IWWA/EPA Series
Methods for Determining
the Location of
Abandoned Wells
Linda Aller
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EPA-600/2-83-123
January, 1984
METHODS FOR DETERMINING THE LOCATION
OF ABANDONED WELLS
by
Linda Aller
National Water Well Association
Worthington, Ohio 43085
Contract No. CR-809353
Project Officer
Jerry Thornhill
Ground Water Research Branch
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
This study was conducted
in cooperation with
East Central University
Environmental Research Institute
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
ROBERT S. KERR ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
ADA, OKLAHOMA 74820
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DISCLAIMER
Although the research described In this report has been funded wholly
or In part by the United States Environmental Protection Agency through
grant CR-809353 to East Central Oklahoma State University, it has not been
subjected to the agency's peer and policy review and therefore does not
necessarily reflect the views of the agency and no official endorsement
should be inferred, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
Copyright® 1984
National Water Well Association
500 W. Wilson Bridge Rd.
Worthington, OH 43085 j j
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FOREWORD
The Environmental Protection Agency was established to coordinate
administration of the major Federal programs designed to protect the
quality of our environment.
An important part of the Agency's effort involves the search for
information about environmental problems, management techniques, and new
technologies through which optimum use of the Nation's land and water
resources can be assured and the threat pollution poses to the welfare of
the American people can be minimized.
EPA's Office of Research and Development conducts this search through
a nationwide network of research facilities.
As one of these facilities, the Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research
Laboratory is the Agency's center of expertise for investigation of the
soil and subsurface environment. Personnel at the laboratory are
responsible for management of research programs to: (a) determine the
fate, transport and transformation rates of pollutants in the soil, the
unsaturated zone and the saturated zones of the subsurface environment; (b)
define the processes to be used in characterizing the soil and subsurface
environment as a receptor of pollutants; (c) develop techm'oues for
predicting the effect of pollutants on ground water, soil and indigenous
organisms; and (d) define and demonstrate the applicability and limitations
of using natural processes, indigenous to the soil and subsurface
environment, for the protection of this resource.
This report contributes to that knowledge which is essential in order
for EPA to establish and enforce pollution control standards which are
reasonable, cost effective, and provide adequate environmental protection
for the American public.
Clinton W. Hall
Director
Robert S. Kerr Environmental
Research Laboratory
iii
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PREFACE
Methods for Determining the Location of Abandoned Wells has been
developed under the guidance of East Central University, in conjunction
with the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, for use by all of those
involved in efforts to locate abandoned wells. Techniques described are
those which are currently in use and methods which may be of future
significance.
For those concerned with protecting ground water, this document may be
helpful as a ready summary of ways to locate penetrations in the earth
which may be or may no longer be physically evident at the surface.
Finally, this manual partially fulfills a mandate contained in the Safe
Drinking Water Act (P.L. 93-523) requiring the Administrator of the
Environmental Protection Agency to "...carry out a study of methods of
underground injection which do not result in the degradation of underground
drinking water sources."
iv
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ABSTRACT
Improperly plugged or unplugged abandoned wells which penetrate an
injection formation may provide a conduit for migration of injected fluids
into fresh water formations. To help minimize this serious environmental
threat, all abandoned wells within an area of review around a proposed
injection well should be located and their condition assessed.
A search for abandoned wells may have three different objectives: 1)
to provide an overview of the presence or absence of abandoned wells within
an area, 2) to determine the status of a particular well and establish the
potential impact of that well, and 3) to actually field locate the
abandoned well. The scope of a search may encompass all or any combination
of these objectives before the search is completed.
To date, few methods have been successfully used to search for
abandoned wells. This document contains a discussion of the application of
methods which historically have been used to locate abandoned wells
including record searching, talking with residents, using visual and
logical clues to look for the well, walking over the area with a metal
detector or magnetometer and excavation. Additionally, this document
addresses technologies which may not have been specifically developed for
locating abandoned wells, but which may have future application. These
technologies include geophysical methods such as electrical resistivity,
electromagnetic conductivity and ground penetrating radar, remote sensing
techniques such as black and white aerial photographs, color photographs,
color infrared imagery and thermal imagery, and indirect methods such as
water-level measurements or actual injection. Although this document has
been specifically designed to outline methods for the location of abandoned
oil and gas wells, the techniques described herein may also be applicable
to locating abandoned water wells, mineral exploration boreholes,
engineering borings and similar subsurface excavations.
This report was submitted in partial fulfillment of Contract No.
CR-809353 by the National Water Well Association under the sponsorship of
the Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory, Ada, Oklahoma and in
cooperation with East Central University Environmental Research Institute,
Ada, Oklahoma. This report covers a period from December, 1981, to
September, 1983, and work was completed as of September, 1983.
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vi
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CONTENTS
Disclaimer ii
Foreword iii
Preface 1v
Abstract v
Figures viii
Tables xi
Acknowledgements xii
1. Introduction 1
2. Conclusions 8
3. Recommendations 13
Part I: Methods Historically Used to Locate Abandoned Wells
4. Search of Records 14
5. Conversation with Local Residents 29
6. Visual/Logical 32
7. Aerial Photographic Interpretation 41
8. Metal Detectors 52
9. Magnetometers 59
10. Combustible Gas Indicators 71
11. Excavation 77
Part II: Methods Which Have Not Historically Been Used To Locate
Abandoned Wells
12. Electrical Resistivity 79
13. Electromagnetic Conductivity 88
14. Ground Penetrating Radar 94
15. Remote Sensing 100
16. Water Level Measurement in Surrounding Wells 107
17. Injection 113
References 118
Appendices
A. Regulations, requirements and methods used by state
government agencies to locate abandoned wells 124
B. State depositories of oil and gas well logs 126
vii
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FIGURES
Mutnber
1 Diagram showing how fluid migration from an injection zone
through an abandoned well and into a fresh-water zone may
occur 4
2 Part of a county map showing the location of oil and gas wells . 16
3 Part of a county tax map showing wells drilled around 1885 ... 17
4 Part of a township map illustrating typical platted information
for more recent wells 18
5 American Petroleum Institute standard map symbols 19
6 Detailed location map clearly showing the location of the well. . 20
7 Location map showing an example of a well location which is not
clearly defined 21
8 Well location map which leaves the location to the imagination of
the interpreter 23
9 Plan and elevation of an 82-foot standard cable tool rig .... 33
10 Plan and elevation of a 100-foot rotary rig 34
11 Steam-driven rotary rig of the 1930's showing surface equipment
and boiler-plant layout 37
12 Surficial evidence of supporting structures around abandoned
wells, Cleveland County, Oklahoma 38
13 Parts of two flight strips of aerial photographs superimposed to
show characteristic overlaps 42
14 Position of pocket stereoscope relative to two photographs of a
stereo pair 42
15 Aerial photography summary record from National Cartographic
Information Center 44
vii i
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FIGURES (Continued)
Number Pa9e
16 Explanation of symbols and codes on aerial photography summary. . 45
17 Aerial photograph showing derricks, Osage County, Oklahoma,
1937 «
18 Aerial photograph showing central powerhouse, rod lines to the
powerhouse and brine pits, Osage County, Oklahoma, 1937 50
19 Metal detectors 54
20 Metallic evidence uncovered in the vicinity of abandoned well,
Appalachian area and Midcontinent area 56
21 Location of metallic objects excavated from the area around
abandoned well, Appalachian area 57
22 Diagram showing magnetic field surrounding well casing
and metal object 61
23 Different types of portable magnetometers 63
24 Comparison of observed and theoretical anomaly produced by a
4,609 foot vertical string of casing 64
25 Different effects of pipeline on the shape of a curve plotted
from readings obtained from a magnetometer 65
26 Airborne magnetometer mounted in an airplane or suspended from
a "bird" and contour map produced from a hypothetical aerial
survey 66
27 Operation of combustible gas indicator 73
28 Graphic representation of decreases in methane concentration as
search probe is moved from center of well bore 74
29 Diagram showing basic concept of electrical resistivity
measurement 80
30 Electrical resistivity survey equipment 82
31 Field operation of electrical resistivity equipment 83
32 Diagram showing basic concept of electromagnetic conductivity
measurement 89
IX
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FIGURES (Continued)
Number Page
33 Field operation of electromagnetic conductivity equipment by one
and two man crews ........................ 91
34 Example profiles obtained from a ground penetrating radar survey. 95
35 Computer-produced map view of radar reflections at survey site. . 97
36 Diagram of thermal infrared scanner system ........... 102
37 Thermal infrared image and panchromatic photograph showing
Kilauea volcano, Hawaii ..................... 103
38 Diagram showing confined and uncortfined aquifers ........ 108
39 Diagram illustrating water level increases in wells surrounding
an abandoned xeU ........................ 110
40 Diagram of the relationship between an injection well and a
flowing abandoned well ..................... 114
41 Diagram of the relationship between an injection well and an
abandoned well which does not flow at the surface ........ 115
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TABLES
Number
1 Summary of application, advantages and disadvantages of each
method which may be used to locate abandoned wells 9
2 Summary of wells and well status, within an area of review,
Case History #2 26
3 Typical costs for standard aerial photography available from
the U.S. government 4?
XI
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This document reflects the state of the art available today on
locating abandoned wells. It is the product of many experiences, some
published and some unpublished. Its successful completion, however, is due
to the time and effort which an unusually able advisory review panel was
willing to devote to this activity. To the following named persons,
grateful acknowledgement of their contributions is made:
Ray Aired
Research Services Division
Conoco Inc.
Richard Benson
Technos, Inc.
Bill 6. Cantrell
Oil Operator
Timothy Dowd, Executive Director
Interstate Oil Compact Commission
U. Scott Keys
U.S. Geological Surey
T. A. Minton
Oklahoma Corporation Commission
Joe G. Moore
University of Texas at Dallas
Jerry Hull lean
Texas Railroad Commission
Robert Phillips
Shell Oil Company
Larry Sowell
Gearhart Industries
John S. Talbot
Baffin Associates
xii
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE
Methods for Determining the Location of Abandoned Wells has been
prepared as an aid to state and federal authorities concerned with
Identifying the location of abandoned wells prior to authorizing the
issuance of permits for Class II wells under the Underground Injection
Control Program (UIC). The manual is also designed to assist industry
representatives, engineers, geologists and others with the task of locating
abandoned wells which may pose a potential problem to the issuance of such
permits. Information contained within this publication is also applicable
to identifying the location of abandoned wells for a variety of other
purposes.
This manual is intended to be informative rather than prescriptive in
nature. The basic objective is to provide a concise description of methods
or technologies which are currently being used or which may have
applicability in locating abandoned wells. The information is presented in
a form that 1s convenient for use by regulatory agencies, private industry
and others in performing their respective tasks so that injection wells may
be used with a minimum potential for environmental damage.
Impetus for the development of Methods for Determining the Location
of Abandoned Wells was provided by passage of Public Law 93-bZ3 itne bare
Drinking Water Act) and the subsequent enactment of federal regulations
found in 40 CFR Parts 122, 123, 124 and 146 (the UIC Program). The Safe
Drinking Water Act of 1974 requires the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) to develop minimum requirements to assist in the establishment
of effective state programs to protect underground sources of drinking
water from the subsurface emplacement of fluids through well injection.
Additionally, the Act states that these requirements not impede the
re-injection of brine or other fluids resulting from oil and natural gas
production or the injection of fluids used in secondary or tertiary
recovery unless drinking water sources would be endangered (Federal
Register, June 24, 1980).
40 CFR Parts 122, 123, 124 and 146, (the UIC Program) were enacted
under the authority of PL 93-523. 40 CFR Part 122 defines the regulatory
framework of EPA-administered permit programs; 40 CFR Part 123 describes
the elements of an approved state program and criteria for EPA approval of
that program; 40 CFR Part 124 describes the procedures the agency will use
for issuing permits under covered programs; and 40 CFR Part 126 sets forth
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technical criteria and standards for the UIC (Federal Register, June 24,
1980). A discussion of some of the pertinent sections of 40 CFR Part 146
are described below.
Underground Injection Is defined as the subsurface emplacement of
fluids through a well (146.03). For purposes of the UIC program, Injection
wells were classified Into five categories based on the nature of the fluid
which would be Injected. In general, Class I wells Include Industrial and
municipal disposal wells and hazardous waste disposal wells not covered 1n
Class IV; Class II wells Include wells which Inject fluids 1) brought to
the surface during oil and gas production, 2) for enhanced recovery of oil
and gas, or 3) for storage of hydrocarbons which are liquid at standard
temperature and pressure; Class III wells Inject for the purpose of
extraction of minerals or energy; Class IV wells include disposal wells
used by hazardous and radioactive waste generators and disposal site
operators; Class V Includes Injection wells not covered by the four ofer
classes (146.05). Inherent 1n the permit process for these Injection wells
Is the "area of review" concept. This concept refers to the lateral
distance around an Injection well in which pressures developed in the
Injection formation may cause migration of formation or injection fluid
into an underground source of drinking water. The area of review can be
determined by calculations using the modified Theis equation or by
establishing a fixed radius around the well of not less than 1/4 mile
(Thornhill et al., 1982). The method chosen for determining the area of
review depends on the appropriateness of each method for the affected
geographic area or field (146.06). For the purposes of this report, only
those regulations specifically applicable to Class II wells (CFR 40, Part
146 Subpart C) are detailed.
The permitting authority in each state with a UIC program in force or
the appropriate regional EPA administrator is charged with determining
whether a proposed injection well has a potential for contaminating
aquifers through either operating or abandoned wells, or through subsurface
geologic features. To assist the permitting authority, the permit
applicant must submit (along with other specified Information) Information
on producing wells, other injection wells, abandoned wells, dry holes and
water wells within the area of review (146.24). All information on
completion and plugging of these wells must also be made available to the
permitting authority. The determination must then be made by the
permittfng authority as to whether conditions may allow migration of
contaminants into an aquifer. If It is determined that conditions exist
which could allow potential contaminants to migrate into an underground
source of drinking water, either the permit is denied or corrective action
must be proposed to mitigate the potential for contamination.
In order to determine whether or not migration of potential con-
taminants will occur from the injection zone into an underground source of
drinking water or to effect any corrective action, all wells within the
area of review must first be located. If adequate records concerning the
construction, abandonment and plugging of the well are available, just
recognizing the presence of the well may be adequate. However, if the
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condition of the abandoned well 1s not known or If plugging records are
Inadequate, non-existent or Indicators of potential problems, it may be
necessary to physically locate the well.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND PROBLEM DEFINED
Since 1859, when the first oil well was drilled at THusville,
Pennsylvania until 1981, over 2,750,000 wells were drilled in the United
States {Anonymous, 1982a). However, in 1981 only 740,000 wells were
producing oil and gas (Anonymous, 1982a and b). What is the status of the
other two million wells? Where were they drilled? These questions are
only the beginning. In the early days of oil production, dry holes or
depleted wells were abandoned without much thought being given to plugging
the hole. Often, casing was never set or the casing was removed when the
well was not productive (J.T. Thornhill, personal communication, 1983).
When a well was "plugged", the plug often consisted of seasoned wood or
tree limbs thrown or driven into the hole (Herndon and Smith, 1976). At
other times, the well would simply be covered with a board or a piece of
sheet metal to help ensure that the well would not become a physical hazard
to people or animals (Gass et al., 1977).
Today, every oil producing state has adopted regulations regarding the
drilling, plugging and abandonment of wells and the disposal of brines.
Often these regulations have been the direct result of surface- or
ground-water contamination (Pettyjohn, 1971). However, many of the
problems faced today center around the wells which were abandoned years
ago.
The potential for an abandoned well to adversely affect ground-water
quality depends on the original use of the well, the local geology, the
type of well construction and the hydraulic characteristics of the
subsurface fluids (Gass et al., 1977). In general, two different types of
subsurface injection associated with oil operations can be identified: 1)
water flood or pressure maintenance operations and 2) brine disposal
operations (McMillion, 1965). The first category Involves injection of
fluids into a hydrocarbon-producing or former hydrocarbon-producing
formation while the second category may Involve Injection into a
hydrocarbon-producing formation or into a non-hydrocarbon-producing
formation.
An excerpt from Irwln and Morton (1969) illustrates how abandoned
wells which penetrate an Injection zone can have a negative impact on
ground-water quality. Figure 1 illustrates a situation where formation
fluids and injection waters may migrate from an Injection formation through
abandoned wells Into a fresh water formation. Well A represents an
injection well where liquid Is injected into a permeable zone overlain by
impermeable deposits. Well B is an abandoned well which was inadequately
cemented in place. Well C represents an abandoned borehole in which no
casing was set. In a well such as C, the hole is likely to have caved in
partially; however, enough openings may remain to transmit fluid. It is
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WASTE-DISPOSAL
WELL
ABANDONED WCLLS
WATER SUPPLY
WELL
WATER-SUPPLY
WELL
WITH CASING NO CASING
B C
bA^f^^j^i^^^- ^%-oV»°c«--v»"'V-;«v»--7'-.v-» *-•*!>'.. ?-^ij *- ^*«« j«« t on; e»; oe; oo ; »* : »a
>v - *"— • S——-*- * - ^ .- "l. , O » o •" • o »
Figure ^\. Diagram showing how fluid migration from an Injection zone through an abandoned well and Into a Iresh water zone may occur (Irwin and
Morion 1969).
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further assumed that neither Well B nor Well C were plugged adequately, If
at all. Uells D and E represent water supply wells.
A difference In hydrostatic head within the wells, as shown, could be
due to the Injection pressure 1n Well A, the difference In elevation of the
top of the Injection formation at each well or both. If the head
difference Is great enough and the potentlometrlc surface In the Injection
well Is higher than that in Wells B and C (which penetrate the Injection
formation and are not adequately sealed), the formation and/or waste fluids
will migrate upward via wells B and C and enter the fresh-water zone
thereby causing contamination of the fresh-water aquifer. From here, the
fluids will migrate downgradient and eventually reach the water supply
well. This is often the first indication that pollution has occurred.
Even if the abandoned hole is located and plugged, the contaminated fluid
already present In the fresh-water aquifer will continue to migrate
downgradient in the fresh water zone unless some other treatment 1s
empl oyed.
The leakage of contaminated or highly mineralized water upward through
abandoned wells and unplugged exploration holes has led to localized
ground-water pollution problems in many areas in the United States.
According to an EPA report (1973), contamination incidents caused by
abandoned or improperly plugged oil and gas wells can probably be found in
most oil and gas producing states. McMillion (1965) reports that in T--
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PROBLEM ASSESSED
Traditionally, abandoned wells were located only when a ground or
surface-water contamination problem was identified or when an economic
incentive existed for a certain industry to locate and plug the well.
Abandoned wells needed to be located and plugged in coal-mining areas
because the abandoned, unplugged hole may serve as a source of both
unwanted water and gas, and thereby pose a potential hazard to the
ventilation system within the mine (Roley, 1949). In gas storage fields,
abandoned wells may provide an outlet for the injected natural gas. For
example, 25 abandoned wells were located and plugged within a 2560 acre gas
storage field in Grant County, Oklahoma when it became apparent that the
abandoned wells would cause a problem (Herndon and Smith, 1976).
In developing Methods for Determining the Location of Abandoned Wells,
past, present and potentially available methods for locating abandoned
wells were researched. Government officials in oil and gas producing
states were surveyed regarding regulations, requirements and methods used
by the agency to locate abandoned wells (see Appendix A). Efforts to
document methods used by industries such as oil and gas companies or mining
companies were conducted. Attempts were also made to assess the
applicability of many types of equipment for locating abandoned wells and
to identify the availability of companies able to perform abandoned well
searches.
It was apparent that three types of searches, either separate or in
combination, could be performed to locate and assess the status of an
abandoned well. First, an area overview to locate the presence of an
abandoned well within a certain area could be performed. Second, a more
detailed search to establish the status and establish the potential impact
of that well could be conducted. Third, an attempt could be made to
actually field locate the well. This manual attempts to address methods
which can be used in all three types of searches.
ORGANIZATION
This document contains two parts, eighteen sections, and two
supporting appendices. The development of the sections and appendices are
user-oriented. Sections 4-11 address methods of locating abandoned wells
which have been historically used and also contains information on new ways
to apply these methods. The sequence of the presented methods approximates
the order that the methods would be used to identify, generally to
specifically, the location of an abandoned well. Sections 12-18 address
technologies which may not have been specifically developed for locating
abandoned wells, but which may have future application. A variety of
methods in many combinations may be useful or necessary in the final
endeavor.
An attempt has been made to summarize applicable techniques and
technologies throughout the manual. Each section contains a reference
section for additional information.
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REFERENCES
Anonymous, 1982a, U.S. drilling: Expect more growth in 1982; World Oil.
vol. 194, no. 3, p. 162.
Anonymous, 1982b, Oil wells onstream reach record level; World Oil. vol.
194, no. 3, p. 203.
Anonymous, 1932c, Producing gas wells maintain steady rise; World Oil. vol.
194, no. 3, p. 204.
Federal Register, vol. 45, June 24, 1980, pp. 42472-42512.
Gass, Tyler E., Jay H. Lehr and Harold W. Heiss, Jr., 1977, Impact of
abandoned wells on ground water; U.S. EPA 600/3-77-095, August 1977, 52 pp.
Herndon, Joe and Dwight K. Smith, 1976, Plugging wells for abandonment;
Unpublished manuscript, Halliburton Services, Duncan, Oklahoma, 7 pp.
Hopkins, Herbert T., 1963, The effect of oilfield brine on the potable
ground water in the Upper Big Pitman Creek Basin, Kentucky; Kentucky
Geological Survey, Report of Investigations 4: Series X,
36 pp.
Irwin, James H. and Robert B. Morton, 1969, HydrogeoTogic information on
the Glorieta Sandstone and the Ogallala Formation in the Oklahoma Panhandle
and adjoining areas as related to underground waste disposal; U.S.
Geological Survey Circular 630, 26 pp.
Latta. Bruce F., 1963, Fresh water pollution hazards related to the
petroleum industry In Kansas; Transactions of the Kansas Academy of
Science, vol. 60, no. 1, pp. 25-33.
McMilllon, L.G., 1965, Hydrologic aspects of disposal of oil-field brines
in Texas; Ground Water, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 36-42.
Pettyjohn, Wayne A., 1971, Water pollution by oil-field brines and related
industrial wastes in Ohio; The Ohio Journal of Science, vol. 71, no. 5, pp.
257-269.
Roley, Rolf W., 1949, Hazards in unplugged wells; Water Well Journal, vol.
3, no. 6, p. 14.
Thornhill, J.T., T.E. Short and L. Silka, 1982, Application of the area of
review concept; Ground Water, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 31-38.
U.S. EPA, 1973, Ground Water Pollution from subsurface excavations; U.S.
EPA 430/9-73-012, 217 pp.
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SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
Improperly plugged or unplugged abandoned wells which penetrate an
Injection formation may provide a conduit for migration of injected fluids
into fresh water formations. With the adoption of the Federal Underground
Injection Control Regulations (UIC), all abandoned wells within an "area of
review" around a proposed injection well must be located. This will help to
ensure that if an abandoned well 1s present, the potential for
contamination of the fresh water through the abandoned well fs minimized.
To date, few methods have been successfully used to search for
abandoned wells. Most searches have employed a combination of record
searching, talking with residents, looking for the well and walking over
the area with a metal detector or magnetometer. While few methods have
actually been used, a variety of other technologies, although not
specifically developed for this purpose may be useful in searching for
abandoned wells. Geophysical methods such as electrical resistivity,
electromagnetic conductivity and ground penetrating radar all may have
various applications in searching for abandoned wells. Remote sensing
techniques, including black and white aerial photographs, color
photographs, color infrared and thermal infrared may be combined with other
methods to provide a different dimension to the search. Other more indirect
methods such as water-level measurements or actual injection may also be
applicable in certain situations.
A search for abandoned wells may have three different objectives: U
to provide an overview of the presence or absence of abandoned wells within
an area, 2) to determine the status of a particular well and establish the
potential impact of that well, and 3) to actually field locate the
abandoned well. The scope of a search may encompass all or any combination
of these objectives before the search is completed.
Since many different methods may be employed in the search for
abandoned wells, the applicability, advantages and disadvantages of each
method must be understood to facilitate a rational decision regarding which
technique or combination of techniques can be applied to each individual
situation. Table 1 provides a detailed summary of the methods which have
been used in the past and the methods which may be applicable for use in
searches for abandoned wells. The best combination of methods depends on
the objectives of the search, the condition and surface expression of the
abandoned well and the resources available to conduct the search.
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10
Table 1. SUMMARY OF APPLICATION. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EACH METHOD
WHICH MAY BE USED TO LOCATE ABANDONED WELLS
Method Application
Search of Cased/uncased wells
records
Conversations Cased/uncased wells
with local
residents
Visual/Logical Cased/uncased wells
Aenal Cased/uncased wells
Photographic
Interpretation Surface disturbance by
drilling activities
Advantages
Provides overview of area
May provide enough information that no lurlher
search is needed
May reduce field search time
Information may not be available from other
sources
May actually point oul location of well
Location may be determined without equipment
Historical photographs may actually ' capture"
drilling operation
Historical photographs may show surface features
which have since been obliterated
Aerial perspective may show features not evident
on the ground
Disadvantage!
Records may be unavailable or incomplete
May not be able to determine location or match
development/plugging records with location
Well locations may be inaccurate
Residents may not know information
May be lime consuming without results
Requires recognizable surface expression
May not be available
There may be no surface expression on photos
Still requires field location
Metal detectors
Magnetometers
a surlacfj
Cased wells
Metal obiects associated
wilh drilling
Cased wells
Ferrous metal objects
Can find buried metal oDiects or casing
Equipment inexpensive
No specific training necessary to operate
equipment
Equipment portable
Provides continuous readings
Suitable for all terrain and vegetative cover
No interpretation of data necessary
Can locate buried metal obiccts or casing
Some equipment easy to operate has direct
output und requires no interpolation
Some inexpensive equipment available
Portable and suitable tor all types ol leirrnn and
vccji.-tiitivi* cover
Limited to metal casing or objects at shallow depths
Limited to metal casing or objects at shallow depths
Some equipment inquires experienced opeuloi
Some equipment piodiices data which rn.iy requite
limited miernicMlion
Readings m.iy be allotted by ciillin.il fe.iluies
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Table 1. (continued)
Method
Application
Advantages
Disadvantages
Magnetometers Cased wells
b aerial
c subsurface Cased wells
May provide location of either buried or unbuned
casing
May provide overview of presence of cased wells
in an area
Determine location and deplh of casing in a well
May be used to locale casing at great depths
Requires special survey
Aircraft needs to be flown at low elevations
Readings affected by cultural features
Limited to low population density rural areas
Requires interpretation of data by professional
Requires the presence or construction of an
uncased hole within 15 leet ol the abandoned well
Requires services of professional company
Expensive
Methane
detectors
Excavation
Electrical
resistivity
Cased/uncased wells
Cased/uncased wells
Cased wells
Equipment inexpensive and easy to operate
Equipment portable
Suitable for all types of terrain and vegetative cover
Provides verification of a buried well location thai
is determined by other methods
May locale buried casing
Must have delectable presence of gas at surface
Wind may disperse gas
May excavate large areas without results
Limited to finding casing
Nat limned to very shallow depths but may be
more successful at shallow depths
Saline ground-water
contdiniridlion plumes
May locale ground-water contamination plume
Irom an abandoned well
Requires special expertise lo conduct survey
Electrodes must be inserted into ground to obtain
readings
Cannot be used in all terrain or vegetative cover
Less cost effective than other methods lot finding
cased wells
Relatively slow
All abova disadvantages applicable
Regimes inluipietation of the d.itj
CoiitiiMiin.tlion mjy be due to other somces
RIM.IIIIICS .iddilion.il methods to vonty loc.ilion of
well
U'onliniuvl)
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Method
Application
Advantages
Disadvantages
Electromagnetic
conductivity
Cased wells
Soil disturbances
associated with drilling
Saline ground-water
contamination plumes
Equipment portable
Suitable lor all types ol terrain and vegetative cover
Not limited to shallow depths
Readings obtained as quickly as area can be
traversed on loot
Requires special expertise to conduct survey
Equipment expensive
Interpretation of data may be necessary
Contamination may be due to other sources
Soil disturbances must be larger than a borehole
Other methods may be needed to verily well location
Ground
penetrating
radar
Remote sensing
Cased/uncased wells
Metal obiects
Soil disturbances
May provide location ol either buried cased'uncased
wells, metal objects or soil disturbances associated
with drilling
Rapid survey with (ruck mounted equipment
Equipment provides continuous readings
Depth penetration of 10 to 25 leel common
On-site interpretation possible through graphic
recorder
Vegetation must be low or cleared from site
Access lor vehicle or hand lowing must be provided
Requires professional company
Additional interpretation of data necessary
Must pass over casing to delect
Relatively expensive
Cased/uncased wells
Surface disturbances by
drilling activities
Vegetative stress
Color infrared may help show all features by
responding to electromagnetic radiation
May provide aerial overview
May be able to see difforeni surface Icaluies than
could be seen with regular photographs
Imagery not already available
Requires special survey
Survey expensive
Requires interpretation ol photogi.iphs
Thermal inliaied m
-------
Table 1. (continued)
Method
Application
Advantages
Disadvantage*
Water level
measurement
in surrounding
wells
Cased/uncased wells
No specialized equipment necessary
May determine presence ot well when other
methods not successful
Requires local hydrogeologic information
Existing wells may not be close enough to
abandoned well
Only can be used when migration from lower
formations occurs
Still requires field location by other methods
Injection
Cased/uncased wells
May produce surface expression of the well
No further location methods needed
Pressure in subsurface must be great enough to
cause migration of fluid to surface
Channel must be well defined and close enough to
ground for fluid to appear at surface
May not be evident immediately after injection starts
-------
SECTION 3
RECOMMENDATIONS
A search for an abandoned well may employ more than one method to
determine Us location. The following list of procedures should be used to
help establish a systematic approach to finding abandoned wells:
1) Any search for abandoned wells should begin with a search of the
available records;
2) The scope of the search should be defined and the advantages and
disadvantages of each method should be evaluated within the
objectives of the search;
3) The area of the search should be narrowed as much as possible
before field methods are employed;
4) The most cost-effective method for the situation should always be
employed first.
5) The level of effort spent in trying to locate the well should be
commensurate with the potential for contamination from the well;
and
6) There is a point when it is not cost effective to continue search
efforts for the abandoned well.
Because many of the technologies detailed in this report have not been
specifically applied to locating abandoned wells, further study is needed
in the following areas:
1) The ground-based geophysical techniques of electrical resistivity,
electromagnetic conductance and ground penetrating radar should be field
tested for this application. The testing of ground penetrating radar is
particularly important because it is one of the few methods which can be
used to locate uncased abandoned wells.
2) The aerial searching methods should be field tested to determine
the viability of discovering the location of abandoned wells in
overflights. Aerial magnetometer searches and color infrared imagery may
prove the most successful.
3) Interpretation techniques for both aerial photography and color
infrared imagery should be refined and signatures for activities associated
with drilling should be developed for selected locations at selected
historical time intervals.
4) Research into new methods for locating abandoned wells should be
encouraged.
13
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SECTION 4
SEARCH OF RECORDS
SYNOPSIS
Information related to oil and gas well-drillIng activities may be
available from state regulatory agency records, county courthouse records
of oil and gas leasing agreements, county tax records, oil company records
or service company records and private companies which sell logs. The
completeness of the available records will be Influenced by the date the
well was drilled and the requirements (1f any) 1n effect at the time. A
search of available records provides, at the very least, a generalized
picture of drilling activity within a given area and may provide enough
detailed Information to adequately determine the status of a well or to
actually field locate the well. While the cost associated with obtaining
copies of the pertinent data may be small, the manpower requirement
necessary to obtain the Information will vary according to the organization
of the record keeping system as well as the familiarity of the Individual
with that system.
DISCUSSION AND PROCEDURES
The search for abandoned wells should begin with a search of all
available records. Information related to oil and gas well-drilling
activities may be available from a variety of sources, Including state
regulatory agency records, county courthouse records of leasing agreements,
county tax records, oil company records or service company records and
private companies which sell logs. The information available will vary
from source to source and also may vary with the age of the well or well
field.
State agencies often possess the most complete and readily avail-
able source of Information on oil and gas drilling activities. To
determine the extent of information available and to determine which agency
had adopted the primary role 1n oil and gas activities, a survey of the 38
states with producing oil and gas wells was conducted (see Appendix A). A
records search in each of those states should begin with the agency listed
in Appendix B. These agencies have been identified as the depository of
well logs in each of the respective states.
An overall assessment of oil and gas activity within a specified area
can be obtained by viewing maps which have been prepared to show well
locations within an area. Of the 38 states surveyed, 79 percent responded
that centralized maps with well locations were compiled. In the states
14
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which do not compile maps, private companies may perform this function.
The maps which are compiled by the states are available in a variety of
scales and are graphically depicted in many different ways. Figure 2
illustrates the oil and gas producing wells in one county of one of the
states surveyed. The map depicts the status of each well (if known) and
the permit number (if assigned). Wells may also be plotted on United
States Geological Survey (USGS) topographic maps, township maps or on
county tax maps. Figure 3 is plotted on a county tax map and depicts wells
which were drilled around 1885 and for which drilling and status records
are scarce. In comparison, Figure 4 is plotted on a township map and
illustrates the visual display of information which is commonly available
for more recently drilled wells. The symbols used on maps such as these
vary from state to state. According to the U.S. Department of Housing and
Urban Development (1982), "there is no single set of universally accepted
oil and gas well mapping symbols". However, the American Petroleum
Institute has developed a standard set of symbols (Figure 5) which are
becoming more widely accepted.
Once a general assessment has been made, a more detailed search for
information either on the well itself or well location may be warranted.
Information regarding location, completion, plugging and abandonment of a
well may be available from state agencies in a variety of ways. Records
may be stored in paper files, on microfiche, on computer or may be combined
in any of these filing and retrieval mechanisms. Information may be filed
according to permit number, county, oil field, landowner, operator, lease
or other methods. Records for each well may be kept in one file or may be
available from a multi-file cross-reference system. The filing system for
a state may change after a specified date due to a change in the record-
keeping system. An example of the way information may be filed by one
state agency is detailed below: "To access the required records, one must
first locate the well on the township and range map. After the well has
been located, a permanent serial number will be noted adjacent to the well.
With this serial number, the central records staff can access the
microfiche that will have all forms filed with the state on the well.
Since the serial number is permanent, no additional research is required in
the case of operator name changes due to lease purchases or the reentry of
old wells by new operators" (Lennon, personal communication, 1983). The
retrieval system is so specific to each state that the state office listed
in Appendix B should be contacted to obtain further information.
Information on the location of wells is available through this
record-searching process. Specific requirements for the designation and
description of the well varies from state to state and through time. In
general, the well location is designated by reference to township and
range, section, roads, lot lines or other boundaries and physical features
which should permit location of the well. The series of figures described
below depicts some of the ways the location of a well may be designated.
Figure 6 illustrates a detailed plot prepared by a registered surveyor
which clearly depicts the location of the well with respect to section
lines, lot lines and nearby roads. Figure 7 illustrates the location of
wells with respect to section lines, but the actual well location is not
15
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WELL SYMBOLS
O location
0 abandoned location
•fy gas well
^ gas well; show of oil
Q abandoned gas well
• oil well
«- oil and gas well
oil well; show of gas
abandoned oil well
dry hole
dry hole; show of gas
dry hole; show of oil
dry hole; show of gas and oil
production from two or more
horizons
Figure 2. Part of a county map showing the location of oil and gas wells.
16
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* CT./-.S.)
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V frrard
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r * J* •* *r
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WELL SYMBOLS
O location
^ abandoned location
•^f gas well
# gas well; show of oil
• Q abandoned gas well
• oil well
-)»- oil and gas well
oil well; show of gas
abandoned oil well
dry hole
dry hole; show of gas
dry hole; show of oil
dry hole; show of gas and oil
production from two or more
horizons
Figure 3. Part of a county tax map showing wells drilled around 1885.
17
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\ i*." ntf1 Tfqii*tAf"
1000 2000 3OOO 40OO ?OOO FEET
T^^^^^
1/4 I/I 1/4 I MILE
WELL SYMBOLS
O location
$ abandoned location
# gas well
^ gas well; show of oil
Q abandoned gas well
• oil well
^ 011 and gas well
•*• oil wll; show of gas
* abandoned oil well
•§• dry hole
^ dry hole; show of gas
-^- dry hole; show of oil
•^f- dry hole; show of gas and oil
^ production from two or more
horizons
Figure 4. Part of a township map illustrating typical platted information for more recent wells.
18
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API STANDARD SYMBOLS FOR OIL MAPPING
location O
Abandoned Location erase symbol
Dry Hole
Oil Well
Abandoned Oil Well
Gas Well
Abandoned Gas Well
Distillate Well
Abandoned Distillate Well
Dual Completion—Oil
Dual Completion—Gas
Drilled Water-input Well
Converted Water-input Well
Drilled Gas-input Well
Converted Gas-input Well
Bottom-hole Location
(x indicates bottom of hole. Changes in well status
should be indicated as in symbols above.)
Salt-water Disposal Well
' -'SWD
Figure 5. American Petroleum Institute standard map symbols.
19
-------
• I
i=.^
I
jl
VBNCJL BROWN*
No I
IM0- F73>
10 ACRE
VANQL BROWN
3OO AC.
G
PIK i COUNTY
SCIOTO COUNTY
N
SCALE IN FEET
0 3D
400
800
I2OO
I6OO
Figure 6. Detailed location map clearly showing the location ol the well.
20
-------
f
o
4
©*»
0
l/j
©•*
s
^
I
M-U/
\ ->.
CA* Vtau.
r-
-------
clearly defined. Figure 8 Illustrates the well with respect only to local
roads. Oftentimes, a detailed plot will not exist at all for older wells.
According to Fa1rch1ld (1983), who searched historical records of the
Oklahoma Corporation Commission, 1t was possible to determine some well
locations within l/64th of a section, while other locations could only be
determined as being somewhere within a section. It Is obvious that some
wells might very easily be field located from a given description, while
other descriptions may not provide enough Information to locate a well
without first obtaining further Information.
Information on the completion, plugging and abandonment of wells may
also be available from the appropriate state agency. Most state
regulations require the submission of this Information on state approved
forms. Information such as the depth of casing, whether the casing was
left In the ground when the well was abandoned and the type and method of
emplacement of the plug(s) may be available In the files. This data may be
necessary to evaluate the status of the well and to determine If the well
was adequately plugged.
Additional Information may be available from a variety of other
sources. Well location Information may be available from oil and gas
companies which maintain their own records of producing wells or who have
historic data on other wells or well fields. Independent contractors and
operators may also have records available. Libraries may have documents
which have compiled data from historic sources and Independent oil and gas
record-keeping companies may have Information on the location of wells.
County tax records and county courthouse records of leasing agreements may
provide Information about the location of a well and/or may also assist In
Identifying an owner, operator or lease holder which Is vital In a record
cross-check. Service companies may be an additional source of information
for completion or plugging reports which are not available from other
sources.
COST
The cost of a record search is directly proportional to the amount of
time or manpower required to complete the search. This, in turn, is related
to the number of wells being researched, the information needed for each
well, the familiarity of the individual with the filing and retrieval
system and the ease of access to that system. In addition to the manpower
requirement, reproduction charges for logs, maps, completion reports,
plugging reports, etc. must also be taken into account. Most public
agencies make copies available for a nominal charge of 50.10 per paper copy
and $0.20 for microfiche. Publications and maps are usually available for
a reasonable cost. Libraries, oil and gas companies and other sources
generally charge only reproduction costs or at most, personnel charges for
the time spent researching the required information. The charges by an
independent record keeping company vary according to the amount and type of
Information requested.
22
-------
k
ft,'
T
,-1
to
Figure 8. Well location map which leaves (he location to the imagination of the interpreter.
23
-------
Professional record searching companies provide an alternative to
self-searches 1n some states. These companies are familiar with the record
filing system of each agency and charge fees to perform the service. A
typical charge would be $25.00 per hour plus reproduction charges.
Representative reproduction charges would be:
paper (letter and legal) $0.60 each
microfilm prints $0.60 each
electric logs $1.00/foot
oversize prints $1.00 each
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Record searching 1s the starting point for determining the location or
status of any abandoned'well. It provides, at the very least, a general
picture of drilling activity within a given area and may provide enough
detailed information to determine the status of wells or to actually
field locate the well. The record search, however, does provide the
preliminary analysis necessary to determine If further Investigation 1s
necessary. The disadvantages are not related to the method Itself, but
rather to the incompleteness of the records. At times the records may not
be available, the well status may be unknown or it may be Impossible to
match well-plugging reports with the appropriate well location. Well
locations may be Inaccurate or Impossible to Interpret. In spite of these
Inadequacies which are exemplified in the older wells, the records provide
a starting place for further investigations.
CASE HISTORIES
Searches of records may be performed for a variety of reasons. The
case histories listed below provide examples of reasons that searches were
conducted and detail the success of those searches in obtaining the desired
Information.
Case #.1
A study In Oklahoma (Canter, 1981) sought to inventory the oil and gas
activities In 80 townships overlying the Garber-Wei lington aquifer to
assess their potential for causing ground-water pollution. To achieve this
goal, records were assembled on oil and gas wells which had been drilled
since records were kept by the Oklahoma Corporation Commission in 1917. It
was determined that 14,127 oil and gas wells were drilled since 1917 In the
80-township study area. In addition, the date of drilling, depth of well,
surface casing, plugging reports and other information was compiled (when
available) for these wells. From this information, areas were rated by
their potential for ground-water contamination.
Although the inventory and record search was not the prime thrust of
the report, the quality of the information had a direct bearing on the
output. According to the report, the biggest problems encountered in
24
-------
record searching were the incompleteness of the plugging reports, the lack
of speclflty as to well location and the difficulty in matching records to
determine if they belonged with the same well.
Case n
Another study conducted In Tulsa County, Oklahoma prepared by the U.S.
Department of Housing and Urban Development (1982) sought to determine the
effects of abandoned oil and gas well locations on housing sites. After
searching records for Information such as the location, depth, casing
program, plugging program, date drilled, date plugged and operator, four
main problem areas were identified: 1) Inability to accurately locate the
wells; 2) problem of confusion In the numbering system of historic wells
(prior to 1966); 3) lack of adequate plugging records and 4) unavailable or
Incomplete records of historic wells and well fields.
Case #3
Information from Texas Railroad Commission files Indicates that an oil
and gas corporation filed a request for a fluid injection permit in Cooke
County, Texas. As part of the permit process, all wells and their status
within a 1 /4-mile radius that penetrated the top of the injection zone
needed to be identified. Table 2 Indicates the information obtained for
wells by a record search of the regulatory agency. Four wells were
Identified as having no record of the current status. Field inspections
and further record searches yielded the following results:
1. Wells #2 and #4 of Lease D were field located and the plugging
reports were obtained.
2. Well #1 of Lease E contained a 7-inch casing open at the ground
surface with a fluid level at 6 feet.
3. Well #2 of Lease E contained a 7-inch casing open at the ground
surface and a fluid level at 350 feet.
The two open wells on Lease E were subsequently plugged and the permit was
Issued.
25
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Table 2. SUMMARY OF WELLS AND WELL STATUS WITHIN AN AREA OF REVIEW, CASE HISTORY »2.
Lease A/Well No.
i
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
IB
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Lease B/Well No.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
17
19
20
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
32
33
34
Lease C/Well No.
7
a
9
10
11
Date Drilled
9-35
7-38
3-37
4-37
5-37
5-37
5-37
6-37
7-37
9-37
2-38
2-38
3-38
4-38
4-38
5-38
5-38
7-38
6-54
7-54
9-54
1-55
11-55
12-56
12-65
Date Drilled
9-35
10-35
11-35
12-35
8-37
8-37
9-37
10-37
11-37
1-38
6-38
7-39
11-39
7-54
7-54
10-54
1956
5-56
8-56
12-56
1-57
5-60
8-61
11-62
12-64
6-66
6-66
6-68
Date Drilled
3-55
6-37
No Data
No Data
No Data
Current Status
P&A-
P4A
Producing
P&A
Producing
P&A
Producing
P&A
P&A
Producing
Producing
P&A
P&A
Producing
injector
P&A
Producing
P&A
Subject well
Producing
Producing
Producing
Producing
Shut-in
Injector
Current Status
P&A
P&A
P&A
P&A
Injector
Producing
Disposal
Producing
Producing
P&A
Producing
P&A
Producing
Producing
Shut-in
Iniector
Producing
injector
Producing
Producing
Shut-in
Shut-in
Producing
Producing
Producing
Producing
Producing
Producing
Current Status
Shut-m
P&A
Producing
Shul-m
Producing
(continued)
26
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Table 2. (continued)
Lease O/Well No. Dale Drilled Currant Status
2 B-33 NO Data
4 9-3S No Data
Lease E/Well No. Date Drilled Current Status
1 NO Data NO Data
2 No Data No Data
3 9-33 P 4 A
•4 4-38 Producing
5 5-38 P & A
7 6-38 Producing
10 — Producing
11 1-66 Injector
12 5-66 Iniector
14 6-81 Producing
Lease F/Well No. Date Drilled Current Status
12 10-35 Producing
*P & A means plugged and abandoned
27
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REFERENCES
Canter, L., 1981, Empirical assessment methodology: Prioritlzatlon of the
ground-water pollution potential of oil and gas field activities In the
Garber Wellington area; Unpublished manuscript, for the U.S. EPA.
Falrchild, Debnrah, 1983, Selection of flight paths for magnetometer survey
of wells; Unpublished manuscript, 9 pp.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, 1982, The potential
effects of historic oil and gas well locations on housing sites; U.S.
Department of Housing and Urban Development Region VI, 142 pp.
28
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SECTION 5
CONVERSATION WITH LOCAL RESIDENTS
SYNOPSIS
Property owners, "old timers", local residents or former oil field
workers may be able to provide information concerning the location and
number of abandoned wells within a specific area. This, in turn, may help
to verify the accuracy and completeness of information obtained from a
record search, may narrow the area which needs to be intensively searched
by other methods, or may actually pinpoint a well location. While the
effort expended to obtain the information depends on the number of
individuals interviewed and their knowledge of past drilling activities in
the area, the information is often not available from any other source.
Information obtained from residents may significantly reduce the cost of
further searches.
DISCUSSION AND PROCEDURES
Conversations with local residents concerning past drilling activities
may be coupled with other search methods to assist in locating abandoned
wells. When record searches yield data on well locations which are not
specific or which cannot be easily identified, a property owner may be able
to recall the actual drilling of the well or be able to pinpoint the
specific well location. If this is not possible, residents may be able to
provide a general description of a well location such as "in the northwest
corner of the plowed field" which may be used to determine the presence of
an abandoned well, further define a suspected well location or narrow the
area which needs to be searched by other methods for exact location.
Older residents or former oil-field workers may be able to provide
Information about landowners, drillers or companies involved in the
drilling process. This information may be helpful in further record
searching. Additionally, the "old timers" may be able to provide
information about the years that well drilling took place in the area and
the drilling methods and techniques that were used. This may assist in
selecting specific years of aerial photographs which should be reviewed
(refer to Aerial Photographic Interpretation, Section 7).
When conducting a survey of local residents, good rapport is
necessary. Explanation of the reason for the search as well as an
indication of the importance of the information is imperative. Without
this knowledge and understanding, a local resident may not wish to divulge
the information.
29
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Surveys may be conducted by mall, telephone, via the media (radio,
television) or 1n person. Media support may help In alerting residents
that Information 1s needed and that a representative may be contacting
them. Response to mail surveys is traditionally poor, but may provide a
basis for further contacts. Although telephone surveys may be necessary,
personal contact often provides the most complete information.
Contacts with local residents are often more Informative 1f another
respected local resident or person familiar with the general area speaks
with the residents or is present during the interview. A good listener and
someone who interacts well with people is a prerequisite for the job which
often entails listening to hours of stories In order to obtain the desired
information.
COST
The cost of conducting conversations with local residents 1s related
to the amount of time and manpower necessary to complete the discussions.
This depends on the number of individuals contacted, the method used to
conduct the survey and the amount of time spent conversing with each
individual.
The largest cost Is associated with the salary of the personnel
conducting the interviews since material costs such as postage can be kept
to a minimum and media coverage may often be available for minimal costs in
a public service announcement.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Local residents may provide valuable information about the presence,
location or status of wells within an area which may not be recorded or
readily available from another source. This Information may prove helpful
in conducting further searches or in reducing the amount of time necessary
for additional searches. The effort and resources expended to obtain this
information vary greatly, but can be easily controlled since the only cost
is directly related to the manpower necessary to conduct the interviews.
The disadvantages are not related to the method Itself, but rather to
the knowledge of the Individuals and their willingness to cooperate. At
times, the desired Information may not be known by the individuals
questioned. In spite of this, however, the method should be employed
whenever possible.
CASE HISTORY
Efforts to locate an abandoned well suspected of contributing to a
ground-water contamination problem in Callahan County, Texas had been
30
-------
substantive, but unsuccessful. Records indicated that a dry hole had been
drilled and subsequently plugged In 1954. In an effort to locate the well,
the lease location had been measured in, a metal detector had been used to
search the area and shovels had been used to excavate at various locations.
Most of the residents had been contacted to request their assistance in
determining the exact location of the well and none were able to point out
the exact location. The last option was to simply excavate In the general
area until the well was found. This option could have entailed a
considerable amount of excavation and expenditure of funds.
The problem was solved when a landowner in the concerned area
contacted officials and indicated that he could show them the exact
location of the well. The landowner claimed that when he purchased the
land, the casing of the well was visible at the ground surface. The area
had since been filled and a caliche road had been constructed over the site
of the well. The landowner indicated that the well would be in the middle
of the road and under one to two feet of soil and caliche. Upon excavation
of the site by a backhoe, the casing was located and the well was reentered
and subsequently plugged even though the contribution of the well to the
ground-water contamination problem was never determined (Texas Railroad
Commission files).
31
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SECTION 6
VISUAL/LOGICAL
SYNOPSIS
Field location of abandoned oil and gas wells can be accomplished by
visually identifying the well location or by identifying clues and
equipment associated with well drilling and production activities. The
assembly of all information obtained from other searches and the employment
of other methods which use specific equipment enhance and compliment the
success of any field search. A field search ultimately produces the
identification of the well location or the edict that the well cannot be
located at this time. The manpower necessary to complete the search will
vary according to the area searched, the methods employed, the remaining
surface expression of drilling and production activities and the success in
locating the well within an'acceptable time frame.
DISCUSSION AND PROCEDURE
When preliminary investigations Indicate that there may be abandoned
wells in the area or when the status of an abandoned well is not known, it
may be necessary to physically locate the abandoned well. A review of
information obtained from record searches, aerial photographs and
conversations with residents when coupled with a knowledge of drilling
procedures, equipment and practices can help to narrow a search area and
familiarize an individual with visual clues to well location.
Some abandoned wells can be easily located by reconstructing the
location from a plat map. Others, although not found specifically at the
location noted on the plat map, are located closely enough that the well
can be found. This 1s particularly true if the casing still extends above
the surface or 1f equipment associated with the well is still visible at
the site.
If, however, the casing has been cut off below ground or removed,
locating the well 1s a more difficult task. Drilling practices, procedures
and equipment have changed through time. However, one feature common to
all drilling is the disturbance of the surface of the ground. The size,
shape and evidence of the disturbance will vary from site to site and with
time, but clues to well location can be found by noting the disturbance.
Evidence of roads, clearings, drilling equipment layout, pits, pieces of
equipment and vegetation changes can collectively indicate the approximate
location of abandoned wells. Figures 9 and 10 show the two most common
32
-------
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-------
ELEVATION DRAW-WORKS
ELEVATION PL'MP SIDf
Figure 10. Plan and elevation of a 100-foot rotary rig (Uren 1924).
34
-------
types of drilling equipment (cable tool and rotary) and typical equipment
layouts which were used to drill oil and gas wells. The reader is referred
to texts explaining common drilling practices at specified time intervals
for more specific Information (Brantly, 1971; Hager, 1921; Cloud, 1937;
Uren, 1924, 1934 and 1946).
Field identification of well locations should begin by narrowing the
search area as much as possible. If plat maps are available, recon-
struction of the location by measuring from referenced property lines
should be attempted. Often it may be necessary to try to locate reference
points such as older property lines and bench marks from another source
before actual measurement can begin. If plat locations are not available,
then logical clues based on the information obtained from other sources
should be used. Visual and logical clues may also be coupled with methods
which use equipment to make identification and presence of certain objects
easier. The remainder of the search relies on identifying evidence of
drilling operations. Johnston et al. (1973) described in detail many items
to look for when locating abandoned wells. Many of their field techniques
are detailed in numbers 1-4 and 6-8 below:
1) Evidence of old roads that served well sites during drilling
operations often is found through a study of aerial photographs. In the
Appalachian regions and in hilly terrain, the roads were sometimes built
above the well site, and the pipe and material were lowered down the side
of a hill to the drilling rig.
2) A clue often found in the vicinity of the well is evidence of the
water-supply and oil-storage tanks that were constructed during drilling
and development. Often the location of these tanks 1s quite apparent
because an area 15 to 20 or more feet in diameter was cleared and leveled
for the tank base. The clearings or indentations made in the ground by the
tanks are visible on aerial photographs, particularly in wooded areas where
a difference in the growth in the trees can be detected. Tank markings
such as indentations in the ground, pieces of redwood staves or pine plugs,
and iron rods often indicate the location of a wooden tank. Clues
indicating the location of steel tanks are nuts and bolts used in their
construction and rusted pieces of metal fittings. Additional clues found
in the area of an oil-storage tank are oil-saturated soil and a scarcity of
vegetation. Unfortunately neither water nor oil-storage tanks were set at
a uniform distance from the engine house or derrick floor. However, the
oil-storage tank was usually set beyond and below the well so that gravity
flow could be used, and the water tank was always set near the engine
house. When either one or both of the tank locations are found, a search
is made of the area between the tanks or in a 100-foot radius of a single
tank for rig marks, such as Indentations in the ground from rig foundation
sills, pieces of metal from drilling and production operations, and
indications of water and gas service pipelines.
3) Frequently in wooded areas, trees are found with pieces of wire
line imbedded in their trunks, or with scars and deformities caused from
their use as anchors for guy wires supporting the drilling rig. If three
35
-------
or more scarred trees are found, the well may be located by trlangulatlon;
1f only one or two trees are found, a search of the area must be made for
additional clues.
4) An Important clue often found In the vicinity of a well 1s the
presence of large timbers or sills used 1n the construction of the derrick
and engine house foundations. These timbers are about 18 Inches square In
cross section. The positions of the various sills and their distance from
the well on an 82-foot standard cable-tool rig are shown 1n Figure 9.
These distances will vary with the size of derrick required for drilling.
In most cases, the only evidence of the sills are Indentations made 1n the
ground by the weight of the timbers. Occasionally, a few pieces of rotted
wood are found.
5) Oftentimes concrete or brick foundations were erected to support
derricks and power equipment. Four corner supports were laid or poured and
a slab was offset to the side. Figure 11 shows the layout of a steam
driven rotary rig of the 1930's. In most cases since the concrete Is more
resistant than timbers and more difficult to remove, the supporting
structures are still evident (Figure 12).
6) During early development of the Appalachian areas, where many
wells were drilled on the sides of steep hills or mountains, the standard
cable tool rigs for convenience were faced 1n the same direction. In most
cases, when looking from the engine house toward the front of the rig, the
right-hand shoulder of the viewer was on the uphill side. This, locally
known as a right-hand rig, placed the service road above and the bailer
dump below the derrick. With this knowledge and'evidence of the location
of the engine house, water tank, or steam boiler, the probable location of
the derrick floor, or possibly the actual well bore may be found. If no
evidence of the well Is found, shovels, or 1n some areas bulldozers are
used to find additional clues, such as spillways where sand and shale
cuttings from the bailer have run down the hillside, or pits where the
cuttings were collected and retained. Greener grass than surrounding area
Is evidence of spillways, or If salt water was balled from the well, barren
ground with no vegetation. Old pits usually are Indicated by depressions
or sink holes. Since the bailer Is dumped on the downhill side, the
derrick floor 1s above or uphill from the spillway or pit.
7) Another clue found In the vicinity of older wells Is the presence
of cinders or slag from the firebox of the steam boiler. However, there Is
no uniformity In the distance between the boilers and engine house, and a
search of the area for additional clues Is often needed.
8) In areas where land Is under cultivation and no evidence of the
well has been found, It often Is useful to hire the farmer to plow his
fields with furrows 16 Inches or more In depth. Men follow the plow
looking for evidence, such as sand and shale cuttings, rust-colored soil,
or pieces of metal. Once enough clues have been located, excavation may be
necessary to locate the well bore (refer to Excavation, Section 11).
36
-------
'CROWN BLOCK
Figure 11. Steam-driven rotary rig of the 1930s showing surface equipment and boiler-plant layout (Heemstra et al.
1975).
37
-------
Figure 12. Surflclal evidence of supporting structures around abandoned wells, Cleveland County. Oklahoma.
38
-------
COST
The cost of using visual and logical clues 1s related to the amount of
time spent compiling data from other methods and to the actual amount of
time spent 1n the field. The manpower requirement and therefore the cost
will vary according to the knowledge of the Individual of drilling
practices and the ability to recognize those expressions In the field.
Since a visual/logical approach Is often combined with other search
methods, It may be difficult to separate the methods and specifically
assign a cost.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Visual and logical methods are necessary when field location of a
well bore 1s required. There 1s no other method which replaces a field
search. Familiarity with drilling practices and a "knack" for Identifying
these clues In the field enhances the chance of finding the desired well
location. The use of selected pieces of field equipment may also Increase
the possibility of well location. However, the Inherent disadvantage with
the method remains that the well may not be found even when a labor
Intensive search is performed.
39
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REFERENCES
Brantly, J.E., 1971, History of oil well drilling; Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston, Texas, 1525 pp.
Cloud, Wilbur F., 1937, Petroleum production; University of Oklahoma Press,
Norman, Oklahoma, 613 pp.
Hager, Dorsey, 1921, 011-fleld practice; McGraw-Hill, 310 pp.
Heemstra, R.J., K.H. Johnston and F.E. Armstrong, 1975, Early oil well
drilling and production practices; Energy Research and Development
Administration No. BERC/IC-75/1, 46 pp.
Johnston, D.H., H.B. Carroll, R.J. Heemstra, and F.E. Armstrong, 1973, riow
to find abandoned oil and gas wells; U.S. Bureau of Mines Information
Circular 8578, 46 pp.
Uren, Lester Charles, 1924, Petroleum production engineering, First
Edition; McGraw-Hill, 657 pp.
Uren, Lester Charles, 1934, Petroleum production engineering, Second
Edition; McGraw-Hill, 531 pp.
Uren, Lester Charles, 1946, Petroleum production engineering, Third
Edition; McGraw-Hill, 764 pp.
40
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SECTION 7
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION
SYNOPSIS
Historical to present-day aerial photographs are available from many
federal, state and local agencies as well as from private companies. While
the scale and availability of aerial photographs vary with the date,
location and original purpose of the photography, examination of the
photographs at selected time intervals by a trained individual may provide
information on oil and gas drilling and production activities. Coupled
with knowledge of local drilling and production practices during certain
time periods, well-drilling signatures can be developed to better define
specific well locations.
DISCUSSION AND PROCEDURES
Aerial photographs or photographs taken from the air provide a
detailed picture of the surface of the earth. Although aerial photographs
were first recorded in the early 1850's, use of photographic coverage-was
not widely employed in the United States until the creation of the
Agricultural Adjustment Administration [the present day Agricultural
Stabilization and Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (ASCS)] in the 1930's (Avery, 1968). The art of identifying
objects on those photos was not fully developed until World War II. Since
that time, however, the majority of the United States has been photographed
from the air at least once and often many times for various agencies of the
federal government.
The scale of the photography has varied through time and with the
original purpose of the photography for various agencies. Photography for
the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) and ASCS has a scale of 1:20,000, while
photography taken during the 1970's and 1980's has a 1:40,000 scale.
Flights for the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) are photographed at a scale
of 1:24,000. NASA photography is available at a variety of scales ranging
from 1:60,000 to 1:130,000 {K.K. Stout, personal communication, 1983).
Aerial photographs are taken by cameras mounted on an aircraft which
flies in as straight a line as possible. The path of the aircraft as the
photographs are taken is known as a flight line (Figure 13). Although the
surface of the earth may be photographed at different angles resulting in a
different perspective, most aerial photographs are taken by a camera aimed
vertically at the earth's surface (Avery, 1968). A continuous series of
photographs with 60 percent end lap and 30 percent side lap allows two
41
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End lap
Flight
line
Side
lap
Figure 13. Parts of two Might strips of aerial photographs superimposed to show characteristic overlaps (Compton
1962).
Photographs and
stereoscope
aligned parallel
to flight line
Figure 14. Position of pocket stereoscope relative to two photographs of a stereo pair (Compton 1962).
42
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overlapping photographs in the direction of flight to be viewed vri th a
stereoscope. Viewing the overlapping photographs through a stereoscope
produces a three dimensional image (Figure 14) (Sabins, 1978). Aerial
photographs are available either as contact prints or as transparencies
which can be viewed with a light table for clearer definitions.
Examination of aerial photographs taken over time or at selected time
intervals may provide better definition of specific well locations. These
photographs can be used to supplement data obtained from a record search or
to assist in field locating a well. The key to successfully examining
aerial photographs lies in developing a "signature" for well drilling
activities In the particular area. A signature 1s a combination of
characteristics by which an object may be identified on a photograph
(Sabins, 1978).
A signature for well drilling activities consists of noting applicable
well construction and production features such as the construction of a
derrick, anchoring for the derrick, a rig platform, the size and shape of
brine pits, the source of power, brine disposal methods, roads for rig
access, and other features both for the time period that the photograph was
taken as well as for the past oil drilling and production techniques
practiced in the area. A more detailed discussion of physical features
associated with drilling activity is found in Section 6. Although the
history of oil well drilling has been well documented (Brantly, 1971),
drilling practices may vary from locale to locale depending on availability
of natural resources, local preference and regulations. Therefore,
familiarity with oil and gas drilling practices within the area is
necessary for proper assessment of that area.
Once a signature has been developed for an area, aerial photographs
may be chosen for years during which drilling and production activity
actually took place (If recent enough) or for years which would exhibit
post-drilling evidence. Historical photographs may show evidence of
drilling and production activities which have since been obliterated from
the surface.
The larger the scale of the aerial photograph, the easier it is to
identify surface features. In general, imagery with a scale of 1:40,000 or
larger may provide valuable information for the delineation of well
locations to an accuracy within 20 to 30 feet. Imagery with a smaller
scale may possibly be applicable, but delineation of the Important smaller
surface features may not be possible.
Aerial photographs of the United States are numerous and are available
from a variety of sources. To assist in locating aerial photographs, the
USGS National Cartographic Information Center (NCIC), 507 National Center,
Reston, Virginia 22092, (703) 860-6045 maintains a computerized listing of
available aerial coverage for the entire United States. The NCIC can
provide a listing of all the aerial photographs available for the
geographic area contained within a USGS 7 1/2 minute quadrangle map
(Figures 15 & 16). The listing contains the agency or organization for
whom the project was conducted, the date of the photography, the scale, the
43
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NCIC 411141 MttTOttAMt IUNHMT MCO«» II WN
IMII
ii CMNU tin »ATI or
AtfNCl 1M LAI LQM COM COVUACI
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4INMKS M
MOJICT IN4M »OCAL MlN MLN UNI CLOUf CM 4UAf IClNf MAM* CAIIIT1I
COftf t» 4/M »l« N|N »|« NlN IT CTl ft NO Ml 114 COM ICALl LtKT TIM »NT CIAS COVI* IMC C4VU I* MOM TO M. M»Mi
UICI 2 4S SO 094 41 ri Of 01 1
NAIAJI 4i 10 094 4i ro 11 01 :
NAS'JI 4i so 094 4i ro 11 01 :
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NAIAJS IS 30 094 41 ro 11 01 S 1440 111411 04 i 5 2
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NAIAJI 43 30 094 41 ro 01 24 S 1290 1W42 04 S
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AICS 41 SO 09441 44 099 M 0' or S VN 20000 Of 4
AICI 4S SO 09* 41 4* 099 42 10 21 S VN 20000 OS 4
uics 4i so 09* 4i si o- or i
AICI 41 10 094 41 44 099 14 04 29 !
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NAIAAN 41 37 394 41 74 Or 25 \
•AIAAN 43 ir 094 41 74 or 2S :
NAIAAN 43 sr 09* 45 74 or 2S :
1 3490 111894 04 2 3
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02S92 124000 04 2 :
02392 117000 04 2
1 02392 121000 04 2
AICI 41 ir 094 41 44 099 74 01 11 3 40000 04 4 ',
USCS 4S 37 094 41 74 Of 11 S VtOI 54000 04 4 1
NASAAN 41 Sr 09* 41 ri Of 1* S 01077 129000 04 2 ',
NASAAN 43 37 09* 41 rs OS 1* S 01071 129000 04 S :
NASAAN 4i sr 094 41 rs os is s 02ors 124000 04 2 :
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NASAAN 43 sr 094 4i n 01 is :
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USCS 43 37 09* 41 n OS 00 3 VC«l 31000 04 4 3
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NASAJS 41 sr 094 4S ro 11 OS 3
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NASAjl 41 17 094 41 ro 11 Oi S 1440 114141 04 2 3
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•ASAJS 43 S7 09* 41 70 W 2* S 1290 4249' 0* 2 3
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NASAJS 41 37 09* 41 ro 01 2* 3
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NASAJS .S Sr OH 41 ro OS 2* 3 1290 123*25 o4 2 3
NMAJI 41 17 09* 41 ro Of 2* S 1290 119411 04 S '.
1
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0 S 414400050 0009 0019 0444 0'94
0 2 414400010 IMS 4'M 0444 OS20
0 2 414400020 MM 9049 0444 042'
o 414400010 inr ir«i 0444 0122
0 414400020 MM 9094 0444 0629
0 * 412900110 0015 0040 0442 0441
0 4 412900120 OM2 010' 0442 OS44
0 9 412900100 5940 99M 0442 0545
1 1 412900110 0040 0052 0442 0452
1 1 412900100 5954 5959 0442 05"
II 04
II 04
1 1 0054 0104
II 04
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0 02
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' 454900020 0055 0045 9491 0055
0 5 454900020 0072 0041 5491 0072
1 2 5 '4002992 4fOO 4f02 0249 044'
1 2 fr*002S92 4SOS 4105 024} 0670
2 2 174002192 4104 4509 024$ 0471
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0 5 SM0020M 1419 1419 OS99 0514
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0 4 fr 1002074 1440 1442 0399 OMf
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0 9'f0020'4 1449 14M 059* 0404
0 T 0054 0924
0 f 414400050 0001 0015 0444 0734
0 414400020 9090 9094 0444 042*
0 414400010 17*7 47*1 0444 OS22
0 4 412*00110 0055 0040 0442 0449
0 4 412*00120 OM2 010' 0442 0144
0 5 412900100 3940 5944 0442 0545
0 2 412900120 0101 0115 0442 0192
0 2 412*00100 9919 9949 0442 0404
0 412900110 0040 0012 0442 0412
Enlarged summary record Irame
Figure 15. Aerial photography summary record from the National Cartographic Information Center.
-------
Agency Code
All contributor!, are listed alphabetical)- by
jn agency code
Rpt T)p (Report Tjpe)
I = county format
2 = 7 5-mmute quad formal
3 = four-comer formal
Q/VV (Quadrant of the World)
I = northeast
2 = northwest
SE Corner, Lai/Log—Deg/Min
Degree jnd minute of latitude and longitude
nt southeast corner of 7 5-mmute
quadrangle Inlormation luted in increasing
degrees of long nude
Image Scale
Scale of photographs expressed as a whole
number (some scales were derived using
flight height and camera focal length)
Focal
01 =
02 =
03 =
04 =
05 =
06 =
07 =
08 =
09 =
10 =
II =
20 =
Lengl (Focal Length)
I 75 in or 44 mm
3 in or 76 mm
3 46 in or 88 mm
6 in or 152 mm
8 25 in or 210 mm
12 in or 305 mm
24 in or 610 mm
3 96 in or 101 mm
9 430 in or 240 mm
6 738 in or HI mm
3 35 in or 206 mm
other
Cloud Cover (Percentage of)
0 = 0% 5 = 507c
6 = 60%
7 = 70%
8 = 80%
9 = 90%
2 = 20%
3 = 30%
4 = 40%
Cam Spec (Camera Specifications)
Indicates if camera meets calibration
specifications
Y = Yes N = No Blank = Unknown
Quad Cover (Quadrangle Coverage)
I = 10% 6 = 60%
2 = 20% 7 = 70%
3 = 30% 8 = 80%
4 = 40% 9 = 90%
5 = 50% 0 or blank = 100%
Ffl'S Code. Slate/County
Assigned Stale and county numbers using
hedcral Information Processing Standards
puhJitJtion codes
Dale of Coverage. Yr/Mo/Day
Year month.
-------
conditions (such as cloud cover) under which the photography was taken, the
photographic techniques used and who now holds the film. With this
Information, It Is possible to order copies from the holder of the
photographs since all photographs listed are available for public purchase.
The photographic Information Is filed by the latitude and longitude of
the southeast corner of a USGS 7 1/2 minute quadrangle map (such as a
topographic map). Topographic Index maps for each state are available free
of charge by contacting USGS, 1200 S. Eads Street, Arlington, Virginia
22202, (703) 557-2751. Topographic maps for states east of the Mississippi
River are available from the Arlington, Virginia office and other selected
outlets at a cost of $2.00 each. Maps for states west of the Mississippi
are available from approved distribution centers and from USGS, Box 25286,
Denver Federal Center, Denver, Colorado 80235, (303) 234-3832.
In addition to the listing obtained from NCIC, recent photo index
sheets, index mosaics and photography flown for the SCS or ASCS, are
usually available for examination at local offices. These recent
photographs can then be ordered from the appropriate source if they prove
helpful.
Other sources of aerial photographs may be selected state agencies,
some highway departments, various local entities and private corporations.
Private aerial survey companies may have a large holding of photographs
which may be available. The scale and angle at which the imagery was
photographed should be checked before ordering any photographs.
COST
The cost of aerial photographic interpretation is related to the
number of photographs which need to be purchased and the manpower
requirement necessary to Interpret the photographs. The size of the study
area, the scale of photography and the familiarity and expertise of the
Individual performing the Interpretation will also influence the cost.
Material requirements are relatively small. Printouts from NCIC average
$2.00 per 7 1/2 minute quadrangle. Topographic index maps are available
free of charge and USGS 71/2 minute quadrangle topographic maps are
available for $2.00 each. Aerial photography from government sources
ranges in price depending on the type of photography (transparencies or
prints) and the size of the reproduction. Typical charges are listed in
Table 3 for single reproductions. Stereo coverage necessitates the
purchase of more than one reproduction for each area to be reviewed.
46
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Table 3. TYPICAL COSTS FOR STANDARD AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AVAILABLE FROM THE U.S. GOVERNMENT
Image Size
Aircraft Data
Product Material
Black a White Unit Price
229cm
(90m)
229cm
(90 in)
229cm
(90 m)
457cm
(180m)
686cm
(27 0 in )
91 4cm
(360 in)
558mm
(2 2 in)
bSBrnm
(2 2 in)
11 4cm
(4 5 in )
11 4cm
(4 5 in )
22 9 x 45 7 cm
(9x 18 in )
22 9 x 45 7 cm
(9x 18 in)
22 9 x 45 7 cm
(9> IB in)
Paper
Film Positive
Film Negative
Paper
Paper
Paper
Film Positive
Film Negative
Film Positive
Film Negative
Paper
Film Positive
Film Negative
$ 500
800
1200
2000
2500
3500
800
1000
800
1000
1200
1600
2000
47
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Manpower requirements will vary depending on the familiarity of the
Individual with both the drilling practices In the area and the
Interpretation of aerial photographs. Cursory reviews can often be
performed by lay people using pocket stereoscopes and contact prints.
However, an experienced Interpreter is necessary to correctly and
thoroughly analyze the photography. Professional aerial photographic
interpretation companies are also able to provide Interpretation of
photographs when identification of drilling and production activity and
well locations are needed. Since these individuals are specifically
trained to look for man-made disturbances, they can often find disturbances
that an untrained eye would miss. Professional services are available on a
time and materials basis. Typical charges for time would range from 520 to
$60 per hour depending on whether the company searched for and located the
photographs or only interpreted photographs which were provided. After
development of a signature for the area, a stereo pair of photographs could
typically be reviewed 1n one half to one hour. Material costs for
photographs would normally be an additional expenditure.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Aerial photographs may be used to help locate surface expressions of
abandoned wells or associated drilling and production activities. These
features may or may not be evident on the surface. Historical photographs
may actually show drilling and production activities or evidence of
activities which have since been obliterated at the surface. The
photography may be readily available at a low cost. However, the
disadvantages are that photography may not be available for a particular
area and that even when the suspected location of a well has been found on
the photography, the location of the well must still be verified.
Additionally, the interpretation of aerial photographs requires the eye of
a trained Individual to discern subtle features.
CASE STUDIES
Drilling activity was widespread in Qsage County, Oklahoma during the
1930's. To help determine the applicability of aerial photographs in
pinpointing well locations a study is currently being conducted in selected
areas by the EPA. Figure 17 shows an aerial photograph in which drilling
derricks are easily identified. Figure 18 depicts an area in which
drilling activities had taken place in the past. Identification of
drilling sites was possible by a signature developed for this particular
area. One local production technique in this area during the 1930's was
the construction of a central powerhouse from which lines were run to each
well. These linear features are evident, but their association with oil
and gas drilling would be difficult if local production practices were
unknown. A complete assessment of the use of historic aerial photographs
in determining well locations is currently underway (K.K. Stout, personal
communication, 1983).
48
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-. - •
-------
CENTRAL POWERHOUSE ™*T J ^V>
F" ".'I'
:'i*:
Figure 18. Aerial photograph showing central power house, rod lines to the power house and brine pits. Osage County.
Oklahoma, 1937.
50
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REFERENCES
Avery, T. Eugene, 1968, Interpretation of aerial photographs; Burgess
Publishing Company, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 324 pp.
Compton, Robert R., 1962, Manual of field geology; John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 378 pp.
Sablns, Floyd F., Jr., 1978, Remote sensing principles and Interpretation.
W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, 426 pp.
51
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SECTION 8
METAL DETECTORS
SYNOPSIS
Metal detectors are a tool which can be used in intensive field
searches to locate abandoned wells. Metal detectors detect shallow buried
metallic objects and thus, they can be used to identify the actual location
of metal casings or other metal objects associated with drilling and
production practices. The distribution of these metal objects may lead to
an implied well location even if no metallic casing is present. Some metal
detectors are inexpensive pieces of equipment which require a minimum of
knowledge to either operate or interpret the output. They can be operated
by one person and are suitable for most terrain and vegetative cover. The
cost of conducting a search with a metal detector may be significantly
lower than when other pieces of equipment are used to intensively search an
area.
DISCUSSION AND PROCEDURES
Metal detectors are designed to locate buried metallic objec:s. A
metal detector is sensitive to ferrous metals such as iron and steel and
non-ferrous metals such as aluminum, brass, and copper. Metal detectors
are commonly used to locate buried pipelines, survey markers and manhole
covers and to search for buried treasure.
The metal detector is designed to continuously scan an area for
metallic objects. The basic principle of operation of a metal detector
relies on the induction of an electromagnetic field around an object by a
transmitter (Yaffe et al., 1981). A coil within the instrument is arranged
and adjusted such that the eddy currents from a nearby metallic source
disturb the electromagnetic balance of the instrument (Evans, 1982). This
Imbalance creates an electrical signal that can be detected by the
user. The signal 1s usually manifested as both a meter deflection and an
audible tone which can be adjusted to override background noise or can be
heard through a set of headphones.
The response of the metal detector to metallic objects depends on the
size, shape, orientation, composition and distance of the object from the
detector as well as the sensitivity of the equipment (Evans, 1982). In
general, the larger and closer the object, the stronger the signal. Some
metal detectors have adjustments so that the sensitivity of the equipment
can selectively "concentrate" on larger, smaller or deeper objects
depending on the desired scope of the search. Metallic objects buried
52
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within 5 feet of the ground surface can typically be detected. However,
under some circumstances, large metallic objects which are located as deep
as 10 feet below the surface can be detected.
A metal detector Is a portable piece of equipment which Is operated by
one invldidual. Two representative types are illustrated 1n Figure 19.
The equipment Is suitable for searches 1n all types of terrain and
vegetation.
Metal detectors may be employed in field reconnaissance efforts to
locate metallic casing and burled metal objects associated with well
drilling and production activities. As outlined 1n the Section 6, many
metallic objects associated with drilling and production activities may
have been discarded or left at the site. The distribution of these objects
may help to narrow the search area, may help identify the location of the
casing, or may help an individual infer the location of the well even when
no metallic casing 1s present.
A search with a metal detector is conducted by walking over the
desired area and operating the equipment in a sweeping motion. Since the
equipment operates in a continuous mnde, the equipment will respond to any
metal encountered in that sweep. The.' most effective way to conduct a
search is to establish a grid pattern of the area to be searched. The grid
pattern can easily be amended if the scope or area of the search needs to
be altered. This provides a systematic approach to evaluating the area and
helps to Insure that if a casing is present, it is not overlooked. When
signals from the equipment Indicate the presence of a metal object, the
location should be marked with a wooden stake for later reference or the
object uncovered immediately. Marking the location with a wooden stake
rather than a metal stake prevents interference with the operation of the
equipment. Marking the locations of the metal objects also provides
visualization of the distribution of metal objects around the area. This
distribution may help an Individual to Infer the location of the well even
when no metallic casing is found.
COST
The cost of conducting a survey with a metal detector is dependant on
the cost of the equipment and the manpower necessary to conduct the search.
Metal detectors suitable for conducting a search for abandoned wells are
available for purchase at prices ranging from $225 to $400. Additional
accessories to provide for more convenient equipment operation or storage
may slightly Increase the cost.
Manpower requirements will vary depending on the familiarity of the
individual with the local drilling and production activities, the size of
the area to be searched, the familiarity of the individual with use of the
equipment and the ^success in quickly locating the abandoned well. The ease
of operation and self explanatory output of signals by a metal detector
allow an individual to successfully operate a metal detector with a minimum
53
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I
Figure 19. Metal detectors (Fisher M-Scope product literature).
54
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of training. Familiarity with the equipment will allow the Individual to
quickly Identify meaningful equipment responses from background noise,
thereby reducing the amount of time necessary for the search. Because of
the relative ease 1n operation of the equipment and Interpretation of the
results, the expense for Individuals or companies with specialized training
may not be necessary. Manpower requirements may still be relatively large
because of the time Involved 1n conducting the survey. Uncovering the
detected objects may also require a substantial amount of time after the
search has been conducted.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Metal detectors can be used to help Identify the location of metal
casings and metal objects associated with drilling and production
activities. The equipment 1s relatively Inexpensive and can be operated by
an Individual with limited training on the Instrument. The metal detector
emits signals which are easy to Interpret and require no post-field-work
analysis. Operation of the equipment Is performed by one Individual and
the equipment 1s portable and suitable for all types of terrain and
vegetative cover.
Metal detectors are limited to finding metallic objects which are
burled at shallow depths. Therefore, If the well does not contain casing,
If the casing Is at a greater depth than the limit of the Instrument or if
the casing 1s non-metallic, the metal detector cannot be used to
specifically locate the abandoned well. In these cases, however, the
distribution of any other metal objects associated with drilling and
production activities may help an Individual to infer the location of the
well. The area to be searched by methods such as excavation may thereby be
narrowed.
CASE HISTORY
A study conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Mines sought to determine the
location of abandoned wells by field searches with electromagnetic metal
detectors (Johnston et al., 1973). Attempts were made to locate wells in
both the Appalachian region and in the Midcontlnent area using a variety of
metal detectors. The status and general location of the wells were
determined prior to the beginning of the field search. The metal detectors
were successful 1n locating the casing and many metal objects associated
with drilling and production activities (Figure 20). The distribution of
the metal objects were plotted to determine radial distribution around
known and unknown well sites (Figure 21). The report cited systemmatic
field searches by metal detectors as a viable method of determining the
location of abandoned wells.
55
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APPALACHIAN AREA
MIDCONTINENT AREA
\
Figure 20. Metallic evidence uncovered in the vicinity of abandoned well. Appalachian area and Midcontinent area
(Johnston et al. 1973).
-------
190" l60' 170
ZOO
160*
150*
220
140*
130'
240
120*
250'
no*
260
270'
280'
100*
290-
20-23—30—35—40—45
43—40— 35— 30—25i- 20
300
310
320
330
340
350
Figure 21. Location of metallic objects excavated from the area around abandoned well. Appalachian area (Johnston
et al. 1973).
57
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REFERENCES
Evans, Roy B., 1982, Currently available geophysical methods for use In
hazardous waste site Investigations; Proceedings of the American Chemical
Society Symposium Series 204, Las Vegas, Nevada, pp. 93-116.
Fisher M-Scope product literature, Los Banos, California.
Johnston, K.H., H.B. Carroll, R.J. Heemstra and F.E. Armstrong, 1973, How
to find abandoned oil and gas wells; U.S. Department of the Interior,
Bureau of Mines Information Circular 8578, 46 pp.
Yaffe, H.J., N.L. C1chow1cz and P.J. Stoller, 1980, Remote sensing for
investigating buried drums and subsurface contamination at Coventry, Rhode
Island; Proceedings of the National Conference on Management of
Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites, Washington, D.C, pp. 239-249.
58
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SECTION 9
MAGNETOMETERS
SYNOPSIS
Magnetometers respond to changes in the magnetic field of the earth
produced by ferrous metal materials on and within the earth. Ground-based
magnetometer searches can be used to determine the location of metal well
casings and ferrous objects associated with well drilling and production
practices. Aerial magnetometer surveys provide a rapid reconnaisance
method to detect the presence of metallic casings. This information can
then be used in combination with other ground-based search techniques.
Subsurface magnetometers may help to determine the depth of casing in an
abandoned well. Portable magnetometers used in ground-based searches are
suitable for most types of terrain and vegetative cover and range 1n price
from relatively inexpensive to moderately expensive. Expertise
requirements for operation of the portable equipment may range from low to
moderate depending on the sophistication of the equipment selected.
Professional surveys using magnetometers may also be available. Aerial
surveys are considerably more expensive than ground-based magnetometer
searches, require professional data interpretation and require ground
verification of magnetic anomalies. Subsurface surveys are also expensive
and have limited application for determining the location of abandoned
wells.
DISCUSSION AND PROCEDURES
Magnetometers measure changes In the magnetic field of the earth
(Koerner et al., 1982). The magnetic field of the earth resembles the
field of a bar magnet located at the center of the earth with the poles of
the magnet oriented north-south (Breiner, 1973). The magnetic properties
of the rocks and soil of the earth are related to their percent composition
of ferrous material. The magnetometer detects only ferrous material by
responding to the magnetic Intensity of the material. The ferrous material
may either be naturally occuring earth materials or man made ferrous
objects. Traditional applications of magnetometers include: 1) location
of burled objects such as pipelines, well casing, drums in landfills and
other metal objects, 2) mineral exploration, 3) geologic mapping, 4)
engineering geology and 5) archaeology.
Magnetometers can be used for surface, airborne, and borehole
reconnaissance. These applications may be useful either in combination
with one another or with other methods suggested in this report. An
airborne magnetometer may be used when general reconnaissance of an area is
59
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desired. A surface survey may be desired to pinpoint the location of wells
which contain casing. When the casing 1s at depth, a borehole technique
may be necessary to locate the top of the casing.
A variety of different types of magnetometers are employed in these
applications. Fluxgate, proton, and optically pumped vapor magnetometers
are the most widely available (Nettleton, 1976). Fluxgate magnetometers
provide a continuous scan of an area. Proton or optically pumped vapor
magnetometers provide discrete values at selected locations. The output of
the Instrument may be an audible tone, a numeric display or a continuous
strip chart depending on the Instrument selected.
Although all magnetometers respond to changes in the magnetic field of
the earth, each type of instrument employs a slightly different mode of
sensing. In a fluxgate magnetometer, a saturated magnetic field is
established around a small iron core by passing an alternating current
through the coil. This magnetic field undergoes changes in the saturation
level In response to variations in the magnetic field of the earth (Benson
et al., 1983). The changes are subsequently amplified and displayed as an
output on the magnetometer (Griffiths and King, 1965). In a proton
magnetometer, an excitation voltage 1s applied to a coil which surrounds a
small container of liquid (Benson, et al., 1983). This voltage induces a
polarizing field within the magnetometer which results in the protons
"lining up" along the axis of the induced field. When the field is
removed, the spinning protons precess to realign themselves along the axis
of the earth's field. The precession frequency 1s proportional to the
magnitude of the earth's field (Nettleton, 1976). The frequency is
measured and translated into a measurement of the absolute magnetic field
of the earth. An optically pumped vapor magnetometer uses electrons rather
than protons to "line up" in the earth's magnetic field when stimulated.
These instruments most commonly employ cesium, rubidium or metastable
helium to measure the magnetic field (Nettleton, 1976).
The response of the magnetometer to a buried metal object is dependent
on the object's 1) mass, 2) geometry, 3) orientation magnitude and
direction of the permanent magnetization and 4) distance from the
magnetometer (Evans, 1982). The single most important factor is the
distance of the object from the magnetometer (Breiner, 1973). The geometry
of the object is also important. The signal will be stronger if the object
has a longer length-to-dlameter ratio and if the object is oriented
perpendicular to the surface of the ground (Figure 22).
The response of the magnetometer may be affscted by the presence of
man-made features such as fences, power lines, reinforcing steel in
concrete, pipelines and buildings. In addition, fluctuations within the
earth's own magnetic field due to diurnal changes or magnetic storms will
affect the readings obtained by a magnetometer (Breiner, 1973). Changes in
the magnetic field of the earth are important when taking detailed
measurements.
60
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METAL OBJECT
0- • r
• ; "
WELL CASING
Figure 22. Diagram showing magnetic.field surrounding well casing and metal object (modified Irom Schonstedl
Instrument Co. product literature).
61
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Magnetometers can be effectively used to search for metal casings of
abandoned wells because of their long length-to-diameter ratio, their
vertical orientation and their ferrous metal composition. The magnetometer
can be used In ground, air or subsurface applications. Each of these is
discussed in more detail below.
Ground searches for either metal casings or pieces of metal associated
with well drilling and production activities can be accomplished by using
portable magnetometers such as those shown in Figure 23. The equipment can
be operated by one individual and is suitable for use in all types of
terrain and vegetative cover. A ground search with a magnetometer is
conducted by walking over the desired area in an established grid pattern.
The grid spacing can be adjusted according to the desired results and the
sensitivity of the equipment. Continuous scanning equipment 1s operated by
sweeping the magnetometer in an arc as the site 1s traversed.
Magnetometers which provide discrete digital readouts are operated by
holding the sensor stationary and taking readings at regular intervals.
The reading and reference location should then be recorded either In
writing or Internally within instruments having memory capabilities.
Locations where the magnetometer registered either an audible sign or
higher numeric value indicate the possible presence of a ferrous object.
These locations should be marked with wooden stakes as the survey proceeds.
Truck-mounted equipment is- also available, but may not be applicable for
small search areas.
Numerical readouts from magnetometers can be plotted along a traverse
line to show the effect of a burled casing on readings obtained with a
magnetometer (Figure 24). The shape of the curve produced by the object
will generally be broader if the object Is located at greater depth below
the ground surface. The curve may be asymmetrical if the object is not
parallel to the Induced magnetic field (Breiner, 1973). Figure 25
illustrates different shapes of curves and their relationship to the
object. Interpretation of the results from magnetometers requires
familiarity with the equipment as well as an ability to interpret the data.
Magnetometers with continuous scanning capabilities and only audible
signals require less expertise to operate and require no Further
interpretation of the data.
Airborne magnetometer searches are conducted by mounting a
magnetometer in an airplane or on a "bird" which is suspended from an
airplane or helicopter (Figure 26). The aircraft is flown in a prescribed
flight pattern with the spacings of the lines and height of the aircraft
determined by the emphasis of the survey. The most widespread use of
aerial magnetometer surveys is in mineral exploration where flight lines
are normally one to two miles wide at heights of approximately 1000 feet
above the surface (Nettleton, 1976). The flight pattern of the aircraft is
referenced to the ground by aerial photography taken from the aircraft at
the time of the magnetometer survey or by flying the aircraft in a known
relationship with ground-based transponders (Nettleton, 1976). The results
obtained from the survey must be adjusted to eliminate unwanted sources of
magnetic variation and the data must be Interpreted.
62
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t?
•Vgt^lJySq
Figure 23. Different types of portable magnetometers (EG&G Geometries product literature and Schonstedt
Instrument Co. product literature).
63
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t JBBBB
OTJOOOO
<
2
2
o
N
O
5
O
z
<
_l
p
a
U
0
2
-
iO 2
cbitrvtd
Ihiortdcil
30 1
to it
M 9
|
1 H
//
^
tj
0
II
1
k
J --VCBTtCA
i
11
ll
1
1
i 1
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ft
ft
^
^^
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. AXIS or
0 II
CASINO
90 19
NOI
>0 2
ITM »•
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DISTANCE IN FEET
Figure 24. Comparison of observed and theoretical anomaly produced by a 4,609 loot vertical string ol casing (Barret 1931).
-------
ABOVE ARE TYPICAL PROFILES OVER DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF A GIVEN PIPELINE
AT SAME DEPTH IN SAME LOCATION (EXHIBITS CONSIDERABLE PERMANT MAGNETIZATION]
FIELD INCLINATION BETWEEN
30" AND 90° (i«,X tx'X tX
WHERE PROFILE IS E-W)
FIELD is HORIZONTAL
(ANOMALY MAY HAVE ZERO
AMPLITUDE IN CENTER OF A
LONG PIPE)
EFFECT OF DEPTH ON ANOMALY
AMPLITUDE AND WIDTH
Figure 25. Different effects of pipeline on the shape of a curve plotted from readings obtained from a magnetometer
(Bremer 1973).
65
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0>
Figure 26. Airborne magnetometer mounted In an airplane or suspended from a "bird" and contour map produced
from a hypothetical aerial survey (Tellord el al. 1976).
-------
Although aerial magnetometer surveys have not been specifically
applied to searches for abandoned wells, anomalies attributed to casings
have been identified during aerial magnetometer surveys for mineral
exploration (Barret, 1931). The EPA is currently conducting a study to
determine the effectiveness of aerial reconnaissance to determine the
location of well casings. Although different conditions change the flight
height and flight line spacing, preliminary analysis has indicated that an
aircraft height of between 100 to 200 feet with a spacing of approximately
400 feet for flight lines may be necessary for definition of the casings
(Frischknecht, et al., 1983). Aerial reconnaissance at these heights may
be limited to rural areas of low density population because the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) sets restrictions en the height above and
lateral distance from occupied buildings that planes may fly. In special
cases, variances may be obtained. Application may further be restricted to
rural areas to help eliminate the spurious effects of cultural features on
the magnetic survey and to simplify interpretation.
Subsurface magnetometers may be useful for finding buried casings or
for determining their depth below the ground surface. Sensors lowered into
a nearby uncased borehole may provide the direction, distance and depth of
a casing that 1s located within 15 to 18 horizontal feet from the sensing
point (Baltosser and Honea, 1976). The equipment is mounted on a truck and
operated by a two-ran crew in- a manner similar to logging techniques used
in the petroleum industry. Operation of the equipment and interpretation of
the data requires specific expertise and cannot be performed by a lay
person. Application of subsurface techniques to well casings whose
locations are known assist in determining the methods necessary to plug or
replug the abandoned well.
COST
The cost of conducting a ground-based magnetometer search for metal
casing and metal objects associated with oil and gas drilling and
production operations is dependent on the cost of the equipment, the time
and manpower necessary to conduct the search and the time necessary to
perform any needed interpretations. Magnetometers range in price from S625
for a hand-held fluxgate magnetometer to over $4,000 for high precision
recording magnetometers. Truck-mounted equipment is available for a
purchase price of around $7,500. Rental of some types of equipment may be
possible. Typical monthly rental charges for proton magnetometers vary
from $350 to $700.
Manpower requirements will vary with the familiarity of the individual
with the equipment and local drilling and production practices. Manpower
requirements will also depend on the grid spacing, the size of the area to
be searched and the success in quickly locating the abandoned well. The
expertise of the individual who performs the search must necessarily
increase with the sophistication of the equipment employed. Hand-held
continuously scanning magnetometers can be operated with a minimum of
expertise, while more advanced magnetometers require a knowledge of the
67
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Instrument and may require formal Interpretation of data.
Professional magnetometer searches may also be available. Individuals
familiar with the equipment and local drilling practices may provide a more
rapid and complete survey of an area. Cost associated with professional
services range from $20 per hour plus travel and expenses to over $150 per
hour when travel and per diem Is Included.
Aerial magnetometer reconnaissance Is always performed by a
professional company and requires Interpretation of the data before the
presence of well casings can be determined. The cost of aerial
magnetometer surveys depends on the area to be covered, the number and
spacing of the flight lines and the time necessary for Interpretation of
the data. Because most other forms of aerial surveys are not conducted in
as closely spaced grid patterns and at heights necessary for determining
the location of abandoned wells, cost estimates are not readily available
at this time. However, Frischknecht et al., (1983) have made limited cost
estimates of $825 to $1,320 per square mile based on informal discussions
with one contractor. In general, because of the Initial cost of mobilizing
the aircraft and equipment, the area being surveyed must be large enough to
warrant the initial investment.
Only professional companies provide subsurface magnetometer surveys.
The cost associated with a survey is dependent upon the mobilization cost
for the equipment, the transportation cost for bringing the equipment to
the site and the amount of time necessary to perform the log and analyze
the results. A reasonable cost estimate for this service would be
approximately $3000 per day. Additional costs may be incurred if a special
uncased borehole needs to be drilled so that the log can be run.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Magnetometers can be used to perform surface, airborne or subsurface
reconnaissance. Surface surveys may help to determine the location of
metallic well casings and metal objects associated with drilling and
production activities. A variety of magnetometers may be used. The most
commonly available Instruments are fluxgate and proton magnetometers. The
fluxgate magnetometer Is fairly Inexpensive, can be operated by an
Individual with minimal training and provides a continuous output usually
In the form of an audible signal. A proton magnetometer is more expensive,
provides readings at selected locations, requires more expertise to operate
and may require interpretation of data. Both instruments are portable and
suitable for finding ferrous objects at shallow depths. The equipment can
be used 1n all types of terrain and vegetative cover although readings may
be affected by cultural features such as power lines, buildings, fences and
other ferrous sources. Field methods may require a labor intensive effort.
Aerial surveys may provide an overview of an area to determine the
presence of well casings. Aerial surveys are most suitable for use in
68
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rural areas with a low population density because of the Interference of
cultural features on the magnetometer readings and the FAA restrictions on
the flight height of airplanes. The survey may be expensive In terms of
cash outlay, but may be cost effective on a per well basis. Interpretation
of the data obtained from an aerial survey must be performed by a
professional. The evidence of magnetic anomalies must then be checked
through the use of ground search methods to field locate abandoned well
casings.
Subsurface surveys may be used to determine the location of abandoned
well casings at depths below the surface of the ground. This method Is
expensive and 1s limited In application to wells within 15 to 18 feet of
the well being logged.
Magnetometers are limited to finding objects and casing composed of
ferrous metal. Therefore, this method can only be applied when metal
casing Is present or when ferrous metal objects associated with drilling
activities still remain at the site. This method should be used in
conjunction with other methods to actually field locate abandoned wells.
CASE HISTORIES
Searches for well casings using magnetometers may be performed for a
variety of reasons. The case histories listed below provide examples of
searches that were conducted using magnetometers and detail the reasons the
searches were conducted.
Case #1
There is often a need to determine the location of abandoned wells for
replugging or to reopen the hole for production. In Illinois, a search for
one abandoned well began with obtaining the original plat and surveying the
marked distances In the field. When this was accomplished, the searcher
guessed by knowledge of drilling practices that the well would have most
probably been located about 200 feet uphill of the recorded site. A
detailed search of the area with a fluxgate magnetometer found the
location of the casing within an hour (K. Alwredge, personal communication,
1982).
Case #2
The practice of constructing domestic water wells with casing that
does not extend above the ground surface is fairly widespread. The
necessity to locate these wells for repairs where no surface expression is
evident is common. The well casings can be located by walking over the
area using a hand held magnetometer. Casings as deep as 6 feet have been
located using this method. The use of the magnetometer to locate the
casing results in the saving of considerable excavation time and effort (B.
Jacoby, personal communication, 1982).
69
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REFERENCES
Baltosser, R.W. and Cecil Honea, 1976, The Improved birdwell casing finder;
Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, Paper Number SPE 6161, 12 pp.
Barret, William M., 1931, Magnetic disturbance caused by buried casing; The
Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, vol. 15,
reprinted in early papers of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists,
Tulsa, Oklahoma, pp. 89-105.
Brelner, Sheldon-, 1973, Applications manual for portable magnetometers;
Geometries, Sunnyvale, California, 58 pp.
E G & G Geometries product literature, Sunnyvale, California.
Evans, Roy B., 1982, Currently available geophysical methods for use In
hazardous waste site investigations; Proceedings of the American Chemical
Society Symposium Series 204, Las Vegas, Nevada, pp. 93-116.
Frischknecht, F.C., L. Muth, R. Grette, T. Buckley and B. Kornegay, 1983,
Geophysical methods for locating abandoned wells; U.S. Department of the
Interior, Geological Survey Open File Report 83-702, 207 pp.
Griffith, D.H. and R.F. King, 1965, Applied geophysics for engineers and
geologists; Pergamon Press, pp. 171-201.
Koerner, Robert M., Arthur E. Lord, Jr., Somdev Tyagi, and John E. Brugger,
1982, Use of NOT methods to detect burled containers in saturated silty
clay soil; Proceedings of the National Conference on Management of
Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites, Washington, DC, pp. 12-16.
Nettleton, L.L., 1976, Gravity and Magnetics in oil prospecting;
McGraw-Hill, pp. 327-359.
Schonstedt Instrument Company product literature, Reston, Virginia.
Tel ford, W.M., L.P. Geldart, R.E. Sheriff and D.A. Keys, 1976, Applied
geophysics; Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 114-217.
70
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SECTION 10
COMBUSTIBLE GAS INDICATORS
SYNOSPIS
Combustible gas indicators can be used in intensive field searches to
detect the presence of hydrocarbons emitted from either cased or uncased
abandoned wells. Combustible gas indicators are inexpensive, portable
pieces of equipment which require no specialized knowledge to operate or
interpret the output. They are suitable for operation in all types of
terrain and in low vegetative cover. This method should be used in
conjunction with other search methods to narrow the area of review before
employing the use of the detector. Because of wind dispersion and the
necessity for hydrocarbons to be present in detectable amounts, the
combustible gas indicator has a limited application for locating abandoned
wells.
DISCUSSION AND PRXEDURES
Combustible gas indicators are designed to detect and measure
combustible gases or vapors in the air. The indicators are commonly used
to detect gases such as methane or natural gas. Traditional applications
of combustible gas detection equipment include: I) testing manholes or
sewers, 2) locating leaks 1n pipelines, 3) testing confined areas in sewage
disposal plants and 4) testing enclosed areas such as the insides of tanks
or vessels.
Combustible gas Indicators are available with a wide variety of
sensors. Most Instruments operate on the same principle. A sample of gas
is drawn through an aspirator bulb and comes in contact with a heated
platinum filament. The filament is heated to operating temperature by an
electric current. When the gas contacts the heated filament, combustion of
the gas raises the temperature of the filament in proportion to the amount
of combustible gas present. A wheatstone bridge circuit measures the
change in electrical resistance due to the temperature rise. The value is
usually expressed as a digital readout or is indicated by a needle
deflection on a meter scale. Audible alarms which may be preset to any
desired hydrocarbon detection level are available on some models. Gas
concentrations from 0 to 100% of the lower explosive limit (LEL) are
typically measured by this type of equipment.
A combustible gas indicator Is a lightweight portable instrument which
can easily be operated by one individual without specific training
71
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(Figure 27). The equipment is suitable for operation in all types of
terrain and 1n most types of vegetative cover.
In many abandoned or improperly plugged wells, hydrocarbons or other
gases may be conducted to the surface. Methane, which is the most abundant
gas associated with oil and gas production, may be detected by a
combustible gas indicator if there is sufficient quantity present. A
combustible gas indicator may be useful in intensive field searches for
abandoned wells. The method may be useful for either cased wells or wells
which have had the casing removed provided that a direct outlet from the
source of the hydrocarbons to the surface exists.
When conducting a survey, the ambient background concentration of
hydrocarbons in the area must be established to allow for natural and
industrial hydrocarbon emissions. Measured levels of hydrocarbons above
the ambient background level may indicate the presence of an abandoned oil
and gas well. Hydrocarbon emissions from an abandoned well are dependent
upon the efficiency of the original plugging operation and the subsequent
gas pressure buildup in the wellbore. Gases are quickly dispersed by wind.
As a result, measurements must be made with the instrument close to the
ground. Establishment of a closely spaced grid system may be helpful in
finding the source of the emissions. According to Johnston et al., (1973),
most of the detectable methane will occur directly over the wellbore itself
or in a radius of one to two feet around the wellbore. Of the wells
examined in a field study, no wells had detectable ground emissions at
distances farther than two feet from the wellbore. Beyond this distance,
the methane is too dispersed to be measured as a significant increase above
the ambient background level (Figure 28).
COST
The cost of conducting a survey with combustible gas indicators is
dependent on the cost of the equipment and the manpower necessary to
conduct the search. It is possible to purchase inexpensive combustible gas
indicators ranging in price from $225 to $400. More sensitive equipment or
accessories to provide additional sensors and more convenient equipment
operation or storage will Increase the cost.
Manpower requirements necessary to conduct the search should be
relatively small because the equipment is used only when the search area
has been narrowed significantly by other searching methods. Additionally,
operation of the equipment is quickly and easily performed by an individual
with a minimal amount of training.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Combustible gas detectors can be used in an intensive field search to
help locate the presence of cased or uncased abandoned wells. The
equipment is portable, inexpensive and can be operated by an individual
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Figure 27. Operation of combustible gas indicator (Mine Safety Appliances Co. product literature).
73
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KEY
C *. O.I percent
O.I percent s.C * I percent
C > I percent
Wellbore
^ Wind direction
HYDROCARBON CONCENTRATION,percent
B
-I
Background
I
2
Borehole
DISTANCE, feet
Figure 28. Graphic representation ol decreases in methane concentration as search probe is moved from center o)
well bore (Johnston et al. 1973).
74
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with limited training on the Instrument. The equipment Is suitable for use
In all types of terrain and low vegetative cover.
The method has limited application for sites where a direct connection
with the hydrocarbon source to the surface exists. The combustible gas
indicator should only be used when the search area has been narrowed to a
smaller size by other searching methods. Even when the indicator is used
to search a small area and passed directly over the well, insufficient
amounts of hydrocarbons either due to low hydrocarbon production from the
well or due to dispersal of hydrocarbons by the wind will render the
detector useless. Other searching methods such as with metal detectors
provide a low cost piece of equipment which is much more versatile.
Therefore, combustible gas indicators are best applied in very
site-specific applications.
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REFERENCES
Johnston, K.H., H.B. Carroll, R.J. Heemstra and F.E. Armstrong, 1973, How
to find abandoned oil and gas wells; U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Sureaj cf
Mines Information Circular 3578, 45 pp.
Mine Safety Appliances Company product literature, Plttsburg,
Pennsylvania.
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SECTION 11
EXCAVATION
SYNOPSIS
Excavation 1s the final procedure used to verify the presence or
absence of evidence of a casing, well bore or objects associated with
drilling and production activities. Excavation may be accomplished by
shovel or by larger equipment such as a backhoe. The excavated area may be
large or very small depending on the success In finding the desired object
and the proximity of the Initial site of excavation to the point where
either the object was uncovered or excavation ceased. Excavation 1s most
successful when used 1n comblnatlo- with the other methods described In
this report. Although excavation may not produce the desired results, this
method should always be employed In some form when the well 1s not visible
and when exact location and verification of an abandoned well 1s necessary.
DISCUSSION AND PROCEDURES
Excavation Is the process of digging up or uncovering well casings or
objects associated with well-drilling activities. Excavation 1s usually
the last step 1n locating an abandoned well which 1s not visible from the
surface. A preliminary search using a combination of any of the methods
previously described or as described In the second portion of this report
should have been employed to yield a reasonable location of the well.
Cased or uncased wells may be located In this manner. Soil discoloration
In and around the well caused by drilling and production activities offers
clues to the well location.
Procedures for earthmovlng may vary depending on the area that needs
to be excavated and the nature of the survey. If a well has been
pinpointed by magnetic surveying or methane detection, a shovel may be used
to excavate the area. For less Industrious Individuals, a backhoe may
perform the excavating. Sometimes a larger area will be excavated to a
depth of two to three feet. Clues 1n soil discoloration as well as burled
objects are observed. Excavation Is used to verify findings by other
searching methods; widespread excavation may be used where other searching
methods have proven unsuccessful.
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COST
The cost of excavation depends on the area excavated and the tools and
manpower necessary to complete the task. The excavation of shallow objects
with a shovel 1s generally not considered as an additional cost In a
general survey (shovels can be purchased for between $5.00 and $20.00).
However, the use of larger equipment such as a backhoe or the Intensive use
of manpower to uncover deep or numerous objects may require a larger
expenditure. Rental of a backhoe (complete with operator) usually ranges
from $30 to $50 per hour.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Excavation may provide a verification of the location of a well
casing, an uncased hole or objects associated with well drilling and
production activities. This method should only be used 1n combination with
other searching methods which have pinpointed a logical place for
excavation. Excavation with large equipment can be accomplished quickly,
but must be done carefully to avoid obliteration of the well. The time and
manpower requirements of this method are extremely variable. Excavation is
a necessary procedure to verify any buried well location, but may involve
the moving of large quantities of soil without concrete results.
CASE HISTORY
The location of an abandoned well in Lea County, New Mexico was
necessary to ensure the wellbore integrity for pending waterflood
operations. The well had been drilled in 1933 and abandoned in accordance
with the regulations 1n existence at the time. The location of the well
was determined from the original survey description records and the well
site was then resurveyed In the field. A backhoe was used to begin
excavation in a grid pattern until evidence of the old cellar and pits were
discovered. This led to the location of the remaining casing which had
been cut off below ground level during the original abandonment (R.
Phillips, personal communication, 1982).
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SECTION 12
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY
SYNOPSIS
Electrical resistivity surveys may help to field locate cased
abandoned wells and may be used to trace ground-water contamination plumes
with high specific conductance to find an abandoned well which is the
source of the contamination. Electrical resistivity surveys measure the
apparent resistivity of the earth by Injecting current into the ground and
measuring the resultant potential field between two electrodes. While a
metal casing will Influence the results of an electrical resistivity.
survey, the anomaly may not be able to be distinguished from the overall
results. Ground-water contamination surveys are more complex and require
detailed Interpretation of the data. An electrical resistivity survey is
more time consuming to conduct than other methods because electrical probes
must be placed into the ground and removed after each reading is taken.
Electrical resistivity surveys are less cost-effective than other methods
which will detect metal casing.
DISCUSSION AND PROCEDURES
Electrical resistivity surveys are designed to measure the apparent
resistivity of subsurface materials. The method is based on the premise
that differences in the electrical resistance of soils and rock will alter
an electrical current passing through them (Tapp, I960). Electrical
resistivity surveys have traditionally been used for mineral and
ground-water exploration and for studying the engineering properties of the
materials of the earth (Horton et al., 1981). More recently, electrical
resistivity has been applied to detecting and mapping ground-water
contamination (Kelly, 1976; Cartwright and McComas, 1968; Stollar and Roux,
1975; Fink and Aulenbach, 1974; Warner, 1969).
The electrical resistivity technique induces a measured amount of very
low frequency (<1 Hz) current to flow through the ground from a pair of
electrodes some known distance apart (Zohdy et al., 1974) (Figure 29).
Variations in the thickness, configuration, depth and saturation of the
geologic materials alter the current path in the earth. A second pair of
electrodes measures the resultant potential field between the two potential
electrodes (Evans, 1982). Based on the values of current, voltage and
electrode geometry, the apparent resistivity can be calculated (Tapp,
1960). The results are expressed as a graph showing apparent resistivity
versus depth, as a contoured map of the site or as a curve which is used
79
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Battery
II-
Current meter
Voltage meter
/ '->- „ '-
A \
' ' \
/ \
f \
'Resistivity p,
"^-—. _---' /
•^...
Figure 29. Diagram showing basic concept of electrical resistivity measurement (Mooney 1980).
80
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to evaluate depth and thickness of subsurface layers with differing
resistivities (Tapp, 1960; Schwartz and McClymot, 1977; Evans et al.,
1982).
The basic electrical resistivity equipment consists of the resistivity
measuring unit, four electrodes and four reels of wire (EPA, 1978) (Figure
30). The equipment used for shallow surveys Is portable and can be carried
from station to station. Electrical resistivity surveys are generally
suitable for use 1n most types of terrain and vegetation. However certain
factors may discourage the use of this method. Care should be exercised
when conducting a survey In areas where the surface is wet because
electrical shorts in the wires may occur If the wires are not properly
insulated. Dry soils may also cause problems because proper electrical
contact cannot be achieved. Vegetative cover such as dense brush or trees
can also present difficulty either In placing the electrodes along a
straight line or 1n attaching the wires and electrodes to the equipment.
Additionally, the equipment cannot be used in urban areas where the
electrodes cannot be Inserted into the ground.
An electrical survey 1s conducted by inserting the electrical probes
Into the ground along a straight line (Figure 31). The spacing of the
electrodes roughly determines the effective depth of the survey (Tapp,
1960). Therefore, the closer the electrodes are spaced, the shallower the
depth of the survey. Spacings-of 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 feet are common for
shallow electrical surveys, although the spacing of the probes varies
dramatically from site to site and with differing applications.
Generally, two types of surveys, either profiling or sounding, are
conducted. A horizontal profile of the area is obtained by keeping the
electrode spacing constant and moving the electrodes to different stations
on the site after each measurement Is made (Zohdy et al., 1974). A
vertical sounding involves progressively expanding the electrode spacing
away from the center of the station until the desired maximum depth
readings are obtained. The entire process 1s then repeated for each
separate station (Schwartz and McClymont, 1976).
The results obtained from an electrical resistivity survey can be
distorted by cultural features such as pipelines, oil and water tanks,
metal fences, overhead power lines and transformers (Anonymous, 1971).
Complex geology may also make the results difficult to interpret. To aid
In Interpretation, an electrical resistivity survey normally is conducted
1n areas where resistivity values can be correlated with geologic data such
as llthologlc logs (Schwartz and McClymont, 1977). Because of the
Intricacies involved 1n Interpretation, considerable expertise is necessary
to properly Interpret the data. Today, interpretation is usually
accomplished with the aid of a computer or programmable calculator.
Electrical resistivity has not been specifically applied to searches
for abandoned wells. However, Holladay (1982) has indicated that steel oil
well casings may produce an anomaly that is similar or greater in magnitude
than other cultural sources such as fences, power lines and pipelines. An
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Figure 30. Electrical resistivity survey equipment (Bison Instruments Inc. instruction manual).
82
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S
Figure 31. Field operation o( electrical resistivity equipment (Anonymous 1971).
-------
experienced geophysical surveyor may be able to recognize the anomaly In
the field and determine the cultural feature which may be causing the
disturbance (Anonymous, 1971). If this Is possible, electrical resistivity
surveys may be applicable to finding cased abandoned wells without the
necessity for extensive Interpretation of all the data obtained from the
survey.
Electrical resistivity has recently been used to trace ground-water
contamination plumes with a high specific conductance from such sources as
landfills, sewage treatment effluent, salt piles, septic tanks and brine
pits (Kelly, 1976; International Resource Consultants and Zonge
Engineering, 1979). Therefore, electrical resistivity may be .,->ed as a
tool to assist In Identifying ground-water contamination caused by
saltwater migrating through an abandoned well. Although electrical
resistivity has not been extensively used for this purpose, It may prove
moderately successful 1n defining the point source of brine leakage from
the abandoned well. Other sources of high specific conductance present at
the well such as brine spillage during or after drilling operations or
brine associated with pits may Interfere with the survey results and make
1t more difficult to pinpoint the location of the abandoned well. EPA
(1978), has detailed the application and success of using electrical
resistivity surveys to provide a good definition of the area of
ground-water contamination at a number of hypothetical sites. Others have
been successful 1n actually detecting and mapping ground-water
contamination plumes (Kelly, 1976; Cartwrlght and McComas, 1968; Stellar
and Roux, 1975; Fink and Aulenbach, 1974; Warner, 1969).
COST
The cost of an electrical resistivity survey varies depending on the
cost of the equipment, -tatlon density, the size of the area evaluated, the
type of survey, the manpower required and the extent of Interpretation of
the data. Equipment costs range from $2500 to $6600 with the average cost
of survey equipment approximately $3500. Equipment may be available for
rental at costs ranging from $560 per week to $700 per month.
An electrical resistivity survey 1s usually performed by two or three
member crews. Under normal conditions, the crew may be able to take from
20 to 50 readings In a day with a single electrode spacing; 8 to 15
soundings with 7 readings at each station could also be completed In one
day. Costs for professional field surveys range from $25 to $35 per hour
per crew member plus expenses. In addition to obtaining the raw data,
Interpretation must be performed for ground-water contamination surveys.
The time required for Interpretation will vary greatly depending on the
site. Costs associated with Interpretation range from $60 to $80 per hour;
for complicated sites it may take two to three days to perform the
necessary interpretation.
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Electrical resistivity surveys may be applicable for finding the
location of cased abandoned wells. By using a fixed electrode spacing
between 5 and 10 feet, anomalies created by casing at depths up to ten feet
below the surface may be detectable without extensive Interpretation.
Although 20 to 50 readings per day can be obtained using a fixed
electrode spacing, resistivity surveys are time consuming when compared to
other methods. The electrodes must be Inserted into the ground and removed
after every reading. Electrical surveys are not applicable at all sites
and should not be conducted where terrain or vegetative cover prohibits the
Insertion of electrodes Into the ground or the correct the alignment of the
electrodes. The cost of the survey Is relatively expensive when compared to
other methods which are applicable for finding cased abandoned wells.
Electrical resistivity may also be applicable for determining the
extent of a plume of contaminated ground water with high specific
conductance. If contamination emanates from an abandoned well, an
electrical resistivity survey may be used to delineate the shape of the
plume and may help to locate the well. This application would be
considerably more costly due to the extensive Interpretation of the data
that would be required, "his application assumes contamination has already
occurred and that the source can be traced to an abandoned well.
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REFERENCES
Anonymous, 1971, Surface geophysical techniques, electrical earth
resistivity; Water Well Journal, vol. 25, no. 7, pp. 44-45.
Bison Instruments, Inc., No date, Instruction manual: Bison Instruments
earth resistivity systems model 2350, 22 p.
Cartwright, Keros and Murray R. McComas, 1968, Geophysical surveys In the
vicinity of sanitary landfills 1n northeastern Illinois; Ground Water, vol.
6, no. 1, pp. 23-30.
Evans, Roy B., 1982, Currently available geophysical methods for use 1n
hazardous waste site Investigations; Proceedings of the American Chemical
Society Symposium Series 204, Las Vegas, Nevads, pp. 93-116.
Fink, William B. Jr., and Donald B. Aulenbach, 1974, Protracted recharge of
treated sewage Into sand part II - tracing the Flow of contaminated ground
water with a resistivity survey; Ground Water, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 219-223.
Holladay, J. Scott and G.F. West, 1982, Effect of well casings on surface
electrical surveys; Geophysics, vol. 47, no. 4, p. 439.
Morton, Keith A., Rexford M. Morey, Louis Isaacson and Richard H. Beers,
1981, The complimentary nature of geophysical techniques for mapping
chemical waste disposal sites: Impulse radar and resistivity; Proceedings
from the National Conference on Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites,
Washington, DC, pp. 158-164.
International Resource Consultants Incorporated and Zonge Engineering and
Research Organization, 1979, The use of complex resistivity to assess
ground-water quality degradation resulting from oil well brine disposal;
Unpublished manuscript, Submitted to the U.S. EPA, 45 pp.
Kelly, William E., 1976, Geoelectrlc sounding for delineating ground-water
contamination; Ground Water, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 6-10.
Mooney, Harold M., 1980, Handbook of engineering geophysics; Bison
Instruments, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota, vol. 2, 79 pp.
Schwartz, F.W. and G.L. McClymont, 1977, Applications of surface
resistivity methods; Ground Water; vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 197-202.
Stollar, Robert L. and Paul Roux, 1975, Earth resistivity surveys - a
method for defining ground-water contamination; Ground Water, vol. 13, no.
2, pp. 145-150.
Tapp, William N., 1960, Resistivity method scans geologic conditions; The
Johnson National Drillers Journal, v. 32, no. 5, pp. 3-5.
86
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U.S. EPA, 1978, Electrical resistivity evaluations at solid waste disposal
facilities, U.S. EPA Office of Water and Waste Management, #SW-729,
Washington, DC, 94 pp.
Warner, Don L., 1969, Preliminary field studies using earth resistivity
measurements for delineating zones of contaminated ground water; Ground
Water, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 9-16.
Zohdy, A.A.R., G.P. Eaton and D.R. Mabey, 1974, Application of surface
geophysics to ground-water Investigations; Techniques of Water Resources
Investigations of the United States Geological Survey, Chapter 01, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, 116 pp.
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SECTION 13
ELECTROMAGNETIC CONDUCTIVITY
SYNOPSIS
Electromagnetic conductivity may have application for determining the
presence and field location of cased abandoned wells. The method may also
be able to detect soil disturbances associated with drilling activities or
plumes of contaminated ground water with high salinity. This, 1n turn, may
help to better determine the location of an abandoned well. Electro-
magnetic conductivity surveys provide a geophysical technique which can be
conducted relatively quickly. The equipment 1s portable and can be
operated In most types of terrain and vegetative cover, however the
operation of the equipment and the Interpretation of the data require the
services of a professional.
DISCUSSION AND PROCEDURES
Electromagnetic surveys measure variations in the condudtlvlty of the
earth conductivity. These measurements are used to Interpret subsurface
features and Identify buried objects. The measured electrical conductivity
1s influenced by the composition and porosity of the soil or rock, the
conductivity of the fluids within the pore spaces and the composition of
any man-made objects which are present (Evans et a!., 1982).
Electromagnetic conductivity has been used 1) 1n mineral exploration, 2) 1n
archaeological exploration, 3) to map bedrock topography, 4) to locate
pipes and 5) to detect the presence of waste containers, pipes and trenches
at hazardous waste disposal sites (McNeil1, 1980; Evans et al., 1982).
A variety of electromagnetic survey equipment is available for
application to mineral exploration. However, only the relatively new
electromagnetic techniques which provide a simple conductivity reading are
discussed here.
An electromagnetic conductivity system consists of a power source,
transmitter and receiver coils, and amplifier. An alternating current is
passed through a transmitter coil which is placed near the surface (Telford
et al., 1976). This current generates a magnetic field around the coll
which induces electrical currents in the ground. The magnitude of the
currents is a function of the subsurface conditions. The induced currents
generate a secondary magnetic field (Figure 32). A receiver coil detects
both the primary and secondary fields and the conductivity is calculated as
88
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Primary magnetic field
Transmitter
'coil
Secondary magnetic field
Figure 32. Diagram showing basic concept of electromagnetic conductivity measurement (McNeil! 1982).
89
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a function of the ratio between the primary and secondary fields (McNeil!,
1982). This reading 1s usually displayed on a meter and may be recorded
manually 1n writing or automatically on a strip chart or magnetic recorder.
Electromagnetic conductivity surveys require the establishment of a
grid coordinate system to ensure systematic searching of the area. The
spacing of the grid Is determined by the Intercoll spacing and the
Information desired from the survey. Grid spadngs from 10 to 15 feet are
common at hazardous waste disposal sites when delineation of trenches and
burled drums is desired (Koerner et al., 1982). Spadngs of 80 feet have
been used to determine the extent of a contaminant plume with high salinity
(McNeil 1, 1982).
The effective survey depth of electromagnetic conductivity equipment
1s related to the spacing between the two colls. Common coil spacings are
12, 33, 65 and 130 feet; effective survey depths range from 5 to 200 feet
(Evans, 1982). In general, the nominal survey depth Is 1 1/2 times the
Intercoll spacing. The effective depth may also be affected by nearby
sources of "noise" such as power lines, fences or other surface or
subsurface objects.
An electromagnetic conductivity survey 1s performed with relatively
lightweight portable Instruments which can be operated by one- or two-man
crews depending on the equipment selected (Figure 33). Instrumentation is
available which will provide either continuous readings or discrete
readings at selected stations. The equipment can be operated to obtain a
profile along a traverse by taking readings at a continuous depth or can be
operated to obtain a depth profile at a single location by taking readings
at various depths by changing the orientation of the coll. The speed of
the survey depends on the number of readings taken, the grid spacing and
the size of the area to be evaluated. The survey can be conducted in most
types of terrain and in vegetative cover which is not heavily overgrown or
wooded.
The data obtained from a survey may be voluminous and require
Interpretation by a trained professional. Computers are often employed to
assist In data manipulation. The results are usually portrayed either as a
profile of the traverse or as a contour map of the area.
No references were found to indicate that electromagnetic
conductivity has been specifically applied to searches for abandoned wells.
However, since electromagnetic conductivity has proven effective in
locating burled drums at hazardous waste disposal sites, the method may
also be applicable to finding buried metal casings. Electromagnetic
conductivity surveys will not be useful in locating small metal objects
associated with drilling and production activities because of the
Insensivity of the method to small objects. Despite the change in
electromagnetic conductivity produced by metallic objects, Frishknecht et
al., (1983) report that preliminary tests using portable electromagnetic
equipment were only able to distinguish horizontal and not vertical pipe
when test measurements were made at two well sites.
90
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»*•••
Figure 33. Field operation of electromagnetic conductivity equipment by one and two man crews (McNeill 1980).
91
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Electromagnetic conductivity may also be applicable to finding
evidence of larger surface disturbances associated with drilling
activities. Brine pits which have been filled 1n may produce a large
enough anomaly to be separated from the surrounding area. The procedure
for locating such a disturbance would be similar to that for delineating a
trench at a hazardous waste disposal site. Brine pits or other areas with
high salinity will have a higher conductivity which may also be detectable.
Additionally, It may be possible to map highly saline plumes of ground
water using electromagnetic conductivity. The plume may then be traced
back to Its source which could be an abandoned well.
COST
The cost of an electromagnetic survey will be largely dependent on the
area to be searched, the grid spacing necessary to achieve the desired
results and the Interpretation of the data. The cost of either purchasing
or renting the equipment or having the search performed by a professional
company must also be Included. Portable electromagnetic survey equipment
ranges In cost from $7,800 to $13,000. The equipment may be rented for
costs ranging from $300 to $500 per week depending on the sensitivity of
the desired equipment. If the equipment is either purchased or rented, a
qualified professional will be needed to oversee the survey and Interpret
the data. It may be desirable, therefore, to employ the services of a
professional company experienced in the operation of the equipment and the
Interpretation techniques. Costs typically range from $750 to $1000 per
day plus travel expenses for a two-man crew. Additional costs may be
Incurred in verifying the location of a metal casing by excavation or by
using other methods to locate the well when the general area of the well is
delineated by the electromagnetic conductivity survey.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Electromagnetic conductivity surveys may have application for
delineating the location of an abandoned well by indicating the presence of
metal casing, soil disturbances associated with drilling and production
activities or highly saline ground-water plumes. The method provides a
relatively quick geophysical survey of the area at depths which can be as
shallow as 5 feet or as deep as 200 feet. The equipment is portable and
can be operated by either one or two people in all types of vegetation and
terrain although readings may be affected by cultural features such as
power lines.
The cost of an electromagnetic conductivity survey is relatively
expensive when compared to other methods which are applicable for finding
cased abandoned wells. Additionally, the survey must be performed by a
professional who can correctly perform and Interpret the results.
If the well does not contain metallic casing, the method may only be
used to infer the location of the abandoned well. In this case, other
methods may be required to specifically locate the well.
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REFERENCES
Evans, R.B., R.C. Benson and J. R1zzo, 1982, Systematic hazardous waste
site assessments; Proceedings from the National Conference on Uncontrolled
Hazardous Waste Sites, Washington, DC, pp. 17-22.
Evans, R.B., 1982, Currently available geophysical methods for use 1n
hazardous waste site Investigations; Proceedings of the American Chemical
Society Symposium Series 204, Las Vegas, Nevada, pp. 93-116.
Frischknecht, F.C., L. Muth, R. Grette, T. Buckley, and B. Kornegay, 1983,
Geophysical methods for locating abandoned wells; U. S. Department of the
Interior, Geological Survey Open File Report 83-702, 207 pp.
Koerner, Robert M., Arthur E. Lord, Jr., Sondev Tyagi and John E. Brugger,
1982, Use of NOT methods to detect buried containers in saturated silty
clay soil; Proceedings of the National Conference on Uncontrolled Hazardous
Waste Sites, Washington, DC, pp. 12-16.
McNeil, J.D., 1980, Electromagnetic terrain conductivity measurement at low
induction numbers; Geonics Limited Technical Note TN-6, Mississauga,
Ontario, 15 pp.
McNeil, J.D., 1982, Electromagnetic resistivity mapping of contaminant
plumes; Proceedings from the National Conference on Uncontrolled Hazardous
Waste Sites, Washington, DC, pp. 1-6.
Telford, W.M., L.P. Geldart, R.E. Sheriff, D.A. Keys, 1976, Applied
Geophysics; Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 601-631.
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SECTION 14
GROUND PENETRATING RADAR
SYNOPSIS
Ground penetrating radar may be a viable technique for determining the
presence and field location of abandoned wells. Ground penetrating radar
detects soil disturbances and burled metal objects, and therefore may be
used to find both cased and uncased wells, metal objects and other soil
disturbances caused by drilling and production activities. Geophysical
surveys using radar are relatively expensive to perform and must be
conducted and Interpreted by trained professionals. Ground penetrating
radar provides a continuous survey of the area. Output from the Instrument
1s usually In the form of a graphic "Image" which permits on-slte field
Interpretation of the data.
DISCUSSION AND PROCEDURES
Ground penetrating radar uses high frequency radio waves to detect the
presence and depth of natural subsurface features and man-made objects.
The responses detected by the equipment are Influenced by both natural
phenomena such as bedding planes, clay content, moisture, voids and
fractures, as well as by man-made objects and soil disturbances (Evans et
al., 1982). Ground penetrating radar Is a relatively new geophysical
technique which has been used 1) to Investigate archaeological sites, 2) to
detect the presence of waste containers, pipes and trenches In hazardous
waste Investigations, 3) to locate sewer lines aM buried cables, and 4) to
profile lake and river bottoms (White and Brandwein, 1982; Yaffe et al.,
1980).
A ground penetrating radar system consists of a transmitter, an
antenna, a receiver and a graphic recorder. The equipment is normally
mounted on a truck or In a van and the antenna Is towed behind the vehicle.
Pulses of electromagnetic frequencies ranging from 100 to 900 MHz are
radiated Into the ground from the antenna which is within a few inches of
the surface (Koerner et al., 1982). The pulses of radar are reflected from
subsurface Interfaces which have different electrical properties (Evans et
al., 1982). The reflected signals are received by the antenna, processed
electronically and displayed on a recorder as a visual image or continuous
cross section of the area along the traverse (Evans, 1982) (Figure 34).
The time required for the pulse to travel down and back provides an
indication of the depth of either the horizon or subsurface object (Koerner
et al., 1982).
94
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This profile is an example.
Depth and detail vary with
application
-18ft.
Natural .;.;
Undisturbed
Subsurface
Abandoned; .
Landfill
Site
- • v;,;-
- 24ft.
V
This prodle is an example.
Depth and detail vary with
application.
-t— 1500ft.
Figure 34. Example profiles obtained from a ground penetrating radar survey (Geophysical Survey Systems Inc.)-
95
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A ground penetrating radar survey requires the establishment of an
appropriate grid coordinate system and the marking of the reference points
on the ground. The spacing of the grid Is determined by the desired
coverage of the subsurface. The finer the grid pattern, the greater the
resolution and coverage. Grid spaclngs of 10 feet have been used at
hazardous waste disposal sites to survey the area for burled drums (Yaffe
et al., 1980).
Depth of penetration of ground penetrating radar 1s limited by a
variety of factors Including clay content and the conductivity of the water
within the pore spaces (White and Brandwein, 1982). The depth of
penetration of the radar 1s very site specific, however, depths of 9 to 30
feet are commonly attained (Evans, 1982). By selecting the frequency
emitted by the transmitter, the depth of penetration can be controlled to
some degree. In general, the higher the frequency, the greater the
resolution at shallow depths because the depth varies with the Inverse
square of the frequency (Yaffe et al., 1980). Because of the level of
sophistication of the equipment, operation must be performed by a trained
professional.
A survey 1s conducted by towing the antenna over the ground along an
established traverse. The speed of the survey will depend on the coverage
desired, but better resolution can be obtained by slowing the speed of the
survey. The terrain must be level enough to accommodate the operation of
the vehicle. According to Morton et al., (1981), brush 1s usually cleared
and weeds and grass mowed to Improve ease of operation at the site.
Data output usually consists of a sen.s of black and white Images
which form a graphic Image of the subsurface with depth. The dark bands
occur at positive and negative peaks and the light bands occur at the zero
crossings between peaks (Norton et al., 1981). The output provides a
preliminary analysis of the site 1n the field; however, interpretation is
not always straightforward and requires the expertise of a professional.
Ground penetrating radar has not been specifically applied to searches
for abandoned wells. However, wells have been identified when searches
were conducted for other reasons (Figure 35). According to McKown and
Sandness (1981), the use of ground penetrating radar does have potential
application for the location of old wells and abandoned drill holes.
Since radar has proven effective in locating disturbed areas of earth
In such applications as hazardous waste disposal sites (Yaffe et al.,
1980), It should be possible to detect areas disturbed by drilling and
production activities even if surface evidence is not present. Uncased
wells, wells where the casing has been cut off at depth below the ground
surface or pits used in drilling activities should provide a disturbance in
soil compaction which results in a change In the electrical properties of
the soil. This, in turn, may be detected by the radar. The ability of
radar to determine the presence of metal may also make it valuable in
determining the presence of wells which contain casing or in locating metal
objects associated with drilling and production activities.
96
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PACKED CLAY
OLD BASEBALL DIAMOND)
OLD DIRT ROAD BED
-^.-c-. -'• ^ - • *E»
//.sj^^fctvi&j
;^^yit^
- "" - - » »-" ~-^iTf ^" V* ' :*
*• f ' ^M*Kr A -~ —^_ -
-- • - -'»- *
PROBABLE
STORM SEWER
SYSTEM
POSSIBLE OLD
TUNNEL STRUCTURE
GAS LINES "
OR WAT I R PIPES
Figure 35. Computer produced map view ol radar reflections at survey site (McKown and Sandness 1981).
-------
COST
The cost of conducting a survey with ground penetrating radar is
dependent on the desired resolution of the survey and the area to be
searched. Due to the cost of the equipment ($25,000 to $45,000), equipment
would not normally be purchased for this specific application. Costs for
surveys may be site specific and related to the cost of equipment
mobilization, but range from $1000 to $2000 per day. Costs generally
Include a raw data output such as produced from the graphic recorder.
Additional graphic representations or Interpretation are normally available
at prices averaging from $40 to $60 per hour for labor with computer time
and materials added as additional charges.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Ground penetrating radar may be applicable to delineating soil
disturbances caused by the location of uncased or cased wells or other
excavations associated with well drilling and production practices. The
technique may also be applicable for locating metal casings and metal
objects associated with drilling procedures. Surveys may be conducted
fairly rapidly by truck mounted equipment. On site Interpretation of the
data is made possible by the graphics produced by the recorder. The
display provides a continuous scan of the search area. Ground penetrating
radar may be suitable for application to either cased or uncased wells at
depths up to 25 feet and may provide an actual field location for the
abandoned wel1.
Ground penetrating radar surveys are relatively expensive and must be
conducted and Interpreted by trained professionals. The equipment is
normally vehicle-mounted and therefore requires access to the site.
However, the equipment may also be hand-towed, thereby, requiring a smaller
access area. Vegetation must be low and brush cleared from the site for
efficient operation. Depth of penetration is extremely variable and may
vary widely depending on the site conditions.
98
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REFERENCES
Evans, R.B., R.C. Benson and J. R1zzo, 1982, Systematic Hazardous waste
site assessments; Proceedings of the National Conference on Management of
Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites, Washington, DC, pp. 17-22.
Evans, Roy B., 1982, Currently available geophysical methods for use 1n
hazardous waste site Investigations; Proceedings of the American Chemical
Society Symposium Series 204, Las Vegas, Nevada, pp. 93-116.
Geophysical Survey Systems Inc. product literature, Hudson, New Hampshire.
Horton, Keith A., Rexford M. Morey, Louis Isaacson and Richard H. Beers,
1981, The complementary nature of geophysical techniques for mapping
chemical waste disposal sites: Impulse radar and resistivity. Proceedings
of the National Conference on Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste
Sites, Washington, DC, pp. 158-164.
Koerner, Robert M., Arthur E. Lord, Jr., Somdev Tyagl and John E. Brugger,
1982, Use of NOT methods to detect buried containers 1n saturated silty
clay soil; Proceedings of the National Conference on Management of
Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste -Sites, Washington, DC, pp. 12-16.
McKown, G.L. and G.A. Sandness, 1981, Computer-enhanced geophysical survey
techniques for exploration of hazardous waste sites; Proceedings of the
National Conference on Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites,
Washington, DC, pp. 300-305.
White, Robert M. and Sidney S. Brandwein, 1982, Application of geophysics
to hazardous waste investigations; Proceedings of the National Conference
on Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites, Washington, DC, pp.
91-93.
Yaffe, Harold J., Nancy L. Cichowicz and Paul J. Stoller, 1980, Remote
sensing for investigating burled drums and subsurface contamination at
Coventry, Rhode Island; Proceedings of the National Conference on
Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites, Washington, DC, pp.
239-249.
99
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SECTION 15
REMOTE SENSING
SYNOPSIS
Remote sensing is used to gather data about the surface of the earth
using aircraft or satellite mounted sensors. Infrared Imagery, which Is
comprised of color Infrared or thermal Infrared, detects selected wave-
lengths of electromagnetic radiation from the earth to produce an image.
Color infrared 1s termed "false color" Imagery because the image depicts
natural objects in colors not seen 1n the visible light spectrum. Thermal
Infrared responds to temperature variations 1n the earth. Color infrared
imagery may be applicable to delineating areas of vegetation stress
associated with drilling operations. This, in turn, may be traced to find
an abandoned well location. Thermal Imagery may compliment a full remote
sensing scan, but may have less direct application to finding abandoned
wells than other imagery. A special survey must be conducted to obtain
infrared Imagery because 1t 1s not readily available from other sources.
These methods are expensive because of the mobilization cost associated
with the survey and also the need for professional interpretation of the
data. However, the cost per square mile may be low In comparison to other
methods.
DISCUSSION AND PROCEDURES
Remote sensing is used to gather information about the surface of the
earth by using a sensor that is located above the surface. Remote sensing
is usually accomplished by a sensing device that is mounted on an aircraft
or in a satellite. Black and white aerial photographs, color photographs,
color infrared and thermal Infrared are all common types of remote sensing
outputs. Black and white aerial photography is discussed in Section 7.
Color photographs are Interpreted very similarly. Infrared imagery will be
discussed in this section.
Infrared imagery uses selected wavelengths of electromagnetic energy
to produce an image. Wavelengths between 0.7 and 0.9 microns are recorded
on infrared film to produce color infrared imagery. Wavelengths from 3 to
5 and 8 to 14 microns can be detected by a mechanical scanner to produce a
thermal image (Sabins, 1978).
Color infrared imagery was originally developed by the military for
determining the location of camouflaged targets (Avery, 1968). Civilian
100
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applications of the technology Include detection of vegetation stress,
identification of vegetation types and determination of geology by
vegetation patterns (Sabins, 1978; Avery, 1968).
Color Infrared Imagery or "false color imagery" responds to the
differences In the amount of radiation reflected by the objects being
photographed. Color Infrared film is similar to regular color film except
that it is sensitive to green, red and infrared radiation (Avery, 1968). A
yellow filter is used to remove the remaining blue light and therefore
Increase the contrast and resolution on the infrared film {Sabins, 1978).
When processed, the Image has colors which are "false" for most natural
features. For example, healthy deciduous foliage appears bright red and
clear water appears dark blue or black (Sabins, 1978).
If the vegetation is stressed or diseased, however, the infrared
reflectivity of the leaves decreases and a "color change" can be seen even
though the difference would not be visible to the naked eye. Color
signatures will also change with the season as the reflectivity of a plant
changes (Avery, 1968).
Thermal infrared imagery measures the amount of infrared energy (heat
radiation) that 1s emitted from the surface being imaged. Thermal infrared
imagery has been used to detect temperature-related phenomena such as coal
refuse pile fires, forest fires, thermal pollution and volcanic activity
(Deutsch, 1974; Thackrey, 1968), In addition, structural geologic mapping,
ecological studies and archeological studies have been conducted using this
technique (Bastuscheck, 1970).
Electromagnetic energy is emitted by any substance which has a
temperature above absolute zero and, therefore, all solid objects (trees,
rocks, animals, etc.) are sources of infrared radiation (Avery, 1968). The
intensity of the radiation is related to the surface temperature of the
emitting material (Wolfe, 1974). Since thermal radiation is absorbed by
the glass lenses of a normal camera and cannot be recorded on film, an
aircraft-mounted line-scanning imaging device is used to record radiation
from 8 to 14 microns (Wolfe, 1971). A rotating mirror within the scanning
device reflects the Images onto an element sensitive to infrared radiation
(Figure 36). The detector emits an electrical signal proportional to the
intensity of the radiation (Sabins, 1978). The image created by the
element 1s normally stored on magnetic tape and later transferred onto film
(Sabins, 1973).
Thermal imagery displays the apparent temperature differences
occurring in the surface being imaged. The resulting thermal imagery is a
black and white image where warm or hot surfaces appear as light areas,
while colder surfaces appear as darker areas (Figure 37). Typical thermal
scanners may be sensitive to variations as small as 0.1°C (Sabins, 1978).
Neither color infrared nor thermal imagery are readily available for
most areas. Therefore, a special aerial survey is normally required to
obtain the imagery. Special care should be exercised to select the optimum
101
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(OPTlONALI
DIRECT
FILM
RECORDER
MAGNETIC
TAPE RECORDER
£^ MODULATED
II LIGHT SOURCE
CONTHOLLLD RADIANT
TEMPERATURE SOURCES
IFQR CALIBRATED IMAGERY)
GROUND
RESOLUTION CFLL
^5T~
Figure 36. Diagram of thermal Infrared scanner system (Sabins 1969).
102
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Figure 37. Thermal infrared image and panchromatic photograph showing Kilauea volcano. Hawaii (Fischer
etal. 1964)
103
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time of day and year when the Imagery should be recorded. Both types of
Imagery require a minimum of cloud cover and can be photographed at any
altitude. Color Infrared 1s suitable only for daytime exposure, while day
or night exposure 1s possible with thermal Imagery (Sablns, 1978). If
color Infrared Is to be used for vegetation stress, photographs should be
taken when vegetation 1s evident. Thermal photography Is affected by the
diurnal effects of solar heating and cooling. Therefore, some objects
which heat or cool rapidly may appear drastically different depending on
the time of the day or night.
Because Infrared Imagery Is displayed In the form of a picture, the
assumption that the Image may be easy to Interpret Is often made. However,
the Image created on either type of Imagery Is related to the amount of
electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted and not to the amount of
visible light as In a normal photograph (Avery, 1968). Many factors such
as the seasonal variations, different heat capacities of materials and'
moisture content must be understood before a correct Interpretation of the
true Image can be made (Crouch, 1979; Avery, 1968). The trained eye of a
professional 1s therefore required for accurate interpretation.
Neither color Infrared nor thermal imagery has been specifically
applied for locating abandoned wells. Color Infrared may be applicable for
delineating areas of stressed vegetation due to a high salt content of the
soil. According to Myers {1970), salinity causes a reduction in the water
uptake of plants which causes moisture stress. Additionally the growth of
plants In saline soils 1s normally retarded. If the salinity was caused by
brine associated with drilling and production activities, it may then be
possible to study vegetation stress and trace it to an abandoned well site.
No studies were found which would determine the persistence of salt through
time in the soil and Its associated effect on vegetation. It must be
remembered that other factors such as disease also produce vegetation
stress and ground verification would be necessary.
Thermal imagery may have less direct application for locating
abandoned wells. It was originally hoped that due to the temperature
differences associated with the bottom of a well and the surface of the
ground that variations in the temperature might be distinguishable at the
surface. Even with Imagery collected at heights of 1000 to 2000 feet above
the ground and flight line spacings of 800 to 1000 feet, the temperature
differential would probably not be distinguishable as a point source (Ory,
personal communication, 1983). However, thermal imagery may provide an
additional remote sensing tool which can be used to verify or discern
between variations on other types of imagery or photographs.
COST
Since neither color nor thermal Infrared photography are readily
available, che single largest cost 1s related to obtaining the imagery.
This necessitates the hiring of a professional company to perform the
survey. The single largest cost is associated with mobilization of the
104
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aircraft. For this reason, many companies are equipped to produce more
than one type of Imagery during a flight, thereby reducing the cost of each
Individual type of Imagery. Typical charges associated with thermal
scanning are usually not less than $20,000. Additional charges of between
$1500 and $2000 a day plus charges to process and Interpret the data are
common. Color infrared photography is somewhat less expensive because the
resolution is better and the photography can be taken from a higher
altitude thereby reducing the number of flight lines necessary to cover a
similar area.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Color infrared imagery may be applicable to finding areas of stressed
vegetation associated with brine produced during drilling and production
activities. This, in turn, may help to identify the location of an
abandoned well. Thermal imagery, however, appears to have less direct
application for delineating a point source of thermal variation associated
with an abandoned well. Neither type of sensing is readily available and
both require a special reconnaissance flight to obtain the desired Imagery.
This results in the method being relatively expensive. Thermal imagery is
the more expensive of the two types of Infrared imagery because it requires
flights at lower altitudes and with more closely spaced flight lines than
the color Infrared. Both types of Imagery require professional
Interpretation to ensure the best results. Once the photography has been
interpreted, field verification of the location of the well must still be
performed.
105
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REFERENCES
Avery, T. Eugene, 1968, Interpretation of aerial photographs; Burgess
Publishing Company, 324 pp.
Bastuscheck, C.P., 1970, Ground temperature and thermal temperature;
Photogrammetric Engineering, vol. 36, pp. 1064-1072.
Crouch, Leonard William, 1979, Remote sensing as a field method for
assessment of soil moisture; Masters thesis: Miami University, Oxford,
Ohio, 175 pp.
Deutsch, Morris, 1974, Survey of remote sensing applications; Water Well
Journal, vol. 28, no. 7, pp. 35-38.
Fischer, W.A., R.M. Moxham, F. Polcyn and G.H. Landis, 1964, Infrared
Surveys of Hawaiian volcanoes; Science, vol. 146, no. 3645, pp. 733-742.
Myers, Victor I., 1970, Soil, water and plant relations in remote sensing;
National Academy of Sciences, pp. 271-283.
Sabins, Floyd F., 1969, Thermal infrared imagery and its application to
structural mapping in southern California; Geological Society American
Bulletin, vol. 80, pp. 397-404.
Sabins, Floyd F., 1973, Recording and processing thermal imagery;
Photogrammetric Engineering, vol. 39, no. 8, pp. 839-844.
Sabins, Floyd F., 1978, Remote sensing principles and interpretation; W.H.
Freeman and Company, 426 pp.
Thackrey, Donald E., 1968, Research in infrared sensing; Research News,
vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 1-12.
Wolfe, Paul R., 1974, Elements of photogrammetry; McGraw-Hill, 562 pp.
Wolfe, Edward W., 1971, Thermal IR for geology; Photogrammetric
Engineering, vol. 37, pp. 43-52.
106
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SECTION 16
WATER LEVEL MEASUREMENT IN SURROUNDING WELLS
SYNOPSIS
Water levels in aquifers may be used to help locate either cased or
uncased abandoned wells. This may be possible when pressures within a deep
formation exceed the pressures within the aquifer and a pathway exists for
migration of fluids to occur. Since water levels within an aquifer are
affected by localized sources of recharge, the abandoned well may serve as
a point of recharge and raise water levels in the vicinity of the well.
Water-level measurements taken in surrounding wells may reflect the
localized rise in water levels and the location of the abandoned well may
be estimated.
Since water-level measurements can be made relatively quickly with no
specialized equipment, data can be collected easily when existing wells are
present. The water-level measurements must be interpreted within the local
and regional hydrogeologlc framework to accurately assess the situation.
The absence of wells in the vicinity of the abandoned well precludes the
use of this technique.
DISCUSSION AND PROCEDURES
Water levels in wells are the expression of the water table or of the
hydrostatic pressure within an aquifer (Todd, 1980; Freeze and Cherry,
1979; Fetter, 1980; Walton, 1970). Each water level reflects the overall
aquifer characteristics as well as local variations within the
hydrogeologic framework. Water levels respond to many natural and
artificial stimuli including pumping, injection, and precipitation. The
reaction of the water level to those stimuli is a function of the type and
duration of the event and the type of aquifer.
Aquifers are termed either confined or unconfined based on their
geologic setting (Figure 38). A confined aquifer is overlain by a
relatively impermeable layer called a confining bed (Davis and DeWeist,
1966). The layer restricts the water from moving upward. When a well is
drilled into a confined aquifer, the pressure is released and the water
rises to a level in the casing known as the piezometric surface. The
source of replenishment of the aquifer is normally some distance away from
the well, so local precipitation rarely affects water levels in a confined
aqui fer.
107
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WATER TABLE
Figure 38. Diagram showing confined and unconllned aquifers.
-------
An unconfirmed aquifer is not under pressure like a confined aquifer,
but instead is under atmospheric pressure only (Walton, 1976). Water
levels in an unconfined aquifer or in a well which penetrates an unconfined
aquifer are a direct expression of the level of saturation of earth
materials. The surface created by this upper limit of saturated geologic
materials is called the water table. Local precipitation provides the
recharge to an unconfined aquifer and thus affects water levels.
The type of aquifer also controls to a certain degree the effect which
pumping a well will have on water levels. When wells are pumped, water
levels decline in close proximity to the well. With time, the resultant
cone of depression of the water table will spread out until the amount of
water entering the cone is equal to the amount of water being removed from
the well (Johnson, 1975). The effects on water levels of pumping wells can
be predicted mathematically (Freeze and Cherry, 1979).
Water levels in wells are also influenced by their proximity to
recharge points such as hills or discharge points such as valleys or
streams. Water levels in unconfined aquifers tend to roughly parallel the
topography of the area while water levels in confined aquifers tend to be
more uniform over a larger area (Davis and DeWiest, 1966).
Because water levels in-wells can be affected by localized sources of
recharge or discharge, the location of an abandoned well may be determined
by studying water levels in wells in the adjacent area. An abandoned well
which is improperly sealed serves as a conduit which connects all the
geologic formations that it penetrates. Water will move from formations
with higher pressure into formations with lower pressure. If formation
pressures are greater in the deeper formations associated with oil and gas,
and if a pathway exists, the fluids will migrate upward into aquifers which
have a lower pressure (Todd, 1980). This pressure differential may be
natural or may arise when injection operations add pressure to the
reservoir. If the Injection zone is filled with fluid, the pressure is
transmitted virtually Instantaneously throughout the formation. If the
formation is not full, the reservoir will begin to gradually fill as
injection continues. The pressure may gradually build until it is
sufficient to overcome the pressure in the overlying formations.
This point source of recharge through the abandoned well may be
distinguished by anomalous increases in water levels which decrease
approximately radially away from the source (Figure 39). The distance from
the source at which an anomaly can be distinguished depends on the pressure
differences between the formations, the effect of other localized recharge
or discharge, the confined or unconfined nature of the aquifer and the
characteristics which influence flow within the aquifer.
Water-level readings should be obtained from a number of existing
wells that are distributed around the suspected location of the abandoned
well. An attempt should be made where possible to obtain water-level
readings which reflect the static water level with no influences from
sources of recharge or discharge other than the abandoned well. This may
109
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WATER LEVEL
IN WELLS
— ABAJSEI€}«EG WELL
OIL AMD 6AS PRODUCING
Figure 39. Diagram Illuslraling water level increases In wells surrounding an abandoned well.
-------
be difficult, particularly where the water level In the well reflects the
composite head from more than one aquifer. In order to adequately assess
the water-level readings obtained from an area, 1t 1s necessary to have a
complete understanding of the local and regional hydrogeology. The
water-level readings must be reviewed within this framework to understand
If a localized anomaly due to an abandoned well exists. Realizing that
optimum conditions rarely exist, It may not be possible to gather enough
Information from existing wells either to determine If an anomaly exists or
to locate the abandoned well with any degree of certainty. At this point,
1t would be necessary to determine If additional wells should be drilled or
1f other methods would be better suited to locating the abandoned well.
COST
The cost of determining the location of an abandoned well by observing
water levels In the adjacent area depends on the number of wells to be
sampled, the manpower necessary to obtain the water level measurements, the
time necessary to assemble an understanding of the local hydrogeologlc
setting and the time to Interpret the measured water levels within that
framework. No specialized equipment and only a minimal amount of training
of personnel 1s necessary to obtain water-level measurements and the
measurements may be taken relatively quickly. Most of the time spent In
measuring water levels will be related to travel time between the sites.
The hydrogeology of an area may already be documented 1n published reports
which are available for a small cost. If this is true, the time spent In
defining the hydrogeologlc framework can be reduced.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Water-level measurements 1n wells may be used to help locate either
cased or uncased abandoned wells when pressures In the Injection zone are
higher than pressures In the aquifer and leakage between the formations is
occurring. No specialized equipment Is necessary to obtain water-level
measurements and the measurenients can be taken quickly and easily from
existing wells. Hydrogeologlc studies and past water level measurements
may be available to assist In Interpretation of the data.
Existing wells may not be located 1n close enough proximity to the
abandoned well or 1n great enough numbers to either detect the anomaly,
determine 1f an anomaly exists or locate the abandoned well with any degree
of certainty. This may necessitate the drilling of additional wells to
monitor water levels or the use of another method to locate the abandoned
well. Additionally, anomalous water-level readings may be caused by other
sources and not enough hydrogeologic information may be available to
provide adequate interpretation.
Ill
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REFERENCES
Davis, Stanley N. and Roger J.M. Dewiest, 1966, Hydrogeology; John Wiley
and Sons, 463 pp.
Fetter, C. W., 1980, Applied hydrogeology; Merrill Publishing Company, 488
pp.
Freeze, R. Allan and John A. Cherry, 1979, Groundwater; Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 604 pp.
Johnson Division UOP, 1975, Ground water and wells; Johnson Division UOP
Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota, 440 pp.
Todd, David Keith, 1980, Groundwater hydrology; John Wiley and Sons, 535
pp.
Walton, William C., 1970, Groundwater resource evaluation; McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 664 pp.
112
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SECTION 17
INJECTION
SYNOPSIS
Injection operations may cause abandoned wells to flow at the ground
surface where no previous expression of the well was evident. This can
occur when the pressure is sufficient, the top of the well is close enough
to the surface and a direct conduit between the injection zone and the
surface still exists. This method is not employed as a special technique
to locate abandoned wells before issuance of a permit, but rather is a
method of locating the well once injection operations have begun. The
method is only applicable where injection operations cause an identifiable
surface expression of the well and not when migration occurs without such
an expression.
DISCUSSION AND PROCEDURES
Injection of fluid into an injection zone Increases the pressure
within the formation. The pressure may increase gradually if the formation
is not filled with fluid or may be transmitted virtually instantaneously
when the reservoir is already filled with fluid. Where the hydrostatic
pressure or pressure created by injection exceeds the pressure within an
overlying aquifer and a conduit exists between the two formations, fluid
will migrate toward the formation with the lower pressure (refer to
discussion in Section 16). If the pressure difference is great enough and
if the abandoned well provides a direct connection to within a few feet of
the surface, fluid may actually flow to the surface of the ground (EPA,
1977) (Figure 40). This surface expression of the abandoned well may then
be identified. If, however, the casing has been removed, the hole has
collapsed or the pressure is not sufficient, the fluid may not appear at
the surface, but simply migrate into the formation below the surface
(Figure 41).
The type of fluid that is injected into the formation may not
necessarily be the fluid which first emanates at the surface. The injected
fluid must physically be transmitted from the injection well through the
formation and to the abandoned well before it can make its way to the
surface. If the reservoir is not full of fluid at the time injection
begins, the injected fluid must first fill the reservoir and push the
original formation fluid away from the well. If the reservoir is full when
injection begins, the pressure will be transmitted virtually
instantaneously, very similarly to the water in a pressurized domestic
113
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INJECTION WELL
Figure 40. Diagram of the relationship between an Injection well and a (lowing abandoned well.
-------
INJECTION WELL
Figure 41. Diagram ol the relationship between an Injection well and an abandoned well which does not (low at the
surface.
-------
water line. The Injection fluid can be likened to hot water which, even
though the faucet Is turned on and water 1s flowing, still takes a while to
get to the outlet. This means that If test Injection operations were
conducted to specifically determine the presence of abandoned wells, even
with a harmless fluid such as fresh water, the fluid within the formation
would still migrate Into the abandoned well before the fresh water. This
could Increase the potential for contamination to occur If sufficient
quantities of formation fluid were forced Into an aquifer or to the
surface.
Injection operations are not normally executed specifically to
determine the presence or location of abandoned wells. However, there may
be situations where Injection operations are In progress and a flowing hole
appears either Instantaneously or at a later date. When this occurs, the
method has proven effective 1n locating the abandoned well and plugging
operations should be conducted.
COST
There 1s no specific cost associated with locating abandoned wells by
Injection. Normally If an abandoned well begins to flow, the local
property owner notifies someone as soon as It Is discovered. This, In
turn, usually prompts the need for plugging operations which can be quite
expensive.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Injection operations may determine the location of an abandoned well
when injection pressures are sufficient and the abandoned well Is close
enough to the surface to cause the well to flow at ground level. When this
happens, a surface expression of the well Is evident and no further search
methods need be employed.
Abandoned wells may not be found by this method if the pressure is not
sufficient, the channel 1s not well defined or if the top of the well is
not located close enough to the surface. However, the pressure may still
be sufficient to cause migration of fluid into an aquifer, thereby causing
ground-water contamination. Another disadvantage to this method is that
even when Injection operations are begun, a well which may flow at the
surface may not Immediately be evident, but may take an undetermiruble
amount of time to make Itself known.
1L6
-------
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117
-------
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123
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Appendix A. REGULATIONS. REQUIREMENTS AND METHODS USED BY STATE GOVERNMENT AGENCIES TO LOCATE ABANDONED WELLS
Does state regulate
abandoned oil and
State gas wells?
Y = yes
N = no
Does any agency actively attempt to locate
abandoned wells by any of these methods
1-search of records, 2-land survey,
3-visual/logical. 4-metal detectors, 5-methane
detectors. 6-magnelics
Do agencies require
companies to locate
abandoned wells'' If
yes. by what methods''
Regardless of regulations or
agency activities, are you
aware of successful methods
used to locale abandoned
wells? II yes. by what methods''
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
Caiilornia
Colorado
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maryland
Michigan
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
South Dakota
Tennessee
To/as
Utah
Virginia
Washington
Won Virginia
Wyoming
(conllnued)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
1
No
3-requires surface monuments
No
1.2.3,4
No
No
1.2.3
No
No
1.2.3
No
1,2,3.4
1.2.3
1
No
1.2.3,4
NO
No
No
No
1.3
1.2.3.4.5
1.2.3.4
1.3
1.3
1.3.4.5
1.2.3
No
1.3,5
1.2,3
No
•>
1 3
1
1.2.34.5
Not routine
1 2.3 i mjuction
1
No
No
No
NO
No
NO
No
No
No
NO
No
No
No
1
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
1
No
NO
1.2
No
1.2.3
No
Coal co required to
locale known wells
No
1.2.3
•>
No
1.3
No
No
1 2 3. « injection
1
No
4
No
1.3.4
1.2.4
No
1.2.3
No
1.2.3.4.6
1.2.3.4
No
1.2.3,4
1.2.3,4.5
1.2.3
NO
1.2.34
No
No
1.2.3,4
1.2.46
1.3
1.2. 3.5- talk to landowners
1.2.3
No
1.2.3
1.2.3.4.5
1,2.3
1.23
1,2.3.4.5 » thermal
1.2.3
1.2.3
•>
1.3
1.2.3
1.2.3.4.5
No
1.2.3
-------
Appendix A (continued)
Wl
Does the state require all oil and
gas well logs to be filed with one
State centralized agency'
Y = yes N = no
Are all existing (known)
wells located on
centralized maps9
Y=yes N = no
Are there wells in your state drilled
before adequate regulations were
enacted which are not on
centralized maps' Y = yes N = no
Primacy by your state for UIC?
Y = yes
N = no
A = applied
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maryland
Michigan
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
new Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Virginia
W
Y
N
Y
Y
N
A
A
N
Y
N
Y
N
A
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
N
N
Y
Y
N
A
Y
Y
-------
APPENDIX B
DEPOSITORY OF OIL AND GAS WELL LOGS
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Florida
Agency Name and Address
State Oil & Gas Board of Alabama
P.O. Drawer 0
University, Alabama 35486
(205) 349-2852
Alaska Oil & Gas Conservation Commission
3001 Porcupine Drive
Anchorage, Alaska 99501
(907) 279-1433
Arizona Oil & Gas Conservation Commission
1645 W. Jefferson, Suite 420
Phoenix, Arizona 85007
(602) 255-5161
Arkansas Oil & Gas Commission
314 E. Oak Street
El Dorado, Arkansas 71730
(501) 862-4965
California Division of Oil & Gas
1416 - 9th Street, Room 1310
Sacramento, California 95814
(916) 445-9686
Colorado Oil & Gas Conservation Commission
1313 Sherman Street, Room 721
Denver, Colorado 80203
(303) 866-3531
Florida Department of Natural Resources
Bureau of Geology
903 West Town Street
Tallahassee, Florida 32304
(904) 488-8217
126
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APPENDIX B (Continued)
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maryland
Georgia Department of Natural Resources
Geologic Survey
19 Martin Luther King Dr.
Room 400
Atlanta, Georgia 30334
(404) 656-3214
Idaho 011 4 Gas Conservation Commission
P.O. Box 670
Coeur d'Alene, Idaho 83814
(208) 664-2171
Illinois Geological Survey
121 Natural Resources Building
Urbana, Illinois 61801
(217) 344-1481
Indiana Department of Natural Resources
Division of 011 & Gas
911 State Office Building
Indianapolis, Indiana 46220
(317) 232-4055
Iowa Geological Survey
123 North Capitol Street
Iowa City, Iowa 52242
(319) 338-1173
Kansas Corporation Commission
Oil & Gas Division
200 Colorado Herby Building
Wichita, Kansas 67202
(316) 263-1042
Kentucky Geological Survey
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky 40506
(606) 258-5863
Louisiana Office of Conservation
P.O. Box 44275
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70804
(504) 342-5540
Maryland Geological Survey
The Rotunda
711 W. 40th Street, Suite 440
Baltimore, Maryland 21211
(301) 338-7110
127
-------
APPENDIX B (Continued)
Utah
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wyoralng
Utah State Division of 011, Gas & Mining
4241 State Office Building
Salt Lake City, Utah 84114
(801) 533-5771
Virginia Division of Mines * Quarries
219 Wood Avenue
Big Stone Gap, Virginia 24219
(703) 523-0335
Washington Department of Natural Resources
Oil & Gas Conservation Committee
PY-12
Olympla, Washington 98504
(206) 459-6372
West Virginia Department of Mines
1615 Washington Street East
Charleston, West Virginia 25311
(304) 348-2055
Wyoming Oil 4 Gas Conservation Commission
123 South Durbln Street
P.O. Box 2640
Casper, Wyoming 82602
(307) 234-7147
130
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