The Economic and Social Importance of Estuaries

The Economic and
     Social Importance of Estuaries

        ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

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ESTUARINE POLLUTION STUDY SERIES - 2
    THE ECONOMIC AMD SOCIAL I?!POP.TA!fCE OF ESTUARIES
                     Davirf C. Sweet
                    Project director
This report r«ras prepared as a result of contract  No.  14-12-115
awarded by the Federal Mater Pollution  Control Administration,
as «i part of the National Estuarine Pollution Stufri,  to
Dattollc Memorial Institute.
                          PPOTECTIOiJ AGF.
                 Water Quality Office
              Technical 5ur>oort Division
                          l, 1071

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for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S.  Government Printing Office, Washington. D. C. 20402  -  Price $6. 25
                                               Stock Number 5501-0054

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                              FOREWORD
The Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966 stated in Section 5(g)  that
the Secretary of the Interior:

     "... shall, in cooperation with . .  .  other appropriate
     Federalf Statef interstate, or local public bodies and
     private organizations, institutions, and individuals, con-
     duct . . . and encourage contributions to, a comprehensive
     study of the effects of pollution ...  in the estuaries
     and estuarine zones of the United States . . . ."

(The complete text of Section 5(g) is included in the inside back
cover of this document.)

In response to this decree and on behalf of the Secretary of the
Interior, the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (now
incorporated into the Environmental Protection Agency) conducted the
National Estuarine Pollution Study which resulted in a Report to the
Congress on November 3, 1969.  A substantial  amount of the information
compiled and analyzed by the Study was obtained through contracts
awarded to various individuals and organizations to assemble infor-
mation and data on certain aspects of the effects of pollution on
estuarine areas.  These contracts resulted in reports which were used
in the preparation of the Study's Report to Congress.  Each report
described one or two of the three estuarine environments (biophysical,
socio-economic, and institutional) in a specific geographic area and
constituted only a segment of the overall National Estuarine Pollution
Study.

To make available the total reports contributing to the Study,
specifically the contractors' reports, the Estuarine Pollution Study
Series was created.  The reports included in this Series are essen-
tially the same, except for minor editing, as the form in which
they were submitted to the Study and represent the findings only
of individual contractors, not of the National Estuarine Pollution
Study.

Copies of these Reports are available for a nominal cost from the
Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C., 20402.
                                    William D. Ruckelshaus
                                         Administrator
                                Environmental Protection Agency

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                                   PREFACE
     This study is a preliminary attempt to assess the economic importance of
estuaries in the United States.  To hold cost of the study to reasonable proportions,
the effort was largely limited to the assembly of secondary source information; the
collection of primary data was held to a minimum.  It was realized that voids in
secondary source information surely would exist, and it was one of the explicit goals
of the study to define the nature of such voids so that they might be filled in
subsequent studies.

     The approach employed in this study was to assemble the secondary source
information that was readily available and to analyze it in such a way as to yield
some basis for evaluating estuaries, their major uses, the value of these uses, and
the conflicts between these uses.  A major  problem, fully recognized before the
study commenced, was the fact that data  regarding various uses  of estuaries are
not available in the form of a single common denominator,  such as dollars.  Instead,
a hodgepodge of information exists which yields only an intuitive  feel for relative
values of the various estuarine uses rather than a strictly analytical comparison.
Nevertheless, it is felt that, from the data that are available,  an understanding of
the magnitudes of these various uses can be achieved which would be useful to de-
fine general parameters for estuarine management.

     While the kinds of variables one might consider in estuarine-management
studies can emerge from an overview of this kind, estuarine-management plans for a
particular estuary must be based on specific data on the estuary of concern.  Differ-
ences between estuaries in their uses, their hydrology,  geography, and other
factors, make it difficult to generalize about their problems.  It is also clear that
the trade-offs that exist among the uses of an estuary are sufficiently complex that
rather sophisticated methods of analysis  may be needed to derive sensible estuarine-
management programs.

     Thus, it is felt that the research reported herein can provide guidelines for
national policy and a "starting point" for  studies of particular  estuaries; however,
estuarine-management programs must be derived for individual  estuaries in
response to specific problems.

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                           TABLE OF CONTENTS


                                                                        Page

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY	    1

     Significance of Estuaries for Outdoor Recreation	    i
     Significance of Estuaries for Commercial Fishing	   ii
     Significance of Estuaries for Wildlife	   ii
     Significance of Estuaries for Water Transportation and National Defense   iii
     Significance of Estuaries for Land Reclamation	   iii
     Significance of Esturaies for Extractive Industries	   iii
     Significance of Estuaries for Waste  Assimilation	   iv
     Conclusion	   iv

INTRODUCTION	    I

     Background	    1
     Definition of Estuary	    2
     Choice of Uses to be Reviewed	    3

SIGNIFICANCE OF ESTUARIES FOR OUTDOOR RECREATION	    5

     Role of Bstuarine Recreation  	,	    5
     Types of Recreation Activities	    5
     Economic Impact	    8
     Data Voids	:	    8

SIGNIFICANCE OF ESTUARIES FOR COMMERCIAL FISHING	    9

     Summary of Current Situation	    9
     Future Market Demand for Fish Products	   10
     Estuarine Dependency of United States Commercial Fish Species	   12
     From Conflict to Accommodation	   17

SIGNIFICANCE OF ESTUARIES FOR WILDLIFE	   18

     Fur Production.	   18
     Waterfowl	   20
     The "Exotic" Shore and Sea Birds	   21
     Common Wildlife	   22
     Conclusion	   24

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                           TABLE OF CONTENTS
                                (Continued)
                                                                      Page

SIGNIFICANCE OF ESTUARIES FOR WATER TRANSPORTATION AND
 NATIONAL DEFENSE	    25

     Inventory of Estuarine Ports	    25
     Environmental Effects of Commercial Watercraft	    27
     Use of the Estuaries for National Defense	    27
     Environmental Effects of National Defense Activities	    28

SIGNIFICANCE OF ESTUARIES FOR LAND RECLAMATION	    30

     Introduction.	    30
     Quantity of Filled Estuarine Wetlands	    30
     Uses of Filled Land	    30
     Sources of Fill	    31
     Disposal Practices	    31
     Examples of Intensive Spoil Site Development	    34
     The Problem of Evaluating Wetland Worth	    34
     Costs of Developing Wetlands	    35
     Conclusion	    35

SIGNIFICANCE OF ESTUARIES FOR EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES	    38

     Introduction	    38
     Minining of Materials Below Estuarine Floors	    38
     Minining of Materials Directly From Estuary Floor	    44
     Mining of the Estuarine Waters,	    46
     Conclusion	    47

SIGNIFICANCE OF ESTUARIES FOR WASTE ASSIMILATION	    49

     Scope	    49
     Significance of Waste Assimilation	    49
     Methodology	    49
     Existing of DO/BOD Models	    50
     The Delaware Estuary	    51
     Potomac River Estuary	    52
     James River Estuary	    53
     East River Estuary	    53
     Hudson River Estuary	    54

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                         TABLE OF CONTENTS
                              (Continued)
                                                                   Page

     Economic Contribution of This Assimilative Capacity	   54
     Assimilation of Thermal Loadings	   56
     Patuxent River Estuary	   56
     Potomac River Estuary	   57
     Thames River Estuary	   57
     Economic Contribution of Natural Cooling	   57
     Conclusion	   58

CONCLUSION	   59

     Introduction	   59
     General Use	   59
     Interrelated Uses	   60
     Dynamic Nature of Use	   60
     Data Voids	   61
                              APPENDIX A

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL VALUES OF ESTUARINE RECREATION	 A-l

                              APPENDIX B

THE FUTURE ECONOMIC VALUE OF ESTUARINE-DEPENDENT
 COMMERCIAL FISHERIES	 B-l

                              APPENDIX C

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL VALUE  OF ESTUARINE WILDLIFE	 C-l

                              APPENDIX D

USE OF ESTUARIES FOR WATER TRANSPORTATION AND NATIONAL
 DEFENSE	 D-l

                              APPENDIX E

LAND RECLAMATION IN ESTUARINE ZONES	 E-l

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                        TABLE OF CONTENTS
                            (Continued)
                                                               Page

                            APPENDIX F

ECONOMIC VALUE OF ESTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES IN THE ESTUARINE
  ZONE	   F-l

                            APPENDIX G

ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF ESTUARINE POLLUTION	„	   G-l

                            APPENDIX H

DEVELOPMENT OF CHESAPEAKE BAY RESOURCES	   H-l

                            APPENDIX I

NOTES ON COST-BENEFIT AND SYSTEMS ANALYSE AS APPLIED TO THE
 ANALYSIS OF ESTUARINE POLICY	    1-1

                            APPENDIX J

INTRODUCTION	     i

ABSTRACTS	   J-l

INDEX	J-191

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

As one of several concurrent efforts to assemble information for the Department
of Interior's study of the United-States Estuarine Zone, this report examines the litera-
ture and state of the art describing the economic and social importance of these estu-
aries, fhe main report is a summary of seven appendices analyzing the following social
and economic activities: (1) recreation, (2) commercial fishing, (3) wildlife habitation,
(4) extractive industries, (5) waste assimilation, (6) land reclamation, and (7) transpor-
tation. Additional appendices were prepared on: the Chesapeake Bay region, the use of
cost benefit analysis in estuarine economic research, and an annotated bibliography of
estuarine economics literature. The report is based primarily on published source
material and data voids are noted. Emphasis has been placed upon (1) effects of pollu-
tion on estuarine uses and (2) when available, long-term trends have been examined.
Significance of Estuaries for Outdoor Recreation
The economic and social significance of the estuaries for recreation is rooted in
the social and demographic evolution of our society and the functional uniqueness of the
estuaries. The United States population is continuing to gravitate towards a denser urban
structure with disproportionate concentrations within the estuarine zones. By 1967, ten
metropolitan areas with individual populations exceeding 1 million persons and a total of
about 40 million persons were situated along estuaries. At the same time, economic and
social trends appear to be enhancing the ability to seek outdoor recreation.

Competition for the limited resources of estuaries has intensified. Nonrecreation
activities have closed off areas of coastline or have produced water conditions incompati-
ble with recreation. Sport fishing for some species, such as the croaker in the
New York - New Jersey area, has been negatively affected by ecological change. Beyond
these specific uses, the less easily defined functions of estuaries as open spaces in the
midst of urban concentrations have constantly risen in scale and significance, and have
raised serious esthetic and social issues.

Partially because of these conflict situations, specialized estuarine recreation has
not been highly developed. Probably less than 3 percent of all swimming participation in
the United States occurs in estuaries. On a per capita basis, recreational boating in
coastal states is considerably less popular than for the inland north-central states. And,
despite the increasing public pressures for more esthetically conscious development of
the estuarine shoreline in urbanized areas, the institution of controls such as the creation
of parks has noticeably lagged.

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Significance of Estuaries for Commercial Fishing
Logical extrapolation of key trends suggests that a major conflict is gradually
emerging between continuation of the commercial fishing industry at significant levels
and socio-economic forces pressing physical development upon the estuarine areas.
About 4. 06 billion pounds of commercial fish and shell fish worth $438 million were
landed by United States fishermen in 1967 and 8.1 billion pounds with a value of $687
million were imported. Of the United States catch in 1967, approximately two-thirds of
the total value, or about $300 million, consisted for estuarine-dependent species.
Shrimp, representing about 24 percent of the entire United States catch value, was the
most valuable single species, followed by oysters.

Virtually the entire United States shrimp catch consisted of a genus that spawns at
sea but develops in the estuary. Numerous studies and experiments have shown the
juvenile shrimp to be highly sensitive to the physical condition of the estuary. Thus,
estuarine change, including pollution and filling, can affect the availability of shrimp,
though exact relationships are not fully understood. Menhaden, the leading industrial
fish species, has a life cycle similar to the shrimp's and has equivalent vulnerability.
Almost the entire commercial oyster industry is based upon a single estuarine-dependent
species.
Significance of Estuaries for Wildlife
Excluding the commercial fishery resources, estuarine wildlife can be classified
into four categories, with differing economic and social significance: (1) fur-bearing
mammals, (2) game water fowl, (3) other shore and water birds, and (4) the common
wildlife that can tolerate human presence. Commercial trapping produces an annual
value of about $6 million, a sum which indicates relatively accurately the direct eco-
nomic value. The United States' water fowl, primarily ducks, geese, and swan, repre-
sent both an aesthetic and a recreation-industry resource, but their relationship with the
estuarine zone is complex and incompletely understood. Available evidence indicates
that the estuaries do not generally comprise critical habitat. The situation is slightly
more acute for some of the rarer shore birds, particularly the waders which depend
upon estuarine biota for food. Also, fish contaminated with pollutants are believed to
have a key role in the marked decline of the successful breeding of eagles and ospreys.

For more United States citizens, however, the most important function of estuaries
involving wildlife is to bring an element of the natural environment into the urban setting.
This open expense includes innumerable forms of wildlife that is increasingly counted
among a city's significant resources as evidenced by the increase of 19 percent in nature
walk participation between 1960 and 1965.
11

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Significance of Estuaries for Water Transportation
and National Defense
The nation's estuaries provide the physical, social, and economic conditions re-
quired for an effective system of transfer points serving international trade and coastal
shipping. In 1966, about 1,626 marine terminal facilities were providing deepwater
berths in 132 estuarine ports on the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts, including Alaska
and Hawaii. While published data are not available for all coastal ports, reports indi-
cate that 77 coastal and 40 Great Lakes ports listed earnings (value added by transporta-
tion services) of about $5.6 billion in 1963.

Despite these economic advantages, commercial transport vessels have been
shown to be significant contributors to estuarine pollution. Commercial watercraft are
estimated to be responsible for about 39 percent of human waste loading from all water-
craft in the United States waterways, or the equivalent of approximately 200,000 resi-
dents. Furthermore, bulkheads, navigational channels, shore structures, and supple-
mental land transportation systems subtly change the character of the estuary's ecolog-
ical characteristic. The role of estuaries in the national defense system is similar to
that involving commercial transport, except that the impact is more regionalized and the
essence of the national benefits is less easily quantified.
Significance of Estuaries for Land Reclamation
Complex, often overlapping motivations have caused the filling of the "reclaimed"
estuarine wetlands. Spoil beds for dredged mud, solid waste disposal sites, mosquito
control efforts, agricultural uses, and a vast number of urban-related uses have each
claimed a share. According to a 1958 survey, estuaries of the United States encompass
26.6 million acres of water, both shallow and deep. About 7.7 million acres of th'is
entire area could be considered prime estuarine habitat for wildlife but, being shallow,
it is particularly vulnerable for development. Approximately 7 percent of the habitat
wetlands have already been filled within the past 20 years; and in some urbanized areas,
the proportion is considerably higher. About 45 percent of the basic habitat loss oc-
curred in California, where 243 square miles had been filled by 1957 in San Francisco
Bay.
Significance of Estuaries for Extractive Industries
Extractive operations can be divided into three general groups according to the
source of the material: (1) below the estuarine floor, (2) from the estuarine floor, and
(3) from the water. Petroleum production is the most important extractive industry that
111

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penetrates significantly beneath the estuarine floor, but only a small fraction of the total
United States drilling for petroleum is occurring in estuarine zones and even this is now
concentrated in four states: Louisiana, Texas, California, and Alaska. However,
petroleum extraction is linked to an extensive system of related activities, such as re-
finery and petrochemical plants, which also affect estuaries.

Oyster shell and sand-gravel operations are the most common form of mining di-
rectly from the estuary floor. While about 20 million tons of oyster shells are estimated
to be recovered annually, the economic viability of this industry is declining and the im-
pact has been restricted to several regions, such as Galveston Bay. Mining of sand and
gravel is more extensive, and the effects have been highly damaging ecologically where
uncontrolled. Extraction of minerals from estuarine waters is gradually declining and
does not have significant environmental effects.
Signjfiqance of Estuaries for Waste Assimilation
Considerable reliance is being placed upon the ability of estuaries to assimilate
human and industrial wastes that would otherwise be processed by treatment plants.
Using a series of assumptions, the economic costs of providing 1 mg/1 increase in the
dissolved oxygen level was calculated for the Delaware, Potomac, James, East, and
Hudson river estuaries, which have a total area of 116, 670 acres. The total implied
monetary value per year on this basis was estimated at $5.9 million.

A similar analysis involving thermal assimilation was performed for the estuaries
of the Patuxent, Potomac, and Thames rivers with a total area of 31,870 acres. The
economic costs of decreasing the temperature levels of these estuarine areas was esti-
mated. The annual monetary value of a 0. l-degree-»Fahrenheit increase in excess tem-
perature was $34,700 for the three estuaries.
Conclusion
Throughout the study, four primary themes continually emerged:

(1) The most rapidly increasing use of estuaries appears to be for personal
satisfaction (e.g., recreation), as the public becomes more aware of
the natural estuarine environment.

(2) Estuarine activities are based upon the use of a common set of natural
resources, and are therefore highly interrelated.
iv

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(3)  Estuarine environment is rapidly changing due to the mounting intensity
    of estuarine use.

(4)  Management of estuarine resources is complicated by  difficulties in
    defining goals,  data deficiencies, and voids in understanding estuarine
    ecology.

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FINAL REPORT ON THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF ESTUARIES
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND

The National Estuarine Pollution Study. In Title n, Section 5 (g) (1), of the Clean
Water Restoration Act of 1966 (P. L. 89-753), the Secretary of the Interior was di-
rected to conduct a study of the United States1 estuarine zones to (1) document and
analyze the various aspects of estuarine pollution, (2) make recommendations for a
comprehensive national program to preserve, study, use, and develop the estuarine
zones, and (3) recognize the possible roles of legitimate interests, including the
Federal, state, and local governments and both public and private parties.

In this connection,, the Department of the Interior was authorized to conduct a
comprehensive study of the pollution effects upon present and future uses of the estuaries
and estuarine zones. Existing data were to be assembled, coordinated, and organized,
and representative estuaries were to be surveye'd to provide supplementary data. In-
formation voids were to be identified, and the present economic and social values of the
estuaries were to be analyzed. The major economic, social, and ecological trends
influencing the probable future pollution problems were to be studied to provide a basis
for understanding the possible future values of the estuary. Assembly of the project
data was to be completed by February 1, 1969, and a preliminary draft was to be com-
pleted two months later.

As one segment of this study, Battelle's Columbus Laboratories proposed in
June, 1967, to survey and to identify the literature and the state of the art relevant to
an understanding of the economic and social importance of estuaries in the United
States. Pursuant to the subsequent contract agreement, a detailed, annotated bibliog-
raphy has been prepared for the Office of Estuarine Studies and is submitted as Ap-
pendix J of this report.
Structure of This Report

In line with discussions with the Office of Estuarine Studies, the structure selected
for this primary report employs a series of distinct surveys in the important areas of
estuarine use, each survey being prepared by a specialist in the particular field. These
surveys have been compiled as a series of appendices. The purpose of the main report
is to introduce these individual appendices and to relate them to the overall problem.

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    In a third aspect of the Battelle survey, the nature and sources of various data
describing the estuaries have been incorporated in the footnotes of the appendices and
in the bibliography.

    A major data deficiency, namely, a lack of a monetary measure of estuary use
was recognized before the study commenced.  An effort has been made to furnish
estimates and measured quantities whenever these have been available and reliable so
that a general feeling for the order-of-magnitude and the ranking of priorities can be
made.
DEFINITION OF ESTUARY

    In the technical literature,  considerable concern is expressed about the lack of a
single, simple definition of estuary that can be accepted throughout the different pro-
fessional fields.  This situation, however, is comprehensible when the vast variety and
complexity of conditions and activities in estuaries are viewed.  The American College
Dictionary provides two definitions, the first referring to the part of a river where its
currents are affected by ocean tides and the second is synonomous with "bay".  Web-
ster's New International Dictionary adds a third definition from physical geography,
"... a drowned river mouth,  caused by the sinking.of land near the coast." The most
commonly accepted definition today is by Cameron and Pritchard. *

    An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water having a free connection
    with the open sea and within which the sea water is measurably diluted with
    fresh water deriving from land drainage.

    Another term frequently used in discussing estuaries and their environs is
"estuarine zone." This term is now being used loosely to refer to adjoining land masses
or water bodies.  It also is used to describe the zone of human activities that are ad-
jacent to and have a direct impact upon the estuaries. Originally, however it was
defined as:**

    "An environmental system  consisting of the estuary and those transitional
    areas consistently influenced or affected by water from the estuary."
 *W.M. Cameron and D.W. Pritchard, in:  The Sea;  Ideas and Observations on the
  Progress in the Study of the Seas, Vol. 2, Ch. 15 (New York: Interscience  Pub-
  lishers,  1963).
**Roland F. Smith, "Forward,  "A Symposium of Estuarine Fisheries, Special
  Publication No. 3 (Washington, D.C.:  American Fishery Society, 1966).

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This definition refers to the biological transition zones, in the salt meadows, coastal
marshes,  intertidal areas, and tidal fresh-water habitats above the upper limit of salt-
water intrusion. This report examines these ecological aspects of the estuary but also
encompasses land areas having a direct interrelationship with the biological transition
zones described above.
        *

    Some of the complexities involving estuaries can be clarified by describing the
four primary subdivisions on a geomorphological basis.*

    (1) Drowned river valleys - Frequently called waterways or coastal plain
        estuaries,  these river valleys are typical of the Eastern Seaboard in the
        United States such as Chesapeake Bay.

    (2) Fjords  - Relatively rare in the United States,  fjord estuaries were carved
        by glaciers that subsequently receded, leaving a till across the mouth of the
        coastal indenture. Within the basin, depths of 1,000 feet are frequent and
        sheer walls often preclude a significant biological transition zone on the sides
        of the estuary. Because of the Moraine formed by the glacial till, estuarine
        conditions  often exist only in the upper water layers. Most of the  fjord
        estuaries of the United States are found in Alaska.

     (3) Bar-built estuaries - Estuaries can be formed when fresh water enters
        behind a barrier beach. Typically, such estuaries are shallow and tidal
        action is limited by a small entrance.  Examples would include Albemarle
        and Pamlico sounds in North Carolina.

    (4) Tectonic estuaries - Faulting and other local conditions can form estuaries
        with a variety of  characteristics.  San Francisco Bay is a frequently cited
        example.

    Salinity levels in estuaries vary greatly depending on the fresh water intake,
degree of tidal flushing, and evaporation rates. The salinity level of sea water is
typically about 35 ppt (parts per thousand):  it may go as low as 0.1 ppt in some
estuarine areas.
CHOICE OF USES TO BE REVIEWED

    Estuaries are an important element of the modern human habitat, as reflected in
the myriad of uses which it serves.  They are the principal recreational areas of most
of the nation's largest cities - such as Boston, New York, Baltimore, Los Angeles,
and San Francisco.  These provide protected harbors for shipping and have developed
*DonaldW.  Pritchard, "What is an Estuary: Physical Viewpoint,  "Estuaries,
 Publication No. 83 (Washington, D.C.:  American Association for the Advancement
 of Science, 1967), pp 4-5.

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into major terminals for oceanic, river, and land-based transportation systems.
Coastal highways traverse the estuaries, and airplanes cross the open waters ap-
proaching the nations major airports. Estuaries are prodigious growing areas for sea
biota and, at the same time, are viewed as depositories for human wastes and expan-
sion space for real-estate ventures.

The complexity and variety of estuarine use have been aptly described in qualita-
tive terms by the literature and by Congressional hearings. * To provide an analytic
structure for this report, however, the subject was arbitarily divided into seven cate-
gories to represent the primary social and economic uses noted in the literature, as
well as to comply with the normal areas of specialty favored by scientists. These
seven categories are: (1) recreation, (2) commercial fishing, (3) wildlife, (4) extractive
industries, (5) waste assimilation, (6) land reclamation, and (7) transportation.

In future decades, new uses of the estuaries may emerge to replace or supplement
existing uses. A brief survey of the demographic, economic, and technological trends
suggest that intensification of existing uses will be the most probable occurrence in
approaching decades. The coastal states have experienced the nation's greatest popu-
lation growth, and the demand for commercial construction in the coastal cities indicates
that this trend is persisting. As the scale of estuarine use rises, greater segregation
of activities appears inevitable. Aquaculture, the intensive farming of sea animals in
isolated areas of the estuaries will probably occur because of improved technology and
economic demand for the products. Demands for more urban services will probably
result in more dredging and filling for offshore facilities. Recreation technology will
continue to make recreational activities more easily accessible to urbanites and intensify
the use of recreational areas. Desalinization to recover minerals and fresh water ap-
pear inevitable. Certain types of industry may find it profitable to locate close to urban
centers and in the estuarine environment. Other uses appear increasingly unlikely
despite past publicity. Tidal power represents one of these categories. Despite a spate
of enthusiasm several years ago when the La Ranee estuary station in Brittany, France,
was constructed, the lack of synchronization between the tidal surge and market demand
for energy appears an insurmountable problem. ** Furthermore, the extensive construc-
tion necessary to obtain an energy head will interfere with other estuarine uses.
*As an example of the professional literature in this area, see: L. Eugene Cronin
"The Role of Man in Estuarine Processes." George H. Lauff (ed.), Estuaries,
Publication No. 83 (Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement
of Science, 1967), pp 667-689.
**Jacques Duport, et al., "Power From the Tides," International Science and Tech-
nology, No. 41 (May, 1965), p 34. E.M. Wilson, "A New Approach to Power From
The Tide", New Scientist, No. 415 (October 29, 1964), p 290.

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           SIGNIFICANCE OF ESTUARIES FOR OUTDOOR RECREATION
ROLE OF ESTUARINE RECREATION

    Estuarine areas are intensively used for recreation because of the unique combina-
tion of resources and the proximity to population centers. The intensity of recreational
use is expected to increase in the estuaries as population continues to grow in these
areas and as the ability of people to seek outdoor recreation is enhanced. *

    The competition for resources in the estuary has had its greatest impact upon
recreation because of its sensitivity to the environment.  For an estuarine area to be
able to support recreation activities, along with activities which alter the natural en-
vironment such as waste disposal or dredging, costly management is required.   Not
only water quality has to be protected but public access has to be guaranteed. The
following sections discuss each recreation activity and how they have been affected by
changes in the environment.
TYPES OF RECREATION ACTIVITIES

     People rarely have a single activity as the sole objective of a recreational outing.
Boating, one of the most prevalent activites,  is often combined with fishing, cruising,
water skiing, hunting, and even travel or socializing.  Swimming may be combined
with picnicking or camping.  However, clusters of activities that require similar
environmental conditions but differ in sensitivity to environmental quality can be
identified:  (1) swimming and associated shore activities, including picnicking and
camping; (2) sport fishing from shore or small boat; (3) boat-centered activities, such
as cruising or water skiing; and (4) aesthetic appreciation (e.g., nature walks,  bird
watching).
Swimming and Associated Shore Activities

    Available evidence suggests that estuaries provide a minute share'of the nation's
swimming opportunities.  For instance, the most heavily attended beaches in the United
States - in New York (Long Island), Virginia, Massachusetts,  Florida, Maryland, and
*For a comprehensive review of the forces and circumstances surrounding the increased
 demand for outdoor recreational opportunities, see the various reports prepared under
 the auspices of the Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission and presented
 to the President and to the Congress in 1962.  Also,  Hans H. Landsberg,  Leonard L.
 Fischman, and Joseph L. Fisher, Resources in America*^ Future (Baltimore: Johns
 Hopkins Press,  1963); and Marion Clawson and Jack L. Knetsch,  Economics of Outdoor
 Recreation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1968).

-------
California - generally face an open sea, not an estuary or coastal sound. Probably
less than 10 percent of the entire coastal swimming activity, or less than 3 percent
of all swimming participation, occurs on estuaries. At least three circumstances con-
tribute to this situation:

(1) A lack of large sandy beaches, surf, and expansive seascape.

(2) A lack of public access because of marshy terrain and private development
along the shoreline. For example, in all of Maryland's forty-one state parks,
including those authorized or under construction, only five are on the estuaries.
In Connecticut, only five of the eighty-two state parks are located on the coast,
despite a recreation shoreline of 162 miles.

(3) Swimming is often prohibited or is disagreeable because of low water quality.
Sport Fishing

The estuary is a habitat for a large number of sport and commercial fish for all
or part of their life cycle. Some, such as the winter founder, croaker, and spotted
trout, are essentially estuarine species while others, such as striped bass, bluefLsh,
and fluke, use the estuary as a nursery zone. Very few estimates have been made of
the estuarine sport fish catch or of the economic impact of estuarine sport fishermen
on the local economies.

Gross expenditures by salt-water fishermen give a crude indication of the value of
coastal and estuarine sport fishing. The limitations of this data have been discussed
extensively in the literature (See Appendix A). In addition to its inherent limitations,
the data do not apply only to estuarine areas or to estuarine dependent species. Their
primary interest for estuarine management is that they give some indication of the size
of the industry and its rate of growth. For example, sport fishermen spend an average
of $96 per year in this activity and total expenditures on sport fishing have increased
80 percent between 1955 and 1965. These increases effect the estuary as well as the
coastal areas.
Estuarine Boating

On a per capita basis, the coastal states do not appear to have a high propensity
tdwards boating activities. While representing 61.5 percent of the nation's population
in 1966, the coastal states accounted for only 55.4 percent of the total sales in outboard
motors. Only about 25 percent of all pleasure boating is estimated to occur in the
coastal waters. Most of this boating is in protected areas but the percentage occurring
within the estuary has not been estimated. Of all the states, Wisconsin led in boat
registrations, with 3.1 times the national average, followed by Minnesota with 2.8 and

-------
Michigan with 2.3. While the larger coastal pleasure vessels are generally moored
in estuaries, not all boats registered in coastal states are necessarily used in salt
water, some being maintained at inland lakes and streams.

In terms of expenditures, boat recreation accounted for an estimated $3 billion at
the retail level during 1966 (again approximately 25 percent would be coastal). Included
in this total were equipment, services, insurance, fuel, mooring and launching fees,
and boat club memberships. In many estuarine areas, marinas have been a major
source of income for the local community. In a nationwide study of 417 marinas by
the National Association of Engine and Boat Manufacturers, the lack of slips and moor-
ing was reported to be the largest single factor retarding the sale of new boats and
motors. Of the marinas interviewed, 77 percent were completely occupied and more
than half were turning people away.
Aesthetics

The estuary provides an attractive scenic vista in many of our coastal cities.
Recently, public pressure has been responsible for the establishment of coastal parks,
and esthetic values of the estuarine setting have been considered in urban planning and
management. Many articles have been written on the value of estuarine areas to urban
communities.* The literature, however, is general and has not attempted to determine
the quantitative or qualitative role of estuarine waters within city limits.

Besides enhancing the panorama of the city, some estuaries have been intensively
utilized for active recreational pursuits. An example would be the Charles River Basin
in the Boston Estuary, where sailing is a popular activity. Sightseeing in New York
Harbor is a popular pastime for tourists, and the recreational opportunities provided
by wildlife in the estuaries is described in more detail elsewhere in this report. More
active use of the estuaries is discouraged by commercial shipping interests, lack of
access, and the polluted condition of the estuarine waters.
Other Activities

Because of the versatile and complex nature of the estuaries, numerous other
recreational activities frequently occur on estuarine waters or in the immediate vicinity.
Some hunting for waterfowl, for instance, occurs in estuaries or in adjoining marshes.
*A typical example would be: Joseph E. Bodovitz, "San Francisco Bay," Transactions
of the Thirty-Second North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference
(March, 1967, pp 120-126.

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The total expenditures by hunters of waterfowl in 1965 amounted to $87.1 million, with
an unknown proportion occurring within the estuarine zone. As described in the wild-
life section, some waterfowl do depend upon estuaries for part of their habitat, thus
establishing a linkage with the estuaries, even though all hunting may not occur in the
immediate vicinity.

Occasionally other activities, such as scuba diving and surfing, can occur in the
estuarine waters. Normally, though, the waters are too turbid and nutrient laden to
provide visibility required for scuba diving. The restricted reach of the estuarine bays,
furthermore, reduces the suitability for surfing and related water sports. Spectator
activities, particularly regattas, are often held on estuaries, but they can be typically
considered boating activities.
ECONOMIC IMPACT

Because of the growing economic role of outdoor recreation, several studies have
attempted to determine the impact of recreation on the estuaries. An excellent series
has been conducted by the University of Rhode Island on Narragansett Bay and the
southern New England region. In a 1963 study of this region, general summer sales,
pleasure-craft building, and operation of boat yards and marinas accounted for less
than 7 percent of the monetary flow, representing expenditures in the vicinity of $10
million. Expenditures were analyzed to determine how each type benefited the local
community. From this analysis it was shown, for example, that beaches and museums
contribute little direct income to the region but attract customers for other services
and equipment. Marinas and boat yards provide stable year-around employment while
seaside restaurants and hotels conduct about 70 percent of their business between
Memorial Day and Labor Day.
DATA VOIDS

Until recently, estuarine areas were not recognized as geographic entities for
economic analysis as distinct from river basins or, in some cases, salt-water coasts.
As a result, virtually no recreational data exist for estuaries per se. A few estimates
can be gleaned from more general surveys of fresh or coastal water activities, but
these are not particularly useful for policy-making decisions. For instance, what
additional recreational opportunities would improved access to estuaries provide? Or
is pollution a greater deterrent to swimming? Specifically, surveys are required on
the ORRRC scope to measure recreation activities, such as swimming and boating,
and the environmental factors influencing these activities.
8

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SIGNIFICANCE OF ESTUARIES FOR
COMMERCIAL FISHING
SUMMARJ OF CURRENT SITUATION

In 1967, United States fishermen received $438 million for approximately 4.06
billion pounds of commercial fish and shellfish. * It has been estimated that two-thirds
of the total value, or approximately $300 million, can be considered from estuarine-
dependent species.** This is a conservative estimate of the direct value derived from
the estuarine fishery for it does not include the value of fish harvested by foreign ves-
sels off the United States coast. Furthermore, the term "estuarine-dependent" includes
a vast spectrum of biological relationships, and even some continental-shelf species,
such as bluefish, and most marine predators, including tuna, can be considered depen-
dent upon the estuary as an ultimate source of most of their food.
Industrial Fish Products

After a period of relative stability, the consumption of industrial fish products
rose almost steadily from a catch weight of 3.2 billion pounds in 1958 to 9.1 billion
pounds in 1967. *** For the domestic fisherman, this trend was masked by a rising
flow of imports, which represented 35 percent of the total United States supply in 1958
but 82 percent in 1967. During this period, the domestic industrial fish catch fell from
2.1 to 1.7 billion pounds.

Fish oil, fish solubles, and fish meal are the primary industrial fishery products
in the United States market with fish meal being the principal item, the poultry industry
consuming about 75 percent of the supply.**** However, substitutes for fish meal in
*Charles H. Lyles, Fisheries of the United States... 1967, C.F.S. No. 4700
(April 1968) p 4.
**J. L. Me Hugh, "Management of Estuarine Fisheries," A Symposium of Estuarine
Fisheries. American Fisheries Society Special Publication No. 3 (1966), p 134.
***Charles H. Lyles, Fisheries of the United States... 1967. C.F.S. No. 4700
(April, 1968), p 53.
****lh 1967, the supply of fish meal was 1,726 million pounds; fish solubles, 156
million pounds; and fish oils, 50 million pounds.

-------
poultry feed have begun to gain wide acceptance, causing price adjustments.*
Fish oil competes with vegetable oils in the internationally edible oils market though
about one-third of the United States fish oil production is used domestically for nonedible
purposes.**
Edible Fish Products

While per capita consumption of edible fish products was virtually static, popula-
tion growth caused the market to expand from 4.3 to 5.1 billion pounds between 1958 and
1967.*** During this decade, the proportion of the catch caught domestically de-
clined from 67 to 47 percent, indicating that the expanding domestic market was met
primarily by foreign suppliers. The inroads by imports differed substantially by
species.

Shrimp, which had represented about 10 percent by weight of edible fish products
in 1957, rose to about 20 percent by 1967. While 36 percent of the shrimp in 1957 v.'ex-e
imports, this had risen to 51 percent by 1967. Tuna consumption rose from 36 to 41
percent of all fishery products while imports rose slightly from 42 percent to 51 percent
of the supply. Salmon and sardines declined in importance relative to the entire fish-
eries market with catches of other species remaining approximately the same in volume.
Affecting the entire market was an increase in processing. From 1957-67, sales of
prepared fish sticks and portions increased from 83,000 pounds to over 232,000 pounds.
During the same period, production of breaded shrimp increased from 39,000 to 93,000.
pounds.
FUTURE MARKET DEMAND FOR FISH PRODUCTS

The future world market for fish is expected to increase, but the situation is clouded
by the recent development of new products and changing technology.
*Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Industrial Fishery Products; 1967 Review,
Current Economic Analysis n (April, 1968), p 4.
**For a thorough discussion of projected demand for industrial fish products, see:
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Projected Needs for Fish Products, Issue Paper
No. 1, unpublished (May, 1967).
***Charles H. Lyles, Fisheries of the United States... 1967. C.F.S. No. 4700
(April, 1968), p 60.
10

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Industrial Fish Products

    Expanding markets for industrial fish products are expected to result as feed lot
operations for livestock are extended in the United States and introduced in other na-
tions.  Al§o, increased fish production could be absorbed by new products,  such as
fish protein concentrate. On the other hand, numerous protein substitutes, including
petroleum and soy-bean derivitives,  are under development, and the market for in-
dustrial fish at a price now attractive to United States fishermen may further diminish.
The future of this industry seems to be more dependent on the ability of United States
fishermen to compete with imports by lower production costs. This could occur through
either technical innovations or introduction of new species to the market.

    The abundant stock and  schooling characteristics of the herring-like  coupeoid
fishes sought for the industrial market permit the development of large scale automated
equipment and specialization among fishery technicians.  Also, promising new, species
have been identified, such as the thread herring (Opisthonena oglinum) in the Gulf of
Mexico.* At the same time, production costs for competing nations are expected to
rise as wage rates increase and the more easily tapped fishing grounds are depleted.**

    On the basis of income and population projections, the Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries in 1966 made a series of projections for the industrial fish market in the
United States.  From a 1966 base market of 7.04 billion pounds, their "moderate"
market projection was for utilization of 10.2 billion pounds in 1973, 12.8 in 1985,
and 16.1 in  2000.  Since 9.1 billion pounds was marketed in 1967, these estimates
appear to be low.
Edible Fish Products

    The price of edible fish has declined relative to alternative sources of protein
such as meat and poultry.  This relative price decline is primarily a result of increas-
ing fish supplies.  From 1956 to 1966, the world fish and shellfish catch rose 87 percent
or at a compounded rate of 6 percent annually, while the world's population rose about
24 percent,  or 1.7 percent annually. ***

    Increasing affluence in the  United States should increase the demand for more deli-
cate fish products (such as shrimp). New techniques of freezing and preparation will
  *Sykes, p 76.
 **For a more complete analysis of production-cost trends in the world,  see Appendix
   B,  pp 6-10.
***Food and Agriculture Organization,  Yearbook of Fisheries Statistics:  1966,
   Catches and Landings, Vol. 22 (Rome:  1967), Table A2-1.
                                        11

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improve the marketability of fish delicacies.  In a few cases,  particularly salmon,
declines in supply and price indicate that demand has declined.  Economists at the
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries estimate that consumption of edible fish and shell-
fish products should reach 5.9 billion pounds in 1973; 7.8 in 1985; and 12.0 in 2000.*
ESTUARINE DEPENDENCY OF UNITED STATES COMMERCIAL FISH SPECIE B

    Estuarine dependence is a convenient term to describe a normally complex bio-
logical interrelationship between the estuarine environment and an aquatic organism.
The degree of dependency is specie specific, and also varies due to geographical and
climatic circumstances.   Four fundamental types of dependence can be identified as
follows:**

    (1)  Truly estuarine  species - restricted to the estuarine habitat (e.g.,
        the Virginia oyster)
    (2)  Anadromous and catadromous species - dependent upon the estuarine
        zone as a passage between fresh water and the salt water environments
        (e.g., salmon)

    (3)  Seasonally estuarine specie - dependent upon the estuarine environment
        to provide food and, in some cases, spawning areas during a significant
        part of the year  (e.g., spotted hake)

    (4)  Marine species using estuary as a nursery - juvenile stages dependent
        upon the estuary to provide shelter and food, though spawning occurs
        at sea (e.g., shrimp).

    Five of the six leading species by weight, representing over one-half of the
United States commercial fish tonnage in 1967, could be considered estuarine-dependent:
  *Bureau of Commercial Fisheries,  Projected Needs for Fish Products,  Issue Paper
   No.  1, unpublished (May, 1967), p 19.
 **In Fish and Man, Clark described three general patterns for Atlantic fish: (1) the
   Residents, which live primarily in the estuary and are exemplified by the spotted
   sea trout; (2) the Outsiders, which are primarily marine but depend upon the estuary
   for a nursery, such as the fluke and menhaden; and (3) the Insiders, the migratory
   fish that spawn and spend juvenile stages in the estuarine zone, such as the weakfish
   and red fish.
   In "Estuarine Nekton,"  (Estuaries) McHugh describes the four categories listed in
   the text above plus two other types of relationships, fresh water fishes  that enter
   brackish water and adventitious visitors, which occasionally can be found in the
   estuarine environment but cannot be truly described as estuarine-dependent.
                                       12

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menhaden (1.17 billion pounds), crabs (0.32 billion pounds), shrimp (0.31 billion pounds),
salmon (0.21 billion pounds), and flounder (0.11 billion pounds). * When ranked by
value, four of the leading six were estuarine-dependent and these four represented 48
percent of the total catch value: shrimp ($103.1 million), salmon ($48.6 million),
oysters ($31.6 million), and crabs ($27.1 million). Shrimp value alone equals the other
three and accounts for 24 percent of the value of the entire United States catch. Shrimp
are also a primary food item for other fish species, such as the spotted seatrout
(Cynoscion nebulosus), and thus contribute indirectly to these other commercial fisheries.
Estuarine Dependence of Shrimp

Most of the shrimp catch comes from the Gulf of Mexico. Three specis are caught
commercially: the brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus). the white shrimp (P. setiferus).
and the pink shrimp (P. duorarum). Their life is described by Category 4 of the estua-
rine dependencies described previously. For example, the pink shrimp spawn offshore
about 100 miles from the Florida mainland. Within 3 to 5 weeks, an estimated 0.05
percent of the original egg crop enters the estuary in the postlarvae stage.** From about
2 up to 9 months, the juvenile shrimp grow to commercial size in the estuary and then
return to the sea where they reproduce.

The complete role of the estuary in shrimp development is still not thoroughly
understood. The environment provides food and protection during the rapid growth
stage of the juveniles. The shrimp's diet during the early stages appears to consist of
estuarine materials, such as polychaete worms, mollusk larvae, fish larvae, and
various bacteria.or molds. Vegetation and debris provide protection from predators.
Sensitivity to Change

It is currently believed that the important commercial shrimp species cannot exist
outside the estuaries in large quantities. Thus, any dredge and fill activities which
reduce access to estuarine areas will directly effect the size of the crop. Habitat that
is altered by channelization, changes in salinity, or nutrient flows from waste treatment
plants may have both positive and negative effects, depending on the species, the ecology,
and other natural conditions in the environment.
*The crab landings include the King crab, which is not an estuarine-dependent specie.
** J. L. Munro, A. C.Jones, and D. Dimitriou, "Abundance and Distribution of the
Larvae of the Pink Shrimp (Penaeus duorarum) on the Tortugas Shelf of Florida,"
manuscript (1967).
13

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     Fishermen can respond to deteriorating estuarine conditions by shifting to a less
estuarine-dependent specie, particularly the royal red shrimp (Hymenopenaeus
robustus),  or by developing shrimp aquaculture.  Harvesting the royal red shrimp is
difficult because they tend to run deep and are hard to find. Research in aquaculture
of shrimp in this country has not advanced very far. *
Estuarine Dependence of Menhaden

     Four species of Menhaden are caught commercially in this country: Atlantic men-
haden (Brevoortia tyrannus), Gulf menhaden (B.  patronus),  yellowfin menhaden (B.
smith!),  and finescale menhaden (B,  gunteri).  All species spawn at sea along the con-
tinental shelf, and the larvae then move into the estuaries. ** Menhaden feed on plank-
ton in the estuary.  It is not clear how successful these fish would be if they were
excluded from estuarine areas or if they were forced to feed in highly polluted waters.
It is known that menhaden tend to pick up many parasites and infections which may be
more prevalent in nutrient rich waters.
Estuarine Dependence of Oysters

    Virtually the entire commercial oyster fishery is based on one domestic specie,
the Virginia oyster (Crassostrea virgica).  From about 1890 to 1930, a significant
industry was developed on the Pacific coast using a native Pacific specie, Ostrea lurida,
however, toxic liquid waste from paper mills in the estuaries proved fatal to the larvae
and the fishery collapsed.  Only partial revival was achieved using important seeds of
the Japanese oyster, Crassostrea gigas, which is slightly more tolerant to paper mill
chemicals.

    As an organism, the Virginia oyster is thoroughly adapted to the estuarine eco-
system, appearing to find here  the most appropriate food and substrate conditions.
While it tolerates  salinities as low as 7 ppt in Chesapeake Bay and as high as 30 ppt,
 *G. Robert Lunz, "Farmingthe Salt Marshes," Proceedings of the Marsh and Estuary
  Management Symposium (July, 1967), pp 172-177.
**Victor L. loosanoff, "Mariculture...Its Recent Development and Its Future,"
  Agricultural Engineering, Vol. 46, No. 2 (February,  1965), pp 93-97.
  H.E. Crowther, "BCF Role in Farming of the Sea," 1967 Proceedings of the National
  Shellfisheries Association. Vol. 58 (June, 1968), pp 16-18.
  JohnW. Reintjes and Anthony L. Pacheco, "The Relation of Menhaden to Estuaries,"
  A Symposium on Estuarine Fisheries, American Fisheries Society Special Publication
  No.  3, Washington,  D.C. (1966), pp 50-58.
                                       14

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the lower, estuarine salinities are usually considered optimal for growth and defense
from predators. * Yet the record of the oyster industry in the United States consists
of a continuing series of disasters usually associated with man-made changes in the
estuaries.

The Pacific coast experience noted earlier has had variations in virtually every
prime oyster-growing area of the country with (1) a form of pollution fatal to the oysters,
(2) a level of pollution which has rendered the oyster unfit for consumption, (3) a loss
of adequate clutch material for the spatfall, both through dredging and silting, (4) pre-
dator increase, (5) disease, or (6), most commonly, some combination of these. Dur-
ing the nineteenth Century, Raritan Bay and Jamaica Bay in the New York area were
developed as major centers for oyster culture with the Hudson beds providing seed. **
As pollution drove oyster culture from these areas, the Connecticut shore of long Island
Sound became a primary source of seed oysters with the growing beds in Rhode Island,
Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New York.

This industry was ruined by the hurricane of 1950 when millions of dollars in oyster
beds and setting grounds were lost. Efforts to reestablish the industry in the same areas
have failed, partially because of predators, but also presumably because a combination
of estuarine change, such as dredging and filling, and intolerable levels of industrial and
domestic pollution. Commercial oyster operations in Rhode Island completely vanished,
almost ended in Massachusetts, and drastically declined in Connecticut and New York.
Even the Chesapeake Bay beds were reduced.

In the past 2 decades, increases of chemical pollutants appear to have decreased
the vigor and, in some cases, possibly eliminated oyster beds.*** For example, oysters
exposed to concentrations as low as 0.01 ppm of polychlorinated hydrocarbon insecti-
cides, or polychlors, quickly show physiological irritation, and decreased shell growth.
Furthermore, oysters exposed to concentrations of DDT as low as 0.0001 ppm can store
this chemical in tissues to a concentration of 7 ppm, a biological magnification of 70,000
times. Oysters can flush the pesticide from their bodies and resume normal growth
rates after 10 days in uncontaminated water while body residues are still greater than
than 100 ppm. While the implications for mortality are still not clear, oyster eggs have
*Gunter, "Some Relationships of Estuaries to the Fisheries of the Gulf of Mexico,"
p 629.
**David H. Wallace, "Oysters in the Estuarine Environment," A Symposium on
Estuarine Fisheries, American Fisheries Society Special Publication No. 3,
Washington, D.C. (1966).
***Philip A. Butler, "The Problem of Pesticides in Estuaries," A Symposium on
Estuarine Fisheries, American Fisheries Society Special Publication No. 3,
Washington, D.C. (1966).
15

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had concentrations as high as 25 ppm after the adults have been exposed to 1.0 ppm of
DDT for 12 days, and some experiments have shown 100 percent mortality for oyster
larvae within 6 days with an exposure on only 1.0 ppm DDT.*

Another aspect of the pollution problem, particularly in southern waters, is the
closing of oyster beds because of high coliform counts. In 1967, for instance, all beds
in Biloxi Bay, Mississippi, were closed to harvesting, and about 3,000 acres of beds
in Louisiana are estimated to be closed. ** In many cases, including the beds in parts
of Biloxi Bay, the oysters are thriving in their high nutrient environment. Oysters in
beds subject to pollution are even able to tolerate short periods of anaerobic conditions.

The future development of the oyster industry appears to be towards controlled
water conditions in ponds and aquaculture. Hatcheries are being established to produce
seed, and floats are being used to suspend oysters in layers to increase production per
cubic acre and to protect the oysters from bottom-dwelling predators, such as the drills
and starfish. Depuration plants are being devised to alloy oysters from polluted waters
to purge themselves of pathogenic organisms.
Estuarine Dependence of Other Species

Each of the other estuarine-dependent species represents a special ecological
situation. The striped bass (Roccus saxatilis), for instance, has shown remarkable
adaptive capabilities to completely fresh-water environments and to different geo-
graphical circumstances. ***. The greater biomass resulting from mild domestic pol-
lution may have enhanced the crop of adult bass. **** However, the fish remains
*Harry C. Davis, "Effects of Some Pesticides on Eggs and Larvae of Oysters
(Crassoscrea virginica) and Clams (Venus mercenaria)," Commercial Fisheries
Review, Vol. 23, No. 12 (1961), pp 8-23.
**T.A. Wastler, "Municipal and Industrial Wastes in the Estuaries of the South
Atlantic and Gulf Coasts,1f Proceedings of the Marsh and Estuary Management
Symposium July, 1967), p 115.
Also, see: T.G.Metcalf and W.C.Stiles, "Viral Pollution of Shellfish in Estuary
Waters," Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, No. 6063
(August, 1968), pp 595-609.
***Gerald B. Talbot, "Estuarine Environmental Requirements and Limiting Factors
for Striped Bass," A Symposium on Estuarine Fisheries, American Fisheries
Society Special Publication No. 3, Washington, D.C. (1966).
****R. j. Mansueti, "Effects of Civilization on Striped Bass and Other Estuarine
Biota in Chesapeake Bay and Tributaries," Proceedings of the Gulf Caribbean
Fisheries Institute, Fourteenth Annual Session (1961), pp 110-136.
16

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sensitive to serious pollution conditions, and it is particularly dependent upon stringent
spawning conditions, especially an unimpeded fresh-water current with certain velocity
constraints. Thus, river barriers can destroy the prerequisite conditions for propaga-
tion.

By contrast, the spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus) is consistently an estuarine
fish, preferring the brackish, nontidal bays such as can be found along the Gulf of
Mexico.* This fish can spend its entire life cycle in the estuary, and it possesses an
exceptional tolerance to salinity variations. Despite this adaptability, however, estua-
rine destruction or creation of barriers between shallow and deep waters will destroy
the necessary characteristics of its natural habitat.
FROM CONFLICT TO ACCOMMODATION

Typically, estuarine change alters the biomass as it effects particular species.
Urban development along the estuary will create conflicts as various important species
are effected. The conflict can be minimized by zoning, control, and accommodation.
The more pervasive of the industrial pollutants can be contained. Nutrients from sewage
can be regulated to prevent annihilation of the natural biota. Land reclamation with
relatively high social and economic justification can be permitted while more isolated
areas canb6 protected from dredging, draining, or spoil disposal. Some estuaries can
be preserve'd while detrimental changes can be balanced by improvement of other parts
of the estuarine waters.

An institutional framework is needed to facilitate this type of management. Vast
literature is available to document the failure of many existing institutional structures
in making reasonable judgments or in enforcing these judgments when made. ** Politi-
cal manipulations of control agencies, expressions of vested interests, impotent legal
structures and instruments, and a severe lack of understanding or appreciation of
simple ecology has taken an immense toll. With enlightened management providing a
period of adjustment by both the fish species and the commercial fishing industry, the
United States commercial fishermen should be capable of meeting both the challenges
and opportunities of the future.
*Durbin C. Tabb, "The Estuary as a Habitat for Spotted Seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus),"
A Symposium on Estuarine Fisheries, American Fisheries Society Special Publication
No. 3, Washington, D.C. (1966), pp 59-67.
**As examples, see: John Clark, Ibid., pp 27-70.
Charles Chapman, "Channelization and Spoiling in Gulf Coast and South Atlantic
Estuaries," Proceedings of the Marsh and Estuary Management Symposium (July,
1967), pp 93-106.
A.R. Marshall, "Dredging and Filling," Proceedings of the Marsh and Estuary
Management Symposium (July, 1967), pp 107-113.
Bob Eckhardt, "Death of Galveston Bay," Proceedings of the Thirty-third North
American Wildlife Conference (1968), pp 79-90.
17

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                 SIGNIFICANCE OF ESTUARIES FOR WILDLIFE
    Estuarine wildlife can be classified into four categories with differing economic
significance: (1) fur-bearing mammals, (2) game waterfowl,  (3) "exotic" shore birds,
and (4) the common wildlife that can tolerate human presence.
FUR PRODUCTION

    The fur-bearing mammals that are commercially trapped offer a clear indication
of economic value.  In the 1965-1966 trapping season, trappers in the coastal marshes
of the Gulf and Atlantic states sold about $5 million in fur and possibly another $1 mil-
lion in meat, primarily nutria. * Louisiana was the primary producer with about
1,257,400 nutria; 324,200 muskrat; 78,300 raccoons; 28,200 mink; and 3,600 otter
valued at approximately $4.6 million. Approximately $4 million of this can be attri-
buted to the 3. 5 million acres of coastal marsh.  The annual value of fur production is
highly unstable, varying as much as 50 percent from year to year.

    The primary fur bearers involved are the nutria (Myocastor coypus) in the south
Atlantic and Gulf states, the common eastern muskrat (Ondatra zebethicus) in New
Jersey, the Virginia muskrat (Ondatra z. macrondon) in the central Atlantic states,
and the Louisiana muskrat (Ondatra z. rivalicious) in Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana,
and Texas.  Secondary in importance are the raccoon (Procyon spp.), mink (Mustela
spp.),  and otter (Lutra spp.). Foxes (Vulpes and Urocyon), weasels (Mustela spp.),
opossum (Didelphis virginiana), and bobcats (Lynx spp.) are not sought for their furs
but may occasionally be trapped. **

    For economic levels of fur production, the marshes must be managed specifically
for the fur bearers.  For practical purposes, this means control of undesirable plants,
prevention of excessive populations and, in some cases, control of predators.  The
primary food plant is the threesquare (Scirpus olneyi) and,  to a lesser extent, the cat-
tails (Typha spp.).  Since these are sub-climax plants, they can be superseded by in-
vading needle rush (Juncus roemerianus), cordgrass  (Spartina patens), sawgrass
{Cladium jamaicense), and other undersirable plants. Hence,  the marshes are burned
annually, usually in the fall, and are subsequently flooded to eradicate the pest plants
and enhance growth of the threesquare.
 *Ted O'Neill,  "Comparative Takes of Fur Animals in the United States", Louisiana
  Department of Wildlife and Fisheries (1966).
**Kenneth A. Wilson, "Fur Production on Southeastern Coastal Marshes", Proceedings
  of the Marsh and Estuary Management Sumposium (July, 1967), p 150.
                                        18

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    Saline waters will destroy the marsh vegetation, particularly the threesquare and
cattails,  and one of the prime objectives of using dikes or other water control devices
is to help minimize the intrusion of salt water into the fresh or brackish water of the
producing marshes.  Thus, the marshes managed for fur production are not normally
available for other valuable aquatic species, especially shrimp and estuarine depen-
dent fish.  *
Threats to Fur Production

    Hurricanes and man-made intrusions upon the fur-producing marshes have most
seriously endangered fur-bearing animals and their habitat.  Between 1933 and 1936,
500,000 acres of marsh, mostly in New Jersey,  Delaware, and Maryland, were drained
for mosquito control. *  Some drained areas have returned to their original state,  but
this method of control has continued on a smaller scale in the coastal states,  though
alternatives such as marsh empoundments and fish stocking are equally effective in
controlling the  mosquito, while preserving wildlife habitat. **

    Construction for highways, canals, flood control, dredging for navigation channels,
and the other encroachments of physical development and urbanization are eliminating
or isolating significant areas of marsh.  Industrial activity, particularly in the
Delaware and New Jersey regions,  has polluted large areas, and pesticides are also
believed to be having a significant effect on fur-bearing mammals.

    While man's impact may be the most persistent and significant over an extended
time, no changes introduced by man can rival hurricanes for sheer,  sudden destruction
on a massive scale. Dikes  and levies are breached, and ditches are filled.  Marsh
areas that have been over-grazed are completely gouged out, and the surging storm
tides drown thousands of animals.  Vegetation that remains is scalded by the  salt
water.  The drastic decline in muskrat harvest since World War n appears to have
been precipitated by the 1947 hurricane.  This destruction was compounded by a series
of other hurricanes during the 1950's, and Betsy,  in 1965, succeeded in destroying
some of the rebuilt control works.
Economic Significance of Fur Production

     The harvesting of pelts from marsh animals is a small industry.  Trapping is
normally restricted to several months - 90 days in Louisiana - of the year and usually
  *C.  Cottam, W. S. Bourn,  F. C. Bishopp, L. L. Williams,  and W. Vogt, "What's
   Wrong With Mosquito Control?", Transactions of the North American Wildlife
   Conference. Vol 3 (1938), pp 81-98.
**Otto Florschutz, Quarterly Progress Report, Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration,
   North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission,  Raleigh, N. C., Vol 18 (1965),
   pp  8-26.
                                        19

-------
supplements income earned from other occupations.  Fur production does not appear to
be affected by man-made estuarine change because the fur-bearing marshes are managed
and because these mammals are particularly sensitive to changes in the ecology.
WATERFOWL

    The dependence of waterfowl on the estuarine zone is both complex and incom-
pletely understood. * The primary sport species,  such as the mallards and  canvasbacks,
have been successfully adapted to man-made changes in their environment, particularly
those changes not  affecting the nesting sites.  In some cases, the cpnstruction of
roads, drainage canals,  and other works have enhanced nesting  areas by stabilizing
water levels, providing flood-proof nesting sites and drought-proof rearing ponds.**
Furthermore, most species do not appear particularly dependent  on any aspect of the
estuarine  zone, being  able to use fresh water marshes, lakes,  and pond"  with equal
ease.  This ambivalence towards the estuarine zone has been sharply enhanced by the
extensive rice cultivation and cattle  farming in the Gulf area, enabling many species,
such as the white-fronted geese, to shift habitats from the  estuarine marshes. Other
species, such as the Canada geese and mallards, have demonstrated even more adapt-
ability, many remaining the entire winter in the fresh-water bodies of the  Midwest,
particularly in  Missouri and Illinois, or in the Midwestern corn and wheat zones.

    While the diving ducks have not  learned to feed on agricultural lands, they tend  to
migrate to deeper  salt-water  environments during the winter.  Even when found in
estuaries,  they do not appear to be sensitive to organic pollution.  Ruddies have been
reported feeding successfully on midge larvae (Chironomidae) in turbid, heavily pol-
luted zones of Chesapeake Bay. *** The long-term effects of this feeding environment
are not known.   A  more significant problem may be the  dependence of many sea ducks
upon small crustaceans, fish, and insects that are estuarine-dependent.

    In  summary,  while waterfowl are frequently observed in the  estuarine  areas, they
do not appear dependent upon specific estuarine  conditions. There are some exceptions,
such as the American brant, but research has not determined the relationship between
altered habitat  and declining numbers.
  *John J. Lynch, ''Values of the South Atlantic and Gulf Coast Marshes and Estuaries
   to Waterfowl", Proceedings of the Marsh and Estuary Management Symposium
   (July,  1967), pp 51-63.
 **Ibid.,  p61.
***Lynch, p 59.
                                       20

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THE "EXOTIC" SHORE AND SEA BIRDS

    Rarely having direct economic value except as a component of the natural ecosys-
tem, the "exotic" shore and sea birds are a particularly aesthetic attraction among
our national fauna.  These birds are generally more dependent upon estuarine conditions
than the more mobile waterfowl and, in addition, have demonstrated a considerably
greater sensitivity to the overall encroachment of man. The saga of the whooping
crane is well known and documented; the trials of several other groups, such as the
egrets,  have received periodic  publicity.  In  general, few of these exotic species are
now in danger of extinction. Respectable numbers can be maintained by wise planning
and reasonable provisions incorporated in the development of the estuarine  zones.*
Pelicans, Cormorants, Eagles, and Ospreys

    The larger fish-eaters of the United States coast appear among the most threatened
of the bird life by changing environmental conditions,  especially in the estuaries.  The
Department of Interior has officially listed the southern subspecies of the bald eagle
as an endangered species. **  The brown pelican has already disappeared from the Gulf
Coast of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, where it was a common sight
prior to 1960. Since this  disappearance coincided with the heavy fish kills of 1960-
1964 in the lower Mississippi River, which were caused by excessive residues of
pesticides, especially endrin, it was assumed that the dead and dying pelicans ob-
served during that period had accumulated lethal dosages.***  The assumption was
not verified however, and another theory used to explain the lack of  any resurgence
by the species was the destruction of nesting grounds in black mangroves by the
severe  cold.   (Ayicennia nitrica).

    Except for about 50 pairs of bald eagles nesting in the  Everglades National Park,
the population of bald eagles  has suffered a sharp decline in the past  3 decades.  In
the Chesapeake Bay area, nesting success has  dropped from over 50 to 15 percent.
About 70 percent of the southern subspecies nest in either marsh or estuarine areas,
and the general assumption is that they are also suffering from the dual pressures of
pesticide residues in the estuaries and more blatent inroads by man,  including
vandalism.****
   *Alexander Sprunt,  IV, "Values of the South Atlantic and Gulf Coast Marshes and
    Estuaries to Birds Other Than Waterfowl", Proceedings of the Marsh and Estuary
    Management Symposium (July, 1967), pp 64-72.
  **Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife,  Rare and Endangered Fish and Wildlife
    of the United States. Resources Publication No.  34, Washington, D.C. (1966).
 ***Donald I. Mount and George J. Putnicki, "Summary Report of the 1963 Mississippi
    Fish Kill",  Transactions of the Thirty-First North American Wildlife and Natural
    Resources Conference (1966), pp 177-184.
****Sprunt, p 68.
                                       21

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      Similar declines have been occurring in the populations of ospreys, though geo-
graphically the changes have not coincided with those of the eagles. Very little re-
search has been performed on the particular problems of the ospreys,  and a reason-
able understanding of the relationships between the osprey population and the environ-
ment has not been achieved.  Both birds depend upon the fish population of the estua-
rine areas,  including mullet and catfish.

The Waders

      The 80 species of waders, which include the egrets, storks, herons, ibis, and
spoonbills, are predominantly residents of the southern United States,  particularly in
Florida.  The recent drought in the Everglades has drastically reduced the number of
these species in Florida.  For some species, this represents a serious setback in
their gradual recovery from near extinction at the hands of the plume hunters.  Waders
elsewhere on the southern coast have also diminished in numbers, apparently because
of irresponsible shooting and man-made environmental changes.

Other Species

      Numerous species of marsh birds,  such as the rails and gallinules, are distrib-
uted throughout the marsh zones, but there is no evidence that they are estuarine-
dependent in a strict sense.  Shore birds, such as the golden plover, are a diverse
and mobile family that are  not dependent upon the estuary per se, though large-scale
mortalities have occurred under certain estuarine conditions, such as concentrated
pesticide pollution.  Many of the gulls, such as the laughing gull,  frequent the estu-
aries during the winter months.  Some, such as the gull-billed heron, utilize offshore
islands  for nesting and have been displaced when these islands have been developed.
As the marshes and underbrush of the estuaries are removed, still more families,
such as the blackbirds, grackles and seaside sparrows, will be affected.

COMMON WILDLIFE

      For many of the major cities in the United States, such as New York, Boston,
San Francisco, the estuaries represent the most striking expanses of open space with-
in the vista of the urban dweller. For example, the boundaries of municipal New York
enclose 320 square miles of land and 65 square miles of water  In every case, this
open expanse also harbors  innumerable wildlife forms that are increasingly counted
among a city's significant resources.  Within the past 2 decades,  urban dwellers have
shown an increasing interest in nature studies and the myriad facets of their immedi-
ate natural environment.  During the summer of 1960, the National Recreation Survey
indicated that about 98 million activity days had been occupied by  nature walks.  By
                                       22

-------
the summer of 1965, the nature walks had increased to 117 million activity days, a
rise of 19 percent over a period of 5 years. * The National Wildlife Federation
initiated the magazine National Wildlife in 1963 with 60, 000 circulation. By 1967.
circulation stood at 250,000. Within 10 years, membership in The Wilderness Society
rose from 9,JOOO to 36,000. Bird watching has become the subject of considerable
public amusement but also attracts dedicated devotees.

Many of the major cities have had studies published of their natural history,
John Kieran's Natural History of New York City being perhaps the best known. ** The
variety of estuarine wildlife that he describes is typical of the subjects sought by
amateur urban naturalists. If the water is sufficiently free of pollution, colonies of
sponges can be found on the bottom with other forms of submarine life including sea
anemones, jellyfish, ribbon worms, and numerous crustaceans. The latter could
include water fleas, copepods, barnacles, blue crabs, hermit crabs, calico crabs,
fiddler crabs, grass shrimp, and sand shrimp. As the tides recede, numerous shells
can be found, including those of the horseshoe crabs, whelks, snails, periwinkles,
and possibly 40 to 50 species of oysters, clams, scallops, mussels, and other bi-
valves. Starfish, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers are among the more picturesque
members of the estuary life. Thirty-one species of amphibians, including salaman-
ders, frogs, and toads, have been recorded in New York State, most of them fresh-
water species but a few being fouai in the brackish areas of the estuary. Occasionally,
the saddleback or harp seal (Phoca groenlandica) and the harbor seal (Phoca vitulina)
can be seen during the winter in the Lower Bay. Vegetation bordering the tidal flats
can harbor raccons, mink, weasels, skunks, and similar common mammals.

The richest variety of wildlife for a city located in an estuary is in the variety
of waterfowl, shore birds, and sea birds. On a tonnage basis, Kieran estimates that.
the approximately 50, 000 heron gulls typically found within New York City during
January would outweigh all the starlings and, possibly, the pigeons too. Other sea
birds would include the ring-billed gull, the great black-backed gull, the laughing gull,
the Bonaparte's gull, the glaucous gull, the Iceland gull, the black-legged Mttiwake,
the common tern, the reseate tern, Forster's tern, the Arctic tern, the least tern,
the black tern, the black skimmers, the gannet. In the early 1960's, the Department of
Parks established the Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge to provide nesting grounds for sea
birds as well as various marsh birds. Even a novice bird watcher can identify the
common loon, the red-throated loon, and the horned grebe in the offshore waters.
Canada geese occasionally nest within the city limits, and the brant has been returning
to New York City in increasing numbers with the resurgence of eelgrass growth in the
* Stuart T. Davey, "The Role of Wildlife in an Urban Environment", Transactions of
the Thirty-Second North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference
(March, 1967), pp 50-60.
See also: Forest W. Stearns, "Wildlife Habitat in Urban and Suburban Environment",
Transactions, pp 61-69.
Robert H. Twiss, "Wildlife in the Metropolitan Landscape", Transactions, pp 69-74.
** John Kieran, Natural History of New York City (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1959).
23

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estuary.  Only one duck, the black duck, can be found during the entire year, but
numerous species including the American widgeon, the mallard,  the gadwall, the
pintail, the blue-winged teal,  green-winged teal, shoveler,  greater scaup, lesser
scaup, redhead, canvasback,  goldeneye, bufflehead,  and old squaw, can be found in
Jamaica Bay during the fall, winter, and spring.  This list does not include the waders,
shore birds,  and marsh birds. Nor does it include the species of fish that the fisher-
men of the harbor bring from the water.

CONCLUSION

      As these discussions indicate, the principal value of estuarine wildlife lies with-
in the social  realm, and is not readily convertible into monetary terms.  It is in the
social province that the significant increases in value will appear as populations in-
crease and natural areas become more remote from the urban centers.  Concurrently,
the monetary value of estuarine uses conflicting with wildlife will rise, intensifying an
already-existing conflict.   But the nature of the wildlife generally appears sufficiently
adaptable that compromise and planning can both preserve the major wildlife populations
and serve the critical needs of our society.
                                        24

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         SIGNIFICANCE OF ESTUARIES FOR WATER TRANSPORTATION
                           AND NATIONAL DEFENSE

INVENTORY OF ESTAURINE PORTS
     The nation's estuaries provide the physical, social, and economic conditions re-
quired for an effective system of water terminals serving international trade and
costal shipping.  According to the Maritime Administration's "Listing of Existing
Capital Plant of Ports and Terminals", about 1,626 marine terminal facilities in 1966
were providing deepwater berths in 132 estuarine ports on the Atlantic,  Gulf, and
Pacific coasts, including Alaska and Hawaii. A far greater number of marine termi-
nals could accommodate vessels with a berthing requirement of less than 20 feet in
depth.

      In 1965,  the 132 estuarine ports handled 346,315,000 tons of foreign trade cargo,
which represented 78 percent of the total United States foreign trade, or 90 percent of
all coastal ports' foreign trade. The composition of estuarine port traffice in 1965
can be summarized as follows:

                  SELECTED ESTUARINE PORT TRAFFIC:  1965

                                  Million Tons

      Foreign Trade            Coastal            Local            Total,
         346.3                  332.1             288.2             966.6
      In terms of total number of vessels,  the port of New York carries the largest
volume by a significant margin (see Table  1).  For example, a total of 24, 580 arrivals
and departures were counted at the port of New York during 1964. *  Of these, 18,682
*U. S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
Wastes From Watercraft.  Report to the Congress, 90th Con.,  1st Ses., Senate Docu.
No. 48 (August, 1967), p 56.
                                       25

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carried dry cargo or passengers and were divided in registration between 6,625
American-flag and 12,057 foreign-flag watercraft. The remaining 5,098 vessels were
tankers, 3,153 being American-flag and 2,745 being foreign-flag.

No published data are available listing revenues from all coastal ports. However,
a report prepared by the Maritime Administration indicated that 77 coastal and 40
Great Lakes ports listed earnings (value added by transportation services) of about
$5. 6 billion in 1963 from the cargo passing through the water transportation system. *
Many ports calculate the direct revenue to the port community of a ton of general car-
go at about $16 to $20. Other types of cargo - petroleum, coal, ore, grain, etc. -
similarly produce direct but varying revenues, Applying these 1963 direct revenue
factors to the 132 estuarine port traffic estimates in 1965, a conservative dollar value
of cargo earnings would be approximately $4. 7 billion. In the city of New York, about
430,000 persons are believed to be employed in activities directly related to the port
operations, and their total salaries and wages are in the vicinity of $2.1 billion per
year. Assuming that ship arrivals and departures are a crude indicator of the order
of magnitude of port employment, the major ports listed in Table 1 probably account
for roughly $10 billion in salaries and wages each year for approximately 2 million
persons.

TABLE 1. ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES OF OCEANGOING WATERCRAFT
AT MAJOR PORTS OF THE UNITED STATES DURING 1964
Port
New York
Philadelphia
Hampton Roads
Baltimore
New Orleans
Los Angeles - Long Beach
San Francisco
Houston
Seattle
Boston
Portland, Oregon
Arrivals and Departures
(Combined)
24, 580
13,791
11,353
10,734
10,400
9,467
9,081
8,372
4,171
4,168
4,081
Number of Watercraft
(Estimated)
12,290
6,895
5,676
5,367
5,200
4,733
4,540
4,186
2,085
2,084
2,040
Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, FWPCA, Wastes from Watercraft.
* "The Economic Lnpace of Unites States Ocean Parts", Maritime Administration,
U. S. Department of Commerce, Government Printing Office, 1966
26

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ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF COMMERCIAL WATERCRAFT

      Despite the advantageous economic aspects of the nation's water transport
system, the system as it now operates has created several serious environmental
problems, particularly in the estuaries.  First, commercial transport vessels have
been shown to be significant contributors to estuarine pollution. * Commercial water-
craft are estimated to be responsible for about 39 percent of human waste loading from
watercraft in United States waterways, or the equivalent of approximately 200,000
residents compared to the equivalent of approximately 513, 000 persons in waterways
during 1967. ** While the total level of watercraft pollution rarely exceeds 5 percent
of the pollution found in an entire drainage basin, this part of the pollution is usually
concentrated in a relatively small dock area of a harbor or in restricted navigation
channels.  Typically,  the dock areas are in urban regions of exceptionally high popula-
tion density where human waste pollution is particularly objectionable.

      Besides human wastes, commercial watercraft are serious - if not the primary -
sources of polluted ballast and bilge water, waterways litter, and oil discharges into
navigable estuaries.  In some cases, such as the rock phosphate carriers docking at
Sacremento, California, or the floating crab  canneries in the harbor of Kodiak, Alas-
ka, commercial vessels can even be significant sources of industrial-type pollutants.

      A second, less manageable problem posed by commercial shipping is the phy-
sical alteration of the estuaries to service the transport system.  Bulkheads are con-
structed as docks, supplanting the shallow marshes sought by juvenile fish.  Naviga-
tional channels are dredged,  altering the salinities and currents, while the spoil banks
block access to the marshes.  Shore structures are raised for warehouses and mainte-
nance facilities, occupying prime recreational lands and altering the natural appear-
ance of the shoreline.  Integrated land transportation systems, including railroads
and highways,  are constructed, sending silt into the estuaries and blocking or  elimi-
nating marshes.  Even the location of industrial, commercial, and residential struc-
tures in port cities is affected by the presence of commercial shipping.

USE OF THE ESTUARIES FOR NATIONAL DEFENSE

      Estuaries and,  more specifically, ocean terminals  are unavoidably essential
elements in the national defense system.  Furthermore, the location of these deep-
water terminals has critically influenced the location of other defense installations as
well as the industrial complexes necessary for the logistical support in the defense
effort. Quantification of the Department of Defense's overall dependence on estuaries,
*For a comprehensive summary of the watercraft pollution situation, refer to: U. S.
 Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Wastes
 From Watercraft. Report to the Congress, 90th Con.,  1st Ses., Senate Docu. No. 48
 (August,  1967)
**Ibid., p 48.
                                        27

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however, is not easily derived, since most of the data available, such as fund expendi-
tures, employment statistics, and investment in real property, are aggregated on an
area or installation basis without special identification of estuary-related activities.

Employment data maintained by the Economic Studies Division, Office of the
Assistant Secretary of Defense (Systems Analyses), indicate that during 1966 about
1 million civilians and 1. 8 million military personnel were employed by the defense
establishment in installations located in coastal SMSA's (Standard Metropolitan Statis-
tical Areas). * Another 1. 6 million civilians were employed at defense plants in these
cities. California was the most affected, accounting for more than one-third of the
employment in each category.

Another indication of the Department of Navy's use of estuaries is the number of
ships in commission. This number has fluctuated between a high of 1, 030 in 1955 to a
low of 812 in 1960. For 1969, the number of ships expected to be in commission is
960. These vessels require extensive shoreside logistical support facilities as well
as berthing structures that will normally be located within or adjacent to the estuarine
system.

Another dimension of the Department of the Navy's involvement in estuaries is
the expenditures allocated for vessel construction, repair, and modernization. During
1968, these expenditures were expected to account for $1. 8 billion, with 34 major
ships involved. Since 1959, Navy shipyard employment has fluctuated between 80, 000
and 100, 000 persons. In 1965, the most recent figure available, the average payroll
per employee was $7,268, which indicates that the national payroll from all shipyards
with defense vessels may have been in the vicinity of $675 million in 1967. To this
should be added the funds allocated for Naval shipyard modernization, an effort that
cost $31 million in fiscal year 1968. In six of the nation's estuaries, reserve merchant
fleets are maintained. While not all of the vessels anchored in the fleet are maintained
on a regular basis, expenditures for preservation and cathodic protection plus over-
head costs were about $4,340 per maintained vessel. Thus, the reserve fleet required
an appropriation of $5.4 million for fiscal year 1968, with approximately $2.4 million
being spent for local personnel services.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF NATIONAL DEFENSE ACTIVITIES

In some respects, the effects of national defense efforts in the estuaries have
not differed significantly from those of commercial shipping. Very few of the approxi-
mately 700 U.S. Navy vessels operating in our territorial waters are equipped with
sewage treatment devices; and less than one-third of the 325 U. S. Coast Guard water-
craft operating entirely in United States waters have even rudimentary sewage treat-
ment facilities. ** None of the Maritime Administration's reserve fleet vessels
* Data provided by the Economic Studies Division, Assistant Secretary of Defense
(Systems Analyses).
** U. S. Department of the Interior, FWPCA, p 48.
28

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activated for service by the Military Sea Transport Service (MSTS) during the Viet Nam
war have any type of sewage treatment devices.  Thus, the National Defense vessels
(excluding MSTS vessels) account for about 28 percent of the human waste loading
placed in national waterways by watercraft, the equivalent of a resident population of
140,000 persons. Similarly, many of the shore facilities, particularly the urban
shipyards,  offer the same sterile appearance and indirect degradation of the estuaries.

      However, in a few cases, the coastal defense facilities, such as Fort Hancock
(Sandy Hook), New Jersey, and the John F, Kennedy Space Center (Cape Kennedy),
have preserved valuable estuarine  coastline from indiscriminate development. Even
here, though, the record is far from favorable, since some valuable Department of
Defense lands on estuaries have reverted to highly commercial and physically developed
uses incompatible with general or recreational activities.  One example would be the
acquisition of National Park lands in the Florida barrier islands  during World War n,
then the postwar allocation of coastal tracts to private developers.
                                       29

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SIGNIFICANCE OF ESTUARIES FOR LAND RECLAMATION
INTRODUCTION

A pattern of conflicting, often overlapping motivations has brought about the
filling of "reclaimed" estuarine wetlands. Wetlands have been filled with dredged
muds and trash from coastal cities. They have been drained for mosquito control and
have been used for salt evaporation beds and for agriculture. They have been sought
for water-oriented uses, such as commercial port facilities and recreational boating,
and land-oriented uses, such as housing, industrial sites, roadways, and airports.
Historically, land-use patterns on the former wetlands have been determined by the
value of adjacent land, development costs, and the market price of the wetlands to a
potential developer. Qualitative factors, such as the aesthetic quality of the land and
water, are now receiving more consideration by agencies responsible for estuarine
management.

QUANTITY OF FILLED ESTUARINE WETLANDS

According to a 1958 survey by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, estu-
aries of the United States encompassed 26.6 million acres of water, both shallow and
deep (see Table 2). In 1967, another brief survey indicated that only 7.7 million
acres of this entire area could be considered prime estuarine habitat for wildlife,
including aquatic species. Unfortunately, this is primarily the shallow areas and is
thus most easily filled for development purposes. Approximately 7 percent of these
habitat wetlands have already been filled within the past 20 years; in some urbanized
areas, the proportion is considerably higher. About 45 percent of the basic habitat
loss occurred in California, where 243 square miles of wetlands had been filled by
1957 in San Francisco Bay.

The New York metropolitan area and the Florida peninsula were other areas of
particularly rapid filling. Around Long Island, for example, 12,635 acres of wetlands
out of a total of 43,215 available in 1954 had been filled by 1964.

USES OF FILLED LAND

The uses of filled estuarine lands are integrated with the uses of adjacent shore-
line. Where the shoreline property is residential, filled land will probably serve as
residential or recreational uses. Harbor facilities on the shore are often extended,
and filled lands adjoining commercial areas will carry either a transportation corridor
or additional commercial property. On Long Island, primarily a residential area,
34 percent of the filled land has been for residential development, while in San
Francisco Bay, filled lands have generally been for recreation, salt evaporation
ponds, agriculture, and transportation. In Florida, approximately 60, 000 acres
have been filled for residential development, while land fill in Texas and Louisiana

-------
has generally been undeveloped spoil areas from navigation channels.  In Galveston
Bay alone, approximately 67,000 acres of marsh - about 16 percent of the total marsh-
land - have been either dredged or filled (see Table 3 for examples of uses made of
filled wetlands).

      In the 1956 wetlands inventory, estuarine wetlands were rated on the basis of the
threat of filling.  About 4. 8 million acres of shallow wetlands, or 18 percent of the
total estuarine area and 62 percent of the important habitat area, were considered in
this category.  The wetlands  study in Long Island during 1963 placed 79 percent of the
island's shallow coastal wetlands in this category.

SOURCES OF FILL

      Disposal of spoil from navigation channels is the most common reason wetlands
have been filled.  Even in the highly populated Northeastern area the necessity of dis-
posing of the dredged spoil has been listed as the major reason for filling land (see
Table 3).   Ultimately, the Army Corps of Engineers is responsible for the maintenance
of the nation's navigation channels and harbors and,  in most cases, the work is con-
ducted under its direct supervision and financing.  During Fiscal Year 1968, the
estimated budget for this phase of its operations was $83. 0 million,  and the Corps'
budgetary request for 1969 was $74.2 million.  Approximately one-half, or $36. 0 mil-
lion,  was for projects in coastal areas.  While considerable dredging is contracted,
the Corps is believed to own over one-third of the nation's dredging capacity.

DISPOSAL PRACTICES

      Dredging-conducted by the Corps of Engineers is usually at the request of local
interests who provide areas for the disposal of the spoil or approve the Corps' selected
site.  Since the Federal government does not recover any of its  cost by direct use of
dredged material, the Corps is motivated to find a site that is close  to the dredge area
and requires a minimum of preparation.

OVERBOARD DISPOSAL

      When discarded directly from the dredge, spoil may be pumped considerable dis-
tances to a deep-water site or it may be distributed on adjacent  shallow areas.
Pumping to adjacent shallows is less expensive but the deposits  are then susceptible
to resuspension by wind-wave energy.  During the period of compaction, the spoil
material may tend to drift into the deeper waters again,  thus requiring further
dredging.  In addition,  spoil  deposited in the shallow areas destroys the flora and
less mobile bottom fauna.

      Deep-water spoil disposal is less destructive, since the flora is less  dense and
the fauna species tend to be more mobile.  If a deep canyon is chosen for deposition,
it can act as a natural container and reduce the spread of the spoil material.  Also,
wave action is reduced at the greater depths and will affect the spoil less.   Whichever
alternative is chosen, it normally becomes controversial.  The spoil from the
Baltimore Harbor maintenance project is deposited in a canyon near Kent Isalnd.  The
                                        31

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Bay was less productive and had also been the most altered by filling.  However, the
filling was associated with higher pollution levels and it was not possible to separate
the two  effects.

      In Chesapeake Bay,  the high land values on the western shore have forced the
Army Corps of Engineers to decrease on-shore dumping of spoil and to increase over-
board disposal.  The Corps has attempted to show that overboard disposal spoil from
the Chesapeake-Delaware Canal project will not harm nursery areas in the upper bay.
Their conclusions were based on the timely phasing of dredging to avoid the spawning
season.  Biologists hired by the State of Maryland disagreed with the Corps' conclu-
sions.  An alternative dumping site on federal property at Aberdeen Proving Grounds
was suggested.  This location would increase the project's coast by $33 million and
delay its completion by 1 year according to the Engineers.

      A recent study of spoil disposal practices has been conducted in the Chesapeake
Bay by the Natural Resourses Institute,  University of Maryland.  An interim report
indicated that the sediments spread over an area at least five times as large as the
designated disposal area.  The nutrient  chemical outflow was equivalent to the sewage
from a town of about 10, 000 persons. No gross effects were observed on the micro-
scopic plants and animals in the water,  on the eggs and larvae of fish, nor on adult
fish held in cages near the outflow and caught in the area. Some bottom animals were
smothered over a wide area,  other species survived deposition,  and certain species
begin repopulation immediately.
Concentrated Spoil Deposits
      Spoil has been carried considerable distances to be dumped on wetlands, in a
bank adjacent to the dredged channel, and in offshore islands.  The dumping of the
material in bars adjacent to the dredged channel is more common in less populated
areas and represents the principal means of disposal when channels are dredged for
access to offshore drilling rigs in the Gulf of Mexico.  This practice often cuts off
large sections of the estuary from swimming species, and the stagnant pools remain-
ing behind the bars have little biological value.   Furthermore, since the bottom muds
in many waterways are polluted, they create unpleasant odors and are aesthetically
unattractive when deposited in bars or islands.   On some occasions, though, the Corps
and others have claimed that these bars may serve as locations for oyster beds and
nutrient-rich areas for other forms of wildlife.

      In the Chesapeake Bay estuary, spoil has been deposited in islands to serve as
wildlife sanctuaries.  A harbor channel project now under consideration includes plans
for dumping material in a spoil island to be developed for recreation.  One island in
the northern part of the bay already has been developed in this manner, and a third is
being proposed south of Havre de Grace.
                                      32

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oyster industry is currently opposed to any extension of the spoil area southward in
the canyon because of possible damage to oyster beds. The Corps, however, claims
that the nutrient enrichment will beneficially affect the area's wildlife. The present
spoil site is known as an excellent sport fishing area.

Effects of Overboard Disposal on Wildlife

Dredged material pumped overboard increases the silt level and turbidity in the
water. Normally, the silt level will be determined by water turbulence, direction and
velocity of coastal currents, and the rate of soil erosion from higher surrounding ele-
vations. Thus, overboard disposal has to be evaluated in terms of the natural level of
silt already existing in the water.

The effects of dredging on oysters was studied in shallow bays of Louisiana by
John G. Mackin of the Texas A. & M. University under a grant from four large petro-
leum companies. Three dredging operations were examined: a hydraulic dredge
depositing on a spoil island, a clam dredge operating in a canal, and a hydraulic dredge
depositing in a half-fan circle. The results showed that the silt stirred up by the
dredge was carried a maximum of 1,300 feet with rapid dispersal by dilution and
sedimentation. A maximum of 1 percent of the material was observed to be drifting
away from the immediate site of deposition. Turbidities beyond a few hundred feet did
not exceed the natural levels, and no harmful effects were observed on the oyster beds.
He concluded that oxygen depletion with dredging in Louisiana marshes was a relative-
ly minor factor and was not responsible for fauna and flora mortality.

A study of sediment dispersal around a "spoil island" in Redfish Bay near
Aransas Pass, Texas, was conducted by T. R. Hellier, Jr. and L. S. Kornicker, In-
stitute of Marine Science, University of Texas. Their purpose was to determine the
effect of dredging on marine life, and examinations of conditions before and after sedi-
ment deposition in the bay showed that erosion from the "spoil island" was completely
deposited less than 1 mile from the spoil bank. Beyond 0. 5 miles, siltation had little
effect on the existing biota.

Heavy covers of loose and watery anaerobic muds have been observed near
dredged areas. These muds can be tolerated by only a few forms of animal life and
serious ecological effects can be caused by their deposition. When the Julia Tuttle
Causeway was built in the early 1950's in Biscayne Bay, Florida, the bottom vegetation
consisting of algae and sea grasses was eliminated over an area more than 1 /2 mile
from the causeway site. At Hillsborough Bay, Florida, an improperly diked fill site
spread muds over 250-300 acres of adjacent bay bottoms in 1966. Vegetation was com-
pletely destroyed, and a bird sanctuary enveloped by the muds was abandoned by most
of the population of American egrets, brown peltsans, cormorants, and wood ibises.

One of the conservationist's most difficult tasks is to persuasively estimate the
quantitative results of a particular dredge-and-fill proposal. Only a few steps have
been taken to obtain the data necessary for such predictions. One study conducted by
Sykes and Finucane examined the overall effect of bay alteration on a large number of
species of juvenile fin fish and shellfish. Comparing Old Tampa Bay with Hillsbouough
33

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EXAMPLES OF INTENSIVE SPOIL SITE DEVELOPMENT
Industrial development has been a favored use for spoil sites for decades.
Since the early part of this century, dredged spoil in the port of Portland, Oregon, has
been used to develop industrial sites, an airport, and shipbuilding facilities. Similar
projects have developed on Long Island, in New Jersey, and along the shores of
Manhattan.

Estuaries have been particularly favored for airports, partially because filled
wetlands were easily accessible from the core city and partially because approaches
over water minimized the noise nuisance. Both factors appear destined to intensity in
the next decade. Little immediate success is promised for quieter jet aircraft, and
the cost of vast acreages of land within convenient access to the major cities continues
to rise. Three West Coast cities, San Diego, Seattle, and Los Angeles, are presently
considering Pacific Ocean locations for landing fields. Chicago continues to look to-
wards Lake Michigan, and Boston periodically revives a plan for a new offshore jetport.
Studies to determine the effects of high noise levels on the estuarine ecology, however,
have not been performed.
THE PROBLEM OF EVALUATING WETLAND WORTH
The market value of filled wetlands depends upon (1) the value of lands in the im-
mediate vicinity and (2) the quality of the land which is created by the fill material.
Since both factors vary from site to site, no general conclusions about price levels can
be drawn. However, for various reasons, some users are normally excluded by the
mechanisms of this market. Organizations of oyster fishermen, for instance, have
rarely attempted to purchase rich oyster beds in order to protect their incomes;
organized commercial fishermen have not tried to purchase coastal wetlands to pre-
serve nursery and feeding areas. One reason for this lack of land-market participa-
tion by commercial users is that no way exists to prevent outsiders from benefiting
from the preserved lands; that is, there is no way for the landowners to control the
benefit stream from their capital investment. A second factor preventing some users
from participating in the wetland market is the low profit margin on the products they
market. No single producer can normally afford to pay the high capital costs repre-
sented by wetland purchases and still remain competitive. Another problem is simply
knowledge and education, since few oystermen and, to a lesser extent, fishermen gene-
rally have the understanding and training necessary to increase the financial complex-
ity of their operation.

Since rigorous tools have not been developed for determining the dollar value of
undeveloped estuary lands, natural value is being decided by political action. Among
the groups attempting to inform the political establishment of the value of these lands
to their natural users are the Natural Conservancy, the Izaak Walton League, the
National Wildlife Foundation, the Sport Fishing Institute, the Wildlife Management
34

-------
Institute, the American Fisheries Society, the American Littoral Society, and the many
local chapters of the Audubon Society.  The Natural Conservancy, in particular, has
taken positive action by purchasing valuable estuarine habitat for public use.
COSTS OF DEVELOPING WETLANDS


      The costs of filling wetlands for development vary considerably depending on the
following:

      (I)  Quantity and quality of fill required

      (2)  Distance which fill must be transported

      (3)  Nature of the structures which the land is being designed to support
      (4)  Local labor and equipment costs.

      A survey of ten fill projects in San Francisco Bay from 1938 to 1958 indicated an
average cost of $8,300 per acre (unadjusted price levels).  The California State Divi-
sion of Water Resources in 1955 estimated costs of reclaiming San Francisco Bay wet-
lands at from $22,000 to $27,000 per acre.  In many cases, however, fill can be ob-
tained without costs to the owner of the land simply by opening the area to excavators,
dredge operators,  and even sanitary land-fill operators.


CONCLUSION
      Conflicts are continuing to emerge in estuarine management partially because
(1) convenient tools of benefit and cost analysis are lacking and (2) a diverse array of
commercial and recreational users benefit from the areas.  Many persons are them-
selves multiple users, including the fishermen who steers through a dredged channel
to reach productive fishing areas or the land developer who depends on the aesthetic
characteristics of the bay to maintain the value of his newly filled land.  These multi-
ple users will continue to complicate the decision-making problems df politically
responsive groups who are trying to deal with the conflict situations arising over use
of estuaries.
                                       35

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TABLE 2.  FISH AND WILD LIFE ESTUARINE HABITAT LOST IN PAST 20 YEARS


State


Alabama
Alaska
California
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan**)
Mississippi
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
New York
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
Texas
Virginia
Washington
Wisconsin (a)
Total
Total 0»
Acres of Estuaries

Total
Area

530, 000
11,022,800
552, 100
31,600
395, 500
1,051,200
170, 800
3,545,100
39,400
1,406,100
207,000
151,700
251,200
12,400
778,400
376,600
48, 900
2,206,600
37,200
57,600
5,000
94, 700
427,900
1,344,000
1,670,000
193, 800
10,600
26,618,200
26,369,800
Basic Area
of
Improtant
Habitat
132,800
573, 800
381,900
20,300
152,400
796,200
125,000
2, 076,900
15,300
376,300
31,000
151,700
76,300
10,000
411,300
132, 500
48, 900
793,7,00
37,200
20,200
5,000
14,700
269, 400
328,100
428,100
95, 500
10,600
7,938,100
7,689,700
Area of Basic
Habitat Lost
by Dredging
and Filling
2,000
1,100
255,800
2,100
8,500
59,700
800
65, 400
1,000
1,000
2,000
3,500
1,700
1,000
53,900
19, 800
600
8,000
100
700
100
900
4,300
68,100
2,400
4,300
0
568,300
564, 100
Percent
Loss
of
Habitat
1.5
.2
67.0
10.3
5.6
7.5
.6
3.1
6.5
.3
6.5
2.3
2.2
10.0
13.1
15.0
1.2
1.0
3
3.5
2.0
6.1
1.6
8.2
.6
4.5
0
7.1
7.3
Source: U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service tabulation, p 46, hearing on estuarine areas,
House Merchant Marine and Fisheries subcommittee on fisheries and wildlife
consdervation, March 6, 8, 9, 1967.
(a) In the Great Lakes, only shoals (areas less than 6 feet deep) were considered
as estuaries.
(b) Great Lakes shoals omitted.
                                36

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TABLE 3. USE OF FILLED WETLANDS: THREE EXAMPLES
Use
Acres
Long Island (1964)(a)
Housing
Miscellaneous fill'")
Recreation
Industry
Marinas, docks, channels
Airports
Bridges, roads, parking
Waste disposal
Schools
Agriculture
Drainage
Total
4,357
2,505
2,094
1,634
732
479
414
177
108
96
39
12,635
Percent

34
30
17
13
6
4
3
1
1
1
—
loo"
San Francisco Bay Area (1957)(b)
Residential and commercial
Recreation
Industrial
Transportation
Dumps and vacant lands
Agriculture
Salt ponds
Military and other reserved lands
Total
6,080
41,856
7,488
11,200
4,480
36,096
38,464
9,728
155, 392
4
27
5
7
3
23
25
6
100
Maine to Delaware (1955-64)(c)
Ujfedged spoil
Housing
Recreation
Transportation
Industrial
Dumps
Other
Total
15,300
12,150
6,750
4,500
3,150
2,700
450
45,000
34
27
15
10
7
6
1
Too
(a) Source: U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife,
Supplementary Report on the Coastal Wet lands Jftventory of Long Island,
New York (Boston, Mass. : June, 1965), p 9.
(b) Source: U.S. Department of Commerce for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Future Development of the San Francisco Bay Area, 1960-2020, p 81.
(c) Source: John Clark, Fish and Man: Conflict in the Atlantic Estuary, Special
Publication No. 5 (Highlands, N.J.: Amer few* tt&?ral Society, 1967).
(d) This term was used when ultimate use of the filled area was unknown.
_^ _j
                        37

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          SIGNIFICANCE OF ESTUARIES FOR EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRIES


INTRODUCTION


      Woefully inadequate data place a severe limitation on comprehensively des-
cribing either the location or scale of extractive operations in the estaurine zone.
Often extractive activities are identified as being "offshore" or simply on the con-
tinental shelf. In no significant cases do the primary reference sources for the ex-
tractive industries explicitely relate production statistics with the" estuarine environ-
ment.  Nevertheless, the existing extractive operations in estuaries can be divided
into three general groups according to the source of the material:

      (1)  Below the estuarine floor, e.g.,  sulfur and petroleum

      (2)  Directly from the estuarine floor, e. g., sand and gravel

      (3)  Directly from the water, e. g., magnesium compounds.

Each group of operations poses a particular problem for future management of
estuarine areas.


MINING OF MATERIALS BELOW ESTUARINE FLOORS


Petroleum

      Only a small fraction of the total United States drilling for petroleum is occuring
in the estuarine  zones, and this fraction is principally concentrated in four states:
Louisiana, Texas, California, and Alaska.  Gradually, though, operations  are being
extended to the eastern Gulf of Mexico and north along the Pacific Coast  Even when
offshore operations are not located in the estuaries, drifitng pollutants from deeper
waters, spillage from pipelines and tankers, and the physical modifications required
for service traffic exert an influence upon the ecology and quality of the estuaries.

      As the discovery of new inland fields has declined, offshore activity has steadily
gained.  By 1966, offshore areas were producing about 15 percent of the free world's
petroleum supply,  compared to 8 percent 4 years earlier. *  By 1968, an estimated
*  Frank N. Beard,  "Offshore Petroleum Recovery - Status and Outlook", Supplement;
   Transactions of the Second Annual MPS Conference and Exhibit. Marine Technology
   Society (June 27-29, 1966).
                                      38

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$7. 5 billion had been spent on free-world offshore exploration and development, and
the annual rate of expenditures was believed to be about $2 billion annually.   Less
than half of the total investment is believed to have been recovered, and a represen-
tative of Shell Oil Company predicted for example that the monetary return in
Louisiana would not pay out the investment in offshore operations for  12 to 15 years. *

      Because drilling and operational costs are partially dependent upon both the ac-
cess from shore installations and the drilling depth,  the desirability of  estuarine
wells versus deep-water operations is obvious.  Yet both types pose environmental
problems.  All offshore petroleum operations can be considered in four phases: ex-
ploration, drilling, production, and transportation.
Petroleum Exploration.  The basic concept of most petroleum exploration is to iden-
tify promising underground rock structures by analyzing reflections of man-made
shock waves.  Three techniques are currently being used to produce the initial seismic
energy: electronic sparkers, gas exploders,  and conventional seismic explosions.
The first two techniques  are relatively inexpensive, convenient means, that do not
have significant interaction with local biota.   Where greatest penetration by a shock
wave is required,  though, seismic explosions -  usually the electrical detonation of an
explosive  charge - are used extensively.  Unfortunately, those explosive materials
with the most desirable shock characteristics are also those producing the greatest
interaction with the immediate environment.  For instance, fish life appears to emerge
unscathed from explosions of black powder,  since this material burns relatively slowly,
with a comparably slow build-up in pressure. On the other hand, the seismographic
record from black powder lacks a distinct, sharp shock wave.  Furthermore, this
material is considered too expensive  and dangerous for crews. Normally, blasting
agents,  particularly the nitro-carbonitrates, have been favored. **

     When petroleum exploration using nitro-carbonitrate was proposed in California,
the Scripps Institute of Oceanography conducted  a series of tests to evaluate the possi-
ble effects on local biota. ***  Two test species with air bladders, pilchard and
anchovies, were placed in wire cages at varying distances from the test explosion.
The Scripps report concluded:
  * "Louisiana's Future Pegged to Offshore", The Oil and Gas Journal (June 19, 1967),
   p 73.
 **Robert L. Rulifson and Robert W. Schoning,  Geophysical Offshore Oil Explorations
   and Associated Fishery Problems.  Investigational Report No. 1, Fish Commission
   of Oregon (Portland: April,  1963).
***C. L.  Hubbs, E. Pater son Schultz,  and Robert Wisner, Preliminary Report on
   Investigations of the Effects on Caged Fishes of Underwater Nitro-Carbonitrate
   Explosions, unpublished manuscript of the University of California,  Scripps Insti-
   tute of Technology (1960).
                                       39

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          In the horizontal direction, out through the upper mixed layer
          of the ocean,  the probable lethal range seems to be about 150
          feet for five-pound charges, about 350 feet for ten-pound charges,
          and about 500 feet for twenty-five-pound charges.  Vertically below
          the shot these limits would seem to be between 100 and 150 feet
          for five-pound charges,  between 150 and 200 feet for ten-pound
          charges, and between 200 and 250 feet for twenty-five-pound
          charges.

      Other tests have indicated that, even with an 800-pound dynamite charge, few
fish are killed beyond a distance of 200 feet. *  In general, though, results varied
according to the local topography and the species of sea life involved.  Extensive fish
kills resulted from detonations of dynamite in a submarine canyon,  suggesting that
the refelction of shock waves from the sides of a deep estuary could have a similarly
damaging effect. ** However, fish without air bladders - including the halibut and
soles - were not usually killed or injured unless they were exceptionally close to the
explosion.  Also, fish with cylindrical body shapes appeared less vulnerable because
of equalization of pressure on  all sides of the body.

      Evaluation of the effects caused by explosions on other sea life, such as plankton,
crustaceans, and shellfish, have proved difficult to perform, and relatively little data
exist.  However, because of the incompressible  fluid within these organisms,  most
appeared to be unharmed visibly even when collected from the immediate area of an ex-
plosion.  Other tests on king crab eggs and fish eggs have similarly indicated minimal
apparent damage.  Some minor pollution can be caused by the absorption of the explo-
sive's gases, which, in the case of nitro-carbonitrate, include  carbon monoxide,
nitrous oxide, and nitric oxide.  Because of the tremendous and rapid dilution, though,
this is not considered significant by biologists.

      There has been an attempt to evaluate from observations the claims that seismic
explosions frighten fish and thus reduce the catches.  While evidence is inconclusive,
there are indications that the opposite may occur.  Tuna fishermen have reported ex-
ceptionally successful catches during periods of seismic blasting, and California bio-
logists have described catching salmon with commercial trawling almost immediately
 *J.N. Gowanlock, "The Effects of Underwater Seismographic Exploration",
  Proceedings of the Gulf and Caribbean Fishery Institute, Second Annual Session
  (1950), pp 105-106.
**C.L. Hubbs and A. B. Rechnitzer, "Report on Experiments Designed to Determine
  Effects of Underwater Explosives on Fish Life", California Fish and Game. Vol.
  38, No. 3 (1952), pp 333-366.
                                       40

-------
after a series of explosions. * During 1962, an otter trawl tow was made off the
Columbia River with a total catch of 1,100 pounds.  A series of seven seismic shots
were then set off in the same area and,  within 2 hours after the first two shots,  a
second tow was performed with a yield of 800 pounds.  The difference in total weight
of species composition was not significant.  Frequently, a slight increase in the fish
population may occur because of fish arriving to feed on those previously killed.
Also, an explosion apparently creates a disturbance that is attractive to certain fish
species.
Petroleum Drilling.  Three aspects of the drilling process represent threats to the
estuarine environment.  First, materials are removed from the drill hole and de-
posited on the sea bed.  Usually these are simply pulverized rock particles from
underlying strata and are no more harmful than normal silting from, for instance,
dredging operations.  Second, drilling muds used for lubrication and maintaining
pressure  in the hold contain potentially detrimental chemicals.  For instance,  the
barium element found in the muds has sterilized topsoil in experiments on land,
though no published studies examine the possible extent of environmental change on
the sea bottom.  But, compared to the typical areas in an estuary, the quantities of
material involved are minute, and the cost of the muds provides an incentive for
conserving them.  Usually they are captured, cleansed,  and recirculated.

      The third type of environmental threat is the possible rupture of the  well pres-
sure, producing a wild well.  In the restricted area of an estuary,  such an accident
could be disastrous for both local flora and fauna.  These occurences, however,  are
highly infrequent and are being further  reduced by technological advances.  Since the
lives of drill operators are endangered and potential losses are high, avoidance of
these incidents has a high priority in petroleum operations.
Petroleum Production.  After drilling has ceased, the danger remains of damage
to the well and resulting pollution of the surrounding area with oil or natural gas,  or
even fire.  All offshore wells, however, are required to be equipped with a storm
choke which reduces the possibility of damage by a severe storm to minimal levels.
During Hurrican Betsy, one well in the Gulf of Mexico did rupture below the choke but
reportedly was brought under control within hours after the storm.

      Increasingly, one of the severest problems in oil production along the densely
populated coastline is the  visual appearance of drilling or production rigs.  The
aesthetic aspects of oil equipment,  such as platforms, tanks, and rigs, are criticized
by recreationists and residents as intrusions upon the natural panorama.  In parts of
California, particularly Santa Barbara County, shielding structure and artificial
*W. J. Baldwin, "Underwater Explosions Not Harmful to Salmon", California Fish and
 Game. Vol. 40, No. 1 (1954), p 77.
                                      41

-------
islands for petroleum operations have been required as one aspect of measures to pre-
serve that region's natural appearance. *  With the perfection of underwater flow-con-
trol systems and maintenance equipment,  the submergence of the entire production
operation is becoming increasingly feasible.  Another technique being used at estuaries
is the slanted well, with drilling operations based on land where structures can be
more easily disguised.

      One unique problem that can occur in an estuary is the pollution of the estuary's
brackish waters with the highly saline bleed waters from a well.  If uncontrolled, in-
trusion of this saline water can severely burn vegetation and upset the delicate salinity
balances with possibly long-term effects.  This condition, of course, can be controlled
by transporting the saline solution to ocean areas where dilution can occur without
detriment to  the ecology.
Petroleum Transportation.  Spillage during some phase of the transportation process
remains the most common form of environmental pollution from petroleum operations.
Pollution from tankers cleaning their tanks has been nationally publicized and studied
intensely.  Similarly, the petroleum leaking from damaged barges or other vessels
during transit is considered with varying results by national legislation,  and further
legal action to control this problem appears inevitable.  Potential damage from a rup-
tured pipeline is relatively minimal, because the drop in line pressure would be regis-
tered immediately on instruments at pumping installations where the line could be
closed.

     More difficult to control are the physical modifications being made in the es-
tuaries to facilitate transportation, such as docks, pipelines,  navigational channels
and similar measures.  Vast changes can be made in the estuarine ecology by actions
that alter currents, salinities,  silt covers, temperatures, and other underwater
parameters. ** The relationship between oil operations and physical change of the
estuaries can be best illustrated by recent developments in southern Louisiana and
Texas.  In the Northeast, spoil from dredging is already considered the predominant
cause of 4oss in estuarine marsh area. ***
  * "Steps to Guard Beauty Will Cost Producers in California",  The Oil and Gas Journal
   (April 10,  1967), pp 56-57.
 **See Appendix B, Economic Value of Commercial Fishing, for a more thorough
1   description of biological effects brought by estuarine change.
***John Clark, Fish and Man;  Conflict in the Atlantic Estuaries. Special Publication
   No.  5  (Highlands,  N. J.: American Littoral Society, 1967), p 12.
                                      42

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Indirect Effects of Petroleum Extraction

As indicated in the previous paragraph, the indirect effects of petroleum extrac-
tion in terms of associated industrial and economic development can be more devastat-
ing to the natural condition of the estuaries than the actual recovery of the oil or
natural gas. Processing plants tend to crowd the shoreline, as was sharply publicized
during the 1968 elections when Santa Barbara, California, residents overturned an
earlier zoning decision to allow a refinery to be constructed on a waterside site.
Secondary industries, particularly the petrochemical plants, tend to emerge in response
to the presence of raw materials. As markets expand, a vast array of supporting
and servicing industries appear with the predictable increase in population, appropri-
ation of estuarine area, widespread expansion of both industrial and domestic pollution,
and, in general, partial destruction of the natural environment. However, these costs
are offset in varying degrees by the economic benefits associated with those industries.
Sulfur

Only two sulfur mines are actually situated offshore, both being in the coastal
zone of southern Louisiana. Freeport Sulphur's Grand Isle mine has been producing
more than 1 million tons per year continuously since it opened in April, 1960. In 1968,
a second mine 7 miles away began operation. However, at least three other land-based
mines in Louisiana are adjacent to estuaries, and the Frash process of sulfur mining
poses a potential pollution problem comparable to that of bleed water from petroleum
operations.

Basically, tfie Frasch process consists of using superheated water to melt the
sulfur, which then flows to the surface through the wall pipe. To prevent a buildup of
hydrostatic pressures, bleeder wells are drilled about the periphery of the deposit and
the effluents are ejected. * If proper precautions are taken to thoroughly mix this
saline effluent with seawater, no significant threat to local biota appears to occur.

As in the case of petroleum operations, probably the most drastic changes in the
estuarine zone associated with sulfur mining is not in the mine's direct pollution, which
can be successfully contained, but in the indirectly caused estuarine changes necessi-
tated by supporting facilities. Pipelines, barge traffic, and the continual passage of
workers require considerable intrusion and, in some cases, modification in the es-
taurine zone.

*Paul D. Bybee and Frederick G. Deiler, Disposal of Sulfur Mine Effluents - How
Freeport Sulfur Solved Its Effluent Problems, a paper presented at the Joint Meeting
of 1he AIME (September, 1959).
43

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MINING  OF MATERIALS DIRECTLY FROM ESTUARY FLOOR

Sand and Gravel

      Production of sand and gravel from offshore deposits is not separately reported
by the Bureau of Mines.  In 1967, the total output of sand and gravel in the United
States was about 905 million tons with a value of $963 million.   Though the Northeast
coastal area has ample offshore deposits of sand and gravel due to glacial transport
and rapid streams, probably no more than 2 or 3 percent of the United States total
production is derived from the estuarine zones.  Recent surveys that have identified
previously unknown deposits in the Northeast may alter the situation slightly, but each
deposit will have to be evaluated by a complex balancing of cost factors.

      On one hand, land operations generally require  considerably lower investments
in equipment and are  more reliable, being less dependent upon weather conditions and
more shielded from public observation.   However, transportation costs for sand and
gravel frequently exceed the value of the product  as mined.  Therefore, a premium
exists for deposits that are readily accessible to large urban centers.  Since estuarine
and other offshore deposits can utilize barges for transport, costs in congested areas
can be considerably reduced.  One of the most prominent sand and gravel operations is
at Oyster Bay, Long Island, where a floating,  "ladder-type" dredge maintains naviga-
tional channels while  furnishing considerable sand and gravel for sale.

      Like strip-mining for coal in the upland environment, sand and gravel operations
can devastate  valuable salt marsh acreage by removing vegetation and leaving a sterile
floor. However, unlike the upland counterpart,  a strip operation in an estuary can
frequently be disguised under another purpose, such as maintenance of navigational
channels. While an effort has been made to curb this type of operation in the Northeast,
abuses are frequently difficult to detect until considerable damage has been done. For
example, the Connecticut Water Resources Commission has reported one particularly
flagrant example of a New York firm that applied for  a permit to dig a trench 300 feet
wide, 30 feet deep, and 1-1 fe miles long.  Though wide enough for a battleship,  the
purpose of this channel was stated as providing access to a small marine site. *
Oyster Shell

      About 20 million tons of oyster shells are estimated to be mined annually in the
United States.  Where only one producer is operating,  the U.S. Bureau of Mines pro-
tects proprietary figures by combining the shell output with crushed stone or other
 *Louis Darling, "The Death of a Marsh: The Story of Sherwood Island Marsh and Its
  Political Consequences", Connecticut's Coastal Marshes: A Vanishing Resource.
  Connecticut College,  Bulletin No.  12 (1961),  pp 21-27.
                                        44

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mineral items. Nevertheless, the distortion is not considered significant in the over-
all totals except in the case of some individual states with minor production. In order
of descending magnitude, the primary oyster-shell mining states are: Texas, Louisiana,
Alabama, Mississippi, California, Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey, and North
Carolina. Use as aggregate in concrete and as road surfacing material accounts for
approximately 62 percent of the shell production while another 33 percent is utilized by
manufacturers of portland cement and lime. The remainder is consumed as poultry
grit, mineral food, and various other industrial uses.

No comprehensive survey of oyster shell deposits has been performed, and both
the scale and location of reserves are unknown. However, it is believed that the more
accessible reefs have been stripped and operations are continually becoming more
marginal economically. Furthermore, some states, such as Mississippi, have become
increasingly reluctant to allow oyster-shell operations within state waters because of
the detrimental effect on the environment.

Objections against oyster-shell operations are usually three-fold. First, Dyster-
men object to the removal of potential clutch material for future sets. Second,
dredging releases considerable silt that can bury live reefs, and, for this reason, most
states do not permit dredging near live reefs. Third, removal of oyster shell changes
the configuration of the estuary's bottom, altering currents, depths, and salinities,
and - in the case of reefs near the surface - removes protective shelter for countless
estuarine organisms. Extremely bitter controversy has surrounded some of the
oyster-shell removal activities, such as those that have plagued the sportsmen and
oystermen of Galveston Bay in recent years. *
Other .Materials

Various minerals, including diamonds, gold, rutile, and zircon, have been
identified in the estuarine sands of various states. However, the economics of
recovery have generally acted forcefully against any significant effort to mine the
deposits. One example would be the mineral shoals off the deltas of the Chattahoochee
and Apalachicola rivers in Florida where the deeper waters have acted as sediment
traps for large volumes of quartz and mineral sands. Three major shoals have been
formed, and their mineral content has been generally established by surveys. However,
the beach and barrier samples have been the least attractive, assaying at about 0.10
percent mineral sands, though higher concentration in samll pockets or skims have
been noted. The average mineral content for the offshore sea-floor sands, on the
other hand, appears to be about 0.40 percent. It appears possible that some deposits
may be found where the concentration could reach 4.0 percent by weight. The proba-
bility of finding sufficient reserves to justify the capital investment needed to reach
*Bob Eckhardt, "Death of Galveston Bay", Transaction of the Thirty-Third North American
Wildlife Conference (1968), pp 79-90.
45

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these richer sands appears too unfavorable for any potential investor today. The highly
publicized deposits of phosphate rocks or sands and, particularly, the manganese
nodules are also generally found at considerably greater depths than exist in estuaries,
and the economics of operating under these marine conditions have thus far proven
prohibitive.
MINING OF THE ESTUARINE WATERS

Though estuarine waters by definition generally have diluted salinities, the con-
venience, lower physical exposure to weather, and accessibility of estuaries have gen-
erally made them the favored sites for plants extracting various minerals and metals
from seawater salts. Four products form the bulk of this production: (1) common salt
(sodium chloride), (2) magnesium oxide, (3) magnesium metal, and (4) bromine.
Common Salt

Of the 102 plants operated by 58 companies in the United States for production of
salt, 3 are located on estuaries - San Francisco Bay, Newport Bay, and San Diego Bay
and produce salt by solar evaporation behind diked flats. The operation mormally be-
gins in the spring of the year, and the crystallized salt is harvested in August and
September. During 1967, about 2.7 million tons of salt valued at $17 million was re-
covered in these facilities. This represented about 7 percent of the total United States
salt production for that year, the remaining supplies being recovered from brines or
mined in rock-salt deposits.

To be economically viable, large acreages in the estuarine area have to be main-
tained for salt production. Though equipment and labor costs are relatively low, this
land requirement and the increase in pressures of urbanization on the estuaries appear
to foreclose the possibility that future solar evaporation fields will be opened. Envi-
ronmentally, pollution from these fields has been nil but the aesthetic and ecological
problems of allocating this acreage to the recovery of a common mineral are obvious.
Magnesium Oxide

Magnesium oxide is used in the manufacture of refractories, ceramics, and
various insulating materials. At least four plants on the Gulf of Mexico and one in
New Jersey are currently extracting the magnesium values for this material from sea-
water. During 1967, production from these plants amounted to 246,000 tons with a
value of $16.4 million, representing about 30 percent of the total United States produc-
tion. The remaining domestic supply is produced in mid-continent locations depending
upon well or lake brines and mineral deposits, such as magnesite or dolomite. De-
tailed investigations of the pollution or other undesirable aspects of the estuarine
facilities have not been prepared.
46

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Magensium Metal

      Magnesium metal is produced electrolytically from magnesium chloride at the
Dow Chemical Company plant in Freeport, Texas.  Using seawater as a source for the
magnesium chloride, the plant has been producing about 95,000 tons annually with a
value of $61. 5 million, though the rated capacity of the facility is about 120,000 tons
annually.

      The demand for magnesium metal has been unexpectedly lower than forecast
during the past 10 years, and further investment in this field is expected to be limited
during the immediate future.  Furthermore, the proposed plants for future expansion
are to be located inland,  using concentrated brines, such as in the Great Salt Lake, or
entirely different processes.  Again, no detailed examination of the environmental im-
pact of this process upon the estuary at Freeport has been made,  but the future eco-
logical implications of this industry on the estuaries do not appear significant.
Bromine

      During 1967, only two estuarine facilities were producing bromine.  The Dow
Chemical Company plant at Freeport, Texas, was extracting the chemical as one of
the products of its seawater plant, and elemental bromine was being recovered from
the concentrated solutions left after solar salt evaporation at Newark, California.
These two plants produced about 143.-5 million pounds of bromine with a value of
$34.5 million during 1967. The principal application for the chemical was in the
manufacture of ethylene dibromide, an ingredient of antiknock fluids and fumigants.
Environmentally, the recovery of bromine from  seawater bitterns poses no problem
beyond those existing in extraction of the other minerals.
CONCLUSION

      In virtually every type of extractive industry associated with the estuary, the
interaction between the industry and the estuarine environment takes two basic forms:
direct and indirect impacts.  In most cases, the direct impact in terms of pollution
and physical intrusion upon the natural ecology could be considered serious but could
also be  weighed against the value of extracted minerals by simple analytic techniques.
More difficult to evaluate but probably more insidious in overall effect upon the es-
taurine  system are the numerous industrial, commercial, and residential activities
stimulated by the extractive industries.  This is particularly true for the petroleum
industry, which requires a complex system of pipelines, service vessels, and opera-
ting crews,  and which can spawn a series of linked petrochemical industries with
undesirable effects on the environment.  Only a carefully designed series of regula-
tions, such as has been instituted in areas of California, appear successful in control-
ling these indirect impacts without also terminating the economic benefits.
                                       47

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      Sand and gravel and, to a very limited extent, oyster-shell dredgers represent
anomalies among the extractive industries.  Both furnish low-value minerals which
are absorbed directly in the urban development process.  The presence of these min-
erals does not cause or even stimulate significant industrial and economic development
in the estuarine area, but the existence of economic development does stimulate the
extractive process.  Both sand and gravel as well as the lime of oyster shell can be
extracted easily,  though possibly at slightly higher direct costs, from other sources.
Thus, the justification for tight controls appear relatively high where estuarine
values in terms of fisheries and public recreation can be compared to the one-time
exploitation by private parties. Unfortunately,  no clear, inflexible rule can replace
the current case-by-case examination of mineral values versus biological productivity
and recreational use.
                                      48

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           SIGNIFICANCE OF ESTUARIES FOR WASTE ASSIMILATION
SCOPE

    Though possibly costly in an ecological sense, considerable reliance is being
placed upon the ability of estuaries to assimilate human and industrial wastes that
otherwise would be processed by treatment plants. In order to indicate the signifi-
cance of this  assimilative capability, this study describes in terms of two parameters:
(1) some effects that various waste loadings have upon selected estuaries and (2) the
monetary value this assimilative capability represents as a substitute for treatment
facilities.
SIGNIFICANCE OF WASTE ASSIMILATION

    Of the world's ten largest metropolitan areas, seven have developed upon shores
of estuaries.  Today, about one-third of America's population lives and works in
coastal counties,  most of these within estuarine zones. *  Through tradition,  conven-
ience, and simple economics, the liquid and,  to a lesser extent,  the solid wastes of
these urban complexes have been shunted to the estuaries with the assumption that the
estuaries' natural assimilative capacity would rid the communities of further nuisance.
In many cases, this assumption has been partially correct.  The river currents im-
posed upon tidal motion have  usually swept the wastes  into open /sea.  But estuaries
vary tremendously in shape,  size,  depth, biota, and other physical and hydrological
features.  Gradually the ability of many estuaries both to maintain acceptable water
quality and to assimilate  more wastes has been grossly exceeded. Obviously, the
cost of maintaining water quality by treatment must be compared to the costs of
allowing the quality standards to be further reduced.
METHODOLOGY

    Detailed analyses in this study were restricted to the assimilation of organic
BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) and of waste-heat loadings.  Although other waste
*In 1962, 32.8 percent of the United States population was estimated to be living in
 coastal counties compared to 32.3 percent in 1959 and 28.2 percent in 1950.  Source:
 Regional Economics Information System, Office of Business Economics, as provided
 by the FWPCA.
                                      49

-------
materials with measurable parameters, such as phosphorus and nitrogen compounds,
coliform bacteria, and pesticides, can be identified, BOD and waste heat were selected
because (1) the capacity to assimilate these two wastes appears to contribute the major
portion of the economic assimilative value of the estuaries and (2) the state of the art
allowing us to predict the response of an estuarine environment to various loadings is
particularly developed for these two parameters.
EXISTING DO/BOD  MODELS

    Because of the significant physical, chemical, and ecological differences among
all estuaries, quantitative discussion of waste assimilative capacity must be approach-
ed on an estuary-by-estuary basis.  Research and engineering studies have been
concerned with the development of models for predicting the dissolved oxygen (DO)
response of a given estuary,  or class of estuaries, and have been primarily an
extension of the work by Streeter and Phelps on natural purification in the Ohio
River. *

    O'Connor developed a steady-state model for predicting the dissolved-oxygen
profile, which considers the effects of displacement by land runoff, longitudinal
diffusion, the concentration of the organic materials, the rate of oxidation,  and the
resulting rate of reaeration. ** The model was confirmed by field data from estuarine
surveys of the Delaware and James rivers.  O'Connor developed a similar but less
general model for the Hudson River and New York Harbor, and generally close agree-
ment between theoretical prediction and observed values was noted. ***  Thomann
developed a model for describing the time variation of dissolved oxygen in a finite
number of sections of an estuary; a frequency response technique is employed and
dissolved-oxygen-response equations resulting from imposition of general input-
forcing functions are derived. **** The model results in a system of differential
equations which require computer solution.  Thomann and Sobel extended Thomann's
   *H. W. Streeter and E. B. Phelps, A Study of the Pollution and Natural Purifica-
    tion of the Ohio River, Public Health Bulletin No. 46, U. S. Department of
    Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service (Washington: 1925).
  **Donald J. O'Connor, "Oxygen Balance of an Estuary", Journal of the Sanitary
    Engineering Division, American Society of Civil Engineers 86-SA3 (May, 1960),
    pp 35-55.
 ***Donald J. O'Connor, "Organic Pollution of New York Harbor, Theoretical
    Considerations", Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, 34-6
    (September, 1962), pp 905-919.
****R.  V. Thomann,  "Mathematical Model for Dissolved Oxygen", Journal of the
    Sanitary Engineering Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, 89-SA5
    (October, 1963),  pp 1-30.
                                       50

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model to provide a means for determining optimum utilization of funds for waste
treatment and water quality management in an estuary. * O'Connor then developed a
general model more refined than his previous one for handling the distribution of
nonconservative substances in estuaries. **

    Because of the relative simplicity of the calculations involved and because the ob-
jective of this investigation is to generate informative estimates as opposed to decision
criteria, O'Connor's original mathematical model for investigating the oxygen balance
in an estuary was selected for making the estimates in this study.  This model de-
scribes the oxygen balance in an estuary as a function of land runoff, longitudinal
diffusion, tidal action,  atmospheric reaeration,  and deoxygenation as a result of BOD.
Estuaries selected for application of this model were the Delaware River, Potomac
River, James River, East River, and Hudson River estuaries.
THE DELAWARE  ESTUARY

    The Delaware Estuary is defined as the 86 miles of waterway from- Trenton, New
Jersey, to Listen Point, Delaware, where Delaware Bay commences.  While
municipal waste-treatment plants serve the majority of the population, eight plants
contribute over 90 percent of the area's discharged municipal oxygen-demanding
loads.   Total estimated waste loadings  in terms of carbonaceous oxygen demand
before treatment are described in Table 4.

               TABLE 4.   ESTIMATED BOD LOADINGS (BEFORE
                    TREATMENT) IN DELAWARE ESTUARY
Pounds per Day
Year
1964
1975
2010
Industrial
700,000
1,200,000
4,600,000
Municipal
1,200,000
2,800,000
6,100,000
Total
1,900,000
4,000,000
10,700,000
Source: Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, U. S. Department
of the Interior, Delaware Estuary Comprehensive Study, Prelimi-
ary Report and Findings, Philadelphia (July, 1966).
 *R. V. Thomann and N* J.  Sobel, "Estuarine Water Quality Management and
  Forecasting", Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, American Society
  of Civil Engineers, 90-SA5 (October, 1964)t pp 9-36.
**D. J. O'Connor, "Estuarine Distribution of Non-Conservation Substances",
  Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, American Society of Civil
  Engineers, 91-SA1 (February, 1965).
                                      51

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    The total carbonaceous oxygen-demanding waste load actually discharged after
treatment during 1964 was  estimated to be about 1,030,000 Ib/day, with 650,000
Ib/day from municipal sources and 370,000 Ib/day attributed to industries.  The
degree of treatment provided by various facilities averaged about 47 percent removal
of carbonaceous BOD for the  estuary as a whole.  Additional oxygen demand resulted
from the discharge of about 600,000 Ib/day of nitrogenous  material from both
municipal and industrial sources.  Because of these loadings, water quality from
Torresdale, Pennsylvania, to below the Pennsylvania-Delaware state line was
exceptionally low,  and anaerobic conditions developed frequently, especially during
the summer months.  Offensive solids, floating materials, and miscellaneous
floatsam seriously degraded the aesthetic quality of the estuary.
O'Connor Model Estimates

    To simplify the calculations involved in applying the O'Connor model to the
Delaware estuary, the thirty sections employed in the comprehensive FWPCA study
were combined into five extended sections, and all waste loadings were assumed to
occur at  the midpoint of each section.  While point sources will yield somewhat  lower
values of dissolved oxygen than a distributed loading, this  difference is not considered
significant for objectives of this analysis.

    Data in the FWPCA report indicated that the most critical section of the estuary
in terms of low dissolved oxygen levels was Section 15 just south of  Philadelphia.
The dissolved-oxygen response in this section as predicted by the model agrees
satisfactorily with the observed condition.  The FWPCA report describes the average
dissolved oxygen in Section 15  during the summer of 1964 as 0.7 mg/1, but also in-
dicates that periods of anaerobic conditions have been noted.  The model predicts an
anaerobic condition.   Furthermore, the model indicates that each incremental 1 mg/1
increase in the minimum dissolved-oxygen level requires removal of an additional 5
percent of the total BOD load,  or about 100,000 Ib/day.  For comparison purposes,
data on allowable BOD loadings from the FWPCA report were correlated with the
percent removal based on the existing load of 1,900,000 Ib/day.  About 300,000 Ib
of BOD removal per day appear necessary to achieve a 1-mg/l increase in the
minimum dissolved oxygen level, a condition attributed to  the large  benthal and
nitrogenous oxygen demands which together amounted to about 800,000 Ib/day.   This
was not taken into account in O'Connor's model and, thus,  the model is low by a
factor of about 3 when compared to the results of the more sophisticated analyses
conducted for the FWPCA study.
POTOMAC RIVER  ESTUARY

    The Potomac Estuary extends from Little Falls to the Chesapeake Bay and is
subject to a wide variety of regional waste loadings.  The upper estuary extending 25. 8
                                       52

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miles to Hallowing Point is the most critical section, with waste loadings of about
140,000 Ib of the 5-day BOD per day, which is eight times the assimilative capacity
required to maintain a dissolved oxygen level of 5 mg/1.  Overall combined BOD re-
moval by the five major treatment plants has been estimated at about 50 percent, sug-
gesting that the raw waste loadings prior to treatment are-approximately 280,000 Ib
BOD/day.
BOD Removal

    When the  O'Connor equations are applied to data obtained at the Woodrow Wilson
Bridge south of Washington in 1965, each 1 mg/1 in the minimum dissolved oxygen
level appears to require the removal of 10 percent of the BOD load.  Since 140,000 Ib
BOD/day represents 50 percent removal, it is estimated that the total waste generated
in the estuary's region is 280,000 Ib/day.   Thus, each 1 mg/1 increase in dissolved
oxygen would require removal of 28, 000 Ib of BOD per day.
JAMES RIVER ESTUARY

    The  James River Estuary begins at Richmond,  Virginia; the major waste loadings
occur at Richmond and at Hopewell, a community 20 miles downstream from Richmond.
The BOD loading from Richmond is approximately 50,000 Ib/day, while Hopewell's is
approximately 175,000 Ib/day.  Overall BOD removal in the upper estuary is estima-
ted at about 42 percent, so the raw BOD loading is about 390,000 Ib/day.
BOD Removal

    At 42 percent removal of the total load at both Richmond and Hopewell, the mini-
mum dissolved oxygen is calculated at 2.2 mg/1.  This compares to 2.8 mg/1 for the
field data published by O'Connor, the discrepancy caused by a slightly higher degree of
treatment currently being provided at Hopewell compared to Richmond.   From these
data it can be determined that each additional 1 mg/1 increase in the minimum dissolved
oxygen concentration requires removal of an additional 10 percent of the BOD loadings
at Richmond and Hopewell, or an additional 39,000 Ib/day.
EAST RIVER ESTUARY

    The East River is essentially a long, narrow strait connecting upper New York
Harbor with Long Island Sound.  Assuming from data obtained by O'Connor that the
treatment plants provide an overall average BOD removal of 60 percent, the before-
treatment loading of the plants is estimated to be about 363,000 Ib/day.  Thus, the
total raw load is approximately 565,000 Ib/day.  The weighted overall removal from
all sources, treated plus untreated,  is calculated to be about 40 percent.
                                      53

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BOD Removal

Calculations using O'Connor's data and model indicate that each incremental
1 mg/1 increase in the minimum dissolved oxygen level requires removal of an ad-
ditional 9 percent of the total load, or about 51,000 Ib/day. Calculations also show
that pollution loadings delivered by the Hudson River do not materially affect dissolved
oxygen levels in the East River because of the dilution available in the upper bay.
HUDSON RIVER ESTUARY

The critical reach of the Hudson Estuary in terms of waste loading is the lower
24-mile waterway from the New York City line to the Narrows, where the BOD reaches
525,000 Ib/day. To simplify the analysis of the effect of BOD removal on the minimum
dissolved oxygen, it was assumed that the entire waste loading to the Hudson River be-
tween the Battery and the city limits occurred at a midpoint about 9 miles above the
Battery.
BOD Removal

The total BOD load in the river is 525,000 Ib/day. Assuming this represents 50
percent removal, the total raw load is about 1 million Ib/day. Using O'Connor's model,
each incremental 1 mg/1 increase in the minimum dissolved-oxygen level appears to
require removal of an additional 14 percent of the waste loading, or about 140,000
Ib/day.
ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION OF THIS ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY

Table 5 summarizes the estimated unit cost for waste treatment (for detailed ex-
planations, see Appendix G). Cost of incremental secondary treatment refers only to
the secondary plant facilities required in addition to existing primary plants. Similarly,
incremental tertiary treatment implies the addition of tertiary processes to existing
secondary facilities. As indicated in Appendix G, costs per unit of BOD removed are
based on a waste containing a 5-day BOD equal to 250 ppm, 30 percent being removed
in primary plants and an additional 55 percent being removed in secondary plants.
Removal of BOD in tertiary plants is based upon a 9 mg/1 reduction, from 10 mg/1 to
1 mg/1. All costs have been adjusted to 1968 dollars by application of engineering
cost ratios. Capital costs were amortized over 20 years at an interest rate of
5 percent.
54

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           TABLE 5.  APPROXIMATE COSTS OF WASTE TREATMENT
Type of Treatment
Primary treatment
Primary plus secondary treatment
Incremental secondary treatment
Incremental tertiary treatment
Approximate Cost
Dollars /Million
Gallons Treated
90
130
40
150
Dollars /Lb
BOD Removed
0.150
0.080
0.040
2.00
    Table 6 summarizes the BOD removals required to achieve incremental 1 mg/1
increases in the minimum dissolved oxygen concentration for the estuaries examined.
Existing levels of overall treatment in these estuaries have been estimated to range
from about 40 to 60 percent removal of BOD.  Thus,  additional BOD removal in most
cases can be accomplished primarily by the additional of secondary treatment facilities
to the existing primary treatment plants.  In Table 5, the estimated cost of treatment
in such facilities is estimated to be about $0.04 per pound of BOD removed.  On this
basis,  Table 7 summarized the economic contribution of the estuaries' assimilative
capacity for each  1 mg/1 decrease allowed in the minimum dissolved oxygen concentra-
tion.


   TABLE 6.  BOD REMOVALS REQUIRED TO ACHIEVE  1 MG/L  INCREASE IN
                         MINIMUM DISSOLVED OXYGEN
E stuary
Delaware
Potomac
James
East
Hudson
BOD Removal,
Ib/day
100,000
28,000
39,000
51,000
187,000
    K should be pointed  out that the values indicated in Table 7 are based upon the ad-
dition of secondary facilities to existing primary treatment plants with an associated
BOD removal cost of $0. 04 per pound.  If all treatment plants in a region were brought
up to the level of secondary treatment, further removal would have to be provided by
tertiary treatment facilities, and this would have the effect of increasing the economic
worth of the estuaries' assimilative by a factor as high as 50.
                                      55

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TABLE 7. ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION OF ESTUARINE ASSIMILATIVE
CAPACITY PER MG/L OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Estuary
Delaware
Potomac
James
East
Hudson
Total
Surface Area,
acres
70, 500
17,000
5,120
18, 800
5,250
116,670
Economic Contribution
Dollars /Day
4,000
1,120
1,560
2,040
7,450

Dollars /Year
1,460,000
408,000
570,000
745,000
2,720,000
5,903,000
ASSIMILATION OF THERMAL LOADINGS

Except for some preliminary work conducted in England several years ago with
limited success, generalized models for predicting directly the temperature response
of a stream or estuary to thermal loadings are not available in the same form as models
relating to dissolved-oxygen levels. Existing studies of thermal loadings have been
limited in the United States to empirical dye-dispersion studies for prediction of tem-
perature distribution. Pritchard and Carter, for instance, have developed a model
based on the physical processes of movement and dispersion of an effluent as simulated
by flourescent-dye tracers. * Both the nonconservative process of boundary cooling
and the conservative distribution of the effluent are considered by the model, which is
summarized in Appendix G.
PATUXENT RIVER ESTUARY

After circling the eastern outskirts of Washington, D. C., the Patuxent River
merges into an estuary that eventually empties into Chesapeake Bay about 50 miles
south-east of Washington. The Pritchard and Carter model was originally developed
to predict the temperature response of the Patuxent Estuary to thermal discharges
from the PEPCO power plant to be built at Chalk Point. Using a series of assumptions
based on the data from the original study and the model, it can be determined that each
0.1-degree-Fahrenheit decrease in the 1,000-yard-downstream excess temperature
requires removal of 1. 9 percent of the 3.6 x 1010 Btu/day load, or 0. 0684 x 1010 Btu/day
*D. W. Pritchard and H. H. Carter, On the Prediction of Excess Temperature from
a Heated Discharge in an Estuary, Technical Report No. 33, Chesapeake Bay Institute,
The Johns Hopkins University (1965).
56

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POTOMAC RIVER ESTUARY
To assess the assimilative capacity of the Potomac Estuary for thermal loadings,
the data and analyses of Hetling and O'Connell, who generated mass-balance relation-
ships for Rhodamine dye in sixteen segments of the Potomac Estuary, have been used
as a basis. * Applying their data to the Pritchard and Carter model and assuming
critical data \foere they were not available, each incremental 0.1-degree-Fahrenheit
decrease in the excess temperature was estimated to require a 5 percent reduction in
the assumed 1010 Btu/day loading. Again, this estimate applies only to the assumed
loading intensity and pattern. Changes in location of the single source, the addition of
multiple sources, or changes in the intensity of loading will significantly affect the
analyses.
THAMES RIVER ESTUARY

Considerable data are available on the distribution of excess temperature in the
Thames Estuary below London. The average rate of heat discharge from various
power stations during 1951-1954 was estimated to have been 228 x 10 Btu/day, about
75 percent of the total heat being contributed by five large plants. From the assembled
data, the total head load from all sources to the estuary has been estimated at
306 x 10 Btu/day. Deducting heating due to biochemical activity and similar heat
sources, the. total Btu load is about 248 x 109 Btu/day.

To compare the assimilative capacity of the Thames Estuary with the Potomac and
Patuxent analyses, the excess temperature response as a function of thermal loading
at a single point was established on an order-of-magnitude basis. With this assumption,
0.1-degree-Fahrenheit decrease in the maximum excess temperature appears to re-
quire the removal of about 13 percent of the 1010 Btu/day load for a single source 10
miles above London Bridge.
ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION OF NATURAL COOLING

For purposes of this report, average values of $9/million gallons treated and
$0.045/million Btu removed were assumed. Both values include the amortized capital
and the operating costs. With these assumptions, the economic contribution of the
estuarine cooling capacity per 0.1 degree Fahrenheit is summarized in Table 8.
*L. J. Hetling and R. L. O'Connell, A Study of Tidal Dispersion in the Potomac River,
C-SRBP Technical Paper No. 7, FWPCA, Region HI (undated).
57

-------
    TABLE 8. ECONOMIC CONTRIBUTION OF ESTAURINE COOLING  CAPACITY
           PER 0.1-DEGREE-FAHRENHEIT INCREASE ALLOWED IN THE
                 MAXIMUM DOWNSTREAM  EXCESS TEMPERATURE
Estuary
Patuxent
Potomac
Thames
Total
Surface Area,
acres
7,000
17,000
7,870
31,870
Economic Contribution
Dollars /Day
31.50
22.50
41.00
Dollars /Year
11, 500
8,200
15, 000
34,700
CONCLUSION

    The focus of this analysis has been exclusively on the monetary cost of restoring
the environmental quality of estuaries from two waste loadings - organic and thermal.
Omitted are the costs of cleansing the waters of industrial wastes now being discharged
into the nation's  waterways.  Furthermore, before the cojjt estimates of restoring the
environmental quality can be applied to management decisions, this restoration cost
should be compared to the total cost,  social and economic, of not restoring full quality.
Inevitably,  tradeoffs would  be found.  But with  a balanced evaluation of the two total costs,
our society could both more rationally utilize our natural resources and, at the same
time, appreciate more fully a rarely  recognized national asset, the assimilative capa-
bilities of our estuaries for discharged wastes.
                                        58

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                                  CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION

      This survey has reviewed the primary economic and social importance of es-
tuaries in the United States.  Technical and general literature has been examined and
the state of the art in the study of estuaries has been described.  Throughout the dif-
ferent phases of this report, however, four primary thems have continually emerged:

      (1)  The most rapidly increasing use of estuaries appears to be for
          personal satisfaction (e.g. , recreation), as the public becomes mor,e
          aware of the natural estuarine environment for general use.

      (2)  Estuarine activities are based upon the use of  a common set of
          natural resources, and are therefore highly interrelated.

      (3)  Estuarine environment is rapidly changing due to the mounting
          intensity of estuarine use.

      (4)  Management of estuarine resources is complicated by difficulties
          in defining goals, data deficiencies, and voids  in understanding
          estuarine ecology.

Each of these themes has a spectrum of implications.
GENERAL USE

      Owing primarily to two factors, (1) the urban development within the immediate
vicinity of the estuaries and along tributaries and (2) the growing scale and complexity
of virtually all industrial activity, the most pervasive uses of the estuaries do not ap-
pear tied to a specific economic or social category.  Estuaries now represent the
primary open spaces in virtually all of the nation's great urban centers, including
New York, Boston,  and San Francisco.  The Boston Common is considerably smaller
than the Charles River Basin; Central Park in New York City is a fraction of the acreage
of the waters of the Hudson River adjoining Manhattan alone.  Estuaries have been in-
corporated into the daily life of the urban residents.  They perform an anesthetic func-
tion, breaking the vertical forest  of buildings.  They serve as cleansing zones for
pollution-laden air.  They assimilate liquid wastes.  They provide recreational outlets.
They  absorb the noise of jet exhausts rising from airports bordering the estuaries,
and they have provided the corridors for shoreline highways.  In summary,  estuaries
are so intimately intertwined with other elements of the urban environment that an enu-
meration of their functions must touch virtually every phase of urban life.
                                        59

-------
As the complexity and scale of industries have grown, the facilities and staffs
required to support productive activities - such as offshore petroleum operations -
have multiplied. Service vessels and tankers need a varied range of dock and harbor
facilities as well as adequate navigation channels. Pipelines intrude physically upon
the complex balance of currents, vegetation, temperatures, and other parameters of
the estuary. Land transportation facilities must be integrated with the sea systems,
resulting in the construction of highways on estuarine fill and in silt loads or diverted
fresh-water flows from the watersheds. Maintenance and operating personnel must
be housed and provided the normal range of residential facilities, resulting the the
further extension of the urban system. In economics, the multiplier effect in a com-
pletely accepted fact, though its measurement remains controversial. In actuality, the
multiplier effect of estuarine-centered activities generally far outweighs the original
activities in terms of total impact on the estuarine system.
INTERRELATED USES

Estuarine activities are intimately related in both a horizontal and vertical sense.
Horizontally, competing activities for estuarine-dependent resources have developed to
a point where their conflicting edges acutely affect each other. The conflict between
waste assimilation and the development of commercial and recreation fisheries is one
example. Only a few generations ago, estuaries were sufficiently extensive in size
compared to the scope of commercial activities that conflict were generally narrowly
defined, as between fin fishermen and shell fishermen, and relatively easily arbitrated.
As each activity has expanded and new activities have been added, flexibility can no
longer be derived from reserve resources.

At the same time, though, the vertical development of estuarine-centered activi-
ties, such as the linked and service industries associated with offshore petroleum pro-
duction, has added to the complexity of estuarine use. Because of the interdependence
between activities, management decisions in the estuaries have been immensely com-
plicated.
DYNAMIC NATURE OF USE

As in the relationships among uses, the dynamics of estuarine use has had two
dimensions. On one hand, the absolute number of uses being made of resourses in the
dstuarine zone has multiplied as urbanization has spread and the industrial complexity
of the United States economy has grown. At the same time, though, the sheer volume
of each use has increased. The magnitude of pollution can be directly related to growth
of the Gross National Product. The population growth in the.vicinity of the estuaries is
another convenient indicator. Since the 1920's, the population size in the coastal
cotfnties of the United States has approximately doubled, rising from 32 million persons
in 1929 to 61 million in 1962. This population represented 26. 3 percent of the total
United States pollution in 1929 and 32. 8 percent in 1962. The proportion of the popula-
tion in coastal counties has constantly increased with each national census.
60

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DATA VOIDS

     In examining uses of estuaries, an analyst is constantly hampered by data voids
and, almost equally, he finds a lack of understanding involving basic relationships to
be seriously debilitating.  As noted frequently in this report,  simple statistics to weigh
priorities are lacking.  Examples would be the inadequacy of current censuses on rec-
reation areas and activities in estuaries,  wetlands of different categories, filled
estuarine areas, activities in estuaries, and waste assimilation.  However, even with
these data, our understanding of the ecology of estuaries would probably still not permit
satisfactory management decisions.  We simply do not yet understand the full impact
of different variables upon the biota of an estuary.  An example would be the ecological
effects of shoreline construction, such as the Connecticut Turnpike, or the full implica-
tions of the higher nutrient flow into estuaries from polluted watersheds.  It appears,
though, that more complete understanding of the estuary will continue to be a cyclic,
feedback process.  Data will lead to improved understanding, which will then permit
identification of more desirable data.  Unfortunately,  this procedure occupies time and
required funds.  At the current rate of estuarine degradation, how long can management
decisions be postponed ?
                                        61

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         APPENDIX A
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL VALUES OF
    ESTUARINE RECREATION
         Ira L. Whitman

-------
                            TABLE OF CONTENTS

                                                                         Page

Introduction	A-l
Types of Estuarine Recreation Activities 	A-2
     Land-Water Dependencies  	A-6
     Differences Between Estuarine and Other
       Outdoor Recreation	A-8
Supply of Estuarine Recreation Resources and Facilities 	A-9
     Availability of Recreation Shoreline  	•	A-9
     Accessibility of Recreation Shoreline	A-12
Data Quality and  Sources	A-16
Approaches Used to Measure Economic Values of Outdoor
 Recreation	A-16
Economic Values of Estuarine Recreation as Measured by
 Sales and Expenditures	A-19
     Types of Recreation Expenditures and Their Significance	A-20
     Sport Fishing 	A-22
     Estuarine Boating 	A-25
     Swimming	A-32
     Hunting and Wildlife Management	A-33
Economic Values of Estuarine Recreation as Measured by
 Regional Impacts 	A-34
     Regional Analysis - Southern New England 	A-34
     Seasonal Impact of Recreation on Employment	A-39
Economic Values of Estuarine Recreation by User Benefits	A-40
Conflicts in Resource Use	A-46
     Natural Factors 	A-46
     Pollution	A-46
     Conflicts Between Sport Fishing and Commercial Fishing	A-48
     Reductions in Flow  	A -50
     Dredging and Excavation  	A -50
Conclusion	A-53

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                                 APPENDIX A
        1 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL VALUES OF ESTUARINE RECREATION

                                      by
                               Ira L. Whitman
INTRODUCTION

     Outdoor recreation has become a major consideration in the development and
management of America's natural resources, including estuaries.  The reasons for
the emphasis on recreation are widely recognized and documented. * Participation, and
the demand to participate, have increased as leisure time and disposable income per
capita have increased. ** Outdoor recreation involves use of natural resources which
often competes or conflicts with the earlier and more traditional uses of the same
resources, such as logging and commercial fisheries.  To cope with the problems of
allocating resources among these competing uses, including recreation,  economic
analyses of outdoor recreation development have gradually proven their utility and
validity.   Furthermore, economic criteria appear to be useful in choosing between
alternative recreation developments given the real constraint of limited financial
resources.***
  *Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission (ORRRC), Outdoor Recreation
   for America. Washington (1962).
 **Mueller, E., and Gurin, G.,  Participation in Outdoor Recreation; Factors Affecting
   Demand Among American Adults, ORRRC Report #20, Washington (1962).
***Davis, R., "Recreation Planning as an Economic Problem", Natural Resources
   Journal.  Volume 3, #2, pp 239-249 (October, 1963).
                                      A-l

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The primary satisfaction received by an individual engaging in most forms of
outdoor recreation seems to be personal and of a social and psychological nature. *
However, the individual's decision to engage in a recreational activity is often governed
by his economic willingness or ability to make the necessary expenditures in money and
travel time to allow his participation. The allocation of an individual's income to a par-
ticular recreation activity is, therefore, one indication of ttie value which he derives
from that activity. ** It must be recognized, though, that some of the personal values
associated with outdoor recreation cannot be directly translated into economic values.

This discussion on estuarine recreation is intended to identify economic and social
values that will be useful in comparing recreation with other estuary uses for the pur-
pose of better estuarine management. Many of these values, it should be noted, are
not directly comparable with other types of estuarine activity, and judgment and res-
traint must be exercised in their application. Areas where data and information on
estuarine recreation economics are lacking are pointed out, so that these voids may
eventually be filled. Problems and conflicts in the management of estuarine recrea-
tion are identified and approaches for their solution are discussed.
TYPES OF ESTUARINE RECREATION ACTIVITIES

The types of recreational activities occuring on and adjacent to estuarine waters
should be identified before attempting to indicate the associated economic and social
values. Seven major classes of estuarine-related recreation can be described:

Boating,
Fishing,
Swimming and contact sports,
Hunting,
Land based, water dependent (e. g., camping)
Land based, water related (e. g., sightseeing),
Land based, water unrelated (e. g., golf).

Boating. Boating is a major recreational activity of estuaries, as it is on most
inland waters. The major classes of recreational boats include:

(1) Manually propelled craft-canoes, rowboats, etc.
(2) Sail craft
(3) Outboard-motor boats
(4) Inboard boats with outdoor drive
(5) Inboard boats.
*Clawson, M., and Knetsch, J., Economics of Outdoor Recreation. Resources for
the Future, Baltimore (1966), pp 11-40.
**Ibid., pp 41-142.
A-2

-------
Boating highly complements other water-based recreation activities. It is diffi-
cult, therefore, to distinguish between one's participation in boating as compared to his
time spent at other activities. This is evidenced b y the results of the latest survey of
purchasers of outboard motors and boats. Preferences for their boating-related ac-
tivities are as follows:
TABLE A-l. USES OF OUTBOARD MOTORS AND BOATS
(a)

Activity

Fishing
Cruising
Skiing
Hunting
Others
Percent of Buyers Mentioning Preferences, 1967

Outboard Motors
71
36
29
12
7

Outboard Boats
66
48
42
11
6
Source: The Boating Industry Magazine, The Boating Business - 1967

The multiple preferences of boat-owners and users make it equally difficult to
evaluate the allocation of recreation expenditures to one activity or another. For
example, the largest expenditure of sport-fisher men is for the purchase of boats and
boating equipment. *

Additional complexity in describing estuarine boating activity arises from the
mobility of recreational boating. Much of this mobility occurs in the form of:

(1) Estuary to estuary travel, via intracoastal waterways,

(2) Estuarine berthed boats sailing beyond coastal limits,

(3) Estuarine berthed boats sailing inland via navigable inland waterways,

(4) Boats kept at places of residence and trailered to waterways, estuarine
and other.
*U.S. Department of Interior, 1965 National Survey of Fishing and Hunting, U.S.
Government Printing Office, p 44.
A-3

-------
      Sport Fishing.  Estuarine sport fishing may be characterized by:

      (1) Surf fishing

      (2) Fishing from piers, bridges, etc.

      (3) Fishing by boat.

      Many fish species caught in nonestuarine waters are dependent upon estuaries
for some portion of their life cycle.  Similarly, many deep-sea charter fishing boats, as
well as personal craft, are estuary based.

      Swimming.  Swimming activities in estuaries include such water-contact sports
as surfing and scuba diving. * Sun bathing on beaches is closely related to beach swim-
ming,  and may entail similar purchases and expenditures.

      Swimming is one of the most popular forms of outdoor and indoor recreation and
has the highest rate of participation of any of the major estuarine activities. ** Yet
swimming is among the more easily substitutable of water-dependent estuarine
recreation activities.  Coastal areas with multiple attractions but poor swimming
resources are quick to construct pools to provide satisfaction for the swimming de-
mand.

      Because swimming activities are spread widely throughout the entire coastal re-
gion, and require no major purchases of equipment by individuals, it is difficult  to es-
timate the numbers and locations  of estuarine swimmers. It is estimated that 330
million visits a year are made to  coastal shores*** for the purpose of swimming, yet
a large majority of these shores are on seaward exposures, rather than in estuarine
waters.  Four examples illustrate this point.

      (a) Long Island, a major recreation region, has a majority of its
         beaches on the Atlantic  Ocean, rather than on bays separating
         the mainland from off-shore bars.

      (b) Baltimore-Washington residents flock to Maryland-Delaware -
         Virginia beaches on the Atlantic coast despite the prixomity
         of Chesapeake Bay.
  *Water skiing is generally considered with boating.
 **ORRRC, op.  cit.
***U.S.  Department of Commerce, Development Potential of U.S. Continental Shelves
   (April,  1966), p IH-64.
                                       A-4

-------
      (c) Los Angeles' majority of beaches front directly on the open
         Pacific Ocean.

      (d) Miami's "miracle"tourist strip fronts the Atlantic Ocean
         rather than the estuarine waters of Biscayne Bay.

      Therefore,  while specific data are not available, it can be assumed that estuarine
swimming is a secondary and less preferred form of coastal swimming.

      Estuaries are generally considered inferior for surfing, due to lack of waves.
Scuba diving is another swimming activity which is generally nonestuarine.   All in all,
it is doubtful whether as much as 10 percent of the entire coastal swimming activity or
3 percent of the entire U.S. swimming participation takes place on estuaries.

      Hunting.  Estuarine-related hunting includes:

      (1) Hunting by boat
      (2) Shoreline and marsh hunting for waterfowl and small game

      (3) Inland hunting for estuarine-related fowl.

      Land-based water-dependent activities (camping and picnicking).   Many campsites
and picnic areas are located adjacent to points of water-based recreation activities.
The primary attractions of campers to shoreline campsites are the water-based,
estuarine-related activities of boating,  swimming,  fishing and hunting.  Picnicking is
an important day-use of many estuarine recreation areas, particularly swimming
beaches and multiple-use state and national parks.  The  climate, environment,  and
scenery of the seashore are important attributes of land-based, water-dependent ac-
tivities.

      Land-based water-related activities  (sightseeing, driving for pleasure, walking
for pleasure, horseback riding, hiking, nature walks).  This class of recreation
activity, popular at any location, may be particularly enhanced by coastal or estuarine
environment.  Each of the  activities included in this class is among the 20 most popu-
lar outdoor recreation activities as determined by the Outdoor Recreation Resources
Review Commission. * Many of these activities are likely to take place in multiple-use
waterfront parks, in urban waterfront communities, along scenic highways, and at any
other locations where there is public access to the shore.

      Land-based, water-unrelated activities  (golf, sports).   This class of recreation
activity is often located adjacent to estuaries for reasons other than a primary water-
activity relationship.  Many waterfront parks  include such popular facilities as golf
courses and athletic fields. Often, this land is reclaimed from estuaries by filling.
*ORRRC, op.  cit., p34.
                                       A-5

-------
Land-Water Dependencies
      To properly manage estuarine recreation resources, it is important to be aware
of the interrelationships between recreation activities and the physical characteristics
of land and water areas.  Among the important water characteristics for recreation
are:

          Water quality - biological, chemical and physical properties

          Size and depth of a water body

          Biological productivity

          Degree of protection of water surface from turbulent meteorological
          conditions.

      Primary land characteristics include:
          Shoreline features (beach, bluff, or marsh) and shoreline access
          Capacity at a shoreline recreation area

          Man-made facilities
          Physical environment including scenery, vegetation, and habitat.

      There are three degrees of dependency between recreation activities and the
physical characteristics of land and water areas.

      (1)  Essential dependency  - signifying that the absence or inadequacy of a
         physical characteristic would prohibit the development of a recreation
         activity.

      (2) Consequential dependency - signifying that the absence or inadequacy
         of a physical characteristic would limit the development of a recreation
         activity.

      (3) Nondependency - signifying that the absence or inadequacy of a physical
         characteristic would be unrelated to the development of a recreation
         activity.

      An analysis of the relationships among the seven types of estuarine recreation
and the eight land and water characteristics  is presented in Table A-2.
                                        A-6

-------
                               TABLE A-2.  ESTUARINE RECREATION DEPENDENCIES ON
                                           WATER AND LAND CHARACTERISTICS
>
Activity
Boating
Fishing
Swimming
Hunting
Land based -
water dependent
Land based -
water related
Land based -
water unrelated
Water Characteristics
Quality
+
+
*
+

+

-

-
Size
and
Depth
*
+
+
+

+

+

-
Productivity1
-
*
-
*

+

-

-
Protection
+
+
-
+

+

-

-
Land Characteristics
Shoreline
+
*
+
*

*

+

+
Capacity
+
+
+
+

+

+

+
Facilities
*
+
+
-

*

+

*
Environment
-
-
-
+

+

*

—
Key: * Essential dependency.
+ Consequential dependency.
- Non-dependency.

-------
Difference Between Estuarine and Other Outdoor Recreation

      Given the major estuarine recreation activities and their dependencies upon the
physical characteristics of land and water resources, several important aspects of
estuarine  recreation can be noted:

      (1)  Estuarine-related recreation is significantly dependent upon the
          characteristics of the estuarine water resource for its existence.

      (2)  Estuaries are natural bodies of water, as contrasted to the rapidly
          developing number of man-made recreation reservoirs.   The creation
          of estuarine recreation areas is less flexible in design than that for
          comparable areas on new reservoirs or on controllable waterways;
          i. e., the physical properties of water quality,  size and depth,
          productivity and protection are less manageable.

      (3)  Because of the natural processes occurring in  estuaries and their
          drainage basins, estuarine properties tend to be more permanent
          than comparable properties on other bodies of  water, particularly
          inland lakes and reservoirs.

      (4)  From a management perspective, the slow response to change which
          estuaries possess has both positive and negative implications. The
          advantages include the relatively long time which estuaries, particu-
          larly large ones,  take to respond to deteriorating conditions. On the
          other hand, once an estuarine area has seriously degraded, particu-
          larly in water quality or in loss of water-surface area, the permanency
          of the resource tends to make recovery more difficult and time
          consuming.

      (5)  There are normally several water and shoreline uses associated
          with estuarine resources.  It is generally impossible to reserve
          estuaries only for recreation. They are multiple-use bodies of water,
          adaptable in some part or  form for recreation.  (Note section on
          Use Conflicts.)

      (6)  Estuaries are used as access means for other  waters, including both
          inland and deep-sea areas.  As such, they are related to recreational
          activities,  especially boating, beyond their immediate boundaries.

      (7)  Since estuaries are nursery grounds for many  species of sport-fish,
          fish conservation and management in estuaries is important for the
          entire salt-water fishery.
                                       A-8

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SUPPLY OF ESTUARINE RECREATION RESOURCES AND FACILITIES
Availability of Recreation Shoreline

The present and future economic impact and effect of estuarine recreation is par-
tially determined by the present and potential supply of estuarine recreation opportunities.
Yet recreational activities vary in sensitivity to the supply of different estuarine re-
sources as well as to the supply of different man-made facilities. Boating, for instance,
is far more dependent upon the supply of surface area in an estuarine region than is
swimming. On the other hand, swimming is far more dependent upon the nature of the
shoreline, i. e., the degree of accessibility from the land to the water, and on the
quality of the water body as opposed to its size or its quantity. Therefore, there is no
single criterion which can be used to effectively describe supply of estuarine recreation
resources or facilities. The three criteria most often used in evaluating the capacity
of an estuarine recreation site are (1) shoreline distances, (2) park or recreation area
in acres, and (3) water surface area in acres.

No survey of estuarine recreation resources has been performed. While ORRC
Study Report No. 4, Shoreline Recreation Resources of the United States (1962), con-
tained a detailed inventory of the nature and the extent of the entire recreation shore-
line, both estuarine and coastal, the results are inapplicable to this study because the
estuarine shoreline was not distinguished from the nonestuarine and considerable
change in the usage and ownership of shoreline areas has occurred since preparation of
that report. However, many of the summaries and conclusions from that report are
valid for those portions of recreation shorelines which are on estuaries.

In performing its analysis, the Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commis-
sion was faced with the problem of precisely defining recreation shoreline. The term
shoreline was described as the line of intersection of the stated water surface with
the land. However, that portion of shoreline which qualified as potential or existing
recreation shoreline was judged by the following subjective criteria:

(1) The existence of a marine climate and environment

(2) The existence of an expansive view of at least 5 miles over
water to the horizon from somewhere on the shore

(3) Location on some (external) water boundary of the United States.

The second criterion, the necessity of a 5-mile expanse to the horizon, is the most re-
strictive of the three criteria for estuaries. Marine climate and environment would
naturally occur at almost 100 percent of estuarine shoreline areas, but many of the
smaller inlets and tidal portions of rivers cannot meet this criterion. As a result,
only 17,455 miles, less than 33 percent of the total detailed coastal shoreline of
53,677 miles, qualifies as recreation shoreline.
A-9