xvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
EPA-600/7-78-187
September 1978
Environmental
Control Engineering
Handbook:
Methodology and Sample
Summary Sheets
Interagency
Energy/Environment
R&D Program Report
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the INTERAGENCY ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT series. Reports in this series result from the
effort funded under the 17-agency Federal Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program. These studies relate to EPA's mission to protect the public
health and welfare from adverse effects of pollutants associated with energy sys-
tems. The goal of the Program is to assure the rapid development of domestic
energy supplies in an environmentally-compatible manner by providing the nec-
essary environmental data and control technology. Investigations include analy-
ses of the transport of energy-related pollutants and their health and ecological
effects; assessments of, and development of, control technologies for energy
systems; and integrated assessments of a wide%range of energy-related environ-
mental issues.
EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the participating Federal Agencies, and approved
for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect
the views and policies of the Government, nor does mention of trade names or
commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/7-78-187
September 1978
Multimedia Environmental
Control Engineering Handbook
Methodology and Sample
Summary Sheets
by
T.C. Borer and A.W. Karr
Cameron Engineers, Inc.
1315 South Clarkson Street
Denver, Colorado 80210
Contract No. 68-02-2152
Task No. 13
Program Element No. EHE623A
EPA Project Officer: Chester A. Vogel
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Prepared for
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
Washington, DC 20460
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ABSTRACT
This report describes the work which has been done by Cameron Engineers,
Inc. to develop the methodologies required to compile a Multimedia Environ-
mental Control Engineering Handbook (MECEH) and to complete specific sections
of the handbook. The table of contents, 88 data sheets and three examples of
the secondary entry system have been completed and are contained in this
report.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
Summary 3
Purpose and Scope of Work . 5
Format and Use of the MECEH 7
Table of Contents 7
Specific Device Sheet 10
Secondary Entry System 13
Index 13
MECEH Table of Contents 15
Selected Specific Device Data Sheets 83
Secondary Entry System - Examples 261
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INTRODUCTION
The Fuel Process Branch of the Industrial Environmental Research Labora-
tory, Research Triangle Park (IERL-RTP), North Carolina, is currently involved
in an effort to assess the environmental effects of the fossil fuels industries,
and to evaluate the control technologies necessary to meet existing and proposed
standards. One goal of this effort is the compilation of a Multimedia Environ-
mental Control Engineering Handbook (MECEH) which includes a comprehensive
description of environmental control technologies applicable to fossil fuel
production and use. This document would include technical information on
commercially available pollution control equipment, for use by governmental
agencies (federal, state, and local), environmental groups, industry, and the
general public. The overall technical objectives for the handbook would be to:
• categorize all commercially available control technologies into a
systematic form which will permit easy access.
• provide technical data including process descriptions, application
ranges, efficiencies, and capital and operating cost information.
• compile a list of known suppliers who manufacture the specific
equipment or license the technology.
This report describes the work which has been done by Cameron Engineers,
Inc. to develop the methodologies required to compile the MECEH and to complete
specific sections of the handbook. It is intended to show the format and
content of a completed MECEH and to demonstate its usefulness when fully
developed. The completion of the MECEH itself was beyond the scope of this
task.
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SUMMARY
The Multimedia Environmental Control Engineering Handbook will have
three major sections: Table of Contents, Specific Device Data Sheets, and
Secondary Entry System. A fourth section, the Index, is not included in
this report. In addition, a section has been included which describes the
format for the handbook and how to use it.
The table of contents divides all pollution control technologies appli-
cable to the fossil fuels industries into nine major categories. Within each
major category, further subdivisions are made, first according to generic
device (a family of devices or processes having at least one distinctive
feature in common) and then according to design type (a sub-family of devices
or processes all based on the same physical principles). Under each design
type classification is a list of specific devices or control technologies.
The table of contents can be used to locate descriptions of specific equip-
ment and to find the best available control technology when the user knows
the general type of equipment which can be used to solve his problem.
The second section will be the largest section and will include a data
sheet for each control technology listed in the table of contents. The data
sheets will provide information on process descriptions, application ranges,
capital and operating costs, operating efficiencies, environmental problems,
manufacturers and additional references.
In the third section of the MECEH, the user can locate the best avail-
able control technology using only the information which he has available on
the problem itself. This "Secondary Entry System", will categorize the
applicable control technologies by industry, pollutant stream and pollutant
species.
The final section of the MECEH will be a general index listing devices,
manufacturers, specific pollutants, and other key words.
To date, the table of contents, 88 data sheets and three examples of the
secondary entry system have been completed and are contained in this report.
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PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF WORK
The initial effort of this task was to develop the methodology for pro-
ducing a document which could be used as a checklist by persons concerned with
identifying applicable control technologies for specific pollution problems.
The report was to include all industrial multimedia environmental control
technologies; meaning those control technologies designed to control the
release of emissions to or the degradation of air, water or land. The potential
users of the document include governmental agencies, environmental groups,
industry and the general public.
Several alternative organizational structures for the handbook were
developed before selecting an outline and approach. The outline selected was
found to give efficient access to the voluminous information which would be
included in a completed Multimedia Environmental Control Engineering Handbook.
Following the development of the structure for the handbook the next major
effort involved completing the table of contents. In order to accomplish this
task it was necessary to perform a comprehensive review of the entire field of
pollution control, accumulate information on currently used technologies, and
analyze the principles of operation to develop logical classes within the table
of contents. This table of contents now categorizes approximately 2,500 com-
mercially available industrial pollution control processes or devices according
to the selected classification system.
The table of contents is designed to allow a user to identify the specific
device or process(es) which will control a particular pollutant provided he has
a knowledge of the general (or generic) technology which is applicable.
Because a particular pollution problem has in many cases more than one appli-
cable general technology, a second means of access to the information contained
in the handbook was developed.
This "secondary entry system" will allow a user to approach the MECEH
from a problem oriented viewpoint. Using this system the user will evaluate
his specific problem and determine the media (air, land, or water) to which
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a pollutant is discharged. Turning to the sections of the index devoted to the
media of interest he can then select the industry involved and the pollutant
stream of concern. The technologies which could be used for control will be
listed under the pollutant stream according to the general class of pollutant.
Three examples of this secondary entry system have been completed and are
included in this report.
The final section of the MECEH will be a general index listing devices,
manufacturers, specific pollutants, and other key words. This will allow
the handbook user another means of access to the information.
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FORMAT AND USE OF THE MECEH
The following will describe the four sections of the handbook and their
use.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
The format for the table of contents categorizes each individual device
or process according to the following system of four levels of headings.
1.0 General Classification
1.1 Generic Device or Process
1.1.1 Design Type
1.1.1.1 Specific Device or Process
The first-order heading, general classification, refers to the following
nine categories of pollution control technology:
1. Gas Treatment 6. Combustion Modifications
2. Liquids Treatment 7. Fuel Cleaning
3. Solids Treatment 8. Fugitive Emissions Control
4. Final Disposal 9. Accidental Release Technology
5. Process Modifications
The second level heading, the generic device or process, describes a
family of specific devices or processes having at least one distinctive feature
in common. For example, a group of processes may all be based upon one unit
operation, or a set of specific pieces of equipment may all have similar
configurations or be derived from the same general process. In these situations,
the specific control devices or processes could be grouped together. Table 1
presents the generic device or process categories under each general classifica-
tion which will be used within the handbook.
Each generic class is divided into third level headings of design types
which group together devices which are similar in character or function and
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TABLE 1
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR THE CONTROL ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
1. Gas Treatment
1.1 Mechanical Collection
1.2 Electrostatic Precipitators
1.3 Filters (fabric, granular, etc.)
1.4 Liquid Scrubbers/Contactors
1.5 Condensers
1.6 Solid Sorbents (mol sieves, activated carbon)
1.7 Incineration (direct and catalytic)
1.8 Chemical Reaction
2. Liquids Treatment
2.1 Settling, Sedimentation
2.2 Precipitation, Flocculation
2.3 Flotation
2.4 Centrifugation
2.5 Filtration
2.6 Evaporation and Concentration
2.7 Distillation, Flashing
2.8 Liquid-Liquid Extraction
2.9 Gas-Liquid Stripping
2.10 pH Adjustment
2.11 Biological Processes
2.12 Oxidation Processes
2.13 Activated Carbon and Other Absorbents
2.14 Ion Exchange Systems
2.15 Cooling Towers and Ponds
2.16 Chemical Reaction and Separation
2.17 Water Intake Structures
3. Solids Treatment
3.1 Fixation
3.2 Recovery/Utilization
3.3 Processing/Combustion
3.4 Chemical Reaction and Separation
3.5 Oxidation/Digestion
3.6 Physical Separation (specific gravity, magnetic, etc.)
4. Final Disposal
4.1 Pond Lining
4.2 Deep Well Injection
4.3 Burial and Landfill
4.4 Sealed Contained Storage
4.5 Dilution (water)
4.6 Dispersion (air, land)
4.7 Waste Utilization
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TABLE 1 (Cont.)
5. Process Modifications
5.1 Feedstock, Raw Material Changes
5.2 Stream Recycle
5.3 Process Improvements
6. Combustion Modifications
6.1 Combustion Furnace/Burner/Process Modification
6.2 Equipment Maintenance
6.3 Alternate Fuels/Processes
6.4 Fuel Additives/Furnace Reactants
7. Fuel Cleaning
7.1 Physical Separation
7.2 Chemical Refining
7.3 Carbonization/Pyrolysis
7.4 Treatment of Liquid Fuels
7.5 Fuel Gas Treatment
8. Fugitive Emissions Control
8.1 Surface Coatings/Covers
8.2 Vegetation
8.3 Dust Control Sprays
8.4 Dust and/or Vapor Enclosures
8.5 Leak Prevention
8.6 Leak Detection and Repair
8.7 Vent Vapor Controls
8.8 Tanker Residue Control
8.9 Noise Control
8.10 Odor Control
9. Accidental Release Technology
9.1 Spill Prevention in Storage Systems
9.2 Spill Prevention in Transportation
9.3 Spill Prevention in Oil & Gas Production
9.4 Flares
9.5 Oil Spill Barriers
9.6 Oil Recovery Devices
9.7 Chemical Treatment of Oil Spills
9.8 Subsurface and Hazardous Spills
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yet different in their basic design. An example of this is in the Fuel Cleaning
Classification, where the generic device, Physical Separation, is divided into
several design types, (e.g. Jigs, Launders, and Wet Concentrating Tables).
The specific device or process is the fourth level of classification and
names the actual piece of equipment or the pollution control process. A
single specific device sheet may encompass several different manufacturer's
models which would be fundamentally the same with respect to configuration and
unit operations. Devices which are significantly different in operation,
efficiency, or costs will be singled out and described on a separate specific
device sheet.
SPECIFIC DEVICE SHEET
Example specific device sheets are contained in a later section of this
report. Each part of the sheet will be explained briefly to aid in effective
use of the system. The spaces for classification, generic device or process,
and specific device or process were discussed in detail under the table of
contents section above.
Number
The device or process number is a coded number which gives the general
classification, generic device, and design type, and numbers each specific
device within the design type category. A complete device number consists of
four numbers separated by decimal points.
Pollutants Controlled
This entry characterizes the pollutants which are controlled by the device
or process. Pollutants are separated into four general categories (organic,
inorganic, thermal, and noise). The medium or media to which the pollutant is
released, and the physical form which the pollutant takes are also listed. In
addition, space is provided to state the chemical formula or to give a brief
technical description of the pollutant.
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Process Description
Space is provided in this box for a complete process description including
operating parameters, operating mechanisms, flow descriptions, materials of
construction (if important), advantages, and disadvantages. It should include
a description of the unique features which differentiate this specific device
from all others. Schematic diagrams or photographs which better define the
process are placed in the upper right corner.
Application Range
Operating limits or ranges which restrict the use of the process or
device are listed in this section. Several operating parameters which are
frequently of importance are listed at the right for convenience. Other para-
meters would include feed characteristics, feed rates, product characteristics,
operating conditions which would decrease the efficiency, and external con-
ditions which would limit the use of this process.
Capital Costs
Capital and installation cost estimates are included in this category as
a function of the equipment size or throughput. The cost information will
include the year for which the estimate was calculated. Data in this form can
then be adjusted to current equipment cost index values and used for preliminary
economic evaluations.
Operating Costs
Because operating costs are very dependent on current market prices, the
operating cost information is usually presented in the form of raw material,
utility and manpower requirements. Utilities include steam, electricity,
water, and fuel.
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Operating Efficiencies
Operating efficiencies are defined for the pollutants listed under
Pollutants Controlled. Information is presented in the form of a graph or
table when possible. Expected removal efficiencies for specific pollutants
at different operating conditions are described over the operating range of
the device or process if possible.
Environmental Problems
Environmental problems which could limit the use of the device or
process will be listed here. Streams or effluents which could have a
multimedia environment effect will be discussed.
Notes
Notes may be used to clarify or expand a point from the text; to cite
the source of data, photographs, or information when that source is not
contained in the reference section; and to provide reference to other areas
or devices within the catalog. Notes are cited in the text by a capital
letter superscript and listed in this section in alphabetical order according
to the reference letter.
Hanufacturers/Suppli ers
Manufacturers and suppliers who can be contacted about licensing the
process or purchasing equipment are listed alphabetically in this section.
Firms will be listed by their complete name, including that for the parent
company.
References
References will be used to cite the sources of data and information,
and in some cases to supply the reader with a short bibliography for further
investigation.
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SECONDARY ENTRY SYSTEM
An outline structure for the secondary entry system is shown in Table 2.
The user of the MECEH would evaluate his specific problem and determine the
medium or media to which the pollutant is discharged. Turning to that section
of the index he would then select the industry involved and the pollutant
stream of concern. The technologies which could be used for control will be
listed under the pollutant stream according to the general class of pollutant.
For example, the use of this index to investigate fugitive tar emissions from
a coal gasifier to a body of water indicates that dissolved toxic substances,
dissolved organics, and suspended oils would be three potential water pollution
problems. The best method of control would be one in which all problem areas
are avoided by a single control method such as direct recycle (5.2.1). Other
alternatives could include shaft seals on the tar pump (8.4.7) or collecting
the spill in a catchment tank (9.1.2).
TABLE 2
SECONDARY ENTRY SYSTEM OUTLINE
t Media (air, land, water)
0 Industry
0 Pollutant Stream
• Pollutant Species Present
• General Technology
• Applicable Generic Devices
INDEX
This is the final section of the handbook and will be a general index
listing devices, manufacturers, specific pollutants and other key words. This
will allow the user a quick means of finding a specific item of interest.
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MECEH TABLE OF CONTENTS
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1. GAS TREATMENT
1.1 Mechanical Collection
1.1.1 Cyclones
1.1.1.1 Duel one Collector
1.1.1.2 Sirocco Type D Collector
1.1.1.3 Van Tongeran Cyclone
1.1.1.4 Multiclone Collector
1.1.1.5 Dustex Mi nature Collector Assembly
1.1.1.6 Uniflow Cyclone
1.1.1.7 Termix Tube
1.1.1.8 Scroll-Type Collector
1.1.1.9 Cyclone Duskolector
1.1.1.10 Two Stage Horizontal Dust Collector
1.1.1.11 AmerClone Collector
1.1.1.12 Type R Roto-Clone
1.1.2 Mist Eliminators
1.1.2.1 Reverse Nozzle Impingement Separator
1.1.2.2 Hi-eF Purifier
1.1.2.3 Flick Separator
1.1.2.4 Areodyne Collector
1.1.2.5 Type RA Line Separator
1.1.2.6 Jet Impactor
1.1.2.7 Ware Plate
1.1.2.8 Staggered Channels
1.1.2.9 Vane Type Mist Eliminator
1.1.2.10 Peerless Line Separator
1.1.2.11 Strong Separator
1.1.2.12 Multiple Vane Separator
1.1.2.13 Type E Horizontal Separator
1.1.2.14 PL Separator
1.1.2.15 Wire Mesh Mist Eliminator
1.1.2.16 Brink Mist Eliminator
1.1.2.17 Packed Bed Mist Eliminator
1.1.2.18 Wet Fiber Mist Eliminator
1.1.2.19 B-Gon Mist Eliminator
1.1.2.20 Type "T" Entrainment Separator
1.1.2.21 In-Line Centrifugal Entrainment Separator
1.1.2.22 Serpentine Vane Mist Eliminator
1.1.2.23 SBM Mist Eliminator
1.1.3 Miscellaneous Devices
1.1.3.1 Settling Chamber
1.1.3.2 Type D Rotod one
1.1.3.3 Sirocco Cinder Fan
1.1.3.4 Rotary Stream Dust Collector
1.1.3.5 Inertia! Collectors
1.1.3.6 Venturi Dust Trap
1.1.3.7 Spin Vane Separator
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1. GAS TREATMENT (Cont.)
1.2 Electrostatic Precipitators
1.2.1 Single Stage Precipitators
1.2.1.1 Pipe Precipitator
1.2.1.2 Plate Precipitator
1.2.1.3 Water-Film Precipitator
1.2.1.4 Hot Side Precipitator
1.2.1.5 Needle/Plate Precipitator
1.2.2 Two-Stage Precipitators
1.2.2.1 Conventional Two-Stage Precipitator
1.2.2.2 High Intensity Ionizer
1.2.3 Fly Ash Conditioners
1.2.3.1 Aluminum Sulfate
1.2.3.2 Ammonia
1.2.3.3 Ammonium Bisulfate
1.2.3.4 Ammonium Sulfate
1.2.3.5 Hydrogen Chloride
1.2.3.6 Iron Oxide
1.2.3.7 Iron Sulfate
1.2.3.8 Organic Amines
1.2.3.9 Sodium Carbonate
1.2.3.10 Sulfamic Acid
1.2.3.11 Sulfur Trioxide
1.2.3.12 Sulfuric Acid
1.2.3.13 Vanadium Oxide
1.2.3.14 Water/Steam
1.2.3.15 Phosphorous Pentoxide
1.2.3.16 Multiple Component Conditioners
1.2.3.17 Agglomerating Chemicals
1.3 Filters
1.3.1 Fabric
1.3.1.1 Envelope Type Bag Filter
1.3.1.2 Tubular Type Bag Filter
1.3.1.3 Multibag Filter
1.3.1.4 Unibag Filter
1.3.1.5 Pulse Jet Type Filter
1.3.1.6 Reverse Air Filter
1.3.1.7 Shaker Type Filter
1.3.1.8 Peabody/Lugar Picket Filter
1.3.1.9 Horizontal Bag Filter
1.3.1.10 Electrostatic Bag Filter
1.3.1.11 HEPA Cartridge Filter
1.3.1.12 Flat Bag Filter
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1. GAS TREATMENT (Cont.)
1.3.1 Fabric (Cont.)
1.3.1.13 Dynaclone Filter
1.3.1.14 Disposable Media High Efficiency Air Filter
1.3.1.15 Cleanable Media High Efficiency Air Filter
1.3.1.16 Cloth Tube Duskolector
1.3.1.17 HC Mist Collector
1.3.1.18 Cedarapids FF Dust Collector
1.3.1.19 Pulseflo.Dust Filter
1.3.1.20 Pneumafil Filter
1.3.1.21 DusKolector
1.3.2 Granular
1.3.2.1 Lynch Granular Filter
1.3.2.2 Electrostatically Charged Fluidized Bed
1.3.3 Viscous Filters
1.3.3.1 Cleanable High Efficiency Air Filter
1.3.3.2 Oil Coated Filter Bank
1.3.3.3 Irrigated Wet Filter
1.3.3.4 Multipanel Oil Bath Filter
1.3.3.5 Rotating Hollow Cylinder Scrubber
1.3.4 Miscellaneous Filters
1.3.4.1 Dry Filter Bank
1.3.4.2 Airmat Dust Arrestor
1.3.4.3 Dollinger Stay-New Model A Filter
1.3.4.4 Sonic Dust Precipitator
1.3.4.5 Thermal Dust Precipitator
1.3.4.6 Cartridge Type Dust Collector
1.3.4.7 Disposable Traveling Air Filter
1.4 Liquid Scrubbers/Contactors
1.4.1 Absorption Processes (See also Section 7.5.1)
1.4.1.1 Lime Slurry Process
1.4.1.2 Limestone Slurry Process
1.4.1.3 Fly Ash Alkali Process
1.4.1.4 Aqueous Sodium Process
1.4.1.5 Aqueous Ammonia Process
1.4.1.6 Double Alkali Process
1.4.1.7 Magnesium Oxide Process
1.4.1.8 WeiIman-Lord Process
1.4.1.9 Dilute Sulfuric Acid Process
1.4.1.10 Catalylic/IFP Ammonia Scrubbing Process
1.4.1.11 Phosphate (Aquaclaus) Process
1.4.1.12 ASARCO Process
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1. GAS TREATMENT (Cont.)
1.4.1 Absorption Processes (Cont.)
1.4.1.13 CO Absorption - Copper - Ammonium - Salt Solutions
1.4.1.14 Cominco S02 Recovery Process
1.4.1.15 IFP II Process
1.4.1.16 Sulphidine Process
1.4.1.17 Electrolytic Gas Scrubber
1.4.1.18 Wet Alkali NOx Scrubbing
1.4.1.19 Dry Alkali NOx Scrubbing
1.4.1.20 Air Oxidation NOx Scrubbing
1.4.1.21 Metal Chelating NOx Absorption
1.4.1.22 Sodium Sulfate NOx Absorption
1.4.1.23 Foam Scrubbing
1.4.1.24 Ammonex Process
1.4.1.25 Spray Dryer Absorption
1.4.2 Spray Type Scrubbers
1.4.2.1 Center Spray High Velocity Scrubber
1.4.2.2 Disintegrator Scrubber
1.4.2.3 Elbair Scrubber
1.4.2.4 Gravity Spray Tower
1.4.2.5 Pressure Spary Tower
1.4.2.6 Schmieg Vertical - Rotor Dust Collector
1.4.2.7 Cocurrent Spray Chamber
1.4.2.8 Disc Contactor Scrubber
1.4.2.9 Kellogg/Weir Scrubbing System
1.4.2.10 Horizontal Spray Washer
1.4.2.11 Hardinge Rotor-Spray Washer
1.4.2.12 Wet-Type Distributor Air Scrubber
1.4.2.13 Centrifugal Spray Chamber
1.4.2.14 Swemco Spray Cyclonic Scrubber
1.4.2.15 Compressed Air Atomizing Scrubber
1.4.2.16 Beco V2 Wet Scrubber
1.4.2.17 Type FRP Low Energy Wet Scrubber
1.4.3 Centrifugal Scrubbers
1.4.3.1 Cyclonic Spray Scrubber
1.4.3.2 Cyclone Scrubber with Helical Baffles
1.4.3.3 Irrigated Cyclone
1.4.3.4 Irrigated Centrifugal Collector
1.4.3.5 Centrifugal Scrubber
1.4.3.6 Pease-Anthony Cyclonic Scrubber
1.4.3.7 Vertical Exhaust Washer
1.4.3.8 Horizontal Exhaust Washer
1.4.3.9 Cyclonic Wash Scrubber
1.4.3.10 Cyclonic Baffle Scrubber
1.4.3.11 Multivane Gas Scrubber
1.4.3.12 Sepairator/Impactair
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1. GAS TREATMENT (Cont.)
1.4.4 Impingement Scrubbers
1.4.4.1 Dynamic Scrubber
1.4.4.2 Impinjet Scrubber
1.4.4.3 Dustraxtor
1.4.4.4 Multiwash Scrubber
1.4.4.5 Peabody Direct-Contact Scrubber
1.4.4.6 W-D Tuyere Scrubber
1.4.4.7 Petersen Separator
1.4.4.8 Zig Zag Baffle Scrubber
1.4.4.9 Secondary Flow Scrubber
1.4.4.10 Wet-Type Impingement Air Scrubber
1.4.4.11 Swemco Tray Scrubber
1.4.4.12 Bahco Scrubber
1.4.5 Orifice Type Scrubber
1.4.5.1 Blaw Knox Liquid Vortex Contactor
1.4.5.2 Circular-Wedge Scrubber
1.4.5.3 Doyle Scrubber
1.4.5.4 Schieg Swirl - Orifice Dust Collector
1.4.5.5 Type N Roto-clone
1.4.5.6 Type C Turbulaire Scrubber
1.4.5.7 Type D Turbulaire Scrubber
1.4.5.8 Zotron Wet Scrubber
1.4.6 Venturi Scrubbers
1.4.6.1 Cone Type Venturi
1.4.6.2 Damper Type Venturi
1.4.6.3 Down Flow Radial Venturi
1.4.6.4 Up Flow Radial Venturi
1.4.6.5 Dual Throat Variable Venturi
1.4.6.6 Aeromix Wet Scrubber
1.4.6.7 Airetron Venturi Scrubber
1.4.6.8 Ejector Venturi Scrubber
1.4.6.9 Flexiventuri Scrubber
1.4.6.10 Flooded-disc Venturi Scrubber
1.4.6.11 Heil Venturi Scrubber
1.6.6.12 Kinpactor Venturi Scrubber
1.4.6.13 Multiventuri Scrubber
1.4.6.14 Oriclone Venturi
1.4.6.15 Pease-Anthony Venturi Scrubber
1.4.6.16 Ventri Rod Scrubber
1.4.6.17 S-F Venturi Scrubber
1.4.6.18 Venturi-Slot Scrubber
1.4.6.19 Venturi-Sphere Scrubber
1.4.6.20 Wet Approach Venturi Scrubber
1.4.6.21 Wet-Type Venturi Air Scrubber
1.4.6.22 Stansteel Wet Type Collector
1.4.6.23 Ametek High Energy Venturi
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1. GAS TREATMENT (Cont.)
1.4.6 Venturi Scrubbers (Cont.)
1.4.6.24 Ventri-Jet Low Energy
1.4.6.25 Horizontal Venturi
1.4.6.26 Pumpless Venturi
1.4.6.27 Multistage Venturi Spray Chamber
1.4.6.28 Air Pol Basic Venturi
1.4.6.29 Inline Wet Scrubber
1.4.6.30 Oucon Precooler Venturi Air Washer
1.4.6.31 Venturi Impactor
1.4.6.32 Multiple Venturi Air Washer
1.4.6.33 Venturi-Sorber
1.4.6.34 Annular Gap Scrubber
1.4.6.35 Ball Bed Sorber
1.4.7 Packed Columns
1.4.7.1 Saddle Packing
1.4.7.2 Flexipac
1.4.7.3 Raschig Ring Packing
1.4.7.4 Pall Ring Packing
1.4.7.5 Hy-Pak Ring Packing
1.4.7.6 Lessing Ring Packing
1.4.7.7 Tellerette Packing
1.4.7.8 Cocurrent Flow Scrubber
1.4.7.9 Cross Flow Scrubber
1.4.7.10 Fixed Bed Countercurrent Scrubber
1.4.7.11 Floating Bed Scrubber
1.4.7.12 Flooded Bed Scrubber
1.4.7.13 Hydro-Filter
1.4.7.14 Polysphere Gas Scrubber
1.4.7.15 Turbulent Contact Absorber
1.4.7.16 Freyn Spray Tower
1.4.7.17 Goodloe Packing
1.4.7.18 Panapak Packing
1.4.7.19 Kon-Tane Tower Packing
1.4.7.20 Aerosorb Gas Scrubber
1.4.8 Plate Columns
1.4.8.1 Counterflow Plate Columns
1.4.8.2 Crossflow Plate Columns
1.4.8.3 Split-flow Plate Columns
1.4.8.4 Radial Flow Plate Columns
1.4.8.5 Reverse Flow Plate Columns
1.4.8.6 Bubble Cap Tray
1.4.8.7 Sieve Tray
1.4.8.8 Nutter Tray
1.4.8.9 Glitch Ballast Tray
1.4.8.10 Turbogrid Tray
1.4.8.11 Perforated Tray
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1. GAS TREATMENT (Cont.)
1.4.8 Plate Columns (Cont.)
1.4.8.12 Ripple Tray
1.4.8.13 Tubulent Contact Tray Scrubber
1.4.9 Wetted Wall Columns
1.4.9.1 Multitube Falling Film Column
1.4.9.2 Multitube Column with Turbulence Promoters
1.4.9.3 Single Tube Falling Film Column
1.4.10 Stirred Absorbers
1.4.10.1 Turbo-Gas-Absorber
1.4.10.2 Cavitator Agitated Gas Absorber
1.4.10.3 Turbine Agitated Tank with Sparger
1.4.10.4 Sparged Tank
1.4.10.5 Slotted Air Lift Agitated Tank
1.4.10.6 Porous Media Sparged Tanks
1.4.10.7 Propeller Agitated Tank with Sparger
1.4.10.8 Draft Tube Agitated Tank
1.4.10.9 Permaerator
1.4.10.10 Jet Bubbling Reactor
1.4.11 Electrostatic Scrubbers (See also Section 1.2.2)
1.4.11.1 Ionizing Wet Scrubber
1.4.11.2 Electro-Dynactor
1.4.11.3 Dual Charging Electrostatic Scrubber
1.4.11.4 Combination Electrostatic-Agglomerator Wet Scrubber
1.4.11.5 Electrodynamic Venturi Scrubber
1.5 Condensers
1.5.1 Direct Contact Exchanger
1.5.1.1 Spray Contact Condenser
1.5.1.2 Jet Condenser
1.5.1.3 Sparged Vessel Condenser
1.5.2 Indirect Contact Exchangers
1.5.2.1 Fined Tube Air Cooled Exchanger
1.5.2.2 Tube and Shell Exchanger
1.5.2.3 Countercurrent Spiral Heat Exchanger
1.5.2.4 Wet Surface Air Cooler
1.5.2.5 Plateflow Exchanger
-23-
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1. GAS TREATMENT (Cont.)
1.6 Solid Sorbents (See also Section 7.5.4)
1.6.1 Adsorption Processes
1.6.1.1 Anticarbone Process
1.6.1.2 Alkalized Alumina Process
1.6.1.3 Berghan-Forschung Process
1.6.1.4 DAP-Manganese Oxide
1.6.1.5 Dolomite Injection
1.6.1.6 Fluidized Bed Active Carbon Process
1.6.1.7 Hitachi Process
1.6.1.8 Lignite Ash (Firma Carl Still)
1.6.1.9 Lurgi Sulfacid Process
1.6.1.10 Reinluff Process (Clean air)
1.6.1.11 Pressure Swing Adsorption
1.6.1.12 Purasiv HR System
1.6.1.13 Airansox Process
1.6.2 Adsorbent Types
1.6.2.1 Active Alumina
1.6.2.2 Silica Gel
1.6.2.3 Zeolites
1.6.2.4 Magnesia-silica Gel
1.6.2.5 Carbon, shell-based
1.6.2.6 Carbon, wood-based
1.6.2.7 Carbon, peat-based
1.6.2.8 Carbon, coal-based
1.6.2.9 Carbon, petroleum-based
1.6.2.10 Anhydrous Calcium Sulfate
1.6.2.11 Iron Oxide
1.6.2.12 Magnesia
1.6.2.13 Phenolic Resin
1.6.2.14 Ambersorb Carbonaceous Absorbents
1.6.3 Adsorption Equipment
1.6.3.1 Thin/Fixed Bed Absorber
1.6.3.2 Thick Bed Absorber
1.6.3.3 Fluidized Bed Absorber
1.6.3.4 Nonregenerative Absorber
1.6.3.5 Regenerative Absorber
1.6.3.6 Canister Type Absorber
1.6.3.7 Corrugated Bed Type Absorber
1.7 Incineration
1.7.1 Direct (See also Section 9.4)
1.7.1.1 Direct Flame Incinerator
1.7.1.2 Nozzle Mixing Thermal Incinerator
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1. GAS TREATMENT (Cont.)
1.7.1 Direct (Cont.)
1.7.1.3 Premixing Thermal Incinerator
1.7.1.4 After Burner with Energy Recovery
1.7.1.5 Thermal Regenerative System
1.7.1.6 CO Boiler
1.7.1.7 TCC Plume Burner
1.7.2 Catalytic (See also Section 7.5)
1.7.2.1 AMOCO Sulfur Recovery
1.7.2.2 Beavon Sulfur Removal Process
1.7.2.3 British Gas Council (Nicklin) Process
1.7.2.4 Catalytic Combustion Corp. Process
1.7.2.5 CBA Process (Standard)
1.7.2.6 Claus/Partial Combustion
1.7.2.7 Deoxo Process
1.7.2.8 Econ-Abator
1.7.2.9 IFP I Process
1.7.2.10 Oxycat Process
1.7.2.11 SCOT Process
1.7.2.12 Split-Stream Claus
1.7.2.13 Sulfreen (Lurgi)
1.7.2.14 Wiewiorowski Process
1.7.2.15 Purafil Odoroxidant
1.7.2.16 CO Catalytic Boiler
1.7.2.17 Interpass Absorption Process
T.7.2.18 Catalytic Fume Incineration
1.7.2.19 Catalytic Afterburner
1.8 Chemical Reaction
1.8.1 Catalytic Reduction
1.8.1.1 Catalytic Removal of NOx
1.8.1.2 High Pressure Removal of NOx
1.8.1.3 Two-Stage Reduction NOx with NH3
1.8.2 Chemical Conversion
1.8.2.1 Kiyoura Process
1.8.2.2 Thermal DeNOx Process
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2. LIQUIDS TREATMENT
2.1 Settling, Sedimentation
2.1.1 Sedimentation Tanks and Basins
2.1.1.1
2.1.1.2
2.1.1.3
2.1.1.4
2.1.1.5
2.1.1.6
2.1.1.7
2.1.1.8
2.1.1.9
2.1.1.10
2.1.2 Settl
2.1.2.1
2.1.2.2
2.1.2.3
2.1.2.4
2.1.2.5
2.1.2.6
Settling Channel - Manually Cleaned
Settling Channel with Traveling Rake
Settling Pond with Bucket Drag Line
Detritus Tank with Grit Washer
Aerated Grit Chamber
Batch Settling Tank
Conical Thickening Tank
Earthen-Wall Sedimentation Basin
Air-Scour Grit Chamber
Pista Grit Chamber
ing Cones
Allen Settling Cone
Deep Cone Thickener
Caldecott Cone
Boy Ian Cone
Nordberg-Wood Classifier
Spi ractor
2.1.3 Classifiers (See also Section 3.6.9)
2.1.3.1 Hardinge Hydro Classifier
2.1.3.2 Dorr Hydroseparator
2.1.3.3 Auto-Vortex Bowl Cassifier
2.1.3.4 Bowl-Rake Classifier
2.1.4 Clarifiers and Thickeners (See also Section 2.4)
2.1.4.1 Rectangular Clarifier/Chain-Type Drag
2.1.4.2 Superstructure-Supported Circular Thickener
2.1.4.3 Column - Supported Circular Thickener
2.1.4.4 Caisson Thickener
2.1.4.5 Balanced Tray Thickener
2.1.4.6 Washing Tray Thickener
2.1.4.7 Traction Thickener
2.1.4.8 Cabletorq Thickener
2.1.4.9 Square Clarifier with Circular Rake
2.1.4.10 Rectangular Traveling Bridge Clarifier
2.1.4.11 Floating Bridge Clarifiers
2.1.4.12 Combined Primary and Secondary Sedimentation Tank
2.1.4.13 Thixo Arm Thickener
2.1.4.14 Reactor Clarifier
2.1.4.15 Hopper Sludge Removal
2.1.4.16 Hydrostatic Sludge Removal
2.1.4.17 Vacuum Sludge Removal
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2. LIQUIDS TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.1.4 Clarifiers and Thickners (Cont.)
2.1.4.18 Rim Feed Clarifier
2.1.4.19 Two Stage Split Flow Clarifier
2.1.4.20 Sludge Blanket Clarifier
2.1.4.21 Solids Contact Unit
2.1.4.22 Upflow Basin
2.1.4.23 Hydro-Circ Flow Clarifier
2.1.4.24 Square Cross Flow Clarifier
2.1.4.25 Permutit Horizontal Precipitator
2.1.4.26 ClariFlow Clarifier
2.1.4.27 Degritting Clarifier
2.1.4.28 Duo Clarifier
2.1.5 Tilted Tube and Plate Settlers
2.1.5.1 Lamella Gravity Settler
2.1.5.2 60° Tube Settler
2.1.5.3 7-1/2° Tube Settler
2.1.5.4 Settlex Clarifier
2.1.5.5 Corrugated Plate Sediment Separator
2.1.5.6 Cross-Flow Corrugated Plate Separator
2.1.5.7 Chevron Tube System
2.1.5.8 Linatex-Serpac Process
2.1.6 Oil Skimmers
2.1.6.1 Absorbent Belt Skimmer
2.1.6.2 Absorbent Drum Skimmer
2.1.6.3 Adsorbent Rope Skimmer
2.1.6.4 Adsorbent Belt Skimmer
2.1.6.5 Adsorbent Drum Skimmer
2.1.6.6 Air Jet Skimmer
2.1.6.7 Chain and Flight Skimmer
2.1.6.8 Fixed Floating Weir Skimmer
2.1.6.9 Floating Tube Skimmer
2.1.6.10 Free Floating Weir Skimmer
2.1.6.11 Radial Arm Skimmer
2.1.6.12 Rotating Disc Skimmer
2.1.6.13 Slotted Pipe Skimmer
2.1.6.14 Spiral Skimmer
2.1.6.15 Suction Type Skimmer
2.1.6.16 Traveling Bridge Skimmer
2.1.6.17 Vortex Skimmer
2.1.7 Oil-Water Separators (Also See 2.1.5)
2.1.7.1 API Separator
2.1.7.2 Circular Settling Basin
2.1.7.3 Rectangular Settling Basin
2.1.7.4 Wash Tanks & Skim Tanks
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.1.7 Oil-Water Separators (Cont.)
2.1.7.5 Horizontal Decanter
2.1.7.6 Gravity Displacement Separator
2.1.7.7 Parallel Plate Interceptor
2.1.7.8 Corrugated Plate Interceptor
2.1.7.9 Vertical Tube Coalescer
2.1.7.10 Fibrous Media Coalescer
2.1.7.11 Loose Media Coalescer
2.1.7.12 Horizontal Plate Coalescer
2.2 Precipitation, Flocculation
2.2.1 Chemical Precipitation (See also Section 2.10)
2.2.1.1 Sulfide
2.2.1.2 Cementation
2.2.1.3 Hydroxide
2.2.1.4 Sulfuric Acid
2.2.1.5 Dolomite
2.2.1.6 Ventron Process
2.2.1.7 Sulfur Dioxide
2.2.1.8 Soda Ash
2.2.1.9 Calcium Chloride
2.2.1.10 Ferrous Sulfate
2.2.1.11 Sodium Metabisulfite
2.2.1.12 Sulfex Process
2.2.2 Chemical Coagulants (See also Section 5.2.2)
2.2.2.1 Aluminum Salts
2.2.2.2 Lime
2.2.2.3 Iron Salts
2.2.2.4 Hot Lime Process
2.2.2.5 Magnesium Oxide
2.2.2.6 Lanthanum Salts
2.2.3 Polyelectrolyte Flocculants
2.2.3.1 Anionic
2.2.3.2 Cationic
2.2.3.3 Nonionic
2.2.3.4 Variable Charge
2.2.4 Coagulant Aids
2.2.4.1 Sodium Silicate
2.2.4.2 Bentonite Clay
2.2.4.3 Activated Silica
2.2.4.4 Fly Ash
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.2.4 Coalgulant Aids
2.2.4.5 Recycled Sludge
2.2.4.6 Foam Control Agents
2.2.5 Demulsifylng Processes (See also Section 2.2.2 and 2.2.3)
2.2.5.1 Magnesium Chloride
2.2.5.2 Acid Treatment
2.2.5.3 Regular Demulsifiers
2.2.5.4 Reverse Demulsifiers
2.2.5.5 Sodium Carbonate
2.2.5.6 Calcium Chloride
2.2.5.7 Alkali Treatment
2.2.5.8 Heat Treatment
2.2.5.9 Distillation
2.2.5.10 Electrical Methods
2.2.5.11 Oil Addition
2.2.5.12 Hollow Fiber Demulsifier
2.2.6 Paddle Flocculators
2.2.6.1 Horizontal Paddle Flocculator
2.2.6.2 Inclined Paddle Flocculator
2.2.6.3 Vertical Paddle Flocculator
2.2.6.4 Horizontal Paddle Oscillating Flocculator
2.2.6.5 Tandem Paddle Slow Mixer
2.2.7 Turbine Flocculators
2.2.7.1 Draft Tube Turbine Flocculator
2.2.7.2 Vertical Turbine Flocculator
2.2.7.3 Horizontal Turbine Flocculator
2.2.7A Slow-Speed Axial Flow Turbine Flocculator
2.2.8 Miscellaneous Flocculators
2.2.8.1 Corrugated Plate Flocculator
2.2.8.2 Air Flocculator
2.2.8.3 Magnetic Flocculator
2.2.8.4 Feed wells with Inboard Weir Troughs
2.3 Flotation (See also Section 3.6.3 and 7.1.6)
2.3.1 Mechanical Subaeration Cells
2.3.1.1 Fagergren Level - Type Machine
2.3.1.2 WEMCO Hydrocleaner
2.3.1.3 Fagergren Oblong - Type Machine
2.3.1.4 UIW Machine
2.3.1.5 Pan American Machine
2.3.1.6 MS Subaeration Machine
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.3.1 Mechanical Subaeration Cells
2.3.1.7 MS Countercurrent Machine
2.3.1.8 Geco Machine
2.3.1.9 Weinig Machine
2.3.1.10 Hall Deep Cell
2.3.1.11 Janney Mechanical Machine
2.3.1.12 Mechanical/Honeycomb Baffel Tank
2.3.1.13 Quadricell Separator
2.3.2 Pneumatic Cells
2.3.2.1 Foam Fractionation Unit
2.3.2.2 Callow Cell
2.3.2.3 Macintosh Cell
2.3.2.4 Forrester Cell
2.3.2.5 Hunt Cell
2.3.2.6 Welsh Cell
2.3.2.7 Emery Cell
2.3.2.8 Deep Air Cell
2.3.2.9 WEMCO Depurator Flotation Machine
2.3.2.10 Aero-flo Sparger
2.3.3 Dissolved Air Units
2.3.3.1 Total Pressurization
2.3.3.2 Partial Pressurization
2.3.3.3 Recycle Pressurization
2.3.3.4 Circular Flotation Tank with Rake
2.3.3.5 IR Countercurrent Flotation Separator
2.3.3.6 Pielkenroad DAF System
2.3.3.7 Rectangular Flotation Tank with Skimmer
2.3.3.8 Vacuum Flotation
2.3.3.9 Potter-Del prat Process
2.3.3.10 Agitation-Froth Machine
2.3.3.11 Mineral Separation Machine
2.3.3.12 Positive Air Dissolution System
2.3.3.13 Jupiter-7000 System
2.3.4 Flotation Conditioners (See also Section 2.2)
2.3.4.1 Frothers
2.3.4.2 Promoters
2.3.4.3 Modifiers
2.4 Centrifugation
2.4.1 Hydrocyclones
2.4.1.1 "Fine Mixer" Cyclone
2.4.1.2 Hydrocyclone
2.4.1.3 Classifying Cyclone
2.4.1.4 WEMCO Cyclonic Grit Separator & Washer
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.4.1 Hydrocyclones (Cont.)
2.4.1.5 Laval Separator
2.4.1.6 Dorrclone Separator
2.4.1.7 Multiple Cyclone Systems
2.4.1.8 Automatic Discharge Cyclones
2.4.2 Basket Centrifuges
2.4.2.1 Carpenter Centrifugal Filter
2.4.2.2 Base-Bearing Centrifugal
2.4.2.3 Link-Suspended Batch Centrifugal
2.4.2.4 Top Suspended Centrifugal
2.4.2.5 Automatic Batch Horizontal Centrifugal
2.4.2.6 Horizontal Screen-Conveyor Centrifuge
2.4.2.7 Wide-Angle Conical Screen Centrifugal
2.4.2.8 Vertical Conveyor Centrifuge
2.4.2.9 Reciprocating Pusher Multi-Stage
2.4.2.10 Reciprocating Pusher Single Stage
2.4.2.11 Conical Screen with Differential Conveyor
2.4.2J2_. Vibrating Conical Horizontal Screen
2.4.ZH3: Vibrating Conical Vertical Screen
2.4.2-I4r Reciprocating Pusher Conical Screen
2.4.2VIE:~Conical Basket Slip Discharge
2.4.2.16 Broadbent Conical Bowl Continuous
2.4.2.17 Conical Basket Torsional Vibratory Discharge
2.4.2.18 Mercone Screening Centrifuge
2.4.3 Solid Bowl Centrifuges
2.4.3.1 Top-Suspended Knife Discharge
2.4.3.2 Horizontal Bowl Knife Discharge
2.4.3.3 Base-Bearing Manual Discharge
2.4.3.4 Cocurrent Solid Bowl Conveyor
2.4.3.5 Two-Stage Solid Bowl Operation
2.4.3.6 Multi-Chamber Centrifuge
2.4.3.7 Tubular-Bowl High Speed Centrifuge
2.4.3.8 Helical-Conveyor Cylindrical Bowl
2.4.3.9 Helical-Conveyor Cylindrical-Conical Bowl
2.4.3.10 Podbielniak Centrifugal Contactor
2.4.3.11 Turbo-Flite Solid Bowl
2.4.3.12 Solid Bowl/Screen Sedimenter
2.4.3.13 Vortex Clarifier
2.4.3.14 Vertical Helical-Conveyor Cylindrical Bowl
2.4.3.15 Roto-Filter Pump
2.4.4 Disc Centrifuges
2.4.4.1 Top Suspended Disc
2.4.4.2 Bottom Supported Disc
2.4.4.3 Manual Discharge with Centripetal Pump
2.4.4.4 Hermetic Centrifuge
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.4.4 Disc Centrifuges (Cont.)
2.4.4.5 Nozzel Discharge
2.4.4.6 Nozzel Discharge with Recirculation
2.4.4.7 Valve Discharge
2.4.4.8 Peripheral-Annulus Discharge
2.4.4.9 Light Phase Skimmer
2.4.4.10 Double Overflow
2.5 Filtration
2.5.1 Bar Screens
2.5.1.1 Hand Cleaned Bar Rack
2.5.1.2 Frontcleaned Flat Bar Rack
2.5.1.3 Backcleaned Flat Bar Rack
2.5.1.4 Mechanically Cleaned Curved Bar Screen
2.5.1.5 Mechanical Bar Screen with Grit Collection
2.5.1.6 Tritor Screen
2.5.1.7 Transversing Trash Screen
2.5.2 Comminuting Screens
2.5.2.1 Hammer Mill Screening Grinder
2.5.2.2 Shredder Type Screening Grinder
2.5.2.3 Rotating Screen Comminutor
2.5.2.4 Rotating Cutter Comminutor
2.5.2.5 Oscillating Cutter Comminutor
2.5.2.6 Barminutor
2.5.2.7 Macerator
2.5.2.8 Flominutor
2.5.3 Vibratory Screens
2.5.3.1 Shaker Screen
2.5.3.2 Vibrating Screen
2.5.3.3 Gyratory Screen
2.5.4 Rotary Screens
2.5.4.1 Revolving Drum with Inward Flow
2.5.4.2 Revolving Drum with Outward Flow
2.5.4.3 Revolving Vertical Disk
2.5.4.4 Inclined Revolving Disk
2.5.4.5 Vertical Drum
2.5.4.6 Internal Helix Rotary Drum Screen
2.5.4.7 Revolving Disc Screen
2.5.4.8 Merco Rotary Strainer
2.5.4.9 Batam Strainer
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.5.5 Microscreens
2.5.5.1 Revolving Drum
2.5.5.2 Stationary Backwash Filter Screens
2.5.5.3 Cartridge Type Stationary Filter Screens
2.5.5.4 Rotary Brush Microstrainer
2.5.5.5 Porous Metal Cartridge Filter
2.5.5.6 Traveling Water Screen
2.5.5.7 Dual Flow Traveling Water Screen
2.5.6 Other Screens
2.5.6.1 Coarse Mesh Screen
2.5.6.2 Traveling Water Screen
2.5.6.3 Endless Band Screen
2.5.6.4 Hydrasievr
2.5.6.5 WEMCO Rotary Sieve
2.5.6.6 Static Multiple Angle Screen
2.5.6.7 Vor-Siv
2.5.6.8 120°DSM Screen
2.5.6.9 300°DSM Screen
2.5.6.10 AES 3600 Strainer
2.5.7 Bag Filters
2.5.7.1 Gravity Bag Filter
2.5.7.2 Pressure Bag Filter
2.5.7.3 End of Pipe Bag Filter
2.5.8 Cartridge Filters
2.5.8.1 Edge Filter
2.5.8.2 Wound Wire Filter
2.5.8.3 Cuno Flo-Klean Filter
2.5.8.4 Cuno Auto-Klean Filter
2.5.8.5 Fiber Cartridge
2.5.8.6 Resin-Impregnated Filter Paper
2.5.8.7 Porous Stone
2.5.8.8 Packed Cartridge Filters
2.5.8.9 Backflush Annular Filter
2.5.8.10 Regenerative DE Filter
2.5.8.11 Lined Tubular Filter
2.5.9 Granular Bed Filters
2.5.9.1 Deep Bed with Intermittent Backwash
2.5.9.2 Ground Level Outdoor Granular Bed
2.5.9.3 Closed Tank Deep Bed
2.5.9.4 Dual Layer Granular Bed
2.5.9.5 Anthracite Filters
2.5.9.6 Rapid Sand Filters
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.5.9 Granular Bed Filters
2.5.9.7 Slow Sand Filters
2.5.9.8 Multiple Layer with Air Scouring
2.5.9.9 Ultra-High Rate Filter
2.5.9.10 Moving Bed Filter
2.5.9.11 Mixed Media Filter
2.5.9.12 Upflow Filter
2.5.9.13 Dual-Flow Filter
2.5.9.14 Radial Flow Filter
2.5.9.15 Horizontal Pressure Granular Filter
2.5.9.16 Vertical Pressure Granular Filter
2.5.9.17 Hardinge Super Thickener
2.5.9.18 Automatic Valveless Backwash Filter
2.5.9.19 Hydro-Clear Filter Cell
2.5.9.20 Traveling Bridge Granular Filter
2.5.9.21 Mono-Pak Filter
2.5.9.22 Activated Carbon Filter
2.5.9.23 Intermittent Sand Filter
2.5.9.24 Electro-Filter Separator
2.5.9.25 Monovalve Automatic Gravity Filter
2.5.10 Leaf Filters
2.5.10.1 Kelly Filter
2.5.10.2 Sweetland Filter
2.5.10.3 Vallez Filter
2.5.10.4 Horizontal Pressure Leaf with Sluice Discharge
2.5.10.5 Horizontal Leaf with Retractable Rack
2.5.10.6 Vertical Pressure Leaf
2.5.10.7 Moore Filter
2.5.10.8 Center Filter Thickener
2.5.10.9 Artisan Horizontal Continuous Pressure Filter
2.5.11 Tubular Filters
2.5.11.1 Vertical Pressure Tube Filter
2.5.11.2 Industrial Tubular Filter
2.5.11.3 Ultra-Kleen Regenerative DE Filter
2.5.12 Filter Presses
2.5.12.1 Automatic Cleaning Filter Press
2.5.12.2 Plate and Frame Filter
2.5.12.3 Recessed-Plate Filter
2.5.12.4 Roll-Over Plate and Frame
2.5.12.5 Simple Wash Filter
2.5.12.6 Thorough Wash Filter
2.5.12.7 Carver Hydraulic Filter Press
2.5.12.8 Eimco-Burwell Filter
2.5.12.9 Granger Filter
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.5.12 Filter Presses (Cont.)
2.5.12.10 Readco Short-Cycle Filter
2.5.12.11 Shriver Continuous Thickener
2.5.12.12 Sheet Filter
2.5.12.13 Merril Press
2.5.12.14 Center Filling Press
2.5.12.15 Screw Press
2.5.12.16 Disc Press
2.5.12.17 Tank Enclosed Filter Press
2.5.12.18 Two Stage Filter Press
2.5.12.19 Tube Filter Press
2.5.12.20 Magnum Press
2.5.12.21 Flocpress
2.5.12.22 Multi-Roll Sludge Dewatering Press
2.5.12.23 Vari-Nip Twin-Roll Press
2.5.13 Disc Filters
2.5.13.1 Vertical Disc
2.5.13.2 Horizontal Disc
2.5.13.3 Pressure-Type Disc Filter
2.5.13.4 Peterson Roto-Disc Clarifier
2.5.13.5 Disk Clarifying Filter
2.5.14 Drum Filters
2.5.14.1 Top Feed
2.5.14.2 Scraper Discharge
2.5.14.3 Belt with Helical Discharge Roll
2.5.14.4 String Discharge
2.5.14.5 Roll Discharge
2.5.14.6 Heated-Belt Discharge
2.5.14.7 Coil-Type Filter
2.5.14.8 Precoat Filter with Advancing Knife
2.5.14.9 Internal Feed
2.5.14.10 Single Compartment Vacuum Drum
2.5.14.11 Roto-Plug Thickener
2.5.14.12 Compression Filter
2.5.14.13 Burt Filter
2.5.14.14 Continuous Pressure Drum Filter
2.5.14.15 Rotary Hopper Dewaterer
2.5.14.16 Permutit DCG Sludge Dewatering Unit
2.5.15 Horizontal Filters
2.5.15.1 Gravity Nutsche
2.5.15.2 Pressure Nutsche
2.5.15.3 Vacuum Nutsche
2.5.15.4 Batch Pan Filter
2.5.15.5 Horizontal Plate Filter
2.5.15.6 Rodney Hunt Pressure Filter
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.5.15 Horizontal Filters (Cont.)
2.5.15.7 Horizontal Table Filter
2.5.15.8 Tilting Pan Filter
2.5.15.9 Continuous Vacuum Belt
2.5.15.10 Delpark Industrial Filter
2.5.15.11 Disk and Plate Clarifying Filter
2.5.15.12 Pulp Filter
2.5.15.13 Caldecott Table
2.5.15.14 Disposable Paper Filter
2.5.15.15 Vacu-Matic Filter
2.5.16 Filtration Processes
2.5.16.1 Magnetic Filter
2.5.16.2 Magnetic Trap
2.5.16.3 Thermal Conditioning Filtration
2.5.16.4 Porteous Process
2.5.16.5 Chemical Conditioning Filtration
2.5.16.6 Elutriation
2.5.16.7 Basic Extractive Sludge Treatment
2.5.17 Ultrafiltration
2.5.17.1 Plate-Type Ultrafliter
2.5.17.2 Tube-Type Ultrafilter
2.5.17.3 Hollow Fiber Ultrafilter
2.5.17.4 Spiral-Wound Unit
2.5.18 Reverse Osmosis (Hyperfiltration)
2.5.18.1 Tube-Type Unit
2.5.18.2 Spiral-Wound Unit
2.5.18.3 Hollow Filament Unit
2.5.18.4 Plate and Frame Unit
2.5.18.5 Shell and Tube-Type Unit
2.5.18.6 Dynamically Formed Membrane
2.5.19 Electrodialysis
2.5.19.1 Staged Continuous Unit
2.5.19.2 Parallel Continuous Units
2.5.19.3 Batch Recirculation Process
2.5.19.4 Feed and Bleed Process
2.5.19.5 Internally Staged Process
2.5.19.6 Anionic Membranes
2.5.19.7 Cationic Membranes
2.6 Evaporation and Concentration
2.6.1 Ponds and Lagoons (See also Section 4.1)
2.6.1.1 Solar Heated Ponds
2.6.1.2 Externally Heated Ponds
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.6.2 Heated Tanks and Vessels
2.6.2.1 Jacket Kettles
2.6.2.2 Tanks with Coiled Tubes
2.6.2.3 Channel-Switching Evaporator
2.6.2.4 Tank with Flat Plat Exchanger
2.6.2.5 Submerged Combustion Evaporation
2.6.2.6 Rotating Disc Evaporator
2.6.2.7 Cascade Evaporation
2.6.2.8 Direct Heat Transfer with Immisible Liquid
2.6.2.9 Porcupine Processor
2.6.3 Spray Evaporators
2.6.3.1 Horizontal Spray Chamber
2.6.3,2 Vertical Direct Contact Chamber
2.6.3.3 Vertical Indirect Heating Chamber
2.6.3.4 Pressure Nozzle Spray Dryer
2.6.3.5 Two-Fluid Nozzle Spray Dryer
2.6.3.6 Centrifugal Disk Spray Dryer
2.6.3.7 Centrifugal Spray Dryer
2.6.4 Tubular Evaporators
2.6.4.1 Horizontal Fire Tube Evaporator
2.6.4.2 Horizontal Steam Tube Evaporator
2.6.4.3 Forced Circulation Evaporator
2.6.4.4 Oslo-Type Crystallizer
2.6.4.5 Short Tube Vertical Evaporator
2.6.4.6 Propeller Calandria
2.6.4.7 Long-Tube Vertical Evaporator
2.6.4.8 Recirculating Long Tube Vertical Evaporator
2.6.4.9 Bent-Tube Horizontal Evaporator
2.6.4.10 Artisan Multi-Stage Evaporator
2.6.4.11 Artisan Continuous Evaporator
2.6.5 Film Type Evaporators
2.6.5.1 Falling-Film Long Tube Vertical Evaporator
2.6.5.2 Rising-Film Long Tube Vertical Evaporator
2.6.5.3 Agitated Film Evaporator
2.6.5.4 Rototherm Thin-Film Evaporator
2.6.5.5 Pfandler Wiped-Film Evaporator
2.6.5.6 Aqua Chem Spray Film Evaporator
2.6.5.7 Rising/Falling Film Tubular Evaporator
2.6.5.8 Rising/Falling Film Plate Evaporator
2.6.5.9 Falling Film Plate Evaporator
2.6.5.10 ParaVap Evaporator
2.6.6 Evaporation Processes
2.6.6.1 Mechanical Thermocoupression Heating
2.6.6.2 Secondary Fluid Thermocompression Heating
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.6.6 Evaporation Processes (Cont.)
2.6.6.3 Steam Jet Thermocompression Heating
2.6.6.4 Backward-Feed Multiple Effect Evaporation
2.6.6.5 Forward-Feed Multiple Effect Evaporation
2.6.6.6 Parallel-Feed Multiple Effect Evaporation
2.6.6.7 Vacuum Evaporation
2.6.6.8 Vapor Reheat Process
2.6.7 Freeze Concentration
2.6.7.1 Single Stage Freeze Process
2.6.7.2 Zarchin-Colt Process
2.6.7.3 Indirect Contact Freezing Process
2.6.7.4 Direct Contact Freezing Process
2.6.7.5 Hydrate Process
2.6.7.6 Vacuum Freezing/Vapor Recompression Process
2.6.7.7 Pressure Freezing Process
2.7 Distillation and Flashing
2.7.1 Plate Type Distillation Columns (See Section 1.4.8)
2.7.2 Packed Tower Distillation Columns (See Section 1.4.7)
2.7.3 Molecular Distillation
2.7.3.1 Molecular Distillation
2.7.4 Flash Vaporization
2.7.4.1 Submerged Tube Forced Circulation Evaporation
2.7.4.2 Single Effect Multistage Flash Evaporation
2.7.4.3 Multiple Effect Flash Evaporation
2.7.4.4 Combined Vertical Tube/Multistage Flash Evaporation
2.7.4.5 Flash Enhancers
2.7.4.6 Foul Water Vaporization in Cracking Units
2.8 Liquid-Liquid Extraction
2.8.1 Extraction Processes
2.8.1.1 Jones & Laughlin
2.8.1.2 Phenosolvan
2.8.1.3 Phenolics Extractions in Crude Oil Desalter
2.8.1.4 Koppers Light Oil Extraction
2.8.1.5 Chemizon
2.8.1.6 Barrett
2.8.1.7 Phenex
2.8.1.8 Benzene-Caustic
2.8.1.9 Ifawol
2.8.1.10 Pott-HiIgenstock
2.8.1.11 Tricresy Phosphate ("Triphos")
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.8.1 Extraction Processes (Cont.)
2.0.1.12 Holley-Mott
2.8.1.13 Lowenstein-Lom
2.8.1.14 Basic Extractive Sludge Treatment
2.8.2 Mixer-Settlers
2.8.2.1 Jet Mixer
2.8.2.2 Injectors
2.8.2.3 Orifice Nozzle
2.8.2.4 Mixing Nozzle
2.8.2.5 Valve
2.8.2.6 Pumps
2.8.2.7 Agitated Line Mixers
2.8.2.8 Baffled Mixing Vessel
2.8.2.9 Unbaffled Mixing Vessel
2.8.2.10 Multicompartment Agitated Vessel
2.8.2.11 Pump-Mix Extractor
2.8.2.12 Kerr-McGee Multistage Mixer Settler
2.8.2.13 Five Stage Countercurrent Cascade Extractor
2.8.2.14 Vitro Mixer Settler
2.8.2.15 Windscale
2.8.2.16 General Mills
2.8.2.17 Davy Powergas
2.8.2.18 IMI
2.8.2.19 Kemira
2.8.2.20 Lurgi Horizontal
2.8.2.21 Lurgi Vertical
2.8.2.22 Holmes & Narver
2.8.3 Differential Contact Gravity Columns (See also Section 1.4.7)
2.8.3.1 Elgin-End Spray Tower
2.8.3.2 Raschig Rings
2.8.3.3 Berl Saddles
2.8.3.4 Intalox Saddles
2.8.3.5 Knit Cloth Packing
2.8.3.6 Bead Packing
2.8.3.7 Wooden Hurdles
2.8.3.8 Pall Rings
2.8.4 Staged Contact Gravity Columns (See also Section 1.4.8)
2.8.4.1 Sieve-Plate Columns
2.8.4.2 Koch Tray Column
2.8.4.3 Perforated Plant Column
2.8.4.4 Bubble Cap Tower
2.8.4.5 Disc and Doughnut Baffle Tower
2.8.4.6 Center to Side Baffle Tower
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.8.5 Mechanically Agitated Contactors
2.8.5.1 Rotary Annular Column
2.8.5.2 Multistage Mixer Column
2.8.5.3 Rotating-Disk Contactor
2.8.5.4 Rotating-Core Column
2.8.5.5 Mixco Column
2.8.5.6 Scheibel Column
2.8.5.7 Oldshue-Rushton Column
2.8.5.8 Luhni Column
2.8.5.9 Asymmetric Rotating Disc Extractor
2.8.5.10 Graesser Contactor
2.8.5.11 Horizontal Pipeline Extractor
2.8.6 Centrifugal Extractors
2.8.6.1 Podbielniak
2.8.6.2 Quadronic
2.8.6.3 Westfalia
2.8.6.4 De Laval
2.8.6.5 Robatel
2.8.6.6 Luwesta
2.9 Gas-Liquid Stripping
2.9.1 Stripping Processes
2.9.1.1 Vacuum Stripping
2.9.1.2 Non-Refluxed Steam Stripping
2.9.1.3 Refluxed Steam Stripping
2.9.1.4 WTT Process
2.9.1.5 Combined Spent Caustic/Foul Water Stripping
2.9.1.6 Flue Gas Stripping
2.9.2 Stripping Equipment
2.9.2.1 Cooling Towers
2.9.2.2 Packed Columns (See Section 1.4.7)
2.9.2.3 Spray Columns
2.9.2.4 Plate Columns (See Section 1.4.8)
2.9.2.5 Wetted Wall Columns (See Section 1.4.9)
2.9.2.6 Spargers
2.9.2.7 Reboiler Type Stripper
2.9.2.8 Artisan Continuous Stripper
2.10 pH Adjustment
2.10.1 Neutralization with Acids
2.10.1.1 Sulfuric Acid
2.10.1.2 Hydrochloric Acid
2.10.1.3 Carbon Dioxide
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.10.1 Neutralization with Acids
2.10.1.4 Sulfur Dioxide
2.10.1.5 Nitric Acid
2.10.2 Neutralization with Bases
2.10.2.1 Caustic Soda
2.10.2.2 Ammonia
2.10.2.3 Soda Ash
2.10.2.4 Hydrated Lime
2.10.2.5 Limestone
2.10.3 Buffering
2.10.3.1 Buffering
2.10.4 pH Adjustment Equipment
2.10.4.1 Two Stage Tank
2.10.4.2 Mixmeter
2.11 Biological Processes
2.11.1 Anaerobic (See also Section 3.5.2)
2.11.1.1 Anaerobic Lagoon
2.11.1.2 Raw Sewage Facultative Lagoon
2.11.1.3 Multipond Facultative Lagoon
2.11.1.4 Anaerobic-Aerobic Pond System
2.11.1.5 Denitrification
2.11.2 Activated Sludge
2.11.2.1 Plug Flow Conventional Process
2.11.2.2 Extended Aeration Process
2.11.2.3 High Rate Process
2.11.2.4 Nitrification Process
2.11.2.5 Two-Stage Nitrification Process
2.11.2.6 Spiral Flow Conventional Process
2.11.2.7 Step Aeration Process
2.11.2.8 Two-Stage Contact Stabilization
2.11.2.9 Completely Mixed Process
2.11.2.10 Pure Oxygen Surface Aeration System
2.11.2.11 Pure Oxygen Sparger System
2.11.2.12 Tapered Aeration System
2.11.2.13 Pure Oxygen Nitrification
2.11.2.14 Kraus Process
2.11.2.15 Modified Aeration Process
2.11.2.16 Unox System
2.11.2.17 Simplex Oxygenation System
2.11.2.18 Zurn-Attisholz Two-Stage Process
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.11.2 Activated Sludge (Cont.)
2.11.2.19 Claraetor
2.11.2.20 Spirovortex System
2.11.2.21 Modular Prestressed Concrete Wastewater Plant
2.11.2.22 Combined Settling Continuous Activated Sludge System
2.11.3 Aerated Lagoons and Ditches
2.11.3.1 Synthetically Lined Aerobic Lagoon
2.11.3.2 Riprap Lined Aerobic Lagoon
2.11.3.3 Mechanically Aerated Oxidation Ponds
2.11.3.4 Single Oxidation Ditch
2.11.3.5 Multiple Oxidation Ditch
2.11.4 Trickling Filters
2.11.4.1 Rock Media
2.11.4.2 Aeroblock Media
2.11.4.3 Ring-Type Media
2.11.4.4 Dowpac Media
2.11.4.5 Surface Media
2.11.4.6 Polygrid
2.11.4.7 Florcor
2.11.4.8 Single Stage Filter
2.11.4.9 Multiple Stage Filter
2.11.4.10 High Rate Single Stage Filter
2.11.4.11 High Rate Multiple Stage Filter
2.11.4.12 Redwood Media
2.11.4.13 Trickling Filter-Aerator Combination
2.11.4.14 Contact Aeration
2.11.4.15 Activated Bio-Filtration
2.11.4.16 Pack TOR
2.11.4.17 Duo-Distributor
2.11.5 Other Aerobic Systems
2.11.5.1 Biological Contactor Without Sludge Recycle
2.11.5.2 Biological Disc
2.11.5.3 Biological Cooling Tower
2.11.5.4 Bio Drum
2.11.5.5 Clarigester
2.11.5.6 Hy-Flo Fluidized Bed Treatment
2.11.5.7 Rotating Biological Surface Process
2.12 Oxidation Processes
2.12.1 Wet Thermal Processes (See also Section 3.5.3)
2.12.1.1 Astro Wet Oxidation Waste Treatment
2.12.1.2 PROST System
2.12.1.3 Heat Treatment
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.12.1 Wet Thermal Processes (See also Section 3.5.3)
2.12.1.4 Sulfide Air Oxidation Process
2.12.1.5 Zimpro Wet Oxidation Process
2.12.2 Surface Aerators
2.12.2.1 Low Speed Surface Aerator
2.12.2.2 Motor Speed Surface Aerator
2.12.2.3 U-Tube Aeration System
2.12.2.4 Pure Oxygen Surface Aeration
2.12.2.5 Coke Tray Aerator
2.12.2.6 Oxidation by Dilution
2.12.2.7 Downflow Mechanical Aerator
2.12.2.8 Upflow Mechanical Aerator
2.12.2.9 Rotary Disk Aerator
2.12.2.10 Sprays and Cooling Towers
2.12.2.11 Waterfalls and Weirs
2.12.2.12 Brush Aerators
2.12.2.13 Ponds and Ditches
2.12.2.14 Pressurized Aeration
2.12.2.15 Turbine-Charged Liquid Oxygen System
2.12.2.16 Foul Water/Spent Caustic Oxidation
2.12.2.17 Bird Simplex SA Aerator
2.12.2.18 Vortair Surface Entrapment Aerator
2.12.2.19 Air Cone Aerators
2.12.2.20 Cascade Aerators
2.12.2.21 Floating Saucer Aerator
2.12.3 Subsurface Aeration
2.12.3.1 Jet Aerator
2.12.3.2 Multiple Jet Aerator
2.12.3.3 Air Lift with Bow Tie Mixer
2.12.3.4 Air Lift with Helical Mixer
2.12.3.5 Air Lift Fermenter
2.12.3.6 Self Priming Aerator
2.12.3.7 Porous Diffuser
2.12.3.8 Cord Wrapped Diffuser Tube
2.12.3.9 Flexible-Bag Diffuser
2.12.3.10 Perforated Pipe Diffuser
2.12.3.11 Weighted Plate-Valve Diffuser
2.12.3.12 Valve-and-seat Orifice Diffuser
2.12.3.13 Variable Orifice Diffuser
2.12.3.14 Multiple Orifice System
2.12.3.15 Air-Water Impingement Diffuser
2.12.3.16 Sparger Diffuser
2.12.3.17 Air-Water Shear Diffuser
2.12.3.18 Pure Oxygen Rotary Sparger
2.12.3.19 Sparge Turbine Aerator
2.12.3.20 Static Mixaerator
2.12.3.21 Submersible Turbine Aerator
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.12.3 Subsurface Aeration (Cont.)
2.12.3.22 Maximum Air Transfer Aerator
2.12.3.23 Air-Aqua Controlled Aeration System
2.12.3.24 Swing Arm Aerators
2.12.3.25 Ring Jet Aerators
2.12.3.26 DAT Aerator
2.12.4 Chemical Oxidation
2.12.4.1 Chlorine
2.12.4.2 Chlorination with Vaporizer
2.12.4.3 Sodium Hypochlorite Solution
2.12.4.4 Calcium Hypochlorite
2.12.4.5 Kastone Process
2.12.4.6 Permanganate Oxidation
2.12.4.7 Ozonation Process
2.12.4.8 Cyanide Oxidation Process
2.12.4.9 Dupont Per Oxygen Compounds
2.12.4.10 Hypochlorous Acid
2.12.4.11 Chlorine Dioxide
2.12.4.12 Hydrogen Peroxide
2.12.5 Catalytic Oxidation
2.12.5.1 Vapor Phase Catalytic Oxidation
2.12.6 Incineration
2.12.6.1 Super Heating Incinerator
2.12.6.2 Dorr-Oliver Flo Solids Disposal System
2.12.6.3 Cyclonic Incinerator
2.12.6.4 Atomized Sludge Incineration Process
2.12.6.5 Stationary Liquid Waste Burner
2.12.6.6 Thermal Sub-X Combustion System
2.12.6.7 Liqui-Datur
2.12.6.8 Prenco Super E3 System
2.13 Activated Carbon and Other Adsorbents
2.13.1 Powdered Absorbent Systems
2.13.1.1 Three Step Once Through System
2.13.1.2 Single Stage Contacting System
2.13.1.3 Two Stage Countercurrent System
2.13.1.4 Quik Tube Carbon Cartridges
2.13.2 Granular Absorbent Systems
2.13.2.1 Downflow Fixed Bed
2.13.2.2 Moving Bed
2.13.2.3 Expanded Bed
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.13.2 Granular Absorbent Systems (Cont.)
2.13.2.4 Upflow Fixed Bed
2.13.2.5 Upflow Air Fluidized Bed
2.13.3 Activated Carbon Processes
2.13.3.1 Hydrolysis Adsorption Process
2.13.4 Other Adsorption Systems
2.13.4.1 Granular Condensate Resins
2.13.4.2 Granular Addition Polymers
2.13.4.3 Activated Alumina
2.13.4.4 Hydroxyapatite
2.13.4.5 Ambersorb Carbonaceous Absorbents
2.13.4.6 Hay Filter
2.14 Ion Exchange Systems
2.14.1 Batch
2.14.1.1 Pressure Tank Zeolite
2.14.1.2 Two-Bed Weak Base Demineralizer
2.14.1.3 Two-Bed Strong Base Demineralizer
2.14.1.4 Three-Bed Demineralizer
2.14.1.5 Four-Bed Primary with Weak Base
2.14.1.6 Four-Bed Primary with Strong Base
2.14.1.7 Dual Layered Two-Bed System
2.14.1.8 Strong Base Anionic Mixed Bed
2.14.1.9 Weak Base Anionic Mixed Bed
2.14.1.10 Cation Modified Mixed Bed
2.14.1.11 Three-Bed Cation-Anion Mixed Bed
2.14.1.12 Weak Acid Cation Dealkalizer
2.14.1.13 Strong Acid Cation Dealkalizer
2.14.1.14 Blended Hydrogen-Sodium Dealkalizer
2.14.1.15 Zeolite Ammonia Removal
2.14.1.16 Organic Scavenger Trap
2.14.1.17 Anion Desilicizer
2.14.1.18 Maganese Zeolite-Potassium Permanganate
2.14.1.19 PowdexR Process
2.14.2 Continuous
2.14.2.1 ASAHI Continuous Demineralizer
2.14.2.2 Desol Process
2.14.2.3 Chem-Seps Process
2.14.2.4 One Train Higgins Softener
2.14.2.5 Sul-bi-Sul Process
2.14.2.6 Countercurrent Moving Bed System
2.14.2.7 Graver C.I. Process
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cont.)
2.15 Cooling Towers and Ponds
2.15.1 Wet Towers
2.15.1.1
2.15.1.2
2.15.1.3
2.15.1.4
2.15.1.5
2.15.1.6
2.15.1.7
2.15.1.8
2.15.1.9
2.15.1.10
2.15.1.11
2.15.2 Dry Towers
2.15.2.1
2.15.2.2
2.15.2.3
2.15.2.4
Crossflow-Natural Draft Spray
Crossflow-Natural Draft Packed
Counterflow-Induced Draft
Single Entry-Crossflow Induced Draft
Double Entry-Crossflow Induced Draft
Forced Draft
Hyperbolic Crossflow Natural Draft
Hyperbolic Counterflow Natural Draft
Induced Draft Spray
Fan-Assisted Natural Draft
Parallel Path Wet-Dry Tower
Natural Draft Direct
Mechanical Draft Direct
Heller Type Natural Draft
Induced Draft Heller Type
2.15.3 Cooling Ponds
2.15.3.1 Cooling Pond
2.15.3.2 Spray Pond
2.15.3.3 Baffled Ponds
2.15.3.4 Induced Air Spray Cooling
2.15.3.5 Thermal - Rotor Spray System
2.16 Chemical Reaction and Separation
2.16.1 Processes
2.16.1.1
2.16.1.2
2.16.1
2.16.1
2.16.1
2.16.1
2.16.1.7
Aqua Claus Process
Chemfix Process
Woodall-Duckham Effluent Process
Sulfur Reduction
Andco Electrochemical Heavy Metal Removal Process
Cyanide Conversion to NH3 and Sodium Formate
Mitsubishi Heavy Metal Recovery
2.16.2 Other Equipment
2.16.2.1 Lindman Precipitator
2.17 Water Intake Structures
2.17.1 Filtration Type (See also Section 2.5.1 & 2.5.6)
2.17.1.1 Wood Piling
2.17.1.2 Inverted Cone/Stone Riprap
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2. LIQUID TREATMENT (Cent.)
2.17.1 Filtration Type (Cont.)
2.17.1.3 Simple Intake Screen
2.17.1.4 Porous Oike
2.17.1.5 Johnson Deepwater Screen
2.17.1.6 Johnson Shallow Water Screen
2.17.1.7 Perforated Pipe Laterals with Caissan
2.17.1.8 Ranney Surface Water Intake
2.17.1.9 Infiltration Barrier
2.17.1.10 Air Bubble Piping with Fixed Screen
2.17.1.11 Inclined Screen with Pliable Fish Brush
2.17.1.12 Lowered Offshore Intake
2.17.1.13 Rotating Vertical Screen
2.17.1.14 Double Screen with Fish Pump
2.17.1.15 Double-Entry Vertical Traveling Screen
2.17.1.16 Double-Exit Basket Shaped Panels
2.17.1.17 Double Screen with Fish Escape
2.17.1.18 Multifarious Water Intake Structure
2.17.2 Direct Flow Type
2.17.2.1 Dunne Crib Intake
2.17.2.2 Direct Intake with Breakwater
2.17.2.3 Shoreline Intake with Trash Rack
2.17.2.4 Intake Canal with Trash Rack
2.17.2.5 Air Bubble Ring
2.17.2.6 Electrical Barriers
2.17.2.7 Light Barriers
2.17.2.8 Sound Barriers
2.17.2.9 Hanging Chains
2.17.2.10 Water Current Modification
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3. SOLIDS TREATMENT
3.1 Fixation
3.1.1 Physical Stabilization
3.1.1.1 Bitumim'zation
3.1.1 2 Carbonate Bonding
3.1.1.3 Blending with Concrete
3.1.1.4 Blending with Asphalt
3.1.1.5 Blending with Synthetic Polymers
3.1.1.6 Lime Sludge Stabilization with Fly Ash
3.1.1.7 Koch Sludge Dehydration Process
3.1.1.8 Encapsulation in a Polyester Matrix
3.1.2 Calcination (See also Section 3.3)
3.1.2.1 Indirect-Heat Rotary Calciner
3.1.2.2 Cocurrent - Flow Calciner
3.1.2.3 Batch Retort
3.1.3 Chemical Fixation
3.1.3.1 Poz-0-Tec R Process
3.1.3.2 Calcilox
3.1.3.3 Chemfix Process
3.1.3.4 Neutralization of Spent Acid Catalysts
3.2 Recovery/Uti1izat ion
3.2.1 Extraction Processes
3.2.1.1 Sulfur Recovery from Spent Iron Oxide
3.2.1.2 Precious Metals Recovery from Spent Catalyst
3.2.1.3 Sulfur Recover'from Coal Refuse
3.2.2 Regeneration Processes
3.2.2.1 Regeneration of Spent Nickle Catalysts
3.2.2.2 Chemical Reactivation of Spent Activated Carbon
3.2.2.3 Steam Reactivation of Spent Activated Carbon
3.2.2.4 Thermal Regeneration of Spent Activated Carbon
3.2.2.5 Wet Air Regeneration of Activated Carbon
3.2.2.6 Lime Reclamation
3.2.2.7 Vacuum Regeneration of Spent Activated Carbon
3.3 Processing/Combustion
3.3.1 Fixed Bed Incinerators
3.3.1.1 Single Chamber
3.3.1.2 Retort Type Multiple Chamber
3.3.1.3 In-line Type Multiple Chamber
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3. SOLIDS TREATMENT (Cont.)
3.3.1 Fixed Bed Incinerators (Cont.)
3.3.1.4 Tray Furnace
3.3.1.5 Controlled Air Incinerator
3.3.1.6 Underground Burning
3.3.1.7 Air Curtain Distructor
3.3.1.8 Enertherm Cyclonic Incinerator
3.3.1.9 Kelly/Hoskinson Pyrolytic Incinerator System
3.3.2 Moving Bed Incinerators
3.3.2.1 Traveling Grate
3.3.2.2 Reciprocating Grate
3.3.2.3 Martin Reverse-Acting Reciprocating Grate
3.3.2.4 Rotary Hearth Furnace
3.3.2.5 Rotary Kiln
3.3.2.6 Rotating Drum Grate
3.3.2.7 Rocking Grate
3.3.2.8 Circular Cone Grate
3.3.2.9 Multiple Hearth Furnace
3.3.2.10 Vortex Incenerator (Suspension Firing)
3.3.2.11 C-E Raymond Flash Drying and Incineration
3.3.2.12 Volund Forward Pushing Step Grate
3.3.2.13 Basket Type Furnace
3.3.2.14 Semi Suspension Firing
3.3.2.15 Horizontal Cyclone Furnace
3.3.2.16 Shaft Kiln
3.3.2.17 Tip Grate
3.3.2.18 Pyro-Cone
3.3.2.19 Ecologizer
3.3.2.20 Thermal Reductor
3.3.2.21 Flash Drying/Incinerator
3.3.3 Fluidized Bed Incinerators
3.3.3.1 Novotny'y Process
3.3.3.2 Dorr-Oliver FS Disposal System
3.3.3.3 Copeland Process
3.3.3.4 American Oil Fluid Bed Incinerator
3.3.3.5 Black Clawson Process
3.3.3.6 Hercules Solid Waste Disposal System
3.3.3.7 CPU 400 Process
3.3.4 Slagging Incinerators
3.3.4.1 Sira System
3.3.4.2 Dravol/FLK Incinerator
3.3.4.3 American Thermogen System
3.3.4.4 Ferro-Tech System
3.3.4.5 Torrax System
3.3.4.6 Electric-Furnace System
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3. SOLIDS TREATMENT (Cont.)
3.3.4 Slagging Incinerators (Cont.)
3.3.4.7 Oxygen-Enrichment System
3.3.4.8 Urban Research and Development Process
3.3.5 Pyrolysis Processes
3.3.5.1 USBM Pyrolysis Process
3.3.5.2 Monsanto Landgard System
3.3.5.3 Garrett Process
3.3.5.4 Union Carbide Pyrolysis Process
3.3.5.5 Fluidized Bed Pyrolysis
3.3.5.6 Lantz Process
3.3.5.7 Firestone Process
3.3.5.8 Goodyear Process
3.3.5.9 Devco Process
3.3.5.10 Austin Process
3.3.5.11 Destrugas Process
3.3.5.12 Pyrolysis - Combustion Process
3.3.5.13 Surface Sludge Disposal System
3.3.5.14 Waste Wood Pyrolysis
3.3.6 Heat Recovery Systems
3.3.6.1 Water Wall Incinerators
3.3.6.2 Packaged Fire Tube Boiler/Incinerator
3.3.6.3 Waste Addition to Conventional Boiler Feed
3.4 Chemical Reaction and Separation
3.5 Oxidation/Pigestion
3.5.1 Composting
3.5.1.1 Naturizer System
3.5.1.2 Fairfield-Hardy Process
3.5.1.3 Riker Process
3.5.1.4 Batch Windrow Process
3.5.1.5 Dano Bio-Stabilizer Process
3.5.1.6 Cobey-Terex Process
3.5.1.7 Raspins Process
3.5.1.8 Varro Process
3.5.1.9 T. A. Crain Process
3.5.1.10 Earp Thomas Process
3.5.1.11 Metrowaste Conversion Process
3.5.1.12 Snell High Rate Process
3.5.1.13 Snell Forced Air Area Process
3.5.1.14 Frazer-Eweson
3.5.1.15 Jersey Process
3.5.1.16 Crude Composting in Landfills
3.5.1.17 Multi-Bactor Compost Tower
3.5.1.18 Caspar!-Brikollare Process
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3. SOLIDS TREATMENT (Cont.)
3.5.2 Anaerobic Digestion
3.5.2.1 Single Stage Conventional Digester
3.5.2.2 Two Stage Conventional Digester
3.5.2.3 Mechanically Mixed Conventional Digester
3.5.2.4 Gas Recirculated Conventional Digester
3.5.2.5 Anaerobic Lagoons
3.5.2.6 Partially Aerated Lagoons
3.5.2.7 Covered Anaerobic Lagoons
3.5.2.8 High Rate Digestion
3.5.2.9 Imhoff Tank
3.5.2.10 Anaerobic Contact Process
3.5.2.11 Anaerobic Filter
3.5.2.12 Septic Tank
3.5.3 Wet Oxidation
3.5.3.1 Earthworm Digestion
3.5.3.2 Aerobic Digestion
3.6 Physical Separation
3.6.1 Air Classification (See also Section 7.1.7)
3.6.1.1 SRI Zigzag Air Classifier
3.6.1.2 USBM Horizontal Air Classifier
3.6.1.3 Air Density Separator
3.6.1.4 Bauer Specific Gravity Separator
3.6.1.5 Mechanical Vacuum - Gravity Separator
3.6.1.6 Gayco Centrifugal Classifier
3.6.1.7 Raymond Whizzer Classifier
3.6.1.8 Strutevant Whirlwind Classifier
3.6.1.9 Hardinge Loop Classifier
3.6.1.10 Double-Cone Classifier
3.6.1.11 Hardinge Superfine Classifier
3.6.1.12 Mechanical Type Gravity Inertial Classifier
3.6.1.13 Vibro Lutiator
3.6.1.14 Dual Vortex Air Classifier
3.6.1.15 Gyratory Air Classifier
3.6.1.16 Williams Spinner Classifier
3.6.1.17 Roder Air Density Separator
3.6.1.18 Air Sifter
3.6.1.19 Centri-Sifter
3.6.1.20 Microplex Spiral Air Classifier
3.6.2 Hydraulic Classification (See also Section 7.1)
3.6.2.1 Black Clawson Hydraposal System
3.6.2.2 Wemco RC Separator
3.6.2.3 Surface Current Slime Tank
3.6.2.4 Callow Tank
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3. SOLIDS TREATMENT (Cont.)
3.6.2 Hydraulic Classification (Cont.)
3.6.2.5 Shallow-Pocket Free-Settling Classifier
3.6.2.6 Deep-Pocket Free-Settling Classifier
3.6.2.7 Free-Settling Tank Classifier
3.6.2.8 Tank-Type Hindered-Settling Classifier
3.6.2.9 Fahrenwald Sizer
3.6.2.10 Bunker Hill Classifier
3.6.2.11 Pellett Classifier
3.6.2.12 Concenco Classifier
3.6.2.13 Delano Classifier
3.6.2.14 Centrifugal Classifier
3.6.2.15 Countercurrent Classifier
3.6.2.16 Jet Sizer
3.6.2.17 Super Sorter
3.6.2.18 D-0 Suphon Sizer
3.6.2.19 Hydroscillator
3.6.2.20 Eagle Vari-Stroke Jig
3.6.3 Flotation (See also Section 2.3 and 7.1.6)
3.6.3.1 Murex Process
3.6.3.2 Wood Film - Flotation Machine
3.6.3.3 DeBavay Film - Flotation Process
3.6.3.4 Macquisten Film - Flotation Machine
3.6.3.5 Cascade Flotation Machine
3.6.3.6 Kand K Machine
3.6.3.7 Kraut Machine
3.6.3.8 Agglomeration Table
3.6.4 Electrostatic Separation
3.6.4.1 Plate Type Separator
3.6.4.2 Conductive Induction Rotary Separator
3.6.4.3 High Tension Rotary Separator
3.6.5 Magnetic Separation
3.6.5.1 Magnetic Pully
3.6.5.2 Concurrent Wet Drum Separator
3.6.5.3 Dry Drum Separator
3.6.5.4 Cross-Belt High Intensity Separator
3.6.5.5 Induced-Roll Separator
3.6.5.6 Suspended Type Magnet Separator
3.6.5.7 Counterrotation Wet Drum Separator
3.6.5.8 Grate Magnet
3.6.5.9 Magnetic Filter
3.6.5.10 Alternating-Polarity Drum Separator
3.6.5.11 Uni-Gap Drum Separator
3.6.5.12 High Speed Dry Magnetic Separator
3.615.13 High Gradient Magnetic Separator
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3. SOLIDS TREATMENT (Cont.)
3.6.6 Screens (See also Section 2.4.8 to 2.4.13)
3.6.6.1 Cantilever Grizzly
3.6.6.2 Trommel
3.6.6.3 Compound Trommel
3.6.6.4 Mechanical Shaking
3.6.6.5 Syntron Mechanical-Conveyor Shaking
3.6.6.6 Mechanically Vibrating
3.6.6.7 Electrically Vibrating
3.6.6.8 Oscillating
3.6.6.9 Reciprocating
3.6.6.10 Gyratory
3.6.6.11 Perforated Screen
3.6.6.12 Step-Tread Screen
3.6.6.13 Woven Wire Cloth Screen
3.6.6.14 Profile Rod Screen
3.6.6.15 Vibrating Cloth Screen
3.6.6.16 Self Cleaning Grizzly
3.6.6.17 Moving-Bar Grizzly
3.6.6.18 Traveling Grizzly
3.6.6.19 Roller Type Grizzly
3.6.6.20 Live-Roll Grizzly
3.6.6.21 Burch Ring Grizzly
3.6.6.22 Shaking Grizzly
3.6.6.23 Radar Disc Screen
3.6.6.24 Rotascreen
3.6.7 Vibrating Classifiers (See also Section 7.1.5)
3.6.7.1 Stoner Vibrating Table
3.6.7.2 Dry Table
3.6.8 Evaporation
3.6.8.1 Fluidized Bed Dryer
3.6.8.2 Externally Heated Drum Dryer
3.6.8.3 Spiral-Conveyor Dryer
3.6.8.4 Steam Tube Rotary Dryer
3.6.8.5 Vibratory Conveyor Dryer
3.6.8.6 Agitated Pan Dryer
3.6.8.7 Rotary Steam Tube Dryer
3.6.8.8 Multi-Louvre Dryer
3.6.8.9 Vacuum-Belt Dryer
3.6.8.10 Vacuum Rotary Dryer
3.6.8.11 Double Cone Vacuum Dryer
3.6.9 Mechanical Classification (See also Section 2.1.3)
3.6.9.1 Dewatering Elevator
3.6.9.2 Drag Classifier
3.6.9.3 Rake Classifier
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3. SOLIDS TREATMENT (Cont.)
3.6.9 Mechanical Classification (Cont.)
3.6.9.4 Shovel Wheel
3.6.9.5 Rotoscoop
3.6.9.6 Sand Wheel
3.6.9.7 Spiral Classifier
3.6.9.8 Hardinge Countercurrent Classifier
3.6.10 Miscellaneous Equipment
3.6.10.1 Ballistic Separator
3.6.10.2 Secator Inertial Separator
3.6.10.3 Inclined - Conveyor Separator
3.6.10.4 Sortex Optical Separation Unit
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4. FINAL DISPOSAL
4.1 Pond Lining
4.1.1 Membrane Linings
4.1.1.1 Butyl Rubber
4.1.1.2 Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM)
4.1.1.3 Neoprene
4.1.1.4 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
4.1.1.5 Chiorosulforated Polyethylene (Hypalon)
4.1.1.6 Chlorinated Polyethylene
4.1.1.7 High Density Polyethylene
4.1.1.8 Polyethylene
4.1.1.9 Polypropylene
4.1.1.10 Polyolefin (3110)
4.1.1.11 Polyurethane
4.1.1.12 Polyester (Hytrel)
4.1.1.13 Fiberglass
4.1.1.14 Asphaltic Flexible Sheeting
4.1.2 Liquid Sealants
4.1.2.1 Epoxy Bituminous Coating
4.1.2.2 Epoxy Tar Coating
4.1.2.3 Rubber Latex
4.1.3 Bulk Materials
4.1.3.1 Compacted Native Fine-Grain Soil
4.1.3.2 Soil Cement
4.1.3.3 Clay
4.1.3.4 Concrete
4.1.3.5 Hydralic Asphalt-Concrete
4.1.3.6 Asphalt
4.1.3.7 Impervious Pollution Barrier
4-2 Deep Well Injection
4.2.1 Surface Equipment
4.2.1.1 Pretreatment Equipment
4.2.1.2 Gravity Injection
4.2.1.3 Centrifugal Pumps
4.2.1.4 Multiplex Piston Pump
4.2.1.5 Turbine Pump
4.2.2 Injection Techniques
4.2.2.1 Cased-Hole Well Completion
4.2.2.2 Open-Hole Well Completion
4.2.2.3 Gravel Pack Completion
4.2.2.4 Lined Injection Tube with Annular Fluid
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4. FINAL DISPOSAL (Cont.)
4.2.2 Injection Techniques (Cont.)
4.2.2.5 Acidizing
4.2.2.6 Hydraulic Fracturing
4.2.2.7 Mechanical Treatment
4.2.2.8 Reinjection with Secondary Oil Recovery
4.2.2.9 Reinjection as a Grout or Cement Mixture
4.2.2.10 Selection of Disposal Strata
4.2.2.11 Ranney Recharge Collector
4.3 Burial and Landfill
4.3.1 Transportation
4.3.1.1 Air Tramway
4.3.1.2 Belt Conveyor
4.3.1.3 Trucks and Scrapers
4.3.1.4 Hydraulic Disposal
4.3.1.5 Pneumatic Conveyor
4.3.2 Landfill Methods
4.3.2.1 Deep Slurry Impoundment
4.3.2.2 Layered Flat Land Disposal
4.3.2.3 Layered Ravine Disposal
4.3.2.4 Lined Burial Pits
4.3.2.5 Refuse Stabilization with Limestone Waste
4.3.2.6 Shallow Slurry Impoundment
4.3.2.7 Strip Mine Disposal During Reclamation
4.3.2.8 Trench Method
4.3.2.9 Ramp Method
4.3.2.10 High Density Landfill ing
4.3.2.11 Solidification/Landfill
4.4 Sealed Contained Storage
4.4.1 Encapsulation for Ocean Disposal
4.4.1.1 Corrosion Resistant Tanks
4.4.1.2 Concrete Encased Tanks
4.4.2 Encapsulation for Land Burial
4.4.2.1 Encapsulating Waste in Asphalt
4.4.2.2 Long Term High-Integrity Containers
4.4.2.3 Spray Calciner and Continuous Melter
4.4.2.4 Subsurface Trenches
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4. FINAL DISPOSAL (Cont.)
4.4.3 Permanent Storage
4.4.3.1 Underground Mines
4.4.3.2 Tanks
4.5 Dilution (water)
4.5.1 Diffusers
4.5.1.1 Open-end Subsurface Pipe
4.5.1.2 Surface Discharge - Ditch
4.5.1.3 Surface Discharge - Pipe
4.5.1.4 Branched Pipe Diffuser
4.5.1.5 Slotted Pipe Diffuser
4.5.1.6 Nozzle End Pipe Diffuser
4.5.1.7 Perforated Pipe Diffuser
4.5.1.8 Vortex Generator
4.5.2 Ocean Disposal
4.5.2.1 Single Skin Barge
4.5.2.2 Double Skin Barge
4.5.2.3 Double Skin Barge with Independent Cargo Spaces
4.5.2.4 Caustic Disposal by Oil Tanker
4.6 Dispersion (air,land)
4.6.1 Tall Stacks
4.6.1.1 Masonry Lined Stacks
4.6.1.2 Plastic Lined Stacks
4.6.1.3 Monolithic Lined Stacks
4.6.2 Land Irrigation
4.6.2.1 Ridge and Furrows Irrigations
4.6.2.2 Spray Irrigation with Artificial Underground Drainage
4.6.2.3 Overland Spray Irrigation
4.6.2.4 Truck Irrigation
4.6.3 Spreading/Plowing In
4.6.3.1 Surface/Subsurface Distribution
4.6.3.2 Sand Farm Subsurface Injection
4.6.3.3 Surface Spreading
4.7 Waste Utilization
4.7.1 Reuse After Treatment/Conversion Processes
4.7.1.1 Activated Carbon from Coal Refuse
4.7.1.2 Steam Cured Bricks from Fly Ash
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4. FINAL DISPOSAL (Cont.)
4.7.1 Reuse After Treatment/Conversion Processes (Cont.)
4.7.1.3 Stabilized Roadbase Material from Fly Ash
4.7.1.4 Granular Aggregate from Fly Ash
4.7.1.5 Spent Sulfuric Acid Regeneration
4.7.K6 Ammonium Sulfate from Spent Sulfuric Acid
4.7.2 Direct Utilization
4.7.2.1 Water Treatment Sludge as Soil Conditioner
4.7.2.2 Acid Mine Drainage Sludge as Soil Conditioner
4.7.2.3 Poz-0-Pac-Process
4.7.2.4 Fly Ash for Soil Stabilization
4.7.2.5 Fly Ash as a Pozzolanic Additive in Cement
4.7.2.6 Spent Caustic for Industrial Uses
4.7.2.7 Spent Phosphoric Acid for Filler in Fertilizers
4.7.2.8 Disposal By Sale
4.7.3 Other Uses
4.7.3.1 Waste Heat for Space Heating
4.7.3.2 Waste Heat in Greenhouses
4.7.3.3 Waste Heat in Crop Farming
4.7.3.4 Waste Heat in Sewage Treatment
4.7.3.5 Waste Heat for Wastewater Evaporation
4.7.3.6 Waste Heat To De-ice Airport Runways
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5. PROCESS MODIFICATIONS
5.1 Feedstock, Raw Material Changes
5.1.1 Alternate Water Sources
5.1.1.1 Surface Water
5.1.1.2 Ground Water
5.1.1.3 Brackish Water
5.1.1.4 Sea Water
5.1.1.5 Collected Runoff
5.1.2 Water Treatment Chemicals
5.1.2.1 Non-Chromate Corrosion Inhibitors
5.1.2.2 Non-Phenol Algacides
5.1.3 Gas Treatment Chemicals
5.1.3.1 High Grade Limestone for FGD Scrubbers
5.1.3.2 Water as Absorbent
5.2 Stream Recycle
5.2.1 Direct Recycle
5.2.1.1 Reuse of Refinery Washes
5.2.1.2 Sour Water Stripper Bottoms
5.2.1.3 Boiler Slowdown to Cooling Towers
5.2.1.4 Recycle of Coal Gasification Tars
5.2.1.5 Use of Foul Water in Desalting
5.2.1.6 Spent Caustic to Neutralize Flue Gas
5.2.1.7 Spent Caustic/Waste Acid Neutralization
5.2.2 Reuse After Treatment
5.2.2.1 Refinery Wastewater
5.2.2.2 Delayed Coke Drilling Water
5.2.2.3 Tank Water Draws
5.2.2.4 Acid Mine Drainage Water
5.2.2.5 Regenerated Spent Catalyst
5.2.2.6 Agglomerated Fly Ash Recycle to Boiler
5.2.2.7 Caustic Regeneration
5.2.2.8 Isomerization Neutralizer Waste as Flocculant
5.2.3 Waste Heat Recovery
5.2.3.1 Process Heating
5.2.3.2 Boiler Feedwater Heating
5.2.3.3 Absorption Refrigeration
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5. PROCESS MODIFICATIONS (Cont.)
5.3 Process Improvements
5.3.1 Equalization of Waste Flows
5.3.1.1 Equalization Tanks
5.3.1.2 Ponds
5.3.1.3 Gas Holders
5.3.2 Improved Equipment Cleaning Methods
5.3.2.1 Biodegradable Detergents
5.3.2.2 Closed Tank Cleaning Systems
5.3.2.3 Improved Chemical Tank Cleaning
5.3.3 Educational Programs for Pollution Control
5.3.3.1 In-Plant Training for Pollution Control
5.3.3.2 Information Transfer from Pilot Plant Studies
5.3.3.3 Spill Prevention and Control Programs
5.3.4 Improved Process Control Instrumentation
5.3.4.1 Continuous Monitoring
5.3.4.2 Centralized Control
5.3.4.3 Computerized Control
5.3.5 Process Modifications
5.3.5.1 Use of Cooling Tower as Biological Oxidation Unit
5.3.6 Improved Operating Procedures
5.3.6.1 Startup Procedures
5.3.6.2 Shut Down Procedures
5.3.6.3 Optimization of Operating Conditions
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6. COMBUSTION MODIFICATIONS
6.1 Combustion Furnace/Burner/Process Modifications
6.1.1 Low Excess Air Firing
6.1.1.1 Gas Fired Utility Boilers
6.1.1.2 Oil Fired Utility Boilers
6.1.1.3 Coal Fired Utility Boilers
6.1.1.4 Gas Fired Industrial/Commercial Boilers
6.1.1.5 Oil Fired Industrial/Commercial Boilers
6.1.1.6 Coal Fired Industrial
6.1.1.7 Gas Fired Residential Warm Air Furnaces
6.1.1.8 Distillate Oil Fired Residential Warm Air Furnaces
6.1.2 Flue Gas Recirculation
6.1.2.1 Gas Fired Utility Boilers
6.1.2.2 Oil Fired Utility Boilers
6.1.2.3 Gas Fired Industrial/Commercial Boilers
6.1.2.4 Oil Fired Industrial/Commercial Boilers
6.1.2.5 Gas Fired Internal Combustion Engines
6.1.2.6 Diesel Oil Fired Internal Combustion Engines
6.1.2.7 Dual Fuel Fired Internal Combustion Engines
6.1.2.8 Gas Fired Gas Turbine Engines
6.1.2.9 Oil Fired Gas Turbine Engines
6.1.3 Off-Stoichiometric/Staged Combustion
6.1.3.1 Gas Fired Utility Boilers
6.1.3.2 Oil Fired Utility Boilers
6.1.3.3 Coal Fired Utility Boilers
6.1.3.4 Gas Fired Industrial/Commercial Boilers
6.1.3.5 Oil Fired Industrial/Commercial Boilers
6.1.3.6 Coal Fired Industrial/Commercial Boilers
6.1.4 Burner/Furnace Design Modifications
6.1.4.1 Gas Fired Utility Boilers
6.1.4.2 Oil Fired Utility Boilers
6.1.4.3 Coal Fired Utility Boilers
6.1.4.4 Gas Fired Industrial/Commercial Boilers
6.1.4.5 Oil Fired Industrial/Commercial Boilers
6.1.4.6 Coal Fired Industrial/Commercial Boilers
6.1.4.7 Distillate Oil Fired Residential Warm Air Furnaces
6.1.4.8 Gas Fired Internal Combustion Engines
6.1.4.9 Diesel Oil Fired Internal Combustion Engines
6.1.4.10 Gas Fired Gas Turbine Engines
6.1.4.11 Oil Fired Gas Turbine Engines
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6. COMBUSTION MODIFICATIONS
6.1.5 Load Reduction
6.1.5.1
6.1.5.2
6.1.5.3
6.1.5.4
6.1.5.5
6.1.5.6
6.1.5.7
6.1.5.8
6.1.5.9
6.1.5.10
6.1.5.11
6.1.5.12
6.1.5.13
Gas Fired Utility Boilers
Oil Fired Utility Boilers
Coal Fired Utility Boilers
Gas Fired Indus trial /Commercial Boilers
Oil Fired Industrial/Commercial Boilers
Coal Fired Industrie/Commercial Boilers
Gas Fired Residential Warm Air Furnaces
Distillate Oil Fired Residential Warm Air
Gas Fired Internal Combustion Engines
Diesel Oil Fired Internal Combustion Engines
Dual Fuel Fired Internal Combustion Engines
Gas Fired Gas Turbine Engines
Oil Fired Gas Turbine Engines
6.1.6 Reduced Air Preheat
6.1.6.1
6.1.6.2
6.1.6.3
6.1.6.4
6.1.6.5
6.1.6.6
6.1.6.7
6.1.6.8
6.1.6.9
Gas Fired Utility Boilers
Oil Fired Utility Boilers
Coal Fired Utility Boilers
Gas Fired Industrial/Commercial Boilers
Oil Fired Industrial/Commercial Boilers
Coal Fired Industrial /Commercial Boilers
Gas Fired Internal Combustion Engines
Diesel Oil Fired Internal Combustion Engines
Dual Fuel Fired Internal Combustion Engines
6.1.7 Water/Steam Injection
6.1.7.1 Oil Fired Utility Boilers
6.1.7.2 Coal Fired Utility Boilers
6.1.7.3 Gas Fired Internal Combustion Engines
6.1.7.4 Diesel Oil Fired Internal Combustion Engines
6.1.7.5 Dual Fuel Fired Internal Combustion Engines
6.1.7.6 Gas Fired Gas Turbine Engines
6.1.7.7 Oil Fired Gas Turbine Engines
6.1.8 Combination of Above Modifications
6.1.8.1 Gas Fired Utility Boilers
6.1.8.2 Oil Fired Utility Boilers
6.1.8.3 Coal Fired Utility Boilers
6.1.8.4 Gas Fired Industrial/Commercial Boilers
6.1.8.5 Oil Fired Industrial/Commercial Boilers
6.1.8.6 Coal Fired Industrial/Commercial Boilers
6.1.8.7 Gas Fired Residential Warm Air Furnaces
6.1.8.8 Distillate Oil Fired Residential Warm Air Furnaces
6.1.8.9 Gas Fired Internal Combustion Engines
6.1.8.10 Diesel Oil Fired Internal Combustion Engines
6.1.8.11 Dual Fuel Fired Internal Combustion Engines
6.1.8.12 Gas Fired Gas Turbine Engines
6.1.8.13 Oil Fired Gas Turbine Engines
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6. COMBUSTION MODIFICATIONS
6.2 Equipment Maintenance
6.2.1 Burner Tuning
6.2.2 Soot Removal
6.2.3 Water Treatment (when applicable)
6.2.4 Proper Operation
6.2.4.1 Automatic
6.2.4.2 Manual
6.2.5 Other
6.3 Alternate Fuels/Processes
6.3.1 Natural Fuels
6.3.1.1 Low Sulfur Coal
6.3.1.2 Low Sulfur Oil
6.3.1.3 Others
6.3.2 Mixed Fuels
6.3.2.1 Coal/Oil Slurries
6.3.2.2 Oil/Water Emulsions
6.3.2.3 Coal/Oil/Water Mixtures
6.3.2.4 Mixture with Municipal Waste
6.3.2.5 Mixture with Industrial Waste
6.3.3 Synthetic Fuels
6.3.3.1 Low BTU Gas from Coal
6.3.3.2 Medium and High BTU Gas from Coal
6.3.3.3 Substitute Natural Gas
6.3.3.4 Methanol
6.3.3.5 Coal-derived Liquids
6.3.3.6 Shale-derived Liquids
6.3.3.7 Processed Coals/Solid Fuels
6.3.4 Alternate Processes
6.3.4.1 Fluidized Bed Combustion
6.3.4.2 Catalytic Combustion
6.3.4.3 Others (MHD, etc.)
6.4 Fuel Additives/Furnace Reactants
6.4.1 Smoke and Particulate Suppressants
6.4.1.1 Transition Metal Compounds
6.4.1.2 Alkaline Earth Metal Compounds
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6. COMBUSTION MODIFICATIONS
6.4.1 Smoke and Particulate Suppressants (Cont.)
6.4.1.3 Others
6.4.2 Sulfur Oxide Reducers
6.4.2.1 Lime
6.4.2.2 Limestone
6.4.2.3 Soda Ash
6.4.2.4 Others
6.4.3 Corrosion/Slagging/Deposits Control
6.4.3.1 Alkaline Earth Metal Compounds
6.4.3.2 Others
6.4.4 Nitrogen Oxides Reducers
6.4.4.1 Ammonia
6.4.5 Fly Ash Conditioners
6.4.5.1 Sulfur Oxides
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7. FUEL CLEANING (Cont.)
7.1 Physical Separation
7.1.1 Dense Media Separation
7.1.1.1 American Cyanamid HMS Process
7.1.1.2 Barvoys Vessel
7.1.1.3 Bel knap Calcium Chloride Washer
7.1.1.4 Chance Sand Cone Process
7.1.1.5 DMS Dense Medium Precision Coal Washer
7.1.1.6 DSM Trough-Type Vessel
7.1.1.7 Eagle Hi-Grade Media Coal Washer
7.1.1.8 External Airlift Conical Separator
7.1.1.9 H & P Heavy Media Wash Box
7.1.1.10 Link-Belt Tank Type Heavy Medium Separator
7.1.1.11 McNally Lo-Flo Dense Media Vessel
7.1.1.12 McNally Tromp Dense Media Bath
7.1.1.13 McNally Tromp Three Product Dense Media Vessel
7.1.1.14 Modified Spiral Classifier
7.1.1.15 NELDCO Submerged Feed Processor
7.1.1.16 OCC Vessel
7.1.1.17 Teska Vessel
7.1.1.18 WEMCO Cone Separator
7.1.1.19 WEMCO Drum Separator
7.1.1.20 WEMCO-FP Washer
7.1.1.21 Heavy Media Static Bath
7.1.2 Centrifugal Separators
7.1.2.1 Krebs Coal Cleaning Cyclone
7.1.2.2 McNally Heavy Media Cycloid
7.1.2.3 McNally Visman Tricone
7.1.2.4 Wilmot Dyna Whirlpool Vessel
7.1.2.5 Heavy Media Coal Cleaning Cyclone
7.1.2.6 Var-A-Wall Hydrocyclone
7.1.3 Jigs
7.1.3.1 Batac Jig
7.1.3.2 Elmore Plunger Jig
7.1.3.3 Faust Plunger Jig
7.1.3.4 Jeffrey Air Operated Jig
7.1.3.5 Jeffrey Diaphragm Jig
7.1.3.6 Lehigh Punger Jig
7.1.3.7 Link-Belt Air Pulsated Wash Box
7.1.3.8 McNally Fine Coal Washer
7.1.3.9 McNally-Pittsburg Mogul Washer
7.1.3.10 McNally-Pittsburg Norton Standard Washer
7.1.3.11 ORC Fine Coal Washer
7.1.3.12 Reading Jig
7.1.3.13 Roberts and Shaefer Fine Coal Jig
7.1.3.14 Tacub Jig
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7. FUEL CLEANING (Cont.)
7.1.3 Jigs (Cont.)
7.1.3.15 Vissac Jig
7.1.3.16 WEMCO-Remer Jig
7.1.3.17 Wilmot Simplex Pan Jig
7.1.4 Launders
7.1.4.1 Batelle Washer
7.1.4.2 Cannon Concentrator
7.1.4.3 Deposite Particle Launder
7.1.4.4 Free Discharge Rheolaveur
7.1.4.5 Humphrey Spiral Concentrator
7.1.4.6 Hydraulic Classifier
7.1.4.7 Hydrotator Process
7.1.4.8 Lamex Launder
7.1.4.9 Menzie Cone Hydroseparator
7.1.4.10 Multidune Process
7.1.4.11 Reichert Concentrator
7.1.4.12 Sealed Discharge Rheolaveur
7.1.5 Wet Concentrating Tables
7.1.5.1 Massco
7.1.5.2 Garfield
7.1.5.3 Butchart
7.1.5.4 Diester
7.1.5.5 Campbell
7.1.5.6 Buss
7.1.5.7 Plat-0
7.1.5.8 Overstrom Universal
7.1.6 Froth Flotation (See also Section 2.3)
7.1.6.1 D-R Flotation Machine
7.1.6.2 Denver Cell
7.1.6.3 Galigher Agitair Flotation Machine
7.1.6.4 WEMCO 1+1 Flotation Cells
7.1.6.5 H & P Cyclo-Cell
7.1.7 Other Commercial Methods
7.1.7.1 Dry Centrifugal Separation
7.1.7.2 Roberts and Shaefer Airflow Cleaner
7.1.7.3 Selective Flocculation
7.1.7.4 Rotary Breaker
7.1.7.5 Ziegler Picker
7.1.7.6 Ayers Picker
7.1.7.7 Shaking Picker
7.1.7.8 Spiral Picker
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7. FUEL CLEANING (Cont.)
7.2 Chemical Refining
7.3 Carbonization/Pyrolysis
7.3.1 Vertical
7.3.1.1
7.3.1.2
7.3.1.3
7.3.1.4
7.3.1.5
7.3.1.6
7.3.1.7
7.3.1.8
7.3.1.9
7.3.1.10
Retorts
Brennstoff-Technak
Carmaux Oven
Cell on Jones Oven
Koppers Continuous Vertical
Krupp-Lurgi Process
Otto Retort
Parker Retort
Phurnacite Process
Rexco Process
Weber Process
Report
7.3.2 Horizontal Retorts
7.3.3 Entrained or Fluidized Carbonization
7.3.3.1 Parry Entrained Carbonization Process
7.4 Treatment of Liquid Fuels
7.4.1 Physical Chemical Methods
7.4.1.1 Demex
7.4.1.2 Molecular Sieve Drying and Sweeting
7.4.1.3 Solvent Deasphalting
7.4.1.4 Stripping of Crude Fuels
7.4.2 Hydrotreating
7.4.2.1 Autofining (BP Trading)
7.4.2.2 Bender Sweetening (Petrolite)
7.4.2.3 DPG Hydrotreating (C-E Lummus)
7.4.2.4 Distillate HDS (IFP)
7.4.2.5 Fuel HDS (IFP)
7.4.2.6 GO-fining and RESID Fining (Exxon)
7.4.2.7 Gulfining (Gulf)
7.4.2.8 H-Oil (Hydrocarbon Research)
7.4.2.9 HDS (M. W. Kellogg)
7.4.2.10 HPN (Engelhard Industries)
7.4.2.11 Hydrocracking (BP Trading)
7.4.2.12 Hydrocracking (IFP)
7.4.2.13 Hydrofining (BP Trading)
7.4.2.14 Hydrofining (Exxon)
7.4.2.15 Isocracking (Chevron)
7.4.2.16 LC-Fining (C-E Lummus)
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7. FUEL CLEANING (Cont.)
7.4.2 Hydrotreating (Cont.)
7.4.2.17 Locap (PetrolHe)
7.4.2.18 Mercapfining (Howe-Baker)
7.4.2.19 PGO Hydrotreating (C-E Lummus)
7.4.2.20 Propane Deasphalting and Fractionation (Pullman Kellogg)
7.4.2.21 Pyrolysis Distillate Hydrogenation (IFP)
7.4.2.22 RCD Unibon (UOP)
7.4.2.23 RDS and VRDS Hydrotreating (Chevron)
7.4.2.24 Redis HDS (Gulf)
7.4.2.25 Resid Hydroprocessing (Standard)
7.4.2.26 Residual Oil HDS (Shell)
7.4.2.27 Residue Desulfurization (BP Trading)
7.4.2.28 Trickle Flow HDS (Shell)
7.4.2.29 Ultrafining (Standard)
7.4.2.30 Ultrasweetening (Standard)
7.4.2.31 Unicracking/HDS (Union Oil)
7.4.2.32 Unionfining (Union Oil)
7.4.2.33 VGO and DAO Hydrotreating (Chevron)
7.4.2.34 Vapor Phase HDS (Shell)
7.4.3 Chemical Treatment
7.4.3.1 Atlantic Unisol
7.4.3.2 Catalytic Demetalization
7.4.3.3 Cooper Sweetening - Dry
7.4.3.4 Cooper Sweetening - Slurry
7.4.3.5 Distillate Treating (Petrolite)
7.4.3.6 Doctor Treatment - Mercaptan Oxidation
7.4.3.7 Dualayer Distillate Process (Socony Mobil Oil)
7.4.3.8 Electrical Distillate Treating (Howe-Baker)
7.4.3.9 Furfural Extraction of Gas Oils (Texaco)
7.4.3.10 Gray Desulfurization Process
7.4.3.11 Hypochlorite Treatment - Mercaptan Oxidation
7.4.3.12 Inhibitor Sweetening
7.4.3.13 Lead Sulfide Treatment - Mercaptan Oxidation
7.4.3.14 Merifining (Merichem)
7.4.3.15 Merox (UOP)
7.4.3.16 Perco Catalytic Process
7.4.3.17 Polysulfide Elemental Sulfur Removal
7.4.3.18 Pure Oil Mercapsol Process
7.4.3.19 Regenerative Caustic Process
7.4.3.20 Selective Oxidation and Extraction
7.4.3.21 SO? Extraction (Edeleanu Gesellschaft)
7.4.3.22 Sotutizer (Shell)
7.4.3.23 Sulfining (Howe-Baker)
7.5 Fuel Gas Treatment
7.5.1 Absorption (See also Section 1.4)
7.5.1.1 Absorption by Caustic Soda
7.5.1.2 Acid Gas Adsorption in Organic Solvents
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7. FUEL CLEANING (Cont.)
7.5.1 Absorption (Cont.)
7.5.1.3 Adip (Shell)
7.5.1.4 Alkacid Process (Davy Powergas)
7.5.1.5 Ami sol Process
7.5.1.6 Carl Still Process
7.5.1.7 Catacarb Process
7.5.1.8 DEA Process
7.5.1.9 DGA Process
7.5.1.10 DIPA Process
7.5.1.11 Direct Ammonia Removal Process
7.5.1.12 Estasolvan Process
7.5.1.13 F-S Process
7.5.1.14 Fluor Econamine
7.5.1.15 Fluor Solvent Process
7.5.1.16 Girbotol Process
7.5.1.17 Glycol-Amine Process
7.5.1.18 H2S Adsorption in Water
7.5.1.19 Heat Exchanger - Absorber Amine Process
7.5.1.20 High Pressure Adsorption of NHq in Water
7.5.1.21 Hot Potassium Carbonate/Benfieid Process
7.5.1.22 Indirect Ammonia Removal Process
7.5.1.23 Klempt and Rober Pyridine Process
7.5.1.24 Lenze and Rettenmaier Refrigeration Process
7.5.1.25 Lime Slurry Process
7.5.1.26 MEA Process
7.5.1.27 MDEA Process (DOW)
7.5.1.28 Permanganate and Dichromate Adsorption
7.5.1.29 Purisol Process
7.5.1.30 Rectisol Process
7.5.1.31 Rectisol Process for Selective \\2$ Removal
7.5.1.32 SNPA-DEA (Parsons)
7.5.1.33 Seaboard Gas Purification Process
7.5.1.34 Selective H2S Removal/Collin Process
7.5.1.35 Selective H2S Removal/No NH3 Solution Recycle
7.5.1.36 Selective H2S Removal/Partial Solution Recycle
7.5.1.37 Selexol Process
7.5.1.38 Semi direct Ammonia Removal Process
7.5.1.39 Sodium Bichromate/Zinc Sulfate Absorption
7.5.1.40 Split-Stream Aqueous Amine Process
7.5.1.41 Sulfiban Process
7.5.1.42 Sulfinol Process
7.5.1.43 Tripotassium Phosphate Process
7.5.1.44 USS Phosam Process
7.5.1.45 Vacuum Carbonate Process
7.5.2 Dry Oxidation (See also Section 1.7.2)
7.5.2.1 Applyby-Frodingham Process
7.5.2.2 Conventional-Box Fe203 Purifier
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7. FUEL CLEANING (Cont.)
7.5.2 Dry Oxidation (Cont.)
7.5.2.3 Fe203 Deep-Box Purifier
7.5.2.4 Gastechnik Purification Process
7.5.2.5 High Pressure Fe203 Purifiers
7.5.2.6 Katasulf Process
7.5.2.7 North Thames Gas Board Process
7.5.2.8 Soda-Iron Process
7.5.2.9 Spichal Activated Carbon Process
7.5.2.10 Split-Stream Katasulf Process
7.5.2.11 Thyssen-Lenze Tower Purifiers
7.5.3 Liquid Phase Oxidation (See also Section 1.7.2)
7.5.3.1 Auto Purification Process
7.5.3.2 Fischer Process
7.5.3.3 Giammarco Vetrocoke Process
7.5.3.4 Gluud Combination Process
7.5.3.5 Koppers C.A.S. Process
7.5.3.6 Lacey-Keller Process
7.5.3.7 Manchester Process
7.5.3.8 Modified Thylox Process
7.5.3.9 Perox Process
7.5.3.10 Stretford Process
7.5.3.11 Takahax Process
7.5.3.12 Thylox Process
7.5.3.13 Townsend Process
7.5.4 Adsorption
7.5.4.1 CBA Process
7.5.4.2 Haines Process
7.5.4.3 Molecular Sieve/Liquid Absorbent Process
7.5.4.4 Zinc Oxide Adsorption
7.5.5 Catalytic Conversion (See also Section 1.7.2)
7.5.5.1 British Gas Council Process
7.5.5.2 Carpenter-Evans Process
7.5.5.3 Holmes-Maxted Process
7.5.5.4 Modified Holmes-Maxted Process
7.5.5.5 Organic Sulfur Removal-Chromia-Alumina Catalyst
7.5.5.6 Organic Sulfur Removal-Co Mo Catalyst
7.5.5.7 Organic Sulfur Removal-Huff Catalyst
7.5.5.8 Organic Sulfur Removal-Iron Oxide Catalyst
7.5.5.9 Organic Sulfur Removal-Platinum Catalyst
7.5.5.10 Peoples Gas Company Process
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8. FUGITIVE EMISSIONS CONTROL
8.1 Surface Coatings/Covers
8.1.1 Surface Coatings
8.1.1.1 Alkyd Paints
8.1.1.2 Latex Paints
8.1.1.3 Epoxy-Coal Tar
8.1.1.4 Epoxy, Furan, Phenoloic, Polyester Resins
8.1.1.5 Vinyl and Urethane Coatings
8.1.1.6 Neoprene, Chlorinated Rubber
8.1.1.7 Silicones
8.1.1.8 Silicate Cement
8.1.1.9 Asphalt Base Mastic
8.1.1.10 Plasticized Sulfur
8.1.1.11 Organic and Inorganic Zinc
8.1.2 Soil Covers
8.1.2.1 Aggregate
8.1.2.2 Asphalt
8.1.2.3 Gabions, Rip-Rap
8.1.2.4 Fibrous Matting
8.1.2.5 Plastic Sheeting
8.1.2.6 Filter Fabrics
8.1.2.7 Gobimat
8.1.3 Evaporation Barriers
8.1.3.1 Plastic Balls
8.1.3.2 Plastic Foam
8.1.3.3 Pan-Type Internal Covers
8.1.3.4 Aluminum Sandwich Floating Cover
8.1.3.5 Polyester-Foam Sandwich Cover
8.1.3.6 Foam Slabs
8.1.3.7 Liquid Evaporation Inhibitors
8.2 Vegetation
8.2.1 Barrier Plantings
8.2.1.1 Windbreaks
8.2.1.2 Noise Barriers
8.2.1.3 Dust Barriers
8.2.2 Erosion Control
8.2.2.1 Ground Covers
8.2.2.2 Slope Stabilizers
8.2.2.3 Contour Planting
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8. FUGITIVE EMISSIONS CONTROL (Cont.)
8.2.3 Mined Land Reclamation
8.2.3.1 Grasses
8.2.3.2 Legumes
8.2.3.3 Shrubs
8.2.3.4 Trees
8.3 Dust Control Sprays
8.3.1 Spray Nozzles
8.3.1.1 Fan
8.3.1.2 Whirl
8.3.1.3 Impingement
8.3.1.4 Spiral
8.3.1.5 Air Atomizing
8.3.2 Spray Systems
8.3.2.1 Mobile Applicators
8.3.2.2 Solids Transfer Systems
8.3.3 Chemical Agents
8.3.3.1 Wetting Agents
8.3.3.2 Petroleum Resins
8.3.3.3 Lignon Sulfonate
8.3.3.4 Foaming Agents
8.4 Dust and/or Vapor Enclosures
8.4.1 Shrouds, Hoods and Covers
8.4.1.1 Vented Hoods
8.4.1.2 Trellex Dust-Proofing System
8.4.1.3 Air Curtains
8.4.1.4 Covers for API Separators
8.4.1.5 Covered Drains
8.4.2 Buildings
8.4.2.1 Air-Supported Structures
8.4.2.2 Negative Pressure Buildings
8.4.2.3 Ventilation Exhaust Scrubbers
8.5 Leak Prevention
8.5.1 Pond Liners and Sealants (See Sec. 4.1)
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8. FUGITIVE EMISSIONS CONTROL (Cont.)
8.5.2 Tank Liners
8.5.2.1 Plastic Bag Liners
8.5.2.2 Cemented Vinyl
8.5.2.3 Liquid-Applied Coatings (See Sec. 8.1.1)
8.5.2.4 Lead
8.5.2.5 Rubber
8.5.2.6 Stonliner
8.5.3 Cathodic Protection
8.5.3.1 Galvanic Anodes
8.5.3.2 Impressed Current System
8.5.4 Dry-Break Couplings
8.5.4.1 API-1004
8.5.5 Shaft Seals
8.5.5.1 Mechanical Seals
8.5.5.2 Seal Impurity Eliminator
8.5.5.3 Secondary Seals, Pressurized
8.5.5.4 Secondary Seals, Vented
8.5.6 Gaskets and Other Seals
8.5.6.1 Elastomeric
8.5.6.2 Metal
8.5.6.3 Asbestos
8.5.6.4 Metal-Asbestos
8.5.6.4 Valve Packing
8.5.7 Piping Practice for Leak Prevention
8.5.7.1 Pipeline Welding Techniques
8.5.7.2 Protective Diaphragms for Relief Valves
8.5.7.3 Thermal Expansion Allowance
8.6 Leak Detection and Repair
8.6.1 Spill Detectors (Water Surface)
8.6.1.1 Spillalarm
8.6.1.2 Infrared Oil Film Monitor
8.6.2 Pipeline Slow Leak Detection
8.6.2.1 B&W Photography
8.6.2.2 Color Photography
8.6.2.3 Infrared Photography
8.6.2.4 Microwave Radiometry
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8. FUGITIVE EMISSIONS CONTROL (Cont.)
8.6.3 Gas Leak Detectors
8.6.3.1 Soap Solution
8.6.3.2 Smoke Generators
8.6.3.3 Thermal Conductivity
8.6.3.4 Baghouse Leak Detector
8.6.3.5 Flammable Gas Detector
8.6.3.6 LNG Leak Detector
8.6.4 Leak Repairs
8.6.4.1 Pipe Sleeves
8.6.4.2 Flange Repair-Rings
8.6.4.3 Oversleeves
8.7 Vent Vapor Controls
8.7.1 Variable Volume Storage Tanks
8.7.1.1 Pan-Type Floating Roof
8.7.1.2 Pontoon-Type Floating Roof
8.7.1.3 Sandwich-Type Floating Roof
8.7.1.4 Flexible Diaphragm Tank
8.7.2 Seals for Floating Roof Tanks
8.7.2.1 Shoe Seals
8.7.2.2 Tube Seals
8.7.2.3 Secondary Wiper Seals
8.7.2.4 Secondary Tube Seals
8.7.3 Variable Vapor Space Systems
8.7.3.1 Dry-Seal Lifter Roof
8.7.3.2 Wet-Seal Lifter Roof
8.7.3.3 Flexible Diaphragm, Integral Unit
8.7.3.4 Flexible Diaphragm, Separate Unit
8.7.4 Vapor Pressure Reduction
8.7.4.1 Shade
8.7.4.2 Reflective Paint
8.7.4.3 Insulation
8.7.4.4 Water Cooling
8.7.5 Pressure-Vacuum Vent Valves
8.7.5.1 Solid Pallet Valve
8.7.5.2 Diaphragm Valve
8.7.5.3 Pilot Operated Valves
8.7.5.4 Cylindrical Liquid Seal
8.7.5.5 Bell Type Liqutd Seal
8.7.5.6 Standpipe Liquid Seal
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8. FUGITIVE EMISSIONS CONTROL (Cont.)
8.7.6 Vapor Space Stratification
8.7.6.1 Breather Baffles
8.7.6.2 Transit Tank Baffles
8.7.6.3 Submerged Fill
8.7.6.4 Bottom Loading Carriers
8.7.6.5 Stripper Pumps
8.7.7 Vapor Recovery
8.7.7.1 Vapor Balance Loading Systems
8.7.7.2 Vacuum Assisted Vapor Balance
8.7.7.3 Compression
8.7.7.4 Condensation (See also Section 1.5)
8.7.7.5 Absorption and Adsorption (See also Sec. 1.4, 1.6)
8.7.7.6 Gas Blanketing
8.7.8 Incineration (See Sec. 1.7)
8.7.9 Sampling Techniques
8.7.9.1 Pump-Around Sampling Loops
8.7.9.2 Hooded Sampling Points
8.7.9.3 Sample Bombs for Flushing
8.7.9.4 Combination Drain and Sample Valve
8.8 Tanker Residue Controls
8.8.1 Ballast Water Management Systems
8.8.1.1 Load-on-Top System
8.8.1.2 Segregated Ballast
8.8.1.3 Dockside Treatment
8.8.2 Shipboard Oil-Water Separators
8.8.2.1 Filter Coalescer
8.8.2.2 Parallel Plate Coalescer
8.9 Noise Control
8.9.1 Barrier Surfaces
8.9.1.1 Mass-Loaded Vinyl Sheet
8.9.1.2 Lead Sheet
8.9.1.3 Damped Metals
8.9.2 Absorbing Materials
8.9.2.1 Asbestos Ceiling Tile
8.9.2.2 Urethane Foam
8.9.2.3 Fiberglass Blanket
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8. FUGITIVE EMISSIONS CONTROL (Cont.)
8.9.2 Absorbing Materials (Cont.)
8.9.2.4 Foam-Plastic Sandwich
8.9.2.5 Felt
8.9.3 Enclosures
8.9.3.1 Absorbing Masonry Blocks
8.9.3.2 Metal Sandwich Panels
8.9.3.3 Polyethylene-Fiberglass Wall Modules
8.9.3.4 Polyurethane Sandwich Panels
8.9.4 Damping Coatings
8.9.4.1 Mastic
8.9.4.2 Adhesive Tap
8.9.5 Silencers/Attenuators
8.9.5.1 Intake Absorbers
8.9.5.2 Intake Snubbers
8.9.5.3 Absorptive Ducts
8.9.5.4 Exhaust Absorbers
8.9.5.5 Exhaust Snubbers
8.9.5.6 In-Line Valve Silencers
8.9.6 Sound Reduction Doors
8.9.6.1 Solid
8.9.6.2 Flexible Strip
8.10 Odor Control
8.10.1 Emissions Control (See Section 1,2,8,9)
8.10.2 Oxidation of Malodorous Spills
8.10.2.1 Sodium Hypochlorite
8.10.2.2 Potassium Permanganate
8.10.2.3 Hydrogen Peroxide
8.10.3 Odor Masking
8.10.3.1 Easton
8.10.3.2 Plastocon
8.10.3.3 Air-Tite
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9. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE TECHNOLOGY
9.1 Spill Prevention in Storage Systems
9.1.1 Containment of Storage Spills
9.1.1.1 Dikes, Curbs & Pits
9.1.1.2 Catchment Tanks & Basins
9.1.1.3 Separate Drainage for Diked Areas
9.1.1.4 Stormwater Bypass Systems
9.1.1.5 Non-Drained Dike Areas
9.1.1.6 Imbibitive Polymer Valve
9.1.1.7 Oil Stop Valve
9.1.2 Pressure & Vacuum Protection Devices
9.1.2.1 ' Rupture Discs
9.1.2.2 Spring Loaded Relief Valves
9.1.2.3 Pilot Operated Safety Valves
9.1.2.4 Vacuum Breakers
9.1.3 Level Alarms
9.1.3.1 Hydrostatic
9.1.3.2 Ultrasonic
9.1.3.3 Thermistor
9.1.3.4 Resistance
9.1.3.5 Capacitance
9.1.3.6 Separate Overflow & Alarm
9.1.3.7 Spill Detectors (See Section 8.6.2)
9.1.3.8 Float Type
9.1.4 Building Design for Containment
9.1.4.1 Chemical Sewer System
9.1.4.2 Vent Exhaust Scrubbers
9.1.4.3 Ventilation Zoning
9.1.5 Security Measures and Procedures
9.1.5.1 Locked or Sealed Drain Valves
9.1.5.2 TV Surveillance
9.2 Spill Prevention in Transportation
9.2.1 Double-Wall Tanks
9.2.1.1 Tank-in-Barge
9.2.2 Vessel Mooring and Transfer Systems
9.2.2.1 T-Jetty
9.2.2.2 Sea Island
9.2.2.3 Single Point Mooring
9.2.2.4 Double-Wall Transfer Hose
-77-
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9. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE TECHNOLOGY (Cont.)
9.2.3 Railway and Truck Transfer Systems
9.2.3.1 Coupling-Valve Interlocks
9.2.3.2 Coupling-Departure Interlocks
9.2.3.3 Quick Drainage Systems
9.2.3.4 Loading Facility Drains
9.2.4 Catastrophic Leak Detection
9.2.4.1 Closed Circuit TV
9.2.4.2 Comparative Flow
9.3 Spill Prevention in Oil and Gas Production
9.3.1 Blowout Preventers
9.3.1.1 Ram
9.3.1.2 Shear
9.3.1.3 Annular
9.3.1.4 Rotating
9.3.1.5 Inside Drill Pipe
9.3.2 Containment Barriers for Offshore Platforms
9.3.2.1 Permanent Booms
9.3.2.2 Rising-Sinking Booms
9.3.3 Collection Devices for Submarine Leaks
9.3.3.1 Firestone Fabri-Dome
9.4 Flares
9.4.1 Tower Flares
9.4.1.1 Steam Injection
9.4.1.2 Forced Air
9.4.1.3 Entrained Air
9.4.2 Ground Flares
9.4.2.1 Open
9.4.2.2 Enclosed
9.4.3 Burn Pits
9.4.3.1 Consumat
-78-
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9. ACCIDENAL RELEASE TECHNOLOGY (Cont.)
9.5 Oil Spill Barriers
9.5.1 Floating Booms for Oil Spills
9.5.1.1 Curtain Booms
9.5.1.2 Fence Booms
9.5.1.3 Collapsible Booms
9.5.1.4 High Seas Booms
9.5.1.5 Absorbent Booms
9.5.1.6 High Current Booms
9.5.2 Barriers for Land or Small Streams
9.5.2.1 Earth Dike
9.5.2.2 Sorbent Fence
9.5.2.3 Instant Foam Barrier
9.5.3 Chemical Barriers (Booming Agents)
9.5.3.1 Shell Oil Herder
9.5.3.2 Emery
9.5.3.3 W. G. Smith
9.5.3.4 Chevron
9.5.4 Air Barriers
9.5.4.1 Harmstorff
9.5.4.2 Hind Engineering
9.5.4.3 Environmental Services
9.6 Oil Recovery Devices
9.6.1 Weir Devices
9.6.1.1 Acme
9.6.1.2 Mapco
9.6.1.3 OELA
9.6.1.4 Skim
9.6.1.5 SLURP
9.6.1.6 Bennett
9.6.1.7 Rheinswerft
9.6.1.8 Craftmaster
9.6.1.9 PSI
9.6.2 Floating Suction Devices
9.6.2.1 Kepner Seavac
9.6.2.2 Oil Recovery Systems
9.6.2.3 Slickbar
9.6.2.4 Acme
9.6.2.5 IME
9.6.2.6 Vac-U-Max
-79-
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9. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE TECHNOLOGY (Cont.)
9.6.2 Floating Suction Devices (Cont.)
9.6.2.7 Megator
9.6.2.8 Hyde
9.6.2.9 Envirex
9.6.2.10 Craftmaster
9.6.3 Oleophilic Surface Devices
9.6.3.1 Rex Chainbelt
9.6.3.2 Bennett Pollution Controls
9.6.3.3 JBF Scientific
9.6.3.4 Centri-Spray
9.6.3.5 British Petroleum
9.6.3.6 Lockheed
9.6.3.7 Surface Separator Systems
9.6.3.8 Welles Products
9.6.3.9 Oil Skimmers
9.6.3.10 Oil Mop
9.6.3.11 Sandvik
9.6.3.12 Tenco
9.6.3.13 Met-Pro
9.6.3.14 Marco
9.6.3.15 Envirex
9.6.3.16 Action Engineering
9.6.4 Vortexes and Misc. Mechanical Devices
9.6.4.1 Vortex Oil Drinker
9.6.4.2 Scientific Associates
9.6.4.3 Cyclonet
9.6.4.4 Intex
9.6.4.5 Craftmaster
9.6.5 Combination Barrier-Skimmers
9.6.5.1 CORE Laboratories
9.6.5.2 MIT Design
9.6.5.3 Ultrasystems
9.6.5.4 Oil Mop
9.6.5.5 Samson
9.6.5.6 Offshore Devices
9.6.6 Mobile Skimmers
9.6.6.1 JBF Scientific
9.6.6.2 Gulf of Georgia Towing Co.
9.6.6.3 Cyclonet
9.6.6.4 Lockheed
9.6.6.5 RBH Cybernetics
9.6.6.6 Slickbar
9.6.6.7 Craftmaster
-80-
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9. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE TECHNOLOGY (Cont.)
9.6.6 Mobile Skimmers (Cont.)
9.6.6.8 Marco
9.6.6.9 Sandvik
9.6.6.10 Bennett
9.6.6.11 Seaward
9.6.7 Absorbents
9.6.7.1 Straw
9.6.7.2 Wood Fibers
9.6.7.3 Corn Cob
9.6.7.4 Peat
9.6.7.5 Perlite
9.6.7.6 Vermiculite
9.6.7.7 Volcanic Rock
9.6.7.8 Polyolefins
9.6.7.9 Polyurethanes
9.6.7.10 Other Synthetic Foams
9.6.7.11 Unclassified
9.6.7.12 Ferromagnetic Sorbent
9.6.8 Mobile Storage & Transfer Units
9.6.8.1 Towable Storage Bags
9.6.8.2 Land-Based Units
9.6.8.3 Towed Planning Sled
9.7 Chemical Treatment of Oil Spills
9.7.1 Dispersants
9.7.1.1 Soaps
9.7.1.2 Phosphate Detergents
9.7.1.3 Alkyl-aryl-sulfonates
9.7.1.4 Alkanolamides
9.7.1.5 Ethylene Oxide Condensates
9.7.1.6 Aromatic Solvents
9.7.1.7 Aliphatic Solvents
9.7.1.8 Polyglycols
9.7.1.9 Other
9.7.2 Sinking Agents
9.7.2.1 Clay Based
9.7.2.2 Silica Based
9.7.2.3 Aluminum and Magnesium Silicates
9.7.2.4 Asbestos
9.7.2.5 Cement, Gypsum
9.7.2.6 Calcium Carbonate
9.7.2.7 Miscellaneous
-81 _
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9. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE TECHNOLOGY (Cont.)
9.7.3 Gelling Agents
9.7.3.1 Burns & Russell, Gel-Sorb 301
9.7.3.2 Narvon Mining & Chemical, Zeta Floe
9.7.3.3 Strickman Industries, Strickite Oil Collector
9.7.3.4 Union Carbide, Calidria Asbestos
9.7.4 Burning Agents
9.7.4.1 Cabot, Cab-0-Sil
9.7.4.2 Grefco, Ekoperl
9.7.4.3 Guardian Chemical, Pyraxon
9.7.4.4 Pittsburgh Corning, Sea Beads
9.7.4.5 Scheidemandel A. G., Kontax
9.7.4.6 Vermiculite
9.7.5 Biological Treatment
9.7.5.1 Bioteknika International, Biodeg and Petrodeg
9.7.5.2 Gerald C. Bowers, DBC-Plus
9.7.5.3 International Enzymes, Bacto-Zyme
9.7.5.4 Hyde Park
9.8 Subsurface and Hazardous Spills
9.8.1 Recovery Methods for Subsurface Spills
9.8.1.1 Recovery Trench
9.8.1.2 Recovery Well
9.8.1.3 Recovery Crock
9.8.1.4 Barrier Curtain
9.8.2 Recovery Methods for Hazardous Materials
9.8.2.1 Vacuum Trucks
9.8.2.2 Mine Safety Appliance
9.8.2.3 Floating Ion Exchange Resins
9.8.2.4 Imbibitive Polymers
-82-
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SELECTED SPECIFIC DEVICE DATA SHEETS
-83-
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CLASSIFICATION I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Gas Treatment 1 Liquid Scrubbers/Contactors (Absorption Processes)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS I NUMBER
Lime Slurry Process 1 1.4.1.
1
POLLUTANTS AIR WATER LAND
CONTROLLED OASES PARTICULATES DISSOLVED SUSPENDED LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
X
ORGANIC
INORGANIC x S02 x fly ash
THERMAL
NOISE ^—^—— .. ' Kmrmun rut CAS
PROCESS DESCRIPTION 1 ... I
av
si
(
PI
tl
P
P,
V(
s
n
SI
f
bi
sj
bj
s
c
r
(
a
t
b.
1
r
r
d
S
f
t
t
m
P
\J\J\J f±±
The lime slurry process is a nonregenerative, throw- III ^ ~~
m unmuto run ' uau.n
slow can recoirmend a suitable combination*. With some OWj "J"
1 high efficiency particulate scrubbing in the first *""
taqe. r~— = — 1
1 nciinii I
Lime (CaO) is slaked (reacted with water) to form ^^~^^^
ilcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), and is used in the scrubber t«^y
"circulation system. S02 dissolves in the lime slurry >«•« J
pH of 6.0 - 8.0) and forms sulfurous acid (H2S03). This ' •«««„»•
cid dissociates and reacts with the lime slurry according
a reaction (1). The sulfurous acid can also be oxidized Figure 1. LIME SLURRY PRO
/ any dissolved oxygen (reaction 2) and react with the „
ime slurry according to reaction (3) forming a calcium sulfuate precipitate, gypsum .
2iU3 t ]/t o2 *^ "2iu4 »'J
THC
IM
tT
nrii nai nw
CESS
Ld^UHoJ ' lloJU^ ^ UaiU, • L.\\M (•})
Cleaned gas from the scrubber is reheated typically to 175°F (80°C) and disposed of by tall stacks. The
eheat step can be eliminated but this may create a visible water plume from the stack and an undesirable "acid
ain" in cold weather. Ambient SOa concentrations may also increase.
Calcium sulfite/calcium sulfate slurry from both scrubbers is thickened and the resulting sludge can be
isposed of in a pond (section 4.1), or fixed and disposed of in a landfill (sections 3.1 and 4.3 respectively).
ludge can also be oxidized in an air blown reactor to form an environmentally acceptable disposal sludge or to
orm by-product gypsum for use in the production of wallboard. Mitsubishi adds sulfuric acid to the oxidizer
o ensure the proper pH for reaction and complete conversion to gypsum. They also add gypsum "seed" crystals
o the scrubber solution to prevent scaling. Oravo and Pullman Kellogg have developed processes which use
agnesium compounds as a additive to reduce scaling in the scrubber, increase absorption capacity, and to
reduce a more manageable by-product sludge.
APp| KATION RANRF OPERATING RANGES METRIC (SI )
f
s
j
0
m
d
f
TEMPERATURE °C
The lime slurry process was developed to remove S02 from boiler PRESSURE KP<
lue gases and other combustion sources. With certain scrubbing VOLUMETRIC RATE mV
y steins, pdrticulate control can also be accomplished in con- MASS RATE kg/i
esigned to meet a wide range of flow rates from 1200 SCFM for small industrial users to over 3.5
or large utilities. S02 loadings as high as 4000 ppm have been reported.
ENGLISH
: «F
i p«i
i ft'/mln
i Ib/hr
i BTU/hr
million SCFM
-85-
-------
CAPITAL Com
Capital costs for the lime slurry process are
shown be!owl. Costs were estimated by EPA/TVA for a
startup in mid-1978. The costs shown are installed
costs and are based on a 902 S0£ removal efficiency.
All costs are dependent upon the sulfur content of the
fuel; the cost variance for FGD systems on new coal
fired boilers is shown by the shaded area. The upper
and lower limits correspond to 5.0 and 2.0% sulfur
respectively.
too
400 MO
OPERATIN9 COSTS
Operating costs for lime scrubbing are shown
belowl. Costs were estimated by EPA/TVA using 1978
cost information. The costs shown are total operating
costs'- and are based upon a B0% S02 removal efficiency.
All costs are dependent upon the sulfur content of the
fuel; the cost variance for FGD systems on new coal
fired boilers is shown by the shaded area. The upper
and lower limits correspond to 5.0 and 2.0% sulfur
respectively.
•oo too
•BCMTIM OMCirr (••
noo
OPCRATIttS EFI
S(>2 removal efficiencies are dependent upon
several variables:
reactivity of the scrubbing liquid,
degree of gas - liquid contact,
liquid to gas ratio,
gas residence time, and
the number of scrubber stages.
Almost any efficiency can be realized by adjusting
the above factors. In most installations currently
operating today, the efficiency has ranged between 80
and 98%.
A major contributor to low overall efficiency is
scrubber maintenance, where the scrubber must be by-
passed to facilitate repair or cleanout. This can be
overcome by installing extra modules and transferring
the load.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The lime slurry process nay create environmental
problems in the following areas:
1. Large quantities of waste must be disposed of in an
environmentally acceptable manner.
2. Stack emissions may create an "acid rain" under
certain weather conditions if reheat is not pro-
vided.
3. Low scrubber availability may increase the overall
502 emissions, if alternate control facilities or
methods are not provided.
NOTES
A. The scrubbers which can be used in this process are
described in detail in sections 1.4.2 to 1.4.10
B. SO? can also be oxidized in the gas phase to SOs
which would react similarly to form gypsum.
C. The cost data include amortized capital investments
overhead, utilities, raw materials, labor and
maintenance; but do not include by-products credits
or fixation costs.
MANUFACTURER /SUPPLIER
American A1r Filter Co., Inc.
Babcock a Wilcox Co.
Chiyoda Chemical Engineering
and Construction Co., Ltd.
Combustion Engineering, Inc.
Combustion Equipment Associates,
Inc.
Dravo Corp.
Environeering Inc., Division of
Riley Stoker
Envirotech Corp., Chemico Air
Pollution Control Division
Koch Engineering Co.
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Inc.
Nippon Kohan KK
Pullman Kellogg, Division of Pullman,
Inc.
Research Cottrel1,
Industrial Division
Southern California Edison
UOP Inc., Air Correction
Division
Zurn Industries, Inc.
]) "Proceedings: Symposium on Flue Gas Desulfurization; New Orleans, March 1976, Volume 1", U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, EPA 600/2-76-136a, (Hay 1976).
2) Federal Power Commission, "The Status of Flue Gas Desulfurization Applications in the United States: A
Technological Assessment", A staff report of the Bureau of Power, July 1977.
3) Electric Power Research Institute, "Evaluation of Regenerable Flue Gas Desulfurization Process", EPRI FP-272
Vnliimoc 1 anrf ? f.lannarv 1P771
-86-
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CLASSIFICATION
Gas Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid Scrubbers/Contactors (Absorption Processes)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Limestone Slurry Process
NUMBER
1.4.1.2
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICULATE3
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
SO?
x flv ash
THERMAL
onuirinim rm ui
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The limestone slurry process is a non-
regenerative, throwaway flue gas desulfurization
(FGD) process. This process, shown in Figure 1, and
the lime slurry process (1.4.1.1) are the most
commonly applied commercial FGD processes in the
United States. In most applications there are three
sections to the process, an electrostatic precipita-
tor (ESP), and two stages of limestone scrubbing.
Particulate matter is removed in the ESP and in the
first stage venturi scrubber. SOz is removed
primarily in the second stage, but a considerable
amount (up to 20%) is removed in the first scrubbing
stage. A large variety of scrubber designs have been
successfilly used in both the first and second
scrubbing stages. Each of the manufacturers listed
below can recommend a suitable combinationA. with
some systems, the ESP can be eliminated by high
efficiency particulate scrubbing in the first stage.
Limestone, containing as much as 95% CaC03 and
varying amounts of MgCOs, is crushed in a wet ball
mill and pumped as a slurry to the absorber recycle
system. Pilot studies have been conducted to
investigate the use of benzole acid to aid in the
dissolution of the limestone'. S02 dissolves in the
limestone slurry (pH = 5.8-6.4) and forms sulfurous
acid (H2S03). The sulfurous acid reacts with the dissolved CaC03 according to reaction (1).
react with the oxidized sulfur compounds (H2S04) to form gypsum as shown in reaction (2).
MTiironn
•ATM rtON KM
Figure 1. LIMESTONE SLURRY PROCESS
CaCOs will also
CaC03
CaC0
CaS03
CaS0
1/2H20
2H20
C0
1/2H20
C0
(1)
(2)
Cleaned gas from the scrubber is reheated typically to 175CF (80°C) and disposed of by tall stacks. The
reheat step can be eliminated but this may create a visible water plume from the stack and an undesirable
"acid rain" in cold weather. Ambient SOg concentrations may also increase.
Calcium sulfite/calcium sulfate slurry from both scrubbers is thickened and the resulting sludge can be
disposed of in a pond (section 4.1), or is fixed and disposed of in a landfill (sections 3.1 and 4.3
respectively). Typically the sludge in the limestone process has a better settling rate than the lime slurry
process.
Unlike the magnesium content in lime, the higher the magnesium content in limestone (MgCOs), the lower the
reactivity for sulfur removal. However, some developers, suggest the use of a catalyst to increase absorpti-
vity, reduce scaling, and to produce an easily oxidized sludge6. Sludge, when oxidized in an air blown reactor
can be used as an environmentally acceptable disposal sludge or to form by-product gypsum.
APPLICATION RANGE
PRESSURE
KPu
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
kg/t
The limestone slurry process was developed to remove S02
from boiler flue gases and other combustion sources. With
certain scrubbing systems, particulate control can also be
accomplished in conjunction with S02 removal. Limestone slurry
scrubbing, without sludge oxidation is only applicable to
plants which have an environmentally acceptable sludge disposal
system. This process can be designed to meet a wide range of „.,.....
flow rates from 1200 SCFM for small industrial users to over 3.5,million SCFM for large utilities
as high as 4000 ppm have been reported.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
ENERflY RATE
METRIC (81 )
°C
ENGLISH
°F
ftVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
S02 loading
-87-
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CAPITAL COSTS
Capital costs for the limestone slurry process
are shown below^. Costs were estimated by EPA/TVA for
a startup in mid-1978. The costs shown are installed
costs and are based on a 90S SOg removal efficiency.
All costs are dependent upon the sulfur content of the
fuel; the cost variance for FGD systems on new coal
fired boilers is shown by the shaded area. The upper
and lower limits correspond to 5.0 and 2.0% sulfur
respectively.
r
I--
r
~ go
too «oo too wo
•OCIUTIHG CAMOTTMMH)
OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs for limestone scrubbing are shown
below1. Costs were estimated by EPA/TVA using 1978
cost information. The costs shown are total operating
costs'- and are based upon a 90* S02 removal efficiency.
All costs are dependent upon the sulfur content of the
fuel; the cost variance for FGD systems on new coal
fired boilers is shown by the shaded area. The upper
and lower limits correspond to 5.0 and 2.0% sulfur
respectively.
I-
I
MO 400 MO WO MOO
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
SOg removal efficiencies are dependent upon
several variables:
reactivity of the scrubbing liquid,
degree of gas-liquid contact,
liquid to gas ratio,
gas residence time, and
the number of scrubber stages.
Almost any efficiency can be realized by adjust-
ing the above factors. In most installations
currently operating today, the efficiency has ranged
between 80 and 98%.
A major contributor to low overall efficiency
is scrubber maintenance, where the scrubber must be
by-passed to facilitate repair or cleanout. This can
be overcome by installing extra modules and trans-
ferring the load.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The limestone slurry process may create environ-
mental problems in the following areas:
1. Large quantities of waste must be disposed of in an
environmentally acceptable manner.
2. Stack emissions may create an "acid rain" under
certain weather conditions if reheat is not pro-
vided.
3. Low scrubber availability may increase the overall
SO? emissions, if alternate control facilities or
methods are not provided.
NOTES
A. The scrubbers which can be used in this process are
described in detail in sections 1.4.2 to 1.4.10
B. Mitsubishi adds gypsum "seed" crystals to the
absorption slurry to provide seed sites for the
CaS04 crystal!ation. This helps prevent scaling.
They also use sulfuric acid in the oxidizer to
ensure the proper pH for reaction, and to guarantee
complete conversion.
C. The cost data include amortized capital investments
overhead, utilities, raw materials, labor and
maintenance; but do not include by-product credits,
or fixation costs.
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Babcock & Wilcox Co.
Chiyoda Chemical Engineering and
Construction Co., Ltd.
Combustion Engineering, Inc.
Environeering Inc., Division of
Riley Stoker
Environtech Corp., Chemico Air
Pollution Control Division
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd.
Peabody Air Resources, Inc.
Pullman Kellogg, Division of Pullman, Inc.
Research Cottrell, Industrial Division
Tennessee Valley Authority
UOP Inc., Air Correction Division
Zurn Industries, Inc.
1. "Proceedings: Symposium on Flue Gas Desulfurization; New Orleans, March 1976, Volume 1", U.S. Environmenta
Protection Agency, EPA 600/2-76-136a, (May 1976).
2. Federal Power Commission, "The Stacus of Flue Gas Desulfurization Applications in the United States: A
Technological Assessment", A staff report of the Bureau of Power, July 1977.
3. Electric Power Research Institute, "Evaluation of Regerierable Flue Gas Desulfurization Process",
EPRI FP-272, Volumes 1 and 2 (January 1977).
-88-
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CLASSIFICATION
Gas Treatment
GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid Scrubbers/Contactors (Absorption Processes)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Fly Ash Alkali Process
I NUMBER
1.4.1.3
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
8A3E3
AIR
PARTICULATE8
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FU8ITIVI
ORGANIC
INOR8ANIC
SO?
fly ash
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The fly ash alkali process is a nonregenerative, throwaway flue
gas desulfurization (FGD) process. This process, shown in Figure 1,
uses the alkaline content of the coal's fly ash to remove S02 from
the flue gas. Lime or limestone is used as a suppliment in case the
fly ash alkali is insufficient for S02 removal. Flue gas from the
boiler is contacted with recycle water (PH=2.8-4.5) in a venturi
scrubber. A Here the fly ash is removed and the alkaline content,
consisting of compounds such as Na20, MgO and CaO, is leached out.
S02 is absorded in the recycle liquor and oxidized to form sulfuric
acid; very little sulfurous acid is formed. Sulfuric acid in turn
reacts with the hydrated alkaline species according to the following
reactions.
Ca(OH)2 + H2S04 -— CaS04 • 2H20 (1)
Mg(OH)2 + 5H20 + H2S04-»-MgS04 • 7H20 (2)
(3)
MIT lIMMIWI
ZNaOH
H2S04 —
2H20
Clean gas from the scrubber is passed through a mist eliminator
and can be reheated to 175°F (90°C) before discharge. Fly ash re-
moved in the scrubber settles out in the bottom of the scrubber and
is pumped as a slurry to the thickener. Slaked lime or fine ground
limestone is added to react with any residual S02 and to adjust the
pH for scale prevention. Thickener sludge is disposed of in append
(section 4.1), or dewatered, fixed and disposed of in a landfill
(sections 2.5, 3.1 and 4.3 respectively). Overflow from the thick-
ener is recycled to the scrubber.
Figure 1. FLY ASH ALKALI/LIME PROCESS
The fly ash alkali process, because of its simplicity is very easy to retrofit to existing plants.
ever, scaling and low efficiency may be a problem.
How-
As an alternate to the process shown in Figure 1, fly ash can be removed in an electrostatic precipitator
and stored for use in the FGD process. In this case, both lime and fly ash would be added to the thickener.
This system can be easily applied to existing plants which have dust removal systems already in operation. With
the fly ash being removed in a separate system, a more efficient absorber can be used to increase S02 removal
efficiencies.8
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
KPo
VOLUMETRIC RATE
APPLICATION RANGE
The fly ash alkali process is a highly effective way to
eliminate a fly ash disposal problem when the fly ash has no com-
mercial value and has a high alkaline content. Fly ash produced
from western coals usually has a high alkalinity. This process
is ideal for remote plants where access to alternate alkali
sources is difficult. Large storage areas are not required for
raw materials and less area is required for ponding and disposal as compared to other throwaway processes.
OPERATINQ RANflCS
MAS3 RATE
ENER4T RATE
METRIC (SI)
J/t
EN9LI3H
p*l
flVmin
Ib/hr
8TU/hr
-89-
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CAPITAL COSTS
Capital costs vary a great deal depending upon the
coal characteristics (sulfur, ash, and calcium content)
and upon the system characteristics (dust collection
and disposal systems.) A summary of the installed
costs for commercial plants currently in operation is
shown below. 3 ^^
Scrubber Toul Startup Installed
Utility Vtnoor Capacity (ml [ate Cort (i/al
Arizona "nolle Service Co.
• Fur Corners Plant Chearico 575 Jan. 1172 52
Muntou Poner Cooperative
• Hilton R. lounj Coettittton 450 S«p. 1977 71.11
Equip. Assoc.
HIlMloU Powr a Light
• Aurora SUtioci tntn Engineers 116 June 1971
I Clujr to well Plant Krcbl Engineers 350 Hay 1973
NHtnu POM-CO.
• Colstrlp Station toaexKtion 720 July 1976 83.74
Equip. Asuc.
. Pacific Poner 1 Ltoht
I Din Johnston Plant ClM»1« 330 April 1972 2**
Puollc Service Co. of Colorado
• Valamt Station UOP, Inc. 196 «o». 1971 32
• CMrvcte H UOP. Inc. 115 June 1973 33
• Cherokee »3 UOP. Inc. 170 Km. 1972 29
e Qteratee M UOP. Inc. 375 July 1974 33
.'• Arapanoe Station UOP, Inc. 11? Sep. 1973 41
— Data Hot Available
• COR not Include costt Incurred in startup.
OKMATMM EFFICIENCCS
The operating efficiency for the fly ash alkali
process 1s sensitive to the coal properties, especially
the calcium content. Particulate and S02 removal ef-
ficiencies for several commercial plants are presented
below. C
OPEUTIW EfFIClDCr
Ut111j£ Pirtlculejtt fi) SO? {*•] JUwfltbtllty (1) Rrocrud Cost {pltls-kWhr}
ArtMM Mite Servic* Co.
• F«tr ComM BlMt 99.2 30*35 SO
Mwb»u taw Cow««tiwt
• MltM *. Votnt M.e 75
mMNttou rowr t Lisr>n
* tl*y BOSMII Plwn 97.0 15-20
nmiai hMtr Co.
• CelnrtpSUtlM «-S 70-75 63- 1 W- 0.26
*Klfi< *M*r » L1fl»t
• DtM Mnston rl««t 99* 3S-4C — --
Mile Stmlci Co. trf Color**.
• MltM.it SOtlo* — 45-50 55
• CMtTOktw #1 -• IS-?0 53
t Chtr«kM *3 -- 1&-2C 66 0.60
• CMmct* M — is-K a?
* V*p>mo«i St*t*t« -• 4&-SO 84
-- tot* hot AvofUblt
• SOj cffic.«.cy ti the-* for operation witto.it liw Mtotttwi.
HANUFACTUMER/SUPPLIEM
Combustion tngineering. Inc.
Combustion Equipment Associates
Envlrontech Corp., Chemico Air
Pollution Control Division
Krebs Engineers, Gas Kinetics Division
Peabody Air Resources, Inc.
UOP Inc., Air Correction Division
OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs vary a great deal depending upon the
scrubber characteristics, supplimental lime usage, and
various utility requirements. Operating requirements
for a number of commercial plants are shown below.3
OPERAT1NS KQUIREICNTS
"•• Hater stem
U*jHty (ton/day) (acre fl./vr) Po«tr» (1l>/nr:p^) H>npq»tr
Ariion* Public Service Co.
• Four Coraers Plant £ 34OO J-4 ! -- e ceeriton
MlMewu Power t Llgfit
• Aurora Statlorf 0 3SOO 0.8 i 0
• Clay aosnell Plant 0 230C O.Be: 0
Pacific Powr a llant Lloe 9lus
• tot* Jgnntto* Plant Llgnoiulforute >800 Z.3 ;
Putllc Service Co. of
Colon*)
• Valaont Sutlvn 0 340 S.4 : 50.000: 490
• Ohtrafcw «1 0 327 4.S I SO.OOQ: 300
a Caenfcee » 0 612 3.B '. 41.200: 300
a Chervaae M 0 1200 J.8 ; 13S.OOO: 1.97S
e ArapahM Station 0 327 4.6 i 60.00C: ISO
" Om NOt An1lKb)«
• Powr Is fcnuoi at ; of nee 9Cr>cr«t1n() CApoclty-
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The fly ash alkali process may create environmental
problems in the following areas:
1) Substantial quantities of waste must be disposed of
in an environmentally acceptable manner.
2) Stack emissions may create an "acid rain" under
certain weather conditions if reheat is not pro-
vided.
3) Low scrubber availability may increase tb? pverall
S02 emissions, if alternate control facilities or
methods are not provided.
NOTES
A) A variety of other scrubbers could be used depend-
ing upon the inlet conditions. Only the manufact-
ures listed below have scrubbers operating on a com
mercial scale at the present.
B) Scrubbers which require external particulate re-
moval can be used in this situation without plugg-
ing.
C) Some scrubbers are used primarily for particulate
scrubbing. The efficiencies of these scrubbers
could be increased by adding more lime to the
system. Source: See Reference 3.
REFERENCES
1) Noll, Kenneth E., and David, Wayne T. , ed., Power Generation; Air Polluction Monitoring and Control, Ann
Arbor Science Publishers Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich., (1976).
2) Federal Power Commission, "The Status of Flue Gas Desulfurization Applications in the United States: A
Technological Assessment", A staff report of the Bureau of Power, (July 1977).
3) "Proceedings: Symposium on Flue Gas Desulfurization; New Orleans, March 1976, Volume 1," EPA 600/2-76-1 36a,
(May 1976).
-90-
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CLASSIFICATION
Gas Treatment
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Aqueous Sodium Process
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
X
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
1 GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid Scrubbers/Contactors (Absorption Processes)
AIR
OASES PARTICIPATES
X
SO?
X
— nv^sh>i^
1 NUMBER
1.4.1.4
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHA8LE FUGITIVE
MWtrMUM
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The aqueous sodium process uses a solution of
sodium carbonate or sodium hydroxide to remove
502 from flue gases. The sodium carbonate can
be obtained from raw trona (- 60% sodium carbonate
equivalent), from commercial soda ash or from a
waste liquor containing soda ash. Sodium
hydroxide can be obtained from a waste caustic
stream or purchased. The latter is the most
expensive source of the alkali. This process
shown in Figure 1, is the simplest and most
reliable of the nonregenerable throwaway FGD
processes.
Hot flue gas from the boiler passes through a
mechanical type dust collector (shown) or an
electrostatic precipitator to remove most of the
fly ash (75%+). The gas then enters a venturi
scrubber" which contacts the gas with an aqueous
sodium solution. Here the remaining fly ash and
some of the S02 is removed according to reactions
(1) or (2). The residual SOg is abosorbed in a tower containing a single sieve tray.
IMTMI
fy
S. /
Ti*f
V
kUQMII
/\
X#J
HUIW HTIfl
iiacu
Figure 1. AQUEOUS SODIUM PROCESS
Gas from the tower is
Na2C03 + S02
2NaOH + SO-
C0
(1)
(2)
passed through a mist eliminator and disposed of by tall stacks. The clean flue gas can also be reheated to
eliminate a visible plume, to reduce ambient S02 concentrations and to eliminate "acid rain" in cold weather.
Trona is mixed with water and the solution is clarified to remove inert materials contained in the ore.
Sodium carbonate under certain conditions may crystallize out of concentrated solutions plugging pumps and
piping. Downtime because of these "frozen" lines can be averted by operating at reduced concentrations or by
heat traced piping. Waste liquor from the scrubber recycle system is continuously bled off (~ 5%) and
neutralized before disposal in a lined pond (section 4.1). As an alternative, the disposal solution can be
oxidized by aeration to form sodium sulfate (Na2S04). This solution, with no oxygen demand, can then be
disposed, treated, or evaporated to produce by-product sodium sulfate.
Krebs Engineers produces a scrubber system in which untreated flue gas is treated countercurrently with a
sodium-based scrubbing liquor. Fly ash, removed in the first stages, is washed in a countercurrent decantation
system and sent to a disposal pond. Sodium sulfate is crystallized from the scrubbing liquor and sold as a
by-product. See 1.4.2.3 for details on the Krebs Elbair Scrubber.
In general the aqueous sodium process is far superior to other nonregenerable throwaway processes because
their is no possibility for calcium scaling and associated downtime, corrosion and erosion are greatly reduced
if not eliminated, and the S02 removal efficiency is much greater, approaching 99% in some cases.
APPLICATION RANGE
The aqueous sodium process is especially applicable to
utility boiler applications where low SOg and parti cul ate
effluent containing caustic or soda ash in significant quanti-
ties.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI)
•c
KPo
m»/«
k«/«
J/«
ENGLISH !
OF
psl
ftVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
At present there are 56 scrubbers operating commercially on industrial boilers, totaling an equivalent of
988 MW. In addition, 3 utility boilers (totaling 325 MW) use the aqueous sodium process. Flows vary from 8000
to 723,000 SCFM. S02 concentrations are reported to range between 150 to 2000 ppm, although higher concentra-
tions could be efficiently handled.
-91-
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CAPITAL COSTS
The capital cost for the aqueous sodium process
vary a great deal depending upon the size, fuel type,
and scrubber vendor. Capital costs of existing
industrial boilers are shown below for 3 types of
boiler fuels3. Nevada Power Co. is the only utility
currently operating a sodium carbonate scrubber. It
has reported a $44/kW installed cost for 2 units rated
at 125 MW each?.
20
£16
a
*<»•
— 12
o
o
I/I
c
Boiler Fuel
e- Coal or Fuel Oil Mixed with Bark (1-2.SIS).
. • Crude Oil (Z-Z.5J S)
A- Coil (0.7-3.21 S)
0 200 400
Scrubber Capacity (ACFM
600 800
70°F in 1000's)
OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs depend a great deal upon the source
and the cost of the alkali. Three industrial plants
have reported operating costs ranging from 1.009 to
1.361 S/SCFM3. Nevada Power Co. their annual operating
costs as $1.2 million, (0.83 $/SCFM2). The cost in-
cludes $600,000 amortized capital for both units.
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
S02 removal efficiencies have been reported for
both utility and industrial applications. Industrial
application range from 80-953$. Nevada Power Co., the
only utility using the aqueous sodium process has
reported 85% SOz removal efficiencies for all three
Reid Gardner units.
Particulate efficiencies vary depending upon dust
loadings and auxiliary dust removal systems. In
general, all systems reported particulate efficiencies
of 80-90%.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The aqueous sodium process may create environmental
problems in the following areas:
1. Large quantities of scrubber liquor must be dis-
posed of in an evaporation pond, or be treated
prior to discharge from the plant.
2. Stack emissions may create an "acid rain" under
certain weather conditions and increase ground
level S02 concentrations if reheat is not provided.
NOTES
A. Various other scrubber types can be used in this
process. Only the manufacturers listed-below have
scrubbers in commercial operation.
MANUFACTURER /SUPPLIER
Air Pollution Industries, Inc.
Ceilcote Co., The, A Division of General Signal
Combustion Equipment Associates, Inc.
Entoleter, Inc., Sub. of American Mfg. Co.
FMC Corp.
Flakt, Inc.
Great Western Sugar Co.
Krebs Engineers, Gas Kinetics Division
Arthur D. Little, Inc.
Mobil Oil Corp.
Peabody Engineering Corp.
W. VI. Sty Manufacturing Co., The
Swemco Inc.
REFERENCES
D
Federal Power Commission, "The Status of Flue Gas Desulfurization Applications in the United States: A
Technological Assessment", A staff report of the Bureau of Power, (July 1977).
2} "Summary Report - Utility Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems - October - November 1977", prepared by Ped Co
Environmental Inc., under EPA Contract 68-01-4147, Task 3.
3) Tuttle, 0., Patkar, A., and Gregory, N., "EPA Industrial Boiler FGD Survey: First Quarter 1978", EPA
600/7-78-052a. (March 1978).
-92-
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Gas Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid Scrubbers/Contactors {Absorption Processes)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Aqueous Ammonia Process
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICIPATES
I NUMBER
1.4.1.5
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPFMDF
INOR9ANIC
SO?
flv ash
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The aqueous ammonia process uses a solution of ammonium
sulfate ((NH4)2S04J, ammonium sulfite ((NH4)2S03), ammonium
bisulfite (NH4HS03), and ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) to remove
particulate and S02 from boiler flue gases. The process was
developed by replacing the water in a particulate scrubber
with ammonia laden process water. S02 is readily absorbed and
reacts with the ammonium salts according to reaction 1,2 and 3. SECIRCUUATIIW
S02 can be oxidized to form S03 which reacts similarly to form
ABSORBENT
S03 + S02 + H20
2NH4OH + S02
NH4HS03 + NH40H —
(NH4)2S03 + 1/2 02 -
2NH4HS03
(NH4)2S03 + H20
(NH4)2S03
(NH4)2S04
H20
(D
(2)
(3)
(4)
TO OXIDATION
AND/OR TREATMENT
Figure 1. AQUEOUS AMMONIA PROCESS
(NH4)2S04 or the ammonium sulfite can be oxidized to the sul-
fate form as shown in reaction 4.
Figure 1 illustrates this process as it is presently used.
Gas is contacted with recirculating absorbent in a venturi
scrubber. Entrained solution is removed in a cyclonic
separator equipped with a mesh or chevron type mist eliminator.
Scrubber liquor from the venturi and the separator is com-
bined in a reaction tank where the pH is adjusted with fresh
ammonia liquor. The pH is a critical control parameter because a low pH produces a dense "blue" plume due to
the gas phase reaction of S02 and ammonia. Catalytic, Inc. has done a considerable amount of research in plume
formation and have patented criteria used to prevent plume formation, (U.S. Patent 3,843,789; 1974). A high
efficiency mist eliminator can be used if the "blue" plume cannot be adequately controlled by pH. Stack gas
reheat can be used to eliminate the water vapor plume normally associated with wet FGD processes.
A bleed stream is removed from the reaction tank to maintain a constant water balance. This stream can be
oxidized and filtered to form a pure ammonium sulfate fertilizer for resale as a solution or after crystalliza-
tion. Most plants currently dispose of this solution, reuse it or send it to an inplant water treatment
facility.
Another option to the process shown in Figure 1 is to add an absorber after the separator to increase S02
removal efficiency. This unit could be a spray scrubber, packed tower or a plate tower (sections 1.4.2, 1.4.7
and 1.4.8 respectively). A variety of recirculatlon configurations can be used with these scrubbers to increase
S02 removal efficiency and to reduce plume formation. Other regenerable processes are being developed to pro-
duce by-products such as S02 (ABS ProcessA), or elemental sulfur (Catalytic/IFP Ammonia Scrubbing Process^).
The aqueous ammonia process is well suited to boiler
applications where an ammoniacal waste stream is available at low
cost. A higher cost ammonia source could be used if the by-
products can be marketedc. Seven industrial boiler applications
are currently in operation on a commercial scale. These
applications are all sugar plants, which generate ammoniacal
waste streams. The flow rates for the scrubbers in these plants
range from 25,000 to 191,000 ACFM @ 70°FD. S02 concentrations at the scrubber inlets range from 82 to 400 ppm.
The regenerable processes have been used in sulfite paper mills and sulfuric acid plants for years on effluents
containing 8000 to 20,000 ppm S02-
-93-
-------
There are currently seven industrial installations
of the aqueous ammonia process. Only one of these
plants has reported capital costs. There are no com-
mercial utilities using the process.
The Minn-Dak Fanner's Cooperative has installed
two variable throat venturi scrubbers and a single
cyclonic separator at their Wahpeton, N.D. sugar plant.
Two boilers generate 125,000 ACFM g 350°F each. The
installed cost for this system was $300,000 in 1977
dollars. The boilers burn IX S lignite and each pro-
duce 275.000 Ibs/hr steam at 250 psig and
OPERATINS COSTS
No operating costs have been reported for the
aqueous amnonia process. The bleed stream which would
require treatment varies from plant to plant. The flow
range has been reported to be from 160 to 800 gpm. The
ammonia requirement in most cases will be approximately
equal to the stoichiometric amount required to react
with the S02- This quantity can be reduced consider-
ably for the regenerable processes.
OfdUTHM IFF I
All seven installations of the aqueous ammonia
process were designed primarily for oarticulate
control. The Great Western Sugar plants (6 total) have
experienced S02 removal efficiencies of 35Z for inlet
concentrations ranging from 300 to 400 ppm SO?. The
Hinn-Dak Farmer's Cooperative has reported inlet
loadings of 76-193 Ibs/hr SOg. These have been reduced
to 10-37 Ib/hr S02 at the scrubber outlet.
In general, the scrubber manufacturers believe S02
removal efficiencies of up to 95S, can be obtained with
the addition of the absorber or with either of the
regenerative processes.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The aqueous ammonium process may create environ-
mental problems in the following areas:
1) Large quantities of scrubber liquor must be dis-
posed of or treated if ammonium sulfate is not
sold as fertilizer.
2) A dense "blue" plume may be created if the
operating conditions are not precisely controlled.
In addition, with low efficiencies an "acid rain"
may be created under certain weather conditions
and ground level SO? concentrations may be un-
acceptable if reheat is not provided.
NOTES
A)
B)
C)
D)
Ammonium Bisulfate (ABS Process) was developed by
the EPA and the TVA.
Developed by Catalytic, Inc., subsidiary of Air
Products and Chemicals, and the Institut Francais
du Petrole.
The ammonium sulfate fertilizer market in the
U.S. may be questionable.
The largest plant actually has two scrubbers
totaling 382,000 ACFM 9 70°F.
MAJHJFACTUfttlt / SUFFUER
Catalytic. Inc.
Koch Engineering Co., Inc.
Nippon Kokan KK
Research Cottrell, Industrial Division
Swemco, Inc.
1) Tuttle, J., Patkar, A., and Gregory, N., "EPA Industrial Boiler FGO Survey: First Quarter 1978", EPA
600/7-78-052a, (March 1978).
2) Electric Power Research Institute, "Evaluation of Regenerable Flue Gas Desulfurization Process", EPRI FP-272
Volumes 1 and 2 (January 1977).
3) Noll, Kenneth E., and David, Wayne T., ed., Power Generation: Air Pollution Monitoring and Control, Ann
Arbor Science Publishers Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich., (1976).
-94-
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CLASSIFICATION
Gas Treatment
[GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid Scrubbers/Contactors (Absorption Processes)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Double Alkali Process
NUMBER
1.4.1.6
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUOITIVE
OR8ANIC
INORGANIC
502
Tly ash
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
w run twin
The double alkali process is the most widely
used regenerable FGD system currently applied on
a commercial scale in the United States. The
process, shown in Figure 1, uses a sodium
hydroxide (NaOH)/sodium sulfite (Na2S03) solution
to cool the gas and to absorb S02A. S02 absorbed
in the liquor reacts with the sodium compounds
according to reaction 1 and 2. Sodium sulfate
and other sulfate compounds can also be
2 NaOH + S02 -*• Na2 SOs + H20 (1)
NagSOa + S02 + H20 — 2 NaHS03 (2)
formed by the oxidation of any of the sulfur
species. Clean gas from the scrubber is passed
through a mist eliminator and is reheated prior
to discharge.
Scrubbing liquor from the recycle system con-
taining sodium salts and possibly some unreacted
sodium hydroxide is combined with other effluents
and sent to the regeneration section of the
plant. Here the liquor is reacted with lime or
limestone to precipitate sulfur compounds and to
Figure 1. DOUBLE ALKALI PROCESS
restore the alkaline content of the liquor for recycle. Lime reacts with sulfite in the liquor according to
reactions 3 and 4, and limestone according to reaction 5. Sulfate reacts in a similar manner. The concentra-
Ca(OH)2 + 2 NaHS03 — Na2S03 + CaSOs • 1/2 H20+ + 3/2 H20 (3)
Ca(OH)2 + N32S03 + 1/2 H20 — 2 NaOH + CaSOs . 1/2 H204- (4)
CaCOs + 2 NaHSOs + 1/2 H20 -*- Na2S03 + CaSOs - 1/2 H20+ + C02 + K20 (5)
tions of sulfate in solution is dependent upon the degree of sulfite oxidation. However, because of the solu-
bility relationship, the concentration of sulfate at steady state rises sharply for relatively small increases
in oxidation. If the relative oxidation of sulfite exceeds 15-25%, the concentration of sulfate will be too
high for efficient operation. This can be corrected by purging solution or by increasing the pH with limeB to
precipitate gypsum (similar to reaction 4). Systems which have high oxidation and require regeneration to NaOH
(low concentrations of Na2S03) are called "dilute". Those systems which have low oxidation and regenerate to
Na2SOs are termed "concentrated". Concentrated systems usually have an active sodium (Na+ associated with S02
absorption) concentration greater than 0.15M.
Precipitated solids are removed from the regenerated liquor in a clarifer. Some of the solids are recycled
back to the regeneration section to reduce the possibility for scaling in the reaction tank. The recycle liquor
for the dilute system contains a considerable amount of calcium, and must be treated with Na2C03 (trona or soda
ash), Na2S03 or C02 to precipitate the calciumC. This softening process eliminates scaling in the scrubber.
Solids from the regeneration process are dewatered, washed to recover the alkali content and disposed of in a
landfill. The sludge handles substantially different from lime or limestone sludge because it is a granular
material and does not require fixation.
An option to the above system is an ammonia based double alkali process. This process is similar to the
aqueous ammonia process (1.4.1.5), but the scrubbing solution is regenerated with lime to produce ammonia. This
ammonia is collected from the reaction tank and used to generate fresh ammonia liquor for recycle. This process
has much of the same advantages and disadvantages as the aqueous ammonia process. However, it is more attrac-
tive than the sodium based double alkali process because the ratio of sulfite to sulfate is not critical.
APPLICATION RANGE
PRESSURE
KPa
VOLUMETRIC RATE
mV»
ft Vmin
MASS RATE
lcg/»
Ib/hr
The double alkali process is especially applicable to utility
and industrial boilers which require high SOg removal
efficiencies. It is also well suited to plants with a limited
capacity for waste water treatment. However, its application is
limited to plants which have an environmentally acceptable sludge
disposal system.
The double alkali process is currently being used on many
industrial boilers having flow rates ranging from 10,000 to 640,000 cfm with S02 loadings reported from 800 to
2000 ppm. Three utility applications are currently under construction. These range in size from 250 to 575
MM.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI)
ENGLISH
9TU/hr
-95-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Capital costs for the double alkali process, as
reported by PedCo Environmental, have ranged from
2.46 to 23.2 $/CFM @ 70°F for industrial applications
and from 43.2 to 189.0 $/kW for utilities. PedCo also
prepared a cost estimate for the EPA in June of 1976.
This data is presented belowD.
100
^. 90
«
° 80
10
+j
CL
5 70
200 400 600 800
Generating Capacity (MW)
1000
OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs for current installations of the
double alkali process are not available. PedCo Envir-
Environment completed a cost estimate for the EPA in
June 1976. This cost information is shown below0.
7.0
200 400 600 800
Generating Capacity (MW)
1000
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
The operating efficiencies for the double alkali
process, similar to the aqueous sodium process
(1.4.1.4), are very high compared to the lime or lime-
stone processes (1.4.1.1, 1.4.1.2). Systems can be
designed for removal efficiencies in excess of 90%
because the sodium alkali scrubbing agent is very
reactive. Availability cf the double alkali process
has been reported to be greater than 90% in most
installations.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The double alkali process may create environmental
problems in the following areas:
1) Large quantities of waste must be disposed of in an
environmentally acceptable manner.
2) Stack emissions may create an "acid rain" under
certain weather conditions if reheat is not pro-
vided.
NOTES
A) The ratio of NaOH to NazSOs is dependent upon pH.
The higher the pH, the more NaOH is present.
B) With lime the system can be operated over a wider
pH range than with limestone.
C) The concentrated system has a high concentration
of NagSOg which prevents high calcium concentra-
tions. Thus the reactor clarifier is not needed.
D) Source: Green, R., "Utilities Scrub Out SOX",
Chemical Engineering, Vol. 84, No. 11, (May 23,
1977).
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Combustion Equipment Associates
Envirotech Corp., Chemico Air Pollution Control Division
FMC Corp.
Koch Engineering Co., Inc.
Krebs Engineers, Gas Kinetics Division
Little, Arthur D., Inc.
Nippon Kokan KK
Zurn Industries, Inc.
1) Federal Power Commission, "The Status of Flue Gas Desulfurization Applications in the United States: A
Technological Assessment", A staff report of the Bureau of Power, (July 1977).
2) "Proceedings: Symposium on Flue Gas Desulfurization; New Orleans, March 1976, Volume 1", EPA 600/2-76-136a,
(May 1976).
3) Rochelle, G. T., King, C. J., "Alternatives for Stack Gas Desulfurization by Throwaway Scrubbing", Chemical
Engineering Progress, Vol. 74, No. 2, (February 1978).
-96-
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CLASSIFICATION
Gas Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid Scrubbers/Contractors (Absorption Processes)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Magnesium Oxide Process
NUMBER
1.4.1.7
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICULATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LEACHABLE
LAND
FUOITIVE
OR9ANIC
INORGANIC
S02
fly ash
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The magnesium oxide process, shown in Figure 1,
is a regenerate flue gas desulfurization process
currently being used exclusively on utility boilers.
Flue gas is treated in an electrostatic precipitator
to remove most of the fly ash. The remaining fly ash
is removed in the first stage wet scrubber. Here, the
gas is cooled and humidified by direct contact with
recycle water in a venturi scrubber. Fly ash is
removed from the recycle water by a thickener and
disposed of in a landfill.
Particulate free flue gas is next contacted with
magnesium oxide slurry in another venturi scrubber^.
The reaction of MgO with water is shown in reaction 1.
S02 is absorbed and reacts according to reaction 2.
S02 in the flue gas can be oxidized to form $63 which
MgO + H2
Mg(OH)2
S02 + 2
Mg(OH)2
-*• MgS03 • 3
(1)
(2)
Figure 1. MAGNESIUM OXIDE PROCESS
reacts similar to reaction 2 to form MgS04. Cleaned
flue gas from the absorber is reheated and disposed of through tall stacks. A bleed stream is removed from the
magnesium oxide recycle system, centrifuged and dried to remove the water of hydrationB. The dried crystals
containing magnesium sulfite, sulfate and some unreacted oxide are usually sent to a sulfuric acid plant (not
shown) for regeneration to MgO and S02C- In regeneration, accomplished thermally (1800-2200°F) in a rotary
kiln, magnesium sulfite reacts according to reaction 3. Coke is added to reduce the sulfate; this is
MgS03
MgS04 + 1/2 C
MgO
heat
SO,,
MgO + S02 + 1/2 C02
(3)
(4)
shown in reaction 4. The S02 generated here can be used to produce sulfuric acid or elemental sulfur. The MgO
is recycled to the absorption section of the plant. By maintaining larger inventories of MgO, extended outages
of the regeneration facility can be tolerated. If another company or plant is used for regeneration, care must
be taken to insure the long term availability of these facilities before the MgO process is considered. Many
plants have been built only to discover the regeneration facilities have discontinued service.
APPLICATION RANGE
PRESSURE
KPo
VOLUMETRIC RATE
ftVmln
MASS RATE
kg/i
The magnesium oxide process can be used to remove S02 from
boiler flue gases and other combustion sources. Particulate
removal is provided for with a separate scrubber. The process
has been applied to smelter off-gases, sulfuric acid plant
effluents, Claus plant effluents and utility boiler flue gases.
However, the experience with coal fired boilers may be somewhat
limited. Industrial applications have ranged in size from 28 to
162 MW equivalent with SO- loadings from 1,500 to 25,000 ppm. Utilities, planned and operating, range in size
from 95 to 336 MW. i
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI)
°C
J/i
ENGLISH
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-97-
-------
; CAPITAL COSTS
[ Capital costs for the magnesium oxide process are
not available for Industrial applications. Philadel-
phia Electric has reported3 the capital cost for their
120 MM application at $90/kW. Costs were estimated by
EPA/TVA for a startup in mid-1978. These costs are
shown below?. The costs shown are Installed costs and
are based on a 90% S02 removal efficiency. All costs
are dependent upon the sulfur content of the fuel; the
cost variance for FGD systems on new coal fired boilers
Is shown by the shaded area. The upper and lower
Units correspond to 5.0 and 2.0% sulfur respectively.
*•*
4QO GOO
KMCHOIM uMcrrrtim)
OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs for the magnesium oxide process are
not available for industrial applications. Philadel-
phia Electric has reported3 the operating cost for
their 120 MW application at 4.7 mills/kWhr. Costs were
estimated by EPA/TVA using 1978 cost information.
These costs are shown below2. The costs shown are
total operating costsD and are based upon a 90% S02 re-
moval efficiency. All costs are dependent upon the
sulfur content of the fuel; the cost variance for FGD
systems on new coal fired boilers is shown by the
shaded area. The upper and lower limits correspond to
5.0 and 2.0% sulfur respectively. Costs include the
production of 98% sulfuric acid.
400 «OO
MATINS CAMOTr (
OPCRATUM C
Operating efficiencies for the magnesium oxide
process are usually higher than lime or limestone
systems despite the similarity in chemistry. This is
due to the increased reactivity of the MgO over lime
or limestone. Boston Edison and Potomac Electric
and Power have reported efficiencies of 90X.
Industrial applications have reportedly ranged from
90 to 99.5%.
Past Installations have exhibited relatively low
reliability performance (low availabilities). Frequent
equipment and processing problems have been encoun-
tered. However, this should be Improved with time due
to the low potential for scaling with MgO as compared
to lime or limestone systems.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
There are relatively few environmental problems
with the magnesium oxide process since the scrubbing
reagent Is completely regenerated to MgO and S02-
There may be problems, however, in the following areas:
1) Environmental problems associated with by-product
sul f uric acid production.
2) Stack emissions may create an "acid rain" under
certain weather conditions If reheat is not pro-
vided.
NOTES
A) A variety of other scrubber types can be used (see
sections 1.4.2 to 1.4.10).
6) MgS03 can have three and sometimes six waters of
hydration. MgS04 usually has seven.
C) Regeneration can be carried out on site or at some
distance from the absorption system.
0) The cost data Include amortized capital investments
overhead, utilities, raw materials, labor and
maintenance; but do not include by-product credits.
•AMUFACTURCR /SUPPLIER
Envlroneerlng Inc., Division of R1ley Stoker
Envlrotech Corp., Chemico A1r Pollution Control Division
Research Cottrell, Industrial Division
United Engineers and Constructors, Inc.
MEPCMMCSS
1) Federal Power Conroission, "The Status of the Flue Gas Desulfurization Applications in the United States:
Technological Assessment", A staff report on the Bureau of Power, (July 1977).
2) "Proceedings: Symposium on Flue Gas Desulfurization; New Orleans, March 1976, Volume 1 and 2 , EPA
3) Pedco*Env1ronmental! "Summary Report Utility Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems - Oct. and Nov. 1977", Pre-
oared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Contract 68-01-4147.
-98-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Gas Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid Scrubbers/Contactors (Absorption Processes)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Wellman-Lord Process
NUMBER
.C.I. 8
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTI CULATE8
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
ORGANIC
INOR6ANIC
fly ash
THERMAL
NOISE
SOLUTION Of *U«0 . *«ON*.!0.
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The Well man-Lord process is a regenerate
FGD process which uses a sodium-based
alkaline solution for removing S02 from com-
bustion gases and other sulfur laden process
effluents. The gas stream is treated in
a wet scrubber to remove particulate, and to
cool and humidify the gas stream (see Figure
1). The wet scrubber discharges directly to
an absorber with two or more scrubbing stages.
Here S02 is absorbed in a sodium sulfite
solution according to reaction 1. Reaction 2
shows the oxidation which takes place in the
absorber. A considerable amount of the
sulfite can be oxidized depending upon the
Na2S03 + H20 + S02 •- 2 NaHSOs (1)
PtlTKULATEi
Na2S03 + 1/2 02
(2)
absorber type and the amount of oxygen in the gas stream.
disposed of through a tall stack.
Figure 1. WELLMAN-LORD PROCESS
The clean flue gas from the absorber is reheated and
The sodium sulfite/bisulfite liquor from the absorber is sent ,to an evaporator with a small bleed stream being
sent to a chiller crystal!izer for sulfate control. In the crystal!izer, the bleed stream is cooled and the
sodium sulfate (Na2SQ4) crystals which form are removed from the slurry and dried for sale or disposal. This
method controls the buildup of the nonreactive sulfate ion.
The bulk of the absorber solution is combined with cool sulfite liquor from the sulfate purge section and with
hot recycle slurry from the evaporator. This hot slurry is sent to the evaporator where sulfur dioxide and water
are driven off according to the reverse of reaction 2. Residual sodium bisulfite is regenerated in a dissolving'
tank according to reaction 3B. This also replaces sodium values list in the sulfate purge. The sodium
NaHS0 + NaOH
(3)
sulfite solution, containing some sodium bisulfite is recycled to the absorber. The pure sulfur dioxide stream
can be used to produce high grade sulfur,
-------
CAPITAL COST*
Capital costs for the Wellman-Lord process are not
available for industrial applications. Northern
Indiana Public Service has reported the capital cost
for their 115 MW application at $129/kW3. Costs were
estimated by EPA/TVA for a startup in mid-1978. These
costs are shown below2. The costs shown are installed
costs and are based on a 90% SOg removal efficiency.
All costs are dependent upon the sulfur content of the
fuel; the cost variance for FGD systems on new coal
fired boilers is shown by the shaded area. The upper
and lower'limits correspond to 5.0 and 2.0% sulfur
respectively0.
400 600
GENERATING CAMCITY
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Gas Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid Scrubbers/ Contactors (Venturi Scrubbers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Dual Throat Variable Venturi
NUMBER
1.4.6.5
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTI CULATE3
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACH ABLE FUGITIVE
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
50?
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the dual throat variable
venturi scrubber. Contaminated gas enters through a rectangular
duct and passes over a flow dividing insert. This insert can be
moved up or down to infinitely vary the distance between the
scrubber walls and the insert. The gas stream is contacted with
water by two spray pipes located directly over each of the two
rectangular venturi throats formed by the insert. Turbulent
mixing of the gas and liquid streams occurs in each throat.
This mixing wets the particulate matter and provides excellent
mass transfer. Odor problems can be eliminated and non-
condensable gases such as 502, HC1> HCN and H2S can be absorbed
simultaneously with particulate removal. The degree of mixing
and consequently the scrubbing efficiency can be varied depending
upon the location of the insert. A higher insert position,
reduces the throat size, increases the turbulence and the
efficiency, but it also decreases the capacity for a given
pressure drop. The dual throat design combines long, constant
cross sectional area throats with a small fixed angle of expansion
to provide for maximum turbulent mixing and maximum pressure re-
covery. This minimizes frictional losses.
Gas from the venturi section expands in a flooded elbow where
most of the water is removed. Any entrained water is removed in
a cyclonic separator which may be equipped with a fiber mat mist
eliminator if necessary.
Certain applications may require, the addition of oxidation
or neutralization chemicals to the scrubber water. Hydrogen
peroxide, lime, soda ash are used in this manner to react with
the absorbed components and increase efficiency. Materials of
construction can vary greatly depending upon the application and
the scrubber solution. Exotic alloys and a variety of liners can
be used for this purpose.
GAS OUT
GAS IN
SCRUBBER
WATER OUT
FIGURE 1. DUAL THROAT VENTURI
APPLICATION RANGE
The dual throat variable venturi can handle gas streams with
particles ranging in size from 0.5 to 100 microns, but it is best
suited to a size range from 1 to 40 microns. The particulate
loading can range from 0.08 to 2.0 grains/SCF. Soluble gases
such as S02, HC1, HCN and HgS can be effectively absorbed in this
unit as well. The unit is manufactured in standard sizes from
50,000 to 500,000 ACFM saturated capacity. The dual throat vari-
able venturi has been used in conjunction with the Double Alkali
System (1.4.1.10) and in Sodium Scrubbing without regeneration
(1.4.1.32) to remove S02, kiln dust and fly ash.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (81 )
KPa
236
J/t
ENGLISH
Ptl
SOO.OOQftVmln
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-101-
-------
CAPITAL COTS
The capital costs for the dual throat variable
venturi scrubber are shown below*. The costs are
March, 1978; and are dependent upon size, application
and the materials of construction. Contact the manu-
facturer for detailed cost information.
0 100 200 300 400 500
SATURATED GAS VOLUME CAPACITY (ACFM X 10T3)
OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs can vary greatly depending upon the
the application. In most cases, the major contributor
to the operating cost is the increased load on the fan
drive unit. Electrical requirements for various gas
flows are shown below for a number of pressure dropsB.
100 200 300 400
CAPACITY (ACFM X 10'3)
500
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
Actual operating efficiencies are highly dependent
upon the application and cannot be estimated here.
The outlet grain loadings have been reduced to as low
as 0.01 grains/SCF, but this cannot be obtained in
every case. The manufacturer will guarantee an outlet
grain loading of 0.03 grains/SCF for all units of this
design.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Scrubber water is generated in this unit and must be
treated to remove suspended solids and any absorbed
gases before it can be discharged. Other emissions in-
clude fugitive liquid and air emissions. Gaseous and
particulate constituents which are not removed from the
gas stream may also be a problem.
NOTES
A) Source: Direct communications with FMC Corp.
B) Compression effects Were neglected for this
estimate. Fan efficiency was assumed to be 67%.
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
FMC Corp.
REFERENCES
1) FMC Corp., "Type TI Dual Throat Variable Scrubber", Bulletin 25100-A.
2) FMC Corp., "Boiler Emissions Control", Bulletin 25300.
-102-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Gas Cleaning
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid Scrubbers/Contactors (Venturi Scrubbers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Ejector Venturi Scrubber
NUMBER
1.4.6.8
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICULATE3
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
ORGANIC
> 1 Micron
INORGANIC
Soluble Gases
> 1 Micron
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of a typical ejector-type
venturi scrubber. In this design, a high velocity liquid spray
creates a draft which draws contaminated gas into the throat. The
venturi effect provides for maximum entrainment of particulate by the
scrubbing liquid and thoroughly mixes both phases. The gas-liquid
mixture is discharged from the venturi scrubber over a separating
baffle and into a knock-out box. Liquid effluent from this separation
step can be discharged after treatment or recycled to the scrubber.
Cleaned gas from the separator can be discharged to the atmoshere or
sent to a second stage for further purification. Ultra high efficien-
cies of 99.5% plus can be obtained in this manner.
The nozzle, normally supplied with the scrubber, provides a
medium coarse spray, fine enough to provide efficient gas scrubbing
and yet coarse enough to allow for easy separation of the entrained
liquid. The nozzle is designed to ensure that the spray angle and
characteristics are correct for each size scrubber. Other considera-
tions taken into account for the nozzle design are the desired scrub-
bing efficiency and the air handling requirements. The nozzle can
be manufactured in stainless steel, special plastics, cast iron, or
butyl rubber. It can be made in other special materials if the
application warrents it. The scrubber itself can be made from any
workable material such as special alloys, plastics including PVC,
fiberglass reinforced plastic and Haveg. In addition, the scrubber
can also be lined with a variety of corrosion resistant materials.
Some ejector venturi scrubbers are available for mounting on an
existing tank, thus eliminating the need for the separator. In
addition, the separator can be over-sized to allow for liquid storage
prior to discharge or recycle. A strainer is provided for most re-
cycle applications to eliminate nozzle plugging.
Scrubbing
Liquid In
Scrubber
Liquid Out
Figure 1. EJECTOR VENTURI SCRUBBER
APPLICATION RANGE
The ejector venturi is designed for scrubbing large volume
gases, vapors, fumes and dusts. The system is.available in
sizes from 1 1/2" to 96"c, and can produce gas flows up to
173,000 ACFM and higher. Typical ejector type venturi scrubbers
can be designed to handle large amounts of condensables, to cool
large volumes of hot non-condensables, and to absorb gases such
as C12, HCI, S02 and NH3.
OPERATIN3 RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI)
«C
KPa
81.6
kg/.
ENGLISH
173,OOQftVmm
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-103-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Capital costs for ejector-type venturi scrubbers
are-shown below. These costs are March 1978, costs
and were estimated from manufacturer's data. Prices
are for the scrubber only with no separator or
auxiliaries.
o
X
40
30
~ 20
10
25 50 75 100 125
Scrubber Capacity (ACFM x 10 -3
150
OPERATING COSTS
Since there are no moving parts in the ejector
venturi scrubber, maintenance costs are very low. The
major electrical requirement is that needed to supply
liquid to the spray nozzle. Electrical requirements
are shown below for various flow rates at several noz-
zle back pressures'5. In general, liquid will be re-
quired at a rate of 25 to 86 gpm/1000 CFM.
1.00
234567
Liquid Flow Rate (Gpm x 10"3)
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
The efficiency is dependent upon the pressure
of the scrubbing liquid, and on the dust loading of
the inlet gas. In general,, the efficiency is not
acceptable for particulate under 1 micron in size.
Efficiencies for particles for a variety of scrubber
drafts and particle sizes are shown below. Efficien-
cies for gas absorption is greatly dependent upon the
application and are not considered here.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Scrubber water is generated 1n this unit and must
be treated to remove suspended solids and absorbed
gases before it can be discharged. Other emissions in-
clude fugitive liquid and air emissions. Gaseous and
particulate constituents which are not removed from the
gas streem may also be"a problem.
234567
Scrubber Draft (in. H20)
NOTES
A) The wide band of costs per ACFM is created from the
flexibility of each specific size to handle a wide
range of gas flows. The flow of gas through an
ejector venturi can be varied by altering the
liquid flow rate, the inlet pressure or the outlet
pressure.
B) Electrical requirements were estimated for a
centrifugal pump with a pump efficiency of 503S.
C) Larger sizes are available on special request.
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Ametek, Inc., Process Systems Division
Brighton Corp.
Droll-Reynolds Co., Inc.
Graham Manufacturing Co., Inc.
Heil Process Equipment Co., Division of Dart Industries
Jet-Vac Corp., The
REFERENCES
1) Liptak, B.C. ed., Environmental Engineers Handbook, Volume II Air Pollution, Chilton Book Co., Radnor, PA,
(1974).
2) Ametek Process Systems, "Pollution Control, Product Recovery, Chemical Recovery," Catalog 7R.
-104-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Gas Cleaning
QtNERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid Tcrjbbers.'Contactors (Venturi Scrubbers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Kinpactor Vent-jr; Scrubber
NUMBER
1.4.6.12
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
AIR
GA3ES
PARTiCULATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
Reamer Plug
Gas
In
.Splash Plate
Water Nozzle
Gas
Out
Inlet Water
Mani fold
Gas
Inlet
Figure 1. KINPACTOR VENTURI THROAT
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The Kinpactor venturi scrubber is a high energy venturi
with a specially designed throat, (Figure 1). This design pro-
vides the most efficient conversion of potential energy into Figure 2. KINPACTOR GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
kinetic energy (velocity) and then allows maximum pressure re-
covery. The highest possible collection efficiency can be obtained
for a given power consumption. Throat velocities of 9,000 to
24,000 ft per minute can be reached.
Water is introduced ahead of the throat by impinging it off of a splash plate. This forms a continuous
sheet through which the gas must pass. The nozzles are angled to give the high pressure water the right tra-
jectory and results in complete coverage of the throat area. Manual high pressure water reamers (not shown)
are normally included to clean any plugged nozzles. Automatic models are also available. The use of reamers
allows the reci rculation of scrubber water to the throat, a practice wMch could otherwise cause plugging pro-
blems. The recirculation system must, however, contain some means of clarification or a means to limit the
build up of suspended solids.
Water atomized in the throat and the gas move horizontally through a long diverging section and pass into
a cyclonic separator (see Figure 2). Clean gas free of any entrained water is discharged from the separator.
Scrubber water and the absorbed containants are continuously drained from the bottom of the separator.
The Kinpactor is available in a variable throat model if the application warrents it. Similar to other
scrubbers, the Kinpactor can be constructed from a variety of materials to meet specific corrosion resistance
requirements.
APPLICATION RANGE
The Kinpactor venturi scrubber can be used to remove dust
ranging in size down to a sub-micron level. Economics, however,
may prohibit the application of this scrubber on particulate
over 2 microns in size. The Kinpactor has been successfully
used to reirove dust frcr; utility flue gas, 30F plant effluents,
blast furnace gas, cupalco offgas, anc aspnalt dryer offgas.
OPERATING RANOES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI )
KPo
ENGLISH
°F
ptl
2 o.nnn "'/"*»
lb/hr
8TU/hr
-105-
-------
Capital cost very greatly depending upon the
application. Equipment costs for the Kinpactor „
scrubber and the cyclonic separator are shown below .
Costs are March, 1978 and are based upon manufacturer's
data.
12
8
x
- 6
in
i 2
a.
§ .0
20
40 60
80
100 120
SATURATED GAS VOLUME CAPACITY (ACFM x 10'3)
OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs vary greatly depending upon the
application. In most cases, the major contributor to
the operating cost is the increased load on the fan
drive unit. Electrical requirements for various gas
flows are shown below for a number of pressure dropsC.
The Kinpactor is usually designed to use 8 gal/1000 SCF
of water at the throat. This may be recycled, however
and doesn't effect the operating cost a great deal.
0.0
20 40 60 80 100 12C
CAPACITY (ACFM x 10"3)
Operating efficiencies for the Kinpactor are
shown below. This graph relates the collection
efficiency to the particle size for a number of differ
ent pressure drops. The Kinpactor provides the highes
possible collection efficiency for a given power
consumption.
100
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Scrubber water is generated in this unit and must
be treated to remove suspended solids and any absorbed
gases before it can be discharged. Other emissions in-
clude fugitive liquid and air emissions. Gaseous and
particulate constituents which are not removed from the
gas stream may also be a problem.
0.2 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.0
PARTICLE SIZE (Microns)
2.0
NOTES
A) Kinpactor is a trade name of Americal Air Filter.
B) The cost estimate is based upon the following:
AP = 20" H20; saturated gas density factor « 1.0;
and 1/4" mild steel construction. The Kinpactor
costs include a manual reamer.
C) Compression effects were neglected for this esti-
mate. Fan efficiency was assumed to be 67°..
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
American Air Filter Company, Inc.
(CF.E1IENCES
1) American Air Filter Co., "Kinpactor Venturi-Type Wet Oust Collector", Bulletin DC-l-249D-Apr.-01.
2) American Air Filter Co., "AAF Wet Dust and Fume Collectors", Bulletin DC-l-304A-June-01.
-106-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Gas Treatment
(GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid Scrubbers/Contactors (Venturi Scrubbers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Ventri-Rod Scrubber
NUMBER
1.4.6.16
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
X
X
ORQANIC
INOR8ANIC
AIR
OASES PARTICIPATES
X
SO?
X
X
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
THERMAL
NOISE
Gas In
Gas In
gs O O»O OTO QfO O
Scrubber
Water Out
Figure 1. VENTRI-ROD SCRUBBER
/ \ I
Gas to Separator
Figure 2. VARIABLE ROD CONFIGURATION
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The Ventri-Rod Scrubber is shown in Figure 1. Particulate laden gas is contacted with scrubber water as
it enters the scrubber. Both scrubber water spray and the dirty inlet gas are directed toward a deck of
parallel metal pipes spaced slightly further apart than their diameter to produce a series of short throat
venturi openings. This Ventri-rod deck shown in Figure 1 operating in the down-flow position, can also be
used effectively in an up-flow or a cross-flow position. Wear resistant, non-clogging ceramic nozzles are used
to ensure an even distribution of water over the deck. As the gas passes through the venturi throats, the
particulate matter is scrubbed by the entrained water. Scrubber water is removed from the gas stream by two
baffle plates and a series of two chevron type mist eliminators. Approximately 90% of the free water is re-
moved by the deceleration of the gas as it passes over the baffle plates. The remaining free water is removed
by the mist eliminators.
The Ventri-Rod deck can also be used in conjunction with other types of mist eliminators (Section 1.1.2)
or as a conversion kit to upgrade inefficient or obsolete scrubbing equipment. Another configuration which is
available for retrofit and as a complete scrubber package is the variable VentriTRod scrubber. This scrubber
operates similar to the unit described above, but two rod decks are provided in the venturi section (See Figure
2). One deck is fixed and the other is movable to allow adjustment of the venturi throat opening. This pro-
vides constant efficiency over a wide range of operating conditions without any major changes to the rod size
or position.
The Ventri-Rod scrubber can be fabricated from a wide variety of materials, from mild steel to high cost
alloys. Coated materials can also be used.
APPLICATION RANGE
The Ventri-Rod scrubber functions very well at low
pressures. Inlet loadings in excess of 20 grains can be
handled. Liquid to gas ratios can range from 2 to 15 gal per
1000 CFM. Installations to date have ranged in capacity from
1000 to 600,000 ACFM, and have handled everything from iron
oxides dust to fly ash.
OPERAT1N0 RAN8ES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENER8Y RATE
METRIC (81]
t.n
283 ""*/*
EN8LISH
0.7 to 5.4P"
600,000*tVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-107-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
The FOB costs for standard sizes of Ventri-
Rod package scrubbers are shown below**.
These costs may fluctuate depending upon the
configuration. Costs are March, 1978 and are based
upon manufacturer's data.
70
^ 60
5 50 J
X
~ 40 \
4->
in
5 30
Q.
3
CT
20
10
0 50 100 150
SATURATED GAS VOLUME CAPACITY (ACFM x 10'3)
OPERATING COSTS
Operating cost information is not available.
Design features which may effect the operating costs
are listed below:
• Ceramic spray nozzles resist wear and
clogging.
• Venturi rods are free to rotate and vibrate.
This minimizes build-up and evenly distri-
butes wear.
• Chevron type mist eliminators are widely
spaced to eliminate build-up and plugging.
• Oversized drains eliminate plugging.
• Quick opening doors provide easy access to
maintain scrubber internals.
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
The rod size and position can be varied to im-
prove operating efficiencies but this usually de-
creases the capacity. General operating efficiencies
shown belowc.
100
90
-60
*
^
>>
70
60
I
50
40
O)
•r-
U
11
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Scrubber water is generated in this unit and must
be treated to remove suspended solids before it can
be discharged. Other emissions include fugitive
liquid and air emissions. Gaseous and particulate
constituents which are not removed from the gas stream
may also be a problem.
0123 45
Particle Size (Microns)
NOTES
A) Ventri-Rod scrubber is a registered trademark
of Environeering, Inc.
B) Larger sizes may be shipped in sections and
welded together in the field.
C) Operating efficiencies are general in nature and
should not be used for design purposes. Source:
Environeering, Inc.
MANUFACTURER /SUPPLIER
fcnvironeering, Inc., Subsidiary of Riley Stoker Corp.
REFERENCES
1) Environeering, Inc., "A-33 Ventri-Rod Scrubber", Bulletin 110-10/75.
-108-
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CLASSIFICATION
Gas Cleaning
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid Scrubbers/Contactors (Venturi Scrubbers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Ametek High Energy Venturi Scrubber
NUMBER
1.4.6.23
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICULATE9
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACH ABLE FUGITIVE
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
Gas
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The Ametek high energy venturi scrubber, shown
in Figure 1, utilizes a high pressure drop to achieve
9956+ removal efficiency. The gas enters the throat
area (detailed at right), and is accelerated to in-
creasingly higher velocities as the cross sectional
area decreases. Scrubbing liquid is introduced at
two points, tangentially to a trough above the gas in-
let creating a cylindrical liquid wall around the in-
coming gas and through a spray nozzle at the point of
maximum turbulence in the throat. This design elimi-
nates the "wet-dry zone" solids build up, and maxi-
mizes the relative velocities between the gas and
liquid streams which atomizes the motive liquid drop-
lets. As the gas decelerates through the tapered
venturi tail, further impaction and agglomeration of
the droplets and contaminants occurs. The gas-liquid
mixture passes into a cyclonic separator where any
entrained water is removed. Clean gas flows out the
top, and contaminated liquor is recycled to the
venturi throat. Make-up liquor is added to reduce
suspended solids or to limit the concentration build-
up of any absorbed contaminants. As make-up is added,
concentrated liquor overflows from the separator.
Depending upon the application, the high energy
scrubber can be supplied in a variable capacity model,
in a number of materials of construction, or with
additional equipment, such as a precooler.
Recycle
Liquor
Recycle
Spray Liquor
Purge
Gas to
Separator
Make-Up
Figure 1. AMETEK HIGH ENERGY VENTURI
APPLICATION RANGE
PRESSURE
KPa
ptl
VOLUMETRIC RATE
17.5 "•»/•
37,OOOttVmin
MASS RATE
kg/*
Ib/hr
The Ametek high energy venturi scrubber is offered in
standard sizes from 1600 to 37,000 cfm and is available in
larger sizes on a custom basis.
This scrubber is versatile enough to meet practically every
submicron requirement from industrial and commercial effluents
gases. It has been used to treat: acid mists; fertilizer plant
effluents; iron, coke and silica dust; lime and limestone dust; catalyst dusts; oil fumes; and boiler fly ash,
all at 955S or greater efficiency.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI)
°C
ENGLISH
BTU/hr
-109-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs can vary greatly depending upon
the application. In most cases, the major contributor
to the operating cost is the increased load on the fan
drive unit. Electrical requirements for various gas
flows are shown below for a number of pressure drops8.
1000
cr
01
oc
a
u
250
10 20 30~ 40
Capacity (ACFM x 10 -3)
50
OPERATNM EFFICIENCIES
As stated in the Application Range, the high
energy venturi scrubber can be used to treat a number
of effluents at high efficiency. The relationship
of efficiency versus pressure drop for a number
of partial sizes is shown belowC.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Scrubber water is generated in this unit and must
be treated to remove suspended solids and any absorbed
gases before it can be discharged. Other emissions in-
clude fugitive liquid and air emissions. Gaseous and
particulate constituents which are not removed from
the gas stream may also be a problem.
23456810 20 30 50
Pressure Drop (in. H20)
NOTES
B) Compression effects were neglected for this
estimate. Fan efficiency was assumed to
be 67%.
C) This information is typical of the results which
can be achieved. Accurate efficiency data can be
obtained from the manufacturer.
MANUFACTURER/SUPPLIER
Ametek Inc., Process Systems Division
REFERCNCXS
1) Ametek Process Systems, "Pollution Control, Product Recovery, Chemical Recovery," Catalog 7R.
-110-
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CLASSIFICATION
Gas Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid Scrubbers/Contactors (Venturi Scrubbers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Multistage Venturi Spray Chamber
I NUMBER
1.4.6.27
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICULATE3
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
X ORGANIC
1 Micron
INORGANIC
Soluble Gases
> 1 Micron
THERMAL
NOISE
Gas
Out
Gas
In
Scrubbing
JT Liqu" 1
T T
Liquor Out
Figure 1. MULTISTAGE VENTURI SPRAY CHAMBER
Figure 2. VENTURI THROAT
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The multistage venturi spray chamber (Figure 1) is a horizontal liquid contacting device utilizing the
turbulence caused by the venturi stages to affect particulate and gaseous pollutant removal. Gas enters the
chamber and is contacted with scrubbing liquor as it passes through the first set of venturi throats, detailed
in Figure 2. The atomizing spray efficiently wets any particulate matter and absorbs contaminants present in
the gaseous phase. Much of the liquor from the first stage is settled out and the gas moves on to the second
stage where the final clean-up is accomplished. Prior to discharge, the gas is passed through a mist eliminator
to remove any entrained water.
Currently, this scrubber is manufactured in two general configurations, one for particulate laden effluents
and one for effluents containing only gaseous pollutants. The configuration for gaseous pollutants, shown in
Figure 1, has a 90° turn before the gas passes through a high efficiency mist eliminator. The scrubber for
particulates is similar to this except that the elbow is eliminated and a widely spaced chevron separator is
used to remove, the entrained water. This modification greatly reduces the possibility of plugging in the
separation section.
Each multistage venturi spray chamber is designed to the specific application. The venturi throat is
available in five standard sizes and each scrubber size has a standard number and arrangement. Additional con-
tact time or additional mass transfer can also be designed into the system by adding a blank stage or an addi-
tional venturi stage respectively. Each stage adds approximately four feet to the scrubber length.
Scrubbing liquor can be supplied in a number of arrangements utilizing once through flow or recirculation.
The inlet piping for all stages can be connected to the same header to provide cross flow contacting or each
stage can be piped separately, utilizing the discharge liquor from the other stages to facilitate cocurrent or
countercurrent contacting. If the scrubbing water is supplied at a sufficient pressure and flow rate, this
scrubber can produce a slight draft, similar to the ejector-type venturi (1.4.6.8). The multistage venturi spray
chamber, like most scrubbers can be supplied in a variety of materials to meet most corrosion resistance
requirements.
APPLICATION RANGE
The multistage venturi spray chamber can be used to ef-
ficiently remove soluble gases, particulate and mists from gas-
eous effluents. It can also be used to condense or cool the
incoming gas. This scrubber, however, is not recommended for an
application involving mists having a particle size less than 1
micron. The multi-stage venturi spray chamber is available in
standard sizes from 4000 to 65,000 cfm.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI )
KPa
30.7
ENGLISH
Ptl
65,000 ttVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-111-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATING COSTS
The two major contributors to the operating costs
are the fan requirements for the increased load due to
the scrubber and the pumping costs for the scrubber
spray system. Electrical requirements for both of these
factors are shown below*. Pumping costs are shown in
solid lines for a number of nozzle pressures. Fan costs
are shown in dotted lines for two scrubber back pres-
suresB.
0.4
£-0.3 .
PUMP
FAN
X^J£^ ,0" *.
^^__. - -—- - j_V_
12345
Liquid Flow Rate (GPM x 10 ~3)
Gas Capacity (ACFM x 10 -3)
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
The multistage venturi spray chamber can be
designed for almost any desired efficiency of soluble
gas removal. This can be done by varying the number
of stages, the liquid rate, the liquid pressure, or
the mode of liquid addition or recycle.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Scrubber water is generated in this unit and must
be treated to remove suspended solids and any absorbed
gases before it can be discharged. Other emissions in-
clude fugitive liquid and air emissions. Gaseous and
particulate constituents which are not removed from
the gas stream may also be a problem.
NOTES
A) Gas compression effects were neglected for this
estimate. Static efficiency for the fan estimated
to be 67%, and the pump efficiency was assumed to
be 50%. Liquid requirements can range from 5 to
50 gpm per 1000 cfm.
B) Higher liquid pressures tend to reduce the scrubber
back pressure. For the smallest venturi throats,
the maximum AP encountered would be 10" H20. Pump
requirements are found using a liquid flow rate
and a nozzle back pressure (psig). Fan require-
ments are found using the gas capacity and a
scrubber back pressure (in H?0).
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Ametek Inc., Process Systems Division
REFERENCES
1) Ametek Process Systems, "Pollution Control, Product Recovery, Chemical Recovery," Catalog 7R.
-112-
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CLASSIFICATION
Gas Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid Scrubbers/Contactors (Venturi Scrubbers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Ventri-Sorber
I NUMBER
1.4.6.33
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTI CULATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHASLE FU9ITIVE
ORGANIC
INOROANIC
S02
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Water
In
Gas
Out
OOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOO
OOOOOOOOO
Entrained
Water Out6
The Ventri-Sorber is a countercurrent,
multiple stage venturi scrubber, with a design
very similar to the Ventri-Rod Scrubber (1.4.6.16).
Figure 1 shows a Ventri-Sorber with six Ventri-
Rod Decks. Gas enters at the bottom and is con-
tacted with scrubber solution as it moves upward
through the decks of parallel metal pipes. Tur-
bulent mixing is created at each stage by the
venturi action of the deck, and provides maximum
mass transfer. Liquid is introduced above the
decks by open pipes to prevent plugging.
Cleaned gas passes through a two-stage Chevron
type mist eliminator to remove any entrained water.
The blades of the mist eliminators are continuously
washed to clean the surface and to assure maximum
moisture removal. Clean water should be used in
the eliminator recycle system to reduce solids
accumulation and to ensure superior performance.
The rods, are free to rotate slightly. This
prevents scaling, buildup and evenly distributes
wear. The spacing of the rods can be adjusted to
achieve uniform gas velocity through out the
scrubber without altering the overall pressure
drop.
The variable Ventri-Rod configuration (see
Device 1.4.6.16) can be incorporated in this
scrubber. The adjustable throat size allows
efficient operation during boiler turndown or
because of any other reduction in the load.
Normally, one of the rod decks is replaced with this feature and the remaining stages are left unaltered.
The Venturi-Sorber is designed mainly for absorportion but a separate particulate stage can be incorporated
This stage would be identical to the Ventri-Rod deck described in 1.4.6.16. Similar to other scrubbers, the
Venturi-Sorber can be constructed from a variety of materials to meet specific corrosion resistance requirements
Gas
In
Scrubber Water Out
Figure 1. VENTURI SORBER
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
KPa
VOLUMETRIC RATE
283
600. OOPf »*/•""
APPLICATION RANGE
The Ventri-Sorber was specifically designed to absorb S02
from boiler flue gases with loading up to 4000 ppm SOg. Absor-
bers can be supplied in single units up to 600,000 ACFM capacity
and is capable of handling flue gas from a 200 MW generating
facility. The Venturi-Sorber has been used in applications
using limestone, magnesium oxide and lime slurries. It operates
efficiently with low pressure drops over a range of liquid-to-gas
ratios from 5 to 70 gal/1000 CFM. The absorber itself will handle velocities up to 900 ft/min and the mist
eliminator up to 100 ft/min.
OPERATING RANGES
MASS RATE
ENER8Y RATE
Ptl
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-113-
-------
CAPITAL CO*TV
The capital costs for the Ventri-Sorber are shown
belowc. The costs are March, 1978, and are for a
Flake-glass lined scrubber made of 1/4" mild steel
with 316LSS tubes and an FRP mist eliminator. These
materials are typical for an S02 limestone scrubber.
1200
0 100 200 300 400 500
SATURATED GAS VOLUME CAPACITY (ACFM x 10"3)
OPERATING COSTS
The major operating cost is the increased fan load
due to the scrubber. Power requirements are shown
belowD. The open design of the scrubber greatly re-
duces the possibility of plugging increasing scrubber
availability.
10.0
CAPACITY (ACFM X 10"
OFEftATIIM EFFICIENCIES
Operating efficiencies for the Ventri-Sorber have
been reported as being up to 98% for S02 removal with
a suitable alkali. The efficiency for the mist
eliminator have been shown to be essentially 100%.
Operating efficiencies for other pollutants are
not available. These efficiencies depend upon the
application, the absorbtivity of the pollutant, and
the chemicals in the scrubbing solution. In general
the efficiency can be increased by any of the follow-
ing methods.
• Increasing the number of rod decks
• Decreasing the distance between the rods
• Increasing scrubber water rate
All of the above operations will also increase the
pressure drop for a given flow rate.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Scrubber water is generated in this unit and must
be treated to remove absorbed gases and any suspended
solids before it can be discharged. Other emissions
include fugitive liquid and air emissions. Gaseous
and particulate constituents which are not removed from
the gas stream may also be a problem.
NOTES
A) Ventri-Sorber is a regestered trademark of Envirr
oneering, Inc.
B) Entrained water can be recycled to the mist
eliminator sprays.
C) Source: Direct communication with Environeering,
Inc.; budget prices only.
D) Compression effects were neglected for this
estimate. Fan efficiency was assumed to be 67%.
HANUFACTimCM / SUPPLIER
Environeering, Inc., Subsidiary of Riley Stoker Corp.
1} Environeering, Inc., "A-5 Ventri-Sorber Scrubber", Bulletin 114-12/77.
-114-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil Skimmers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE' OR PROCESS
Absorbent Belt Skimmer
NUMBER
2.1.6.1
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
9A3E3
AIR
PARTI CULATE9
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FU91TIVE
OROANIC
INORQANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
This skimmer consists of a moving belt made
from a stranded, open-cell synthetic foam material.
Surface oil is attracted by a induction pump which
pulls about 50 gpm of fluid through the belt. Oil
clings to the strands as water flows through the
open cells. Oil and oil-soaked debris are lifted
from the surface of the water on a continuous con-
veyor of the absorbent belt material. Entrained
oil is then wrung from the belt by a squeeze roller
into an oil sump. Oil-soaked debris is retained
on a bar screen above the sump.
Both fixed and floating installations are used.
POWERED DRIVE
8 SQUEEZE ROLLERS
FILTER8ELT
OIL
• OIL
Figure 1. ABSORBENT BELT SKIMMER
APPLICATION RANGE
Designed to eliminate small quantities of oil from rela-
tively large quantities of water. Will tolerate and separate
small debris. Very effective with high-viscosity oils which
give difficulties with adsorbent surface skimmers.
OPERATIN9 RAN8E3
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENER9Y RATE
METRIC (SI)
EN4LISH
°C
KPo
pll
ftVmin
Ib/hf
BTU/hr
-115-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Approximately 510,000 (1977) depending on
materials of construction and design options.
OPERATING COSTS
Conveyor drive - 1/2 np
Inauction pump - 1-1/2 hp
Transfer pump - variable
OPERATIN0 EFFICIENCIES
Oil recovery rate tor a 3' wide Filterbelt •
500 pr
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
8 ft./sec.
5tt./sec.
NOTES
A) Industrial model has one-foot wide belt.
2 ft./sec.
i.o 10 100 i.ooo 10.000
OIL VISCOSITY-CENT1STOKES
MANUFACTURER/SUPPLIER
Marine Construction & Design Co.
Rex Chainbelt, Inc.
REFERENCES
1) Product Bulletin, Marco.
-116-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I8ENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil Skimmers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OH PROCESS
Absorbent Drum Skimmer
NUMBER
2.1.6.2
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICULATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FU8ITIVE
X OROANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
m
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The absorbent drum skimmer uses a
synthetic foam material which has a
selective affinity for oil in the presence
of water. Mounted on a rotating drum,
this material absorbs floating oil
contaminants. When the foam is mechanically
squeezed, oil carrying little more than
trace amounts of water is released.
Diverted to a sump, the oil can be pumped
to a receiving vessel for disposal or
recovery.
The foam cartridge is easily replace-
able. Both variable and constant speed
drives available and both fixed and floating
installations are used.
OIL-ABSORBENT FOAM
SQUEEZE ROLLER
RECOVERED-OIL TROUGH
OIL
WATER
Figure 1. ABSORBENT DRUM SKIMMER
APPLICATION RANGE
Depending on viscosity of oil being recovered, and pore
size of foam cartridge being used, maximum recovery rates range
from 5 to 50 gpm.
OPERATIN* RAJMES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERQY RATE
KPd
H/t
J/t
ftVSto
Ib/hf
BTU/hr
-117-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
25- inch Drum
50- inch Drum
$16,500 (1977)
$18,500 (1977)
Above costs are for single-speed electric
drive. Costs are higher for variable speed and
flotation options.
OPERATING COSTS
OPEMATIN* EFFICIENCIES
10,000.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
1.000
YIELD
G.P.H.
50"
UNIT
K^
*>
/
i
\
\
~~-
\
\
so
(
\
\
«
6
i
•^t>
is
3
J
I
I
\
\
^.
V
S IK:
\
\
,!
i
\
^
L
\
\
s
x
i
s.
^
10| P
OF
i , en
s
s
I : La
V
I I "•
zu
^ '
i,
\
=
[
^
s
NOTES
100 1.000 10,000
OIL VISCOSITY IN SAYBOLT SECONDS
UNIVERSAL
MANUFACTURER / SUF PL IE R
Peabody Welles
REFERENCES
1) Product Bulletin, Peabody Welles
-118-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I8ENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil Skimmers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Adsorbent Rope Skimmer
NUMBER
2.1.6.3
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTI CULATE3
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABUE FUGITIVE
OR8ANIC
INOR8ANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
SQUEEGEE
ROLLERS
RECLAIMED OIL —
MOP SELECTIVELY
SORBS THE OIL
TAIL PULLEY
'ULLEYjr
J '_
Figure 1. ADSORBENT ROPE OIL SKIMMER^
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The rope is a continuous length of mop made of thin oleophilic plastic fibers woven to a plastic core or
base. Both the fibers and the base will sorb oil. The fibers form a thick nap along the entire length of
rope. Rope mops are available in sizes from 4 inches to 36 inches in diameter and will float on water. The
rope mop Is threaded through a set of motor-driven roller-wringers followed by exposure of the mop to the oil
polluted water. After absorbing oil from the water, the rope passes to the mop engine, where roller-wringers
squeeze the oil from the rope and it drops into containment pans. Exiting from the wringers, the mop returns
to the water in a continuous cycle.
The path of the rope over the water surface is controlled by means of one or more tail pulleys. When
anchored in multiple strings, rope mops can be used as booms. Also available as hand mops and as self-
propelled vessels utilizing a multiple-rope system to recover large open-water oil spills.
APPLICATION RANGE
Motor hp
40
15
8
Max. Rope Length
4000 ft
2000 ft
2000 ft
Norn. Rope Length
500-1000
300-500
300-500
The higher the viscosity of the oil, the greater is the
sorbing capacity of the rope. Oil/water emulsions will be
absorbed in direct ratio to the oil content.
OPERATING RAM8ES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI )
°C
KPa
mV.
ENOLISH
-40.210
pi!
ffVtnin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-119-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Motor Size, hp
1/2, electric
6, diesel
3/4, electric
6, diesel
2, electric
8, diesel
15, diesel
40, diesel
Capacity
bbl/hr
5
8-10
10-12
10-12
100
100
200
400
Cost
1977 $
2500
6750
6820
8975
21.650
21,360
Additional costs include floating tail pulleys,
and rope mop at $20-28/ft.
OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs in addition to the cost of running
the drive motor, should include occasional cleaning
of the rope mop.
OPERATHW CFriCtCNCCS
Capacity varies with rope diameter, rope length,
and rope speed. Increase in any of these parameters
requires increase in drive motor power.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
MANUFACTURER /SUPPLIER
Oil Mop, Inc.
REFERENCES
1) Product Bulletins, Oil Mop Inc.
-120-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I6ENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil Skimmers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Adsorbent Belt Skimmer
NUMBER
2.1.6.4
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTI CULATE3
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FU9ITIVE
OR6ANIC
INOR9ANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Oil is preferentially adsorbed on the surface of a
moving belt. As the continuous belt passes through the water
it attracts and holds oily wastes on both sides, pulling
them out of the liquid and up toward the head pulley which
drives the belt. There may or may not be a tall pulley
at the bottom of the belt. Doctor blades remove the oil from
both sides of the belt. The oil then drains into a
trough or sump from which it flows or is pumped to storage.
The head pulley can be placed as much as several tens
of feet above the water surface without significant loss of
capacity. This makes it possible to accommodate greatly
varying water levels with a fixed installation and at the
same time elevate the oil to a convenient height above the
surface.
t
WATER
OUTLET
Figure 1. ADSORBENT BELT SKIMMER
Belt skimmers provide an effective means for
removing small amounts of oil from large quantities
of water. They are capable of sustained performance
under continuous operating conditions in lagoons, ponds, sumps, pits, settling tanks, etc. They can be equipped
with weather-proof housings and heating devices to permit year-round operation at below freezing temperatures.
Belt materials may be metal, rubber or plastic materials.
APPLICATION RANGE
Capacity varies depending on viscosity of oil, thickness
of layer, width and speed of belt. It is also possible to
recover solids suspended in the oil layer.
OPERATIN0 RAN9E3
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENER9Y RATE
METRIC (SI )
EN9LISH
KPo
ft*/mln
jg/t
Ib/hf
J/t
8TU/hf
-121-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Approximate 1977 cost range.
Belt
Width
6"
12"
18"
24"
Removal
Rate, gpm
30
60
90
120
Cost
Range
$1000
$1000-$6000
$1000-$10,000
$2000-114,000
3PERATIN6 COSTS
Belt Width
6"
12"
18"
24"
Motor hp
1/4
1/2
1
1
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Recovered oil will contain 1 to 5X water.
Optimum removal rate is dependent on selecting proper
belt speed at operating conditions.
NOTES
MAMUFACTUftEII /SUPPLIER
Aerodyne Development Corp.
Ontri-Spary Corp.
Net-Pro Systems, Inc.
Rex Chainbelt, Inc.
Sandvik Conveyor, Inc.
Tenco Hydro. Inc.
Pollution Control Engineering, Inc.
Industrial Metal Fabricators Co.
Industrial Filter & Pump Manufacturing Co.
Inland Environmental
TRICO Superior, Inc.
1) Product Bulletin, Sandvik Conveyor, Inc.
-122-
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CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil Skimmers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Adsorbent Drum Skimmer
NUMBER
2.1.6.5
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
9ASE8
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHA8LE FUGITIVE
OR9ANIC
INOR8ANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Adsorbent drum skimmers depend on the
adherence of oils to the surface of a revolving
drum, roll, or cylinder. As the drum revolves, oil
Is lifted from the water surface. The adhering
oil film is then removed by a doctor blade, and
deposited in a trough or sump to be pumped to storage
Capacity depends upon viscosity of the oil, thick-
ness of the oil film on the water surface, the
length of the drum and the speed of rotation. It is
essentially independent of drum diameter.
Both metal and plastic drum surfaces are used,
and both fixed and floating installations. If water
levels vary more than a very few inches, a floating
installation is necessary.
Drive-.
Chain or Belt.
Knife Edge
Recovered-Oil Trough
Separated Oil
Flow -
Oil-Retention Baffle-
Figure 1. ADSORBENT DRUM SKIMMER
(1)
APPLICATION RANGE
Will not pick up large globs of heavy or highly oxidized
and non-adherent oils. Maximum recovery rates are on the
order of one gpm per foot of length. Cylinders to 18 feet in
length available.
OPERATIM RANOES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENER8Y RATE
METRIC (SI)
EN8LISH
KPa
P*l
ftVmin
Ib/hr
J/t
BTU/tir
-123-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Costs vary widely depending on details of
installation — fixed or floating, single or double
rolls, single or variable speed drive, type of motor
and pump. etc. A rough order of magnitude would be
520,000 (1977) for a 6 to 10 ft drum.
OPERATING COSTS
OPERATING CFFKIENCKS
Free water 1n recovered oil will be on the order
of 5S.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Surface Separator Systems
Rex Chainbelt
Environmental Equipment Division, FMC Corp.
E & I Corp.
REFERENCES
1) American Petroleum Institute, Disposal of Refinery Wastes Manual, 1969.
-124-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling. Sedimentation (on Skimmers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Air Jet Skimmer
INUMBER
2.1.6.6
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
9A9ES
AIR
PARTICULATE8
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Air jets may be used in secondary skinning
applications or where only a thin film of oil
is present. As shown in Figure 1, the jet
skimmer is used to push a surface layer of oil
and scum across the water surface and into an
opening such as a slotted skimming cross pipe
located at the influent end. Air skimmer
headers may be mounted to a traveling bridge
carriage and span the width of the tank.
Headers mounted at a narrow impingement
angle to the surface, combined with a constant
high velocity air jet, drive the scum forward
without disturbing surface flow of the tank.
As the jet stream skimming action propels
the scum forward toward the slotted pipe skimmer,
an adjustable limit switch opens, allowing
decanting of the adjacent scum. After the air
skimmer crosses this point, the cross skimmer
valve closes.
BRIDGE
SLOTTED PIPE OR
SCUM TROUGH
OIL FILM-
AIR JET
NOZZLES
Figure 1. AIR JET SKIMMER
(D
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
KPa
J/.
ftVmta
Ib/hr
BTU/kr
-125-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
3PERATIN6 COSTS
OPCftATINS CmCKMCCS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
MOTES
MANUFACTURE* / SUPPLIER
Peabody Welles
1) Product Bulletin, Peabody Welles
-126-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil Skimmers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Chain and Flight Skimmer
NUMBER
2.1.6.7
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
AIR
OASES
PARTICULATE8
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
OTOANIC
INOROANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Figure 1. CHAIN & FLIGHT SKIMMER
(1)
drive^hain^lonl9!!^^5/^ ^^ f°r the fu11'wfdth ski™"9 °f rectangular tanks. Two parallel
nf tL fi or P1
to reucehain !oad P 9' 9 " ^ "' "»* °f
. End squeegees n>ay be present on sore flights to
°r p1ast1c' and ^ be P^^y buoyant
Shown in Figure 1 is a 2-shaft independent skimmer, where the lower chain run does the
F°r C0mbined Sk1lTOin9 and Slud9* removal a 4-sSft
anri
be
APPLICATION RANGE
Recommended for unusually large quantities of floating grease
and scum. Often used in combination scum-sludge removal tanks.
OPERATINO RAN4E3
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (31 )
ENflLISH
•C
°F
KPo
ftVmin
Ha/1
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-127-
-------
CAPITAL COST*
OPERATING COSTS
Resistance to chain wear and elongation is the most
important factor influencing operating life and main-
tenance costs.
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Envirex Division, Rex Chainbelt
Walker Equipment Division, Chicago Bridge & Iron Co.
Environmental Equipment Division, FMC Corporation
Infi1co-Degremont, Inc.
Jeffrey Manufacturing Division, Dresser Industries, Inc.
REFERENCES
1) Product Bulletin, Walker Equipment Division, Chicago Bridge & Iron Co.
-128-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil Skimmers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Fixed Floating Weir Skimmer
NUMBER
2.1.6.8
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
AIR
OASES
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE POSITIVE
OR9ANIC
INOROANIC
THERMAL
•fa
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
is
A fixed floating weir skimmer is a device which
anchored in place but floats on the surface and is
capable of rising and falling to follow a changing water-
level . A constant thickness of water cut can be maintained.
It can thus be applied in situations where a slotted pipe
skimmer cannot be used because of large fluctuations in
water level.
Because oil is less dense than water, a floating
skimmer, will float higher in water than in oil. This
fact can be used to design an automatically operating
system. When the skimmer is initially set, the edge of
the weir pan is just above the water line and no takeoff
occurs regardless of water level. When a sufficiently
thick layer of oil has built up the skimmer will sink
slightly, due to the lower buoyancy of oil, until oil
begins to spill over the weir and flow into the takeoff
pipe, as shown in Figure 1. Automatic operation of
this type is not recommended with very viscous oils.
Both linear and circular weir geometries may be
obtained.
FLOAT STRUCTURE
ADJUSTABLE WQR
OIL
WATER
Figure 1. FIXED FLOATING WEIR SKIMMER1
APPLICATION RANGE
Used in settling basins, tanks, API separators. Can
accept all types of oil. Can be built to handle any oil flow
rate.
OPERATINa RAN4ES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENEROY RATE
METRIC (81 )
°C
KPo
ENaUSH
pit
ftVmln
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-129-
-------
CAPITAL CO*T«
Prices start at about $1000.
OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs are negligible.
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
Since only free floating oil is removed,
efficiency is not defined.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
MANUFACTURE* / SUPPLIER
Baker Filtration Company
AFL Industries, Inc.
RCFtWENCCS
1) Product Bulletin, AFL Industries, Inc.
-130-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
6ENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil Skimmers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Floating Tube Skimmer
NUMBER
2.1.6.9
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
GASES
AIR
PARTI CULATE8
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FU8ITIVE
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
DRIVE WHEELS
Figure 1. FLOATING TUBE OIL SKIMMER
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The floating tube oil skimmer removes floating oil from the surface of water and at the same time elevates
the oil so that it can flow by gravity into storage tanks. It is used on confined bodies of water such as
settling ponds, sumps, coolant reservoirs, steel mill scale pits, ditches and process tanks. A closed loop of
flexible, hollow, plastic tubing floats on the water surface. Oil adheres to the surface but water is repelled.
The skimmer continuously draws the oil-covered tube through scrapers and returns the clean tube to the water
surface to gather more oil. The skimmed oil flows by gravity through the mounting system or a trough to the
storage tank. The flexible, floating collector tube is able to snake over and around floating debris to reach
the floating oil. It floats up and down with varying liquid levels. The flexible tube flops so that it breaks
up crusted oil or grease enabling it to adhere to the tube. Six to 14 feet of tubing floats in the skimming
area.
Oil can be lifted up to 60 feet with no loss in capacity. The skimmer can be mounted directly to a tank
or on a boom which allows it to be swung out from shore for a pond installation.
APPLICATION RANGE
Light distillates, such as gasoline and kerosene not removed
efficiently. Electric de-icing may be required in cold weather.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (81 )
0-100
°c
KPu
k«/t
J/t
ENGLISH
ftVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-131-
-------
Tank mounted system $1200 and up depending on
accessories, such as heaters and decanting tanks.
Boom mounted system $3000 and up depending on booms
and accessories. 1977 costs.
OPERATING COSTS
Collector tube life 6 months to 4 years. Replace
tnent costs $3/ft. Power required is 1/2 hp electrical
motor.
OrEKATUW EFFIdEHCKS
Type of Oil
kerosene
diesel oil
#2 fuel oil
hydraulic oil
gear lubricants
heavy fuel oils
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Capacity, gallons/hr
3
3-12
3-12
9-30
45-120
45-120
Capacity increases with viscosity of contaminant
being skimmed.
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Oil Skimmers, Inc.
REFERENCES
1) Product Bulletins, Oil Skimmers, Inc.
-132-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I6ENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil Skimmers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Free Floating Weir Skimmer
I NUMBER
2.1.6.10
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
9ASE3
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LEACHA8LE
LAND
FUOITIVE
OR8ANIC
INOR8ANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Floating weir skimmers are widely used for
cleaning up oil spills or small amounts of effluent
oil in ponds, lagoons and bays. The most common
configuration for floating weir skimmers is a
circular weir as shown in Figure 1. Oil or oil
plus water flows over a weir into a sump. It is
then pumped from the sump to a shore-based
separator or storage. Some units, such as that
shown, include a pump mounted directly on the
skimmer. In other cases, the pump or vacuum
tank will be stationed on shore and the suction
line will be extended to the skimmer.
Many different techniques are used for
adjusting the weir height and thereby
adjusting the thickness of surface layer
removed by the skimmer. In Figure 1, this
is accomplished by adjusting the outboard
floats (3); in other cases this adjustment
can be accomplished by remote control from
the shore or by an automatically compensating
mechanism. When the oil thickness is greater
than the depth at which the weir is set,
100% oil is skimmed. As the thickness of
the oil layer decreases, the ratio of water to
oil pumped increases.
Figure 1. FREE FLOATING CIRCULAR HEIR SKIMMER
LEGEND
1. Motor Drive Unit
2. Flotation Platform
A. Flotation Cell
6. Skimming Weir
3. Adjustable Float
4. Pump Volute
C. Pump Volute Inlet
5. Discharge Pipe
0)
Because they usually are portable and are relatively inexpensive, most floating weir skimmers are used
for infrequent spill cleanup jobs which may require moving from one location to another. Some design variations
are suitable for permanent installations.
APPLICATION RANGE
Suited to free-floating applications such as ponds and
lagoons where only occasional removal is required. Because a
large volume of water is normally removed along with any oil
layer, a secondary separation step is usually necessary. Not
sensitive to properties of oil.
OPERATING RANQCS
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERQY RATE
KPa
fcg/t
ft*/M«
Ib/hf
BTU/hr
-133-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Costs vary considerably from one design to
another depending largely on materials of construction
and type of pump used. Size is usually limited to
that which is easily portable. This will typically
mean a pumping capacity of 200 to 400 gpm (water plus
oil). Costs begin at about $1600.
OPERATING COSTS
Weir type skimmers may pick up large quantities
of water along with any oil. Pumping costs are there-
fore highly variable, depending upon how accurately
the weir depth is controlled to match the existing oil
conditions.
OKMTIIM CFI
Efficiency, in terms of oil recovered per hour
of operation, depends on the accuracy of adjustment
of the weir height. Because the skimmer is used in
free-floating applications, it may require the use
of booms or favorable wind conditions to remove
completely an oil layer on a pond, lagoon or bay.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
When the oil plus water is pumped from skimmer to
shore, passage through the pump may result in an
emulsion which is then difficult to break.
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Acne Products Co.
Baker Filtration Co.
Coastal Services, Inc.
Industrial & Municipal Engineering
Negator Corp.
Skim, Inc.
Mapco, Inc.
Seaward International, Inc.
Spill Control Co.
Parkers Systems, Inc.
Kepner Plastics Fabricators, Inc.
1} Product Bulletin, Skim, Inc.
-134-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
[GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil Skimners)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Radial Arm Skimmers
NUMBER
2.1.6.11
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
PARTI CULATE3
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUfllTIVE
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Radial arm skimmers are used with
circular settling tanks. They are designed
mostly for the removal of floating solids,
greases and scum and are generally used
only where the expected volume of
skimmings is small. Tank diameters may be
much as 300 feet. The collector mechanism
is normally one or two skimming arms with
hinged blades at the other end. Fixed blades
or deflectors on the centerward part of the
boom move floating material slowly toward
the rim of the tank where the hinged blades
eventually sweep it into one or more scum
boxes which are fixed to the outer rim.
,0)
Figure 1. RADIAL ARM SKIMMERv
The construction of radial arm skimmers
is variable with respect to the method of supporting the skimmer arm, and the following four major types are
used:
1. Pier supported. The most common arrangement is probably the center pier support. The radial arm boom
pivots about a pier built in the center of the tank. The pier supports the drive mechanism, collector arms,
influent well, and one end of a fixed access bridge.
2. Bridge supported. This is the type illustrated in Figure 1.
tube mechanism suspended from the center of a bridge across the tank.
tank, this system is limited to smaller tank diameters.
The skimmer arm is driven by a torque
Because the bridge must span the entire
3, Traveling bridge supported. A radial bridge member is supported at one end by a pivot mechanism on the
center pier, and at the other end by a motor-driven traveling carriage mechanism which traverses the circum-
ference of the tank. The skimmer is suspended from the traveling bridge arm.
4. Rake supported. Any of the above three arrangements may be used to support a sediment rake.
skimmer can then be attached to the rake by vertical support members.
A surface
APPLICATION RANGE
Radial arm skimmers are normally used only where small
volumes of skimmings are expected. The width of the scum
trough is only a fraction of the radius and not all floating
material will be removed in a single pass.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (31)
°C
KPa
ENGLISH
°F
pt!
ftVmin
Ib/hr
8TU/hr
-135-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATING COSTS
OPERATING EFFICIENCY*
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Walker Process .Division, Chicago Bridge & Iron Co.
Envirex Division, Rexnord
Ecodyne
Carborundum Co.
Evire-Systems Division, Zurn Industries, Inc.
Environmental Elements Division, (Coppers Co.
Dorr-Oliver, Inc.
General Filter Co.
Infilco-Degremont, Inc.
DEFERENCES
1) Product Bulletin, Walker Process Division, Chicago Bridge & Iron Co.
-136-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil Skimmers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Rotating Disc Skimmer
(NUMBER
2.1.6.12
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
GASES
AIR
PARTICULATE3
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
WIPER
LECTING
TROUGH
Figure 1. ROTATING DISK SKIMMER
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The rotating disc skimmer takes advantage of the adherence of oils to a non-wetted solid surface and the
ability of an oil-wetted surface to shed water. Shown in Figure 1 is a disc immersed to about one third its
diameter in oil-covered water and rotating in a clockwise direction. As any point on the disc enters the fluid,
the oil adheres to it and remains during the submerged portion of rotation. When that point reaches the
liquid's surface, the oil remains on the disc and the water runs off. A stationary wiper moves oil from both
sides of the disc into a takeoff channel from which it flows or is pumped to a storage tank.
Various models are available with plastic, aluminum or stainless steel discs. As many as 86 discs per unit
with diameters up to 48 inches may be obtained. Either fixed or floating installations may be used.
The design of these skimmers makes them particularly invulnerable to clogging by debris.
APPLICATION RANGE
Effective in wide range of viscosities -- API 11° to API
48°. Oil recovery capacities of various makes and models range
from less than one to forty gpm for refinery models. Models
for offshore oil spill recovery have capacities to 40,000
bbl/day or more. Works with sandy oil from secondary recovery
projects.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (81)
°C
KPo
IK* A
J/t
ENGLISH
°F
p*l
ft'/mln
Ib/hr
BTU/hf
-137-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
I OPERATING COSTS
Oil Recovery Cost 1
Rate, qom 1977 1
1 $2,000
3 3,000
6 5,000
12 9,000
25 13,000
50 20,000
Approximate costs, based on averages of several
manufacturers.
•OKMTHM ETFICIENCKS
_ oauwfttmawiss
? '•* ^y . macs
5 "•* ,-^* N.
£ UMIAHOM— , j^^^^*****. \
o w no >.«oo ».o»
on VISCOSITY IN OMreracn _ ^
*>• a.r TV "• I •
nj? "• 1
iirigmiin UNGC *n J
cuvirriauMALENn
Hater carryover 1s approximately 5X of the re-
covered oil volume. Not affected by water level
variations of a few 1nch»<;. Oil recovery rate affect-
ed by viscosity and thickness of oil layer as shown
for a typical model 0). About 95X of the oil encoun-
tered will be captured per pass.
Maximum Oil
Recovery Rate, gpm Horsepower, elec.
1/2 1/2
1 1/2
4 1/2
12 1
40 7
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
I •MUMCTUMR/SUPPLIER
Marine Construction & Design Co.
Lockheed Missiles & Space Co.
Lowe Engineering Co.
Centri-Spray Corp.
1) Lockheed Missiles & Space Co., Product Bulletin
-138-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil Skimmers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Slotted Pipe Skimmer
NUMBER
2.1.6.13
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
AIR
OASES
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUOITIVE
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
ril
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
One of the simplest of all skimmers, the slotted pipe
1s widely used in municipal and industrial waste treatment
systems. It consists of a pipe installed at the water
surface and perpendicular to the direction of water flow.
Numerous slots are cut in one side of the pipe. When the
pipe is rotated so that the lower edge of the slots is
just below the water surface, any floating oil or solids
will flow into the pipe and out the open end. The pipe
revolves in and is supported at each end by a collar.
Rotation of the pipe, to adjust the depth of cut for
skimming, can be accomplished manually or with a motor
drive. Pipe diameters range from 8 to 20 inches.
Diameter is governed by the variation in liquid level,
basin width and travel length of skimmings in the
Pipe.
These skimmers are .often installed at the front of
an API separator. Materials of construction may be
metal, plastic or fiberglass.
OIL
WATER
Figure 1. SLOTTED PIPE SKIMMER
By setting the skimming edge slightly above the maximum
water level when no oil is present (A in Figure 1), only oil
will be skimmed. This means that during less than maximum flow conditions a thick layer will accumulate before
skimming takes place (B in Figure 1). With suitable instrumentation, automatic operation to vary depth of cut
with thickness of oil layer is possible.
APPLICATION RANGE
The properties of the pollutant layer are unimportant,
thus non-adsorbing oils or solids will also be removed just
as effectively as the more common petroleum products. Can be
made to handle any desired oil flow rate.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (31 )
«C
KPd
m'A
ENGLISH
ftVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-139-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Costs are variable, depending on materials and
details of installation. As an example, a 10-inch
skimmer 12 feet long can cost from $1100 to $5300
for a manually operated version and $7800 for a
motor-operated model (1977).
OPE RAT INS COSTS
Operating costs are generally negligible. However
if manual operation is used in a system with variable
flow periodic checks of oil level and skimmer setting
are necessary.
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
For a given water depth and pipe rotation, a
constant thickness of surface layer will be removed
regardless of the presence of oil. Close adjustment
to operating conditions will normally result in a
mixture of about 802 water and 202 oil when all oil is
to be removed. If a thick layer of oil can be
tolerated, the skimmer can be set to skim oil only.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Rex Chainbelt. Inc.
AFL Industries, Inc.
Environmental Equipment Division, FMC Corp.
Walker Process Division, Chicago Bridge & Iron Co.
Jeffrey Manufacturing Division, Dresser Industries, Inc.
REFERENCES
1) Product Bulletin, AFL Industries, Inc.
-140-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil Skimmers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Spiral Skimmer
NUMBER
2.1.6.14
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
UEACHABLE FUGITIVE
X OROANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Spiral skimmers are used in rectangular settling
tanks where large volumes of floating materials are
to be removed. Spiral blades, similar to those in a
push-type lawn mower, revolve to lift floating
material from the water surface and drop it into a
trough located immediately behind the blade.
Usually only one or two blades are present and a
rubber wiper strip is attached to the edge of the
blade. The wiper strip makes contact with a curved
metal or concrete beach to assure positive pickup.
As the skimmer turns, the blades push scum up the
beach and over the back edge where it drops into a
scum trough.
Figure 1. SPIRAL SKIMMER
APPLICATION RANGE
Although used to remove floating oils and grease, spiral
skinmers are primarily designed to remove light, frothy scums
which would not, of their own accord, flow over a weir.
OPERATINQ RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENER9Y RATE
METRIC (SI)
°C
KPa
J/t
CN«LISH
p*l
ftVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-141-
-------
CAPITAL COST*
OPERATING COSTS
OPERATNM EFFICiCNCKS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
MANUFACTURER /SUPPLIER
Environmental Equipment Division, FMC Corp.
Rex Chainbelt, Inc.
Walker Process Division, Chicago Bridge & Iron Co.
Jeffrey Manufacturing Division, Dresser Industries, Inc.
1) Product Bulletin, Rex Chainbelt, Inc.
-142-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
6ENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil Skimmers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Suction Type Skinners
NUMBER
2.1.6.15
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FU9ITIVE
OR9ANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOSE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Suction type skimmers operate on the same principle
is a vacuum cleaner. They are used almost exclusively
:or cleaning up infrequent oil spills from the surface
of settling ponds, basins, holding tanks, etc.
A lightweight suction head is connected by means
of a vacuum hose to a positive displacement pump or
vacuum tank. The suction head may be free floating or
my be attached to a hand-held wand.
The suction intake is a fixed orifice and is simply
jositioned at the water surface. No discrimination
is made between water and oil.
Figure 1. SUCTION TYPE SKIMMER INSTALLATION^
APPLICATION RANGE
Applicable to all types of oil, but some models may not
be suitable for use with very viscous materials.
OPERATINO RANQCS
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENER9Y RATE
METRIC (SI)
ENGLISH
°C
°f
KPo
pit
mVi
ftVmin
Ib/hr
J/t
8TU/hr
-143-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Skimmer heads alone can be very Inexpensive.
The major cost of a system is the pump or vacuum source
used. Cost of these items is highly variable.
OPERATING COSTS
OPERATING EFFICIENCK3
Although a suction skinnier will eventually remove
all traces of oil, it becomes inefficient when only a
small amount of oil is present. Under these conditions
a large ratio of water to oil is pumped.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Acme Products Co.
Mapco, Inc.
Megator Corp.
Slickbar, Inc.
Skim, Inc.
Vac-U-Max
REFERENCES
1} Product Bulletin, Megator Corp.
-144-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
.Iquid Treatment
(GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil Skimmers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Traveling Bridge Skimmer
(NUMBER
2.1.6.16
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICULATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
Figure 1. TRAVELING BRIDGE SKIWER
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The traveling bridge skimmer is used for very large rectangular basins handling large volumes of wastes.
(bridge structure spans the basin and rests on a traveling carriage at each end. Usually both a skimmer and
a sludge scraper are mounted on the bridge as shown in Figure 1. The bridge traverses the basin in one
direction with the scraper suspended while the skinner forces oil and floating solids into the scum trough.
On the return run the skimmer is raised above the surface and the sludge scraper is lowered to the bottom to
scrape sediment and sludge to the opposite end of the tank.
Operation can be made continuous or periodic in any type of timed cycle.
The traveling bridge principle is also used with circular tanks, with the bridge rotating continuously in
one direction.
APPLICATION RANGE
Traveling bridge collectors can be made to span tanks 100 ft
nide and more. Virtually any type of floating oil, grease or
Solids can be skimmed off.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI)
KPa
ENGLISH
ffVmtn
Ib/hr
8TU/hr
-145-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATING COSTS
OPERATING CmCKNCKS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
•AMimCTMC*/SUPPLIER
Halter Process Division, Chicago Bridge & Iron Co.
FNC Corp.
Evlro Systems Division, Zurn Industries, Inc.
Environmental Elements Division, toppers Co.
Aqua-Aerobic Systems, Inc.
Peabody Welles
REFERCNCCt
1) Product Bulletin, Walker Process Division, Chicago Bridge & Iron Co.
-146-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (g-n Skimmers)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Vortex Oil Skimmer
NUMBER
2.1.6.17
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
AIR
OASES
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACH ABLE FUGITIVE
OMANIC
MORCANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
When a volume of water is caused to
rttate by any means, a vortex is formed at
the center of rotation. The cavity formed
Is similar to a paraboloid (Figure 1),
with decreasing depth at increasing dis-
tances from the center. The depth of the
vortex is proportional to the speed of
rotation. A covering of oil or any other
polluting material lighter than water and
not miscible with it, under the influence
Of a vortex, forms a pocket of the
pollutant (Figure 1). The depth of this
pocket (dependent on density) is such that
the equilibrium of forces is not modified
it the oil-water interface. This vortex
phenomenon provides the ability to
concentrate a superficial layer of oil
only a fraction of an inch thick into a
sufficient volume for pumping by classical
systems. The pocket of oil being pumped
is replenished continously from the area
surrounding the vortex.
• PUMP INLET
-OIL/WATER
INTERFACE
jt~ SKIRT
IMPELLER
Figure 1. VORTEX OIL SKIMMER
'it- THe depth of the oil pocket formed by the vortex is a function of density and increases inversely with the
difference between the densities of water and the oil.
* A zero-pitch impeller creates the vortex oil pocket in which a pump inlet hose is placed for oil removal.
Operation of the system is monitored and controlled by an electronic sensor which detects the presence of oil
fn the pocket.
I Adjustable time delays can be provided in order to prevent unnecessary, rapid, on/off action associated
with short pulses of oil. In operation, the impeller is left rotating continuously at a fixed speed in the
jrder of 30 rpm (typical power drain is 1/2 HP in 50-100 gpm systems). When oil appears, the vortex pocket
depth will increase and eventually oil will cover the sensor located below the pump intake. Following the
pre-set time delay, the pump is turned on and continues to operate as long as sufficient oil is present to
replenish the pocket. When the surface oil is removed, the pocket depth decreases and water level covers the
sensor causing it to turn off the pump. Transient changes of oil and water due to wave motion or short slugs
Of oil, debris, etc. are ignored by means of the built-in time delays.
If oil is only infrequently present on the surface, a second sensor may be used near the surface to sense
the presence of floating oil. The output of this sensor is used to activate the impeller motor, thus generating
the vortex pocket. Since oil is continuously drawn into the vortex, continuous transversing of the oil spill
is not required for recovery. Due to the gyroscopic stability of the rotational vortex, the system is unaffect-
ed by small surface chop or transient surface disturbance due to wind or other factors.
APPLICATION RANGE
: Models available with recovery rates of 10 to 1000 gpm.
Since operating principle is based only on density difference,
oil of any viscosity can be recovered.
OPERATING RAMSES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENEROY RATE
:TmC (311
°C
KPo
kg/*
CNvLISn
°F
p*
ft'/min
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-147-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Oil Recovery
Rate, gpm
10
50
100
1000
Cost
1977
$ 8,000
18,000
28,000
100,000
Costs vary substantially, depending on details of
floats, pumps, controls.
OPERATING COSTS
Oil Recovery
Rate, gpm
50
Horsepower
5
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
Typically yields less than 5% water in recovered
hydrocarbons.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
MANUFACTURER/SUPPLIER
Intex, Inc.
REFERENCES
1) Intex, Inc., Product Bulletin
-148-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE Oft PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil-Water Separators)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
API Oil Separator
NUMBER
2.1.7.1
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICULATE3
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LEACHABLE
LAND
FUOtTIVE
ORGANIC
INOR8ANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Trash r»ck
Platform
Skimmed-oil pump
Oil skimmers
flight scraper
An API separator consists of a
rectangular settling basin designed
in accordance with the standards
developed by the American Petroleum
Institute^), it is generally con-
structed of concrete. Water flows
horizontally through the basin
while free oil particles slowly
rise to the surface. A typical
API separator is shown in Figure 1.
Dual flow channels as shown allow
operation of one half while the
other is shut down for maintenance.
The major elements of an API
separator, listed in the order en-
countered by the waste stream in-
clude a preseparator flume, trash
rack, forebay, oil skimmer, oil
retention baffle, diffusion device,
settling basin, oil skimmer, oil
retention baffle, and effluent weir.
The preseparator flume serves to
reduce flow velocity and allow
collection of trash and floating
oil. An oil skimmer (any of various
types) may be placed either here or
in the forebay or both. Downstream
of the first oil baffle is a diffusion device, such as a vertical slot baffle or reaction jet, which serves to
reduce flow turbulence and distribute flow equally over the channel cross section. Typically, as shown in
Figure 1, a chain and flight combination oil- and sludge-moving device is used in the separator channel. A final
oil skimmer (any of several types such as slotted pipe, adsorbent drum, floating weir, etc.) is located in front
of the last oil retention baffle.
Oil-retention bafflt
Sludge hoppers '
Diffusion device (vertical baffle)
Oil skimmer
Section A-A
Oil-retention baffle
Figure 1. API OIL SEPARATOR
(1)
APPLICATION RANGE
API separators are designed to order for any wastewater
flow rate. Operation of skimmers may be susceptible to weather
conditions.
The API separator is designed to allow oil globules of 0.015
cm diameter or larger to rise from the bottom of the separator
to the surface before the last oil retention baffle is reached.
OPERATIN9 RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENEROY RATE
METRIC (81 )
"C
KPo
mV«
J/i
ENGLISH
°F
P*I
ftVmln
Ib/hf
BTU/hr
-149-
-------
CAPITAL COOTS
Refinery API separators were estimated to cost
approximately $40,000 per MGD of capacity in 1965(4).
1976 costs for pre-packaged units (not including in-
stallation) are given below.
|
*>
8
200
ISO
100
so<
T_
0
200
400
FLOW, 0PW
600
800
OPERATINB COSTS
Pre-1965 (year unknown) maintenance and operating
costs as a function of capacity have been reported"
as:
Flow
(MGD)
3.0
7.5
15.0
M&O Cost
($/Yr)
23,000
36,000
55,000
Cost
(S/MGD)
7,667
4,800
3,667
IFF*
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Limited removal of emulsified or soluble oil.
When volatile oils are being recovered, large covers
may be required to limit evaporative losses in
forebay and separator sections.
NOTES
1 10 30 SO 70 90 88 99.9
VikMt I*B thai or wu*l to tht tana Mta». X
Figure 2. PERFORMANCE OF API SEPARATORS
(1)
Inland Environmental
I) tori, D. L., & Elton, R. L., "Removal of Oil & Grease from Industrial Wastewaters", Chemical Engineering,
October 17, 1977.
2) American Petroleum Institute, Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes, Chapt. 5,6, 1969.
3) Patterson, J. W., Wastewater Treatment Technology, Ann Arbor Science, 1975.
4) Beychok, M. R., Aqueous Hastes from Petroleum and Petrochemical Plants, Wiley, 1967.
-150-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil-Water Separators)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Circular Settling Basin
I NUMBER
2.1.7.2
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
9A8E3
AIR
PARTI CULATE3
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE
FUGITIVE
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Circular oil-water separators
have been used in the oil in-
dustry. These units follow
the design of a circular
clarifier with a central
influent entrance and peri-
pheral effluent discharge.
A dual system is shown in
Figure 1, where the large
unit handles dirty or oily
water and the smaller unit
accepts a clean water stream.
Although test data indicate
that reasonable oil removal
may be achieved, there are no
design standards as for the
API separator, and performance
can be quite variable.
Circular units may also be
designed with peripheral feed
instead of central feed.
OILY WATE3 SEPARATOR
CLEAN WATER SEPARATOR
- = jS3 |S^MF aox
SECTiCN A-A
Figure 1. CIRCULAR SEPARATOR
(1)
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI )
°C
KPo
ng/»
ENGLISH
P*i
ftVmln
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-151-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATIN8 COSTS
OPEKATINS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
REFERENCES
1) American Petroleum Institute, Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes, Volume on Liquid Wastes, Chapt. 5, 1969
-152-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Rectangular Settling Basins
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
X
OMANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
1 GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil -Water Separators)
1 NUMBER
2
AIR
OASES PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
*
1.7.3
LAND
LEACH ABLE FUGITIVE
,. FLOATiNG SKIMMING SECTION ^
'jTHlBJTlON
ROTATA8LE OIL SKIMMERS
Figure 1. RECTANGULAR OIL-WATER SEPARATING BASIN
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Gravity separation in a rectangular tank or settling basin is a common method of separating oil from
wastewater. Separation of oil and sediment are accomplished at the same time. A set of specific design
standards for rectangular separators is the API separator, but other design approaches are feasible. The
basic features of a settling basin, as seen in Figure 1, include a flow distributor at the inlet, a long,
relatively shallow basin; an oil retention weir or curtain and a water overflow weir. Oil which accumulates
on the surface is removed by any of a large variety of surface skimming equipment and techniques.
A settling basin will not separate soluble oils or emulsions. The applicability of gravity settling to
a particular waste stream may be tested by means of API Method 734: Determination of Susceptibility to Oil
Separation.
Separators may be operated as batch vats, or as continuous flow-through basins, depending upon the volun
of waste to be treated.
APPLICATION RANGE
allow globules to rise by buoyant forces in a practical
distance. Rise rate is reduced at lower temperatures, being
one half as rapid at 40° as at 90°F.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MA33 RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI)
°C
KPo
»»A
k«/»
J/»
ENGLISH
•F
P«t
ft*/M*
tb/hr
BTU/hr
-153-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATING COSTS
OKRATNM
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Enviro-Systems Division, Zurn Industries
Peabody Uelles
Aqua-Aerobic Systems
AFL Industries
1) American Petroleum Institute, Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes, Volume on Liquid Wastes, Chapt. 6, 1969
-154-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Setting Sedimentation (Oil-Water Separators)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Wash Tanks and Skim Tanks
NUMBER
2.1.7.4
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FU8ITIVE
OR9ANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Wash tanks or skim tanks are used as gravity separation
devices In oil field production facilities, in refineries and
bulk terminals. A representative configuration, with diameter
approximately equal to height, is shown in Figure 1. Many
different types of flow spreaders or baffles are used in an
attempt to distribute flow evenly over the cross section of
the tank and thereby achieve a long and uniform residence time
for all portions of the flow stream. A typical spreader is
shown on the bottom of the tank in Figure 1. Tank sizes used
are almost infinitely variable.
Figure 1 WASH TANK WITH SPREADER
(1)
APPLICATION RANGE
Used widely in many different applications.
either high or low oil/water ratios in feed.
Can accommodate
OPERATIN8 RAN4ES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI)
°C
KPg
mV*
ENQLISH
°F
Pll
ft»/«in
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-155-
-------
I CAPITAL COSTS
Capital costs may be assumed to be approximately
the .same as for an unmodified tank of the same volume.
Tank volumes are normally sized to give a calculated
residence time of several hours.
OPERATINO COSTS
Usually negligible
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
Efficiency is highly dependent on the design of
baffles and spreaders. Host units observed in the
field are relatively inefficient because of extreme
short circuiting of both oil and water in the flow
pattern. The measured mean residence time may be
considerably less than 10% of the calculated
residence time.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Highly variable performance from one design to
another. Relatively low average separation efficiency.
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
1} Zeroel, B., Bowman, R. W. "Residence Time Distribution in Gravity Oil-Water Separation," J. Pet. Tech.,
Feb. 1978, Copyright SPE-AIHE.
-156-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
1 GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil-Water Separators)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Gravity Displacement Separator
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
X
OR9ANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
AIR
OASES PARTI CULATES
(NUMBER
2.1.7.6
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
i
n
X
LAND
LEACHABLE FU0ITIVE
f=*f=*
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The gravity displacement separator is
a horizontal steel vessel divided into
three compartments, including the separa-
tion chamber, an oil sump and a water
sump. An oil-water mixture flows into
the separation chamber (Figure 1), where
oil rises to the surface and water sinks
to the bottom due to gravitational forces
and the differences in specific gravity.
Oil rises to the interface and displaces
an equivalent volume of oil into the
oil sump. Oil-free water flows to the
opposite end of the separation chamber
from the inlet, then through a hydraulic
trap'and overflows into a third chamber,
which is the water sump. This scheme allows the separator to operate over an infinite range of inlet concen-
trations (from all water to all oil) without the use of skimming devices or power other than for pumping
(pumping required only where gravity flow from separator is not possible). If the oil pump fails, oil will
accumulate in the separation chamber and the interface will drop. No oil will be released in the water
stream until all water ballast in the separation chamber has been displaced. This feature allows the separator
to function as a holding tank for spills.
Figure 1. GRAVITY DISPLACEMENT SEPARATOR
0)
Similar design considerations may be used in a variety of other applications
(2)
APPLICATION RANGE
Designed for spill control protection in petroleum handling
facilities. If precipitation runoff is handled, the maximum
drainage area recommended is 10,000 sq ft.
OPERATINO RANOES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENEROY RATE
METRIC (SI)
°C
KPa
m>/«
kg/t
J/i
ENOLISH
°F
»•!
ftV«in
Ib/kr
BTU/hr
-157-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Maximum
Tank Volume Water Flow
3,000 gal 50 gpm
5,000 gal 200 gpm
10,000 gap 400 gpm
Approximate
Installed
Cost. 1977
$13,000
$20,000
$25,000
OPERATING COSTS
OKKATHM CPFI
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Test data for water-kerosene. 10,000 gal tanks
Hater Flow Effluent Oil
(1)
50 gpm
200 gpm
400 gpm
0-50 ppm
less than 10 ppm
less than 10 ppm
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Enqulp, Inc.
Korest-Peterson Co.
ICFCRCNCES
1) Product Bulletin, Enquip
2) Miranda, J. G., "Sump Design for Oil/Water Separators", Chetn, Engr., November 24, 1975.
-158-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
IOENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil-Water Separators)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Parallel Plate Interceptor
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
X.
OR8ANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
9ASES
AIR
PARTICIPATES
1 NUMBER
2.1.7.7
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
X
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
Pump 3 Oil out
=V=»—
Side View
Cross Section
Figure 1. PARALLEL PLATE INTERCEPTOR
n;
PROCESS DESCRIPTION lnlet
The parallel plate interceptor
works on the principle of reducing the
distance that a particle of oil must
travel before reaching a collecting
surface. The collecting surface
consists of a number of parallel
plates set at an angle of approximately
45 degrees to the horizontal and spaced
a few centimeters apart. The direction
of water flow is parallel to the plane
of the plates (Figure 1). As the
oil-bearing water flows between the
plates, oil droplets coalesce on the under sides of the plates. As the drops grow in size, they creep upward
along the plates until they eventually reach the surface and form a floating layer in the separator. The
plates establish laminar flow conditions through the plate pack and at the same time reduce the distance that
individual oil drops must rise before being trapped and coalesced.
While oil droplets collect on the underside of the plates, solid particles collect on the top of each
plate and then slide down to bottom. By reducing the travel distance for oil droplets, a PPI can be made much
smaller, for an equivalent degree of separation, than an API separator. Figure 1 shows a PPI designed to allow
automatic oil recovery without skimmers and with only one pump.^by using two weirs of different heights.
The smaller the distance between the plates, the greater the separation efficiency will be. However, as
this distance is reduced, problems of clogging may appear. A range of 2 to 10 cm may be typicalvu.
OPERATIN9 RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERQY RATE
METRIC (SI )
°C
KPo
mVt
*«/•
J/t
EN8LISH '
°F
ptl
f»Vmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-159-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATING COSTS
OPCMATIMS tn
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
20
NOTES
0 10 20 30 40
Influiraoil, mg/L
Figure 2. PPI PERFORMANCE
50
(2)
MANUFACTURER/SUPPLIER
Facet Enterprise, Inc.
Butter-worth Systems, Inc.
REFERENCES
1. Miranda, J. 6., "Designing Parallel-Plates Separators", Chem. Engr., January 31, 1977.
2. Ford, D. L., & Elton, R. L., "Removal of Oil Grease from Industrial Wastewaters", Chem. Engr.,
October 17, 1977.
-160-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil-Water Separators)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Corrugated Plate Interceptor
I NUMBER
2.1.7.8
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
8A8E3
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LEACHABLE
LAND
FUttlTIVE
X OR9ANIC
INOR6ANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Figure 1. CORRUGATED PLATE INTERCEPTOR
The corrugated plate interceptor (CPI) is
similar in design to the parallel plate
interceptor (Device 2.1.6.20). A CPI consists
of packs of corrugated plates (usually 10 to
50 plates on the order of 0.05 in. thick)
which are mounted parallel to each other and
set 1/2 to 2 in. apart. The plate pack is
fixed with the corrugations at an angle of
40 to 60 degrees from the horizontal. Flow
may be either downward, following the
corrugations, as shown in Figure 1, or
horizontally across the corrugations. In
either case, laminar flow conditions
are established within the pack. The close spacing of the plates reduces the distances that oil droplets must
rise to be collected. Droplets- float toward the top of the corrugations and other follow the corrugations up
the incline of the plate to the water surface. In the tops of the corrugations a small rivulet of oil will
form. The high oil concentration at this point favors coalescence, which reduces re-entrainment of oil.
Simultaneously with oil accumulating on the bottom surfaces of the corrugated plates and moving upward,
sediment will accumulate on the top surfaces and move downward. Minimum plate spacing Is determined from
clogging considerations.
Plates lengths up to 10 feet have been used, and plate packs up to 40 feet long. Plate-type separators
will require only 15-20% as much space for installation as an API separator with equivalent oil separating
efficiency. The compact size makes it easier to provide vapor-tight covers when volatile oils are handled. It 1:
possible to upgrade the operation of existing conventional rectangular or circular settling basins by Installing
plate packs.
Materials of construction may be varied to suit the application, including carbon steel, galvanized steel,
stainless steel or fiber reinforced plastic.
A CPI plate pack may be used in conjunction with a flotation system to improve the efficiency of both.
APPLICATION RANGE
Can be designed for any flow rate. Suitable construction
materials available for any type of corrosive service. Retention
times are normally in the range of 3-15 minutes. Large changes
in oil/water ratio can be accommodated.
OPERATING RAN9EB
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASB RATE
ENEROY RATE
METRIC
(an.
KPo
JS/»
J/t
ENBLIBM
BTU/hr
-161-
-------
CAPITAL COST*
Costs are'variable depending on materials of
construction and specific gravity of oil being
separated. Typical cost for a wastewater flow of 500
gpm could be on the order of $30,000 (1978).
OPERATING COSTS
The corrugated plate Interceptor has no moving
parts, therefore very low operating and maintenance
costs.
OPCRATNM trrtcaatcm*
Typical Refinery Data
Influent oil Mid grease
150-500 mg/L
500-700 ng/L
Effluent oil and grease
50-86 mg/L
178-330 ng/L
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Little or no removal of emulsified or soluble
oil.
Efflency depends on oil particle size and on the
difference in specific gravity between oil and water,
therefore on the type of oil being recovered.
Effluent concentrations as low as 10-20 mg/L can be
reached.
NOTES
MANUFACTtmCR/SUPPUEX
Plelkenroad Separator Co.
Monarch Separators
HcTlghe Industries Inc.
Hell Haste Treatment, Lancy Division,
Dart Environmental & Services
1) Ford, D. L., & Elton, R. L.,
October 17, 1977.
"Removal of Oil and Grease from Industrial Wastewaters", Chem. Engrs.,
-162-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil-Water Separators)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Vertical Tube Coalescer
NUMBER
2.1.7.9
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
AIR
6ASES
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
OR0ANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
L
In operation, the waste stream passes through and
over a diffusing baffle into a separating chamber. A
matrix of vertically-positioned polypropylene tubes inter-
cepts the liquid, converting its flow, from turbulent to
laminar. This causes the liquid to be more responsive
to gravity separation.
The oleophilic nature of the plastic tube material
also promotes separation. Small oil globules are attract-
ed to it, attach to the surface, coalesce with other
globules, increase in size and buoyancy, then break
away to rise through the tubes to the top. Surface
oil may be gravity skimmed and drained to a slop tank.
FREE OIL GLOBULES
EFFLUENT
•' *; :?&? .;• r'.SETTLEABLE SOLIDS
-SLUDGE "_IH
The effectiveness of the vertical tube coalescer
arises from the large surface area available on the
tUbeS'
From the separating chamber, the water flows under
an'oil retention baffle and into the outlet chamber.
Figure 1. VERTICAL TUBE COALESCER PRINCIPLED >
APPLICATION RANGE
Modular units handle flows from 10 to 3,600 gpm.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENEBQY RATE
METRIC (SI )
°C
KPa
n«V»
kg/t
J/i
ENGLISH
pti
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-163-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATING COSTS
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
Typical performance factors:
99% removal of tramp oil
Removal of globules larger than 20 microns
Effluent concentration 10 mg/1
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
AFL Industries
REFERENCES
1) Product bulletin, AFL Industries, Inc.
-164-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil-Water Separation)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Fibrous Media Coalescers
(NUMBER
2.1.7.10
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE
POSITIVE
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Gravity separation of finely dispersed
or mechanically emulsified oil from water
can be aided by passing the mixture through
a fibrous media coalescing element. When
water is the continuous or major phase,
droplets of oil are attracted to and attach
to the small diameter fibers. As additional
droplets are captured, the individual drop-
lets coalesce to form bigger drops, which
eventually develop enough buoyancy to break
loose and rise to the surface. The oil can
then be recovered by surface skimmers or
by means of pumps or valves actuated by
level switches. Figure 1 illustrates a
typical 3-stage system with flow from the
inside to the outside of cylindrical
coalescer cartridges. (Shown in the 2nd
& 3rd stage).
The opposite to the above process
occurs when small amounts of water are to
be separated from large amounts of oil.
In this case water droplets settle to
the bottom.
Figure 1. MULTI-STAGE FIBROUS MEDIA COALESCER
Many different fibrous materials are used, including fiberglass, steel wool, nylon, teflon, polyolefins,
polyamides, polyesters and excelsior. The fibers may be wound, packed or pressed into many different confi-
gurations including cylindrical, conical, plate, rope and bulk pack. The most common type is a cylindrical
cartridge wound on a hollow tube.
Operation of fibrous coalescers is usually limited by solids accumulation. Solids buildup can blind off
the surface, which gradually increases the pressure drop across the element until either the flow rate becomes
insufficient or else the media is compressed to the point that it no longer functions as a coalescer. Typical
solutions to this problem include pre-filtering stages (1st stage in above diagram), periodic backwashing
of the coalescer elements, or the use of flow through coalescer elements.
The separation efficiency of coalescers can be quite variable depending on such factors as oil charac-
teristics, degree of emulsion, droplet sizes, suspended solids, oil concentrations and fluctuations in flow.
Coalescers can be disarmed by the presence of surfactants in the influent. Surfactants are surface-active
agents, such as soaps, detergents, emulsifiers, etc. which interfere with the coalescing process.
APPLICATION RANGE
Usually stated to the effective provided specific gravity
differential between.oil and water is at least 0.08. Pre-
packaged units available for flows from 1 to 1500 gpm. The
technique is readily adaptable to handling high pressure or
high temperature streams. Gravity separation alone is effec-
tive for oil drops larger than 150 microns, thus coalescers are
required only when smaller drops are present.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (81)
°C
KPo
J/t
ENGLISH
°F
ftVmln
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-165-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
400
300^
^- zoo
8
u
100
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
FLOW, 6PM
Figure 2. COST FOR TYPICAL 3 - STAGE
SYSTEM WITH CONTROLS
OPERATIN8 COSTS
»«oo
METER mOCESSED-MUna
Figure 3. OPERATING COST COMPARISON(2)
Standard Filter-Coalescer-30 ppm solids
Standard Filter-Coalescer-20 ppm solids
Standard Filter-Coalescer-10 ppm solids
Standard Fliter-Coalescer- 5 ppm solids
Flow-Through Coalescer Cartrldge-30 ppm solids
Flow-Through Coalescer Cartridge-20 ppm solids
Flow-Through Coalescer Cartridge-10 ppm solids
Flow-Through Coalescer Cartridge- 5 ppm solids
OKMTIM
Typical effluent concentrations are quoted in the
range 5 to 10 ppm.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
•ANUraCTtMCK / SUPPLIER
AFL Industries, Inc.
Facet Enterprises, Inc.
Kolar Filters, Inc.
Napco, Inc.
Oil Hop. Inc.
Velcon Filters. Inc.
National Marine Service, Inc.
Butterworth Systems, Inc.
Harco Manufacturing Co.
Separation & Recovery Systems, Inc.
Inland Environmental
ttra*mccs
1) Product Bulletin. Velcon Filters, Inc.
2) Product Bulletin, Mapco, Inc.
-166-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil-Water Separation)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Loose Media Coalescer
I NUMBER
2.1.7.11
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
AIR
3ASE3
PARTICULATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
ORSANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
WATER .J--
OUTLET "
IN ET BASKET
MEDIA BASKET
SCOIMENTATION TANK
WATER WEIR
WEL1A
BOTTOM SCREEN
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Gravity separation of finely dispersed or
mechanically emulsified oil from water can be
aided by passing the mixture through a loose
media coalescer. As the mixture flows through
the porous bed, oil droplets are coalesced
and rise to the surface. The oil can then be
recovered by various arrangements of skimmers
or weirs, or else by means of pumps or valves
actuated by level switches. Types of media
used include graded sand, plastic or resin
beads.
Figure 1 illustrates a particular con-
figuration. The oil water mixture flows into
the sedimentation tank where the heavier
particles settle. The sedimentation tank is
independent of the separator tank and is
fitted with a blowdown connection. The oil
water mixture enters the inlet basket and then flows into the media where the free oil separates from the water
at an accelerated rate. The water flows downward through the bottom screen, then up and over the water weir
which creates a water table supporting the oil layer. The oil travels horizontally on top of the water into
the oil trap and then over the adjustable oil weir which is set at a position slightly above the maximum water
level.
Loose media coalescers should be less subject to problems of fouling and plugging by solids than are
fibrous media coalescers. If these problems do arise, then pre-filtering or periodic back-washing of the media
bed can be used.
The separation efficiency of coalescers can be variable depending on such factors as oil characteristics,
degree of emulsion, droplet sizes, suspended solids, oil concentrations and fluctuations in flow.
Figure 1. LOOSE MEDIA COALESCER
0)
APPLICATION RANGE
A minimum specific gravity differential between oil and
water of at least 0.05 is required. Oil viscosity up to 1000
centistokes. Modular units available to handle flows of 1 to
5000 gpm.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI )
KPa
m'/t
ENGLISH
4Q-8QQ
ttVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-167-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
400-
30CH
\x
o
ZOO 3OO
FLOW, GPM
40O
OPERATING COSTS
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
100
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
f
} REMOVAL EFFICIENCY BASED ~i~j~
1 ON THRESHOLD DROPLET SIZE ~hp
- W>
Ol
\TER: Fresh
L: Equal Parts Navy
Distillate Fuel Oil
and MS2190TEP
Lubricating Oil.
ii r • i
1 i
i — : — ! — 1 H ~jr~
: :
|
/n
/
7
A \
/
y
/
\
/
7
,
=
-
n
i
\
\
NOTES
«0 « 10
D*ooi«t Sin. Mcrm U>
Figure 2. RESINOUS MEDIA COALESCER
(2)
MANUFACTURER/SUPPLIER
Hyde Products, Inc.
Liquid Processing Systems, Inc.
C-E Natco, National Tank Co. Division
Harco Manufacturing Co.
Penco Division, Hudson Engineering Co.
REFERENCES
1) Product Bulletin, Hyde Products
2) Product Bulletin, Liquid Processing Systems
-168-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
6ENER!CDEVICEORPROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil-Water Seoaraticn)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Horizontal Plate Coalescer
NUMBER
2.1.7.12
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
AIR
GASES
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LEACHABLE
FUGITIVE
OR8ANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
"ttil
WAIN
INLET WEB)
COALESCW5
PLATE ASSEMBLY
The horizontal plate coalescer is
similar in design to the parallel plate
interceptor (Device 2.1.6.20). It consists
of packs of plates which are mounted in a
horizontal stack about 1/4 inch apart.
Laminar flow conditions are established
as water flows through the pack. The close
spacing of the plates reduces the distance
that oil droplets must rise to be collected.
The droplets rise vertically a very short
distance before they are captured and
coalesced with other droplets on the
oleophilic plates. These coalesced
globules then float to the surface of the separator for removal by skimming or gravity displacement.
Plate-type separators require only one fourth as much space for installation as an API separator with
equivalent oil separating efficiency. The compact size makes it easier to provide vapor-tight covers when
volatile oils are handled. It also makes a system suitable for shipboard installation. It is possible to
upgrade the operation of existing conventional settling basins by installing plate packs. A sediment settling
step must be provided ahead of a horizontal plate pack.
Materials of construction can be varied to withstand corrosive service.
Figure 1. HORIZONTAL CORRUGATED PLATE COALESCER
*1'
APPLICATION RANGE
Designed for nominal influent concentrations of 4-5% oil,
solids up to 200 ppm, detergents to 100 ppm, and oils with
specific gravity 0.96 or less. Can be built in modules to handle
any flow rate.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MAS9 RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (31 )
°C
KPa
m*/«
k(|/.
J/»
ENGLISH
Max 160°F
P*I
ftVmln
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-169-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
20O-
o.
(9
O
O
ISO
IOO-
50 tOO
FLOW, 6PM
ISO
OPERATING COSTS
The coalescer has no moving parts, therefore very
low operating and maintenace costs.
OPCMTUM EPFICIENCKS
ENVIROMUEMTAL PROBLEM*
MfLUfNTVS EFHUeHTOU.CONCfMTIUTKM
NOTES
Figure 3. SEPARATION EFFICIENCY
•AMVACTURf ft / SUPPLIER
Re-entry and Environmental Systems Division, General Electric Co.
Facet Enterprises
1) General Electric Co., Product Bulletin
-170-
-------
Liquid Treatment
I8ENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Settling, Sedimentation (Oil-Water Separators)
Absorbent Drum Separator
NUMBER
2 1 7
CONTROLLED
OASES
PARTICULATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
INORGANIC
NOISE
ROTARY DRUM
OflfVt TRA1N
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The basis of the separator is
a rotary drum covered by a thick,
reticulated polyurethane foam and
an associated squeeze roller.
Operations are explained in the
seven steps outlined below.
Numbers refer to the illustra-
tion in Figure 1.
1. The oil mixture or emulsion
enters the inlet section and
flows toward the foam formed
around the drum.
2. As the foam leaves the squeeze
roller, it expands and the
opening pores ingest the oily
water mixture.
LEAH *ATt«
Figure 1. ABSORBENT DRUM OIL/WATER SEPARATOR
3. Each of the tiny foam pores becomes a "quiet" separating chamber. As the drum rotates, each drop of mixture
in each pore is held absolutely quiet, permitting oil droplets to rise and to coalesce into an oily film
covering the strand surfaces at a rate predictable by Stokes' Law.
4. Separation is completed by the time the drum makes one rotation (about 15 seconds). The clean water is held
in the pores and thickened oil is clinging to the strands.
5. The squeeze roller forces the clean water out of the pores, creating a flow force that flushes away solids
into the separation section. The roller also forces the now thickened oil from the strands and oil comes
off as large drops.
6. In the separation section, the large oil drops rapidly rise to the surface because of their high buoyancy.
A diffuser baffle dampens the turbulence caused by the forces at the squeeze roller, providing a smooth
flow to enhance separation.
7. Weirs in the outlet section separate the outflow of oil from the top and clean water from the bottom. The
inlet section and separation section are sealed from each other by the rotary drum and shield and by the
squeeze roller and seal blade. Any effluent must make the circular route in the foam before it can reach
the separation and outlet sections. Settled solids are drawn off periodically through two clean-out valves.
APPLICATION RANGE
Standard models handle up to 200 gpm. Larger sizes avail-
able. Best performance would be expected with light oils. Cold,
viscous oils would not readily diffuse into the pore spaces.
OPERATIN8 RAN8ES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENER9Y RATE
METRIC (SI )
KPa
kg/t
EN8LISH
pil
M'/min
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-171-
-------
Flow Capacity. GPM
30
70
200
1977 Cost
$12,760
$15,760
$30,030
OPERATIN8 COSTS
The only data available for operating costs are
the power requirements. Periodic replacement of the
absorbent material on the drum could be required. No
data available for absorbent life.
Electrical
Flow Capacity, gpm Voltage Amps
17.5
70
200
115
230
230
30
25
50
ssss
Illl
S 5 8.8
NO A A
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
TESTS ON SIMULATED
BILGE WATER
Influent oils were a
distillate similar to
No. 2 fuel oil and a
turbine lubrication oil.
Each is readily emul-
sifiable.
Input oil levels
ranged from 30 ppm to
350 ppm with oil slugs
up to 5%.
Suspended solids
ranging in size distribution from 1 to 200 microns were
fed along with the oil. There was no plugging at any
time. ;
In tests with storm water runoff from a bulk oil ter-
minal, the average amount of oil in the effluent over a
2.5 month period was 0.97 ppm. Influent levels ranged
from 14.6 ppm to 42,000 ppm. There was no plugging at
any time and no interference with separating abilities
of unit even with industrial detergents and loads of
heavy suspended solids such as sand, silt, mosquito
larvae and cottonwood lint from a flooding river.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
MARCO Pollution Control
REFERENCES
1) Product Bulletin, RDS Separator, Marine Construction and Design Co.
-172-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I8ENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid - Liquid Extraction (Extraction Processes)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Jones & Laugh!in Dephenolization Process
I NUMBER
2.8.1.1
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE POSITIVE
OMANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
LEGEND
RAfFINATE
The Jones & Laugh! in process was developed
for the recovery of phenols from coke plant
aqueous waste. The phenols are recovered
from ammonia liquor as free tar acids.
Figure 1 is a flow diagram of the plant.
Anmonia liquor is pumped from the ammonia
still to the surge tank, which serves to trap
some suspended solids and can be by-passed
for periodic cleaning. The liquor is then
pumped to the top of the extraction column
where, as it descends the column, it comes
into counter-current contact with the solvent
as it rises up through the column. The
raffinate is fed to the solvent stripping
column where the dissolved solvent is removed
from the dephenolized liquor by steam distillation.
CHUOE TAR ACID
SOLVENT
FEED
NHj STLL-i
HAfFIIMTE
DEPNCMLIZEO
LIQUOR
Figure 1. J & L DEPHENOLIZATION PROCESS
(1)
The solvent stripping column bottoms are then ready for
pimping to the sewer line or to a polishing treatment. The overhead product from the solvent stripping column,
after condensing, goes to one section of the solvent pumping tank where the water is separated from it and pumpec
back to the solvent stripping column. The solvent recovered here is ready for recirculation to the extractor.
The extract flows from the top of the extractor to the solvent recovery column through a control valve, which
maintains a constant interface level between extract and liquor at the top of the extractor. In the solvent
recovery column, a separation is made between the solvent and crude tar acids in the extract. The overhead pro-
duct after condensing goes to the solvent pumping tank, and from there is pumped back to the extractor as recycle
solvent with a side stream to the solvent recovery column as reflux. The solvent recovery column bottoms are
pumped to the crude tar acids column in which, under vacuum, the solvent content of the crude tar acids is re-
duced to less than 1 percent. The overhead product is, after condensing, returned to the solvent recovery col urn
with a side stream to the crude tar acids still as reflux.
APPLICATION RANGE
Extraction processes are indicated when the concentration of
phenol and total flow of the aqueous waste is high enough to
warrant recovery of phenol as a by-product. This would generally
involve phenol concentrations in excess of 500 mg/1.
OPERATING RANQES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENER6Y RATE
METRIC (SI)
KPa
J/t
ENftLISH
M<
ftV«ri«
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-173-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Installed module cost to treat 330 gpm of phenolic
liquor containing 2000 ppm phenol would be approxi-
mately $4,000,000 (1977).
Cost includes foundation, piping, electrical,
instrumentation, but not storage tanks.
OPERATING COSTS
Utility requirements per 1000 gallon liquor treated;
3.6 kwn
153 Ibs of 175 psi steam
281 Ibs of 10-20 psi steam
855 gal cooling water (95° max)
Solvent replacement cost:
5*/1000 gal treated
OPERATHM EFFICIENCIES
Based on 1500 ppm phenols in feed:
Phenol removal efficiency • 99X+
Phenol 1n effluent « 1 to 4 ppm
Soluble tar acids in product = 822
Solvent in product IX
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Solvent used is proprietary, so problems caused by
traces of solvent in effluent are unknown. Other treat
merits, such as biological, are required to remove last
traces of phenol before discharge.
NOTES
MANUFACTURER /SUPPLIER
Chen-Pro Equipment Corporation
REFCRCNCCS
1) Reprint from Iron & Steel Engineer, May 1969.
-174-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid-Liquid Extraction (Extraction Processes)
SPECIFIC DEVICE On PROCESS
Phenosolvan Process
I NUMBER
2.8.1.2
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
GASES
PARTICULATES
DISSOLVED
WATER
SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACH ABLE FlifllTIV
INORGANIC
NOISE
FRESH SOLVENT MAKE-UP
(US LIQUOR
1
K'-'-^
GASLIOUOM
FILTERS f"
r
EXTRACT
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Phenosolvan is a proprietary phenol extraction
process developed by Lurgi and first commercialized
about 1940. It was originally developed to extract
phenols from the aqueous gas liquor produced in coke
oven plants. Dihydric phenols, which are produced
in low-temperature carbonization processes, are
ranoved more efficiently than in other processes.
A simplified flow diagram is shown in Figure lO).
The solvent proposed for use in coal gasification
plants is isopropyl ether(2). Other solvents such
as isobutyl acetate, amyl acetate and methyl butyl
ketone have been or can be used(3). Although
IPE has a less favorable partition coefficient
than butyl acetate, its lower boiling point favors
easier separation and recovery.
EXTRACTORS
SOLVENT
RECOVERY
STRIPPER
SCRUBBING
PHENOL]
PUMP
SOLVENT-
PHENOL
iuiXTURE
SOLVENT
DISTILLATION
D6PHCNOLIZED
CLEAN
S»S LIQUOR
CHUOE PHENOLS TO STORAGE
Figure 1. PHENOSOLVAN PROCESS
As seen in Figure 1, the contaminated gas
liquor 1s filtered in a gravel bed type of filter,
then passed to the extractor. The extractor is a
multi-stage (up to 9 stages) counter-current
mixer-settler type. Each stage consists of a smaller mixing tank and a larger separating tank.
pumps serve as mixers.
Submersible
The extract is distilled in two stages to separate the IPE from the phenol. IPE from the top of the first
distillation column is condensed and recycled to the extractor. Additional IPE is added as required for
makeup. The bottoms from the first column are steam stripped in a second column to remove the last traces of
IPE from the crude phenol. The overhead vapors from the column are condensed and recycled to the first
distillation column. Crude phenol is pumped from the bottom of the stripper to storage.
The dephenolized liquor is gas-stripped (not shown) to remove and recover residual solvent.
APPLICATION RANGE
Extraction processes are indicated when the concentration
of phenol and total flow of aqueous waste are high enough to
warrant recovery of phenols as a by-product. This would
generally involve phenol concentrations in excess of 500 mg/1.
OPERATIN8 RAN8E3
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI )
35 «c
KPo
mVi
EN9LISH
MVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-175-
-------
OPERATING COSTS
Utility requirements for 1000 gal liquor treated:
90 Ibs 150 psi steam
5.3 kwh electricity
2000 gal cooling water
Solvent consumption:
1.2 lb/1000 gal
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
Extraction efficiency for mono-hydric phenols is
992+. Overall organic extraction efficiency has been
assumed to be 75*12).
Phenol concentration in the aqueous effluent is
estimated to be 10-20 ppm, mainly higher phenols.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Other treatments such as biological, are required
to remove last traces of phenol before discharge.
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Lurgi Mineraloltechnik GmbH
REFERENCES
1) Evaluation of Background Data Relating to New Source Performance Standards for Lurgi Gasification,
EPA-600/7-77-057.
2) Beychok, M., "Coal Gasification and the Phenosolvan Process", ACS Division of Fuel Chemistry, V. 19 #5,
1974.
3) Lowry, H., Chemistry of Coal Utilization, Supplementary Volume, Wiley, 1963.
-176-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid-Liquid Extraction (Extraction Processes)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Phenolics Extraction in Crude Oil Desalters
NUMBER
2.8.1.3
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
GASES
AIR
PARTICULATE3
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACH ABLE PU9ITIVE
ORGANIC
INOR0ANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Crude oil desalters are widely used
In petroleum refineries to remove in-
organic salts from incoming crude oil. The
operation consists of a simple water wash
to extract the salts, followed by an
electrostatic coalescer to separate the
oil and water phases. Either single-stage
or two-stage units are used. Figure 1
is a flow schematic for a typical single-
stage unit.
Hash water requirement for desalting
range from 3 to 1 OS of the crude oil feed
rate. Many refineries will use phenolic
wastewater as desalter water, thereby
simultaneously extracting salt from the
crude oil and reducing the phenolic content
of the wastewater. The amount of phenolics
reduction which can be achieved depends on
the aromaticity and phenolics content of the crude oil, the phenolics composition and content of the waste-
water, the oil/water ratio, temperature and number of extraction stages.
In Figure 1, the single extraction stage consists of a mixing step, accomplished by the mix valve, and
a settling step, accomplished by the desalter.
Some of the phenolics extracted from the phenolic wastewater will reappear in the wastewater stream from
the overhead reflux drum of the crude oil distillation column. However, the great majority (90%) of phenol1cs
appears to end up in the heavier distillates, such as kerosene and diesel fuels.
WATCH (TOSH AMO/OR SOUR)
Figure 1. SINGLE STAGE EXTRACTOR-OESALTER
(1)
APPLICATION RANGE
Can be used where phenolics in the crude are acceptable
to downstream processes. If phenolic wastewater contains
ammonia, may lead to foaming problems in desalter.
OPERATIN4 RAMSES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENER4Y RATE
METRIC (81 )
KPa
fcq/t
ENQLISH
140-350
P*i
ftVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-177-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Capital costs will consist only of pumps and
piping to accomplish the recycle of wastewater to the
desalter.
OPERATING COSTS
As long as problems of foaming, etc. do not arise,
the operating cost increment for recycling phenolic
waste through the desalter should be negligible. A
cost of 0.5 mill per 1000 gallons of oil has been
quoted^2).
OPCMTUM EFFICIENCIES
Although the distribution coefficient for
phenolics is relatively low in this system, the high
oil/water feed ratio makes it possible to extract as
much as 90% of the phenollcs from the wastewater.
With pH control, the concentration of phenolics 1n
the desalter water effluent may be reduced to as little
as 20-30 mg/1.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Phenolics extracted from wastewater into the
crude oil may impart odors to the distillates which are
later produced from the crude oil. Desalter water
effluent still requires extensive treatment for phenol
removal.
NOTES
, MAMJFACTUMII/SUPPLIER
VfTdesaUer for phenolics extraction was patented by Metcalf, U.S. Patent 2,785,120, March 12 (1957)
Petroleum Institute, "Disposal of Refinery Waste Manual - Volume on Liquid Wastes", 0973).
2) H1tt P A., and Forbes, M. C., "Valuable By-Product Recovery by Solvent Extraction", AIChE Symposium
Series, No. 124, Vol. 68, (1972).
-178-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liouid Treatment
GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liauid-Liouid Extraction (Extraction
"finninl
I NUMBER
I 2.8.1.4
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
toppers Light Oil Extraction Process
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LEACHABLE
LAND
FU9ITIVE
OMANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Referring to Figure 1, crude ammonia
liquor or other aqueous phenolic waste is
pumped through filters, cooled to below
40"C, then pumped to the top of a counter-
current liquid extraction tower. The
tower internals are Koch Kaskade trays.
Liquor passes downward countercurrent to
a rising stream of light oil. The
extraction oil is a light aromatic solvent
with added tar bases to enhance extraction.
The oil stream overflows to a decanter where
any entrained aqueous phase is removed.
From there it passes through two caustic
washers where the phenolics are converted
to sodium phenol ate.
*"««i\
K j
I
'»•----•
flight oil d
. ,_. — -i
D«#«K*«
-------
JAPITAL COSTS
Costs should be similar to those estimated by
(iezyk & Mackay in 1971(2) for a coke-oven liquor
iephenolizing plant. To process 100,000 gal/day con-
taining 5000 ppm phenol would require a capital in-
estment of $400,000.
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
Phenol removal = 99%+.
With an influent concentration of 2000 mg/1, the
effluent concentration will be in the range of 10 to
20 mg/1.
3PERATIN6 COSTS
From Ref^2^, operating cost for 100,000 gal/day is
200,000/yr (1971).
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Hot effective for removing dihydric phenols.
Product is sodium phenolate, which may not have a ready
market. Other treatments, such as biological, are re-
required prior to discharge.
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Koppers Co., Inc.
REFERENCES
1) Lowry, H. H., Chemistry of Coal Utilization, Wiley, (1963).
2) Klezyk, P. R., & Mackay, D., "Wastewater Treatment by Solvent Extraction", Can. & Chem. Engr., Dec. 1971.
-180-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid-Liquid Extraction (Extraction Prnrtmpcl
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Chemizon Process
NUMBER
2.8.1.5
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
GASES
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
ORGANIC
INOR6ANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
tjl\ *""'"""
\Wtump
link
Figure 1. CHEMIZON DEPHENOLIZATIOtT
IM*
The Chemizon process utilizes
Podbielniak centrifugal extractors in a
two-step process for phenol extraction.
According to the flow diagram in Figure 1,
phenolic ammonia liquor is cooled to 40°C,
then pumped to the first centrifugal
extractor where it is washed counter-
currently with a light oil. In the extrac-
tor the heavy (aqueous) phase is introduced
at the rotor shaft and is thrown toward the
outside, displacing the lighter liquid which then flows inward. The fact that both currents are continuously
forced through the holes of the rings arranged concentrically around the axis of the rotor causes an intimate
contact of the two phases. The dephenolized aqueous phase, or raffinate, is then sent to a holding tank,
while the oil phase, or extract, is sent to a second centrifugal extractor for recovery of phenol by caustic
wash. Oil from the first extractor goes first to an oil pump tank. A strong caustic solution 1s Introduced
into the suction side of the pump following the oil pump tank. The mixture then flows to the second centrifugal
extractor where a more dilute caustic solution Is introduced in countercurrent flow. The two phenolate solu-
tions mix at the periphery of the rotor.
Extracted oil from the second centrifugal then returns to the first stage to contact more phenolic waste.
The caustic solution of sodium phenolate is marketed directly as a by-product of the process.
APPLICATION RANGE
Extraction processes are indicated when the concentration
of phenol and total flow of aqueous waste are high enough to
warrant recovery of phenol as a by-product. This would
generally involve phenol concentrations in excess of 500 mg/1.
Light oils are not effective solvents for polyhydric phenols.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI)
40 °c
KPa
mVt
kg/.
J/t
ENGLISH
ftVmln
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-181-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Cost for a single centrifugal extractor (equip-
ment cost only; installation not included) to handle
500-600 gpm total flow (aqueous waste + solvent oil,
combined flow) in 316 S.S-.construction is approximately
$210,000 (1978).
Installed cost to treat 200,000 gpd is given as
$2.50 - $3.00 per daily gallon, cost year not givenU).
OPERATING COSTS
Sodium hydroxide usage is approximately one pound
per pound of phenol extracted.
OPERATNM CmCtCNCKS
Phenol extraction efficiency is 99%+.
With an Influent phenol concentration of 2500 to
3000 ng/1, the effluent concentration is on the order
of 25 mg/1.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Not effective for removing dihydric phenols.
Sodium phenol ate product may not have a ready market.
Additional treatment for phenol removal required prior
to discharge.
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Extractor - Baker Perkins. Inc.
REFERENCES
1} Lowry, H. H., Chemistry of Coal Utilization. Wiley (1963).
2) Besselievre, E. B., The Treatment of Industrial Wastes. McGraw-Hill (1969).
-182-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Liquid Treatment
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid-Liquid Extraction (Fytrarti
1
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Barrett Phenol Recovery Process
NUMBER
2.8.1.6
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
GASES
AIR
PARTI CULATE3
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUOITIVE
jlOMANIC
WOR6ANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Wastes are collected In a storage tank,
and pumped at a controlled rate to the base
of a rotating disc contactor (ROC). The
taste rises through the extractor as the
continuous phase. It is contacted by a
falling dispersed stream of solvent.
Dephenolized waste exits the RDC after
passing through a short settling zone to
ainlmize solvent loss by entrainment. The
waste then goes to a batch discharge tank
for monitored flow to the plant sewer system.
The phenolized solvent or extract
passes through a disengaging section at the
base of the RDC to minimize waste en train-
Bent and is pumped to the base of a con-
current liquid-liquid caustic spray tower.
Solvent flow from the RDC is controlled automatically by a level indicator at its base. Rich solvent entering
the spray tower is dispersed into a continuous phase of sodium hydroxide sodium phenolate mixture. The phenolics
contributed by the extract react with the.sodium hydroxide to form more sodium phenolate. Lean solvent and
caustic soda phenolate mixture then leave the top of the spray tower and flow to a settling and storage tank
prior to recycle.
Satisfactory dephenolizer performance has been obtained using a phenolate saturated to as high as 90-95
percent. When this saturation level is reached the solvent regeneration unit is charged with fresh 20 to 35
weight percent caustic soda and saturated phenolate is then shipped out for recovery of phenolic values.
Figure 1. BARRETT PROCESS
APPLICATION RANGE
Extraction processes are indicated when the concentration
of phenol and total flow of aqueous waste are high enough to
warrent recovery of phenol as a by-product.
OPERATIN8 RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENER9Y RATE
METRIC (81 )
KPo
01'A
J/t
EN8LISH
ftVmin
Ib/hf
BTU/hr
-183-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
1957 estimates
Waste Volume
Gallons Per Day
100,000
170.000
500,000
(1)
Annual
Return
$ 40,000
70.000
200,000
Capital
Cost
$200,000
260,000
670,000
Payout
Time, Year;
4
3
2.9
Note:
Based on waste feed of 5,000 ppm phenolics and
and effluent of 5 ppm.
No allowance for plant administration or over-
head expenses.
No allowance for waste collection, storage,
cleanup or site development.
OPERATING COSTS
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
PERFORMANCE TEST DATA
flow Rate. 6PM
SolvestHaste
8 8
12 6
1Z 4
Solvent to
Haste Ratio
1
2
3
Phenolic
Cone
[ffl
.. PPM
uent
5,800
5.400
5,400
9
3
1.6
Rotor Speed
RPM
is
55
55
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Sodium hydroxide - sodium phenol ate product may not
have a ready market. Additional treatment of waste
stream for phenol removal required prior to discharge.
EFFECT OF HASTE pH ON DEPHEMXIZATION EFFICIENCY
Flow Rite. 6PM
SolventHaste
Hater Feed
9.1
7.9
7.4
Phenolic Cone.. PPM Dephenollzatlon
HasteEffluentEfficiency
5.300
4,500
5,800
90
16
9
98.3
99.7
99.8
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
REFERENCES
1. Heller, A. N., Clarke, E. W., Reiter, H. M., "Some Factors in the Selection of a Phenol Recovery Process",
Proceedings of 12th Purdue Industrial Waste Conference, (1957).
-184-
-------
Liquid Treatment
I8ENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Liquid-Liquid Extraction (Extraction Processes)
Phenex Process
I NUMBER
2.8.1.7
FVLLvIAN 1 9
CONTROLLED
8ASE9
PARTICULATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LEACHABLE
LAND
INOR9ANIC
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The Phenex process was developed to
extract phenolics from refinery wastewaters
by using an aromatic light oil (catalytic
cracking cycle oil, or light cycle oil,
LCD) as the extraction solvent. After
extracting phenol ics from the wastewater
stream, the cycle oil itself is treated
with caustic to remove the phenolics. The
phenolic-lean cycle oil can then be re-used
as the extraction solvent.
Electrostatic coalescers are utilized
to provide separation of the oil and water
phases in the wastewater extraction stage
and to provide separation of the oil and
caustic phases in the cycle oil phenol ics
removal stage. A flow diagram of the process
is shown in Figure 1. Phenolic wastewater
and light cycle oil are fed through a butterfly mixing valve and then to an electrostatic coalescing drum.
Although Figure 1 illustrates a single-stage extraction, more stages could be used if economically justified.
Overall phenolics extraction of 60 to 80% in a single-stage process would be upgraded to 90-95% with a two-stage
system.
Mixing valve energy is adjusted to provide good two-phase contact, but not enough to create a difficult-to-
treat emulsion. Cycle oil flowing from the top of the coalescer is mixed with caustic and then separated in a
second electrostatic coalescer. In some cases the caustic treatment may not be necessary. The phenols extracted
are oxidation inhibitors and serve to improve color stability and reduce sediment formation during oil storage.
This nay be beneficial when catalytic cycle oil is blended into distillate fuels. Aromatic solvents other than
light cycle oil can be used.
EXTRACTION OF PHCMOUCS
FROM WATCH BY ICO
RECYCLE LCO(PHEHOUC LEAN)
EXTRACTION OF PHENOLICS
FROM LCD BIT CAUSTIC
Figure 1. PHENEX PROCESS
(2)
APPLICATION RANGE
Extraction processes are indicated when the concentration
of phenol and total flow of aqueous waste are high enough to
warrant recovery of phenol as a by-product. This would generally
involve phenol concentrations in excess of 500 mg/1.
OPERATINfl RAMOE8
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY HATE
METRIC (81)
KPo
EN0LISH
pti
ft*/min
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-185-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Installed cost for a refinery In 1966 was given
as $200,0000). Flow rates were not specified.
OPERATINO COSTS
Power consumption, solvent loss, and operating
manpower requirements are stated to be minimal.
*
cT
K
DO
14
40
a
n
_^f
^^
^
^
s
BASIS
OIL
_
_^*^~
" '
WATER
GRAVITY, API 21 PHENOL. PP« 350
AROHATICS.VOL * 45
PHEKOL.PP* ITS
CNVIRONMCNTAL PROBLEMS
Additional treatment for phenol removal required
prior to discharge.
NOTES
VI
OIL/WATER RATIO
10/1
Figure 2. REMOVAL EFFICIENCY AS A FUNCTION
OF OIL/WATER RATIO0)
Efficiency shown 1s for a single-stage process.
ytwrunt
Howe-Baker Engineers, Inc.
.W. L.. Martin, U. L., "Removal Phenols from Wastewater", Hydrocarbon Processing. February 1967.
2) American Petroleian Institute, "Disposal of Refinery Wastes Manual-Volume of Liquid Wastes", (1973).
-186-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
PEMEJIO DEVICE OR PROCESS I
Liauid-L-auid Extraction (Diffe'-pntial Cortact. Gravity Columns*
SPECIFIC DEVICE Oft PROCESS
Pall Rings
NUMBER
2.8.3.8
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
AIR
ORSANIC
KfUHtmM MlOUi.
WATER
SiSSOLVEO SUSPENDED
LAND (I
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The use of a packing irKterial in a 1icuiri-' iquid extraction
column will usually increase the extraction efficiency. Almost
any type of packing used in distillation or adsorption can also
be used in extraction. Pall rings, with their large void volume,
are efficient because they do not retard the flow of the con-
tinuous phase appreciably, but yet inhibit harmful axial
mixing. Pall rings were developed as an improvement over
Rashig rings. Higher velocities and column throughputs can
be maintained. The packing material should normally be chosen
so that the continuous phase wets the packing, thus insuring
that dispersed phase droplets do not coalesce or form films on
the surface. Sire of the packing should be such that the
openings are not so small as to retard the flow of dispersed
phase droplets. Standard sizes for Pall rings are 5/8, 1,
1-1/2, 2 and 3 inches. The exterior dimensions of a Pall
ring are the same as a Raschig ring, a cylinder of length
equal to diameter. Many materials of construction are
available, including most steels, copper, aluminum and many
plastics.
Fiaure 1. METAL PALL RINGS.
APPLICATION RANGE
When used in 1iquid-liquid extraction, at least an 6:1
tower diameter to packing size snculd be employee to insure
against inefficiency due to channeling. Materials should be
chosen such that the continuous liquid ohase preferentially
wets the packing.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI )
KPo
J/i
ENGLISH
°F
pn
ftVir
Ib/hr
BT'J/hr
-187-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Dollars per cubic foot, 1978.
Size,
Inches
1
1-1/2
2
Carbon
Steel
20
16
14
316 Stainless
Steel
85
60
53
Polypropylene
16
10
9
OPERATING COSTS
; OPERATINQ EFFICIENCIES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
K
I
50
IOO 150 200 25O SOO
COMTINUOUS PHASE VELOOTY-FT./HR
NOTES
Figure 2. EXTRACTION EFFICIENCY OF PALL RINGS1.
Efficiency given as Height Equivalent to a
Transfer Unit for 1-inch copper pall rings in a 5-foot
high column extracting MEK-water-kerosene.
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Chemical Process Products Division, Norton Co.
Glitsch, Inc.
;REFERENCES
1. Nemunatis, R. R. , Eckert, J. S., Foote, E. H. , Rollison, L. R.
Engineering Progress, Vol. 67, No. 11, November 1971, p. 60.
"Packed Liquid-Liquid Extractors", Chemical
-188-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Final Disposal
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Pond Lining (Membrane Linings)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Butyl Rubber
NUMBER
4.1.1.1
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICULATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACH ABLE FU9ITIVE
OR8ANIC
INORSANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Butyl rubber is a nonpolar copolymer of isobutylene (97%)
and isoprene. The vulcanized compound can be used as a pond
liner and is available in either unsupported or fabric-rein-
forced sheeting of 20 to 125 mil thickness. It has question-
able resistance to ozone and ultraviolet light. Consequently,
In some cases, it may require an earth cover. Figure 1 shows
a schematic diagram of a lined disposal pond which can be used
to store wastewater prior to treatment, disposal, or reuse. In
addition, the pond can be used to evaporate the volatile portion
of an effluent and to contain any precipitated or settled solids.
Similar to other membrane liners, butyl sheeting is
usually made in a continuous process where a thin sheet is formed
bypassing the compound through the rolls of a calender. Butyl
can also be reinforced with a fabric (scrim) laminated between
two layers. Nylon, dacron, polypropylene, or fiberglass can be
used for this purpose. Reinforced liners provide better
dimensional stability, better puncture resistance and greater
hydrostatic load capacities. However, they also result in
less elongation prior to rupture, less conformity to ground
irregularities, less flexibility, and greater cost. The ten-
sile strength for butyl rubber can range from 1000 to 4000 psi
The membrane liner is manufactured as a roll-good and fabricated
Into panels before installation. Additional material must be
provided to allow for shrinkage, typically 15%.
r.
Burial
Trench
3:1 Slope
Maximum
Liner
Earth
Cover
Completed
Trench
Figure 1. MEMBRANE LINED DISPOSAL POND
Butyl rubber is installed in a manner similar to all other membrane liners. The pond is formed and smooth-
ed by conventional methods, and a trench is dug around the perimeter (see Figure 1 left side). The liner is
Installed and buried in the trench for stability. Butyl rubber is the most difficult membrane liner to field
splice. It requires a special two-part cold curing adhesive with a cap strip, and must be done under dry con-
ditions. A second method used today is a tongue and groove system with a gum tap adhesive. Seams to foreign
surfaces like concrete, must be backed up with a mechanical anchor system. In general, the pond bottom should
be slightly sloped (2%) to allow any entrapped air to escape after filling.
In some cases, it is extremely important to detect a leak as soon after it is formed as possible. A
secondary liner can be provided for this purpose. Leaks if they occur are collected in the secondary liner
and drawn off by a separate piping system. Other methods to detect leaks include groundwater monitoring wells,
and electrical sensing systems. In some cases they may increase the cost of the pond by as much as two fold.
Butyl rubber can be used in lined burial pits (device 4.3.2.4) but the liner should be buried with an
earth cover of 1 to 2 ft to prevent liner damage. Earth covers can also be used in ponds to prevent physical
damage or vandalism. In addition, they may be used when a natural bottom is required such as in fish culture
and in esthetic landscaping.
APPLICATION RANGE
PRESSURE
KPa
VOLUMETRIC RATE
n»V»
ftVmhi
MASS RATE
*9/«
Ib/hr
ENER9Y RATE
BTU/hr
Butyl rubber is resistant to water based inorganic salts,
acids, bases, sewage, oxidizing chemicals, animal and vegetable
oils, and fats. The rubber compound itself generally contains
low amounts of extractable material and does not swell in water.
However, it is not recommended for service requiring contact with
hydrocarbons, petroleum solvents, and aromatic and halogenated
solvents. Butyl rubber, in general, ages very well, but some u
butyl compounds ozone crack. Some recent compounds contain minor amounts of EPDM to improve ozone resistance.
The above information should be used as a guide and not for design purposes. A sample should be tested in
actual service before a liner material is specified.
OPE RAT INS RANttES
TEMPERATURE Max
METRIC (81)
QO°C
ENOLISH
?nn
-189-
-------
vAFITAL VUlTV
The capital costs for butyl rubber membrane liners
are shown belowC. The costs are January, 1978 costs,
and are for material only with no cost break for large
quantities. Costs are shown as $/sq ft.
Thickness
30 mil
60 mil
60 mil
Reinforced
no
no
yes
Cost
Installation costs can vary as shown below1.
Cut and Fill Reservoir Construction $.02 - $.05/gal
Liner Installation $.02 - $.06/sq ft
Earth Cover (6" deep) $.01 - $.04/sq ft
The above costs can vary greatly depending upon the
location, design and type of liner. Contact the
manufacturer for detailed cost information.
OPERATIN6 COSTS
Operating costs include maintenance of the earth
cover (if included), monitoring leak detection equip-
ment, and repairing leaks. The maintenance of the
earth cover is site specific, and is dependent upon
weather conditions and pond design. If a leak is
detected, the pond can be drained to expose the liner
for repairs. Care must be taken to insure that a
clear, dry area is provided for the splice.
OPDUTINt EFFIdENCKS
Lined disposal ponds are an effective method for
disposal of liquid effluents. The actual operating
efficiency for butyl rubber is impossible to estimate.
The major source of emissions are poor splicing and
cracks from chemicals that are not compatible with
the butyl rubber. The permeability for butyl rubber
is the best of all membrane liners; typically it is
0.15 perm-m1lsA. In most cases, however, a perme-
ability of essentially zero can be realized. In
water management use, butyl rubber liners have shown
no degradation after 20 years of exposed service.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Disposal of liquid waste in a lined disposal
pond is effective in containing the major portion of
the effluent. However, fugitive emissions may be
produced from the following two areas:
1) Leaks may develop around seams or at loca-
tions where the liner is attacked by the
chemicals contained in the liquid waste.
2) Volatile pollutants may be released from the
waste liquid as the water is evaporated.
NOTES
A) Source: "Selecting and Installing Synthetic Pond
Linings", Chemical Eng.'Vol 80, No. 3, 2/5/73.
B) Operating temperatures ranges from -so to 200°F^
but some report operating temperature up to
325°FA.
C) Capital costs are estimated from manufacturer's
data.
D) See device sheet 4.1.1.2.
MAMUFACTUftER /SUPPLIER
Aldan Rubber Co.
Brown & Brown, Inc.
Carlisle Tire & Rubber Co.
Cooley, Inc.
Dearborn Canvas Products Co.
Eastern Gunite Co.
Globe Linings, Inc.
Gulf Seal Corp.
Key Enterprises
McKitrick Mudd
Miner Co., Ltd., The
Misco-United Supply, Inc.
Pacific Lining Co., Inc.
Plymouth Rubber Co.
Reeves Brothers, Inc.
Richardson Co.,
Staflex
U.S. Rubber Co.
Watersaver Co.
REFERENCES
1) Kays, William B., Construction of Linings for Reservoirs. Tanks, and Pollution Control Facilities, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y., (1977T
2) Geswein, Allen J., "Liners for Land Disposal Sites - An Assessment", EPA/530/SW-137, (March 1975).
3) Haxo, Henry E., Jr., Haxo, Robert S., White, Richard M., "Liner Materials Exposed to Hazardous and Toxic
Sludges, First Interim Report", EPA 600/2-77-081 (June 1977).
-190-
-------
Final Disposal
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Pond Lining (Membrane Linings)
SMCIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM)
I NUMBER
4.1.1.2
CONTROLLED
OASES
PARTICIPATES
DISSOLVED
LAND
INOMANIC
THERMAL
NOME
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
r
Burial
Trench
2:1 Slope
Maximum
Liner
Ethylene, propylene, diene monomer (EPDM) is a synthetic
rubber originally developed by the U.S. Rubber Co. A similar
compound, elhylene, propylene terpolymer (EPTA), was developed
by DuPont and is a terpolymer of ethylene, propylene and an
unidentified chemical referred to as a noncojugated diene.
Neither company would divulge the exact nature of the un-
naned monomer. EPDM is a wholly hydrocarbon, vulcanized
rubber and is available tn thicknesses from 20 to 125 mils.
It is usually blended with butyl (4.1.1.1). It has excellent
resistance to weather conditions8, and can be used without an
earthen cover as shown in Figure 1. This pond can be used
to store wastewater prior to treatment, disposal, or reuse;
to evaporate the volatile portion of an effluent; and to con-
tain any precipitated or settled solids.
; Similar to other membrane liners, EPDM sheeting is
usually made in a continuous process where a thin sheet is
formed by passing the compound through the rolls of a
calender. EPDM can be reinforced with a fabric (scrim)
laminated between two layers. Nylon, dacron, polypropylene,
oV fiberglass can be used for this purpose. Reinforced liners
provide better dimensional stability, better puncture resis-
tance and greater hydrostatic load capacities. However, they
also result in less elongation prior to rupture, less con-
formity to ground irregularities, less flexibility, and
greater cost. The tensile strength for EPDM is specified as 1400 psiv. The membrane liner is manufactured as
a,roll-good and fabricated into panels before installation. Additional material must be provided for un-
supported EPDM to allow for shrinkage, 5% maximum.
4 EPOM is installed in a manner similar to all other membrane liners. The pond is formed and smoothed by
conventional methods, and a trench is dug around the perimeter (see Figure 1 left side). The liner is installed
and buried in the trench for stability. Field seams are made using a one-step vulcanizable adhesive with a
Cap strip. Gum tape is often required in the installation which may increase the costs. In general, the pond
bottom should be slightly sloped (2%) to allow any entrapped air to escape after filling.
In some cases, it is extremely important to detect a leak immediately after it is formed. A secondary
liner can be provided for this purpose. Leaks if they occur are collected in the secondary liner and drawn off
by a separate piping system. Other methods to detect leaks include groundwater monitoring wells, and electrica
sensing systems. In some cases this may increase the cost of the pond by as much as two fold.
EPDM can be used in lined burial pits (device 4.3.2.4) but the liner should be buried with an earth cover
of 1 to 2 ft to prevent liner damage. Earth covers can also be used in ponds to prevent physical damage or
Vandalism. In addition, they may be used when a natural bottom is required such as in fish culture and in
esthetic landscaping.
Figure 1.
.,-C
j Completed
' Trench
MEMBRANE LINED DISPOSAL POND
APPLICATION RANGE
EPDM was originally developed for contact with potable water,
but has excellent resistance to moderate acids, bases, and salt
solutions. In most cases, it is resistant to ketons, esters
and alcohols. EPDM is not recommended for applications involv-
ing hydrocarbons, petroleum solvents, or aromatic solvents. It
has good weatherability, low temperature flexibilities, and good
heat resistance.
OPERATING RAN8E3
TEMPERATURE Max
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENEROY RATE
METRIC (SI)
150 °C
KPo
J/t
ENOLISH
300°F
pn
Ib/hr
BTU/Kr
Compounding has a great deal to do with the applicability of a specific EPDM liner. In general, they can be
expected to last from 15 to 25 years under normal use, but tests should be conducted under actual service
conditions before a liner material is specified.
-191-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
The capital costs for EPDM liners are shown
below". The costs are January, 1978 costs, and are
for material only with no cost break for large
quantities. Costs are shown as $/sq/ft.
Thickness Reinforced
30 mil
60 mil
60 mil
no
no
yes
Cost
0.44
0.64
0.77
Installation costs can vary as shown below1.
Cut and Fill Reservoir Construction $.02 - $.05/gal
Liner Installation $.02 - $.06/sq ft
The above costs can vary greatly depending upon the
location, design and type of liner. Contact the
manufacturer for detailed cost information.
OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs include maintenance of the earth
cover (if included), monitoring leak detection equip-
ment, and repairing leaks. The maintenance of the
earth cover is site specific, and is dependent upon
weather conditions and pond design. If a leak is
detected, the pond can be drained to expose the liner
for repairs. Care must be taken to insure that a clean,
dry area is provided for the splice.
OPERATHM EFFICIENCIES
Lined disposal ponds are an effective method for
disposal of liquid effluents. The actual operating
efficiency for EPDM is impossible to estimate. The
major source of emissions are poor splicing and cracks
from chemicals that are not compatable with the EPDM.
In most cases a permeability of essentially zero can
be realized.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Disposal of liquid waste in a lined disposal
pond is effective in containing the major portion of
the effluent. However, fugitive emissions may be
produced from the following two areas:
1) Leaks may develop around seams or at locations
where the liner is attacked by the chemicals
contained in the liquid waste.
2) Volatile pollutants may be released from the
waste liquid as the water is evaporated.
NOTES
A) Trade named Nordel. Both compounds are referred
to as EPDM in this data sheet.
B) Operating temperature range is -65°F to 300°F.
C) ASTM D-412-68.
D) Capital costs are estimated from manufacturer's
data.
MANUFACTURE* /SUPPLIER
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Burke Rubber Co.
Carlisle lire & Rubber Co.
Cooley, Inc.
Crestline
Dearborn Canvas Products Co.
Eastern Gunite Co.
E.I. duPont de Nemours Co., Inc.
Globe Linings, Inc.
Gulf Seal Corp.
Key Enterprises
McKitrick Mudd
Miner Co., Ltd., The
Misco-United Supply, Inc.
Pacific Lining Co., Inc.
Plymouth Rubber Co.
Reeves Brothers, Inc.
Staflex
Watersaver Co.
REFERENCES
1) Kays, William B., Construction of Linings for Reservoirs, Tanks, and Pollution Control Facilities, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y., (1977).
2) Geswein, Allen J., "Liners for Land Disposal Sites - An Assessment", EPA/530/SW-137, (March 1975).
3) Haxo, Henry E., Jr., Haxo, Robert S. White, Richard M., "Liner Materials Exposed to Hazardous and Toxic
Sludges, First Interim Report", EPA 600/2-77-081 (June 1977).
-192-
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CLASSIFICATION
Final Disposal
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Pond Lining (Membrane Linings)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Neoprene
NUMBER
4.1.1.3
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
PARTI CUL ATE 8
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LEACHABLE
LAND
INORGANIC
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Neoprene is a synthetic rubber produced by a controlled
polymerization of chloropene, a compound similar to isoprene
with a chlorine atom replacing a methyl group. It is supplied
in vulcanized sheets from 30 to 125 mil thickness. Neoprene
has excellent weatherabilityA and can be used without an earth
cover as shown in Figure 1. This figure shows the construction
details for a lined disposal pond which can be used to store
wastewater prior to treatment, disposal, or reuse. In addition,
the pond can be used to evaporate the volatile portion of an
effluent and to contain any precipitated or settled solids.
\ Similar to other membrane liners, neoprene sheeting is
usually made in a continuous process where a thin sheet is
formed by passing the compound through the rolls of a calender.
Neoprene can also be reinforced with a fabric (scrim) laminated
between two layers. Nylon, dacron, polypropylene, or fiber-
glass can be used for this purpose. Reinforced liners provide
better dimensional stability, better puncture resistance and
greater hydrostatic load capacities. However, they also
result in less elongation prior to rupture, less conformity
to ground irregularities, less flexibility, and greater cost.
Neoprene is extremely resistant to puncturing, abrasion, and
mechanical damage. The tensile strength has been specified
at 1500 psi minimumB. The membrane liner is manufactured as
a'roll-good and fabricated into panels before installation.
r
Burial
Trench
2:1 Slope
Maximum
Liner
Completed
Trench
Figure 1. MEMBRANE LINED DISPOSAL POND
Neoprene is installed in a manner similar to all other membrane liners. The pond is formed and smoothed by
conventional methods, and a trench is dug around the perimeter (see Figure 1 left side). The liner is install-
ed and buried in the trench for stability. In general, the pond bottom should be slightly sloped (2%) to allow-
any entrapped air to escape after filling. Field seams are easy to make with vulcanizing cements and adhesives
but their long term integrity in contact with petroleum oils may be questionable. Neoprene has poor seam
strength in these applications. In addition, the bonding of neoprene to foreign surfaces can only be termed as
fair.
- In some cases, it is extremely important to detect a leak immediately after it is formed. A secondary liner
can be provided for this purpose. Leaks if they occur are collected in the secondary liner and drawn off by a
separate piping system. Other methods to detect leaks include groundwater monitoring wells, and electrical
sensing systems. In some cases they may increase the cost of the pond by as much as two fold.
; Neoprene can be fabricated into an embankment supported Fabritank . The Fabritank is made entirely of
neoprene and resembles a pillowcase, seamed on all four sides. This system provides an integral cover and can
be used to eliminate evaporation emissions. Neoprene can also be used in lined burial pits (device 4.3.2.4) but
the liner should be buried with an earth cover of 1 to 2 ft to prevent liner damage. Earth covers can also be
used in ponds to prevent physical damage or vandalism. In addition, they may be used when a natural bottom is
required such as in fish culture and in esthetic landscaping.
APPLICATION RANGE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
Neoprene has good resistance to bases, moderate acids, ozone,
oils, fats, greases, and many hydrocarbon oils and solvents. It
Is not resistant to strong oxidizing acids, acetic acid, ketones,
esters, chlorinated and m'tro-hydrocarbons, and aromatic sol-
vents. It has good flame resistance, but sun aging may be a
problem with the thinner materials0.
The above information should be used as a guide and not for design purposes.
actual service before a liner material is specified.
OPERATING RANAES
TEMPERATURE Max
ENEROY RATE
METRIC (31)
90
KPo
J/t
EN4LISH
200
P*l
ftVmln
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
A sample should be tested in
-193-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
The capital costs for Neoprene membrane liners are
shown belowE. The costs are January, 1978 costs, and
are for material only with no cost break for large
quantities. Costs are shown as $/sq ft.
Thickness
60 mil
30 mil
16 oz/yd"
Reinforced
yes
yes
no
60 mil — no 0.95
Installation costs can vary as shown below1.
Cut and Fill Reservoir Construction $.02 - $.05/gal
Liner Installation $.02 - $.06/sq yd
The above costs can vary greatly depending upon the
location, design and type of liner. Contact the
Manufacturer for detailed cost information.
OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs include maintenance of the earth
cover (if included), monitoring leak detection equip-
ment, and repairing leaks. The maintenance of the
earth cover is site specific, and is dependent upon
weattter conditions and pond design. If a leak is
detected, the pond can be drained to expose the liner
for repairs. Care must be taken to insure that a clean,
dry area is provided for the splice.
ope*ATiN«
Lined disposal ponds are an effective method for
disposal of liquid effluents. The actual operating
efficiency for Neoprene is impossible to estimate. The
major source of emissions are poor splicing and cracks
from chemicals that are not compatible with the liner.
In most cases a permeability of essentially zero can
be realized.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Disposal of liquid waste in a lined disposal
pond is effective in containing the major portion of
the effluent. However, fugitive emissions may be pro-
duced from the following two areas:
1) Leaks may develop around seams or at locations
where the liner is attacked by the chemicals
contained in the liquid waste.
2} Volatile pollutants may be released from the
waste liquid as the water is evaporated.
NOTES
A) Operating temperature ranges from -40° to 200°F,
with intermittent temperatures up to 250°F.
B) ASTM D-412-68.
C) Neoprene cannot be seamed in cold or wet weather.
D) Estimated life for 20 mil material would be 8 years.
E) Capital costs are estimated from manufacturer's
data.
F) Fabritank is a registered trademark of Firestone.
MAMUFACTURf ft / SWPPLICII
Brown & Brown, Inc.
Carlisle Tire and Rubber Co.
Cooley, Inc.
Crestline
Dearborn Canvas Products Co.
Eastern Gunite Co.
Firestone Coated Fabrics Co.
Globe Linings, Inc.
Gulf Seal Corp.
Misco-United Supply, Inc.
Pacific Lining Co., Inc.
Plymouth Rubber Co.
Reeves Brothers, Inc.
Staflex
Watersaver Co.
KCFtimeea
1) Kays, William B., Construction of Linings for Reservoirs, Tanks, and Pollution Control Facilities, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y., (1977).
2) Geswein, Allen J., "Liners for Land Disposal Sites - An Assessment", EPA/530/SW-137, (March 1975).
3) Haxo, Henry E., Jr., Haxo, Robert S., White, Richard M., "Liner Materials Exposed to Hazardous and Toxic
Sludges, First Interim Report", EPA 600/2-77-081 (June 1977).
-194-
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CLASSIFICATION
Final Disposal
1 GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Pond Lining (Membrane Li nines)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
X
X
OMANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
AIR
OASES PARTICIPATES
NUMBER
4.1.1.4
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
X
X
fl
LAND i
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
x
X
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a plastic membrane avail-
able in either unsupported or fabric-reinforced sheeting
of 10 to 30 mil thickness. This material contains 30 to
SOS plasticizer, 2% chemical stabilizer and a varying
amount of filler material. The exact composition can be
varied depending upon the application, but in general, it
Is made in two variations, oil resistant or regular PVC.
PVC deteriorates when it is exposed to weather^. Con-
sequently, the liner is usually covered as shown in
Figure 1. This figure shows the construction details for
a lined disposal pond which can be used to store wastewater
prior to treatment, disposal, or reuse. In addition, the
pond can.be used to evaporate the volatile portion of an
effluent and to contain any precipitated or settled solids.
r
Burial
Trench
3:1 Slope
Maximum
Liner
Earth
Cover
Similar to other membrane liners, PVC sheeting is
usually made in a continuous process where a thin sheet
is formed by passing the compound through the rolls of a
calender. PVC can also be reinforced with a fabric (scrim)
laminated between two layers. Nylon, dacron, polpropylene,
or fiberglass can be used for this purpose. Reinforced
liners provide better dimensional stability, better puncture
resistance and greater hydrostatic load capacities. However,
,they also result in less elongation prior to rupture, less
Conformity to ground irregularities, less flexibility, and
greater cost. The tensile strength can range from 3,500 to
10,000 psi, and the elongation from 60 to 200%B. The membrane liner is manufactured as a roll-good and fabri-
cated into panels before installation^. This reduces the number of field seams which will be required.
Completed
Trench
Figure 1. MEMBRANE LINED DISPOSAL POND
PVC is installed in a manner similar to all other membrane liners. The pond is formed and smoothed by
^conventional methods, and a trench is dug around the perimeter (see Figure 1 left side). The liner is in-
^stalled and buried in the trench for stability. PVC is relatively easy to splice by solvent welding, adhesive
or heat, but it must be done under dry conditions with little or no windC. Bonding PVC to foreign surfaces
like concrete may be a problem in some cases. In general, the pond bottom should be slightly sloped (2%) to
.allow any entrapped air to escape after filling. When the liner installation is complete, an earth cover
J(6 in. minimum) should be used to protect the liner from weather. This cover will also protect it from
^mechanical damage and vandalism. If the pit is to be used for burial or landfill (device 4.3.2.4), a cover
of 1 to 2 ft should be used.
\
*•••• In some cases, it is extremely important to detect a leak as soon after it is formed as possible. A
'secondary liner can be provided for this purpose. Leaks if they occur are collected in the secondary liner and
drawn off by a separate piping system. Other methods to detect leaks include groundwater monitoring wells, and
electrical sensing systems. In some cases this may increase the cost of the pond by as much as two fold.
APPLICATION RANGE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
mVt
MASS RATE
Oil resistant PVC has good resistance when buried, but in
cases the material may deteriorate due to the biodegrad-
ability or solubility of the plasticizers. It has good to ex-
cellent resistance to acids and bases, and good resistance to
oxygenated, aromatic, halogenated and aliphatic solvents. In
some extreme cases, the acid, base and dissolved salt resistance
maybe questionable. Regular PVC is not applicable to oily wastes especially aromatic solvents.
OPERAT1N6 RANGES
METRIC (SI)
EN4LISH
TEMPERATURE
KPo
ftVmin
Ib/hf
ENES9Y RATE
J/t
BTU/hr
The above information should be used as a guide. It was not intended for design purposes.
be tested in actual service before a liner material is specified.
A sample should
-195-
-------
PVC is the most widely used membrane liner partly
because of its low cost. The capital costs for PVC
membrane liners are shown below0. The costs are
January, 1978 costs, and are for material only with no
cost break for large quantities. Costs are shown as
$/sq ft.
Thickness
10 mil
20 mil
30 mil
20 mil
30 mil
Material
PVC
PVC
PVC
O.R. PVC
O.R. PVC
Reinforced
No
No
No
No
No
Cost
.10
.16
.28
.22
.34
Installation costs can vary as shown below .
Cut and Fill Reservoir Construction $.02 - $.05/gal
Liner Installation $.02 - $.06/sq ft
Earth Cover (6" deep) $.01 - $.04/sq ft
The above costs can vary greatly depending upon the
location, design and type of liner. Contact the
manufacturer for detailed cost information.
OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs include maintenance of the earth
cover, monitoring leak detection equipment, and repair-
ing leaks. The maintenance of the earth cover is site
specific, and is dependent upon weather conditions and
pond design. If a leak is detected, the pond can be
drained to expose the liner for repairs. Care must be
taken to insure that a clear, dry area is provided for
the splice. PVC becomes harder to splice or repair the
longer it ages. Electronic bonding can not be used if
the liner has been allowed to sun age for as little as
12 to 18 months. Adhesive bonding also becomes diffi-
cult in this situation, but methyl ethyl ketone (MEK)
can be used to pretreat the surface for better results.
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
Lined disposal ponds are an effective method for
the disposal of liquid effluents. The actual operating
efficiency for PVC is impossible to estimate. The
major source of emissions are poor splicing and cracks
from chemicals that are not compatible with PVC. The
permeability for PVC is the highest of all membrane
liners ranging from 3 to 18 perm-milsB.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Disposal of liquid waste in a lined disposal pond
is effective in containing the major portion of the
effluent. However, fugitive emissions may be produced
from the following two areas:
1) Leaks may develop around seams or at locations
where the liner is attacked by the chemicals
contained in the liquid waste.
2) Volatile pollutants may be released from the
waste liquid as the water is evaporated.
NOTES
A) Operation temperature ranges from -60 to 150°FB.
B) Source: "Selecting and-Installing Synthetic Pond
Linings", Chemical Engr. Vol. 80, No. 3, 2/5/73.
C) PVC will become stiff at low temperatures making
cold-weather installation a problem.
D) Capital costs are estimated from manufacturer's
data.
E) A 5% shrinkage rate must be accounted for with un-
supported PVC.
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Ameron, Plastic Linings Division
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Brown & Brown, Inc.
Burke Rubber Co.
Cooley, Inc.
Crestline
Dearborn Canvas Products Co.
Eastern Gunite Co.
Fabrico Manufacturing Co.
Globe Linings, Inc.
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.
Gulf Seal Corp.
Herculite Protective Fabric Corp.
McKitrick Mudd
Pacific Lining Co., Inc.
Palco Linings, Inc.
Pantasote Co.
Plastisteel
Reeves Brother, Inc.
Staff Industies, Inc.
Staflex
Stauffer Chemical Co.
Tennaco Chemical Co.
Unit Liner Co.
Watersaver Co.
REFERENCES
1) Kays, William B., Construction of Linings for Reservoirs. Tanks, and Pollution Control Facilities, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y., (1977).
2) Geswein, Allen J., "Liners for Land Disposal Sites - An Assessment", EPA/530/SW-137, (March 1975).
3) Haxo, Henry E., Jr., Haxo, Robert S., White, Richard M., "Liner Materials Explosed to Hazardous and Toxic
Sludges, First Interim Report", EPA 600/2-77-081 (June 1977).
-196-
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CLASSIFICATION
Final Disposal
I GENERIC DEVICE OP PROCESS
Pond Lining (Membrane Linings)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (Hypalon)
NUMBER
4.1.1.5
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE
FU9ITIVE
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
I
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene (Hypalon ) is produced by
reacting ethylene with chlorine and sulfur. The uncured
rubber compound which is produced can be used as a pond liner,
and is available in fabric-reinforced sheeting of 30 to 45
mil-thickness. This material is produced in two grades,
Hypalon-45 and Hypalon-48. The latter is more difficult to
produce but it does have a better oil resistance. It also
has good resistance to ozone and ultraviolet light. Con-
sequently, it can be used without an earth cover, and can
withstand adverse weather conditions^. Figure 1 shows a
schematic diagram of a lined disposal pond which can be used
to store wastewater prior to treatment, disposal, or reuse.
In addition, the pond can be used to evaporate the volatile
portion of an effluent and to contain any precipitated or
settled solids.
r
Burial
Trench
2:1 Slope
Maximum
Liner
Completed
Trench
Figure 1. MEMBRANE LINED DISPOSAL POND
Hypalon sheeting is usually made in a continous pro-
cess plying together two thin sheets formed by passing the
compound through the rolls of a calender. Plying two
Sheets together in this manner almost eliminates pin-
holes. Hypalon is usually reinforced with a fabric
(scrim) laminated between the layers. Nylon and polyes-
ter are used for this purpose. This provides better
dimensional stability, better puncture resistance and
greater hydrostatic load capacities. However, it also
results in less elongation prior to rupture, less con-
formity to ground irregularities, less flexibility, and
greater cost. The tensile strength for Hypalon can range from 1000 to 2000 psi, and the elongation from 55
to 95%c. The membrane liner is manufactured as a roll-good and fabricated into panels before installation.
Additional material must be provided to allow for shrinkage, 0.5% for supported and 32% for unsupported Hypalon.
Hypalon is installed in a manner similar to all other membrane liners. The pond is formed and smoothed by
conventional methods, and a trench is dug around the perimeter (see Figure 1 left,side). The liner is installed
and buried in the trench for stability. Hypalon is easy to seam in the factory of. in the field with solvents,
cenents, heat or by electronic bonding0. Adhesive systems are available for bonding to foreign surfaces. In
general, the pond bottom should be slightly sloped (2%) to allow any entrapped air to escape after filling.
In some cases, it is extremely important to detect a leak as soon after it is formed as possible. A
secondary liner can be provided for this purpose. Leaks if they occur are collected in the secondary liner and
drawn off by a separate piping system. Other methods to detect leaks include groundwater monitoring wells,
and electrical sensing systems. In some cases this may increase the cost of the pond by as much as two fold.
Hypalon can be used in lined burial pits (device 4.3.2.4) but the liner should be buried with an earth
rover of 1 to 2 ft to prevent liner damage. Earth covers can also be used to prevent physical damage and
Vandalism, or to provide a natural bottom as in fish culture and in esthetic landscaping.
APPLICATION RANGE
PRESSURE
KPa
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
>g/t
Ib/hr
ENERGY RATE
BTU/hr
Hypalon has excellent resistance to weathering, aging, oil,
and bacteria. It is also good in applications with highly acid
containing wastes. Resistance has been reported as good to ex-
cellent in bases; good in oxygenated solvents and aliphatic
(petroleum) solvents; and poor in aromatic and halogenated sol-
vents. In extreme conditions, it may have questionable service
\n petroleum sludges, and other dissolved organics. It is not
acceptable in contact with oxidizing acids.
The above information should be used as a guide. It was not intended for design purposes. A sample should
|e tested in actual service before a liner material is specified.
OPERATIN8 RANGES
TEMPERATURE Max
METRIC (SI)
60 °c
ENGLISH
150°F
-197-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
The capital costs for Hypalon membrane liners are
shown belowt. The costs are January, 1978 costs, and
are for material only with no cost break for large
quantities. Costs are shown as $/sq ft.
Thickness Reinforced
36 mil
Yes
Cost
0.52
Installation costs can vary as shown below .
Cut and Fill Reservoir Construction $.02 - $.05/gal
Liner Installation $.02 - $.06/sq ft
The above costs can vary greatly depending upon the
location, design and type of liner. Contact the
manufacturer for detailed cost information.
OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs include maintenance of the earth
cover (if included), monitoring leak detection equip-
ment, and repairing leaks. The maintenance of the
earth cover is site specific, and is dependent upon
weather conditions and pond design. If a leak is
detected, the pond can be drained to expose the liner
for repairs. Care must be taken to insure that a clean
dry area is provided for the splice. Hypalon cures
with age which may cause problems in repair work. As
aging progresses, certain solvents and adhesives may
be hard to use. Alternate adhesive formulations are
available and must be used with a surface pretreatment.
Shrinkage of the patch may also be a problem when re-
pairing with unsupported Hypalon.
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
Lined disposal ponds are an effective method for
disposal of liquid effluents. The actual operating
efficiency for Hypalon is Impossible to estimate. The
major source of emissions are poor splicing and cracks
from chemicals that are not compatible with the liner.
The permeability specified for .Hypalon is 2.0 perm-
milst. In most cases, however, a permeability of
essentially zero can be realized.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Disposal of liquid waste in a lined disposal
pond is effective in containing the major portion of
the effluent. However, fugitive emissions may be pro-
duced from the following two areas:
1) Leaks may develop around seams or at locations
where the liner is attacked by the chemicals
contained in the liquid waste.
2) Volatile pollutants may be released from the
waste liquid as the water is evaporated.
NOTES
A) Hypalon is a registered trademark of DuPont.
B)
O
D)
E)
Operating temperature ranges from -45 to 150°F
Source:
Linings
Selecting and Installing Synthetic Pond
Chemical Engr. Vol 80, No. 3, 2/5/73.
Hypalon can be seamed in cold or wet field con-
ditions. A heater may be required to speed the pro
cess in cold weather.
Capital costs are estimated from manufacturer's
data.
MANUFACTURE* / SUPPLIER
AeroTec Labs, Inc.
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Brown & Brown, Inc.
Burke Rubber Co.
Cooley, Inc.
Crestline
Dearborn Canvas Products Co.
Dunline Ltd.
Eastern Gunite Co.
E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co.
Fabrico Manufacturing Co.
Globe Linings, Inc.
Gulf Seal Corp.
McKitrick Mudd
Misco-United Supply, Inc.
Pacific Lining Co., Inc.
Plastisteel
Inc. Plymouth Rubber Co.
Richardson Co., The
Staff Industries, Inc.
Staflex
Stevens Elastomeric &
Plastic Products Co.
Watersaver Co.
and Pollution Control Facilities, John
RtttRSNCeS
1} Kavs. William B.. Construction of Linings for Reservoirs, Tanks,
Wiley i Sons, New York, N.Y., (1977). ~ m.,r,n/cu IQT /«, ^ ia^\
2) Geswein, Allen J., "Liners for Land Disposal Sites - An Assessment", EPA/530/SW-137, (March 1975)
3) Haxo, Henry E.. Jr., Haxo, Robert S., White, Richard M., "Liner Materials Exposed to Hazardous and Toxic
Sludges, First Interim Report", EPA 600/2-77-081 (June 1977).
-198-
-------
Final Disposal
I8ENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Pond Lining (Membrane Linings)
Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE)
(NUMBER
4.1.1.6
CONTROLLED
OASES
PARTICULATE9
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
MOR8AN1C
NOISE
I PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE) is a polymer produced
by the chlorination of high density polyethylene. In its
final form, CPE is a very flexible thermoplastic material
and is available in unsupported or fabric-reinforced sheets
of 20 to 40 mil thickness. It is highly resistant to .
ozone, ultraviolet light, and adverse weather conditions .
Consequently, it has excellent weatherability and can be
installed without an earth cover as shown in Figure 1. This
pond can be used to store wastewater prior to treatment,
disposal, or reuse; to evaporate the volatile portion of an
effluent; and to contain any precipitated or settled solids.
Similar to other membrane liners, CPE sheeting is
usually made in a continuous process where a thin sheet is
formed by passing the compound through the rolls of a
calender. It has a unique compatability with other plastics
and has been alloyed (blended) with polyethylene, poly-
vjnyl chloride (PVC), and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(ABS). Blends of this nature result in better physical
properties (eg. crack resistance, tensile strength and
elongation). This also improves chemical resistance. CPE
can also be reinforced with a fabric (scrim) laminated
between two layers. Nylon, dacron, polypropylene, or
fiberglass can be used for this purpose. Reinforced liners
also provide better physical properties (eg. dimensional
stability, puncture resistance, and hydrostatic load capa-
cities). However, they also result in'less elongation prior
to rupture, less conformity to ground irregularities, less
flexibility, and greater cost. The tensile strength is
specified as 1800 psi minimum and the elongation can range
Burial
Trench
2:1 Slope
Maxi mumC
Liner
Completed
Trench
figure 1. MEMBRANE LINED DISPOSAL POND
from 375 to 575%B. The membrane liner is manufactured as a roll-good and sent to a fabricator where the
•aterial is joined together to form panels before installation.
; CPE is installed in a manner similar to all other membrane liners. The pond is formed and smoothed by
conventional methods, and a trench is dug around the perimeter (see Figure 1 left side). The liner is installed
and buried in the trench for stability. In general, the pond bottom should be slightly sloped (2») to allow
any entrapped air to escape after filling. It is relatively easy to seam with solvent adhesives, solvent
welding, heat and dielectric welding. CPE can also be seamed to PVC (4.1.1.4) for a combination liner.
-, In some cases, it is extremely important to detect a leak immediately after it is formed. A secondary
liner can be provided for this purpose. Leaks if they occur are collected in the secondary liner and drawn off
by a separate piping system. Other methods to detect leaks include groundwater monitoring wells, and electrical
sensing systems. In some cases this may increase the cost of the pond by as much as two fold.
CPE can be used in lined burial pits (device 4.3.2.4) but the liner should be buried with an earth cover of
1 to 2 ft to prevent liner damage. Earth covers can also be used to prevent physical damage and vandalism, or
to provide a natural bottom as in fish culture or in esthetic landscaping.
nrrLlLMIlUN KANbL
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
Chlorinated Polyethylene provides good to excellent service
In acids and bases; good service in aliphatic (petroleum)
solvents, hydrocarons, and salt solutions; and poor service in
oxygenated solvents, aromatic and halogenated solvents, fats
and greases. In some extreme cases CPE may have questionable
service in strong bases and concentrated salt solutions. CPE
has excellent weatherability, and resists microbiological attack
and burning.
The above information should be used as a guide. It was not intended for design purposes.
should be tested in actual service before a line'- material is specified.
OPERATIN9 RAN9E9
TEMPERATURE Max
METRIC (SI)
9U
KPa
J/i
EN8LISH
200
pti
ftVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
A sample
-199-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
The capital costs for CPE membrane liners are
shown below&. The costs are January, 1978 costs, and
are for material only with no cost break for large
quantities. Costs are shown as 5/sq ft.
Thickness Reinforced Cost
20 mil no 0.23
30 mil no 0.35
30 mil yes 0.52
Installation costs can vary as shown below .
Cut and Fill Reservoir Construction $.02 - $.05/gal
Liner Installation $.02 - $.06/sq ft
The above costs can vary greatly depending upon the
location, design and type of liner. Contact the manu-
facturer for detailed cost information.
OPERATING COSTS
Operating costs include maintenance of the earth
cover (if included), monitoring leak detection equip-
ment, and repairing leaks. The maintenance of the
earth cover is site specific, and is dependent upon
weather conditions and pond design. If a leak is
detected, the pond can be drained to expose the liner
for repairs. Care must be taken to insure that a
clean, dry area is provided for the splice.
OPERATING EFFICIENCES
Lined disposal ponds are an effective method for
the disposal of liquid effluents. The actual operating
efficiency for CPE is impossible to estimate. The
major source of emissions are poor splicing and cracks
from chemicals that are not compatible with CPE. The
permeability for CPE ranges from 0.040 to 0.048 perm-
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Disposal of liquid waste in a lined disposal pond
is effective in containing the major portion of the
effluent. However, fugitive emissions may be produced
from the following two areas:
1) Leaks may develop around seams or at locations
where the liner is attacked by the chemicals
contained in the liquid waste.
2) Volatile pollutants may be released from the
waste liquid as the water is evaporated.
NOTES
A) Operating temperature range is -40 to 200°F.
B) Source: "Selecting and Installing Synthetic Pond
Linings", Chemical Engr. Vol. 80, No. 3, 2/5/73.
C) A slope of 2:1 can be used with supported CPE.
Unsupported material cannot be used on slopes
greater than 3:1.
D) Capital costs are estimated from manufacturer's
data.
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Brown & Brown, Inc.
Cooley, Inc.
Crestline
Dearborn Canvas Products Co.
Dow Chemical Co.
Eastern Gunite Co.
Fabrico Manufacturing Co.
Globe Linings, Inc.
Gulf Seal Corp.
McKitrick Mudd
Pacific Lining Co., Inc.
Palco Linings, Inc.
Pantasote Co.
Plastisteel
Staff Industries, Inc.
Staflex
Stevens Elastomeric &
Plastic Products Co.
Watersaver Co.
REFERENCES ,. .
1) Kays, William B., Construction of Linings for Reservoirs, Tanks, and Pollution Control Facilities.
John Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y., (1977).
2) Geswein, Allen 0., "Liners for Land Disposal Sites - An Assessment", EPA/530/SW-137, (March 1975).
3) Haxo, Henry E., Jr., Haxo, Robert S., White, Richard M., "Liner Materials Exposed to Hazardous and Toxic
Sludges, First Interim Report", EPA 600/2-77-081 (June 1977).
-ZOQ-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Final Disposal
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Pond Lining (Membrane Linings)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Polyolefin (3110)
I NUMBER
4.1.1.10
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICULATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FU8ITIVE
OR9ANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Elasticized polyolefin (3110 ) is a thermoplastic
material, and is available in unsupported sheets of 20 to
30 rail thicknesses. It is produced by a copolymerization
of an olefin and one of the synthetic rubber monomers, with-
out vulcanization. "3110" uses a nonmigrating polymer as a
plasticizer. Consequently, it has excellent weatherability
and can be used without an earth cover. Figure 1 shows a
schematic diagram of the lined disposal pond which can be
used to store wastewater prior to treatment, disposal,
or reuse. In addition, the pond can be used to evaporate
the volatile portion of an effleunt and to contain any pre-
cipitated or settled solids.
Polyolefin is manufactured in 20 ft. wide seamless
sheets on a blown film extruding machine. The material is
rolled onto tubes and shipped directly to the jobsite, or
to a fabricator where the liner is joined together to form
larger panels before installation. The panels can be made
to fit the pond exactly because "3110" does not shrink with
time. The specifications for the finished product show a
ainimum tensile strength of 2300 psi and a minimum elongation
at break of 500%, after 14 days of heat aging at 212°FB.
Burial
Trench
2:1 Slope
Maximum
Liner
Completed
Trench
Figure 1. MEMBRANE LINED DISPOSAL POND
'', : Polyolefin is installed in a manner similar to all other
liners. The pond is formed and smoothed by conventional
methods, and a trench is dug around the perimeter (see Figure 1 left side). The liner is installed and buried
in the trench for stability. Polyolefin is heat seamed in either the factory or field with a portable hand held
electric welder. This process is not affected by weather conditions arid can be done even in the rain^. A
tw-part epoxy-type resin is used to bond the liner to foreign surfaces like concrete, steel or wood. This is
usually done in conjunction with standard mechanical anchoring. In general, the pond bottom should be slightly
sloped (2%) to allow any entrapped air to escape after filling.
In some cases, it is extremely important to detect a leak immediately after it is formed. A secondary
liner can be provided for this purpose. Leaks if they occur are collected in the secondary liner and drawn off
by a separate piping system. Other methods to detect leaks include groundwater monitoring wells, and electrical
sensing systems. In some cases this may increase the cost of the pond by as much as two fold.
Polyolefin can be used in lined burial pits (device 4.3.2.4) but the liner should be buried with an earth
cover 1 to 2 ft to prevent liner damage. Earth covers can also be used to prevent physical damage or vandalism.
In addition, they may be required to provide a natural bottom for fish culture or in esthetic landscaping.
APPLICATION RANGE
Polyolefin is not affected when used in applications in-
ng acids, bases, organic acids, alcohols, vegetable oils,
trines and other salt solutions. It has questionable service in
concentrated sulfuric acid, benzene, gasoline, acetone and some
Jetones. "3110" is not recommended for use in saturated and
junsaturated oils, aromatic solvents, perchloroethylene, mineral
oil, phenol, carbon tetrachloride and certain petroleum products.
OPERATIN9 RAN«ES
TEMPERATURE Max
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC MATE
MASS RATE
ENER9Y RATE
METRIC (SI )
7Q_°C
KPo
mVt
*«/•
EN0LISH
160aF
ftVwin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
The above information should be used as a guide. It is not intended for design purposes.
be tested in actual service before a liner material is specified.
A sample should
-201-
-------
CAPITAL CO*T*
The capital costs for polyolefin membrane liners
are shown belowD. The costs are January, 1978 costs,
and are for material only with no cost break for large
quantities. Costs are shown as $/sq ft.
Thickness
20 mil
Reinforced Cost
No
0.25
Installation costs can vary as shown below .
Cut and Fill Reservoir Construction $.02 - $.05/gal
Liner Installation $.02 - $.06/sq ft
The above costs can vary greatly dependina upon the
location, design and type of liner. Contact the
manufacturer for detailed cost information.
OPERATINS COSTS
Operating costs include maintenance of the earth
cover (if included), monitoring leak detection equip-
ment, and repairing leaks. The maintenance of the
earth cover is site specific, and is dependent upon
weather conditions and pond design. If a leak is
detected, the pond can be drained to expose the liner
for repairs. Care must be taken to insure that a
clean, dry area is provided for the splice. The repair
procedure is complicated and involves 4 steps. First
the material to be repaired is welded to a backup
piece of cardboard. Then the patch is laid down and
covered with a clear film of high-temperature-resistant
Kapton film. Heat is applied by a fTameless heat gun.
The softened film and patch are bonded to the liner by
applying pressure with a seam roller.
M Crrl
Lined disposal ponds are an effective method for
disposal of liquid effluents. The actual operating
efficiency for "3110" Is impossible to estimate. The
major source of emissions are poor splicing and cracks
from chemicals that are not compatible with the liner.
In most cases, a permeabilitv of essentially zero car.
be realized.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Disposal of liquid wastes in a lined disposal pond
is effective in containing the major portion of the
effluent. However, fugitive emissions may be produced
from the following two areas:
1) Leaks may develop around seams or at locations
where the liner is attacked by the chemicals
contained in the liquid waste.
2} Volatile pollutants may be released from the
waste liquid as the water is evaporated.
NOTES
A) "3110" is a DuPont trademark for elasticized
polyolefin sheeting.
B) Heat aging was done according to ASTM-412. Tensile
strength and elongation at break were done accord-
ing to ASTM-882-73.
C) Installation can be done at any temperature but
experience shows 60 to 85°F to be the best.
D) Capital costs are estimated from manufacturer's
data.
•AMUFACTUMM/IUPFLIEft
B. F. Goodrich Co.
Burke Rubber Co.
Crestline
Dunline, Ltd.
Eastern Gunite Co.
E.I. duPont de Nemours & Co., Inc.
Globe Linings, Inc.
Gulf Seal Corp.
McKitrick Mudd
Mlsco-Unlted Supply, Inc.
Pacific Lining Co., Inc.
Plymouth Rubber Co.
Staflex
Watersaver Co.
1) Kays, William B., Construction of Linings for Reservoirs, Tanks, and Pollution Control Facilities, John
H1ley & Sons, New York, N.Y., (1977).
2) Geswein, Allen J., "Liners for Land Disposal Sites - An Assessment", EPA/530/SW-137, (March 1975).
3) Haxo, Henry E., Jr., Haxo, Robert S., White, Richard M., "Liner Materials Exposed to Hazardous and Toxic
Sludges, First Interim Report", EPA 600/2-77-081 (June 1977).
-202-
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RAMIFICATION
Final Disposal
I6ENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Deep Well Injection (Injection Techniques)
iPECtrtc DEVICE on PROCESS
Hydraulic Fracturing
NUMBER
4.2.2.6
5UUTANT3
(OMTiOLLED
SA3ES
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FU9ITIVE
ORtANIC
MOMANIC
THERMAL
Bottom of Top Packer
Surface
.-Sand Propped
,' Fractures
101 2
Scale. Inches
Annulus Cemented
Steel Tubing (2 3/8"
7" Steel.Casing
Casing Seat
Packer
6 1/4" Hole
Packer
Process Description
Top of Bottom Packer
Figure 1
Figure 2
Hydraulic fracturing of the formation rock is used to increase the injectivity of new injection wells and
to rejuvenate old wells that have become saturated with suspended solids.
Injecting fluids into the rock produces fractures which radiate 9ut from the center of the well. When
formation breakdown occurs "frac" sand or other propping agents are injected into the fractures to maintain
permeability. Fracturing the rock in this way increases the effective permeability thus allowing lower
pressures to be used in waste injection, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 2, illustrates a typical hydraulic fracturing system. The fracturing treatment is performed
between double (straddle) packers and 2" to 3" steel tubing. The interval to be fractured was sealed off by
pressurizing the packers with water (1500 to 2000 psi). Fluid access to the formation rock between the
packers was made through injection ports in the steel tubing. Water and water base gels are used as the
Injection mediums. Pressures needed to fracture rock may run as high as 1500 to 2000 psi with pumping rates
ranging from 2 bbls/min to 8 bbls/min.
Application Range
Hydraulic fracturing is used where the effective permea-
bility of the rock is insufficient to permit flow of the waste
materials into the formation at the desired pressure and rate.
OPERATING RAN0ES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (81)
°C
KPa
ENOLISH
pti
ftVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-203-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Hydraulic Fracturing is done on a
sub-contract basis and therefore
capital costs need not be taken
into account.
OPERATING COSTS
As with capital costs, the operating costs
would be included in the sub-contract bid.
There are no additional operating costs foreseen
for a well that has to be treated as opposed to
a non-treated well.
Due to the fact that this is a well prepara-
tion process and not an actual method of
disposal, efficiencies can not be logically
formulated.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The major environmental problem of concern
would be pollution of ground water sources
in the area around the injection well.
Complete hydrology studies of the disposal
area will have to be done to assure the
safety of the ground water system.
NOTES
A. See local oil and gas well servicing
agents.
INUFACTURCR /BUPPLIER/COrnKACTORS
Partial List*
Dowel1
Halliburton Services
BJ Hughes
1.) Donaldson, Erie C., "Subsurface Disposal of Industrial Wastes in the United States," Bureau of Mines
Information Circular 8212, (1964).
2.) Carpenter, H.C., Sterner, T.E., "Hydraulic Fracturing of Wyoming Green River Oil Shale: Field Experi-
ments, Phase I," Bureau of Mines Report of Investigations 7596, (1972).
-204-
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CLASSIFICATION
Final Disoosal
GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Burial and Landfi"!1 - Transoortation
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Trucks and Scrapers
INUMKN
4.3.1.3
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LEACHAJki
LAND
Refuse-Ash
Process Description
The disposal of solid wastes by truck or scraper can be very economical and offer a versatile system of
refuse disposal. Waste material may be hauled directly from a truck hopper or it may be received from a
conveyor system.
Scrapers are useful when grades are rough and steep and the haulage runs are short. When large amounts
of waste are to be hauled long distances and the road conditions are good, the haulage truck proves to be
the better answer. The disposal system will become more reliable and its capacity will increase when more
than one haulage unit is used.
Due to the versatility of haulage trucks and scrapers, a greater flexibility in the construction and
location of the solid waste disposal areas can be allowed. Trucks and scrapers can gain access to difficult
terrain, and help in spreading and compacting the refuse while unloading.
In almost every case a bulldozer will be required to doze and maintain the refuse storage areas. A bull-
dozer may also be required to help load scrapers of the "standard" or "push-pull" type. Elevating scrapers are
capable of loading themselves without assistance from other equipment.
Haul road maintenance is of vital importance to the success of the dlsoosal system. Poor roads will
decrease vehicle speed, increase fuel and maintenance costs, and cause driver fatigue. Well trained drivers
and a good maintenance program will enhance the reliability of the solid waste haulage system.
Application Range
Solid waste disposal by truck or scraper can be used
effectively in almost any climate and terrain. The capacity of
the system can be varied by merely adding or subtracting haulage
units. Location of the disposal site is deoendent upon the
accessability and the distance from the source of the waste
material to the disposal site.
OPERATIN8 RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI )
°C
KPa
ENQLISH
pii
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-205-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Rear Dump Haulage Trucks:
Capacity:
Scrapers
Capacity:
$150,000 to $400,000
35 Ton to 85 Ton
$150,000 to $350,000
11 yd3 to 30 yd3
*The costs and capacities listed are those for
equipment felt suitable for this task.A
October 1977
OPERATINA COSTS
Operating cost of refuse haulage with trucks or scrapers
$1.40
i.ooH
.60
.20J
01
CL.
123 456
Length of Haul (Miles) One Way
c
o
t-
0)
$1.00
.60.]
.20
12 345 67
Length of Hual (1,000 Ft.; 0-e Way
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
Due to the fact that this is an Intermediate
process In the disposal of solid wastes no
disposal efficiencies can be logically
f omul a ted.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The only environmental problems of any concern
associated with the transportation of solid wastes
are in the following areas:
t Fugitive emissions
• Spillage of wastes along haulage
route.
NOTES
A) All capital and operating costs are for hauling
expenses only. Haul road construction and main-
tenance as well as bulldozer costs are not included.
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Trucks & Tractor-Trailers
Athey Products Corp.
Atlas Hoist & Body Inc.
Cateplllar Tractor Co.
Challenge-Cook Bros., Inc.
Cushoan-OMC-Llncoln
Dart Truck Co.
Elnco Mining Machinery
Euclid, Inc.
Fairbanks Co.
Ford Motor Co.
Fruehauf Oiv.
Geo Space Corp.
Goodbary Equip. Co.
International Harvester
Iowa Mold Tooling Co.
ISCO mfg. Co.
Kenworth Truck Co
Kockums Ind. AB
Kress Corp.
Mack Trucks, Inc.
Midway Equip., Inc.
Oshkosh Truck Corp.
Rimpull Corp.
R1sh Equip. Co., Intl
Terex Div., GHC
WABSO Construction &
Minino Eouin. Grouo
Wagner Mining Equip.
White Motor Corp.
Scrapers
Caterpiller
Clark Equip. Co.
Deere & Co.
Fiat-Allis
Ford Tractor Opt.
Hanson. R.A.
Intl. Harvester
Midway Equipment
Rish Equipment
Terex Division
WABCO Const. &
Mining
REFERENCES
1.) Mitchell, David R., and Leonard, Joseph W., ed. Coal Preparation, AIME, New York, Second Edition,
(1950); Third Edition, (1968).
2.) Wagner Equipment Co., 6000 Dahlia Street, Denver, Colorado.
3.) "Production and Cost Estimating of Material Movement Hlth Earthmovlng Equipment", Terex Division, General
Motors Corporation, Hudson, Ohio^_
4.) "Coal Age", Volume 81-Number 9-September 1976. McGraw Hill. New York.
-206-
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CLASSIrlCAi ION
Final Disposal
GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Burial and Landfill
SPECIFIC DEVICE On 3ROCES9
Deep Slurry Impoundment
NUMBER
4.3.2.1
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUQITIVF
Pond
S°Vds Water
Rock Drain
Decanting Line
and water
Topographic View
Figure 1.
Drains
Decanting Line
Figure 2.
Process Description
As shown in Figure 1, deep slurry impoundments are small in area and are located behind dams constructed
across deep ravines in mountainous or hilly terrain.
The location, design, and erection of impoundment dams will require careful baseline investigations before
any construction can begin. Ground water studies should be conducted so as to determine if any possible pol-
lution or alterations to the local hydrological system will occur. Inspection of the local topography, soils,
rock strata, and the available dam building materials must be made to ,assure proper design and construction of
the impoundment dam. The area's climate and rainfall records must be checked to find the frequency of "cloud
burst" that could possibly weaken, overflow or even cause the dam to fail. Spillways, drains or diversion
ditches should be used if possible to alleviate floodwater problems. The dam should be located at the head of
the ravine or valley so as to reduce the amount of natural drainage into the impoundment area. Dams may fail
because of erosion at the top of the dam; lack of drainage under the dam or by using unstable building mate-
rials. Natural disasters such as earthquakes, major floods and etc. may of course cause dam failure and these
factors should be taken into account before final design and erection.
The cross section shown in Figure 2 shows the basic components of a dam used for slurry impoundment. When
the slurry enters the impoundment the solid fines settle out allowing the clear water to be decanted off. Note
the drains, the decanting line and the weir which not only allow proper drainage under the dam but also enable
the slurry water, once free of the suspended solids, to be released.
The safety of the people and the property in the drainage area below the dam must be of prime consideration
before any planning or action takes place.
Application Range
Deep slurry impoundments can be used in areas only after
careful study has found them to be safe, stable, and relatively
free of hazards which could cause dam failure. The fine refuse
that is dumped into the impoundment should not be hazardous to
the local groundwater system or to the surface environment.
OPERATING RANOES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENEROY RATE
METRIC (SI }
KPo
ENGLISH
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-207-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Capital costs cannot be accurately displayed
due to the many varying economic and labor factors
involved in the construction of an impoundment sys-
tem. It must be stressed that careful study and the
use of the best building materials available be con-
sidered to assure proper construction of the dam.
Capital costs should include, in addition to the
construction costs, probable land costs, water
rights, rights of way, land clearing, structure
relocation costs (if any), engineering, and adminis-
tration costs.
OPERATING COSTS
Because of widely varying economic and labor
conditions in different localities it is not possible
to furnish operating costs (1f any). The operating
costs of concern would include dam maintenance,
dredging, decanting system maintenance, and final
waste containment.
OPERATIM EFFICIENCIES
| If constructed properly the deep slurry im-
poundment system should eliminate virturally all
of the fine particulates in the slurry. The system
will do little to eliminate harsh chemicals dis-
solved in the effluent.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The environmental problem of concern would
involve fugitive emissions of dissolved harsh
chemicals in the slurry water contaminating the
ground water or the drainage systems below the
impoundment site. Once the slurry pond has filled
with the settled fines a proper method of disposing
of the solid refuse must be found and implemented.
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
REFERENCES
1.) Mitchell, David R., and Leonard, Joseph W., ed., Coal Preparation. AIME, New York, Second Edition,
(1950): Third Edition, (1968).
2.) U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Design of Small Dams. A Water Resource Publication, Second Edition, (1973),
Revised Reprint, (1974).
-208-
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CLASSIFICATION |GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Final Disposal Burial and landfill
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Layered Flat Lane disposal
POLLUTANTS]
CONTROLLED
y
OR9ANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
A!R
SA3ES PART1CULATE3
j ^ |
1 NUMBER
4.3,2.2
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
T
1
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
| |"l
1 j XJ Refuse, Ash
(Courtesy of Office of Solid Waste Management Programs,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency)
'ROCESS DESCRIPTION
Layered flat land disposal involves the dumping of refuse on undisturbed existing ground surface. The
only site preparation work would involve stripping the topsoil to be used later for final cover of the waste
material.
The refuse, once dumped, is spread and compacted by scrapers and dozers. The waste will be spread in
uniform layers until the entire disposal site has been filled. When the final layer has been deposited, the
topsoil that was stripped off earlier will be replaced over the fill. This method works best when the terrain
is slightly irregular allowing for better containment of the waste material. The working face must be large
enough to allow for efficient dumping of the refuse haulers without causing any delays. It must also be noted
that an operating area that is oversized is difficult to maintain and could result in problems with dust con-
trol and the leaching of the waste. The size of the area will depend on the plant production of waste materials
haul truck size and maneuverability, climate, and other factors.
TEMPERATURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
APPLICATION RANGE
Layered flat land disposal is used where trenchs, ditches, PRESSURE
ravines, and small valleys cannot be found for use as disposal
areas. Due to the large area that is covered by this method it
may not be practical to line the surface prior to any disposal
operations. For this reason, the wastes that are dumped must
not be hazardous to the surrounding land or have any harmful
compounds that might be leached into the soil or groundwater systems.
OPERATIN6 RAN«E3
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (81 )
°C
KPa
m'/t
EN4LISH
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-209-
-------
CAPITAL COST*
Capital costs cannot be accurately displayed due
to the many varying economic and labor factors in the
construction of permanent waste storage systems.
Capital costs should include, in addition to the con-
struction costs, probable land costs, water rights,
rights of way, land clearing, engineering, and adminis-
tration costs.
OPERATING COSTS
Because of widely varying economic and labor
conditions in different localities, it is not possible
to furnish operating costs (if any). The operating
costs of concern would include site maintenance, waste
spreading and compacting and final waste sealing and
covering.
OKRATHM CFPICtENCKS
; Layered area disposal systems should provide a
safe and hazard-free method of permanently storing
waste materials. The material is a solid when disposed
of, the problem Is in rain leaching the waste that has
been oxidized. The system will do little to eliminate
the harsh chemicals that have been leached by the rain
from the oxidized waste.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The environmental problems of concern would in-
volve leaching harsh chemicals in the wastes contamina-
ting the groundwater or drainage systems below the site
Also fugitive dust while the waste is being spread.
Once the area has been filled a method for properly
sealing and covering the wastes should be implemented.
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
1} Uptak, B. 6., ed., Environmental Engineers Handbook - Volume 3 - Land Pollution. Chilton Book Co., Rodnor,
Pa., (1974)..
-210-
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CLASSIFICATION
Final Disposal
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Burial and Landfill
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Layered Ravine Disposal
NUMBER
4.3.2.3
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
8A3ES
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
i.EACHABLE FUGITIVE
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
Refuse, Ash
THERMAL
NOISE
Levee
Drainage
Drainage
Connection
Figure 1
efuse
Levees
Clay Facing
Refuse Layers
(2 feet thick)
Figure 2
Process Description
The layered ravine disposal method shown in Figure 1 is used when the refuse is of a spontaneously com-
bustable nature. In many areas there exists insufficient amounts of clay-like material to completely cover and
seal the refuse material. By spreading and compacting the refuse in thin layers (two feet) in ravines the waste
material can be allowed to weather and oxidize until it becomes incombustable. After a weathering period of
about a year, another layer can be spread and compacted over the previous layer. While the waste layering is ir
progress, a small clay levee is placed at the down drainage edge of the pile as shown in Figure 2. The clay
levee prevents any waste water and refuse material from entering the drainage system. As the refuse layers
accumulate new clay levees are built on top of the previous levees. To help the levees stay in place, grass
and shrubbery can be planted to prevent erosion from wind and rain. Scrapers and dozers can be used both to
spread and compact the refuse. They can also be used to build and sustain the levees. Once the ravines have
been filled with refuse, they must be covered with a sealing material and seeded.
If the refuse is of a highly combustable nature it may be advisable to add a high-ash refuse filter cake
(at least 50 percent if available) to prevent the possibility of spontaneous combustion in the refuse layers.
As with any final disposal system involving dams or levees careful studies must be made to insure against levee
failure and the pollution of the drainage system by fugitive emissions from the oxidizing wastes.
Application Range
Layered ravine disposal systems are used when the refuse is
of combustable nature. They can be used wherever insufficient
amounts of proper sealing material exists to cover large waste
disposal areas. The refuse that is dumped should not be hazard-
ous to the local groundwater system or to the surface environ-
ment.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENER9Y RATE
METRIC (SI)
ENGLISH
°C
°F
KPa
Pil
MVmin
Hg/t
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-211-
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CAPITAL COSTS
Capital costs cannot be accurately displayed
due to the many varying economic and labor factors
in the construction of permanent waste storage sys-
tems. Capital costs should include, in addition to
the construction costs, probable land costs, water
rights, rights of way, land clearing, engineering,
and administration costs.
OPERATING COSTS
Because of widely varying economic and labor
conditions in different localities, it is not
possible to furnish operating costs (if any). The
operating costs of concern would include levee main-
tenance, waste spreading and compacting and final
waste sealing and covering.
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
Layered ravine disposal systems should provide
a safe and hazard-free method of permanently storing
spontaneously combustable waste materials. The
material is a solid when desposed of, the problem
is in rain leaching the waste that has been oxidized
The.system will do little to eliminate the harsh
chemicals that have been leached by the rain from
the oxidized waste.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The environmental problems of concern would
involve leaching harsh chemicals in the wastes con-
taminating the groundwater or drainage systems below
the ravine. Also fugitive dust while the waste is
oxidizing. Once the ravine has been filled and
allowed to weather for the proper time, a method for
properly sealing and covering the wastes should be
implemented.
NOTES
Refer to sections 4.3.2.1 and 4.3.2.6 for
information concerning dams and levees.
MANUFACTURER /SUPPLIER
REFERENCES
1.) Mitchell, David R., and Leonard, Joseph W., et., Coal Preparation. AIME, New York, Second Edition,
(1950): Third Edition (1968).
-212-
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CLASSIFICATION
Final Disposal
1 GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Burial and Landfill
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Lined Burial Pits
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
X
ORB AN 1C
INOROAN1C
THERMAL
NOISE
AiR
8ASES PARTICIPATES
1 NUMBER
4.3.2.4
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
REACHABLE FU6ITIVE
x Refuse, Ash
Leachate
Perforated Pipe
Leachate
f *
•--. £--
\ ^ lut)e ^-Vent
^>Direction of flow
Figure 1
Collection
Layer
Pipe
Laterals
Impermeable
Liner
Process Description
.,«_ Monitoring Well
Figure 2
Uhen constructing a lined burial pit it is important that no groundwater contamination occurs. To prevent
aquifer pollution, the bottom of the burial pit should be below the permanent groundwater table and be equipped
with collection sumps so that the leachate fluids may be pumped out. By establishing the basin bottom below
the water table the water flow gradient will be towards the collection sumps and not outward into the adjacent
aquifers.
The pit liner must be impervious to prevent seepage of contaminants into the local groundwater system.
Liners can be made of compacted soil clays, possolana, other forms of soil cement, and polymer membranes. Soil,
clay, and cement liners provide an inexpensive and effective method of sealing the pit especially if the solid
wastes contain water or exist in an arid climate. Soil base liners can crack and breakdown which could cause
a serious leak into the surrounding area, if the wastes contained a large percentage of water.
Polymer membrane liners are expensive but provide a thin, flexible, and imprevious lining. The polymer
liners must be covered with a fine textured material (1 to 2 ftmin.) to prevent puncturing the lining during
waste disposal. The type of lining used will depend on the waste material, climate, and groundwater con-
ditions of the site. Refer to Section 4.1 (Pond Lining) for information concerning types and applications
for the various membrane liners.
Perforated pipe laterals should be placed in the burial pit as shown in Figure 1. These laterals will pro-
vide leachate drainage to an access tube in the pit center where the fluid can then be pumped out. A monitoring
well shown in Figure 2 should be installed below the pit to check for possible waste contamination of the
surrounding area.
Vent pipes should be installed so as to allow waste gases to be vented into the atmosphere and not into
the surrounding formations. The vents should not extend into the pipe lateral levels due to possible oxidation
of the leachate which could cause precipitation of various compounds thus reducing the permeability of the
leachate drain systems.
The design and construction must be done carefully to assure safe and efficient operation of the landfill
system. The number and size of the burial pits will depend on the production of the plant and the method of
disposal used.
Application Range
Lined burial pits are used when the waste material has a
potential hazard of contaminating the local groundwater system.
The lining will prevent any leachate solutions from entering the
surrounding area. The lining material and the waste must be com-
patable so as to prevent the lining from breaking down. Refer
to section 4.1 (Pond Lining) for application ranges for the
specific liner to be used.
OPERATIN4 RAN8E3
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENER9Y RATE
METRIC (81 )
°C
KPd
EN8LISH
°F
Pll
ftVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-213-
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CAPITAL COSTS
4
Capital costs for the various burial pit liner
materials are shown below. The costs are October, 1973
costs, and do not include contraction of subgrade nor
the cost of the earth cover. These can range from
$0.10 to $0.50/yd2 per ft of depth. The cost for hot
sprayed asphalt, however, does include the cost for the
earth cover. Costs are shown as $/sq yd Installed.
Material
Polyethylene (10 - 20 nils)
Polyrlnyl chlorite (10 - 30 "11s)
Butyl rubber (31.3 - 62.5 «11s)
Hypalon (20 - 45 Blls)
Ethylene propylcw dime mow
(31.3 - 62.5 Bllt)
Chlorinated polyethylene (20-30 nils)
Paving asphalt with seller co»t (2 Inches)
Paving asphalt with sealer coat (4 Inches)
Hot sprayed esphalt (1 gallon/yd2)
Asphalt sprayed on polypropylene fabric (100 arils)
So1l-benton1te (9.1 Ibs/ydq
So1l-benton1te (18.1 Ibs/ydZ)
Soil-cement with seller coat (6 Inches)
Cost
0.90 - 1.44
1.17 - 2.16
3.25 - 4.00
2.88 - 3.06
2.43 - 3.42
2.43 - 3.24
1.20 - 1.70
2.3S - 3.25
1.50 - 2.00
1.26 - 1.87
0.72
1.17
1.25
OPERATING COSTS
The operating costs of concern would include pond,
sump pump, vent, and monitor well maintenance costs;
final waste containment costs; and recovered leachate
disposal costs. In addition, leak detection equipment
must be maintained and any major leak repaired. There
are three methods for detecting leaks, groundwater
monitoring wells, piping systems below the liner, and
electrical sensing systems. The later is most effec-
tive for lined burial pits. Leaks, if they develop
require major excavation to reach the liner, and may
result in further damage to the liner.
OPEMATMM CPFICieNCIC*
Lined burial pits provide an effective method to
permanently dispose of solid wastes that contain leach-
able materials that may harm the environment. The
system will do little to dispose of the harsh chemicals
in the leachate. Methods of leachate disposal must
therefore be implemented, or the burial pit must be
covered with an impermeable membrane and sealed off fron
rain and groundwater contact. The permeability of the
various liner materials are reported in Section 4.1.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The environmental problem of concern would in-
volve fugitive emissions of the leachate through lining
cracks into the surrounding groundwater system. The
use of the proper lining as well as an efficient pit
maintenance program can prevent this problem from
occurring.
NOTES
A) Capital Costs were reproduced from reference 2.
MANUFACTIMCft / SUPPLIER
See section 4.1 (Pond Lining) for manufacturers and suppliers.
REPCRKNCfS
1) Paroni, Joseph L., and Heer, John E., and Hagerty, Joseph D., Handbook of Solid Waste Disposal, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, (1975), New York.
2) Geswein, Allen J., "Liners for Land Disposal Sites - An Assessment", EPA/530/SW-137, (March 1975).
-214-
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CLASSIFICATION
Final Disposal
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Burial and Landfill
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Shallow Slurry Impoundment
NUMBER
4.3.2.6
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASE3
AIR
PARTICULATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
J.EACHABLE FU8ITWE
OMANIC
INOR8ANIC
Refuse Ash
THERMAL
NOISE
Pond
Levee
Water
Solid Waste
Decanting Line
and Weir
1700 ,/
Topoqraphic
Figure 1.
Decanting Line
Figure 2.
Process Description
Shallow slurry impoundments involve large areas and shallow depths. The ponds are enclosed by low levees
or ground irregularities. They are used where the terrain is level or gently rolling.
The shallow impoundments usually are at depths reaching a maximum of 60 feet. The area covered by these
systems may exceed 200 acres. Soil and groundwater conditions must be studied to determine if any environ-
mental problems exist. Pollution of groundwater and drainage--systems, and the factors contributing to these
problems must be taken into account when designing and constructing the impoundment.
Once planning begins, an inspection of the local topography, soils, rock strata, and the availability of
proper levee building materials must be initiated. The climate and rainfall records of the area must be
checked to find the frequency of cloudbursts or other weather irregularities that could possibly weaken, over-
flow or even cause the levee to fail. Spillways, drains or diversion ditches should be used to control flood-
water problems if they are encountered. The levee should be located at the head of the valley so as to reduce
the amount of natural drainage into the impoundment area. Levees may fail because of erosion at the top of
the levee, lack of drainage under the levee or by using unstable building materials. Natural disasters such
as earthquakes, major floods and etc. may of course cause levee failure and these factors should be taken into
account before final design and erection.
The cross section shown in Figure 2 shows the basic components of a levee used for slurry impoundment.
When the slurry enters the impoundment the solid fines settle out allowing the clear water to decant off. Note
the decanting line and the weir which not only allow proper drainage under the levee but also enable the slurry
water, once-free of the suspended solids, to be released.
The safety of the people and the property in the drainage area below the levee must be of prime considera-
tion before any planning or action takes place.
Application Range
Shallow slurry impoundment can be used in areas only after
careful study has found them to be safe, stable, and relatively
free of hazards which could cause levee failure. The fine
refuse that is dumped into the impoundment should not be
hazardous to the local groundwater system or to the surface
environment.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENER3Y RATE
METRIC (SI)
KPo
Hg/«
ENOLISH
°F
ptl
ftVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/Nr
-215-
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CAPITAL COSTS
Capital costs cannot be accurately displayed due
to the many varying economic and labor factors
involved in the construction of an impoundment
system. It must be stressed that careful study
and the use of the best building materials avail-
able be considered to assure proper construction of
the levee. Capital costs should include, in addi-
tion" to the construction costs, probable land costs,
water rights, rights of way, land clearing,
structure relocation costs (if any), engineering,
and administration costs.
OPERATING COSTS
Because of widely varying economic and labor
conditions in different localities it is not
possible to furnish operating costs (if any). The
operating costs of concern would include levee
maintenance, dredging, decanting system maintenance,
and final waste containment.
OPERATINS EFFICIENCY*
If constructed properly the Shallow slurry im-
poundment system should eliminate virtually all
of the fine partlculates in the slurry. The system
will do little to eliminate harsh chemicals dis-
solved in the effluent.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The environmental problem of conern would
involve fugitive emissions of dissolved harsh
chemicals in the slurry water contaminating the
ground water or the drainage systems below the
impoundment site. Once the slurry pond has filled
with the settled fines a proper method of disposing
of the solid refuse must be found and implemented.
NOTES
MANUFACTURER /SUPPLIER
REFERENCES
1.) Mitchell, David R., and Leonard, Joseph W., ed., Coal Preparation. AIME, New York, Second Edition,
(1950): Third Edition (1968).
2.) U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Design of Small Dams, A-Hater Resource Publication, Second Edition, (1973),
Revised Reprint, (1974).
-216-
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CLASSIFICATION
Final Disposal
! GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Burial and Landfill
•••••••••••••••••«•••••••
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Strip Mine Disposal During Reclamation
NUMBER
4.3.2.7
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
GASES
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
OMANIC
IMOR4ANIC
Refuse, Ash
THERMAL
NOISE
Spoil Peak
Process Description
The disposal of solid wastes in strip mine spoils during reclamation is generally suited to most areas of
the country where strip mining is carried out. Refuse is dumped into the valley formed between the spoil peaks
by dump trucks, by conveyors, or by other forms of waste transportation as described in section 4.3.1. The
adjacent spoil peaks are then dozed over the refuse and compacted. This method enables the solid wastes to
be totally surrounded by cover material. The refuse also may be dumped along the toe of the spoils in the active
pit.
At the end of the project mine life the haulage inclines and the final strip cut may be used for solid
waste disposal. Strip mines have a distinct advantage over other surface disposal methods. The refuse is
covered with material from adjacent spoil areas thus eliminating the need to compact and terrace the waste
materials. This method not only reclaims the land (spoils, inclines, strip cuts, etc.) to state and federal
standards but it also provides an excellent site for refuse disposal.
Strip mine disposal can also be modified to other landfill methods.
slurry impoundment, refuse stabilization, lined burial pits, etc.
The spoil valleys can be used for
Due to the fact that the mined land must be graded and reclaimed to lenal standards, the incorporation
of a waste disposal system into the spoil reclamation plan can be done easily and at very low cost.
Application Range
Strip mine disposal of refuse materials can be applied
where ever strip mining is being practiced. Both solid and slurrj
wastes can be disposed of effectively.
OPCRATIM RAN9E3
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENER8Y RATE
METRIC (SI )
°C
KPa
J/i
EN8LI3H
P*i
ft'/min
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-217-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
There will be little additional capital needed to
incorporate a solid waste disposal system into a spoil
reclamation plan. The capital required to transport
the refuse to the disposal site will be covered in
the Transportation section 4.3.1.
OPERATIN9 COSTS
Because of mandatory reclamation laws, all spoil
valleys, inclines, and final strip cuts must be re-
claimed. Adding a solid waste disposal system to
the reclamation plan would add very little additional
costs to the dozing and grading. The only appreciable
costs incurred would be in the transportation of the
waste material to the disposal site. These costs are
covered in the transportation section 4.3.1
OPERATIN8 EFFICIENCIES
Land pollution and fugitive emissions are two
problems of concern in dealing with the disposal of
solid wastes. The strip mine landfill method is
effective in reducing these problems. The efficiency
of this reduction is not definable.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
This method reduces land pollution, but there
may be problems in the following areas.
1) groundwater pollution from the leaching of
refuse materials.
2) possible air pollution problems associated
with spontaneous combustion of buried refuse
piles.
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
REFERENCES
1) Staff, "Methods and Costs of Coal Refuse Disposal and Reclamation", U.S. Bureau of Mines Information Circular
8576, (1973).
2) Cheremisinoff, Paul N., and Yound, Richard A., ed. Pollution Engineering Practice Handbook, Ann Arbor Science
Publishers, Michigan, (1976).
3) Leonard, Joseph W., and Mitchell, David R., ed. Coal Preparation. AIME, New York, Second Edition, (1950);
Third Edition. M968) -
-218-
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Final Disposal
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Burial and Landfill
Surface/Subsurface Distribution
I NUMBER
4.3.2.8
CONTROLLED
9A8E3
PARTiCULATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
INOR6ANIC
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Surface distribution of waste material into existing
topsoil is an efficient and very economic method of dis-
posing of wastes providing the refuse material has no
harmful components which could be hazardous to the en-
vironment. The most common method involves digging small
parallel trenches (2 feet deep) across the disposal area.
Haul trucks and small front end loaders are used to haul
and place the wastes into the trenches. A trencher is
used to dig the trench rows. Once the waste has been
placed in the trenches, the rows will be covered with
ridges of topsoil on either side. By burying the wastes
in this matter the refuse stabilization rates are increas-
ed while keeping dust control problems at a minimum.
Cultivation of the area should begin after the refuse area
has been allowed to dry out.--Wet refuse that has been
Injector Shank
& Hose
Soil
6-8 inches,.
Initial
Injection
Cavity
\
Ultimate Dispersion
Area After Injection
Figure 1. SUBSURFACE INJECTION PROCESS4
• •— — — •— •«•" «•• i «* *>*.« w-w >*•• ,7 %* w w • n& \. IQIUJC 1>IIU t. I Id 3 UCCfl
added to the soil creates moist and soft conditions which make the area difficult to cultivate
area can be cross-ripped, disked, leveled and seeded. ^uvace.
Once drv the
, e. unce ary, tne
.» ,K i"je[;tion 1* another ^f6 of surfa« distribution of wastes. Liquid wastes with up to 8% solids
are carried by a tank, mounted on an all-terrian vehicle, equipped with injectors which by using low pressures
£nhi US9C '"W at a dfth <* 6 to 8 inches, mixes with soil, and is covered all in onTprocess
l,,™ thP? • ! 7 °P6d ! lyStem °f continuous subsurface injection. The system utilizes a source of
sludge, that is, sludge pumped from a treatment plant digester, holding tank, lagoon or mobile nurse tank via
surface or underground P1pelines to a flexible hose, hence the injector unit into the soil The system is a
complete closed loop with no exposure of sludge. Figure 1 illustrates. This method, as well as the trench
£ S§rf«lrfS "y ?JTnate;: surface runoff and an* °d°r Problems. Subsurface injection involves liquefying
the sludge (8fe solids) so that it can be injected. The trench method handles the solid wastes directly
tn h,™n,^. "mPOunds, pathogens and heavy metal concentrations that could be harmful
to human, animal, and plant life. In addition, many of the -substances could be leached into the groundwater
, I T* that ^e wastes that are to be disposed of should be carefully studied to assure that no
aiTnt* °(-theS! s"bstan«s occur- Dr- Sh1PP. an agronomist at Pennsylvania State University, has
Lnnl I r f}^1^ to keep7^e soil below the danger level as far as the heavy metals are concerned. Zinc
S£L«? rf PP!J; C°?Per: 75° PPm; iead> 5°° Ppm; Chrom1um' 50° PP"1- nickel- 150 ppm; and cadmium, 50 ppm.
athogemc dangers do not extend more than 150 cm into the soil, nor last more than 2.5 months. Nitrogen
leaching into the groundwater can also be a problem. With controlled techniques involving timing and balancing
of climate and crop uptake with the disposal rates, most of these problems can be controlled
TEMPERATURE
°C
°F
PRESSURE
KPa
VOLUMETRIC RATE
ft'/min
MASS RATE
Ib/hr
APPLICATION RANGE
Surface distribution of wastes introduces the refuse
directly into the environment. Subsurface application
eliminates or minimizes the items associated with surface
distribution such as surface runoff, insect and rodent
attraction, odors and visual pollution. As in any land
application process, protection of the environment is
essential and, therefore, adequate site design and operation must be provided for the protection of groundwater
and soil if crops are included in immediate or future use of land.
OPERATING RAN9ES
ENER3Y RATE
METRIC (SI)
ENGLISH
BTU/hr
-219-
-------
Capital costs cannot be accurately displayed due
to the many varying economic and labor factors in the
construction of permanent waste storage systems. '
Capital costs should include, in addition to the con-
struction costs, probable land costs, water rights,
right of way, land clearing, engineering, and adminis-
tration costs. If a sub-surface injection system is
used; a mobile injection unit plus all of its support
equipment will have to be purchased.
It should be noted that land cost should only
include interest or holding cost. The actual cost
of the land should not be included in the capital
cost of the system because a properly operated land
application site is an appreciating asset.
OPERATING COSTS
Because of widely varying economic and labor
conditions in different localities, it is impractical
to furnish operating costs. The operating cost of
concern would include site maintenance, transporta-
tion, injection and cropping.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Surface disposal systems should provide a safe
and hazard-free method of permanently storing waste
materials. The waste materials of concern must be of
a non-hazardous nature. The annual acreage require-
ments for soil enrichment are displayed by Figure 2,
When the site is used for purely disposal purposes,
significantly higher tonnages of wastes may be used.
The potential environmental impact of applying
liquid waste to the land must be assessed to insure
non-degradation of the environment (air, water or
land)
Annual Acreage Requirements4
10
01
480
400
320
240
160
80
15 (Dry Tons/Acre)
20
25
30
NOTES
bU.UUU IUU.UUU 150,000
Daily Sludge Output
(gal. of 35 consistency)
FIGURE 2
; MANUFACTURER/SUPPLIER
Ag-Chem Equipment Co., Inc.
Big Wheels, Inc.
Briscoe Maphis Environmental
Industrial & Municipal Engineering
Rickel Manufacturing Corporation
1) Walker, J. M., et al, "Trench Incorporation of Sewage in Marginal Agricultural Land", EPA-600/2-75-034. (1975)
2) "Subsurface Application Solves Community's Sludge Disposal Problem", Public Works Magazine, December (1976).
3) Trout, T. J., Smith, J. L., and McWhorter, D. B., "Environmental Effects of Land Application of Anaerobically
Digested Municipal Sewage Sludge", Transactions of the ASAE Vol. 19, No. 2 (1976).
4) "Sludge Management by Subsurface Injection", Bulletin, Briscoe Maphis, Inc., (1977).
-220-
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Final Disposal
Trench Method
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
X
0 ROAN 1C
INOR3ANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
OASES
18ENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Burial and Landfill
1 NUMBER
4.3.2.9
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHA8LE FUGITIVE
x Ash Refuse
\\
Cover Soil
Operating Trench
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
inished Trench
(Courtesy of Office of Solid Waste Management Programs,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency)
The trench method is most suitable for sites where the water table is not near the surface, the land !s
gently sloping, and where there exists a deep layer of cover soil. The area should be acceptable for in-
expensive excavation due to the tremendous amount of predevelopment work (trench digging) prior to any waste
disposal.
This method of final disposal utilizes dozers and front end loaders to excavate long narrow trenches for
disposal purposes. The cover soil removed from these excavations is either windrowed along the trench or it is
stockpiled. The waste is then spread and compacted along the entire length of the trench. Once filled the
trench is covered with a final layer of the stockpiled soil.
There are three basic trenching systems in practice today. One method is the "single progressive trench".
This technique involves excavating a trench only far enough to create enough space to accomodate the daily
refuse. As both cover material and additional dumping space are needed, the trench is continued. This pro-
gressive system is continued across the refuse area.
The second method, "the single trench", requires the entire trench be excavated with the cover material
windrowed along the trench sides. The refuse is dumped and then covered with the windrowed material.
The third practice, "the dual trench", involves excavating two parallel trenches. The second trench is
begun at least two feet away from the first. As this additional trench is excavated it provides cover material
for the first. Once the first trench is full the second is nearing completion. A third parallel trench is
then dug by the second and the process begins again. This excavate and cover cycle is continued across the
entire disposal property.
The length and depth of the trench will vary from location to location, however the width is generally
limited to about 1-1/2 times the width of the blade of the excavating equipment. The size of the disposal site
will depend on the volume of waste to be handled, the method of trench disposal used, and the size of the
equipment used to work the trenches.
APPLICATION RANGE
The trench method is most useful where the land is fairly
level, a deep layer of topsoil exists, and where the water table
possibility of water perculating throuoh the wastes it must be
determined if the waste material to be disposed of contains any
hazardous compounds which could harm the surrounding soil or the
OPERATINQ RAN9E3
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
groundwater system below.
METRIC (91)
°C
KPa
m»/t
«g/t
J/t
ENGLISH
»F
pti
ttVmin
Ib/hr
6TU/hr
-221-
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CAPITAL COSTS
Capital costs cannot be accurately displayed due
to the many varying economic and labor factors in the
construction of permanent waste storage systems.
Capital costs should Include, in addition to the con-
struction costs, probable land costs, water rights,
rights of way, land clearing, engineering, and adminis-
tration costs.
OPERATIN8 COSTS
Because of widely varying economic and labor con-
ditions in different localities, it is not possible to
furnish operating costs (if any). The operating costs
of concern would include site maintenance, waste
spreading and compacting and final waste sealing and
covering.
OKftATMM
Trench type disposal systems should provide a safe
and hazard-free method of permanently storing waste
materials. The material 1s a solid when disposed of,
the problem is in rain leaching the waste that has been
oxidized. The system will do little to eliminate the
harsh chemicals that have been leached by the rain from
the oxidized waste.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The environmental problems of concern would in-
clude leached chemicals from the wastes contaminating
the soil, groundwater, and drainage areas below the
site; fugitive dust and wind-blown refuse may also
cause problems if the disposal area is not properly
maintained. Once the area has been filled a method
for reclaiming the property should be implemented.
NOTES
MAKUFACTMICIt/SUPrUCR
/ B\G" 6d" Environmenta1 Engineers Handbook - Volume 3 Land Pollution. Chi 1 ton Book Co., Radnor,
r • y \ I"/H/ •
2) International Harvester, "Fill Methods For Sanitary Landfill", Waste Age, October, 1977.
-222-
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CLASSIFICATION
Final Disposal
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Burial and Landfill
Ramp Method
I NUMBER
4.3.2.10
rwLLUTAIf I 9
CONTROLLED
OASES
PARTICULATE3
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE
OnvAnlv
INOR9ANIC
flch Do-fucn
NOISE
Working Ramp
Cover Soil
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The "ramp method" or "progressive slope method" is considered to be one of the most efficient and economic
methods of refuse disposal available because little advanced preparation or excavation work is required prior
to the waste disposal operations. Cover material is handled only once which eliminates any soil rehandle
costs.
• The initial operation originates on an existing natural slope or depression. Before daily refuse deposi-
tion begins a small amount of topsoil is excavated in front of the working ramp and is stockpiled nearby. The
waste material is then deposited at the base of the ramp, spread and compacted up against the slope by dozers
or front end loaders, and then is covered by the previously stockpiled soil. For the most efficient operation
of the land fill equipment, ramp slopes of no more than 30° should be used. At the end of the day the area
should be clean, odorless, and free from disease carrying rodents.
The working ramp should be large enough to accomodate the daily tonnage of wastes to be handled and
both the landfill equipment and waste hauling equipment. However, if the working area becomes excessive,
problems with dust, odors, wind-blown refuse, and disease carrying rodents may occur.
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
APPLICATION RANGE
The ramp method can be used on existing ground surfaces
by utilizing a natural slope or a side of a depression. Due
to the possibility of water peculating through the wastes it
must be determined if the waste material to be disposed of
contains any hazardous compounds which could harm the surround-
ing soil 'or the groundwater system below. If possible a site
with a water table level far below the surface level should be selected.
OPERATIN8 RANGES
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENER9Y RATE
METRIC (SI )
°C
KPo
J/t
EN9LISH
PI!
ftVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-223-
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CAPITAL COSTS
Capital costs cannot be accurately displayed due
to the many varying economic and labor factors in the
construction of permanent waste storage systems.
Capital costs should include, in addition to the con-
struction costs, probable land costs, water rights,
rights of way, land clearing, engineering, and adminis-
tration costs.
OPERATING COSTS
Because of widely varying economic and labor con-
ditions in different localities, it is not possible to
furnish operating costs (if any). The operating costs
of concern would include site maintenance, waste
spreading and compacting and final waste sealing and
covering.
OPERATING EFFICIEMCW
Ramp disposal systems should provide a safe
and hazard-free method of permanently storing waste
materials. The material is a solid when disposed of,
the problem is in rain leaching the waste that has
been oxidized. The system will do little to
eliminate the harsh chemicals that have been leached
by the rain from the oxidized waste.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The environmental problems of concern would in-
clude leached chemicals from the wastes contaminating
the soil, grou'ndwater, and drainage areas below the
site; fugitive dust and wind-blown refuse may also
cause problems if the disposal area is not properly
maintained. Once the area has been filled a method
for reclaiming the property should be implemented.
MOTES
MANUFACTURER /SUPPLIER
REFERENCES
) Paroni, Joseph L., and Keer, John E., and Hagerty, Joseph D., Handbook of Solid Waste Disposal, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, (1975), New York. "
B2) International Harvester. "Fill Methods For Sanitary Landfill", Waste Age, October, 1977.
-224-
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CLASSIFICATION
Final Disposal
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Sealed Contained Storage (Permanent Storage)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Underground Mines
NUMBER
4.4.3.1
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE
FU9ITIVE
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
Process Description
Underground mine openings are receiving more and more favorable attention for the permanent storage of
ore processing tailings, hazardous wastes and even nuclear and chemical warfare wastes. Due to the stringent
environmental regulations, safe and permanent methods of waste disposal have to be found. If used properly,
underground mine openings can provide a reliable and permanent form of containment for waste materials.
To assure that the underground storage area is environmentally safe, certain criteria must be met. The
area in and around the underground openings must be geologically stable, and the site must be hydraulically
isolated to prevent surface and groundwater pollution. If the wastes are to be placed directly into the mine
openings without any form of containment then the wastes must be chemically compatable with the surrounding
host rock. If waste encapsulation is used then chemical compatability is not of great concern.
Various type of host rock that can be used for waste storage include: salt, potash, gypsum, limestone,
shale, and in some cases granite. Salt is present throughout the United States and many mine openings exist
for use in waste disposal. The potash deposits exist in the southwestern parts of the United States.
However, the present mining techniques used for mining potash deposits make disposal in these areas difficult.
Gypsum provides a good host rock but the mines are isolated and provide difficult access. If the conditions
are dry, limestone will provide an excellent site. However, if the area is wet, limestone is a poor choice
due to its solubility. Shales are wide spread and are very Impervious to fluids, thus, providing a good site
for waste disposal. Granite provides a strong and impervious environment for storage of refuse, however,
granite can be fractured and faulted and therefore it should be examined closely before being used.
If the waste material of concern is mill or plant tailings, often time the wastes can be placed hydraul-
ically as backfill in the mine openings. Hydraulic backfilling is the most common form of underground waste
disposal. By filling the cavities with the tailings a natural roof support system is created thus reducing
surface subsidence. Hazardous wastes may be encapsulized to help assure against waste migration into the
surrounding rock. If needed, the underground opening can be reinforced and the host rock surface sealed
to help provide a stable and impervious environment.
As the depth of the disposal area increases the accessibility decreases and the transportation costs
increase. Therefore, most sites should be at a depth of less than 3,000 feet. The rock should have near
horizontal bedding, and be easily accessible for transporting the wastes.
VOLUMETRIC RATE
Application Range
Permanent storage of wastes underground can be used only I TEMPERATURE
where the underground openings meet the criteria mentioned in | PRESSURE
the "Process Description". Waste migration into the surround-
ing rock is of great concern, therefore this would be the MAS3 RATC
major item to determine the site location and application.
If the wastes that are to be stored are flammable, explo-
sive or emit gases, they should be given special consideration
so as to assure that no damage to the surrounding environment will
occur. Special encapsulization techniques may have to be used.
OPERATING RANGES
ENERGY RATC
METRIC (3t)
KPa
mV«
J/i
ENGLISH
ft'/min
Ib/hr
BTU/Kr
-225-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATING COSTS
OKMATHM
If done in a proper and responsible manner,
the permanent storage of most waste materials in
underground openings is safe and provides an effec-
tive solution to the waste disposal problems.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
If the wastes are stored improperly or are
placed in an unstable environment, pollution of
the ground water and host rock may occur.
NOTES
MANUFACTURfll/SUPPLIE*
REFCNENCtr
1.} Stone, Ronald'B.
2.) Williams, Roy E., Waste Production and Disposal injjining, Milling and Metallurgical Industry. Miller
Freeman Publications, Inc., 1975.
et al, "Evaluation of Hazardous Wastes Emplacement In Mined Openings," PB-250 701, 1975.
-226-
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CLASSIFICATION
Combustion Modifications
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Alternate Fuels (Synthetic Fuels)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Low BTU Gas from Coal
I NUMBER
6.3.3.1
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
AIR
GASES
PARTICULATE3
WATER
JJISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHA8LE FUGITIVE
OR9ANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
Figure 1. LOW-BTU GASIFICATION WITH GAS COOLING AND
CLEANING.
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The gasification of coal to produce a clean
low-BTU fuel gas may be considered as a pollution-
reducing alternative to the direct combustion of
coal. Fixed-bed (gravitating-bed) coal gas pro-
ducers of about 10-ft diameter with a maximum
cold gas production capacity of around 80 million
BTU/hr are available from a number of manufacturers.
A typical flow schematic, representing both one-
stage and two-stage producers is shown in Figure
1. Low-BTU gas is produced by the partial com-
bustion of coal with air and with the injection of
steam. A typical gas composition and heating
value are given in Table 1.
Coal is fed either continuously or periodi-
cally by gravity into the top of the producer.
Air is blown in from the bottom, counter-current
to the coal flow. Steam is introduced either in
the air blast or through separate connections at
the bottom. Ash falls through a grate and then,
typically, through a water seal before discharge.
A two-stage producer has two different gas draw-
off points, with the top-gas circuit producing
a relatively clean low-temperature gas stream
which contains most of the coal volatiles.
The usual hot-gas cleanup sequence involves
particulate removal in a hot cyclone, followed by
a water quench, further cooling, and an electro-
static precipitator to remove tar oils. At this
point the gas is free of particulates, tars and
oils, and is suitable for direct use in many
applications. If sulfur removal is required,
a booster fan will provide the pressure necessary
to feed the desulfurization system.
Gas production rate and heating value are controlled by changing the coal and air feed rates. Responses
to air rate are almost instantaneous, whereas responses to coal rate are very gradual. Most fixed bed pro-
ducers can be operated at turndown ratios of four or five to one without a serious loss of efficiency, but at
higher turndowns (lower output) the efficiency and the heating value of the product gas drops off drastically.
TABLE 1. GAS PROPERTIES
nitrogen, v%
Carbon Monoxide, v%
Hydrogen, v*
Carbon Dioxide, v%
Methane, v%
Hydrogen Sulfide, v%
Oxygen, v%
Non-Methane HC, v%
Molecular Weight,
HHV, BTU/SCF
48.7
27.7
15.8
4.1
2.7
0.6
0.2
0.2
24.2
175
APPLICATION RANGE
Limited to coals with free swelling index of less than 2.5.
Only limited amounts of coal fines can be tolerated.
OPERATIN8 RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (31)
KPa
mV»
J/i
EN0LISH
atm
Ib/hr
-227-
-------
CAPITAL COST*
Approximate capital costs (1977) for a single coal
gasifier installation (exclusive of desulfurization,
if required) are:
Equipment
Gasifier
Coal & Ash Handling
Mater & Tar Handling
Gas Cleaning & Cooling
Building & Controls
TOTAL INSTALLED COST
OPERATINO COSTS
Operating manpower required can be highly variable
depending on whether part-time help from adjoining
operations is or is not available. Coal cost can be
calculated from conversion efficiency. Other costs
excluding depreciation and interest, could be as
follows:
Insurance & Taxes
Maintenance
Labor
Utilities
TOTAL YEARLY COST
$125,000
OKRATINS EFFICIENCIES
The thermal efficiency for producing cold, clean
(not desulfurized) low-BTU gas from coal will be
approximately 75% for operation at 50-1OOX of gasifier
design capacity. At lower rates the thermal
efficiency can drop off sharply, because radiant heat
losses remain constant;
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The major pollution problems with low-BTU gasifiers
are involved with treatment of the quench water, and
recovery and disposal of the coal tars, tar acids and
tar oils
NOTES
MANUFACTURER /SUPPLIER
Applied Technology Corp.
Foster-Wheeler Energy Corp.
McDowell Well man Engineering Corp.
Riley Stoker Corp.
Hilputte Corp.
Woodall-Duckham (USA), Ltd.
Pullman Swindell Division, Pullman, Inc.
REFERENCES
-228-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Fuel Cleaning
GENERIC DEVICS OR PROCESS
Physical Separation (Dense Media _Ser>srat-inn)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Belknap Calcium Chloride Washer
NUMBER
7.1.1.3
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
GASES
PARTICULARS
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHA8LE FUGITIVE
iORGAN 1C
y I INORGANIC
I
(THERMAL
I NOISE
B
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the Belknap calcium
chloride washer. Presized and prewetted raw coal enters at
the surface of the washer solution and is separated accord-
ing to the various specific gravities.C Refuse settles to
the bottom and is removed by a screw conveyor running paral-
lel to the refuse conveyor.& Solution within the washer is
circulated by two opposing impellers.
The Belknap washer uses calcium chloride solutions ranging
in specific gravity from 1.14 to 1.25. These solutions are
circulated through the washer in an upward direction'to pro-
duce an effective specific gravity of 1.40 to 1.60. Both
flow and density are carefully controlled to provide the
desired separation.
A second method which could be used to control the specific
gravity within the washer is to wash the coal product with a
calcium chloride solution to remove any suspended solids
(slimes). This dense solution is then recycled to the washer
to maintain the right specific gravity. In this case, the
calcium chloride is used more as a stabilizing agent than
the dense media itself. If the suspended solids from the washed coal product can be recycled back to the
washer, the amount of calcium chloride required for density control can be reduced. In this way, the solids
which naturally occur in the coal can be used to maintain the heavy density medium. Considerations of this
type could improve the economics of this systems over other dense medium systems which utilize material from "
an outside source for density control, e. g. Magnetite Processes.
The washed coal product leaving the system has a considerable amount of entrained calcium chloride solution.
This entrainment can reduce potential problems in coal dusting and freezing. The loss of calcium chloride,
however, may limit the economic application of the process to coarser sizes of coal.
S«Ction AA
Figure 1 .
THE BELKNAP CALCIUM CHLORIDE
WASHER (1)
TEMPERATURE
JO.
68
PRESSURE
1(11.3
KPa
VOLUMETRIC RATE
APPLICATION RANGE
The effective specific gravity within the washer can be
adjusted from 1.40 to 1.60 by varying the solution density or
recirculation rate. Consequently, the range of physical separa-
tion is limited to a specific gravity within this range.
Feed sizes can range from 8-in. (20.3 cm) to 3/8 in. (.95 cm), _^^ :
however, the feed to a single unit should not fluctuate very much. The size range that can be washed in a
standard washer can be varied up to a 4:1 ratio, but should be limited to 3:1 or 2:1 if possible.
OPERATING RANGES
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI)
kg/s
J/s
ENGLISH
7. "»'
— ft3/mm
IB/hr
3TU/hr
-229-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
The recovery efficiency for coal coarser than 1/4-
inch is 95 to 99% of the laboratory float sink tests.
Trace elements association and removal characteristics
for the physical separation of coal in general are
shown in Table 1. The level of fluorine, which is pre-
sent as part of the mineral apatite, would also be re-
duced. The chlorine and bromine contaminants (as well
as the sodium and potassium associated with them) which
are commonly present as the mineral halite would be
removed along with other matter removed during coal
benefication, (3).
Table 1. TRACE ELEMENT ASSOCIATION AND
' REMOVAL CHARACTERISTICS - .
Association Trace Elements Expected Removal
Organic Ge, Be, B and U None
More organic P, Ga, Ti, V, and Sb Small Amount
More mineral Co, Ni, Cr, Se and Cu Partial
Mineral Hg, Zn, Cr, Cd, As, Signficant
Pb, Mo, and Mn
PERATINS COST
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Coal preparation reduces stack gas emissions but may
also create pollution problems in the following areas.
1} land pollution created by refuse disposal.
water pollution from the leaching of oxidized
refuse material.
2)
3}
air pollution from the spontaneous combustion of
refuse piles.
") For other dense media separators, see all devices
B) Based on information from the Process Machinery
Division of the Arthur G. McKee & Co., (reference 1)
C) This device can also be used in a secondary circuit
to separate sink product from a primary separator
into middlings and refuse.
D) Units can be designed with the separating compart-
ment divided into two parallel sections, tach sec-
tion would be equipped with individual medium cir-
culation systems thus making it possible to wash a
much wider range in one machine.
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
ASV Engineering Ltd.
6EOMIN
Minerals Processing Co., Div. of Trojan Steel Co.
Process Machinery Division, Arthur G. McKee & Company
, David R., and Leonard, Joseph W., ed. Coal Preparation. AIME, New York, Second Edition, (1950);
of Coal Utilization. John Wiley and Sons, New York, First Edition, (1945);
2)
3} *£& Ed15!rSinghS.,andHissong, D. W., "Fuel Contaminants: Volume I. Chemistry • EPA 600/2-76-177a,
(1976).
-230-
-------
CLA33IFICAT 1 ON
Fuel Cleaning
18ENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Physica} Separation (Jigs)
McNally Fine Coal Washer
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
V
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
8ASES PARTICIPATES
X
SO?
X
NUMBER
7.1.3.8
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The McNally Fine Coal Washer, shown in Figure 1, is a
feldspar jig made up of three compartments each having one
cell. The feldspar bed is supported on a screen with per-
forations smaller than the feldspar but larger than top size
of the feed. The raw coal enters the first compartment and
is separated from the refuse by the jigging action of the
water transmitted through the feldspar bed. The refuse
passes through the bed, and settles to the bottom of the
hutch. The refuse from each hutch compartment can be re-
moved from the jig by elevators, pumps or air lifts.
Each cell is completely independent of the others and
is equipped with a sliding piston-type air valve. The
exhaust-intake ratio can be varied to provide superior
control of the jig. The impulse used in this jig is more
Intense than the one for the cleaning of coarse coal. The
suction stroke is also very strong compared to coarse coal
jigs. The automatic float, located in a separate compart-
ment outside the jig bed itself, is designed to react to
the liquid level. As refuse accumulates on the bed, the
.resistance to flow also increases and forces more water
into the float compartment. An impedance-sensing device
actuates the modulating air control valve to increase the
intensity of the pulsion stroke. This intermittently distends the bed and allows the refuse to pass through.
In this way the strength of each jig stroke is adjusted to give the desired separation, and to stablize the
operation.
Figure 1. THE McNALLY FINE COAL WASHER
APPLICATION RANGE
The McNally Fine Coal Washer is designed to handle minus
1/2-inch coal. The standard unit has a capacity of 100 tons
per hour. For the application ranges and limitations of jigs
in general, see Device 7.1.3.7.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI )
°C
KPo
mVt
!<«/•
J/t
ENGLISH I
°F \
P»i
ftVmin >
Ib/hr
8TU/hr
-231-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATING COSTS
OPERATIN9 EFFICIENCIES
This jig has been tested using 1/4 in x 48 mesh
coal containing 29 percent ash. The overall effi-
ciency was shown to be 97 percent and produced a clean
coal with 11 percent ash. The reject had an ash con-
tent of 69 percent. The clean coal yield was 69
percent.
For the removal efficiencies of trace elements
by washing processes in general, see the Belknap
calcium chloride washer, Device 7.1.1.3.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
NOTES
A) For additional jig's, see all other devices listed
in this section (7.3.1).
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
McNally-Pittsburg Manufacturing Corp.
REFERENCES
1) Kitchell, David R., and Leonard, Joseph W., ed, Coal Preparation, AIME, New York, Third Edition (1968).
-232-
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CLASSIFICATION
Fuel Cleaning
[GENERIC DEVICE. OR PROCESS
I Physical Separation (Jigs)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
HcNallv-Pittsburg Norton Standard Washer
A
NUMBER
7.1.3.10
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
AIR
OASES
PARTiCULATES
DISSOLVED
WATER
SUSPENDED
LEACHA8LE
LAND
FU3ITIVE
ORGANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL,
1 NOISE
SUCTION.
Figure 1. THE McNALLY-PITTSBURG NORTON WASHER (1]
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Figure 2. SLIDE VALVE
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of the McNally-Pittsburg Norton Washer. This washer is a Baum type jig
and has a similar operation to the Link-Belt Air Pulsated Wash Box (Device 7.1.3.7). Presized and prewetted
raw coal enters the refuse compartment from the right. The heavy refuse is separated from the coal by the
jigging action of the washer. Refuse settles and the partially cleaned coal flows over a weir into a second
wider compartment where the middlings are separated in a similar manner.
Refuse and middlings settle onto sloped screens and are withdrawn automatically as the levels increase. A
number of finger-like gates across the width of the screen hold the bed in place and are raised to remove the
material as required. After the refuse and middlings are released, they settle to the bottom of the hutch and
are removed by separate conveyor systems. In this model the refuse flows counter the flow of the coal,
similar to the Link-Belt model. This facilitates the removal of the heaviest refuse first and does not require
the movement of this refuse along the full lendth of the screen. McNally, however, does supply a model where
the refuse and coal flow in parallel. The operation of this device is discussed under Device 7.1.3.9.
Air pressure for the pulsion stroke is supplied by an integral blower pressurizing a receiver built into the
body of the jig itself. The slide valve located partially within the receiver operates on the same principle
as the piston valve in the Link-Belt washer. Air enteres through a throttle valve which controls the flow into
the jig cell, and is exhausted out the top section on the suction stroke. Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram
of the slide valve. The McNally-Pittsburg Norton washer has an adjustable partition dividing the hutch. This
partition can be raised or lowered during operation to give an uniform distribution to the water rising from
the hutch.
APPLICATION RANGE, LIMITATIONS
The application ranges given for jigs in general under the
Link-Belt air pulsated wash box, Device 7.1.3.7, also apply in
this case.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI)
_2£L
101.3
KPo
125
ENGLISH
14 7
ft3/"
pai
ItS/hr
BTU/hr
-233-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATING COST
The service requirements for the McNally Norton
jig. based on TOO ton/hr of 3" top size feed, are
listed below. (3)
Power Requirement - 0.35 hp/ton of coal
Water Requirement - 4.2 tons of water/ton of coal
(1700 gpm)
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
For removal efficiencies of trace elements by
washing processes in general, see the Belknap calcium
chloride washer, Device 7.1.1.3.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Coal preparation reduces stack gas emissions but may
also create pollution problems in the following areas.
1) land pollution created by refuse disposal.
2) water pollution from the leaching of oxidized
refuse material.
3) air pollution from the spontaneous combustion
of refuse piles.
NOTES
A) For additional jigs, see all devices listed in this
section 7.1.3.
IIANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
McNally-Pittsburg Manufacturing Corp.
REFERENCES
1) Lotz, C. W., "Notes on the Cleaning of Bituminous Coal", West Virginia University, (1960), 561 pp.
2) Mitchell, David R., and Leonard, Joseph W., ed, Coal Preparation, AIME, New York, Third Edition, (1968).
3) Yancy, H. F., and Geer, M. R., "Performance of a Baum-Type Coal-Washing Jig," U.S. Bureau of Mines Report
of Investigations 3371, (1938).
-234-
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Fuel Cleaning
Adip Process
rvLlvUTA N T 3
CONTROLLED
X
X
OnQANIC
mOROANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
X
3ASE3
C02> COS
H2S
(GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Fuel Gas Treatment (Absorption)
PARTICULATES
1 NUMBER
7.5.1.3
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND t
LEACHABLE r'JS'TlvF
ACID GAS
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The Adip process is shown schematically in
Figure 1. The sour feed gas enters the bottom
of the absorber where it flows cpuntercurrent to
an aqueous solution of DIPA (di-isopropanolamine)
which chemically removes H2S, COS and C02 present
in the gas. The purified gas exits the top of
the absorber.
ABSORBER
V
V /
\ /
\/
\/
>
i*
/\
/ \
STRIPPI
"^k-
REFLUX
VESSEL
INTERCHANGE!)
The rich solution flows from the bottom of
the absorber and is intercharged with the hot lean
solution before entering the top of the stripper.
In the stripper the rich solution flows counter-
current to rising steam generated in the reboiler.
As a result of the heating, the absorption re-
actions are reversed and the regenerated acid
gases flow overhead with the steam. The over-
head steam from the stripper flows through a con-
denser and reflux vessel where the steam is con-
densed and separated from the acid gases. The resulting acid gas stream is usually sent to
unit.
REFLUX
PUMP
REBOILER
SOLVENT
PUMP
Figure 1. Adip Process Flow Diagram
a sulfur recovery
The hot lean solution is pumped from the bottom of the absorber and cooled by interchange with the cool
rich solution. It then flows through a water-cooled exchanger and returns to the top of the absorber.
The absorption reactions of H2S and C02 with DIPA are as follows:
R2NH + H2S -*• R2NH2 . HS
R2NH + C02 + H20 —»• R£NH2 . HCOa
In the above reactions DIPA is represented by R2NH. DIPA reacts with COS to form thiocarbonates.
APPLICATION RANGE
The absorber operates in the 100 to 140CF temperature range
and at pressures from 0 to 1000 psig. The regenerator usually
operates at temperatures in the range of 250-275°F and at pre-
stire near atmospheric.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MAS3 RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI)
38-60 »c
0-6,900 KPa
mV«
kg/»
J/»
ENGLISH
100-140 °F
0-1000 p*i
ftVmin
Ib/hr
8TU/hr
-235-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATING COSTS
Typical utility requirements per MMSCF when treat-
ing gas containing 10» H2S and 2.S% C02 at 250 psig,
with 2ppm HjS and 0.21 C02 in the purified gas are as
follows:*
Steam, Ib 22,100
Electric Power, KWH 85
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
The HgS content in natural gas can be lowered to
Sppm, In fuel gas to lOOppm and in LPG to lOppm.
Selective removal of H2S, C02» COS can be achieved by
proper selection of operating pressure, DIPA con-
centration, flow rates etc., to suit the feed gas.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The acid gas stream requires further processing
in a sulfur recovery unit such as a Claus unit to re-
move H2S and COS.
NOTES
A. From reference 1.
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Shell Development Company
1. Dravo Corp., "Handbook of Gasifiers and Gas Treatment Systems," ERDA Report FE-1772-11 (February 1976).
2. Riesenfeld, Fred, and Kohl, A., Gas Purification, Gulf Publishing Co. (2nd Edition 1974),
-236-
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CLASSIFICATION
Fuel Cleaning
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Alkacid (Alkazid) Process
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
^ ORGANIC
x INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
1 GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Fuel Gas Treatment (Absorption)
AIR
QASES PARTICIPATES
x CO?
x H2S
(NUMBER
7.5.1.4
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FU9ITIVE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The Alkacid process is shown in Figure 1.
The sour feed gas enters the bottom of the absorb-
er and flows countercurrent to the Alkacid solu-
tion which absorbs H2S and C02 from the feed gas.
The purfied gas exits the top of the absorber.
The rich solution is pumped from the bottom of
the absorber to the top of the stripper where
the absorption reactions are reversed. The
regenerated acid gases exit the top of the
stripper where the contained steam is condensed
and separated from the acid gases before they
are sent to a sulfur recovery unit. The hot
lean solvent from the bottom of the stripper
1s cooled by both interchange with the cool
rich solvent and water before being returned
to the top of the absorber. Two types of a
absorbents are used in the process: Alkacid
"M" which is an aqueous solution of a potassium
salt of methy-amino-propionic acid and; Alkacid
"OIK" which is a potassium salt of dimethyl-
auino-acetic acid. The DIK solution is a more selective absorbent of H?S in the presence of CO?, CSo and/or
HOI.
Figure 1. FLOW DIAGRAM FOR ALKACID PROCESS
APPLICATION RANGE
The absorber normally operates at temperatures near ambient
and pressure from 0-1000 psig. The stripper is usually operated
at about 5 psig.
OPERATING RAN8ES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI)
23 °C
0-6,900KPa
mV«
kg/*
J/«
EN8LISH
75 °F
0-1000 pit
ft'/min
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-237-
-------
CAPITAL COST*
OPERATING COSTS
Typical operating requirements for a feed gas
containing 0.7% H2$ and 302 O>2 are:*
Steam, Ib/MMSCF 15,500
Cooling Water, gal/MMSCF 93,500
Electricity KWH/MMSCF 230
Operating pressure was 1100 psig and operating
temperature was 77°F. The purified gas contained 5
ppm H2$.
Solution losses are limited to mechanical leakage
and degradation due to the presence of HCN or 02 in the
feed gas.
A purfied gas containing less than 5 ppm HgS can bt
produced. Solution loss is minimal; however, some de-
gradation of the solution will occur if HCN or 02 is
present in the feed gas.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The regenerated acid gas stream requires further
treatment in a sulfur recovery unit. Degraded solution
will also have to be disposed; however, this loss is
minimal.
NOTES
A. From reference 3.
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Davy Powergas, Inc.
1. Hydrogen Processing, "Gas Processing Handbook Issue" April 1975.
2. Riesenfeld. Fred and Kohl, Arthur, Gas Purification, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (2nd Edition 1974).
3, Dravo Corp., "Handbook of Gasifiers and Gas Treatment Systems," ERDA Report FE-1772-11 (February 1976).
-238-
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CLASSIFICATION
Fuel Cleaning
SENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Fuel Gas Treatment (Absorption)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Benfield Process
I NUMBER
7.5.1.21
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
PARTICULARS
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLF.
OR9ANIC
co?, ens
INORGANIC
x H?S
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
•AOOUCT GAS
The Benfield hot potassium carbonate process was
developed by Benson, Field and coworkers at the
U.S. Bureau of Mines. The process has been widely
used for scrubbing carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide,
and other pollutants from industrial gases at
moderate to high pressure. The basic flow sheet is
shown in Figure 1. Gas to be purified is introduced
into an absorber below a packed section - stream 1.
The gas flows upward through the packed bed and is
contacted with an activatedA Benfield solution (hot
potassium carbonate). Purified gas leaves at the
top of the absorber - stream 2. The rich solution
from the bottom of the absorber is regenerated
while passing downward through the second tower
(stripper). Process steam and/or reboiler vapors
are used as the stripping media. Both the absorber
and regenerator (stripper) operate at a temperature
of about 230°F. The cooled acid gases are removed
at the top of the separator - stream 3.
There is provision for blowdown between the
regenerator and the bottom of the reboiler - stream
4.
Figure 1. TYPICAL FLOW DIAGRAM - BENFIELD ACID GAS
REMOVAL PROCESS
The chemical reactions for hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide removal can be represented as:
K2C03 + H2S ^ KHC03 + KHS
K2C03 + C02 + H20 ^r: 2KHC03
Equilibrium pressures (H2S and C0£) over the solution increase with temperature and concentration of KHS and
KHC03. Since KHCOs is formed during absorption of H2$ and C02, the acid gas equilibrium pressures and the KHC03
concentration are interdependent and must be carefully evaluated in designing the process. When the carbon
dioxide to hydrogen sulfide ratio of the feed gas is greater jthan 8, a reasonable estimate of capital cost and
utility requirements can be made by assuming total acid gas to be only C02-
D
Typical trace components removed from coal derived gases are carbonyl sulfide, carbon disulfide, thiophene ,
mercaptans, ammonia, and hydrocyanic acid. Generally no reaction is expected with hydrocarbons. For additional
information on trace components see note C.
There are two variations of the basic process described below: (1) In a single stage, split stream arrange-
ment, most of the regenerated solution enters at an intermediate point in the absorber. The remainder of the
solution is cooled and fed to the top of the absorber. This yields a higher degree of purification because
of the lower equilibrium pressure of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide over the cooled solution, (2) In the
Benfield HiPure process, there are two independent countercurrent circuits using multiple effects of stripping
steam. There is bulk removal of C02 and H2S in the first stage of the absorber. The second stage provides
final purification to reduce the sulfur concentration of the product gas to a ppm level.
APPLICATION RANGE
By appropriate selection cf design criteria, carbonyl sulfide,
•ydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide can be removed to ppm levels
From H2S concentrations as high as 10" and C02 concentration as
high as 25 - 45%. The practical limit of operating temperature
is visualized as 280°F for economical operations. The operating
Jressures range from 100 to 2000 psia. A normal set of operating'
)arameters is 250CF (121°C) and 615 psia (4200 KPa). The con-
:entrations of potassium carbonate used in the process are dis-
cussed in detail in Reference 1. See "Operating Costs" for
volumetric, mass, and energy rates.
OPERATING ftANQES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MAS3 RATE
ENERQY RATE
METRIC (31 )
138 °c
590-13,300*Pa
ENGLISH
°F
100/2000 p«i
ft Vmin
Ib/hr
3TU/hr
-239-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
CO3 MITIIAI
Figure 2. TYPICAL COSTS OF BENFlELD HOT
POTASSIUM CARBONATE OR Hi PURE
PROCESSES
These costs should be considered as rough approxima-
tions for battery limits installations. Costs do not
include some utility items (for example, steam and
electric generating equipment). See Reference 4.
OPERATING COSTS
Typical utility requirements for the activated Benfield
process per MMSCF of feed gas at 250°F and 615 psig
containing about 1.5% H2S and 5.4% C02, with 2 ppm
HgS and 0.01* C02 in the purified gas, are as follows:
Steam P 50 psig, saturated, Ib/MMSCF 15,700
Cooling Water, Gal/HMSCF 30,000t
Electric Power, KWH/MMSCF 138
Benfield Solution N.A.
Typical utility requirements for the activated Benfield
process per MMSCF of feed gas at 250°F and 615 psig
containing about 452 CO?, with O.U C02, in the puri-
fied gas are as follows?:
Steam @ 50 psig, saturated, Ib/MMSCF 38,200
Cooling Water, Gal/MMSCF 30,000*
Electric Power, KWH/MMSCF 735
Benfield Solution N.A.
*Based on acid gas leaving the condenser at 200°F.
See Reference 2 for additional information.
{.OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
The process efficiencies for typical H2S bearing gas
and C02 bearing gas can be found in the section
"Operating Costs" along with utility requirements.
ENVIRONMENTAL. PROBLEMS
Acid gases leaving the stripper require further
processing in a sulfur recovery unit such as a Claus,
Stretford, or others.
NOTES
A) Research by the Benfield Corporation has improved
the hot carbonate process as developed by the
Bureau of Mines. The addition of small quantities
of other components (activators) has minimized
corrosion, increased the reaction rate, and altered
equilibria relationship.
B) The process is not guaranteed for removal of thio-
phene. Its absorption has not been proven with
duplicate results in any commercial unit (1975).
C) Trace components are covered in a paper by R. W.
Parrish and H.B. Nelson, 167th. National Meeting of
the American Chemical Society, Los Angeles, CA.
MANUFACTURE*/SUPPLIER
Benfield Corporation
! REFERENCES
j»l) Riesenfeld, Fred and Kohl, Arthur, Gas Purification, Gulf Pub. Co., Houston 2nd Ed., 1974.
jg) Dravo Corp., "Handbook of Gasifiers and Gas Treatment Systems", ERDA, FE-1772-11, February 1976.
R3) Hydrocarbon Processing, "Gas Processing Handbook Issue" April 1975.
;14) McCrea, D. H., and Field, J. H., "Applicability and Econ. of Benfield Process" Paper 29b, AIChE 78 Nat'l Meet
f!5) Parrish, R. W., and Field, J. H., "The Ben. Proc. in Coal Gasi', 24th Gas Cond. Conf., U. of Ok., March 1974.
-240-
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CLASSIFICATION
Fuel Cleaning
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Fuel Gas Treatment (Absorption)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
MDEA Process
NUMBER
7.5.1.27
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
GASES
AIR
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
X | ORGANIC
X . CO?. CS?. COS!
INORGANIC
H2S
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The MDEA process is a chemical absorption process
which uses an aqueous solution of methyl diethanolamine
(MDEA) as the absorption medium. Typical concentration
of MDEA in the aqueous solution is 30-50 wt %. The
primary reactions for removal of H2S and C02 are as
follows:
HS
3M
1
C00
HCO,
In the above reactions MDEA is represented by R-NCH,.
The acid gases are absorbed by the above reactions
in the absorber, and when heat is applied in the
stripper, the reactions are reversed liberating the
acid gases.
The MDEA process is shown schematically in Figure
1. The sour feed gas enters the bottom of the absorber
and passes countercurrent to the aqueous solution of
MDEA which enters the top. The MDEA solution chemically
absorbs H2S, C02 and other acid gases. The rich MDEA
solution from the bottom of the absorber is then heated
by interchange with hot lean solution and flows to the
stripper for regeneration.
9SOMBER
x
1
f
— 7-\ ^
SUJOM
Figure 1. FLOW DIAGRAM FOR MDEA PROCESS
In the stripper the absorption reactions are reversed with heat supplied by stripping steam generated in
the reboiler. The steam and released acid gases pass overhead where the steam is condensed, separated from the
acid gases and refluxed to the stripper, while the acid gas steam goes to a sulfur recovery unit.
The hot lean solution is pumped from the bottom of the s'tripper and cooled by interchange with the cool
rich solution and with cooling water before being returned to the top of the absorber.
A portion of the hot lean MDEA solution is withdrawn from the bottom of the stripper and sent to a re-
distillation unit. The spent amines, degraded by reactions with HCN or organic acid are recovered by distilla-
tion at higher temperatures and returned together with makeup solution to the stripper. Unrecovered amines
form a sludge which is pumped to a settling tank and then to disposal.
APPLICATION RANGE
PRESSURE
0-0,900 KPa
VOLUMETRIC RATE
Absorber temperatures usually are in the range of 80° to
125°F, the stripper from 240° to 250CF, and the redistillation
unit from 250° to 300°F. In order to maintain the reactions
and operatina temperature limits the feed gas should be in
the range of'60° to 120°F.
Pressure in the absorber can vary from 0 to 1000 psig. The
stripper and redistillation unit usually operate at lower pressures in the range of 7-10 psig.
OPERATING RAN9ES
TEMPERATURE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI )
27-52
mVt
EN9LI3H
80-125
0-1000
psi
ftVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-241-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATIN6 COSTS
Typical utility requirements per MHSCF of feed
gas at 105°F and 60 psig containing 0.6% H2S and
102 C02 as listed below for the two different purified
gas specifications^.
Product Gas
Concentrations
50 ppm H2$
3.3°* C02
Steam Ib/MMSCF 10,700
Cooling water N.A.
Electric Power KWH/MMSCF 15
Solvent Loss, Ib/MMSCF 0.5
965 ppm Hg
7.3% C02
5,000
N.A.
8
0.5
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
The process is somewhat selective in its removal
of HgS in the presence of COg. The H^S content in the
purified gas can be reduced to less than 4 ppm even at
very low pressures with CO? being removed to a lesser
extent depending on operating conditions.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The acid gases require further treatment in a
sulfur recovery unit such as a Claus or Stretford. The
amine sludges generated in the process also require
disposal.
NOTES
A. From reference 3.
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Dow Chemical Company
IEFERENCES
1. Hydrogen Processing, "Gas Processing Handbook Issue" April 1975.
2. Riesenfeld, Fred and Kohl, Arthur, Gas Purification, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (2nd Edition 1974).
3. Dravo Corp., "Handbook of Gasifiers and Gas Treatment Systems," ERDA Report FE-1772-11 (February 1976).
-242-
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CLASSIFICATION
Fuel Cleaning
GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Fuel Gas Treatment (Absorption)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Purisol Process
NUMBER
7.5.1.29
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
AIR
OASES
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FU9IT!VE
ORGANIC
CO?
INORGANIC
H2S
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The Purisol process uses N-Methyl-2-
Pyrrolidone (NMP) to physically absorb acid
gases. The process is shown schematically
in Figure 1. The sour gas enters the ab-
sorber where it is dehydrated with rich NMP
and then scrubbed with regenerated NMP. The
NMP physically absorbs C02, H2S and some
hydrocarbons. Any entrained NMP is removed
by a water wash before the treated gas exits
the top of the absorber.
The rich solvent is flashed at relative-
ly high pressure in the lower section of the
absorber where the absorbed hydrocarbons and
part of the acid gas are separated and .re-
cycled to the feed gas stream. The rich
solvent, containing the the absorbed acid
gases, is then cooled and regenerated in the
stripping column by two-stage flashing to
atmospheric pressure. The H2S and part of
the C02 are separated in the first flash
and flow to the solvent dryer. The remaining
C02 is separated from the NMP in the second
stage by countercurrent stripping with air or nitrogen. The lean solvent from the second stage is then pumped
to the absorber. The NMP/water mixtures from the dehydration sections of the absorber and stripper are combined
and sent to the solvent dryer. Off gas from the first stripper stage and wash water from the absorber are also
feed to the dryer where the water and acid gases are separated from the NMP by distillation. Water saturated
acid gas exits the top of the dryer and is sent to a sulfer recovery unit, while the dehydrated NMP returns to
the stripper.
Figure 1. PURISOL PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
APPLICATION RANGE
The Purisol solvent, NMP, has a high solubility for hydrogen
sulfide, therefore, it is particularily suited to selectively
absorb hydrogen sulfide in the presence of carbon dioxide.
Typical operating temperatures for the absorber and regenerator
are from 85-105°F. The pressure in the absorber can be operated
from very low pressure up to 1000 psig depending on the feed and
product gas requirements
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI )
29-40 °c
6900KPO
m'/i
JA
ENGLISH
85-105 °F
1000 P.I
ftVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-243-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATING COSTS
Typical utility requirements per MMSCF of feed
gas as listed below. The feed gas contained 6» H2S
and 15% CC>2 at 1070 psiq and the product gas contained
2 ppm H2S and 13.6% C02A.
Steam, Ib. 3,125
Cooling Water, gal. 13,300
Electricity, KWH 264
NMP Loss, Ib. 2.1
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
The process can reduce H2S concentrations to less
than 2 ppm and COg to less than 10 ppm.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The acid gas stream produced by the process re-
quires further treatment in a sulfur recovery unit such
as a Claus unit.
NOTES
A. From reference 3
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
American Lurgi Corporation
1.) Hydrogen Processing, "Gas Processing Handbook Issue" April 1975.
2.) Riesenfeld, Fred and Kohl, Arthur, Gas Purification, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (2nd Edition 1974).
3.) Dravo Corp., "Handbook of Gasifiers and Gas Treatment Systems," ERDA Report FE-1772-11 .(February 1976).
-244-
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CLASSIFICATION
Fuel Cleaning
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Fuel Gas Treatment
(Absorption)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Rectisol Process
NUMBER
7.5.1.30
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
AIR
GASES
PARTICULATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LEACHABLE
LAND
FUGITIVE
ORGANIC
x|HCN. Sulfur.CQ?
INORGANIC
x[K?S,
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
SASOUT
REFRGERANT
The basic flow diagram for the Rectisol process
is shown in Figure 1 for treatment of a synthesis
gas. Inlet gas enters the bottom of the two-stage
absorber which operates at elevated pressures of
300 to 1,000 psia. The gas is washed counter-
currently with -100°F methanol, which is fed to
the middle of the absorber; practically all the
HgS and any heavy hydrocarbons, and the bulk of
the C02 and organic sulfur compounds are removed
in this stage. The temperature of the methanol
increases due to the heat of absorption, until it
reaches about -4°F at the absorber outlet.
The methanol is regenerated by two successive
pressure reductions and flashing of the dissolved
gases. In the first to about - 30°F, and in the second
step in which the pressure is lowered to 3 psia, the
temperature of the methanol is reduced to -100°F.
The cooled regenerated solvent which still contains
some CO? is recycled into the middle of the absorp-
tion column.
GAS IN,
/>
1
-BUT ^np
STRIPPED
METHANCL
4°F
-1C
PA
sn
ME
XPF
TTLY
MPPEO
THANOL
)
STEAM
TWO STAGE
ABSORBER
FIRST STAGE
METHANOL
REGENERATOR
SECOND STAGE
METHANOL
REGENERATOR
Figure 1.
SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAM OF BASIC
RECTISOL PROCESS
The partially purified gas leaving the lower
hI^ai^ stream of thoroughly stripped methanol which enters
the column at about -80°F. In the operation most of the remaining CO- and potentially all of the residual
organic sulfur compounds are removed from the gas.
The rich solvent is withdrawn at the bottom of the second contacting stage, stripped of acid gas by
heating with indirect steam in a conventional stripping column, cooled, and recycled into the top of the
contactor.
The basic flow scheme may be modified in various ways: precooling of the feed gas by heat exchange
with the purified gas, successive flashing at three different pressure levels with recycle of the gases
disengaged in the first stage to the absorber inlet, regeneration by using inert stnppmg gas such as N2, and
regeneration at elevated temperatures.
APPLICATION RANGE
PRESSURE
2,000-1 -1,
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
*«/•
High pressures favor operation of this physical absorption
process, so the normal operating range is 300 - 2,000 psig.
Absorber temperatures are typically in the range of -100 to
0°F and temperatures in the regenerators are up to 150 F.
Commercial applications include purifying low Btu gas, carbon
dioxide removal and drying of ammonia synthesis gas and feed
»t»7tC"S"'th, pn,c«S « M Busted to se,Kt,»e,»
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI)
-73 to -i/c
ENGLISH
-100 to Q"F
300-2.000 P»I
M'/mln
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
H~S and C02 separately.
-245-
-------
CAPITAL COVTI
Capital costs not available.
OPERATING COSTS
n
Typical requirements , per MM SCF of gas pro-
cessed, when processing a feed gas containing 1% H2S
and COS and 5-6% C02 initially, and 35% C02 after shif
at 685 psig are given below. The purified gas con-
tains <0.1 ppm H2S and COS, and 0.1% C02-
Steam, Ib/MM SCF 2,550
Cooling Water, Gal/MM SCF 121,000
Electric Power, KWH/MM SCF 550
Solvent Loss, Ib/MM SCF 40
Waste Heat for Refrigeration
MM BTU/MM SCF 11
Stripping Gas (N2), SCF/MM SCF 77,000
The process generally can produce a product gas
with sulfur and carbon dioxide concentrations of less
than 1 ppmv.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The offgases from the regenerators contain high
concentrations of H2S and COS and will need to be
treated in a sulfur recovery plant such as a Claus.
In some variations of the basic flow sheet both a lean
and a rich H2$ flash gas is produced. The lean H2S gas
would then need to be processed in a Stretford and/or
a tail gas treating process. A process condensate may
also be produced in the process and would require
treatment to remove any phenols, cyanides, ammonia,
hydrocarbon, etc., it may contain.
NOTE*
A). Operating requirements were reproduced from
reference 1.
American Lurgi Corporation
Rtnmmen
1) Dravo Corporation, "Handbook of Gasifiers and Gas Treatment Systems", EROA Report FE-1772-11, (Feb. 1976).
2) Riesenfeld, Fred and Kohl, Arthur, Gas Purification, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (2nd Ed. 1974).
3) Cavanaugh, E. C., et al, "Environmental Assessment Data Base For Low/Medium - BTU Gasification Technology",
Radian Corporation, EPA Report 600/7-77-125, (November 1977).
-246-
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CLASSIFICATION
Fiiel Cleaning
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Fuel Gas Treatment (Absorption)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Selexol Process
I NUMBER
7.5.1.3;
n
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
GASES
AIR
PARTICULATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
ORGANIC
Sulfur. CO?
INORGANIC
Sulfur,
THERMAL
NOI3E
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Figure 1 is a flowsheet of the Selexol process
treating a feed gas containing light hydrocarbons.
Sour feed gas enters the bottom of the absorber while
the stripped and semi-stripped solvent enters the top.
The solvent physically absorbs the H^S and some of the
COgi COS and mercaptans as it passes countercurrent
to the gas. The purified gas exits the top of the
absorber and the rich solvent exits the bottom and
passes successively through a power recovery turbine
to a high pressure flash tank, intermediate pressure
flash tank and a low pressure flash tank. At this
point a portion of the partially stripped solvent is
pumped back to the absorber with the remainder feed
to the stripper to remove remaining acid gases. The
stripping gas containing acid gases is combined with
the low pressure flash acid gases for further treat-
ment downstream to remove the sulfur compounds. The
high pressure flash gas is recycled to the absorber
to increase the solvent selectivity for sulfur com-
pounds .
The number of stages for flashing depends on the
specific application. For example synthesis gas from
a coal gasifier would normally require only one stage
of flashing before stripping.
POWER
SECCVEHf]
TURBINE
Figure 1. Selexol Process Flow Diagram
APPLICATION RANGE
The absorber normally operates in the range of 500-1000
psig as high pressures favor the physical absorption process.
The absorber operating temperature range is 20-100°F. Applica-
tions for the process include sour natural gas, synthesis gases
and refinery gases.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC <8I )
ENGLISH
-7-37
20-100
3450-6900KP«
500-1000
ftVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-247-
-------
CAPITAL COVTS
OPERATIN8 COSTS
A
Typical utility requirements per million SCF
when treating a gas containg about l/2« H£$ and 35«
COj at 500 psig, with <0.1 ppm H2S and 11/t C02 in the
purified gas, are estimated to be:
Steam, Ib/W SCF 3,000
Cooling Water, Gal/MM SCF 35,000
Electric Power, KWH/MM SCF 900
Solvent Loss, Ib/MM SCF 0.5
In this example, the acid gas is removed after shift
in two stages: the H0S is removed first and then the
CO,.
the H2S
ENVIRONMENTAL. PROBLEMS
The Selexol process can reduce the concentration
of H2$, COS and mercaptans to less than 1 ppm. The
C02 can be retained or reducer) to any desired level.
SelexoTs different solvent loading for H2S and CO?,
combined with optional recycle, allow the process to
be adjusted to meet specific feed and product gas
specifications, including selective absorption of the
sulfur compounds.
The acid gas and stripping gas streams require
further processing in a sulfur recovery unit, such as
a Claus Plant.
NOTES
A) Operating requirements were reproduced from
Reference 1.
MANUFACTUM«/SUm.lEM
Allied Chemical Corporation
REFCRCNCtt
1) Dravo Corporation, "Handbook of Gasifiers and Gas Treatment Systems", ERDA Report FE-1772011, (Feb. 1976).
2} Riesenfeld, Fred and Kohl, Arthur, Gas Purification. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (2nd Ed. 1974).
3) Cavanaugh, E. C., et al, "Environmental Assessment Data Base for Low/Medium - BTU Gasification Technology",
Radian Corporation, EPA Report 600/7-77-125, (November 1977).
4) Hydrocarbon Process, "Gas Processing Handbook", (April 1975 .issue).
-248-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Fuel Cleaning
GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Absorption
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Sulfiban Process
NUMBER
7,5.1.41
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLEO
AIR
GASES
PARTICULATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LEACKA8LE
LAND
POSITIVE
ORGANIC
C09
INORGANIC
H2S
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRITPION
The Sulfiban process, utilizes an aqueous
solution of mono-ethanolamine (MEA) to remove
hydrogen sulfide (HjS) and other acidic components
from industrial gases. To minimize MEA degradation
and prevent corrosion, certain inhibitors are added
to the solution. The process is used for refinery
gas, coke oven gas, synthesis gas, natural gas and
hydrogen in hundreds of plants. The process is
shown in Figure 1. Feed gas enters at the bottom
of the absorber, and the clean gas exits at the
top of the absorber. Rich solution containing acid
gases is pumped from the absorber and heated by the
lean solution going to the absorber. The rich
solution passes downward in the MEA stripper where
steam removes the acid gases. The stripper overhead
stream is cooled to remove the condensate and allow
the acid gases to separate out in a knockout drum.
Solution is withdrawn from the stripper bottom and
fed to a redistillation unit. Here the spent amines,
degraded by reactions with HCN and 02 and/or organic
sulfides, are recovered by distillation at higher
temperatures. Unrecovered amines form a sludge which
is pumped to a settling tank and sent to disposal.
Recovered amines are returned to the stripper. The
hot lean solution is pumped from the stripper bottom
and cooled by interchange with the cool rich solution.
It is then further cooled in a water cooled exchanger
and returned to the absorber.
The acid gas stream usually is processed further to produce elemental sulfur by a modified Claus pro-
cess or used to produce sulfuric acid.
'1 ,
' ri c
y) •** S
^MTTMOMItttll
MEA
COOLER
•*i
J
MEA _
— 1
Figure 1. Sulfiban Process Flow Diagram
APPLICATION RANGE
The temperature in the stripper is usually 100°F, the
stripper 200-250°F, and the redistillation unit 250-300°F.
The absorber will operate over a pressure range from 0 to
1000 psig.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI )
ENGLISH
38 °c
100
6,900 KPa
1000
Ib/hr
J/i
BTU/hr
-249-
-------
CAPITAL. COST*
OPERATING COSTS
Typical utility requirements per MM SCF of feed
gas at 40 psig. containing about 1.7« H^S, 9.7% C02,
20 ppm HCN, and 300 ppm COS, are estimated to be as
follows.A The purified gas contains 2 ppm H2S, a neg-
ligible amount of HCN, and CO? and COS in ppm level.
Steam, Ib/MM SCF 49,000
Cooling Water, gal/MM SCF 161,000
Electric Power, KWH/MM SCF 50
Solvent (MEA) Loss, Ib/MM SCF 1.6
Above feed and purified gas concentrations are for
a typical coal gasification application. In the case
of a coke oven gas application, the HgS and C02 con-
centrations are lower, the purified gas requirements
are less stringent, and therefore the utility require-
ments are lower. The Sulfiban process can be used for
either application, but requires certain design con-
siderations for each application.
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The H2$ and HCN concentrations of a typical gas
stream can be reduced by more than 90%. The process
can reduce the t^S content to about 1 ppm.
The acid gas stream requires further processing
in a sulfur recovery unit such as a Claus plant. The
amine sludge generated in the process also requires
disposal.
NOTES
A. From reference 2.
MANUFACTURE)! / SUPPLIER
Black, Sivalls and Bryson, Inc.
REFERENCE!
1. Riesenfeld, Fred and Kohl, Arthur, Gas Purification. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, (2nd Edition 1974).
2. Drave Corp., "Handbook of Gasifiers and Gas Treatment Systems", ERDA (February 1976).
-250-
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CLASSIFICATION
Fuel Cleaning
I GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Fuel Gas Treatment (Absorption)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PPOCESS
Sulfinol Process
NUMBER
7.5.1.42
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
OASES
PARTICULATE3
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND a
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE *
X OR3ANIC
CO?,
COS
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
Figure 1. Typical Flowsheet for Sulfinol Process
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The Sulfinol process uses a mixture of a physical and chemical solvent as the absorption medium. The sol-
vent consists of an ethanolamine, usually di-isopropanolamine (DIPA), sulfolane (tetrahydrothiophene dioxide),
and water. The process will remove ^S, C02, COS and mercaptans.
A typical flowsheet of the Sulfinol process is shown in Figure 1. The feed gas enters the bottom of the
absorber and flows countercurrent to the solvent. The purified gas exists at the top of the absorber.
The rich solution, containing the absorbed acid gases and hydrocarbon flows from the bottom of the absorber
to an intermediate pressure flash vessel to recover any hydrocarbons and prevent subsequent problems during sul-
fur recovery of the acid gases. The flash gas is either recycled to the absorber or used as plant fuel.
After flashing, the solution passes through a heat exchanger where it is heated with hot lean solvent from
the stripper. In the stripper, the absorption reactions are reversed with heat supplied by stripping steam gen-
erated in the boiler. The regenerated acid gases pass overhead with the steam, which is then condensed, sep-
arated from the acid gases and refluxed to the stripper. The acid gases are then sent to a sulfur recovery unit
such as a Claus or Stretford.
Hot lean solvent is pumped from the bottom of the stripper, and passed through the lean/rich solution heat
exchanger. It is then cooled further in a water or air cooled exchanger and returned to the top of the absorber
The absorption/regeneration reactions of HjS and C02 with DIPA can be expressed as follows:
R2 NH + H2S ^± R2 NH2 . HS
R2 NH + C02 + HjO ^^ R2 NH2 . HC03
In the above equation R2.NH is DIPA.
APPLICATION RANGE
The pressure in the absorber can vary from atmospheric to
1000 psi with the higher pressures favoring the physical absorp-
tion. The stripper generally operates near atmospheric pressure.
The lean solvent temperature entering the stripper is typically
in the range of 100-125°F. The process has been adapted to pro-
cess feed gases containing from 0 to 53% HjS and from 1.1 to 46%
C02-
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (31 )
38-52
100-5,900 KPa
mV»
EN9LI3H
100-125
15-1,000 p«i
ft Vmin
Ib/hr
8TU/hr
-251-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
OPERATING COSTS
Typical requirements for utilities, per pound
of acid gas removed, are:^
Electricity, kwh <0.01
Low pressure steam, lb O.S-1.6
Cooling water, gal. 5.4-9.8
OPERATING EFFICIENCCS
The Sulfinol process can reduce acid gas con-
centrations to the following levels:
H£S
C02
Mercaptons
Total sulfur
<0.25 grain/100 scf
<0.3 mole %
<0.2 grain/100 scf
<1 grain/100 scf
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The acid gases require further treatment in a
sulfur recovery unit such as a Claus or Stretford.
The anrine sludges generated in the process also
require disposal.
NOTES
A. From reference 1
MANUFACTURE* /SUPPLIER
Shell Development Company
REFERENCES
1.) Hydrocarbon Processing, "Gas Prosessing Handbook Issue" April 1975.
2.) Riesenfeld, Fred and Kohl, Arthur, Gas Purification. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (2nd Edition 1974).
3.) Dravo Corporation, "Handbook of Gasifiers and Gas Treatment .Systems," EROA Report FE-1772-11,
(February 1976).
-252-
-------
CLASSIFICATION
Fuel Cleam'na
GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Fuel Gas Treatment (Absorption)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Vacuum Carbonate Process
I NUMBER
7.5.1.45
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
GASES
AIR
PARTICULATE3
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE POSITIVE
ORGANIC
HCN, CO?
INORGANIC
H2S
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
A simplified flow diagram of the Vacuum
Carbonate process is shown in Figure 1. The
feed gas is contacted with dilute sodium car-
bonate in the countercurrent flow absorber, and
the purified gas exits the top of the absorber.
The rich solution from the bottom of the absorber
passes to the top of the actifier, where it is
regenerated by vacuum distillation. The regen-
erated solution is then pumped through a solu-
tion cooler before entering the top of the ab-
sorber. Acid gases from the top of the actifi-
er may consist of HgS, HCN, C02 and water vapor
and passes through a condenser and then a vacuum
pump system. This acid gas stream requires
further treatment in a sulfur removal plant.
PURIFIED
ABSORBER
FEEDf
GAS
If
cw
ACTIFIER
CONDENSATE
ACCUMULATOR
:NSATE
are:
The primary reactions occurring in the process
O — *> 2NaHC03
NaHS + NaHCOa
• NaCN + NaHCOa
C02
N32C03 + H2S
+ HCN
Figure 1. Vacuum Carbonate Process
The heat required for activation of the solution is normally supplied by low pressure steam in a reboiler
at the base of the actifier. A modification of the process utilizes low-level waste heat.
APPLICATION RANGE
The absorber is generally operated at pressure below 25 psig
and the actifier at 2.0 to 2.5 psig. The absorber operates at
ambient temperature while the actifier operates at 140°F.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (81)
ENOLISH
22
75
175 KPa
25
m»/t
ftVmin
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-2b3-
-------
OPERATING COSTS
Typical utility requirements for a plant process-
ing 55 MMSCFD of gas containing 500 grains of H2S per
TOO cu. feet and 40 grains of HCN per TOO cu. feet
with 90S H£S removal and 85% HCN removal are as
follows:
Water
Electricity
Steam
Sodium Carbonate
1,273,600 gallons/day
7,879 KWH/day
9,600 Ib/day
400 Ib/day
Removal efficiencies of up to 93% for H2S and 90%
for HCN have been reported.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The acid gas stream requires further treatment
in a sulfur recovery unit. The spent solution must
be disposed of after 6 to 8 months operation.
NOTES
MANUFACTUftCR / SUPPLIER
topper Company, Inc.
Kohl and Riesenfeld, Gas Purification. Gulf Publishing Co. (Second Edition, 1974).
-254-
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CLASSIFICATION
Fuel Cleaning
GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Fuel Gas Treatment (Dry Oxidation)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Conventional - Box Fe203 Purifier
J NUMBER
7.5.2.2
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
GASES
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE
INOR3ANIC
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Feed gas is passed through a bed of hydrated ferric
oxide and HgS present in the feed gas is removed by the
following reaction: 2 Fe20s + 6 H2S—-2 Fe2S3 + 6 H20.
The ferric sulfide is then oxidized by air yielding
elemental sulfur and ferric oxide by the reaction:
2 Fe2 S3 + 302 —- 2 Fe2 03 + 6S. The process is shown
schematically in Figure 1.
The regeneration of the ferric sulfide can be done
either continuously by injecting air into the feed gas
stream as in Figure 1 or intermittently by shutting off
the feed gas and recirculating gas containing a small
amount of air. The regeneration can be done until the
surface area of the iron oxide particles become covered
with elemental sulfur resulting in loss of activity
and excessive bed pressure drops.
Figure 1. SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAM OF BASIC IRON
OXIDE PURIFICATION PROCESS.
Spent sorbent is then removed from the bed and usually discarded, but the sulfur may be recovered if it
is economical. In some instances it is burned to form S02 which is then used to manufacture sulfuric acid, or
recovered by solvent extraction.
Either mixed or unmixed iron oxides can be used in the process. Mixed oxides are prepared by supporting
finely divided ferric oxide on materials with large surface area and loose texture such as wood shavings and
granulated or crushed slag. The mixed oxides have the advantage of being able to control the bulk density,
iron oxide content, moisture content and pH more accurately.
Unmixed oxides are prepared from iron ore or metallic iron and contain approximately 75 percent ferric
oxide, 10 percent water, and 15 percent impurities.
APPLICATION RANGE
Early installations operated at near atmospheric pressure,
but in recent years, plants in the 6 to 20 million SCFD range
are operating at pressure of 100 to 325 psig. Operating
temperatures are in the range of 80 to 120°F. The process
generally operates on gases containing 10 to 75 grains of
HjS/lOO SCF gas (160 to 1200 ppm) but have been used for gases
containing up to 1000 grains HpS/lOO SCF (1.6 vol. .i). Be-
cause of the requirement to dispose of the spent iron oxide
the process is generally used for H~S removal on a small scale.
OPERATING RANQES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENER8Y RATE
METRIC (SI )
27-49 °c
104-2243KPa
mV«
EN9LISH
80-120
15-325
ft'/min
Ib/hr
BTU/hr
-255-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Capital costs not available.
OPERATING COSTS
Utility requirements for the process are quite
small. Electricity is required for operating the air
blower and a small amount of water is required to keep
the bed moist. Cost of iron sponge is $2/bushel in
1977 dollars. There are periodic labor requirements
for unloading, loading and disposing of spent iron
oxide.
OPERATING EFFICIENCIES
Purification to H»S levels of less than 1 ppm
is possible. Approximately 5,000 bushels of iron
sponge are required per 1 million SCFD of feed gas.
One bushel can absorb approximately 6 pounds of sulfur
before being discarded.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The spent iron oxide or sponge must be disposed
of in a landfill.
NOTES
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Connelly - GPM, Inc.
Portable Treaters Company
REFERENCES
1) Dravo Corporation, "Handbook of Gasifiers and Gas Treatment Systems", EROA Report FE-1772-11, (Feb. 1976)
2} Riesenfeld, Fred and Kohl, Arthur, Gas Purification. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (2nd Ed. 1974).
3} Connelly - GPM, Inc., personal communication.
-256-
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CLASSIFICATION
Fuel Cleaning
GENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Fuel Gas Treatment (Liquid Phase Oxidation)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Stretford Process
J NUMBER
7.5.3.10
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
AIR
GASES
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LEACHABLE
LAND
POSITIVE
X ORGANIC
x Sulfur. HCN
INORGANIC
x H2S
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The Stretford solution consists of an aqueous
solution of ADA (anthra quinone disulfonic acid)
sodium metavanadate, anhydrous citric acid, and
sodium carbonate.
The overall chemical reaction of the process
is as follows:
2H2 S + 02
2S + 2H20
However, the process actually utilizes the
following reaction sequence:
H2S
4NaV03
2NaOH
2ADA (reduced)
NaHS
2H20 -*• Na2V40g + 4NaOH
+ H20 +2ADA-MNaV03 + 2ADA
(reduced)
02 — *2ADA + HgO
Figure 1. TYPICAL FLOW DIAGRAM OF STRETFORD PROCESS
The rate of absorption of hydrogen sulfide is favored by high pH; however, the rate of conversion of the
absorbed hydrogen sulfide to elemental sulfur is adversely affected by pH values above 9.5. The process is
therefore best operated with the pH range of 8.5 to 9.5.
A schematic flow diagram of the Stretford process is shown in Figure 1. The raw gas is contacted counter-
currently with the solution in the absorber where practically all hydrogen sulfide is removed. The treated gas
contains less than 1 ppm of hydrogen sulfide. The solution flows from the absorber to a reaction tank where
the conversion of hydrosulfide to elemental sulfur is completed. The reaction tank may be the bottom of the
absorber or a separate vessel. From the reaction tank the solution flows to the oxidizer where it is regenerat-
ed by intimate contact with air, usually in cocurrent flow. In the oxidizer sulfur is separated from the solu-
tion by flotation and removed at the top as a froth containing about 10 percent solids. The relatively sulfur
free regenerated solution is recycled to the absorber.
The sulfur froth is collected in a tank and subsequently further processed in filters or centrifuges to
separate the solution remaining in the froth. In general, it is necessary to wash the sulfur cake with water
to recover chemicals contained in the solution and to produce relatively pure sulfur. For reasons of water
balance in the system, wash water and water produced by the reaction has to be evaporated either with the gas
or in evaporators, depending on the quantity of water involved.
The sulfur cake which contains about 50 to 60 percent solids may be further processed by melting in an
autoclave. In this manner high grade liquid or solid sulfur is produced.
APPLICATION RAGE
The process is usually economic for natural gas and indust-
rial gas streams which contain less than 15" H2S.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI)
27-49 °C
1 00-6900 KPO
m'/i
kg/*
J/i
ENGLISH
JJO-120 "F
15-1000 P»i
ftVmin
Ib/hr
STU/hr
-257-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
The capital cost of a 5 MMSCFD plant designed to
process a feed gas of the following composition is
estimated to cost $800,000A in 1977 dollars.
co2
CO
N2
°2
Non-methane
Hydrocarbons
Hole %
0.6
4.1
27.7
15.8
2.7
48.7
0.2
0.2
This cost is the installed cost for a plant pro-
ducing sulfur cake.
OPERATING COSTS
Daily utility requirements based on 5 MMSCFD of
feed gas are as follows:6
Soda Ash
Electricity
Process Water
Stretford Solution
Operating Labor
120 Ib/day
75 KW/day
1 GPM
5 Ib/day
($15/day 1977 dollars)
1 Man/shift
OPEKATMM
The Stretford process can reduce H?S concentrat-
ions in the purified gas to less than 1 ppm. A large
proportion of the methyl mercaptan is removed by the
process but COS and CS. are not removed to a signifi-
cant degree.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
An effluent stream of Stretford solution is
required to prevent excess build up of cyanates and
thiosalts. This stream contains vanadium salts,
sodium thiocyanate and sodium thiosulfate and there-
fore it must be treated prior to discharge. Alterna-
tive methods for treating this stream include:
Biodogradation
Evaporation
Combustion
Recovery
Adsorption
Ion Exchange
NOTES
A. Verbal communication with licensors.
B. Holmes-Stretford Process.
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Moodall-Duckham Limited
Peabody Engineering Systems
Black, Si vails and Bryson, Inc.
REFERCMCES
1) Oravo Corporation, "Handbook of Gasifiers and Gas Treatment Systems", ERDA Report FE-1772-11, (Feb. 1976).
2) Riesenfeld, Fred and Kohl, Arthur, Gas Purification. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (2nd Ed. 1974).
3) Radian Corp., "Technology Status Report, Low/Medium - BTU Coal Gasification and Related Environmental Con-
trols", performed under EPA Contract No. 68-02-2147 (June 1977).
4) Catalytic, Inc., "The Stretford Process", performed under EPA Contract No. 68-02-2167, (January 1978).
-258-
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CLASSIFICATION
Fugitive Emissions Control
ISENERIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Dust Control Sprays (Chemical Agents)
SPECIFIC DEVICE OR PROCESS
Petroleum Resins
NUMBER
80 o o
. J . u . L.
POLLUTANTS
CONTROLLED
AIR
GASES
PARTICIPATES
WATER
DISSOLVED SUSPENDED
LAND
LEACHABLE FUGITIVE
ORSANIC
INORGANIC
THERMAL
NOISE
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Wind erosion of soil increases in severity as the size of the soil particles decreases. Resinous adhesive
dust retardents have been developed to bind together the small soil particles and create a larger effective
average diameter. This reduces soil movement by saltation, creep, and suspension, the three mechanisms of wind
erosion. The retardent is manufactured as a cold water emulsion so that it can be diluted with water and
applied with conventional spraying equipment.
Some tests have shown the agent to be compatible with both germinating and growing plants, so that it can be
used to stabilize soil in mined land reclamation operations. After the area to be reclaimed is seeded, dust
retardent is applied to hold seed and fertilizer in place until germination occurs and then protect young
seedlings from being destroyed by moving sand and dust.
APPLICATION RANGE
Applicable to both soil dust and coal dust on coal mine
roads. Also used to prevent blowing of coal fines from railroad
hopper cars. Used for stabilization of mine tailings from
various types of mining operations. Also used to stabilize
overburden from stripping operations.
OPERATING RANGES
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
VOLUMETRIC RATE
MASS RATE
ENERGY RATE
METRIC (SI )
KPa
mVt
ENGLISH
°F
ft'/mm
Ib/hr
ST'J/hr
-259-
-------
CAPITAL COSTS
Depending on the application, capital investment.
may be necessary, such as spray trucks for haul road
treatment, or a stationary spray system for conveyors,
piles, tailings dumps, etc. In other cases, avail-
able systems may be used tc apply the chemical.
OPERATING COSTS
Typical costs (1976) for haul road appUration have
been given as S3500 per mile for initial application
and $2000 per nrile per year thereafter. Costs for
treating tailings pond sites have been given as
S178/acre. Bulk cost of the chemical itself may be in
the range 40-50 cents per gallon.
OPERATIN9 EFFICIENCIES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
Contamination of streams could occur where treated
soil or dust is washed into streams by rainfall.
NOHCKOOISLS
NOTES
Qi LC
MKTICLE OUHETER. ««
Figure 1. EFFICIENCY OF INCREASING PARTICLE SIZE1.
MANUFACTURER / SUPPLIER
Golden Bear Division, Mitco Chemical Corp.
Easton R/S Corp.
Nalco Chemical Co.
Arcal Chemicals, Inc.
REFERENCES
1) Canessa, H., "Chemical Retardants Control Fugitive Dust Problems", Pollution Engineering, July 1977, p. 24.
-260-
-------
SECONDARY ENTRY SYSTEM-EXAMPLES
-261-
-------
en
oo
AIR POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/ POLLUTANT STREAM
Synthetic Fuels - High BID Gasification
Fugitive Gasifier Ash
Ash Quench Gases
Lock Hopper Gases
Crude Synthetic Gas
Fugitive Crude Gas
Flare Emissions
Lean HgS Flash Gas
Rich H2S Gas
GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
SULFUR
COMPOUNDS
1.4(1-3,6-10)
1.6 (1-3)
1.7 (1,2)
7.5 (1-5)
7.1 (1-7)
7.5 (1-5)
8.4.1
8.5 (5-7)
8.6 (3,4)
4.6.1
5.3 (1,3,4)
6.4.2
1.4 (1,2,7-9)
1.6 (1-3)
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
7.5 (1-5)
1.4 (1,2,7-9)
1.6 (1-3)
1.7 (1,2)
7.5 (1-5)
NITROGEN
COMPOUNDS
_,
1.8 (1,2)
1.5 (1,2)
8.4.1
8.5 (5-7)
8.6 (3,4)
4.6.1
5.3 (1,3,4)
ORGAN 1CS
5.1.1 .
1.7 (1,2)
1.5 (1,2)
5.3.1
9.4 (1-3)
8.4.1
8.5 (5-7)
8.6 (3,4)
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
1.7 (1,2)
CARBON
MONOXIDE
1-7 (1,2)
8.4.1
8.5 (5-7)
8.6 (3,4)
4.6.1
5.3 (1,3,4)
1.4.1
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
1.4.1
1.7 (1,2)
OTHER
PARTICULATES
SOLIDS
5.3 (2,3)
8.1.3
8.2 (1-3)
8.3 (1-3)
8.4 (1,£)
1.1 (1-3)
1.2 (1-3)
1.3.2
1.4 (2-6,11)
1.1 (1,3)
1.2 (1,2)
1.3 (1-4)
1.4 (1-6,11)
1.1 (1,3)
1-2 (1,2)
1.4 (2-6,11)
4.6.1
5.3 (1,3,4)
6.4.1
LIQUIDS
1.3 (3,4)
1.4 (2-6,11)
1.5.2
-------
CTi
-e»
i
AIR POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/ POLLUTANT STREAM
Synthetic Fuels - High BTU Gasification
(Cont.)
Expansion Gas
C02 Vent Gas
Nlckle Carbonyl Contamination of SNG
Spent Catalyst Regeneration Gases
Add Gases
Fugitive Tar, Tar 011, Phenol and
Naphtha Emissions
Fugitive Ammonia Emissions
Sulfur Plant Tail Gas
SULFUR
COMPOUNDS
1.4(1,2,7-9)
1.6 (1-3)
1.7 (1.2)
4.6.1
7.5 (1-5)
1.4(1,2,7-9)
1.6 1-3)
1.7 1,2)
7.5 1-5)
1.4(1,2,7-9)
1.6 (1-3)
1.7 (1,2)
1.8.2
4.6.1
7.5 (1-5)
GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
NITROGEN
COMPOUNDS
ORGANICS
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
5.3.1
9.4 (1-3)
1.6 (1-3)
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
1.4 (7,8)
1.5 (1,2
1.6 (1-3)
1.7 (1,2)
8.1.3
8.4.1
8.5 (5-7)
8.6 (1,4)
8.7 (1-9)
1.6 (1-3)
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
CARBON
MONOXIDE
1.4.1
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
5.3.1
9.4 (1-3)
1.4.1
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
1.4.1
1.7 (1.2)
4.6.1
OTHER
5.2.1
5.3 (4,6)
1.4 (7-9)
8.1.3
8.5 (5-7)
8.6 (3,4)
8.7 (7,8)
PARTICULATES
SOLIDS
LIQUIDS
-------
I
no
cn
in
i
AIR POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/POLLUTANT STREAM
Synthetic Fuels - High BTU Gasification
(Cont . )
Sulfur Plant Incinerator Offgas
Fugitive Sulfur Emissions
Natural Gas Processing
Fugitive Gas Emissions
Untreated Acid Gas
Sulfur Recovery Plant Tail Gas
Dehydration Process Offgas
Fugitive LPG Loading Emissions
Fugitive Liquid Hydrocarbon Emissions
SULFUR
COMPOUNDS
1.4(1,2,7-9)
1.6 (1-3)
4.6.1
1.5 (1,2)
8.4.1
8.5(2,3,5-7)
8.6.4
8.7 (.5,7-9)
8.5(3,5-7)
8.6 (3-4)
8.7.7
1.4(1,2,7-9)
1.6 (1-3)
1.7 (1,2) *
4.6.1
7.5 (1-5)
1.4(1,2,7-9)
1.6 (1-3)
1.7 (1,2)
1.8.2
4.6.1
7.5 (1-5)
GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
NITROGEN
COMPOUNDS
6.1 (1-6,8)
ORGANICS
8.5 (3,5-7)
8.6 (3,4)
8.7.7
1.6 (1-3)
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
1.5 (1,2)
1.6 (1-3)
1.7.2
4.6.1
8.5 (3,5-7)
8.6 (2-4)
8.7 (7,8)
1.5 (1,2)
1.6 (1-3)
8.7 (1-9)
CARBON
MONOXIDE
5.3.4
1.4.1
1.7 (.1,2)
4.6.1
OTHER
PARTICULATES
SOLIDS
LIQUIDS
-------
AIR POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/POLLUTANT STREAM
Petroleum Refining
Storage Tank Emissions
Fugitive Crude and Distillate Emissions
Fugitive Petroleum Gas
Untreated Refinery Tall Gas
Sour Gas
Sulfur Recovery Plant Tail Gas
Barometric Condenser Offgas
Catalyst Regeneration Offgas
GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
SULFUR
COMPOUNDS
1.4(1,2,7-9)
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
7.5 (1-5)
1.4(1,2.7-9)
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
7.5 (1-5)
1.4(1,2,7-9)
1.6 (1-3)
1.7 (1,2)
1.8.2
4.6.1
7.5 (1-5)
7.5 (1-5)
.4(1,2,7-10)
.7 (1,2)
NITROGEN
COMPOUNDS
ORGANICS
1.5 (1,2)
1.6 (1-3)
8.7 (1-9)
2.1 (6,7)
2.2.5
2.3 n-4)
2.4 (3,4)
8.1 (1,3)
8.4 (1,2)
8.5 (2-7)
8.6 (1,2,4)
8.7 (2,7)
8.8 (1,2)
8,10 tl-3)
8.5(2,3,5-7)
8.6 (3,4)
1.7 (1,2)
1.7 (1,2)
1.6 (1-3)
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
1.7 (1,2)
CARBON
MONOXIDE
1.7 (1,2)
1.7 (1,2)
1.4.1
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
1.4.1
1.7 (1,2)
OTHER
PARTICULATES
SOLIDS
-1 (1,3)
.2 (1,2)
.3 (1,2)
.4(3-6,11)
LIQUIDS
-------
en
^j
i
AIR POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/ POLLUTANT STREAM
Petroleum Refining (Cont.)
FCC Regenerator Offgas
TCC Kiln Flue Gas
Fugitive Catalyst Oust
Fugitive Cleaning Acid Emissions
Depropanizer Accumulator Offgas
Fugitive W Alkylation Offgas
Asphalt Blowing Offgas
Coker Offgas
Fugitive Petroleum Coke
Coke Cutting Water Odors
Process Heater Offgas
GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
SULFUR
COMPOUNDS
1.4(1,2,7-10)
1.6 (1-3)
1.8.2
4.6.1
7.5 (1-5)
1.4(1,2,7-10;
1.6 (1-3)
1.8.2
4.6.1
7.5 (1-5)
8.4 (1,2)
8.5 (4-7)
8.6.4
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
7.5 (1-5)
1.4(1,2,7-10)
1.6 (1-3)
1.8.2
4.6.1
NITROGEN
COMPOUNDS
1.4.1
1.8 (1,3)
1.4.1
1.8 (1,3)
1.4.1
1.8 (1,3)
4.6.1
6.1 (1-6,8)
ORGAN ICS
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
5.3.4
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
5.3.4
1.7 (1,2)
8.4 (1,2)
8.5(2,3,5-7)
8.6 (3,4)
1.4 (1-11)
1.7 (1,2)
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
4.6.1
5.3.4
CARBON
MONOXIDE
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
5.3.4
1.7 (1,2)
4.6.1
5.3,4
1.7 (1,2)
7.5 (1-5)
4.6.1
5.3.4
OTHER
8.4 (1,2)
8.5 (4-7)
8.6.4
1.4(1,2,6-9)
8.4 (1,2)
8.5(2,3,5-7)
8.6 (3,4)
PARTICULATES
SOLIDS
1.1 (1,3)
1.2 (1,2)
1.3 (1,2)
1.4 (3-6,11)
4.6.1
1.1 (1,3)
1.2 (1,2)
1.3 (1,2)
1.4 (3-6,11)
4.6.1
4.3 (1,2)
8.3 (1-3)
8.4 (1,2)
1.1 (1,3)
1-2 (1,2)
8.3 (1-3)
8.4 (1,2)
8.4.1
8.10 (1-3)
LIQUIDS
-------
cn
CO
AIR POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/ POLLUTANT STREAM
Petroleum Refining (Cent.)
Process Heater Offgas (Cent.)
Pressure Relief Emissions
Flare Emissions
Boiler Stack Emissions
Gas Fired Engine Exhaust
CO Boiler Offgas
SULFUR
COMPOUNDS
6.3(1-3)
6.4.2
7.5 (1-5)
4.6.1
6.4.2
9.4.1
1.4(1,2,7-10)
1.6 (1-3)
1.8.2
4.6.1
6.3(1-3)
6.4.2
7.4 (1-3)
7.5 (1-5)
7.5 (1-5)
GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
NITROGEN
COMPOUNDS
6.4.4
4.6.1
6.4.4
9.4.1
1.4.1
1.8 (1.2)
4.6.1
6.1 (1-6,8)
6.2 (1-5)
6.4.4
1.8.1
1.8.1
6.1 (1-6,8)
6.2 (1-5)
ORGANICS
8.5.7
8.6 (3,4)
9.4 (1-3)
4.6.1
5.3.4
6.4.1
9.4.1
4.6,1
5.3.4
6.4.1
CARBON
MONOXIDE
4.6.1
5.3.4
9.4.1
4.6.1
5.3.4
5.3.4
OTHER
PARTICULATES
SOLIDS
LIQUIDS
-------
IV)
01
LAND POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/ POLLUTANT STREAM
Synthetic Fuels - High BTU Gasification
Gasifier Ash
Spent Shift Catalyst
Spent Methanation Catalyst
Spent Sulfur Plant Catalyst
Scrubber Wastes
Natural Gas Processing
Spent Sulfur Recovery Catalyst
Petroleum Refining
Spent Sulfur Recovery Catalyst
Spent Processing Catalyst
HF Scrubber Sludge
Acid Regeneration Sludge
Spent Polymevization Acid Catalyst
ORGANIC
•<
3.3 (1-6)
3.6.8
3.3 (1-6)
3.6.8
SOLUBLE
INORGANIC
4.3 (1,2)
4.3 0,2)
4.4 (1-3)
5.2.2
4.3 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
5.2.2
3.1 (1-3)
4.3 (1,2)
3.2 (1,2)
4.3 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
5.2.2
3.2 (1,2)
4.3 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
5.2.2
3.2 (1,2)
4.3 (1,Z)
4.4 (1-3)
5.2.2
4.3 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.3 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
3.1.3
4.3 (1,2)
4.6.3
4.7.2
5.2 (1,2)
FUGITIVE
DUST
4.3 (1,2)
4.3 (1,2)
4.3.1
4.3 (1,2)
4.3 (1,2)
3.2.2
4.3 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
5.2.2
3.2.2
4.3 (1,2)
4,4 (1-3)
5.2.2
3.2.2
4.3 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
5.2.2
4.3 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.3 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
INERT
WASTES
4.3 (1,2)
4.3 (1,2)
4.3 (1,2)
4.3 (1,2)
3.2.2
4.3 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
5.2.2
3.2.2
4.3 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
5.2.2
3.2.2
4.3 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
5.2.2
4.3 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.3 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
-------
PO
^1
o
i
LAND POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/ POLLUTANT STREAM
Petroleum Refining (Cont.)
Lube Oil Add Sludge
Wastewater Treatment Sludge
ORGANIC
3.3 (1-6)
3.5 (a, 3)
4.3 (1,2)
SOLUBLE
INORGANIC
3.1.3
4.3 (1,2)
4.4 (2,3)
FUGITIVE
DUST
INERT
WASTES
-------
WATER POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/ POLLUTANT STREAM
Synthetic Fuels - High BTU Gasification
Ash Quench Water
Waste Heat Boiler Blowdown
Process Condensate
INORGANICS
2.6 (1-7)
2.7.4
2.12 (1-5)
2.14 (1,2)
2.16 (1,2)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3,4)
7.1 (1-7)
2.12 (1-5)
2.14 (1,2)
4.1 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
5.1.1
5.2 (1,2)
tSlt. \ ' 1 *~ /
5.3 (1-4)
2.6 (1-7)
2.7 (1-4)
2.8 (1-6)
2.9 (1,2)
2.12 (1-5)
2.14 (1,2)
2.15 (1,3)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
I I
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3,4)
DISSOLVED
PH
2.9 (1,2)
2.10 (1,3,4)
2.14
(1,2)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2
4.5 1
5.2
5.3
7.1
1.2)
1,2)
1,2)
1,3,4)
1-7)
2.9 (1,2)
2.10 (1-4)
4.1 1-3)
4.2
4.5
1,2)
1.2)
5,2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3,4)
TOXIC
SUBSTANCES
2.6 (1-7)
2.7.4
2.8 (1-6)
2. 12
2.13
2.14
2.16
1-5)
1-4)
1,2)
(1,2)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3,4)
7.1 (1-7)
2.6 (
2.7
2.8
4.1
4.2 (
1-7)
1-4)
1-6)
1-3)
1,2
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3,4)
ORGANICS
2.6 (1-7)
2.7.4,
2.8 (1-8)
2.9 (1,2)
2.11 1-5
2.12 1-5)
2.13 1-4)
2.16 (1,2)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3,4)
7.1 (1,7)
2.11 (1-5
2.12 (1-5
2.13 (1-4
4.1 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
5.1.1
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1-4)
2.6 (1-7)
-2.7 1-4
2.8 (1-6)
2.9 (1,2)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-5)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3,4)
SUSPENDED
SOLIDS
2.1 (1-5)
2.2 (1-8)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (1-4)
2.5 (1-15)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3,4)
7.1 (1-7)
2.1 (1-5)
2.5 (7-15,
7-19)
4.1 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
5.1.1
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1-4)
2.1 (1-5)
2.2 (1-4,
6-8)
2.3 (1-4)
2.5 (7-15)
2.6 (1-6)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3,4)
OILS
2.1 (5,6)
2.3 (1-4)
2.7.4
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 1,2
4.5 (1,2)
5.1.1
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3,4)
2.1 (6,7)
2.2 (2,3,5)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (3,4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3,4)
THERMAL
2.6 (1-3)
2.15(1-3)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
4.7.3
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3,4)
2.5 (1-6)
2.15 (1-3)
4.1 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
4.7.3
5.2 (1-3)
5.3 (1-4)
2.6 (1-7)
2.15 (1-3)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
4.7.3
5.2 (1-3)
5.3 (1,3,4)
-------
I
ro
WATER POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/ POLLUTANT STREAM
i
Synthetic Fuels - High BTU Gasification
(Cont. )
Fugitive Tar, Tar Oil and Phenol
Emissions
Fugitive Naphtha Emissions
Sulfur Recovery Plant Slowdown
Sulfur Recovery Plant Condensate
DISSOLVED
INORGANICS
PH
TOXIC
SUBSTANCES
2.8 (1-6)
2.11
2.12
2.13
4.1 (
4.2 (
0-5)
1-5)
1-4)
1-3)
1,2
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2
5.3
8.5
1,2)
1^4
1-5)
8.6 (1,4)
9.1 (1-5)
2.16
.1
2.6 (2-6)
2.7 (1-4)
2.9
5.2
1,2)
1,2)
ORGANICS
2.8 (1-6)
2.11
2.12
2.13
4.1 (
4-2 (
4.4 i
4.5 (
(1-5)
(1-5)
(1-4
1-3)
1,2)
1-3)
1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1-4
8.5 (1-5)
8.6 (1,4)
9.1 (1-5)
2.11
2.12
2.13
4.1
4.2
4.4 {
4.5
4.6.;
5.2
5.3
8.5
8.6
9.1
2.16
(1-5)
(1-5)
(1-4)
1-3)
1,2)
1-3)
1,2)
'
1,2)
1-4)
1-5)
(1,4)
(1-5)
1
SUSPENDED
SOLIDS
OILS
2.1 (5-7)
2.5.14
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1-4
8.5 (1-5)
8.6 (1,4)
9.1 (1-5)
9.5 (1-4)
9.6 (1-8)
9.7 (1-5)
9.8.1
2.1 (5-7)
2.2 (2,3,5)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (3,4)
0 C 1A
C. t J • I *t
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1-4)
8.5 (1-5)
8.6 (1,4)
9.1 (1-5)
9.5 (1-4)
9.6 (1-8)
9.7 (1-5)
9.8.1
THERMAL
-------
GJ
I
WATER POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/ POLLUTANT STREAM
Synthetic Fuels - High BTU Gasification
j[Cont._)
Fugitive Sulfur Emissions
Natural Gas Processing
Spent Absorption Solution
Dehydration Process Wastewater
Fugitive Natural Gasoline Emissions
DISSOLVED
INORGANICS
PH
TOXIC
SUBSTANCES
ORGANICS
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-5)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1-4)
7.5 (1-5)
2.8 (1-6)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-5)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-5)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1-4)
SUSPENDED
SOLIDS
2.1 (1-5)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (1-4,
7-16)
8.5 (2,3,
5-7)
8.6.4
9.1.5
OILS
2.1 (5-7)
2.2 (2,3,5)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (3,4)
Z.5.14
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
5.2 (1,2)
THERMAL
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ro
WATER POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/ POLLUTANT STREAM
Natural Gas Processing (Cont.)
Fugitive Natural Gasoline Emissions
(Cont.)
Petroleum Refining
Crude Storage Draws (BS&U)
Desalting Water
DISSOLVED
INORGANICS
2.2.1
2.5
2.6
2.14
4.1 (
4.2 (
4.4 (
4.5 (
17-19)
1-7)
(1,2)
1-3)
1,2
1-3)
1,2)
4.6.2
2.2.
2.5
2.6
2.14
4.1
4.2
4.4
4.5
1
17-19)
1-7)
(1,2)
(1-3)
1,2
1-3)
1,2)
4.6.2
PH
TOXIC
SUBSTANCES
ORGANICS
8.5 (1-5)
8.6 (1,4)
9.1 (1-5)
2.6 (2-6)
2.8 (1-6)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
2.6 (2-6)
2.8 (1-6)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (T,2)
4.6.2
SUSPENDED
SOLIDS
2.1 (1,2,5)
2.2 (1-4,
6-8)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (1-4)
2.5 (7-19)
2.6 (1-7)
2.11 (1-5)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1.-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
2.1 (1,2,5)
2.2 (1-4,
6-8)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (1-4)
2.5 (7-19)
2.6 (1-7)
2.11 (1-5)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
OILS
5.3 (1-4)
8.5 (1-5
8.6 (1,4
9.1 (1-5
9.5 (1-4
9.6 (1-8)
9.7 (1-5)
9.8.1
2.1(1,2,5-7)
2.2 (2-5)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (3,4)
2.5.14
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
2.1(1,2,5-7)
2.2 (2-5)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (3,4)
2.5.14
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
THERMAL
-------
tn
i
WATER POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/ POLLUTANT STREAM
Petroleum Refining (Cont.)
Fugitive Crude and Distillate
Condensed Stripping Steam
Spent Amine Solution
Caustic Washes
DISSOLVED
INORGANICS
2.6 (1-7)
2.7 (1-4)
2.8 (1-6)
2.9 (1,2)
2.12 (1-5)
2.14 (1,2)
2.15 (1,3)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2) -
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
PH
2.9 (1,2)
2.10 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
2.10(1,3,4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2
4.4 (1-3
4.5 (1,2
TOXIC
SUBSTANCES
2.8 (1-6)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-5)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1-4)
8.5 (1-5
8.6 (1,4
9.1 (1-5)
2.6 (1-7
2.7 1-4
2.8 (1-6
2.9 (1,2)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
ORGANICS
2.8 (1-6)
2.11 (1-5
2.12 (1-5
2.13 (1-4
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1-4)
8.5 (1-5)
G.6 (1,4)
9.1 (1-5)
2.6 (1-7)
2.7 1-4
2.8 (1-6)
2.9 (1,2)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-5)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1-4)
7.5 (1-5)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
1
SUSPENDED
SOLIDS
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3) 1
4.2 (1,2) 1
OILS
2.1 (5-7)
2.5.14
4.1 (1-3
4.2 (1,2
4.4 (1-3)
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1-4)
8.5 (1-5
8.6 (1,4
9.1 (1-5
9.5 (1-4)
9.6 (1-8)
9.7 (1-5)
9.8.1
2.1 (6,7)
2.2 (2,3,5)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (3,4)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
2.1 (6,7)
2.2 (2,3,5)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (3,4)
4.1 (1-3)
I 1
THERMAL
2.6 (1-7)
2.15 (1-3)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
4.7.3
5.2 (1-3)
5.3 (3-5)
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I
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en
i
WATER POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/ POLLUTANT STREAM
Petroleum Refining (Cont.)
Caustic Washes (Cont.)
Acid Treating Effluent
Mater Washes
Jet and Barometric Condenser Water
DISSOLVED
INORGANICS
2.6 (1-7)
2.7 (1-4)
2.8 (1-6)
2.9 (1,2)
2.12 (1-5).
2.14 (1,2)
2.15 (1,3)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 1,2
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
PH
4.7.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3(1,3,4,6)
2-10 (1,2,4)
4.1 (1-3
4.2 (1,2
4.4 1-3
4.5 (1,2
4.7.1
5.2.1
5.3(1,3,4,6)
2.10 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3(1,3,4,6)
2.9 (1,2)
2.10 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 1,2
5-2 (1,2
5.3 (1,3-5)
TOXIC
SUBSTANCES
2.6 (1-7)
2.7 (1-4)
2.8 (1-6)
2.9 (1,2)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 1,2
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
ORGANICS
4.4 (1-3
4.5 (1,2
4.7.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3(1,3,4,6)
2.11 (1-5
2.12 (1-6
2.13 (1-4
4.1 (1-3
4.2 (1,2
4.4 (1-3
4.5 (1,2
4.7.1
5.2.1
5.3(1,3,4,6)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (l-£
2.13 (1-4
4.1 (1-3
4.2 (1,2
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3(1,3,4,6)
2.6 (1-7
2.7 (1-4
2.8 (1-6
2.9 (1,2
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (l-£
2.13 (1-4
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 1,2
4.5 (1,2
4.6.2 r
5.2 (1,'2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
mmmtm
SUSPENDED
SOLIDS
••••1MBBMM
OILS
iMMMMHBM*
4.2
4.4
1,2)
1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.7.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3(1,3,4,6)
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
4.1
4.2
4.4
4.5
4.7.
5.2.
6,7)
2,3,5)
1-4
3,4
1-3
1,2)
1-3
1,2)
1
1
5.3(1,3,4,6)
2.1 (6,7)
2.2
2.3
2.4
4.1
4.2
4.5
2,3,5)
1-4)
3,4
1-3)
i1'2!
(1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3(1,3,4,6)
2.1
2.2
6,7)
2,3,5)
2.3 (1-4
2.4 (3,4
2.11
2.12
(1-5)
(1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2
5.3
(1,2)
(1,3-5)
THERMAL
2.6 (1-7)
2.15 (1-3)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
4.7.3
5.2 (1-3)
5.3 (3-5)
-------
I
ro
-vl
WATER POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/ POLLUTANT STREAM
Petroluem Refining (Cont.)
Isomerization Neutralizer Waste
Alkyl ate Treatment Waste
Chemical Sweetening Waste
Sweetening Wash Water
DISSOLVED
INORGANICS
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5.1
5.2.2
5.3 (1,3-6)
2.2.1
2.6 (1-7)
2.7.4
2.8 (1-6) x
2.9 (1,2)
2.14 (1,2)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3
4.5 (1,2)
4.7.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3,4,6)
2.2.1
2.6 (1-7)
2.7.4
2.8 (1-6)
2.9 (1,2)
2.14 (1,2)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
PH
2.10 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5.1
5.2.2
5.3 (1,3-6)
2.10 (1,3,4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.7.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3(1,3,4,6)
2.10 (1,3,4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.7.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3,4,6)
2.10 (1,3,4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
5.2 (1,2)
5.3(1,3,4,6)
TOXIC
SUBSTANCES
ORGANICS
4.1 1-3)
4.2 1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5.1
5.2.2
5.3 (1,3-6)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.7.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3(1,3,4,6)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.7.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3(1,3,4,6)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 1,2)
4.4 1-3)
4.5 1,2)
5.2 (1,2)
5.3(1,3,4,6)
SUSPENDED
SOLIDS
4.1 (1-3)
4.3 (1,2
4.4 (1-3)
4.5.1
5.2.2
5.3 (1,3-6)
OILS
2.1 (6,7)
2.2 (2,3,5)
2.3
,1-4)
2.4 (3,4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2
4.4
4.5
1,2)
1-3)
1,2)
4.7.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3,4,6)
2.1 (6,7)
2.2 (2,3,5)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (3,4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.7.2
5-2 (1,2)
5.3(1,3,4,6)
2.1
2.2
[6, 7)
[2,3,5)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (3,4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
5.2 (1,2)
THERMAL
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I
ro
*-4
CO
WATER POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/ POLLUTANT STREAM
Petroleum Refining (Cont.)
Sweete1n1ng Wash Water (Cont.)
Hydrocracklng Separator Liquor
Lube 011 Processing Waste
Coke Accumulator Water
INORGANICS
4.5 (1,2)
5.2 (1,2)
5.3(1,3,4,6)
2.6
2.7
3-6)
1-4)
2.9 (1,2)
2.12
2.15
4.1
4.2
4.5 \
(1-5)
(1,3)
1-3
1,2
1,2)
4.6.2
5.2
5.3
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.12
2.14
2.15
4.1
4.2
1,2)
1,3-5)
1-7
1-4
1-6
1,2
(1-5
1,2
(1,3
1-3
1,2
-
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
DISSOLVED
PH
2.6 (3-6
2.7 (1-4
2.9 (1,2
2.12
2.15
4.1
4.2
4.5
(1-5)
(1.3
1-3
1,2
1,2
4.6.2
5.2
5.3
1,2)
1,3-5)
2.9 (1,2)
2.10
4.1
4.2
4.5
5,2
5.3
(1-4)
1-3)
1,2)
1,2
1,2)
1,3-5)
TOXIC
SUBSTANCES
ORGANICS
2.11
2.12
2.13
1-5
1-6)
1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1
.2
4.4 (1-3
4.5 (1,2
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
2.6 (1-7)
2.7 (1-4)
2.8 (1-6)
2.9 (1,2)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12
2.13
[1-6)
1-4
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
SUSPENDED
SOLIDS
OILS
5.3(1,3,4,6)
2.1 (6,7)
2.2
2.3
2.4
2,3,5)
1-4
3,4
2.5.14
2.11
2.12
2.13
(1-5)
1-6
1-4
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
5.2 (1,2)
2.1
2.2
2,3
6,7)
2,3,5)
1-4)
2.4 (3,4)
2.11
2.12
2.13
(1-5)
(1-6)
(1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
THERMAL
2.6 (1-7)
2.15 (1-3)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
4.7.3
5.2 (1-3)
5.3 (3-5)
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ro
WATER POLLUTION
INDUSTRY /POLLUTANT STREAM
Petroleum Refining (Cont.)
Coke Drum Steaming Condensate
Coke Drum Quench Water
Coke Cutting Water
Gasoline Tank Draws
DISSOLVED
INORGANICS
PH
TOXIC
SUBSTANCES
ORGANICS
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3
4.5 (1,2
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2
4.4 (1-3
4.5 (1,2
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
SUSPENDED
SOLIDS
2.1 (1-5)
2.2 (1-4,
6-8)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (1-4)
2.5 (7-16)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
2.1 (1-5)
2.2 (1-4,
6-8)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (1-4)
2.5 (7-16)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
2.1 (1-5)
2.2 (1-4,
6-8)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (1-4)
2.5 (7-16)
4.1 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
OILS
2.1
2.2
2.3
6,7)
2,3,5)
1-4)
2.4 (3,4)
2.5.14
2.11
2.12
2.13
(1-5)
(1-6)
(1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4
5.2
1-3)
1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
2.1
2.2
2.3
;e,7)
2,3,5)
(1-4)
2.4 (3,4)
2.11
(1-5)
THERMAL
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ro
00
o
WATER POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/ POLLUTANT STREAM
Petroleum Refining (Cont.L
Gasoline Tank Draws (Cont.)
Ballast Water
Tank Cleaning Wastes
Catalyst Regeneration Condensate
INORGANICS
2.2.1
2.5 (17-19)
2.6 (1-7)
2.14 (1,2)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 1-3
4.5 (1,2
4.6.2
2.6 (1-7)
2.7 (1-4
2.8 (1-6
2.9 (1,2
2.12 (1-5)
2.15 (1.3)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
DISSOLVED
PH
2.6 (1-7)
2.7 (1-4)
2.8 (1-6)
2.9 (1,2)
2.12 (1-5)
2.15 (1,3)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1.2)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
TOXIC
SUBSTANCES
2.6 (1-7)
2.7 1-4)
2.8 (1-6)
2.9 (1,2)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
ORGANICS
4.4 (1-3)
4.5 (1,2)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3
4.2 (1,2
4.4 (1-3
4.5 (1,2
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
8.8 (1,2)
2.6 (2-6)
2.8 (1-6)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3
4.2 (1.2
4.4 (1-3
4.5 (1,2
4.6.2
2.6 (1-7)
2.7 (1-4)
2.8 (1-6)
2.9 (1,2)
2.11 (1-5
2.12*0-6
2.13 (1-4
4.1 0-3)
4.2 (1.2
4.5 (1,2
SUSPENDED
, SOL IDS
2.1 (1,2,5)
2.2 (1-4,
6-8
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (1-4)
2.5 (7-19)
2.6 (1-7)
2.11
0-5)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2
4.4
(1.2)
(1-3)
4.5 (1.2)
4.6.2
2.1 (1-5)
2.2 (1-4,
6-C)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4
2.5
4.1
4.5
1-4)
7-16)
1-3)
1 ȣ)
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
OILS
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
5.2 (1,2)
2.1 (6,7)
2.2 (2,3,5)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (3.4)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
5.2 (1,2)
8.8 (1,2)
2.1 (1,2,5-7)
2.2 (2-5)
2.3 (1-4
2.4 (3,4)
2.5.14
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.4 (1-3)
2.1 (6,7)
2.2 (2,3,5)
2.3 (1-4)
2.4 (3,4)
2.11 (1-5)
2.12 (1-6)
2.13 (1-4)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1,2)
THERMAL
2.6 (1-7)
2.15 (1-3)
4.1 (1-3)
4.2 (1,2)
4.5 (1.2).
4.6.2 fi
4.7.3 '
5.2 (1-3)
5.3 (3-5)
-------
I
CO
I
WATER POLLUTION
INDUSTRY/ POLLUTANT STREAM
Petroleum Refining (Cont.)
Catalyst Regeneration Condensate
DISSOLVED
INORGANICS
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
PH
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
TOXIC
SUBSTANCES
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
ORGANICS
4.6.2
5-2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
SUSPENDED
SOLIDS
OILS
4.6.2
5.2 (1,2)
5.3 (1,3-5)
THERMAL
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse tic fort; completing)
REPORT NO.
EPA-600/7-78-187
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Multimedia Environmental Control Engineering Hand-
book: Methodology and Sample Summary Sheets
5. REPORT DATE
September 1978
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
. AUTHOR(S)
T.C. Borer and A.W. Karr
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Cameron Engineers, Inc.
315 South Clarkson Street
Denver, Colorado 80210
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
EHE623A
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-2152, Task 13
2. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
EPA, Office of Research and Development
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT A/vID PERIOD COVERED
Task Final; 12/76-8/78
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/13
s. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES IERL-RTP project officer is Chester A. Vogel, Mail Drop 61,
919/541-2134.
The report describes a development methodology and provides sample
summary sheets for a Multimedia Environmental Control Engineering Handbook. This
effort is part of EPA's documentation of the environmental effects of many industrial
>rocesses (including those involving fossil fuels) to determine where environmental
controls are needed and, if needed, which existing controls are applicable or may
lave to be developed. Each main classification of the Handbook is subdivided to
specific devices or processes. The completed Handbook would require that each
device have a summary sheet filled out to include appropriate identification, pol-
.utants controlled, process description, application range, capital costs, operating
costs, operating efficiencies, environmental problems, special notes, manufacturers/
suppliers, and references. The completed Handbook is intended to be a reference to be
used as a guide to potential solutions, and alternatives to environmental problems.
7.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Held/Group
Pollution
Industrial Processes
Fossil Fuels
Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
13B
13H
21D
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report!
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
285
20. SECURITY CLASS (Tliispage)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
-282-
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