacity
in various product lines where the demand is expected to increase dra-
matically specifically, advanced treatment systems and waste solids
handling equipment.
It should also be noted that the capacity to produce waste water treat-
ment equipment could be expanded significantly through the use of inde-
pendent metal fabricators as subcontractors. Even at the present time
independent fabricators are used by some equipment manufacturers when
work loads are heavy and excessive shipping costs make it desirable to
use a fabricator close to the delivery site.
84
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FIGURE 10
TOTAU WATER FOU_UT\ON
CONTTEOL EXPENDfTUeES
-------
vO
00
YEAR
FIGURE 11
WASTEWATfcR. TREATM&NT
EQUIPMENT 9AU6S
-------
D*AFT
There appear to be no substantial geographical limitations to the distri-
bution of waste water treatment equipment to industry. In various areas,
certain suppliers may be more successful than others; however, this
seems to be more related to the effectiveness of the sales activities
rather than to any geographical limitation. The use of independent metal
fabricators as subcontractors to manufacture certain pieces of equip-
ment further reduces geographical limitations.
Equipment delivery schedules may vary substantially depending upon the
manufacturer, the current demand, and the specific equipment in question.
Obviously, the greater the demand or the more specialized the equipment,
the greater the delivery time.
Availability of Construction Manpower
After consultation with the Associated General Contractors of America
and other industry groups, it is concluded that sufficient manpower
exists to construct any required treatment facilities.
This conclusion has reportedly been substantiated by EPA in an indepen-
dent study (59 ) although there is still some concern about localized
problems. The Bureau of Labor Statistics has been requested to conduct
another study.
Construction Cost Index
The most detailed study and careful analysis of cost trends in prior
years still leaves much to be desired in predicting construction cost
through the next ten years.
During the years 1955 through 1965 there was a very consistent price
rise. The Engineering News Record (ENR) Construction Cost Index in
January 1955 was 644. With slight deviations from a straight line,
costs rose at a steady rate to an index of 988 in December 1965. This
represented an increased cost of 53.4 percent over an eleven year period
of approximately 5 percent per year.
The first six months of 1966 saw an increase of 6.6. percent then leveled
off abruptly only to rise sharply again in 1967 at a rate of 6.2 percent,
then increasing to 9.4 percent in 1968.
The increase in costs continued to rise at about 10.5 percent per year
through 1970. During 1971, construction costs rose at the unprecedented
rate of 15.7 percent primarily due to larger increases in labor rates.
87
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DRAFT
With the application of federal wage and price controls in 1972, the
rate of increase dropped to 8.7 percent. The first three months of 1973
saw some escalation of cost due to allowable materials price gains.
EPA determined the increase in Treatment Plant Construction Cost during
this period to be 3.1 percent. This compares with a rise of only 0.9
percent during the previous three months.
The opinion of some officials of the Associated General Contractors is
that the rate of cost increase for general construction work, including
waste water treatment and industrial construction, should average no
more than five to six percent over the next several years. This is,
therefore, the basis used for extension of the ENR index curve at an
annual six percent increase for construction costs through the year 1983.
This is shown in Figure 12.
Land Requirements
Land requirements for a number of external treatment systems have been
evaluated and are shown in Figure 13 for a range of plant sizes. In-
cineration or off-site disposal of dewatered sludge has been assumed.
Should sludge lagoons be used on site, additional land would be required.
Time Required to Construct Treatment Facilities
The time required to construct treatment facilities has been determined
for a range of plant sizes and for two different project contract possi-
bilities. The treatment sizes evaluated were under 18,925 kiloliters
per day (five MGD), 18,925-189,250 kiloliters per day (five to 10 MGD),
and over 189,250 kiloliters per day (10 MGD). The contract bases evalu-
ated were 1) separate engineering and construction and 2) turnkey
performance. The components considered for both approaches included
preliminary engineering, final design engineering, bid and construction
award, and construction.
It is concluded from reviewing the data shown in Figure 14 that it should
be possible in all cases to meet the implementation requirements of the
July 1977 deadlines.
88
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JULY V983
3040 ±
600H
*S5
1973 MIS W17
weo
1983
YEAR
12
ENGINEERING N&.WS (ZBCORD
CONSTRUCTION COST
-------
1000
500
in
u)
a
u
I
4
ol
1OO
50
10
z
-NATURAL -
STABILIZATION
AERATED .
STABILIZATION!
ACTIVATED SLUDG»fc
i -
o
10 is
FLOW/ - IV1GD
20
FIGURE 13
LAND REQUIRED
V/ASTEWATER, TREATMENT
90
-------
SITE
MGD
UMDcR 5
CONV.
UMDER 5
TURNKEY
5-10
CoMv
5-10
TURNKEY
OVER IO
COKJV
OVER IO
TURNKEf
)
1974
JFMAHJJASOND
1
Mill
Mill
...
i
...
!
IIIM
!T
1975
JFH A M J JASOND
till
II
.
-
"
-
linn
'-
I t
1
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II
.
1
_L 1 1 J
...
1976
J FM A M J J AS OND
J 1 J
1977
J F H A M J J A
PRELIMINARY ENGINELRING
FINAL DESIGN ENGINEERING FIGURE 14
BID AND CONSTRUCTION AMARD /J ».
fljQf*'*. TlN^E: WEQU\RtD TO
frf COMSTRUCT WASTEWATtR F^C\L»T\«^
COKlVEMT»OKJ/kU < TURK1K&Y COWTW$$f5
«
-------
DRAFT
SECTION IX
BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
INTRODUCTION
The effluent limitations which must be achieved by July 1, 1977 are to
specify the degree of effluent reduction attainable through the appli-
cation of the best practicable control technology currently available.
Best practicable control technology currently available is generally
based upon the average of the best existing performance by plants of
various sizes, ages, and unit processes within the industrial subcate-
gory.
Consideration was also given to:
a. the total cost of application of technology in relation to the
effluent reduction benefits to be achieved from such applica-
tion;
b. the size and age of equipment and facilities involved;
c. the processes employed;
d. the engineering aspects of the application of various types of
control techniques;
e. process changes;
f. non-water quality environmental impact (including energy re-
quirements) .
Also, best practicable control technology currently available emphasizes
treatment-facilities at the end of a manufacturing process but includes
the control technologies within the process itself when the latter are
considered to be normal practice within an industry.
A further consideration is the degree of economic feasibility and engi-
neering reliability which must be established for the technology to be
"currently available." As a result of demonstration projects, pilot
plants, and general use, there must exist a high degree of confidence in
the engineering feasibility and economic practicability of the tech-
nology at the time of commencement of construction or installation of
the control facilities.
93
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
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DRAFT
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF BEST PRACTI-
CABLE POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through VIII of
this report, a determination has been made that the following point
source discharge guidelines for each identified pollutant can be ob-
tained through the application of the best practicable pollution con-
trol technology currently available. They are given in pounds per
short ton of production:
BO05 Suspended Solids pH Range
5.0 3.0 7.5-8.5
The allowable pounds of BOD,, and suspended solids per ton of
production are to be based upon monthly averages of daily values as
determined from industrial records. It is expected that values on
any given day could exceed these guidelines. Further, values may be
adjusted to reflect variations in performance as a result of changes
in materials mix, ambient air temperature effect on waste treatment
process performance, and other local conditions.
Production capacity is defined as the total production off the machine,
including reprocessed broke. Daily production, in air-dry tons, is
defined as the highest average level sustained for seven consecutive
operating days of normal production.
Values are intended to reflect the net pounds per ton of product which
are attributed to the industrial operation, and do not account for
"back-ground" pollutional loads which may have existed in the process
water prior to use by the industry.
IDENTIFICATION OF BEST POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY
AVAILABLE
Internal Control
a. Water Showers
Fresh water showers used to clean wire, felt, and other
machine elements (of both fourdrinier and cylinder ma-
chines) should be low-volume and high-pressure; white
water showers should be low-pressure, high-volume, and
self-cleaning.
94
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
-------
b. Segregation of White Water Systems
The segregation of white water systems should be designed
to permit maximum reuse within the stock preparation/
machine systems and to permit only low fiber content white
water to enter the sewer.
c. Press Water Filtering
A vibrating or centrifugal screen should be employed to remove
felt hairs prior to press water reuse.
d. Collection System for Vacuum Pump Seal Water
Seal water should be collected for partial reuse and/or cascade
to or from other water users.
e. Save-all with Associated Equipment
An effective save-all should be employed to recover fibrous and
other suspended material which escapes from the paper machine.
f. Gland Water Reduction
Flow control of individual seal water lines to equipment packing
glands, or equivalent measures, should be exercised.
External Treatment
a. Suspended Solids Reduction
This step involves removal of suspended solids from the
incoming raw waste stream. It can incorporate either 1) an
earthen stilling basin; or 2) mechanical clarification and
sludge removal. Solids dewatering screens can also be in-
corporated prior to solids settling as a means of removing
coarse solids.
b. BOD reduction
Biological oxidation is to be employed throughout the subject sub-
category. Secondary support processes which can also be incor-
porated are 1) roughing filters and 2) natural oxidation
ponds following biological treatment.
95
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
-------
DRAFT
c. Secondary solids removal
Where activated sludge is utilized for biological oxidation,
secondary mechanical clarification can be utilized for second-
ary solids removal. Stilling ponds can be incorporated after
aerated stabilization basins for removal of secondary solids.
Depending upon the design and configuration of the aerated
basins, a stilling pond can consist merely of a quiescent zone
beyond the influence of aeration equipment, but within the
general confines of the aerated basin itself.
d. Sludge disposal
When compatible with other unit processes, sludge disposal can
often be carried out in a stilling pond. However, this neces-
sitates periodic dredging, removal, and disposal of solids.
Where activated sludge and mechanical clarification are utilized,
ultimate sludge disposal can be accomplished through sludge
thickening by vacuum filtration or centrifugation, followed by
sludge dewatering and ultimate solids disposal. Disposal can be
accomplished by either land disposal or incineration. Combus-
tion of sludges can be carried out either in a sludge incinerator
or a power boiler.
RATIONALE FOR THE SELECTION OF BEST POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CUR-
RENTLY AVAILABLE
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities
There is a wide range, in both size and age among mills in the sub-
category studied. However, internal operations of most older mills
have been upgraded, and some of these mills currently operate very
efficiently. The technology for upgrading of older mills is well
established, and does not vary significantly from mill to mill within
the subcategory. Studies have also shown that waste treatment plant
performance does not relate to mill size. Most mills are constructed
on a "modular" concept, where key process elements are duplicated as
mill size expands. Consequently, there is no significant variation in
either the waste water characteristics or in the waste water loading
rates, in kilograms per metric ton (in pounds per short ton of product),
between mills of varying sizes.
Process Change
Application of best technology currently available does not require
major changes in existing industrial processes. Incorporation of
96
NOTICEt THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
-------
DRAFT
additional systems, treatment processes, and control measures can be
accomplished in most cases through changes in piping, and through de-
sign modifications to existing equipment. Such alterations can be
carried out In all mills within the subcategory.
Engineering Aspects of Control Technique Applications
The technology to achieve these effluent limitations is practiced within
the subcategory under study. The concepts are proven, available for
implementation, and applicable to the wastes in question. The waste
treatment techniques are also broadly applied within many other indus-
tries. The technology required will necessitate improved monitoring of
waste discharges and of waste treatment components on the part of many
mills, as well as more extensive training of personnel on operation and
maintenance of waste treatment facilities. However, these procedures
are currently practiced in some mills and are common practice in many
other industries.
Non-water Quality Environmental Impact
Application of the activated sludge waste treatment process offers a
potential for adverse impact upon air quality if dewatered sludges are
incinerated. However, proper selection and operation of particulate
emission control equipment can minimize this impact. Dredged or dewa-
tered sludges disposed of on land can present an odor problem if a solid
waste disposal program is not properly implemented. Procedures are
available for its control which are utilized where applicable within the
subcategory under study or in other industries. Methods for solution
of either of these problems do not create significant environmental im-
pacts.
The technology cited will not create any significant increase in noise
levels beyond those observed in well designed municipal waste water
treatment systems which currently are being approved by the federal gov-
ernment for construction in populated areas. Further, no hazardous
chemicals are required as part of'this technology.
The greatest proportion of energy consumed will be for pumping and for
biological treatment. The total energy requirements for implementation
of best available technology are not substantial and should not be
sufficient enough to warrant concern on either a national or regional
basis. However, it should be cautioned that no investigation has been
made in this study on the cumulative effect of energy requirements when
all industries within the country simultaneously implement best avail-
able technology levels.
97
NOTICE! THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
-------
DRAFT
Cost of Application in Relation to Effluent Reduction Benefits
For a 90.7 metric ton (100 short ton) per day mill, the total annual
cost of this level of technology is estimated at $235,000, including
energy requirements. This results in an increase in production costs
of $8.60 per metric ton ($7.80 per short ton).
This increase reflects both all internal mill and external waste treat-
ment improvements. It is based on 300 days of production/year. It
should be emphasized, however, that most mills have already carried out
many of these improvements. Subsequently, their increased costs would
be less than those shown above.
Processes Employed
All mills within the subcategory studied utilize the same basic produc-
tion processes. Although there are deviations in equipment and produc-
tion procedures, these deviations do not significantly alter either the
characteristics or the treatability of the waste water generated.
98
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
-------
DRAFT
SECTION X
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY
ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
INTRODUCTION
Best available technology economically achievable is to be achieved not
later than July 1, 1983. Lt is not based upon an average of the best
performance within the subcategory under study, but has been determined
by identifying the very best control and treatment technology employed
by a specific point source within the subcategory, or by applying tech-
nology from other industry areas where it is transferrable.
Consideration was also given to:
a. the age of equipment and facilities involved;
b. the process employed;
c. the engineering aspects of the application of various types of
control techniques;
d. process changes;
e» cost of achieving the effluent reduction resulting from applica-
tion of the technology;
f. non-water quality environmental impact, including energy require-
ments.
This level of technology emphasizes both internal process improvements
and external treatment of waste waters. It will, therefore, require
existing mills to implement significant internal changes on water reuse
and recycle as well as to apply more advanced waste treatment processes
and other improved internal and external controls in order to meet the
suggested effluent guidelines. In some cases, the industry may be
required to conduct applied research and demonstration studies in order
to firmly establish the most economical approach toward meeting the
guidelines.
EFFLUENT REDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF BEST AVAILABLE
TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through VIII of
this report, a determination has been made that the following point
99
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
-------
DRAFT
source discharge guidelines for each identified pollutant can be ob-
tained through the application of best available technology. They
are expressed in pounds per ton of production.
Suspended pH Range
Solids
2.5 1.5 7.5-8.5
The allowable pounds of BOD,, and suspended solids per ton of production
are to be based upon monthly averages of daily values as determined from
industrial records. It is expected that values on any given day could
exceed these guidelines. Further, values may be adjusted to reflect
variations in performance as a result of changes in materials mix, ambi-
ent air temperature, effect on waste treatment process performance, and
other local conditions.
Production capacity is defined as the total production off the machine,
including reprocessed broke. Daily production, in air-dry tons, is de-
fined as the highest average level sustained for seven consecutive
operating days of normal production.
Values are intended to reflect the net pounds per ton of product which
are attributed to the industrial operation, and do not account for "back-
ground" pollutional loads which may have existed in the process water
prior to use by the industry.
IDENTIFICATION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
The best available technology economically achievable consists of the
best practicable control technology currently available as defined in
Section IX of this report. It also includes the following additional
internal mill improvements and external advanced waste water treatment
practices.
Internal Controls
Building paper operations will be able to implement modifications and
operating procedures for:
a. control of spills whereby major pollutional loads bypass the
waste water treatment system to a retention basin and are ulti-
mately either reused, gradually discharged into the treatment
system, or treated separately;
100
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
-------
DRAFT
b. intensive internal reuse of process waters;
c. separation of cooling waters from other waste water streams, and
subsequent heat removal and reuse;
d. intensive reduction of gland water spillage.
External Treatment
Section IX of the report describes best practicable external control
technology currently available. Application of that technology in con-
junction with several additional recognized and potential technologies
described in section VII constitutes best available technology econom-
ically achievable. The additional external processes applicable to this
more advanced technology are as follows:
a. suspended solids removal through either coagulation and floccu-
lation followed by settling, filtration, or reverse osmosis;
b. BODr reduction through the application of two-stage biological
treatment;
c. trace organics removal through either carbon adsorption or chlo-
rination.
RATIONALE FOR THE SELECTION OF BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY
ACHIEVABLE
Age and Siae of Equipment and Facilities
There is a wide range, in both size and age, among mills in the subcate-
gory studied. However, internal operations of most older mills have
been upgraded, and some of these mills currently operate very efficient-
ly. The technology for upgrading of older mills is well established,
and does not vary significantly from mill to mill. Studies have also
shown that waste treatment plant performance does not relate to mill
size. Most mills are constructed on a "modular" concept, where key
process elements are duplicated as mill size expands. Consequently,
there is no significant variation in either the waste water character-
istics or in the waste water loading rates, in kilograms per metric ton
ton (in pounds per short ton of product), between mills of varying
sizes.
Process Changes
Application of best available technology economically achievable does
not require major changes in existing industrial processes. Incor-
poration of additional systems, treatment processes, and control
101
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
-------
DRAFT
measures can be accomplished in most cases through changes in piping,
and through design modifications to existing equipment. Such altera-
tions can be carried out on all mills within the subcategory.
Engineering Aspects of Control Technique Applications
The technology to achieve most of these effluent limitations is either
practiced by an outstanding mill in the subcategory, or is demonstrat-
ed in other industries and is transferrable. The technology required
for all best available treatment and control systems will necessitate
sophisticated monitoring, sampling, and control programs, as well as
properly trained personnel.
Non-water Quality Environmental Impact
Application of the activated sludge waste treatment process offers a
potential for adverse impact upon air quality if dewatered sludges are
incinerated. However, proper selection and operation of particulate
emission control equipment can minimize this impact. Dredged or dewa-
tered sludges disposed of on land can present an odor problem if a
solid waste disposal program is not properly implemented. Proce-
dures are available for its control which are utilized where appli-
cable within the subcategory or in other industries. Methods for
solution of either of these problems do not create significant en-
vironmental impacts.
The technology cited will not create any significant increase in noise
levels beyond those observed in well designed municipal waste water
treatment systems which currently are being approved by the federal
government for construction in populated areas. Further, no hazardous
chemicals are required as part of this technology.
The greatest proportion of energy consumed will be for pumping and for
biological treatment. The total energy requirements for implementation
of best available technology for the categories under study are not sub-
stantial and should not be sufficient enough to warrant concern on
either a national or regional basis. However, it should be cautioned
that no investigation has been made in this study on the cumulative
effect of energy requirements when all industries within the country
simultaneously implement best available technology levels.
Cost of Application in Relation to Effluent Reduction Benefits
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII of this report, to-
tal projected cost of upgrading a 90.7 metric ton (100 short ton)per day mill
102
' NOTICE! THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
-------
DRAFT
incorporating best practicable control technology currently available
to the level of best achievable technology economically feasible re-
flects an increase in production expenses of $11.58 per metric ton
($10.50 per short ton). This is based upon total annual cost of $315,000,
including energy requirements.
This increase reflects both all internal mill and external waste treat-
ment improvements and is based on 300 days of production per year.
Processes Employed
All mills within the subcategory studied utilize the same basic produc-
tion processes. Although there are deviations in equipment and produc-
tion procedures, these deviations do not significantly alter either the
characteristics or the treatability of the waste water generated.
103
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW. BY EPA.
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DRAFT
SECTION XI
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
INTRODUCTION
This level of technology is to be achieved by new sources. The term
"new source" is defined in the Act to mean "any source, the construction
of which is commenced after the publication of proposed regulations pre-
scribing a standard of performance." Such commencement of construction
can occur within the near future, certainly before either the 1977 or
1983 compliance dates for either best practicable or best achievable
technologies. Therefore, new source performance standards utilize best
practicable control technology currently available as a base, but also
encompass additional treatment and control technologies through the
application of improved production processes which are designed to reduce
pollutant loads.
Consideration has also been given to:
a. The type of process employed and process changes;
b. Operating methods;
c. Batch as opposed to continuous operations;
d. Use of alternative raw materials and mixes of raw materials;
e. Use of dry rather than wet processes (including substitution
of recoverable solvents for water);
f. Recovery of pollutants as byproducts; and
g. Pre-treatment requirements for discharges to municipal systems.
RECOMMENDED NEW SOURCE STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through VIII of
this report, the following standards of performance are recommended:
Pounds Per Short Ton of Production
BODj Suspended pH Range
Solids
4.0 2.5 7.5-8.5
The allowable pounds of BODr and suspended solids per ton of production
are to be based upon monthly averages of daily values as determined
from industrial records. It is expected that values on any given day
could exceed these guidelines. Further, values may be adjusted to
reflect variations in performance as a result of changes in materials
105
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
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DRAFT
mix, ambient air temperature effect on waste treatment process performed,
and other local conditions.
Production capacity is defined as the total production off the machine,
including reprocessed broke. Daily production, in air dry tons, is de-
fined as the highest average level sustained for seven consecutive opera-
ting days of normal production.
Values are intended to reflect the net pounds per ton of product which
are attributed to the industrial operation, and do not account for
"background" pollutional loads which may have existed in the process
water prior to use by the industry.
IDENTIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGY FOR NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
The technology for new source performance standards consists of the
best practicable control technology currently available as defined
in Section IX of this report. It also includes limited application
of additional internal mill improvements and external advanced waste
water treatment practices as defined in Section X of this report for
best available technology economically achievable.
It is expected that "new source" mills will not be able to realize
maximum efficiency in the limited application of best available tech-
nology economically achievable since additional study is required before
the full potential of some of the technologies can be identified. How-
ever, "new source" mills have an advantage over existing mills in the
achievement of optimum recycle segregation, and selective use and re-
use systems. These improvements can be more readily incorporated into
new mill designs than into existing mills which must be modified.
RATIONALE FOR SELECTION OF TECHNOLOGY FOR NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE
STANDARDS
Type of Process Employed and Process Changes
No radical new in-plant processes are proposed as a means of achieving
new source performance standards for this subcategory.
106
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
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Operating Methods
Significant revisions in operating methods, both in-plant and at the
waste water treatment facility, will be necessary. However, these im-
provements are not beyond the scope of well-trained personnel, and are
currently being practiced in other industries. The primary areas of
operational change will pertain to required activities for recycle, re-
use, and spill control, as well as for optimal performance of waste
water treatment facilities.
Batch as Opposed to Continuous Operations
For the subcategory studied, it was determined that batch as opposed
to continuous operations is not a significant factor in waste load.
characteristics and no additional control of pollutants could be achieved
through the use of one type process over the other.
Use of Alternative Raw Materials and Mixes of Raw Materials
The raw materials requirements for a given mill do vary, depending upon
supply and demand, desired end product, and other conditions. However,
alteration of raw materials as a means of reducing pollutants is not
considered feasible over the long term even though such a change could
possibly realize benefits of short duration in a given instance.
Use of Dry Rather than Wet Processes (Including Substitution of
Recoverable Solvents for Water)
For this subcategory, it was determined that technology for dry pulping
beyond that already practiced or papermaking processes does not exist nor is
it in a sufficiently viable experimental stage to be considered here.
Recovery of Pollutants as Byproducts
It is anticipated that these performance standards will motivate in-
creased research on recovering materials for byproduct sale the re-
covery of which is not presently economically feasible.
Pre-treatment Requirements for Discharges to Municipal Systems
None of the pollutant parameters identified in Section VI of this report,
with the possible exception of pH, can be expected to disrupt or inter-
fere with the normal operation of a municipal waste water treatment
107
NOTICE; THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
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DRAFT
system which is designed to accommodate the industrial pollutant load
discharge to it from any mill within the subcategory studied. In the
case of pH, some pre-treatment may be required if it can be shown that
the normal pH range in the waste discharged from a given mill exceeds
6-8.5.
108
NOTICEt THESE ARE TENTATIVE RECOMMENDATIONS BASED UPON IN-
FORMATION IN THIS REPORT AND ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE BASED
UPON COMMENTS RECEIVED AND FURTHER INTERNAL REVIEW BY EPA
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SECTION XII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
WAPORA, Inc., and its subcontractors, E. C. Jordan Co. and EKONO, grate-
fully acknowledge the assistance and guidance of the Effluent Guidelines
Division of EPA throughout all phases of the work which culminate in this
report. Appreciation is also extended to companies who granted access
to their mills and treatment works for field surveys and for the assist-
ance lent by mill personnel to field crews. The operating records fur-
nished by these manufacturers and information supplied by other indivi-
duals in the industry contributed significantly to the project. The
cooperation of the National Council for Air and Stream Improvement in
providing liaison with the industry was an invaluable asset, and this ser-
vice Is greatly appreciated. Thanks are also extended to the American
Paper Institute for its continued assistance.
109
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SECTION XIII
REFERENCES
1. Greenfield, S. H., "A Study of the Variables Involved in the Saturat-
ing of Roofing Felts," National Bureau of Standards, Building Science
Series 19, June (1969).
2. Strahan, J. L., Manufacture. Selection and Application of Asphalt
Roofing and Siding Products. 9th Ed., Asphalt Roofing Industry Bureau,
New York (1966).
3. Britt, K. W., Handbook of Pulp and Paper Technology. 2nd Ed., Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York (1970).
4. 1967 Census of Manufactures, Major Group 26, Paper and Allied Products,
U. S. Bureau of the Census, MC 67(2)-26A, Oct. (1970).
5. Paper, Paperboard, Wood Pulp Capacity 1971-1974, American Paper Insti-
tute, Oct. (1972).
6. Slatin, B., "Fiber Requirements of the Paper Industry in the Seventies
and Eighties," TAPPI Secondary Fiber Conf. (1971).
7. Gehm, H. W., State-of-the-Art Review of Pulp and Paper Waste Treatment.
EPA Contract No. 68-01-0012, April (1973).
8. Edde, H., "A Manual of Practice for Biological Waste Treatment in the
Pulp and Paper Industry," NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 214 (1968).
9. Timpe, W. G., Lang, E., and Miller, R. L., Kraft Pulping Effluent
Treatment and Reuse - State-of-the-Art. Environmental Protection
Technology Series EPA-R2-73-164 (1973).
10. Gellman, I., "Aerated Stabilization Basin Treatment of Mill Effluents,"
NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 185 (1965).
11. Follett, R. , and Gehm, H. W., "Manual of Practice for Sludge Handling
in the Pulp and Paper Industry," NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 190
(1966).
12. Voegler, J., "Drainability and Dewatering of White Water Sludges,"
NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 35 (1950).
13. Berger, H. F., "Development of an Effective Technology for Pulp and
Bleaching Effluent Color Reduction," NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 228
(1969).
14. Spruill, E. L., Draft of final report, Color Removal and Sludge Dis-
posal Process fur Kraft Mill Effluents. EPA Project #12040 DRY (1973).
Ill
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15. Moggio, W. A., "Experimental Chemical Treatments For Kraft Mill Wastes,"
NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 50 (1952).
16. "Treatment of Calcium-Organic Sludges Obtained From Lime Treatment of
Kraft Pulp Mill Effluents - Part I." NCASI Technical Bulletin No.
62 (1955).
17. "Treatment of Calcium-Organic Sludges from Lime Treatment of Kraft
Pulp Mill Effluents - Part II," NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 75 (1955).
18. "Development Studies on the Removal of Color from Caustic Extract
Bleaching Effluent By the Surface Reaction Process - Part, I," NCASI
Technical Bulletin No. 107 (1958).
19. Berger, H. F. , and Brown, R. I., "The Surface Reaction Method for Color
Removal From Kraft Bleachery Effluents," NCASI Technical Bulletin No.
119 (1959).
20. "Development Studies on the Removal of Color from Caustic Extract
Bleaching Effluent by the Surface Reaction Process - Part II," NCASI
Technical Bulletin No. 122 (1959).
21. Herbert, A. J. , "A Process for Removal of Color from Bleached Kraft
Effluents Through Modification of the Chemical Recovery System,"
NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 157 (1962). U. S. Patent #3,120,464.
22. Oswalt, J. L., and Lund, J. G., Jr., Color Removal from Kraft Pulp Mill
Effluents by Massive Lime Treatment. EPA Project 12040 DYD (1973).
23. Davis, C. L., Color Removal from Kraft Pulping Effluent by Lime Addi-
tion, Interstate Paper Corporation, EPA Project 12040 ENC (1971).
24. Spruill, E. L., Color Removal and Sludge Recovery from Total Mill
Effluent. Paper presented at TAPPI Environmental Conference, Houston,
Texas (1972).
25. Smith, D. R., and Berger, H. F. , "Waste Water Renovation," TAPPI 51
(1968).
26. Berger, H. F., and Thibodeaux, L. J., "Laboratory and Pilot Plant
Studies of Water Reclamation," NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 203 (1967).
27. McGlasson, W. G., et. al., "Treatment of Pulp Mill Effluents With
Activated Carbon," NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 199 (1967).
28. Middlebrooks, E. J. , et. al., "Chemical Coagulation of Kraft Miss
Wastewater," Water and Sewage Works. V. 116, No. 3 (1967).
29. Timpe, W. G., and Lang, E. W. , "Activated Carbon Treatment of Un-
bleached Kraft Effluent for Reuse, Pilot Plant Studies," TAPPI
Environmental Conference (1973).
112
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30. Private Communication, St. Regis Paper Company (1973).
31. Leitner, Gordon F., "Reverse Osmosis For Waste Water Treatment -
What? When?," TAPPI 8th Water & Air Conference (1971).
32. Morris, D. C., Nelson, W. R., and Walraven, G. 0., Recycle of Paper-
mill Waste Waters and Application of Reverse Osmosis, ORM, EPA
Program #12040 FUB, Jan. (1972).
33. Wiley, A. J., Dubey, G. A., and Bansal, J. K., Reverse Osmosis Concen-
tration of Dilute Pulp and Paper Effluents. The Pulp Manufacturers
Research League and The Institute of Paper Chemistry for EPA, Project
#12040 EEL, Feb. (1972).
34. Johnson, J. S., Jr., Minturn, R. E., and Moore, G. E., Hyperfiltration
(Reverse Osmosis) of Kraft Pulp Mill and Bleach Wastes. Chemistry Di-
vision, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (unpublished) (1973).
35. Beder, H., and Gillespie, W. J., "The Removal of Solutes From Pulp Mill
Effluents by Reverse Osmosis," TAPPI 53. 5 (1970).
36. Smith, R., and McMichael, W. F., Cost and Performance Estimates For
Tertiary Wastewater Treatment Processes. Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration, June (1969).
37. Kreusch, E., and Schmidt, K., Wastewater Demineralization by Ion
Exchange." Culligan International Co. for the EPA, Project #17040 EEE,
Dec. (1971).
38. Nelson, W. R., and Walraven, G. 0., "A Role for Reverse Osmosis in a
Neutral Sulfite Semichemical Pulp and Paperboard Mill," Purdue Univers-
ity Industrial Waste Conf. XXIII (1968).
39. Linstedt, K. D., Houck, C. P., and O'Connor, J. T., "Trace Element
Removals in Advanced Wastewater Treatment Processes," Journal of the
Water Pollution Control Federation. 43, 7, July (1971).
40. Gregory, J., and Phond, R. V., "Wastewater Treatment by Ion Exchange,"
Water Research (Great Britain), Pergamon Press (1973).
41. Eckenfelder, W. W., Jr., Krenkel, P. A., and Adams, C. A., Advanced
Waste Water Treatment. American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New
York (1972).
42. Hansen, S. P., and Burgess, F. J., "Carbon Treatment of Kraft Conden-
sate Wastes," TAPPI. 51. 6 (1968).
43. Rimer, A. E., et. al., "Activated Carbon System For Treatment of Com-
bined Municipal and Paper Mill Waste Waters in Fitchburg, Mass. ,"
TAPPI. 54. 9 (1971).
113
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44. Smith, D. R., and Berger, H. F., "Waste Water Renovation," TAPPI. 51.
10 (1968).
45. Timpe, W. G., et. al. , "The Use of Activated Carbon For Water Renova-
tion In Kraft Pulp and Paper Mills," Seventh TAPPI Water and Air Conf.
(1970).
46. Coates, J., and McGlasson, W. G., "Treatment of Pulp Mill Effluents
With Activated Carbon," NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 199 (1967).
47. Davies, D. S., and Kaplan, R. A., "Activated Carbon Eliminates Organics,"
Chemical Engineering Progress. 60, 12 (1964).
48. Bishop, D. F. , et. al., "Studies on Activated Carbon Treatment,"
Journal WPCF. 39, 2 (1967).
49. Vanier, C., et. al. , Carbon Column Operation in Waste Water Treatment.
Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York, Nov. (1970).
50. Weber, W. J., Jr., and Morris, J. C., "Kinetics of Adsorption in
Columns of Fluidized Media," Journal WPCF. 37, 4 (1965).
51. Beebe, R. L., and Stevens, J. I., "Activated Carbon System for Waste-
water Renovation," Water and Wastes^Lngineering. Jan. (1967).
52. Culp, R. L., and Culp, G. L. , Advanced Waste Treatment. Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York (1971).
53. Holm, J. D., "A Study of Treated Wastewater Chlqrination," Water and
Sewage Works. April (1973).
54. Meiners, A. F., Light-Catalyzed Chlorine Oxidation For Treatment of
Wastewater. Midwest Research Institute, for Water Quality Office, EPA,
Sept. (1970).
55. Huibers, T. A., et. al., Ozone Treatment of Secondary Effluents From
Wastewater Treatment Plants. Robert A. Taft Water Research Center
Report No. TWRC-4, April (1969).
56. Chen, J. W. , and Smith, G. V. , Feasibility Studies of Applications of
Catalytic Oxidation in Wastewater. Environmental Protection Agency,
Southern Illinois University, for EPA, Nov. (1971).
57. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. APHA,
AWWA, and WPCF, American Public Health Assoc., Inc., New York (1971).
58. Smith, S. E. , and Christman, R. F., "Coagulation of Pulping Wastes for
the Removal of Color," Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federa-
tion. V. 41, No. 2, Part I (1969).
59. "Availability of Construction Manpower," Engineering News Record.
June 7 (1973).
114
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SECTION XIV
GLOSSARY
Act
Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended in 1972.
Air Pry Ton
Measurement of production including moisture content, which usually
varies between four and ten percent.
Attrition Mill
A refiner containing fixed and rotating discs which fiberlzes wood chips.
Broke
Partly or completely manufactured paper that does not leave the machine
room as salable paper or board; also paper damaged in finishing opera-
tions such as rewinding rolls, cutting, and trimming.
Cellulose
The fibrous constituent of trees.
Chest
A tank used for storage of wet fiber or furnish.
Chips
Small pieces of wood used to make pulp.
Coatings
Materials such as clay, starch, alum, synthetic adhesives, etc., applied
to the surface of paper to impart special characteristics.
Color Unit
A measure of color concentration in water using APHA methods.
Consistency
The weight percent of solids in a solids-water mixture used in the manu-
facture of pulp or paper.
115
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Cylinder Machine
A papermaking machine in which the sheet is formed on a wire-covered
cylinder rotating in a vat of furnish.
Decker or Thickener
A mechanical device used to remove water from pulp.
Digester
A pressure vessel used to soften wood chips in the presence of water and
heat.
External Treatment
Technology applied to raw waste streams to reduce pollutant levels.
Fiber
The cellulosic portion of the tree used to make paper.
Furnish
The mixture of fibers and chemicals used to manufacture paper.
Gland
A device utilizing a soft wear resistant material used to minimize leakage
between a rotating shaft and the stationary portion of a vessel such as a
pump.
Gland Water
Hater used to lubricate a gland. Sometimes called "packing water."
Grade
The type of building paper or felt manufactured.
In-Plant Measures
Technology applied within the manufacturing process to reduce or eliminate
pollutant in the raw waste water. Sometimes called "internal measures."
Level I
Best practicable control technology.
116
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Level II
Best available technology economically achievable.
Level III
New source performance standards.
Machine Felt
An endless belt of wool or plastic used to convey and dewater the sheet
during the papermaking process.
Pulp
Cellulosic fibers from wood chips, waste paper, or other fiber sources.
Pulper or Beater
A mechanical device used to separate fiber bundles in the presence of water
prior to papermaking.
Rejects
Material unsuitable for papermaking which has been separated in the manu-
facturing process.
Save-all
A mechanical device used to recover papermaking fibers and other suspended
solids from a waste water or process stream.
Sheet
The web of paper as manufactured on a paper machine.
Stock
Wet pulp with or without chemical additions.
Suction Box
A rectangular box with holes or slots on its top surface, used to suck
water out of a felt or paper sheet by the application of vacuum.
Virgin Wood Pulp (or fiber)
Pulp made from wood, as contrasted to waste paper sources of fiber.
117
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White Water
Water which drains through the wires of a paper machine which contains
fiber, filler, and chemicals.
Cylinder
A wire wound open-faced drum, mounted in paper machine vat, on which the
paper is formed into a sheet.
A device using two rolls for pressing water from the sheet and/or the
felts carrying the sheet, prior to drying.
118
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OR/FT
APPENDIX I
62 BUILDING PAPER AND ROOFING FELT MILLS IN THE U.S.
Saturated/Coated Roofing Felt
GAF Corp.
Mobile, Alabama
Bear Brand Roofing, Inc.
Bearden, Arkansas
Celotex Corp.
Camden, Arkansas
A-R Felt Mills, Inc.
Little Rock, Arkansas
Elk Roofing Co.
Stephens, Arkansas
Fry Roofing Co.
Compton, California
Celotex Corp.
Los Angeles, California
Certain-Teed Products Corp.
Richmond, California
Anchor Paper Mills, Inc.
South Gate, California
Reynolds Metals Co.
Stratford, Connecticut
Fry Roofing Co.
Jacksonville, Florida
Fry Roofing Co.
Miami, Florida
GAF Corp.
Savannah^ Georgia
Bird & Son, Inc.
Chicago, Illinois
Flintkote Co.
Mt. Carmel, Illinois
Carey Co.
Wimlngton, Illinois
Fry Roofing Co.
Brookville, Indiana
Fry Roofing Co.
Mishawaka, Indiana
Bird & Son, Inc.
Shreveport, Louisiana
Atlas Roofing Mfg. Co., Inc.
Meridian, Mississippi
Tamko Asphalt Products Inc.
Joplin, Missouri
GAF Corp.
Kansas City, Missouri
Fry Roofing Co.
N. Kansas City, Missouri
U.S. Gypsum Co.
Jersey City, New Jersey
Fry Roofing Co.
Morehead City, North Carolina
Certain-Teed Products Corp.
Milan, Ohio
Big Chief Roofing Co.
Ardmore, Oklahoma
Allied Materials Corp.
Strand, Oklahoma
Bird & Son Inc. of Mass.
Portland, Oregon
Fry Roofing Co.
Portland, Oregon
119
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APPENDIX I. Contd.
Saturated/Coated Roofing Felt, Contd.
Fry Roofing Co. Southern Johns-Manville Corp.
Emmaua, Pennsylvania Ft. Worth, Texas
Celotex Corp. Carey Co.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Houston, Texas
Certain Teed Products Corp. Fry Roofing Co.
York, Pennsylvania Houston, Texas
Fry Roofing Co. Fry Roofing Co.
Memphis, Tennessee Irving, Texas
GAF Corp. Celotex Corp.
Dallas, Texas San Antonio, Texas
Dry Roofing Felt
Fontana Paper Mills Inc. Carey Co.
Fontana, California Perth Amboy, New Jersey
Celotex Corp. Conwed Corp.
Peoria, Illinois Riverside, New Jersey
Royal Brand Roofing, Inc. (Tamko) Conwed Corp.
Phillipsburg, Kansas Cloquet, Minnesota
GAF Corp.
Gloucester City, New Jersey
Asbestos Paper & Gasket
Johns-Manville Products Corp. Filter Materials, Inc.
Pittsburg, California Sandusky, Ohio
Carey Co. Nicolet Industries, Inc.
Cincinnati, Ohio Norristown, Pennsylvania
Nicolet Industries, Inc. Armstrong Cork Co.
Hamilton, Ohio Fulton, New York
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DJMFT
APPENDIX I. Contd.
Combination of the Above
GAF Corp. Carey Co.
Joliet, Illinois Linden, New Jersey
Johns-Manville Perlite Corp. Logan-Long Co.
Joliet, Illinois Franklin, Ohio
Grace & Co. Malarkey Paper Co.
Owensburg, Kansas Portland, Oregon
U.S. Gypsum Co. Nicolet Industries, Inc.
Lisbon Falls, Maine Ambler, Pennsylvania
Latex Fiber Industries, Inc.
Camden, New Jersey
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