x>EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory
Research Triangle Park NC 27711
EPA-600/7-78-223a
November 1978
SRC Site-Specific
Pollutant Evaluation;
Volume I. Discussion
Interagency
Energy/Environment
R&D Program Report
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Rese-"
4. Environmer' Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Sr'antific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
1. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the INTERAGENCY ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT series. Reports in this series result from the
effort funded under the 17-agency Federal Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program. These studies relate to EPA's mission to protect the public
health and welfare from adverse effects of pollutants associated with energy sys-
tems. The goal of the Program is to assure the rapid development of domestic
energy supplies in an environmentally-compatible manner by providing the nec-
essary environmental data and control technology. Investigations include analy-
ses of the transport of energy-related pollutants and their health and ecological
effects; assessments of, and development of, control technologies for energy
systems; and integrated assessments of a wide'range of energy-related environ-
mental issues.
EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the participating Federal Agencies, anuap^pved
for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect
the views and policies of the Government, nor does mention of trade names of
commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/7-78-223a
November 1978
SRC Site-Specific Pollutant
Evaluation;
Volume I. Discussion
by
Homer T. Hopkins, Kathleen M. McKeon, Carolyn R. Thompson,
and E. Earl Weir
Hittman Associates, Inc.
9190 Red Branch Road
Columbia, Maryland 21045
Contract No. 68-02-2162
Program Element No. EHE623A
EPA Project Officer: William J. Rhodes
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Prepared for
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
Washington. DC 20460
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ABSTRACT
This report attempts to characterize the potential
environmental effects of various treated (and certain un-
treated) multimedia waste streams resulting from the opera-
tion of a standard-sized Solvent Refined Coal (SRC-I and
SRC-II) liquefaction facility utilizing 28,123 Mg of
Illinois No. 6 coal per day. The objectives of the study
were to: (1) conduct a more detailed evaluation of the SRC
pollutants characterized in an earlier report, referred to
as the Standards of Practice Manual for the SRC liquefaction
process; (2) estimate the potentially adverse effects of
pollutant stressors emanating from a hypothetical SRC facil-
ity presumed to be located along the Wabash River in White
County, Illinois; and (3) provide substantial background
information in a form usable for the Environmental Assess-
ment Report (EAR) on the SRC technology.
The selection of a potential site for the SRC facility
is viewed as a useful construct in that this site fulfills
the requirements of: (1) proximity to an abundance of water
and coal, and (2) distance from public lands and sensitive
terrestrial ecosystems. Extant regulatory standards and
guidelines are discussed relative to the emerging synthetic
fuels technology. The presently emerging Multimedia Envi-
ronmental Goals (MEGs) and the Source Analysis Methodology
(SAM/IA) are used to evaluate the goals and apparent safe
limits for organic and inorganic pollutants resulting from
operation of the SRC plant. Updated information is pre-
sented on the characteristics and quantities of effluent
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constituents in the multimedia context. Generic and site-
specific environmental issues and constraints are discussed.
Recognized abiotic and biotic interactions are discussed in
relation to air and water quality, water use, land use, and
threatened and endangered species of plants and animals.
Pollutants of concern are discussed in terms of both site-
related factors and physiochemical properties of chemical
and non-chemical pollutants. Research needs are identified
in terms of the SRC technology, monitoring, and the envi-
ronmental sciences.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
This report is one of a series in an ongoing effort to
characterize the potential environmental effects of various
waste streams likely associated with the operation of a
standard-sized Solvent Refined Coal (SRC-I and SRC-II)
facility utilizing 28,123 megagrams (Mg) of Illinois No. 6
coal per day. The objectives of this study have been to:
(1) conduct a more detailed evaluation of SRC potential
pollutants that were characterized earlier in the Standards
of Practice Manual for the SRC liquefaction process, and (2)
to estimate the potential effects of various pollutants on
the environment in a multimedia context. Beyond this, an
effort was made to estimate the potential environmental
effects of the various pollutants associated with an SRC
plant located in a known geographical area. For illustra-
tive purposes, White County, Illinois, was selected.
This report was written in full awareness of key ques-
tions relating to the development and promulgation of regu-
latory standards, guidelines, and policies for an emerging
synthetic fuels technology. Coupled with the already exist-
ing regulatory requirements are the presently emerging
Multimedia Environmental Goals (MEGs) and the Source Analy-
sis Methodology (SAM/IA) concepts currently being developed
by the EPA/IERL-RTP. These concepts were used to evaluate
the goals and apparent safe limits for major pollutants
resulting from the operation of the SRC plant.
iv
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The major thrust of each of the seven sections of this
report is summarized as follows:
DESCRIPTION OF THE SOLVENT REFINED COAL LIQUEFACTION PROCESS
AND EXISTING ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
The basis for this study is a hypothetical commercial
solvent refined coal (SRC) liquefaction facility which con-
sumes 28,123 megagrams (Mg) of coal, which is equivalent to
31,000 tons (T) of Illinois No. 6 (Herrin) coal per day.
The plant is presumed to be located on the Wabash River
in White County, Illinois. This site was selected because
of its proximity to large reserves of a process-compatible
raw coal feed, the availability of an adequate water supply,
and an expressed interest by the State of Illinois in coal
conversion (1).
. The SRC system (1) utilizes a non-catalytic direct-
hydrogenation coal liquefaction process. It converts
high-sulfur and -ash coal into clean-burning gaseous,
liquid, or solid fuels. There are two basic system varia-
tions: (1) SRC-I, which produces a solid coal-like product
of less than 1 percent sulfur and 0.2 percent ash; and (2)
SRC-II, which produces low-sulfur fuel oil (0.2-0.5 percent
sulfur) and naphtha product. Both system variations pro-
duce significant quantities of gaseous hydrocarbons, which
are further processed in the SRC system to synthetic natural
gas and liquefied petroleum gas products. Some constituents
that are formed during the hydrogenation reaction are
recovered as by-products. These include sulfur, ammonia,
and phenol. This report is aimed primarily at the SRC-II
system, which at this time seems to be the most promising
alternative.
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To facilitate an understanding of the basic components
of the SRC system, a modular approach is taken. In the
modular approach, the SRC-II system is subdivided into
operations. Each operation is accomplished by carrying out
a group of processes, a process being the smallest unit of
the overall system. Auxiliary processes perform functions
incidental to the functions of system operations. All
processes may be represented visually by process modules,
which display process input and output stream character-
istics. Sets of process modules may be used to describe SRC
system operations, the overall SRC system, or the entire
coal liquefaction energy technology.
In addition to descriptions of the process modules,
this chapter also includes a discussion of existing environ-
mental requirements. No federal regulations for air,
water, or solid wastes have yet been promulgated to address
specifically the commercial SRC and related coal liquefac-
tion technologies. There are, however, a number of federal
regulations applicable to other industries that provide
some insight into levels of control that might be required
for liquefaction processes.
Environmental requirements for pollutants in states
making up the major coal-bearing regions of the United
States may differ significantly from federal standards.
The chapter discusses state limitations on air, water, and
solid wastes for the following coal regions: Northern
Alaska, Four Corners (Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and
Utah), Eastern Interior (Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky),
Fort Union-Powder River (Montana, North Dakota, and Wyoming),
Texas, and Appalachian (Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West
Virginia).
VI
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POLLUTANT DISCHARGE LEVELS
Emissions to the atmosphere during regular SRC plant
operation are expected to arise primarily from the auxiliary
unit systems. These include cooling towers, boilers, sulfur
recovery, and dryers. Actual SRC process-related emissions
appear to consist mostly of leaks in pump seals, joints,
and flanges, and leaks from product handling and storage.
These process-related emissions should be monitored as a
part of the occupational health program, since they may
include hydrocarbons and toxic aromatics.
Fugitive emissions (e.g., particulates) will be emitted
from the following sources: coal storage piles, coal reclaim-
ing and crushing, coal receiving, dryer stack gas, and ash
from steam generation. Trace elements of fugitive emissions
(i.e., dusts) from coal preparation having a potential
health hazard consist predominantly of aluminum, chromium,
and nickel. Present evidence suggests that trace element
concentrations in particulates escaping from treated stack
gas are enriched in zinc, copper, zirconium, molybdenum,
and selenium.
Unquantified amounts of polynuclear aromatic hydrocar-
bons (PAH) are expected to be emitted with the particulates
that escape air pollution control equipment. Substantial
quantities of carbon dioxide ( 20,000 Mg per day) will
emanate from several auxiliary and process units.
Insofar as the SRC process wastewaters will be treated
for reuse and not for discharge, there appears to be nominal
concern for cyanides, phenols, sulfides, ammonia, and dis-
solved solids. The concentrations of total dissolved solids
from coal pile runoff may range from 247 to 44,050 mg/1;
suspended solids may range from 22 to 3302 mg/1. The high
vii
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alkalinity of coal from the Illinois region, however, is
likely to neutralize much of the acidity in coal pile run-
off, thus decreasing the solubility of the salts. Conse-
quently, the Illinois No. 6 coal can be expected to release
pollutants at the lower end of the concentration range.
However, preventive measures will be required to avoid
overflow from ash ponds. Placement of impervious linings on
the ash pond bottoms is recommended to guard against serious
groundwater pollution.
Solid wastes generated in coal preparation consist of
tramp iron, slate, coal, and "bone" and amount to about
7,700 Mg per day with a moisture level of 24 percent.
Leachate from solid wastes generated in the SRC process
would be expected to contain appreciable levels of heavy
metals, trace elements, and sulfur compounds. The expecta-
tion is that coal refuse and the SRC solid wastes such as
hazardous sludges will be disposed of in strip mine areas
along with slag and fly ash from the gasifier units.
The trace element concentration of, coal dusts is expec-
ted to be similar to that of the parent coal, although
certain trace elements have a tendency to concentrate in the
smaller-sized particles. The mercury and nickel levels in
the bio-unit sludge are reported to present potential health
hazards. One of the largest volumes of solid wastes to be
disposed of in the SRC plant is the gasifier slag and .
quenched fly ash, estimated at 1538 Mg per day with 40
percent water. Volatile trace elements such as mercury,
selenium, and germanium are expected to be lost from the
slag during disposal operations.
The 11,368 Mg per day of SRC product and by-product are
considered hazardous in that they are reported to contain
appreciable amounts of naphthalenes, phenanthrenes, alkyl
viii
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benzenes, and other aromatics in the 343 to 511°C fraction.
The several process variables that affect the distribution
of these toxic substances, however, are poorly understood.
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA
Southern Illinois, southwestern Indiana, and western
Kentucky have a strong orientation toward the extractive in-
dustries. This activity, coupled with extensive agricul-
tural and industrial pursuits, has contributed materially to
the stressing of the existing environment in the Wabash
River Basin. For example, the Wabash and Little Wabash
Rivers appear to be stressed by surface runoff of sediment
and other pollutants from croplands and abandoned oil
fields. Some evidence suggests that the diversity and
productivity of the fishery resources of the Wabash River
have already declined noticeably. Given these facts, it
appears that the construction and operation of a commercial
SRC facility in White County, Illinois, would not signifi-
cantly change the existing air and water quality, provided
that the controls described in the SRC Standards of Practice
Manual (SPM) were used. Other environmental protection
strategies are discussed later under the heading of ENVI-
RONMENTAL EFFECTS, with particular reference to environ-
mental baseline monitoring activities.
The Wabash River is considered to have a flow volume
3
adequate to meet the estimated 23,000 m /day water require-
ment for the SRC-II facility. This quantity of water rep-
resents 0.3 percent of the 7-day/10-year low flow volume of
the Wabash River in the White County area. The stream flow
3
volume of the Little Wabash (13,800 m /day) (e.g., low
flows) is judged inadequate to meet the water needs of the
SRC plant.
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The designated site location in White County is adja-
cent to the Wabash Valley aquifer; this is a major aquifer
o
capable of yielding in excess of 2,880 m /day. Thus, ground-
water could become a major source of usable, supplemental
water for the SRC facility. In general, the groundwater is
more mineralized than the surface water. Some well water
data reflect high chloride levels, presumably from oil well
brine seepage. The deeper bedrock aquifers have very low
water yields. The existing quality of surface waters appears
inadequate for most SRC facility operations without prior
treatment to remove nitrates and chlorides. However, no
water quality standards have been established for use in the
operation of SRC-II facility.
Potential constraints to the siting of the proposed SRC
facility that are directly linked to the White County area
include the following: prevention of significant deteriora-
tion of ambient air quality, conflicts arising between the
existing agro-industrial users and future synfuels plants
over consumptive in-stream water allocation, development of
new underground mines, coal transportation problems linked
to the mounting maintenance costs of highways and railroads,
disruption of major aquifers as a result of coal extraction,
regulatory constraints on developments in flood plains,
increased water pumping costs, constraints to new mine
development posed by existing oil well regulations, dete-
rioration of two natural preservation areas in southeast-
ern Illinois and approximately eight such areas in south-
western Indiana from air pollution, increased construction
costs related to earthquake hazard, and accelerated loss of
prime farmland to pipelines, roads, mined areas, and urbaniza-
tion.
Favorable site-related factors include an abundance of
Illinois No. 6 coal reserves in White County and adjacent
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counties to the south and west, and the relatively wide
spacing intervals between the proposed facility and federal
and state lands, forests, and preserves.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
Emphasis was placed on a somewhat detailed discussion
of the influence of known dissipative forces, and conversely,
the known exacerbative forces operating in the environment
that act to decrease, increase, or sometimes neutralize the
adverse effects of many pollutants. For example, the effect
of a given pollutant on organisms in a specific ecosystem
(or site) is a function of the effective dose level, the
chemical form and time of exposure to the pollutant, and the
interplay of specific site factors that include temperature,
atmospheric turbulence, stream flow volumes and rates (e.g.,
dilution effects), light intensity, and a host of other
abiotic and biotic combinations and permutations. For
example, the chemical form of a pollutant in combination
with other pollutants is determinate to pollutant action via
absorption, metabolism, bioaccumulation, and excretion.
This approach appears justified because of its close
relation to the development of a comprehensive monitoring
and information gathering program for the synthetic fuels
technology envisaged by the U.S. Department of Energy.
Specific environmental effects of most pollutants are
difficult to predict. The abiotic site-specific factors
which determine the level of the pollutant and its actions
on various receptors include the weather and, hence, are as
variable as the weather. Environmental interactions with
the pollutant include photoreactions to change a pollutant
to a more (or less) toxic form; these also depend on the
xi
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weather. The amount of pollutant to which an aquatic organ-
ism will be exposed will depend on the sediment-water inter-
action which, in turn, depends on the characteristics of the
sediment and other materials in the water. Other environ-
mental interactions include changing the form of a pollutant
to a more or less toxic form through metabolic degradation,
or by physical alteration through combustion, photochemical
action, and evaporation.
This segment of the'report contains a SAM/IA analysis
of the hypothetical SRC facility. Results suggest that: (1)
the most important gaseous emissions appear to be carbon
dioxide and carbon monoxide; (2) the most important efflu-
ents appear to contain aluminum, copper, zinc, nickel, and
several organic compounds; and (3) the most toxic general
category of waste streams will be the solid wastes. How-
ever, these findings should be used with caution until more
definitive data are obtained from a comprehensive pilot
plant program and an operational demonstration plant. For
example, these results may be fortuitous, either because the
quantities of these substances in the waste streams are so
large that they will, as predicted by the SAM, be the most
important in assessing the environmental impact of the SRC
facility, or because certain substances which could exert
significant impacts were not included in the SAM analysis,
since no information was available as to their levels in the
waste streams.
The potential for the contamination of the Wabash
Valley aquifer as a result of underground movement of leach-
ate from hazardous waste disposal sites must be viewed as
serious. This stems from the very long residence times once
contaminants gain entry into groundwater. In order to make
a valid assessment of the groundwater contamination poten-
tial, more information is needed on the site-specific soil
xii
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and geologic conditions as well as the leachability charac-
teristics of the land-disposed wastes. Disposal areas
should be properly sited in areas of least potential impact.
Such areas must be as far away from the path of an aquifer
as possible and located on geological material that will
reduce potential seepage into the groundwater.
In spite of the fact that phenols apparently are re-
moved from wastewater at a high efficiency, there is need
for caution with respect to the recalcitrance of certain
higher molecular weight phenolic substances. More work is
needed to establish the efficiency of the biooxidation
treatment in reducing these phenolic compounds.
The PAHs are produced during the coal liquefaction
process and in the coal combustion auxiliary processes. In
the air and water media they are generally associated with
particulate matter. The carcinogenicity of these compounds
ranges from inactive, to suspect, to highly carcinogenic.
The potential emission level of such carcinogenic compounds
needs further study.
POLLUTANTS OF CONCERN
The MEG methodology was heavily relied upon in asses-
sing and suggesting safe goals for the various inorganic
pollutants reported to be of concern with reference to the
proposed SRC facility. Because the MEGs have not addressed
synergistic and antagonistic interactions, the suggestion is
made that this problem might be circumvented by MEGs which
deal with the "concentration of carcinogens and cocarcino-
gens." However, much more research will be necessary before
meaningful goals can be defined in this context.
xiii
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Suggesting goals for pollutant discharge levels is com-
plicated by the complexity of the system and imprecise or
incomplete scientific knowledge. Four major sources of
difficulty in the setting of meaningful environmental goals
include: the transport of pollutants through the media of
air, water, and land; the transformation of compounds from
harmless chemicals to damaging pollutants in the environment
by physical, chemical, or biological means; the synergies
through which two or more substances or agents interact to
create a significantly more damaging effect; and the diffi-
culty of establishing a threshold for effects when even low-
level doses are suspect. The production of photochemical
oxidants and the transport of air pollutants from region to
region are examples of phenomena that must be better under-
stood.
With reference to the importance of developing mean-
ingful and comprehensive environmental monitoring and infor-
mation gathering programs for the synfuels technology, it is
apparent that in an overall perspective, monitoring com-
prises the following functional sequence: problem recogni-
tion, monitoring, evaluation of data/and formulation of
policy options; within this sequence there are many feed-
backs between phases. For example, a monitoring system may
generate data leading to the establishment of legal emission
standards. In due course, the monitoring system may be
modified to insure that the standards are having the desired
effect and that compliance is being achieved.
With reference to the proposed White County site, and
other sites as well, it is apparent that the following site-
related baseline information will be needed in order to
develop the best environmental protection strategies for the
following substances in the multimedia context:
xxv
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• Concentrations of all regulated substances, such
as those under NAAQS (see Section II of this
report), Public Health Service Drinking Water, and
all other environmental and occupational (OSHA)
standards promulgated by Federal and state author-
ities
• Concentrations of all unregulated and suspected
carcinogens, mutagens, and teratogens
• Concentrations of all other substances of concern.
With reference to those environmental attributes pecu-
liar to the White County site, and for which detailed base-
line, site-specific information will be required, the fol-
lowing actions are considered to be of major importance:
• Stream low-flow and peak-flow rates and patterns
• Assessment of groundwater contamination resulting
from overland flows and seepage from the plant
area, and from waste disposal areas
• Assessment of downwind effects of the cooling
tower plume and of stack emissions on high dollar-
value field crops and natural preservation areas
• Detailed evaluation of the subsurface soil per-
meabilities to liquids and gases
• Assessment of the effect of CC^ and CO emissions
on the inadvertent modification of local precipi-
tation patterns
xv
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• Assessment of rates of dispersion and dilution of
key SRC effluent pollutants in surface waters of
White County, Illinois
• Assessment of rates of dispersion and dilution of
heat emissions to the local atmosphere of White
County, Illinois.
RESEARCH NEEDS
In the discussion of pollutant discharge levels from
the hypothetical SRC facility, a number of SRC technology-
related research needs were reported; these include the
following:
• Leachability of all slags from gasifier and other
modules
• The chemical composition of solid and hazardous
wastes generated by the SRC-II technology
* The concentrations of trace elements and acidity
emanating from nonvegetated refuse piles compared
to vegetated refuse piles
• The amount of sediment, chemical wastes, and non-
chemical wastes generated during the construction
of the SRC plant
• The concentration and distribution in particulates
of natural radionuclides, trace elements, and
organics in or sorbed by particulate-size classes
xvi
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Comparison of the effectiveness of standard versus
improved dust control measures in coal prepara-
tion, storage, and receiving areas
Localized (downwind) environmental and vegeta-
tional effects of cooling tower plume drift in
different regions
The amount and chemical composition of catalyst
dust and carbon monoxide emissions
The cost effectiveness and feasibility of using
ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and other tech-
niques to treat cooling tower blowdown water
The requirements for chemical stabilization of de-
watered sludges
The increased building construction costs and
plant equipment costs attributable to meeting
earthquake hazards
Chemical interactions occurring among components
of raw water treatment sludge
The effect of process operating variables on the
composition and volume of SRC-I and SRC-II prod-
ucts and by-products
The effectiveness of various wastewater treatment
methods in the removal of polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons, higher molecular weight phenols,
polycyclic N-aromatics and polycyclic hydroxy com-
pounds .
xvii
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Research needs in the areas of environmental monitoring and
environmental sciences are also discussed at length.
xvi 11
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CONTENTS
Abstract ii
Executive Summary iv
List of Figures xxiii
List of Tables xxv
Abbreviations xxxi
Conversion Factors xxxiii
/
Acknowledgements xxxvii
1. INTRODUCTION 1-1
2. DESCRIPTION OF THE SOLVENT REFINED COAL
LIQUEFACTION PROCESS AND EXISTING ENVIRONMENTAL
REQUIREMENTS 2-1
2.1 Introduction . 2-1
2.2 Description of the SRC System . 2-2
2.2.1 Coal Preparation Module 2-2
2.2.2 Hydrogenation Module 2-4
2.2.3 Phase (Gas) Separation Module . . . 2-4
2.2.4 Solids Separation Module 2-4
2.2.5 Fractionation Module 2-5
2.2.6 Solvent Hydrotreating Module .... 2-5
2.2.7 Solidification Module 2-5
2.2.8 Gas Purification Module 2-6
2.2.9 Cryogenic Separation Module .... 2-6
2.2.10 Auxiliary Processes Module 2-7
2.3 Existing Environmental Requirements . . . . 2-7
2.3.1 Federal Requirements 2-10
2.3.2 State Requirements 2-21
xix
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CONTENTS (continued)
3. POLLUTANT DISCHARGE LEVELS 3-1
3.1 Air Emissions 3-1
3.1.1 Fugitive Emissions 3-4
3.1.2 Individual Pollutants From the
Modules 3-14
3.2 Water Effluents 3-23
3.2.1 Complex Effluents 3-24
3.2.2 Individual Pollutants from the
Modules 3-34
3.3 Solid Wastes 3-48
3.3.1 Land-Destined Wastes 3-48
3.3.2 Individual Pollutants from the
Modules 3-49
3.3.3 Non-Chemical Pollutants 3-68
3.3.4 Product Spills 3-73
3.3.5 Measures to Mitigate Adverse
Effects of Syncrude Spills .... 3-76
3.4 Construction-Related Pollutants ...... 3-81
3.4.1 Existing Environmental Requirements. 3-81
3.4.2 Requirements for Erosion and
Sediment Control in Illinois . . . 3-88
3.4.3 Sources and Types of Construction-
Related Pollutants 3-90
3.4.4 Environmental Protection During
Construction of the SRC Plant . . 3-99
4. ENVIRONMENTAL DATA, WHITE COUNTY, ILLINOIS .... 4-1
4.1 Summary of Environmental Issues 4-1
4.1.1 Issues Relating to the Siting and
Construction of SRC Plants .... 4-3
4.1.2 Issues Relating to the Operation
of SRC Plants 4-5
4.2 Characterization of Abiotic Features of
White County 4-6
4.2.1 Water Resources 4-6
4.2.2 Existing Water Quality (Background
Levels of Stressors) ...".... 4-16
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CONTENTS (continued)
4.2.3 Existing Air Quality (Background
Levels of Stressors) 4-20
4.2.4 Topography/Geomorphology 4-23
4.2.5 Geology and Soils . . 4-28
4.2.6 Climate 4-33
4.2.7 Historic Landmarks and Trails . . . 4-36
4.2.8 Historic Archeological Sites .... 4-36
4.2.9 Industries 4-37
4.2.10 Transportation 4-37
4.3 Characterization of Existing Biotic
Features Having Relevance to Potential
Adverse Environmental Effects ....... 4-38
4.3.1 Fish and Wildlife Resources . . . .4-38
4.3.2 Rare and Endangered Species .... 4-53
4.3.3 Agroecosys terns 4-58
4.3.4 Natural Areas Near White County . . 4-60
4.4 Site Selection Factors Specific to White
County 4-66
4.4.1 Favorable Siting Factors ...... 4-66
4.4.2 Constraints to Siting 4-72
4.5 Current Environmental Monitoring and
Related Programs 4-84
4.5.1 Types of Monitoring 4-85
4.5.2 Current Air Monitoring Program . . . 4-92
4.5.3 Individual Dischargers Monitoring
Program . . 4-93
4.5.4 Water Monitoring Programs in
Illinois . . . ... . . ... . . . 4-93
4.5.5 Air Monitoring Programs in
Illinois 4-94
5. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS INFORMATION, WHITE COUNTY,
ILLINOIS 5-1
5.1 Factors Affecting Environmental
Distribution and/or Effects of
Pollutants 5-1
5.1.1 Site-Related Factors . 5-1
5.1.2 Characteristics of Chemical
Pollutants 5-23
5.1.3 Potential Ecotoxicological Effects
of Chemical Pollutants 5-47
xxi
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CONTENTS (continued)
5.1.4 Potential Effects of Non-Chemical
Pollutants 5-88
5.1.5 Natural Radioactivity . . . . . . .5-93
5.1.6 SAM/IA Analysis of the
Hypothetical SRC Facility 5-94
5.2 Strategies for Environmental Impact
Assessment 5-96
5.2.1 Generic Environmental Impacts . . . 5-97
5.2.2 Site-Specific Impacts 5-98
5.3 Strategies for Environmental Protection . . 5-104
5.3.1 Generic Strategies for Environmental
Protection 5-106
5.3.2 Site-Specific Environmental
Protection Strategies 5-108
6. POLLUTANTS OF CONCERN AND SUGGESTIONS FOR
APPROPRIATE GOALS 6-1
7. RESEARCH NEEDS 7-1
7.1 The SRC Technology 7-1
7.2 Environmental Assessment and Monitoring . . 7-2
7.2.1 SRC Pollutants Requiring Site-
Specific Study 7-3
7.2.2 Epidemiologic Methodologies .... 7-5
7.2.3 Ambient Monitoring of
Pollutants ...... 7-7
7.2.4 Sensitive Subpopulations ...... 7-9
7.2.5 Further Literature Searches .... 7-10
7.2.6 Methodological Needs for
Regulatory Policy Development . . 7-11
7.3 Environmental Sciences 7-12
7.3.1 Synergism and Antagonism .7-13
7.3.2 Chronic Effects 7-14
7.3.3 Degradation Products ........ 7-16
7.3.4 Subclinical Effects 7-16
7.3.5 Mechanisms of Action 7-17
7.3.6 Body Burdens Causing Adverse
Effects 7-19
7.3.7 Intermedia Exchange 7-20
7.3.8 Excretion Kinetics .......... 7-20
xxi i
-------
LIST OF FIGURES
Number Page
2-1 SRC-II system overall flow diagram 2-3
3-1 Decay series for naturally occurring uranium
and thorium isotopes 3-74
4-1 Project schedule for building coal conversion
facility 4-2
4-2 Wabash River sub-basin of the Ohio River
drainage system 4-7
4-3 White County drainage 4-8
4-4 Distribution of glacial aquifers in major
bedrock valleys 4-13
4-5 Yields of sand and gravel aquifers 4-15
4-6 Total suspended particulate trend for
Evansville (Center City), 1970-1976 4-25
4-7 Distribution of glacial drift . 4-26
4-8 Physiographic divisions of Illinois . 4-27
4-9 Stratigraphic column of the Illinois basin in
the Eastern Interior region .... 4-29
4-10 Areas of high potential for coal conversion
development 4-71
4-11 Regional faulting map of Southeastern Illinois . 4-74
4-12 Total field aeromagnetic map of Southeastern
Illinois 4-75
4-13 Bouguer gravity map of Southeastern Illinois . . 4-76
5-1 Typical lines of equal velocity in a stream
cross section 5-11
xxiii
-------
LIST OF FIGURES (continued)
Number Page
5-2 Concentration curves of a dye tracer
introduced into the Vermilion River 5-12
5-3 Time-of-travel graph, Little Wabash River .... 5-14
5-4 Percolation of contaminants from a disposal pit
to a water table aquifer 5-19
5-5 How contaminated water can be induced to flow
from a surface Stream to a well 5-20
5-6 Hypothetical dispersal of contaminants in
mixed wastes through a water table aquifer . . . 5-22
5-7 Diets of migratory waterfowl killed in Illinois . 5-38
5-8 Retention of particulate matter in lung in
relation to particle size 5-46
5-9 An idealized management system for protecting
human health • • 5-105
xxiv
-------
LIST OF TABLES
Number
2-1
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-8
3-1
3-2
3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-8
PSD Permitting Agreements
Standards of Performance for New Source Coal
Preparation Plants
Factors in the Establishment of Water Quality
Standards in Coal-Producing States . .
Numerical Effluent Standards of Coal-Producing
States
Existing State Requirements for Hazardous and
Solid Wastes
Analysis Chart for Waste Groups
Absolute Permissible Concentrations of Soluble
Inorganics at Disposal Sites in Illinois ....
Acceptable Disposal Methods
Characterization of Illinois No. 6 Coal
Fugitive Dust Emissions from Coal Receiving
After Treatment
Fugitive Dust Emissions from Coal Reclaiming
and Crushing Following Treatment
Coal Dryer Stack Gas Emissions Following
Treatment .
Trace Element Analysis of Recovered Sulfur . . .
Emissions After Treatment of S tret ford Tail Gas .
Component Analysis of Boiler Flue Gas
Sulfur Dioxide Concentrations in Boiler Flue Gas
Following Various Treatment Methods
Page
2-11
2 -.17
2-28
2-30
2-33
2-38
2-39
2-39
3-2
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-8
3-15
3-16
3-16
XXV
-------
LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Number Page
3-9 Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide Emissions
from Several Point Sources 3-18
3-10 Approximate Trace Element Composition from
Controlled Emissions in Coal Preparation .... 3-20
3-11 Estimated Concentrations of Selected Trace
Elements in Particulates Escaping Control Devices
in Treated Stack Gas . . 3-23
3-12 Characterization of Foul Process Water 3-25
3-13 Efficiencies of Oil Removal from Wastewater by
Dissolved Air Flotation 3-29
3-14 Chemical Wastes Characteristics of Coal Pile
Drainage 3-30
3-15 Characteristics of Ash Pond Effluent from Coal-
Fired Power Plants Run on Kentucky Bituminous or
Illinois Coal 3-32
3-16 Distribution of Phenolic Compounds Following
Phenol Recovery and Biological Treatment .... 3-36
3-17 Concentrations of PAH in SRC Foul Process Water . 3-37
3-18 Concentrations of Straight-Chain Alkanes in
Chesapeake Bay Microorganisms 3-38
3-19 Concentrations of Heterocyclic N-Aromatics
Detected in Synthane Foul Process Water 3-39
3-20 Oxygen Depletion of Heterocyclic N-Aromatics . . 3-40
3-21 Concentrations of Polycyclic Hydroxy Compounds
Found in Foul Process Water from Synthane
Process 3-41
3-22 Trace Element Composition of H-Coal Foul Process
Condensate Water 3-41
3-23 Summary of Removal of Metals by Chemical
Clarification and Carbon Adsorption 3-42
3-24 Effects of Refuse Pile Runoff on Stream
Composition 3-46
xxvi
-------
LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Number Page
3-25 Solid Wastes Generated in SRC-II 3-50
3-26 Absorbent Purge from the Stretford Unit 3-54
3-27 Composition of API Separator Bottoms 3-57
3-28 Trace Element Concentration in Bio-Unit Sludge . 3-58
3-29 Raw Water Treatment Sludge 3-61
3-30 Estimated Concentration of Trace Elements in
Bottom Ash and Fly Ash from Steam Generation . . 3-62
3-31 Characteristics of Scrubber Sludge Generated
in Coal-Fired Power Plants 3-64
3-32 Organics Quantified in SRC-I Solid Residue from
Kentucky Bituminous Coal 3-65
3-33 Estimated Trace Element Composition of the SRC
Residue 3-66
3-34 Thermal Efficiency of SRC-II 3-71
3-35 Radioactivity Due to Decay of the Uranium and
Thorium Series Associated with 28,123 Mg
(31,000 T) Illinois No. 6 Coal 3-73
3-36 Total Radioactive Emissions Due to the Decay of
the Uranium and Thorium Series Associated with
28,123 Mg (31,000 T) Illinois No. 6 Coal .... 3-75
3-37 Commercial SRC Process Production Rates .... 3-75
3-38 Inspection of Products from Illinois No. 6 Coal
from H-Coal Process 3-77
3-39 Licenses, Permits, and Approvals Applicable to
Coal Conversion Plant Construction ....... 3-83
3-40 Construction Practices and Associated Air
Pollutants 3-93
3-41 Construction Practices and Associated Nonpoint
Source Water Pollutants 3-96
3-42 Construction Practices and Associated Solid
Wastes 3-98
xxvii
-------
LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Number Page
3-43 Selected Environmental Protection Measures on
Construction Sites 3-101
4-1 Stream Flow for Rivers in White County
Vicinity 4-10
4-2 Water Quality - Wabash River at New Harmony,
Indiana 4-17
4-3 Comparison of Water Quality Data for Periods
1955-1971 4-18
4-4 Water Quality Data - Well Near New Haven .... 4-19
4-5 Groundwater Quality - Wabash Basin ....... 4-19
4-6 Summary of January to November 1977 Monthly
Air Quality Reports for Air Quality Control
Region 74 (Southeastern Illinois) 4-21
4-7 Air Quality Data from Locations in Indiana
Within 140 km of White County, Illinois 4-22
4-8 Twenty-Four Hour Average Sulfur Dioxide and
Nitrogen Dioxide Levels During March 3, 1975 to
March 12, 1975 at Three Sites in Sullivan
County, Indiana 4-24
4-9 Estimated Soil Limitations for Engineering
Uses of White County Soils 4-33
4-10 Changes in Diversity Index, pH, Alkalinity,
Total Number, and Weight of Fish Caught Along
the Wabash River in or Near White County .... 4-49
4-11 Summary of Factors Responsible for the
Extirpation and Decimation of Some Illinois
Fish 4-57
4-12 Dollar Value of Various Grain and Hay Crops
in White County, Illinois, 1975 and 1976 .... 4-60
4-13 States Having High Coal Reserves . . . . . . . .4-70
4-14 Cost Consequences of Design Method 4-79
4-15 Soil Types and Designations: White County
Farmlands 4-81
xxviii
-------
LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Number Page
5-1 Parameters Affecting Dilution and Dispersion
of Contaminants Discharged to Air, Water, or
Land 5-2
5-2 Representative Nature of the Illinoian Drift . . 5-8
5-3 Abiotic Features of a Hydrologic System Which
Affect Dissipative Rate of Contaminants 5-10
5-4 Time-of-Travel Rates Between Various Locations
Along the Wabash River 5-13
5-5 Little Wabash River: Low, Medium, and High
Flow Rates at Gaging Stations 5-14
5-6 Evaporation Parameters and Rates for Various
Compounds at 25°C 5-16
5-7 Solubility of Fused Aromatic Hydrocarbons in
Water 5-27
5-8 Solubility in Water at Room Temperature of
Paraffin, Branched-Chain Paraffin, and Olefin
Hydrocarbons 5-30
5-9 Routes of Absorption and Excretion for Various
Elements 5-31
5-10 Effect of the Size of Particulates on
Deposition in the Respiratory Tract 5-39
5-11 Syndromes Produced on Non-Human Organisms by
Various Toxic Elements 5-49
5-12 Syndromes Produced on Humans by Various Toxic
Elements ......... 5-54
5-13 Polynuclear Hydrocarbon Concentrations in Fly
Ash from Coal-Fired Power Plants A and B
(Micrograms/106 kJ Input) 5-59
5-14 Adverse Effects for Selected Organic Compounds
Potentially Emitted by Liquefaction Plants . . . 5-60
5-15 Known or Suspected Carcinogens Which May Be in
the Effluent Streams of Coal Liquefaction
Plants 5-62
xxix
-------
LIST OF TABLES (continued)
Number Page
5-16 Eye Irritation Potency of Various Hydrocarbons
in Irradiated Synthetic Atmospheres 5-67
5-17 Aquatic Toxicity of PAH 5-73
5-18 Reported Entrainment Incidents 5-90
5-19 Reported Impingement Incidents 5-91
5-20 Estimated Land Area Consigned to the SRC
Complex 5-99
XXX
-------
ABBREVIATIONS
ACGIH:
AQCR:
BACT/BAT:
BAPT/BPT:
BOD:
BOD5:
COD:
DO:
EOD:
EPC:
ETTA:
IEPA:
LC50:
LD5Q:
MATE:
MEG:
MLVSS:
NA:
American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists
Air quality control region
Best available control technology/best
available technology (equivalent terms)
Best available practical technology/best
practical technology (equivalent terms)
Biological oxygen demand (period of time
unspecified)
Biological oxygen demand over a 5-day period
Chemical oxygen demand
Dissolved oxygen
Elimination of discharge
Estimated permissible concentration
Effluent transport and transformation analysis
Illinois Environmental Protection Agency
The concentration of a substance which will
cause the death of 50 percent of an experi-
mental animal population under controlled
conditions and time exposure
The lethal dose to 50 percent of a population
Minimum acute toxicity effluent
Multimedia environmental goals
Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids
Nonattainment area
xxxi
-------
NAAQS:
NIOSH:
NPDES :
NSPS:
PAH:
PSD:
RCRA:
SAM:
SAM/IA:
SIP:
SPM:
SRC:
SRC- I:
SRC- II;
TDS:
TLV:
TSP:
TSS:
TUDR:
TUBS:
VSS:
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System
New source performance standards
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (equivalent
to polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons)
Prevention of significant deterioration
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976
Source analysis models
A particular source analysis model
State implementation plans
Standards of Practice Manual
Solvent refined coal, a method of producing
an environmentally cleaner fuel from coal
A solvent refined coal process which pro-
duces a solid product
A solvent refined coal process which produces
a liquid product
The lowest reported toxic concentration
Total dissolved solids
Threshold limit value
Total suspended particulates
Total suspended solids
Total unit discharge rate
Toxic unit discharge sum
Volatile suspended solids
xxxii
-------
CONVERSION FACTORS
To convert from
hectare (ha)
2
square meter (m )
2
square meter (m )
square kilometer (km )
2
square meter (m )
2
square meter (m )
To
AREA
acre (a)
hectare (ha)
square mile (U.S. Survey)
(mi2)
square mile (U.S. Survey)
(ml2)
acres (a)
2
square foot (ft )
2 2
square centimeter (cm ) square inch (in )
joule (J)
joule (J)
joule (J)
electron volt (eV)
joule (J)
joule (J)
joule (J)
ENERGY (INCLUDES WORK)
British thermal unit
(International Table)
(Btu)
calorie (International
Table) (cal)
electron volt (eV)
joule (J)
erg (erg)
kilocalorie (International
Table) (Kcal)
kilowatt • hour (kW-h)
Multiply by
2.471 044 E+00
1.000 000 E-04
3.861 007 E-07
3.861 007 E-01
2.471 044 E-04
1.076 391 E+01
1,550 003 E-01
9.478 170 E-04
2.388 459 E-01
6.241 46 E+18
1.602 19 E-19
1.000 000 E+07
2.388 459 E-04
2.777 778 E-07
xxxiii
-------
To convert from
joule (J)
joule (J)
meter (m)
meter (m)
meter (m)
meter (m)
meter (m)
meter (m)
kilometer (km)
gram (g)
kilogram (kg)
gram (g)
kilogram (kg)
kilogram (kg)
kilogram (kg)
megagram (Mg)
megagram (Mg)
kilogram (kg)
milligram (mg)
microgram
To
watt • hour (W*h)
watt • sec (W-s)
LENGTH
inch (in)
foot (ft)
mile (International) (m)
mile (statute) (mi)
mile (U.S. Survey) (mi)
yard (yd)
mile (mi)
MASS
grain (gr)
grain (gr)
ounce (avoirdupois) (oz)
ounce (avoirdupois) (oz)
pounds (avoirdupois) (Ib)
ton (short, 2000 Ib) (T)
ton (short, 2000 Ib) (T)
gram (g)
gram (g)
gram (g)
gram (g)
Multiply by
2.777 778 E-04
1.000 000 E+00
3.937 008 E+01
3.280 840 E+00
6.213 712 E-04
6.213 9 E-04
6.213 700 E-04
1.093 613 E+00
6.213 712 E-01
1.543 236 E+01
1.543 236 E+04
3.527 397 E-02
3.527 397 E+01
2.204 622 E+00
1.102 311 E-03
1.102 311 E+00
1.000 000 E+06
1.000 000 E+03
1.000 000 E-03
1.000 000 E-06
xxxiv
-------
To convert from
To
MASS PER UNIT VOLUME (INCLUDES DENSITY)
kilogram per cubic meter
(kg/m3)
kilogram per cubic meter
(kg/m3)
pounds per gallon (U.S.)
(Ib/gal)
grams per cubic
centimeter (g/cc)
Multiply by
8.345 406 E-03
1.000 000 E-03
watt (W)
watt (W)
watt (W)
watt (W)
watt (W)
meter per second (m/s)
meter per second (m/s)
meter per second (m/s)
meter per second (m/s)
kilometer per hour (km/h)
POWER
Btu (International Table)
per hour (Btu/hr)
calories per minute (cal/m)
erg per second (ergs/s)
horsepower (550 fflb f/s)
(hp)
kilocalorie (thermochemical)
per min (Kcal/min)
VELOCITY
foot per second (ft/s)
inches per second (in/s)
kilometers per hour (km/h)
miles (international) per
hour (mph)
miles (international) per
hour (mph)
3.412 141 E+00
1.434 034 E+01
1.000 000 E+07
1.341 022 E-03
1.434 034 E-02
3.280 840 E+00
3.937 008 E+01
3.600 000 E+00
2.236 936 E+00
6.213 712 E-01
cubic meter (m )
3
cubic meter (m )
cubic meter (m )
3
cubic meter (m )
VOLUME
acre foot (U.S. Survey)
barrel (oil, 42 U.S.
gallons)
bushel (U.S.) (bu)
3
cubic foot (ft )
8.107 085 E-04
6.289 811 E+00
2.837 759 E+01
3.531 466 E+01
xxxv
-------
To convert from
cubic meter (m )
3
cubic meter (m )
3
cubic meter (m )
cubic meter (m )
cubic meter (m )
3
cubic meter (m )
3
cubic meter (m )
3
cubic meter (m )
cubic meter (m )
3
cubic meter (m )
cubic centimeter (cc,
cm3)
To
gallon (U.S. dry) (gal)
gallon (U.S. liquid) (gal)
3
cubic inch (in )
liter (1)
ounce (U.S. fluid) (oz)
pint (U.S. dry) (pt)
pint (U.S. liquid) (pt)
quart (U.S. dry) (qt)
quart (U.S. liquid) (qt)
3
cubic yard (yd )
3
cubic inch (in )
Multiply by
2.270 207 E+02
2.641 720 E+02
6.102 376 E+04
1.000 000 E+03
3.381 402 E+04
1.816 166 E+03
2.113 376 E+03
9.080 829 E+02
1.056 688 E+03
1.307 951 E+00
6.102 374 E-02
VOLUME PER UNIT TIME (INCLUDES FLOW)
cubic meter
(m3/s)
cubic meter
(m3/s)
cubic meter
(m3/s)
cubic meter
(m3/s)
cubic meter
(m3/s)
cubic meter
(m3/s)
per second
per second
per second
per second
per second
per second
cubic foot per minute (ft /
min)
3
cubic foot per second (ft /
s)
cubic inch per minute
(in3/min)
cubic yards per minute
(yd3/min)
gallon (U.S. liquid) per
day (gpd)
gallon (U.S. liquid) per
minute (gpm)
2.118 880 E+03
3.531 466 E+01
3.661 425 E+06
7.847 704 E+01
2.282 446 E+07
1.585 032 E+04
xxxvi
-------
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This draft document was prepared by the following staff
scientists of Hittman Associates, Incorporated:
Homer T. Hopkins, Project Scientist
Kathleen M. McKeon
Carolyn R. Thompson
E. Earl Weir
The overall direction of this work was shared by Leon Parker
and Wayne Morris at Hittman Associates.
The assistance, leadership, and advice of Mr. William
J. Rhodes, Project Officer, Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Research and Development, is acknowledged with
thanks.
Grateful appreciation is extended to several key persons
for their invaluable assistance, as follows: R.A. Arnott,
Illinois EPA; Bruce Bennett, U.S. Soil Conservation Service
in White County, Illinois; H.J. Gluskoter, Illinois State
Geological Survey; Thomas Johnson, Illinois Department of
Conservation; Garrie L. Kingsbury, Research Triangle
Institute, NC; Dale McLaren, and staff of the Greater Wabash
Regional Planning Commission; L.M. Page, Illinois Natural
History Survey; Ellis Sanderson, Illinois State Water Sur-
vey, and L. Stephen Whitley, Eastern Illinois University.
xxxvii
-------
Their excellent cooperation enabled the writers to grasp the
essence of the critical site-related factors.
Important documents, maps, and charts were furnished by
the following Federal agencies:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
Development, Washington, DC and Research Triangle Park, NC
Argonne National Laboratory, National Coal Utilization
Assessment, Energy and Environmental Systems Division, U.S.
Department of Energy, Argonne, IL
U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior,
Golden, CO and Reston, VA
National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce,
Gaithersburg, MD
U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Louisville District, Louisville,
KY
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service,
Washington, DC and Champaign-Urbana, IL
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Rural Electrification
Administration, Washington, DC.
The writers also acknowledge with thanks the many
documents, maps, and charts provided by the following state
and interstate organizations:
Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, IL
Greater Wabash Regional Planning Commission, Grayville, IL
Illinois Natural History Survey, Champaign-Urbana, IL
Illinois Department of Transportation, Springfield, 11
Illinois Department of Conservation, Springfield, IL
Illinois State Museum, Springfield, IL
Illinois Institute of Environmental Quality, Chicago, IL
xxxviii
-------
Illinois Environmental Protection Agency, Springfield, IL
Illinois Department of Business and Economic Development,
Division of Energy, Springfield, IL
Illinois State Geological Survey
Illinois Department of Agriculture
Illinois State Water Survey
Indiana Department of Natural Resources, Indianapolis, IN
Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN
University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana, IL.
Finally, thanks and appreciation are extended to staff
members David Dow, Vincent DiPasquale, and John Robbins for
so ably collecting many background documents, and to the
various persons on the Hittman Associates ' staff who were
involved in the typing, proofreading, illustrating, and
printing of this report.
XXX 1.X
-------
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This report is one of a series on the coal liquefaction
technology, with particular reference to the estimation of
the potentially adverse effects of pollutant stressors ema-
nating from a hypothetical, standard-sized solvent refined
coal (SRC) facility presumed to be located along the Wabash
River in White County, Illinois. The Standards of Practice
Manual (SPM) for the SRC process (1), issued earlier by
Hittman Associates, served as a basis for evaluating the
effects of SRC pollutants on all media.
Another objective was to provide substantial background
information in the form usable for an Environmental Assess-
ment Report (EAR) on the SRC technology. Thus, the wide-rang-
ing scope of the inputs may create an impression of irrele-
vance to the major purpose of this report. Under these
circumstances, the indulgence of the reader is requested,
pending the appearance of the more concise Environmental
Assessment Report.
The selection of the White County site for the hypo-
thetical SRC facility is viewed as a useful construct in
that three of the most important siting requirements are
already fulfilled, as follows:
• Proximity to an abundance of water
• Proximity to an adequate supply of Illinois No. 6
coal
• Adequate distance from public lands and sensitive
ecosystems.
1-1
-------
This construct has further merit, in that the analyst is
constantly challenged to sort out those aspects of potential
importance (resulting either from the construction or the
operation of the SRC facility) requiring little or no fur-
ther baseline study, from those that will likely require
more detailed study. For example, it should be relatively
easy to estimate the potential environmental stresses stem-
ming from the construction and operation of the SRC plant in
relation to existing land use, water use, soil and geologic
factors, and the state and local infrastructure. Of much
greater difficulty is the estimation of the potential for
groundwater contamination stemming from hazardous waste
leachate, earthquake hazard, changes in local and regional
precipitation patterns, and localized effects of air pollu-
tants on soybean and other high-volume, high-doliar-value
crops.
This report was written in full awareness of key ques-
tions relating to the necessary development of regulatory
standards and goals. Coupled with the existing regulatory
requirements are the emerging multimedia environmental goals
(MEG) and the source analysis models (SAM/IA) currently
being developed by the EPA/IERL-RTP (2). Both of these
methodologies are discussed in Appendix I of this report.
Chapter 3 presents updated information on the quan-
tities and characteristics of effluent constituents asso-
ciated with the construction and operation of the SRC tech-
nology (plus the auxiliary units) in the multimedia context.
These data served as a basis for evaluating the MEG and SAM/
IA goals.
Chapter 4 describes the White County environment as it
presently exists without the proposed SRC plant. The generic
1-2
-------
and site-specific environmental issues and constraints are
also discussed.
Chapter 5 is essentially a generic discussion of recog-
nized abiotic and biological interactions on pollutants with
reference to air and water quality, water use, land use, and
threatened and endangered species of animals and plants.
Chapter 5 also addresses several useful strategies that
should lead to the increased protection and allocation of
resources should an SRC technology become a reality. More
definitive environmental assessments will be provided in
a future EAR report on the SRC technology.
Chapter 6 discusses pollutants of concern in terms of
the volume and concentration of pollutants (both chemical
and non-chemical) that are expected to emanate after treat-
ment from the SRC plant. The relation of these pollutants
to current environmental standards and goals is also dis-
cussed where and when appropriate.
Chapter 7 identifies needed research in terms of (1)
the SRC technology, (2) environmental assessment and moni-
toring, and (3) the environmental sciences. These latter
needs are essentially generic in nature, and are considered
applicable to coal gasification and other coal conversion
technologies.
1-3
-------
REFERENCES
Hittman Associates, Inc. Standards of Practice Manual
for the Solvent Refined Coal Liquefaction Process.
EPA 600/7-78-091. EPA Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 1978,
353 pp.
Cleland, J.G. and G.L. Kingsbury. Multimedia Environ-
mental Goals for Environmental Assessment. Vol. I,
EPA-600/7-77-136a, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina. 1977.
1-4
-------
2.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE SOLVENT REFINED COAL LIQUEFACTION
PROCESS AND EXISTING ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS'
2.1 Introduction
The basis for this study is a hypothetical commercial
solvent refined coal (SRC) liquefaction facility which con-
sumes 28,123 megagrams (Mg) of coal, which is equivalent to
31,000 tons (T) of Illinois No. 6 (Herrin) coal per day.
The plant is presumed to be located on the Wabash River
in White County, Illinois. This site was selected because
of its proximity to large reserves of a process-compatible
raw coal feed, the availability of an adequate water supply,
and an expressed interest by the State of Illinois in coal
conversion (1).
The SRC system (1) utilizes a non-catalytic direct-
hydrogenation coal liquefaction process. It converts
high-sulfur and -ash coal into clean-burning gaseous,
liquid, or solid fuels. There are two basic system varia-
tions: (1) SRC-I, which produces a solid coal-like product
of less than 1 percent sulfur and 0.2 percent ash; and (2)
SRC-II, which produces low-sulfur fuel oil (0.2-0.5 percent
sulfur) and naphtha product. Both system variations pro-
duce significant quantities of gaseous hydrocarbons, which
are further processed in the SRC system to synthetic natural
gas and liquefied petroleum gas products. Some constituents
that are formed during the hydrogenation reaction are
recovered as by-products. These include sulfur, ammonia,
and phenol. This report is aimed primarily at the SRC-II
system, which at this time seems to be the most promising
alternative.
To facilitate an understanding of the basic components
of the SRC system, a modular approach is taken. In the
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modular approach, the SRC-II system is subdivided into
operations. Each operation is accomplished by carrying out
a group of processes, a process being the smallest unit of
the overall system. Auxiliary processes perform functions
incidental to the functions of system operations. All
processes may be represented visually by process modules,
which display process input and output stream character-
istics. Sets of process modules may be used to describe SRC
system operations, the overall SRC system, or the entire
coal liquefaction energy technology.
2.2 Description of the SRC System
The SRC-II system is divided into eleven system modules
(1). These include coal preparation, hydrogenation, phase
(gas) separation, solids separation, fractionation, hydro-
treating, solidification, hydrogen generation, gas purifica-
tion, cryogenic separation, and auxiliary facilities. The
first six modules are considered basic system modules, while
the remaining five are considered supporting operations.
Figure 2-1 depicts the overall flow pattern for the SRC-II
process, including both process and waste flow streams.
2.2.1 Coal Preparation Module
Coal preparation includes coal receiving, storage,
reclaiming and crushing, cleaning, drying and pulverizing,
and slurry mixing. These processes, excluding slurry mix-
ing, are designed to clean and size-reduce the coal to
levels acceptable for use in the SRC liquefaction process.
The slurry mixing process mixes the processed coal with
recycled process solvent prior to entering the hydrogena-
tion reactor. Dryer stack gases, refuse, and wastewaters
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• CO?
. • VAPOR LEAKAGE
• SPILLS
ROC. COAL
• COAL DUST .
f DEFUSE
• VAPOR LEAKAGE
• UASTEUATER TO
TAILINGS POND
• SPILLS
* VAPOP LEAKASE
• SPILLS
• VAPOR LEAKAGE
t SPILLS
• VAPOR LEAKAGE
• SPILLS
• RESIDUE
• VAPOR LEAKAGE
• SPILLS
• VAPOR LEAKAGE
t SPILLS
Figure 2-1. SRC-II system overall flow diagram (ID
2-3
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heavily laden with suspended solids constitute major
wastes in this module.
2.2.2 Hydrogenation Module
Hydrogenation consists of a slurry preheater and a
hydrogenation reactor. This module constitutes the key
operation within the SRC system where coal is transformed
into liquid products. All other subsequent operations
focus on refining the products generated in this module.
Flue gas represents the only significant waste discharged
from the module.
2.2.3 Phase (Gas) Separation Module
There are a number of processes within the phase
(gas) separation module, including: high-pressure separa-
tion, condensate separation, intermediate flashing, inter-
mediate pressure condensate separation, and low-pressure
condensate separation. These processes separate hydro-
carbon vapors and other gaseous products from the hydro-
genation reactor effluent slurry and direct the solids/
liquid portion of the coal slurry to other processing
areas. Process streams from the module are directed to
gas purification, solids separation, and fractionation.
Waste emissions include accidental and fugitive vapor
discharges and material spills.
2.2.4 Solids Separation Module
The processes within the solids separation module
include feed flashing and solids separation. These pro-
cesses separate the residue (solids) stream from the
liquid portion of the feed stream. The residue is routed
to the solidification module to be prepared for gasification
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or disposal. No wastewater streams are discharged from
this module under normal operations. Intermittent dis-
charges include fugitive vapors and accidental material
spills.
2.2.5 Fractionation Module
The fractionation module consists of a vacuum flash
and an atmospheric distillation functioning to (1) separate
the high-boiling liquid SRC product from lower-boiling
fractions, (2) combine light streams for fractionation into
light products, and (3) separate wash solvent for recycling
to the solids separation module. Evacuation of the flash
vessel may be accomplished by steam ejector, which pro-
duces a continuous wastewater stream, or vacuum pump, which
produces a gaseous waste stream. Preheater flue gas con-
stitutes the only other continuous waste stream. Inter-
mittent discharges include fugitive vapors and accidental
material spills.
2.2.6 Solvent Hydrotreating Module
The solvent hydrotreating module consists of hydrogen
addition, catalytic reaction, flashing, oil-water separa-
tion, and stripping. Solvent hydrotreating involves the
reaction of raw hydrocarbon streams with hydrogen to remove
contaminants such as organic sulfur and nitrogen compounds,
and to improve combustion characteristics. Flue gas from
the solvent preheater and wastewater from an oil-water
separator are the only continuous waste streams.
2.2.7 Solidification Module
The function of the solidification module in- the SRC-
II system is to cool the residue into a solid suitable as
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a feed to the gasifier. This function is accomplished by
feeding the liquid residue onto a Sandvik belt cooler. The
cooled solid residue is scraped off the belt with a knife
and routed to gasification. Emissions from the solidifica-
tion module include vapors and particulates from the belt
cooling process. Also, a solid waste stream results from
the disposal of residue in excess of gasifier requirements.
2.2.8 Gas Purification Module
Contaminated gases from phase (gas) separation and
solvent hydrotreating modules are purified by acid gas
removal. Contaminants removed include hydrogen sulfide,
carbon disulfide, carbon dioxide, and carbonyl sulfide. The
only continuous waste stream is the wastewater from the
amine regenerator section of the acid gas removal unit.
Intermittent wastewater streams are accidental spills and
backwash of the amine filter. Atmospheric emissions include
gas leakage from sumps and storage vents, and fugitive
emissions during maintenance operations.
2.2.9 Cryogenic Separation Module
Gas from the purification module flows to a series of
cryogenic units within this module, where the heavier hydro-
carbon gases are cooled and condensed to form a liquid. The
resulting liquid stream is charged to a fractionation tower
where various hydrocarbon products are removed. The remain-
ing gases are flashed and flow to another series of cryo-
genic units and a de-ethanizer column, where the liquid
product is removed and overhead gases flow to another series
of cryogenic units.
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Purified gas is separated into hydrogen, synthetic
natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, and light oils in
this module. Wastewater from light oil distillation is
the only waste stream from this module.
2.2.10 Auxiliary Processes Module
Auxiliary processes include ammonia recovery, phenol
recovery, sulfur recovery, oxygen generation, raw water
treatment, cooling towers, steam and power generation,
product and by-product storage, wastewater treatment, and
hydrogen production. These processes recover by-products
from waste streams, furnish utilities (steam, water, power),
and furnish feed materials (oxygen, hydrogen). Major waste
streams include wastewater from ammonia stripping towers;
wastewater from the phenol extraction towers; off-gas from
the sulfur recovery absorber; gaseous waste nitrogen from
oxygen generation; sludges from raw water treatment; waste-
water resulting from blowdown of cooling towers; flue
gases and ash from steam and power generation; spills, fugi-
tive vapors and dust from product and by-product storage;
treated wastewater and sludges from wastewater treatment;
and slag, spent catalyst, spent scrubbing solutions and
flue gases from hydrogen production.
2.3 Existing Environmental Requirements
No federal regulations for air, water or solid wastes
have yet been promulgated to address specifically the com-
mercial SRC and related coal liquefaction technologies.
There are, however, a number of federal regulations appli-
cable to other industries that provide some insight into
levels of control that might be required for liquefaction
processes. These industries include coal mining, coal
2-7
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preparation and storage, and petroleum refining. The efflu-
ent limitations for refineries are functions of the overall
size and the pollution potentials of the several unit pro-
cesses. Conceivably, equitable effluent standards may be
developed along these same lines for related coal liquefac-
tion processes.
National emission standards for hazardous air pollu-
tants are established in conjunction with EPA. Standards
currently exist for mercury, beryllium, and asbestos.
Although none of these is likely to affect SRC production,
future standards for hazardous air pollutants may be appli-
cable.
The characterization of solid waste materials leaving
SRC conversion plants is incomplete. It is very possible
that hazardous wastes are present. For this reason, subse-
quent discussions of solid waste disposal shall include
hazardous waste disposal, although the need for such mea-
sures is not certain. In Appalachian coals, the trace
elements zinc, cadmium, manganese, arsenic, molybdenum, and
iron are reportedly contained within the mineral matter of
coal, further suggesting caution in the disposal of solid
and hazardous wastes (2). Guidelines for land use and
ultimate disposal of solid wastes are not as advanced as the
legislation governing emissions to air and water.
Not all constituents of the products, by-products, and
wastes generated by the SRC process are known. The Toxic
Substances Control Act of 1976 was established to provide
regulation and testing of new and existing chemical sub-
stances that could cause unreasonable health and environ-
mental consequences. Testing may be prescribed for cumula-
tive or synergistic effects, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity,
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birth defects, and behavioral disorders. Should any SRC
process components be characterized as toxic, the develop-
ment of technology capable of isolating and disposing of
those components will be necessary. The potential impact is
difficult to assess because the characterization of the SRC
process components, and the determination of the levels of
occurrence of known toxicants in the various SRC waste
streams, have not been quantified.
Table A-II-8 (Appendix II) shows 28 designated indus-
tries that must comply with the new PSD numerical incre-
ments. All sources in the country, regardless of their
location, must also comply with new source performance
standards (NSPS), expressed as emission requirements for the
designated source category.
The existing NSPS limiting SO^ emissions to 520 nano-
grams per joule input (1.2 pounds per million Btu) could
probably be met by SRC-I and SRC-II. However, the more
recent requirement for existing plants of about 260 nano-
grams of SO,, per joule input could not be met by SRC-I
without extreme cost penalties (3).
Table A-II-9 (Appendix II) lists the 65 classes of
organics and inorganics for which the EPA was directed by
the courts to establish the best available treatment tech-
nology (BAT) effluent limitations and guidelines, under a
settlement agreement with the Natural Resources Defense
Council. Industry is required to apply BACT and be in
compliance by July 1, 1984. Should the EPA set a toxic
standard (under Section 307(a)) instead of BACT, industry
must comply within 1 to 3 years after the toxic standard
is set.
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2.3.1 Federal Requirements
2.3.1.1 Air Pollutants
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 (PL95-95) substan-
tially changed the conditions for obtaining permits for the
construction of new and expanded stationary source facili-
ties. These new amendments will require the development,
interpretation, and submission of several kinds of data,
increase the lead time required to obtain construction
permits, and influence the development of industries within
each state (4). National primary and secondary ambient air
quality standards (NAAQS) for S02, particulates, CO, photo-
chemical oxidants, hydrocarbons, and NO are shown in Table
2t
81 of the Standards of Practice Manual for SRC Coal Lique-
faction Processes (SPM) (1). New stationary source per-
formance standards for coal preparation plants, petroleum
liquid storage vessels, and fossil steam generating plants
are shown in Table 82 of the SPM (1). Specific federal
pollutant limitations for ambient air quality (EPA and OSHA)
are shown in Table A-II-10 of Appendix II.
2.3.1.1.1 Designation of Attainment and Non-
attainment Areas
Every state was required to submit to the EPA by
December 6, 1977, a statement of the degree of attainment of
air quality in each of their air quality control regions
(AQCRs) for S09, NO , CO, total suspended particulate matter
£ .X
(TSP), photochemical oxidants, and hydrocarbon compounds.
Any AQCR (or portion thereof) shown to possess air quality
better than that promulgated in the NAAQS for S02 and TSP
will be designated as a prevention of significant deteriora-
tion (PSD) or attainment area for these pollutants. Where
the air quality is shown to be worse than the NAAQS, the
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area will be designated as a nonattainment area (NA). Thus,
any area designated to PSD status within a given state will
likely experience limited industrial development (4).
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 stipulate interim
rules for both the PSD and NA until the State Implementation
Plans (SIPs) are revised. In certain cases, the new law
exempts some sources from the PSD requirements. The states
are required to complete their revisions of the SIPs by
December 1, 1978. The 1977 amendments established three
classes of clean air areas and set maximum allowable in-
creases in levels of S02 and TSP (above baseline) for the
Class I, Class II, and Class III areas, as shown in Table
2-1. The short-term increments in all classes may be
exceeded once per year at each location. The new amendments
immediately designated the following Class I areas (3):
• All international parks
• National wilderness areas
• National memorial parks larger than about 2,430
hectares.
TABLE 2-1. PSD PERMITTING AGREEMENTS (3)
Class I
Class II Class III
(micrograms/m )a
NAAQS
S02 Annual
2 4- hour
3 -hour
TSP Annual
2 4- hour
2
8
25
5
10
20
91
512
19
37
40
182
700
37
75
80
365
s
1,300
7,560s
260,150s
aAll 24-hour and 3-hour values may be exceeded once per year,
slndicates a secondary standard.
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State governors may redesignate any area to Class I
status. Certain areas may be redesignated to Class III
status, except those areas that are greater than about 4,047
hectares in size, as follows:
• Existing national monuments
• Primitive areas
• Recreation areas
• Wild and scenic river areas
• Wildlife refuges
• Lakeshores and seashores
• Future national parks and wilderness areas
Areas within Indian reservations may be redesignated only by
the applicable Indian governing body.
2.3.1.1.2 Increment Limitations
The PSD increment limitations shown in Table 2-1 rep-
resent small percentages of the NAAQS concentrations for SC^
and TSP, including allowable concentrations that exceed the
level existing at the time of the first application for a
permit in an area subject to PSD rules (i.e., the baseline
air quality). The baseline air quality concentrations must
include all projected emissions from any one of the 28 major
industrial categories (shown in Table A-II-8) which began
construction before January 6, 1975, but which did not go
into operation by the time the baseline measurement of air
quality was made (4). Emissions from any major facility
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that began construction after January 6, 1975, must be
counted against the maximum allowable increment limitation
for any PSD area. State governors are permitted to extend
exemptions in determining compliance with the allowable PSD
ambient increments when the following conditions prevail:
• Ambient concentrations are increased because of
fuel conversion orders
• Increases resulting from construction or temporary
emissions-related actions
• Increases resulting from conversion from natural
gas to coal as a result of low supply
• Increases attributable to sources outside the
United States.
2.3.1.1.3 Monitoring Requirements in Nonattain-
ment Areas (NA)
Industries presently located in nonattainment areas,
even though now in compliance, will be required to impose
additional future controls to bring about areal compliance.
Owners contemplating the construction of new facilities in
NA will be required to submit baseline air quality moni-
toring data. Thus, detailed advance planning will be
required.
Additional discussion relating to the following items
is given in Appendix II, Tables A-II-11 and A-II-12:
• Monitoring and modeling requirements in PSD areas
• Sharing of PSD increments
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• Visibility and other air quality values
• Nonattainment areas
• Principal EPA rulemaking deadlines.
2.3.1.2 Water Pollutants
Table 83 of the SPM (1) includes effluent standards and
guidelines for several industries having operations similar
to SRC liquefaction; these include coal preparation and
storage facilities, and petroleum refineries. The Clean
Water Act has established long-range national goals to limit
point source effluent discharges into navigable waterways.
The Act requires application of the best practicable control
technology currently available (BPT) not later than July .1,
1977. By 1983 the Act requires the application of the best
available control technology economically achievable (BACT)
in order to meet the national goal of eliminating the dis-
charge of all pollutants (i.e., zero discharge). Specific
pollutant limitations for effluent standards (one-day maxi-
mums) are given in Table A-II-10 of Appendix II. Table 127
of the SPM (1) is shown on page 353 of the SPM, Appendix B.
2.3.1.2.1 EPA Effluent Guidelines
Under the Clean Water Act, the EPA has promulgated
effluent guidelines to be met by various industries. For
existing point source discharges other than publicly owned
treatment works, the Act requires that the EPA establish
effluent guidelines and new source performance standards
(NSPS) for nonpoint source discharges (5).
EPA has proceeded in the promulgation of BPT, BACT,
and NSPS on an industry-by-industry basis, subcategorizing
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each industrial category as necessary. Guidelines for new
industrial categories have not yet been promulgated, al-
though to date the EPA has established guidelines covering
the bulk of domestic industrial activity.
Guidelines are promulgated on a mass discharge basis ,
limiting the discharge of regulated process wastewater pol-
lutants according to the scale of industrial production, raw
material usage, or similar parameter of individual indus-
trial plant activity. For example, effluent guidelines of
the textile industry are expressed in allowable milligrams
of each process wastewater pollutant regulated per 1000
kilograms of textile product produced (6) .
For each industrial category regulated, the EPA has
published one or more development documents describing the
industry, its pollutants and wastewater flows, and the
process technologies considered in the establishment of BPT,
BACT, and NSPS. Although the effluent guidelines are ex-
pressed as mass discharge units, they are derived from
expected concentrations of process wastewater pollutants
achievable by application of appropriate control technology.
Further, most development documents report expected waste-
water volumes associated with the point source discharges,
expressed as volume of liquid per unit of industrial activ-
ity. Using the textile industry example, expected waste-
water volumes are given in liters per 1000 kilograms of
product. By dividing the mass discharge effluent limitation
by the wastewater volume per unit of industrial activity,
equivalent standards expressed as concentration units can be
calculated (6) :
Limitation, in mg/unit of activity _
Waste Volume, in I/ unit of activity
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Thus, it is simple to convert mass discharge limits to con-
centration limits for each process wastewater pollutant of
each industrial category and subcategory.
In many instances, when the appropriate conversion of
limitations to common concentration units is made, consis-
tent limitation values result. In other instances and for
many process wastewater pollutants, widely varying concen-
tration values result (6).
2.3.1.2.2 Recent Amendments to the Clean Water
Act
The 1977 amendments to the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act (FWPCA), along with the 1972 amendments, set
forth the principal mechanisms for the control of water
pollution from industrial sources. For example, standards
of performance for new source coal preparation plants and
associated areas were issued in 1977. Limitations were
established for point source discharges of wastewater after
application of BACT, assuming that such discharges normally
are acidic or alkaline prior to treatment. Allowable values
for any one day, and averages of daily values for 30 con-
secutive days for discharges of process wastewater from
facilities which recycle wastewater for use in processing
are shown in Table 2-2.
From facilities which do not recycle wastewater for
use in processing, there shall be no discharge of untreated
wastewater into navigable waters.
Any excess water, resulting from rainfall or snow
melt, discharged from facilities designed, constructed,
and maintained to contain or treat the volume of water
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TABLE 2-2. STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE FOR NEW SOURCE COAL
PREPARATION PLANTS (7)
Effluent
Maximum for Any
One Day
Maximal Averages of
Daily Values for 30
Consecutive Days
Characteristics
Acidic
Alkaline
Acidic
Alkaline
TSS, mg/1
Iron (total)mg/!
Manganese (total)
70.0
3.5
4.0
70.0
3.5
NA
35.0
3.0
2.0
35.0
3.0
NA
(mg/1)
PH
6-9
6-9
NA
NA
which would result from a 10-year, 24-hour precipitation
event, shall not be subject to the limitations set forth
in the NSPS.
Where the application of neutralization and sedimenta-
tion treatment technology results in an inability to comply
with the manganese limitation set forth in the NSPS, the
permit issuer may allow the pH level in the final effluent
to be exceeded to a small extent in order that the manganese
limitation will be achieved. In no case shall the pH exceed
9.5(7).
Sections 301 and 304, Effluent Limitations and Guide-
lines, required the use of best practicable control tech-
nology (BPT) for the first phase of industrial cleanup.
Approximately 85 percent of industrial dischargers met the
July 1, 1977, deadline.
Under the new amendments (Clean Water Act of 1977, PL
95-217) three classes of pollutants were provided for the
second phase of cleanup; these included toxic, conventional,
and nonconventional pollutants.
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The EPA must promulgate BAT regulations for any chemi-
cal added to the list of 65 classes of toxic pollutants as
soon as practicable (see Table A-II-9). In this case,
industry must comply not later than three years after the
BACT regulation was set. But if the EPA should set a toxic
standard instead of BACT, industry shall comply within one
to three years after the toxic standard is set.
For conventional pollutants (i.e., BOD, DO, TSS) the
EPA must set effluent limitations requiring best conven-
tional pollutant control technology, and industry must
comply by July 1, 1984. The level of pollutant control can
be no less than BPT, and as high as BACT (5).
For all unconventional pollutants (i.e., those other
than toxic or conventional) industry must comply with BACT
no later than July 1, 1987. These controls are subject to
strict waiver requirements.
Section 306 of the Clean Water Act provides for the
development of standards of performance for new point source
discharges, giving consideration to control technology,
processes, and operating methods, among other alternatives.
Sections 307(b) and (c) require that pretreatment
standards be promulgated for discharge of toxic substances
and other pollutants into publicly owned treatment works.
These standards would prevent the discharge of any pollutant
known to be incompatible with such treatment works. Under
the new amendments, localities may revise pretreatment re-
quirements for toxic pollutants, particularly where the
municipal treatment works removed all or part of the toxi-
cants (5).
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It appears that the weakest areas in the statutory
control of toxic water pollutants include the following:
• Accidental spills
• Nonpoint sources of overland flows
• Urban stormwater runoff.
With regard to spills, further implementation of Section 311
of the Clean Water Act may strengthen controls in this area.
With respect to nonpoint sources of overland flows (agri-
cultural, silvicultural, and construction and mining runoff)
and urban runoff, Section 208 programs will culminate in
guidelines for controlling nonpoint sources. These 208
plans will be further developed by state and local author-
ities.
Other federal statutory requirements relating to toxic
and hazardous water pollutants are described in Appendix II.
Any state already having promulgated other legislation
which, in the opinion of the state and of the EPA is suffi-
cient to allow the enforcement of a state hazardous waste
program equivalent to that of the EPA, will be considered to
satisfy the hazardous waste guidelines proposed by EPA.
2.3.1.3 Hazardous and Solid Wastes
On February 1, 1978, the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency promulgated, under Section 3006a, Subtitle C of the
Solid Waste Disposal Act as amended by the Resource Conser-
vation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976, a set of guidelines
for state hazardous waste management programs. Hazardous
wastes were found by the U.S. Congress to present special
2-19
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dangers to health; therefore, the states must develop pro-
grams to control them. In the event that any state chooses
not to develop such a program, the EPA is required to do so.
Hazardous wastes that are judged to have a significant
impact on human health and the environment will be defined
by the Section 3001 final regulations to be issued no later
than April 21, 1978. Criteria and methods for identifying
and listing hazardous wastes will also be issued in April,
1978. Those wastes identified as hazardous by these means
are then included in the management control system con-
structed under Sections 3002 through 3006, and 3010 of the
RCRA guidelines. The effective date for the regulations
promulgated under Sections 3001 through 3005 is October 21,
1978. The six-month time period after final promulgation
will be used to increase public understanding of the regu-
lations, and to allow compliance by those covered by the
regulations. During this same period, notifications required
under Section 3010 may be submitted, and facility permit
applications required under Section 3005 may be distributed
for completion by applicants.
Section 3002 of the regulations presents the standards
applicable to classes of generators of hazardous wastes, and
requires the creation of a manifest system for tracking
wastes from the generation point to the final site of stor-
age, treatment, or disposal facility to which a permit was
issued. Thus, the "cradle-to-the-grave" concept on which
Subtitle C is based, includes the requirement that the
regulatory agency has knowledge of the existence and move-
ment of hazardous wastes through their entire life cycle.
Those few states that already have a manifest system may be
required to make their system consistent with the Federal
one. The EPA expects to provide assistance to the states
(i.e., software and other tools) in setting up the new
manifest system.
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Section 3003 addresses standards applicable to trans-
porters of hazardous wastes and dealing with management of
such wastes during the transport phase. Section 3004 ad-
dresses standards affecting owners and operators of hazar-
dous waste storage, treatment, and disposal facilities.
These standards provide the criteria against which EPA (or
state) officials will review permit applications for on-site
as well as off-site facilities operated by a generator or
transporter of wastes. Generators and transporters who do
not treat, store, or dispose of hazardous wastes do not need
permits.
Section 3005 regulations define the scope, coverage,
and requirements for permit application, as well as for the
issuance and revocation of permits. Any possible overlaps
between the state's issuance of permits to hazardous waste
injection wells, and the issuance of hazardous waste permits
under a state's existing program will be resolved by EPA.
Section 3010 requires that any person generating,
transporting, owning, or operating a facility for storage,
treatment, and disposal of hazardous wastes must notify the
EPA or a state of this activity within 90 days of the EPA
promulgation of regulations defining a hazardous waste
(Section 3001).
2.3.2 State Requirements
2.3.2.1 Air Pollutants
Environmental requirements for air pollutants in states
making up the major coal-bearing regions of the United
States are sometimes more stringent than Federal require-
ments. Included in this section is a description of the
highlights of the ambient air quality and emission standards
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for the following coal regions: Northern Alaska; Four
Corners (Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah); Eastern
Interior (Illinois, Indiana and Kentucky); Fort Union -
Powder River (Montana, North Dakota and Wyoming); Texas, and
Appalachian (Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia).
2.3.2.1.1 Northern Alaska Region
The ambient air quality standards of Alaska are con-
sistent with the NAAQS, (Table 81 of the SPM (1) appendix)
except for the particulates primary standard (annual geo-
Q
metric mean of 60 compared to 75 micrograms/m ), the lack of
a standard for hydrocarbons, and the addition of a 30-minute
maximum standard for reduced sulfur compounds of 50 micro-
3
grams/m . Emission standards for fuel-burning equipment and
industrial processes in Alaska are shown in Table 86 of the
SPM (1) appendix.
2.3.2.1.2 Four Corners Region
The ambient air quality standards for Arizona for
particulates correspond to the NAAQS secondary standard of
3 3
60 micrograms/m (AGM) and 150 micrograms/m (24-hour maxi-
mum) . The only other variance in Arizona versus the NAAQS
standards is the annual maximum value for sulfur oxides (50
o
versus 80 micrograms/m ) and the 24-hour maximum (260 versus
o
365 micrograms/m). The Arizona air quality goals and
industrial emissions standards are given in Tables 88 and 89
of the SPM (1) appendix.
The State of Colorado has enacted standards of perform-
ance for stationary sources. Of these, the standards of
performance for petroleum refineries are probably most
indicative of future legislation relevant to the SRC tech-
nology. These standards are reviewed in Table 91 of the SPM
2-22
-------
(1) appendix. Other relevant Colorado legislation pertains
to oil-water separators similar to those used in SRC pilot
plants. One or more of the following vapor loss controls is
required: a solid cover, a floating roof, a vapor recovery
system, or special equipment which can demonstrate equal or
superior efficiency.
The State of New Mexico is presently the only state
that has promulgated emissions standards applicable to coal
conversion facilities, specifically coal gasification
plants. Stacks at least ten diameters tall and equipped
with enough sampling ports and platforms to perform accurate
sampling are required. Particulate emissions requirements
exist for briquet-forming areas, coal preparation areas, and
the gasification plant itself - with an additional require-
ment for gas-burning boilers. Limits have been placed on
dischargeable concentrations of sulfur, hydrocarbons,
ammonia, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen
sulfide, carbon disulfide, and carbon oxysulfide as well.
These limits are compiled in Table 105 of the SPM (1) and
are stringent compared with those of the other coal-pro-
ducing states. However, a review of New Mexico air laws
pertaining to petroleum refineries reflects an interest in
environmental preservation, not a distrust of new tech-
nology. Emissions standards for ammonia and hydrogen sul-
fide, for example, are the same for both industries. In
fact, refineries have additional limits on mercaptan and
carbon monoxide not presently included in gasification
legislation. These requirements, as well as the New Mexico
Ambient Air Quality Standards, are presented in Table 106 of
the SPM (1) appendix. The ambient air criteria for heavy
metals and the difference in dischargeable carbon monoxide
concentrations between new and existing refineries are
worthy of note. The ambient air quality standards of New
Mexico include a heavy metals standard of 10 micrograms per
2-23
-------
3
m , and a 0.003 ppm standard for hydrogen sulfide. The New
Mexico standards for the 24-hour maximum for particulates
and sulfur dioxide are somewhat lower than those for the
NAAQS; all others are very similar.
The State of Utah has no ambient air or new source
standards at this time. Current federal standards are
applicable. The Utah Air Conservation Regulations note that
the Utah Air Conservation Committee and the State Board of
Health do not agree with most of the federal standards.
There is no indication of the types of standards these
organizations favor. State emissions standards have been
set for particulates requiring 85 percent control. Sulfur
emissions must meet federal ambient and new source stan-
dards, as shown in Tables 81 and 82 of the SPM (1) appendix.
2.3.2.1.3 Eastern Interior Region
The site for the hypothetical SRC plant considered in
this study is located along the Wabash River in White
County, Illinois. This state has promulgated both air
quality standards, and emission standards and limitations
for stationary sources. The Illinois air quality standards
are the same as the NAAQS standards. The Illinois perform-
ance standards for stationary sources are shown in Table 96
of the SPM (1) appendix. The Illinois stationary source
standards not only address the six regular criteria pollu-
tants of the NAAQS, but also visible emission standards and
sulfuric acid mist. Also addressed are organic material
storage, loading, organic material-water separation, pumps
and compressors, other discharges of organic material to the
atmosphere, waste gas disposal, vapor blowdown, and the
clean-up and disposal of organic materials. These standards
are considered to be among the most comprehensive in the
coal-producing states.
2-24
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In addition to legislating ambient air quality stan-
dards, Indiana has laws controlling the storage and handling
of volatile hydrocarbon liquids. A vapor recovery system,
floating roof, or alternative system which meets approval of
the proper state agencies is required. Volatile organic
liquid-water separators require either a solid cover or one
of the vapor control methods required for storage systems,
essentially analogous to the Illinois standards. The air
quality standards of Indiana are similar to the NAAQS
standards.
The State of Kentucky air quality standards are similar
to the NAAQS, except that standards were included for hydro-
3
gen sulf ide O-4 micrograms/m one-hour maximum) , gaseous HF
3
(2.86 micrograms/m , 24-hour maximum), and total primary
fluorides of 80 ppm (30-day average). Kentucky also has
issued standards of performance for petroleum refineries, as
shown in Table 101 of the SPM (1) appendix.
2.3.2.1.4 Fort Union - Powder River Region
The State of Montana has adopted the federal new source
performance standards (see Table 82 of the SPM (1) appendix)
to supplement its own ambient air quality standards. The
annual arithmetic mean concentration of SO , and the total
A.
suspended particulate annual geometric mean of the Montana
air quality standards are similar to the NAAQS. However,
Montana has promulgated standards for I^S, fluorides,
settled particulates, lead, reactive sulfur (S03), suspended
sulfate and sulfuric acid mist, as shown in Table 103 of the
SPM (1) appendix.
Table 108 of the SPM (1) appendix shows the ambient air
quality standards of North Dakota. These have been estab-
lished in accordance with the state air quality guidelines
2-25
-------
which call for preservation of the health of the general
public, plant and animal life, air visibility, and natural
scenery. The guidelines also require that ambient air
properties shall not change in any way which will increase
corrosion rates of metals or deterioration rates of fabrics.
Additionally, emissions restrictions from industrial pro-
cesses exist for particulates and sulfur oxides. For par-
ticulates, North Dakota requires the use of the Arizona
equation governing process industries in that state. Sulfur
dioxide emissions are limited to 1.3 micrograms per joule
heat input from coal.
Four of the six regular criteria pollutants of the
Wyoming ambient air quality criteria (CO, hydrocarbons, NO
J±
and photochemical oxidants) are identical to the NAAQS, as
shown in Table 82 of the SPM (1) appendix. Table 125 of the
SPM (1) appendix shows the Wyoming emission standards that
are largely applicable to fossil fuel burning sources.
Additional requirements have been issued governing hydro-
carbon storage and handling. Waste disposal combustion
systems for vapor blowdown or emergency situations are to be
burned in smokeless flares. Pressurized tanks, floating
roofs, or vapor recovery systems are required for the stor-
age of hydrocarbons.
2.3.2.1.5 Texas Gulf Region
The ambient air quality standards of the Texas coal-
producing region are identical to the NAAQS for all six of
the regular criteria pollutants. Texas has imposed addi-
tional ambient standards for hydrogen fluoride gas, net
ground-level concentrations for emissions of t^S, sulfuric
acid and particulates, as shown in Table 118 of the SPM (1)
appendix. Emissions limits for fossil fuel steam generators
were also issued for SO , NO and particulates, as shown in
X X
2-26
-------
Table 118 of the SPM (1) appendix. The emission rates for
SO and particulates are both functions of the effective
stack height. Visibility requirements prohibit exceeding 20
percent opacity; these limits apply to five-minute periods
and do not include opacity resulting from uncombined water
mists.
2.3.2.1.6 Appalachian Region
The ambient air quality standards of Ohio are shown in
Table 110 of the SPM (1) appendix. Ohio standards for the
storage of hydrocarbons are comparable to those in other
coal-producing states. Carbon monoxide emissions from the
petroleum refinery processes must pass through an after-
burner prior to discharge, while photochemical oxidants must
be incinerated to a minimum of 90 percent oxidation prior to
discharge to the atmosphere. Industrial process emission
standards promulgated for particulates, SO , NO , hydro-
X X
carbons, CO, and photochemical oxidants may be applicable to
coal conversion technologies. Ohio has established air
quality priority zones; these presently do not meet EPA
standards for SO , NO , and particulates. The SO emission
X X X
limit is a mathematical function of the total emission
discharge, while the limit of particulate emissions is a
function of the process throughput.
The ambient air quality standards of Pennsylvania
relate to lead, H^S, fluorides, and settled particulates, as
shown in Table 113 of the SPM (1) appendix. Industrial
emission standards require a vapor recovery system for
hydrocarbon loading equipment, and a floating roof for the
hydrocarbon-water separator storage tanks.
The ambient air quality standards of West Virginia are
identical to the six regular criteria pollutants of the
2-27
-------
NAAQS. Regulations for coal preparation, drying and hand-
ling, and those for manufacturing processes are shown in
Table 121 of the SPM (1) appendix.
2.3.2.2
Water Pollutants
Water quality standards of the coal-producing states
that may affect future commercial SRC operations are high-
lighted here. The several factors that are determinate to
the establishment of standards applicable to state waters of
all classifications are shown in Table 2-3.
TABLE 2-3. FACTORS IN THE ESTABLISHMENT OF WATER
QUALITY STANDARDS IN COAL-PRODUCING STATES
Region and State
Northern Alaska
Four Corners:
Arizona
Colorado
New Mexico
Utah
Eastern Interior:
Illinois
Indiana
Kentucky
Fort Union-Powder River:
Montana
North Dakota
Wyoming
Appalachian:
Ohio
Pennsylvania
West Virginia
Factors
Beneficial uses
Beneficial uses
NA
Stream (use) classification
Stream (use) classification
Beneficial uses, mixing zone
Beneficial uses, mixing zone
Stream (use) classification
Beneficial uses
Beneficial uses
Beneficial uses
Beneficial uses, mixing zone
Stream (use) classification
Stream (use) classification
2-28
-------
2.3.2.2.1 Effluent Standards of the States
In contrast to the federal effluent guidelines which
apply to specific industrial categories, the state numerical
effluent standards for the seven coal-producing states
(Table 2-4) apply equally to all point source discharges.
In some states, the effluent standards are applicable only
for discharges to selected bodies of water. Table 2-4
shows the coal-producing states that had issued numerical
effluent standards for specific pollutants as of late 1976.
2.3.2.2.2 Illinois Effluent Standards
Both the federal and the Illinois effluent criteria are
based on the capability of conventional treatment technology
to achieve a given quality of industrial discharges. How-
ever, Illinois effluent standards (as of 1976) differ from
that of the U.S. EPA in that they apply equally to all
dischargers, irrespective of industrial category. Further-
more, the Illinois standards shown in Table 2-4 are absolute
standards that must be met without subtracting background
concentrations found in the intake waters (9). Notwith-
standing this condition, the intention of these regulations
is not to require users to clean up contamination caused
essentially by upstream sources, or to require treatment
when only traces of contaminants are added to the back-
ground. Compliance is therefore not required when effluent
concentrations in excess of the standards result entirely
from influent contamination, evaporation, and/or the inci-
dental addition of traces of materials not utilized or
produced (10). Compliance with the numerical effluent
standards shall be determined on the basis of 24-hour com-
posite samples. In addition, no contaminant shall at any
time exceed five times the numerical standard prescribed by
the effluent standards (10). Should it be found by the
2-29
-------
TABLE 2-4. NUMERICAL EFFLUENT STANDARDS OF
COAL-PRODUCING STATES
East
Illinois
Pollutant
Arsenic 0.25
Bariun 2.0
BOD
C.dmiu" 0.15
Chroaiu* 0.30(hex.)
Copper 1 .0
Cyanide 0.02S
Fluoride 15.0
Iron ..'.0
Lead 0. 100
ManKJn.se 1.0
Herrurv 0.000)
Klckel 1.0
(111 15.0
pH 5-10
Phenols O.JO
Seleniua 1.0
Sliver 0.10
Totsl Dissolved 750-3500
Solids
Total Suspended 5-34f
Solids
Zinc 1.0
ern Interior Ft. Union-Powder River Four Corners Appalachian
Kentucky Montana North Dakota Colorado Maryland Virgin i;t
Avg./d, 0.01a - - -
Max. 0.016"
-
45(7 day avE. )
)0(30 day avg.)
Avg./d, O.Ol" - - -
Max, O.OIa
-
Avg. It. 0.05-0. 09b - - -
Max. ,0. 09-0. 18b
-
-
Avs./d,0.1-1.1h - - -
Hax.,1. i-2.2"
Avg. /d,0. 05-0. 10h - - - -
Max. ,0.05-O.IOb
-
Avg./d.0.001h - - -
Max..0.001b
-
10.0(7 day .IVK. )r 10.0
10.0(111 d.iv ;IVR.)1'
6-9(7 d;iv avg) - fc-9 ' 6-9(7 day .ivp. ) fc.0-8.5'1 6.0-H. •>'
6-9(30 day av(t) ft-9(in d.iv .IVR. )
-
-
-
-
45(7 day avg.) - 30* 45(7 day avc. ) 400d 4.nc'
30(30 day avg.) (0(30 day avg.) 0.0"
Avg/d.0.01-O.Jb - 0.51
Max.,0.2-1.011
For Cl.irk Fort River only.
For aegMnts of Clark Fork River.
'There >hall be no visible sheen
^Effluent limitation
eFor the entire Chickaho»lny watershed above Walkers
Depends on hodv of water being discharged to
Siunicipal wastes
For the Rappahanock River Rasin above proDont-d Salem Church Dam
Applies to all bodies of water
Illinois Pollution Control Board that a given discharge was
in violation of the effluent standards, and that such a
violation was caused by the cumulative effect of more than
one source, several sources may be joined in an enforcement
or variance proceeding and measures for necessary effluent
reductions will be determined on the basis of technical
2-30
-------
feasibility, economic reasonableness, and fairness to all
discharges (10).
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency delegated
authority to the State of Illinois on October 23, 1977, to
issue effluent discharge permits under provisions of the
National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES).
Thus, Illinois is now responsible for issuing all NPDES per-
mits, and for bringing initial enforcement actions for
permit violations, except for those concerning agencies and
instrumentalities of the federal government.
2.3.2.2.3 State Water Quality Standards
Numerical water quality standards of the various coal-
producing states may be more stringent than those of the EPA
criteria for specific pollutants. By the same token, spec-
ific standards of a state may be one or more orders of
magnitude higher than the EPA criteria for the same pol-
lutants. The latter condition is illustrated by the fact
that the Illinois standards for arsenic, manganese, phenol,
and selenium are 10, 10, 100, and 100 times greater, res-
pectively, than the EPA criteria. In a similar vein, the
Kentucky standards for ammonia (as N), cadmium, and mercury
are 100, 125, and 10 times greater, respectively, than the
EPA criteria. In several states, the general practice is to
provide supplemental criteria for specific numerical and
non-numerical standards relative to the identified water
classification (e.g., swimming, fishing, and domestic water
supply uses).
With respect to toxic and hazardous water pollutants,
non-numerical standards have been proposed by Arizona, Colo-
rado, and Utah (Four Corners Region); Montana, North Dakota,
South Dakota, and Wyoming (Fort Union-Powder River); Kentucky,
2-31
-------
Ohio, Virginia, and West Virginia (Appalachian Region).
These standards are listed in Appendix II, Table A-II-13.
Numerical standards for toxic substances have been
issued by Illinois (Eastern Interior region), Montana (peg-
ged to bioassay and Public Health Service Drinking Water
Standards), Indiana (pegged to Drinking Water Standards of
USPHS), and Texas (ditto Montana). The State of Alaska has
proposed neither numerical nor non-numerical standards for
toxic and hazardous substances.
The detailed water quality standards for the coal-pro-
ducing states are shown alphabetically in Appendix B of the
SRC Standards of Practice Manual (1), starting on page 300.
2.3.2.2.4 State Hazardous and Solid Waste
Regulations
Requirements promulgated by the EPA for state hazardous
waste management programs were discussed earlier in this
section. Seventeen coal-producing states have issued stipu-
lations for some form of hazardous and solid waste manage-
ment, as shown in Table 2-5. Thus, among the 17 coal-
producing states listed, 14 have provided some type of
statutory control over hazardous waste disposal operations.
Among these states, Ohio, North Dakota, and Utah have
explicit monitoring requirements for types of waste disposal
operations. In view of the fact that the potentially vast
amounts of solid wastes produced by coal conversion tech-
nologies, through compliance with air quality standards,
must be disposed of on land, it is apparent that there is an
equally vast potential for the degradation of local surface
and groundwater systems near these disposal sites by the
inorganic and organic leachates.
2-32
-------
TABLE 2-5. EXISTING STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR HAZARDOUS AND SOLID WASTES
Coal Region
and State
Hazardous
Waste
Controls
U>
Permit
Requirement
Approval
Design
Criteria &
Standards
Monitoring
Requirements
Northern Alaska
Eastern Interior:
Illinois
Indiana
Kentucky
Four Corners:
Arizona
Colorado
New Mexico
Utah
Fort Union-Powder River
Montana
North Dakota
Wyoming
Appalachian
Maryland
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Virginia
West Virginia
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
no
no
yes
no
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
no
no
no
yes
no
no
yes
notice
no
yes
no
no
no
yes
no
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
yes
no
yes
no
no
yes
no
no
no
Texas
yes
yes
manifest
yes
no
-------
In North Dakota, the Department of Health may impose
any reasonable conditions upon a permit to construct a land
disposal site, including the following:
• Sampling, testing, and monitoring facilities
• Trial operation and performance testing.
North Dakota has stipulated standards of performance for the
following types of disposal operations:
• Sanitary landfills
• Construction and demolition disposal sites
• Incinerators
• New and unique methods of disposal
• Hazardous wastes
The monitoring standards presently apply to sanitary land-
fills , and sites handling construction and demolition
wastes.
The standards for disposal of hazardous wastes shall be
met by the owner of such wastes. However, the state may
provide technical assistance to the owner for the storage,
transportation, and disposal of hazardous wastes. North
Dakota defines hazardous wastes as those substances which
singly, or in combination, exhibit a substantial present or
potential hazard to human health or living organisms because
of the following factors:
2-34
-------
• Nondegradability
• Persistence in multimedia
• Biomagnification potential
• Lethality
• Ability to produce detrimental cumulative health
and ecological effects.
The State of Ohio defines hazardous wastes as those
substances which singly, or in combination, pose a signi-
ficant present or potential threat or hazard to human health
or to the environment, because of the following factors:
• Flammability
• Explosiveness
• Reactiveness
• Corrosiveness
• Toxicity
• Infectiousness
• Carcinogenicity
• Bioconcentrative potential
• Persistence in multimedia
2-35
-------
• Potential lethality
• Action as an irritant or sensitizer.
Under the requirements promulgated by the Ohio Depart-
ment of Health for sanitary landfill operations, there is an
explicit requirement that the operator shall install such a
number of monitor wells... as the Health Commissioner deems
necessary to determine the effect of the facility upon the
quality of groundwater (11). Each monitor well shall be
sampled semi-annually for chlorides, COD, TOG, TDS, and
methylene blue active substances. More frequent sampling
and sampling for additional substances may be required if a
substantial threat of water pollution exists. Specific
instructions were issued concerning the eventual detection
of leachate on the disposal site. Hazardous waste cannot be
accepted at sanitary landfills. The monitoring wells must
be maintained by the operator for three years after closure.
2.3.2.2.5 Illinois Land Disposal Criteria
The Illinois EPA (IEPA) stated in Rule 310(b) of the
Solid Waste Rules and Regulations (Chapter 7 of the Envi-
ronmental Protection Act) that hazardous wastes or liquid
wastes and sludges may be accepted at a sanitary landfill
only if authorized by permit. Thus, the IEPA can issue a
supplemental permit allowing sanitary landfills to deviate
from the applicable rules.
The IEPA requires that the applicant for a supplemental
permit must submit information on the following (12):
• Type, consistency, and physical/chemical prop-
erties of the special or hazardous waste
2-36
-------
• Quantity
• Method of disposal.
The IEPA stipulates procedures for analysis of specific in-
organics and organics, by use of their landfill simulation
leaching test. All known organic components of the waste
should be determined if their concentrations exceed 0.1
percent (1000 ppm) of the total waste volume. Table 2-6
lists the minimum number of inorganics (8), organics (2),
and radioactivity (alpha emitters) to be assayed. The
assumption is made that the waste generator is aware of his
usage of beryllium, selenium, antimony, or other potentially
hazardous chemicals, and that the waste will be analyzed for
components used in the process by which the waste originates.
The IEPA has specified absolute permissible maximum
water soluble waste chemical (inorganics) concentrations for
disposal at any of Type I, II, or III disposal sites (see
Table 2-7).
The Type I site will receive waste displaying a high
ingestion toxicity (based on the Sax rating), and thus very
hazardous. The criteria for the Type I site require that it
be buffered by at least 3.04 meters of soil having a coef-
— Q
ficient of permeability not greater than 1 x 10~ cm/sec, or
not less than 3.04 meters of soil which can provide con-
tainment for 500 years (12). The Type II site must provide
a containment life for less hazardous substances of 250
yeras. The Type III site must provide a containment life
for municipal refuse of 100 years. Liquid special wastes
may be placed into any of the three site types if the
liquid is subjected to vertical and horizontal containment.
Acceptable methods for disposing toxic and hazardous wastes
in Illinois are shown in Table 2-8.
2-37
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TABLE 2-6. ANALYSIS CHART FOR WASTE GROUPS (15)
Waste Group
Metals
Chemicals
Chemical
Specialties
Food
General
Manufacture
Mining
Service
Industries
Utilities
Wholesale,
Retail Trade
Parameter
u E
•H 3
C -H
QJ G
CO T3
S 5
X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
*E
D
•H
s
o
o
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
(-1
0)
CX
CX
o
u
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
.0
•o
•H
C
cd
0
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
*O
cfl
-------
TABLE 2-7. ABSOLUTE PERMISSIBLE CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUBLE
INORGANICS AT DISPOSAL SITES IN ILLINOIS (12)
Soluble
Inorganics5
Type of Disposal Site, and
Limiting Concentration (ppm)
Type I
Type II
Type III
As
Cd
Crb
CNC
Cu
Hg
Ni
Pb
500
500
1,000
500
1,000
500
500
500
75
75
150
75
150
75
150
150
25
25
50
25
50
25
50
50
soluble concentrations exceed limitations, a waste may
receive pretreatment to insolubilize excess concentrations.
Total soluble Cr.
cTotal soluble cyanide (CN~).
TABLE 2-8. ACCEPTABLE DISPOSAL METHODS (12)
Waste property
Highly acidic
Moderately acidic
Low acidity
Highly alkaline
Moderately alkaline
Low alkalinity
High volatility
Moderate volatility
Low volatility
High toxicity (dermal)
Moderate toxicity (dermal)
Low toxicity (dermal)
Q
Type of site Disposal method
I II III A B C D
XD
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
X
-
-
X
X
-
X
X
-
-
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
(continued)
2-39
-------
TABLE 2-8. (continued)
Type of site Disposal method
a
Waste property
High toxicity (inhalation)
Moderate toxicity (inhalation)
Low toxicity (inhalation)
High toxicity (oral)
Moderate toxicity (oral)
Low toxicity (oral)
Radioactive
Reactive
Explosive
I
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
-
II III
X
X
X X
-
X
X X
-
X
-
A
-
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
-
B
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
-
c
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
-
D
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
-
aNote: A = Direct Landfill; B = Subsurface Injection; C = Surface
Adsorption; D = Consignment Burial
X - Indicates permittable disposal site or method of disposal
2-40
-------
REFERENCES
1. Cleland, J.G. and G.L. Kingsbury. Multimedia Environ-
mental Goals for Environmental Assessment. Volume 1.
EPA-600/7-77-136a, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. 1977.
2. Pennsylvania State University. Characterization of
Mineral Matter in Coals and Coal Liquefaction Residues.
EPRI AF 417. Electrical Power Research Institute, Palo
Alto, California. June 1977.
3. Christensen, H.E. and T.T. Luginbyhl. Registry of
Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. NIOSH, U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Rockville,
Maryland. 1976.
4. Hittman Associates, Inc. Environmental Assessment Data
Base for Coal Liquefaction Technology: Volume II - Dis-
cussion of Synthoil, H-Coal and Exxon Donor Solvent
Processes. EPA 600/7-78-1846. EPA Industrial and
Environmental Research Laboratory, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. 1977.
5. Schalit, L.M. and K.J. Wolfe. 1978. SAM/IA: A Rapid
Screening Method for Environmental Assessment of Fossil
Energy Process Effluents. EPA-600/7-78-015. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina.
6. Bureau of National Affairs. Affinity of Trace Elements
in Coal Aids in Control of Possible Pollution. Environ-
mental Reporter, Current Developments 8(16): 609. 1977.
7. Goldsmith, B.J. and J.R. Mahoney. Implications of the
1977 Clean Air Act Amendments for Stationary Sources.
Environmental Science and Technology 12(2): 145. 1978.
8. Budden, K.G. Assessment of Air Emissions From Combus-
tion of Solvent Refined Coal. Hittman Associates, Inc.,
Contract No. 68-02-2162, Technical Directive No. 8, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency/IERL, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina. 1978.
2-41
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9. Barrett, B.R Controlling the Entrance of Toxic Pollu-
tants into U.S. Waters. Environmental Science and
Technology 12(2): 154. 1978.
10. Patterson, J.W. Directory of Federal and State Water
Pollution Standards. Illinois Institute Environmental
Quality Document No. 77/06, Project Number 20.010.
Chicago, Illinois. 1976.
11. Federal Register. Coal Preparation Plants and Associated
Areas, Standards of Performance for New Sources. 40
CFR, Part 434. Volume 42(181): 46937. 1977.
12. Illinois Effluent Standards Advisory Group. Evaluation
of Effluent Regulations of the State of Illinois.
Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality, Chicago,
Illinois. 1976.
13. Illinois Pollution Control Board. Effluent Standards
Rules and Regulations. Part IV, Chapter 3. Spring-
field, Illinois. 1971.
14. Bureau of National Affairs. Ohio Solid Waste Disposal
Regulations. Environmental Reporter, State Solid
Waste - Land Use 1276:0501. 1977.
15. Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. Special Waste
Land Disposal Criteria. Spl. No. 30. Springfield,
Illinois. No Date.
2-42
-------
3.0 POLLUTANT DISCHARGE LEVELS
This section characterizes the emissions and effluents
which are expected from a conceptualized SRC plant producing
3
approximately 7,950 m /day of syncrude product. The plant
is assumed to be operating in the SRC-II mode and discharges
are based upon the design outlined in the Standards of
Practice Manual (1). It is important to keep in mind that
the basis for the determination of emissions and effluents
is a conceptualized design. Advances in technology, deter-
mination of the inapplicability of a specified treatment
system, etc., may modify the design and consequently alter
the nature and the quantities of discharges to the environ-
ment.
Several discharged streams have not been characterized
to date. In these cases, we have made a first approximation
based on data from similar industries, process development
units, or bench scale assays. We have assumed that the
plant is operating with Illinois #6 coal as characterized in
Table 3-1 (A and B).
3.1 Air Emissions
The SRC process is, for the most part, an enclosed and
pressurized system. Consequently, air emissions during
regular plant operations are expected to arise primarily
from auxiliary parts of the system, such as the cooling
towers, boilers, acid gas treatment, hydrogen generators,
sulfur recovery, and dryers, and from coal feed and coal
feed products. Waste streams to air should be limited to
leaks in pump seals, valves, joints, and flanges and to
product handling and storage. These process-related emis-
sions should be monitored in the plant as part of the indus-
trial hygiene program.
3-1
-------
TABLE 3-1. CHARACTERIZATION OF ILLINOIS NO. 6 COAL
A. Minor Constituents (ppm)
Name
Aluninim
Antimony
Arsenic
Barium
Beryllium
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Calciun
Cerium
Cesium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Dysprosium
Europium
Fluorine
Gallium
Germanium
Hafnium
Indium
Iodine
Iron
Lanthanum
Lead
Lutetiura
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Ifolybdenum
Uickel
Phosphorous
Potassium
Rubidium
Samarium
Scandium
Selenium
Silicon
Silver
Sodium
Strontivni
Tantalum
Thallium
Thorium
Tin
Terbium
Titanium
Tungsten
Uranium
Vanadium
Ytterbiun
Zinc
Zirconium
1
Symbol
Al
Sb
As
Ba
Be
B
Br
Cd
Ca
Ce
Cs
a
Cr
Co
Cu
By
Eu
F
Ga
Ce
Hf
In
I
Fe
La
Pb
Lu
Hg
Mn
Hg
Mo
Ni
P
K
Rb
Sra
Sc
Sc
Si
Ag
Ma
Sr
Ta
Tl
Th
Sn
Tb
Ti
U
U
V
Vb
Zn
Zr
Hucfcer of
Individual Coal/
Analysis
44
44
44
29
44
35
44
25
44
29
29
44
44
44
44
29
29
44
44
44
29
29
29
44
29
44
29
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
29
29
44
44
44
11
44
29
29
24
29
16
24
44
29
29
44
29
44
35
Arithmetic
Mean
13,500.
0.98
5.9
111.
1.5
135.
15.
4.
7,690.
13.
1.2
1.600.
20.
6.6
13.
1.0
0.25
63.
3.1
5.6
0.52
0.14
1.9
18,600.
7.0
27.
0.08
510.
53
0.18
9.2
22.
45.
1,700.
16.
1.2
2.6
2.2
26,800.
0.03
660.
36
0.16
0.67
2.2
4.7
0.17
700.
0.70
1.6
33
0.54
420.
52.
Geometric
Mean
13,200.
0.67
4.1
78.
1.4
126.
13.
0.69
6,480.
12.
1.1
900.
18.
5.9
13.
1.0
0.24
61.
3.0
3.7
0.48
0.12
1.6
17.600.
6.8
14.
0.07
490.
44
0.16
7.3
21.
33.
1.700.
15.
1.1
2.6
2.0
26,400.
0.03
510.
31
0.15
0.59
2.1
0.94
0.15
640.
0.55
1.3
31
0.51
120.
46.
Unbiased
Standard
Deviation
3,070.
1.03
6.9
135.
0.69
48
7.9
13.3
5,000.
5.8
0.60
1,600.
10.
3.1
4.
0.26
0.065
18.
0.67
5.3
0.21
0.058
1.2
5,900.
2.0
37.
0.027
160.
34
0.10
6.0
8.
44.
270.
6.7
0.58
0.67
1.2
4.945.
0.01
460.
24
0.063
0.32
0.66
9.0
0.098
170.
0.52
1.0
9.7
0.16
990.
28.
Range
10,000-30.400
0.20-4.9
1.0-32.0
5.0-750.0
0.70-3.9
34-230
1.8-52.0
0.50-65.0
2,100-26,700
4.4-27.0
0.60-3.6
100-5,400.0
7-60
2.5-15
6.0-26
' 0.57-1.8
0.19-0.40
42.0-120.0
1.6-4.5
<20-26
0.20-1.1
<0. 10-0. 23
<1.0-5.8
4.500-35.000
4.3-12.0
1.10-210.0
0.02-0.15
200-1,110
13-180.0
0.04-0.52
<1. 0-29.0
12-42.0
•c 10. 0-260
1200-2400
7.0-42.0
0.78-3.8
1.4-4.1
1.2-7.7
18,900-46,300
0.02-0.06
150-2,000
<10. 0-130.0
0.10-0.30
0.12-1.3
1.2-3.8
< 0.40- 30
0.04-0.45
500.0-1,500
0.04-2.1
<0.50-4.5
17.0-55.0
0.27-0.89
13.0-5,300
16.0-120.0
Hunter of
"Less Than"
Values
10
11
8
r~ 1
i
5
2
10
2
(continued)
3-2
-------
TABLE 3-1. (continued)
B. Major Constituents
(percent)
Name
Air-dry loss (%)
Maisture as Receive
CO
Volatile matter (7«)
Fixed carbon (%)
Ash CO
Btu (per pound)
Carbon3
Hydrogen3
Nitrogen3
Oxygen3
High Tenperature3
Ash
Low Tenperature3
Ash
Organic Sulfur3
Pyritic Sulfur3
Sulfate3
Total Sulfur3
Sulfur by X-raya
Fluorescence
Hunter of
Individual
Samples
Analyzed
42
d 44
43
43
44
42
42
42
42
42
43
43
43
43
42
44
43
Arithnetic
Mean
8.6
11,1
39.7
48.6
11.8
12518.
69.37
4.90
1.29
9.09
11.86
15.60
1.69
1.72
0.09
3.49
3.24
Geometric
Mean
8.0
10.2
39.6
48.5
11.7
12511.
69.29
4.89
1.27
8.92
11.69
15.34
1.53
1.56
0.04
3.23
2.99
Unbiased
Standard
Deviation
3.1
3.91
2.39
3.31
1.97
429.99
3.221
0.321
0.215
1.85
1.979
2.793
0.675
0.730
0.17
1.22
1.20
Range
1.9-16.7
2.8-18.2
35.4-44.4
42.0-55.0
7.4-16.5
11562-13480
62.49-75.13
4.19-5.98
0.93-1.75
5.75-14.36
7.34-16.46
10.36-20.66
0.53-3.20
0.29-4.56
0.01-0.90
0.85-6.45
0.88-6.52
a Percent, Moisture Free Whole Coal Basis
3-3
-------
3.1.1 Fugitive Emissions
3.1.1.1 Particulates
Fugitive emissions in the form of particulates will be
emitted from the following sources:
• Coal storage piles
• Coal reclaiming and crushing
• Coal receiving
• Dryer stack gas
• Lime storage
• Ash from steam generation
• Recovered sulfur storage facility.
While little information is available on the composition of
particulates, we can, as a first assumption, assume similar-
ity to the parent coal, by-product, product, etc. Trace
element composition in the fugitive emissions will be dis-
cussed under individual pollutants.
3.1.1.2 Coal Preparation
Coal dust is generated during the transfer of coal from
shipping to receiving bins and during coal storage, con-
veying, stacking, reclaiming, and crushing operations. Dust
is composed of coal particles, typically from 1 to 100
microns in size, with a composition similar to the parent
coal. It is estimated that 21.8 Mg/day of particulates will
3-4
-------
be generated from coal receiving, storage, and crushing and
29 Mg/day of particulates will be emitted from dryer stack
gas (1). By applying known removal efficiencies for par-
ticulates, estimates of emissions after control have been
determined.
3.1.1.2.1 Dust from Coal Receiving
Before treatment the emissions amount to approximately
3
7.3 Mg/day (1). Assuming a,gas stream flow of 1.9 m /sec
3
with a loading of 44.6 grams/m (34,689 ppm) and maximum
removal efficiencies for the treatment equipment, emissions
after treatment are estimated as follows:
TABLE 3-2. FUGITIVE DUST EMISSIONS FROM COAL RECEIVING
AFTER TREATMENT
Emissions after
Treatment Efficiency treatment
3
cyclone + baghouse 99.9% 35 ppm 44.7 mg/m
3
high efficiency cyclone 99+ 347 ppm 447 mg/m
3
wet-scrubber 98.5 520 ppm 669 mg/m
3.1.1.2.2 Dust from Reclaiming and Crushing
Coal dust generated from coal reclaiming and crushing
has been estimated at 7.3 Mg/day without controls (1).
3
Assuming four units, each handling 1.9 m /sec with a loading
3
of 11.12 grams/m (8,646 ppm), emissions after treatment are
estimated as follows:
3-5
-------
TABLE 3-3. FUGITIVE DUST EMISSIONS FROM COAL
RECLAIMING AND CRUSHING FOLLOWING TREATMENT
Treatment
cyclone + baghouse
high efficiency
Efficiency
of removal
99.9%
99.0%
Emissions
(ppm)
8.6
86.5
after treatment
(mg/m3)
11
110
cyclone
wet scrubber 98.5% 129.7 167
3.1.1.2.3 Dust from Coal Storage
The problem of controlling dust emissions from coal
storage is a formidable one, insofar as the coal storage
area is estimated to be 3.24 hectares. Polymer spraying is
recommended to reduce dust emissions. It is also recom-
mended that uncovered storage areas be minimized. Dust
emissions following polymer spraying have not been esti-
mated.
3.1.1.2.4 Dryer Stack Gas
Particulate emissions from dryer stack gas are esti-
mated at 29 Mg/day without controls. This assumes that the
flow dryer is equipped with a cyclone collector built within
the unit.
o
Assuming 378 m /sec gas flow (1) at 60°C with a loading
o
of 0.9 grams/m (712 ppm) the estimated emissions with
control technology are as follows:
3-6
-------
TABLE 3-4. COAL DRYER STACK GAS EMISSIONS
FOLLOWING TREATMENT
Emissions after
Treatment
cyclone
baghouse
wet scrubber
Efficiency
80% (<20y)
99.9%
98.5%
treatment
142 ppm
0 . 7 ppm
10 . 7 ppm
183 mg/m3
0.9 mg/m3
13.5 mg/m3
3.1.1.2.5 Comparison to Standards
Applicable standards for comparing emissions from coal
preparation include New Mexico standards for commercial
gasifiers, national air quality standards, and federal new
source performance standards. Standards for coal prepara-
o
tion limit emission from thermal dryers to 70 mg/m .
Cyclones would not be an acceptable control method for
achieving coal preparation performance standards.
In comparing emissions to New Mexico gasification
/
standards, it is evident that a cyclone plus baghouse would
be required in coal receiving (Table 3-2) to reduce particu-
•j
lates to the allowable level of 69 mg/m , while in reclaim-
ing and crushing all control methods are acceptable.
3.1.1.3 Lime Storage
No estimates are available on dust emissions from lime
storage. These emissions are more likely to be a nuisance
than a serious health hazard.
3-7
-------
3.1.1.4 Fugitive Emissions from Sulfur Storage
Utilizing Illinois #6 coal specified in the Standards
of Practice Manual (1), recovered sulfur is estimated to be
444 Mg/day. The recovered sulfur is expected to have the
composition shown in Table 3-5 and emissions from sulfur
storage can be expected to have a similar distribution of
trace elements. Insofar as storage facilities have not been
specified, it is not possible to estimate quantities of
fugitive emissions from sulfur by-product storage. One
possibility for preventing fugitive emissions would be to
store by-product sulfur as a liquid. A more economically
feasible method would be to store sulfur in a lined pond
with a water blanket.
TABLE 3-5. TRACE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF
RECOVERED SULFUR (3)
Element
As
Sb
Se
Hg
Br
Ni
Co
Cr
Fe
Na
Rb
Cs
K
Sc
Concentr at ion
(mg/1)
2.0
0.1
1.5
0.1
3.0
28.0
110.0
2.0
1,000.0
3,120.0
9.0
0.2
179.0
0.02
Element
Tb
Eu
Sm
Ce
La
Sr
Ba
Th
Hf
Ta
Ga
Zr
Cu
Concentration
(mg/1)
0.1
0.0
0.6
2.0
1.8
45.0
39.0
0.2
0.2
0.2
1.5
61.0
1.0
_
3.1.1.5 Particulates from Steam Generation
The steam generation module advocated in the Standards
of Practice Manual (1) utilizes coal-fired boilers. A total
3-8
-------
of 929 Mg/day of coal are required to generate the needed
steam. Particulates in the stack gas from steam generation
have been estimated at 36.6 Mg/day. Particulates in the
stack gas are recovered as fly ash and can be a potential
source of emissions if not handled properly. This will be
considered as a solid waste problem. In order to meet
Illinois emission standards, particulates from coal-fired
boilers must be removed with an efficiency of 98.65 percent,
reducing emissions to 0.49 Mg/day. Elbair scrubbers and
venturi scrubbers are capable of removal up to 99 percent of
the particulates in fly ash. Medium-energy venturi scrub-
bers will remove almost 100 percent of particulates <50
microns, 99 percent of particulates <5 microns, and 97
percent of particulates <1 micron.
3.1.1.6 Hydrocarbons
Fugitive hydrocarbon emissions will be limited largely
to leaks in pump seals, joints, flanges, compressors, and
to handling and venting operations. There are no estimates
on the quantities of hydrocarbons lost in fugitive emis-
sions, but the source is largely controllable. In some
cases simply tightening pipe fittings and flanges will
greatly reduce hydrocarbon emissions. Several hydrocarbon
emission controls are discussed in the Standards of Practice
Manual (1).
Possible sources of hydrocarbon emissions include:
• Pulverizing, drying, and slurry mixing steps in
coal preparation
• The hydrogenation module
• Several areas of the phase-separation
3-9
-------
• Product and solvent fractionation
• Product and by-product storage.
Small quantities of gas will continuously be disposed of in
an elevated combustion flare system. While the flare
loading cannot be estimated, a comparable-size refinery
flares about 13.6 Mg/day. Examination of combustion prod-
ucts from elevated flares shows the following relationship
(4):
C02: hydrocarbons 2100:1
C02: CO 243:1
Other air contaminants depend upon the composition of the
gas burned. lUS will be emitted as 862. Nitrogen oxides
will be emitted as a combustion contaminant.
The third area in which hydrocarbon emissions may be a
problem is in product and by-product storage. In an envi-
ronmental overview of a commercial SRC-II facility (5)
product storage specifications have been made which should
greatly reduce hydrocarbon emissions. The specifications
for each fraction are given below.
LPG will be stored and shipped in heavy walled, pres-
surized tanks and consequently any hydrocarbon emissions
would be fugitive losses from valves, fittings, and seals
which must be regularly checked.
Naphtha should be stored in a floating roof storage
tank. The floating roof will eliminate working losses which
are the major source of hydrocarbon emissions. Floating
roof standing storage emissions will be variable depending
upon tank design, age, etc. Based on a simplified estimation
3-10
-------
(6), we can expect between 5.44 g/day and 13.2 g/day for the
525 Mg/day of naphtha produced. We would expect 772 to 1,907
g/day of hydrocarbon emissions from naphtha storage.
Fuel oil will be stored and shipped in atmospheric
pressure tanks. Hydrocarbon emissions from fixed roof
o
storage have been estimated at 4.56 g/m /day for breathing
2
emissions and 120 g/m for filling emissions. For fuel oil
production rates of 2,615 Mg/day, hydrocarbon emissions will
be approximately 0.32 Mg/day.
. Product SRC-I is produced at a rate of 5,527 Mg/day and
storage of this product will result in losses of roughly
0.66 Mg/day. Total hydrocarbon emissions are therefore a
minimum of 0.98 Mg/day. The sum of the hydrocarbon emis-
sions is about 1.3 Mg/day.
With these significant hydrocarbon emissions, the
storage tank area should have a vapor recovery system to
return vapors to the gas purification module. Loading
facilities will also need a vapor recovery system to return
vapor from the transport tanks to the storage tanks as the
liquid is loaded.
The Stretford tail gas is another source of hydrocarbon
emissions, the quantity of hydrocarbons being dependent upon
the treatment alternative chosen. Hydrocarbon emissions
following direct-flame incineration are 79.0 ppm and emis-
sions following carbon absorption/incineration are 278 ppm.
Illinois standards for petrochemical plants require that
emissions be less than 100 ppm; consequently, carbon absorp-
tion/incineration would be inadequate.
A final source of hydrocarbon emissions is the result
of the adsorption of organics to particulates which are
3-11
-------
emitted to the atmosphere. Particle size is the physical
property with the greatest influence on the behavior of
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. Polycyclic organics are
largely associated with particles less than 5 microns in
diameter. The smaller the particles, of course, the more
likely they will be to escape pollution control devices. It
is not possible to quantify the total hydrocarbons emitted
in particulate streams.
3.1.1.7 Cooling Tower Emissions
There are currently no emission standards for cooling
towers. In view of the large quantities of evaporation and
drift (22,448 Mg/day) (1) these losses warrant environmental
concern.
Tower evaporative losses, having undergone distilla-
tion, should be quite free of dissolved solids. Thus,
impact will be limited to the effect of excess water vapor
in the air near the plant.
Cooling tower drift results from water droplets mechan-
ically generated in the tower. The composition can be
expected to be similar to the tower circulating water. This
could result in contamination from dissolved minerals and
corrosion inhibitors. The actual composition of drift
depends upon the number of circulations as a multiple of the
river salinity. This is somewhat complicated by the fact
that a blowdown from steam generation will be used in cool-
ing tower make-up. In addition, an unidentified quantity of
the corrosion inhibitors and antifouling agents are lost in
drift.
3-12
-------
3.1.1.8 Air Pollution Associated with Regeneration of
Activated Carbon and Catalysts
There is no indication to date that catalysts or acti-
vated carbon would be regenerated on site.
It is conceptualized that spent carbon be removed in
specially designed hoppers and hauled off-site where it can
be regenerated in a controlled atmosphere. Reactivation
would take place in a multiple hearth furnace at about
980°C.
Catalyst used in the shift reaction in hydrogen genera-
o
tion has been estimated at about 135 m (7). As gas passes
over the catalyst, some trace elements are adsorbed or
absorbed on the catalyst. Sulfur compounds and heavy
hydrocarbons may likewise be sorbed. The estimated life of
this catalyst is one year.
Cobalt molybdate catalyst with an estimated three-year
life span will probably be used in the hydrotreating module,
and would be contaminated with nitrogen and sulfur compounds
and trace elements.
A wide variety of contaminants may be produced in
catalyst regeneration. They include catalyst dust, oil
mists, hydrocarbons, sulfur oxides, chlorides, cyanides,
nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and particulates.
Insofar as the catalysts have a fairly long lifetime,
it is suggested that they be regenerated at off-site facil-
ities with the proper air pollution controls.
3-13
-------
3.1.2 Individual Pollutants From the Modules
3.1.2.1 Coal Drying
Emissions from thermal dryers include the combustion
products, NO and S09. However, these concentrations are
X £,
very small and have not been indicated in the stack gas com-
position from the thermal drying operation (1). Both NO
J\.
and S02 from well-controlled thermal dryers processing low
sulfur coal have been found to be below the performance
standards of new coal-fired power plants (7). SO concen-
X
trations of 0 to 11.2 ppm have been reported for coal with a
2 percent sulfur content. Roughly twice this amount may be
expected from Illinois No. 6 coal (approximately 4 percent
sulfur).
3.1.2.2 Sulfur Recovery
Acid gas from the gas purification module (705 Mg/day)
and gas from hydrogen production (5,912 Mg/day) are routed
to the Stretford unit where H2S (472 Mg/day) is recovered
as elemental sulfur. The process is greater than 99.5
percent efficient in sulfur recovery, yielding 2.35 Mg/day
of hydrogen sulfide.
Treatment of the tail gas may be by direct-flame in-
cineration or by carbon absorption with incineration. The
stream compositions after treatment are shown in Table 3-6.
In either treatment method hydrogen sulfide emission
standards for commercial gasifiers (State of New Mexico)
are met. This standard is 10 ppm. The sulfur emission
standard in New Mexico for commercial gasifiers is 0.014
kg/kcal (heat input of feed). At a coal heating value of
2.99 x 10 joules/kg, the allowable sulfur discharge is
3-14
-------
TABLE 3-6. EMISSIONS AFTER TREATMENT
OF STRETFORD TAIL GAS
Component
H2S
so2
Hydrocarbons
N0x (as NO)
CO
C02
NH3
Direct flame
incineration (98%)
0.2 ppm
17. 7 ppm
79.0 ppm
96.6 ppm
2.5 ppm
43.6%
2 . 0 ppm
Carbon adsorption
incineration (99%)
10 ppm
278 ppm
0.5 ppm
12.7 ppm
43%
111 ppm
1.89 Mg/day. This standard could be met without tail gas
treatment. Industrial emission standards in Arizona require
greater than 90 percent sulfur removal.
3.1.2.3 Coal-Fired Boilers
Coal utilized in the SRC process in this study has a
sulfur content of 3.5 percent. Sulfur will be emitted as
sulfur dioxide in coal-fired boilers. Assuming 96 percent
conversion of sulfur to sulfur dioxide and assuming that 929
Mg of coal are required for steam generation, roughly 65
Mg/day of sulfur dioxide will be emitted in the flue gas
(1).
A component analysis of the boiler flue gas is shown in
Table 3-7.
3-15
-------
TABLE 3-7. COMPONENT ANALYSIS OF BOILER FLUE GAS (1)
Constituent
N2
C02
°2
N0x (as NO)
so2
HC (ethane)
Quantity
(Mg/day)
8,512
2,050
410
597
8.4
65
0.14
•)£ A
G-moles/day
3.0xl08
4.7xl07
2.3xl07
1.9xl07
2.8xl05
l.OxlO6
4.7xl03
Concentration
77.0%
12.1%
5.9%
4.9%
0.07%
0.25%
11.3 ppm
3
40 grams/m
The total flow rate of flue gas is 107 m /sec (standard
conditions at 0°C and atmospheric pressure) and the S02
concentration is 2,465 ppm. Removal of S02 by various
methods is as follows:
TABLE 3-8. SULFUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN BOILER
FLUE GAS FOLLOWING VARIOUS TREATMENT METHODS
Treatment
Lime slurry
scrubber
Soda limestone
double alkali
Limestone
scrubber
Removal
efficiency
Sulfur dioxide
emissions after Sulfur dioxide
treatment concentration
mg/day g/m3
90%+
90%+
70%+
6.5
6.5
19.5
7.1
7.1
21.0
3-16
-------
Allowable daily sulfur dioxide levels from coal-fired
boilers in the state of Illinois are 14.1 Mg/day, suggesting
that use of a limestone scrubber may be inadequate to meet
standards, while the other two treatment systems emit sulfur
dioxide significantly below the standards.
3.1.2.4 N0v
X
The reported sources of NO emissions within the SRC
X
plant include:
Steam generation 8.4 Mg/day
Stretford effluent gas 0.005 Mg/day
as NO
The Illinois emission standards for coal-fired boilers
require that NO emissions do not exceed 0.3 g/M joules of
•"•
feed coal. Total allowable daily emissions, assuming this
standard, are 8.3 Mg/day. Consequently, only a 2 percent
reduction in NO emissions is required to meet standards.
J\.
This is best accomplished by combustion modifications;
however, flue gas treatment could also be used. Reducing
excess air rates may not be as effective or damage-proof as
other modification techniques. In coal firing, serious
imbalances in fuel/air distribution may result from lower
excess air. One very effective method would be the two-
stage combustion zone. In this method 90 to 100 percent of
the theoretical combustion air is injected into the burner,
with the remainder being introduced a few meters downstream
of the burner. By supplying the substoichiometric quanti-
ties of primary air to burners, 40 to 50 percent N0v reduc-
X
tions have been observed. Another effective method of
reducing NO is by recirculation of coal flue gas, which
J\.
lowers peak flame temperature by diluting the primary flame
zone with the recirculated gas. Most existing units are
limited to 20 percent recirculation.
3-17
-------
Another source of NO emissions may be the thermal
J\.
dryer in coal preparation, although these emissions are
reportedly below performance standards for coal-fired power
plants, if the dryer is well controlled (8).
3.1.2.5
CO and COp Emissions
CO and (X^ are discharged from several point sources
within SRC. The following point sources are noteworthy:
TABLE 3-9. CARBON MONOXIDE AND CARBON DIOXIDE
EMISSIONS FROM SEVERAL POINT SOURCES
Source
p Mg/day
Stack gas from coal drying
Stretford process offgas
a. Direct flame incinera-
tion
or
b. Carbon absorption &
incineration
Gasifier C0« scrubber
Steam & power generation
Process & auxiliary related
flue gases
Flare waste gases
488
6,033
6,030
685
2,322
3,777
CO (ppm)
2.5 ppm
12.7 ppm
45.2 ppm
Not quantified Not quantified
There are no standards regarding the emissions of more
than 13,000 Mg/day of C02, nor are any anticipated. Quan-
tities of 45.2 ppm CO are far below the Illinois coal-fired
boiler emission standards of 125 ppm. Similarly the low
quantities of CO emitted from the Stretford process (1.6
ppm) are not significant.
3-18
-------
3.1.2.6 Trace Element Composition of Particulates
From Coal Preparation
The trace element distribution in participates is some-
what a function of particle size. This factor complicates
our efforts to estimate the trace element makeup in a
stream containing particulates. Table 3-10 is a first
approximation of the trace element makeup in treated dust
streams from the coal preparation module, including coal
receiving, crushing, and drying. The minimum value listed
in this table refers to the concentration of elements in the
dust stream emanating from the most effective dust control
device (a cyclone with baghouse), and the maximum refers to
the dust emitted from the least effective acceptable control
device (wet scrubber). This approximation assumed that
trace elements are evenly distributed in dust particles
independent of particle size. In an analysis of the trace
element composition in different particle sizes of coal dust
from a Pittsburgh seam coal, 27 trace elements were found to
be evenly distributed independent of particle size, while 11
trace elements were distributed in concentrations that
varied with particle size (9).
3.1.2.7 Particulates in Stack Gas From Steam
Generation
Enrichment volatilization behavior of trace elements is
determined by the physiochemical properties of the elements
and their chemical compounds in coal and combustion prod-
ucts. A group of trace elements including Cu, Zn, As, Mo,
Pb, Po, and Se have a tendency to vaporize in the furnace
and then to condense or absorb onto the fly ash. Smaller
particles will have larger specific surface areas and thus
will have a greater concentration of these elements. These
3-19
-------
TABLE 3-10.
APPROXIMATE TRACE ELEMENT COMPOSITION FROM CONTROLLED
EMISSIONS IN COAL PREPARATION
to
Name
Aluminum
Antimony
Arsenic
Barium
Beryllium
Boron
Cadmium
Calcium
Cerium
Cesium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Dysprosium
Europium
Fluorine
Gallium
Germanium
Symbol
Al
Sb
As
Ba
Be
B
Cd
Ca
Ce
Cs
Cl
Cr
Co
Cu
Dy
Eu
F
Ga
Ge
Minimum
Ug/m3
760.
0.06
0.33
6.28
0.08
7.64
0.23
435.
0.74
0.07
91.
1.13
0.37
0.74
0.06
0.014
3.56
0.18
0.32
Maximum
11,500.
0.83
5.0
94.
1.3
115.
3.4
6,500.
11.
1.0
1,350.
17.
5.6
11.
0.85
0.21
53.
2.6
4.8
Minimum
g/day
590.
0.04
0.26
4.84
0.07
5.9
0.17
335.
0.57
0.05
70.
0.87
0.29
0.57
0.04
0.01
2.75
0.14
0.24
Maximum
g/day
8,910.
0.64
3.9
73.
0.98
89.
2.61
5,100.
8.6
0.78
1,056.
13.
4.4
8.6
0.65
0.16
42.
2.0
3.7
a.,, * , j /, i , \ j , _, j ^ i j concentration in air
Minimum
Degree of
Hazard
(Health)*
0.15
0.00
0.17
0.01
0.04
0.00
0.02
1.13
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
from coal dust
Maximum
Degree of
Hazard
(Health)*
2.21
0.00
2.50
0.19
0.65
0.04
0.34
17.0
0.11
0.06
0.00
0.01
streams
MATE value (health) from MEGs
(continued)
-------
TABLE 3-10. (continued)
ho
Name
Hafnium
Indium
Iodine
Iron
Lanthanum
Lead
Lutetium
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Molybdenum
Nickel
Phosphorus
Potassium
Rubidium
Samarium
Scandium
Selenium
Silicon
Silver
Symbol
Hf
In
I
Fe
La
Pb
Lu
Mg
Mn
Hg
Mo
Ni
P
K
Rb
Sm'
Sc
Se
Si
Ag
Minimum
ug/m3
0.029
0.01
0.11
1,100.
0.40
1.5
0.0045
29.
3.0
0.010
0.52
1.2
2.5
96.
0.91
0.068
0.15
0.12
1,500.
0.0016
Maximum
ug/m3
0.044
0.12
1.6
16,000.
5.9
23.
0.068
430.
45.
0.15
7.8
19.
38.0
1,400.
14.
1.0
2.2
1.9
23,000.
0.025
Minimum
g/day
0.023
0.01
0.08
810.
0.31
1.2
0.0035
22.
2.3
0.0078
0.40
0.96
2.0
74.
0.70
0.052
0.11
0.10
1,200.
0.0013
Maximum
g/day
0.34
0.09
1.3
12,000.
4.6
18.
0.053
337.
35.
0.12
6.1
15.
30.
1,100.
11..
0.79
1.7
1.5
18,000.
0.020
. ,. , . x , ,- , . concentration in air
Minimum
Degree of
Hazard
(Health)*
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.08
0.03
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.00
from coal dust
Maximum
Degree of
Hazard
(Health)*
0.15
0.07
0.01
0.00
0.00
1.27
0.38
0.70
0.00
0.01
0.00
streams
MATE value (health) from MEGs
(continued)
-------
TABLE 3-10. (continued)
U)
1
KJ
to
Name
Sodium
Strontium
Tantalum
Thallium
Thorium
Tin
Titanium
Tungsten
Uranium
Vanadium
Ytterbium
Zinc
Zirconium
Symbol
Na
Sr
Ta
Tl
Th
Sn
Ti
W
U
V
Yb
Zn
Zr
Minimum
uB/m3
37.
2.0
0.0091
0.038
0.12
0.27
40.
0.040
0.091
1.87
0.031
24.
2.9
Maximum
Hfi/m3
560.
31.
0.14
0.57
1.0
4.0
600.
0.59
1.4
28.
0.46
350.
44.
Minimum
R/day
29.
1.6
0.0070
0.029
0.096
0.20
31.
0.031
0.070
1.4
0.024
18.
2.3
Maximum
g/day
436.
24.
0.11
0.44
1.45
3.1
460.
0.46
1.05
22.1
0.35
280.
34.
._ _ , , ... , , . , , . , . , . concentration in air
Minimum
Degree of
Hazard
(Health)*
____
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.01
from coal dust
Maximum
Degree of
Hazard
(Health)*
0.01
0.01
0.04
0.10
0.00
0.16
0.05
0.09
streams
MATE value (health) from MEG's
-------
trace elements are most likely to be present in the elemental
form or as oxides. Table 3-11 shows estimated concentration
of several trace elements in stack gas participates escaping
from control devices.
TABLE 3-11. ESTIMATED CONCENTRATIONS OF SELECTED
TRACE ELEMENTS IN PARTICULATES ESCAPING CONTROL DEVICES
IN TREATED STACK GAS (10)
Element
Cu
Zr
Rb
Sr
Zn
Mo
Se
Concentration
(ug/g)
429
676
309
749
212,152
553
69
Amount
(kg/ 24 hr)
1.85
2.92
1.33
3.24
920.0
2.39
0.30
3.1.2.8 Organics Emitted with Particulate Matter
Unquantified amounts of polynuclear aromatic hydro-
carbons (PAH) are expected to be emitted with particulates
which escape air pollution control equipment.
3.2 Water Effluents
Various studies on the pollution potential of coal con-
version processes have cited effluent water quality as a
particular area of concern since process waters from these
plants contain cyanides, phenols, ammonia, sulfides, and
dissolved solids. This would be of minimal concern in the
commercial SRC facility if the water could be reused as has
been suggested in the Standards of Practice Manual (1).
3-23
-------
Presently, the Fort Lewis SRC pilot plant is demonstrating
the applicability of various treatment systems to treat the
wastewater for discharge. However, the wastewater is
diluted with cooling water and therefore treatment results
are not strictly applicable to a commercial facility.
Organic pollutants generated in the proposed SRC plant
will largely be formed within the process itself, with
little contribution from hydrogen generation or other auxil-
iary facilities. The proposed Koppers-Totzek gasifier
operates in the entrained flow mode and as such, the average
bed temperatures are too high for phenols, tars, and oil to
be present in the discharged gas stream. Furthermore,
ammonia and cyanides are formed in amounts well under one
volume percent.
The data used to evaluate pollutant levels expected to
be discharged from a once-through wastewater treatment
system are based upon Fort Lewis pilot plant data (11,12,13),
the AWARE report on the treatability of H-Coal wastewater
(14), and analyses of Synthane gasifier process condensate
(12). The assumption that Synthane process condensate is
similar to SRC foul water is only a first approximation. A
comparison of the condensate from the two processes shows
similarity in COD and phenol levels (12).
3.2.1 Complex Effluents
For the purpose of the ensuing discussion, complex
effluents are defined as including the following pollutants:
• Oil and grease
• Suspended solids
• Dissolved solids
3-24
-------
• COD, TOG, BOD
• pH.
As mentioned elsewhere, the process wastewater contributes
almost all of the organic pollutants generated in the SRC
facility. The foul water is the most polluted water in the
overall process. The composition of this stream is esti-
mated in Table 3-12.
TABLE 3-12. CHARACTERIZATION OF FOUL PROCESS WATER (12)
Component
Total organic carbon
Total carbon
BOD (5 days)
COD
Oil and grease
Dissolved solids
Suspended solids
Effluent range
(R/l)
6.6-7.3
8.2-9.0
32.5
25.0-43.6
0.03-0.60
2.7-5.3
0.002-0.020
Source of
data
Analysis of foul process
condensate SRC;
Kentucky - Bituminous
Coal (12)
Foul process condensate
H-Coal PDU (14)
Foul water represents some 80 percent of process-
related wastewaters which consist of the following items
(1) :
3
• Foul process condensate - about 3130 m /day
• Decanter wastewater-hydrotreating - about 790
3
m /day
3
• Wastewater from gas purification - about 6 m /day
• Wastewater from cryogenic separation - about 33
3
m /day.
3
The sum of these items is about 3,960 m /day.
3-25
-------
Nonprocess-related water which will be treated in
wastewater treatment units consists of:
Raw water 32,057 m3/day
o
Cooling tower blowdown 693 m /day
Oily water runoff Unquantified
It has been conceptualized that boiler blowdown will be sent
to the cooling tower. Cooling tower blowdown is actually a
purge stream, and it will be treated separately by ion
exchange or reverse osmosis and subsequently discharged to
the river (1). The cost and feasibility of this method
require further examination.
Gasifier effluent and coal pile runoff will be treated
in settling units only.
3.2.1.1 COD, BOD, and TOG
The treatability and final effluent levels for non-
chemical water parameters can only be accurately evaluated
by actual plant data. Residual concentrations can only be
roughly estimated.
Phenol concentration in the foul water process con-
densate was reported to be 10,000 mg/1 in the Standards of
Practice Manual (1), which represents between 47 and 64
percent of the total COD (10). Phenol recovery should
reduce the COD concentrations to 13,000 to 26,500 mg/1. The
ability of activated sludge to reduce COD in the foul pro-
cess condensate was investigated by AWARE Associates for the
H-Coal process (14). As expected, removal efficiency is
dependent upon loading rates to the activated sludge units.
Operational data indicate that a removal rate of 0.22 g
BOD/g MLVSS-day be used for design. Under the optimum
3-26
-------
conditions of this investigation, 99 and 93 percent of the
influent BOD and COD, respectively, could be removed.
Influent COD ranged from 2700 to 4200 mg/1 and influent BOD
ranged from 1700 to 2700 mg/1. The refractory BOD and COD
were 5 mg/1 and 150 mg/1, respectively. Foul process con-
densate would have to be diluted significantly to obtain
these desired organic loading rates. An alternative would
be to use high-purity oxygen-activated sludge (HPOAS).
Experience with HPOAS systems in the coking industries
suggests that this may be an effective treatment method.
Effluent soluble BOD^ of 45 mg/1 can be successfully achieved
for the following loading conditions (12):
• BOD5 - 18,000 mg/1
• COD - 28,000 mg/1
• COD/BOD5 - 1.56
The effectiveness of the method for treatment of liquefac-
tion wastewaters, in which readily degraded phenols make up
less of the total COD, needs to be tested. Phenols have
been estimated to make up 68 percent of the COD of coking
effluents.
The use of activated carbon for tertiary treatment has
been shown to effectively reduce COD in treatment of the
pilot plant wastewater (14); however, activated carbon
absorption of industrial wastes must be carefully evaluated.
Breakthrough geometry and adsorption kinetics of multi-
component wastewaters are difficult to define. Certain
organics which would be encountered are not amenable to
activated carbon treatment. A third problem area with
activated carbon is that regeneration of carbon capacity
cannot be accurately estimated. Carbon adsorption pilot
3-27
-------
plant results from petrochemical and refinery wastewaters
show that for a COD of 100 to 150 mg/1, the percent removal
ranges from 59 to 67 percent (15). Assuming that 150 mg/1
COD is the refractory COD from biological treatment, as
observed for the H-coal foul process condensate, effluent
CODs may be as low as 49.5 to 61.5 ppm.
If the refractory BOD is closer to 45 ppm, we may
expect a COD of approximately 340 mg/1 from biological
treatment. This treatment assumes that the relationship:
BODT =0.66 CODT - 180
determined for the H-coal sour water (14) holds true for SRC
sour water as well. It cannot be accurately determined if
effluent BOD concentrations would continuously meet Illinois
requirements of 20 ppm.
3.2.1.2 Oil and Grease
Oil and grease will be removed in wastewater treatment
largely by dissolved air flotation, possibly accompanied by
an API separator. The main source of oil and grease is the
foul process condensate and oily water runoff. The con-
tribution by the latter is unknown and variable.
Bench-scale application of dissolved air flotation to
the H-coal foul process condensate showed oil and grease
removal efficiency of 70 percent without use of emulsion-
breaking chemicals. Table 3-13 shows the ranges of oil
removal efficiencies that have been reported for dissolved
air flotation (DAF) (16):
3-28
-------
TABLE 3-13. EFFICIENCIES OF OIL REMOVAL FROM WASTEWATER
BY DISSOLVED AIR FLOTATION
Air flotation (no
chemical)
Air flotation &
Oil removed -
free oil
70-95%
75-95%
Oil
emulsions
10-40%
50-90%
emulsion-breaking
chemicals
There are few states with discharge criteria for oil
and grease. Colorado has an effluent discharge standard of
10 mg/1. Use of DAF alone would probably be insufficient to
meet these standards. Addition of emulsion-breaking chemi-
cals may increase efficiency up to 90 percent. During stable
operations of activated sludge units treating H-Coal sour
water, oil and grease concentrations were reduced by 75 to
90 percent for influent concentrations ranging from 20 to
75 mg/1 (14). Therefore, use of activated sludge and DAF
with emulsion-breaking chemicals should reduce oil and
grease to acceptable levels.
3.2.1.3 Dissolved and Suspended Solids
There are several waste streams which require treatment
for dissolved and suspended solids, the degree of treatment
depending largely upon the end use of the water.
3.2.1.3.1 Coal Pile Runoff
The concentrations of dissolved and suspended solids
from coal pile runoff will be highly variable. Table 3-14
shows a range of 247 to 44,050 mg/1 for total dissolved
solids and 22 to 3302 mg/1 for suspended solids in coal due
3-29
-------
TABLE 3-14. CHEMICAL WASTES CHARACTERISTICS OF COAL PILE DRAINAGE (mg/1) (17)
Characteristic
Alkalinity
BOD
COD
Total solids
Total dissolved solids
Total suspended solids
Ammonia
Nitrate
Phosphorus
w Turbidity
o Acidity
Total hardness
Sulfate
Chloride
Aluminum
Chromium
Copper
Iron
Magnesium
Zinc
Sodium
PH
n*
8
4
5
6
7
7
5
5
2
5
5
4
8
4
2
6
4
9
2
7
3
11
Arithmetic
mean
20.0
3.3
820
11,200
12,600
830
0.69
1.31
0.72
200
9,900
800
6,900
130
1,000
2.7
2.1
10,900
130
5.9
890
4.4
Geometric
mean
0.0
0.0
615
5,070
3,600
340
0.00
0.93
0.53
32
216
430
2,200
19
990
0.0
2.0
4
124
1.0
630
4.0
Standard
deviation
28.1
4.7
434
17,000
17,000
1,140
0.82
0.94
0.69
270
13,700
840
8,800
240
260
6.4
0.9
30,800
60
8.9
630
2.1
Standard error
of the mean
9.9
2.4
194
6,900
6,500
430
0.37
0.42
0.48
120
6,000
420
3,100
118
190
2.6
0.4
10,300
42
3.3
370
0.6
Range
0-36.41
0-10
85-1,099
1,330-45,000
247-44,050
22-3,302
0-1.77
0.3-2.25
0.23-1.2
2.77-505
8.68-27,810
130-1,850
133-21,920
3.6-481
825-1,200
0.0-15.7
1.6-3.4
0.06-93,000
89-174
0.006-23
160-1,260
2.8-7.8
number of samples taken for a particular analysis.
-------
to runoff from several sources (17). The acidic nature of
this runoff can cause the dissolution of inorganic salts
which are present in the coal. The high alkalinity of coal
from the Illinois region is likely to neutralize much of the
sulfuric acid, thus decreasing the solubility of the salts.
Consequently, we can expect Illinois #6 coal to release
pollutants at the lower end of the concentration ranges.
However, unless an impervious lining is placed in the ponds
and preventive measures are taken to avoid overflow, serious
ground pollution problems could result. Insofar as end use
of the coal pile runoff is for coal washing, water quality
is not significant except from the standpoint of overflow
from the settling ponds. Settling ponds should be designed
to contain maximum runoff.
3.2.1.3.2 Ash Pond Effluent
Bottom and fly ash from steam generation may be routed
to settling ponds or, alternatively, collected in trucks and
hauled off-site. The characteristics of ash pond effluent
for coal-fired power plants which use Illinois or western
Kentucky coals are shown in Table 3-15 (17). In both plants
suspended solids concentrations are much lower than concen-
trations of dissolved solids. Nevertheless, suspended
solids levels are too high to meet BPCTCA (best practical
control technology currently available) or BATEA (best avail-
able technology economically achievable) levels of 30 mg/1
for bottom ash or fly ash transport water. The high con-
centrations of suspended solids in some ash ponds are prob-
ably caused by low-density, hollow-sphere ashes (cenospheres)
which cannot be removed in the pond by natural settling.
Some means of removing the cenospheres would be required to
meet effluent guidelines for suspended solids if the water
was discharged. It is more likely that the water will be
reused in the process, although its use is restricted by
3-31
-------
TABLE 3-15. CHARACTERISTICS OF ASH POND EFFLUENT
FROM -COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS RUN ON KENTUCKY
BITUMINOUS OR ILLINOIS COAL (1?)
Parameter
Total alk. (CaCOj)
pH
Dissolved solids
Suspended solids
Aluminum
Ammonia
Arsenic
Barium
Beryllium
Cadmium
Calcium
Chloride
Chromium
Copper
Cyanide
Iron
Lead
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel
Selenium
Silver
Sulfate
Zinc
Min
0.8/1)
33
10.5
12
1
0.8
0.03
<0.005
'0.1
<0.01
0.001
74
4
0.012
0.01
<0.01
0.05
<0.01
0.2
'0.01
'0.0002
<0.05
0.009
'0.001
14
<0.01
Plant
Ave
(mg/1)
113
11.2
452
39
2.0
0.15
<0.005
0.2
<0.01
0.001
115
5
0.043
0.02
<0.01
0.23
0.01
2.0
0.01
0.038
<0.05
0.016
<0.01
156
0.04
la
Max
(mg/1)
173
11.4
1410
182
3.1
0.38
0.005
0.5
'0.01
0.002
160
6
0.072
0.04
<0.01
1.10
0.04
7.2
0.04
0.300
<0.05
0.028
'0.01
240
0.06
Degree
of
Hazard
Health
(Avg)
-
-
-
-
0.025
-
0.020
0.040
0.33
0.02
0.479
-
0.172
0.04
-
0.153
0.04
0.022
0.040
3.8
0.217
0.320
0.04
-
0.001
Min
(mg/1)
58
9.4
23
2
0.5
0.02
<0.005
<0.1
'0.01
0.001
52
7
0.014
<0.01
<0.01
0.11
<0.01
0.4
<0.001
< 0.0002
0.05
<0.002
<0.01
55
<0.01
Plant
Ave
(mg/1)
96
10.8
232
14
1.7
0.06
0.012
0.2
'0.01
0.001
87
12
0.021
0.05
<0.01
0.24
0.025
1.0
0.001
0 . 0004
0.07
0.011
<0.01
87
0.05
2h
Max
(mg/1)
187
11.4
416
59
2.4
0.16
0.025
0.3
<0.01
0.001
130
19
0.026
0.10
<0.01
0.34
0.04
3.0
0.02
0.0008
0.22
0.016
<0.01
110
0.11
Degree
of
Hazard
Health
-
-
-
-
0.021
-
0.048
0.040
0.33
0.02
0.363
-
0.084
0.10
-
0.160
0.100
0.011
0.040
0.040
0.304
0.220
0.04
-
0.002
aPlant 1 - utilized W. Kentucky and/or S. Illinois coal
method of firing - opposed
ash content of coal - 16.37.
1 fly ash of total ash - 807
bPlant 2 - utilized W. Kentucky and/or S. Illinois coal
method of firing - circular
ash content of coal - 15.6Z
I fly ash of total ash - 75Z
3-32
-------
high levels of dissolved solids. Complete reuse would
require dissolved solids removal by reverse osmosis, elec-
trodialysis, or ion exchange.
3.2.1.3.3 Dissolved and Suspended Solids in Foul
Process Water
As was mentioned earlier, dissolved and suspended
solids levels in the foul process condensate are 2690 to
5390 mg/1 and 2 to 20 mg/1, respectively. Decanter waste-
water from hydrotreating is reported to contain certain
trace elements, but levels of suspended and dissolved solids
have not been reported.
The very low level of suspended solids (2 to 20 ppm)
from the process water does not warrant treatment. Dis-
solved solids, on the other hand, are very high (2690 to
5300 ppm) and removal efficiencies in wastewater treatment
depend upon the particular dissolved species.- Dissolved
solids, as such, are not particularly harmful assuming that
the individual pollutant limits have been specified. The
effluent dissolved solids levels are not known at this time.
3.2.1.3.4 Solids in Cooling Tower Slowdown
The blowdown from the recirculating cooling system has
the same chemical composition as does the recirculating
cooling water. Soluble constituents in make-up water,
however, are concentrated as high as 1500 mg/1 to 10,000
mg/1 before being removed in the blowdown stream. The raw
water supply in White County, Illinois, is characterized in
Chapter 4 of this report. A sidestream filter should
remove most suspended solids generated in the cooling sys-
tem. It has been conceptualized that the blowdown be
treated separately, using reverse osmosis or ion exchange to
3-33
-------
remove dissolved solids to acceptable levels; these pro-
cesses are highly effective in removing dissolved solids.
Thus, it may be necessary to only treat a portion of the
stream and to recombine the treated and untreated streams
before discharge. The feasibility and cost effectiveness of
these treatment methods remain to be demonstrated.
3.2.1.3.5 Suspended Solids from the Gasifier
The water from the clarifier in the Koppers-Totzek
gasifier will be recirculated as quench water unless the
quality is too poor. An analysis of water out of the clari-
fier shows suspended solids levels of 50 mg/1. With such
levels, overflow of the clarifier should not present any
serious suspended solids problems.
3.2.2 Individual Pollutants from the Modules
3.2.2.1 Phenols
Foul process condensate and cryogenic separator waste-
water are the only wastewater streams routed to phenol
recovery. The phenol content is estimated to range from
5,000 to 12,000 ppm (12) and was reported to be 10,000 mg/1
in the Standards of Practice Manual (1). The value of total
phenols reported in the Standards of Practice Manual (1)
lies at the high end of the range at 10,860 mg/1 for foul
process condensate and at 11,800 mg/1 for cryogenic sep-
arator wastewater. Phenol recovery by solvent extraction
can be 99.9 percent effective in phenol recovery; 99 per-
cent recovery will be assumed.
The relative distribution of individual phenolic com-
pounds in the SRC wastewater is not known. As a first
approximation, the distribution found in Synthane gasification
3-34
-------
process operating with Illinois #6 coal is assumed. These
data are shown in Table 3-16 (13).
The concentration of phenols entering biological treat-
ment was determined by assuming that COD of the decanter
wastewater is essentially zero, that this stream is a
diluent and that the phenol concentration of cryogenic
separation wastewater is 11,800 mg/1 (1). Decanter waste-
water will have some COD, but it will be low compared to
foul water. No estimates can be made regarding oily water
runoff at this time and it has not been considered as a
diluent or as a significant contribution of phenol.
Calculated values shown in Table 3-15 indicate levels
of biological oxidation somewhat similar to those observed
in the Fort Lewis Pilot Plant, where influent concentrations
to biological treatment of 10 to 1000 ppm phenol are reduced
to 0.1 to 3.0 ppm. The effluent following carbon adsorption
and sand filtration ranges from 0.0-0.6 ppm phenol in the
pilot plant, indicating that a tertiary polishing step could
further reduce even very low phenol concentrations (18).
Estimations of achievable levels of phenol reduction in
a commercial system cannot be accurately assessed.
Effluent guidelines for phenols have been established
for the by-product coking industry (0.0006 kg/kg product -
daily maximum) and for the petroleum refining industry,
3
subcategory topping (0.088 kg/km of feedstock - daily
maximum).
3.2.2.2 Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Table 3-16 shows concentration levels of polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) observed in raw process water
from the SRC process. The plant was operating in the SRC-I
3-35
-------
TABLE 3-16. DISTRIBUTION OF PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS
FOLLOWING PHENOL RECOVERY AND BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT (13)
Phenolic
compound
Phenol
Cresols
Xylenol
C«-phenols
Total
Relative
distribution
in
foul process
water*
44.4%
36.6%
14.3%
1.4%
Concentration Concentration
after
99%
recovery
(mg/1)
48.2
39.2
15.6
3.6
106.6
to
biological**
treatment
(mg/1)
38.6
31.4
12.5
2.9
85.4
% Biol.
oxidation
assumed
99%
97%
97%
97%
Bio-unit
effluent
(mg/1)
0.39
0.94
0.38
0.09
1.8
* Distribution in foul process water from the Synthane process.
**This assumes that wastewater from phenol recovery is diluted by decanter
wastewater with respect to phenol.
mode at the time of sampling. Feed coal was a Kentucky
high-sulfur bituminous.
The PAH concentrations in the raw wastewater are
present at concentrations below MATE values even prior to
any treatment or dilution with wastewater low in TOC or COD,
as is evidenced by the fact that all degree-of-hazard values
are less than one. The degradability of PAH in activated
sludge is expected to be highly variable. Assuming 30 to 80
percent degradation unless otherwise noted in Table 3-17 and
accounting for a minimum dilution of 1.25 (decanter waste-
water from hydrotreating), bio-effluent concentrations are
estimated in Table 3-17.
3-36
-------
TABLE 3-17. CONCENTRATIONS OF PAH IN
FOUL PROCESS WATER (11)
SRC
Conpound
PAH
Methyllndane
Tetralin
Dimethyltetralin
Naphthalene
Dimethylnaphthalene
2-Isopropylnaphthalene
1-Isopropylnaphthalene
Biphenyl
Acenaphthalene
Dimethylblphenyl
Dlbenzofuran
Xanthene
Dibenzothiophene
Me thyldlbenzothlophene
Thioxanthene
Fluorene
9-Methylfluorene
1-Methylfluorene
Anthracene/Phenanthrene
Methylphenanthrene
C -Anthracene
Kluoranthene
Dlhydropyrene
Pyrene
Dlmethyldibenzothiophene
Removal efficiencies for a
Degree of
Concentration MATE Hazard
-------
3.2.2.3 Straight-Chain Hydrocarbons
Long-chain alkanes and fatty acids have been detected
in process wastewater from several coal conversion pro-
cesses. MEGs have not been assigned to long-chain fatty
acids or to long-chain alkanes to date. Long-chain alkanes
detected in the SRC foul water are shown in Table 3-17.
Straight-chain alkanes from crude oil have been found to be
degraded about 96.4 percent by microorganisms isolated from
the Chesapeake Bay (19), as follows:
TABLE 3-18. CONCENTRATIONS OF STRAIGHT-CHAIN ALKANES
IN CHESAPEAKE BAY MICROORGANISMS
Compound Concentration (mg/1)
n-octane 2.3
n-undecane 0.3
n-dodecane 0.3
n-tridecane 0.4
n-pentadecane 0.2
n-hexadecane 0.2
n-heptadecane 0.02
n-tetradecane 0.3
Very low concentrations of long-chain alkanes can be
expected in the bio-effluent. Fatty acids have been ob-
served in process condensate from Synthane, COED (13), and
EDS processes (20). Fatty acids have not been reported in
SRC foul water to date. Low toxicity [MATE = 3.8x10 yg/1
(health) for acetic acid] and high rate of biodegradation
suggest that these compounds warrant no concern in process
effluent.
3.2.2.4 Heterocyclic N-Aromatics
Table 3-19 shows concentrations of polycyclic N-aro-
matics observed in the process wastewater from the Synthane
gasification process.
3-38
-------
TABLE 3-19. CONCENTRATIONS OF HETEROCYCLIC N-AROMATICS
DETECTED IN SYNTHANE FOUL PROCESS WATER (12) _
Concentration
Compound _ mg/1 _ MATE mg/1
Quinoline 0-100 2.4 x
Methylquinoline
Dime thy Iquinoline
Ethylquinoline
Benzoquinoline
Methylbenzoquinoline
Tetrahydroquinoline
Isoquinoline 0-110 2.4 x
8.3 x 10
Indole
Methylindole
Dime thy lindo le
Benzoindole
Methylbenzoindole
1.7 x
The values represent ranges observed in gasification using
six different coal types and different operating conditions.
All of the heterocyclic N-aromatics shown in Table 3-19
have been detected in the SRC process wastewater, but have
not been quantified to date. The treatment'of N-polycyclics
by activated sludge and by activated carbon is variable.
However, for those compounds in Table 3-19 for which MATE
values have been derived, the degree of hazard (health) is
less than one in every case, when it is assumed that the
total concentration of heterocyclic N-aromatics is attrib-
utable to that compound alone.
Several of these compounds will be further reduced in
biological treatment. Singer and coworkers (21) have in-
vestigated the biological treatability of heterocyclic N-
aromatics. Oxygen depletion of 5 mg/1 of the compounds was
as follows after a 20-day incubation period (toxic implies
the compound killed the organisms responsible for degrada-
tion) :
3-39
-------
TABLE 3-20. OXYGEN DEPLETION OF HETEROCYCLIC N-AROMATICS
02 depletion
Compound (percent)
Quinoline 82
2-methylquinoline 80
4-methylquinoline Toxic
indole 79
2-methylindole Toxic
3-methylindole 85
3.2.2.5 Polycyclic Hydroxy Compounds
The quantities of polycyclic hydroxy compounds shown in
Table 3-21 were average ranges for six different Synthane
operations using different coal types. Polycyclic hydroxy
compounds have not been reported to date in the SRC process
wastewater. If one assumes that benzene is the solvent used
in phenol recovery, one can expect that recovery of dihydric
phenols will be quite complete, insofar as the distribution
coefficient is greater for dihydric phenols than it is for
monohydric phenols.
3.2.2.6 Trace Elements
Several streams within the SRC process can be charac-
terized with respect to concentrations of various trace
elements. Several streams, as was mentioned under complex
effluents, are treated by settling ponds only. Those
streams which have significant trace element constituents
and are treated in the wastewater treatment module include
the foul process condensate and decanter water from hydro-
treating. The trace element composition of decanter waste-
water is not known at the present time. As a first approxi-
mation of the trace element composition of the foul water,
data for the H-Coal PDU will be used (Table 3-22) (14).
3-40
-------
TABLE 3-21. CONCENTRATIONS OF POLYCYCLIC HYDROXY COMPOUNDS
FOUND IN FOUL PROCESS WATER FROM SYNTHANE PROCESS (13)
Before treatment
(ppm)
After 99%
recovery of phenols
(ppm)
T-Naphthol
p-Naphthol
Methylnaphthol
Indenol
C,-Indenol
4-Indanol
C, -Indanol
30-290
30-290
30-290
20-110
20-110
40-150
40-150
0.3-2.9
0.2-1.1
0.4-1.5
TABLE 3-22. TRACE ELEMENT COMPOSITION OF H-COAL
FOUL PROCESS CONDENSATE WATER (14)
Component
Phosphate
Cr
Cyanide
Cd
Fe
Pb
Al
Cu
Mg
Ni
Ca
V
Ti
Na
Mo
Co
Cone.
mg/1
2.1
0.1
10*
0.8
1.2
2.9
2.5
0.4
0.7
1.7
4.3
1.0
1.0
10.5
<0.5
1.4
Degree of
hazard
(health)
-
0.4
20
16
4.8
11.6
0.031
0.80
0.008
7.39
0.018
0.13
0.011
0.013
0.007
5.6
Percent removal
required to reach
MATE^
0
95
94
79
91
0
0
0
86
0
0
0
0
0
82
*This value has been reported for SRC sour water.
3-41
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As indicated by these data, several metals would have
to be removed in the wastewater treatment to reduce the
degree of hazard to less than one. As was previously noted
under complex effluents, most trace elements in this stream
are present in the dissolved state. How they behave in
wastewater treatment is not well known. The treatability of
these trace elements needs to be further investigated.
Often concentrations of trace elements remaining in efflu-
ents are higher than is predicted by the solubility product
alone, due either to incomplete precipitation or to the
presence of finely divided colloidal particles. Table 3-23
shows estimates of the removal efficiency for several trace
elements by precipitation and carbon adsorption. Trace
element concentrations will be further reduced in biological
treatment.
TABLE 3-23. SUMMARY OF REMOVAL OF METALS BY CHEMICAL
CLARIFICATION AND CARBON ADSORPTION (22)
Percent
removal
<50
50-90
90-95
95-100
Lime system
Mo
Sb, Se*
Hg, Sn, Tl, V
Ag, Be, Bi, Co,
Se,** Ti
Ferric chloride
sy s tern
Co, Tl
Mo, Sb, Se
Ti
Ag, Be, Bi,
Hg, Sn, V
Alum system
Mo,
Co,
Sn,
Ag,
V,
Tl
Cd
Ba
Be
Cr,
, Zn, Mn, Ni
, Sb, Se
, Bi, Hg, Ti,
Cu, Pb
* Initial concentration - 0.06 mg/1.
**Initial concentration - 0.5 mg/1.
3.2.2.6.1 Cooling Tower Slowdown
The cooling tower blowdown can be expected to contain
the same constituents that are present in the raw water.
The composition of raw water in White County is typified in
3-42
-------
Chapter 4 of this report. The concentration of trace ele-
ments in the blowdown depends upon the frequency of purge;
and the chemicals used for corrosion inhibition, anti-
fouling, etc. It is not anticipated that dissolved solids
from the cooling tower blowdown will present any problem, if
the purge stream is treated in a side-stream ion-exchange or
reverse osmosis process. The feasibility of these methods
needs further investigation.
Non-oxidizing biocides used to control growth of slime,
algae, and fungi are obviously toxic and cannot be dis-
charged directly. Since ion exchange or reverse osmosis are
the treatment methods recommended, it is best to choose a
biocide which can be neutralized chemically.
3.2.2.6.2 Coal Pile Runoff
Coal pile runoff results when moisture comes in contact
with stockpile coal. The quantity and quality of coal pile
runoff can be highly variable and this is reflected in the
wide range of concentrations reported for several parameters
monitored in coal pile runoff in Table 3-14.
The quality and quantity of runoff is a function of:
• Drainage area
• Stockpile configuration and volume
• Intensity of precipitation
• Particle size
• Reaction time
• Density and slope of the pile.
Stored coal exposed to moisture and air results in the
oxidation of metallic sulfides in the coal. Minerals are
dissolving in the coal pile even when no precipitation is
3-43
-------
occurring. With sufficient precipitation most minerals are
flushed, and following the first flush only minor constitu-
ents are lost (23).
The runoff can be related to rainfall intensity by the
following formula:
Q = CiA
where:
Q = peak runoff rate
C = runoff coefficient and depends upon the drainage
area
i = average rainfall intensity
A = drainage area
The Standards of Practice Manual (1) has designated 3.2
hectares for the coal storage area. It has recommended
application of a polymer coating to prevent runoff. With an
average rainfall of 1.06 m/hr in the state of Illinois and a
runoff coefficient assumed to be 0.7, 67.1 Mg/day of rela-
tively clean runoff could be expected with the polymer coat-
ing. No data are available on the composition of runoff
when a polymer coating is applied.
If a similar runoff coefficient were found for a coal
pile without a polymer coating, the plant would need to
handle the highly contaminated runoff in settling ponds.
Table 3-14 shows coal pile drainage characteristics for
several plants; the wide variation in concentrations for the
parameters shown suggests the need for site-specific
3-44
-------
monitoring. With or without the use of polymer, runoff
should be collected in settling ponds and allowed a reten-
tion time sufficient to settle out most suspended solids.
This water would be reused in coal preparation. Since the
water will be reused rather than discharged to surface
streams, the major concern is groundwater contamination
and/or overflow from the settling basin. Impervious lining
(e.g., bentonite clay) in the settling pond is essential to
prevent soluble species from reaching the aquifer. Basins
should be made available outside the settling ponds to
collect overflow.
3.2.2.6.3 Refuse Pile Runoff
Many of the same variables influencing the quality of
coal pile runoff also affect the quality of refuse pile
runoff. In the case of the refuse pile, however, sealing
techniques will be used to reduce the amount of moisture
infiltration and subsequent leaching of coal refuse material
Data in Table 3-24 show refuse pile runoff from a
bituminous coal refuse pile covered with clay and grass and,
for comparison, a refuse effluent from a pile which was not
covered (24).
It is quite evident from the data that runoff from an
uncovered refuse pile would pose serious threats; the data
showed that the concentration of iron and SO, increases
4,466 and 18.7 times, respectively, and that the stream
adjacent to the refuse pile was extremely acidic.
3.2.2.6.4 Mineral Residue Leachate
In the conceptual design advocated in the Standards of
Practice Manual (1) some 3,705 Mg/day of residue will not be
3-45
-------
TABLE 3-24. EFFECTS OF REFUSE PILE RUNOFF
ON STREAM COMPOSITION (24)
Pile covered with
Stream
component
Total
acidity
PH
S04
Na
Mg
Al
K
Ca
Mn
Fe
clay
Above
pile
(mg/1)
0
7.5
106
16
35
1.0
2.2
70
0.01
0.1
and grass
Below
pile
(ms/1)
0
7.5
106
16
35
1.0
2.5
70
0.01
0.1
Pile with
Above
pile
(mg/1)
7.9
564
20
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
0.03
0.5
no cover
Below
pile
(mg/1)
5,660
2.9
10,544
256
No Data
No Data
No Data
No Data
10
2,233
utilized in the gasifier to produce hydrogen. It is not
likely that these huge quantities of hazardous material
would be disposed of as such. Rather, the heating value of
the remaining residue should be recovered and sold to out-
side sources if it cannot be used for process fuel gas.
Because the residue will be further used, leachate should
not be a problem except over short-term storage time. It
has been observed during the process of leachate studies
(25) that the SRC residue, because of its high carbon con-
tent, did not leach readily and failed to dissolve in
mineral acids.
3.2.2.6.5 Ash Ponds
Coal utilized in the steam generation module is anti-
cipated to generate roughly 66 Mg/day of bottom ash and 36.6
Mg/day of particulates in the stack gas. The fly ash will
be collected in hoppers below the mechanical collectors or
3-46
-------
electrostatic precipitators. It is expected that the ash
will be mixed with a high-velocity water jet, and then
sluiced through cast-iron alloy pipes to a settling pond.
Bottom ash is removed from the bottom of the boiler using a
high-pressure spray system. This ash-water mixture will
also be pumped to the settling pond. Alternatively, the
ashes could be hauled off-site to the stripped mine, which
would eliminate any pollution potential from the ash ponds.
The characteristics of the ash pond are not only
affected by the coal type but also by the quality and quan-
tity of water used for sluicing.
The data in Table 3-15 show characteristics of once-
through ash pond discharges for coal-fired plants using coal
from western Kentucky or southern Illinois (17). Ash pond
effluents from plants that received coal from western
Kentucky and southern Illinois are alkaline.
3.2.2.6.6 Leachate From Slag
The leachability of slag generated by Koppers-Totzek
needs to be investigated. It is anticipated that the slag
will behave as bottom ash and, as such, will not leach
readily.
Slag could ultimately be disposed of in the strip mine,
and bottoms from the ash pond are likely to be disposed with
the slag.
3.2.2.7 Ammonia
Ammonia is recovered from the foul process water,
decanter wastewater, and wastewater from cryogenic separa-
tion. Ninety-nine percent ammonia recovery has been assumed
3-47
-------
in the Standards of Practice Manual (1); at this efficiency
the wastewater discharged from ammonia recovery contains 239
mg/1. It is likely that the ammonia will be stripped down
to the ammonia-nitrogen requirements for biological treat-
ment .
3.3 Solid Wastes
3.3.1 Land-Destined Wastes
Resolution of solid waste problems involves determining
the composition and quantities of solid wastes generated in
the liquefaction process, whereupon the most effective
control technology available for control of secondary pollu-
tants in the form of leachate, fugitive dust, or runoff is
determined.
As air and water pollution regulations are implemented,
sludges and slurries which are toxic and/or hazardous are
generated in increasingly large quantities. It is assumed
for this discussion that most of the solid wastes generated
will be disposed of by landfilling; this means of disposal
is advocated both in the Standards of Practice Manual (1)
and in the Environmental Overview of the Commercial SRC-II
Plant (5).
The hazardous nature of the wastes warrants that the
following considerations be made prior to disposal of the
wastes:
• Chemical stabilization of the solids singularly or
in mixture
• Examination of physical/chemical reactions of
sludges and slurries in mixture
3-48
-------
• Compatibility of liners (e.g., bentonite clay) and
containers with the particular hazardous waste
• Compatibility of soils with the hazardous waste
where no liners are used.
The very nature of solid wastes suggests a complex
mixture of organics and/or trace elements. Table 3-25
lists quantities of solid wastes estimated for a commercial
liquefaction facility, and the assumed fate of the solids in
treatment/disposal. Fugitive emissions which escape pollu-
tion control have been considered under air emissions.
3.3.2 Individual Pollutants from Modules
3.3.2.1 Coal Pile Refuse
Refuse generated in coal preparation consists of refuse
from reclaiming and crushing, which consists of tramp iron,
slate, coal, and "bone." Refuse from pulverizing and drying
contains slate, "bone," coal, and water. The total waste
generated amounts to some 7,713 Mg/day with a moisture
content of 24 percent. Refuse generated consists of mater-
ials ranging from colloidal size to 30 cm long (8).
It is not possible to develop a typical profile for
refuse dumps. The chief concern is actually pollutant dis-
charge in the form of fugitive emission and runoff or of
leachate as previously discussed.
At a minimum, the following control methods should be
practiced in containing refuse:
3-49
-------
TABLE 3-25. SOLID WASTES GENERATED IN SRC-II
U)
i
Ul
o
Solid Waste
Quantity
Mg/day
Nature and Fate of the Waste
Coal Preparation
Coal refuse and tramp iron
Dusts removed from pollution equipment
from receiving crushing & reclaiming and
dryer stack gas controlled
Dust from receiving crushing and reclaiming
uncontrolled
Dust from dryer stack gas - uncontrolled
Hydrotreating
Spent catalyst
Solid Separation
Residue
Hydrogen Production Slag
Slag (40% water)
7,713
43
0.015-
0.22
0.029-
0.435
4.25 nf
3,705
1,538
(continued)
Contains bone, coal, tramp iron and water
which is stockpiled and finally disposed of
in the mine. Colloidal in size up to 30 cm
long.
Particulates greater than S|JL and a percen-
tage of particulates in l-5fi range. Dusts
are collected in hoppers, wetted and hauled
to strip mine.
Highly variable; high grain loading
particle size 1-100 microns
High temperature, pressure and flow rate;
high moisture content
Likely to be cobalt-molybdate catalyst -
contaminated with metals, sulfur and nitro-
gen compounds; 3-year life-time
Heavy product, ash (64%) and undissolved
coal (27-28% carbon) should be further pro-
cessed to recover energy
Granular in nature, containing little or no
leachable materials or dust. To be trans-
ported to strip mine.
-------
TABLE 3-25. (continued)
Solid Waste
Quantity
Mg/day
Nature and Fate of the Waste
Ul
CO shift catalyst
Sulfur Recovery
Particulates in flue gas
Recovered sulfur by-product
Raw Water Treatment
Sludge (5% solids)
Steam Generation
Bottom ash
Fly ash
Emitted particulates
4.0
444
370
66
36.1
0.49
Contaminated with trace element, nitrogen
and sulfur compounds; 1-year life time.
Probably similar in composition to fly ash,
Particle sizes are unknown; rich in trace
elements; could be stored as a liquid to
avoid dust problems
Lime sludge from which it is probably cost-
effective to recover the lime before sludge
disposal
Contains trace elements not volatilized in
the combustion zone. Rich in Al, Ba, Ca,
Ce, Co, Fe, Mg, Mn, Sc, Th, K.
Contains some nonvolatile trace elements but
is more enriched with the volatile elements
(As, Sb, Ni...)
Particles 1 micron in size rich in As, Sb,
Cr, Cd, Ni, Pb, Se, Ti, & Zn
(continued)
-------
TABLE 3-25. (continued)
Solid Waste
Wastewater Treatment
Surge tank bottoms
Chromate reduction unit sludge
Biological sludge
Quantity
Mg/day
Nature and Fate of the Waste
Not Oily sludges, much of which can be re-
quantified covered and reprocessed through the plant
Not Largely a zinc sulfide and trivalent chrome/
quantified ferric hydroxide complex which has precipi-
tated out.
0.5-0.6 Excess biological solids; 5% solids prior
to dewatering. May be chemically treated
and landfilled or incinerated.
i
Ul
N5
-------
• The material is to be compacted to reduce air
voids
• A sealant, plastic, clay, or cementing agent
should be placed over the pile
Ultimate disposal of coal refuse will probably consist of
disposal in the strip mines with the slag and fly ash from
gasification.
3.3.2.2 Dust Collected by Air Pollution Equipment
in Coal Preparation
It has been estimated that about 50 Mg/day of coal dust
is collected by air pollution abatement equipment in coal
preparation. This dust must be handled without creating new
air pollution problems. A trickle valve or rotary valve may
be connected to discharge to a screw conveyor which collects
dust from several hoppers and transfers it to a common
collecting point. The dust is then sent to the reactor for
liquefaction along with raw coal.
There is no quantification of the amount of dust which
escapes during the disposal operation. The dust composition
will be similar to the parent coal, although certain trace
elements have a tendency to concentrate in smaller par-
ticles.
3.3.2.3 Sulfur
The Standards of Practice Manual (1) has determined the
quantity of by-product sulfur to be 444 Mg/day. The sulfur
recovered in the process is expected to have a trace element
composition similar to that shown in Table 3-5. This sulfur
was recovered from a high-sulfur Kentucky bituminous coal
3-53
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whose trace element analysis differs from Illinois #6 coal.
It is estimated that roughly 1.6 percent of the total trace
element content is f ound in the recovered sulfur (3) ; how-
ever, certain trace elements (e.g., vanadium) are present as
the result of sulfur recovery. The hazardous nature of this
by-product warrants that it be stored properly to avoid
fugitive emissions (25) . The recovered sulfur may be
handled and stored as a liquid in completely closed con-
tainers to avoid emissions.
In addition to the hazard presented by the sulfur by-
product itself (due in part to the possible explosion and
trace element content) , there is a continuous purge stream
from the Stretford unit. It is recommended that this purge
stream be decomposed by high- temperature hydrolysis (1).
This will recover vanadium in solid form along with some
sodium carbonate, sodium sulfide, and sodium sulf ate .
Hydrogen cyanide is converted to C02, H^O, and N2,
sodium thiosulfate is converted to H2S and H20. This purge
stream has the following composition:
TABLE 3-26. ABSORBENT PURGE FROM THE STRETFORD UNIT (1)
Compound
Na2S203
NaCNS
NaV03
ADA*
Na2C03, NaHC03
H20
TOTAL
g/Mg of coal
68.1
28.0
4.13
7.02
19.0
503.9
630.2
Total MR/ day
1.53
0.63
0.096
0.15
0.43
11.36
14.19
*Salt of anthraquinone acid.
3-54
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3.3.2.4 Sludges
The sludges generated in the SRC facility are generally
hazardous wastes and must be disposed of accordingly. This
discussion will consider the following sludges:
• Surge tank bottoms
• Bottom sediment from API separator and chemical
coagulation unit
• Froth skimmed from air-flotation unit
• Bio-unit sludge
• Chromate reduction unit sludge
• Raw water treatment sludge
• Desulfurization sludge.
There are several control/disposal options considered
in the Standards of Practice Manual (1). Landfilling is
presently the most attractive for the large quantities of
sludge generated. A high-pressure sludge dewatering system
will be needed to convert the sludges into a filter cake
suitable for disposal.
3.3.2.4.1 Surge Tank Bottoms
Residence time in the surge tank must be sufficient to
allow for settling of heavy sediment. In the case of the
surge tank utilized at the SRC pilot plant, much of the
heavy oil which accumulated on the bottom can be recovered.
3-55
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However, an unquantified amount which must be disposed forms
a stable emulsion with oil (26).
3.3.2.4.2 API Separator Bottoms/Clarifier
The residence time required for gravity phase separa-
tion is sufficient to allow heavy sediment in the water to
settle to the bottom.
The quantity of API separator bottoms may be highly
variable. On the basis of information from several sources,
it can be expected that the waste sludge from API separator
plus secondary treatment facilities will contain 180 to 720
a
g of dry solids/m of water treated (22). The wet sludge
composition will be approximately 1 to 3 wt percent dry
solids, 10 to 30 wt percent oil and 65 to 90 wt percent
3
water. One source reports 180 g of dry solids/m of efflu-
ent from API separation plus chemical coagulation. The
source also reports a range of 0.01 to 0.09 Mg/day from API
separation alone (27).
Much of the oil in the API separator bottoms can be
recovered and reprocessed. The heavy sludge can be heated
in a treater to which demulsifying chemicals have been
added. The contents are allowed to settle, and the oil
layer is subsequently removed. Alternatively, API sep-
arators and surge tank bottoms may be treated with precoat
vacuum filtration or centrifugation to recover some of the
oil.
A profile of a refinery sludge from the API separator
is shown in Table 3-27.
3-56
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TABLE 3-27. COMPOSITION OF API SEPARATOR BOTTOMS (28)
Component
Quantity
Component
Quantity
Total solids (%) 21.
Total volatile solids (%) 31.
Moisture (%) 79.
As (ppm) 1.
B (ppm) 7.2
Be (ppm) 4.8
Cd (ppm) . 5
Cl (%) 2.35
Cr (ppm) 125.
Cu (ppm) 3,500
Fe (ppm) 5,560
Hg (ppm) 10.6
Ni (ppm) 23.
Pb (ppm) 182.
Se (ppm) 26.
Asbestos (fibers/100 g) 3.
Fibers (fibers/100 g) 40.
3.3.2.4.3
Air Flotation Skimmings
In the air flotation unit remaining suspended solids
and entrained oils from the process wastewater are removed.
The concentration of air flotation skimmings is approxi-
mately 0.25 percent solids (by wt.) (29). It is unlikely
that this sludge will be disposed as such. Rather, the
skimmings will be sent through a series of hot and cold
settling in which most of the oil and water are recovered.
There will be a small but unquantified amount of unresolved
emulsions after treating.
3.3.2.4.4
Activated Sludge
An estimation of sludge production is based upon design
data which make the following assumptions:
• 0.48 g of VSS/g BOD removed (27)
3-57
-------
• BOD removal of 200 ppm (wt.)
• Volatile solids concentration of waste sludge
equals 70 percent.
•a
For a wastewater treatment system receiving 1.0 to 1.2 x 10.
3
m /day, one can expect roughly 0.54 to 0.65 Mg/day of
sludge.
An analysis of bio-unit sludge from the SRC pilot plant
shows very high levels of trace elements. A sludge profile
(Table 3-28) was derived by assuming that the concentration
factor as given by (3):
trace element concentration in sludge
trace element concentration in raw coal
is the same for Illinois No. 6 as it was for a Kentucky
bituminous coal from which the original analysis was made
(1).
TABLE 3-28. TRACE ELEMENT CONCENTRATION
IN BIO-UNIT SLUDGE (3)
Element
As
Sb
Se
Hg
Br
Ni
Co
Cr
Na
Rb
Cs
K
Concentration
(ppb)
5.7
1.6
6.9
13,936.
28.2
17.7
5.0
69.1
463.9
10.6
0.34
219.4
Degree of
hazard (health)
0.01
0.00
0.07
697
0.00
0.039
0.00
0.14
0.03
0.01
0.00
3-58
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The bio-unit sludge has not yet been characterized with
respect to organics.
There are several disposal options for oily and bio-
logical sludge.
• Wet oxidation--this method involves chemical
oxidation with air in an aqueous phase reaction at
200 to 300°C and 1,200 to 1,800 psig. It is
capable of reducing the sludge total solids by
about 70 percent, reducing volatile solids by
about 85 to 90 percent, and reducing COD by about
80 to 85 percent (27).
• Sludge dewatering and disposal--where land dis-
posal of sludge is the chosen option, the sludge
will require dewatering. Mechanical sludge thick-
eners will increase the sludge solids content to
5 to 10 percent by weight. Centrifuges can be
used to concentrate the solids to 20 to 30 percent
by weight and vacuum filters may achieve 40 to 60
percent by weight of solids (27). The require-
ments for chemically stabilizing the dewatered
sludge need to be investigated.
• Incineration--the fuel value of the biological
sludge should be investigated to determine if
substantial amounts of energy could be recovered
by incineration.
3.3.2.4.5 Chromate Reduction Unit Sludge
Corrosion inhibitors used in the cooling tower will be
assumed to be hexavalent chromium, zinc, and phosphonate. A
3-59
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chromate reduction unit will be required to remove the
chromium from the cooling tower blowdown. The discharge
from this unit contains zinc sulfide and trivalent chrome/
ferric hydroxide complex which has precipitated out. These
compounds are difficult to settle and will require use of a
coagulant aid. The concentration of chromate required for
corrosion inhibitor can be reduced by adding zinc and phos-
phonate (30). The following additives are assumed:
Chromate 20-25 ppm
Zinc 2-5 ppm
Phosphonate [Dosage sufficient to act as a metal
passivator and scale inhibitor
(20-50 ppm)] (30)
The wastewater treatment sludges may be combined and chemi-
cally conditioned to improve dewatering characteristics.
The final filter cake will most likely be landfilled.
3.3.2.4.6 Raw Water Treatment Sludge
Raw water requirements for the commercial SRC facility
3
amount to 31,711 m /day for a facility in which the process
Q
water is recirculated, and roughly 36,280 m /day for a once-
through system. The major waste stream discharged from the
raw water treatment facility is sludge removed from the
clarifiers. The raw water is treated with lime and sodium
carbonate and the resultant sludge is characterized as
follows (1):
3-60
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TABLE 3-29. RAW WATER TREATMENT SLUDGE
Recirculated Once-through
process water system
Component (Mg/day) (Mg / day)
Water
CaCO-
Mg(OH)2
Ca5(OH)(C04)3
Detergent
Suspended solids
Totals
351.6
16.0
0.9
0.03
0.003
1.3
369.83 (95% water)
402.2
18.3
1.0
0.03
0.003
1.5
423.03 (95% water)
It is recommended that the lime be recovered from this
sludge. The recovery process reduces the moisture content
nearly 10 fold. The sludge remaining to be landfilled
amounts to 48.5 Mg/day.
It is conceivable that all wastewater sludges would be
dewatered and disposed of as a single filter cake. This is
an attractive idea from the point of view of disposal prob-
lems. However, complex chemical interactions among compo-
nents of the sludge need to be investigated.
3.3.2.4.7 Ash from Steam Generation
The coal-fired steam generation module will produce 66
Mg/day of bottom ash and 36.1 Mg/day of fly ash. As far as
solid waste disposal practices are concerned, the distinc-
tion is made because fly ash can contribute serious pollu-
tion problems in the form of leachate or fugitive dusts if
not handled properly. Table 3-30 estimates the concentra-
tions of several trace elements in the bottom ash and fly
3-61
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TABLE 3-30. ESTIMATED CONCENTRATION OF
TRACE ELEMENTS IN BOTTOM ASH AND FLY ASH FROM
STEAM GENERATION (31)*
Component
As
B
Ba
Be
Cd
Cr
Cu
F
Ge
Hg
Mn
Mo
Ni
Pb
Sb
Se
V
Zn
Bottom ash
(ppm)
29.8
298.
1,413.
2.1
<40.
173.
170.
10,512.
<1.2
<0.014
115.
33.8
86.9
180.
<12.3
.31
<235.
<204.
Fly ash
(ppm)
269.
15.
3,750.
27.
<151.
98.9
595.
678,816.
51.5
<0.014
748.
122.
557.
720.
53.9
36.7
<235.
9,843.
*The ratio of trace elements in bottom or fly ash to the
concentration of the same element in coal was used to esti-
mate the concentrations expected in the bottom ash or the
fly ash when Illinois No. 6 coal is used.
ash. The ratios of trace elements in coal to trace elements
in bottom and fly ash for a particular batch of coal were
used to predict concentrations for Illinois No. 6 (31).
Bottom ash is recovered from the "dry bottom" boiler
and falls into a hopper filled with water. The ash and
water slurry is mixed with the fly ash. The mixture may be
piped to settling ponds or dewatered and hauled off-site for
disposal. If settling ponds are used, impervious liners
(e.g., bentonite) may be required. The high concentration
of alkali and alkaline earth elements in Illinois No. 6 coal
would tend to give the coal ash solution alkaline reactions.
The trace elements tend to form insoluble compounds which,
3-62
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together with solids in the suspension, will tend to fill
and seal the pore space in underlying soils. Therefore, the
rate of movement of leachate would decrease over an extended
period of time. Good disposal practices, however, would
probably require liners nevertheless.
3.3.2.4.8 Flue Gas Scrubber Sludges
This sludge stems from flue gas desulfurization of the
coal-fired steam generation operation. The residue of a
conventional calcium scrubbing process (lime or limestone)
is a slurry of mainly calcium sulfite. The slurry is thixo-
trophic even after dewatering.
The quantity of sludge generated depends upon the type
of control, the extent of control required and the load
factor for the plant. Table 3-31 shows quantities of
sludge generated and sludge characteristics for power plants
using different types of sulfur dioxide control systems
(32).
Since it has been assumed that the 150 MW/day of elec-
tricity required to run the SRC plant will be purchased, the
use of coal for utilities is limited to steam generation.
3.3.2.5 Residue
It has been estimated that 3,705 Mg/day of residue will
not be used in hydrogen production, due to operational
problems resulting from the high ash content of the residue
(64 percent) (1). However, the high carbon content of the
residue (27 to 28 percent) (33,34), indicates that this
solid should be further utilized to recover useful energy.
3-63
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TABLE 3-31. CHARACTERISTICS OF SCRUBBER SLUDGE
GENERATED IN COAL-FIRED POWER PLANTS (32)
Type S02
control
Limestone
Injection
wet
scrubber
Lime
scrubber
Tail-end
limestone
scrubber
Sulfur
content
3.8%
3.7%
3.5%
Ash
content
12%
14%
15%
Sludge
composition -
dry basis
(wt. %)
Mg/D/MWatt CaS03'l/2H20
2.05 10
1.82 94
2.55 50
Type S02
control CaSO^-2H20 CaCO^ Flyash
Limestone 40 5 45
injection
wet
scrubber
Lime 20 4
scrubber
Tail-end 15 20 15
limestone
scrubber
Solids
content
after
dewatering
50
50
35
Since it is unlikely that the residue will be disposed
of, as such, the solid waste problem is a temporary one. In
an effort to determine the leachability of the residue (25),
efforts were made to dissolve the solid in dilute acid.
Efforts failed to produce any leachate over the test period.
It is not anticipated that temporary storage would cause any
significant leaching problems.
3-64
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Table 3-32 shows the organics quantified in the mineral
residue to date. This analysis was performed on a residue
derived from Kentucky bituminous coal during operation of
SRC-I process. Differences in the organic content of the
residue under the operating conditions for SRC-II in this
TABLE 3-32. ORGANICS QUANTIFIED IN SRC-I SOLID RESIDUE
FROM KENTUCKY BITUMINOUS COAL (11)
Concentration
Concentration
Compound
(mg/1)
Compound
(mg/1)
PAH Fraction
Indane
Methylindane
Dimethylindane
Tetralin
Dimethyltetralin
6-Methyltetralin
Naphthalene
2-Methylnaphthalene
1-Methylnaphthalene
Dime thy Inaphthalene
2-isopropylnaphthalene
1-isopropy Inaphthalene
C4~naphthalene
Cyclohexylbenzene
Biphenyl
Acenaphthylene
D ime thy Ib ip heny 1
Dibenzofuran
Xanthene
Dibenzothiophene
Methyldibenzothiophene
Dime thy Idibenzothiophene
Thioxanthene
Fluorene
9-methylf luorene
1-methylf luorene
Anthracene/phenanthrene
Methylphenanthrene
1-methylphenanthrene
C2~anthracene
Fluoranthene
Dihydropyrene
Pyrene
85
40
25
110
35
50
1,500
740
180
470
2
1
15
1
5
270
61
60
20
70
8
20
5
80
40
50
500
100
50
10
200
10
200
Neutral Fraction
n-undecane
n-dodecane
n-tridecane
n-tetradecane
n-pentadecane
n-hexadecane
n-heptadecane
n-octadecane
n-nonadecane
n-eicosane
n-heneicosane
n-docosane
n-tricosane
n-tetracosane
others
90
550
9,100
210
80
50
20
10
14
14
16
14
14
10
26
3-65
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study cannot be predicted at this time. Table 3-33 shows
quantification of the minor elements in the SRC residue.
Ratios of:
trace elements in raw coal
trace elements in residue
for Kentucky bituminous coal were used to develop an in-
organic profile of the residue derived from operation with
Illinois #6.
TABLE 3-33.
ESTIMATED TRACE ELEMENT COMPOSITION OF THE
SRC RESIDUE (11)
Element
Concentration
(ppm)
Element
Concentration
(ppm)
Antimony
Arsenic
Barium
Bromine
Calcium
Cerium
Cesium
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Europium
Hafnium
Iron
5.2
24.9
579.
18.8
33,323.
71.4
7.3
178.
4.1
8.0
1.2
2.7
116,760.
Lanthanum
Lutetium
Nickel
Samarium
Scandium
Selenium
Sodium
Tantalum
Thallium
Terbium
Uranium
Ytterbium
Zinc
36.8
2,050.
126.
6.1
14.7
12.2
1,155.
0.71
3.5
0.69
10.6
2.6
1,938.
3-66
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3.3.2.6 Gasifier Slag
One of the large-volume solids to be disposed of in the
SRC plant is the gasifier slag and quenched fly ash; this
has been estimated at 1,538 Mg/day (40 percent water) (1).
The current design specifications for the treatment of
;
the slag require that it be crushed, slurried with water,
and de-ashed. The fly ash from the quencher will be flashed
down, neutralized with slaked lime, and thickened (5). It
is anticipated that the waste will be disposed of in the
strip mine. It is thought that the waste will behave sim-
ilarly to bottom ash from coal-fired power plants, and
consequently will not leach (5). This is an area which
requires investigation via leachate studies.
The composition of the waste is fairly predictable.
Since both fly ash and slag are disposed of together, it can
be assumed that only the very volatile trace elements are
lost to the atmosphere. This would include mercury, selen-
ium, germanium, chlorine, and bromine. The trace element
composition of clarifier water has been found to be very low
(35), and it is not anticipated that large quantities of
trace elements will be lost to the wastewater.
One interesting possibility for disposal of some of the
other hazardous solid wastes would be encapsulation in the
slag. The possibility of injecting dried solids into the
molten slag should be investigated.
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3.3.3 Non-Chemical Pollutants
3.3.3.1 Noise
Much of the noise pollution problem will be generated
within the coal preparation area. High noise levels will be
generated from:
• Coal shaker
• Dust collector
• Primary crusher
• Secondary crusher.
While quantification of noise generated awaits sizing
of equipment, some estimates may be made. The highest noise
levels within the plant can be expected from the coal
shaker. The power required to operate one 5.2 Mg shaker
generates 110 to 125 dB(A) at 3.3 meters distance (29).
Data on noise generated by coal crushing indicate that
primary and secondary coal crushers generate 90 and 95
dB(A), respectively, at a distance of 3.3 meters (29).
Within the process, high noise levels will be generated
by:
• Process heaters/boilers
• Compressors
• High-pressure let-down valves
• Reciprocating pumps.
While an accurate assessment of noise will depend upon
equipment size, the problem areas in the pilot plant are
some indication of noise areas which can be anticipated.
The major noise areas were identified as follows (36):
3-68
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(a) Coal Receiving and Preparation: The major noise-
producing equipment comprises the pulverizer (90
to 95 dB(A)), preheater charge pump (95 to 100
dB(A)), gravimetric feeder, vibrator on the roof,
and steam release.
(b) Wastewater Treatment Area: The major noise
H.
sources are the pumps by the holding tank and
balancing tank, and especially the air compressor
by the bio-unit, which produces up to 100 dB(A) at
about one meter distance.
(c) Dowtherm Heater: Noise was 90 to 95 dB(A) under
the Dowtherm heater and 90 to 100 dB(A) around the
Dowtherm pump.
(d) Hydrogen Generation Unit: Noise was 95 to 100
dB(A) at the center of the Stretford unit and 90
to 95 dB(A) at the center of the hydrogen unit.
(e) Solids Separation Area: Major noise sources are
several pumps, steam releases, and the hammer on
the mineral residue dryer. The noise in a large
portion of the mineral separation area is in
excess of 90 dB(A).
(f) Solvent Recovery Area: Most noises are produced
by the many steam release valves and pumps. A
good portion of the solvent recovery area is in
excess of 90 dB(A).
(g) Boiler House: Noise inside the boiler house
ranges from 85 to 95 dB(A).
3-69
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Noise level contours should be established once the plant is
in operation. Equipment may need to be relocated to reduce
noise at certain points, and/or noise mitigation may be
accomplished by:
• Installing mufflers
• Enclosing or insulating motor cases
• Insulating operating stations
• Adding insulated ducts or mufflers to boilers.
Insofar as the surrounding area is not highly forested,
it is anticipated that noise control will be required.
3.3.3.2 Thermal Pollution
Thermal efficiency is a measure of the thermal pollu-
tion from a process, in that essentially all heat loss must
be dissipated to the environment.
The thermal efficiency of the SRC-II process base
design is approximately 74 percent. This assumes that the
filter cake is not further treated to recover excess energy.
The heating value of input and output materials is shown
in Table 3-34.
There are several alternatives which may be considered
to improve the thermal efficiency without seriously altering
process design, as follows:
• Use waste heat for coal drying.
• Optimize heat balance around the reactor.
3-70
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TABLE 3-34.
Input
Coal to reactor
Coal to gasifier
Coal to utilities
Output
Naphtha
Fuel oil
Syncrude
By-product clean gas
Overall efficiency
THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF
MR /day
18,552
1,392
940
518
2,591
5,527
2,132
SRC-II
Joules/ day
552xl012
41.5xl012
28.0xl012
20.6xl012
105.2xl012
224.4xl012
HO.SxlO12
74%
• Maximize water reuse after treatment.
s
• Recover more heat by the use of more heat exchan-
gers, heat pumps and power recovery from high
pressure liquids; there is a point at which this
will become cost prohibitive, however.
If we assume that the final design will be for a ther-
mal efficiency of 74 percent and that the heating value of
feed coal is 29,822 joules/kg, 160xl02 joules will be lost
to the environment on each operating day. Table 3-34 shows
the expected thermal efficiency of the commercial SRC-II
plant (1).
3.3.3.3
Odor Problems
Pilot plant operations have indicated that there is a
typical hydrocarbon-like odor associated with the liquefaction
3-71
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process. Insofar as emissions are not fully controlled, the
pilot plant is not a true indication of anticipated odor
problems. Since ammonia and sulfur recovery facilities are
provided in the process, there is a potential for odors from
this area. Unfortunately measurement and identification of
odors cannot be accomplished by any standardized procedure.
The possibility exists that under certain meteorologi-
cal conditions or at a larger scale of operation, odors may
drift off-site; however, odors are rarely detected off-site
at the Fort Lewis SRC plant.
3.3.3.4 Radioactivity
One can calculate the quantity of the natural radio-
nuclides uranium and thorium (and their daughter isotopes)
that are present in the 28,123 Mg of Illinois No. 6 coal
used daily in the hypothetical SRC plant, given the total
concentration of uranium and thorium in the coal, Table
3-35, Columns 1 and 2. These and other calculations are
based on the existence of the condition known as radioactive
or secular equilibrium, discussed further in Appendix III.
As explained in the appendix, because the assumption can be
safely made that a secular equilibrium or steady-state
concentration of the decay series shown in Figure 3-1 has
been reached, one can calculate the amounts and radioactiv-
ity of the various isotopes (and their daughter nuclides)
that would be present in 28,123 Mg of coal. These results
are given in columns 2 through 4 of Table 3-35 (37,38,39).
The total number of alpha, beta, and gamma emissions
per second that would be associated with 28,123 Mg Illinois
No. 6 coal (due to the uranium and thorium decay series),
along with the average and maximum energy levels (MeV) are
3-72
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TABLE 3-35. RADIOACTIVITY DUE TO DECAY OF THE
URANIUM AND THORIUM SERIES ASSOCIATED WITH
28,123 MG (31,000 T) ILLINOIS NO. 6 COAL
Isotope
Th232
u238
Mass
(g)
61,900.
44,700.
324.
106,924.
DPSb
(xlO8)
2.5
5.6
2.6
10.7
mCia
6.9
14.9
0.7
22.5
Total in mCi for
decay series
69.0
209.0
7.6
285.6
Time required for
decay to reach
steady state
(years)
211
3.7 x 106
5.0 x 105
U
Sum =
jFor the radionuclides in 28,123 Mg of coal consumed per day in the SRC
plant.
Disintegrations per second for each isotope of the decay series.
TJased on a 10-step disintegration series for thorium-232, 14-step series
for uranium-238, and an 11-step series for uranium-235.
shown in Table 3-36. These values can be used to estimate
the potential hazards to workers breathing dust particles
containing these natural radionuclides (see Chapter 5) (37,
38,39).
3.3.4 Product Spills
Approximately 11,368 Mg/day of product and by-product
are produced in the commercial SRC process. These products
and by-products must be stored and shipped to buyers. A
breakdown in production rates is shown in Table 3-37.
The hazardous nature of these materials requires that
every precaution be taken to avoid spills and leaks during
storage and shipping. Both preventive measures and- recovery/
disposal methods are required to avoid the potential environ-
mental disaster of spills. The toxic nature of SRC products
3-73
-------
THE URANIUM { -RADIUM) DECAY SERIES
Pa2"1
0.13X
UJ
99.87X
0.
-Th2'0—~Ra22S-—Rn222—f
o.u .
At218 Po21*
p0210
,.
^/lOO? >x
(Em222)
1 '
99.98VS
Pb21"
3%
Tl210'
1.7 x 10-«
Hg206
Pb206
CO
I
THE URANIUM-ACTINIUM DECAY SERIES.
•Th
2J1
•Pa2'1
98.(
Th2
Ra229
Pb211 p02u
9.995XX V. 0.28*X x.
Po2is B1211 p
99.995*^
(Em219)
.Rn2H »p0215 Bl^11^ Pb207
'O.OOBOt215 "'^a,,/
THE THORIUM SERIES
Th
2S2.
64%
Po212
>Th228 -Ra22"
»Rn220-
(Em220)
•Bi212
Pb208
^
Figure 3-1. Decay series for naturally occurring uranium
and thorium isotopes
-------
TABLE 3-36. TOTAL RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS DUE TO THE DECAY
OF THE URANIUM AND THORIUM SERIES ASSOCIATED WITH
28,123 MG (31,000 T) ILLINOIS NO. 6 COAL
Series
Th
232
Pb
208
U
238
Pb
206
u2
35
Pb
207
Total
U,Th -
•Pb
Emissions
alpha
beta
gamma
alpha
beta
gamma
alpha
beta
gamma
alpha
beta
gamma
Total produced/sec for
28,123 Mg Illinois #6
1.50 x 10q
1.00 x 10*
6.52 x 10
4.46 x 10g
3.35 x 10q
1.97 x 10y
1.82 x 10®
9.84 x 10'
1.77 x 10
6.14 X 10*
4.45 x 10q
2.80 x 10
Average
energy
(MeV)
5.99
0.91
0.879
5.35
1.04
0.550
5.94
0.798
0.357
5.52
1.01
0.614
Maximum
energy
(MeV)
8.785+
2.38
2.6146
7.687
3.26
1.850
8.01
1.44
1.265
8.785+
3.26
2.6146
TABLE 3-37. COMMERCIAL SRC PROCESS PRODUCTION RATES
Product or
By-product (1)
Naphtha
Fuel oil
SRC
Ammonia
Sulfur
Phenol
SNG
LPG
Mg/day (1)
518.2
2,591.
5,527.
63.9
442.3
34.4
1,312.
820.7
3-75
-------
can be appreciated from the analysis of products shown in
Table 3-38. A complete analysis of products from SRC-II was
not available. The analysis shown in Table 3-38 is for the
liquefaction of Illinois #6 coal via the H-coal liquefaction
process. There are several variables which may affect the
products in the SRC-II process somewhat differently, and
this needs to be investigated. The use of a catalyst in the
H-coal process may increase the degree of hydrogenation and
the temperatures in the two reactors are comparable.
3.3.5 Measures to Mitigate Adverse Effects of Syncrude
Spills
The several preventative measures that will act to
mitigate syncrude spills are as follows:
• Structural integrity must conform to code con-
struction and the materials must be stored in
compatible materials.
• Methods to prevent and repair corrosion are
needed.
• Periodic examination of tank integrity is required.
• Mobile storage tanks should be isolated from
navigable waters.
• Heating coils, where used, must be monitored for
oil content; external heating systems rather than
internal structural coils should be used.
• Tanks must be gauged carefully before filling to
prevent overfill.
3-76
-------
TABLE 3-38. INSPECTION OF PRODUCTS FROM ILLINOIS
NO. 6 COAL FROM H-COAL PROCESS (35)
Compound
1A*: Aliphatic hydrocarbons —
Alkanes and cyclic alkanes
(lower boiling)
Component
C.-200 C fraction
1C
VC12
Monocycloparaffins
Dicycloparaffins
Tricycloparaffins
IB*: Aliphatic hydrocarbons — Monocycloolefins
alkenes, cyclic alkenes, Dicyloolefins
and dienes (lower boiling) Tricycloolefiris
15* Benzene, substituted
Benzene hydrocarbons
C6 - C12
Indans
Weight
percent
0.10
0.20
0.69
11.
42.64
8.50
0.19
5.32
4.98
.90
17.55
6.44
Total
weight
percent
11.99
51.33
11.20
23.99
21* Fused polycyclic hydro-
carbons
Naphthalenes
0.59
0.59
18* Phenols
*MEG category
Phenols (mol. wt) -
108, 122, 136, 150
(continued)
3-77
0.9
0.9
100.0
-------
Compound
TABLE 3-38. (continued)
Component
Total
Weight weight
percent percent
1A*: Aliphatic hydrocarbons —
alkanes and cyclic alkanes
(intermediate boiling)
IB*: Aliphatic hydrocarbons —
alkenes, cyclic alkenes,
and dienes (intermediate
boiling)
15* Benzene, substituted
Benzene hydrocarbons
200-350 fraction
n-paraffins 4.8
i-paraffins 1.7
Monocycloparaffins 14.0
Dicycloparaffins 7.9
Tricycloparaffins 2.6
Monocyclooefins
4.3
Alkyl benzenes 12.6
Indans & tetralins 30.8
Indenes 5.7
Naphthalenes 3.9
Acenaphthenes 4.0
(CnH2n-14>
Acenaphthenes 2.2
Tricyclics (C H. _..) 0.4
31.0
4.3
59.6
18* Phenols
Other compounds
*MEG category
Phenols (mol. wt.) -
108, 122, 136, 150, 2.0
164, 178
Other nonhydrocarbons 3.10
(continued)
3-78
2.0
3.10
100.00
-------
Compound
TABLE 3-38. (continued)
Component
Weight
Percent
1A*: Aliphatic hydrocarbons —
alkanes and cyclic alkanes
(higher boiling)
IB*: Aliphatic hydrocarbons —
Alkenes, cyclic alkenes,
and dienes (higher
boiling)
350-919 C fraction
Paraffins 1.4
Monocycloparaffins 3.1
Bicycloparaffins 0.6
Tricycloparaffins 0.7
Tetracycloparaffins 0.4
Pentacycloparaffins 0.2
Hexacycloparaffins 0.1
Paraffins 0.0
Monocycloparaffins 0.5
Bicycloparaffins 0.3
Tricycloparaffins 0.2
Tetracycloparaffins 0.2
Pentacycloparaffins 0.1
Hexacycloparaffins 0.1
Total
Weight
Percent
6.5
1.4
15* Benzene, substituted
benzene hydrocarbons
Other compounds
Phenyls
Alkyl benzenes
Indans and/or
tetralins
0.5
3.0
.5
4.0
21* Fused polycyclic
hydrocarbons
*Meg category.
Other aromatics**
(continued)
3-79
72.8
72.8
-------
TABLE 3-38. (continued)
Total
Weight weight
Compound Component percent percent
18* Phenols Phenolic compounds 1.5
1.5
Other compounds Other nonhydrocar- 13.8
bons 13.8
100.0
* MEG category.
**An approximate breakdown of aromatic-type compounds is:
Millimoles
Component type per 100 g
Naphthalenes 93.4
Phenanthrenes 91.1
Chrysenes 21.9
1-2 Benzanthracenes 1 IA fi
3-4 Benzaphenanthrenes j
Pyrenes 15.4
5-ring compounds 5.1
Overflow pipes should be connected to adjacent
tanks.
Relief valves for excessive pressure and vacuum
should be in place.
Inspection methods should concentrate on target
areas, including pipeline exposure, pipeline
crossing and areas of construction.
Oil-sensitive probes should be located throughout
the drainage system of a potential spill.
3-30
-------
If an oil spill does occur within the confines of the
plant, it can be expected to be contained. It is required
that dikes are provided to contain the maximum spill and
that the dikes are covered with an impervious material
around each storage tank. In draining these dikes, con-
taminated waters will be routed to the chemical water sewer.
In the event that storage tanks are undiked, or a spill
extends beyond the diked area, a diversion system such as a
catchment basin with an oil trap should be available.
A vacuum truck should be permanently assigned to the
facility to remove and dispose of spills. In the event that
oil should reach the water table, despite all precautions
taken, large amounts of the spill could be recovered by
pumping.
Ultimately, spills should reach the plant drainage
systems. While most of the oil can be reprocessed, the
remaining fraction will go through physical/chemical waste-
water treatment.
In emergency situations, flammable process material
will be released to the flare system. Within this system a
knockout drum would retain liquid and send vapors to the
flare stack.
3.4 Construction-Related Pollutants
3.4.1 Existing Environmental Requirements
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has reported
that sediment discharges from construction activities (along
with agricultural, silvicultural, and mining) will con-
tribute significantly to water pollution. As a matter of
3-81
-------
fact, these nonpoint sources will increasingly emerge as the
major barrier to meeting the clean water standards pro-
mulgated by the state and local governments. Section 208 of
the Federal Clean Water Act requires that each state shall
plan for and develop best management practices for the
control of sediment, nutrients, and other nonpoint source
pollutants. As of 1976, 16 states had enacted sediment
control laws directly applicable to construction activities.
Many county and state statutes require that permits be
issued to the constructor before any land disturbances can
begin. In some local areas, sediment controls are often
coordinated with sewer, grading, and zoning ordinances;
flood plain and flood control ordinances; stormwater manage-
ment and land use regulations; and surface/subsurface drain-
age regulations.
Both the owner and the constructor of a coal conversion
plant must investigate, and be in compliance with, all
applicable codes, licenses, permits, and approvals relative
to state and local areas, long before the start of the
construction work. These codes and permits relate to con-
struction permits, sediment and dust control, noise, waste-
water disposal, grading, sanitary facilities, water use,
water supply, solid waste disposal, flammable liquid stor-
age, dredged material disposal, easements, fuel storage
tanks, dewatering excavation, and building permits. Fed-
eral, state, and local agencies to be contacted for these
permits and approvals are as shown in Table 3-39 (40).
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA)
requires that every federal agency must prepare a detailed
environmental impact statement (EIS) on any proposed action
or legislation that could significantly impact the air,
water, and land resources (both renewable and non-renewable)
of the human environment. Generally, the issuance of a
3-82
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TABLE 3-39. LICENSES, PERMITS, AND APPROVALS APPLICABLE
TO COAL CONVERSION PLANT CONSTRUCTION
Agency
U.S. Army Corps of Engi-
neers
Federal Aviation
Administration
U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Local Region
River Basin Commission
Bureau of Land Management
License, permit or approval
Dredging and construction
permit for intake structures
in navigable waters
Disposal of dredged or fill
materials in navigable waters
Permit for transmission line
crossing of navigable waters
Construction permit for barge
unloading dolphins
Placement of fill in freshwater
wetlands contiguous to navi-
gable waters
Notice of Construction of:
stacks
transmission towers
meteorological towers
other structures 61 meters
above ground
National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System Permit for
liquid waste discharge
Request for 316(a) and (b) var-
iances from Federal Water Pol-
lution Control Act Amendments
of 1972 for once-through cool-
ing discharge and intake
Review and approval of the
content of any project which
may have a substantial effect
on water resources
Permit for right-of-way on
federal land
Permit for test boring on
federal land
(continued)
3-83
-------
TABLE 3-39. (continued)
Agency
License, permit or approval
U.S. Geological Survey
U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service
U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, Forest Service
State Air Pollution Con-
trol Commission
State Board of Health
State Public Service Com-
mission
- Approval of mining plans
- Approval under Fish and Wild-
life Coordination Act in rela-
tion to water-related activi-
ties. The Department has re-
sponsibility to protect and
preserve fish and wildlife habi-
tats, conserve fish and wild-
life resources, and protect pub-
lic trust rights of use and
enjoyment in and associated with
navigable and other waters of
the United States
- Approval of rights-of-way
across U.S. Forest Service
lands
- Permit for Construction of Sta-
tionary Source of Air Pollu-
tants covering the following
anticipated sources:
• Stack discharges (main and
auxiliary boilers)
• Coal pile dusting
• Coal handling facilities
• Ash transfer and disposal
area
• Open burning of construction
refuse
• Concrete batch plant
- Permit to construct and oper-
ate approved sewage disposal
and potable water facilities
- Certificate of Public Conven-
venience and Necessity for (1)
construction of plant and (2)
transmission lines
(continued)
3-84
-------
TABLE 3-39. (continued)
Agency
License, permit or approval
State Department of High-
ways and Transportation
State Fire Marshal
State Department of Natural
Resources & Environmental
Control
- Construction Permit and fran-
chise for transmission line
crossing of roads
- Permit for highway entrance of
plant access road
- Approval of public road im-
provements
- Permits for oversize or over-
weight vehicles
- Permit to store flammable
liquids
- Approval of facility for fire
protection
- Water use and discharge permit
for cooling tower make-up and
blowdown, including other dis-
charges
- Test well permit
- Commercial well permit
- Permit for dewatering excava-
tion
- Permit for fuel oil storage
tanks
- Dredging and construction of
intake structure
- Transmission line crossing of
water bodies
- Erosion and sediment control
plan
- State Water Quality Cerifica-
tion
(continued)
3-85
-------
TABLE 3-39. (continued)
Agency
License, permit or approval
State Planning Office
County Department of
Development and Licensing
County Department of
Planning
County Department of Public
Works
County Beautification Board
- Construction and operation of
the ash disposal area
- Power plant site permit
- State EIS
- Construction Permit for combus-
tion equipment
- Registration of gaseous emis-
sions
- Permit to construct a dam
- Coastal Zone Permit, if re-
quired
- Building permit for meteorolo-
gical tower
- Building permit for each struc-
ture of plant
- Use and occupancy permits
- Rezoning of plant site
- Approval of transmission line
rights-of-way
- Special exception for meteoro-
logical tower
- Minor subdivision plant ap-
proval of roads and plot plan
- Permit for filling or construc-
tion operations in flood plains
- Construction on public property
if required
3-86
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permit, grant, license, contract, or rights-of-way to a
private or federal applicant by an authorizing agency,
requires that the applicant submit an environmental report.
This technical report is, in reality, a systematic, inter-
disciplinary effort that includes the following:
• Need for the proposed facility
• Description of the operational and process modules
• Description of the air, water, and land environ-
ment as it exists before the proposed facility is
constructed
• Analysis of the environmental effects and impacts
of the proposed project on the air, water, land,
and human resources on a local and regional basis
• Adverse environmental effects and impacts which
cannot be avoided, with reference to the air,
land, water, human, and economic references
• Mitigation measures used during construction and
operation of the plant to protect air, water, and
land resources
• Relationship of short-term uses of the environment
and its long-term productivity
• Resources committed during plant construction and
operation (land, air, water, fuels, human, and
economic resources)
3-87
-------
• Available alternatives to the proposed action,
including choice of site, plant design, and alter-
native energy sources
• Socioeconomic benefits and costs
• Consultation and communication with state and
local planning groups, citizens groups, federal
and state regulatory agencies, federal land man-
agement agencies, and state and local industrial
development groups.
Further details on the preparation of the environmental
assessment and the EIS reports can be obtained from the
sources listed in References 40, 41, and 42.
3.4.2 Requirements for Erosion and Sediment Control in
Illinois
The Illinois Environmental Protection Agency (IEPA) is
expected to issue a plan in the spring of 1978 for con-
trolling construction and other nonpoint source pollutants,
as mandated by Section 208 of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act (FWPCA). This water quality plan is expected to
address the Best Management Practices (BMPs) to reduce
erosion and sedimentation resulting from agricultural,
construction, mining, and silvicultural activities in the
state. The Section 208 water quality plan will also address
the problem of urban stormwater runoff.
The following suggestions, made by the Illinois Task
Force on Agriculture Nonpoint Sources of Pollution (43),
are of interest with respect to the meeting of water quality
goals, irrespective of the type of land-disturbing activity:
3-88
-------
• Adequate erosion and sediment control will require
the installation or application of a system
usually involving several conservation practices
or measures.
• There usually are several technically adequate
alternative conservation systems that could
physically be applied to any specific ... planning
unit.
• The alternatives that can be applied depend upon
factors such as:
Soil type characteristics
Slope length and steepness
Landscape formation (complex vs. smooth
slope)
Land user's goals, financial assets, and
management abilities
Land ownership (tenant or landlord) and
leasing arrangement (length of lease).
• Development of technical alternatives for a spe-
cific planning unit may require the knowledge and
skills of a professional soil conservationist.
• The final decision as to which alternative Best
Management System will be installed must rest with
the land user; the land user will apply and main-
tain the various components of the system, and is
3-89
-------
the only person who can realistically make the
system operate successfully over a long period of
time.
The erosion and sediment control standards in Illinois
fall short of those in states that have already enacted
sediment control laws directly applicable to construction
activities. Although various Illinois agencies have a stake
in such controls, their powers are limited. For example,
the Soil and Water Conservation Districts offer technical
assistance to land developers who may request aid. The
Illinois Department of Transportation (IDOT) has established
erosion and sediment control standards for state highway
construction projects. The IDOT is also responsible for the
regulation of all construction in flood plains. Finally,
the 1977 amendment to the Illinois Soil and Water Conserva-
tion Districts Law, while considered a positive step, did
not result in the establishment of comprehensive sediment
control requirements directly applicable to construction
activity in rural and urban areas of the state.
3.4.3 Sources and Types of Construction-Related Pollu-
tants
Construction work for a coal liquefaction plant can be
viewed as a series of relatively short-term environmental
disturbances, in contrast to such long-term non-point
sources of pollutants as the cultivation of agricultural
land, acid mine drainage, and landfill seepage. Construc-
tion work can be further defined in terms of the type of
project (e.g., the construction of a power plant) and by the
series of construction practices required on any given
project.
3-90
-------
Among the various types of construction projects in-
volved in the erection of the proposed coal conversion
facility, the following require relatively large blocks or
corridors of land, and thus pose the greatest threat to the
existing air, water, and land resources at any construction
site:
• Transportation networks and corridor construction
(highways, roads, railroads, pipelines, and trans-
mission lines)
• Energy facilities construction (coal conversion
facilities, coal preparation and storage areas,
power plants, and refineries)
• Water resource developments (major reservoirs,
etc.)
• Stream channel modifications (dredging, channel
relocation, etc.)
• Hazardous and special waste disposal areas (indus-
trial process effluent and residuals).
Several categories of construction practices having the
potential for appreciable short-term environmental impacts
at any given construction site, are as follows:
• Temporary facilities - buildings, roads, asphalt
batch plant, concrete batch plant, shops, staging
areas, and stream channel relocation
3-91
-------
• Site work - clearing and grubbing, demolition,
excavation, grading, rock removal, soil stock-
piles, borrow pits, landfills, drainage, paving,
trenching for pipelines, and utilities and land-
scaping
• Construction materials and site-derived products -
paint, containerized cement, solvents, petroleum
products, bituminous damp-proofing compounds,
pesticides, wood and metal products, and explo-
sives
• Mechanical equipment and controls - bulldozers,
earth movers, conveying systems, oil storage tanks
and controls, L-P gas tanks, and wastewater treat-
ment
• Project closeout - site restoration, demolition,
preliminary start-up and testing of the facility.
The types, sources, and amounts of pollutants (air,
water, and solid waste) generated at the construction site
are dependent upon the type of construction project, the
construction practice, and the time duration and phasing of
required construction practices or activities. Other con-
tributing factors include the following items:
• Geographical location (geology, soils, etc)
• Number of machines and workers on the site
• Size of the site, and its topography
• Rainfall distribution, volume, and frequency
3-92
-------
Effectiveness of measures for control of soil ero-
sion and overland flows
Resistance of exposed soil materials to erosion by
water, wind, gravity, and ice
Physical and chemical properties of subsurface
soil materials.
3.4.3.1
Major Air Pollutants
Air pollutants occur as gases (SO , NO , CO, hydro-
X X
carbons and photochemical oxidants), odors, smoke, particu-
lates (dust, etc.) and aerosols. The association of classes
of air pollutants with the several categories of construc-
tion practices described earlier in this section may be
categorized along the following lines:
TABLE 3-40.
CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES AND.ASSOCIATED
AIR POLLUTANTS
Temporary facilities
Primary air pollutants
Workshops
Access roads
Aggregate processing plant
Asphalt batch plant
Concrete batch plant
Oil storage areas
- Gases, odors, and fumes
- Particulates, gases
- Particulates, gases
- Odors, gases, and parti-
culates
- Particulates (dust)
- Fumes, odors
Site Work
Clearing, grubbing and
burning
Demolition
Site grading
Excavating and blasting
Bituminous paving
Roadway excavation/grading
(continued)
3-93
Primary air pollutants
Particulates, smoke
Noise, particulates (dust)
Particulates (dust)
Noise, particulates (dust)
Odors, particulates
Particulates (dust)
-------
TABLE 3-40. (continued)
Construction materials
• Solvents and coatings
• Bituminous damp-proofing
compounds
Mechanical equipment and
controls
• Machines (graders, dozers,
etc.)
• Fuel storage areas
• Wastewater treatment
Primary air pollutants
- Odors and fumes
- Odors and fumes
Primary air pollutants
- Gases, photochemical oxi-
dants, and noise
- Odors and fumes
- Odors
Project closeout
Demolition and relocation
of temporary facilities
Startup and testing of the
coal conversion and auxil-
iary facilities (may require
90 days or more)
Primary air pollutants
- Noise, dust
- Gases, particulates, noise
3.4.3.2
Water Pollutants and Their Transport
The major water pollutants resulting from construction
activity are sediment and nutrients. Practically any water
soluble element, organic pollutant, or its soluble degrada-
tion products residing in surface or subsurface soils can be
transported in solution by overland runoff waters into
streams and rivers, to underground aquifers by infiltration
and percolation, and to drinking water in wells by seepage.
Leachates from inorganic and organic waste materials also
can enter surface and groundwaters. Most of the water-
insoluble pollutants can be transported as films on sediment
and other suspended particles, and in stormwater runoff as
an emulsion or sorbed to organic debris. The metal elements
such as copper, zinc, and chromium are transported to surface
3-94
-------
waters largely adsorbed within the crystalline lattice
structure of sediment particles.
Chemical pollutants originating from the degradation
and leaching of organic and inorganic materials (e.g., soil
additives, plastic boards, paints, oils, and polymeric coat-
ings) comprise a relatively small and little-understood
source of water pollutants. The quantity of decomposition
products and leachates entering surface waters from these
materials is unknown at present. Some of the major organics
being used in construction materials and tools include poly-
vinyl chloride, thermoplastic polyesters, epoxy fibers, and
many others.
Organic liquid chemicals include those used for sealing
cracks and for gluing materials together, the petroleum
products (oils, grease, gasoline, and diesel fuels), organic
fertilizers, organic pesticides, plastics, rubbers, and
various curing agents.
Among this group of diverse solid and liquid materials,
only the degradable materials would be of concern. The non-
degradable synthetics are most often used for the fabrica-
tion of heavy-duty construction materials.
Some of the commonly used soil additives (i.e., those
applied to the soil during construction in order to obtain
desired soil characteristics) include lime, fly ash, asphalt,
phosphoric acid, sodium chloride, and calcium chloride. The
amounts of soil additives leaving a construction site have
not been established, and screening methods for evaluating
their effects have not been developed.
Biological pollutants include the surface soil micro-
organisms (bacteria, fungi, and viruses), decomposing
3-95
-------
remains of soil invertebrates (worms, insects), and organic
by-products of various kinds (amino acids, sugars, etc.) in
topsoil which, on entry into surface waters, act to increase
the BOD, COD, and the amount of suspended solids.
The association of nonpoint source water pollutants
with the various construction practices is categorized as
follows:
TABLE 3-41. CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES AND ASSOCIATED
NONPOINT SOURCE WATER POLLUTANTS
Temporary facilities
• Access roads, and exposed
cut and fill areas
• Sanitary facilities
• Vehicular and other workshops
• Aggregate processing
• Asphalt processing
• Concrete batch plant
• Unpaved parking lots
• Storage yards
• Site drainage
Primary water pollutants
- Sediment, petroleum prod-
ucts, heavy metals,
deicing chemicals
- Microorganisms, viruses,
chemicals
- Petroleum products, sol-
vents, synthetic organics
- Sediment, dissolved solids
- Petroleum products, sedi-
ment
- Sediment, dissolved solids,
heavy metals
- Sediment, deicing chemi-
cals, petroleum products
- Sediment, construction
chemicals spillages
- Sediment, petroleum prod-
ucts, and chemicals
Site work
• Clearing, grubbing, and
grading
• Demolition
• Excavating and blasting
• Trenching for utilities,
etc.
• Roadway excavating and
grading
Primary water pollutants
- Sediment
- Sediment
- Sediment
- Sediment
- Sediment
(continued)
3-96
-------
TABLE 3-41. (continued)
Site work (continued)
Primary water pollutants
Soil treatment
Site drainage, stream channel
relocation, and dredging
- Nutrients, heavy metals,
sediment
- Sediment, microorganisms,
heavy metals
Project closeout
• Site restoration, finish
grading, topsoiling, fertil-
izing, and revegetation
• Startup and testing of the
coal conversion and auxiliary
facilities (may require about
90 days)
• Revegetation/landscaping
Primary water pollutants
- Sediment, nutrients, and
pesticides
- Inorganics, oils, nutrients,
organics
- Nutrients, pesticides
Construction materials
• Portland cement
• Wood preservatives
• Special coatings and solvents
for oils and paints
Primary water pollutants
- Suspended solids, heavy
metals
- Solvents, pentachloro-
phenol
- Bituminous and other
organics
Mechanical equipment
• Machines (graders, dozers,
etc.)
• Fuel spills
• Wastewater treatment
Primary water pollutants
- Oils, greases, and heavy
metals
- Petroleum products, heavy
metals
- Water treatment chemicals,
coagulants, clarifiers,
etc.
3.4.3.3
Solid Wastes
The major construction-related solid wastes include all
of the wood, metal, organic, polymeric, and mineral mater-
ials used in the construction process. Also included under
this category are the paper and cardboard products derived
3-97
-------
from wood; solid wastes from sanitary facilities; rock;
slash and tree stumps; wastewater sludge; and sludge from
concrete and aggregated processing plants; all solid wastes
from demolition operations; and materials dredged from
streams, rivers, and lakes.
The association of the several solid wastes with the
various construction practices is categorized as follows:
TABLE 3-42.
CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES AND ASSOCIATED
SOLID WASTES
Temporary facilities
• Workshops and field offices
Sanitary/wastewater treat-
ment
Aggregate, concrete and
asphalt processing plants
Primary solid wastes
- Paper, wood, abandoned
furnishings, waste glass,
plastics, rubber
- Paper, sludge
- Stone, cement, asphalt,
bituminous materials
Site work
Clearing
Demolition
Excavation/blasting
Roadway excavation
Dredging
Primary solid wastes
- Tree slash and stumps
- Wood, metal, brick
- Rock and stone
- Rocks, soil stockpile
- Dredged material solids
Construction materials and
site-derived products
• Building and heavy con-
struction
• Site-derived products for
resale or recycling
• Packaging materials
Primary solid wastes
- Metals, plastics, aggre-
gate, lumber, plaster,
lath, terrazzo
- Lumber, brick, fence posts,
stone, wood chips, rock,
timber, minerals
(continued)
3-98
-------
TABLE 3-42. (continued)
Equipment and mechanical
controls Primary solid wastes
• Wastewater treatment - Sludge, grease
• Heavy machinery - Oil, grease
• Incinerators/ash removal - Ash
• Pulping/chipping machines - Paper, wood chip
Project closeout Primary solid wastes
• Demolition - Lumber, concrete, metal,
aggregate, sludges
• Start-up and testing of the - Fly ash, ash, and sludges
plant and auxiliary facilities
3.4.4 Environmental Protection During Construction of
the SRC Plant
The characteristics of a given site (abiotic and
biotic) are crucial to the development of comprehensive
environmental protection plans for that site. Therefore, a
general discussion will be given to this question, in view
of the fact that a specific SRC site has not been selected.
The realization of sound environmental protection
strategies during construction of the SRC plant requires the
use of preliminary site evaluations; subsurface explora-
tions; and nominal baseline inventories as a prelude to the
development of site-specific sediment, air, and other pol-
lutant control plans. Once these plans have been reviewed
and approved by delegated authority, they should become an
integral part of the construction contract specifications.
In this approach, prospective contractors may bid and plan
more intelligently for any given construction site.
3-99
-------
The nature and extent of potential environmental
changes resulting from construction work, whether of a
beneficial or adverse nature, can be influenced materially
by the scope of the protective measures specified in the
construction contract. For example, in the 17 or more
states in which specific erosion and sediment control laws
have been adopted, the construction permit will not be
issued until an erosion and sediment control plan, specific
to the jobsite, has been approved. The State of Illinois
presently has no specific statutory requirements for the
control of sediment on construction sites.
Aside from meeting the requirements of sediment control
statutes, constructors must be aware of federal, state, and
local requirements for the monitoring of sediment and other
pollutant discharges, the protection of fish and wildlife
values, air quality, recreational and aesthetic values in
streams and waterways, noise, solid waste disposal, spills
of hazardous substances, and the safe handling and storage
of hazardous chemicals. These and other potential pollu-
tants resulting from construction activity were identified
earlier in this section. The contractor should be required
to submit his preliminary plans for mitigating impacts at
least 30 days before starting any land-disturbing work on
the jobsite.
During the construction phase, the contractor should
furnish all materials, labor, and equipment required to
protect and monitor the environment, as called for in plans
for erosion and sediment control, stormwater runoff control,
dust control, solid waste disposal, and controlling spillage
and disposal of petroleum and other hazardous products.
Selected items of work considered relevant to environmental
protection at the construction site are shown in Table 3-43.
3-100
-------
TABLE 3-43.
SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION MEASURES ON
CONSTRUCTION SITES (42.44.45)
u>
1
t— »
o
I-1
General
Landscape
Stream crossing
areas
Tree protection
Tree relocation
Road relocation
Removal of
loose rock
Fence installa-
tion
Fish and
Wildlife
Dentree protec-
tion
Streambank pro-
tection
Fish ladder in-
stallation, if
necessary
Nesting/breed-
ing box in-
stallation, if
necessary
Dust
Control
Unpaved
access and
haul roads
Demolition
of build-
ings
Borrow pit
area
Concrete
batch plant
area
Asphalt
batch plant
area
Temporary Soil Erosion
and Sediment Control
Sediment traps
Straw bales
Straw/hay mulches
Gravel inlet filters
Diversion ditches,
terraces, and dikes
Serrated slope areas
Interceptor dikes
Flexible downdrains
Flumes
Level spreaders
Permanent Soil Erosion
and Sediment Control
Sediment basins
Detention basins
Stone riprap on streams
banks
Gabions
Drainageway linings
Grade stabilization
structures
Revetments for shoreline
and erosion control
Environmental
Monitoring
Baseline monitoring of
air, water, and land.
Trend monitoring for
air, water, and land.
Discharge (NPDES)
monitoring for air,
water and land.
Control monitoring for
air, water, and solid
wastes.
Legal standards moni-
toring for water, air,
and leachate
Chemical soil stab-
ilizers
Stone and gravel mulch
Slope retention struc-
tures
-------
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2. Gluskoter, H.J. et al. Trace Elements in Coal: Occur-
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8 J.J. Davis Associates. Coal Preparation Environmental
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Source Mass Spectrometry Investigation of Coal Par-
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Energy Research Center, Respirable Dust Research Pro-
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10. Kaakinen, J.W., R.M. Jorden, M.H. Lawasani and R.E.
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862-69, 1975.
11. Fruchter, J.S., J.C. Lauh, M.R. Peterson, P.W. Ryan,
and M.E. Turner. High Precision Trace Element and
Organic Constituent Analysis. BNWL-SA-6001-rev,
Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories, 1977. 41 pp.
12. Goldstein, D.S. and D. Yoring. Water Conservation and
Pollution Control in Coal Conversion Processes. EPA-
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by: Water Purification Associates, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, 1977. 468 pp.
13. Singer, P.C., F.K. Pfaender, J. Chinchilli and J.C.
Lamb III. Composition and Biodegradability of Organics
in Coal Conversion Wastewaters. In: Third Symposium
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14. Davis, G.M., E.J. Reap and J.H. Koon. Treatment In-
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Engineers, Nashville, Tennessee, 1976. 7 Chapters.
15. Ford, D.L. Putting Activated Carbon in Perspective.
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16. Radian Corporation. Pollution Control Technology for
Fossil Fuel Fired Electric Generating Stations - Sec-
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Environmental Protection Agency, 1975. 302 pp.
17. Chu, T.J., R. Ruane, G.R. Steiner. Characteristics of
Wastewater Discharged from Coal Fired Power Plants.
In: 31st Annual Purdue Industrial Waste Conference,
Purdue University, May 4-6, 1976. 39 pp.
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18. Perrussel, R.E. Environmental Aspects of the SRC Pro-
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Hollywood, Florida Dec. 15-18, 1975. 13 pp.
19. Walker, J.D. and R.R. Colwell. Degradation of Hydro-
carbons and Mixed Hydrocarbon Substrate by Microor-
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20. Exxon Research and Engineering Company. EDS Coal
Liquefaction Process Development. ERDA-No. EF77-A-01-
2893 Quarterly Report. July 1 - September 30, 1976.
236 pp.
21. Personal Communication with P.C. Singer, University
of North Carolina, 1977.
22. Hannah, A., M. Jelus, and J.M. Cohen. Removal of
Uncommon Trace Metals by Physical and Chemical Treat-
ment Processes. Journal Water Pollution Control Fed-
eration 11: 2297-2308, 1977.
23. Office of Power. Coal Pile Drainage. EPA No. IAG-D5-
E721. Tennessee Valley Authority, 1975.
24. Martin, J.F. Quality of Effluents from Coal Refuse
Piles. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National
Environmental Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio.
25. Van Meter, W.P. and R.E. Erickson. Environmental
Effects from Leaching of Coal Conversion By-Products.
EPAE49-18(2019) Interim Rep. June-Sept. Environmental
Protection Agency, 1975.
26. Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc. Environmental
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Energy Research and Development Agency, Washington,
D.C., 1975 60 pp.
27. Beychok, M.R. Aqueous Waste from Petroleum and Pet-
roleum Plants. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1973.
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28. Streng, D.R. Effects of Disposal of Industrial Wastes
Within a Sanitary Landfill. In: Residual Management
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Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 1976. pp. 51-70.
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29. Ashland Synthetic Fuels. Environmental Plan - H-Coal
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Development Agency, 1977. 130 pp.
30. Cooling Tower Institute. Liquid Effluent Pollution
Control. In: Cooling Tower Manual. Houston, Texas,
1976. 23 pp.
31. Dvorak, A.J. et.al. Environmental Effects of Using
Coal for Generating Electricity. ERDA #W-31-109-Eng-
38. Argonne National Labs., Argonne, Illinois, 1976.
221 pp.
32. Ifeadi, C.N. and H.S. Rosenberg. Lime/Limestone Sludge
Disposal; Trends in the Utility Industry. In: Pro-
ceedings of Symposium on Flue Gas Desulfurization, Vol.
II, Atlanta EPA 650/2-74-1266, 1974. pp. 865-885.
33. Glazes, F. , A. Hershaft and R. Shaw. Emissions from
Processes Producing Clean Fuel. EPA-450/3-75-028. En-
vironmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina, 1974. XVI Chapters.
34. Illinois State Geological Survey. Determination of
Valuable Metals in Liquefaction Residues. ERDA #(E46-
1)-8004. Energy Research and Development Administra-
tion. Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 1978.
35. Hydrocarbon Research Incorporated. Project H-Coal
Report on Process Development, ORD/R 2026/Final. Office
of Coal Research, Washington, D.C., 1968. 315 pp.
36. Pittsburgh and Midway Coal Mining Company. Solvent
Refined Coal (SRC) Process: Health Programs. R&D
Report No. 53. Interim Report No. 24. U.S. Department
of Energy. EX-76-C-01-496. Jan. 1 - June 30, 1977.
73 pp.
37. Richards, J.A. , F.W. Sears, M.R. Wehr and M.W. Zeinansky.
Modern University Physics, Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, Inc. Reading, Massachusetts, 1960.
38. Weast, B.C. ed. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.
57th Edition, CRC. Press, Cleveland, Ohio, 1964.
39. Bureau of Radiological Health and the Training Insti-
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Radiological Health Handbook. U.S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Services,
Rockville, Maryland, 1970.
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40. United States Department of the Interior. Guidelines
for the Preparation of Environmental Reports for
Fossil-Fueled Steam Electric Generating Stations,
Washington, B.C., 1976.
41. United States Department of Energy. Alternative Fuels
Demonstration Program - Final Environmental Impact
Statement, Vols. I and II. ERDA 1547. Washington,
D.C., September 1977.
42. Emerson, D.E., H.T. Hopkins, G.R. Squire and G.M.
Sitek. General Environmental Guidelines for Evaluating
and Reporting the Effects of Nuclear Power Plant Site
Preparation, Plant, and Transmission Facilities Con-
struction. Atomic Industrial Forum, Washington, B.C.,
February 1974. 48 pp. plus 10 Appendices.
43. Walker, R.D. et al. Best Management Systems for Re-
ducing Soil Erosion and Sedimentation and Improving
Water Quality. State of Illinois Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, Springfield, Illinois, 1977. 140 pp.
44. Hittman Associates, Inc. Environmental Protection
Guidelines for Construction Contract Administrators and
Specifications Writers. U.S. Department of the Army,
Contract No. DACA88-74C-0004, Construction Engineering
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Vol. IV from the Study Group on Environmental Moni-
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National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1977.
181 pp.
3-106
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4.0 ENVIRONMENTAL DATA, WHITE COUNTY, ILLINOIS
4.1 Summary of Environmental Issues
Southern Illinois, Indiana, and western Kentucky, while
prominent in agricultural pursuits, nevertheless have a
strong orientation toward the extractive industries. Indeed,
a recent report has suggested that the Eastern Interior coal
reserve region would be expected to augment this orientation
with excellent transportation facilities, and a future land
use emphasis on intensive industrial development (1). The
length of time required to build and operate a coal conver-
sion facility is shown in Figure 4-1, assuming no delays
from shortages of various kinds or other delays arising from
changing regulatory constraints on air, water, and hazardous
waste pollutants. If the 1985 goals for clean energy are to
be met, it is evident that firm commitments to build and
operate synfuel plants would be required no later than 1979
(2).
Recent findings of the Argonne National Laboratory Re-
gional Studies program (ANLRS) indicated significant con-
straints to the siting of synfuel plants in the 14-state
midwest region (3). Thus, the ANLRS study reported that
only five of the 14 states in the region (Illinois, Indiana,
Missouri, North Dakota, and Ohio) exhibited a suitable
coincidence of usable water and coal resources (3). One
scenario relevant to synfuels development is the accelerated
synfuels scenario. Based on this scenario, there could be
six coal liquefaction plants in North Dakota, one in Missouri,
five in Illinois, two in Indiana, and two in Ohio by the
year 2020 (3).
Generic environmental issues pertaining to the siting,
construction, and operation of synfuel plants are summarized
4-1
-------
ACTIVITY
FEASIBILITY STUDY
APPROVALS & PERMITS
ENGINEERING & DESIGN
PRE-CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
CONSTRUCTION
OPERATION
Figure 4-1. Project schedule for building coal conversion facility (2)
-------
in the next two subsections. Environmental issues specific
to White County, Illinois, are discussed later in this
chapter.
4.1.1 Issues Relating to the Siting and Construction
of SRC Plants
The following site-related issues are considered of
major importance to the future location of synfuel plants in
the coal-producing regions:
• Adequate mineable coal reserves, coincident with
abundant water supplies for the 25-year life of
the SRC plant
• Limitations on siting imposed by the Federal
Prevention of Significant Air Deterioration regu-
lations and the Clean Water Act
• Water allocation conflicts between existing indus-
trial/utility plants, and future synfuels plants
(e.g., consumptive in-stream uses)
• Transportation constraints linked to the possible
accelerated abandonment of railroads and of high-
ways due to mounting maintenance and construction
costs
• Potential risks from natural disasters (e.g.,
earthquakes and tornadoes) and the costs of struc-
tural engineering countermeasures
• Adequacy of the 7-day/10-year low flows in meeting
the water requirements during the 25-year life of
4-3
-------
the SRC facility, in relation to the sequential
siting of industries and utilities
Constraints arising from the prime farmland con-
cept of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, in
relation to the land requirements for new roads,
pipelines, and transmission lines
Adverse socioeconomic and growth impacts in rural
areas and on small towns
Adverse impacts on historic landmarks, centennial
farms, historic trails, and archeological sites
Potential for disruption of aquifers as a result
of coal extraction
Potential for disruption of the non-consumptive,
in-stream uses of surface water (e.g., hydroelec-
tric power generation, fish and wildlife main-
tenance, navigation, recreational uses, and water
quality control)
Effects of the offset principle on SRC siting in
Class I areas, relative to existing or projected
gaseous emissions from sources other than SRC
Regulatory constraints on flood plain development
Federal coal-leasing policy
Prohibitions on water withdrawal (e.g., Indiana
law prohibits withdrawal when the Wabash River dis-
charge at Riverton, Indiana, reaches 120 percent
4-4
-------
of the 7-day consecutive minimum average flow with
a recurrence interval of 10 years)
• Constraints to new mine development posed by oil
well regulations
• Water pumping costs.
4.1.2 Issues Relating to the Operation of SRC Plants
Generally, the following environmental issues would be
identified with the operation of the SRC plant and auxiliary
facilities:
• Potential for negative impacts on plants, animals
and man, of air pollutants and leachates from coal
preparation and cleaning
• Potential for negative impacts from leachates and
effluents from sludge, fly ash, and bottom ash
ponds on groundwater resources
• Potential effects on climatic patterns as a result
of the emission of C0?, CO, water vapor, and heat
• Negative effects of trace elements, heavy metals,
and nutrients contained in sediment, leachate, and
surface runoff from coal stockpiles and hazardous
waste disposal sites on surface and groundwater
resources
• Occupational health hazards for workers
• Radionuclide release from burning low-sulfur
Western coal supplies
4-5
-------
• Potential for disruption of aquifers resulting
from increased rates of pumping of water and
extraction of coal.
4.2 Characterization of Abiotic Features of White County
The primary objective of this section is to provide de-
tailed characterization information relating specifically to
White County, Illinois. Such information will be utilized
to estimate ways in which the construction and operation of
a coal liquefaction facility would impact a specific site.
4.2.1 Water Resources
4.2.1.1 Surface Waters
White County is bounded on the east by the Wabash River
and is drained internally by the Little Wabash River. As
shown in Figures 4-2 and 4-3, most of White County is
located in the Wabash River Drainage Basin. A 5 to 11 km
strip along the eastern border of the county is part of the
Lower Wabash Sub-basin and drains directly into the Wabash
River (5). The Little Wabash River and tributaries which
drain the major portion of the county are part of the Little
Wabash Sub-basin. In contrast, the southwest corner of the
county is located in the Ohio Drainage Basin and drains into
the Ohio rather than the Wabash River.
The Wabash River is one of the largest tributaries of
the Ohio River and together with its major tributaries
(Salamonie, Mississinewa, White, Embarras, Little Wabash,
o
and Patoka Rivers), drains an area of 85,729 km . The
Wabash River drainage area includes about two-thirds of
Indiana, one-sixth of Illinois, and about 826 km of Ohio in
its 764 km of length. The river serves as a common boundary
4-6
-------
INDIANA
ILLINOIS
KENTUCKY
\
0 =
c. =
F =
COVIN6TON G
TERRE HAUTE H
MEROM I
VINCENNES J
MT. CARMEL K
NEW HARMONY L
= MT. VERNON M =
= EVANSVILLE N =
= CARMI 0 =
= GRAYVILLE P =
= FAIRFIELD Q =
= PETERSBURG R =
BEDFORD S = RINARD
INDIANAPOLIS T = EFFINGHAM
LOUISVILLE U = CAMARRO
MADISON V = CLAY CITY
ENTERPRISE W = CROSSVILLE
WAYNE CITY X = NEW HAVEN
Figure 4-2. Wabash River sub-basin of the Ohio River
drainage system
4-7
-------
^-71-53
— 75-04
V A - LITTLE
WABASH
SUB-BASIN
B - LOWER
WABASH
SUB-BASIN
C - OHIO RIVER
DRAINAGE
BASIN
STREAMS HAVING ZERO 7-DAY/
10-YEAR LOW FLOW
STREAMS HAVING NON-ZERO
7-DAY/10-YEAR LOW FLOW
CREEKS IN MAJOR RIVER
FLOOD PLAINS; FLOW IN-
DETERMINATE BECAUSE OF
LEVEES, DRAINAGE DITCHES
AND REGULATION
EXPLANATION
-0.016
7-DAY/10-YEAR LOW FLOW
(NATURAL PLUS 1970 EFFLUENT)
DURING LOW FLOW PERIOD IN
M3/SEC
LOCATION AND IDENTIFICATION
NUMBER OF U.S. GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY STREAM GAGING STATION
BLUFF LINE
0.
LOCATION OF A WASTE WATER PLANT OUTFALL AND THE
'•win LOCATION UP A WASTE WATER PLANT OUTFALL AND 1
-4L—• 1970 EFFLUENT IN M3/SEC DURING A 7-DAY LOW
FLOW PERIOD
Figure 4-3. VThite County drainage (4)
4-8
-------
between Illinois and Indiana for approximately 322 km before
joining the Ohio River 10 miles south of White County and
214 km above the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi
Rivers (4,6).
A large part of the Lower Wabash Sub-basin is level
flood plain, cut by sloughs and oxbow bends near the major
streams. In these flat areas the river gradient ranges as
low as 0.15 m per 1.61 km, compared to an average drop of
about a 0.30 m per 1.61 km over the entire length of the
Wabash (6).
Because of limited depth, there is no navigation on the
Wabash River except for ferries and sand and gravel dredging
operations (6). In some cases, river depths are reported up
to 12 m, although 7.6 m will probably be the maximum depth
at most of the deeper holes. The average depth of the river
is about 3 m (7).
Stream flow characteristics for rivers in the vicinity
of White County are shown in Table 4-1 and Figure 4-3. The
Wabash River at Grayville has an average river flow of 740.6
o
m /sec, with maximum and minimum flows of 12,330 and 46.8
o
m /sec. In common with other central U.S. rivers, the
Wabash River has major fluctuations in flow throughout the
year. Yearly peak flows on the Wabash commonly occur in
late winter and spring. Low flows can be expected to occur
in September or October. Flow fluctuations are such that
maximum daily discharge may be over 20 times greater than
the minimum daily flow (6) .
The volume of stream flow is of primary significance in
assessing the potential environmental impact of a coal
liquefaction facility in terms of effluent dilution rate,
net percentage loss of river volume, and temperature
4-9
-------
TABLE 4-1. STREAM FLOW FOR RIVERS IN WHITE COUNTY VICINITY (4.5)
Wabash River
(Above Ohio
River)
•P-
o
Ohio River
(above
Mississippi
River)
Little
Wabash River
(above
Wabash River)
Kilometers
Above
Mouth
151
105
83
20
21
0
454
230
203
48
Drainage
Area
Location km^
Mt. Cartnel, IL 74,000
Grayville, IL 74,100
New Harmony, IN 75,524
New Haven, IL
(above Little
Wabash River)
New Haven, IL
(below Little
Wabash River)
Before confluence
with Ohio River
Evansville, IN 277,130
Just east of con-
fluence with
Wabash River
Just south of
confluence with
Wabash River
Carmel, IL 8,058
Before confluence
with Wabash River
7-day
10-year
Low Flow
70.5
73.0
74.2
76.2
76.5
77.5
246.6
260.6
343.2
0.16
0.19
(m /sec)
Average Maximum Minimum
Flow Flow Flow
734.5 12,120 46.8
740.6 12,330 46.8
3,792 39,927 N.D.
69 1,328 0.02
-------
increase of river. Mean flow volumes provide helpful infor-
mation, but the minimum flow values are more pertinent for
providing data for the "worst case" situation with regard to
environmental impact. The 7-day/10-year low flow values
have a further significance in that regulations regarding
the Wabash River frequently utilize those flow rates. These
values are the lowest average flow rates that occur for a
consecutive 7-day period at a recurrence interval of 10
years. That is, over a long period of years, the average
time interval between 7-day low flows of this severity will
be 10 years.
Daily water requirements of coal conversion plants have
been estimated to range from 23,000 to 270,000 m . The
water loss will vary with the type of conversion process
(coal liquefaction requiring less than gasification) and
with the extent to which water conservation methods are
3
utilized. In this report, the lower value of 23,000 m /day
was used as the estimated consumptive water usage per day.
3
A loss of 23,000 m /day represents 0.3 percent of the 7-
day/10-year low flow volume of the Wabash River at Grayville,
Illinois. The stream flow volume of the Little Wabash River
3
(7-day/10-year low flow at Carmi is 13,800 m /day) is
obviously insufficient to support a coal conversion facility.
High flows are generally addressed in terms of flood
impact and are of particular concern in White County.
Between one-third and one-half of the county is categorized
as a flood-prone area in terms of the inundation probability
during 100-year flood levels. In general, the area located
east of the bluff line shown in Figure 4-3 is subject to
flooding, as well as land adjacent to the Little Wabash
River and Skillet Fork Creek.
4-11
-------
4.2.1.2 Groundwater
Specifying that the location of the coal liquefaction
facility would be along the Wabash River implies that sur-
face water would be utilized as the water source for the
facility. However, an examination of the groundwater supply
is valuable in assessing the following: (1) the conditions
that make groundwater the most desirable water source for a
coal conversion facility, and (2) the effect of an SRC
facility on the groundwater resources.
The quantity of water needed for coal conversion plants
lies between 23,000 m3/day and 270,000 m3/day. In terms of
groundwater development, this is a vast supply. Therefore,
from a groundwater viewpoint, only those locations where
groundwater conditions are especially favorable can be con-
sidered as possible SRC sites. In Illinois favorable con-
ditions exist in areas where yields of wells are high (in
o
excess of 2 m /min), where the aquifers are extensive and
highly permeable, and where either the natural rate of re-
charge is high or water can be induced (by pumping of
nearby wells) to flow from the streams into the groundwater
reservoir, a process called induced infiltration (8).
Groundwater in Illinois is commonly drawn from uncon-
solidated deposits of sand and gravel in the glacial drift
or in river valleys, or from bedrock formations of limestone
or sandstone. Most of the unconsolidated, or sand and
gravel, aquifers of Illinois were deposited by meltwater
from glaciers. The sand and gravel were deposited mainly in
valleys leading away from the melting ice or in outwash
plains at the front of the ice. Of the areas in Illinois
where conditions are favorable for drilling wells yielding 2
o
m /min, most lie within major valley systems. As seen in
Figure 4-4, the present-day Wabash River overlies major sand
4-12
-------
,
WHITE COUNTY
EXPLANATION
BEDROCK VALLEYS WHICH
COINCIDE IN GENERAL WITH
PRESENT VALLEYS AND LOWLANDS
BURIED BEDROCK VALLEYS
Figure 4-4.
Distribution of glacial aquifers in major
bedrock valleys (9)
4-13
-------
and gravel aquifers of the ancestral Wabash Valley. The
aquifers extend from Mount Carmel, Illinois to the Ohio
River (including the eastern section of White County) and
Q
store an estimated 1.4 x 10 cubic meters of water. A
mantle of permeable material covers the aquifers, allowing a
recharge rate of approximately 300,000 m /day.
Although essentially undeveloped, the potential well
yield from the Wabash Valley aquifers (including eastern
o
White County) is in excess of 2 m /min, the minimum yield
acceptable for developing groundwater as the primary water
source for coal liquefaction plants. The most productive
sections of the aquifers underlie the flood plain areas,
with well yields decreasing with distance from the Wabash
River (see Figure 4-5). The portions of White County not
overlying the Wabash River Valley aquifer draw groundwater
from sandstone and limestone beds of Pennsylvanian and
Mississippian age. These bedrock aquifers commonly yield
3 ?
less than 0.1 m /min; far below the 2 m /min. estimated
required rate for a coal conversion facility. Such aquifers
are of little interest in terms of the need for a major
water source for process operations.
The proposed plant site, southwest of Grayville, is lo-
cated above the flood plains and beyond the extremities of
the Wabash Valley aquifer. Groundwater, after being pumped
from this high-yield aquifer, would, like surface water,
have to be transported several kilometers to the facility.
Therefore, although the groundwater yields along the Wabash
River are considered adequate to support a coal liquefaction
facility, the availability of adequate surface water lessens
the possibility of groundwater being utilized as the major
water supply. Under certain conditions, however, ground-
water use may be the most desirable alternative. For
example, if surface water quality is inadequate for process
4-14
-------
NORTH
D AREAS WHERE MUNICIPAL AND
INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIE
ARE USUALLY DEVELOPED
FROM OTHER SOURCES.
AREAS UNDERLAIN BY PRINCIPAL
SAND AND GRAVEL AQUIFER AT LEAST
4.6 METERS THICK, WHERE CHANCES
ARE GOOD FOR OBTAINING WELLS
WITH YIELDS OF:
0.1 M3/MIN OR MORE
0.4 M3/MIN OR MORE
2 M3/MIN OR MORE
COUNTY
LOCATION OF OTHER POSSIBLE SAND AND GRAVEL
AQUIFERS, WHERE SMALL INDUSTRIAL AND
MUNICIPAL WELL DEVELOPMENT MAY BE POSSIBLE
AS ARE CHANCES OF OBTAINING WELLS WITH
YIELDS OF:
0.1 MJ/MIN OR MORE
0.4 M3/MIN OR MORE
Figure 4-5. Yields of sand and gravel aquifers (8)
4-15
-------
needs, or if river water withdrawal is restricted by regu-
lations, as when river volume falls below 1207, x 7-day/10-
year low f
desirable.
o
year low flow = 87.6 m /sec, then groundwater use would be
4.2.2 Existing Water Quality (Background Levels of
Stressors)
4.2.2.1 Introduction
When a water supply is being planned for a particular
use, such as for a coal conversion facility, it is important
to establish the amount and kinds of minerals in the water
in order to estimate the cost of water treatment. However,
no general standards have been set for the minimum water
quality required by various coal conversion processes.
Therefore, water quality will not be discussed in terms of
process requirements and required raw water treatment.
The primary water quality concern of this report is the
potential of the coal conversion facility to adversely
affect the quality of surface and groundwaters. In order to
assess the impact of a facility on the area waters, it is
essential to determine the baseline quality of those waters.
4.2.2.2 Surface Water
Water quality data for the Wabash River is presented in
Table 4-2. The Wabash normally shows high pH levels, occa-
sionally exceeding the Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation
Commission (ORSANCO) criteria limits of 6.0 to 8.5. The
yearly average in 1977 was 8.2, with a maximum single value
of 8.9 (10).
4-16
-------
TABLE 4-2. WATER QUALITY - WABASH RIVER
AT NEW HARMONY, INDIANA
(Concentrations in mg/1 unless stated otherwise) (10)
Paranetvr
Ajnmon i a
Arsenic
B.irium
Cadmium
Calcium
Cyanide
Chloride
Chromium
Copper
Fluoride
Iron
Lead
HaRnvsium
Manganese
Mercury
Xitkel
Nitrate
Nitr4Ken (TKN)
Phenol
Phosphorus - Total
Potassium
S*> 1 en i urn
Silicon dioxide
Silver
Sodium
Sulfate
7-1 nc
BOD5
Coliforn-fe al
Collform - otal
Hardness - otal
Solids - su pended
Solids - di solved
PH"
Dissolved Oxygen
Cond.
Trmr.
aCount/10n ml
h!977 samples
»n3
As
Ba
Cd
Ca
Cl
Cr
Cu
K
Ft
Fb
Mg
Mn
«g
Mi
N03
K
Se
sio2
Ag
Ma
S04
'"
Number
of
Months
Sampled
8
I
3
5
8
7
6
5
4
6
5
5
7
5
5
3
7
8
8
8
6
1
4
3
7
8
5
4
7
7
8
8
8
12
12
Oct. 1975 - June 1976
Arith.
Mean Min Max
0.08 0.01 0.15
0. 002
0.08 0 0.2
<0.001 0 0.002
°5 42 127
0.00 0.00 0.00
23 15 30
<0.01 <0.01 <0.01
0.008 0.004 0.01
10 5.7 14
0.5 0.2 0.9
1.8 0.01 3.9
0.04 0.009 0.11
21 12 26
O.15 0.1 0.21
< 0.0005 - , 10 and 30, respectively.
2, 5. 10, 30 are considered to be
The water quality in the Wabash River fluctuates sig-
nificantly depending on the flow (11) . The high flows asso-
ciated with rapid overland flow from farmlands contribute
suspended sediment and dissolved solids to the river.
During high-flow periods, specific conductance and total
solids concentrations are high. Suspended sediment loads
4-17
-------
are also high, but tend to drop as flows recede. Variation
in temperature affects the dissolved oxygen content. In
general, a rising water temperature results in a decrease in
dissolved oxygen.
During the past 20 years, certain water quality param-
eters have deteriorated in the Wabash River. As shown in
Table 4-3, there has been a significant increase in chloride
and nitrate content.
TABLE 4-3. COMPARISON OF WATER QUALITY DATA
FOR PERIODS 1955-1971* (12)
Wabash River
at Hutsonville
1966-1971
1962-1966
1955-1961
Total
Dissolved
Minerals
Median High
373 489
363 519
341 492
Hardness
Median High
284 372
274 388
264 372
Chloride
Median High
25 440
28 46
23 34
Sulfate
Median High
79 116
85 118
76 116
Nitrate
Median High
17.9 90.8
10.8 54.4
12.9 51.5
Turbidity
Median High
78 758
83 890
82 656
*Mlneral constituents In milligrams per liter, turbidity In Jackson turbidity units.
4.2.2.3
Groundwater
Water from unconsolidated Wabash Valley aquifers gen-
erally have dissolved solids of less than 500 mg/1 and a
hardness of less than 400 mg/1. The New Haven municipal
supply, near the mouth of the Little Wabash, has dissolved
solids of 335 mg/1 and a hardness of 309 mg/1 (13). Analy-
sis of water from a residential well in New Haven is given
in Table 4-4.
Water from sandstone aquifers is typically of calcium
bicarbonate type with a dissolved solids content of less
than 500 mg/1. At depths greater than 60 meters, the water
4-18
-------
TABLE 4-4.
WATER QUALITY DATA - WELL NEAR
NEW HAVEN (8)
Concentration in
mg/1
Dissolved solids
Hardness
Alkalinity
Iron
Manganese
Chloride
Fluoride
Nitrates
Sulfates
Temperature
510
342
363
1.0
0.2
54.8
0.2
1.4
9.8
59.3
from the sandstone is more likely to be of the sodium bicar-
bonate type with excessive dissolved solids, excessive
fluorides, and in places, excessive chlorides. In general,
the quality of groundwater in the Little Wabash Basin (pri-
mary bedrock aquifers) is characterized by moderate miner-
alization, excessive hardness, and above-normal iron con-
tent. A comparison of groundwater quality of aquifers in
unconsolidated material with that from bedrock aquifers is
shown in Table 4-5.
TABLE 4-5. GROUNDWATER QUALITY - WABASH BASIN (14)
Unconsolidated sediments
Outwash and valley
train deposits along
Lower Wabash
(Terre Haute to mouth)
Bedrock formations
Sandstone of the
Pennsylvanian system
(Eastern Interior
region)
Well depth (meters)
Depth of water (meters)
Hardness (mg/1)
Sulfate (mg/1)
Chloride (mg/1)
Total dissolved solids
(mg/1)
10-40
1-10
250-400
25-75
1-17
220-450
15-270
-
50-450
25-240
5-75
200-2100
4-19
-------
4.2.3 Existing Air Quality (Background Levels of
Stressors)
The data presented in this section relate to the
ambient air quality. Unfortunately, most of these data
were gathered from facilities near urban areas and may not
accurately reflect values which would be expected in ambient
rural atmospheres. These data only deal with total sus-
pended particulates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,
carbon monoxide, and ozone. No monitoring data were found
for the ambient levels of other organic or inorganic air
pollutants.
White County is in Air Quality Control Region No. 74.
In this region there are four reporting stations. One is at
Effingham, which is approximately 120 km on a direct line NW
of Carmi. Others are at Mt. Vernon (70 km WNW of Carmi),
Carbondale (105 km SW of Carmi), and Marion (80 km SW of
Carmi). These stations have reported a geometric mean of 50
to 59 micrograms suspended particles per cubic meter (stan-
dard geometric deviation 1.45 to 1.49), an arithmetic mean
of 7.90 to 34.0 yg/m3 (at 25°C and 760 mm Hg) sulfur dioxide,
an arithmetic mean of 18.8 to 30.0 yg/m3 (at 25°C and 760 mm
Hg) nitrogen dioxide, and maximum monthly ozone levels
ranging from 47.1 to 230 yg/m3 (at 25°C and 760 mm Hg).
Metropolis, which is 120 km SSW of Carmi, reported an
annual average of 53 micrograms per cubic meter suspended
particles in 1975 (15).
Table 4-6 summarizes information received from the
Communication Manager of the Ambient Air Quality Monitoring
Section, Division of Air Pollution Control, Illinois Envi-
ronmental Protection Agency. These data were gathered from
January to November 1977, and represent the latest available
data on these pollutants in this region.
4-20
-------
TABLE 4-6. SUMMARY OF JANUARY TO NOVEMBER 1977
MONTHLY AIR QUALITY REPORTS FOR AIR QUALITY CONTROL REGION 74
(SOUTHEASTERN ILLINOIS)a
Pollutant
Sulfur
dioxide
Nitrogen
dioxide
Suspended
particulates
Location
Ef fingham
Marion
Carbondale
Ef fingham
Marion
Carbondale
Ef fingham
Marion
Carbondale
Mt . Vernon
b
n
43
48
30
46
50
29
35
47
31
46
Arith.
mean
13
13
24
26
28
30
64
68
86
70
Geom.
mean
8
8
16
24
0
30
57
57
79
62
Unbiased
std. dev.
13
18
21
13
11
9
34
39
43
35
Range
5-73
5-120
5-86
9-75
0-56
15-45
21-158
3-196
41-251
19-179
This table was calculated from information provided by the Manager of
the Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Section; Division of Air Pollution
Control, Illinois Environmental Protection Agency, 2200 Churchill Road,
Springfield, IL 62706.
n = number of samples.
Q
CUnits are ug/m at 25°C and 760 mm Hg.
The 1976 data from Air Quality Control Region 77 is
summarized in Table 4-7. This region is in southwestern
Indiana and contains Evansville and Jasper. Information on
Terre Haute and Vincennes is also included. Evansville is
approximately 50 km SE of Grayville and is approximately 30
to 50 km from the nearest point of White County. Jasper is
approximately 94 km ENE of Grayville, which .is the nearest
point to Jasper in White County. Terre Haute is approxi-
mately 140 km NNE of Grayville, which is the nearest point
in White County to Terre Haute. Vincennes is approximately
4-21
-------
TABLE 4-7. AIR QUALITY DATA FROM LOCATIONS IN INDIANA WITHIN
140 KM OF WHITE COUNTY. ILLINOIS (MICROGRAMS PER CUBIC METER) (16)
N>
to
Total Suspended
Particulates
City
Evansville
Jasper
Terre Haute
Vincennes
Site N*
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
41
48
36
58
54
14
50
58
21
49
172
52
56
55
58
54
49
Geometric 1st
Mean Max'
57
64
92
62
65
**
56
84
**
70
77
71
81
86
73
74
70.0
138
132
186
140
159
141
122
178
130
134
150
150
135
147
139
140
185
Sulfur Dioxide
2nd Arithmetic 1st
Maxtt N* Mean Maxt
101
116
178
129
154
110
108
175
124
130
144
141
133
140
133
132
172
37
37
46
14
2802
52
17
49
59
41
5478
44
22
25
28
**
**
39
**
31
23
25
37
25
77
101
129
66
453**
145
67
145
122
106
717***
85
Nitrogen Dioxide
2nd Arithmetic 1st 2nd
Maxtt N* Mean Maxt Maxtt
72 39 26
70
118 37 29
47 15 **
125 42 28
55 14
108 43 41
107 57 29
98 40 26
76 39 32
51 48
79 48
97 73
53 46
76 56
107 76
88 66
99 64
69 58
* Number of Observations
** Insufficient Data
***Indicates One-Hour Readings
tnighest Value
''Second Highest Value
-------
62 km NE of Grayville, which is the nearest point in White
County to Vincennes.
In addition to the data summarized in Table 4-7, the
highest reading for ozone in Evansville, Indiana, was 330
3 • 3
yg/m and the second highest reading was 310 yg/m . The
3
highest reading for carbon monoxide was 13,000 yg/m and
o
the second highest reading was 12,000 yg/m for Evansville.
These were the highest readings recorded in Air Quality
Control Region Number 77 (16).
Table 4-8 is a treatment of the data gathered by the
U.S. Department of Agriculture (17). Merom, Indiana, is
approximately 100 km NNE of Grayville. The data represent
24-hour averages for the 10 days from March 3 to March 12,
inclusive. The high degree of variability demonstrates that
this type of data tends to fluctuate even in this short time
span.
Figure 4-6 shows the annual "trend for the geometric
mean of the total suspended particulates at Evansville
(Center City). No trend in these average values is evident.
4.2.4 Topography/Geomorphology
The general surface topography of Illinois has been in-
fluenced by successive periods of glaciation. Although
White County is beyond the southernmost limit of the Wis-
consin glacial period (about 20,000 years ago), it was
subjected to the Illinoian stage of Pleistocene glaciation
(over 100,000 years ago) and covered with the resulting
Illinoian till (see Figure 4-7). The physiographic divi-
sions of Illinois shown in Figure 4-8 reflect these various
periods of glaciation (18).
4-23
-------
TABLE 4-8. TWENTY-FOUR HOUR AVERAGE SULFUR DIOXIDE AND
NITROGEN DIOXIDE LEVELS DURING MARCH 3, 1975 TO
MARCH 12, 1975 AT THREE SITES IN SULLIVAN COUNTY, INDIANA (27)
(Units are Micrograms/ Cubic Meter)
Site Pollutant
A Sulfur dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Particulates
B Sulfur dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Particulates
C Sulfur dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Particulates
All Sulfur dioxide
Nitrogen dioxide
Particulates
Number
of
samples
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
30
30
30
Arith.
mean
33
6.
34.
18.
3.7
43.
10.
10.
40.
20
6.
39.
Geom.
mean
27.
5.
31.
17.
3.6
35.
9.
9.
36.
16.
5
34
Unbiased
standard
deviation
19.
3.
16.
7.
0.9
30.
5.
4.
17.
15.
4.
21.
Range
8.0-61.9
1.0-8.9
17.6-68.7
8.3-25.3
2.6-5.3
14.1-106.9
6.8-24.8
3.5-15.4
19.9-66.6
6.8-61.9
1.0-15.4
14.1-106.9
Site A is approximately 5.1 km ENE of Merom, Indiana. Site B is
approximately 2.3 km NNE of Doddsville, Indiana, and Site C is approxi-
mately 3.1 km WSW of Paxton, Indiana. All are within 9 km of Merom.
The concentrations of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide were signifi-
cantly different at each site (p less than 0.05 using a t-test for related
measures on each day's measurements). However, using the same criteria,
the particulate counts were not significantly different except between
Stations A and C.
4-24
-------
120-1
100-
_ 80-
c>
E
CL
t-
40
20
City Maintenance Bldg
• 8 Fire Dept House
Civic Center
Composite of sites
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
Figure 4-6. Total suspended particulate trend
for Evansville (Center City), 1970-1976 (16)
Although covered with Illinoian till, the shallow depth
of deposits in southern Illinois.results in the topography
being largely controlled by the underlying bedrock (19).
White County is located in the Mt. Vernon Hill Country of
the Central Lowland Province, an area characterized by low
rolling hills and broad floodplains of low gradient streams
(7).
The average land slope of White County is 4.16 per-
cent — a vertical change of 1.27 m in each 30.48 m of
distance. The general elevation of the county is highest
toward the northern extremities of the county; almost 140 m
above mean sea level. The minimum elevation is found at the
southern portion of the county where it is near 110 m above
mean sea level. The general elevation is about 122 m above
mean sea level (7).
4-25
-------
EXPLANATION
NO DRIFT, SOME LOESS
THIN DRIFT
AGGRADED BEDROCK
VALLEYS AND LOWLANDS
DRIFT PLAIN, PARTLY ERODED
ERODED, THIN DRIFT
ERODED DRIFT HILLS
AND RIDGES
UNERODED DRIFT PLAINS
AND RIDGES
I I .1-1 N O
, ' ....
WHITE
COUNTY
MARGINS OF DRIFT SHEETS
Figure 4-7. Distribution of glacial drift (9)
4-26
-------
llt«.AINS_5ECTION.
GREAT LAKE
k IsiCTION
CENTRAL
LOWLAND
PROVINCE
>vj fc^pc
• 1 : »•
•n
——- ^
OZARK ^
PLATEAUS £
PROVINCE s
CENTRAL
LOWLAND
PROVINCE
INTERIOR
LOW
PLATEAUS
PROVINCE
- WHITE
COUNTY
COASTAL PLAIN
PROVINCE
Figure 4-8. Physiographic divisions of Illinois (18)
4-27
-------
The flood proneness of the Wabash River becomes a major
consideration when evaluating the suitability of a particu-
lar site for the construction and operation of a coal lique-
faction facility. After assessing characteristics of var-
ious areas, the northeast corner of the county was found to
be the only sizable location within three kilometers of the
Wabash River that is not located in the floodplain.
Flood-prone areas encompass one-third to one-half of
White County. The areas delineated as flood-prone are con-
sidered to have 1 in 100 chances on the average of being
inundated during any year, without consideration of present
or future flood-control storage that may reduce flood
levels. The normal non-flood elevation of the Wabash River
is approximately 108 m at the northern tip of the county,
decreasing to 105 m at the southern tip, with 100-year flood
levels of roughly 116 to 119 and 113 to 114 m, respectively.
The large flood-prone areas of White County are sig-
nificant not only in terms of the problems relating to the
siting and construction of a large facility, but also in
terms of the dissipative potential of various pollutants.
4.2.5 Geology and Soils
Figure 4-9 shows the four major subdivisions of geo-
logic units in southern Illinois. These are the Precambrian
basement rock, covered everywhere by from 610 to about 4,000
meters of consolidated sedimentary rock ranging in age from
the Cambrian through Cretaceous. The Ordovician and Silur-
ian rocks (Figure 4-9) are dominated by dolomite, the
Mississippian by limestone, and the coal-bearing Pennsylvan-
ian strata by shale and sandstone (1). Overlying these
strata are glacial till, outwash, and windblown silt (loess)
arising from continental glaciation during the Pleistocene
4-28
-------
GEOLOGIC
CENOZOIC
PALEOZOIC
TIME UNIT
Quaternary
Tertiary
Cretaceous
Pennsylvanian
Mississipian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrl an
FORMATIONS
.Illinois Basin
Northern
Till, Outwash, Loess
McLeansboro
Carbondale
Tradewater-Caseyvi 1 le
Valmeyer Group
Kinderhook Group
Port Byron
Racine
»ake&lia
Joliet
Maquoketa
Galena-Platteville
Glenwood-St. Peter
Praire du Chien
Trempeal eau
Franconia
Ironton-Galesville
Eau Claire
Mt . Simon
Southern
Loess
Lafayette
Wllcox
Porters Creek
Clayton
McNairy
McLeansboro
Carbondale
Tradewater-Caseyvi lie
Chester Group
Valmeyer Group
Kinderhook Group
Dutch Creek
Clear Creek
Bailey
Maquoketa
Thebes
Lower Ordovician
& Cambrian Strata
PRE-CAMBRIAN
Figure 4-9. Stratigraphic column of the Illinois
basin in the Eastern Interior region (1)
age. Glacial till, consisting of well-sorted sands and
gravels and unsorted till, has an average thickness of about
30 meters (1). The coal-bearing Pennsylvanian strata of
southern Illinois are divided into four formations which
are, in descending order, the McLeansboro, Carbondale,
Tradewater, and Caseyville. The more important coal beds
occur within a range of 210 meters in the middle (Carbon-
dale) part of the Pennsylvanian system. The Carbondale
4-29
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group contains the Herrin (Illinois No. 6) and the Harris-
burg (Illinois No. 5) seams, recognized as the most impor-
tant coals in Illinois. The upper and lower parts of the
McLeansboro group contain numerous coal beds rarely more
than 0.7 meters thick, while the middle McLeansboro consists
of limestone.
During the third major glaciation stage (i.e., the
Illinoian) an extensive blanket of deposits was laid down,
extending to within 32.1 km of the Mississippi Embayment in
southernmost Illinois. The Illinoian glacial and loessial
deposits of southern Illinois have weathered to produce the
older soils (Alfisols) differing markedly in character from
the younger soils of northeastern Illinois (known as
Mollisols), which developed from the weathering of the
Wisconsinan glacial till. The surficial geology of White
County, Illinois, consists mostly of old lakebed sediments
and the alluviated valleys and outwash plains along the
Wabash River. Extensive wind erosion occurring among the
Illinoian till and lakebed deposits resulted in the deposi-
tion of a rather deep loessal mantle.
The upland soils of White County consist predominantly
of the Alfisols. These soils generally have a light-colored
surface, or a mixture of light and dark surface layers that
contain an average of less than one percent organic matter
(20). The Alfisols have a recognizable B-horizon of clay
accumulation.
The parent materials from which the White County soils
have developed consist largely of deep windblown silt
(loess) overlying the Illinoian till, except for the bottom-
land soils along the Wabash River which developed primarily
from alluvium and fine sand materials. The soils derived
4-30
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from the loessial material are characteristically referred
to as light-colored and dark-colored soils.
As of February 1978, the soils of White County were re-
ported to be incompletely surveyed. However, detailed soil
surveys of Wabash County (to the northeast) and of Gallatin
County (to the south) have been completed; these provide
detailed agronomic and engineering interpretations on many
of the soil series found in White County. In addition to
this, a general soil map was prepared for White County in
1969, showing nine main patterns of soil associations. The
soils within any one association may differ in certain
properties, such as slope, drainage, or color (20). Equally
important, the general soil map provides engineering esti-
mates of the suitability of the soil materials for building
sites, highway location, fill material, and sewage lagoons,
among other items (20).
Upland soils of White County are prone to damage from
erosion by water (sheet and gully erosion) and by wind,
particularly when disturbed or cleared during the construc-
tion of roads, feedlots, and oil production activities (21).
For example, in the Pond Creek watershed of White County,
the average annual soil loss per acre was reported to be 10
times greater from the oil production areas than from crop-
land. On the other hand, the loss of topsoil (sediment)
from croplands emerges as the most critical soil erosion
problem, because the total acreage of cropland vastly
exceeds that in roads and oil production areas (21).
The most important soil association of White County,
with regard to the siting of an SRC facility, is the Hosmer-
Ava-Bluford group located southwest of Grayville and north
of Crossville, Illinois. The soils of this group occur on
the upland areas above the 100-year flood hazard, and range
4-31
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in slope from 4 to 12 percent. The suitability of the
Hosmer-Ava-Bluford soils as fill material is generally poor
to fair, due to their unfavorably high ratio between silt
and clay and to their susceptibility to frost heaving. The
Hosmer-Ava-Bluford soils comprise 68 percent of the associa-
tion. The remaining minor soils (32 percent) include the
Wellston, Stoy, Zanesville, and Belknap soils, all of which
are poorly suited as fill material (20).
The second most important soil association is the
Alford-Iva association, particularly that segment which
extends from just south of Phillipstown, northward to Gray-
ville, Illinois. The Alford soils comprise 76 percent of
the association; these soils exhibit fair stability and
compaction but are poorly suited as fill material because of
the unfavorably high ratio of silt to clay. The Alford
soils occupy ridgetops and sideslopes, and the slopes gen-
erally range from 4 to 12 percent, except for the side-
slopes, which may exceed 12 percent (20).
The estimated limiting soil properties for building
sites, septic tank and filter fields, sewage lagoons, high-
ways, and drainage are shown in Table 4-9. All of these
soils are susceptible to erosion by wind and water when
cleared of vegetation and disturbed by excavation and grad-
ing activities (20) .
The Alvin-Lamont-Ruark, and the Patton-Reesville-Camden
associations of eastern White County occupy the stream ter-
races along the Wabash River. These terraces range from
only meters to about 15 m above the floodplain elevation and
thus pose a risk from flooding in the low-lying areas.
However, the Alvin and Lament soils are considered to have
fair to good suitability as fill material. On the other
4-32
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TABLE 4-9. ESTIMATED SOIL LIMITATIONS FOR ENGINEERING USES
OF WHITE COUNTY SOILS (20)
Soil
Association
Al ford
Iva
Hoster
Ava
Bluford
Alvin
Lament
Ruark
Patton
Reesville
Canden
Allison
Tlce
Beaucoup
Soil
Series
Alford
Iva
Hosmer
Ava
Bluford
Alvln
Lanont
Ruark
Patton
Reesville
Camden
Allison
Tice
Beaucoup
Fair stability, compaction
piping
Slope 4-12 percent
Percent of
Association
76
22
34
17
17
35
33
18
23
21
17
34
34
26
and resistance to
Building
Sites
Moderate '
Severe
Moderate1'-'
Moderate3'-1
Severe*
Moderate3'-1
Moderate1'-1
Slight to
Moderate**
Severe0
Moderate1"'0
Severe3 >p
Severe3 •">•'
Moderate1'^
Moderate-3'11
Severe
Severe
i ,q.r ,s
Severe
Sewage
Lagoons
Moderate3' *e
Severe
Slight
Moderate *
Severe
Moderate3 *6
Severe
Slight to
Moderate0
Severe '
m.n
Severe
Severe"
Moderate
Slight
Moderatea'd'e
Severef
Severeq
Severel
gSlope 12-18 percent
Slope greater than 18 percent
Highway
Location
Moderate3*6
h
Severe
Moderate1 'j
Moderate3'8'^
Moderate3'^
Moderate1*^
Moderate8
h
Severe
Moderate0
Severe'1*1*
Severej'P*r
Moderate* >;J
Moderate3'8
Severe
Severe *"*
p ,q ,r
Severe
1-2 feet below
Fond
Pond hmbankment
Reservoir Material Drainage
Moderate Moderate3 Slight
k a i
Moderate Moderate Moderate *
Slight Moderate3 Slight
Slight Slight Slight
k i 1
Moderate Slight Moderate '
Severe"* Severe3*™ Slight'
Severe"1 Severe3'0 Slight
Severe" Moderate3'1" Severe1'11
Moderate Moderate3 Severe *P
Moderate Moderate3 Moderate *
Severe *m Moderate3 Slight
k,q a
Moderate1'1'1 Moderate3 Severe'1'"1
Contamination hazard to nearby water supplies
Slope greater than 12 percent
Tioderate and moderately slow permeabilitv
Slope 2-7 percent
Slope greater than 7 percent
JSusceptible to frost heav
Slope 0-4 perrent
Slov permeability
^Seasonally high water table at or near the
surface
^Flooding hazard
High shrink-swell potential
Unfavorable clay content
hand, the Patton and Reesville soils have a high shrink-
swell potential and are relatively poor as fill material
(20).
4.2.6
Climate
White County has a continental climate, typical of
Illinois, which means hot summers and cool winters. The
average January temperature is 1°C and the average July
temperature is 26°C. The average annual temperature is
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13°C. Climate data are not specific for record days; how-
ever, the all-time high for this area was recorded at
Fairfield, Illinois, during July 1964, when the temperature
reached 45°C. The all-time low temperature recorded at
Fairfield was a -30°C during January 1963 (22).
Average annual evaporation from open-water surfaces is
between 76 and 97 cm. Potential evapotranspiration annually
averages about 84 cm (23, 24, 25).
The mean annual rainfall at Carmi is 102.8 cm. Approxi-
mately 60 percent of the rainfall occurs during the warmer
half of the year. May is the month having the most precipi-
tation (11.3 cm) and October has the least (7.24 cm). Snow
is accumulated annually from 25-36 cm. Snowfall may occur
any time from October through April (23).
Most wintertime precipitation occurs when storms move
eastward. Comparatively small differences in the spatial
distance of these storms often determine whether the pre-
cipitation is snow, rain, or freezing rain. Snowfall varies
greatly from season to season, as do rainfall and tempera-
ture. Average annual snowfall is approximately 33 cm, with
snowfall amounting to more than 2.5 cm occurring approxi-
mately 4 days each year (26).
The average growing season is 190 to 200 days in
length. The average date of the last killing frost in the
spring is April 13 and the average date of the first killing
frost in the fall is October 23 (22).
Evansville, Indiana, is the closest station for which
local climatological data are available from the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The latest
4-34
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annual summary with comparative data (for 1976) is given in
Appendix Table A-V-1.
The annual prevailing wind direction is from the south-
southwest with a mean annual wind speed of 13.4 km per hour.
Average wind speeds are approximately three-fourths this
value in summer, and approximately one-fourth higher than
this value in spring. Winter prevailing winds are from the
northwest. The maximum observed wind speed was recorded in
February of 1956 at 95 km per hour from the west (24).
In the area of White County the average annual after-
noon mixing depth is approximately 1.5 to 2.0 km. The
afternoon mixing depth represents the maximum height above
the earth1s surface to which active dispersion of pollutants
takes place during the daily cycle (27).
Average annual wind speed through mixing depth is
approximately 8 meters/sec. The average afternoon ventila-
tion is:
3 2
Spring: ca. 18x10 m /sec
3 2
Summer: 6-12x10 m /sec
Fall: 6-12xl03 m2/sec
Winter: 6-12xl03 m2/sec
The afternoon ventilation is the product of the mixing depth
and the average wind speed through the mixing depth. This
value is proportional to the volume of air available to
dilute pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. More specific
information may be available from the National Center for
Air Pollution Control (27) .
4-35
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The role of atmospheric factors in dissipating or exac-
erbating the potential environmental effects of pollutants
is discussed at length in Chapter 5.
4.2.7 Historic Landmarks and Trails
The Illinois Historic Sites Survey has reported that
White County possesses 20 important historic structures, 10
historical markers, 22 centennial farms and one historic
trail (28). Essentially all of the structures and markers
are found within township limits, as shown in Appendix Table
A-IV-1.
The Shawneetown-Vincennes Trail passes north through
New Haven and then runs parallel to and east of Illinois
Route 1 slightly north of Carmi, all of the way to Gray-
ville, Illinois. No historic structures have been reported
for the area north of Crossville to Grayville.
4.2.8 Historic Archeological Sites
Archeological surveys made in the Wabash Valley by the
Illinois State Museum date from 1933. In the 1962 survey,
as well as in earlier surveys, the coverage of White County
was relatively spotty. However, a full range of culture
areas, from Paleo-Indian to protohistoric, has been iden-
tified in the Wabash Valley (29). Three new sites were
surveyed in White County in 1962. Two of these were located
in the northeastern corner of the county, and one was
located along the Little Wabash River in the north-central
part of White County. Present evidence suggests that the
archeological resources occur predominantly in areas
adjacent to the Wabash River, generally at a distance of 3.2
km or less from the shoreline. These sites occur primarily
at the middle and lower segments of the Wabash River
4-36
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shoreline. Thus, the specific site for the coal liquefac-
tion facility should be evaluated for archeological signifi-
cance, to see if significant archeological artifacts can be
preserved before construction begins.
4.2.9 Industries (22)
While agriculture is basic to the economic structure of
White County, oil production has been very important also.
During 1955, the county ranked first in the state in both
drilling and production. About half of the production in
3
1955 (estimated at 80,000 m ) came from two pools: the
White County portion of Roland Consolidated and the New
Harmony Consolidated. The 27 other pools in the county
produced 80,300 m3 of oil in 1955. The oil boom of the
1950s has passed, and the majority of oil recovered cur-
rently is by water flooding.
Industries located in White County include Carmi-Aens-
brooke Corporation, located in Carmi, manufacturing men's
underwear; and Sterling Aluminum, Division of Federal-Mogul
Corporation, manufacturing pistons.
4.2.10 Transportation
Transportation through the county is by U.S. Routes 460
and 45, and Illinois State Route 1. White County has 130 km
of paved roads and 1,300 km of all-weather roads making
transportation in and out of the area good. The Carmi
Municipal Airport is located 1.6 km northeast of Carmi.
Rail transportation is by the Louisville and Nashville
Railroad which runs from the southeast through Maunie to
Carmi then westward through Enfield. The Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad runs north and south along the western edge of the
county paralleling Route 45.
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4.3 Characterization of Existing Biotic Features Having
Relevance to Potential Adverse Environmental Effects
4.3.1 Fish and Wildlife Resources
The natural areas of Illinois have had a great amount
of human alteration within historic times. Many natural
habitats have been transformed into cities or cornfields,
others greatly reduced in extent, and still others variously
modified from their original condition. In a sense, all of
the habitats are relictual, separated from each other by
expanses of cultivated fields (30). The land area of White
County is mainly devoted to agriculture and old oil fields;
there is little woodland. In 1977, about 70 percent of
White County was devoted to agriculture (31) .
4.3.1.1 Terrestrial Flora
The main type of natural vegetation in the White County
region is the oak-hickory forest and other characteristic
tree species such as white ash, sweet gum, swamp white oak,
burr oak, and swamp cottonwood (32).
Oak-hickory forests are widely distributed, but gen-
erally limited to slopes of shallow ravines or low morainal
ridges. Within areas of the oak-hickory forest type, the
bottomlands are composed of an admixture of mesophytic
forest species and flood-plain species including walnut,
ash, elm, burr oak, honey locust, silver maple, white elm,
cottonwood, and sycamore. In the upland forests of this
type, the predominant trees are pin oak, shingle oak, birch,
honey locust, post oak, and blackjack oak (26).
The dominant shrubby ground covers under the oak-
hickory and associated forest types include: mountain
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laurel, rhododendron, dogwood, wisteria, spicebush, button-
bush, fragrant sumac, blueberry, buckthorn, smooth alder,
hawthorn, and others. Plants seen in wetland and river
bottom areas include spike rush, beak rush, various sedges,
swamp milkweed, marsh fern, swamp rose, beggarticks, cat-
tail, water primrose, and lizard's tail (32).
A relatively more complete list of the plant species
can be found in Appendix Table A-IV-3.
4.3.1.2 Phytoplankton and Zooplankton
Phytoplanktonic populations observed in 1975 in a 4.8
km reach of the Wabash River just downstream of Merom,
Indiana, were dominated by diatoms. The dominance of river-
ine phytoplankton by diatoms is typical of larger rivers.
Pennate diatoms appeared to peak in the Wabash River during
May, while centric diatoms appeared to peak during October.
Total populations during February were on the order of
100,000 cells/1; during May, on the order of 300,000 cells/1;
during August, just less than 200,000 cells/1; and during
October, on the order of 300,000 cells/1. It has been
suggested that periodic blooms of diatoms can contribute
significantly to the high turbidities of the Wabash River
during the summer (17).
Zooplanktonic populations in 1975 just downstream from
Merom consisted primarily of rotifers and stalked or colonial
ciliates, with relatively few crustaceans. The dominant
genera were the rotifers Platyias during winter, Keratella
in the spring, and Brachionus in the summer and fall.
Larger numbers of species (from 14 to 35) were observed in
the winter-spring period, and smaller numbers (from 8 to 16)
observed in the summer and fall. Total zooplanktonic popu-
lations were typically on the order of 10 organisms/1,
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ranging from 3 organisms/1 to about 45 organisms/1. These
populations were significantly less than total phytoplank-
tonic populations observed in the Wabash River during the
same period. This is consistent with the results of other
investigations of the plankton of larger rivers (17).
The periphyton of the Wabash River were examined (using
artificial substrates) at three locations in the vicinity of
the Wabash River Power Plant just north of Terre Haute.
Fifty-four genera were identified during this 1971 study.
The groups most commonly represented, in order of abundance,
were the blue-green algae, green algae, and diatoms. The
temperature change created by the power plant did not appear
to exceed the tolerance limits for most periphyton. Popu-
lation densities of a number of types (particularly the
blue-green algae) appeared to increase as a result of the
hot water coming from the power plant (17).
Lin and coworkers (33) surveyed the plankton popula-
tions in several tributaries to the Wabash River in and
around White County; their data are summarized in Appendix
Table A-IV-4. Also shown is the maximum percent composition
of blue-greens, greens, and flagellates for each sampling
location. The maximum for diatoms was 100 percent at each
station, i.e., at one time or another all plankton in a
water sample for each station consisted solely of diatoms
(33).
An examination of the plankton density data, expressed
as cell counts per milliliter (cts/ml) for each station,
showed them to be generally distributed in a log-normal
pattern. Therefore, the central tendency and dispersion of
the data have been expressed in geometric terms (33).
4-40
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The geometric mean (m ) values at most locations were
O
not significantly different from year to year, except when a
sample did not contain algae. This happened frequently
during winter months, especially during January and February.
Also, the geometric standard deviation (
-------
A listing of the macroinvertebrates, with the exception
of clams and mussels, which occur in the Wabash and/or its
tributaries in or near White County, can be found in Appendix
Table A-IV-6.
4.3.1.4 Mussels and Clams (22,26.34,35)
Intensive agricultural practices have involved the
clearing and plowing of more and more land. Thus, during
spring run-off or at flood periods, tremendous quantities of
topsoil are washed into streams and rivers, causing layers
of silt and mud to settle and cover the former sand and
gravel bottoms. Species such as clams and mussels, adapted
to a sand and gravel bottom environment, cannot long survive
in one composed of mud and thus are quickly destroyed by the
smothering effects of silting.
Compared with pollution and silting, the two major
kinds of natural enemies -- parasites and non-human pred-
ators -- generally have little overall effect on any given
population of mussels. Probably the most common non-human
mammal predator is the muskrat; piles of shells around
muskrat houses and entrances to their burrows in mud banks
attest to the gathering activities of these rodents. Rac-
coons, mink, and otters, as well as some species of birds
(especially waterfowl), also utilize mussels for food. The
fresh-water drum or sheepshead feeds almost exclusively on
them.
Modern man's extensive use of the fresh-water mussel
has centered around the shells as a source of raw material
for the manufacture of pearl buttons and pellets in connec-
tion with the cultured pearl industry. Since 1967 the
mussel harvest has fallen off drastically due to overfishing
of the slow-growing mussels and a lessening of the demand.
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In time, should the pearl industry recover from a slump and
require more shells, it may become necessary to close sec-
tions of the Wabash River to permit continued mussel repro-
duction and growth. Gravel dredging operations at several
locations along the river destroy much of the mussel habi-
tat, necessitating restrictions if the mussels are to
thrive.
Krumholz and coworkers (34) studied the mussel distri-
bution along a 16.1 km section of the Wabash River between
Delphi and Terre Haute. They compared the mussel catch in
1966 and 1967 in each 1.6 km section. They found that the
number of specimens (1966 avg: 18.4/km, 1967 avg: 3.47/km)
and the number of individual species (1966 avg: 1.3/km,
1967 avg: 0.68/km) differed significantly (Student's t-test
for related measures: df: 9, t = 4.261, p = less than 0.01
and t = 5.752, p = less than 0.001, respectively). A sim-
ilar t-test using the number of individuals in this 16.1 km
stretch of each species taken showed a significant decrease
from 1966 to 1967 (avg: 8.4 individuals per species per km
in 1966 and 1.6 individuals per species per km in 1967; t =
2.482; p = less than 0.05). The t-test is a statistics
technique used to determine if two sets of data are signifi-
cantly different. In this contex, "df" refers to degrees of
freedom and is equal to the number of paired observations
minus one; "t" is the numerical result of the Student's t-
test for paired measures. The "p" refers to the possibility
that no significant differences exist, that is, a p = 0.01
means that there is one chance in 100 that no significant
difference exists or that there are 99 chances out of 100
that the observed difference is real. Insignificance (p
greater than 0.1) by this criteria should not be construed
to imply that the observed trend is not real. A "p" of 0.1
indicates that there is one chance in ten that the observed
difference is artifactual, or that there are nine chances in
4-43
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ten that the observed difference is real. Probabilities
("p") in the range of 0.1 to 0.9, by convention, mean
little. A "p" of 1.0 means the two sets of data are iden-
tical. The species diversity index (calculated using the
formula described in the fish section) decreased from 3.01
in 1966 to 2.69 in 1967. The decline was possibly due to
the introduction of scuba equipment for mussel harvesting
and resultant overharvesting. Scuba gear has since been
banned in commercial mussel harvesting, but the introduction
of the Asiatic Clam (Corbicula fluminea) may now be effec-
tively delaying or preventing the numerical recovery of the
commercial species. In 1965, 1,800 Mg of Indiana shells
were sold for use in Japan; in 1966, that number was 3,800
Mg; in 1967, it was 980 Mg; and in 1968 the total probably
did not exceed 230 Mg.
A listing of the mollusks found in the Wabash River or
its tributaries in or near White County can be found in
Appendix Table A-IV-7.
4.3.1.5 Commercial and Sport Fish
Fishing in White County is done for both sport and
commercial species. Currently about a tenth of the resi-
dents of White County purchase a non-commercial fishing
license (23), and there are approximately 450 licenses sold
annually permitting the use of commercial fishing gear. The
most important sport fish species are the largemouth bass,
bluegill, and channel catfish. To improve and maintain the
sport fishery of the county, the Illinois Department of
Conservation provides fingerling largemouth bass and blue-
gill to new or rehabilitated water areas (22).
The important commercial fish include carp, freshwater
drum, channel catfish, flathead catfish, blue catfish, and
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bullhead catfish. Other commercial species generally not
taken by sporting equipment include the buffalo, sturgeon,
paddlefish, quillback carpsucker, and other sucker species.
Gar, bowfin, and eel are occasionally sold commercially
(22).
The fish population of the Wabash River bordering
Illinois was sampled by electro-fishing at 18 stations
during August 1967 (22). A total of 45 species of fish were
collected by electro-fishing and seine hauls. There were
3,006 fish weighing 1,134 kg sampled by the electro-fishing
method. Minnow seine hauls collected 1,050 miscellaneous
minnows. Game fish were collected on an average of 0.6 fish
per minute of electro-fishing. Spotted bass represented 44
percent of the total number of game fish collected and 28
percent of the total game fish weight. Commercial fish were
collected at a rate of 0.7 fish per minute of electro-
fishing. Carp composed 57 percent of the total number of
commercial fish collected and 93 percent of the total
weight. Forage fish were collected at a rate of 2.1 fish
per minute of electro-fishing and consisted primarily of
gizzard shad; by number 99 percent and weight 98 percent.
In all 18 stations, forage fish represented 62.4 percent of
the total number of fish collected, commercial fish 20.7
percent, and game fish 16.9 percent. By weight, commercial
fish represented 66.5 percent of the total, forage fish 25.4
percent, and game fish 8.1 percent (22). A more complete
summary of the kinds and amounts of commercial fish caught
during the period 1956-75 is found in Appendix Table A-IV-8.
With regard to the Little Wabash River System, Smith
(37) reports that the pollution rating is poor in the lower
reaches, but very good in upper part of the system; he found
78 species present. The problems are oil-field pollution,
siltation, and desiccation during drought periods.
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Tributaries such as the Skillet Fork, Elm River, and Fox
River are low-gradient, brushy streams with oil pollution
and very low species diversity. The Little Wabash River
between Louisville and Neoga has alternating pools and sand
or sand-gravel riffles and high species diversity. Unusual
species include: spotted bass, bigeye shiner, greenside
darter, and dusky darter. Tributaries in the upper portion
of the basin are shallow, sandy streams with fair species
variety; the headwaters of the Little Wabash above Lake
Mattoon are badly silted (36).
Table A-IV-9 of the Appendix shows the spawning habits
of some of the more common species. A complete listing of
all fish species, including Latin names, likely to be en-
countered in the Wabash River or its tributaries, is found
in Appendix Table A-IV-10.
A useful approach to evaluating the response of an eco-
logical community to an environmental stress is to compute
an index of species diversity. The Shannon-Weaver index for
mean diversity, D, is defined as:
i, jj (N log1Q N - 2n± Iog10 n^
where:
N = total number of individuals in a sample and
n. = number of individuals in the i species.
This index of diversity has a species richness component and
an evenness component that refers to the distribution of
individuals among species. The maximum value for evenness,
D , occurs when all of the species are equally abundant,
max r ^ J
4-46
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while the minimum value, D. , occurs when all the species
UlXTl
but one are represented by a single individual with the rest
of the sample being composed of the dominant species.
Computationally, the evenness component is calculated by
evaluating (Dmov - D)/(D__V - D .„). The value for evenness
UlaX ULaX mm
varies between zero and one.
Environmental stress may influence either the species
richness (number of species) or the evenness components of
the diversity index. The diversity index should not be
calculated for samples containing less than 100 individuals.
Highly stressed systems often have mean diversity indices
less than one, while unstressed systems in a biologically
rich area have diversity indices ranging from three to four.
A paradox is that low-diversity systems are often dominated
by organisms with large population size, high reproductive
rates, and high genetic variability. Such populations are
likely to contain some members capable of adapting to envi-
ronmental stresses. Stream biota live in a fluctuating
physical environment and thus generally have low diversity.
Such communities have good capacity for compensating mod-
erate levels of environmental stress.
The fish diversity index of many fish surveys has been
calculated according to the previous formula for the Wabash
River, the Little Wabash River and other tributaries. The
results of these calculations are presented in Appendix
Tables A-IV-11, A-IV-12, and A-IV-13. These diversity
indices are generally greater than two and indicate a healthy
ecosystem.
A second indication of a healthy ecosystem is the
increase in the different kinds of species found in the
Wabash River. A listing of the species which may have
disappeared from the Wabash, and those which may have
4-47
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appeared, is found in Appendix Table A-IV-14. This gives a
second indication that the Wabash is a viable ecosystem.
Unfortunately other, more reliable evidence (Table
4-10), indicates that the number of fish in the Wabash is
decreasing. The likelihood that an observed decrease in a
measured parameter is significant was calculated by Stu-
dent's t-test for related measures (discussed previously) on
the number and kinds of species collected at each of 18
collection stations (in most cases). One very alarming
result of this calculation is that the percent of the total
number of sport fish of catchable size collected by electro-
fishing, increased significantly from 37 percent in 1967 to
61 percent in 1975, indicating possible reproductive fail-
ure. Other trends which indicate a deteriorating ecosystem
are the reduction in the weight of commercial and forage
fish caught per hour of electro-fishing. The numbers of
game (p less than 0.001), commercial (p less than 0.001),
and forage (p less than 0.001) fish collected per hour of
electro-fishing also were significantly reduced. The
decrease in the forage fish should be alarming, since these
fish serve as food sources for some game and commercial
fish. This apparent partial expunging of fish species is
apparently not due to the small change in pH, especially
since the observed change is toward a more neutral condi-
tion.
4.3.1.6 Amphibians (30)
There are 21 species of the order Salientia (frogs and
toads) in Illinois. Members of the order Salientia may be
divided into three rather artificial groups: the true frogs,
the toads, and the treefrogs. The true frogs, in general,
are terrestrial, but they are forced to remain near water
because of their rapid rate of dehydration. The toads are
4-48
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TABLE 4-10. CHANGES IN DIVERSITY INDEX, PH, ALKALINITY,
TOTAL NUMBER, AND WEIGHT OF FISH CAUGHT ALONG THE
WABASH RIVER IN OR NEAR WHITE COUNTY
Parameter
Group 1
Group 2
Group 1
Mean
Group 2
Mean
df
Diversity index (Table A-IV-8) for
electrofishlng
Percent of total rnnfcer of
"cccmercial fishes" 33.02 cm and
over in total length collected by
electrofiahing
Carp
Channel catfish
Flathead catfish
River carpsucker
Freshwater drun
Tbtal of all fishes
Percent of total timber of "sport
fishes" of a "catchable size"
collected by elecerofishing
1975 values 1977 values 2.A93
1975 values
1967 values
1967 values
1977 values 7.9
1975 values 8.1
1977 values 8.2
3.000
7.7
7.9
7.7
-1.494 >0.10
6
17
6
1.075
1.356
2.441
1967 values
1967 values
1967 values
1967 values
1967 values
1967 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
97%
74*
SOX
467.
1971
69*
94%
557.
38%
82%
317.
72%
16
5
8
7
8.
17
1.710
1.109
0.532
-2.046
-0.712
-0.548
>0.10
>0.10
>0.05
>0.10
>0.10
>0.50
>0.05
>0.10
>0.5
Channel Catfish
Flathead catfish
Spotted bass
thite crappie
Bluegill sunf ish
Freshwater drum
Total of all fishes studied
Pounds of fishes collected per
hour of electrof ishing
Game
CrNnnproi fll
Forage
Total
Hxfcers of fishes collected per
hour of electrof ishing
Game ^
CconerciAl
Forage
Total
Tbtal Alkalinity
1%7 values
1967 values
1967 values
1967 values
1967 values
1967 values
1967 values
1967 values
1967 values
1967 values
1967 values
1967 values
1967 values
1967 values
1967 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1975 values
1977 values
70%
557.
23%
22%
31%
437.
37%
13.47
115 23
45!43
174.13
35
44
132
211
129
557.
39%
67%
567.
76%
637.
61%
8.49
63.54
11 i29
83.32
14
25
43
82
105
4
9
10
2
4
8
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
17
6
0.870
0.783
-3.009
-1.000
-1.607
-1.308
-3.620
1.985
2.763
5^652
4.806
5.467
3.663
4.819
6.849
1.709
>0.10
>0.10
< 0.02
>0.10
>0.10
>0.10
< 0.01
>0.05
< 0 02
0.1
more resistant to desiccation and may occur far away from
ponds and streams. The treefrogs also are fairly resistant
to desiccation and they are usually arboreal in habits.
Nineteen species of the order Caudata (salamanders) have
been reported in Illinois.
4-49
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Appendix Table A-IV-15 lists the species of amphibians
which have been found, or are likely to be found in White
County.
4.3.1.7 Reptiles (30,37)
The reptiles which are found or are likely to be found
in White County are listed in Appendix Table A-IV-16. The
reptiles may be divided into the orders Testudines (turtles)
and Squamata. The order Squamata may be divided into two
suborders, Sauria (lizards) and Serpentes (snakes).
Seventeen species and subspecies of turtles occur in
Illinois. Turtles found in Illinois are, with the exception
of the box turtles, primarily aquatic in habit. They range
in size from the 10 cm, 100 gm musk turtle to the 60 cm, 110
kg alligator snapper. Most Illinois turtles are primarily
carnivorous in their food habits, utilizing as food insects,
insect larvae, fish, crayfish, earthworms, snails, and
occasionally carrion. Turtles themselves are used by man
for food; the snapper, soft-shelled turtle, and diamond-back
terrapin being especially desirable for table use.
Only six species of lizards are known to occur in
Illinois and, as is true of most lizards, they are terres-
trial or land-dwelling in habit.
Forty-six species and subspecies of snakes are known to
occur in Illinois. Snakes are extremely variable in habits
and structure. In general, the crotalids (Crotalus,
Sisturus, and Aqkistrodon) and natricines (Natrix, Thamnophis,
Storeria, Virginia, and Tropidoclonion) are active day or
night, and the colubrines (the remaining genera) tend to be
diurnal. The majority of Illinois genera are terrestrial;
some are fossorial; a few are aquatic; still fewer are
4-50
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arboreal. In size, they range from the 25 cm Tantilla
gracilis to the 2 meter Pituophis melanoleucus. Snakes are
rather specialized in feeding habits, some taking only one
or two specific types of prey.
Four species of poisonous snakes, the copperhead, the
cottonmouth moccasin, the timber rattlesnake and the mas-
sasauga are found in Illinois, although not commonly. Only
in areas devoid of intensive agricultural practices such as
the river bluffs and marshes can these forms be expected to
maintain themselves.
4.3.1.8 Birds (22,26.32,38,39)
The bird species and their habitats in White County are
found in Appendix Table A-IV-17. Also shown is the relative
abundance of each species observed in a bird count performed
in White County on May 8, 1976. The percentage of each
species observed does not add up to 100 percent since the
calculation was only carried one place past the decimal
point. As indicated by blank spaces, many species whose
range includes White County were not observed. Some of
these missing species may have been migrants who had not yet
arrived in White County. Others may have been missed
because they are rare in White County or because they were
not active in their habitat when the observer was present.
The diversity index (calculated using the formula displayed
earlier for fish) was 5.261 with 82 species and 691 individ-
uals being observed.
More than 25 species of waterfowl migrate along the
flight lanes which parallel the Wabash River. Major water-
fowl include the mallard, pintail, and black duck, compris-
ing 80 percent of the migratory waterfowl population. The
wood duck is the only migratory waterfowl species that uses
4-51
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the area as a nesting ground. Other migratory waterfowl
passing through the area include the bluewinged teal, gad-
wall, shoveler, red head widgeon, scaup, greenwinged teal,
canvasback, ringneck, coot, American widgeon, rail duck, and
the blue, snow, and Canada goose. Other game birds of the
region include the mourning dove and quail. Waterfowl
hunting is limited to occasional wet seasons.
Important non-game birds found in the Illinois area
include the red-tailed hawk, turkey vulture, black vulture,
great horned owl, and green heron. Smaller birds of impor-
tance include the chimney swift, cardinal, indigo bunting,
mockingbird, scarlet tanager, downy woodpecker, crow, blue-
jay, belted kingfisher, barn swallow, American goldfinch,
tufted titmouse, brown thrasher, and Nashville warbler.
4.3.1.9 Mammals
Between 2,500 and 2,700 persons purchase an annual
license to hunt small game in White County. Of primary
interest to the hunters are rabbits, squirrels, and quail.
The rural and physical aspects of the county meet the habi-
tat requirements of these game species. For rabbits and
quail, the small farm units with grown-up fence rows are
most desirable. Both red and gray squirrels are found in
the wooded river bottoms. Fox and coon hunting is also
practiced. The trapping of fur-bearing animals is under-
taken for sport and does not contribute to the economics of
the county. Animals such as muskrat, mink, and fox are
sought by the trapper to supplement other income, but pri-
marily afford recreation.
A listing of mammals which may occur in White County
can be found in Appendix Table A-IV-19. A summary of the
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small game hunting can be found in Appendix Table A-IV-20;
this latter table shows that White County small game hunters
are generally more successful than the average Illinois
small game hunter.
4.3.2 Rare and Endangered Species
In the context of this report, the term rare means the
species is restricted in its range and/or numbers. Endan-
gered means that extirpation of the species from Illinois is
highly possible. Threatened implies that the species could
possibly become endangered, if it is not so already.
A species may be rare due to various circumstances.
Man's direct influence upon the environment has reduced some
species to a single locality or several relict populations.
Excessive harvesting and the destruction of habitat are
major reasons for species becoming endangered.
4.3.2.1 Rare and Endangered Species Whose Range
Includes White County (24,40)
A listing of rare and endangered species which may be
found in White County is found in Appendix Table A-IV-21.
This listing also includes some comments on the habitat and
life history of some of these species. Of these rare and
endangered species, the hellbender and the alligator snap-
ping turtle have been seen in White County. Higgin's eye
pearly mussel, the river chub, northern madtom, hellbender,
alligator snapping turtle, hieroglyphic turtle, and hooded
merganser have been found in the Wabash River. The har-
lequin darter lives in the Embarrass River. The bigeye
shiner and bigeye chub are found in the Little Wabash River,
and the northern madtom, bluebreast darter, bigeye chub,
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bigeye shiner, and river redhorse are found in the Vermilion
River.
4.3.2.2 Factors Responsible for Changes in Illinois
Fish Populations (36)
Excessive siltation ranks first and is implicated as
the principal cause for the extirpation of two native
species and the decimation of 14 others. Its effects
include loss of water clarity and subsequent disappearance
of aquatic vegetation, coupled with deposition of silt over
substrates that were once bedrock, rubble, gravel, or sand.
Feeding and spawning sites, as well as the usual habitats
for such fishes, have been reduced over much of Illinois.
Drainage of natural lakes, sloughs marginal to large
rivers, swamps, and prairie marshes ranks second in impor-
tance and is responsible for the shrinkage in the range of
13 native species of Illinois.
Desiccation of stream systems during drought periods
ranks third in importance and is responsible for the shrink-
age in range of 12 species. In recent decades, the water
table has fluctuated more widely than it did before 1930.
During severe late summer and fall drought, streams that
were once permanently flowing now dry up, seeps and springs
cease to flow, and some relatively large rivers temporarily
become medium-sized or small streams. Stream desiccation is
a relatively new factor that has had its most devastating
effects since 1930. Prior to that year, droughts had less
effect because the water table was less variable.
Species interaction following modification of a stream
or watershed ranks fourth in importance and is responsible
for the extirpation in Illinois of the Ohio lamprey and the
4-54
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rosefin shiner, and the decimation of seven other species.
Prior to 1917, the Ohio lamprey occurred in the Wabash
watershed, but the allied and allopatric chestnut lamprey
has since supplanted the Ohio lamprey in all of eastern
Illinois and western Indiana. The rosefin shiner occurred
in extreme southeastern Illinois in the last century but has
been supplanted in Illinois and adjacent Kentucky by the
more ecologically tolerant and allopatric redfin shiner.
Pollutants other than sediment (e.g., industrial,
domestic, and agricultural pollutants) rank fifth in impor-
tance and can be implicated in the extirpation of two, and
the decimation of five Illinois fishes. Virtually all of
the streams and lakes in Illinois have been affected to some
degree by pollution. Among the most dramatic illustrations
is the degradation of the lower Little Wabash system because
of oil-field pollutants.
Fish kills have occurred repeatedly when toxicants such
as anhydrous ammonia and cyanide have been accidentally or
deliberately dumped into streams. In most cases the streams
are repopulated in two or three years, but endemic species
cannot return once the population has been eliminated,
since, by definition, such a species is unique to an envi-
ronmental area and exists nowhere else, making restocking
impossible.
The revelation that water pollution ranks fifth among
the principal causes for extirpation and decimation of
native fish is rather surprising. However, many fish are
remarkably resistant to some degree of pollution as long as
the physical habitat remains intact. Also, in many parts of
Illinois, pollution has become critically severe only in the
last few years, whereas other factors have been operative
for a century or more.
4-55
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The construction of dams to create mainstream impound-
ments holds sixth rank as a negative factor and is respon-
sible for the decimation of four species of riffle-inhabit-
ing fishes. The flowing stream consists of alternating
riffles and pools. Riffles may flow over bedrock, boulders,
rubble, gravel, or sand, and each bottom type comprises a
distinctive habitat. Pools also may have different habi-
tats, depending on the type of substrate and current. When
a stream is impounded, riffles are eliminated and the bottom
of the reservoir is rather quickly covered with silt, resul-
ting in only one type of habitat. The richness of the fish
fauna is directly related to the number of different habi-
tats available. Dams also block natural migration and the
dispersal of fishes.
The cutting of marginal trees and other vegetation that
afford shade, coupled with a reduced flow of cold springs
and low water levels during summer droughts, have resulted
in higher water temperatures now than formerly. No data on
past stream temperatures are available, but elevated tem-
peratures offer the most likely explanation for the disap-
pearance of the northern pike in streams of western Union
County, where it occurred prior to 1900.
No single factor can be identified as the probable
cause for the extirpation in Illinois of the stargazing
darter, which once was found in the lower Wabash River. The
decimation of the orangespotted sunfish, a species rather
tolerant of silt and some pollution, is inexplicable.
So-called channel improvement through dredging and
stream straightening destroys habitats over extensive
stretches of streams, but by itself it cannot be regarded as
the principal cause for the decimation of any native fish.
4-56
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The following summary lists the factors primarily
responsible for the extirpation of eight, and the decimation
of 60 native species of Illinois fish (Table 4-11).
TABLE 4-11. SUMMARY OF FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
EXTIRPATION AND DECIMATION OF SOME ILLINOIS FISH
Silt
Drainage
Desiccation during drought
Species interaction
Pollution
Dams and impoundments
Temperature
Unknown causes
Number of
species
extirpated
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
2
Number of
species
decimated
14
13
12
7
5
4
1
4
Total 8 60
4.3.2.3 Factors Which May Be Responsible for the
Decline of Avian Raptor
The 1960 decline of the barn owl, saw-whet owl, and
loggerhead shrike could easily be attributed to pollution of
food webs due to a pesticide, herbicide, or other man-made
compounds. The precedent is the decline of other raptorial
species which has been linked with the use of the pesticide
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) (41). The raptors are
especially susceptible to the adverse effects of lipid-solu-
ble pollutants, since their diet is high in animal fat and
enhances bioaccumulation (41). This bioaccumulation could
allow the level of these pollutants to increase to toxic
levels in raptors, while insectivorous and/or herbivorous
species would be unaffected (since most insects are killed
before they can bioaccumulate an insecticide). In the
1960s, DDT was being replaced by other insecticides.
4-57
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One of these compounds, or a new herbicide or other com-
pound, could be responsible for the decline of the raptors.
4.3.2.4 Protective Measures Taken (40)
The Illinois Department of Transportation commissioned
the Illinois Bureau of Environmental Science to prepare a
report on rare and endangered species in Illinois. The
chief purpose of this report was to provide readily avail-
able information to the Districts and Bureaus of the Illi-
nois Department of Transportation for use in future trans-
portation planning. It is to be hoped that ecologically
sensitive areas will be investigated and avoided in the
process of planning highways and other transportation
developments.
Several legal measures have been taken to reduce the
wanton destruction of endangered species. The habitat of
several species has been acquired by Illinois and improved
to favor that species. Other known land areas with other
endangered species are being considered for acquisition.
Lists, such as in Appendix Table A-IV-21, have been pre-
pared to identify these species.
4.3.3 Agroecosystems
White County is an agricultural county, attractive by
standards applicable to a general farming landscape. Al-
though picturesque in some areas, the potential visual
appeal of the county is occasionally downgraded by oil field
equipment and associated saltwater damage.
The preliminary report for 1976 of the Illinois Crop
Reporting Service (31) shows White County with 38,242 ha de-
3
voted to corn harvested for grain with a yield of 7.51 m /ha
4-58
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3
or 287,000 m . An additional 200 ha was devoted to corn
harvested for all other purposes. This represents an in-
crease in the area used for corn, the yield per hectare,
and the total harvest from 1975. This same report has
30,000 ha of White County devoted to soybeans with an aver-
3
age yield of 2 m /ha. The hectares of White County, yield
per hectare, and total yield of soybeans used for beans are
down from the 1975 figures. In 1976, 18,000 ha of White
County was used for wheat production with a yield of 3.32
o
m /ha. These figures are increased over the 1975 totals.
In White County in 1976, 100 ha was devoted to oats with an
3
average yield of 3.66 m /ha; these numbers for oats repre-
sent an increase over the 1976 figures. The 1975 figures
3
for barley are 61 ha with an average yield of 3.66 m /ha
and the 1975 numbers for rye are 40 ha with an average yield
of 8.90 m3/ha.
In White County in 1976, 2600 ha was devoted to the
production of hay with an average yield of 5.11 Mg/ha; these
same numbers apply to the 1975 harvest. The land devoted to
the production of sorghum was 910 ha in 1976 with an average
3
yield of 5.30 m /ha; the land devoted to sorghum was up from
the 1975 figure of 850 ha, but the yield per ha decreased
from 6.00 m3/ha.
The dollar value of various grain and hay crops in
White County for the years 1975 and 1976 is as shown in
Table 4-12.
The value of all cattle in White County in 1977 was
about $4.5 million. This value represents a slight increase
over the 1976 value. In 1977 there were 6,800 head of
beef cattle and 300 milk cows in White County. The White
County milk cows produced 1,360 Mg of milk. In 1976, there
were 36,700 hogs in White County. Fifty-one thousand nine
4-59
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TABLE 4-12. DOLLAR VALUE OF VARIOUS GRAIN
AND HAY CROPS IN WHITE COUNTY. ILLINOIS, 1975 AND 1976
Crop
Corn
Soybeans
Wheat
Oats
Barley
Rye
Hay
1975 $ value
$17,931,500
12,976,400
4,029,000
10,400
13,900
5,500
590,300
1976 $ value
$18,932,000
15,439,700
5,136,100
17,100
674,500
hundred new hogs were saved from 7,200 sows farrowed. In
1977, 600 stock sheep were present. In 1976 in White
County, 13,100 layers laid 3xl06 eggs.
4.3.4 Natural Areas Near White County
4.3.4.1 Beall's Woods Natural Preserve, Wabash
County, Illinois (43,43,44)
Beall's Woods is located on the Wabash River 8 km
south of Mt. Carmel; it is 120 ha in size and consists of
bottomlands and a Southern uplands section.
Beall's Woods is a unique, near-virgin forest with a
great variety of trees. Eleven kinds of oaks, and six kinds
of hickories are among the 340 plant species present. It
includes approximately a half-section of land on both sides
of Coffee Creek and Sugar Creek at their confluence with
each other and with the Wabash River. Outcrops of sandstone
and coal are present.
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Eight forest types can be recognized; four on the
upland and four on the floodplain periodically inundated by
the Wabash River. White oak predominates on the upland.
Several tree species important in the lower Mississippi
River bottomlands are found on the floodplain. Trees 0.9
to 1.2 meters in diameter are relatively common, particu-
larly on the floodplain.
On the moist higher ground a flower display may be seen
from April to May consisting of yellow fumewort, violets,
bloodroot, Dutchman's breeches, and toothwort. As the
spring flood waters retreat in late April, first spring
cress and then swamp buttercup are conspicuous in the bot-
tomlands. In May, the upland spring herbs disappear, while
a heavy herbaceous cover develops in the bottomland, char-
acterized by single-species dominance of local areas. Aster
species, and flowering butterweed (Senecio sp.) are impor-
tant, as is poison ivy. During June and July the creek
floods up 1 to 2 meters following rains. Some large trees
on the floodplains are found uprooted during these periods.
Down timber has also been observed on the upland in early
spring. New herbs are observed flowering in September with
progressive drying of the creek beds.
A number of species, approximately 60 trees, 15
shrubs, 22 vines, 5 ferns, and 238 herbs, or a total of 340
2
species occur on less than 0.65 km . Tree species charac-
teristic of the Mississippi River bottomlands further south,
but not usual for this latitude (38°22') in Illinois include
persimmon, overcup oak, basket oak, Shumard's red oak,
cherrybark oak, sweet gum, and sugarberry.
White oak is the predominant tree on the upland areas.
Associated black oaks are also present. Shagbark, pig nut,
and small-fruited hickories are the more usual species on
4-61
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the upland. Variants occupying moist zones of the rela-
tively flat uplands include tulip tree and sugar maple. A
red oak-basswood forest type, commonly found on relatively
steep slopes above streams in northern and central Illinois,
is found here. Basswood is reproducing vigorously with many
head-high saplings present. This contrasts with the south-
ern part of Illinois, where basswood is virtually absent and
the red oak-beech-black gum type occurs on such slopes.
The vegetation on the areas lying below the 122 m
contour may be divided into four additional forest types.
That closest to the creek, occupying the floodplain at
approximately the 117 m contour, is characterized by large
trees. Silver maple, pecan, and sycamore are conspicuous,
with local basket oak. Scattered river birch and cottonwood
are found. In the southeastern area, lying only slightly
higher in elevation, large sweet gum trees, to 1.2 meters
diameter at breast height (DBH), are important. Hackberry
is relatively common in this area. The lowland oak type is
important in several parts of the floodplain extending from
roughly the 117 m contour to about the 122 m contour where
it intergrades with the other oak types. The lower-lying
areas have trees of the previously listed floodplain types
with oil marks visible on the trunks more than head high.
An approximate gradient of oak species, in relation to
decreasing amounts of flooding, is the pin oak-burr and
swamp white oak-cherrybark and Shumard1s red oak. Individ-
uals of pin, burr, and Shumard measure over 1.2 m DBH.
Shell-bark hickory is found locally in this type.
Adjacent to Coffee Creek, above the 116 m contour in
the narrower valley of its upper reaches, is a hackberry-elm
type.
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This area has been described here in detail since it
most likely represents what the flora of the White County
area would be like without human disturbance.
The Beall's Woods area is owned and managed by the
Department of Conservation. Five foot trails and one foot-
bridge are the only developments in the preserve.
4.3.4.2 Big Creek Woods Memorial Nature Preserve,
Richland County, Illinois (44)
Big Creek Memorial Nature Preserve is located 4 km
south of Olney on Route 130. It is 16 ha in size and occurs
in the Mt. Vernon Hill Country Section of the Southern Till
and Plain Division. Developed nature trails exist in the
preserve.
The area supports dry, mesic, and wet second-growth
forests on a gently dissected till plain and on the flood-
plain of Big Creek. White oak (Quercus alba L.) and sugar
maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) predominate on upland sites,
with blackberry (Celtis occidentalis L.) and sycamore
(Platanus occidentalis L.) being common in ravines. Pin
oaks (Quercus palustris Muenchh.) occur along the creek.
The creek forms a permanent habitat for native fish; small
outcrops of shale occur along the creek's banks.
The area is owned by the Nature Conservancy and leased
to Olney Central College for management. Access is by
permit from the Biology Department of the college.
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.4.3.4.3 Lusk Creek Canyon Nature Preserve, Pope
County. Illinois (42)
Lusk Creek Canyon is 6 km northeast of Eddyville. It
comprises 50 ha of the Greater Shawnee Hills Section of the
Shawnee Hills Division. The principal feature is a deep
gorge eroded through Pennsylvanian sandstone by Lusk Creek.
The gorge is very scenic and supports relict populations of
northern plants along its north-facing walls. Many rare
plants including the hay-scented fern and at least 13 kinds
of native orchid occur here. The valley forests are domin-
ated by sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.), beech tree
(Fagus grandifolia) , and tulip-tree (Liriodendron tulipifera
L.), white oak (Quercus alba L.) and red oak (Quercus rubra
L.) predominate on the slopes. Blackjack oak (Quercus
marilandica), post oak (Quercus stellata), and scarlet oak
(Quercus coccinea) occupy the bluff tops. The area includes
a stone wall built by prehistoric Indians. Lusk Creek
provides an unpolluted aquatic environment and is owned by
the Illinois Department of Conservation. Access is pres-
ently via foot trails over Shawnee National Forest land and
private properties. Nature trails have been developed.
4.3.4.4 Natural Areas of Gibson County, Indiana (45)
Hemmer Woods is a dedicated state nature preserve. The
area is in the Wabash Lowland Physiographic Province. It is
dominated by old second growth and old growth sweet gum,
tulip poplar, red maple, and elm in the lowlands, and by
white, black and red oak and several species of hickories in
the uplands. The state champion sweet gum is found here.
Cane Ridge was a terrestrial and aquatic biological
area. This area was described in Natural Areas in Indiana,
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but has since been cleared and excavated for a cooling lake
for the Gibson County electrical generating plant.
4.3.4.5 Natural Areas of Posey County, Indiana (45)
Mumford Hills Natural Area is located in Posey and
Gibson Counties. It has an upland forest of sugar maple,
tulip poplar, basswood and mixed oaks. Bottomland forest
consists of red and silver maple, burr oak, Shumard oak,
shellback hickory, green ash, and pecan. Quite a few very
large trees can be found.
Half-Moon Pond Woods is a terrestrial and aquatic
biological area. It is one of the deeper oxbow lakes in the
lower Wabash Valley. Young and mature second growth trees
can be found. Southern flora includes post oak, swamp pri-
vet, and false aloe.
The Hovey Lake State Fish and Game Area reportedly con-
tains southern flora and fauna considered extremely rare in
Indiana. It once contained the largest cypress stand in the
state before being flooded by the Uniontown locks and dam.
While the present status of this area is unknown, it is
likely that high quality vegetation may still exist in parts
of the area.
Goose Pond Cypress Slough is a large stand of cypress
trees with other representatives of southern flora.
Grays Woods and Cypress Slough was once a high quality
natural area including cypress slough, southern bottomland,
and upland forest. It has been heavily disturbed due to
logging and the drilling of oil wells.
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Old Dam - New Harmony Cutoff consists of a natural rock
ledge and rapids located in the Wabash River. It has type
location for two fish and four turtles; these include black
crappie, grass pike, spiny soft shell turtle, smooth soft
shell turtle, red eared turtle, and false map turtle. The
eastern mud turtle (Kinosternon subrubrum subrubrum) has
also been found on this site, and will probably be listed as
endangered or threatened in Indiana.
4.3.4.6 Natural Areas of Knox County, Indiana (45)
Little Cypress Swamp contains state champion cypress
trees and southern bottomland flora; however, much of this
large swamp has been cleared.
The Brushy and Half-Moon Ponds area is described as a
shrub swamp and oxbow pond. Many species of waterfowl and
even coyotes can be found here.
4.4 Site Selection Factors Specific to White County
Earlier in this section, an attempt was made to sum-
marize generic environmental issues important to the siting
and construction of the SRC facility. Following that sum-
mary, the environmental setting of White County was described
in general terms relative to existing biotic and abiotic
features. Using this information, an evaluation will now be
made of those site factors, favorable or unfavorable, that
might play a major role in the future development of the SRC
technology in the White County area.
4.4.1 Favorable Siting Factors
The National Coal Policy Project (NCPP) Task Force on
Mining has recommended that coal development technologies
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be concentrated in the Illinois Basin and eastern states
such as West Virginia and Pennsylvania, and in the Gillette/
Decker area of Montana and Wyoming (i.e., the Powder River
coal region) (46). The following principles were developed
by the NCPP in formulating their recommendations:
• Energy resources must be allocated in an economi-
cally efficient manner.
• The competitive marketplace encourages energy con-
servation and investment in energy-conserving de-
vices.
• The competitive market encourages consumers to de-
mand environmentally sound energy systems, parti-
cularly in non-attainment areas, on the premise
that control technologies will be used to protect
the air, water, and land environment.
• Where the operation of the market will not provide
proper environmental protection, the government
should do so by incorporating the costs of envi-
ronmental damage into the price of energy through
regulation.
• The federal government should promote research and
development in the use of coal; this includes
basic research relating to new technologies based
on coal.
• Develop policies designed to reduce to a minimum
the amount of government involvement in energy
markets, and to protect important public values
over those that encourage greater government
involvement.
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The NCPP (46) issued several consensus policy state-
ments and recommendations through several task forces com-
posed of leading environmental and industrial (coal) rep-
resentatives. These statements and recommendations were
arrived at by use of an approach referred to as the P.ule of
Reason, rather than the traditional adversary approach (46).
The findings of the Task Forces on Mining, Coal, Trans-
portation, Energy Pricing, and Emission Charges are sum-
marized elsewhere (46). Brief summaries of the Task Forces
on Air Pollution, and Fuel Utilization and Conservation are
as follows (46):
4.4.1.1 Task Force on Air Pollution
Site selection for coal-related activities should be
consistent with social, economic, and engineering practices,
and should allow location in remote areas where substantial
justification exists. The task force recommended that state
governments should adopt siting statutes that require long-
range planning for the construction of energy facilities,
provide a single, streamlined application procedure (i.e.,
for permits and approvals), require consideration of all
relevant environmental and socioeconomic factors, and pro-
vide for full citizen participation (including dollar
grants) in the siting decision process.
In order to promote equitable air quality modeling, it
was recommended that the EPA, in collaboration with citizen
groups, require and develop standardized air quality models
that will correctly predict the amount of pollutants. Thus,
new ambient air quality standards should be promulgated by
EPA as soon as a significant risk of harm to human health or
welfare is established. To encourage the expansion of the
level of knowledge on the effects of carbon dioxide emissions
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on climate, it was recommended that such studies be given
high research priority both in time and resources.
4.4.1.2 Task Force on Fuel Utilization (46)
The development of new technologies for the use of coal
was considered but no specific recommendations were made be-
cause the Task Force felt that the arguments for or against
new coal technologies were highly complex and usually in-
volved proprietary information. However, the Task Force
felt that the government should fund and encourage basic and
applied research early in the development of new coal tech-
nologies. As new technologies are developed to a demonstra-
tion (or higher) status, private enterprise should finance
the commercialization of the preferred new technologies.
Both environmental and economic objectives should be con-
sidered. Thus, a potentially economically attractive tech-
nology should be considered only if there are good prospects
for controlling environmental impacts (46).
According to a report from the Argonne National Labora-
tory, only the states of Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, North
Dakota, and Ohio, among the 14 midwestern states studied,
exhibited a favorable coincidence of usable water and coal
resources. The former U.S. Bureau of Mines classification
of coal reserve regions places Illinois, Indiana, and Wes-
tern Kentucky in the Eastern Interior; Missouri, Arkansas,
Iowa, Kansas, and Oklahoma in the Western Interior; North
Dakota, South Dakota, and Montana in the Northern Great
Plains; and Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia in the
Appalachian coal regions. States having the highest poten-
tial for coal conversion development are reported to include
Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky, Illinois, New
Mexico, Montana, Wyoming, and North Dakota (47), as shown in
Table 4-13 and Figure 4-10. Thus, the counties of Hamilton,
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TABLE 4-13. STATES HAVING HIGH COAL RESERVES (47)
Type of
Area Reserve
Number State and County Base
1 Ohio (Jefferson, Harrison, Belmont) Deep
Pennsylvania (Washington, Greene)
West Virginia (Marshall, Marion, Monongalia)
2 Kentucky (Hopkins, Muhlenberg, Webster, Strip-deep
Union, Henderson)
Illinois (Hamilton, Williamson, Saline,
Gallatin)
3 Illinois (St. Clair, Washington, Perry, Deep-strip
Madison, Sangamon, Christian, Macoupin,
Montgomery, Bond)
4 Illinois (Vermilion, Edgar) Strip-deep
5 Illinois (Knox, Fulton, Peoria) Strip
6 New Mexico (San Juan) Do
7 Montana (Big Horn, Rosebud, Powder River, Do
Custer)
Wyoming (Campbell, Johnson)
8 North Dakota (Dunn, Mercer) Do
Williamson, Saline, and Gallatin (Area 2 of Figure 4-10)
in Illinois have large coal reserves. Only Saline and
Williamson County in southeastern Illinois have surface-
mineable coal. White County, on the other hand, has about
half as much underground mineable coal as Gallatin and
Hamilton (47). One advantage accruing to White County as a
potential SRC site is that it is located close to a useable
water supply and is adjacent to mineable underground coal in
Hamilton (to the west) and Gallatin County (to the south).
The surface mineable coals of Saline and Williamson Coun-
ties, however, are about 80 km from the potential SRC site
located in the northeastern corner of White County.
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f •
i
i
_/_ _ IT'-
LEGEND
HIGH POTENTIAL
AREA (NUMBERS
REFER TO TABLE
IV-12 )
Figure 4-10. Areas of high potential for coal conversion development (47)
-------
4.4.2 Constraints to Siting
After one full year of study, the National Coal Policy
Project (46) could not reach agreement on the key issue of
the prevention of significant deterioration of ambient air
quality, vis-a-vis the 1977 amendments to the Clean Air Act.
With reference to the southeastern Illinois area, it is
likely that the relative flatness of the terrain plus the
rather favorable meteorological conditions for pollutant
dispersion throughout the area, should greatly minimize
ambient air pollution as future energy technologies expand
in the area. However, air pollutants such as CC^ and par-
ticulates that are readily dispersed in this flat terrain
can be transported to downwind areas to the north and east
of the area, including the northeastern United States. The
relative importance of this factor depends partly upon the
successful application of the best available control tech-
nology for the six criteria air pollutants, and also upon
the early identification of sites that are environmentally
unsuitable for the development of the synfuels technology.
Other potential constraints to the siting of coal
conversion facilities in southeastern Illinois include:
potential risks from earthquakes (i.e., fault and failure
impacts); water allocation conflicts between consumptive
instream users; disruption of aquifers as a result of coal
extraction; accelerated decline of railroads and highways
due to mounting maintenance costs; disruption of non-con-
sumptive instream water uses; impact of the "offset prin-
ciple" relative to projected gaseous emissions from sources
other than SRC; the effect of existing oil well regulations
on new mine development; constraints stemming from the prime
farmland concept of the USDA, flood-prone areas, and costs
of pumping water. Discussion will be limited for the pres-
ent to seismic risks and the last four items of the series.
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The remaining items can be discussed satisfactorily after
the completion of detailed evaluations on a site-by-site
basis.
4.4.2.1 Potential Risks for Seismic Events
The regional faulting areas of southeastern Illinois
are shown in Figure 4-11 for the Fairfield Basin. Three
major fault systems are recognized, as follows:
• Shawneetown - Rough Creek Fault Zone
• Cottage Grove Zone
• Wabash Valley Fault System.
The Wabash Valley Fault System contains a series of high-
angle faults that extend to the north from the Cottage Grove
and Shawneetown-Rough Creek Fault Zones through Gallatin,
Saline, White, Wabash, and Edwards Counties along the Wabash
River basin (48). According to Heigold (48) the magnetic
highs, shown in Figure 4-12, are much sharper and more
definitive than the gravity highs shown in Figure 4-13.
Based on the size and regional extent of these anomalies,
Heigold (48) concluded that their source was in the crust or
upper mantle of the earth. Thus, faulting appears to have
occurred in both the crust and upper mantle. All observed
earthquakes have occurred in the crust or mantle of the
earth. The major immediate cause of earthquakes is gen-
erally believed to arise from the gradual accumulation of
large stresses in blocks of rock that produce faulting, or
the relative movement of blocks of rock along a fracture
surface. This belief is correlated with the fact that many
earthquakes occur in known fault areas, and their greatest
intensity occurs in elongated strips along the intersection
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89°
88°
39°
39°
38°
EPICENTER
( J Area where dikes
38° have been observed
Area
mapped
89
Figure 4-11. Regional faulting map of
Southeastern Illinois (48)
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7OOO -^S—i. -*r
7IOO
39°
72OO
Vincennes
89°
Area
surveyed
Corrected for regional and diurnal variation
Flown at 3000 feet, measured sea level
Contour interval = IOO gammas
Figure 4-12. Total field aeromagnetic map of
Southeastern Illinois (48)
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88°
39°
Areo
surveyed
Density used in colculation of Bouguer
Gravity Anomaly = 2.67 GM/CM3
Contour interval = 5 MGAL.
89°
Figure 4-13. Bouguer gravity map of Southeastern
Illinois (48)
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of the fault plane with the surface of the earth (48). The
duration of an earthquake will be longer than the relative
movement of blocks of rock (faulting) along a fracture
surface. According to Heigold (48), the duration of ground
motion (earth-shaking time) is proportional to the distance
from the fault. Thus, near the epicenter of the quake, the
earth-shaking time may range from a few seconds to several
minutes (48). Present evidence suggests that the number of
earthquakes and their associated energy intensity decreases
with the depth of focus. Some geologists consider that the
Wabash and Ohio Valley systems of southern Illinois may be
controlled by fault activity of rather old age.
4.4.2.1.1 Earthquakes in Southern Illinois
The depth of focus of the November 9, 1968, earthquake
in southern Illinois was about 19 km, with a magnitude of
5.5 on the Richter scale. Thus, the 1968 quake was focused
within the earth's crust which, for that area of Illinois,
has a thickness of 35 km (48). As shown in Figure 4-11,
the epicenter of the 1968 quake was located at the extreme
end of the Fairfield Basin. Several triggering mechanisms
are considered to apply to southern Illinois, as follows
(48) :
• Crustal rebound from unloading of glacial ice
• Crustal sinking due to recent deposition in the
Mississippi Embayment
• Sudden changes in barometric pressure
• Changes in surface-water loads
• Earth tides.
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Present evidence shows that ever since the catastrophic
New Madrid earthquake of 1811 (intensity 8.1 on the Richter
scale), no earthquakes have occurred in southern Illinois
having intensities greater than 6.2 (Richter scale). This
intensity falls at the lower limit of serious damage to man-
made structures. In the 1968 earthquake, major damage was
reported at the epicenter. Areas to the east and south re-
ported minor damage such as cracking of plaster walls,
leakage in a concrete wall seal in the air shaft of the
Peabody Coal underground mine No. 90 (Gallatin County) at a
depth of about 24 meters, and falling bricks from a parapet
wall in Norris City (White County) (48). The Illinois
Geological Survey conducted an investigation of the overall
damage done by the 1968 earthquake and concluded that, with
the exception of a few structures located close to the
epicenter, only minor damage occurred (48). The Illinois
State Water Survey evaluated the effects on groundwater
levels and levels in water wells, and concluded that no
changes had occurred in these water levels. This finding
was in sharp contrast to the 1964 Alaskan earthquake that
showed pronounced changes in groundwater levels (48).
4.4.2.1.2 Structural Engineering Countermeasures
In 1974, the Applied Technology Council (ATC) evaluated
building design procedures for 11 building types (see Table
4-14) for an area near Los Angeles that would ensure pro-
tection to buildings , given the response spectra representa-
tive of damage-threshold and collapse-threshold earthquake
ground motions at a given site (49). The damage-threshold
spectrum, representative of ground motions having a low
probability of occurrence, established the seismic force
levels for member design. The collapse-threshold spectrum,
representative of ground motions with a very low probability
of occurrence, established the structural deformations
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TABLE 4-14. COST CONSEQUENCES OF DESIGN METHOD (49)
Bldg.
No.
2
4
3
8
5
1
7
6
10
9
11
Stories:
Material
19: Steel
14: Concrete
10: Concrete
9: Concrete
6: Concrete
5: Concrete
3: Masonry Wall,
Metal Diaph.
2: Steel
2: Steel
1: Tilt-up Wall,
Plywood Diaph.
l:Masonry Wall,
Plywood Diaph.
Construction
Cost
11,000,000
4,000,000
3,500,000
3,800,000
1,400,000
6,670,000
534,000
1,050,000
2,400,000
120,200
1,113,000
Addition
to Cost
12,000
86,601
50,333
27,654
55,452
237,364
44,371
15,019
9,049
11,723
11,860
Percent
Increase
0.1%
2.2%
1.4%
0.7%
3.9%
3.5%
8.3%
1.43%
0.38%
9.7%
1.0%
% Increase
in
Engineering
Cost
5%
20%
5%
15%
5%
27%
10%
30%
15%
30%
15%
required for stability analysis and evaluation of member
ductility demands. The life span of building design was set
at 70 years (49).
Construction costs consequences of the design method
are shown in Table 4-14. Construction cost (Column 3) is
defined as the original cost to build each type of building
in Column one. Addition to cost (Column 4) is extra cost of
items required by the design method beyond requirements of
the 1973 Uniform Building Code. Thus, additional costs of
upgrading to the project criteria varied from 0.1 to 10
percent of the total cost of a building. Increased engineering
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costs needed to design according to project criteria varied
from 5 to 30 percent of the costs stemming from use of the
Uniform Building Code (49).
With reference to additional architectural changes re-
quired in the form of additional walls, it was found neces-
sary to add extra walls to Buildings 7 and 9 to control dia-
phragm stresses and deformations (49).
The extent to which these ATC data may be relevant to
the construction strategies for synfuel plants in seismic
risk areas has not been established. For example, additional
architectural costs would likely occur from the standpoint
of providing worker safety around conveyors, storage areas,
and reactors in the event of an earthquake during the proj-
ected 25-year lifespan of the SRC facility.
4.4.2.2 Existing Regulations Pertaining to Oil Wells
According to Smith and Stall (8), a substantial percen-
tage of the in-place coal resources lie above oil pools and
are considered unmineable by current mining practices.
Federal mining laws prohibit mining within an area of about
91 meters in diameter around each well, unless the wells are
adequately plugged and permission to mine obtained from fed-
eral authorities. Smith and Stall (8) also reported that
the 100,000 test holes (i.e., for oil or gas) within Illinois
have been properly recorded by location and numbers on maps.
New methods of plugging abandoned oil wells have been
developed that will permit mining without leaving the larger
barrier pillar around each well.
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4.4.2.3 Prime Farmlands of White County
Prime farmland of an area is defined as land (i.e.,
soil associations) considered best suited to the production
of food, forage, fiber, and oilseed crops, based on soil
characteristics that include soil fertility, soil moisture,
and other physical criteria. The proper combination of
these criteria, when applied to specific soils so as to
produce sustained high yields of crops, can result in such
soils being designated as prime farmland. According to
Bennet (50) the prime and nonprime farmlands of White County
include the following soil types and designations:
TABLE 4-15. SOIL TYPES AND DESIGNATIONS:
WHITE COUNTY FARMLANDS
Soil type Designation
Alford, Hoyleton, Reesville, Soils with less than 67. slopes
Camden are prime farmland
Iva, Hosmer, Ava, Bluford Soils with less than 57, slopes
are prime farmland
Alvin, Lamont Soils with less than 87= slopes
are prime farmland
Cisne, Ruark, Patton, Allison, These soils are prime farmland
Beaucoup, Tice regardless of slopes encountered
Bonnie, Belknap, Petrolia, None of these soils is consid-
Cape, Karnak ered prime farmland since they
are subject to flooding at
least once every two years
4.4.2.4 Flood-Prone Areas (6)
About half of White County contains flood-prone sites.
Construction in floodplain areas is regulated by the Illinois
Department of Transportation (IDOT), whereby IDOT is author-
ized to establish a procedure for issuance of construction
permits in defined floodplains.
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Floodplain development is also controlled indirectly by
a federal flood insurance program enacted under the National
Flood Insurance Act of the Housing and Urban Development Act
of 1968, Title XIII of PL 90-448. It was intended that this
insurance program would be part of a unified national effort
for the management of the nation's floodplains, eventually
making flood insurance available nationwide. In order for a
community to be considered for coverage, the program re-
quires state and/or local assurances that efficient land use
policies, as established by HUD criteria, be adopted and
enforced to regulate land use, and future development in
these areas. The program would provide insurance at sub-
sidized rates on certain existing structures and their
contents, but would serve as a deterrent to continued,
unregulated construction in these flood-prone areas.
Flood-prone area maps are presently being prepared for
White County that delineate areas subject to inundation
during a 100-year flood. The areas subject to flooding can
be divided into the following four categories: (1) flood-
way, (2) floodway fringe, (3) regulatory flood limit, and
(4) standard project flood limit.
The regulatory floodway is that portion of the flood-
plain required to store and discharge flood waters without
causing significant damaging or potentially damaging in-
creases in flood heights and velocities. The IDOT regula-
tions dictate that in those areas which are defined as the
regulatory floodway, there can be no construction which
would result in increased flood heights or velocities, or
cause pollution, erosion, sedimentation, fire hazard, or
other hazard or nuisances.
The areas designated as flood fringe are subject only
to shallow inundation and low-velocity flows, and thus play
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a relatively insignificant role in storing and discharging
flood flows (6).
A wide range of uses may be permitted in the flood
fringe, provided that such uses are protected to include the
regulatory flood protection elevation. Protection of con-
struction to the regulatory flood protection elevation must,
in most instances, be provided through landfill. However,
other methods of floodplain development which cause no
significant increase in stage or velocity may be permitted,
if supported by adequate engineering data. Construction
undertaken with a flood plain construction permit shall
comply with the standard and special conditions of that
permit.
Once an area has been filled or otherwise protected in
compliance with an approved construction permit, subsequent
construction within the protected area above the regulatory
flood protection elevation may proceed without further per-
mits, if all local requirements such as zoning and building
permits are met (6).
VJith reference to the construction of the proposed SRC-
II facility and its auxiliary units adjacent to flood prone
areas, it appears that the relevant parameter is the depth
of the site terrain below the level of the maximum probable
flood (MPF) level (plus one foot) measured in feet. In
order to avoid this danger, the relevant design approach is
to build a levee (51). Informal estimates by Corps of
Engineers indicate that a reasonably sized levee for this
purpose might be 3.05 m wide at the top with a 2.5 to 1
ratio for the slopes, assuming average soil material (51).
The dollar cost of constructing such a levee can be easily
calculated; however, the ecological costs would have to be
determined on a site-specific basis.
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4.4.2.5 Water Pumping Costs
In arriving at an estimate of the comparative cost of
obtaining the requisite amount of water for the proposed
SRC-II plant and the auxiliary power plant, it appears that
the State of New York's PSC curves could be quite useful
(51). These curves show average costs as a function of dis-
tance from the water body and the height of pumping needed.
An obvious tradeoff refers to the decision to pipe water
from a stream vs. locating close to a stream, as would be
applicable to the Wabash River area of White County.
Another tradeoff refers to the use of cooling towers vs.
cooling ponds for the auxiliary power plant.
4.5 Current Environmental Monitoring and Related Programs
Environmental monitoring involves the repetitive col-
lection of data that will guide the formulation, and aid the
implementation, of environmental management policies de-
signed to protect human health and the integrity of aquatic
and terrestrial ecosystems. Because data collection is very
expensive, it is imperative that better inferences be made
from fewer observations that are carefully collected, thus
requiring more careful planning and the exercise of more
quality assurance (52). The usefulness of much of the
earlier environmental monitoring data is considered of
questionable value, because of the use of non-uniform analy-
tical methods and the lack of quality assurance (52).
Environmental monitoring may be strictly physical, biological,
ecological, or epidemiological, or combinations thereof,
with reference to air and water quality, noise, radio-
activity, and land use (including solid and hazardous waste
disposal sites).
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Several types of monitoring information are required to
prevent the adverse effects of multimedia pollutants, as
follows (53):
• Establish the relationship between exposure levels
of pollutants and their resultant effects on the
critical receptors.
• Understand the relationship of the total exposure
to which the receptors are subjected and the
sources of the respective pollutants.
• Ascertain the effectiveness of pollutant control
technologies in maintaining exposure levels of the
pollutants at an acceptable concentration in air,
water, and land environments.
As of November 1977, the EPA requires all EPA moni-
toring systems and laboratories to participate in their
quality assurance program. Policies and regulations requir-
ing compliance with formal procedures are conditional for
EPA acceptance of any monitoring data.
4.5.1 Types of Monitoring (52)
Three categories of monitoring activities are recog-
nized: source monitoring, ambient monitoring, and effects
(health/ecological) monitoring.
4.5.1.1 Source Monitoring
The discharges of left-over wastes from a production
activity such as the SRC technology may be classified as
point sources, nonpoint sources, and mobile sources.
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4.5.1.1.1 Point Sources
Residual discharges to air, water, and land occur from
stacks, outfalls, cooling towers, and the like. Most source
monitoring is done by individual dischargers, generally
through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES). State agencies prepare and submit air emissions
inventory data on the location and amount of air pollutants
emitted to the EPA data bank known as the National Emissions
Data System (NEDS). Managers of Air Quality Control
Regions use these data to predict ambient air quality.
Inventories of point source effluents to waterways are
developed along similar lines for use in the development of
plans for waste treatment facilities, and to establish
effluent limitations required to meet existing water quality
standards.
New point source dischargers of air pollutants must
meet New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) if the new
plant or process is built and operated after regulations for
that industry have been issued by EPA. State agencies may
monitor various sources of air and water pollution to assure
compliance with state standards and permit requirements.
4.5.1.1.2 Nonpoint Sources
Nonpoint sources of water pollutants that emanate from
areas such as feed lots, mines, and construction sites, must
have EPA/NPDES permits; these require the monitoring of
residuals in runoff from these areas (52). Under the so-
called 208 program of the Clean Water Act, most state and
local agencies are conducting nonpoint source monitoring for
sediment, nutrients, and various inorganic elements on
selected watersheds. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and
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the USDA conduct land use inventories which also provide
information on sediment, nutrients, and other residuals in
water.
4.5.1.1.3 Mobile Sources
Spills of toxic and other hazardous substances occur-
ring during transport, along with motor vehicle emissions,
are comprised in this group. Spills from trucks, railroads,
and pipelines are monitored by the U.S. Department of Trans-
portation (USDOT); those from barges and other water craft
are monitored by the U. S. Coast Guard of USDOT.
4.5.1.2 Ambient Monitoring (52)
The levels of known pollutants in air, water, soil, and
living organisms are measured by a great array of federal,
state, and local agencies.
4.5.1.2.1 Air Monitoring
Most of the ambient air monitoring is done by state and
local agencies. The SIPs developed by each state provide
information on the number of monitoring stations, air pollu-
tants to be monitored, and other details. These plans must
meet the minimum assay requirements established by the EPA
for the nation's 247 Air Quality Control Regions, in moni-
toring the six criteria air pollutants. The states collec-
tively operate about 8,000 stations and report the data to
the EPA National Aerometric Data Bank (NADB). These data
can be retrieved through the EPA Storage and Retrieval of
Aerometric Data (SAROAD) program. The EPA operates the 400-
station National Air Surveillance Network (NASN) in coopera-
tion with state and local agencies. The EPA also operates
the 20-station Community Health Air Monitoring Program
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(CHAMP), covering both the criteria and noncriteria air
pollutants. In the St. Louis area, the EPA operates a 25-
station area network known as the Regional Air Monitoring
System (RAMS) for the study of the transportation and trans-
formation of air pollutants. As of 1976, over 600 S02
monitoring stations were operated by several large indus-
tries. The extent to which local ambient levels of other
air pollutants are monitored by industrial groups is not
known (52) .
4.5.1.2.2 Water Monitoring
The U.S. Geological Survey and the EPA have primary
responsibility for water quality monitoring in the federal
sector. A total of about 30,000 water quality monitoring
stations are operated by the USGS and the states, some of
which are operated through cooperative arrangements with the
states (52). More than 40 states and the USGS report
ambient water quality data to the EPA Storage and Retrieval
for Water Quality Data (STORET) program.
Recently, the USGS established the National Stream
Quality Accounting Network (NASQAN), and the EPA set up the
National Water Quality Surveillance System (NWQSS). The
NASQAN network will consist of 525 stations by 1979; these
stations will collect information on stream flow and pol-
lutant concentrations in a number of water resource regions.
The EPA national surveillance system will determine the
effects of agricultural or industrial activities on water
quality (52) .
As required by the Safe Drinking Water Act, most state
and local agencies monitor and report to the EPA on drinking
water quality. Presently, EPA monitors the levels of harmful
4-88
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organics in the drinking water of about 100 cities. Radio-
nuclide levels in drinking water are monitored at 76 sites
(52).
4.5.1.2.3 Monitoring of Plants, Animals, and Man
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and a number of
states measure levels of mercury, pesticides, and other
pollutants in tissues of fish, birds, and small mammals.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration measures levels of
pesticides and six heavy metals in 117 market basket items
comprising the average diet of teenage males. The EPA,
through its Human Tissue Monitoring Program, measures the
levels of PCBs and 19 pesticides in human biopsy and autopsy
samples (52).
4.5.1.3 Effects Monitoring
The effects of air, water, and land pollutants on
plants, animals, and man are monitored largely by federal
agencies; however, the State of Montana is now operating a
project called the Montana Air Pollution Study (MAPS) to
establish the correlation between levels of fluoride and
criteria pollutants and human health in selected areas (54).
4.5.1.3.1 Human Health Effects
In late 1974, the National Institute of Environmental
Health Sciences (NIEHS), building upon the seven-year EPA
Community Health and Environmental Surveillance System
(CHESS 1969-1975), launched a 10-year epidemiologic study of
air pollutants and health (55). This study is designed to
relate the effects of known exposure levels of air pollu-
tants in the general environment to human chronic respira-
tory symptoms and changes in pulmonary function. Thus,
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simultaneous and continuous measurements will be made of
S02, sulfates, mass respirable particulates, TSP, N02, and
ozone in the general environment (as opposed to the work-
place) . Health effects will be assessed by using question-
naires on respiratory symptoms, and by performing lung
function tests. Answers will be sought to the major issues
of a threshold level of exposure below which no effect is
detectable, and the role of sulfates in human health (55).
Six U.S. communities, varying in pollution level from low
(2), to moderate (2), to high (2) will be assessed. Envi-
ronmental exposure will be monitored at three levels, each
of increasing refinement, as follows: central station,
indoor/outdoor, and personal monitoring. In addition to the
portable personal monitor, a second monitor of the same type
will be placed in the test person's residence (55). One
unique feature of this study is that changes in lung func-
tion of children can be measured in the absence of such
obscuring factors as smoking and occupational exposure. The
cities involved in this study include: St. Louis, Missouri;
Steubenville, Ohio; Watertown, Massachusetts; Kingston-
Harriman, Tennessee; Portage, Wisconsin; and Topeka, Kansas
(55).
Cancer morbidity surveys and cancer incidence surveys
are operated by the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The
cancer incidence survey, called the Surveillance Epidem-
iology and End Results (SEER) program covers 10 percent of
the U.S. population. Annual estimates of occupational
illness are obtained by the Bureau of Labor Statistics for
OSHA (52).
Recently, the National Research Council (52) recom-
mended that a cancer detection program be established, based
on continuing surveillance of selected groups of people
whose occupations expose them to high levels of potential
4-90
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carcinogens. Formidable problems would be expected to arise
in the recruitment of a voluntary sample population, the
establishment of standard protocols, and the use of com-
patible sampling and analysis techniques. However, esti-
mates of body burdens could be used to evaluate levels of
exposure to hazardous pollutants, to establish correlations
between disease states and body burden, and to identify
changes in body burdens of pollutants (52).
Alternatively, a well-designed system of occupational
health statistics was suggested to identify those chemicals
that demand further study. Another promising alternative is
the monitoring of changes in mutation rates in human chromo-
somes. Thus, findings of increased mutation rates would
provide a basis for regulation of anthropogenic tnutagens.
However, retrospective case studies would be needed to de-
termine the causal agents (52).
4.5.1.3.2 Ecological Effects Monitoring
s
The EPA operated the National Eutrophication Survey
(1972-1975) to study the effects of nitrates and phosphates
in 800 lakes. The Agricultural Research Service of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture is studying the effects of air
pollutants and pesticides on crops. Other federal agencies
that monitor ecological effects are as follows (52):
• U.S. Department of Energy - pollution from power
plants
• TVA - effects of SCL on vegetation near power
plants
• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service - effects of air
pollutants and pesticides on animals.
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Currently, the EPA - Environmental Research Laborator-
ies at Gulf Breeze, Florida; Narragansett, Rhode Island;
Duluth, Minnesota; Corvallis, Oregon; Athens, Georgia; and
Cincinnati, Ohio are engaged in assessing the ecological and
health effects of a number of hazardous substances, some of
which represent potential discharges from the SRC-II tech-
nology. Results to date are preliminary only and long-term
studies are contemplated. Other assessments of pollutants
resulting from coal conversion technologies are being made
by the Environmental Sciences Division at the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory of the U.S. Department of Energy.
4.5.2 Current Air Monitoring Programs
The EPA is reportedly planning to revise its reporting
of ambient air quality monitoring and source emission data,
because the agency's Standing Air Monitoring Work Group
found data of unknown precision and accuracy along with
deficiencies in analytical instrumentation (56). The study
group also found that ambient criteria pollutant networks
had too few or too many monitors, deficiencies in monitor
siting, quality control, and methodology. In source moni-
toring, problems were found with quality control and meth-
odology. There is a real need for comprehensive inventor-
ies, and for more point source monitoring by private in-
dustry. The existing state implementation plan (SIP)
ambient monitoring regulations were judged insufficiently
flexible for current SIP needs (56).
The U.S. Department of Energy METER program, started in
1976, currently is collecting data at four coal-fired facili-
ties around the United States relative to the environmental
effects of heat and moisture releases from natural-draft
cooling towers, mechanical-draft cooling towers, and from
cooling ponds. This program is an effort to establish once
4-92
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and for all whether heat and moisture releases from cooling
facilities can affect local rainfall patterns within a 10-
mile radius of the plants (57).
4.5.3 Individual Dischargers Monitoring Programs
Point source dischargers of chemical pollutants to
navigable waters (essentially all streams) and to the ocean
must, under the NPDES program, submit information to the EPA
(or to a state having NPDES authority) concerning the loca-
tion, amount, and chemical nature of the discharge. Dis-
chargers of sediment from mine sites and from construction
sites also must comply with the NPDES permit program.
Limitations of the NPDES program refer to the fact that
there is no Federal quality control or certification program
covering laboratories submitting assay results. No Federal
programs exist that require an industry to monitor the
process waste streams, and there are no programs to require
an industry to assess the environmental effects of poten-
tially hazardous wastes generated by various industrial
processes (although some leading industries do so) (52).
Because of these perceived limitations, the National Research
Council (52) has recommended that, before a new process or
technology is instituted, the applicable industry should
identify the substances that will be discharged and assess
their potential environmental effects.
4.5.4 Water Monitoring Programs in Illinois
The Illinois EPA (IEPA) has operated a statewide water
quality sampling network of monitoring stations on the Ohio
and Mississippi Rivers and their tributaries, including the
Wabash and Little Wabash River Sub-basins for many years
(58). Sampling stations considered basic to the network
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have received regular visits since 1958, when the water
quality sampling program was started. The IEPA presently
operates five monitoring stations along the Wabash River
(two in White County), eight along the Little Wabash (three
in White County), and three along Skillet Fork (two in White
County).
Two stream sampling programs are implemented statewide
by the IEPA, as follows (58):
• Water quality sampling to determine surface water
quality
• Water pollution sampling to determine the degree
of pollution resulting from specific industrial
and municipal sewage works.
As of 1976, the most troublesome water pollutants in
the White County area were total iron, copper, and man-
ganese (58).
4.5.5 Air Monitoring Programs in Illinois
White County is located in Air Quality Control Region
No. 74, but no air monitoring stations are presently located
in the county. Of the four monitoring stations comprising
the AQCR, one is located at Mt. Vernon, one at Carbondale,
one at Marion, and one at Effingham, Illinois (15).
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REFERENCES
1. Hittman Associates, Inc. Baseline Data - Environmental
Assessment of a Large Coal Conversion Complex. Interim
Report No. 1, Vol. I. Contract No. 14-32-0001-1508,
U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C., 1974.
2. Reddy, G.N. Environmental Aspects of Coal Conversion
Plant Siting and Cost of Pollution Control. Argonne
National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois, 1976. 66 pp.
3. Argonne National Laboratory. National Coal Utilization
Assessment - An Integrated Assessment of Increased Coal
Use in the Midwest: Impacts and Constraints. Volume
I, ANL/AA-11 (Draft), Argonne, Illinois, 1977. 93 pp.
4. Singh, K.P and J.B. Stall. The 7-Day 10-Year Low Flows
of Illinois Streams. Bulletin 57, Illinois State Water
Survey, Urbana, Illinois, 1973.
5. Wabash River Coordinating Committee. Wabash River
Basin Comprehensive Study, Volume V. Lower Ohio Basin
Office, Environmental Protection Agency, Evansville,
Indiana, 1971.
6. Wabash River Coordinating Committee. Wabash River
Basin Comprehensive Study, Volume IV. U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, Louisville, Kentucky, 1971.
7. Fisher, R.E. and H.P. Brown. White County Surface
Water Resources. Illinois Department of Conservation,
Division of Fisheries, Springfield, Illinois, 1974.
8. Smith, W.H. and J.B. Stall. Coal and Water Resources
for Coal Conversion in Illinois. Cooperative Resources
Report #4, Illinois State Water Survey, Illinois State
Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois, 1975.
9. Russel, R.R. Ground-Water Level in Illinois Through
1961. Report of Investigation 45. Illinois State
Water Survey, Urbana, Illinois, 1963.
10. Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Commission. ORSANCO
Quality Monitor. Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation
Commission, Cincinnati, Ohio, October 1976-December 1977
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11. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Report on Toxic/
Hazardous Organic Compounds in the Wabash PJLver Basin.
Central District Office, Chicago, Illinois, 1977.
12. Harmeson, R.H. et al. Quality of Surface Water in
Illinois, 1966-1971. Bulletin 56, Illinois State
Water Survey, Urbana, Illinois, 1973.
13. State of Illinois, Environmental Protection Agency.
Existing Water Quality. Phase I of the Water Quality
Management Basin Plan for the Wabash River Basin,
1976.
14. Department of Interior/OCR. Environmental Protection
for Coal Refining and Mining. Chapter III, Description
of the Existing Environment. Prepared by Hittman
Associates, Inc. under OCR Contract 14-32-0001-1508,
1973.
15. Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. Illinois
Air Quality Report 1976. Springfield, Illinois, 1977.
16. Indiana, State of. Annual Report of the Air Pollution
Control Board, 1330 West Michigan Street, Indianapolis,
Indiana, 1977.
17. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Rural Electrification
Administration. Merom Generating Station and Associated
Transmission — Final Environmental Impact Statement.
USDA-REA-ES(ADM)-76-10-F. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D.C., 1977.
18. Smith, P.W. The Amphibians and Reptiles of Illinois,
Volume 28, Article 1. Illinois Natural History
Survey, Urbana, Illinois, 1961.
19. Walton, W.C. Ground-Water R.echarge and Runoff in
Illinois. Report of Investigation 48. Illinois State
Water Survey, Urbana, Illinois, 1965.
20. Await, F.L. Soil Associations of White County. Soil
Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
in Cooperation with the Illinois Agric. Exp. Sta., 1969.
21. Illinois Environmental Protection Agency.. Phase I
of the Water Management Basin Plan for the Wabash River
Basin. Springfield, Illinois, 1976.
22. Fisher, R.E. and H.P. Brown. White County Surface
Water Resources. Illinois Department of Conservation.
Division of Fisheries Publication, 1971.
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23. Geraghty, J.J., D.W. Miller, F. Van Der Leeden, F.L.
Troise. Water Atlas of the United States. A Water
Information Center Publication, 44 Sintsik Drive East,
Port Washington, New York, 1973.
24. Department of Interior/OCR. Environmental Protection
for Coal Refining and Mining. Chapter III, Description
of the Existing Environment. Prepared by Hittman Asso-
ciates, Inc. under OCR Contract 14-32-0001-1508, 1973.
25. Jones, D.M.A. Variability of Evapotranspiration in
Illinois, Circular 89, State of Illinois. Department
of Registration and Education. Illinois State Water
Survey, Urbana, Illinois, 1966.
.26. Beck, R.W., and Associates. Environmental Analysis
Merom Generating Station for Hoosier Energy Division of
Indiana Statewide R.E.C. Inc., 1976.
27. United States Department of the Interior. The National
Atlas of the United States of America, Washington,
D.C., 1970.
28. Illinois Historic Landmarks Survey. Inventory of
Historic Landmarks in White County. Interim Report,
Illinois Historic Sites Survey, Illinois Dept. of
Conservation. Springfield, Illinois, 1973. 8 pp.
29. -Winters, H.D. An Archaeological Survey of the Wabash
Valley. Reports of Investigations No. 10, Illinois
State Museum, Springfield, Illinois, 1967. 95 pp.
30. Smith, P.W. The Amphibians and Reptiles of Illinois.
Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin 28 (1) . State
of Illinois, Department of Registration and Education,
Natural History Survey Division, Urbana, Illinois,
1961 (Reprinted 1971).
31. Illinois Cooperative Crop Reporting Service. Illinois
Agricultural Statistics, Bulletin 77-1. Issued coopera-
tively by: Illinois Department of Agriculture, Bureau
of Agricultural Statistics and United States Department
of Agriculture, Statistical Reporting Service, 1977.
32. Interagency Task Force. Preliminary Environmental
Impact Assessment for the Synthetic Fuels Commerciali-
zation Program, 1975.
33. Lin, S.D., R.L. Evans, andD.B. Beuscher. Concentra-
tion and Genera of Algae in Selected Illinois Streams,
1971-1973, Report of Investigation 80. Illinois State
Water Survey, Urbana, Illinois, 1975.
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34. Krumholz, L.A., R..L. Bingham and E.R. Ileyer. A Survey
of the Commercially Valuable Mussels of the Wabash and
White Rivers of Indiana. Proceedings of the Indiana
Academy of Science for 1969-79: 205-226, 1970.
35. Parmalee, P.W. The Fresh Water Mussels of Illinois.
Popular Science Survey, Vol. VIII, Printed by
Authority of the State of Illinois, Springfield,
Illinois, 1967.
36. Smith, P.W. Illinois Streams: A Classification Based
on Their Fishes and an Analysis of Factors Responsible
for Disappearance of Native Species. Biological Notes
No. 76, Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana,
Illinois. State of Illinois. Department of Registra-
tion and Education, Natural History Survey Division,
1971.
37. Parmalee, P.W. Reptiles of Illinois. Popular Science
Series, Volume V, Printed by Authority of the State
of Illinois, Springfield, Illinois, 1955.
38. Graber, R.R. and J.W. Graber. A Comparative Study of
Bird Populations in Illinois, 1906-1909 and 1956-1958.
Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin, 28(3):
383-528, 1963.
39. Kleen, V.M. Periodic Report No. 5. Report and Results
of the 1976 Statewide Spring Bird Count. Illinois
Department of Conservation, 1976.
40. Ackerman, K. Rare and Endangered Vertebrates of
Illinois. Illinois Department of Transportation, 2300
South Dirksen Parkway, Springfield, Illinois, 1975
(with 1977 modification).
41. Unpublished information submitted to the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency under Contract No. 77-43-
302073.
42. Illinois, State of. Illinois Outdoor Recreation.
Department of Conservation, 605 State Office Building,
400 South Spring Street, Springfield, Illinois, 1974.
43. Ashby, W.C. and J.E. Ozmet. Plant Species of Beall's
Woods, Wabash County, Illinois. Transactions, Illinois
State Academy of Science 60(2): 174-183, 1967.
44. Illinois Department of Conservation. A Directory of
Illinois Natural Preserves.
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45. Keith, J.H. Personal Communication. Division of
Natural Preserves, Department of Natural Resources, 601
State Office Building, Indianapolis, Indiana, 1978.
46. National Coal Policy Project. Where We Agree, Volume
1. Center for Strategic and International Studies,
Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., 1978. 77 pp.
47. Lindquist, A.E. Siting Potential for Coal Gasification
Plants in the United States. Bureau of Mines. Infor-
mation Circular No. 8735, U.S. Department of the In-
terior, Washington, D.C., 1977. 43 pp.
48. Heigold, P.C. Notes on the Earthquake of November 9,
1968 in Southern Illinois. Environmental Geology Notes
No. 24, Illinois State Geological Survey, Champaign-
Urbana, Illinois, 1968.
49. Applied Technology Council. An Evaluation of a Re-
sponse Spectrum Approach to Seismic Design of Buildings
Contract No. 3-35946, U.S. Department of Commerce, NBS,
Gaithersburg, Maryland, 1974. 77 pages and two
appendices.
50. Bennett, B.K. Personal Communication, dated February
21, 1973. U.S. Dept. of Agric., Soil Conservation
Service, Carmi, Illinois.
51. Ramsay, W. Siting Power Plants. Environ. Sci. and
Technol. 11(3): 238, 1977.
52. National Research Council. Environmental Monitoring,
Study Group on Monitoring for the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, D.C., 1977.
53. Morgan, G.B. Energy Pxesource Development: The Moni-
toring Components. Environ. Sci. and Technol. 12(1):
34, 1978.
54. Anonymous. Monitoring Update. Environ. Sci. and
Technol. 12(1): 18-23, 1978.
55. Anonymous. Air Pollutants and Health: an Epidemiologic
Approach. Environ. Sci. and Technol. 11(7): 648,
1977.
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56. Bureau of National Affairs. EPA to Revise Air Quality
Monitoring Based on Study Group's Recommendations.
Environmental Reporter, Current Developments 8(24): 918,
1977.
57. U.S. Department of Energy. METER Projects Test Effects
of Heat Releases on Weather. Information 2(10): 5,
1973.
58. Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. Water
Quality Network, Ohio and Wabash River Basins. Vol.
1, IEPA, Water Quality Monitoring Unit, Springfield,
Illinois, 1975.
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5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS INFORMATION, WHITE COUNTY,
ILLINOIS
5.1 Factors Affecting Environmental Distribution and/or
Effects of Pollutants
5.1.1 Site-Related Factors
Abiotic features of atmospheric, soil, and hydrologic
conditions at the SRC site influence the potential distribu-
tion and impact of pollutants. The following section dis-
cusses the importance of the site factors in regard to
attenuation of pollutants. In order to make assessments of
the rate and extent of dissipation it is necessary to have
extensive information regarding the characteristics of the
receiving media as well as the characteristics of contam-
inants in the discharge. Table 5-1 summarizes various
parameters which must be taken into account in order to
estimate the fate of a discharged pollutant. The focus of
this section will be primarily to describe general dissi-
pative mechanisms operating in each media, procedures for
estimating dissipation rates, and specific White County con-
ditions which affect the dilution and dispersion of con-
taminants . Where sufficient information is available on
pollutant discharge levels and the site conditions, esti-
mates may be made for the expected potential distribution
and dissipation of contaminants.
5.1.1.1 Atmospheric Factors (2,3,4,5,6,7)
The first-order weather station closest to White County
is located at the Evansville-Dress Regional Airport, approxi-
mately 48 km SE of Grayville. The data from this station
will have to be used to determine the emission impacts of
any synfuels facility to be sited in the White County area.
5-1
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TABLE 5-1. PARAMETERS AFFECTING DILUTION AND DISPERSION
OF CONTAMINANTS DISCHARGED TO AIR, WATER, OR LAND (1)
Air Stack flow
Stack temperature
Stack height
Weather conditions: windspeed, sunlight, temperature,
pressure
Site topography
Characteristics of discharge
Photochemical reaction kinetics
Water Flow rate of receiving stream
Turbulence of receiving stream
Temperature of receiving stream
pH of receiving stream
Flow rate of discharge
Location or design of outfall
Temperature of discharge
Characteristics of contaminants in discharge: solu-
bility, reactivity, pH, biodegradability, sorp-
tion characteristics
Site topography
Climate: temperature, rainfall
Land Soil characteristics: permeability, pH, cation
exchange capacity, weathering, sodium absorp-
tion ratio
Characteristics of contaminants: ionization, leach-
ability, biodegradability
Characteristics of bulk solid waste: surface-to-
volume ratio, density
Method of disposition
Climate: temperature, rainfall
The 1977 Climatological Summary for this station can be
found in Appendix Table A-V-1; this table shows that the
prevailing wind direction is from the south. Strong cold
winds sometimes blow from the north and northwest following
cold frontal passages but as soon as the high pressure ridge
moves by, moderation usually begins with the wind backing
through the west and again into the south.
Rainfall and snowfall can "wash" pollutants out of the
air and deposit them in streams, land areas, or in the
5-2
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oceans; this is especially true of pollutants attached to
particulates. These pollutants may then become land and
water pollutants. Pollution due to atmospheric washout is
hard to quantify, even theoretically. The amount and dis-
tribution of precipitation available for washout is dis-
cussed in Chapter 4 of this report.
Wind speed is one of the most important factors in the
dispersion of air pollution. Wind may cleanse a polluted
atmosphere at a given location by moving masses of stagnant
air away from the point of origin, preventing an accumula-
tion of pollutants. It dilutes the concentration of a
contaminant directly, and as it moves over rough terrain the
resultant turbulent flow mixes the contaminant into a larger
volume of air, further diluting it.
Horizontal wind speeds below 7.2 km per hour are gen-
erally considered to be conducive to pollution conditions.
The weakest transport and dilution occur at low wind speeds;
and the greatest thermal stability, which inhibits vertical
s
motion, often occurs at wind speeds of less than 7.2 km per
hour. Appendix Table A-V-1 indicates that the mean wind
speeds in the White County area are above 8.2 km per hour in
all 12 months.
The relative flatness of the area and favorable atmos-
pheric conditions reduce pollution from coal facilities.
This flatness prevents impact of plumes with high-level
land. Additionally, the region has good meteorological
conditions for the dispersion of pollutants. Good ventila-
tion occurs throughout the region and stagnation conditions
are rather infrequent.
Oxidation, photolysis, and other chemical reactions for
each individual chemical pollutant, or among two or more
5-3
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pollutants, are possible in the plume. Sulfur- and nitrogen-
containing compounds have been most extensively studied in
this respect. Most atmospheric sulfate is formed by chemi-
cal conversion from the precursor, sulfur dioxide (802).
The amount of sulfate (SOT) produced by direct combustion is
small -- probably not more than a few percent of the total
emitted sulfur.
In the power plant plumes that have been completely
analyzed, the rate of conversion of sulfur dioxide to sul-
fate varied from 1/2 to 5 percent per hour. Condensation
nuclei counts and aerosol size distribution profiles indi-
cate that the major pathway is a homogeneous reaction, first
order in sulfur dioxide, and probably involving the hydroxyl
radical. The reaction rate depends on sunlight intensity
and appears to also depend on water vapor concentration,
background ozone levels, and the extent to which the plume
has mixed with background air.
Nitric oxide (NO) is converted to nitrogen dioxide
(N0«) much more rapidly than sulfur dioxide is converted to
sulfate. Typically, 50 percent of the nitric oxide has
reacted by the time it has moved 30 km downwind from the
plant. In studies involving power plant plumes, ambient
ozone is almost totally consumed within the plume bound-
aries. Ozone is almost certainly responsible for the
oxidation, since the amount of ozone removed was approxi-
mately equal to the amount of nitric oxide converted to
nitrogen dioxide. However, in the reducing atmosphere of
the coal liquefaction technology, ozone would not be expec-
ted. Even in coal combustion, the production of ozone is
considered to be a phenomenon that exists only for a spe-
cific set of circumstances.
5-4
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Other interactions of this type are possible between
the many pollutants in the emissions. However, these pos-
sible interactions have not been studied as thoroughly as
sulfur dioxide and the nitrogen oxides.
5.1.1.2 Soil and Geologic Factors
The most important surface soil properties affecting
the potential distribution, and/or ecotoxicological effects
of inorganic and organic contaminants, relate to the effec-
tiveness of the organic and inorganic (clay) colloids in
sorbing or trapping potentially toxic substances, soil pH,
percolation rate, level of organic matter, and the activity
of microorganisms.
The greater adsorptive capacities of the fine particles
of clay and silt (i.e., particle diameters of one micron or
less) compared to sand particles are widely recognized.
Soil colloids are described as complex aluminosilicates
coated with organic substances, broadly referred to as humic
complexes; these organoaluminosilicate complexes exhibit
selective ion adsorption. Many mineral colloid surfaces are
covered with a coating of hydrous oxides of iron and man-
ganese. These exist in amorphous or microcrystalline forms
and in themselves exhibit a high specific surface area; up
to 300 square meters per gram. The oxygen and hydroxyl
groups of the hydrous oxides exert electrical charges which
are pH dependent. Therefore, their capacity for sorption is
pH dependent.
The dissolution and deposition of the coatings are also
dependent upon the oxidation-reduction (redox) potential in
the system. This parameter then becomes indirectly impor-
tant in the adsorption or desorption of heavy metals. Sorp-
tion and desorption of metals further depend upon their
5-5
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concentrations in the percolate and upon the ones present.
As with clays, there is an order of selectivity in adsorp-
tion. It is quite possible, however, that some heavy metals
may move into the groundwater system prior to the exhaustion
of exchange capacity.
In general, the amount of negative charge and surface
area of clays is dependent on the clay type, being lowest
for the kaolinite type and highest for the montmorillonite
type. The primary surface soils (to a depth of about 1.8 m)
occurring at the proposed White County site (e.g., the
Hosmer-Ava-Bluford soil association) exhibit a silt loam
texture at the surface down to a depth of from 22 to 48 cm.
The subsoil materials range in texture from a heavy silt
loam to light silty clay loam at 25 to 125 cm (Hosmer and
Ava series), to a silty clay loam to clay loam at 48 to 125
cm. Thus, the major soils at the proposed site exhibit an
extensive subsoil zone of clay accumulation (some kaolinite)
that provides good potential for adsorption and exchange of
anions and cations that may enter the subsurface water sys-
tem. The negatively charged points of the clay surface hold
cations (which carry a positive charge) by electrostatic and
van der Waals forces. Usually the attraction is propor-
tional to the positive charge on the cation. The upper
limit for fixation of cations is referred to as the cation
exchange capacity (CEC), and that of anions is known as the
anion exchange capacity (AEC) (8) . When the cation satura-
tion point is reached, the percolate composition will remain
stable. Factors affecting CEC and AEC include soil solute
concentration, pH, and percolation rate. Thus, no quanti-
tative predictions of the sorption characteristics of the
Hosmer-Ava-Bluford association can be made short of a site-
specific analysis.
5-6
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Recent work by Johnson and Cole (8) indicates that
anion production (HCOl) and leaching (N and P) can be used
effectively as an index of total ionic leaching through
soils. In general, the order of affinities of major anions
is P0,3~> S0,2~> Cl" = N03". Highly weathered iron- and
aluminum-rich soils have higher adsorption capacities than
the younger iron- and aluminum-poor soils. The soils and
geologic materials of the Hosmer-Ava-Bluford association
appear intermediate in this regard (10,11).
The activities of soil microorganisms must be recog-
nized in predicting the movement and composition of leach-
ates. For example, under anaerobic soil conditions,
microbes may convert trace elements to the less mobile
sulfides. On the other hand, these activities under aerobic
soil conditions may facilitate leaching of trace elements
with subsequent passage into lower layers. The downward
movement of trace elements in the soil column is a function
of cation exchange, Eh, pH, and organic colloids. Trace
elements with vacant "d"-orbitals,, such as Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn,
and Mo tend to be bound to soil organic matter. On the
other hand, acidic soils tend to have high trace element
availabilities (e.g., Mn and Ni) to the roots of crop
plants. For selenium, the availability to plant roots in
neutral to alkaline soils is reported to be greater than
that in acidic soils, directly opposite to Mn and Ni.
Appendix Table A-V-11 shows some of the abiotic and
biotic factors influencing the environmental transport of
trace elements in soils. Key factors are the availability
of trace elements for uptake and potential bioaccumulation
by plants, ability of trace metals to travel through soil to
groundwater, and the immobilization of trace metals in
surface layers of soil from which it can be transported to
nearby ecosystems by surface runoff, erosion, or wind-
5-7
-------
blown dust. Most nonpoint pollution sources can be attrib-
uted to the transport of contaminated sediments. Most
cationic trace metals are immobilized in soil and are pres-
ent in concentrations which would not pose a threat of
groundwater contamination unless they are methylated (e.g.,
Hg), but anionic groups may pose a potential hazard. A
theoretical study of the potential impact of a coal gasi-
fication plant on the trace element levels in soils sur-
rounding the plant after 40 years of operation identified
copper, mercury, molybdenum, and tin as elements whose
endogenous soil levels would be greatly exceeded (12).
The representative nature of the Illinoian unconsoli-
dated drift materials underlying the Hosmer-Ava-Bluford
association of White County is illustrated by the data in
Table 5-2.
TABLE 5-2. REPRESENTATIVE NATURE OF THE
ILLINOIAN DRIFT (9)
Thickness Depth to base
Pleistocene series (meters) (meters)
Illinoian Stage
Glasford Formation
Till, noncalcareous, very 4.6 4.6
silty, light brown
Gravel, fine-to-medium- 1.5 6.1
grained; till, calcareous,
orange-colored
Till, calcareous, brownish- 3.0 9.1
gray
Bedrock, shale (occurs as part of the bedrock).
The nature of these unconsolidated materials can affect con-
struction, mining, and land use activities. Beyond this,
they are important sources of construction products and of
5-8
-------
groundwater (9). No site-specific logs of wells were un-
covered. The thinnest layers of glacial drift (less than
7.6 m) are reported in southern Illinois. Bedrock is widely
exposed in southern and western Illinois. Bedrock outcrops
and areas where the bedrock is thinly covered by glacial
drift, present opportunities for most pollutants to gain
entry into groundwater deposits and travel sizeable dis-
tances through joints and channels. Of equal importance,
the burial of hazardous wastes in these areas would intro-
duce the danger of groundwater pollution (9). So far as is
known, most of the bedrock outcrops occur south of the White
County area.
5.1.1.3 Hydrologic Factors
5.1.1.3.1 Surface Waters
When effluents are discharged to surface waters, var-
ious factors contribute to the dispersion and dissipation of
pollutants. The parameters which affect the dissipation of
s
contaminants in water, shown in Table 5-3, will be discussed
in the following chapter.
5.1.1.3.2 Dispersion and Dilution of Pollutants
The initial dispersion of contaminants results from the
mixing and dilution of the waste discharge by the receiving
stream. The primary receiving stream in this study would be
the Wabash River, with the Little Wabash River potentially
being the recipient of fugitive pollutants or accidental
spills.
Contaminants in the effluent stream are diluted by the
larger volume of water in the receiving stream. These con-
taminants are carried along with the flowing waters at a
5-9
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TABLE 5-3. ABIOTIC FEATURES OF A HYDROLOGIC SYSTEM
WHICH AFFECT DISSIPATIVE RATE OF CONTAMINANTS
Increases in
environmental
variable
Impact
Dissipative
process
Sunlight hours
Temperature
Wind velocity
pH
Fineness of sediment
Precipitation
increases
increases
decreases
increases
may increase
or decrease
increases
decreases
increases
Flow volume
Turbulence
increases
increases
Turbidity
decreases
photooxidation
chemical/biological oxidation
processes
dissolved oxygen
evaporation of volatiles
solubility of metals and other
compounds
adsorptive capacity
seepage to and from groundwater
aquifers
most dissipative processes through
increased flow volume, velocity,
turbulence, turbidity, and sedi-
ment load
dilution of contaminants
-mixing of contaminants/sediments
-speed of chemical reactions
-evaporation of volatiles
-dissolved oxygen
-dissolved minerals
photooxidation
rate determined by the characteristics of the stream. Esti-
mates of the time required for a contaminant to travel a
given distance in a stream is of value in assessing the
dispersion of contaminants routinely discharged into it.
Such time-of-travel information would also be of vital
importance in following the route of any hazardous material
accidentally discharged into a natural waterway.
5-10
-------
For the purpose of examining the dispersion or mixing
effect of the receiving stream, the contaminants will be
considered stable and undiminished by other dissipative
forces. If a contaminant is stable or conservative, there
will be a constant total amount of the material remaining in
the stream as it is carried downstream. If the material is
nonconservative, the amount of the material will become
smaller as it goes downstream as a result of deterioration
or of chemical reaction with either the air, water, or
streambed.
When a material such as a dye or other contaminant is
introduced into a stream it is immediately subject to the
turbulence caused by the various velocities present. As a
consequence the contaminant is mixed or dispersed. It is
well known that there is considerable variation in the flow
velocity throughout a cross section of .a stream, as is illus
trated by the typical stream cross section in Figure 5-1.
Here it can be seen that, for a small element of the stream-
flow at the top of the stream near the center, the velocity
will be considerably higher than it is near the streambed.
This difference means that the dye or contaminant will be
carried downstream by the fastest-moving element of the
stream and, at the same time, will begin to be dispersed
through the cross section. After a period of time, the dye
will be carried by all elements of the stream water.
Figure 5-1. Typical lines of equal velocity in
a stream cross section (13)
5-11
-------
The principle of dispersion is illustrated in a prac-
tical example in Figure 5-2, which shows actual dye con-
centration curves, as measured by the State Water Survey in
a time-of-travel study on the Vermilion River in Illinois,
for a distance 24 km downstream. The three downstream
curves have successively lower peaks and longer durations.
The data illustrate what can be expected to occur by the
natural process of dispersion in any stream. In this case,
the dye tracer was considered to be stable; the total amount
of the dye did not dissipate to any important extent during
the study.
80
70
£
°- 60
•t
2 50
i
£40
UJ
CJ
g 30
—i 1 1—
DYE DUMPED AT
•0 KILOMETERS
2.1 km
1 - 1 - 1 - 1
1 - 1 - r
*Downstream distance from dye injection point _
6.8 km
14.5 kir.
-------
Vl -
where V, is the velocity of the leading edge of the dye and
V is the velocity of the peak concentration of the dye (13)
Time-of- travel rates have been estimated between var-
ious sections of the Wabash River. As shown in Table 5-4,
the distance a contaminant could be expected to travel in
one day ranges from 55 to 85 kilometers. Contaminants
discharged at New Harmony would, in general, be expected to
reach the junction of the Ohio River (83 km) within approxi-
mately one day.
TABLE 5-4. TIME-OF-TRAVEL RATES BETWEEN VARIOUS
LOCATIONS ALONG THE WABASH RIVER (14)
Reach along Wabash
Terre Haute - River ton
River ton - Vincennes
Vincennes - Mt. Carmel
Mt. Carmel - New Harmony
New Harmony - Ohio River
Distance
(km)
84.3
51.8
"56.8
68.4
82.9
Approximate
average
Time-of -travel
(days)
1
2
1
1
1
More precise time-of-travel rates have been determined
for the Little Wabash River, with allowance made for varia-
tion in flow rates. As shown in the Little Wabash River
time-of-travel graph (Figure 5-3), contaminants discharged
into the river at Carmi would require one-half to one day
(depending on the flow rate) to travel the 45 kilometers to
the mouth at New Haven. The three curves on the graph show
generalized flow conditions for high, medium, and low flows,
representing frequencies of 10, 50, and 90 percent of the
days per year. High flow is approximately bank full.
5-13
-------
0
0
LITTLE WABASH RIVER
40
60
80 100 120 140
160 180 200
. 1
DISTA
1,1,
^CE,
IN
MILES
1 •
i
I
1
40
80
280
220
320
120 160 200 240
DISTANCE, IN KILOMETERS
Figure 5-3. Time-of-travel graph, Little Wabash River (13)
Actual discharges of the Little Wabash River, shown in Table
5-5, can be utilized to determine the general category of
particular flow rate.
TABLE 5-5. LITTLE WABASH RIVER: LOW, MEDIUM, AND HIGH
FLOW RATES AT GAGING STATIONS (13)
3
Flow (m /sec)
uses
number
3-3789
3-3795
3-3815
Station
Louisville
Below Clay City
Carmi
Low
F=0.90
0.11
0.13
0.79
Medium
F=0.50
2.34
3.40
14.50
High
F=0.10
47.01
73.62
229.37
5-14
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5.1.1.3.3 Other Dissipative Forces
In addition to the physical mixing and movement of
contaminants in surface water, numerous dissipative factors
operate to reduce the contaminant levels. Compounds enter-
ing the natural water systems will undergo removal, decom-
position, storage, or transport to the ocean. The signifi-
cance of various dissipative processes is a function of the
specific contaminant or contaminant category, as will be
discussed later in this report.
Climatic conditions and the hydrologic features of the
receiving stream (Wabash River and possibly the Little
Wabash River) are all variables which may affect the rate at
which contaminants are dissipated. A summary of abiotic
features which may influence dissipation rate of pollutants
in water has been presented in Table 5-3. Lack of under-
standing of the complex interaction of these environmental
variables severely limits the reliability of the dissipation
rate estimates for substances in a natural stream.
A study considering only the dissipative mechanism of
evaporation, determined half-life values for several low
solubility compounds. Table 5-6 shows the time required for
half of the compound, considered at a depth of one meter
below the water surface, to evaporate from the water.
Assumptions made in this study represent ideal conditions;
the actual rate of evaporation under environmental condi-
tions may be substantially slower. Even when the limita-
tions of this study are considered, the half-lives of the
evaluated compounds are, nonetheless, surprisingly small.
One consequence of these short half-life compounds is the
difficulty introduced in monitoring effluents. If the
effluent monitoring station is located far from the source,
then by the time the water reaches the station much of the
5-15
-------
TABLE 5-6. EVAPORATION PARAMETERS AND RATES FOR
VARIOUS COMPOUNDS AT 25°C (15)
Compounds
Solubility,
mg/1
Vapor pressure
mm Hg
Half-life of
compound at
depth of 1 meter
Alkanes
n-Octane
2,2, 4-Trimethylpentane
Aromatics
Benzene
Toluene
o-Xylene
Cumene
Naphthalene
Biphenyl
0.66
2.44
1,780.
515.
175.
50.
33.
7.48
14.1
49.3
95.2
28.4
6.6
4.6
0.23
0.057
3.8 sec
4.1 sec
37.3 min
30.6 min
38.8 min
14.2 min
2.9 hr
2.2 hr
contaminant may have already moved from the water to the
atmosphere. If the contaminant is potentially hazardous
and is not readily degraded in the atmosphere, then the
quantity of contaminants discharged to the atmosphere may
be underestimated.
Chemical reactions in the water systems can result in
the breakdown of pollutants into simpler, non-hazardous
components. Some chemical interactions may, however, result
in the production of substances more toxic than the original
contaminant.
Most chemical reactions occur at the air-water inter-
face, the sediment-water interface, or the boundaries
between the water and the particles that are suspended in
the water. Materials that concentrate at the air-water
interface are subject to oxidation, ultraviolet radiation,
evaporation of volatile constituents, and polymerization
(16). Environmental factors such as increased flow velocity
and turbulence enhance the probability of contaminants being
distributed to these various interfaces, thereby increasing
the speed of chemical degradation.
5-16
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5.1.1.3.4 Groundwater
Potential groundwater contamination is a major envi-
ronmental hazard which has in the past received only limited
consideration. An important aspect of groundwater contam-
ination is the fact that it may persist for years, decades,
or even centuries. This is in marked contrast to surface
water pollution. Many of the degradation factors which
actively operate to dissipate a contaminant in surface
waters are absent or operate at much slower rates in ground-
water aquifers. It is important, therefore, to control
groundwater pollution by regulating the source of contamina-
tion. The lack of specific data, including that of the
soils and hydrological conditions at the site, precludes the
possibility of calculating the rate of contaminant movements
into and through the groundwater system. The focus of this
section will, therefore, be a generic description of ground-
water contamination, with incorporation of site-specific
data where available.
In order to appreciate the magnitude and severity of
groundwater contamination, the hydrologic system itself, the
mechanism of groundwater contamination, and the environ-
mental hazards must be understood. A discussion of aquifer
recharge/discharge and the hydrogeologic conditions affect-
ing groundwater contamination is given in Appendix V. A
general understanding of the way in which groundwater is
recharged and discharged, along with the factors affecting
the rate and direction of movement, is vital to assessing
the potential impact of an SRC facility on the existing
water resources at a specific site.
5-17
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5.1.1.3.5 Contamination of Groundwater
With regard to coal liquefaction, two major potential
sources of groundwater pollution are surface impoundments of
various liquids and solid waste landfills. Impoundments in
the form of tailing ponds or sludge dewatering lagoons are
surface depressions in which waste fluids are pumped or
drained to the pond via pipeline or drainage ditch. The
suspended solids then settle to the floor of the pond and
the remaining portion (effluent) is either reused, dis-
charged into local surface water, or spread on land. As the
solids settle, the pond fills with sediment and is either
abandoned or dredged to create new storage space.
Seepage is the most prevalent source of groundwater
contamination from ponded wastes. Levels of potential
pollutants from such wastes are given in Chapter 3. Other
routes by which impoundments may contribute to pollution
problems are through pond overflow and dike leakage, both
of which can recharge a local aquifer with contaminated
water. Also, prior to abandonment of the waste site, fail-
ure to properly cover the area (thus preventing or limiting
the rainfall infiltration) could result in the area con-
tinuing to be a contamination source.
Solid waste land disposal sites can also be sources of
groundwater contamination, because of the generation of
leachate caused by water percolating through the refuse.
Precipitation falling on a site either becomes runoff, re-
turns to the atmosphere via evaporation and transpiration
(water use by plants), or infiltrates the refuse. This
infiltrating water ultimately will form leachate containing
soluble and suspended contaminants.
5-18
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The process of leachate formation and subsequent
groundwater contamination is dependent upon the amount of
water which passes through the refuse. Water which infil-
trates the surface of the cover will first be subject to
evaporation and plant transpiration. Any water in excess of
field capacity will percolate through the layers of solid
waste. Additional surface runoff from the surrounding land,
moisture contained in the solid or liquid waste placed in
the fill, moisture from solid-waste decomposition, and water
entering through the bottom or sides of the site also con-
tribute to the generation of leachate.
Figure 5-4 illustrates the flow of contaminants from a
surface source such as a disposal pit, lagoon, or basin.
Note that the contaminated water flows downward to form a
recharge mound at the water table and then moves laterally
outward below the water table.
-SOURCE OF CONTAMINANTS
ZONE OF AERATION
RECHARGE MOUND
-CONFINING BED:
Figure 5-4. Percolation of contaminants from a
disposal pit to a water table aquifer (17)
Figure 5-5 indicates contaminant movement from a
surface stream or lake to a nearby pumping well. The draw-
down of the water table induces recharge of surface water to
5-19
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groundwater. Thus, continuous pumping from municipal water
supply wells located adjacent to a polluted stream may lead
to the contamination of the water supply.
CONTAMINATED
SURFACE WATER
AQUIFER
Figure 5-5. How contaminated water can be induced
to flow from a surface stream to a well (17)
5.1.1.3.6
Mechanism of Contamination (17)
Contaminants in groundwater tend to be removed or
lowered in concentration with time and with distance trav-
eled. Mechanisms involved include adsorption, dispersion
and dilution, and decay. The rate of attenuation is a
function of the type of contaminant and of the local hydro-
geologic framework. Attenuation in an aquifer is extremely
slow, as is the movement of groundwater (typically less than
0.6 m/day). Therefore, contaminants within the groundwater
system do not mix readily with native water and move as:
5-20
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(1) individual bodies or slugs (e.g., caused by intermittent
filling of and seepage from wastewater impoundments); (2)
local plumes (e.g., caused by continual flow of leachate
from beneath a landfill toward a pumping well); and (3)
masses of degraded water (e.g., caused by a large number of
septic tanks discharging nitrate-enriched water which
travels with the regional groundwater flow pattern).
Specific statements cannot be made about the distances
that contaminants will travel because of the wide varia-
bility of aquifer conditions and types of contaminants.
Also, each constituent from a source of contamination may
have a different attenuation rate, and the distance over
which contamination is present will vary with each com-
ponent. Yet, certain generalizations can be made. For
fine-grained alluvial aquifers, contaminants such as bac-
teria, viruses, organic materials, pesticides, and most
radioactive materials, are usually removed by adsorption
within distances of less than 100 m. However, most common
ions in solution move unimpeded through these aquifers,
subject only to the slow processes of attenuation.
A hypothetical example of a waste disposal site is
shown in Figure 5-6. Here groundwater flows toward a
river. Zones A, B, C, D, and E represent essentially stable
limits for different contaminants resulting from the steady
release of liquid wastes of unchanging composition. Con-
taminants form a plume of contaminated water extending
downgradient from the contamination source until they
attenuate to acceptable quality levels.
The shape and size of a plume depend upon the local
geology, the groundwater flow, the type and. concentration
of contaminants, the continuity of waste disposal, and any
modifications of the groundwater system by man, such as well
5-21
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,-WASTE SITE
DOWNSTREAM LIMIT
OF CONTAMINANTS
Figure.5-6. Hypothetical dispersal of contaminants in
mixed wastes through a water table aquifer (17)
pumping. Where groundwater is moving relatively rapidly,
a plume from a point source will tend to be long and thin;
but where the flow rate is low, the contaminant will tend
to spread more laterally to form a somewhat wider plume.
Irregular plumes can be created by local influences such as
pumping wells and variations in permeability.
In marked contrast to surface-water pollution, ground-
water contamination may persist for many years. The average
residence time of groundwater is on the order of 200 years;
consequently, a contaminant which is not readily decayed or
sorbed underground can remain as a degrading influence on
the resource for indefinite periods. Comparable residence
5-22
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time for water in a stream or river is on the order of 10
days. Controlling groundwater contamination, therefore, is
more difficult than controlling surface water contamination.
Underground contamination control is best achieved by regu-
lating the source of contamination. A secondary control is
physical entrapment and, when feasible, removing the con-
taminated water from the underground.
5.1.2 Characteristics of Chemical Pollutants
5.1.2.1 Physical/Chemical Interactions
The behavior of a chemical pollutant introduced into
the environment depends largely upon two factors -- the
nature of its surroundings and the physical-chemical prop-
erties of the pollutant. For example, transformations can
occur in all environmental media -- the hydrosphere, litho-
sphere, atmosphere, and biotic components of the environ-
ment. Likewise, in the medium, the behavior of a chemical
is determined by its solubility, vapor pressure, adsorption
ability, and degradability.
5.1.2.1.1 Inorganics
The fate of compounds in natural water systems is
influenced by their solubilities: the solubility deter-
mining whether it will go into solution, become suspended in
the water column, or adsorbed onto the sediments.
The solubility product constants for the elements, in-
organic compounds, and complexes associated with an SRC
technology are presented and discussed in Appendix Tables A-
V-7, A-V-8, and A-V-9. In general, information of this type
can be used to predict if an element in an effluent stream
will be in a soluble form or in an insoluble form. The
5-23
-------
presence of an element in a soluble form implies that the
element will travel at the same rate as that of the receiv-
ing water, and thus will be more subjected to exposure,
absorption, and assimilation by aquatic biota. Elements in
insoluble forms are more likely to be adsorbed onto sedi-
ments. However, "soluble" is a relative term and signifi-
cant concentrations of solvated ions can occur for the more
toxic elements, even if they occur as insoluble forms.
Unfortunately, the solubility characteristics of the
elements can be changed from the behavior predicted in the
above-mentioned tables by environmental interactions. For
example, elemental mercury is considered to be quite "in-
soluble"; however, microbial methylation in sediments can
change the form of mercury to a compound which is quite
soluble and easily absorbed by aquatic biota. This mercury
is then in a form which can be easily absorbed by predators
of the aquatic biota, including fish-eating birds and
humans.
Volatility of elements and inorganic compounds is
usually not considered significant since the boiling points
at atmospheric pressure are very high for most of these
materials, except for the hydrides (18). A high boiling
point implies a low vapor pressure. The quantity of a
compound expected to volatilize from water can be predicted
from its vapor pressure; this information is discussed
elsewhere in this report. Hydrides are usually unstable in
aqueous solution. Exceptions to this rule include the
hydrides of copper and germanium. These compounds, if
present, may volatilize from aqueous mixtures. Methylation
of an element, such as the microbial methylation of mercury,
can also lead to transfer of the element from the water
phase to the air phase, since the methylated form is much
more volatile.
5-24
-------
The melting points, boiling points, and solubilities of
selected inorganic compounds are presented in Appendix Table
A-V-10. In order to be included in this table, a particular
inorganic compound had to have a boiling point less than
100°C and not decompose when contacting water. Thus, these
compounds will tend to be stable in the environment and may
tend to remain in the atmosphere. The particular air/water
partitioning for each individual compound will depend on the
water solubility as well as the boiling point. A more
extensive listing of these properties was published in
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry (19).
5.1.2.1.2 Organics
Knowledge of the organic pollutants potentially eman-
ating from an SRC facility is extremely limited. Waste
streams containing organic constituents could contain
hundreds of different compounds, the concentrations of which
would depend upon the operating parameters as well as the
type of feed coal. Rather than trying to characterize
specific individual compounds, an attempt will be made to
examine certain groups of compounds which are presumed to be
present in the largest quantities and/or to be the most
toxic or hazardous. The compound groups to be characterized
include phenols (MEG category No. 18), fused aromatic hydro-
carbons and their derivatives (commonly called polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons or PAH, MEG Category No. 21), ali-
phatic hydrocarbons -- alkanes and cyclic alkanes (MEG
Category No. 1A), aliphatic hydrocarbons -- alkenes, cyclic
alkenes, and dienes (MEG Category IB), and benzene and
substituted benzene hydrocarbons (MEG Category 15).
5-25
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5.1.2.1.3 Phenol
Phenol is very soluble in water and has a moderately
low vapor pressure (1 mm Hg at 40.1°C). It will remain in
solution in natural waters under most conditions with low
losses by volatilization. Soil particles may serve as
sorption sites to remove phenol from solution. However, as
a weak acid, phenol solubility will increase slightly in
alkaline water and will result in leaching occurring more
readily from alkaline soils. Phenol does not decompose
photolytically under visible light, but is decomposed pri-
marily by microbial action (20).
5.1.2.1.4 Fused Aromatic Hydrocarbons
The high molecular weight and lack of polar substituent
groups attached to the aromatic rings make fused aromatic
hydrocarbons [polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)] very
insoluble in water. As is true with other organics, the
toxicity of PAH compounds for aquatic organisms seems to be
universally related to the water solubility -- the less the
water solubility, the more toxic the compound. Table 5-7
reviews the reported solubilities for polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons given in the scientific literature. Solubility
of PAH in natural water systems seems to be poorly defined.
Some of the inconsistencies in measured values may be the
result of using different experimental techniques and con-
ditions. Although PAH have a low solubility in water, they
may occur in liquefaction waste streams as aqueous solutions
associated with or adsorbed onto a variety of particulate
and colloidal materials and thereby be transported through
the water environment (24).
The volatility of PAH compounds at 25°C is very low,
ranging from 6.8 x 10 torr for phenanthrene (three rings)
5-26
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TABLE 5-7. SOLUBILITY OF FUSED AROMATIC
HYDROCARBONS IN WATER (21,22,23)
Compound
Experimental conditions
Solubility (ppm)
Phenanthrene
1,2-Dibenzanthracene
Pyrene
Anthracene
Chrysene
Naphthacene
1,2-5,6-Dibenzanthracene
2-Methylnaphthalene
Naphthalene
Biphenyl
Acenaphthene
Phenanthrene
Mixtures of naphthalene and
phenanthrene (solubility of
phenanthrene)
Mixtures of biphenyl and
phenanthrene
Mixtures of acenaphthene and
phenanthrene
Mixtures of 2-Methylnaphthalene
and phenanthrene
Mixtures of naphthalene and
acenaphthene and phenanthrene
(solubility of phenanthrene)
Shaking crystals in dis-
tilled water for 3 months
at 25°C
Standard hydrocarbons dis-
solved in hexane added to
doubly distilled water or
artificial sea water and
shaken for 12 hours at 25°C
1,600
10
175
75
6
1.5
0.6
24,600
31,300; 22,000
(dw) (sw)
7,450; 4,760
(dw) (sw)
3,470
1,070; 710
(dw) (sw)
1,060
910
1,010
800
1,010
(continued)
5-27
-------
Compound
TABLE 5-7. (continued)
Experimental conditions
Solubility (ppm)
Phenanthrene
4,5-Methylphenanthrene
Fluoranthene
Pyrene
Anthracene
9-Methyl-l,2-benzanthracene
1' -Methy1-1,2-benzanthracene
10-Methyl-l,2-benzanthracene
1,2-benzanthracene
6-Me thy1chrysene
5-Methylchrysene
Chrysene
5,6-Dimethylchrysene
5-Methyl-3,4-benzopyrene
3,4-Benzopyrene
20-Methylcholanthrene
Cholanthrene
Picene
Perylene
Naphthacene
1,2,7,8-Dibenzanthracene
1,2,5,6-Dibenzanthracene
9,10-Dimethyl-l,2-benzanthracene
10-Amyl-l,2-benzanthracene
10-Ethyl-l,2-benzanthracene
Nephelometric method at
27°C (crystals of hydro-
carbons added)
1,600
1,100
240
165
75
66
55
55
11
65
62
1.5
25
0.8
4
1.5
3.5
2.5
0.5
1.0
12
<0.5
43
0.8
45
5-28
-------
-12
to 1.5 x 10 torr for coronene (seven rings). The adsorp-
tion of PAH compounds to particles in either air or water
reduces their activity and therefore makes it unlikely that
significant quantities of these compounds will pass from the
water to the air by co-distillation (25). PAH are readily
adsorbed to particulate matter, which can be deposited on
land or water surfaces. The PAH, while adsorbed on par-
ticulates or in solution, may eventually reach the beds of
the various water bodies and in the absence of light and
under anaerobic conditions, remain in a stable condition for
long periods (26).
In the air, PAH compounds are highly reactive. There
is evidence that they are degraded in the atmosphere by
photooxidation, by reaction with atmospheric oxidants, and
by reaction with sulfur dioxides (27).
Because PAH are carried by suspended particulate mat-
ter, their longevity in air depends on the lifetime of the
carrier aerosol in air and on chemical alteration of the PAH
themselves. Initial estimates of atmospheric residence
times of particles less than 5 m in diameter exceed 100
hours under dry atmospheric conditions. Chemical reactivity
in the presence of sunlight may lead to transition of PAH to
other material in several hours. Without sunlight, its
lifetime may be much longer (27).
5.1.2.1.5 Alkanes. Alkenes, and Aromatic Hydro-
carbons
The solubilities of selected hydrocarbons are given in
Tables 5-8 and 5-9. Studies indicate that chain-branching
increases the water solubility of paraffin, olefin, and
acetylene hydrocarbons, but not of cycloparaffin, cyclo-
olefin, and aromatic hydrocarbons. For each homologous
5-29
-------
TABLE 5-8. SOLUBILITY IN WATER AT ROOM TEMPERATURE OF
PARAFFIN, BRANCHED-CHAIN PARAFFIN, AND OLEFIN
HYDROCARBONS (28)
Hydrocarbon
Alkanes
Methane
Ethane
Propane
n-Butane
Isobutane
n-Pentane
Isopentane
2, 2-Dimethylpropane
n-Hexane
2-Methylpentane
3-Methylpentane
2, 2-Dimethylbutane
n-Heptane
2 , 4-Dimethylpentane
n-Octane
2 , 2 , 4-Tr imethylpentane
2,2, 5-Tr imethylhexane
Alkenes
Ethene
Propene
1-Butene
2-Methylpropene
l-Pentene
2-Pentene
3-Methyl- 1-butene
1-Hexane
2-Methyl-l-pentene
4-Methyl-l-pentene
2-Heptene
1-Octene
Diakenes
1 , 3-Butadiene
2-Methyl-l , 3-butadiene
1 , 4-Pentadiene
1 , 5-Hexadiene
1,6-Heptadiene
Solubility at 25°C
•* /•
(g of hydrocarbon/ 10 g of water)
Other
Reference 28 literature
24.4 + 1.0 21.7, 22.8, 21.5
60.4 + 1.3 56.6, 58.3, 51.6
62.4 + 2.1 67.0, 65.6
61.4 + 2.6 72.7, 67.2
48.9 + 2.1
38.5 + 2.0 360
47.8 + 1.6
33.2 + 1.0
9.5 + 1.3 140, 36
13.8 + 0.9
12.8 + 0.6
18.4 + 1.3
2.93 + 0.20 50, 10
4.06 + 0.29
0.66 + 0.06 14
2.44 + 0.12
1.15 + 0.08
131 + 10 134, 131
200 + 27 183 at 30°C
222 + 10
263 + 23 289, 314
148+7
203 + 8
130 + 14
50 + 1.2
78 + 3.2
48 + 2.6
15 + 1.4
2.7 + 0.2
735 + 20
642 + 10
558 + 27
169 + 6
44 + 3
«q
Numbers following -f symbol indicate standard deviation from
"e _„.£-., — — ~_ fta\ C
Molar vol
(ml /mole
at 20°C<)
39
55
88.1
100.4
104.3
115.2
116.4
122.1
130.7
131.9
129.7
132.7
146.5
148.9
162.6
165.1
181.3
54.5
81.9
94.3
94.4
109.5
107.0-108.2°
111.8
125.0
123.4
126.7
p
138.7-140.0
157.0
87.1
100.0
103.1
118.7
134.0
mean.
Molar volume for cis-trans forms.
5-30
-------
TABLE 5-9. ROUTES OF ABSORPTION AND EXCRETION FOR VARIOUS ELEMENTS (18)
Excreted Excreted
Element in sweat in feces
Antimony +
Arsenic +
Beryllium largely
Boron
Bromine
m Cadmium 85% of
LO intake
Chlorine
Chromium +
Cobalt
Copper
Fluorine +
Iodine
Lead largely
Cross
Excreted Excreted Absorbed Intestinal Cross Placental Cross
in urine in breath in lung absorption gills barrier skin
210% + 5-70% (little
as Sb+3 or
10-80% + + 5-70% +
+ poor (<5%)
+ + 70%
+ +70%
10% of + poor (<5%) +
intake
+ + >70%
+ >70%
210% 5-70%
210% + f5-70%
+ 25-100% >70% +
+ + 70%
+ (primarily) poor (5-10%) + + _
Manganese
2-3%
j(25-50%)
major 4%
(continued)
-------
TABLE 5-9. (continued)
Cross
Ln
i
NJ
Excreted Excreted Excreted Excreted Absorbed Intestinal Cross Placental Cross
Element in sweat in f eces in urine in breath in lung absorption gills barrier skin
Mercury + predominant >10% + 50-100% inorga
(85%) I 2-25%
organi
100%
Nickel + >10% > + 5-70%
Nitrates/ 4
nitrites
Phosphorus >10% + 5-70%
Ruthenium largely + <5%
Selenium + + 50-80% 4- + 35-85%
Sulfur >10% + 5-70%
Tellurium + + >70%
Thallium + +
Tin largely + 5-70%
Vanadium + + >70%
Zinc largely + + <5%
nic: + +
c: 50-
+
+
4-
limited 4-
-------
series of hydrocarbons, the logarithm of the solubility in
water was found to be a linear fraction of the hydrocarbon
molar volume.
The presence in water of certain natural or dissolved
organic substances has been shown to increase the solubility
of some hydrocarbons. Removal of this dissolved organic
matter from natural samples resulted in a 50 to 99 percent
decrease in the amounts of hydrocarbons (primarily n-alkanes)
solubilized. Solubilities of phenanthrene and anthracene
were unaffected by the removal. However, high concentra-
tions of surfactants (10 to 50 mg/liter) have been shown to
increase the water solubility of benzo-a-pyrene (BaP) by a
factor of 2 to 10 (29).
5.1.2.2 Biological Interactions
In addition to understanding the physical-chemical re-
moval processes, an understanding of the biological cycling
of various contaminants is essential in order to evaluate
the potential impact of a substance. The effect of a con-
taminant on an ecosystem is to a large extent a reflection
of the degree to which it is taken up, metabolized, accumu-
lated, and/or excreted by specific organisms.
The following section will discuss the biological cy-
cling of contaminants in organisms (including uptake,
metabolism, elimination, and retention in organisms) as well
as the ecotoxicological effects (acute toxicity, carcino-
genicity, mutagenicity, teratogenicity and chronic toxicity).
5.1.2.2.1 Inorganics
In order to be a toxicant, a material must interact
with a vital function in a living system. Thus, the toxicant
5-33
-------
effect is a function of the dose level, the time of contact,
and the pH and salinity of the medium, as well as other param-
eters. The efficiency of absorption of a potential toxicant
by an organism depends on the element and the form in which
the element occurs in the medium, plus the physiological
state, the age, and even the habits of the organism. A
general description of the approximate rate of absorption
and excretion is found in Table 5-9. These data are based
on laboratory experiments with a number of mammals as well
as human studies. Since the absorption of trace elements
depends on many factors, the numbers in Table 5-9 are only
indicative of general trends.
The absorption of an inorganic element depends upon the
chemical form of the element. In general, univalent cations
readily diffuse across the gut wall, become more or less
uniformly distributed in the soft tissues, and are fairly
rapidly eliminated in urine. Divalent cations appear to be
much less readily absorbed across the gut wall. It is still
uncertain how efficiently major elements such as calcium and
magnesium are absorbed, since the reverse process may take
place lower down in the gut. Once absorbed, most divalent
cations concentrate in bone and are relatively slowly elimi-
nated in the urine and feces. The affinity for bone is
greatest for those ions most closely resembling calcium.
Thus, barium and strontium are notable bone-seekers, but
copper, cobalt, and nickel diffuse into the soft tissues and
a sizeable percentage is excreted in the urine. Polyvalent
cations diffuse still less readily across the gut wall, and
remain in the fecal material. It should be noted, however,
that the extent of absorption across the intestinal wall can
be profoundly modified by other components of the diet.
Well-known examples include the effect of Vitamin D on
calcium absorption, of sulfate on barium and molybdenum
absorption, and of aluminum on the absorption of phosphate (30)
5-34
-------
The amount of inorganic pollutants taken up by aquatic
bottom dwellers is a function of the type of sediment to
which the pollutant is adsorbed. For example, a laboratory
study of the uptake of sediment-bound heavy metals by the
clam, Macoma balthica, showed the availability of these
metals was dependent upon the physical and chemical nature
of the metal-sediment association. Laboratory studies of
bioaccumulation from individual sedimentary trace-element
sinks labeled with radioactive tracers of silver, cobalt,
and zinc indicated that bioavailability varied among metals
within a given sink and among sinks for a given metal.
Little bioaccumulation was observed from several sinks that
may be common in nature, i.e., little zinc or cobalt uptake
was observed when those metals were coprecipitated with
amorphic iron oxide or manganese oxide. However, silver,
cobalt, and zinc were all taken up from detrital organics,
and silver was accumulated by the clam from the iron oxide
precipitate. Even quantitatively minor sinks within aquatic
sediments may be important sources of some metals. Uptake
rates of cobalt and zinc from biogenic carbonates (e.g.,
crushed clam shells) were significantly greater than rates
of uptake from other sinks. Likewise, silver uptake from
both biogenic carbonates and synthetic calcites was greater
than silver uptake from iron oxides or detrital organics.
Sinks from which bioaccumulation of bound metals was greatest
also showed the greatest rate of sediment-to-water desorp-
tion of metals. When such sinks are abundant in nature,
bioavailability of sediment-bound metals may be enhanced,
both through increased uptake from ingested particulates by
deposit feeders and through increased sedimentary desorp-
tion, which results in higher concentrations of solute
metals (31).
Uptake by both polychaetes (Nereis suecinea) and
deposit-feeding shrimp (Palaemon debilis) of mercury bound
5-35
-------
to highly organic estuarine sediment, is significantly less
than uptake of mercury bound to iron oxide-dominated sedi-
ments characteristic of runoff in Hawaii. In contrast,
accumulation of zinc by the polychaete, Nereis diversicolor,
differs little when uptake of organic particulate-bound zinc
on the surface of marine sediments is compared with uptake
of iron oxide-bound zinc on the surface of such sediments.
Experiments with mixed sediments may be influenced by both
metal mobility among binding types and/or selective feeding
of experimental organisms. Preliminary experiments showed
that iron oxide-bound cadmium was much more available to
Macoma balthica than was cadmium bound to organic particu-
lates. Coating the iron oxide particles by stimulation of
bacterial growth also significantly reduced cadmium uptake
by the clam. Cadmium, lead, and zinc concentrations in
earthworms apparently vary with soil series, which is in
keeping with known variations in chemical extractability of
trace elements between soil series (31, 32).
Precise predictions of lead concentrations in deposit-
feeding clams may be obtained from the lead-iron ratio ex-
tracted from estuarine sediments by weak acids. Lead analy-
ses were conducted on surface sediments and clams,
Scrobicularia plana, collected from 40 stations in 18 estu-
aries of southwest England. Total lead concentrations
ranged from 41 to 1600 ug/g in the sediments and 14 to 1016
Ug/g in the clams. Variations in the lead content of the
animals were not predictable from total lead concentrations
in the sediment. Statistical evidence suggested amorphic
iron oxides were an important sink for lead in the sedi-
ments. At stations where high concentrations of iron were
extracted from the sediments, the availability of lead to
the clams was inhibited. Among all stations lead concen-
trations in the clams were strongly correlated with the
5-36
-------
lead-iron ratio in the sediments (r = 0.97; p = much less
than 0.001) (33).
Selective feeding of most benthic species can lead to
differential metal distribution. For example, concentra-
tions of zinc are generally higher in subsurface-feeding
polychaetes than in polychaetes that feed at the sediment-
water interface. Where significant amounts of zinc are
sorbed to iron or manganese oxides, solubilization of zinc
would be likely upon dissolution of the amorphic oxides in
the anoxic interstitiunu Upward diffusion of dissolved
iron, manganese, and zinc within the sediment may result in
oxidation and reprecipitation at the aerobic sediment-water
interface. However, zinc occluded in amorphic oxides of
iron and manganese appears to be one of the least available
forms of zinc to deposit-feeding clams. Thus, while sur-
face-feeding polychaetes are ingesting zinc in its least
available form (and, quite possibly, protected from inter-
stitial solute zinc by their burrow walls), subsurface
feeders (which often do not use walled burrows) may be
exposed to elevated levels of highly available zinc in
interstitial waters. In such a way, diagenetic processes in
estuarine sediments may influence zinc concentrations in
estuarine polychaetes (32). The rate of uptake of metallic
compounds also may be strongly influenced by temperature.
Fowler and Benayoun (34) observed a 400-percent increase in
the rate of cadmium uptake in shrimp over a 26-day period at
22°C, as opposed to 8°C. On the other hand, mussels were
not affected by the change in temperature (34).
The diet of animals may influence the uptake of ele-
ments. Bioaccumulation (discussed subsequently) generally
results in higher concentrations of pollutants in animals
than in plants; this can lead to higher pollutant concen-
trations in carnivorous species. Figure,5-7 shows the
5-37
-------
too-J
1-
LJ
o
0 80-
z
o
cr
0
GO-
CO
to
o
tr
0
U_ 40-
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h-
Z
UJ
O
20-
or
Ul
Q-
0-
g| PLANTS IJTjil ANIMALS
1
o
oc.
^
^
^
1
_l
l-
z
0.
1
I
i|;
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UJ
0
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cc
Figure 5-7. Diets of migratory waterfowl killed in
Illinois (35)
different diets of migratory waterfowl killed in Illinois;
this figure indicates that the lesser scaup would have a
diet that exposes this species to more dietary pollutants
than the mallard. Based on this information alone, we would
expect the lesser scaup to be more sensitive to pollutants
than the mallard (35).
The uptake of metals from soils by plants may depend on
selectivity of the plant and on the availability of other
minerals. Such uptake can also be modified by other factors,
5-38
-------
such as the amounts of water and fertilizer, or chemical
composition of soil (36).
Animals for the most part obtain their minerals from
plants. Direct ingestion of soil or deposition of soil on
foliage may account for a considerable amount of some
mineral intake by animals. On the basis of the nature of
the element, it may be accumulated in certain organs of the
animals or it may be metabolized from the body, so that a
definite relationship of the body burden in an animal to its
environmental exposure may not be attained. The tissue
contents of an animal for various elements may depend on
several factors, such as the type and nature of vegetation;
the amount and duration of ingestion; the age, sex, and
species of the animal; and the presence of other interacting
elements. For example, the interactions of copper and
molybdenum in eliciting animal toxicities are well known
(36).
5.1.2.2.2 Inhalation and Absorption
The effect of the size of particulates in relation to
their deposition in the respiratory tract is as follows:
TABLE 5-10. EFFECT OF THE SIZE OF PARTICULATES ON
DEPOSITION IN THE RESPIRATORY TRACT (37)
Particle
size
(microns)
0.1
0.5
2.0
5.0
10.0
Lung
deposition
(percent)
50
30
20
10
5
Tracheal-bronchial-
nasal deposition3
(percent)
9
16
43
68
83
*The percentage not deposited was exhaled.
5-39
-------
The type of information relates to absorption, since
pollutants in particles deposited in the lung are subjected
to absorption by direct leaching from the particle by the
lung fluids or by phagocytosis. Particles deposited in the
trachea or nasal sinuses are more likely to find their way
into the digestive tract, where the mechanisms of absorption
are much different. Some studies indicate that the con-
centration of certain elements may be greater in the smaller
particulates (of coal for example) than in the larger par-
ticulates, while for other elements the opposite effect may
be observed (34).
5.1.2.2.3 Implications of Biological Interactions
These results have several practical implications, the
most important being that metal speciation must be con-
sidered when assessing the biological impact of aqueous-
metal systems. Present water quality criteria and tolerance
limits are stated exclusively in terms of total metal con-
tent; yet trace metal availability and toxicity in the
aquatic environment are dependent on other factors. Metals
do not always exist as free hydrated ionic species in solu-
tion, but rather are associated with available electron-
donating ligands to form complex molecules which themselves
have an effect on metal availability to living organisms.
For more useful and accurate measures of the environmental
impact of metal pollutants, water quality criteria and
tolerance limits should, therefore, be based upon toxicity
tests. In this regard, consideration should be given to the
chemistry of the aquatic environment in terms of such fac-
tors as pH, pE, ionic strength, type and concentration of
the complexing agents present, and the specific and non-
specific interactions responsible for metal solubility,
transport, and distribution in natural water systems (39).
5-40
-------
5.1.2.2.4 Metabolism of Inorganic Substances
Some compounds of antimony (40), arsenic (41,42), lead
(43), mercury, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, silver, sulfur,
titanium, vanadium, and zinc (30,43), or the elements them-
selves, are subject to microbial metabolism and undergo
oxidation, reduction, methylation, and/or demethylation.
The methylated forms are highly toxic, cross membrane bar-
riers with relative ease, and are more likely to become
airborne because they are more volatile than the elements
themselves (34). Microbial action also can affect the
availability of many elements in soils and waters. Silicate
minerals are attacked by the organic acid liberated by
Bacillus siliceus (30). Organic matter fermented by bac-
teria in the absence of oxygen can dissolve considerable
amounts of cobaltous oxide, cupric oxide, ferric oxide,
manganese dioxide, molybdenum trioxide, lead dioxide, and
zinc and smaller amounts of chromium trioxide, nickel mon-
oxide, titanium dioxide, and vanadium pentoxide (30).
The kind and rate of microbial metabolism depend, in
part, on the chemical form of the trace element. For
example, alkylation of inorganic lead salts is considered a
very difficult reaction mechanism in view of the instability
of the postulated first intermediate, monomethyl lead salt.
However, the conversion of lead nitrate and lead chloride to
tetramethyl lead was reported for a mixed bacterial culture
from Lake Ontario (44). No such transformation was detected
with lead hydroxide, lead cyanide, lead oxide, lead bromide,
or lead palmate. The methylation of trimethyl lead acetate
to volatile tetramethyl lead is, in contrast, a fairly
simple transformation for bacteria to make (45).
In the laboratory, bacterial methylation activity is
frequently higher under anaerobic conditions than under
5-41
-------
aerobic conditions. However, in natural fresh water the
reverse seems to be true. In sediments, where anaerobic
conditions are more likely to occur, hydrogen sulfide,
ubiquitous in the natural environment under anaerobic condi-
tions, combines with mercury to form insoluble mercuric
sulfide. Thus, under aerobic conditions in fresh water,
methylation rates are likely to be higher than under anaero-
bic conditions, where the formation of mercuric sulfide
binds mercury and hinders methylation (46) .
5.1.2.2.5 Excretion of Inorganic Materials
General treatment of this subject is found in Table
5-10 and the discussion of this table.
DeFreitas and coworkers (47) studied the clearance rate
of methyl mercury in fish. They found that the clearance
rate (R) was related to body weight (W) raised to a power
of -0.58 by the equation:
R = kPW*
where k is the clearance coefficient, P is the body burden
of pollutant, and a is the exponent of body weight for
clearance having a value of -0.58. Clearance data from a
number of fish species fit this relationship, and it may be
reasonable to conclude that the value for a is not highly
species specific. The value of k for methyl mercury of
0.029 per day for a fish of body size equal to 1 g (wet)
would also appear to be not very species specific. When
this clearance constant was used in a model for the bio-
accumulation of methyl mercury in fish, a close fit was
obtained between simulated and measured levels of methyl
mercury in a population of yellow perch. This gives a
biological half-life of methyl mercury of 50 to 500 days.
5-42
-------
The general form of this equation may be applicable to other
metals. Metals in general have biological half-lives in the
range of 50 to 500 days (34,47).
5.1.2.2.6 Organics
The following section will contain a generalized sum-
mary of uptake, metabolism, and excretion of several key
contaminant categories including phenols, polynuclear aro-
matic hydrocarbons (PAH), alkanes, alkenes, and aromatic
hydrocarbons. A major portion of the discussion, however,
will focus on PAH, their carcinogenic potential being a
primary environmental concern.
Phenols have a high water and low lipid solubility and
as such, would not be expected to accumulate in organisms.
The simpler phenols are readily taken in and degraded by
microorganisms, the primary mechanism of phenol degradation.
Other organisms also absorb phenol from their aquatic envi-
ronment, with little or no accumulation above ambient
levels. Bioconcentrations more than 10-fold above ambient
levels would be unexpected. Trophic biomagnification
through the food chain has not been reported and would not
be expected (20).
In aquatic environments, PAH are taken up and accumu-
lated by organisms at rates that have been shown to be spe-
cies dependent. It has been demonstrated that fish accumu-
late benzo(a)pyrene when exposed, reaching maximum levels of
accumulation within an hour (48). Another study showed that
fish and shrimp accumulate naphthalenes very rapidly; tissue
concentrations often reach maximum levels within an hour
after exposure. However, fish tissue levels usually begin
to decline after the first hour of exposure (49).
5-43
-------
Marine molluscs, on the other hand, tend to accumulate
PAH more slowly over longer exposure periods. Although in-
vertebrates tend to accumulate PAH from their surroundings
and to release them unchanged in a relatively PAH-free
environment, bioaccumulation factors ranging between 2 and
1,100 have been observed. Bioaccumulation appears to cor-
relate directly with the PAH molecular weight, the lipid
content of the organism, and inversely with rates of excre-
tion. Like other hydrocarbons, PAH storage in tissues is
directly related to the tissue lipid content.
The primary pathway of incorporating PAH into the food
chain is believed to be through a surface adsorption mech-
anism (for example, via gills) rather than through an in-
gestion mechanism. However, the observed tendency of PAH to
accumulate in biota in increasing concentrations with each
progressive trophic level, indicates that consumption is a
possible mechanism of PAH incorporation into the food chain
(50). It has been suggested that ingestion of PAH-contam-
inated seafood could transfer the PAH to higher levels of
the food chain. PAH accumulation by organisms that con-
stitute the base levels of the food chain may have far-
reaching effects throughout the food web. Tubifex worms
were demonstrated to absorb and concentrate benzo(a)pyrene
(BaP) without being able to metabolically degrade the PAH.
Without such a detoxification mechanism in the worms, the
PAH could be transferred to organisms feeding on the tubifex
(51). The possibility that PAH may continue to concentrate
in progressively higher levels of the food chain, eventually
being transferred to humans, requires further study.
In natural waters, both the soluble and particulate
forms of PAH remain quite stable. Microorganisms are
capable of degrading various PAH, although the use of bio-
logical treatment to reduce PAH concentrations is not very
5-44
-------
effective in sewage treatment plants. Activated sludge
treatment of domestic sewage was unable to effect signifi-
cant removal of PAH by oxidation within normal detention
times. Reduction of PAH in the sewage was attributed to
adsorption by activated sludge.
Soil microflora can degrade PAH. Laboratory studies on
BaP have shown that the degree to which bacteria can degrade
BaP depends upon the species of organism as well as other
environmental conditions such as the concentration of PAH
compounds.
PAH are readily metabolized by fish, crabs, and zoo-
plankton. Shellfish, however, are unable to degrade these
compounds, indicating that PAH may accumulate in the tissues
of oysters, clams, and other edible shellfish.
It has been observed that PAH is accumulated by mussels
inhabiting polluted environments. However, when the mussels
were transferred to relatively unpolluted environments,
diminution of PAH content in all tissues was observed.
Plants have the ability to absorb PAH from water, air,
and soil by roots and foliage. Roots can solubilize organic
matter and absorb and translocate PAH compounds (with pos-
sible simultaneous concentration) to other parts of the
plant, thus bringing these compounds into the ecological
food chain (52). Plants appear to be capable not only of
absorbing BaP but also of metabolically breaking it down for
use in other compounds.
Humans take in or absorb PAH through various media. In
industries generating atmospheric PAH, inhalation of partic-
ulates would be considered a primary mode of intake. In
a coal liquefaction facility, exposed workers would probably
5-45
-------
inhale or absorb PAH as a vapor, an aerosol, or as molecules
adsorbed on particulate matter in air. Although the general
population is likely to encounter PAH via ingestion of con-
taminated food or drinking water, inhalation would probably
be the most significant route of PAH uptake for people
living near an emission source. Particles having a diameter
of 5.0 microns are in the "respirable size range," that is,
the size range most likely to be deposited in the pulmonary
portion of the respiratory tract. As shown in Figure 5-8,
60 percent of all particulate matter in the size range of
0.5 to 2.0 microns that is inhaled is retained in the lungs,
with the highest retention, 77 percent, occurring at 1.0
micron.
-
-
ii
25 50 75 1 0
20 30 4 0
Panicle sue (micronsi
Figure 5-8. Retention of particulate matter
in lung in relation to particle size (53)
Absorption of PAH through the skin is also significant
as an uptake pathway. Topical applications of PAH dissolved
5-46
-------
in solvent applied to the skin of mice has resulted in
systemic effects such as changes in blood, spleen, lymph
nodes, and bone marrow.
5.1.3 Potential Ecotoxicological Effects of Chemical
Pollutants
5.1.3.1 Ecotoxicological Effects of Specific Compounds
The potential hazard of contaminants discharged during
the construction and operation of an SRC facility is depen-
dent upon the composition and quantity of the contaminant,
its environmental fate (transport, degradation, bioaccum-
ulation, etc.), and its acute and chronic effects on organ-
isms in the ecosystem.
The SAM/IA analysis is a methodology, explained in
Appendix I of this report, by which the potential hazard of
pollutants in waste streams is estimated. The SAM format
directs the focus to each separate waste stream, allowing
the quick identification of possible problem areas (or
streams) where expected pollutant levels exceed the MEG.
The significance of the SAM/IA analysis, however, is dif-
ficult to determine at this time because the hazard pre-
sented by the toxic unit discharge sum is obscure.
Using SAM/IA methodology, the relative hazard of each
waste stream (as well as the combined discharge) is indi-
cated by an assigned numerical value. Tables A-V-12 and
A-V-13 of the Appendix provide examples of Level 2 SAM/IA
analysis of waste streams emanating from the SRC plant. The
concentrations of the pollutants used in the calculations
were those listed in various tables in Chapter 3. Pertinent
MATE values are reported in Appendix II,
5-47
-------
The following section will address the toxic and
carcinogenic aspects of specific compounds or compound
groups. The hazard presented by these compounds may take
such forms as subacute toxicity, acute toxicity, chronic
toxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, and teratogenicity,
Where sufficient data are available regarding the
quantity of a specific contaminant discharged or emitted,
and its fate in the environment, its potential ecotoxicolo-
gical impact may be estimated.
5.1.3.1.1 Inorganics
The pathological effect of several elements is shown
in Tables 5-11 and 5-12. In these tables, a plus sign (+)
indicates that the effect is observed. A minus sign indi-
cates that the effect is not observed. A blank space indi-
cates that no information is available. It is hoped that
the blank spaces can be filled in as more information
becomes available. In general, inclusion in these tables
indicates that a particular element and/or their compounds
or complexes should be of environmental concern. A system
that attempts to rank the absolute toxicities of these ele-
ments based on these tables (the "Hittman Ranking Number")
is discussed in Appendix V. Using this system, the ele-
ments were then ordered according to their relative hazard
potential. This order is: sulfur as hydrogen sulfide,
aluminum, iron, nitrogen as nitrate/nitrite, nitrogen as
ammonia, potassium, titanium, magnesium, zinc, barium,
boron, lead, manganese, nickel, fluorine, strontium, chrom-
ium, vanadium, copper, arsenic, cadmium, molybdenum, ger-
manium, cobalt, selenium, gallium, beryllium, uranium,
antimony, thallium, mercury, and finally tungsten. This
ranking system thus rates the relatively innocuous elements
such as aluminum and iron quite high on the list.
5-48
-------
TABLE 5-11. SYNDROMES PRODUCED ON NON-HUMAN ORGANISMS BY
VARIOUS TOXIC ELEMENTS
i
j>
VO
Element
Antimony
Arsenic
Beryllium
Cadmium
Chromium
Cobalt
CoDDer
»*W|* fVfc
Fluorine
Iron
Lead
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel
Hltrate/N'itrite
Selenium
Thallium
Zinc
M
«0
:es animal
u
3
S
+
+
4
4,
+
+
+
X
OB
t4
o
to.
1
±t
secre
0)
3
U
CO
4J
U
V
3
+
0)
u
S
M a
0 41 J
- a as
a PC o *•"*
0 oo o we
>r4 41 -H 08 -H
O. U U X , h vl O P, ^ «
5351" « 5 3 £ g b S g°5
wu(oioo»4 C*H MOO xac 01 g
£«M BT7 OV^COO 00 « ^OOg
J3 CO aoEo;<«-i at o x « -a x QJJ O4j
4JWO4Jd(5-H««*Jfl)gC*JO»UC*J O. « rH O ft) U tMOlU
2«j-oai°^flS'dalacuaiSSS iojgc^Swi-M'Stwg
0)(.M(DwaJU4)lt9'4HXX(B'waJ*qo;)X4J^Ji««J34JrHC,UO
[-1 ^* ^j j^ ,^ t— i p* ^ r_T ^ ^] l-jt ij j^ f^ ^* ;-j ^T, f^] f^ r/< fO f^ IJ r^ [J pQ f^ <^ ^, x x 4.
*r ~ TTTTT
•f + + + -
+ + + + + + + + + + ++ ++ +_
+ + ++ ++ + + ++ +•»•+ + -
+ +
o
*H
_§
a
b 8
60 4J
O IB
r-t X
O CO
J=
4J «-(
a 5
O «H
^ ^5 S
S (S S 0
& .S S i 3
eg u oi
S g c « M
^H O « i-4 -H
^-i C <-* (U *J
u SB £ en PQ
+
+
+
4
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ *4* +
I
•H
o
0.
o
OB
o.
3
o
*4
00
25
J5
*J
>
8
4
4
+
T
«
u
•H
00
o
1
f
u
•H
(B
V
5 c
V *4
Is
+
•f
+
T
Reference*
A-G
A.H-M
A B H-S
A|4»|M •*
A
A
A T— U
X
A
A.B.O.Y-J1
•»( **f v t • w
1C'
A.H.P.L'-B1
A.O1-*'
I'
*• II*
ta.u
A.V'-A"
A.1-.C-
(continued)
-------
TABLE 5-11. (Continued)
'Reference A: Weir, E.E. . L. Parker. H. Hopkins, K. McKeon, H.E. Lipsitr. C.R. Thompson, J. Robbins, D. Dow. V. D""<"«*e 'H£n Aoocl.tes.
Chapter IX. Environmental Effects After Treatment. In: Environmental Assessment of Effluents from Coal Liquefaction. ^Laboratory
ed. Contract No. 68-02-*162/Task Directive 4, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Industrial and Environmental Research Laboratory.
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 1977.
Reference B. Wilkes. D.J. Chapter 9: Animals: Blo.nviron.ent.1 Effects. In: Environmental, Health, and Control Aspect. ^f^t^V
An Information Overview. Vol. 2, H.M. Braustein, E.D. Copenhaver. and H.A. Pfuder. eds. Information Center Complex, Information
Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, 1977.
Reference C: Environmental Protection Agency. Arsenic. National Academy of Sciences. Washington. D.C.. U76. pp. 28-70.
Reference D: Handel. B.C.. J.S. Mayer.ak and M. Rils. The Action of Ar.enlc on Bacillus cereus. J. Pharm. P.rmacol. 17(12): 794-804. 1965.
Reference E: Bollen. W.B.. L.A. Norris and K.L. Stowers. Effect, of Cacodylic Add and MSMA on Microbes In Forest Floor and Soil. Weed
Set., 22:557-562, 1974.
Reference F: Hood, R.D. Effects of Sodium Arsenlte on Fetal Development. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. , 7(4):216-222. 1972.
Reference G: Holmberg, R.E. and V.H. F.rm. Interrelationship of Selenium, Cadmium and Arsenic in Mamalion Tumorgenesls. Arch. Environ.
Health, 18:873-877, 1969.
Reference H: Lebedeva, G.D. Effect of Beryllium Chloride on Aquatic Organisms. Zool. Zh. 39:1779-1782, 1960.
Reference!: Stoking.r, H.E. E*p.ri«nt.l Toxicology. In: The Toxicology °f Beryllium- I-R. T.bershaw. ed. U.S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, 1972, pp. 17-32.
Reference J: Clary, J.J.. C.R. Hopper, and H.E. Stockinger. Altered Adrenal Function as an Inducer of Latent Chronic Beryllium Disease.
Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 23:365-4375, 8972.
Reference K: Reeves. A.L.. and A.J. Vorwald. Beryllium Carcinogen.!.: II. Pulmonary Deposition and Clearance of Inhaled Beryllium Sulfate
In the Rat. Cancer Res., 27. pt. 1 (3) : 446-451, 1967.
Reference L: DeNardl, J.M. Long-term Experience with Beryllium Disease. Arch. Ind. Health. 19:110-116,1959.
Reference M: Witschi. H. 1968. Inhibition of Deoxyribonucleic Acid Synthesis in Regeneration Rat Liver by Beryllium. Lab. Invest.,
19(1):67-70, 1968.
v, ssKi.it
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830, 1977.
Reference 0: Unpublished Information Submitted to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under Contract No. 77-43-302073.
(continued)
-------
TABLE 5-11. (Continued)
Reference P: Environmental Health Resources Center. Health Effects and Recomnendatlons for Atmospheric Lead, Calcium, Mercury and Asbestos.
Report No. IIEQ 73-2 (PB 220224), Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality, 309 West Washington Street, Chicago, Illinois 60606,
1973. 101 pp.
Reference Q: Silverberg, B.A. Cadmium-Induced Ultrastructural Changes in Mitochondria of Freshwater Green Algae. Phycologia, 15(2):
155-159, 1976.
Reference R: Bittell, J.E., D.E. Koeppe, and R.J. Miller.. Sorption of Heavy Metal Cations by Corn Mitochondria and the Effects on Electron
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16(1):57-69, 1974.
Reference U: Stephenson, R.R. and D. Taylor. The Influence of EDTA on the Mortality and Burrowing Activity of the Clam (Venerupis decussata)
Exposed to Sub-lethal Concentrations of Copper. Bull. Environ. Contain. Toxicol., 14(3):304-8, 1975.
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(SalveliouB fontinalis). J. Fish. Res. Board Can., 30(5):698-701, 1973.
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Reference Y: Kelliher, D.J., E.P. Hillard, D.B.R. Poole, and J.D. Collins. Chronic Lead Intoxication in Cattle: Preliminary Observations on
its Effect on Erythrocytes and on Porphyrin Metabolism. Irish Journal Agricultural Research, 12(l):61-69, 1973.
Reference Z: DeBrium, A. Certain Biological Effects of Lead Upon the Animal Organisms. Achieves Environmental Health, 23:249-264, 1971.
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metal Health, 23:185-195.
Reference C': Carson, T.L., G.A. VanGelder, W.B. Buck and L.J. Hoffman. Effects of Low Level Lead Ingestion in Sheep. Clinical
Toxicology 6(3)-.389-403.
Reference D': Allen, J.R., P.J. McWey, and S.J. Suoni. Pathobiological and Behavioral Effects of Lead Intoxication in the Infant Rhesus
Monkey. Environ. Health Perspect., 7:239-246, 1974.
(continued)
-------
TABLE .5-11. (Continued)
Reference E': Bushnell, P.J., R.E. Bowman, J.R. Allen, and R.J. Marlar. Sceptic Vision Deficits In Young Monkeys Exposed to Lead. Science,
196(4287):333-335, 1977.
Reference F's Fern, V.H., and D.W. Fern. The Specificity of the Teratogenic Effect of Lead Ion in the Golden Hamster. Life Sci., 10:
35-39, 1971.
Reference G': Goiter, M. and I.A. Michaelson. Growth, Behavior, and Brain Catecholamines in Lead-Exposed Neonatal Rats: A Reappraisal.
Science, 187(4174):359-361, 1975.
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Appl. Pharmacol., 31(l):72-83, 1975.
Reference J'i Wesley, J.B., and O.W. Roberts. Toxicity of Metals to Chick Embryos. Bull. Environ. Contam. and Toxicol., 16(3):319-324, 1976.
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Ul Scientific Report - Fisheries No. 207, United States Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C., 1957.
01 Reference M': Gilani, S.H. Congenital Abnormalities in Methylmercury Poisoning. Environ. Res., 9(2):128-134, 1975.
to
Reference N': Rizzo, A.M. and A. Furet. Mercury Terategenesis in the Rat. Proc. West. Phamacol. Soc., 15:52-54, 1972.
Reference 0': Morrill, J.B. Morphological Effects of Cobaltous Chloride on the Development of Limnaea gtagnaUs and Limnaea paluetris. Biol.
Bull., 125(3):908-522, 1963.
Reference P': Timourian, H., and G. Watchmaker. Nickel Uptake by Sea Urchin Embryos and Their Subsequent Development. J. Exp. Zool.,
182(3):379-87, 1972.
Reference Q': Ambrose, A.M., P.S. Larson, J.R. Borzmelleca, and G.R. Hennigar, Jr. Long-Term Toxicologlc Assessment of Nickel in Rats and
Dogs. J. Food Sci. Techol.-Mysore., 13(4):181-187, 1976.
Reference R': Sundennan, F.W., J.F. Kincald. A.J. Donnelly, and B. West. Nickel Poisoning. Arch. Ind. Health, 16:480-485, 1957.
Reference S': Hittman Associates. Environmental Assessment of Effluent from Coal Liquefaction. Contract No. 68-02-2162/Task Directive No. 4,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Industrial and Environmental Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 1977.
Reference T1: Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality. Advisory Report on Health Effects of Nitrates in Water. PB 229500, 1974.
Reference U'r Environmental Protection Agency. Preliminary Investigation of Effects on the Environment of Boron, Indium, Nickel, Selenium,
Tin, Vandiuo and Their Compounds. Volume IV Selenium. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washinton, D.C. 1975.
(continued)
-------
TABLE 5-11. (continued)
Reference V: Karnofsky, D.A., L.P. Ridgway, and P.A. Patterson. Production of Achondroplasla In the Chick Embryo with Thallium. Proc. Soc.
Exp. Blol. Med., 73:255-59, 1950.
Reference W: Bertran, B.C. Morphological Modifications of the Hen Embryo Caused by Some Trace Elements. An. Inst. Invest. Vet., 13:11-30,
1963.
Reference X1: Landauer, W. Experiments Concerning the Teratogenic Nature of Thallium: Polyhydroxy Compounds, Histidine and Imidazole
as Supplements. J. Exp. Zool., 143(1):101-105, 1960.
Reference Y': Barclay, R.K., W.C. Peacock, and D.A. Kornofsky. Distribution and Excretion of Radioactive Thallium in the Chick Embryo, Rat,
and Man. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap., 107:178-87, 1953.
Reference Z': Gibson, J.E., and B.A. Becker. Placental Transfer, Embryo Toxicity, and Teratogenicity of Thallium Sulfate in Normal and
Potassium-Deficient Rats. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 16(1):120-132, 1970.
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Ul Reference B": Negilski, D.S. Acute Toxicity of Zinc, Cadmium, and Chromium to the Marine Fishes, Yellow-Eye Mullet (Aldrichetta forsterl
I CSV.) and Small-Mouthed Hardyhead (Atherinasoma microatoma Whitley). Aust. J. Mar. Freshwater Res., 27(1):137-49, 1976.
Ul
U> Reference C": Drinker, K.R., P.K. Thompson, and M. Marsh. An Investigation of the Effect of Long-Continued IngestIon of Zinc, in the Form of
Zinc Oxide, by Cats and Dogs, Together with Observations Upon the Execretlon and the Storage of Zinc. Am. J. Physiol., 80(l):31-64, 1929.
-------
TABLE 5-12. SYNDROMES PRODUCED ON HUMANS BY VARIOUS TOXIC ELEMENTS
Ul
i
Ul
Elenent
Antimony
Arsenic
Beryllium
CadmluB
Chroniusi
Cobalt
Copper
Fluorine
Hydrogen Sulflde
Iron
Lead
Manganese
Mercury
Nickel i
Nitrate
Selenlua
Thalllun
Vanadlua
Zinc
Brain and Nervous
Syste» Pathology
Pathological Blood
Changea
+ +
••• *
+ *
+
* +
+
•f +
+
+
4
•f +
Carcinogeneaia
+
+
+
+
-
•f
•f
•f
Reticuloendothellal
System Pathology
Weight Loss
Cheat Pain
+
•f
+ *
*
+
i
4-
IEye and Reapiratory
Tract Irritation
+
*
+
+
+
+
•*•
•f
+
•t-
•
1
1 Chromosomal Alterat!
"*"
1 Shortened Life Span
+
Alopecia
Adverse Effect on '
Reproduction
•f
+
•f
Skin Pathology
•f
+
•f
+
•f
+
+•
•f
•f
9
Cardlovaacular Syati
Pathology
+
*
•f
I Renal Pathology
•f
•f
•f
8
•H
I
1 Interferes with enr
+
+
+
+
"*"
+
Puloonary Pathology
•f
*
*
*
•*
+
+
o
I
I Vaacular System Pat
+T
•f
•«•
I Hepatic Pathology
+
•f
Glandular Pathology
Skeletal Pathology
* +
•f
+ *
1 Gastrointestinal
Pathology
+
•f
*
•¥
+
*
•f
•f
•f
+
1 Muscle Pathology
+
Dental Pathology
Hypertenalon
Headache
Nauaea
Behavior Changes
•f +
+ 4- +
^"
+ +
*
*
+ "*"
•*•
•f +
l«(arcncea*
A
A-J
A.K-<)
A.R-T
A
U-W
A.X
•*i^
y
4
AjQ.I-D1
A O Fi-Bl
I ll
1
J*
A
A,K*-Vr
A
A
*Not found In anlaala Bodelf , hovever.
-------
TABLE 5-12. (Continued)
Reference A: Weir, E.E., L. Parker, H. Hopkins, K. McKeon, H.E. Livshics, C.R. Thompson, J. Robbing, D. Dov, V. DiPasquale. and B. May.
Chapter IX. Environmental Effects After Treatment. In: Environmental Assessment of Effluents from Coal Liquefaction, Hittman
Associates, ed. Contract No. 68-02-2162/Task Directive 4, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Industrial and Environmental
Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 1977.
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A Symposium B.W. Carnow ed. HEW Public No. (NIOSH)76-134, 1975.
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Inorganic and Organometallic .Compounds.
Reference D: Minkowltz, S. Multiple carclnomata following ingestlon of medicinal arsenic. Ann. Intern. Med, 61:296-299, 1964.
Reference E: Somers, E. and R.G. McManus. Multiple arsenical cancers of skin and internal organs. Cancer, 6:347-359, 1953.
Reference F: Sanderson, K.V. Arsenic and skin cancer. Trans. St. John Hospital Derm. Soc., 49:115-122, 1963.
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arsenicism in Taiwan. J. Nat. Cancer Institute, 40:453-463, 1968.
in Reference H: Goldsmith, J.R., M. Deane, J. Thorn and G. Gentry. Evaluation of health Implications of elevated arsenic in water.
I Water Res., 6(10):1133-1136, 1972.
t_n Reference I: Environmental Protection Agency. Arsenic. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1976. pp. 28-70.
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X
Reference K: Talmage, S.S. Chapter 10: Humans: Metabolism and Biological Effects. In: Environmental, Health, and Control Aspects of
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Information Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 37830, 1977.
Reference L: Saito, H., R. Shlojl, Y. Hurukawa, T. Arlkawa, T. Salto, K. Nagal, Y. Nichlmata, Y. Sasaki, T. Furuyama, and K. Yoshinaga.
Chronic Cadmium Poisoning Induced by Environmental Cadmium Pollution: Multiple Proximal Tubular Dysfunctions Found In a Number of
Persons Living in a Cadmium-Polluted Area. Nippon Naika Gakkai Zasshi, 64(12):1371-1383, 1975.
Reference M: Potts, C.L. Cadmium Proteinuria - The Health of Battery Workers Exposed to Cadmium Dust. Ann. Occup. Hyg., 8:55-61, 1965.
Reference N: Hittman Associates. Environmental Assessment of Effluents from Coal Liquefaction Contract No. 68-02-2162/Task Directive 4,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Industrial and Environmental Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 1977.
Reference 0: Lenen, R.A., J.S. Lee, J.K. Wagoner, and H.P. Blejer. Cancer Mortality among Cadmium Production Workers. Ann. N.Y.
Acad. Sci., 271:273-279, 1976.
(continued)
-------
TABLE 5-12. (Continued)
Reference P: Shiralshl, Y. and T.H. Yosida. Chromosomal Abnormalities in Cultured Leucocyte Cells from Itai-Ital Disease Patients.
Proc. Jap. Acad., 48(4):248-251, 1972.
Reference Q: Environmental Health Resources Center. Health Effects and Recommendations for Atmospheric Lead, Calcium. Mercury and Asbestos.
Report No. IIEQ 73-2 (PB220224), Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality, 309 West Washington Street, Chicago, Illinois ououo.
1973, 101 pp.
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20:358-63, 1951.
Reference S: Stokes, R.M., and P.O. Fromm. Effect of Chromate on Glucose Transport by the Gut of Rainbow Trout. Physiol. Zool., 38(3):
202-205. 1965.
Reference T: Fromm, P.O., and R.M. Stokes. Assimilation and Metabolism of Chromium by Trout. J. Water Poll. Contr. Fed., 34(11):1151-1155,
1962.
Reference U: Nicholas, P.O. Food Poisoning Due to Copper in the Morning Tea. Lancet, July 1968:40, 1968.
Reference V: Paine, C.H. Food Poisoning Due to Copper. Lancet, 11:520, 1968.
Reference W: American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienlsts. Documentation of the Threshhold Limit Values - Supplements for Those
Substance* Added or Changed Since 1971.
Ln
1 Reference X: Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality. Health Effects and Recoonendatlons for Airborne Fluorides. PB 233845, 1973.
Ln
** Reference Y: Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality. Hydrogen Sulfide Health Effects and Recommended Air Quality Standard.
PB233843, 1974.
Reference Z: Seattle, A.D., M.R. Moore, A. Goldberg, M.J. Flnlayson, J.F. Graham. E.M. Mackie. J.C. Main, D.A. McLean. R.M. Murdoch and
G.T. Stewart. Roll of Chronic Low-Level Lead Exposure in the Gettology of Mental Retardation. Lancet, l(J9V7)s ym-Vii, l»/3.
Reference A': Tahira, M.S.. Z. Fahlm, and D.G. Hall. Effects of Subtoxlc Lend Levels on Pregnant Women In the State of Missouri. Research
Communications In Chemical Pathology and Pharmacology, 13(2):309-333, 1976.
Reference B': Kelllher, D.J., E.P. Hlllard, D.B.R. Poole, and J.D. Collins. Chronic Lead Intoxication in Cattle: Preliminary Observations on
Its Effects on Erythrocytes and on Porphyrin Metabolism. Irish Journal Agricultural Research, 12(l):61-69, 1973.
Reference C': DeBrlum, A. Certain Biological Effects on Lead Upon the Animal Organisms. Achieves Environmental Health, 23:249-264, 1971.
Reference D': Donawlch, W.J. Chronic Lead Poisoning In a Cow. Journal American Vetlnary Medical Association, 148(6):655-661, 1966.
Reference E': Environmental Health Resource Center. Airborne Manganese - Health Effects and Recommended Standard. PB251130, 1975.
Reference F': Vroom, F.Q. and M. Greer. Mercury Vapour Intoxication. Brain, 95:305-318, 1972.
(continued)
-------
TABLE 5-12. (.continued)
Reference G': Davis, L.E., J.R. Wanda, S.A. Weiss, D.L. Price and E.F. Girling. Central Nervous System Intoxication from Mercurous Chloride
Laxatives. Arch. Neurol., 30:428-431, 1974.
Reference H': Rustam, H. and T. Hamdi. Methyl Mercury Poisoning in Iraq. A Neurological Study. Brain, 97 (3) U99-510, 1974.
Reference I': Callan, W.M. and F.W. Sundennan, Jr. Species Variations in Binding of 63Ni (II) by Serum Albumin. Res. Conmun. Chem. Pathol.
Phannacol., 5(2):459-472, 1973.
Reference J': Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality. Advisory Report on Health Effects of Nitrates in Water. PB229500, 1974.
Reference K': Hittman Associates. Environmental Assessment of Effluents from Coal Liquefaction Contract No. 68-02-2162/Task Directive 4,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Industrial and Environmental Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina,
1977.
Reference L': Herman, M.M., and K.G. Bensch. Light and Electron Microscopic Studies of Acute and Chronic Thallium Intoxication in Rats.
Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 10(2):199-222, 1967.
Reference M': Melnlck, R.L., L.G. Monti, and S.M. Motzkin. Uncoupling of Mitochondrial Oxidative Phosphorylation by Thallium.
Biochem. Blophys. Res., 69(l):68-73, 1976.
' Reference N': Gettler, A.O., and L. Weiss. Thallium Poisoning. III. Clinical Toxicology of Thallium. Am. J. Clin. Pathol., 13:422-28, 1943.
^ Reference 0': Richeson, E.M. Industrial Thallium Intoxication. Indust. Med. Surg., 27:607-19.
Reference P': Cavanaugh, J.B., N.H. Fuller, H.R.M. Johnson, and P. Rudge. The Effects of Thallium Salts, with Particular Reference to the
Nervous System Changes. Quart. J. Med., 43(170):293-319, 1974.
Reference Q': Gefel, A., M. Llron and W. Hirsch. Chronic Thallium Poisoning. Isr. J. Med. Sci., 6(3): 380-83, 1970.
Reference R1: Reed, D., J. Crawley, S.N. Faro, S.J. Pieper, and L.T. Kurland. Thallotoxicosis: Acute Manifestation and Sequelae. J. Am.
Med. Assoc., 183: 516-22, 1963.
Reference S1: Bank, W.J., D.E. Pleasure, K. Suzuki, M. Nigro, and R. Katz. Thallium Poisoning. Arch. Neurol., 26: 456-64, 1972.
Reference T': Domnitz, J. Thallium Poisoning. South Med. J., 53: 590-93, 1960.
Reference U1: Arena, J.M., G.A. Watson, and S.S. Sakhadeo. Fatal Thallium Poisoning. Clin. Pediat., 4: 267-70, 1965.
Reference V: Karkos, J. The Neuropathologlcal Findings in Thallium Encephalopathy. Neurol. Neurochlr. Pol., 21(6): 911-15, 1971.
-------
Unfortunately, the validity of this ranking will have to be
determined in the environment after the SRC plant has been
in operation. However, these values do suggest areas which
should not be overlooked.
5.1.3.1.2 Organics
The organic constituents in air emissions have not been
quantified and can only be roughly estimated.
5.1.3.1.3 Airborne Contaminants
A major organic pollutant category present in SRC air
emissions is that of PAH produced during combustion of coal
for steam generation. These compounds are formed during
combustion and will, upon cooling, condense out as discrete
particles or condense onto the surface of existing par-
ticles. Atmospheric PAH is believed, therefore, to be
almost exclusively associated with particulate matter (27).
PAH concentrations in fly ash collectors at two coal-fired
power plants are shown in Table 5-13. The first seven
compounds are of interest in that several are considered
carcinogenic. Hence, control technology which is effective
in reducing particulate emissions will also significantly
reduce PAH emissions.
The primary ecotoxicological concern with PAH is the
carcinogenic propensity of many of these compounds, as shown
in Table 5-14. Acute and chronic toxicity are of lesser
concern, the systemic acute dose of LD,-n (the lethal dose
for 50 percent of animals tested) being extremely high
compared to the dose necessary to produce carcinogenic
effects.
5-58
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Ui
I
TABLE 5-13. POLYNUCLEAR HYDROCARBON CONCENTRATIONS IN FLY ASH FROM COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANTS A AND B (Micrograms/106 kJ Input) (18)
Full Full
load load
Compound b a b a
Unit A*
Full Partial Partial
load load load
b a b a b a
Unit B
Test no. 3
full load
a
Fluoranthene 380 na 190 211
Pyrene 148 137 190
Benzo (a) pyrene 53 23 19
Anthanthrene 17
Benz (a) anthracene
Benzo (ghi) perylene
Benzo (e) pyrene
Coronene
Anthracene
Phenanthrene
Perylene
na 200 338 401 1583 80
127 190 232 833 72
19 60 54 422 127
34
39 49 106
20 158 80
35 40 243 76
4
101
781 21
63 3
232
127
19
b = before fly-ash collectors.
a = after fly-ash collectors.
Ito analysis due to loss of sample. A blank indicates that the component was not detected in the
sample.
* Units A and B produced 1 x 10 pounds steam at 1900 psi and 1000 F, coal-fired power plant.
**A and B refer to operating steam generating units.
-------
TABLE 5-14. ADVERSE EFFECTS FOR SELECTED ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
POTENTIALLY EMITTED BY LIQUEFACTION PLANTS (18)
Compound
7, 12-Dimethylbenzo
[a]anthracene
Benzo[a_]pyrene
3-methy 1 chol anthrene
Anthracene
Di benzo[a^, hjanthracene
n-dodecane
Dodecyl benzene
Decahydronaphthalene
1-dodecanol
1-phenyldodecane
Phenols
Formaldehyde
Furfural
Benzo[ejpyrene
3-hydroxybenzo[aJpyrene
Di benzo[a^ cjanthracene
Di benzo[a_, hjanthracene
B-naphthylamine
Isophorone
Benzene
Ethyl benzene
Acenaphthene
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-------
The carcinogenic potential of many PAH compounds has
been widely demonstrated in laboratory animal studies using
specific PAH compounds as well as complex mixtures of com-
pounds such as coal tars, product oil, and fly ash. The
PAH, along with other compounds potentially produced during
the liquefaction process that are known or suspected to be
carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic, are shown in Table
5-15. The EPA-NIOSH adjusted ordering numbers (reflecting
the size of dose in relation to the carcinogenic response)
of various carcinogenic compounds are shown in Table A-II-1.
The significance of these ordering numbers is discussed in
Appendix II.
A difficult problem in all bioassays is the extrapola-
tion of data from experimental animals to man. Marked dif-
ferences in susceptibility to carcinogenic agents exist
between species as well as between strains of the same spec-
ies. For example, the site of origin and the histologic
type of respiratory tract tumor depend on the species and
strain of animal as well as the route ,of application and
dose. Dose levels in animal experiments considerably exceed
the natural levels experienced by humans. Furthermore, the
artificial laboratory system does not allow for the inter-
actions and synergisms that occur in the natural and work
environment. The role of cocarcinogens is obviously impor-
tant. This is illustrated by the fact that PAH carcino-
genesis is enhanced in animals by exposure to PAH in the
presence of chemicals such as iron oxides and long-chain
aliphatic hydrocarbons, or is inhibited by materials such as
Vitamin A and selenium (18).
The problem of assessing the carcinogenicity of inhaled
substances is, in addition, complicated by other factors.
The concentration and physical state of damaging elements at
the human receptor site have not been adequately established;
5-61
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TABLE 5-15. KNOWN OR SUSPECTED CARCINOGENS WHICH MAY BE IN
THE EFFLUENT STREAMS OF COAL LIQUEFACTION PLANTS (18)
Compound Type
Example
bicycllc compounds
nitrosamlnes
nickel
chromium
beryllium
arsenic
benzidine
nickel carbonyl
chronic crioxide or
chronace salts
I beryllium oxide
tricalcium arsenate
selenium
cobalt
lead
selenide sale
cobalt sulfide
lead chronate
zinc
mercury
cadcium
zinc chromate
elemental mercury
cadmium sulfide
anthracenes
chrysenes
benzanthracenes
anthracene and 9,10-
dimethylanchracene
5-methyl cystein
benzo(a)anthracene
fluoranthene
cholanthrenes
bcnzopyrenes
benzo(j)fluoranthene
benzo(b)fluoranthene
20-methylcholanthrene
benzo(e)pyrene and
benzo(a)pyrene
dibenzpyrenes
mono- & dibenzacridines
benzocarbazoles
dibenzo(a,1)pyrene,
dibenzo(a,n)pyrene.
dibenzo (a. i)pyrene,
dibenzo(a,h)pyrene
dibenz(a.h)acrtdine
7H-benzo(c)carbazole
dibenzocarbazoles
benzanthrones
aalnozobenzenes
7H-benzo(c.g)carbazole
benzo(a)anthrone and
7H-benz(d.e)xanthracene-
7-one
A-dimethylaminoazobenzene
aeenaphthenes
naphthylaminas
fine participates
acenaphthene
alpha-naphchylamine
beta-naphthylaraine
sulfur.'coke
amines
monoaromatie
pyrenes
diethyl amines
methylethyl amines
benzene
cyclopenta(c.d)pyrene
indeno(1.2.3-c.d)pyr«n»
5-62
-------
there is compelling evidence that carrier substances are
important, but their exact role can only be surmised. Also,
the assumption that lung tumors are the consequence of a
single pollutant is almost certainly wrong, and there is
much to support the idea of synergism or cocarcinogenesis
(27).
Benzo(a)pyrene is frequently taken as the primary index
of air pollution, with the recognition that it is only one
of the polycyclic organic materials in the air. Its selec-
tion as an index is plausible for several reasons: it
appears in solid form in air, is usually adsorbed on parti-
cles, and therefore can be filtered and collected. It is
also relatively easy to measure and is well correlated with
other polynuclear aromatics. It has been found to be car-
cinogenic in animals, and it is suspected of being carcino-
genic in man (27).
The carcinogenicity of PAH in mammals is almost ex-
clusively limited to 4-, 5-, and 6-ring polycyclics and some
methylated derivatives, although no definite structure-
effect relationship has yet been determined. Moreover, the
presence of N or S heteroatoms in basic polycyclic hydro-
carbon structures has been demonstrated in different cases
either to intensify or reduce carcinogenic effects. Because
N- and S-containing polycyclic compounds are more water-
soluble than the corresponding hydrocarbons, they may be
present in effluents at greater levels than those of the
polyaromatic hydrocarbons; their hazards in water may
therefore equal or exceed those of non-substituted poly-
cyclics (18). Further evidence of PAH carcinogenicity has
been provided by epidemiologic studies of industrial workers
exposed to high levels of PAH. Although the products of
coal combustion, coking, petroleum refining, and coal
pyrolysis are not identical to those of coal conversion,
5-63
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many compounds known to be carcinogenic have been found in
all these products or their process streams.
In a recent study, risk to workers exposed to coal-tar-
2
pitch volatiles (topside of the ovens averaged 3.15 mg/m )
was a function of both exposure level and length of expos-
ure. Lung cancer developed over a period of time varying
from 10 to 40 years, with an average of 25 years. A thresh-
o
old limit of 0.2 mg/m for a period of 30 years did not
increase the carcinogenic risk (54). This study, along with
other epidemiologic studies, gives further supporting
evidence of the potentially carcinogenic and hazardous
nature of coal liquefaction products and process streams.
The constituents in coal liquefaction product oil are
known to be carcinogenic and all contact should be avoided.
Stringent controls should be exercised regarding fugitive
emissions in the workplace. Analysis of product oil from
coal liquefaction, as well as oils in coal tar and petroleum
crudes, has revealed high levels of PAH compounds. Ben-
zo(a)pyrene concentrations ranged from 40 to 50 ppm in the
coal-derived products (18). Table 3-38 shows a general com-
position of product oil.
Laboratory animal studies have been performed to
determine the carcinogenicity of liquefaction product oil.
Several streams and products of the coal hydrogenation
process were painted on the skin of mice to test their
carcinogenic effect. The whole light-oil stream and eight
individual fractions of this stream were all without tumor-
igenic action. The light- and heavy-oil combustion products
were mildly tumorigenic, predominately producing papillomas.
However, the streams boiling at higher temperatures, the
middle-oil, light-oil stream residues, pasting oil, and
pitch product were all quite carcinogenic. This carcinogenicity
5-64
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is quite possibly due to the polynuclear aromatic hydrocar-
bon level in the product oils (18). These laboratory
studies, along with epidemiology studies of occupational
exposure, give further evidence of the role of PAH in the
production of skin cancer. However, the levels of exposure
to carcinogens or cocarcinogens in industry are very dif-
ferent from those due to community air pollution. In most
instances, the specific PAH has not been identified, nor has
the importance of airborne transmission of the carcinogenic
agent been considered in contrast with other routes of
exposure.
The data do not allow the construction of any accurate
dose-response relations. Although carcinogenesis may occur
at a high level of exposure to a carcinogen or cocarcinogen,
there is no information on the effect of clearly lower
concentrations of chemicals, such as would be found in
polluted community air.
No information was found to indicate that carcinogenic
PAH affects vegetation. Polycyclic compounds adsorbed by
roots from contaminated solutions, by foliage from polluted
'atmospheres, and by aquatic plants from contaminated bodies
of water are added to the traces of these compounds produced
metabolically in the plants (27).
Although a rough estimate has been made in Chapter 3
of the quantities of hydrocarbons emitted to the air, the
lack of precise data on the type of compounds prevents any
evaluation of the hazard potential of these compounds. The
following discussion is confined to toxicity data regarding
various hydrocarbon categories. At concentrations found in
ambient air, hydrocarbons have rarely been observed to have
direct physiological effects on humans or animals, although
effects have been noted at higher levels.
5-65
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In general, members of the aliphatic hydrocarbon series
are biologically and biochemically inert; i.e., they produce
no detectable functional or subclinical alterations. The
lower members, with the exception of methane and ethane, are
gases that tend to have anesthetic properties rather than
toxic properties. This is particularly true of the unsatu-
rated (olefin) compounds. Ethylene, propylene, and ace-
tylene have all been used as anesthetics, and available
evidence indicates that these gases are rapidly eliminated
from the lungs in the unchanged state. No effects were
reported for aliphatic compounds at levels below 1700
3
mg/m . Thus, these compounds must usually be present in
relatively high concentrations before noticeable effects are
produced (55) . Other aliphatic hydrocarbons also do not
tend to accumulate in body tissues; thus cumulative toxicity
from repeated exposure to low atmospheric concentrations is
improbable.
The aromatic hydrocarbons are biochemically and bio-
logically active. The vapors are much more irritating to
the mucous membranes than equivalent concentrations of the
aliphatic group. Systemic injury can result from the in-
halation of vapors of the aromatic compounds, and hema-
tological abnormalities, including leukemia, are associated
with chronic benzene inhalation. No effects, however, have
been reported at levels below 25 ppm (55).
One environmental concern with regard to hydrocarbons
in general is the tendency of some to participate in photo-
chemical reactions and contribute to smog conditions. The
present state of knowledge does not demonstrate any direct
effects on human populations of the gaseous hydrocarbons in
the ambient air, although many of the effects attributed to
photochemical oxidants are indirectly related to ambient
levels of these hydrocarbons. In smog formation, the
5-66
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quantity of eye irritants formed is a reflection of the
hydrocarbon precursors in combination with oxides of nitro-
gen. Table 5-16 gives a ranking of the eye irritation
potency of various hydrocarbons in irradiated synthetic
atmospheres.
TABLE 5-16.
HYDROCARBONS IN
EYE IRRITATION POTENCY OF VARIOUS
IRRADIATED SYNTHETIC ATMOSPHERES (55)
Hydrocarbon
n-Butane
n-Hexane
Isooctane
tert-Butylbenzene
Benzene
Ethyl ene
1-Butene
Tetramethylethylene
cis-2-Butene
Isopropylbenzene
sec-Butylbenzene
2-Methyl-2-butene
trans-2-Butene
o-Xylene
p-Xylene
«a
Potency
0
0
0.9
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.6
1.8
1.9
2.3
2.3
2.5
Hydrocarbon
m-Xylene
1,3,5-Tr line thy Ib en z ene
1-Hexane
Propylene
Ethylbenzene
Toluene
n-Propylbenzene
Isobutylbenzene
n-Butylbenzene
1,3-Butadiene
a-Methylstyrene
Allylbenzene
(3-Methylstyrene
Styrene
f\
Potency
2.9
3.1
3.5
3.9
4.3
5.3
5.4
5.7
6.4
6.9
7.4
8.4
8.9
8.9
Conditions: Hydrocarbon 2 ppm, nitric oxide 1 ppm for all except styrene,
a-methylstyrene, (3-methylstyrene, and allyl benzene (for those, hydrocarbon
was 1 ppm, nitric oxide 0.5 ppm).
5.1.3.1.4
Water
The waste streams containing the major organic compounds
are those produced by the liquefaction process rather than
the auxiliary facilities. The foul water condensate is
viewed as the process waste stream containing the heaviest
5-67
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organic loadings and potentially the greatest environmental
hazard if directly discharged to the natural waterways. The
SRC design plans indicate that there is a possibility that
this wastewater stream and other process wastewater streams
will be continually treated and recycled. However, assuming
the situation in which wastewaters are discharged rather
than recycled, the indications are that treatment schemes
may be available to produce an effluent of acceptable
quality. The following discussion of process wastewater
constituents will be an attempt to assess the hazards of the
situation in which the wastewater is discharged rather than
reused.
The organic compound groups that are known or suspected
to be in process wastewater are the following: phenols,
polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, polycyclic N-aromatics,
polycyclic hydroxy compounds and straight-chain hydrocarbons
(Chapter 3). Evaluation of the hazards of these compounds
is complicated by the fact that quantified levels of these
compounds in SRC wastewater are limited or nonexistent. In
addition, information on the environmental fate and eco-
toxicological effects of many of these compounds is also
very limited at this time.
In situations where analysis has not been performed on
SRC wastewater, data from similar conversion processes will
be utilized to give a general approximation of potential
pollutants. Obviously, actual quantification of SRC waste-
water before and after treatment would provide a much more
reliable mechanism for assessing the potential hazard of the
waste streams.
5-68
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5.1.3.1.5 Phenols
Phenols are the major organic constituent in the foul
process condensate, ranging in concentration from 5,000 to
12,000 mg/1. They constitute 47 to 64 percent of the COD in
foul water condensate from liquefaction processes, compared
with 68 percent in the condensate from coking plants (Chap-
ter 3) .
The lowest concentration of phenol shown to be toxic to
any organism was 10 (jig/1. At that level, the green algae
(Chlorella vulgaris) grew abnormally during chronic expo-
sure. There is not, however, enough chronic toxicity or
metabolic data to generalize about the effects on algae.
Certainly, aquatic plants are more endangered than terres-
trial, but no specific populations can be shown to be ad-
versely affected by phenol in the environment. A level of 2
mg/1 inhibited oxygen consumption in a freshwater snail,
(Helisoma tuvolis) (18).
Short-term toxic concentrations for freshwater fish are
in the range 10 to 40 mg/1 with sublethal effects (altered
serum enzyme activities were observed) in pike (Esox
lucius) exposed to 5 mg/1. Reproductive effects have not
been adequately evaluated. No assessment of risk to popula-
tions is presently possible (18) .
Concentrations of 1 to 10 mg/1 in water results in the
tainting of fish flesh. Human ingestion of 14 mg/kg has
resulted in gastrointestinal effects, and ingestion of 140
mg/kg was reported to cause death to a human (1).
Phenolic compounds are readily degraded by standard
biological treatment to low discharge levels. Utilizing
various standard treatments, as discussed in Chapter 3, it
5-69
-------
is projected that phenols could be reduced to levels in the
range of 0.3 to 3.0 mg/1. Although biological treatment may
not be sufficient to reduce the phenols to lower levels,
additional treatment such as carbon adsorption could prob-
ably be used to reduce phenols sufficiently to meet strin-
gent standards. To date, EPA effluent guidelines have not
been established for coal liquefaction facilities, although
they have been established for the by-product coking industry
(0.0006 kg phenol/Mg product - daily maximum) and for the
petroleum refining industry, subcategory topping (0.088 kg
Q
phenol/km of feedstock - daily maximum) (Chapter 3). The
MEGs for phenol are 5 M-g/1 based on health effects and 500
fjig/1 based on ecological effects.
The liquefaction foul water condensate has not been
fully quantified but may contain compounds which are more
resistant to degradation and standard waste treatments than
are the phenols. The lack of information about the com-
position of the condensate, as well as the degradation paths
and rates of the various constituents, increases the dif-
ficulty of predicting the effectiveness of foul water treat-
ment. Quantitative analysis of the foul water condensate
before and after various treatment procedures could provide
key information about the rates at which various compounds
are degraded and removed from the environment. Analysis of
any solid waste generated and of air emissions would be
needed to verify whether the compounds in question were
actually degraded or just transferred to another media.
5.1.3.1.6 Bio-Pond Sludge
The bio-pond produces only a nominal 27 Mg per day,
compared to the total volume of 14,000 Mg solid waste gen-
erated by a conversion plant. However, the presence in the
bio-pond of phenols, ammonia, cyanides, COD, thiocyanates,
5-70
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and other potent wastes makes imperative the proper disposal
of the sludge. Once formed and removed from the pond, the
sludge will contain coal tars, sand, coal fines, and bio-
treatment by-products. Prior to disposal, it will probably
be de-oiled by dissolved air flotation (possibly accompanied
by an API separator) and either air-dried or centrifuged
(18).
Phenols are high in acute toxicity but are low both in
deleterious chronic effects and bioaccumulation potential.
The relatively high efficiency of the removal of simpler
phenols by wastewater treatment procedures and their rapid
degradation by microbial systems, may result in the envi-
ronmental concern being directed toward the more complex
and less degradable phenols.
The synergistic potential of phenols is uncertain.
Although additive interactions have been demonstrated
between phenol mixtures, metals, ammonia and phenol, and
mixtures of ammonia, phenol, zinc, copper, and cyanides,
other studies have yielded contradictory results (54). The
significance of phenol potentially functioning as a co-
carcinogen should not be overlooked. Phenol is included in
the NIOSH list of suspected carcinogens, although there is
no specific evidence of human cancer attributable to phenol
(1).
The EPA-NIOSH ordering number of 3121 for phenol,
together with the large dose administered, yields an ad-
justed ordering number of 0.78. The significance of a
compound with such a low adjusted ordering number as a
cancer-inducing agent is highly questionable. Additional
studies utilizing mixtures of phenol and other suspected
carcinogenic agents, could better document the co-carcinogenic
5-71
-------
potential of phenol and perhaps elevate its importance in
terms of carcinogenicity.
5.1.3.1.7 Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons
PAH have been found in small quantities in raw process
wastewater. Table 3-17 shows quantified values for foul-
water condensate from the SRC-I mode, using Kentucky high-
sulfur bituminous coal. Although an environmental concern
because of their carcinogenic potential, the low levels of
PAH found in the process wastewater are below those levels
considered hazardous. Even prior to wastewater treatment,
the PAH levels are 1 to 6 orders of magnitude below the MEG
values based on health effects. Table 5-17 lists the toxi-
city of PAH compounds to several aquatic organisms.
Very limited information is available regarding the
low-level chronic or sublethal effects of PAH. Many of the
available studies have focused on the long-range effects of
oil spills and other petroleum pollution, but the extent of
the PAH effect is not discernible from these studies.
Although contaminants at very low concentrations may cause
no direct mortality to individual organisms, entire popu-
lations and natural communities may be adversely affected
(56).
Biodegradation of PAH is expected to be highly variable
and cannot be depended upon to reduce the level of any one
particular compound in the effluent streams. For the pur-
pose of estimating PAH levels after wastewater treatment, a
30 to 80 percent degradation was assumed (see Table 3-17) .
Also, the oxidation of any one of these compounds does not
necessarily mean that the carcinogenic activity has been
reduced; metabolic oxidation of PAH in other systems has
been known to both increase and decrease the carcinogenic
5-72
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TABLE 5-17. AQUATIC TOXICITY OF PAH (18)
Organism Method Chemical used
Rana pipieas Injection 3,4-benzpyrene
(Leopard frog) into kidney
5,7-dimethyl-
1 , 2-benzanthracene
3-methylcholanthrene
p-aminoazobenzene
1,2,5, 6-dlbenzanthracene
Ln Bufo arenacum Implantation 20-nethylcholanthrene
1 (Toad) into tail
"*J subcutane-
W ously
3,4-benzpyrene
7,12-dimethylbenz(a)
anthracene
Lepomis macrochirus Flowthrough benz(a)anthracene
(Bluegill sunflsh)
Paracentrotus Static 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)
llbidus anthracene
(Sea urchin)
benzo(a)pyrene
Exposure
Temp. time
(°C) (hours)
14-16° Single
doset
Single
dose
Single
dose
Single
dose
6 months
18-20° 48 hours
Number
Dose of
administered deaths
0.3-0.5 mg 15/15
0.3-0.5 mg 8/8
0.3-0.5 mg 6/6
0.3-0.5 mg 20/59
0.3-0.5 mg 13/36
Not given
(crystals)
Not given
(crystals)
Not given
(crystals)
1,0 ppm 87/100
1 x 10~^ to
1 x 10"* M
Effects
Within Produced
5 days
5 days
5 days
3 weeks adeno-
carcinoma
in 23Z
3 weeks adenocar.
in 26Z
Super-
numerary
fins in
1/38
Sup. fins
in 1/62
Sup . fins
in 50/50
6 months
Develop-
mental
abnormali-
ties in
70-1002
Within
3 wks-
7 months
3 wks-
7 months
16 days
26 days
20 days
48 hrs.
-------
potential. The effectiveness of various treatment methods
in removing PAH and harmful degradation products from waste-
water streams is an area in which research could provide
pertinent information.
Ash from steam generation could also be a significant
source of PAH. During combustion, PAH are produced and
adsorbed to the particulate matter. Significant quantities
of PAH would not, however, be expected to be associated with
gasifier ash. Gasifier temperatures are sufficiently high
to completely break down and destroy all organics, including
PAH.
Both bottom and fly ash are slurried and piped to
settling ponds. Because of the low water solubility, low
volatility and strong adsorption to particulate matter, most
of the PAH would be associated with the suspended partic-
ulate matter or sediments.
PAH concentrations in fly ash collectors at coal-fired
power plants were shown previously in Table 5-13; the PAH
are considered to be products of the incomplete combustion
of coal. The first seven compounds are of interest in that
several are considered to be carcinogenic (18) .
PAH entering natural water systems will suffer decom-
position, storage, or removal. In aquatic environments,
decomposition is accomplished primarily through photooxida-
tion, with biodegradation assuming a lesser role; storage is
through consumption by biota or incorporation into sedi-
ments. Removal by physical transport may occur in the
absence of degradation and bioaccumulation. Solubility is
important in determining which aquatic interaction will
prevail — whether a hydrocarbon will go into solution,
become suspended in the water column, or adsorb onto the
5-74
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sediments. However, mechanisms for hydrocarbon solubility,
particularly PAH, are poorly understood and the data are in-
complete and discordant (54).
The fate of PAH adsorbed to ash in settling ponds is
not well known. Analysis of ash pond leachate has generally
dealt with inorganics and ignored potential PAH contami-
nants. Quantification of PAH in ash pond leachate and/or
overflow would provide additional information with which to
further assess the environmental hazards of combustion ash.
Composition of the ash pond constituents is affected by a
number of factors including the coal type as well as the
quantity and quality of water used in sluicing. Virtually
nothing is known, however, of subacute interactions between
compound classes at the low levels anticipated in effluents.
Potential hazards could exist for both aquatic organisms and
human populations exposed through either water consumption
or ingestion of fish and shellfish. The scarcity of infor-
mation on carcinogenic and mutagenic effects of heteroatomic
polyaromatic compounds, the potential interactions between
compound classes, and the complete absence of information on
effects of trace levels of all polycyclic compounds to
aquatic organisms indicate the urgent need for research in
these areas (18).
5.1.3.1.8 Solid Wastes
The large quantities of solid waste generated by a coal
liquefaction facility (in excess of 14,000 Mg/day) are a
major concern with regard to the pollutants discharged in
the form of fugitive emissions, runoffs, and leachates.
Secondary pollutants resulting from solid waste dis-
posal may present the greatest environmental hazard with
regard to operation of coal liquefaction facilities; however,
5-75
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only limited quantification studies of the potentially
leachable pollutants have been completed. It is obvious
that a top priority with regard to estimating solid waste
hazards should be to quantify the various constituents both
before and after treatment, and to assess the likelihood of
these constituents leaching out and polluting the ground-
water.
In considering the organic pollutants, solid wastes of
primary concern include the bio-unit sludge, the steam
generation ash (containing adsorbed PAH), and process resi-
due. Although not yet characterized with respect to organ-
ics, the 0.50 to 0.62 Mg/day of bio-unit sludge would very
likely contain toxic and volatile organics. The lack of
characterization of this sludge hinders further evaluation
of its hazard potential.
In regard to ash, the combustion ash from steam genera-
tion (approximately 102 Mg/day) is of major concern with
regard to PAH. These compounds are produced during combus-
tion and tend to condense on particulates (e.g., fly ash).
The production of PAH seems to be a function of combustion
conditions.
One factor influencing PAH formation is the temperature
of combustion; there is an increase in PAH production with
increasing temperatures. The high operating temperature of
the Koppers-Totzek gasifier (1,850°C) is claimed to destroy
all organic compounds (18). The gasifier ash would, there-
fore, not be expected to present the same hazard with regard
to PAH compounds as that found with ash produced by the
combustion of coal.
The SRC process residue contains large quantities of
organic compounds. It would not, however, be a likely
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source of pollution because its high carbon content would
make further energy extraction highly desirable. Certain
gasifiers are able to utilize the residue, deriving addi-
tional heat value and leaving behind an inorganic ash.
Although it is unlikely that the process residue will
be disposed of without recovery treatment (such as gasifica-
tion) , in the event that this is not the case, an assessment
should be made of the potentially leachable contaminants.
Table 3-32 shows the several organics quantified to date in
the residue. In an effort to determine the leachability of
the residue, an unsuccessful attempt was made during the
test period to dissolve the solid in dilute acid (Chapter 3).
5.1.3.2 Special Ecotoxicological Considerations
Ecotoxicological effects of substances of environmental
concern which are based solely on laboratory-determined
toxicity data (such as LD.-Q) may be inapplicable to environ-
mentally significant situations. Unfortunately, the most
meaningful experiments are difficult to conceptualize, time
consuming, and expensive. Therefore, most of the data base
which is being used to determine the environmental hazard of
a compound, including the MEGs, is comprised of short-term
toxicity studies.
There are several reasons why laboratory-determined
toxicity data may not reflect the actual environmental
hazard. The organism most sensitive to a particular sub-
stance may not be tested; yet the loss of this single spe-
cies may result in a "domino" effect which could promote
considerable environmental imbalance and change. The phys-
ical or chemical form of the pollutant, or the route of
administration of it, may differ from the exposure expected
in the environment. There may be synergistic or antagonistic
5-77
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effects between pollutant substances which may mitigate or
potentiate the effect. A substance which may be harmless
when ingested may give off toxic fumes if it is burned or
exposed to extreme heat. An innocuous substance may be
transformed to an environmentally hazardous substance when
exposed to sunlight. A substance harmless to one group of
organisms may be metabolized by this group into a substance
which is harmful to another group of organisms. Toxic
concentrations of materials may be accumulated by certain
plants or animals without apparent harm, but the animals
which eat these organisms may suffer acute or chronic toxic
symptoms. Nutritional factors also must be considered. For
example, algae were reported to prefer ammonia over nitrate
nitrogen as a nitrogen source.
5.1.3.2.1 Temperature Effects
Among the factors not considered in the MEG approach
are temperature effects. A change in temperature can in-
crease or decrease the toxicity of cadmium (57,58,59,60),
chromium (57,58), copper (57,58,61), lead (57,58,62,63,64,
65), mercury (57,58), nickel (57,58,66), and zinc (57,58,
67,68,69,70,71). The direction and magnitude of the effect
depend on species and other conditions. A temperature
increase may increase the metabolic rate of aquatic organ-
isms, which may transform the toxicant to a more toxic or
less toxic form, aid excretion of the toxicant, or aid
transport of the toxicant to sensitive tissue or organ
systems.
5.1.3.2.2 Toxicity Differences Related to the
Oxidation State or Form of Elements
The MEG approach does not completely account for toxi-
city differences due to the particular elemental form. All
5-78
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forms of an element may not have been tested; consequently,
the most toxic form of the element may not have been tested.
On the other hand, MEGs based on the most toxic form of the
element may overestimate the possible environmental effect.
Estimation of the importance of this effect is com-
plicated by the lack of research on the possible differ-
ential toxicities of elemental forms. However, it is known
that trivalent forms of antimony are more toxic than penta-
valent forms (20). Arsines (trivalent inorganic and or-
ganic) are more toxic than inorganic arsenites; the latter
are more toxic than arsenoxides (trivalent with two bonds
joined to oxygen). In turn, arsenoxides are more toxic than
arsenates (inorganic); the latter are more toxic than penta-
valent arsenicals (such as arsonic acids). Arsonic acids
are more toxic than arsonium compounds (four organic groups
with a positive charge on arsenic), and the latter are more
toxic than elemental arsenic (72,73,74,75,76,77,78). Hexa-
valent chromium compounds are more toxic than trivalent ones
(79). Organic forms of mercury are more toxic than inor-
ganic forms, perhaps because the organic forms are more
easily taken up by living systems (79) . Soluble selenium
salts are more toxic than elemental selenium (72). Vanadium
toxicity increases with the valence, with the pentavalent
state being the most toxic (79). A further complication to
the estimation of the importance of this effect is that the
form and oxidation state of the element can be changed by
environmental forces. As discussed previously, the toxicity
of elemental mercury can be quite significantly increased by
microbial methylation.
5-79
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5.1.3.2.3 Water Hardness as a Factor in Determina-
tion of the Toxicity of Inorganic
Substances
A number of studies have shown decreased trace element
toxicity in fresh water with increased hardness. Reduced
toxicity in hard alkaline waters is best explained by a
decrease in the uptake of the toxic trace element. Physio-
chemical factors influencing the bioavailability of trace
elements in such waters include (1) precipitation of insoluble
hydroxides, carbonates, and hydroxy-carbonates; (2) the
formation of inorganic solute complexes with carbonate,
hydroxide, phosphate, or sulfate; and (3) competition
between alkaline earth cations and trace elements for mem-
brane transport sites. The literature does not provide
definitive information as to whether the hardness (calcium
and magnesium) or the increased alkalinity that commonly
accompanies increased hardness, is the important factor.
Inorganic speciation may also be important in deter-
mining the bioavailability of metals in seawater. A decline
in biotic uptake of metals with increasing salinity in
estuaries has been reported by a number of authors. De-
creased trace element bioavailability with the increased
dominance of inorganic complexes in seawater may contribute
to such results. Complexation of vanadium with oxyanions
such as phosphate or arsenate, may decrease uptake of this
metal by marine tunicates (61).
5.1.3.2.4 Organic Complexes as a Factor in
Determination of the Toxicity of
Inorganic Substances (61)
The extent to which organic complexation of trace
elements occurs in natural waters and the bioavailability of
5-80
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the organic complexes relative to the inorganic forms are
important questions. With some exceptions, organic complexa-
tion usually reduces the bioavailability of trace elements.
Chelation with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) re-
duced the toxicity to algae of copper and zinc. The toxicity
of copper in highly organic sulfate liquor wastes from pulp
mills was found to be considerably less than its toxicity in
fresh waters. Natural organics, extracted with seawater
from either soil or sewage, reduced the toxicity of copper
to both copepods (zooplankton). and benthic invertebrates.
The toxicity of copper to algae increased in the following
order: copper-EDTA, copper citrate, and Cu (II). Complexa-
tion of mercury with glutathione reduced the toxicity of
this metal to the crustacean Artemia. The accumulation of
mercury by benthic invertebrates was reduced by 20 to 80
times by complexation of solute with cysteine or protein.
The addition of 2 mg per liter of cysteine hydrochloride
decreased mercury uptake to nearly one-sixth of the original
value in fathead minnows. These findings suggest that
biotic accumulation of trace elements present at a similar
total solute concentration, would be greater in waters where
^
dissolved organics are less abundant (e.g., oligotrophic
waters) than in waters where dissolved organics are more
abundant (e.g., eutrophic waters).
On the other hand, some authors have suggested that
organic complexation of solute trace elements may enhance
their availability to biota. Increased trace element uptake
through complexation may result from (1) a decrease in rate
and extent of trace element sorption by sediments; (2) solu-
bilization of solid forms of trace elements in soils and
sediments; (3) a valence reduction and/or stabilization of
the reduced valence state or vice versa; and (4) formation
of physiologically active complexes. Terrestrial plants
were found to accumulate much more gallium, indium, and
5-81
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chromium when these elements were added as water-soluble
organic complexes than in the unchelated form. Organic com-
plexation may be important in maintaining elevated concen-
trations of solute trace elements often observed in inter-
stitial waters. However, such solubilization of trace ele-
ments does not necessarily enhance bioavailability. The
addition of fulvic acids to soils (under greenhouse condi-
tions) increased the amount of water-soluble selenium, but
depressed selenium uptake by alfalfa plants. Similarly, the
oxidation of dissolved organics with ultraviolet light was
found to decrease algal growth in seawater. The original
growth rate was totally reinstated by addition of EDTA to
the water. In addition, the growth rate was partially
restored by adding soluble iron and manganese. These
results suggest that organic complexation reduces the rate
of trace element conversion to solid forms of low bioavail-
ability. Organic complexes may also attenuate the effects
of excessive concentrations of trace elements. Moreover, an
excess of organic complexing agents will reduce algal growth
by decreasing the activity of essential trace elements below
optimum levels.
The importance of these various effects is hard to
determine because changes in the forms of the elements in
the environment can occur. For example, zooplankton excrete
organic complexes of zinc. Thus a biogenic source of
organically-cpmplexed trace elements may be present even
where solute trace element and organic carbon levels are
low. It has been found that the complexation quantities are
similar to the concentrations of dissolved trace elements
present in unpolluted surface waters. This permits the
interpretation, but in no way proves, that trace elements in
surface waters are largely transported in the form of
soluble organic complexes.
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5.1.3.2.5 Bioconcentration
Bioconcentration refers to the ability of an organism
to accumulate a pollutant above the ambient level. This
phenomenon may result from an energy-requiring, active
transport mechanism by which the organism concentrates a
micronutrient from the environment. However, the phenomenon
also occurs if the pollutant is sequestered in the organism.
This sequestration may result from chemical reactions (for
example with protein sulfhydryl groups), physical transi-
tions (for example, a lipophylic compound dissolving in high
lipid tissue and thus removing itself from the aqueous
excretion process), or biological substitution (strontium
replacing calcium in bone). Higher aquatic organisms such
as fish can incorporate arsenical compounds and metabolize
them yielding high-molecular-weight lipid material (80).
Bioaccumulation can lead to the build-up of a toxic
concentration of a substance in an organism over a period of
time. This is one reason why acute toxicity experiments may
not be applicable to prediction of possible adverse envi-
s
ronmental effects. Because of this phenomenon, the use of
acute toxicity experiments in methodologies (such as the
MEGs) which attempt to predict the environmental impact of
a substance or group of substances, may lead to underesti-
mation of the possible effect and consequent overestimation
of the concentration which will not have an adverse envi-
ronmental effect.
Unfortunately, the bioconcentration factors are not
constant even for a given substance for a given species.
This makes this phenomenon hard to incorporate into treat-
ments of possible environmental effects.
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5.1.3.2.6 Synergism and Antagonism
Perhaps the best-known protective action is that of
selenium against mercury toxicity. Selenium also gives some
protection against cadmium and against liver damage by
thallium in rats. Selenite is reported to protect human
reproductive tissues and mammary glands against the hemor-
rhagic necrosis produced by cadmium, and it may also protect
people against cadmium-induced hypertension. Ganther and
coworkers have proposed that the protective effects of
selenium arise from the complexation of mercury and cadmium
by selenium in high-molecular-weight proteins within tis-
sues. Such complexes divert mercury and cadmium from their
toxicological target molecules (20,61).
Assimilation of the related element arsenic affords
partial protection against selenium and mercury toxicity as
indicated by (1) a decrease in expiration of methylated
selenium and an increase in excretion of mercury in the bile
which suggests the formation of some detoxification con-
jugate, and (2) a decrease in the accumulation of selenium
in the livers of rats. In another instance, linseed oil
reportedly offers protection against liver damage from
selenium, perhaps by binding selenium in tissues in a less
toxic form (61).
The body burden of plutonium, given mice by gavage or
by intraperitoneal injection, was significantly greater (p
less than 0.01) in iron-deficient mice than in their lit-
termate controls. With time the translocation of plutonium
from soft tissue to bone was greater in the iron-deficient
mice (81).
The absorption of a trace element by plants is also
influenced by the presence of other trace elements. For
5-84
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example, zinc and aluminum slightly inhibited beryllium
absorption, whereas magnesium had no influence and dini-
trophenol enhanced beryllium absorption (18).
Theoretically, synergism can occur if the mechanism of
toxicity is identical for two pollutants. Thus the effects
of two heavy metals might be additive if they inhibit the
same enzyme system. This is especially applicable in the
case of carcinogens where a "single hit" at a specific
cellular site might result in carcinogenesis. Thus, the
concentrations of two polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
might be additive, and significantly increase the possi-
bility of cancer where the concentration of either alone
would not.
Other specific examples of synergistic or antagonistic
effects can be found in Appendix Tables A-II-2 and A-II-3
(for inorganic compounds) and in Table IX-39 of Reference
18 for organic compounds.
Epidemiclogical studies are,often done on urban popula-
tions to determine the effect of one or a few pollutants on
such populations. In addition to exposure to chemical air
pollution (such as sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, partic-
ulates, other elements, and hydrocarbons), urban populations
are less likely to be physically active and are subjected to
crowding (which can lead to general health deterioration due
to greater exposure to infectious diseases) and other forms
of psychological stress.
If antagonistic effects between two substances are
operating in the environment, or if the psychological stress
of urban living is partially influencing the epidemiologi-
cal studies, methodologies such as the MEGs will tend to
overestimate the possible environmental effects of specific
5-85
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pollutants. On the other hand, operation of synergistic
effects in the environment will tend to underestimate the
effect, leading to the prediction of environmentally safe
concentrations which in reality would be environmentally
hazardous. Obviously, there is no simple solution to this
problem.
5.1.3.2.7 Cocarcinogens
Cocarcinogens are compounds which enhance the effect of
carcinogens. By themselves they may not be carcinogenic but
can promote multiplication of abnormal cells after initia-
tion of the conversion of a normal cell to a malignant cell
by a carcinogen. The fact that coal tar itself is more
carcinogenic than known individual carcinogenic compounds,
suggests the presence of Cocarcinogens. In an experiment
performed in 1967, Tye and Stemmer (18) removed the phenols
from coal tar, and observed that the carcinogenic activity
of the resulting material was significantly decreased. In
1969 Conzelman (18) discovered that the skin cancer-induc-
ing activity of benzo(a)pyrene and of benzo(a)anthracene
were increased 1000 times when n-dodecane was used as the
solvent. In 1970, Laskin and coworkers (18) reported inhal-
ing benzo(a)pyrene alone did not produce lung cancer in
rats, while inhaling sulfur dioxide and benzo(a)pyrene did
produce cancerous tumors (18).
The carcinogenic potential of certain PAH is greater in
solvents such as n-dodecane and dodecylbenzene than in
hydrocarbons of low molecular weight. Hydrocarbons which
increase the rate of cancer induction by a carcinogen are
capable of preconditioning the skin of mice to render it
more responsive to subsequent applications of a carcinogen.
The accelerating solvents are effective promoters of car-
5-86
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cinogenesis initiated by a single application of a car-
cinogenic material (18).
Some additional substances which are thought to have
cocarcinogenic properties are phenols, cresols, non-ionic
detergents, phorbol, myristate, acetate, and anthralin (18).
The mechanisms by which cocarcinogens act are not
known. Cocarcinogens have not been dealt with in the MEG
approach. The cocarcinogen may make a specific cellular
site more available for a carcinogen or may increase the ab-
sorption of the carcinogen by the living system. Other,
more subtle effects are known; for example, methylmercury
has been found to interfere with liver detoxification
mechanisms, resulting in the accumulation of N-oxygenated
metabolites.
5.1.3.2.8 Summary and Conclusions
Many effects have been presented which relate to the
toxicity of pollutants in the environment. None of these
effects readily lends itself to quantification by method-
ologies such as the MEG approach. Some of these effects
such as bioconcentration, synergism, and cocarcinogenicity
tend to increase the toxicity of the individual substances
so that the level which the MEG methodology predicts to be
safe for the environment may actually be hazardous. Other
of these effects such as antagonistic effects and the influ-
ence of the psychological stress of urban living on epi-
demiological studies, can lead to predicted values that
exceed those which the environment can tolerate. Other of
these effects such as temperature, form of the pollutant,
water hardness, and organic complexes affect toxicities in
unpredictable and site-specific ways. Methodologies such as
the MEGs are not, at this point, sophisticated enough to
5-87
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take these factors into account. Indeed, the authors of the
MEGs realized this deficiency (1). However, the MEG approach
is possibly the best attempt to give environmentally safe
quantification, in spite of the fact that all of the factors
discussed in this section were not incorporated.
It is perhaps necessary to set standards on groups of
compounds rather than individual compounds. Thus, standards
may read: "The maximum allowable concentration of sub-
stances capable of causing immunosuppression shall be...",
"The maximum level of carcinogens and cocarcinogens shall
be.,.", "The maximum (emission) level of substances capable
of causing respiratory distress shall be...", etc. These
regulations would be harder to write and enforce; but if
such regulations were written and could be followed, they
would probably lead to a more satisfactory end result.
5.1.4 Potential Effects of Non-Chemical Pollutants
The major non-chemical pollutants include: heat,
noise, entrainment and impingement, radioactivity, micro-
organisms, and complex effluents (TOG, DO, BOD, etc.).
5.1.4.1 Heat and Noise
Both heat and noise will exert localized, short-range
effects, generally not extending more than a few kilometers
in any direction beyond the center of the plant location.
Heat and noise effects may also impinge on plant workers.
As with other pollutants, the various effects will be
proportional to the intensity or level of heat and/or noise,
the distance between the source and the receptor, and the
duration of exposure. In Chapter 3 of this report, it was
12
stated that as much as 160 x 10 joules of heat could be
5-88
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lost to the environment each day that the SRC plant is in
regular operation. Considering that the White County site
has excellent air dispersion characteristics, one would
expect little or no downwind impacts of heat. An accurate
assessment of localized heat effects can best be made,
however, when the SRC demonstration plant is in full opera-
tion. Even here, site specific factors will have to be
taken into account.
With respect to noise effects, the major problem
appears to relate to the potential impacts on workers.
Noise impacts on the White County environment can be essen-
tially dismissed since there are no big game animals in the
area. An accurate assessment of noise level contours can be
made when the SRC demonstration plant is in operation.
Present indications are that available noise mitigation
measures would be effective in lowering ambient workplace
noise levels in the high-noise areas (e.g., in the coal
shaker, hydrogen generation, and boiler house units) to
comply with OSHA requirements.
Thermal effects of heated water discharges into the
Wabash River from the steam electric station (SES) would not
likely affect the ambient thermal characteristics of the
river under average flow conditions. Under the summer low-
flow conditions, however, where the typical withdrawal might
exceed two percent of the Wabash River flow, one would
expect compliance problems with respect to rise of surface
water temperatures in excess of the standard five-degree
limit.
5.1.4.2 Entrainment and Impingement
The majority of auxiliary steam electric stations will
use once-through cooling systems (82). Given this condition,
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it is apparent that the velocity of water passing through
SES intake screens may be great enough to entrain and
injure, or kill, small fish that pass through pumps and heat
exchangers, or to kill outright the large fish striking the
screens (82). Eggs and larval stages of aquatic organisms
are particularly vulnerable to entrainment. The degree of
impact is usually determined more by the volume of intake
flow than by the intake velocity (83). Unfortunately, the
ecological implications of these events are not yet known.
Key environmental factors influencing impingement or
entrapment are water temperature and velocity, light inten-
sity, fish concentration and behavioral patterns, low dis-
solved oxygen concentrations, the presence of toxicants,
relative location and construction details of the intake
structure, and the location of the intake in relation to the
bottom, shoreline, and water surface.
Partial reports and predictions of the effect of
entrainment events are shown in Table 5-18.
TABLE 5-18. REPORTED ENTRAINMENT INCIDENTS (83)
Power Plant Entrainment Event Comment
Indian Point, Predicted future Estimated from estuary
Hudson Estuary, N.Y. kill of larvae and sampling in 1966 and 1967.
juveniles of
striped bass - 7.3
million per year.
Connecticut Yankee, 179 million fish Estimated in 1969 and 1970.
Conn. River, Conn. larvae killed per
year during plant
operation.
Reports and predictions of the effect of impingement
events in power plants are shown in Table 5-19.
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TABLE 5-19. REPORTED IMPINGEMENT INCIDENTS (83)
Power plant
Impingement event
Comment
Indian Point No. 2,
Hudson River, N.Y.
Surry Power Station,
James River, Va.
Massive kills; maxi-
mum of 120,000 per
day.
6 million river
herring destroyed
in 2 to 3 months.
Testing of new cooling
system in January 1971;
white perch and other
species.
Estimated by Atomic Energy
Commission in October to
December, 1972 during par-
tial power runs.
According to Boreman (83), simplistic mathematical
models neglect important hydrodynamic phenomena necessary
for predicting flow conditions close by the power plant
intakes. Dye or drogue studies are considered unreliable
for prediction of the reaction of aquatic organisms to the
higher velocities near the intakes (83).
If the plant discharge is located too near the plant
intake area, fish and shellfish often may be subjected to
entrainment and impingement. Stagnant pool areas around the
intake allow the populations of aquatic organisms to in-
crease in these areas, thereby increasing their vulner-
ability.
The EPA has recommended reducing maximum intake veloci-
ties to below 0.15 m per second at the trash rack to enable
fish to escape the screenwell. However, the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service considers that velocities below 0.15 m per
second will entrain plankton and larvae of small fish, where
intake channels are built without an effective escape bypass
(83).
In the Wabash River area of White County, the fish
species most likely to be impinged in large numbers is the
gizzard shad; this species tends to travel in large schools
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throughout its life cycle. Thus, if a school approaches the
intake it will experience population losses. Apparently,
other fish species found in the Wabash River area will be
impinged only occasionally (4).
The highest probability for entrainment of aquatic
organisms in the Wabash River will occur under low-flow
conditions (August to October) when fish are spawning and
when planktonic populations are typically larger. Present
evidence indicates that the one percent of water withdrawn
for power plant use, represents the likely percentage en-
trainment (one percent) of ambient riverine populations.
Assuming that this level of entrainment would be well within
the level of natural fluctuations of riverine populations,
it is likely that the losses to entrainment and impingement
would have no significant effect on the biology or ecology
of the Wabash River area.
5.1.4.3 Inadvertent Modification of Precipitation
Drift of the vapor plume from the cooling tower could
promote fogging and icing conditions. If this drift occurs
near highways, hazardous driving conditions could result.
Many studies (84,85,86) have indicated that precipi-
tation is increased downwind of power generating facilities
and other industrial complexes. Usually, this increase
takes the form of increased severe storms; this may be due
to a thermal effect caused by heated emissions or to an
increased particulate count. Such an effect is possible in
the vicinity of the hypothetical SRC facility under study.
If an increased precipitation occurs on a local basis, two
detrimental effects are possible. First, since most rain-
fall of greater than 1.25 to 2.5 cm does not increase crop
yield but rather leads to erosion (87,88), the area receiving
5-92
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an increased rainfall will be damaged by increased erosion,
hail, lightning, etc. Second, the weather modification
induced by the industrial facility may lead to a depletion
in the moisture content of the air due to the increased
precipitation immediately downwind of the facility. This
latter effect could lead to partial drought conditions
farther downwind of the plant.
A statistical analysis of corn yields and weather vari-
ations in Illinois indicated that the July rainfall was the
single most important weather factor, although in portions
of southern and eastern Illinois, either the July or August
temperature achieved higher correlations with yields.
Weather factors together explained more than 80 percent of
the variability in corn yields in southern Illinois, but
only 45 percent of the yield variability in northern
Illinois (89).
5.1.5 Natural Radioactivity
Approximately 290 millicuries (mCi) of radiation will
be associated with the 28,123 Mg of Illinois No. 6 coal
consumed daily by the proposed SRC facility. Is this a
significant amount? In Chapter 3, treated emission streams
of coal dust were shown to contain between 0.9 and 167 mg
o
dust/m . This amount of dust corresponded to between 9.28 x
10~12 to 1.72 x 10~9 Ci/m3. Of these values, from 4.77 x
10~16 to 8.85 x 10~14 Ci/m3 is associated with the decay of
9 ^R 17 IS
each isotope of the ITJO series; 2.2 x 10 *•' to 4.1 x 10 J"J
Ci/m3 with each isotope of the U235 series, and 2.2 x 10"16
to 4.1 x 10~14 Ci/m3 for each isotope of the Th232 series.
These numbers are at least three orders of magnitude below
the maximum permissible concentrations listed in the Radio-
logical Health Handbook (90) and the 10 CFR 20 Standards for
5-93
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protection against radiation for major radionuclides asso-
ciated with coal-burning facilities.
As a second estimate, the radiological exposure of a
worker breathing the dust was calculated, on the assumption
that a person doing light work would breathe 28.6 1 per
•a
minute or 13.728 m per eight hours. If one assumes that
the air breathed in contains 100 mg coal dust per cubic
meter and that 50 percent of the coal dust is trapped in the
lung, one finds a buildup of coal dust of 1.37 g per day;
this calculates to a lung deposit of 350 g per year for a
person doing light work on an eight-hour day. This assump-
tion is the maximum possible buildup since no coal dust is
assumed lost in the normal cleaning processes of the lung.
Consideration of the number of disintegrations, the energy
of each disintegration, and the relative biological effec-
tiveness of each type of disintegration leads to the con-
clusion that a 70 kg (standard) man would be exposed to 4.47
_io _io
x 10 rad or 3.85 x 10 rem of irradiation/day. Given
that the worker should stay with the same job for the total
plant lifetime of 30 years, and that 260 days per year were
-9
worked, the cumulative exposure would be 3.48 x 10 rad or
o
3.00 x 10 rem (90,91,92,93). This exposure is well below
the maximum permissible rem; however, should certain western
coals be utilized, the margin of safety would decrease.
5.1.6 SAM/IA Analysis of the Hypothetical SRC Facility
The quantities of materials present in the various
waste streams, defined and reported in Chapter 3 of this
report, have been subjected to a SAM/IA Level 2; this analy-
sis is found in Appendix V and includes Figure A-V-8 and
Tables A-V-12 and A-V-13. Generally, the results of this
analysis suggest that the most significant environmental
impacts are associated with the emission of carbon dioxide
5-94
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and carbon monoxide. Aluminum, copper, zinc, nickel, and
several organic compounds appear to be present in signifi-
cant amounts in the effluents. In addition, several trace
elements and organic compounds appear to be present in
significant amounts in the solid wastes.
The most hazardous SRC waste stream quantified to date
appears to be the solid residue. Fly ash from steam genera-
tion is judged to be the second most hazardous waste stream.
Levels of aluminum and nickel in the effluent stream
are judged sufficient to cause damage to field crops (1,91).
Copper, at levels believed to occur in the SRC effluents,
has been found toxic to many kinds of fish, crustaceans,
molluscs, insects, phytoplankton and zooplankton (91,92).
The high potential environmental hazard of the solid wastes
indicates that considerable care should be taken to assure
that these materials are disposed of in a manner that will
prevent the contamination of groundwater and surface water
supplies (e.g., by leaching, seepage, and overland flows).
/»
Appendix Table A-V-13 displays a typical SAM/IA work-
sheet. This example demonstrates some of the problems of a
SAM/IA analysis, and was based on the coal pile drainage,
the composition of which was assumed to be the same as the
average coal pile drainage given in Chapter 3, Table 3-14.
The volume of runoff was calculated by the formula found in
Chapter 3, and by assuming that all of the 102.8 cm of
average annual precipitation at Carmi, Illinois, runs off a
3.24 ha coal pile. Both volumes were used and separate
calculations were performed for each runoff rate. The
pollutant species listed first on the worksheet (alkalinity
through pH) are so general that: (1) the MATEs are not
available and (2) specific environmental impacts cannot be
predicted. Of the more than 250 materials for which MATEs
5-95
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are calculated, the analysis of only six is available for
coal pile drainage. Of the 10 specific substances reported
in Table 3-14 for coal pile drainage, the MATEs are avail-
able for six. No information is available which would
indicate the identity and quantity of organic substances in
coal pile drainage.
5.1.6.1 Other Indicators of Adverse Effects
Table 3-24 shows the changes in the concentration of a
few components both upstream and downstream of a refuse
pile. These data show little reason to predict any envi-
ronmental impact, because the refuse pile was well covered
with clay loam soil and vegetated with grass (93) . Refuse
piles lacking such a vegetative cover would likely cause an
increase in acidity of 5,660 mg/1, in sulfate of 10,000
mg/lj in sodium of 240 mg/1, manganese of 10 mg/1, iron of
2,200 mg/1, and a decrease in the pH of leachate to a value
of three. The 10 mg/1 value for manganese exceeds the
ambient level goals of 50 and 20 micrograms per liter, based
on health and ecological effects, respectively. The MEGs
for the other materials have not been determined as yet.
The data presented in Table 3-24 suggest that significant
environmental impacts can be expected from an uncovered,
non-vegetated refuse pile. Therefore, all refuse piles
should be covered with soil and revegetated as soon as
practicable.
5.2 Strategies for Environmental Impact Assessment
In this portion of Chapter 5, suggestions are advanced
regarding the estimation of the environmental costs (i.e.,
impacts) associated with the construction and operation of
the hypothetical SRC plant. As stated earlier in the Intro-
duction to this report, the somewhat arbitrary selection of
5-96
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a site in White County, Illinois, was considered to be a
useful construct in that it challenged the analyst to
separate those environmental items that are somewhat readily
assessed, from those that clearly require further baseline
study at a specific site. Thus, one may designate two
categories of impact assessment, as follows:
• generic assessments
• site-specific assessments.
By the same reasoning, one may predict environmental
protection strategies relative to the construction and
operation of the proposed SRC facility, either in generic or
site-specific terms. Clearly, the estimation of costs of
the required environmental protection measures is highly
site specific in nature; however, certain protection mea-
sures are considered generic in nature.
5.2.1 Generic Environmental Impacts
/
The final impact statement on the alternative fuels
demonstration program (AFDP), issued in late 1977 by the
U.S. Department of Energy (94), provided generic assessments
of the impacts of the emerging synthetic fuels technologies
on a regional basis. The AFDP report assessed the generic
impacts of coal gasification and coal liquefaction plants of
various sizes and composition, including that of the re-
quired auxiliary or conjunctive developments for several
coal-producing regions, among them being the Eastern Inter-
ior Coal region (Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky). The
reader is advised to consult this AFDP report for details on
the Eastern Interior region. Suffice to say that environ-
mental impacts were assessed in terms of the physical,
biological, and socioeconomic environments. Significant
5-97
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uncertainties identified in the AFDP report included:
qualitative emission of toxic substances; minimum in-plant
water use requirements, basis for predicting ecological and
health effects of coal liquefaction plants, and the effi-
ciency of pollution control devices. Therefore, additional
research will be needed to resolve these and other uncer-
tainties related to the development of synthetic fuels.
5.2.2 Site-Specific Impacts
As pointed out by Ramsay (95), site-specific parameters
and plant technology items are determinate to both the
environmental and the economic costs. Inspired by the
approaches currently in use by the Nuclear Regulatory Com-
mission in early site reviews, and by the State of Maryland
and some utilities in their acquisition of alternative power
plant sites (so as to ensure backup sites for future energy
needs) Ramsay (95) advanced certain methods for expressing
environmental impacts on a dollar basis. The rationale
underlying this approach was that it would be rather arti-
ficial to insist on not expressing environmental costs in
dollars, and that this approach prevents one from hiding
certain value choices.
The most readily discernible site-specific environ-
mental impacts in the White County area include the follow-
ing:
• Land area consigned to the mining of coal and to
plant site (including cooling ponds, coal storage
area, and tank farm) for the 20- to 30-year life-
time of the plant (see Table 5-20)
• Land area consigned to borrow pits and waste dis-
posal sites (based on geological criteria)
5-98
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TABLE 5-20. ESTIMATED LAND AREA CONSIGNED TO THE
SRC COMPLEX (97)
Land area
Facility unit (ha)
Coal mine (surface)
Total mine area 15,540.3
Active area of surface mining 2,331.0
Additional mine area for large 31,080.6
surface mines
Landfill at mine 777.0
Mine support buildings 259.0
Coal preparation plant 85.47
SRC plant area (including waste pond and 259.0
other areas)
Buffer zone area surrounding plant 777.0
• Changes in lifestyles
• Stresses imposed on the infrastructure of state
and local governments in accommodating the syn-
thetic fuels technology
• Earthquake (seismic) risks
• Meteorological criteria
• Population-center distance limits
• Hydrologic considerations (e.g., flood hazard and
water quality)
5-99
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• Ecosystems, (i.e., location of vulnerable eco-
systems) aquatic and terrestrial
• Alterations of existing land use.
The goal of the Ramsay (95) analysis is to identify rel-
ative siting feasibility for different geographical grid
points (on a 3.6 hectare scale) for each reasonable permuta-
tion of a set of specific design technologies, whereupon the
environmental costs are determined. These environmental
impacts and costs are then estimated in terms of the fol-
lowing categories: geology, seismology, meteorology, popu-
lation centers, hydrology, ecosystems, land use, transporta-
tion, and transmission lines, as shown in Appendix Table
A-V-14.
5.2.2.1 Land Area
Estimates of land area consigned to the SRC complex,
including coal mine, plant site, auxiliary site, roads,
railroads, and landfill site are given in Table 5-20. In
essence, the land area consigned to the mine site would
generally impact counties other than White County, since
there are no operational mines in White County at the
present. However, Lindquist (96) has reported that mineable
coal reserves do exist in White County. Assuming that the
coal would be surface mined in adjacent counties, it appears
that a total of 1,036 ha (2,560 acres) would be required for
the SRC plant and auxiliary units. Should a new reservoir
be required, an additional 518 ha would be utilized (97).
5.2.2.2 Geology
The U.S. Soil Conservation Service and most state geo-
logical surveys provide various criteria for large-scale
5-100
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site screening and impact assessments. One of these is the
slope from which estimates can be made of the amount of
soil and rock materials to be moved. Some states require
that routine estimates of the area and volume of cuts and
fills shall be included in the erosion and sediment control
plan as a contingency to the granting of a construction
permit. Included with the latter is an estimate of the
location and extent of borrow pit areas. As a matter of
fact, the regulatory process incurs many costs, referred to
as transaction costs (95). These include the costs of
hearings and public meetings, costs of time losses resulting
from unresolved issues of various kinds, and costs incurred
for environmental monitoring and baseline surveys at spe-
cific sites (95). Other aspects of the geology category are
shown in Appendix Table A-V-14.
5.2.2.3 Potential Changes in Lifestyles
Beyond question is the fact that a synthetic fuels
technology would sharply change the lifestyle of White
County from a rural to an urbanizing mode. Compared with
the northern Great Plains area, the trauma of lifestyle
changes in the southern Illinois area would be nominal.
5.2.2.4 Potential Stress Imposed on State and Local
Infrastructure
The state government of Illinois appears admirably
suited to coping with the demands on water, roads, open
space, flood-prone areas, and the like. Local government,
as in White County, although admirably supported by long-
range planning inputs from the Greater Wabash Regional
Commission, may suffer from the lack of good zoning regu-
lations. Somewhat compensatory controls on land use, however,
are implicit in the Federal Clean Water and Clean Air Acts.
5-101
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5.2.2.5 Seismology
Extra construction costs required to cope with earth-
quake hazards were discussed in Chapter 4. The apparent
risks to the safety of synthetic fuels workers resulting
from potential rupture of conveyor systems and reactors have
not been assessed.
5.2.2.6 Meteorological Criteria
Because of the likelihood of recurring tornadoes in
southern Illinois, it is apparent that construction design
criteria should be factored in. Considering that the seis-
mic design criteria would be more than adequate to resist
tornadoes, however, no further action need be taken in this
regard.
With reference to compliance with the six criteria air
pollutants, the situation will require that site-specific
estimates of compliance be made for each possible design
technology (e.g., dust collectors and scrubbers) at given
geographical points for a specific plant. Based on the
Ramsay (95) framework of analysis, the cost for meeting the
air quality criteria standards would be zero, and infinite
for not meeting the standards.
5.2.2.7 Hydrology
The problems of flooding along the Wabash Basin were
discussed in Chapter 4. Other assessments include the cost
of pumping and piping water from the Wabash River for a dis-
tance of several kilometers to the SRC facility. Obvious
tradeoffs that should be assessed refer to the comparative
costs of locating the facility close to the Wabash River,
versus piping water over a distance of several kilometers.
5-102
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Various aspects of the analysis of hydrology are shown in
Appendix Table A-V-14.
5.2.2.8 Aquatic Ecosystems
In the nuclear power plant field, a criterion for
assessing the environmental cost of entrainment and impinge-
ment of fish and other aquatic organisms has been based on
the percentage of water taken from the stream. An accept-
able range in percentage water removal was suggested to be
from 10 to 20 percent (95). Should the removal of water
equal the 20 percent upper limit, the installation of a
cooling tower instead of a once-through cooling system would
qualify as a partial abatement solution. At a water removal
of 30 percent, the costs of entrainment and impingement
would become infinite (95). For the most part, however,
aquatic habitat impacts must be treated on the basis of a
detailed site analysis. In rough estimates for site screen-
ing purposes, Ramsay (95) suggested using only the gross
water areas impacted by water-use type as the basis for
estimating impacts on aquatic ecosystems.
5.2.2.9 Land Use
The most direct quantitative measure of the impact on
prime farmland of the SRC facility and conjunctive develop-
ments is the number of acres consigned to the overall
activity, as shown in Table 5-20. According to Ramsay (95),
an unacceptable impact on prime farmland would occur when 10
percent of the state's cropland area, and/or five percent of
the national cropland area were utilized for the siting of
power plants.
5-103
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5.3 Strategies for Environmental Protection
Elsewhere in this report (see Chapter 4) a general
discussion of environmental monitoring was presented. In
this segment of the report, an effort will be made to place
environmental monitoring activities into overall perspective
relative to the proposed SRC facility. For example, monitor-
ing comprises the following functional sequence: problem
recognition, monitoring, evaluation of data, and formulation
of policy options (98). Figure 5-9 provides a somewhat
idealized scheme designed to protect human health from
direct threats. The functional sequence iterated above
contains many feedbacks between phases. For example, a
monitoring system may generate data leading to the estab-
lishment of legal emission standards. In due course, the
monitoring system may be modified to insure that the stan-
dards are having the desired effect and that compliance is
being achieved (98).
The U.S. Department of Energy's final impact statement
on an alternative fuels demonstration program (AFDP) cited
the following strategies for environmental protection, com-
mencing with siting considerations and going through the
full operational phases, as follows (94):
• Selection of sites for specific synthetic fuels
projects
• Application of mitigation measures against con-
struction and operation activities comprising the
synthetic fuels program (see Chapter VIII, Volume
I, of AFDP Report)
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TRANSFER PATHWAYS AND IMPACTS TO MAN
ASSESSMENT OF IMPACTS AND MANAGEMENT ACTION
Ui
i
M
O
Ln
ECOSYSTEMS
LIVESTOCK
CROPS
FOOD
MAN
RESOURCE
ORGANISMS
CLIMATE
COSTS
POLLUTION
CONTROL &
ABATEMENT
HEALTH &
WELFARE
ECOSYSTEM
VALUE
PUBLIC ATTITUDES
AND EDUCATION
TOTAL
ASSESSMENT
POLICY
OPTIONS
j
MANAGEMENT
ACTIONS
t
SCIENTIFIC ASSESSMENT
OF RISK
LEGAL AND
INSTITUTIONAL
ARRANGEMENTS
DOSE-RESPONSE
RELATIONSHIPS
FOR MAN AND
OTHER ORGANISMS
ACTIVITIES
AND CONCERNS:
RESEARCH .MONITORING
SOCIAL, ECONOMIC COSTS,
TOXICOLOGICAL RESEARCH
LEGAL, INSTITUTIONAL
AND POLITICAL FACTORS
Figure 5-9. An idealized management system for protecting human health (98)
-------
• Development of a comprehensive monitoring program
to obtain data on environmental impacts resulting
from synfuels projects, and to ensure compliance
with all applicable environmental requirements and
standards.
5.3.1 Generic Strategies for Environmental Protection
The DOE/AFDP report (94) provides good generic treat-
ment of measures to mitigate potential impacts of coal-
based development (see Chapter VIII of AFDP report). How-
ever, the problem of "false security" arises because past
experience says that the plan will not be closely followed,
and therefore results will be far from excellent. Questions
can also be raised relative to whether compliance with
applicable standards is sufficient. Known pollutants should
be controlled even though standards have not been set.
Two objectives of the AFDP environmental protection strategy
are: the development of a complete environmental knowledge
base for any subsequent synfuels commercialization to in-
clude technical, environmental, and socioeconomic data;
and the selection of specific synfuels projects that are
environmentally sound in design, construction, and opera-
tion. (See Chapter I-C of the AFDP report for details.)
The prevention of adverse impacts resulting from the
construction and operation of the proposed SRC facility will
include the following steps (94):
(1) A carefully prepared development plan for individ-
ual synthetic fuels plants, mines, and related
facilities will be required. This plan will
specify environmental protection tactics which
will be utilized for that specific facility.
Government approval of the site development plan
5-106
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and major changes thereto will be needed before
beginning construction.
(2) The development plan will be coordinated with the
land use, transportation, and other plans of local
and state agencies.
(3) The development plan will identify the applicable
federal, state and local environmental standards
and guidelines that must be complied with by each
facility.
(4) The development plan will identify the environ-
mental control technology to be_ used for each
facility. The best available technology would be
required in all cases.
(5) A comprehensive environmental monitoring and sur-
veillance program will be undertaken. All envi-
ronmental standards and contractual provisions
will be rigorously enforced. Physical facilities
and records will be open to government inspection.
(6) Procedures for state and local inputs into
specific project decisions will be developed.
(7) Various mechanisms will be considered to promote
environmental protection. Security bonds can be
posted to guarantee sound development and restora-
tion. The incentives program can provide for
reimbursement by the government of extraordinary
environmental control cost or cost due to unanti-
cipated environmental delays. The government can
ensure that funds for reclamation will be avail-
able in the event of plant failure.
5-107
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(8) Early warning mechanisms will be used to make
certain that potential environmental threats will
be promptly identified and corrected (94).
5.3.2 Site-Specific Environmental Protection Strategies
The U.S. DOE/AFDP report (94) states that environmental
data will be collected at each synfuels site before begin-
ning construction; this will provide an accurate baseline
for assessing significant changes in air, water, and land
values should the SRC plant be built and operated at that
site.
With reference to the proposed White County site, as
well as other sites, it is apparent that site-related
baseline information will be needed in order to develop the
best environmental protection strategies for the following
substances (94):
• All regulated substances, such as those under
NAAQS (see Chapter 2 of this report), Public
Health Service Drinking Water, and all other
environmental and occupational (OSHA) standards
promulgated by federal and state authorities
• All unregulated and suspected carcinogens, muta-
gens, and teratogens
• All other substances and factors of concern.
With reference to those environmental attributes
peculiar to the White County site, and for which detailed
baseline, site-specific information will be required, the
following are considered to be of major importance:
5-108
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• Assessment of groundwater contamination resulting
from overland flows and seepage from the plant
area and from waste disposal areas
• Downwind effects of the cooling tower plume and of
stack emissions on high-dollar-value field crops
and natural preservation areas
• Detailed evaluation of the subsurface soil per-
meabilities to liquids and gases
Effect of CC>2 and CO emissions on the inadvertent
modification of local precipitation patterns
Rates of dispersion and dilution of key SRC
effluent pollutants in surface waters of White
County, Illinois
Rates of dispersion and dilution of key SRC emis-
sions in the local atmosphere of White County,
Illinois.
5-109
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Taken from Stegeman, J.J. Hydrocarbons in Shellfish
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6.0 POLLUTANTS OF CONCERN AND SUGGESTIONS FOR APPROPRIATE
GOALS
In Chapter 3 of this report, an attempt has been made
to quantify the pollutants which will be discharged to the
environment as a result of the operation of the SRC-II
facility. In Chapter 5 the hazards of the major pollutants
emanating from the SRC plant are described along with an
estimation of their impact on the environment, with emphasis
on the White County ecosystem. In this chapter, suggested
environmentally safe goals, based on the MEG rationale for
coal conversion technologies, will be examined.
Suggesting goals for pollutant discharge levels is com-
plicated by the complexity of the system and imprecise or
incomplete scientific knowledge. Four major sources of
difficulty in the setting of meaningful environmental goals
include: the transport of pollutants through the media of
air, water, and land; the transformation of compounds from
harmless chemicals to damaging pollutants in the environment
by physical, chemical, or biological means; the synergies
through which two or more substances or agents interact to
create a significantly more damaging effect; and the diffi-
culty of establishing a threshold for effects when even low-
level doses are suspect. The production of photochemical
oxidants and the transport of air pollutants from region to
region are examples of phenomena that must be better under-
stood (1) .
Synergistic and antagonistic effects are especially
difficult to predict. For example, the mutual antagonism of
mercury and selenium toxicity is probably due to the inter-
action of these two elements to form an inorganic or organo-
metallic complex, but the existence of such a complex in
6-1
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biological systems is difficult to predict from the inor-
ganic chemistry of the individual elements.
Complexities in the prediction of the effects of com-
plex waste and product streams on the environment were
discussed in Chapter 5 of this report (see Appendix Tables
A-II-2 and A-II-3 for examples of synergistic and antagon-
istic effects). However, all possible examples of syner-
gistic and antagonistic effects will, by definition, never
be tested.
The report entitled "Multimedia Environmental Goals for
Environmental Assessment" (MEG) (2) utilizes a methodology
in which laboratory and environmental data are subjected to
well-defined mathematical manipulations. The resulting
numbers are used to indicate pollutant levels which may be
safe for the environment. The MEG report is discussed at
length in Appendix I of this report. The mathematical
manipulations are based on logical considerations given in
the MEG report. These manipulations give rise to two sets
of values for air-, water-, and land-destined wastes. Each
set has one value based on health effects and one value
based on ecological effects. The first set of values is the
minimum acute toxicity effluent (MATE) and reflects the
concentration that the mathematical treatment predicts would
not harm the environment, if present in the effluent stream.
The second set is the ambient level goal (based on the
estimated permissible concentration) which is an indication
of the concentration in the air, water, or soil which the
mathematical treatment predicts will not harm the environ-
ment. It is possible that both these numbers will be
derived from the same experimental data. For compounds that
have a current standard, the ambient level goal will be one-
fifth of the MATE. Generally the ratio will be 420. Since
the MATE is the level in the effluent stream which will not
6-2
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cause environmental damage, and the ambient level goal is
the concentration in the receiving stream which will not
cause environmental damage, this relationship assumes a
dilution factor of five (or 420) in all cases. Because the
dilution factor will be site specific, one deficiency of
such a generalized approach becomes obvious.
The MEGs represent objective "best guesses" at levels
that will not cause damage if released into the environment.
For example, when the MATE is much larger than the ambient
level goal, the environmentally safe standard should be
based on the ambient level goal. Such a standard might be
five times the ambient level goal. Alternatively, such a
standard might read "... such that the level in the receiving
media (air, water, or land) shall not exceed (the ambient
level goal)." This latter method circumvents the problem of
receiving media dilution factors affecting the MATEs and the
ambient level goals in an unpredictable site-specific man-
ner, but it might be harder to enforce. The MEGs are not
designed to take into account all the possible complex
interactions between compounds. Cocarcinogens, by defini-
tion, potentiate the effects of carcinogens. Perhaps an
upper limit should be set on the "concentration of carcino-
gens" and on the "concentration of heavy metals binding with
sulfhydryl groups," or on the "concentration of carcinogens
and cocarcinogens," and so on.
The MEGs are based on mathematical manipulations of the
data uncovered in an exhaustive literature search. As such,
the most current MEGs, particularly the MATE, should receive
primary consideration in setting guidelines. The MATEs and
ambient level goals are listed in Appendix VI. Also given
is some current information on the individual MEGs which
should, and undoubtedly will, be considered as the MEGs are
updated.
6-3
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REFERENCES
1. Committee on Energy and the Environment of the Commis-
sion on Natural Resources of the National Research
Council, Analytical Studies for the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Volume VI, Implications of Environ-
mental Regulations for Energy Production and Consump-
tion. A Report to the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, B.C.,
1977.
2. Cleland, J.G. and G.L. Kingsbury. Multimedia Environ-
mental Goals for Environmental Assessment. Volume 1.
EPA-600/ 7-77-136a, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 1977.
6-4
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7.0 RESEARCH NEEDS
7.1 The SRC Technology
The discussion in Chapter 3 relative to estimated
pollutant discharge levels from the hypothetical SRC facil-
ity revealed a number of processes that may require further
study; these are summarized below without any attempt at
ranking.
• Leachability of all slags generated by the gasi-
fier and other modules
• Ambient and chemical composition of solid and
hazardous wastes generated by the SRC-II tech-
nology
• Concentrations of trace elements and acidity
emanating from nonvegetated refuse piles compared
to vegetated refuse piles
• Amount of sediment, chemical wastes, and non-
chemical wastes generated during the construction
of the SRC plant
• Concentration and distribution in particulates of
natural radionuclides, trace elements, and or-
ganics in or sorbed by particulate-size classes
• Comparison of the effectiveness of standard versus
improved dust control measures in coal prepara-
tion, storage, and receiving areas
7-1
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• Localized (downwind) environmental and vegeta-
tional effects of cooling tower plume drift in
different parts of the United States
• Amount and chemical composition of catalyst dust
and carbon monoxide emissions
• Cost effectiveness and feasibility of using ion
exchange, reverse osmosis, and other techniques to
treat cooling tower blowdown water
• Requirements for chemical stabilization of de-
watered sludges
• Increased costs for building construction plant
equipment to withstand possible earthquake damage
• Chemical interactions occurring among components
of raw water treatment sludge
• The effect of process operating variables on the
composition and volume of SRC-I and SRC-II products
and by-products
• The effectiveness of various wastewater treatment
methods in the removal of polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons, polycyclic N-aromatics, and poly-
cyclic hydroxy compounds.
7.2 Environmental Assessment and Monitoring
Based on the discussions in previous sections of this
report, further research in the following aspects of envi-
ronmental assessment and monitoring will be required to more
fully assess the impacts of the SRC technology:
7-2
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• Better Information on both discharged pollutants
and their environmental effects
•• Ambient pollutant levels (i.e., background levels)
without the presence of an operating SRC plant
• Standardized sampling and analysis methodologies
as a means of improving the cost effectiveness of
environmental monitoring programs
• Epidemiological methodologies capable of predict-
ing the effects of changes in pollutant level on
normal versus high-risk populations, sensitive
versus nonsensitive subpopulations, etc.
• Public health impacts from a given level of atmos-
pheric emissions within and between different geo-
graphical locations or regions
• Effects methodologies suitable for establishment
of regulatory policy for synfuels technology.
Individual SRC pollutants that require site-specific study
include the following:
7.2.1 SRC Pollutants Requiring Site-Specific Study
7.2.1.1 Emissions
• Carbon dioxide
• Carbon monoxide
• Coal dust
• Catalyst dust.
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7.2.1.2 Effluents
• Aluminum
• Copper
• Nickel
• Zinc.
7.3.1.3 Solid Wastes
• Gasifier slag
• Fly ash
• Sludges.
These needs are consistent, in general terms, with the
findings of the EPA-sponsored Study Group on Monitoring (1).
For example, one of the more important recommendations made
by that group was that new monitoring programs should be
preceded by prototype studies. The Study Group emphasized
that such prototype studies should ideally include an analy-
sis of cost versus benefits. Failing this, an analysis of
the cost effectiveness of the environmental assessment and
/*
monitoring programs should be made. Careful planning is re-
quired well ahead of the implementation of monitoring pro-
grams. For example, a good understanding of environmental
processes is a prerequisite to most prediction problems (1).
In terms of dollar costs, about 90 percent of the
current air and water quality monitoring in the United
States is reportedly performed by state, local, and private
groups (1). Apparently, the assignment of responsibilities
for environmental monitoring is fragmented and short-ranged;
does not adequately serve the needs for evaluating longer-
term changes in environmental quality resulting from indus-
trial activity; and generally falls short, of the need to
determine interrelationships among sources of pollution,
7-4
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ambient environmental quality, and effects on humans, ani-
mals, and plants. More detailed information on the broad
objectives to guide the design of source, ambient, and
health effects monitoring is reported elsewhere (1).
In Chapter 4 of this report it was stated that no
federal programs presently exist that require an industry to
monitor the several process waste streams. Beyond this,
there are no programs that require an industry to assess the
environmental effects of the potentially hazardous wastes
that it generates, although some leading industries do so on
a voluntary basis. In view of these perceived limitations,
the National Research Council (1) has recommended that
before a new technology is set up, the substances that will
be discharged should be identified and their potential
environmental effects assessed. Some progress is already
being made in this regard.
One interesting prototype study of note is the METER
program started in 1976 by the U.S. Department of Energy.
This program will attempt to establish whether the heat and
moisture released from four different operating power plant
cooling facilities (cooling towers and ponds) can affect
local precipitation patterns within a 10-mile radius of the
facility (2).
7.2.2 Epidemiologic Methodologies
One compelling reason for the construction and opera-
tion of a demonstration coal liquefaction plant is that it
would provide the best source of prototype site-specific
information from which to construct and test computer models
and to conduct epidemiologic surveillance. The wedding of
computer technology with epidemiology could relieve the
known drawbacks of the latter. For example, when a mixture
7-5
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of pollutants is being studied, the computer could be used
to separate the effects of the individual pollutants. The
use of a computer to evaluate the final effect of a pol-
lutant known to be present in a waste stream appears to be a
more attractive alternative than that of using the same
computer to determine the transport of the pollutant and the
concentration likely to be found in the exposed organisms,
especially since much of the information needed by the com-
puter for this latter task is difficult to determine and
consequently unavailable. Information on the concentration
of a pollutant in the organism may be of little value in
predicting the final effect(s). Synergistic and antagon-
istic effects should become apparent when a computer is used
to evaluate epidemiological effects. These epidemiclogical
surveillance studies should last at least five years and
should:
• Involve more than one area with similar study
populations and measurement of health indicators
• Employ a standard reliable method of monitoring
ambient pollutant concentrations
• Comprehensively identify point sources of pollu-
tant release into the atmosphere
• Record the proximity of human populations and
their high-risk individuals to those point sources
• Where symptomatology attributed to the pollu-
tant (s) is observed, monitor the environment for
pollutant concentrations at increasing radial
distances from the point source(s) until an area
is reached where citizen complaints are not
evident
7-6
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• Monitor health effects while short-term elevations
in ambient air pollution are actually occurring,
rather than determining the effects after the fact
• Monitor survey populations containing a substan-
tial number of high-risk subjects and, if appli-
cable, monitor people occupationally exposed
within the source of pollution
• Employ a wide variety of thorough techniques
(regular telephone contacts, adequate medical
examinations, questionnaires, health diaries,
vital statistics, etc.) to obtain information on
the health effects of the pollutant with careful
consideration of subjective symptoms
• Publicly encourage citizens to report to local
health agencies unusual symptoms from suspected
pollutant exposures in an effort to obtain in-
formation beyond the selected survey populations
(in both exposed and unexposed populations)
• Attempt to investigate the possible synergistic
health effects of each pollutant with other pollu-
tants (3) .
7.2.3 Ambient Monitoring of Pollutants
Ambient levels of pollutants change with time and
establish trends or variable environmental quality. The
measurement of trends requires a base from which to measure
changes (1). At present, too few monitoring programs exist
that will provide a base from which to measure changes in
levels or effects of residuals. The creation of such a base
would reveal the pollution contribution from natural sources
7-7
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and natural transport, such as stormwater overland flows,
airborne dust, and cosmic and natural radiations (1).
The two methods of establishing base trends are as
follows:
• Monitoring in an area with hydrologic, meteoro-
logic, and other characteristics similar to the
area being studied, but possessing only minor
anthropogenic pollutant sources
• Monitoring in a consistent manner in a given area
before and after new sources of environmental
degradation occur or new control programs are
established (1).
These two approaches may be combined in order to establish a
comparison series.
The ambient levels without pollution need to be estab-
lished for the individual elements and inorganic and organic
compounds. Obviously, a waste stream concentration equal to
the ambient level before "pollution" will have no effect due
to that particular substance. A waste stream containing
either higher or lower pollutant levels than that of the
receiving medium may have an adverse effect. A concentra-
tion of an essential substance in the waste stream lower
than the ambient level could cause deficiencies of this
material because the waste stream carrier (air or water)
might dilute the material below that which would be required
by the ecosystem. In this context, the components of the
waste stream which are essential to the ecosystem should be
defined as carefully as possible. Obviously, the very
complex nature of the ecosystem precludes complete defini-
tion of all the components essential to the ecosystem.
7-8
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7.2.4 Sensitive. Subpopulations
In general, sensitive subpopulations include: infants;
children; the elderly; the sick, especially those with
chronic diseases; and those whose diet and/or geographical
location subjects them to higher ambient levels. The
season of the year and general activity level of the or-
ganism also influences the toxicity. However, little is
known about the specific subpopulations susceptible to
specific pollutants.
Human subpopulations which may be more sensitive to
each individual pollutant should be identified. For
example, subpopulations which are thought to be more sen-
sitive to the effects of manganese include psychiatric
patients, pregnant women, and those suffering from emphy-
sema, chronic bronchitis, iron-deficiency anemia, and
liver disease (4). People who eat fish (especially tuna)
are more subject to mercury toxicity since fish tend to
concentrate mercury. Cigarette smoking is known to add 0.01
to 0.08 micrograms of cadmium per cigarette to the total
body burden; cigarette smoking may add other heavy metals to
the total body burden. People living in areas where ambient
levels of pollutants are naturally high in food and water
may be either more subject to the pollution effects because
of the increased exposure, or less subject to toxic effects
because the low level of contamination could induce detoxi-
fication mechanisms in the exposed populations. People with
certain enzyme deficiencies may be more susceptible to the
effects of pollution, especially if the pollutant inhibits
the deficient enzyme or inhibits an alternate pathway which
compensates for the enzyme deficiency.
As an example of a more sensitive subpopulation, a
level of 40 yg lead/100 ml of whole blood in children is
7-9
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considered to be the level above which toxicity and undue
body burden occurs. However, for a child with anemia, the
clinical effect of 40 yg/100 ml may well be equivalent to
that at a higher blood level in a child with normal blood.
The observed summer increase of lead levels in children
suggests that a child with blood concentrations on the
borderline in winter may well get worse with seasonal
change. Children who become acutely ill may mobilize large
amounts of lead from bones into the blood stream, with a
resulting sharp rise in blood lead concentrations (5).
7.2.5 Further Literature Searches
Further literature searches need to be performed. The
authors of the MEGs (6) reported numerous information gaps.
These gaps result from either (1) the nonexistence of the
required data; or (2) its existence in other than the read-
ily available literature. The MEGs make the most use of
readily available data, hence in-depth searches into the
journals of chemistry and toxicology were not performed.
This remains to be done and will very likely yield data to
allow numerous gaps in the MEGx charts to be filled. In-
depth literature research relative to synergisms, antag-
onisms, specific compound associations, epidemiological
studies, and results of bioassay studies of complex efflu-
ents should be conducted simultaneously. Also, nonchemical
degradants such as heat, noise, land usage, water usage,
subsidence, and visual effects should be investigated.
Models should then be developed to incorporate these data
into the MEG methodology to further improve the reliability
of the system.
Some knowledge is available on excretion patterns of
heavy metals, but little is known of that mechanism. Per-
haps more knowledge is available, but this may be buried in
7-10
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the literature. Scientists should take more time to compile
and critically review this knowledge (7).
Literature searchers should emphasize the questions
asked in this section, since these questions may have al-
ready been answered and reported in other than the readily
available literature.
7.2.6 Methodological Needs for Regulatory Policy
Development
The several questions which require answering in order
for a realistic regulatory policy to be espoused include the
following:
• How should plant type, size, complexity, and pro-
duct mix enter the regulatory picture?
• Can policy be structured to reward process im-
provements that reduce environmental impact?
• Should limits on the discharge of a pollutant be
established for individual unit operation or for
larger systems, including the total plant?
• How can regulatory policy accommodate tradeoffs
among different process operations?
• To what extent is it possible to implement a
multimedia (air, land, water) approach to environ-
mental control that minimizes overall environ-
mental impacts?
• How does one evaluate cross-media tradeoffs?
7-11
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The three principal elements for this evaluation in-
volve (1) characterizing the rates and types of emissions to
air, water, and land as a function of the coal-feed type and
the characteristics of process and environmental control
technologies; (2) examining how these emissions are trans-
ferred through various media (air, land, or water) to recep-
tors in the environment (humans, plants, and animal life);
and (3) evaluating the damage incurred by these receptors
from exposure to the various pollutants. This type of
methodology would yield a benefit/risk/cost analysis of
alternative regulatory standards. An idealized framework
relating to the protection of human health through environ-
mental management strategies is shown in Figure 5-9.
7.3 Environmental Sciences
Research needs in the sciences comprise a continuum of
effort that bridges the several areas discussed under envi-
ronmental monitoring. For example, data collection alone
will not serve fully to resolve the several prediction
problems confronting an emerging synfuels technology: an
understanding of environmental processes and the mechanisms
of action of pollutants is also required (1). Certain key
items that will require further study with reference to an
emerging synfuels technology are as follows:
• Various facets of synergism and antagonism in the
environment
• Chronic effects of different forms of pollutants
• Possible effects of the degradation products of
substances in waste streams
7-12
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• Clinical screening tests directed to the early
detection of subclinical manifestations, parti-
cularly among workers
• Mechanisms of pollutant absorption, transport,
and overall action
• Body burdens causing adverse health effects
• Intermedia exchange
• Excretion kinetics.
7.3.1 Synergism and Antagonism
The various facets of synergism and antagonism need to
be studied and the information disseminated. For example,
proper nutrition education programs for workers exposed to
high levels of manganese should be initiated, since dietary
deficiency of iron is known to cause excessive retention of
manganese. Additional kinetic studies should be conducted
to describe reactions between manganese and sulfur dioxide,
which produce sulfuric acid and/or sulfates in the atmos-
pheric environment (4).
Zinc concentration of serum decreases after stress or
after the administration of glucose (7). Can this be gen-
eralized to other heavy metals and is this good or bad?
Where does the zinc go? Once in the body, nonessential
metal ions may influence the content, the concentration, and
the normal distribution of other metals in various tissues
and fluids. This aspect of the biological metal problem is
not well understood. Little has been done on the actual
displacements by exogenous toxic metal of the normal com-
plement of metals in an organ or tissue. We know little of
7-13
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metal shifts. Perhaps the majority of studies have exam-
ined cadmium as a toxic metal and its interrelationships
with a variety of metals like copper, iron, and especially
zinc (7).
In some cases zinc can antagonize the toxic manifesta-
tions of cadmium; in a few, but not all, cases, zinc can
also negate the carcinogenic effect of cadmium. The mech-
anism by which zinc antagonizes the cadmium reaction is not
really known, although speculation has occurred. For
example, these two elements are in the same column in the
periodic chart and have the same outer-shell electronic
configurations. Zinc is essential; cadmium is not. There-
fore the first approximation can be that zinc in large
amounts displaces cadmium. On the other hand, cadmium is
associated with alpha-globulins, whereas zinc is associated
with both alpha- and beta- globulins. Blood cells pick up
zinc more avidly than cadmium; the liver, the kidneys, and
the pancreas take up cadmium, whereas only the pancreas
takes up zinc. Cadmium undergoes different metabolic path-
ways in the rat than does zinc. One can speculate on how
zinc antagonizes cadmium toxicity; in all probability it is
not simple-ion antagonism, for there are marked biological
differences (e.g., in ion turnover). Zinc may protect
against cadmium toxicity by an indirect mechanism; i.e.,
zinc may stimulate the induction of metallothioneine and thus
increase the amount of this special protein that can scavenge
the cadmium (7).
7.3.2 Chronic Effects
The effects of different forms of pollutants on aquatic
and terrestrial ecosystems, especially the chronic effects,
need better definition. For example, available evidence
indicates that long-term exposure to low concentrations of
7-14
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lead and mercury may lead to psychological disturbances and
deleterious effects to the central nervous system. Studies
need to be done to determine possible genetic and congenital
effects. Experiments on animals should be performed to
determine maternal-fetal effects including possible genetic
abnormalities, chromosomal aberrations, and teratogenic
effects in relation to long- and short-term exposure at
various levels. Follow-up studies should be conducted to
observe neurological damage or behavioral dysfunction.
Pathological findings should be carefully correlated with
exposure doses and tissue levels of pollutant. The possible
consequence of the transmission of pollutants through human
milk should be investigated. Behavioral studies should be
conducted on children up to five years old who have been
exposed to prolonged low levels of lead and mercury as
infants.
There is evidence that cadmium stored in the body may
accumulate over a period of thirty or forty years, that this
buildup may be associated with shortened life span, and
that the death rate from heart disease in cities with ele-
vated atmospheric concentrations of cadmium may be higher
than in locales where the concentration is low (5).
Determination of the chronic effects of individual pol-
lutants through the use of epidemiological studies is com-
plicated by the possible interactions between pollutants
and by the possibility that the observed effects may be
due to other pollutants. Also, the harmful effects of the
individual pollutant may be increased by the presence of
other pollutants.
The damage to human health depends not only on the
dosage level of pollutants, but also on the physical condi-
tion of each individual. There is virtually no single
7-15
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threshold of pollutant concentration below which health
damages will not occur. At every level of a pollutant
concentration, someone could be adversely affected. In
view of the wide range of physical conditions of humans,
the threshold of pollutants may be viewed as a symmetrical
distribution. The "mean" level of this distribution is
usually used to calculate the damages resulting from pol-
lution (8).
The authors of the MEGs reported that for situations in
which contaminant levels in workrooms have resulted in
increased cancer incidence in workers, it is often impos-
sible to determine the effective dosage. Thus an adjusted
ordering number cannot be calculated. A mechanism for
including such data into the MEGs needs to be developed.
Another problem also arises with respect to the tests per-
formed to determine carcinogenicity. In a number of cases,
tests were carried out with a mixture of substances and thus
cannot be interpreted as evidence of carcinogenic potential
for a single compound (6).
7.3.3 Degradation Products
The possible effects of products of the substances in
waste streams should be evaluated. These effects include
innocuous substances being changed to toxic substances by
environmental interactions. These environmental inter-
actions could include metabolism or photochemical reactions.
7.3.4 Subclinical Effects
The subclinical effects of pollutants should be inves-
tigated so that the places where pollution should be dis-
continued could be defined before clinical effects are
manifested. The public should be encouraged to watch for
7-16
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such effects. Clinical screening tests should be conducted
in which comprehensive physical and psychological examina-
tions and laboratory procedures are performed with particu-
lar attention to the early detection of clinical and sub-
clinical reactions (5).
7.3.5 Mechanisms of Action
The mechanism of action of the various pollutants
should be understood. This is especially important if
regulations regarding the concentration of "total carcino-
gens" or "total substances capable of reacting with protein
sulfhydryl groups," as suggested in Chapter 6 of this
report, are to be developed. Obviously, if the "single hit"
theory for carcinogenesis is correct and two or more sub-
stances are capable of interacting with the specific cel-
lular site responsible for carcinogenesis, the total con-
centration of these substances should be regulated rather
than the concentration of the individual substances. This
is also true for other pollutants which affect other spe-
cific cellular sites. The susceptibility of specific cel-
lular sites to chronic exposure must also be determined.
Little is known about how metals affect the immune sys-
tem of animals. Contaminant metals seem the most logical
candidates for study. For example, lead suppressed the
immune response in mice; nickel and chromium inhibited the
antibody response of rats to immunization with a bacterial
virus. The time of administration of cadmium determined the
enhancement or suppression of antibody synthesis in rats (7),
The mutagenicity of metals in bacterial or mammalian
species is also poorly understood. The scarcity of litera-
ture on this subject is striking. Manganous chloride was
noted to be a bacterial mutagenic agent in 1951, and similar
7-17
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results were noted in 1965 in bacteriophage. Chromium has
also been investigated in bacterial systems, but very little
research seems to have been done in mammalian systems (7).
The reactions of metal ions with nucleic acids and
their constituent bases are well known. It is now possible
to predict that some metals will combine with the phosphate
moiety and others with the basic nitrogens of the bases.
For example, nickel was found to form a salt with guanosine
5'-monophosphate but not via a phosphate bond. We know so
much about this phase, but we know so little about the
function of these metals in nucleic acids (7).
Eventually we will have to know more about metal shifts
in cells. Does cadmium displace zinc, copper, manganese?
If so, what effect does this shift have on the metallo-
enzymes dependent on the essential metals? Is the thermo-
dynamic stability such that shifts do not take place? Also,
we will have to determine the preferred oxidation states of
these heavy metals as they are transferred in the body. If
Mn 0 is inhaled, is manganese reduced to an oxidation state
x y
of 2, or is it oxidized to an oxidation state of 4? The
oxidation state may be related in some way to toxicity.
Questions can also be raised about nickelous and nickelic
ions (7).
The mechanism of absorption in the lung is open to
question. For example, how are sparingly soluble compounds
solubilized? Certainly, as foreign bodies they may be
subjected to phagocytosis. Does this aid in dissolution?
Is there a biological solubility table; that is, are chlo-
rides more soluble than oxides, which are more soluble than
sulfides? No available data have been found to answer these
questions (7).
7-18
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Some information is available on the solubility of
metallic powders in the rat after the material has been
injected deep into the muscle. The rate of solution is much
greater than would be predicted from physical-chemical data
alone. To dissolve, a metal must be oxidized, but we do
not know the mechanism (7) .
How much exposure is expected by direct ingestion of
contaminated soil by animals? In what form is the pollutant
in these soils? How effectively can the pollutant in this
form be removed from the soil and/or absorbed from the
gastrointestinal tract? How much of the pollutant can be
inhaled in dust? Is the form of the pollutant different in
the soil than in the vegetation grown in this soil? How
does this difference in the pollutant form affect its absorp-
tion by the gastrointestinal tract? How do soil microor-
ganisms alter the form of the pollutant? Does this change
make absorption of the pollutant by the plant easier or
more difficult? Are there other physical or chemical phenom-
ena (such as photochemical changes) which would affect the
form of the pollutant in the soil and its subsequent absorp-
tion? We need the answers to all of these questions (7).
7.3.6 Body Burdens Causing Adverse Effects
The pollutant level in whole bodies, as well as in
blood, fat, hair, skin, or other easily sampled tissues
associated with toxicity (such as a metabolic change) are
not well studied. Such information is required for the
development of mathematical models which predict when a
pollutant will have a significant effect, and for pre-
dicting the possible environmental impacts of incrementally
increasing the environmental level of a pollutant.
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7.3.7 Intermedia Exchange
The results of intermedia exchange of pollutants (in-
cluding sediment sorption/desorption) need to be determined.
An array of land models for deriving ambient level goals and
MATEs needs to be developed that takes into consideration
contact with air and water (6). Air/water, air/land, water/
sediment, land/water, and ultimately, air/land/water/sedi-
ment distribution coefficients need to be determined. eH/pH
diagrams may help in this effort and similiarly need to be
constructed. Information on the form in which the element
is likely to be found (including eH/pH diagrams) should also
be determined or made available.
7.3.8 Excretion Kinetics
The kinetics of excretion need to be better defined.
•
This is an absolute requirement for mathematical modeling
which predicts the body burden of a pollutant. For most of
the essential trace metals, the transport and excretion
patterns have been estimated, but only a start has been made
^
on the excretion mechanisms of the toxic metals. In rats,
cadmium can be excreted via the bile. Is this common for
other metals? Do other routes of excretion play a signifi-
cant part? Is the excretion of lead in bovine milk impor-
tant (7)?
Some data on mercury excretion found by DeFreitas and
coworkers (9) indicated that mercury excretion for several
species of fish conforms to the following equation:
R = kPWa
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where (k) is the clearance coefficient, (P) is the body bur-
den of pollutant, and (a) is the exponent of body weight for
clearance having a value of -0.58.
Can an equation of this form be generalized to other
pollutants and/or other species?
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REFERENCES
1. National Research Council. Environmental Monitoring.
Analytical Studies for the U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Study Group on Monitoring, National Aca-
demy of Sciences, Washington, B.C., 1977. 181 pp.
2. U.S. Department of Energy "METER" Projects Test Effects
of Heat Release on Weather Information 2(10):5. 1978.
3. Environmental Health Resources Center. Hydrogen Sul-
fide Health Effects and Recommended Air Quality Stan-
dard. Illinois Institute for Environmental Quality,
IIEQ 74-24, Chicago, Illinois, 1974.
4. Ibid. Airborne Manganese - Health Effects and Recom-
mended Standard, Illinois Institute for Environmental
Quality, NTIS, PB 251-130, Chicago, Illinois, 1975.
5. Ibid. Health Effects and Recommendations for Atmos-
pheric Lead, Calcium, Mercury and Asbestos. Report No.
IIEQ 73-2, Illinois Institute for Environmental Qual-
ity, Chicago, Illinois, 1973. 101 pp.
6. Cleland, J.G. and G.L. Kingsbury. Multimedia Environ-
mental Goals for Environmental Assessment. Volume I.
EPA-600/7-77-136a, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory,
Research Triange Park, North Carolina, 1977.
7. Furst, A. Metals: We Know So Much and We Know So
Little, in; eds. H. Drucker and R.E. Wildung, Bio-
logical Implications of Metals in the Environment.
Proc. 15th Annual Hanford Life Sciences Symposium,
Richland, Washington, U.S. Department of Energy, Tech-
nology Info. Center, Washington, D.C., 1977.
8. Liu, B.C. and E. S-h Yu. Physical and Economic Damage
Functions for Air Pollutants by Receptor. EPA-600/5-
76-011. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cor-
vallis Environmental Research Laboratory, Corvallis,
Oregon, 1976.
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DeFreitas, A.S.W., M.A.J. Gidney, A.E. McKinnon, and
R.J. Norstrom. Factors Affecting Whole-Body Retention
of Methyl Mercury in Fish, in: eds. H. Drucker and R.E,
Wildung. Biological Implications of Metals in the
Environment. Proc. 15th Annual Hanford Life Sciences
Symposium, Richland, Washington, U.S. Dept. of Energy,
Technology Info. Center, Washington, B.C., 1977.
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/7-78-223a
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
SRC Site-Specific Pollutant Evaluation; Volume 1.
Discussion
5. REPORT DATE
November 1978
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHORIS)
Homer T.Hopkins, Kathleen M.McKeon,
Carolyn R. Thompson, and E. Earl Weir
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Hittman Associates, Inc.
9190 Red Branch Road
Columbia, Maryland 21045
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
EHE623A
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-2162
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
EPA, Office of Research and Development
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
RIOD COVERED
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/13
is. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES IERL-RTP project officer is William J. Rhodes, MD-61, 919/541-
2851.
16. ABSTRACT
report characterizes the potential environmental effects of the multi-
media waste streams from the operation of a standard-size Solvent Refined Coal
(SRC-I and SRC-II) liquefaction facility utilizing 28,123 Mg of Illinois No. 6 coal per
day. The report gives: (1) a more detailed evaluation of the SRC pollutants charac-
terized in a report, Standards of Practice Manual for the SRC Liquefaction Process;
(2) an estimate of the potentially adverse effects of pollutant stressors emanating
from a hypothetical SRC facility on the Wabash River, White County, Illinois; and
(3) substantial background information in a form usable for an Environmental Assess
ment Report (EAR) on SRC technology. Regulatory standards and guidelines are dis-
cussed relative to the emerging synthetic fuels technology. Research needs are
identified in terms of SRC technology, monitoring, and environmental sciences.
Study results indicate concern for emissions from auxiliary units (e.g. , cooling
towers, boilers, sulfur recovery), fugitive process discharges, solid wastes,
leachate contamination of water, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emissions ,
hazardous wastes , water treatment effectiveness , interactions within and among
media, etc. Volume 2 of the report includes supporting appendices.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Pollution
Coal
Liquefaction
Emission
Waste Disposal
Fuels
Synthesis
Cooling Towers
Boilers
Sulfur
Processing
Leakage
Aromatic Pnlycvclic Hydrocarbons
Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
Solvent Refined Coal
Synthetic Fuels
Sulfur Recovery
Fugitive Emissions
13B
21D
07D
07C
13A
07B
13H
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
439
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page J
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
7-24
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