&EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Environmental Research
Laboratory
Corvallis OR 97330
EPA-600 3-79-005
January 1979
Research and Development
Limnological and
Socioeconomic
Evaluation of Lake
Restoration Projects
Approaches and
Preliminary Results
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH series. This series
describes research on the effects of pollution on humans, plant and animal spe-
cies, and materials. Problems are assessed for their long- and short-term influ-
ences. Investigations include formation, transport, and pathway studies to deter-
mine the fate of pollutants and their effects. This work provides the technical basis
for setting standards to minimize undesirable changes in living organisms in the
aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric environments.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/3-79-005
January 1979
LIMNOLOGICAL AND SOCIOECONOMIC EVALUATION
OF LAKE RESTORATION PROJECTS: APPROACHES
AND PRELIMINARY RESULTS
Workshop held 28 February - 2 March 1978
Project Officer
Spencer A. Peterson
Freshwater Systems Division
Corva"llis Environmental Research Laboratory
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
CORVALLIS ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97330
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publica-
tion. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does men-
tion of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommen-
dation for use.
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FOREWORD
The restoration of lakes is a problem which is shared by most of the
states in our nation. Numerous techniques are being used to anticipate and
alleviate the impacts on water quality and the environment of competing de-
mands on the fragile resources. The Corvallis Environmental Research Labora-
tory (CERL) has the responsibility of conducting environmental assessments
(including limnological, social, and economic aspects) associated with lake
restoration projects funded by EPA. The goal of the assessment work is to
determine the effectiveness of techniques conducted on specific lakes and to
compare the different techniques employed. In conjunction with these goals,
CERL is developing improved methodologies to assess the limnological, social,
and economic impacts, both positive and negative, of lake restoration.
A workshop was conducted, with the assistance of the Water Resources
Research Institute, Oregon State University, to bring together all persons
directly associated with the EPA Clean Lakes Program in order to describe the
overall program; to discuss in depth the evaluation techniques being used; and
to explore various decision criteria concerning lake restoration projects.
The papers presented during the three-day workshop are published in this
volume.
James C. McCarty
Acting Director
CERL
m
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ABSTRACT
A total of 19 papers was presented at the workshop held 28 February - 2
March, 1978 on the campus of Oregon State University. The objective was to
assemble grantees and project officers associated with EPA's Lake Restoration
Evaluation Program so that they could become familiar with each other's work.
Outside experts were invited to offer constructive criticism of the current
approach to assessment of techniques. Several lakes were considered for lim-
nological, social and economic aspects. A draft copy of the Lake Evaluation
Index (LEI) developed by EPA was presented and discussed.
IV
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CONTENTS
Foreword iii
Abstract iv
Acknowledgements vii
1. Overview of EPA Lake Restoration Evaluation Program 1
S. A. Peterson
2. A Status Report on the Mirror/Shadow Lakes Evaluation
Project 8
D. A. Knauer and P. J. Garrison
3. The White Clay Lake Management Plan 55
J. Peterson and F. Madison
4. Socio-Economic Impact of Lake Improvement Projects at
Mirror/Shadow Lakes and White Clay Lake 71
L. L. Klessig, N. Bouwes and S. Lovejoy
5. Evaluation of Lafayette Reservoir Restoration Project 81
M. W. Lorenzen, F. M. Haydock and T. C. Ginn
6. Limnological Characteristics of Long Lake, Kitsap
County, Washington 96
M. A. Perkins, E. B. Welch and J. 0. Gabrielson
7. The Monitoring of Restoration Efforts at Collins Lake,
Village of Scotia, New York 119
C. J. George, P. L. Tobiessen and P. D. Snow
8. Effect of Dredging and Nutrient Inactivation at Lilly
Lake, Wisconsin 138
R. Dunst and R. Beauheim
9. Evaluation of Dredging as a Lake Restoration Technique,
Lake Lansing, Michigan 165
C. D. McNabb
10. Dilution Effects in Moses Lake 187
E. B. Welch and C. R. Patmont
11. Detailed Evaluation of the Long Lake Improvement Project .... 213
R. V. Blomquist and W. Wood
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12. A BCCIPA Model for Water Resource Project Evaluation 221
Ben-chieh Liu
13. Effect of Restoration Procedures Upon Liberty Lake,
First Status Report 227
W. H. Funk, H. L. Gibbons and G. C. Bailey
14. Economic Impact of Lake Restoration, Liberty Lake,
Washington 241
K. C. Gibbs and L. E. Queirolo
15. Social Impacts of Lake Restoration, Liberty Lake,
Washington: A Status Report 252
T. C. Hogg and W. D. Honey
16. Proposed Methods for Evaluating the Effects of Restoring
Lakes 265
D. B. Porcella, S. A. Peterson and D. P. Larsen
17. Evaluation of Clean Lakes Restoration Using Phosphorus
Mass Balance Modeling 311
D. P. Larsen
18. Social Evaluation of the Clean Lakes Program 319
Neils Christiansen
19. The Changing Politics of Water Pollution Control . 331
G. J. Protasel
VI
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This conference was hosted by the Environmental Protection Agency and
Oregon State University. Arrangements on campus were made by Peter C.
Klingeman and William H. Buckley both of the OSU Water Resources Research
Institute. They were instrumental in assembling and compiling the papers
which contributed to this proceedings. Their assistance is appreciated great-
ly. Thanks goes also to the participants for sharing their planned approach-
es, some of their preliminary data, and for their willingness to commit some
of these preliminary ideas to writing so that each of them might reevaluate
his own approach based on the ideas of others in the program. Appreciation is
extended to our invited experts Donald Porcella, Charles P. Wolf, Herbert
Stoevener, Greg J. Protasel and Thomas Crocker who listened attentively, then
offered suggestions for improving various aspects of our program. Special
thanks goes to Dr. Wolf who supplied lengthy written comments concerning our
attempts to develop a truly integrated social, economic and limnological lake
restoration assessment program.
vn
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OVERVIEW OF EPA LAKE RESTORATION EVALUATION PROGRAM
by
S. A. Peterson
The Clean Lakes Program was originally initiated by the Office of Water
Planning and Standards (OWPS) as a demonstration grant program. Demonstration
grants are similar to research grants but they essentially involve an experi-
ment under actual conditions. The choice to implement the program in this
manner was understandable. Most of us in this room would probably agree that
lake restoration is an inexact though developing science. The truth of the
matter is that we can predict with relative certainty the general direction of
change in a lake resulting from most known types of lake restoration tech-
niques. What we have been unable to do with any precision is to predict
quantitatively the degree of change in general usability of a lake affected by
inlake or watershed treatment techniques, either individually or in combina-
tion with each other. Currently, there is no reliable method available for
determining the optimum treatment technique for specific lakes or groups of
similar lakes. Furthermore, the impact of lake restoration on the lake commu-
nity per ^e and the surrounding complex social structure is nearly impossible
to predict.
These were some of the reasons why, in 1975, the OWPS requested the
assistance of the Office of Research and Development (ORD) to assess and
evaluate the effectiveness of lake restoration demonstrations being conducted
under the auspices of Section 314 of Public Law 92-500. EPA's Corvallis
Environmental Research Laboratory (CERL) was assigned the responsibility for
planning and conducting the evaluation program. A major constraint of the
evaluation program was that projects had to be selected from previously funded
314 demonstration projects. I will point out later why this presented a
problem.
At the outset CERL envisioned two major objectives for the Clean Lakes
Evaluation Program. These were 1) to determine the effectiveness of specific
restoration techniques or combination of techniques on specific lakes and 2)
to compare the effectiveness of various restoration processes on different
lakes. These evaluations were to include not only the commonly measured
limnological variables but also various aspects of the economic and sociolog-
ical impacts associated with lake restoration. Funds to accomplish these
goals (to date $2.1M) have come directly from the 314 program and were set
aside by the OWPS specifically for the evaluation projects. None of these
funds were from the ORD, the usual funding mechanism for the research labora-
tories. All clean lakes evaluation funds were designated for extramural
expenditure which meant the evaluation program would be conducted through
1
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grants or contracts. Because of their greater flexibility and the 'S^er
time frame required to negotiate grants it was decided to use that mechanism
Jithei -Tan contracts to 9f und evaluations on specific lake resotration pro-
jects.
These grants basically will satisfy the requirements for objective number
one "Determination of the effectiveness of specific restoration manipulates
on specific Takes." Grants on specific projects in themselves, however, will
not satisfy objective number two, "Comparison of effectiveness of various
Restoration" techniques on different lakes " Therefore CERL is .parade ling
the extramural effort, and hopes to use data from that effort, with a modest
inhouse SSE-funded clean lakes evaluation effort which has two objectives of
Us own They are 1) to develop methods which will improve our capabilities
I 'predict the" response of lake/to restorative manipulations and ) o deve -
op a lake restoration guidance or user's manual to assist Federal State and
local water resource managers with decisions concerning lake restoration and
techniques for assessing the environmental effects, both socioeconomically and
1 ideologically, of lake restoration.
. Funding limitations made it impractical to attempt to evaluate each lake
restoration project in detail. Therefore, the strategy was to devise a means
?or evaluating. a subset of lakes which was representative of the entire set in
terms of treatment technique, watershed types, geographic ^d
sociological setting. All of the nearly 60 projects funded as
ae
restora? techniques Only 12 of the restoration projects had single manip-
ulations On the average each project had 2.3 restoration techniques being
appl ed Ideally one would like to look at single manipulations in order to
eva lite them- however, since we had to select from previously funded projects
that was no^ our prerogative. Therefore, inasmuch as one of our objectives
ias to evaluate ^effectiveness of combinations of restoration techniques
anyway, Je proceeded to select carefully a subset of projects that was repre-
sentative of the set as a whole.
Bv classifying all of the restoration projects according to one of three
najor %ake restoration techniques" it was possible to group the .any manipu-
<
Rigler
can be determined.
All of the 314 projects were ranked according to 1) the quality of the
haseline data available, 2) the length of time and frequency of baseline data
collection 3) the potential for quantification of changes in phosphorus
loadinq on a short and long term basis, 4) probability of measurable short-
lerm response of the lake and 5) the number of manipulations. Assuming that
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the overall approach of the experimental design was valid for the set of lakes
and manipulations that had been funded, the top ranking projects were treated,
according to manipulation type, as a standard factorial design. Eighteen
projects were plugged into the design which resulted in the configuration
shown in Table 2. The Clean Lakes work up to this point resulted in publica-
tion of CERL report number 034 (Porcella and Peterson, 1977). Delays in
implementation of some restoration grants or too rapid implementation (before
adequate baseline data could be compiled) have resulted in some deletions
and/or substitutions of projects originally identified in the design matrix
(Table 3). Lake restoration projects currently being evaluated are shown in
Table 4.
These lakes and their role in the surrounding social setting form a
complex limnological-social system in which it is impossible to predict what
the effects of any particular restoration effort will be, on either the lake
or the community of current and potential users. Thus, the Clean Lakes Evalu-
ation Program is viewed as a means of both identifying the most useful and
cost effective lake restoration techniques for future projects and as an
opportunity to enhance that information by obtaining a better understanding of
the limnological and social impacts resulting from such restorations
(Christiansen, 1978).
The basic concept of the Clean Lakes Evaluation Program is still to
assess the effectiveness of individual and combinations of different restora-
tion techniques on specific lakes and to compare their relative efficiencies
to one another. However, to know what impact the restoration treatment has
had on the lake itself is not enough. The idea of lake restoration, after
all, is a human concept, with its costs and benefits supposedly weighed again-
st those of other projects in the community, or watershed, which available
funds might be used for. Therefore, it is extremely important to be able to
transform the results- of lake restoration, in terms of limnological altera-
tions, into meaningful and useful social and economic pieces of information.
In the final analysis, the success or failure of a lake restoration in gener-
al, will be determined on the basis of how it is perceived by the public which
uses and pays for the improved facilities.
A variety of lake restoration treatment techniques are being employed in
the Clean Lakes Program with a number of different objectives. The one thread
of commonality woven among the projects we have selected, however, is that all
are directed toward reducing the phosphorus supply to the lakes. Therefore,
one approach being used to assess the effects of the various treatments is
chlorophyll a-phosphorus mass balance modeling. You have had an opportunity
to examine Phil Larsen's paper on this subject and he will be presenting it to
the group tomorrow.
Another way to assess the response of lakes to a restoration manipulation
is to measure changes in a number of key variables and combine them in a way
that permits a comparison of the relative effectiveness of the different
treatment techniques. This line of thought resulted in the draft Lake Evalua-
tion Index (LEI) developed by Don Porcella and me (Porcella and Peterson,
1977). Ron Glessner, however, has been working with the LEI since last fall
so he will make a presentation tomorrow on the LEI itself and some of the work
he has done in an attempt to test its validity.
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The socioeconomic aspects of the evaluations are dependent on limnologi-
cal quantification of changes in the lake system due to the restoration treat-
ment. Limnologies! information will be employed to develop user demand func-
tions for the purpose of predicting the number and type of users as a function
of the restoration treatment. The socioeconomic gains and losses to indivi-
duals and the lake community as a whole will be measured. Also the direct and
maintainance costs of various restoration treatments will be determined.
All of the in-house approaches to lake restoration assessment are highly
dependent on data from, and the full cooperation of, our grantees. Mass
balance modeling, the LEI, and the development of user demand functions are
not ends in themselves. They are means to an end. The final objective of our
assessment program is to put into the hands of decision makers a lake restora-
tion handbook or guide which will assist them in predicting the consequences
of employing various restoration techniques. It will be compiled through our
interpretation of models, the LEI and the user demand functions. With this
information in hand a decision can be made as to whether or not to go ahead
with a restoration project, as well as how to proceed and how to assess the
outcome if the project is begun.
REFERENCES
Porcella, Donald B. and Spencer A. Peterson. Evaluation of Lake Restoration
Methods: Project Selection. CERL No. 034, May 1977.
Porcella, Donald B. and Spencer A. Petersen. Proposed Methods for Evaluating
the Effects of Restoring Lakes. Draft Report, July, 1977.
Christiansen, Neils. Social Evaluation of the Clean Lakes Progam: A Research
Strategy. Mimeo. 21 pp. 1978.
Larsen, David P. Evaluation of Clean Lakes Restoration Using Phosphorus Mass
Balance Modeling. Draft Report. Feb. 1978.
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TABLE 1. CLASSIFICATION OF LAKE RESTORATION TECHNIQUES
I. Source Controls
A. Treatment of inflows
B. Diversion of inflows
C. Watershed management (land uses, practices, nonpoint source control,
regulations and/or treatments).
D. Lake riparian regulation or modification
E. Product modification or regulation
II. In-Lake Controls
A. Dredging
B. Volume changes other than by dredging or compaction of sediments.
C. Nutrient inactivation
D. Dilution/Flushing
E. Flow adjustment
F. Sediment exposure and dessication
G. Lake bottom sealing
H. In-lake sediment leaching
I. Shoreline modification
J. Riparian treatment of lake water
K. Selective discharge
III. Problem Treatment (directed at biological consequences of lake condition)
A. Physical techniques (harvesting, water level fluctuations, habitat
manipulations)
B. Chemical (algicides, herbicides, piscicides)
C. Biological (predator-prey manipulations, pathological reactions)
D. Mixing (aeration, mechanical pumps, lake bottom modification)
E. Aeration (add DO; e.g. hypolimnetic aeration)
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TABLE 2. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN OF CANDIDATE LAKE
RESTORATION EVALUATION PROJECTS
INLAKE
SOURCE OTHER
DREDGING NUT. INACT OIL/FLUSH
Fountain, MN
RonKonKoma NY Mirror/
SOURCE Clear, MN Long, MN Shadow, WI
White Clay, WI Liberty, WA
Loch Raven, MD
Lansing, MI Lilly, WI Vancouver,
Muskego, WI WA
DREDGING Collins
Park, NY
Lenox, IA
INLAKE Medical, WA
NUT. Lafayette,
INACT. CA
OIL/ Moses, WA
FLUSH
Long(Kitsap
CO), WA (draw-
OTHER down, dredge,
nut. inact,
NPS)
TABLE 3. PROJECTS DELETED AND/OR SUBSTITUTED FROM THE ORIGINAL
SET OF CANDIDATE LAKE RESTORATION EVALUATION PROJECTS
Substituted
Project Type Deleted Original Current
Source Control Fountain Lake, MN Clear Lake, MN Long Lake, MN
Inlake Control Lenox Lake, IA
Medical Lake, WA*
* Implementation grant funds used to assess the effects of the restoration
project.
6
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TABLE 4. CURRENTLY ACTIVE EVALUATION PROJECTS
Lake
Mirror/Shadow, WI
Liberty Lake, WA
RonKonKoma, NY
White Clay, WI
Long Lake, MN
Lansing, MI
Skinner Lake, IN
Collins Park, NY
Lilly Lake, WI
Lafayette, CA
Moses Lake, WA
Long Lake, WA
Eval
Limno
X
X
V
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
uation Type
Socio/Econ
X
X
X
X
X
Restoration Control Type
Source
X
V
X
X
X
X
Inlake Other
X
X
V
X
X
X
X
X
X X
Principal Investigator
Limno
Douglas Knauer
Bill Funk
*
Jim Peterson
Roger Blomquist
Cal McNabb
Cal McNabb
Carl George
Russel Dunst
Marc Lorenzen
Gene Welch
Gene Welch
Socio/Econ
Lowell Klessig
Tom Hogg
Bill Honey
Ken Gibbs
Ben Lieu
Lowell Klessig
Ben Lieu
X = A thorough evaluation of a major manipulation.
V = A less comprehensive evaluation or a less significant manipulation.
* = Limnological evaluation is part of the demonstration grant.
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A STATUS REPORT ON THE MIRROR/SHADOW LAKES
EVALUATION PROJECT
by
D. R. Knauer and P. J. Garrison*
The objective of any lake renewal project is to restore lakes, which
have experienced an increased rate of eutrophication owing to cultural pro-
cesses in the watershed, to a less deteriorated and more useful state. It is
incumbent on those proposing lake protection and restoration alternatives to
have developed first a comprehensive hydraulic and nutrient budget for a
particular lake. Such considerations determine to a large extent the feasi-
bility of treatment and control strategies necessary for a given set of
problems.
In determining the sources of lake degradation for Mirror and Shadow
Lakes, complete hydraulic and nutrient budgets were completed to include the
contributions of groundwater, precipitation, diffuse runoff, and storm water
influx to these lakes. The nutrient loadings from the various compartments
have identified the urban storm water runoff as the major contributing
source of phosphorus to these lakes.
BACKGROUND DATA
Drainage Basin Characteristics
The Mirror and Shadow Lake basins are within the City of Waupaca.
The lake basins are "kettle holes" in outwash plains formed during the
recession of the Cary ice sheet during Pleistocene glaciation. In the vicin-
ity of Mirror Lake, the outwash consists of a 15 to 30 m thick sequence of
medium to coarse-grained sand with gravel lenses and overlies 15 m of glacial
till, which in turn rests on granite bedrock.
The Waupaca area was settled in the 1850's. The population of 2500 in
1885 increased to about 4400 in 1970. Streets around Mirror Lake were built
by 1901, and residential building in the vicinity was nearly complete by
* Office of Inland Lake Renewal, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources,
Madison, Wisconsin 53707.
8
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1934. Storm sewerage (and street paving) was installed in the 1920's. The
city pumped drinking water directly from Mirror Lake from 1908 until 1913 at
which time a shallow well was constructed near the lake.
Figure 1 shows the storm water drainage system and entry points of
effluent into the lakes before diversion. The storm drainage basins for
Mirror Lake total about 60 percent of the estimated natural surface water
drainage, the residual area is the land extending from the perimeter of the
lake to the nearest street. The basin immediately north of Mirror Lake
covers approximately 17 hectares primarily of established residential dwell-
ings. The storm sewer received no continual water input and thus provided
characteristics of urban runoff with little interference from ground waters.
A bubble gage stage recorder system was installed and maintained by the U.S.
Geological Survey to determine flows in the 53 cm diameter concrete pipe
sewer leading to the north shore.
The area of the basin east of Mirror Lake was 2 hectares in size. The
limits of the drainage area near the two western-most inlets are poorly
defined, being surrounded by grassed areas and not directly connected to the
gutter system on the nearby street. The U.S. Geological Survey built and
maintained a waterflow gaging station near the lake employing an 18-inch, 90°
V-notch weir.
The monitored drainage basin for Shadow Lake incorporated about 20
hectares of developed urban land to the north and east and about 36 hectares
of undeveloped lowlands surrounding an intermittent (former trout) stream.
The stream serves as an open channel conduit for storm water flow. The base
flow of the stream is about 0.02 cfs. The drainage basin incorporated about
75 percent of the estimated surface water drainage area for Shadow Lake.
Stream flows were estimated from stage recordings at a U.S.G.S. H-flume
installation.
Sample collection from the North Mirror Basin was facilitated by an
automatic sequence sampler which could be programmed to take samples at
intervals as short as 10 minutes. Vacuum operated samplers paced at 30
minutes were used at the other two gaging installations.
Figure 2 shows precipitation, accumulative storm water flow and snow
cover in the Mirror Lake basin for 1972.
Description of Lakes
The physical description of Mirror Lake (Figure 3) is as follows:
Area 5.1 ha
Volume 4 X 105m3
Mean Depth (V/A) 7.8 m
Maximum Depth 13.1 m
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and Shadow Lake (Figure 4):
Area 17.1 ha
Volume 9.1 x 105m3
Mean Depth (V/A) 5.3 m
Maximum Depth 12.4 m
Based on the hydro!ogic budgets and lake volumes, the theoretical hydrau-
lic residence time for Mirror Lake was 4.3 years and for Shadow Lake, 2.1
years.
The annual transport of material to Mirror and Shadow Lakes via the
storm sewers is presented in Tables 1 and 2. The amount of materials trans-
ported to Mirror Lake is considered more detrimental to that ecosystem, owing
to the smaller surface area and volume. The various sources of phosphorus
loading to Mirror Lake for 1972 and 1973 are presented in Table 3. Applying
Vollenweider's criteria for permissible and dangerous phosphorus loadings to
the storm sewer influx only, it is apparent that Mirror Lake was seriously
being stressed. Figures 5, 6 and 7 illustrate the phytoplankton response to
large amounts of nutrient influx via the storm sewers during an unusually
"wet" August and September, 1972. Primary productivity increased from 395
mgC/mVday to 1415 mgC/m2/day and the phytoplankton biomass responded in a
similar manner by increasing 5.5 mm3/!. The temporal succession in major
phytoplankton taxa changed from dominance by Cyclotella, Chroococcus and
genera of Chlorophyta before the nutrient influx in August and September to
dominance by Anabaena and Oscillator!a following the nutrient enrichment of
the euphotic zone.
Figures 8 and 9 illustrate the present distribution of aquatic macro-
phytes in Mirror and Shadow Lakes. Tables 4 and 5 represent the frequency
occurrence of macrophytes for Mirror and Shadow Lakes.
Inlake sedimentation rates have been calculated for Mirror Lake using
radiometric dating of a sediment core taken from* the middle of the lake.
Using 210Pb, the rates of sedimentation over the past 100 years are approxi-
mately 0.064 cm/yr and approximately 0.26 cm/yr recently (Figure 10). These
data suggest an increase in the rate of sedimentation occurred about 1945.
This increase in sedimentation may be owing to increased construction activi-
ties in the watershed as a part of the post World War II building boom. This
rationale is, of course, conjecture on our part.
Oscillatoria rubescens, a blue-green alga, has been observed in Mirror
Lake since at least 1950. Until 1950, Mirror Lake was a source of block ice
for commercial use, however, the operation was discontinued owing to dis-
coloring and a smell that was associated with the melting ice. In 1971-73,
we observed 0. rubescens was in significant amounts in the surface waters
during late fall and early winter to cause problems. In 1976 we took a
sediment core from the middle of the lake for the purpose of analyzing for
oscillaxanthin. Figure 11 shows the oscillaxanthin pigment with depth of
core, and it is apparent that 0. rubescens has been present in the lake in
significant biomass since 1950.
10
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EVALUATION APPROACH
SPECIFIC EVALUATION OBJECTIVES
The specific evaluation objectives for this program are:
1. Nutrient Diversion - The objective is to monitor physiochemical and
biological responses to nutrient diversion. Data collected during
1972 and 1973 indicated the possible consequence of storm sewer
diversion would be lower phytoplankton biomass and productivities.
Actual data will be applied to existing modelling efforts in an
attempt to verify predictive models.
2. Nutrient Inactivation/Precipitation - Alum will be applied to the
hypolimnion during the early summer of 1978. The hypolimnetic
application of alum to the lakes may not affect the conditions in
the euphotic zone until fall overturn of 1978, therefore, the
evaluation of the ecological processes which occur in the euphotic
zone should not be altered drastically. Examination of past data
indicates that metalimnetic oscillations are not occurring at a
significant amplitude to supply inorganic -P into the euphotic
zone. The alum treatment will be evaluated in several ways to
answer questions of the effectiveness of the Al-floc in retarding
sediment P release.
(a) Sediment P release will be measured "in-situ" under nor-
mal hypolimnetic conditions and also under abiotic condi-
tions before and following the alum addition. "In-situ"
rates will be compared.
(b) Sediment cores will be taken before the treatment and Al
concentrations measured. During the 2 years following
treatment, sediment cores will be taken to examine the
distribution pattern of the aluminum with time.
(c) Seston traps will be placed in the hypolimnion to collect
sedimenting organic material to evaluate the potential P
available for release as the alum floe becomes overbur-
dened with falling organic matter. Our data from other
alum treatments suggest this may be a possible mechanism
for resolubilization of P in the hypolimnion of alum
treated lakes.
PROGRAM STATUS
METHODS
Water samples for physico-chemical and biological analyses were collected
from the deepest portion of both lakes at monthly intervals from October 1976
until March 1977; and from March through October 1977 water samples were
collected at biweekly intervals.
11
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Water chemical analyses were conducted at the State Laboratory of Hygiene
usually within 24 hours of collection. Analytical methods used were those in
the EPA 1974 publication Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes.
The phosphorus and nitrogen chemical species were analyzed by auto-analyzer
procedures.
Chlorophyll a was determined using the 90 percent acetone extraction
method. Samples were filtered immediately upon collection through a glass
fiber filter and allowed to extract for a minimum of 24 hours at a temperature
of less than 0°C. The filters were then ground to a fine pulp and allowed to
extract at least overnight. Absorption was measured with a Bausch and Lomb
Spectronic 70 with a slit width of 8mm. Since this machine underestimates
the chlorophyll a absorption peak, a correction factor of 1.11 was applied.
Chlorophyll a was computed by the phaeophytin correction method of Strickland
and Parsons (1972).
Primary production was measured by the 14C method, starting on May 11,
1977, in Mirror Lake. Samples were collected at one meter intervals between
0.5 m and 7.5 m. Samples were inoculated with approximately 6 pCi of NaH14C03,
and incubated from 10:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m. CST at the depths taken. The
bottles were suspended horizontally under a bar between two floats in order
to minimize artificial shading. After incubation the samples were immediately
placed in the dark and either placed on ice or treated with 1 ml of 1 percent
merthiolate. In order to determine the amount of 14C fixed, an acid-bubbling
technique modified from Schindler et aj[ (1972) was used until July 18. When
this method proved unsatisfactory, the samples (usually 100 ml) were filtered
through a 47 mm membrane filter (0.45 upore size). The filters were washed
with a minimum of 200 ml of distilled water and immediately dissolved in a
liquid scintillation fluor described by Schindler (1966). The radioactivity
was measured with a liquid scintillation spectrophotometer and the results
incorporated into the equation in Standard Methods (APHA, 1971). The initial
inorganic carbon was determined from total alkalinity, pH, and temperature
using the equations of Rainwater and Thatcher (1959). Daily photosynthesis
was computed by the method of Schindler and Nighswander (1970).
The phytoplankton biomass was determined by approximating the geometric
forms of individual phytoplankters from samples preserved with acidic Lugol's
solution, and applying this volume to total cell counts made by a modified
Utermohl method as described by Lund et a_L (1958). Samples were collected
from either 2 or 2.5 m.
Water transparency readings were taken with a 20 cm white Secchi disc.
Submarine light measurements were made with a G.M. submersible light meter on
several occasions. Incident solar radiation was measured with a model R411
Star Pyranometer (Weather Measure Corp.) connected to a potentiometric strip
chart recorder. These instruments were located adjacent to Mirror Lake.
Nutrient regeneration chambers similar to those used in the Shagawa Lake
study were placed on the sediments of Mirror Lake in June, 1977 (See Sonzogni
et al. for description). Water samples were taken from within the chambers
near the sediment surface and near the top by scuba divers using a 500 ml
stainless steel syringe.
12
-------
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Several studies have described the high nutrient content of storm water
runoff and its relationship to nutrient loading (McGriff, 1972; Kluesener and
Lee, 1974; Vitale and Sprey, 1974; and Knauer, 1975). Although other nutri-
ents are in storm water runoff, phosphorus has generally been found to be the
limiting factor in many lakes, and consequently, phosphorus loading directly
affects phytoplankton production (Vollenweider, 1968; Edmondson, 1972; Schin-
dler et aj[, 1973; and Jones and Bachmann, 1975).
Table 6 presents annual P loading rates for 1972, 1973 and 1977. With
the diversion of the storm sewers, the P loading was reduced from a value of
0.418 g P/m2/yr to 0.213 g P/m2/yr. The average in lake annual total phos-
phorus concentrations for Mirror Lake for the years 1972, 1973 and 1977 were
0.088 mg/1, 0.093 mg/1 and 0.090 mg/1 respectively. Although the data sug-
gest that the phosphorus concentration has not changed since diversion, a
one-year time period is not sufficient for the lake to respond to a new
steady-state condition.
Total phosphorus during the ice covered period was present in concentra-
tions of 50 ug/1 in the surface waters. During the summer months, concen-
trations decreased to 20 ug/1 in the upper euphotic zone and remained at 50
ug/1 in the lower euphotic zone (Figure 12) with much higher P concentrations
in the hypo limn ion.
Dissolved reactive phosphorus in the surface water was present in unde-
tectable concentrations, 4 ug/1, during much of the year (Figure 13). In the
hypolimnion, concentrations were over 500 ug/1.
Since it is unclear the role sediments have on the internal phosphorus
loading, nutrient regeneration chambers were placed "in-situ" on the bottom
of Mirror Lake. Phosphorus and ammonium-nitrogen trends inside the chambers
are illustrated in Figures 14 and 15. Total phosphorus in the chambers did
not increase until 50 days after the chambers were placed on the sediments,
even though the environment within the chambers was anoxic within 20 days.
The time response before phosphorus release from the sediments was observed,
was contrary to the results of Sonzogni et a_K (1977) and observations from
inlake measurements. This initial time lag was not noticed with ammonium-
nitrogen, however, as increases were observed prior to the development of an
anoxic environment.
The phosphorus concentrations in the chamber increased from 190 ug/1 to
580 ug/1 over a period of 157 days. Phosphorus release rates were calculated
during anoxic conditions from July 26 through September 27. The rate of
phosphorus release from sediments during this time period was 1.8 mg/m2'day.
This release rate was lower than expected for an eutrophic lake. Phosphorus
release rates for eutrophic lakes reported in literature range from 4.0
mg/m2-day for Lake Sammamish (Welch and Spyridakis, 1972) to 10.8 mg/m2-day
for Lake Mendota (Sonzogni, 1974).
13
-------
Ammonium-nitrogen release rates under anoxic conditions were 11.6
mg/m2*day. This rate is similar to anaerobic release rates observed from
other eutrophic lakes, e.g., Lake Purest, 11.1 mg/m2»day and Lake Esrom, 13.1
rag/m^day (Kamp-Nielsen, 1974).
Temperature and dissolved oxygen isopleths (Figures 16 and 17) show the
lake did not completely mix during the fall of 1976 and spring of 1977. A
metalimnetic oxygen maxima was present throughout the summer owing to algal
photosynthesis.
The depth of Secchi disc measurements is often used as an indication of
algal standing crops (Dillon and Rigler, 1975 and Carlson, 1977). The vali-
dity of this relationship is dependent upon other causes of water turbidity
in addition to phytoplankton. The correlation coefficient between Secchi
disc depth and chlorophyll a concentration for Mirror Lake was 0.92 which is
significant at the 95 percent level (Figure 18).
Secchi disc transparency measurements were generally less in the spring
than the summer (Figure 19). This was due primarily to the presence of the
alga Oscillatoria rubescens. As 0. rubescens disappears from the surface
waters, the Secchi disc depths correspondingly increased. The average summer
Secchi disc depths (June-September) were similar before and after storm sewer
diversion, approximately 3.4 m. The minimum Secchi disc depths (0.9 m) were
also similar for 1972, 1973 and 1977, and occurred when 0. rubescens was the
dominant phytoplankter in the surface waters. The maximum Secchi disc depths
varied from 5.2 m in 1972 to 4.3 m in 1973 to 4.7 m in 1977.
Chlorophyll a concentrations were much higher during April 1977 than at
any time during the year (Figure 20). The high chlorophyll concentrations
were owing primarily to the abundance of Oscillatoria rubescens. By the end
of April, 0. rubescens started to sediment to the deeper water, and by May
was found only in 5-7 m strata. During the summer, chlorophyll a values
decrease in the deeper waters from a high 80 |jg/l to 33 ug/1 by mid September.
0. rubescens was present at a depth during the summer where the light levels
were generally below 1 percent of incident light. In the surface waters,
during the summer, chlorophyll a values were low, 1-4 ug/1, and the chloro-
phyll concentrations showed little fluctuation (Figure 20). In October
chlorophyll a values were generally evenly distributed throughout the water
column and coincided with the distribution of 0. rubescens.
Although changes in the limnology of Mirror Lake after storm sewer
diversion are not evident from the phosphorus chemistry data or water trans-
parency, there appeared to be a change in the phytoplankton. Primary produc-
tivity depth profiles for the summers 1972 and 1977 are compared in Figure
21. Knauer (1975) indicated that the low production from May to early August
1972 was owing to reduced storm water runoff as a result of a below normal
rainfall during those months and the fact that the lake failed to mix the
previous spring and fall. This was also indicated by the Secchi disc depths.
However, the importance of the storm sewer input to the lake is evident from
August through October when, with increased rainfall (Table 7), the production
curves changed drastically. Whereas the curves resembled those from oligotro-
phic or mesotrophic waters before August, with the increased rainfall the
14
-------
curves took on the appearance of those most likely found in eutrophic lakes.
The production curves for 1977 remained similar to those expected in mesotro-
phic waters even though rainfall was greater in 1977 than in 1972 during most
of the summer months. This emphasizes the effects of the lack of storm sewer
discharge to provide the necessary nutrients to stimulate phytoplankton
productivity. Maximum primary productivity levels in 1977 were only half of
those experienced in 1972 (32.6 mg C/m3/hr and 60.5 mg C/m3/hr, respectively).
Primary productivity was also compared on an areal basis for Mirror Lake
(Figure 22). Maximum daily rates were similar for both years, being &.415 g
C/m2/day in 1972 and 1.297 g C/mVday in 1977.
Algae belonging to the division Cyanophyta dominated the phytoplankton
during the spring and fall in 1977 (Figure 23). Oscillatoria rubescens was
the dominant alga at that time. During the summer growing season, green
algae generally dominated. These were mostly colonial species such as Oocystis
pusilla, Sphaerocystic Schroeteri and Gloeocystis plactonica, although the
bacillariophyta were an important part of the phytoplankton crop on June 20.
The species composition of the phytoplankton in 1977 was different than
before the storm sewer diversion (Figure 23). Knauer (1975) reported that
after nutrient enrichment from the storm sewers, the blue-green algae Anabaena
sp. and Chroococcus sp. dominated the phytoplankton. These genera were
either not present or only in very low numbers in 1977.
The phytoplankton biomass from May through September, 1977, did not
exceed 2.0 mm3/! (Figure 24). The biomass increased to 3.5 mm3/! in October,
probably in response to the deepening of the metalimnion.
SHADOW LAKE
Dissolved oxygen and temperature isopleths from 1976-77 are shown in
Figures 25 and 26). In the past, limnological studies on Shadow Lake were
not as intensive as for Mirror Lake. Secchi disc measurements were taken on
a regular basis only during the summer of 1971. The depth of Secchi disc
measurements was greater during the summer of 1977 when compared to 1971
data, 3.2 m and 1.9 m respectively (Figure 27). The correlation coefficient
between chlorophyll a and Secchi disc measurements was 0.78 (Figure 28).
During 1977, the chlorophyll a concentrations were highest in April
(Figure 29). Oscillator!a rubescens was the dominant phytoplankter during
this period. As 0. rubescens sediments to the deeper waters, chlorophyll a
concentrations decreased to approximately 5 ug/1 in the surface waters through-
out the summer. As 0. rubescens became distributed throughout the epilimnion
during the fall, chlorophyll a concentrations increased correspondingly.
Isopleths of total phosphorus concentrations are presented in Figure 30.
The highest concentrations, ca. 470 ug/1, were observed in the hypoliminon
during the summer. Total phosphorus concentrations in the epilimnion were
generally about 20 ug/1, similar to Mirror Lake.
Table 8 lists the average concentrations for selected chemical parameters
from October 17, 1976 through October 25, 1977.
15
-------
REFERENCES CITED
American Public Health Association. Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater. 13th ed. A. P.H.A. New York, 1971. p. 874.
Carlson, R.E. A trophic state index for lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 22:361-
368, 1977.
Dillon, J.P. and F.H. Rigler. A simple method for predicting the capacity of
a lake for development based on lake trophic status. J. Fish. Res. Bd.
Canada. 32:1519-1531, 1975.
Edmondson, W.T. Nutrients and phytoplankton in Lake Washington. In Symposium
on Nutrients and Eutrophication, the Limiting Nutrient Controversy.
172-188. Limnol. Oceanogr. Spec. Sym. No. 1, 1972.
Jones, J.R. and R.W. Bachmann. Algal response to nutrient inputs in some
Iowa lakes. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 19:893-903, 1975.
Kamp-Nielsen, L. Mud-water exchange of phosphate and other ions in undis-
turbed sediment cores and factors affecting the exchange rates. Arch.
Hydrobiol. 73:218-237, 1974.
Kluesener, J.W. and G.F. Lee. Nutrient loading from a separate storm sewer
in Madison, Wisconsin. J. Water Poll. Contr. Fed. 46:920-936, 1974.
Knauer, D.R. The effect of urban runoff on phytoplankton ecology. Verh.
Internat. Verein. Limnol. 19:893-903, 1975.
Lund, J.W.G., C. Kipling and E.D. LeCren. The inverted microscope method of
estimating algal numbers and the statistical basis of estimating by
counting. Hydrobiol. 11:143-170, 1958.
McGriff, E.C., Jr. The effects of urbanization on water quality. J. Environ.
Qua!. 1:86-88, 1972.
Peterson, J.O. and D.R. Knauer. Urban runoff: Its relationship to lake
management. Wise. Dept. Nat. Resources Tech. Bull., 1978.
Rainwater, F.H. and L. L. Thatcher. Methods for collection and analysis of
water samples. U.S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply Paper, 1454, 1959. p.
301.
Schindler, D.W. A liquid scintillation method for measuring carbon-14 uptake
in photosynthesis. Nature. 211:844-845,1966.
16
-------
Schindler, D.W., H. Kling, R.V. Schmidt, J. Prokopowich, V.E. Frost, R.A.
Reid, and M. Capel. Eutrophication of Lake 227 by addition of phosphate
and nitrate the second, third, and fourth years of enrichment, 1970,
1971, 1972. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 30:1415-1440, 1973.
Schindler, D.W. and J.E. Nighswander. Nutrient supply and primary production
in Clear Lake, eastern Ontario. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 27:2009-
2036, 1970.
Schindler, D.W., R.V. Schmidt, and R.A. Reid. Acidification and bubbling as
an alternative to filtration in determining phytoplankton production by
the C-14 method. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 29:1627-1631, 1972.
Sonzogni, W.C., D.P. Larsen, K.W. Malueg, and M.D. Schuldt. Use of large
submerged chambers to measure sediment-water interactions. Wat. Res.
11:461-464,.1977.
Strickland, J.D.H. and T.R. Parsons. A Practical Handbook of Seawater Analy-
sis. Bull. 1967. 2nd. ed. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. Ottawa, 1972. p.
310.
Vitale, A.M. and P.M. Sprey. Total urban water pollution loads: the impact
of storm water. U.S. Counc. Environ. Qual., 1974.
Vollenweider, R.A. Scientific Fundamentals of the Eutrophication of Lakes
and Flowing Waters, with Particular Reference to Nitrogen and Phosphorus
as Factors in Eutrophication. Organ. Econ. Coop. Dev. (Paris) Tech.
Rep. DAS/DS1/68.2F, 1968. p 192.
Welch, E.B. and D.E. Spyridakis. Dynamics of nutrient supply and primary
production in Lake Sammamish, Washington. Proc. Symp. Res. on Conf.
Forest Ecosys. March 23-24, 1972. Bellingham, Wash., 1972. pp. 301-
315.
17
-------
TABLE 1. CONCENTRATIONS AND TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS IN URBAN RUNOFF - MIRROR LAKE
BASINS NORTH AND EAST, 1972 {FROM PETERSON AND KNAUER, 1978)
BASIN
Area (ha)
Precipitation (cm)
Runoff (m3 x
Runoff %
Street and Parking %
Lot Area
Total Phosphorus
Reactive P (est. )
Total N
Inorganic N
Organic N
BOD 5
Cl
Na
K
Ca
Mg
Total Solids
10J)
Mean
Concentrations
0.41
0.14
2.55
1.30
1.25
11.3
78
36
3.6
12
5.9
325
NORTH
17
77
194
14.8
21
Total
B.O
2.7
49.4
25.2
24.3
220
1,506
698
70.3
231
115
6,305
Output
(g/myyr)
0.047
0.016
0.29
0.15
0.14
1.3
8.8
4.2
0.42
1.4
0.67
37
Mean
Concentrations
0.33
0.11
1.46
0.57
0.90
9.0
17
14
2.6
11
6.1
Z40
EAST
2.1
77
55
35.2
25
Total
1.8
0.6
8.0
3.1
4.9
48.5
95.7
76.6
14.4
59
34
1,343
Output
(a/m2/yr)
0.088
0.029
0.39
0.16
0.24
2.4
4.7
3.7
0.71
2.9
1.7
66
a in mg/1 except as noted.
-------
TABLE 2. SUMMARY OF STORM SEWER MATERIAL TRANSPORT SHADOW
LAKE BASIN, 1972 (FROM PETERSON & KNAUER, 1978)
Area - (ha) = 58.6; Precipitation - (cm) = 77
Runoff - m3 x 103 = 67, Runoff % = 14.8; Street & Parking Lot Area %
= 7.6
Mean
Concentrations'1
Total Phosphorus
Reactive P (est.)
Total Nitrogen
Inorganic N
Organic N
BOD5
Cl
Na
K
Ca
Mg
Total Solids
0.22
0.07
2.17
0.92
1.25
5.1
213
100
4.0
52
26
430
Total kg
14.4
4.8
146
62
. 84 '
340
14,243
6,713
268
3,447
1,724
28,576
Output
(g/m2/yr)
0.025
0.0078
0.25
0.105
0.14
0.58
24
11
0.46
5.9
2.9
49
in mg/1 except as noted.
19
-------
TABLE 3. TOTAL PHOSPHORUS LOADING RATES TO MIRROR LAKE, 1972 and 1973
TOTAL
Total Without
Storm Sewer
Total Without
Ground Water .
And Storm Sewer
1972
g/m2/yr
1973C
Vollenweider's
Loading Rates
Permissible Dangerous
Rainfall
Storm Sewer
Diffuse
Ground Water
0.053
0.190
0.060
0.080
0.016
0.261
0.097
0.080
0.383
0.193
0.113
0.454
0.193
0.113
0.088
0.172
Estimated from precipitation, storm sewer flow data and 1972 runoff
coefficients from May-November.
Total without ground water as well as storm sewer is included because
Vollenweider's criteria were established without regard for possible
nutrient influx via ground water into the lakes.
20
-------
TABLE 4. FREQUENCY OCCURRENCE OF AQUATIC MACROPHYTES IN MIRROR LAKE
Species
Myriophyllum exalbescens
Ceratophyllum demersum
Potamogeton pus ill us
Potamogeton pectinatus
Chara spp.
Heteranthia dubia
Anacharis canadensis
Potamogeton zosterformis
Potamogeton alpinus
Vallisneria americana
Nymphaea tuberosa
Najas flexilis
Numphar varlegatum3
Potamogeton natans3
Any species above
Percent1
Frequency
Occurrence
84.0
79.7
57.2
53.5
34.8
32.1
29.9
24.6
15.5
12.8
8.6
3.7
100.0
Relative2
Frequency
Occurrence
19.2
18.2
13.1
12.2
8.0
7.4
6.9
5.6
3.6
2.9
2.0
0.9
100.0
1 No. of occurrences in BSU/total BSU.
2 No. of occurrences in BSU/total species encountered in all BSU's.
3 Present but not found in a BSU.
21
-------
TABLE 5. FREQUENCY OCCURRENCE OF AQUATIC MACROPHYTES IN SHADOW LAKE.
Species
Chara spp.
Potamogeton alpinus
Myriophyllum exalbescens
Potamogeton pectinatus
Potamogeton pus ill us
Ceratophyllum demersum
Heteranthia dubia
Vallisneria americana
Najas flexills
Potamogeton zosteriformis
Nymphaea tuberosa
Anacharis canadensis
Potamogeton nodosus
Potamogeton natans
Numphar variegatum
Zanichella palustris
Any species above
Percent
Frequency
Occurrence
74.3
66.3
46.1
44.0
24.3
23.0
19.9
19.2
16.6
13.2
12.4
11.1
9.3
3.9
1.6
0.3
95.6
Relative
Frequency
Occurrence
19.3
17.2
12.0
11.4
6.3
6.0
5.2
5.0
4.6
3.4
3.2
2.9
2.4
1.0
0.4
0.07
22
-------
TABLE 7. TOTAL RAINFALL AND MAXIMUM RAINFALL FOR A DAY FOR WAUPACA
ro
CO
Month
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
Total
1.22
1.66
1.62
2.33
5.19
7.66
2.27
1972
Maximum Daily
Rainfall
0.63
0.65
1.02
0.55
2.00
2.06
1.01
Total
4.76
9.18
1.86
1.81
1.91
3.10
2.76
1973
Maximum Daily
Rainfall
0.88
2.33
0.56
--
0.46
--
1.20
Total
3.20
3.22
4.76
3.66
2.90
4.47
2.64
1977
Maximum Daily
Rainfall
0.79
1.40
1.76
1.14
1.89
1.84
1.41
-------
TABLE 8. AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS OF SOME CHEMICAL PARAMETERS FOR SHADOW LAKE
SHADOW LAKE
October 17, 1976 - October 25, 1977
(mg/1)
Depth
0
2
4
ro 6
8
10
12
Tot-P
.030
.031
.026
.034
.065
.132
.292
DRP
.005
.005
.004
.007
.008
.055
.181
Org-P
.025
.026
.022
.027
.057
.077
.111
Tot-N
.801
.806
.722
.869
1.225
2.347
4.862
Inorg-N
.165
.155
.159
.222
.357
1.454
3.883
Org-N
.636
.651
.563
.647
.868
.893
.979
NH^-N
.087
.086
.077
.101
.272
1.412
2.877
N03 +
N02-N
.078
.069
.082
.121
.085
.042
.006
(ymho/CTn)
Cond.
376
378
370
428
439
453
476
-------
MIRROR - SHADOW LAKES
DRAINAGE BASIN
Figure 1. Storm sewer drainage system to Mirror and Shadow lakes before
diversion.
25
-------
25.0
20.0 J
10
O
1 15.0 H
LU
ID
s
£ 10.0
5.0 J
WATER FLOW TO LAKE
PERCENT
PRECIPITATION ON LAKE
DIFFUSE SURFACE
RUNOFF
GROUND WATER
STORM SEWER
44.4
4.0
23.6
28.0
MONTHLY JAN
PRECIP 2.1
TOTALJcm)
FEB
2.0
MAR
4.7
APR
3.1
MAY
4.2
JUNE
4.1
JULY
5.9
AUG
13.2
SEPT
22O
OCT
5.8
NOV
3.3
DEC
6.4
Figure 2. Precipitation, accumulative storm water flow and snow cover in
Mirror Lake basin for 1972.
-5.08
-50.8
-38.1
- 25.4
- 12.7
0
o
-2.54
cr
CL
I
-------
Figure 3. Hydrographic map for Mirror Lake.
27
-------
N
10-
20-
30-
40-
•
\
200 400
acft
600
ro
oo
Figure 4. Hydrographic map for Shadow Lake.
IRROR
LAKE
SHADOW
LAKE
-------
1500 n
MIRROR LAKE
1000-
o>
8
Q
O
500
Q.
MAY ' JUNE ' JULY ' AUG ' SEPT
Figure 5. Primary productivity for Mirror Lake 1972.
OCT
MONTHS
-------
1972
MiJ.J.A.S.O.N,
1973
Chroococcus
Cryptomonas
Chlorophyta
Trachetomonas
M J ' J ' A S 0 N
1972
Chlorophyta
Ceratium
A ' M J^ J A S 0 N
1973
Figure 6. Phytoplankton temporal distribution for Mirror Lake 1972 and 1973.
30
-------
12-
II
MIRROR LAKE
M
M
0
N
J J A
MONTHS
Figure 7. Phytoplankton biomass for Mirror Lake 1972 and 1973 (ON and OFF
arrows indicate period when aeration unit was operating).
31
-------
N
[ | CeratophylJum
1 Mynophyllum - Potamogeton
| j ] {j Chara
1 Chara - Potamogeton
I Nymphacaceae
Figure 8. Map of Mirror Lake illustrating the major plant
communities.
32
-------
CO
Chara - Potamogeton
Myriophyllum- Ceratophyllum
Myriophyllum - Potamogeton
200 ft
Figure 9. Map of Shadow Lake illustrating the major macrophyte communities.
-------
100
Q.
o
10-
i •I I I I I i i
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 20
30
DEPTH OF CORE (cm)
?i n
Figure 10. Radioraetric dating, cluPb, of a sediment core from Mirror Lake.
34
-------
OSCILLAXANTHIN (jjg/g)
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Depth distribution of Oscillaxanthin in the sediments of Mirror
Lake.
35
-------
00
en
MIRROR LAKE
TOTAL-P (jjg/l)
ICE COVER
SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT
1976 1977
Figure 12. Total phosphorus isopleths for Mirror Lake from September 1976
through October 1977.
-------
MIRROR LAKE
DRP (pg/l)
SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT
1976 1977
Figure 13. Dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) isopleths for Mirror Lake
from September 1976 through October 1977.
-------
0>
CL
600 -i
400-
200 ^
PHOSPHORUS
TOP
JUNE
JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER
600-1
400-
200-
BOTTOM
JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER
1977
Figure 14. Total phosphorus trends in the nutrient regeneration chambers.
38
-------
o»
4.0-1
3.0-
2.0-
1.0-
NITROGEN
TOP
JUNE
JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER
o»
i
10
X
4.0-1
3.0-
2.0-
1.0-
BOTTOM
JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER
1977
Figure 15. Ammonium-nitrogen trends in the nutrient regeneration chambers.
39
-------
ICE COVER
MIRROR LAKE
TEMPERATURE (°C)
NOV ' DEC ' JAN FEB MAR APR
1976
MAY JUN
1977
JUL AUG SEP OCT
Figure 16. Temperature isopleths for Mirror Lake from November 1976
through October 1977.
-------
0
NOV
MIRROR LAKE
D. 0. (mg/l)
ICE COVER
DEC
1976
' FEB ' MAR ' APR ' MAY ' JUN
1977
JUL AUG SEP OCT
Figure 17. Dissolved oxygen (DO) isopleths for Mirror Lake from November
1976 through October 1977.
-------
Log CHLOROPHYLL a
ro
0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60
-0.10-
5
o>
o
o-
o.io-
0.30-
0.40-
0.50-
Q60-
0.70-
log y - 0.927- 0.569 log x
• ^»»
Figure 18. Log chlorophyll a_ vs log Secchi disc depth for Mirror Lake,
April 1977 through October 1977 (r=0.92).
-------
MIRROR LAKE-SECCH! DEPTH
CL
UJ
Q
2-
3-
CO
4-
5-
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
Figure 19. Comparison of Secchi disc depths for Mirror Lake before and
after storm sewer diversion.
-------
APR
MIRROR LAKE
CHLOROPHYLL a (/jg/l)
OCT
Figure 20. Chlorophyll a_ isopleths for Mirror Lake after storm sewer
diversion.
-------
-P*
cn
2-
4-
6-
8-
2-
4-
6-
8-
20 40 60
5/11/72
5/11/77
20 40 60
1-8/291/72
8/30/77
20 40 60
2H
4
6-
8-
1>-6/8/72
2-
4-
6-
8-
-5/23/77
0 20 40 60
9/13/77
MIRROR LAKE
PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
(mgC/m3/hr)
0 20 40 60
2-
4-
6-
8-
-7/18/72
^—7/5/77
0 20 40 60
2-
4-
6-
8"
9/21/72-^
9/28/77
20 40 60
0
2
4
6-
8J
7/31/72
8A/77
20 40 60
2-
4-
6-
10/17/72—\
•10/12/72
20 40 60
2-
4-
6-
8-
8/9/72
/ /-8/I6/77
20 40 60
f\ 0/26/72
-'/-10/25/77
Figure 21. Comparison of selected primary productivity profiles before
and after storm sewer diversion.
-------
1.500 n
I
°E
1.000 -<
o
o
o
o
0.500-
o:
Q.
1972-
1977
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER
Figure 22. Comparison of primary productivity measured on an areal basis
before and after storm sewer diversion.
-------
100
80-
20
A M J J A S 0
100
wmr ^
O)
20-
P
cn
LEGEND
Baaiiarophyta
Cyanophyto
•j Cntorophyta
Cryptophyta
| Pyrrophyto
Chrysoptiyto
Euglenophyta
M J
0 N
Figure 23. Comparison of phytoplankton species composition as per cent
biomass before and after storm sewer diversion.
47
-------
141
12-
10
E ft
5
e/>
o
m
MAMJ J ASO
1977
Figure 24. Total phytoplankton biomass after storm sewer diversion.
48
-------
10
12
SHADOW LAKE
D. 0. (mg/l)
DEC ' JAN ' FEB ' MAR ' APR ' MAY ' JUN ' JUL ' AUG ' SEP OCT
1976
1977
Figure 25. Dissolved oxygen (DO) isopleths for Shadow Lake from December
1976 through October 1977.
-------
12
SHADOW LAKE
TEMPERATURE (°C)
DEC ' JAN ' FEB ' MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP
1976 1977
OCT
Figure 26. Temperature isopleths for Shadow Lake from December 1976
through October 1977.
-------
O-i
2-
£ 3-
d.
UJ
O
4-
5-
SHADOW LAKE
SECCHI DEPTH
1971
\
s / ^1977
\/
V
APRIL
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER
Figure 27. Comparison of Secchi disc depths for Shadow Lake before and after
storm sewer diversion.
-------
Ol
ro
Log CHLOROPYLL a
0.50 0.60 0.70 Q50 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50
0
0.10' H
_ 0.20
X
O 0.30 H
to
% 0.40-
0.50-
0.6O-
0.70-
logy= 0.768-0.376 log x
Figure 28. Log chlorophyll <^ vs log Secchi disc depth for Shadow Lake, April
1977 through October 1977 (r = 0.78).
-------
en
CO
SHADOW LAKE
CHLOROPHYLL o (jjg/l)
APRIL MAY
JUNE
JULY
1977
AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER
Figure 29. Chlorophyll a_ isopleths for Shadow Lake after storm sewer diversion.
-------
SHADOW LAKE
TOTAL-P
ICE COVER
in
LU
O
OCT NOV ' DEC ' JAN FEB ' MAR
1976
APR MAY JUN JUL AUG ' SEP OCT
1977
Figure 30. Total phosphorus isopleths for Shadow Lake from October 1976
through October 1977.
-------
THE WHITE CLAY MANAGEMENT PLAN -
DEVELOPMENT, IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION
by
J. Peterson1 and F. Madison2
Enactment of the Amendments to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of
1972 (Public Law 92-500) resulted in changing the primary emphasis of the
nation's efforts to control the pollution of its waters. Instead of dealing
with levels of pollutants in receiving water, Public Law 92-500 directed that
pollutants be controlled at their source, whether that source is a treatment
plant outflow pipe, an urban storm drain, a farmer's field, or a construction
site. Particular attention was focused on the agricultural community as
questions were raised concerning the amounts of nutrients and sediments mobil-
ized by agricultural operations and the effects of those materials on water
quality.
Generally, pollutants arising from agricultural operations are recognized
as nonpoint source although in one part of the rural scene there has been a
good deal of confusion. Public Law 92-500 defined animal feedlots, barnyards
and rest areas as point sources of pollution and directed the Environmental
Protection Agency to develop guidelines for regulating the discharge of pollu-
tants from them. Although there has been considerable controversy about how
many animals should be contained in a feedlot before a discharge permit is
required, it is apparent that outflows of nutrients from these areas will need
to be controlled whether they are considered to be point or nonpoint sources.
Dairy fairming dominates the 1,215 hectare White Clay Lake Watershed
which is located in eastern Shawano County, Wisconsin. Water quality in the
95 hectare lake is generally good. Because there is almost no development
along the shore, this project provided an excellent opportunity to study the
effects of agricultural runoff on water quality and thus to increase the
understanding of lakes and lake problems.
Concern for protection of the lake by the residents of the watershed led
to a request for funds from the Upper Great Lakes Regional Commission (UGLRC)
in 1973. A grant was subsequently awarded to the University of Wisconsin-
Extension in September of that year and installation of the monitoring network
commenced immediately. Additional monies were provided the following year by
1 Assistant Professor, Soil Science and Environmental Science Department,
University of Wisconsin-Extension, Madison.
2 Project Associate, Water Resources Center and Soil Science Department,
University of Wisconsin, Madison.
55
-------
the same agency to support continued monitoring activities. It should be
noted that in 1971 the U.S. Agriculture and Stabilization Service (ASCS) in
recognition of some of the problems of the watershed made special cost-share
funds available for the installation of animal waste storage facilities.
Under the provisions of Chapter 33 of the Wisconsin Statutes, the Inland
Lake Protection and Rehabilitation Act, the Town of Washington, which includes
White Clay Lake, formed the White Clay Lake Protection and Rehabilitation
District to ensure the future protection of the lake. Project personnel,
working with residents of the watershed and personnel of the U.S. Soil Conser-
vation Service (SCS) and the County Extension Office, developed a comprehen-
sive management plan for the watershed. The plan included the construction
and installation of measures to control sediment and nutrient movement from
barnyards, feedlots, waterways and cropped areas. Using data from the UGLRC-
sponsored project to meet feasibility requirements imposed by Chapter 33, the
Lake District submitted an application for funds to implement their management
plans. Grants totaling $214,500 were awarded for the project by the Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources (DNR) and the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA).
Of the lake protection projects submitted to EPA from all the states for
funding in 1975, the White Clay Lake proposal was the only one providing lake
protection solely through intensive watershed management. Construction of the
first of the land management practices began in the fall of 1976, and install-
ations were nearly completed by the end of 1977.
While White Clay Lake is considered to be of good quality now, several
recent changes in agricultural practices threaten to produce adverse effects.
The increase of dairy animal units in the watershed is the result of fewer,
but larger herds (average about 75 to 100 cattle). Concurrently, more herds
are being held on feedlots rather than on pastures, and more emphasis is being
placed on production of corn with less emphasis on oats and hay in crop rota-
tions. All of these changes tend toward greater potential for nutrient and
sediment transport to the lake.
The White Clay Lake Watershed is on a gently rolling glacial till plain
of Valderan age. A relatively short growing season with an average of 130
frost-free days and fairly youthful soils (classified as Alfic Haplorthods
which have high carbonate content and modest amounts of expansible clays)
favor dairy farming with crop rotations that include successive years of corn
and oats followed by a minimum of four years of alfalfa.
Base maps have been prepared showing the SCS detailed soil survey, land
elevations at 1.2 m contour intervals, the DNR bathymetry records of the lake,
land ownership, animal concentration areas, and land uses and management
information for the past several years.
WATERSHED MONITORING
Flow monitoring devices were installed to isolate three watersheds - the
South Watershed of about 195 hectares, the East Watershed of 335 hectares and
the Manthei Watershed of 22.5 hectares (Figure .1). The larger two watersheds
56
-------
WHITE CLAY LAKE WATERSHED
PENSAUKEE
LAKES
N
MONITORING STATION
SAMPLER
UNTREATED BARNYARO/FEEDLOT
TREATED BARNYARD/FEEDLOT
BOUNDARY, OWNERSHIP
WATERSHED OUTLINE
SUB-WATERSHED
MARSH
WOODS
Figure 1. White Clav Lake watershed map.
-------
were selected to be representative of the soils, topography, and land use of
the rest of the watershed as well as other areas of northeastern Wisconsin. A
monitoring station on the lake's outlet stream measures output of surface
water from the entire watershed. Water samples taken weekly and during runoff
events at each station are analyzed for residue, phosphorus, nitrogen, and
chloride content. A summary of land uses in each of the watersheds is shown
in Table 1.
TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF LAND USES - WHITE CLAY LAKE BASIN (1974-75)
Area (ha)
% of total
Entire
Basin
1215
100
South
Basin
195
16
East
Basin
335
27.5
Manthei
Basin
22.5
1.8
Wooded (%)
Littoral Wetlands (%)
Lake Surface (%)
Cropped (%)
Corn (%)
Oats and Hay (%)
23
6.7a
7.8
66
—
—
20
—
—
80
35
45
14
—
—
85
25
60
0
—
—
100
95
5
Some littoral wetlands are wooded.
A survey of ground water movement and quality in the basin (Tolman, 1975)
complemented the hydrologic and nutrient transport studies for the lake.
Observations on a network of wells and seepage collectors were used to esti-
mate rates of water movement into the lake. Water level recorders showed the
relationship between lake level and water table fluctuations. Samples from
observation wells were analyzed for chloride, nitrogen and phosphorus content.
Samples from private water supplies were analyzed to determine the water
quality of the deeper aquifer. Ground water monitoring is continuing on a
quarterly basis.
Project weather stations within the watershed provide continuous measure-
ment of precipitation, temperature and relative humidity. Maximum and minimum
temperature readings were recorded weekly. Frost depth is monitored using
fluorescein tubes (Harris, 1970) at several places in the watershed from
December through Apri1.
Watershed Material Transport
Water volume input to White Clay Lake serves as a base for determining
nutrient input and hydraulic residence time for the lake. Table 2 shows water
contributions from direct precipitation, surface water flow and direct ground
58
-------
TABLE 2. NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS TRANSPORT TOWARD WHITE CLAY LAKE. SUMMARY, 1974.
UD
NITROGEN
Direct Precipitation
Metered Surface Water
Unmetered Surface Water
Ground Water
PHOSPHORUS
Direct Precipitation
Metered Surface Water
Unmetered Surface Water
Ground Water
Water Volume3
0.542
0.702J
0.086)
0.897
2.227
0.542
0.702J
0.086J
0.897
2.227
%b
25
35
40
100%
25
35
40
100%
Mean
Concentration
mg/1
1.0
4.25
4.25
1.50
0.25
0.45
0.45
0.15
Total Percent of
kg Total Nutrient
542
2,983
366
1,346
5,237
136
316
39
J34
625
10
57
7
26
100
22
51
6
=21
100
a-
in millions of cubic meters input to lake.
percent contribution to total water input to lake, no net change in lake storage during period.
-------
flow for a one-year period, as well as related total nitrogen and phosphorus
inputs.
Comparing the relative magnitude of nitrogen compound sources (Table 2)
to water sources show that direct precipitation supplied about 10% of the
total N in 25% of the water input, surface water supplied 64% of the N in 35%
of the water and ground water supplied 26% of the N in 40% of the water.
Table 2 shows estimated total phosphorus inputs to the lake. With 35% of
the water input via surface flows came 57% of the total phosphorus. The
contributions from direct precipitation are based on only six samples taken in
the first 6 months of the year and thereby represent a rough estimate.
Annual totals of water, phosphorus, nitrogen and total residue transport
from the East and South Watersheds for 1974-1977 are summarized in Table 3.
The water transport in 1977 was the lowest of the 4 years of observations.
The outlet stream and the South branch both dried up during July-November of
1977.
Annual residue losses in the two watersheds range from about 45 kg/ha to
750 kg/ha for the 4 years with a peak during the first year which is attribu-
ted to site disturbances during construction of monitoring stations. This
range of residue transport is considered to be quite low for agricultural
watersheds.
Phosphorus area! outputs (below) show considerable yearly range (kg
P/ha):
1974 1975 1976 1977
East 0.64 0.50 2.1 0.25
South 0.56 0.83 0.37 0.01
While these outputs fit within the range of agricultural land outputs
listed by Uttormark et al_. (1974), the rate for the East Watershed in 1976
appears to be a significant rhange from past years. Of particular interest is
that there was no large inciease in output rate from the South Watershed, nor
were there similar increases in nitrogen losses. Further analysis of individ-
ual runoff events and land management records may help to explain the differ-
ences.
The low areal output of materials from both basins in 1977 is related to
decreased runoff during this dry year (see Table 3).
Material losses from the Manthei Watershed are summarized in Table 4.
The purpose of monitoring this watershed was to estimate material losses from
a dairy barnyard. The lower watershed includes the entire basin, terminating
at the flow monitoring station. The sampling station of the upper site moni-
tors runoff from about 18 of the 22.5 total ha. The difference in areas
includes a dairy heifer operation.
60
-------
TABLE 3. SUMMARY OF WATER, N, P AND RESIDUE TRANSPORT
1974
1975
1976
1977
EAST WATERSHED
Water Volume - cu m
Residue - total kg
mean (range) - mg/1
405,000
227,400
563(10-6210)
616,000
184,000
299(60-164)
682,000
197,300
289(29-827)
138,825
82,420
594(287-1100)
Phosphorus - total kg
mean (range) - mg/1
Nitrogen - Organic kg
mean (range) - mg/1
Nitrogen - total kg
mean (range) - mg/1
SOUTH WATERSHED
Water Volume - cu m
Residue - total kg
mean (range) - mg/1
Phosphorus - total kg
mean (range) - mg/1
Nitrogen - Organic kg
mean (range) - mg/1
Nitrogen - total kg
mean (range) - mg/1
214.6
0.53(0.02-6.1)
624
1.54(0.01-14.9)
1660
4.10(1.8-15.5)
292,000
145,400
498(10-6000)
109
0.36(0.05-7.0)
385
1.32(<0.01-4.6)
1323
4.53(1.4-8.2)
166.9
0.27(0.01-3.47)
974
1.58(<0.01-4.86)
2221
3.61(1.55-26.8)
359,000
125,700
350(50-4100)
161.6
0.45(0.01-2.93)
1014
2.82(<0.01-15.7)
1989
5.53(0.55-18.8)
703
1.03(0.01-7.85)
1190
1.74(0.01-5.58)
2552
3.74(1.57-8.18)
194,000
78,940
408(259-727)
72.1
0.37(0.01-6.42)
348
1.80(0.05-6.93)
950
4.91(1.32-12.5)
85.3
0.625(0.01-3.65)
319
785
5.65(1.51-16.3)
20,438
8,845
433(201-755)
4.05
0.199(.01-4.15)
25
1.22(.16-5.95)
86.2
4.23(.97-9.04)
-------
TABLE 4. SUMMARY OF N, P AND RESIDUE TRANSFER - MANTHEI WATERSHED
1974e
1975
1976
1977
ro
UPPER MANTHEI WATERSHED
Water Volume
Residue - total kg
mean (range) - mg/1
Phosphorus - total kg
mean (range) - mg/1
Nitrogen - organic kg
mean (range) - mg/1
Nitrogen - total kg
mean (range) - mg/1
LOWER MANTHEI WATERSHED
Water Volume
Residue - total kg
mean (range) - mg/1
Phosphorus - total kg
mean (range) - mg/1
Nitrogen - organic kg
mean (range) - mg/1
Nitrogen - total kg
mean (range) - mg/1
560
440(140-2200)
0.36
0.283(0.16-2.2)
6.39
5.02(1.8-12.4)
1,274
3,121
2450(160-34,000)
3.01
2.36(0.36-25)
13.5
lo!6(5.9-7.9)
9,390
181(10-630)
21.7
0.418(0.01-1.85)
163
3.14(1.33-8.35)
51,910
11,790
227(100-990)
28.2
0.541(0.15-1.45)
21,090
269(78-712)
11.8
0.149(0.01-8.20)
213
2.17(0.77-6.67)
78,360
29,210
373(116-937)
140
1.78(0.01-7.15)
0.43
131(108-154)
0.001C
0.556(0.30-0.75)
0.016L
5.01(4.01-6.12)
722
572
792(66-1980)
0.78
1.09(0.05-3.86)
504 730 14.8
4.40(1.83-9.80) 9.32(1.58-19.3) 20.5(2.33-44.7)
Records from 4/2/74 - 4/12/74.
Volume from Upper is taken as the same as measured at Lower station; consequently mass data from the
Upper Station is over-estimated. The area of the upper portion of the basin includes only 18 of the
total 22.5 ha area.
c
Only two samples from Upper Station (versus 54 from Lower Station) representing only 5% of water flow.
-------
Year to year variations in material output are greater than for the
larger drainage basins, but the influence of the barnyard area on ambient
water quality is readily apparent.
A marsh study including material transport in and out of the littoral
zone marsh where the main stream enters the lake will be conducted during
1978-1979.
LAKE STUDIES
White Clay Lake is 95 hectare, dimictic, marl-forming lake with 13 m
maximum depth. The lake is underlain by thick glacial drift which fills a
deep preglacial valley formed at the contact between Pre-Cambrian igneous and
metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks of early Paleozoic Age.
The lake exhibits depletion of dissolved oxygen in lower hypolimnetic
waters during summer and winter stratification periods. There have not been
any fish kills recorded, the plant nuisances are considered to be minimal.
Lake sampling is done cooperatively with the Wisconsin Department of
Natural Resources. Monitoring includes monthly measurements of dissolved
oxygen and temperature profiles, productivity, algal composition, secchi depth
as well as laboratory analysis of water samples from the inlet, lake surface,
and 6 meter and 12 meter depths within the lake. Analyses are made for chlor-
ophyll a, nitrate, nitrite, ammonium-N, organic nitrogen, reactive phosphorus,
total phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, sulfate,
alkalinity and pH. Table 5 summarizes water analyses for 1973-1977. Selected
dissolved oxygen, temperature and chlorophyll a isopleths are shown in Figures
2 through 4.
The overall nitrogen loading directed to the lake in 1974 was 5.5 g N per
m2. Direct precipitation and ground water supplied 1.99 g/m2 alone. Vollen-
weider (1968) suggested an annual loading of 2.0 g/m2 for a lake of this depth
as "dangerous" levels of reactive or available nitrogen. Even if only 60% of
the total N were biologically available, the loading to the lake would be
above Vollenweider's criterion.
Phosphorus loading directed to the lake was also estimated. Phosphorus
is the key element in lake eutrophication considerations. It may stimulate
nuisance aquatic plant growth, but it is also an element that may be con-
trolled.
Converting the total phosphorus transport to a lake loading yields 0.66
g/m2. Surface water inputs alone supply 0.38 g/m2. Comparison of these
numbers with Vollenweider's (1968) dangerous levels (0.13) suggests that the
lake is under stress. Assuming that 30% to 70% of the total P is biologically
reactive, the apparent loading is still excessive. It must be noted that an
assessment of P transport across the marsh fringe surrounding the lake has not
been made so that the lake-P loading estimates may be somewhat high.
63
-------
TABLE 5. SUMMARY OF CHEMICAL ANALYSES - WHITE CLAY LAKE
CTl
Sample Identification8
Component
Secchi depth (m)
Organic N
Total N
Reactive P
Total P
Specific conductance
Ca
Mg
Na
K
Sulfate
Cl
pH units .
Alkalinity6
Lake Sample
Depth, m
0.5
6
12
0.5
6
12
0.5
6
12
0.5
6
12
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Inlet
1.3
3.4
0.16
0.27
557
70
36
10
8
28
23
8
250
1973
1 (10)
Deep Hole
2.4
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.31
0.05
0.04
0.19
;
0.14
347
40
27
6
6
11
12
8
170
9 (1,2,3,
Inlet
0.97(0.37-3.4)
2.9(2.2-6.1)
(0.006-0.3)
0.16(0.02-0.65)
447(353-738)
55 27-93)
33(19-41)
6 3-13)
6 3.1-9.3)
30 23-35)
21 14-26)
- 7.6-8.3)
247 95-344)
1974
5,6,7.9,10,11)
Deep Hole
2.32(0.7-3.6)°
0.88(0.64-1.1)
0.84(0.65-1.08)
0.84(0.53-1.36)
1.3 0.8-2.8)
1.4 1.1-1.8)
1.8 1.2-3.0)
0.07 0.02-0.13)
0.05 0.02-0.07)
0.07 0.03-0.11)
374(260-428)
43 31-59)
28(19-40)
5(3-6)
6(4.4-7.5)
18 15-20)
13 10-15)
- 71,6-8,3)
194 114-400)
12 (1,2,2,3,5,
Inlet
0.59(0.19-2.0)
4.0(1.1-7.6)
0.10(0.01-0.63)
566(373-895)
46 22-80)
38 16-50)
6 1-12)
4(1.7-11.2)
27 25-32
26 15-26)
- 7.6-8.9)
236 156-317)
1975
6,7,7,10,10,11,12)
Deep Hole
2.96(2.1-3.8)
0.70(0.44-0.91)
0.68(0.32-1.2)
0.73(0.29-1.3)
1.6 0.6-6.5
1.1 0.8-1.8
1.3 0.8-2.2
0.04(0.01-0.13)
0.03(0.01-0.07)
0.05(0.02-0.14)
378 326-450)
38 16-87
31 24-50)
4 1-8)
5 1.7-7.1)
18 13-27)
13 11-15)
- 7.6-8.5)
167 90-202)
Total number of samples and months during which sampling took place.
mg/1 except as noted.
°Ar1thmet1c mean and range.
• m1cromhos/cm @ 25°C.
emg CaCOs/1.
-------
TABLE 5. (continued)
tn
Sample Identification
Component
Secchi depth (m)
Organic N
Total N
Roar-Miff* P
Total P
Specific conductance
Ca
Mg
Na
K
Sulfate
Cl
pH units _
Alkalinity
1976
Lake Sample
Depth, m
—
0.5
12
0.5
12
0 5
10
0.5
6
12
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
8(2, 3, 4, (
Inlet
0.68(0.20-1.01)
3.23(1.56-5.4)
0.68(0.01-0.19)
567(419-673)
57(34-75)
42(36-46)
5.3(1-19)
3.8(1.7-8.6)
31(25-34)
24(19-33)
- (7.4-8.1)
225(120-309)
5,7,7,8, 12)
Deep Hole
3.03(1.2-5.4)°
0.65(0.52-1.06)
0~jr\(n ci fi fifi^
0.74(0.40-0.99)
0.97(0.60-1.29)
OQ7 t f\ £Q 1 9 \
.Ol \(J. OO- 1 ,£.)
1.68(0.95-2.78)
0.04(0,02-0.11)
0.05(0.03-0.13)
0.05(0.02-0.16)
364(331-404)
35(23-47)
30(26-33)
4.7(1-18)
5.4(2.7-14)
19(17-23)
12 3-15)
- 7.7-8.1)
160(137-188)
1977
19(1,2,4,4,5,5,5,6,6,7
Inlet
0.52(0.20-1.04)
3.38(1.97-6.26)
0 03(0 005-0.059)
0.07(0.02-0.19)
573(531-619)
56(46-68)
42(31-46)
4.0(1-7)
4.3(1.8-6.7)
- (7.4-8.4)
239(198-288)
,7,8,8,9,9,10,10,11,12)
Deep Hole
0.78(0.43-1.13)
0.80(0.35-1.22)
0.94(0.61-1.42)
0.94(0.40-1.21)
0.95(0.43-1.35)
1.90(0.80-4.29)
0.016(0.004-0.056)
0.012(0.004-0.041)
0.017(0.004-0.046)
0.034(<0.01-0.07)
0.032(0.01-0.07)
0.050(0.01-0.10)
417(331-501)
38(27-42)
31(21-37)
4.2(1-8)
4.6(3.5-5.1)
- (7.5-8.7)
179(137-242)
aTotal number of samples and months during which sampling took place.
mg/1 except as noted.
Arithmetic mean and range.
dmicromhos/cm @ 25°C.
emg CaCOs/1.
-------
WHITE CLAY LAKE 1977
DISSOLVED OXYGEN - mg/1
I I l I I I l i i i
J F M A M J J A S 0 N I
MONTH
Figure 2. Dissolved oxygen isopleths—White Clay Lake, 1977.
WHITE CLAY LAKE 1977
TEMPERATURE -°C
AMJJ A S 0 N D
MONTH
Figure 3. Temperature isopleths—White Clay Lake, 1977.
66
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co
0
2
CTl
•*J
UJ
. 6
x
Q_
O
10
12
WHITE CLAY LAKE, 1977
CHLOROPHYLL a-jug/I
'SECCHI DEPTH
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AU6 SEPT OCT NOV DEC
Figure 4. Chlorophyll and Secchi Depth—White Clay Lake, 1977.
-------
OTHER STUDIES
Cooperative research between the University of Wisconsin-Madison and the
USDA Sedimentation Laboratory (Bubenzer et al_., 1974) was initiated to invest-
igate erosion and deposition processes on the White Clay Lake Watershed using
Cesium-137 as the tracer. Preliminary results indicate an overall erosion
from the cultivated areas with some deposition on the upland watershed. Much
of the deposition from the watershed appears to be taking place in the marsh
fringe around the lake. Significant Cesium-137 concentrations have been found
at the 50 centimeter depth within the marsh while depths of 10 centimeters or
less have been observed in the adjacent littoral zone of the lake. The re-
sults indicate that Cesium-137 can be used as a "tag" to measure both the
erosion and deposition of sediments in agricultural watersheds such as White
Clay Lake.
SUMMARY
The development and implementation of the White Clay Lake Management Plan
is an example of effective cooperation between individual citizens, local
units of government, state and federal agencies, and the University System.
The effort is providing valuable insights into many of the questions being
raised about the implementation of rural nonpoint source pollution control
programs.
By its very nature, nonpoint source pollution is a problem which requires
the interaction of a variety of agencies. The number of agencies involved
results from the historic separation between those which deal with land re-
source problems and those which deal with water resource problems. Partner-
ship between these diverse interests is critical if water quality problems are
to be solved through the implementation of land management plans.
It would appear now that responsibility for the implementation of rural
nonpoint source pollution programs will be vested in the traditional federal
agencies, namely, the SCS and ASCS, working with local SWCDs. Cost sharing
money will be available both for nonpoint control measures or Best Management
Practices for traditional conservation measures. At White Clay Lake the
Shawano County SWCD has been a co-sponsor of the project since its inception,
although the Lake Protection District has, since its formation, served as the
focal point for identifying nonpoint source problems and for allocating funds
for improvements designed to solve those problems.
From the experience at White Clay Lake, it would appear that this mechan-
ism—the creation of a Lake Protection District—can be an effective means of
dealing with critical nonpoint source areas. In watersheds of reasonable
size, it affords local residents the opportunity to develop and implement land
management plans designed to improve water quality. Of further importance is
that Lake Protection Districts have the power to tax. The White Clay Lake
District has never levied a tax, but the authority is there and it might be a
way to raise money to supplement funds available from other sources for non-
point source pollution control.
68
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When Lake Protection money became available, members of the White Clay
Lake District agreed to use it for their most critical nonpoint problems—
barnyards and feedlots—and to use monies from the ACP program for cost shar-
ing the installation of conservation practices on croplands. The reasons for
this were eminently practical—there was not enough Lake Protection money to
do everything so investments of these funds were directed toward the most
critical problem areas. Additionally, barnyard work is expensive and in all
cases the money required far exceeded the traditional $2,500 per farm per year
limitation of the ASCS program. This innovative approach might well be ap-
plied to the allocation of newly authorized federal nonpoint source control
money.
Designers of nonpoint source pollution control programs are currently
debating the question of mandatory vs. voluntary control programs. At White
Clay Lake the District was able to share 90% of the cost of control struc-
tures, a figure somewhat higher than that envisioned for new nonpoint pro-
grams. Of the farms with livestock in the watershed, all but 3 were improved
using project funds. This is a cooperation rate of about 83%. It should be
noted, however, that two of the noncooperating farms are located directly on
the shore of the lake and that both have large livestock operations for which
adequate protection against sediment and nutrient movement is not provided.
The University has played an important role in the White Clay Lake effort
since its inception. Responding to concern expressed by residents of the
watershed about the water quality of the lake, University personnel helped
hustle grants, design and install the monitoring network to quantify movement
of sediment and nutrients from agricultural operations toward the lake. Data
from this work served to meet the feasibility requirements of Chapter 33, thus
making the Lake Protection District eligible to apply for funds to implement a
management program. Research work showed that even though the water quality
of the lake itself was good, nutrients were moving to the lake in amount well
in excess of those considered to be safe for maintaining present lake quality.
Attention was focused on land activities, as major changes in the in-lake
system were not expected during the course of the study. Excessive nutrient
loadings were the basis for the protection program rather than changes in
water quality.
Project activities are continuing. Now that protective measures have
been installed in barnyards and feedlots, on streambanks and on cropped lands,
monitoring is being continued to assess the effectiveness of these practices.
The marsh area, through which much of the water going into the lake moves, is
being studied to determine its effectiveness as a nutrient and sediment trap.
Long-term surveillance is essential to determine change in lake water quality
and reductions in pollutant loadings.
The White Clay Lake experience has been valuable in many ways. It is a
good research tool providing insights into environmental problems resulting
from agricultural operations and the movement of sediments and nutrients into
lakes and streams. It is an excellent educational tool not only for the
residents of the watershed but also for the many students, elected officials
and citizens who have toured the project area. It is a fine demonstration of
69
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local people working with a number of agencies and institutions to solve
specific problems.
REFERENCES CITED
Bubenzer, G. D., et aJL Sediment Source Area Identification Using Cesium-137.
Research Proposal. College of Agriculture and Life Sciences. University
of Wisconsin-Madison, 1974.
Harris, A. R. Direct Reading Frost Gage is Reliable, Inexpensive. Research
Note NC-89 (revised 9-15-70), U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Dept. of Agricul-
ture, Falwell Ave., St. Paul, MN 55101, 1970. 2 p.
Tolman, A. L The Hydrogeology of the White Clay Lake Area, Shawano County,
Wisconsin. M.S. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1975.
Vollenweider, R. A. Scientific Fundamentals of the Eutrophication of Lakes
and Flowing Waters, with Particular Reference to Nitrogen and Phosphorus
as Factors in Eutrophication. Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development, Directorate of Scientific Affairs, Paris, France. Report
No. DAS/CSI/68.27, 1968.
70
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SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF LAKE IMPROVEMENT PROJECTS
AT MIRROR/SHADOW LAKES AND WHITE CLAY LAKE
by
L. L. Klessig, N. Bouwes and S. Lovejoy*
HISTORY OF LAKE USE
Mirror and Shadow Lakes are small natural lakes located in the City of
Waupaca (1970 pop. = 4,342). The city is the county seat and largest city in
Waupaca county (1970 pop. = 37,780). Principal economic activities in the
county are agriculture and tourism with some light manufacturing. Mirror Lake
is 13 acres and Shadow Lake is 40 acres in size. At one time ice was harvest-
ed from Mirror Lake but the practice was stopped in the 1950's when the ice
began to smell (decaying algae) as it melted. Both lakes have been used for
over 100 years for water recreation. Water is supplied to the lakes by groun
dwater and until recently by storm sewers.
White Clay Lake is a natural lake (=250 acres) in Shawano County (1970
pop. = 6,488). The county seat is Stiawano (1970 pop. = 6,488), located about
nine miles west of the lake. Green Bay (1970 pop. = 87,809) is less than one
hour driving time to the southeast. The village of Cecil (1970 pop. = 369) is
located two miles northwest. The lake has been used for marl production and
recreation. The main economic activities of the county are agriculture and
tourism. White Clay Lake is located in a small watershed of 3000 acres that
is used almost exclusively for agriculture. There are ^-30 landowners in the
watershed and 14 own livestock. There is one small resort and a few other
non-farm residences. Most pollutants entering the lake probably originate
from farmlands.
LAKE USERS
Mirror and Shadow Lakes are most heavily used for swimming in summer by
local residents especially mothers with children. The Shadow Lake beach is
the only beach in the city. There is regular but limited fishing and non-
power boating activity. The lakes are also used for ice skating in the win-
ter. Some day-users from surrounding communities are attracted to the lakes
for picnicking and water sports but overnight tourists are not common. The
Waupaca Chain of Lakes is located a few miles southwest but its use is domi-
nated by power boating and fishing activities of second home owners and tour-
ists. Shadow Lake is part of a large city park which serves as a focal point
* University of Wisconsin System, 1815 University Avenue, Madison, WI 53706
71
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of community recreation especially in summer. In July and August of 1977 the
average mid-afternoon count of swimmers was 77.2. On July 14 at 2:00 p.m. 350
swimmers crowded on the beach. The maximum number of boaters and fishermen on
the lake at any one time during the day averaged 2.6 boaters and 4.6 fisher-
men. It should be noted that these figures account for the number of recrea-
tionists at the single time of day when use was highest. Total users per day
may be two-three times the figures given. There did not appear to be any
increase in activity during the weekend. More refined data on usage will be
collected in 1978-79.
White Clay Lake is used for fishing year around. There is some pleasure
boating in summer (speed of boats is controlled by town ordinance) and hunting
in fall. The users appear to be mostly local residents and day-users from
surrounding cities. Shawano Lake, a major tourist attraction and second home
center a few miles west of White Clay Lake, attracts most of the powerboating
and waterski ing. White Clay Lake appears to be viewed as a quiet complement
to the noise and bustle and surface water user conflicts of Shawano Lake.
When morning and evening observations are combined, and average of 5.2 boats
per day were being used for fishing from August through November of 1977.
In December and January an average of 17.6 people were ice fishing each
day. A major local event is the ice fishing derby which attracted 155 ice
fisherpersons on a Sunday in January. With this exception, the amount of
weekend activity is not particularly pronounced compared to weekday activity.
It should again be noted that all recreationists were not counted. Mid-day
recreationists (particular!'ly in summer) were not observed. However most
fisherpersons were probably noted since fishing is concentrated in the morning
and evening. More refined data on usage will be collected in 1978-79 from the
beginning of spring fishing to the end of the ice fishing season.
LAKE MANAGEMENT DISTRICTS
Mirror and Shadow Lakes were part of the Inland Lake Demonstration Proj-
ect of the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (DNR) and University of
Wisconsin Extension. The study of these lakes, funded by the Upper Great
Lakes Regional Commission, revealed that storm sewers were the primary source
of the nutrients (phosphate) that were feeding increasing growths of weeds and
algae. In 1974 the Wisconsin Legislature enacted Chapter 33 of the Wisconsin
Statutes which enabled local communities to form a special purpose unit of
government to manage their lake(s). The Waupaca City Council created one of
the first lake management districts.
The City Councilmen also serve as the commissioners of the district. In
1975 they voted to undertake a restoration project which consisted of storm
sewer diversion to prevent the entry of new nutrients, alum treatment to
inactivate nutrients already in the lakes, and aeration of Mirror Lake to
prevent fish-kills. They applied and received $130,000 in state funds.
Through the DNR they also applied for EPA funds under Section 314 (Clean Lakes
Act) of Public Law 92-500. In the first set of awards under Section 314,
Waupaca was awarded a grant of $215,000 in January 1976. Additional local
matching funds were necessary in the amount of $80,000. The district electors
had voted a tax levy of 0.9 mils on the taxable property (equalized value =
72
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$41,000,000) for two consecutive years. The city also decided to spend extra
money to repave the streets where new storm sewer lines were constructed.
Because the district had voted the tax in 1975, conditional on an EPA grant,
work began almost immediately after the EPA announcement and storm sewer
construction was completed in 1976.
White Clay Lake was also the subject of previous study involving the
Wisconsin DNR, University of Wisconsin Extension, Upper Great Lakes Regional
Commission, Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Agricul-
tural Research Service, and the Shawano County Soil and Water Conservation
District. The lake is still of high quality but the study indicated a high
potential for degradation from agricultural runoff if farming practices were
not changed. With encouragement from Extension specialists, the farmers in
the watershed asked their town board to create a lake management district
under Chapter 33 for the purpose of protecting White Clay Lake.
All the land in the watershed was included in the district formed in late
1974. In 1975 the district received a state grant and through DNR applied for
an EPA grant. White Clay Lake was also among the first set of awardees under
the federal Clean Lakes Act in January 1976. EPA contributed $107,000, DNR
contributed about $100,000, and the district contributed in-kind services to
complete the matching requirements. The Shawano County Agricultural Stabili-
zation and Conservation Service has provided the accounting service.
A number of barnyards were resloped and manure storage facilities built
in the fall of 1976. Most of the other farmers asked for similar construction
work in 1977. During this process Tom and Dave Brunner, young and progressive
farmers, provided leadership within the community. Their farm became a local
and statewide model of land and manure management practices. The lake dis-
trict petitioned the town board for self governance under 1976 amendments to
Chapter 33 of the Wisconsin Statutes. In the ensuing election Tom Brunner was
elected chairman of the district. Subsequently, he was also elected to the
town board.
PHILOSOPHY OF ANALYSIS
An investigation of the socioeconomic impacts associated with lake reha-
bilitation/protection requires a very broad conception of the stimulus produc-
ing these impacts. The investigation cannot be limited to the impact of the
actual physical intervention of the technology; the investigation must view
the project as a social process which began when local citizens began to see
problems with their lake, organized to combat these problems, took action, and
are now "reaping the benefits" of their investment and the investment of
funding agencies. The process actually continues on into the future. Under
ideal conditions data would be gathered at several points in time. Baseline
data would be gathered before the prospect of a lake project had begun to
"contaminate" perceptions. Impact data would be gathered during the project,
immediately after the project, and several years later when limnological
changes had fully manifested themselves. While it would still be difficult to
separate out other causal agents, a comparison of baseline data and impact
data would be the best basis for evaluation. For obvious reasons this inves-
73
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tigatioh is limited to one point in time—immediately after the physical
intervention. This requires comparisons with other control groups and the use
of models to quantify impacts.
SPECIFIC RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Economic evaluation questions relate to the benefits and costs associated
with efforts to reduce and correct lake pollution; in these cases, overferti-
lization is the problem. The following four questions are being addressed:
1. What are the recreational benefits associated with an increase in
water quality?
2. What are the benefits accruing to affected property owners because
of increases in water quality?
3. What are the aesthetic impacts and how are the trade-offs between
these and economic benefits viewed by the public?
4. What are the costs to the agricultural sector for compliance with
alternative preventive and/or remedial actions to pollution?
Sociological evaluation questions are more process oriented than product
oriented. The specific questions span a variety of quantative and qualitative
parameters and the impacts span a period of years. The following is an at-
tempt to categorize the questions and structure the data to the degree possi-
ble:
1. What are the necessary institutional conditions for undertaking a
lake restoration project?
a. What involvement is necessary by "the general public", local
property owners, and local officials?
b. What legal powers are necessary to raise revenue for local
matching of federal grants?
c. What types of local leaderships are necessary and how does such
leadership develop?
d. What types and degrees of support from the media and education-
al institutions are necessary?
e. What is the optimal institutional arrangement and division of
responsibility/authority between federal, state, and local
"partners" in a lake restoration effort?
2. Who is being impacted and what is the differential impact on various
segments of the population?
a. What is the perception of the changes in water quality and in
distribution of project benefits and costs?
74
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b. Who cares about water quality and what aspects do they care
about?
c. Who uses the water and who owns the shoreline?
d. Who has the option of substitution and at what cost?
e. How have patterns of interaction changed or been maintained
between neighbors, kin, and recreating groups?
3. What is the long term impact on ecological awareness and participa-
tory democracy?
a. Do local residents better understand ecological principles and
lake systems?
b. Have attitudes toward state and federal agencies improved or
deteriorated?
c. Has the stimulus of the project developed a sense of control of
community destiny and personal efficacy or contributed to the
fatalism of "small town in mass society"?
d. Has community cohesion suffered or increased as a result of the
project?
4. Would the residents and the local leaders do it over again if they
made the decision now?
THEORETICAL APPROACH
Economic analysis will be guided by four models which correspond to the
four economic questions noted earlier:
1. To evaluate recreational benefits a travel-cost modeKof the Clawson
genre is geing employed, but with observations based on individual
observations rather than grouped data. This will allow for the
inclusion of variables, such as cost and distance, that normally
cause multi col linearity problems. The general form of the model
employed to represent the demand relationship is:
n
V . . = a . + Z B..Y.. + e..
ij J Px
where V.. is the number of visits by decision-making unit i to lake
j, X-> is the value of the independent variable k for the decision-
IJK
making unit i on lake j, and e.. is the error term. The primary ob-
jective is to produce a statistical demand curve with reliable
75
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estimates of the structural parameters—particularly those of the
cost variable from which the resource variable is derived, and those
of the water quality variable which is used to determine the econom-
ic significance of a water quality change.
The methodology employed extends previous efforts by incorporating
the recreator's perception of water quality directly into the model.
The model also links these perceived subjective ratings to the
objective water quality ratings (Lake Condition Index) of limnolo-
gists.
2. To estimate those benefits capitalized in property values an exist-
ing model as developed by Dornbusch et al. will be applied. This
model depicts the benefits of improved water quality as decreasing
proportionally with the reciprocal of the distance to the water
body. Application of the model requires a water quality expert's
statement of both present and predicted levels of water quality
expressed in terms of the components used to describe the Perceived
Water Quality Index (PWQI). The PWQI of the water quality expert
along with information on the water body type and the degree of
public access and use, is used to determine the PWQI value which
would be perceived by residents at the site. To obtain a value for
the coefficient of the distance-to-water term in the expression
yielding the percent change expected in prices of properties at the
site, the value of the PWQI and water body type are utilized.
Thus, the change in price expression is:
AP% = bQ + bj (VOW)
where bQ = -bi (VDW)
b _ e6.398 (RWQI } .492 fi 1.18 WBT Lake e-991 WBT Bay
DW = maximum distance from water up to 4,000 feet.
WBT Lake = dummy variable with value of,l if water body is a lake
and zero otherwise.
WBT Bay = dummy variable with value of 1 if water body is a bay and
zero otherwise.
The change in price is now applied to zones where the number of
homes and average home price are used to calculate total price
change.
3. To estimate aesthetic impacts a model is proposed which consists of
a hierarchical array of elements,social goals, subgoals, social in-
dicators, and action (or decision) variables. A change in any one
element of the model is, in general, related to a change in all
76
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other model elements. An expression which states a relationship
between two elements is called a connective. Goals are further and
further broken down into their component parts until they are repre-
sented by measurable parameters (social indicators). It is these
social indicators that are impacted by public action, i.e., a water
improvement program. To establish the ultimate impact of a public
action on the attainment of a social goal, viz. aesthetics, it is
necessary to establish the relative weight of the components compri-
sing a higher level goal or subgoal and to establish the functional
form of the connectives between the lower and the next higher step
in the hierarchy.
4. To estimate farm level impacts of institutional alternatives design-
ed to modify operator behavior a linear programming model will be
employed. This model is based upon existing management practices
and technology in order to capture the status quo mix of agricultur-
al activity. The economic model provides the land use configuration
necessary for running a hydrologically oriented simulation model
which predicts both total storm watershed soil loss and the concen-
tration of sediment in watershed drainage water. Having captured
the status quo land use configuration and its attendant sediment
yield a set of institutionally determined parameters, such as alter-
native levels for cost-sharing minimum tillage systems, low interest
loans for terraces, technical assistance and education, and toler-
able soil loss limits are introduced into the economic model. The
economic, administrative, and land use implications of these alter-
natives can then be examined.
Sociological analysis cannot be defined by a neat set of models or equa-
tions. No single theoretical perspective adequately addresses the range of
impacts—changes in social structure, values, attitudes, and behavior of the
impacted population. The following perspectives are influencing the research
design but knowledge of local conditions is also being used to select appro-
priate parameters:
1. Under the Northwest Ordinance and the Wisconsin Constitution, lakes
are held in trust for the public but little legal provision was made
for their management. In many ways lakes suffer from the "tragedy
of the commons" and theories of managing the commons can be used as
a framework to discuss the respective rights and responsibilities of
public users, riparians, local officials, and agency bureaucrats.
(Managing the Commons, eds. Garrett Hardin and John Bader.) Alter-
native institutional arrangements between these groups will receive
substational attention.
2. Mancur Olson's Logic of Collective Action provides a departure point
to analyze the interplay of groups needs (to manage the lake) and
individual motivations to "let George do it" unless separate and
selective incentives are provided and personal efficacy is demon-
strated.
77
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3. The theme of adaption developed by Honey and Hogg may be most useful
to large technological interventions but it is also useful to assess
the impact of less traumatic lake projects on the way individuals
and institutions relate to their natural resource base (cultural-
environmental relationship). For example, the willingness of White
Clay Lake area farmers to build manure storage facilities may be due
to economic incentives, ecological sensitivities, and the threat of
non-point pollution abatement regulations. The lake protection
project may be perceived by the agricultural community as a way of
coping with future disruption.
4. The entire lake restoration process is a special type of community
development. This perspective provides a framework to analyze
leadership development, consensus building, and public participa-
tion.
DATA NEEDS
Statewide survey will be conducted to provide:
1. data for development of the recreational model,
2. data for the aesthetic model, and
3. comparative data for the sociological analysis.
A probability sample will be drawn for telephone interviews with a ran-
domly selected adult in the household. Since not all Wisconsin adults will
have recreated in one of Wisconsin's 1100 largest lakes (lakes over 100 acres
have been rated for water quality on a scale from 0-23) during the previous
year, the initial sample size must be expanded to provide sufficient number of
lake recreationists for the recreation model.
Farm operators and other residents of the White Clay Lake watershed will
be personally interviewed to:
1. obtain information on the farm operation,
2. ascertain degree of involvement with and attitude toward the lake
di stri ct/project,
3. obtain data which can be compared to the statewide survey,
4. determine use of the lake.
Waupaca riparian/property value data will require evaluations on the
water quality components that comprise the PWQI from the limnologists associ-
ated with the Mirror/Shadow Lakes project. Information regarding number of
properties within each zone from the water body can be obtained through on-
site observations. Information regarding property values can be obtained from
real estate offices, tax rolls, or residents themselves. More than one source
may be chosen for comparative purposes. Personal interviews will be conducted
with the riparians to:
78
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1. obtain information on perception of property values,
2. ascertain degree of involvement with and attitude toward the lake
district/project.
3. obtain data which can be compared with the state-wide survey, and
4. determine use of the lake.
Recreationists will be interviewed at both sites to:
1. obtain data which can be compared to the state-wide survey,
2. determine use of the lake, and
3. ascertain patterns of recreational behavior and group interaction.
Ethnographic information has been and will continue to be obtained by the
research team through extensive contact with community leaders, as a by-
product of the personal interviewing conducted by project personnel, and
related case study investigation of documents and media reports.
STATUS
Statewide survey will be conducted in September immediately following the
Labor Day close of the summer recreation season. The schedule is in the
process of completion at the present time and has been reviewed by Russell Gum
and Louise Arthur of the USDA Economic Research Service. Daniel Bromley,
Thomas Heberlein, Basil Sharp, and Douglas Yanggen of the University of
Wisconsin, and Michael Patton of the University of Minnesota will review this
schedule as well as the other schedules noted below.
Farm operators' schedule has been used in another related project in
Wisconsin and with some additions is very nearly completed. Interviews with
farmers are scheduled for March 1978 before spring planting begins.
Waupaca riparian/property value data will be collected later in 1978.
Waupaca residents will be interviewed later in 1978.
Recreationists will be interviewed over an entire year since activities
occur in each season. The schedule will be finalized in April of 1978 and
interviewing will begin with the beginning of the spring fish season in May
and continue through the ice fishing season next winter.
Ethnographic information has been informally collected by the project
director since 1974. A systematic effort will begin in March of 1978 when the
research team begins to spend extended periods of time in the community. This
type of information will continue to be gathered until the final report is
written.
79
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APPLICATION OF RESULTS
The U.S. Congress reaffirmed in Public Law 92-500 that clean water was a
national goal. By definition such a goal is considered to contribute to the
social well being of our society. It is a desired state of affairs that is
sufficiently broad and multifaceted to insure unanimity as to its appropriate-
ness.
However, as the goal became more specific there is less unanimity; with
limited resources choices must be made regarding which water to clean up (or
keep clean) and to what degree of purity. Should resources be concentrated on
the Great Lakes, inland lakes, major rivers, streams, or groundwater? Should
point or non-point sources receive greater attention? Is agricultural, indus-
trial, or residential pollution most severe and which is easiest to correct?
Should highly eutrophic lakes be rehabilitated or should high quality lakes be
protected? Should lakes in residential areas or lakes supporting a hospital-
ity industry receive priority? How important is local commitment and a legal
i nfrestructure?
This research is. not intended to answer all the above questions but
should help decision-makers at all levels of government answer some of them.
It is inappropriate to decide public policy by taking a poll but the informa-
tion from the statewide survey will show the relationship between recreational
activity/satisfaction and lake water quality. It wil also provide information
on lake users—their characteristics, knowledge, attitudes, and aesthetic
preferences.
The other surveys will provide specific information on the benefits and
costs associated with two lake projects in communities where overnight tour-
ists are not a major user group. It will also provide information on changes
in knowledge, attitudes toward government and citizen participation, and
community leadership. Finally it will provide a list of necessary institu-
tional conditions and recommend intergovernmental interaction for undertaking
a lake restoration project.
The results will not provide a single formula which can be applied to
several candidate lakes to rank them for funding. In the opinion of the
authors it is neither possible nor desirable to abdicate legislative and
agency judgement to a mathematical model. It seems appropriate that the local
community, state government, and EPA continue to make individual judgements on
project viability and cost effectiveness. The results of this research should
assist those judgements but not replace them.
80
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EVALUATION OF LAFAYETTE
RESERVOIR RESTORATION PROJECT
by
M. W. Lorenzen, F. M. Haydock, T. C. Ginn*
INTRODUCTION
Sections 314/104(h) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
(PL 92-500) of 1972 are directed toward nationwide restoration and protection
of lake water quality. Under this program, federal grants are awarded to
local agencies on a 50:50 matching basis to fund lake restoration projects
which qualify. The East Bay Municipal Utility District (EBMUD) was awarded a
demonstration grant under this "Clean Lakes Program" and proposed to implement
a lake restoration project at Lafayette Reservoir. The proposed project
includes hypolimnetic aeration to provide a suitable habitat for cold water
sport fish and alum treatment for nutrient inactivation to limit algal growth.
Tetra Tech, Incorporated, will conduct an independent study to evaluate
the restoration project. The purpose of this study is 1) to monitor water
quality conditions before, during, and after restoration, 2) to analyze these
data in conjunction with the application of a water quality ecological model
to elucidate the mechanisms of water quality improvement, and 3) to evaluate
the technical characteristics of the restoration system for potential applica-
tion elsewhere.
LAFAYETTE RESERVOIR
The reservoir is located in Lafayette, California, approximately 20 miles
east of San Francisco (Figure 1). Lafayette Reservoir and its watershed are
owned and operated by the EBMUD as a recreational facility and emergency
standby water supply. It was created in 1929 when an 92-inch earth filled dam
was built. Since it is situated close to the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART)
Station and Interstate Highway 24, it is readily accessible to San Francisco
Bay Area Residents.
Weather conditions in the area are generally mild. Annual precipitation
averages 26 inches. The topography of the watershed is shown in Figure 2.
The drainage basin encompasses only 1.3 square miles (830 acres) most of which
is undeveloped park and recreational area.
* Tetra Tech, Inc., Lafayette, California 94549
81
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SAN PABLO
BAY
LIVERMORE
PLEASANTON
SAN
FRANCISCOr.
Figure 1. Map of San Francisco Bay area showing location of Lafayette Reser-
voir.
82
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"^LAFAYETTE
37° 52'30"
I22°07'30"
Figure 2. Topographic map of Lafayette Reservoir and neighboring area.
83
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Morphologi cal Characteristies
At maximum capacity, Lafayette Reservoir has a volume of 4,246 acre-feet
(5.2 x 106 m3), a surface area of 128 acres (51 ha) and maximum depth of 80
feet (24 m). The bathymetry of the reservoir is shown schematically in Figure
3. The reservoir volume is generally quite stable. Water levels typically
vary less than 5 feet (1.5 m) per year and average about 445 feet (135.7 m) of
elevation [ approximately 4 feet (1.2 m) below the spillway elevation]. The
area-capacity curves presented in Figure 4 show that this elevation corres-
ponds to an average volume of 3,700 acre-feet (4.5 x lo6 m3), an average
surface area of 125 acres (50 ha).
Since runoff into the reservoir is very limited, the water level is
maintained by importing water from the Mokelumne River which is located in the
Central Valley of California. Due to taste and odor problems, Lafayette
Reservoir is considered an emergency standby water supply, and little water is
withdrawn from it.
Geological and morphological characteristics of the reservoir are summar-
ized in Table 1.
TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF LAFAYETTE RESERVOIR GEOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
Parameter
Lafayette Reservoir
Location
Elevation
Longitude
Latitude
Drainage Area
Evaporation
Precipitation
Surface Area
Lake Volume
Depth
Mean
Maximum
Epilimnion
Length of Shoreline
Duration of Stratification
450 feet
122% 8' 26" W
37% 53' 14" N
830 acres
55 inches/year
26 inches/year
125 acres
3,700 acre-feet
30 feet
80 feet
30 feet
3 miles
April - November
84
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LAFAYETTE RESERVOIR
oo
en
Figure 3. Bathymetric map of Lafayette Reservoir basin. Elevations are shown in feet.
-------
00
en
0
460
440-
.8420
20
AREA IN ACRES
60 80 100
UJ
i i i
Spillway Elevation- 448.61 feet
Volume at Spillway5 4,246 acre-feet
Lowest Outlet Elevation5 382.5 feet
VOLUME
£400
360
0
20 30
VOLUME (100 acre-feet)
Figure 4. Area - Capacity curves for Lafayette Reservoir (from EBMUD, 1976).
-------
Limnological Characteristics
Lafayette Reservoir is a subtropical, eutrophic lake with sufficient
dissolved nutrient to support abundant algal growth. Temperature and oxygen
data compiled by EDMUD (1976) show that temperatures range from 8°C to 24°C in
surface waters and from 8°C to 14°C near thelake bottom in the deepest part of
the lake. Thermal stratification generally begins in March, followed by rapid
depletion of hypolimnetic dissolved oxygen. Anoxic conditions typically
prevail in the hypolimnion from July through October when the lake destrati-
fies.
In August of 1977, the EBMUD initiated a monthly sampling program to
characterize water quality during the pretreatment phase of the restoration
project. Samples are taken at depths of 2.5, 5, 10, 15, and 20 meters, and
analyzed for temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), phosphorus, nitrogen, chloro-
phyll -a, alkalinity, and pH.
Temperature-DO profiles presented in Figure 5 show that stratification
was well defined in June of 1977 and continued through November. The thermo-
cline was at a depth of about 30 feet with a maximum AT of about 12°C in
August. Oxygen concentrations were less than 0.5 mg/1 in the deepest part of
the lake from June until December. Heavy rains precluded sampling in Decem-
ber, and by January of 1978, the lake was well mixed.
Phosphorus and nitrogen profiles presented in Figure 5 indicate that the
major source of nutrients is the organic sediment within the reservoir.
Phosphorus concentrations are highest in the hypolimnion during periods of
stratification; however, reactive phosphate appears to be well above growth-
limiting levels throughout the water column. Nitrogen concentrations are also
well above critical levels for algal growth. Ammonia nitrogen predominates in
the anoxic hypolimnion, while the euphotic zone is characterized by the more
oxidized nitrate and nitrite forms.
While algal growth does not appear to be limited by availability of
nutrients, other factors including light and pH extremes do impose some re-
strictions on algal growth. Profiles of chlorophyll-a, alkalinity and pH
presented in Figure 6 show that periods of high algal activity (high chloro-
phyll and pH) tend to be followed by periods of lower productivity.
The reservoir supports a large growth of blue-green algal species. The
EBMUD records indicate that their numbers range from over six million cells
per 100 ml in August of 1977 to approximately 2,400 per ml in January of 1978.
Green algae are also common, though less abundant.
In order of abundance, the warmwater game fishes include bluegill (Lepo-
mis macrochirus), black crappie (Pomoxis m'gromaculatus), white catfish (Icta-
lurus catus), smallmouth black bass (Micropterus dolomieu), largemouth black
bass (M. salmoides), green sunfish (L. cyanellus), and the channel catfish (I.
punctatus). Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) are stocked in the lake during
the cooler months, but they do not survive through the summer. The fish are
stocked at catchable sizes on a "put-and-take" basis. Nongame, warmwater
87
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0
20
40
60
DISSOLVED OXYGEN mg/l (•-*) TEMPERATURE °C
10 20 0 10 20 0 10 20 0 10 20 0
i t i i i
10 20
AUGUST 1977 SEPTEMBER 1977 OCTOBER 1977 NOVEMBER 1977 JANUARY 1978
LJ
20
.£40
1-60
0_
LJ
O
PHOSPHORUS mg P/I
0.4 0.8 0 0.4 0.8 0 0.4 08 0 0.4 0.8 0 0.4 0.8
i n i i r
O TOTAL
• ORTHO
AUGUST 1977 SEPTEMBER 1977 OCTOBER 1977 NOVEMBER 1977
NITROGEN mg N/l
AMMONIA (o—o) ORGANIC (»—*) NITRATE(••--•) NITRITE
1.0 IJB 0 1.0 1.8 0 1.0 1.8 0
JANUARY 1978
0 i.O 1.8 0
1.0 1.8
AUGUST 1977 SEPTEMBER 1977 OCTOBER 1977 NOVEMBER 1977 JANUARY 1978
Figure 5. Dissolved oxygen, temperature and nutrient profiles for Lafayette Reservoir.
-------
0
20
40
60
(0 20
i i i
AUGUST 1977
CHLOROPHYLL - 2, mg/m3
10 20 0 10 20 0 10
20 0 10 20
SEPTEMBER 1977
OCTOBER 1977
i i i i i I
NOVEMBER 1977 JANUARY 1978
I-
u TOTAL ALKALINITY, mg CaC03/l
0 100 200 0 100 200 0 IOO 200 0 100 200 0 100 200
0
20
60
I I I
AUGUST 1977
'SEPTEMBER 1977
OCTOBER 1977
i i
\
'NOVEMBER 1977
JANUARY 1978
UJ
o
PH
o
20
40
60
10 0
AUGUST 1977
10 0
10 0
10 0
10
"SEPTEMBER 1977
OCTOBER 1977
\ \
'NOVEMBER 1977
II I I I I W I I
JANUARY 1978
Figure 6. Chlorophyll-a, total alkalinity and pH for Lafayette Reservoir
-------
species include goldfish (Carassius auratus) and Sacramento blackfish (Ortho-
don microlepidotusKEBMUD. 1976).
Recreational Uses
Lafayette Reservoir was first opened for recreational use in 1966. Total
visitation per year has grown from 127,000 during fiscal year 1967-1968 to
341,000 during 1974-1975, and is expected to continue to increase.
Recreational facilities at Lafayette Reservoir include fishing, boating,
picnicking, bicycling, and hiking. There are over nine miles of hiking trails
around the lake and surrounding park and paved bicycle paths along the three-
mile lake perimeter.
PROPOSED RESTORATION PROGRAM
The EBMUD proposes to install a hypolimnetic aerator similar to the
device described by Lorenzen and Fast (1976) which is shown schematically in
Figure 7. The intent is to provide a suitable habitat for cold water game
fish by aerating the hypolimnion while maintaining thermal stratification of
the lake. The aerator will be placed at or near the deepest portion of the
lake and is expected to be operational by July of 1978. The system will be
operated seasonally during periods of thermal stratification.
In addition to hypolimnetic aeration, the reservoir will be treated with
alum (aluminum sulfate) twice during the summer of 1978. Alum has been used
as an iji situ nutrient inactivation procedure by several investigators (Dunst,
1974; Cooke and Kennedy, 1977; Funk, et aj., 1977; Barrion, 1976) and has been
shown to be an effective phosphorus removal process. Layers of alum from 1-2
cm thick have been observed to form at the sediment-water interface. This
layer can be an effective phosphorus trap to prevent release of phosphorus
from the sediment.
Alum will be applied to the surface water (about 70 tons) during the
summer and to the hypolimnion (about 130 tons) in the fall. Since the primary
source of nutrients in Lafayette Reservoir is internal, it is believed that
these treatments should significantly reduce nutrient regeneration, and therby
improve the quality of water in the reservoir.
PROPOSED MONITORING PROGRAM
Tetra Tech will undertake a supplemental monitoring program to measure
chemical and biological characteristics before, during, and after restoration.
Physical properties of the system will also be identified in order to estimate
water, nutrient, and DO budgets.
Water samples will be collected weekly in the summer (June, July, August
and September) and monthly otherwise. Water quality parameters such as pH,
temperature, and transparency will be measured in the field. Whole water
samples will be taken at several depths and analyzed for nutrients, chloro-
phyll-a, pH, and alkalinity.
90
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WOOD DECK
WASTE AIR
STEEL FRAME
W/FLOATS
WATER
OUT
on o
o o
O O
o ,
PLASTIC
'SHEETING
-AIR INJECTION
WATER IN
Figure 7. Hypolimnion aerator by Fast (1971).
91
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Sediment chemistry studies will be conducted to determine the sediment
characteristics before and after alum treatment. Core samples will be taken
from three locations, one before treatment and four times at five-month inter-
vals following treatment. Samples will be sectioned into at least three
layers. Parameters which will be measured include percent organic, total
phosphorus, iron, copper and aluminum. In addition, several sediment grab
samples (before and after treatment) will be incubated in the laboratory for
long-term determination of total exchangeable phosphorus. These tests will be
conducted in a semi-continuous fashion by decanting and replacing a portion of
the supernatant approximately weekly.
Nitrogan and phosphorus release rates from the sediments will be studied
i_n situ with a lucite chamber. At the beginning of the experiment, the cham-
ber is placed on the station by a diver. Periodically (hourly, bihourly or
daily), the diver will extract 50 ml of water for the analyses of pH, dis-
solved oxygen and nutrient concentrations. The time series of results will be
plotted to determine the benthic oxygen demand as well as nutrient exchange
rates.
In addition to measuring internal recycling of nutrients, a survey of
external sources will also be made. Samples of runoff water will be collected
at three locations, five times each, during five different rainfall periods.
Concentrations of nutrients in controlled water inflows will be obtained from
EBMUD.
Benthic animal samples will be collected quarterly at three stations.
Species will be identified and quantified to the extent possible. The lit-
toral zone of the reservoir will be examined semiannually for the presence of
aquatic macrophytes. If found, these plants will be identified and a descrip-
tion of location and abundance will be provided in order to monitor possible
increases in macrophyte growth as a result of improved water transparency.
Phytoplankton and zooplankton populations will be monitored weekly, during
the summer, an on a monthly basis for the remainder of the sampling period.
Samples will be collected by a discrete sampler (phytoplankton) and pump-set
(zooplankton) from at least two stations at two depths. Species enumeration
for phytoplankton and zooplankton will be made for predominant organisms. The
reservoir plankton will be analyzed for seasonal population trends, species
composition and depth distribution.
Aeration of the hypolimnion should provide a suitable habitat for year-
round trout survival. Because a possible improved cold water fishery could
provide a significant recreational benefit, a fishery survey would be con-
ducted. A trout tagging study based upon the return of tags from fishermen-
caught tagged fish will be undertaken to determine the survival time of the
reservoir trout population.
Creel census data will also be used to measure angler use, fishery pref-
erence, and catch per hour. The creel census will involve a voluntary partic-
ipation and will utilize questionnaires given to reservoir visitors. These
questionnaire surveys will be conducted weekly during the summer. The creel
census will be for the following items: number of people fishing, start time,
92
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stop time, fishing from boat or shore, what species fishing for, and the
number of each species caught and kept. Information gained would include
rates of fishing success for each species over a long period of time for boat
and shore fishermen, periods of greatest activity and success rate, and fish-
ing preferences.
The distribution of fish in the Reservoir will be examined with vertical
gill nets. Two adjacent gill nets of different mesh sizes will be fished at
three sampling stations. The nets will be of sufficient length to extend from
the surface to the bottom. Upon retrieval, the size and position in the net
will be recorded for each captured fish. Stomach contents of captured fish
will also be analyzed. One gill net station will be located in close proxim-
ity to the hypolimnetic aerator. The remaining two stations will be posi-
tioned at increasing distances from the aeration point. The gill net samples
will provide direct information on fish utilization of hypolimnetic habitat
both before and after aeration.
The shallow-water fish populations of Lafayette Reservoir will also be
characterized before and after hypolimnetic aeration. The primary sampling
device used will be a 50-foot beach seine.
Live cages suspended in the hypolimnion following the initiation of
aeration will be used to analyze the suitability of aeration bottom waters as
trout habitat. Live cages will be positioned at a station adjacent to the
aerator, and also at a minimum of one station located at selected increasing
distances from the aeration point. Trout survival in the cages will be moni-
tored at selected intervals by diver observation.
Additional information which will be compiled for the study includes
rainfall data, groundwater data, evaporation rates, and data for physical
variables including dispersion and advection. Rainfall will be accurately
recorded with a rain gauge at the site. Groundwater flow will be determined
at three stations in conjunction with the sediment chemistry program. Evapo-
ration rates will be computed from field measurement of pan evaporation and
compared with rates computed by the ecological model which will be applied to
the reservoir.
Lake bathymetry and direct inflow data will be obtained from EBMUD to-
gether with weekly readings of lake level. Surface runoff will be computed by
difference utilizing rainfall data.
SYSTEM EVALUATION
The first step in system evaluation is to determine the mechanisms for
water quality improvement. Alum treatment and hypolimnetic aeration can act
synergistically. Alum treatment may reduce the phosphorus release rate from
the organic sediment so that the wintertime phosphorus concentration is low-
ered. Lowered wintertime phosphorus concentration may support lower summer-
time standing crops of algae which may in turn consume less oxygen from the
hypolimnion water. This may reduce the need for hypolimnetic aeration. Also,
the decreased algal standing crop may increase the light penetration and
modify the thermal structure of the lake water. Hypolimnetic aeration should
93
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keep the hypolimnion water aerobic throughout the year. Depending on the
chemical forms, phosphorus release rates may be decreased. This may in turn
reduce the wintertime phosphorus concentrations and the summertime phytoplank-
ton density.
Computer modeling techniques will be used to help clarify the mechanisms
involved in the lake response to treatment and to provide a predictive, ana-
lytical tool. Two levels of modeling will be used: (1) detailed simulation,
and (2) longer term nutrient budget analysis.
The water quality ecological model represents the lake by a series of
layers. Heat budget and mass balance computations are performed to calculate
the water quality profiles for temperature, pH, DO, nutrients (P, N, C),
phytoplankton (4 groups) and zooplankton (2 groups). Simulations are per-
formed throughout the annual cycle, usually with a daily time step. The basic
principles and formulations of the model have been well documented (2). The
model has been modified to evaluate the effects of hypolimnetic aeration.
Further modification will be made to include the effects of alum treatments
that may remove phosphorus and particulate matter from the water column and
also reduce the rate of phosphorus release from the sediment. It is not
certain if the change in sediment characteristics will reduce the decay rate
of the organics and therefore the oxygen depletion rate in the hypolimnion.
The model computes oxygen dynamics based on physical variables (temperature,
mixing, advection, gas exchange) and biochemical processes (algal respiration,
detritus decay, sediment oxygen demand). These data will be used together
with information pertaining to aerator performance to analyze the oxygen
budget over time.
In addition to detailed simulation modeling, a nutrient budget model such
as applied to Lake Washington by Lorenzen et al_. (1976), will be used in the
analysis of the nutrient budgets. This model is based on a mass balance which
considers loading from all sources, loss to the sediments, release from the
sediments and discharge (if any). The model can be operated in a dynamic or
steady-state mode. Concentrations of nutrient in both the water and sediment
are simulated. For Lafayette Reservoir, it is expected that sediment exchange
will be a critical process. As pointed out by Lorenzen et al. (1976), the
sediment nutrient release rate constant should not affect long-term, steady-
state water concentrations. However, it may have a marked influence on short-
term fluctuations which could be important during the growing season.
TIME SCHEDULE
The work schedule will be closely coordinated with EBMUD. Preoperational
studies are under way and will continue until the aerator is operational
(July, 1978). The program will continue for a period of two years and will be
completed in 1980.
REFERENCES
Barrion, G. "La Regeneration des lacs: ne pourrait-pn pas "traiter" les
sediments?" Societe Hydrotechnique De France XIV Journees De L'Hy-
draulique (Paris, 1976).
sediments.'" bociete ny
draulique (Paris, 1976).
94
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Chen, C. W. and G. T. Orlob. "Ecologic Simulation for Aquatic Environments,"
In: Systems Analysis and Simulation in Ecology. B. Patten, Ed. Aca-
demic Press, 1975.
Cooke, G. D. and R. H. Kennedy. "The Short-Term Effectiveness of a Hypolim-
nion Aluminum Sulfate Application," Presented at Conference on Mechanisms
of Lake Restoration, April 25-28, 1977, Madison, Wisconsin.
Cooke, C. D. and R. H. Kennedy. "Internal Loading of Phosphorus," Presented
at Conference on Mechanisms of Lake Restoration, April 25-28, 1977,
Madison, Wisconsin.
Dunst, R. C., S. M. Born, P. D. Uttormark, S. A. Smith, S. A. Nichols, J. 0.
Peterson, D. R. Knaur, S. L. Serns, D. R. Winter, T. L. Winth. 1974.
Survey of lake rehabilitation techniques and experiences. Dept. of
Natural Resources Bull. No. 75. Madison, Wisconsin. 179 p.
East Bay Municipal Utilities District, "Restoration of Lafayette Reservoir,"
June 1976.
Funk, W. H., H. R. Gibbons, and S. K. Bhagot. "Nutrient Inactivation by
Large-Scale Aluminum Sulfate Treatment," Presented at Conference on
Mechanisms of Lake Restoration," April 25-28, 1977. Madison, Wisconsin.
Lorenzen, M. W. and A. W. Fast. "Guide to Aeration/Circulation Techniques
for Lake Restoration," EPA-600/3-77-004.
Lorenzen, M. W., D. J. Smith, and L. V. Kimmel. "A Long-Term Phosphorus Model
for Lakes: Application to Lake Washington," In: Modeling Biochemical
Processes in Aquatic Ecosystems. R. Canale Ed. Ann Arbor Science, 1976.
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LIMNOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LONG LAKE
KITSAP COUNTY, WASHINGTON
by
M. A. Perkins, E. B. Welch and J. 0. Gabrielson*
INTRODUCTION
Long Lake, Kitsap County, Washington, has been selected as one of several
lakes in the United States to be rehabilitated from a eutrophic state. The
lake has shown considerable algal blooms during the spring and summer months,
and has extensive macrophyte beds, particularly El odea densa, which reach
nuisance proportions.
The proposed rehabilitation measures consist of stormwater treatment,
lake drawdown during the summer, alum addition, and limited dredging. The
implementation of these treatment measures will be under the direction of
Entrance Engineers, Bellevue, Washington. The objectives of this study are to
evaluate selected limnological characteristics which reflect the condition of
the lake prior to, during, and after the application of the designated treat-
ments. Emphasis has been placed upon inorganic nutrient interactions, partic-
ularly phosphorus. The results to date represent the pretreatment phase of
the rehabilitation effort as the restorative techniques have yet to be imple-
mented. Application of treatment measures is scheduled to begin with lake
drawdown during the summer, 1978.
The purpose of this report is to summarize the data collected over the
period July, 1976 to December, 1977.
DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA
Long Lake, Kitsap County, is a long (2.8 km) narrow (0.25 km) relatively
shallow lake located in the Puget Sound Basin, near the City of Port Orchard,
Washington (T23N-R2E-SEC 17). The drainage area for the lake is approximately
24.3 km2 (9.36 sq. miles), most of that area being forest or undeveloped land
(69%). Approximately 5% of the drainage basin is classified as residential
suburban, with 121 near shore homes (USGS, 1973). Public access to the lake
is provided by a boat ramp located in the vicinity of Salmonberry Creek and a
boat rental concession located along the eastern shore. Recreational uses of
the lake include sport fishing, boating, and swimming.
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash-
ington, 98195.
96
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The lake has a single outlet, Curley Creek, at the north end. The major
inflow is Salmonberry Creek, with other less significant inflows draining,
primarily, into the southern end of the lake. The lake surface area of 137
hectares (340 acres) represents approximately 6% of the drainage basin.
As indicated, the lake is relatively shallow with a maximum depth of 3,7
meters (12 feet). Approximately 72% of the lake surface covers waters less
than 3 meters (10 feet) in depth and 28% is less than 1.5 meters (5 feet).
The basic morphometric features of Long Lake are presented in Figure 1.
METHODS AND MATERIALS
BASIN HYDROLOGY
The hydrologic features of the Long Lake basin have been monitored pri-
marily by Entrance Engineers. Calibrated stage level recorders have been
installed on Salmonberry Creek, the major inflow, and Curley Creek, the out-
let, for continuous monitoring of discharge. Additional inflows to the lake
have been estimated to be 17% of Salmonberry Creek and direct surface runoff
as 24% of Salmonberry. These estimates were based upon precipitation and
drainage characteristics of the basin (Entrance data). Precipitation inputs
were based upon data measured and recorded at the Kitsap County Airport.
Ground water inputs were estimated using the Minnesota half-barrel tech-
nique (Lee, 1977). Thirteen half-barrel seepage meters were placed at various
locations within the lake. Nine of these seepage meters were placed along the
northeast shore in an attempt to evaluate? possible influences of septic tank
drainage from the concentration of homes along that shore.
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS
Samples for chemical analysis were collected from the inlet streams
(Salmonberry, S.E. Creek, S.E. Culvert), 4 lake stations, the ground water
seepage meters and the Curley Creek outlet. Sampling frequency >as weekly
during the late spring to early fall period and biweekly during the winter.
The sampling effort on the inflow and outflow creeks was divided between UW
and Entrance personnel such that sampling on alternate weeks gave nearly
weekly observations on these creeks for the whole period of investigation.
Sampling at the lake stations occurred at three depths; surface, mid-depth,
and bottom for the north, midlake, and south stations while surface samples
only were taken at the southern most, lillius, station. Rainfall samples at
the lake were collected and analyzed by Entrance personnel.
The chemical analyses on the collected samples are listed by parameter
and location in Table 1. Standard Methods (APHA, 1971) was followed for each
parameter listed.
Biological measurements at the lake stations included chlorophyll a
(Flurometric determination, Strickland and Parsons, 1972) and primary produc-
tion (14C uptake, Strickland and Parson, 1972). Measurements of inorganic
carbon available for production were made by direct determination using infa-
rared gas analysis (Perkins, unpublished).
97
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SALMON-
BERRY
CREEK
CURLEY CREEK
0
-N-
500
METERS
1000
LONG LAKE
Drainage area
Lake area
Lake volume
Mean depth
Max. depth
Flushing rate
Retention time
(Source: USGS 1973)
KITSAP, CO. WA.
24.3 Km2
1.37 x I06 m2
2.69 x I06 m3
1.98 m
3.7 m
3.58 yr."1
0.28 yr
WATER COLUMN SAMPLING SITES
S.E. CREEK
ULVERT
Figure 1. Water column sampling locations and morphometric
characteristics of Long Lake.
98
-------
TABLE 1. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF LONG LAKE SAMPLES
BY PARAMETER AND LOCATION
Parameter
Tot-P
P04-P (SRP)
Tot-N
N02+N03-N
NH3-N
PH
Alkalinity
D.O.
Creeks
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Location
Lake Sed. GW Precip.
X X X X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
Measurements of Secchi depth and temperature were also made at the lake
stations.
SEDIMENTATION
Sedimentation rates in Long Lake were measured using an array of collect-
ing tubes fastened to the end of 10 cm funnels held in a plexiglass frame.
The frames, each holding four collecting funnels, were suspended in the water
column at the tnidlake station. The depths of suspension were 0.3 and 1.0
meters above the bottom. In order to correct for factors of sediment resus-
pension, a double tiered design was also placed in the lake. Samples from the
sediment collectors were taken at 4 week intervals and the dry weight and
total phosphorus content was determined (Gabrielson, 1978).
During the course of this investigation, questions were raised relating
to the history of sedimentation in the lake and the influence of resuspension
upon the measured sedimentation rates (as outlined above). In order to ad-
dress these questions, two 30 cm sediment cores were taken for geochronolog-
ical dating, using stable lead, stable aluminum, and phosphorus concentrations
in the sediment profile. Stable lead and aluminum concentrations were deter-
mined by atomic absorption after digestion with HF-HN03-HC104. Total phospho-
rus was determined as molybdate reactive phosphate after the digestion.
Dating of the sediment profile was accomplished by relating the measured
concentrations to the cultural and fluvial history of the Puget Sound basin.
An additional cross check of the dates established was made using cesium-137
activity in the profile. The procedures used in the geochronological dating
were those of Schell and Barnes (1974).
99
-------
MACROPHYTE SURVEY
Macrophyte biomass estimates were made within three major areas of the
lake. Designation of the sampling areas was based upon qualitative estimates
of plant distribution, characteristics of the sediment substrate, and water
depth. These areas were: (1) a shallow water south area having a homogeneous
muck substrate and uniform plant density; (2) a deep water midlake area having
a fairly homogeneous muck substrate and scattered distribution of plants; and
(3) a shallow water north area having a heterogeneous substrate type and plant
distribution. The three sampling areas comprised approximately 30, 59 and 11
percent of the lakes surface, respectively (Figure 2).
Samples were collected in a steel cylinder, one end of which was covered
with fish netting to prevent the loss of plant materials. The cylinder en-
closed an area of 0.255 m2 when placed into the lake bottom. Plant materials
within the enclosed area were removed by divers and returned to the laboratory
for species identification and determination of dry weight biomass
(Gabriel son, 1978). Samples of El odea densa, the dominant macrophyte in Long
Lake, were further analyzed for total phosphorus content after ashing and
nitric acid digestion (Chapman and Pratt, 1961). E. densa collected from Long
Lake was also grown in the laboratory using Long Lake sediments as the rooting
media. These laboratory grown plants were used in radiotracer studies to
follow patterns of uptake and translocation of phosphorus. The details of the
radiotracer experiments will appear elsewhere (Gabrielson and Perkins, in
preparati on).
Samples for biomass determination were taken in September, 1976 at 44
lake stations and in October, 1977 at 23 lake stations.
RESULTS
WATER BUDGET
The stage level recorders were installed on Salmonberry and Curley Creek
in October, 1976 and a continuous record of discharge has been kept since that
time. The yearly discharge data for these creeks are presented in Figure 3.
The data points are summarized as 5-day totals for ease of presentation and
cover the period October, 1976 to October, 1977. The average flow rates over
the period were 19 m3 • min-1 (11 cfs) .for Curley Creek and llm3* min-1 (6
cfs) for Salmonberry Creek. Peak flows in both creeks were observed in March,
1977 with maximum rates of 156 m3 • in-1 (92 cfs) for Curley Creek and 143
m3 • min-1 (84 cfs) for Salmonberry. Minimum flows of 1.7 m3 • min-1 (1 cfs)
were observed in both creeks during August, 1977.
The total water input to the lake through Salmonberry Creek was 5.90 x
106 m3 (4782 acre-feet) and that leaving the lake through the Curley Creek
outlet was 9.64 x 106 m3 (7813 acre-feet).
Precipitation data, total centimeters per month, are presented in Figure
3.
100
-------
The total precipitation for the period October, 1976 to October, 1977 was
97.21 centimeters (38.3 inches). Approximately 42% of the total precipitation
fell during the period December, 1976 to March, 1977. The direct input to the
lake over the total period was 1.33 x 106 m3 (1079 acre-feet).
Estimates of ground water input were obtained from the Minnesota half-
barrel seepage meters. Flow rates from the seepage meters varied over a range
of 0.006 to 0.60 m3 min-1 (.004 to 0.35 cfs). Measurements of ground water
flow were averaged on a quarterly basis (3 months) and the quarterly inputs
were obtained by multiplying the quarterly daily averages by the number of
days in the quarter. The total input for the period October, 1976 to Septem-
ber, 1977 was taken as the sum of the quarterly inputs and amounted to 1.6 x
10s m3 (130 acre-feet) or 2% of the total inflow.
Curley Creek represented the dominant water loss from Long Lake. Evapo-
transpirative losses were estimated as ten percent of the total output.
A summary of the Long Lake water budget for the period October, 1976 to
October, 1977 is presented in Table 2.
TABLE 2. LONG LAKE WATER BUDGET, OCT. 27, 1976 - OCT. 26. 1977
Inputs:
Outputs:
Salmonberry Creek
*other creeks
*run off
precipitation
ground water
Curley Creek
evapotranspiration
5.9
1.0
1.4
1.3
1.6
x 106
x 106
x 106
x 106
x 10s
9.76 x 106
9.6 x 106
1.1 x 106
10.7 x 106
60
10
14
13
2
100
90%
10%
100%
* Other creeks estimated at 17% of Salmonberry Creek surface;
runoff estimated at 24% of Salmonberry Creek; estimates from
ENTRANCO data.
STREAM NUTRIENT CONTENT
A summary of the inorganic nutrient concentrations in the Salmonberry
Creek inlet and Curley Creek outlet are presented in Table 3. The values
reported are quarterly mean concentrations ± two standard errors as an approx-
imation of the 95% confidence interval about the mean.
103
-------
TABLE 3. QUARTERLY MEAN CONCENTRATIONS (± 2 STANDARD ERRORS) FOR SELECTED
WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS FOR THE LONG LAKE WATERSHED
Parameter
Sample days
in period
Lake Stations
TOT-P (ug-1-1)
PO..-P
TOT-N
N02+N03-N "
NH3-N
DO (mg.l-1)
Temp. (°C)
Chla (ng-1-1)
(means of
Salmonberry Ck.
TOT-P (ug-1-1)
POi»-P
TOT-N
N02+N03-N "
NH3-N
Other Cks.
TOT-P (pg-1-1)
POi»-P
TOT-N
N02+N03-N "
NH3-N
Cur ley Ck.
TOT-P (wg-1-1)
fOk-P
TOT-N
N02+N03-N "
NH3-N
Jul - Sep
7
39.1 ± 6
4.1 ± 0.9
519 ± 38
3.4 ± 1.2
—
7.8 - 11.1
22.7 - 17.6
1976
Oct - Dec
6
33.9 ± 5
8.1 ± 1.7
278 ± 41
37.3 ± 16
12.7 ± 1.4
6.5 - 12.5
16 - 5.5
10.2 ±3 7.0 ± 4
four water column stations)
51.1 ±8
16.6 ± 1.2
492 ± 132
185 ± 38
—
63.6 ± 20
22.7 ± 1.9
297 ± 161
203 ± 132
—
45.1 ± 5
9.7 ± 0.8
418 ± 77
19.2 ± 13
—
39.7 ± 3
13.2 i 18
326 ± 60
257 ± 119
14.3 + 4
38.2 ± 5
18.1 ± 1.8
242 ± 94
190 ± 94
10.1 ± 1.8
33.0 ± 7
9.8 ± 2.2
189 ± 116
27.2 ± 8
12.1 ± 3.4
Quarter
1977
Oan - Mar
4
43.8 ± 7
4.7 ± 0.5
594 ± 83
130 ± 27
13.4 ± 3.6
10.3 - 11.6
6.0 - 10
35.4 ± 18
47.1 ± 21
12.2 ± 1.2
1020 ± 652
645 ± 251
38.6 ± 36.4
30.5 ± 7
16.6 ± 1.7
688 ± 265
455 ± 195
21 ± 12.4
38.8 ± 16
4.6 ± 1.1
545 ± 272
160 ± 63
14.7 ± 3.5
Apr - Jun
7
43.5 ± 3
6.9 ± 2.1
717 ± 67
40.3 ± 21
30.3 ± 10
7.4 - 11.8
13 - 20.2
11.7 ± 4
52.2 ± 17
14.6 ± 2.5
637 ± 85
204 ± 56
16.8 ± 4.5
39 ± 4
20.1 ± 2.2
559 ± 156
221 t 80
24.9 ± 13.6
46.3 ± 5
8.1 ± 3.5
641 ± 86
59.4 ± 31
17.6 ± 6.2
Jul - Sep'
6
67.1 ± 9
7.9 ± 2.6
821 ± 63
17.3 ± 12
30.4 ± 11
4.9 - 12.2
25 - 14
29.1 ± 9
51.1 ±7
19.7 ± 2.7
618 ± 165
207 ± 21
34.5 ± 18
46 ± 10
23.7 ± 2.7
445 ± 160
241 ± 116
24.6 ± 6
70.5 ± 8
10.5 ±4.0
800 ± 116
27.3 ± 26
37 ± 20
Oct - Dec
4
44.5 ± 10
10.1 ± 2.1
772 ± 141
326 ± 153
37.8 ± 13
6.7 - 10.9
13.1 - 2.6
9.0 ± 3
61.5 ± 43
11.8 ± 4.1
1004 ± 335
587 ± 345
29.1 ± 14
49.4 ± 40
13.8 ± 3.1
990 ± 348
676 ±317
22.7 ± 7
67.5 ± 46
12.6 ± 1.7
921 ± 203
414 ± 312
32.6 ± 10
DO = range for bottom samples during period.
Temp = range for surface samples during period.
104
-------
A more detailed presentation of the data for total phosphorus and total
nitrogen is given in Figure 4. Clearly, the variation in concentration makes
the discussion of seasonal trends somewhat tenuous.
The average concentration of total phosphorus over the eighteen month
period was fairly comparable in both Curley and Salmonberry Creeks, 49 and 50
mg m-3, respectively. The range in concentration was 25.5 to 112.6 mg m-3 for
Curley Creek and 29.7 to 104.7 mg m-3 for Salmonberry Creek. While the aver-
age concentrations in the inlet and outlet were comparable over the entire
period it was also evident that inlet concentrations were generally greater
than outlet concentrations with the exception of the summer and fall period of
1977 (average outlet concentration of 70.5 mg m-3 versus an average inlet
concentration of 51.1 mg m-3).
Concentrations of total nitrogen showed a marked increase in 1977. The
average concentrations over the eighteen month period were 642 mg m-3 for
Salmonberry Creek (range of 194 to 1922 mg m-3) and 569 mg m-3 for Curley
Creek (range of 40 to 1133 mg m-3). The peak concentrations in Salmonberry
Creek were observed in March, 1977 during the period of maximum discharge
(such was not the case with total phosphorus). As with total phosphorus, the
inlet concentrations were generally greater than the outlet concentrations,
again with the exception of the July to September period. For this period the
average outlet concentration was 800 mg m-3 versus 618 mg m-3 for the inlet.
Of interest is the observation that while N concentrations increased abruptly
with flow increase in February-March, no such associated increase in phosphor-
us occurred (Figure 4).
It was also evident that the concentrations of both total-P and total-N
over the summer and fall periods of 1977 were greater than those occurring for
the comparable period of 1976. This probably reflects the fact that the fall
of 1976 was much drier than the fall of 1977. The very dry winter of 1976-77
may have resulted in less dilution of the lake nutrients and allowed even
higher buildups from internal sources during July-September 1977. Note the
much higher outflow than inflow concentration at that time.
WATER COLUMN CHARACTERISTICS
The quarterly mean concentrations of selected water column characteris-
tics are also presented in Table 3. These values are averages of data from
four stations in the lake. While it is not readily apparent from the data
presented, two features of the Long Lake water column are of particular sig-
nificance. The lake does not undergo thermal stratification during the summer
months and there is no extensive oxygen depletion in the bottom waters.
Vertically the lake is fairly well mixed all year round.
A more detailed presentation of the water column data is given in Figures
5 and 6. These data are mean water column concentrations based upon samples
collected at the four lake stations.
Primary production averaged 454 ± 121 mg C m-2 day-1 over the period.
The growing season begins in March and extends through October (Figure 5).
Primary production through the summer months was fairly comparable for both
1976 and 1977 the average values for the July to September period being 766 ±
151 and 837 ± 148 mg C m-2 day-1, respectively.
105
-------
„
I
GC
CL
CD
"00
60
20
n i i i I
TOT-P
CURLEY
SALMONBERRY
1 I
I I
n r
J lAlSlO'NlDJ'F'M'AlM'j'j'AlS'O • N ' D
i i i i i
10
1000
600
200
_ TOT-N
CURLEY
SALMONBERRY
"A'S "O'NlDJ "F'M'A'M'J 'j ' A • S < 0 < N H)
1976 I 1977
Figure 4. Seasonal variation in the concentration of total phosphorus
and total nitrogen in Curley and Salmonberry Creeks.
-------
A ' S ' 0 ' N '
x'UHIIUl
V—.
O
•• I '
J ' A ' S ' 0 I
1976
N'D
1,-" T X^ -^' • ^^NL-
J ' F ' M ' A" M 'J'J'A'S'O'N1
IQ77
1977
D I J
11978
Figure 5. Biological characteristics of the Long Lake water column (means of 4 stations).
-------
100
to
E 50
o>
E
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 \ 1 r
i r
I A I O I f\ I Kl I
« C I M " A I *» I I I I I A I « I /X I li I
J'A'S'O'N'DJ 'F'M'A'M'J 'j'A'S'O'N'D J
o
00
ro
E
o»
Z
£
1000
500
i i
• i i
i i
i i
490^x4*3-
UTOT-N
JASONDJ F'M'A'M'J'J'A'S'O'N'DI J
200'^
J
§
100 ?.
w
"1978
Figure 6. Inorganic nutrient characteristics of the Long Lake water column (means of 4 stations).
-------
Chlorophyll a concentrations averaged 17.1 ± 5.1 mg m-3 with pronounced
peaks occurring in March 1977 (83.4 mg m-3) and July 1977 (60.5 mg m-3).
Chlorophyll a concentrations in the summer of 1977 (July to September) were
considerably higher than those occurring for the same period of 1976, the
average concentrations being 10.2 ± 3 in 1976 and 29.1 ± 9 in 1977. Secchi
depth averaged 2 meters in July, 1977. Secchi depth closely followed chloro-
phyll a concentrations (Figure 5).
The increase in chlorophyll a during the summer of 1977, over that in
1976, may be related to an increase in inorganic nutrient concentrations
beginning in January of 1977. The seasonal patterns of inorganic nutrients
are shown in Figure 6. Clearly, the nutrient levels in 1977 were considerably
higher than those in 1976. For the July to December period, the 1976 values
for total phosphorus averaged 36 ug P liter-1 in 1977.
As can also be seen in Figure 5, Long Lake has a rather low alkalinity
averaging around 30 mg I-1 and a pH usually between 7 and 8. However, pH
exceeded 9.0 during both summers as a result of the high rate of photosynthe-
sis. As a consequence of this increased pH, alkalinity subsequently increased
approaching 40 mg I-1 in 1977.
An important observation with regard to the internal source of phosphorus
in Long Lake can be illustrated from the seasonal distribution in the water
column (Figure 7). The large water column concentrations of phosphorus during
July-September 1977 appear to emanate from the bottom sediment. The higher
concentrations at the bottom, which were in excess of 100 ug I-1, contributed
to keep the overall water column concentration near or above 80 ug I-1 for
that three-month period when algal biomass was also greatest.
While much of the water column data are presented as averages for the
three lake stations, north, mid and south, a considerable difference in bio-
mass existed among the stations. In particular, nutrient content and plankton
algal biomass were usually less at the southern most station and, at one, in
an especially thick, lily pad dominated weed bed. Figure 8 shows the quarter-
ly average values for total phosphorus and chlorophyll a at the four stations
compared with an overall lake average (a cross bar). Note that the difference
is most striking during July-September for both years and both constituents.
This difference could be caused by any one or combination of three or more
factors as follows:
1) a competitive advantage for nutrients, or through inhibition in
favor of the higher density of macrophytes over plankton algae at
the south station;
2) reduced turbulence at the south station because of denser macrophyte
stands, creating a greater plankton loss rate by sedimentation
compared to the north and mid lake;
3) the south lake portion is isolated from inflow during summer because
the inflow is located opposite the midlake station (see Figure 1),
which may tend to cause flow short-circuiting to the nor^h.
. 109
-------
1976
A S 0
i i i
F
M
A
M
a:
LJ
5 1.5
O "~
Figure 7. Total phosphorus isopleths for Long Lake for the period July, 1976 to December,
1977. Shaded areas represent periods of release from the sediments.
-------
100
50 -
ro
i
OC
UJ
K
UJ
CD
-
v>
1
TOT-P
M
1
1
5
l
N
1
v//////////////,
i
1
I
n
NMSLINMSL NMSL
JUL/SEP 1 OCT/ DEC JAN /MAR
1976
1
1
NMSL
APR/JUN
IS
1
'/////////////////////////////<*
I
/////////////////////////////A
"
NMSL
JUL/SEP
>77
1
1
s>
NMSL
OCT/ DEC
50
25
—
I
|
Chi a
i
Y///////A
nn
NMSL
JUL / SEP
19'
11
N M
OCT/
re
S L
DEC
1
sS
S^
§
^
Y//////////////A
»-n
S
^
X
^
N
X
^
'//////////////A
"
i
IN M S L 1 N M
JAN /MAR APR/
xl
X
X
^
V
^
V
X
§
S
sN
1
1
J^
\^
V
$
^
X
V///////////////
—
— i
n
H.U1 <.!
^ n
H n
V Ov
XV
^S: II
SLINMSL NMSL
JUN JUL/SEP OCT/ DEC
1977
Figure 8. Variation in total phosphorus and chlorophyll
a at the 4 lake stations.
Ill
-------
The cause for this difference is presently under investigation but as yet
no definitive information is available.
SEDIMENTATION
The measured flux of sediment in Long Lake is no doubt an overestimate of
the gross downward rate of autochthonous and allochthonous sediment. The lake
does not stratify, so traps cannot be placed below the thermocline and avoid
the effeict of summer turbulence.and resuspension. The extent of this error is
not known, except attempts are under way to determine the fraction resuspend-
ed. Nevertheless, the annual rate of this sedimentation for the lake was 1403
Kg P, or 1.03 g P m-2, with the summer period showing the greatest magnitude.
Very likely a large fraction of this trapped material may originate from
macrophyte detritus and further it may be resuspended and resettled. For now,
and for purposes of simplification, this rate of measured sedimentation,
including resuspended sediment and macrophyte detritus, will be referred to as
the gross rate.
The average net sedimentation rate, determined by analyzing two 30 cm
cores from the center of the lake, was 415 g dry weight m-2 yr-1 in the recent
sediments (since 1900). This amounted to 0.5 g P m-2 yr-1. The data on
stable lead indicated a total, permanent accumulation of 25 cm since 1900 with
an early rate of about 0.32 cm yr-1 to about 0.43 cm yr-1 in recent years,
which is rather typical of lakes in the area.
The technique of estimating sedimentation rate was ^hat of stable lead
using verification of aluminum and phosphorus to identify years of major
flooding. The principal tag for stable lead in the area is the initiation of
the internal combustion engine around 1925. This has been documented for Lake
Washington by Schell and Barnes (1974) and reconfirmed in other lakes in the
area by Spyridakis and Barnes (1977). There was yet another source during
1890-1913 and that is the American Smelting and Refining Company's smelter in
Tacoma. The three periods of high sedimentation are indicated in Figure 9.
Also indicated are the peaks in the aluminum/phosphorus' ratio, which are
indicative of associated floods (high Al, low P), and agree rather well with
dates identified by lead. The sedimentation rate was also verified with Cs137
which was deposited from bomb blasts during 1955-63.
The sedimentation rate estimated from sediment cores is a net rate. That
is, the 0.5 g m-2 yr-1 thus includes either a large fraction of resuspended or
internally released and sedimented phosphorus and the difference between these
two rates, 0.52 g m-2 yr-1 can for the present at least, represent an estimate
of the internal loading from plants, sediment release and particulate resus-
pension.
MACROPHYTES
The macrophytes in Long Lake are dominated by El odea densa. a larger and
much leafier species than E. canadensis, at least in this Take. While E.
canadensis was present, it comprised only a small percent of the biomass.
Potamogeton praelongus was rather abundant in the south end during the surveys
although subsequent observations have shown it to be most abundant in the
112
-------
0
50
100
10
u
0.
UJ
o
UJ
a: 20
o
u
30 L-
Figure 9.
POST WWII
LEADED
GASOLINE
1910
1890
ASARCO
4 CHRONOLOGY ( m-2yr-1)
AI/P
ca I960
1951 ca 1950
1933 ca 1930
ca 1900
MAJOR
FLOODS
415
Sediment geochronology and sedimentation rate determined from Long Lake sediment cores.
-------
spring and dying back somewhat by autumn when the surveys were performed.
Other species present are Traphar, Brassem'a, and Ceratophyllum.
Aerial photographs show the south end of the lake to be most populous
with macrophytes. While this is true nearly all of the lake's bottom is
inhabited by E. densa. Although it grows to a height of 6 meters in the
deepest areas, its nearly complete coverage isn't generally recognized since
it does not reach the surface.
The results of the two surveys are shown in Table 4. Although the mean
biomass was slightly greater in 1976 than 1977, the survey was one month
later, which probably allowed for some break up and decomposition to occur in
1977. Nevertheless, the larger algal crop in 1977 than in 1976 no doubt had a
significant influence in reducing the light penetration and growth of macro-
phytes.
TABLE 4. MACROPHYTE BIOMASS (GRAMS DRY WEIGHT METER -2) IN LONG LAKE.
DATE
Sept. 1976
Oct. 1977
LOCATION
North
Mid
South
North
Mid
South
%
AREA
11.0
59.1
29.9
11.0
59.1
29.9
species
c,d
c,d,0
d,n
c,d,p
d,p
c,d
n
18
18
8
8
9
6
X
(gm/m2)
150
238
341
138
112
371
s
119
147
130
65
97
150
cv
79
62
38
47
87
40
LAKE
MEAN
259 ± 50
192 ± 53
Species: c = E. canadensis, d = E. densa, p = Potamogeton, n = Nuphar
Lake means and confidence intervals based upon area weighted means and
variances where:
CI = 2
The rather even coverage of the lake does not require too large a sample
size to insure a reliable estimate of the mean. Note the relatively small
confidence interval considering the usually difficult spatial problem that
macrophytes often present.
An important role of the macrophytes in restoration effectiveness may be
in their contribution to the phosphorus budget. The percent P of the plant
dry weight averaged 0.3 ± .11. Thus, average biomass in 1976 and 1977 would
have represented a mass of P in the lake of 1,068 and 795 Kg, respectively.
114
-------
As will be seen in the next section about 85 percent of that P was probably
mined from the permanent sediments through the plant roots unless some refrac-
tory fraction could be part of the internal P input to the lake.
DISCUSSION
Long Lake is highly eutrophic and shows effects from dense blooms of
blue-green algae during the entire summer as well as from a dense stand of
macrophytes, principally El odea densa, that occupies nearly the entire lake.
Largemouth bass and black crappie are the most abundant fish in the lake and
have an estimated density of 42 and 102 fish per hectare, respectively (105
and 255 per acre); not a particularly dense population (Congleton, personal
communication). Few bass are in excess of 25 cm length.
In order to restore this lake to some less objectionable status, it is
necessary to know the source of nutrients, particularly phosphorus, that is
responsible for the abundance of plant material and the resulting degraded
quality. The first point that becomes clear is that its eutrophic state is
probably not caused by the external nutrient loading. The external load of P
is 390 kg yr-1 or 0.28 g m-2 yr-1. The calculated critical loading from
Vollenweider (1976) is 0.53 gm-2 yr-1 according to:
Lc = 200 (zp)0'5
where L is the critical loading, z is mean depth and p is flushing rate.
Clearly, Long Lake should not be eutrophic if its principal P loading is from
external sources. While 0.28 g m-2 yr-1 is a considerable quantity of P for a
shallow lake, the high flushing rate insures that much of that P will be
washed out of the system before it can be used.
Further, a prediction of Chi a from P loading (L ) according to Vollen-
weider (1976): p
Chi a = 0.376
qsd + fs>
0.91
where L is aeral P loading and qs is surface hydraulic loading (m yr-1),
gives only 7.8 ugl-1. The observed average concentrations for Long Lake were
greater, 10 and 29 ugl-1 for the two summers. Thus, one must conclude that
Long Lake does not behave in the same way as most lakes studied, with respect
to phosphorus loading. The reason is probably that there have been no or few
unstratified shallow lakes in the data sets analyzed by Vollenweider, Rast and
Lee, (1978) and others for the relation between trophic state and external
loading. The logical additional source of P that could explain the eutrophic
state of Long Lake is probably internal.
115
-------
The phosphorus budget has several uncertain!ties but for the most part is
rather accurate and is shown in Table 5. The principal difficulty is that it
is based on a very dry year. The interesting point is that the outflow nearly
matches the inflow, 384 versus 390 Kg yr-1, and there is a net increase of P
in the lake water of 89 Kg yr-1. This is highly unusual inasmuch as most
lakes discharge only on the order of 35 to 40 percent of the entering P, the
remainder being deposited in the sediments. Long Lake actually discharges
more P than comes in during some quarters. At first glance, this implies that
a sizable internal source exists, assuming that the external sources are
reasonably accurate, and that seems reasonable in view of the fact that the
water budget balanced reasonably well.
As Table 5 shows, the internal source can be estimated by difference if a
reasonably good measure of sedimentation rate is available. The gross rate of
1,403 Kg yr-1 no doubt results in an overestimate of the internal source, 1486
Kg yr-1, because of all the resuspended sediment and plant detritus that is
included in that measured rate. The equation (Table 5) is actually more
appropriate for use with a net sedimentation rate, in other words a permanent
annual burial of P, and that is obtainable from the core analysis. Using 682
Kg yr-1 gives an internal loading of 765 Kg yr-1, which is the most reasonable
estimate of internal loading. This still may be too high because no correc-
tion was made for the preferential deep water deposit of particulate matter.
TABLE 5. LONG LAKE TOTAL PHOSPHORUS BALANCE 10/76 - 9/77
INFLOW (KgP) LOSSES (KgP) AIP P.
int
Period Si GW* Pre So Sed (KgP) (KgP)
10/76 -
1/77 -
4/77 -
7/77 -
I
12/76
3/77
6/77
9/77
49.50
153.20
105.57
49.24
357.51
2.86
0.06
2.83
5.72
11.47
3.53
8.26
4.12
5.12
21.03
51.81
151.86
93.92
86.73
384. 32
355
223
273
552
1403
(682)**
0
+26.8
- 2.7
+64. 56
+88.66
351
240
252
643
1486
(765)**
Si = Surface inflow; GW = ground water; Pre = precipitation; So = Surface
outflow; Sed = Sedimentation; AIP = change in lake concentration; P..^ =
calculated internal source.
P. . = So + Sed + AEP-SI - Pre - GW.
* ground water inputs calculated on ave. P concentration of 72 mg m-3.
** calculations based on sediment core analysis giving sedimentation rate
of 415 g dry wt m-2 yr-1 with an average P concentration of 0.12%.
116
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The specific source of the internal load is unknown for certain. Labora-
tory P32 experiments suggest that plant excretion is not the source, since the
experimental plants showed no net loss to the water, even though 85% of their
P was taken from the sediments. However, plant biomass in the fall of 1976
contained 1,060 Kg of P in the tissues. While plants do not completely die
back in winter, the biomass is nonetheless greatly reduced. Also, part of the
P in the biomass must be refractory. However, even if one half of their P had
been released upon decomposition in the winter of 1976-77 it could have con-
tributed a sizable portion of the 765 Kg.
In addition, there are the processes of resuspended particulate matter
and release of dissolved P from interstitial water. While the latter is not
known to be extensive under aerobic conditions, Figure 7 nonetheless indicates
that some increase did occur, but whether primarily a biological or chemical
process is not known. Thus, the internal source is no doubt a combination of
these three processes and possibly even including excretion as a fourth pro-
cess, as the macrophytes age. The laboratory experiments were performed with
young, vigorous plants that may not normally be prone to excretion.
If the internal source is coming from sediments, and it is nearly equal
to the quantity being permanently buried each year, then there must be some
redistribution of P from shallow areas to deeper areas. This is not unreason-
able, however, as such transport outward conforms to normal processes in
lakes. What it could mean, however, is that the sedimentation rate, based on
mid-lake cores, is overestimated if applied to the whole lake for the reason
just given. If so, then the rate should be corrected to more of an average
for the lake, which would serve to lower the internal source.
The surrounding houses (121) cannot be entirely disregarded as an addi-
tional external source, except it was felt that the half barrels should re-
flect such inputs. The barrels were placed proximal to shoreline houses in
hopes of spotting larger concentrations, but none developed. In any event,
the source from septic tanks would not be larger than 100-200 Kg yr-1 and
probably less.
LITERATURE CITED
APHA. Standards methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 13th
ed, 1974. APHA. Washington, D.C. 874pp.
Chapman, H.D. and P.P. Pratt. Methods of analysis for soils, plants, and
waters. Univ. Calif. Div. Agri. Sci. Riverside, CA., 1961. 309pp.
Gabriel sen, J.O. The role of macrophytes in the phosphorus budget of Long
Lake. MS Thesis. Univ. Washington, 1978. 82pp.
Lee, D.R. A device for measuring seepage flux in lakes and estuaries. Limnol.
&0ceanogr. 22:140-147,1977.
Rast, W. and G.F. Lee. Summary analysis of the North American OECD eutrophi-
cation project. Ecol. Res. Series. EPA-600/3-78-008, 1978. 455pp.
117
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Schell, W.R. and R.S. Barnes. Lead and mercury in the aquatic environment of
western Washington state. In A.J. Rubin (ed) Aqueous environmental
chemistry of metals. Ann Arbor Science. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1974.
Spyridakis, D.E. and R.S. Barnes. Contemporary and historical trace metal
loadings to the sediments of four lakes in the Lake Washington drainage.
OWRT project report, Proj. A-083-WASH, 1977. 64 pp.
Strickland, J.D.H. and T.R. Parsons. A manual of seawater analysis. Fish.
Res. Bd. Canada, Bull. 167, 1972.
Vollenweider, R.A. Advances in defining critical loading levels for phosphor-
us in lake eutrophication. Mem. 1st. Ital. Idrobiol. 33:53-83, 1976.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the help and assistance of several indi-
viduals in the collection and analysis of the data, particularly Peter
Hufschmidt and R.S. Barnes. The input and cooperation of personnel from
Entrance Engineers and the USGS is also appreciated.
118
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THE MONITORING OF RESTORATION EFFORTS
AT COLLINS LAKE, VILLAGE OF SCOTIA, NEW YORK
by
C. J. George*, P. L. Tobiessen*, P. D. Snow**
FORMALITIES
On January 8, 1976, the New York State Department of Environmental Con-
servation in cooperation with the Village of Scotia, Schenectady County, New
York, was awarded a matching grant (S804250010) in the amount of $46,250 for
dredging and other restorative activities for Collins Lake in the Village.
This award was made under the provisions of PL-92-500/Section 104 as admin-
istered by the Environmental Protection Agency. Subsequently, the reporting
investigators of Union College, Schenectady, New York, were awarded a grant
(R804572010) on 22 July, 1976, under the same granting provisions for the
purpose of monitoring the restoration efforts at Collins Lake. On October 10,
1976, the Village was granted permits (No. 447-04-007 and 447-76-126) for
dredging in accord with Article 24 (Freshwater Wetlands) of the New York State
Environmental Conservation Law including stipulations that dredging not exceed
8 feet in any place, that areas in the eastern part of the lake less than 1 m
depth not be dredged and that emergent vegetation at the outlet not be dis-
turbed.
On 15 December, 1976, the Village was assigned a work permit (No. 9953),
following standard public notification (No. 8643, 17 September, 1976) by the
New York District of the Corps of Engineers under provisions of the several
relevant federal laws. The dredging contract was finalized in the Spring of
1977 by the Village in concert with regional offices of the EPA and the New
York State Department of Conservation.
THE LAKE AND ITS PROBLEMS
Collins Lake is an oxbow lake derived from a northward meander of the
Mohawk River. The basin was initially isolated along its southern aspect by
naturally placed river sediments but this barrier has been raised further by
the building of a dike in 1804 which was enhanced as a carriage route in 1805.
Later, especially in the 1940's, it was raised still further through the
deposition of many thousands of cubic meters of diverse fill and river dredg-
ings. The resulting barrier has greatly reduced flooding, with the incidence
* Department of Biological Sciences.
** Department of Civil Engineering, Union College, Schenectady, NY 12308.
119
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of only one earlier flood, and one this year in March, contributing in each
case about 1m of turbid water to the lake. In the flood of 1976, one sector
of the dike was eroded away resulting in the dispersal of about 75 m3 of ashes
over the southern aspect of the lake shore and into the lake proper.
The eastern end of the lake has also been closed by earthen fill. A map
of 1799 by Claude Joseph Southier prominently shows a road to the east of the
lake in approximately the position of the existing causeway, a feature which
must have increased the lake area to some extent. In 1805 a bridge was built
across the river and linked to the same causeway. At this time, the outlet of
the lake was restricted to a passage between bridge abutments, raising the
lake some additional amount. In 1945 or 1946 the bridge was replaced with a
culvert the river side of which was equipped with a flapper valve designed to
prevent the movement of river flood water into the lake.
The new installation resulted in the raising of the lake to its current
approximate level of 216' and an aerial enlargement to its current extent 22
ha (55a). The joint action of the southern or Schonowee dike and the Washing-
ton Avenue causeway has thus been to isolate the lake from the river and to
accent the influence of the various springs located at the foot of a major
sand aquifer on the west and northern edge of the lake. These springs run
actively year around maintaining circular openings in the ice and a zone of
unfrozen water along the northern and western shores. Our divers have in-
spected one of these springs in early March noting at a depth of 3 m an open
tube in the bottom about 15 by 5 cm in extent surrounded by a circular "sand
boil" area about 4 m in diameter. An abundant spring flow appears to thus
constitute a major portion of the water entering the lake.
The lake has long been a recreational asset to the village and region.
In the 1950's, Collins Park, located between the river and the southern shore
of the lake, was enlarged and a swimming area was developed along the central
part of the southern shore. A thousand or more cubic meters of sand were
introduced to form a sand beach. Concurrently, an adjacent storm sewer was
closed and another opened immediately north of the outlet at the eastern edge
of the lake.
It is reported that the river sewer may become contaminated with house-
hold sewage at time of heavy storm runoff. The swimming facilities of the
lake are intensely used during the summer months and this may result in a
significant contribution of organic nitrogen to the system. Other sources of
plant nutrients and pollutants have been runoff contaminated by snow and
leaves dumped at lakeside. These practices have continued through 1976 but
the spoils area with its dike is designed to contain snow melt waters and leaf
breakdown products toward abatement of the problem.
The augmented nutrient supply and isolation from the scouring influence
of the river appears to have favored the establishment and more troublesome
proliferation of the water chestnut, Trapa natans, and the curly leaved pond
weed, Potamogeton crispus. The water chestnut emerged as a major pest in the
early 1900's and spread into the Mohawk River requiring much expensive control
effort. Today the species still survives in the lake, some seven bushels
120
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of nuts being removed during the summer of 1976 and about 4 during 1977. The
curly leaved pond weed is currently the most conspicuous and detrimental.
RESTORATION METHOD
The major manifest problem at Collins Lake is thus viewed as excessive
growth of the curly leaved pond weed, Potamogeton crispus during the spring
and early summer. Associated problems are shoaling due to the accumulation of
organic matter and the development of anoxic deeper waters. The main causes
of these problems are believed to be the inevitable processes associated with
lake aging as accelerated by increased influx of phosphorus and the introduc-
tion of exotic plant species such as the forenamed pond weed and (earlier) the
water chestnut, Trapa natans. The main planned attack on the problem is to
reduce the input of phosphorus to the lake through the stopping of the lake-
side dumping of leaves, other organic matter, and snow; to improve maintenance
of a flapper valve at the outlet designed to exclude nutrient rich flood
waters; and to remove from the lake proper about 100,000 m3 of the accumulated
organic matter with its associated plant nutrients which are continually (we
suspect) being recycled by the pondweed. The means of removal has been a
hydraulic dredge developed by Mud-Cat division, National Car Rental, Inc. The
organic matter is aspirated from the bottom, causing little turbidity, and
pumped to a decanting lagoon situated at the southeast edge of the lake and
the supernatant water is returned to the lake. Details on this process are
presented in later paragraphs.
The storm water outfall located at the eastern edge of the lake is near
the outlet and thus much of its water is immediately discharged from the lake
but during periods when the Mohawk River exceeds the lake level, i.e. 216'
a.s.f., the flapper valve is forced closed and storm waters enter the lake.
Rather than shifting the problem to the river by relocating the outfall, a
berm well populated with aquatic plants is to be developed surrounding the
outfall and outlet, thus limiting the impact of storm water on the main body
of the lake.
Dredging commenced in July of 1977, and lake-side dumping has been dis-
continued and an improved maintenance program for the flapper valve at the
outlet has been instituted.
The decanting lagoon with an area of 2.4 ha (6a) and an average holding
depth of 2 m functioned well with much of the initial water passing into the
ground or through the porous matter of the dike before it reached the sill
level of the outfall pipe. Water leaving the lagoon entered a swamp-marsh
area with nutrient and solid concentrations less than those of the water
stream leaving the marshland and entering the lake.
Roughly 30,000 m3 (bathymetric basis) have been removed thus far. This
volume has effectively reduced the volume of the lagoon by roughly 60%. Some
dewatering of the in-place sediment is expected under the influence of freez-
ing and thawing and thus a renewal of capacity; however, if this does not
occur sediment will have to be removed, additional decanting space must be
found, or the project will have to pause until warm weather dehydration en-
larges the storage prism.
121
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Total solids entering the lagoon from the dredge vary from 35 to 55 g/1.
At the outlet, after a theoretical settling time of 3 days, the suspended
solids concentration is between 25 and 50 mg/1. This yields an effective
removal of 99.9%. Effluent values for nutrients were: 50 ug/1-total P, 25
ug/1-ortho P, 0.16 mg/1 NH3-N, and 0.8 mg/1 N03-N.
A public relations program centered on news releases and public lectures
has informed the public of intentions and progress and excellent public rap-
port has been maintained. Dredging proceeded concurrently with swimming,
boating and fishing without any detected negative response. Numerous fruits
of the water chestnut were floating during the dredging process but a prevail-
ing southwesterly wind kept them away from the swimming beach during the
swimming season. Odors, sounds and turbidity associated with dredging were
negligible and caused no public commentary or criticism.
MONITORING TARGETS
Four stations have been established and are visited fortnitely for the
sampling at several depths of water for the evaluation of physical, chemical
and biological parameters, i.e. 02, soluble orthophosphate, total phosphorus,
N03, NH3, alkalinity acidity, pH, hardness, conductivity, T, Secchi disc
depth, numbers and kinds of phytoplankton and zooplankton and concentration of
chlorophyll. Heavy metals are also being surveyed in cooperation with the New
York Department of Health. Concurrent gill netting at one site is directed
toward the capture of golden shiners, Notemigonus crysoleucas, and yellow
perch, Perca flavescens for routine morphometry and histology of the liver,
spleen, kidney and gonads. Two transects are examined quantitatively for
aquatic macrophytes with primary attention being given to the numbers and
biomass per square meter of the curly-leaved pondweed, Potamogeton crispus.
Numbers which are produced are applied to computer cards for storage,
analysis and graphic print-out as demonstrated later in this report.
MONITORING RATIONALE
The objectives of the dredging and improved maintenance program have
already been stated and focus on reducing weed growth, increasing lake depth
and improving aeration of the deeper waters while at the same time not causing
untoward and long-enduring consequences. Our monitoring program from the
onset has thus included the macrophyte assay, bathimetry and routine oxygen
studies, and in that phosphorus is thought to be the key limiting nutrient,
evaluation of this parameter has been given special attention. Toward moni-
toring for untoward consequences we have followed a baseline approach whereby
various parameters are defined for about 1 year before dredging with a fervent
hope that other major variables, more impactful than dredging, do not arise
and dominate the situation. Unfortunately, the floods and heavy snows experi-
enced during the last few months of the study may be influences of this very
significant kind. We remain hopeful, however, that we will be able to sort
out the influences.
Within the monitoring program several questions have emerged as espe-
cially relevant. The first is the matter of interaction between pianktonic
122
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and rooted primary producers. Thus far we sense that rooted macrophytes such
as Potamogeton crispus, which are able to grow at reduced light intensities
and therefore at greater depths, may play an important role in the regenera-
tion of key plant nutrients and their release to the water column. At the
same time, they may effectively remove key nutrients from their ambient
waters, thus suppressing planktonic primary producers. The death and break-
down of these plants, however, may foster a dramatic resurgence of planktonic
growth which might otherwise have been impossible. There is the possibility
that dredging to depths greater than those tolerated by P. crispus may greatly
reduce nutrient regeneration, reduce the primary productivity of rooted forms
and direct nutrients into the phytoplankton, which in turn would be swept from
the lake by spring waters with low nutrient concentrations.
If indeed the production of oxygen demanding organic matter and anaerobic
water can indeed be reduced, the nutrient regeneration occurring in the
deeper, western basin of the lake may further reduce the eutrophy of the
system while at the same time increasing the living space for benthic inverte-
brates, fish and, with time, perennial macrophytes, which are nutrient con-
serving.
PROPERTIES OF THE LAKE
VOLUME OF DISCHARGE
The averaged outflow from the lake as measured for the period 6/22/76 to
6/8/77 was 2.27 cfs with a range of 1.96 to 4.13 cfs (D. Howie). Because of
the removal of the outlet on June 8, 1977, as associated with the lowering of
the lake for dredging, we have not maintained a record of flow volumes.
OXYGEN AND TEMPERATURE
The variations in 02 and temperature (Figures 1 and 2)* are typical for a
northern lake with moderately high biological activity. Graph 3 (percent
saturation) yields the best interpretation of 02-Temperature variation as a
function of biological activity. During the fall of 1976 and 1977, values
below saturation are attributed to bacterial degradation of dead plant and
algal matter. Ice cover in 1976-1977 reduced the amount of dissolved oxygen
due to the absence of atmospheric transfer of 02, absence of light for photo-
synthesis, and bacterial breakdown of residual organics in the water column.
The two zones of supersaturation have different origins. The first, from
March to July 1 corresponded to ice melting, river water input and especially
the tremendous growth of the macrophyte, £. crispus. Increases were also
apparent in phytoplankton, but had a minimal effect. Death of £. crispus
after July 1 and decay of this-plant matter is believed to be the major cause
of undersaturation. Subsequent to the death of P. crispus. the release of
nutrients back into the water column, and removal of macrophyte competition,
one observes the later summer algal bloom and supersaturation during this
time.
* All figures and tables are included at end of text.
123
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TEMPERATURE, OXYGEN AND PERCENT SATURATION VERSUS DEPTH
Figures 4 and 5 illustrate a typical stratification occurring in August,
1977 with anaerobic conditions below 5 meters. The percent saturation versus
depth plot in Figure 6 is most indicative of algal supersaturation in the top
2 meters to anaerobic conditions below the thermo-chemocline. Decay of sus-
pended and benthic organics by bacteria plus the obvious lack of vertical
mixing is the main cause of hypolimnetic depletion of 02.
PHOSPHORUS VERSUS TIME
Variations of total phosphorus in (|jg/l as P) versus time are shown in
Figures 15 (surface) and 16 (8 meters) for the west station. Surface concen-
trations of total P remain fairly low (20-25 ug/1) during the winter. Spring
overturn and river in-flow increased the concentrations to almost 60 |jg/l in
the spring. The constant decrease (until July 1) is probably due to P.
cri'spus uptake and perhaps co-precipitation of phosphate with CaC03. The
rapid increase in July is mainly due to release of ortho and organic-? from
bacterial breakdown of dead £. crispus (similar to ammonia increase). Also,
because of temperature, pH, and redox potential changes, a substantial amount
of orthophosphate may have been released from the sediment in the shallow
parts of the lake. The late summer decrease is attributed to algal uptake of
orthophosphate whereas the fall increase was probably from the combined break-
down of dead algae and lake overturn (see Figure 16).
Anaerobic (reducing) conditions in the hypolimnion and stratification
during the summer are the major reasons for the extremely high (550 ug/1)
concentrations of phosphorus shown in Figure 16. Ferric phosphate and allied
ferric hydroxy phosphate compounds appear to limit the amount of ionic phos-
phate in the bottom (8 meters) water when the system is oxidizing. During the
summer, phosphorus associated with ferric complexes is released due to the
reduction of ferric iron to ferrous iron. Interstitial phosphate can there-
fore flux out of the sediment and concentrate in the hypolimnion. A rapid
decrease is noted after overturn due to dilution with surface water and chemi-
cal precipitation of orthophosphate in ferric compounds.- Interestingly,
comparisions of surface and bottom water concentrations of phosphate yield,
during the summer, a ten-fold difference. Surface values were about 50 ug/1
whereas bottom values were about 500 ug/1. Release from the sediment inter-
stitial water under anaerobic conditions appears to be responsible for the
tremendous gradient.
Figure 17 shows the correlation of total phosphorus and orthophosphate in
the bottom (8 meter) waters. Low values are from aerobic conditions where
about one-half of the total is orthophosphate. Under anaerobic conditions,
almost all (97%) of the total phosphate is orthophosphate. This again indi-
cates release from the sediment of orthophosphate from the interstitial water
and the breakdown of ferric phosphate compounds which would yield orthophos-
phate. Little, if any, of the total phosphate is associated with organically
bound phosphorus.
124
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Other interrelationships of the chemical-physical-biological systems
within the lake are briefly described in Appendix A. Future analyses of the
data will hopefully show more precise interrelationships.
NITROGEN - AMMONIA AND NITRATE VERSUS TIME
The temporal variations in N03-N (mg/1) shown in Figure 12; S for west
station at 0.5 meters from September 14, 1976 to October 12, 1977. A late
fall value is extrapolated on the curve to show increases in nitrate through-
out the fall and winter as organic-N was oxidized to ammonia and to nitrate by
bacteria. The extreme high in March is due to input of river water. The
rapid decrease in early spring is probably due to P. crispus uptake being
greater than the rate of nitrate evolution from ammonia. The small rise in
June may be due to a decrease in the uptake rate of nitrate by P. crispus as
they stop growing. Here evolution of nitrate from ammonia is greater than
plant uptake. The well defined reduction of nitrate in the late summer is
undoubtedly due to algal uptake. The fall increase, mirrored by an increase
in ammonia, is due to a decrease in algal uptake and greater evolution of
ammonia from the bacterial breakdown of dead plant and algal organic nitrogen.
Figure 13 of ammonia (NH3-N, mg/1) somewhat follows the trends in ni-
trate. Late fall evolution of ammonia from organic nitrogen due to algae and
plants is followed by a winter decrease in ammonia as more ammonia is con-
verted to nitrate, i.e. rate of organic-N to ammonia conversion decreases as
organic-N is depleted. A similar increase in ammonia is noted in March as 1
meter of river water floods the lake. This occurs at the same time as the
spring overturn thus bringing high amounts of ammonia to the surface. The
decrease of ammonia throughout the spring was due to its oxidation to nitrate
and subsequent uptake by the plants.
An abrupt and rapid increase in ammonia is noted in early June due to the
death of £. crispus and rapid breakdown of their organic nitrogen to ammonia.
Also, the decrease in early fall is due to a lack of readily available organic
nitrogen. As soon as algal growth decreases and bacterial breakdown of algae
occur, the ammonia concentrations increase throughout the late fall. Inter-
estingly, the concentrations of ammonia and nitrate are both 1 mg/1 at the
beginning of the spring and both vary, within limits, depending on algal and
plant growth or death.
Figure 14 depicts change in ammonia in the bottom water (8 meters) versus
time at west station. Low (1-2 mg/1) values occur during winter and early
spring with aerobic waters and conversion to nitrates. When the hypolimnion
becomes anaerobic, conversion of ammonia to nitrate ceases and high (5-7 mg/1)
concentrations occur. Fall overturn, mixing, and aerobic conditions again
decrease the ammonia that was evolved from the breakdown of organic nitrogen
in the bottom sediments.
CALCIUM, MAGNESIUM AND ALKALINITY
The variations in total hardness (mg/1 as CaC03) and alkalinity (mg/1 as
CaC03) versus time for west station at 0.5 meters are not shown in Figures 10
and 11. Interpretations of the data are mainly based on the equilibria of
125
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CaC03. Dissolution or precipitation of CaC03 varies with pH, temperature, Ca,
HC03, C03, C02, and photosynthetic changes of pH and alkalinity. The overall
trend is the increase of calcium and bicarbonate during the winter due to
lower pH, higher C02, and lower temperatures. CaC03 in the water column and
sediment tend to dissolve. The rapid drop of values in the spring is due to
increase in temperature, increase in pH, removal of C02 by macrophytes, all of
these processes tending to cause CaC03 to precipitate. This was evident for
the upper surfaces of leaves of P. crispus which were encrusted with CaC03 by
June.
The death and decomposition of P. crispus in July appears to have caused
the precipitated CaC03 to redissolve. The evolution of C02 and pH drop during
decomposition appear to cause this change. The decrease of calcium in late
summer is attributed to deposition of CaC03 due to a pH increase (and tempera-
ture increase) from algal photosynthesis. Additional alkalinity, greater than
the amount released from CaC03 dissolution, were attributed to algal photosyn-
thesis. This alkalinity also decreased in later summer due to CaC03 precipi-
tation.
Winter variations of the three forementioned parameters and the program
(TDOX) are shown in Table 2. Figures 7 and 8 illustrate the typical ice
covered lake with slight density stratification in temperature and decreasing
concentrations of 02 below 5 meters. Percent saturation (Figure 9) indicates
the uptake of 02 by benthic bacteria and other organisms. During the months
of February and March the depletion of 02 (see Figure 3) continued and then
the ice melted and lake overturn occurred. Overturn was apparently enhanced
by river water (1 meter depth) entering the lake in March. Heavy metals have
been examined for us by the New York State Department of Health in cooperation
with Dr. Wolfgang Fuhs. Lake water, interstitial water of the sediments, ice
and dumped snow have been examined with the highest levels appearing in the
dumped snow. Lead concentrations were 3.9 and 1.5 mg/1 of the resulting melt
waters. In contrast, interstitial levels were less than 0.010 mg/1. Iron was
also high in dumped snow with concentration of 15 and 5.7 mg/1 of the melt
water but interstitial levels were also high being 15, 9.7 and 3.7 mg/1 for
stations NE and N respectively. Copper was also relatively' high in dumped
snow with concentrations of 0.21 and 0.13 mg/1. Interstitial water concentra-
tions were 0.05 and 0.06 for stations NE and N respectively. Additional
analyses using X-ray fluorescence have also been performed.
Several chlorinated hydrocarbon scans of water and sediments at several
places have also been run by the Con/all is laboratories of the EPA and have
not revealed critical levels at any site, including the outlet of the dredge
pipe and the outfall of the decanting lagoon. Scans of whole body samples of
20 white suckers for chlorinated hydrocarbons have also revealed no actionable
level for any of the potentially troublesome materials. These analyses have
been performed by the New York State Department of Environment Conservation.
PHOSPHORUS BUDGET
The inputs and outputs of phosphorus from the lake suggest that more
phosphorus now leaves the lake than enters it (Table 2, after D. Howie). This
126
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supports the premise that phosphate, especially in the summer, is being re-
leased from the sediment.
One value that may be incorrect is that for dry and wet fall phosphorus
into the lake. A value of 59 mg/m2-yr was used, derived from the New York
State Department of Public Health. This appears very high since this would
give a concentrations of 66 ug/1 for rain water (assuming all the phosphorus
came in the form of rain). A lower value for atmospheric input would seem
reasonable, thus decreasing the total input of phosphorus into the lake.
In the future, a mathematical model derived by Phillip D. Snow will be
applied to the lake. Essentially the model is based on a mass balance incor-
porating input of phosphorus, sedimentation reactions and a rate of release of
phosphorus from the sediment governed by the concentration of phosphorus in
the interstitial water. All parts of the system (input, sedimentation, re-
lease) determine the ultimate concentration of phosphorus in the lake water.
From preliminary studies, the model appears to be consistent with the results
of Howie's paper in that release of phosphorus from the sediment, especially
during the summer, appears to account for a significant amount of phosphorus
in the water column. This is evident when one looks at summer ground water
inflow (at 8 ug/l-P) and lake outflow (at 27 ug/l-P)(Table 2; D. Howie).
PHYTOPLANKTON
Pediastrum simplex is the predominant phytoplankter for much of the year.
In the summer months of 1976 it was present at densities more than 1 x 106
cells per liter. The number of cells and not the number of clones is counted.
The diatoms Asterjonella formosa, Melosira granulata and Synedra sp. are also
common but emerge more strongly during the fall and spring. The chlorophytes
Oocystis pusilla, Crucigenia quadrata, Scenedesmus quadrata, and Cryptomonas
pusill us are well represented during summer months. Dinobryon bavaricum and
Ceratium hirundella are especially evident in the summer months as well. An
increase in several species has been noted during and following dredging.
MACROPHYTES
The predominant aquatic macrophyte of the lake is the curly leaved pond-
weed, Potamogeton crlspus. This species, introduced to America from Eurasia,
grows to depths of three meters and occupied about 50% of the lake bottom
prior to the beginning of dredging. At the peak of the growing season the
lushly populated sectors demonstrated stem densities between 400 and 500/m2
with oven dry weights of more than 100 g/m2. The leafy stems rise from feeble
rhizomes and reach to the surface to greatly stabilize water movement and to
absorb plant nutrients. Under such conditions, Secchi disc readings reach
their annual maximum of about 6 m.
In early June, turions are produced by the lateral branches and by the
end of June, with the senescence of the parent plant, are released to float
away, settle and reestablish new plants in August. These prosper during the
fall, continue to grow under the ice and then with the melting of the ice
cover grow vigorously to again reach the surface. The senescent plants are
quickly consumed by various herbivorous invertebrates and bacteria, releasing
127
-------
their contained phosphorus and other plant nutrients to the water column. As
a result, phytoplankton, notably Pediastrum simplex, becomes resplendent,
reducing Secchi disc readings to a meter or less. The roots of the pondweed
also degenerate at senescence and no nutrient translocation of the substrate
typical of more perennial forms such as Nymphaea and Peltandra occurs.
As has been mentioned, the water chestnut, Trapa natans. has been prom-
inent in the past but today only a few bushels of nuts may be collected from
the entire lake.
Some 14 other species of macrophyte are also evident. Dredging has
eliminated the pondweed from about 30 percent of its previous extent in the
lake and under-ice observations by divers also indicate the absence of turions
in one dredged sector where they were present the previous year.
ZOOPLANKTON
The rotifers are well represented by strongly seasonal appearances of
Keratella cochlearis, Kellicotia longispina, K. bostoniensis, Polyarthra sp.,
Filinia longiseta and P. euryptera and the maxima of their populations occur
in April through August.
The calanoid copepod Diaptomus birgei is most abundant in the spring,
reaching densities of 50 to 100 per liter, but is present year around. Ear-
lier, we had difficulty in identifying this uncommon form but now feel confi-
dent on the basis of well displayed fifth legs of males. Mesocyclops edax is
the prevailing adult cyclopoid copepod of the summer while adult Cyclops
bicuspidatus thomasi is the common form during the winter and spring months.
The raptorial and predatory cyclopoid copepods may play an important role in
regulating other smaller zooplankters. The large cladoceran Daphm'a galeata
mendotae is abundant at upper levels in the warmer months and in the depths
during November and December. Daphm'a parvula has appeared newly on August 3,
1977. After the beginning of dredging and, subsequently, it has become abun-
dant, possibly replacing D. galeata mendotae. Eubosmina coregoni. one of the
smaller cladocera, is the most abundant summer zooplankter, reaching peak
densities of 250/1 in July. E. longispina has proliferated during the fall of
1977, reaching densities greater than previously noted, and Ceriodaphnia
reticulata is abundant in June, especially in the littoral zone.
The species listed are those prominent at station W, the most limnetic of
the four study areas. Plankton samples made in the proximity of macrophytes
and other substrates may be expected to contain many other species such as
Chydorus sphaericus. Monostyla closterocerca. Lepadella ovalis and Cepha-
lodella sp.
FISHES
The lake has a vigorous and diverse fish fauna. Bluegills, pumpkinseeds,
black crappie and largemouth bass are the conspicuous centrarchids. Carp and
suckers probably constitute the majority of biomass. Chain pickerel and a few
nothern pike attract sport fishermen. The gizzard shad and alewife are occa-
sionally netted and reflect the connection of the lake and the river.
128
-------
The yellow perch and golden shiner are the most frequently and easily
taken with gill net and have thus been elected for routine monitoring of
qualities such as condition, gonadosomal and hepatomosomal indices, which are
believed to reflect the health of their populations. The abundance and size
of macrophage centers of liver, spleen and kidney are also assessed toward
sensing physiological condition. At present, the yellow perch demonstrate
condition indices of normal range and conventional gonadal development; how-
ever, reproduction is not evident, perhaps because of the inadequacy of exist-
ing spawning sites. The golden shiner population also appears vigorous and
healthy, and young of the species are evident. Macrophage centers are large
and abundant in the kidney and spleen of both the yellow perch and the golden
shiner, and in the liver of only the yellow perch. But at this time we are
unable to evaluate the significance of these observations.
PROGRAM PARTICIPANTS
The three senior investigators have had the profound satisfaction of
working with a large number of exceedingly talented and dedicated student
participants. Most of these workers have been juniors or seniors and they
have commonly shouldered responsibilities and have demonstrated initiative
appropriate for graduate work. Most of the data reported here is the product
of their labors. We are very proud of them.
CIVIL ENGINEERING MAJORS
Physical-Chemical Analyses:
Daniel Berg 76-77; Andrew Adriance 76; Garvin Wells 76; Michael Sullivan
76; Timothy Pangburn 76-77; Mark Mossey 76-77; Steven Gyory 76; June
Rinkoff 77-78; David Cornell 77-78; Timothy Baldwin 78; Philip Hood 78
Computer Analysis:
Rodney Aldrich 77; Douglas Howie 77-78; David Jones 77-78
BIOLOGY MAJORS
Phytoplanktonology;
Marian Baciewicz 76-77; Gloria 0. Zorka 77-78; Joyce Warner 77-78;
Zooplanktonology:
Katherine Hoi lister 75-76; Adam Berg 76; Robert Lein 77-78; Judith Haddad
77-78; Bruce Levine 77-78;
Macrophyte Studies:
Paul Powers 76; Edward Heyes 76; Gary Geller 76; Joan Gebhardt 77-78;
Alan Woodard 77-78;
129
-------
Ichthyology-Histology:
Thomas Engel 75; Larry Merlis 75; Arnold Brender 76; Denise Polsinelli
77; Glenn Delaney 76-77; Carol Grant 76-77; Steve Lacy 76-78; Chris Brown
77-78; Carmen Gatta 77-78; Marc Klemperer 77-78; Terri Moran 77-78; Iain
Drummond 77-78; John Foehl 77-78;
Computer Analysis:
James Lerner 77-78; David Powers 77-78
We also wish to thank several consultants whose good guidance has been
especially helpful, namely Dr. Paul Mason for computer analysis, Dr. Wolfgang
Fuhs and Dr. Helen Birecka for chemical analysis, Dr. Ed Mills and Ms. Susan
Allen for plankton analysis, Dr. Eugene Ogden for macrophyte studies, Dr. Carl
Schofield for ichthyological matters, Drs. Willard Roth, Abraham Rajender and
George Smith for histology, Dr. Jay Bloomfield and Mr. Frank Stay for adminis-
trative savoir-faire and, finally, but most enthusiastically, Mr. Calvin
Welch, Chairman of the Scotia Board of Park Commissioners, the person who "got
and kept things going"!
130
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TABLE 1. THE ANNUAL CYCLE OF TEMPERATURE, OXYGEN CONCENTRATION AND PERCENT
SATURATION FOR STATION W AT 1 M DEPTH, COLLINS LAKE, DEMONSTRATING
PRINT-OUT FORMAT.
7101277
TYPE THE FIRST LETTER OF THE STATION YOU WANT PLOTTED SUCH AS W, E, OR G.
?W
TYPE THE DEPTH OF THE DATA YOU WANT TO HAVE . PLOTTED.
YOU WANT STATION W AND DEPTH 1.0 FROM SEP 14, 1976 TO OCT 12, 1977. IS THIS
RIGHT. ANSWER YES OR NO.
?YES
DATE TEMP DISS OXYGEN PER CENT SAT
SEP 14, 1976 18.7 12.0 127.9
OCT 10, 1976 12.7 8.8 82.7
OCT 28, 1976 5.7 12.4 98.5
NOV 10, 1976 3.5 14.5 108.7
JAN 5, 1977 3.0 13.5 99.8
JAN 19, 1977 3.0 13.8 102.0
FEB 2, 1977 2.0 10.0 71.9
FEB 16, 1977 1.6 7.9 56.2
MAR 2, 1977 3.0 12.3 90.9
MAR 17, 1977 4.0 15.0 114.0
MAR 30, 1977 7.0 14.5 119.1
APR 13, 1977 11.4 15.3 139.6
APR 27, 1977 11.8 13.7 126.1
MAY 11, 1977 12.0 13.0 120.2
MAY 25, 1977 19.0 13.0 139.4
JUN 8, 1977 15.8 9.5 95.4
JUN 22, 1977 20.4 7.9 87.1
JUL 6, 1977 22.5 8.8 100.9
JUL 20, 1977 26.5 11.7 144.3
AUG 3, 1977 24.0 13.4 158.0
AUG 18, 1977 20.8 10.1 112.2
AUG 31, 1977 23.0 12.8 148.2
SEP 15, 1977 17.0 8.9 91.7
SEP 28, 1977 14.9 8.0 78.9
OCT 12, 1977 11.9 8.4 77.5
DO YOU WANT TO PLOT THIS ON THE TYPEWRITER. ANSWER YES OR NO.
INVALID RESPONSE. TRY AGAIN.
INVALID RESPONSE. TRY AGAIN.
?YES
DO YOU WANT TO PLOT TEMPERATURE (TE), DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO), OR PER CENT SATU-
RATION (PC). ?DO
131
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TABLE 2. A PRELIMINARY PHOSPHORUS BUDGET FOR COLLINS LAKE, NEW YORK (AFTER D.
HOWIE).
Groundwater Input 12.8 Kg/yr
Mohawk River Input 20.4 Kg/yr
Dry and wet fall Input 14.3 Kg/yr
Dumped Snow Input 0.09 Kg/yr
Storm Sewer Input 0.04 Kg/yr
Total Input 47.63 Kg/yr
Outflow to Mohawk River 52.71 Kg/yr
New Difference Output-Input 5.48 Kg/yr
TABLE 3. PHOSPHORUS CONCENTRATIONS OF GROUNDWATER ENTERING THE LAKE AT
SPRINGS ALONG THE NORTHERN SHORE AS COMPARED WITH THOSE AT THE
LAKE OUTLET, COLLINS LAKE, 1977 (AFTER D. HOWIE).
DATE
1977 1-5
1-19
2-2
2-16
3-2
3-17
3-30
4-13
4-27
5-11
5-25
6-8
6-22
7-6
7-20
8-3
8-18
8-31
9-15
Yearly average
June-August average
GROUNDWATER (uQ/lP)
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
9
8
8
1
1
4
8
_8
5
8
OUTLET (UQ/IP)
12
8
16
10
10
29
45
8
23
12
15
25
25
32
22
26
25
34
IZ
21
27
132
-------
U)
CO
DISSOLVED OXYGEN W STA AT DEPTH 1.0
30.0
5 22.5
C9
i
Q 15.0
ui
I 7-5
i i
Fig.1
1 I I I I I I I I
SEP 14 DEC. 1 FEBI8 MAY? JUL250CTI2
I976 I977
TEMPERATURE W STA AT DEPTH 1.0
LJ
30.0
22.5
5 15.0
LJ
Q.
7.5
1 I T
I
I
SEP 14 DEC 1
1976
FEBI8 MAY7 JUL25 OCT12
1977
PERCENT SATURATION W STA AT DEPTH 1.0
200
z
o
QC
V)
j-
I50
100
o 50
DC
bJ
Q.
Fig. 3
J ALGAE
AND
PLANTS
'I
ICE COVER
' ' ' I 1 1 1 U
SEP 14 DEC1 FEBI8 MAY7 JUL25 OCT 12
1976 1977
TEMPERATURE WEST STA AUG 3, 1977
30O
sr
ID
LJ
Q.
15.0
7.5
I I
Fig. 4
4 6
DEPTH
8
10
-------
CJ
-Pk
DISSOLVED OXYGEN STA AUG 3,1977
30.0
g22.5
o
CO 7R
co 7.5
Fig. 5
• y • • • f • • • -
0 2 4 6 8 10
DEPTH
PERCENT SATURATE WEST STA AUG 3f 1977
o
LJ
5
CC
CO
h-
UJ
£
LU
Q.
200
150
50
Fl9'6
ANEROBIC
• f • • • f • • • H
4 6
DEPTH
8
10
TEMPERATURE WEST STA JAN 5,1977
30.0
UJ
§22.5
h:
cc
Ul
H
15.0
7.5
Fig. 7
024 6 8 10
DEPTH
DISSOLVED OXYGEN WEST STA JAN 5, 1977
§22.5
£
§
o 150
Fig. 8
*"^» • • •
• • ••
246
DEPTH
8
10
-------
in
PERCENT SATURATED WEST STA JAN 5, 1977
200
S|50
^100
UJ
50
i i
j_
_L
4 6
DEPTH
T HARD W 0.5
212
189
§166
h-
143
120
r
I
Rg.9
8
10
I
SEP 14 DEC1
1976
FEBI8 MAY7 JUL25 OCTI2
1977
ALKLY W 0.5
187.0 -
93.0 -
SEPI4 DE3C1
1976
FEBI8 MAY7 JUL25 OCTI2
1977
N03 W 0.5
1.100 -
SEP 14 DEC1
1976
FEBI8 MAY 7 JUL25 OCTI2
1977
-------
CJ
NH3 W 0.5
to
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
i i t
J I
SEP 14 DEC1 FEB18 M/V7 JUL25 OCTI2
1976 1977
NH3 W SO
6.500
4.875
10
z
3.250
1.625
Fig.14
J I
J I
SEPI4 DEC1 FEBI8 MAY7 JUL25 OCTI2
I976 I977
T PHOS W 0.5
57.00
42.75
28.50
14.25
Fig.l5
i i I
J I
I I I I
SEP 14 DEC1
I976
FEBI8 MAY7 JUL25 OCTI2
I977
T PHOS W 8.0
552
4I4
CO
o
Q.
276
138
Fig.16
j I
SEPI4 DEC1
1976
FEBI8 MAY 7 JUL25 OCTI2
1977
-------
SEPTEMBER 14,1976 TO OCTOBER 12, 1977
563.00
o
cd
422.25
281.50
o 140.75
i i r
I i i i i i i i
110.4 220.8 331.2 441.6 552.0
T PHOS W 8.0
Figure 17.
137
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EFFECT OF DREDGING AND NUTRIENT INACTIVATION
AT LILLY LAKE, WISCONSIN
by
R. Dunst and R. Beauheim*
INTRODUCTION
Lake aging is a naturally occurring, continual process which eventually
leads to lake extinction. Infilling can be caused by autochthonous, as well
as allochthonous materials. In a lake with a small watershed, sediment influx
may be minimal, but nutrients can enter via groundwater and/or surface runoff
overly highly developed shorelines. The nutrient loading can support massive
algal populations and/or dense macrophyte growths. The plant residual subse-
quently settles to the lake bottom and causes a reduction in depth. Decreased
water depth is a problem in itself, and the shallower lakes allow rooted
vegetation to invade a greater share of the lake basin. Lake use problems are
intensified throughout the process, causing severe alterations and restric-
tions in recreation. Ultimately the basin will fill in and be converted into
a dry land environment.
Lilly Lake is presently in an advanced stage of the aging process. The
lake is 37 hectares in size with a maximum water depth of 1.8 meters, and
greater than 10.7 meters of underlying organic sediments. Rooted macrophytes
extend over the entire basin. Rehabilitation will involve hydraulic dredging,
followed by application of aluminum sulfate if needed (EPA Project Number
S804235-01-0). The physical effects of dredging are known and the various
equipment, techniques and costs have been reviewed, but little information is
available concerning biochemical effects on lake environments. Evaluations
will be conducted during this rehabilitation project, and will include the
effect on algae, macrophytes, benthos, fish, water quality, sediments and
groundwater.
DRAINAGE BASIN CHARACTERISTICS
Lilly Lake is located in southeastern Wisconsin. The lake occupies a
kettle-like depression in a topographically high area between the drainage
basins of Palmer Creek, to the north and west of the lake, and Bassett Creek,
to the south and east of the lake. Both of the streams flow northeasterly
into the Fox River (see Figure 1). The lake is normally at an elevation of
230.6 meters (756.4 feet) above mean sea level. Hills to the north and south-
* Office of Inland Lake Renewal, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources,
Madison, Wisconsin 53707.
138
-------
Gravel
Pits
/ FOX RIVER
\
s
Gravel Pit \
Gravel Pits
Sewage Disposal
Gravel
Pits
Figure 1
139
-------
west of the lake rise from 21.3 to 30.5 meters (70 to 100 feet) above the
lake. The floodplains of Palmer and Bassett Creeks are at approximately an
elevation of 228.6 meters (750 feet) and mean sea level. The terrain is
gently rolling and irregular.
The area is underlain at depth by the Niagara dolomite and was subse-
quently covered by the Lake Michigan lobe of the Wisconsin glacial stage,
which is primarly responsible for the surface deposits. The lake lies in an
area of ice contact drift near one of the terminal moraines of the Lake Michi-
gan lobe. The drainage pattern in the vicinity of Lilly Lake is somewhat
irregular, showing influences of glaciation and of more recent erosional
activity. The soils in the area are Miami loam, Miami fine sandy loam, Rodman
gravelly loam, peat, Fox silt loam, Miami silt loam and Clyde silt loam.
The watershed which contributes to Lilly Lake is 155.4 hectares, produc-
ing a watershed to lake size ratio of 4. This area receives during an average
year 1.3 x io6 cubic meters of precipitation, of which 0.3 x 106 are direct
rainfall on the lake surface. Lilly Lake has no surface inlets or outlets.
The regional movement of groundwater is northeast toward the Fox River,
roughly paralleling the surface drainage. At normal levels the lake contains
0.5 x 106 cubic meters of water and has a mean depth of 1.4 meters.
Sand predominates along 65 percent of the shoreline, gravel and rubble
cover 6 percent, and soft material cover 29 percent of the shoreline. The
entire center is composed of organic sediment with a high water content (Table
1). The dredging operation is designed to remove 596,353 cubic meters of
sediment, increasing the maximum depth of the lake to 6.1 meters (Figure 2).
Because of the high percent of water content of the sediments and their fluid
nature, it will be possible to pump the sediments almost 3 kilometers to an
inactive gravel pit. Plans also include some application of the material to
agricultural lands via spray irrigation and/or low level flooding. Dredging
is scheduled to begin later this spring.
TABLE 1. SOLIDS CONTENT OF THE SEDIMENTS: SEPTEMBER 20, 1977 (4 LOCATIONS)
Depth into Sediments
1.5
3.7
6.1
meters
meters
meters
(5
(12
(20
ft)
ft)
ft)
Percent Dry
2.
3.
4.
4 -
1 -
8 -
3.
4.
9.
Solids
6
3
4
Percent
96.
95.
90.
4 -
7 -
6 -
Water
97.
96.
95.
6
9
2
EVALUATION
The project is intended to determine the overall effectiveness of dredg-
ing and nutrient inactivation at Lilly Lake. There will, however, be a
special emphasis on the evaluation of existing predictive approaches. Data
collection has and will be conducted before, during and after the rehabilita-
tion program. The project period began March 28, 1977, although some informa-
tion was already being gathered in 1976.
140
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NOTE; Soundings taken Feb.1975
Water surface elev. 757.4
Mean sea level datum
2000
SCALE; FEET
PLAN
o
o
o
o
o
co
o
o
CO
o
o
o
o
cvj
UJ
o
o
CM
o
o
o
o
CO
o
o
CD
o
o
o
TOP OF SEDIMENT,
•--.MATER IA L-
t MOVED. •.780,000 YD.? •'(
ro'-BE RE-:'•'.)
FIRM BOTTOM
10
x
20 OL
o
30
35'
MAXIMUM PENETRATION= 35-
TYPICAL SECTION ULLY LAKE
SCALE: |" = 20'°VERT' DREDGING PROJECT
Figure 2. Planned dredging project, Lilly Lake.
141
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INLAKE PHYSICOCHEMISTRY
Temperature and dissolved oxygen profiles (one meter depth intervals) are
being determined at a central location biweekly throughout the year, plus at
four additional sites during the winter. Water samples are also being taken
quarterly at these sites—spring overturn, summer stratification (August),
fall overturn, and winter stagnation (February). The parameters are shown in
Table 2. This information will permit evaluation of conditions in the new
lake type.
TABLE 2. INLAKE WATER CHEMISTRY; SPRING OVERTURN
Parameter
4/28/75
4/6/76
3/15/77
4/11/77
Nitrite-N
Nitrate-N
Ammonia-N
Organic-N
Total -N
SRP
TP
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Potassium
Conductivity*
Sulfate
Chloride
pH (units)
Alkalinity
Turbidity
Iron
Manganese
.005
.08
.09
.89
1.07
.01
.02
34
28
5
2.2
202
11
5
8.0
88
1.8
—
—
.004
.05
.09
.69
.82
.01
.03
28
13
11
<.5
224
9
5
8.0
200
1.3
<0.9
<.03
___
<.02
.02
.70
.74
<.004
<.02
23
11
3
.2
190
6
5
7.8
92
.5
—
— — —
.003
<.02
<.04
.61
.67
.009
.03
25
14
<1
<.5
245
—
8
7.8
102
4.1
<.06
<.03
* Expressed in micromhos/cm at 25°C; all other parameters are in mg/1.
One objective is to delineate, in a general way, the water quality ef-
fects of converting a shallow water, polymictic, littoral zone lake into a
deep water, dimictic lake with a limnetic area. The depth of the thermocline
will be compared with predictions based on past studies in nearby lakes.
Oxygen depletion rates will be computed for summer and winter, and the results
will be evaluated in terms of available oxygen depletion models (e.g. Veith
and Conway, 1972). In addition, spring phosphorus concentrations will be
compared with summer chlorophyll a concentrations (Sakamoto, 1966; Dillon and
Rigler, 1974). Thus far, results have shown the lake to be well mixed during
the open water period with adequate dissolved oxygen concentrations. The
shallow water allows rapid heating and cooling, and near noon temperatures of
30°C have been noted. During the winter of 1976-77, the dissolved oxygen
levels became sufficiently low to result in a severe fishkill.
142
-------
The sampling program also includes a measurement of BOD (5 day), turbid-
ity, SRP, TP, nitrate/nitrite-N, ammonia-N and organic N on a biweekly basis.
These are being measured to determine the immediate and subsequent short term
effects of each treatment. The results for the May/September, 1977 period are
shown in Table 3.
TABLE 3. INLAKE WATER CHEMISTRY; MAY-SEPT., 1977
Parameter Range Average
Nitrite/Nitrate-N
Ammonia-N
Organ ic-N
SRP
TP
Turbidity
BOD (5 day)
<0.02 -
1.0 -
<4
20
0.6 -
1.3 -
0.08 mg/1
1 . 7 mg/1
6 MO/1
70 ug/1
1 . 9 mg/1
2.4 mg/1
<0.02 mg/1
0.03 mg/1
1.4 mg/1
4 M9/1
34 ug/1
1 . 1 mg/1
1.8 mg/1
PHYTOPLANKTON
The evaluation studies include measurement of chlorophyll a, Secchi disc,
and primary productivity. Sampling is being conducted biweekly May through
October at one meter depth intervals from a central location. Productivity is
being measured by the light and dark bottle dissolved oxygen method— noon to
6 p.m. The inlake DO levels were also noted at the start and end of the
period.
The spring TP concentrations have ranged from 20 to 30 pg/1 (Table 2),
and the N:P ratio has always exceeded 20. According to Figure 3, average
summer chlorophyll a concentrations of 5.6 to 10 ug/1 would have been pre-
dicted. However, the June/August averages were 2.5 and 3.0 ug/1 for 1976 and
1977, respectively (Figure 4). The highest value in either year was only 6
(jg/1. During these same periods, primary productivity (phytoplankton) was 18
and 12 (jg C/l/hr, respectively. Primary productivity and chlorophyll a levels
tended to fluctuate together but the statistical relationship was poor. Water
clarity measurements have always exceeded 1.8 meters, the maximum depth of the
lake.
Between noon and 6 p.m. the inlake dissolved oxygen concentrations always
increased by an amount far above that possible due to phytoplankton productiv-
ity alone. Because the lake is shallow and well mixed, the water temperature
would normally be increasing during this period, oxygen transfer into the lake
across the air-water interface is a doubtful causative factor. The inlake
dissolved oxygen increase is more likely due to the photosynthetic activity of
attached plants, primarily macrophytes. The increase is therefore presented
as a community primary productivity (net) when compared with phytoplankton
productivity (gross) in Figure 5. The phytoplankton may be inhibited by the
extensive macrophyte growths. Dredging may, however, greatly reduce the
littoral zone and the newly created limnetic area may support the algal
growths predicted from Figure 3.
143
-------
1000
100
ro
I
E
E
oi
Q_
O
CC
O
X
u
LU
1.0
O.I
i i i r
log|0 [Chig] = |.45 log|n[p]-1.14
where:
Spring N:P ratio > 12
if TP then
20^g/l
30>ig/l
Chlorophyll 9
I0jug/l
• JAPANESE LAKES
A OTHER LAKES DESCRIBED IN
THE LITERATURE
o HALIBURTON
(SAKAMOTO, 1966)
I
I
0 10 100
TOTAL PHOSPHORUS mg m'S
Figure 3. Relationship between average summer chlorophyll a and spring TP.
144
-------
30
o
o»
jg
§• 10
^^N
£
1976
June/Aug. Average
Chlorophyll 2 = 2.5
Productivity = 18
CHUDROPHYLLQ
A
PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
\
\
30
en
20
10
1977
June/Aug. Average
Chlorophyll 9 = 3.0
Productivity = 12
HLOROPHYLLQ
PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
o
MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER
Figure 4. Phytoplankton productivity and chlorophyll a during 1976 and 1977.
-------
200
o>
=1150
0 100
o
£T
0.
o:
50
COMMUNITY (net)
_ PHYTOPLANKTON (gross)
.X) CX.
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST
SEPTEMBER OCTOBER
Figure 5. Comparison of primary productivity in 1977—community vs. phytoplankton.
-------
MACROPHYTES
The macrophytes are being sampled biweekly, May through September. Ten
0.1 square meter biomass samples are being removed by diving from each of 10
areas per sampling date. These are placed in plastic bags, brought back to
the laboratory, cooled overnight, and processed the next day. Drying is
accomplished at 105°C.
The lake will be deepened to a maximum of 6.1 meters, with dredging down
to "hard bottom" in the near shore areas. It is anticipated that predomi-
nantly a sand/silt bottom will be created to a depth of approximately 3 me-
ters. The remainder of the lake basin, from 3 meters down to 6.1 meters, will
contain organic sediments. The evaluations include: 1) comparison of maximum
depth of growth versus predictions based on water clarity, 2) examination of
the hard bottom (newly exposed) community versus predictions, and 3) investi-
gation of the relationship between phytoplankton and macrophytes.
In terms of water clarity, if the present 2.5-3.0 ug/1 .of chlorophyll a
persists after dredging, the maximum depth of growth should be 4.6-5.2 meters
(Figures 6 and 7). Most of the mid-lake area would therefore contain macro-
phytes. However, if chlorophyll a values approach 10 ug/1 after dredging, the
whole area might be macrophyte free.
The weighted average biomass for the lake as a whole was 620 g/m2 in
early 1976; subsequently, it gradually increased to 840 g/m2 by late August,
and then dropped sharply in early September. In 1977 it was 540 g/m2 in
mid-May and slowly decreased through most of the summer to 250 g/m2 by mid-
September (Figure 8). Potamogeton Robbinsii is by far the most important
species in terms of biomass, followed by P. amplifolius and JP. praelongus.
All three of these species, and especially P. Robbinsii, overwinter at rela-
tively high densities. In general there appeared to be an inverse relation-
ship between chlorophyll a and macrophyte biomass (Figure 9). This was true
in both years, although for a given macrophyte biomass, lower chlorophyll a
concentrations would have occurred in 1977. The average summer TP levels were
120 |jg/l ("I sample) and 36 ug/1 (6 samples; range of 20-70 ug/1) in 1976 and
1977, respectively. Although TP levels tended to increase during the summer
as the macrophytes were declining, there was no precise relationship (Figure
10). Macrophyte samples have been retained for tissue analyses, but assuming
a content of 0.13 percent P, 100 g/m2 of macrophytes would be equivalent to an
inlake P concentration of 96 ug/1 at normal water levels.
In terms of conversion of soft bottom to hard bottom there are 3 depth
zones of interest—0 to 0.5 meters, 0.5 to 1.5 meters and 1.5 to 3 meters.
When the 0-0.5 meter zone is converted from soft to hard bottom, about eight
species will be greatly reduced (Table 4). The only species expected to
increase are £. illinoensis, Chara spp., and Najas flexilis. At the 0.5-1.5
meter depth, about nine species are expected to decrease, with P. amplifolius,
P. illinoensis. Chara spp., and Najas flexilis increasing (Table 5).The
reduction in biomass in the 0-1.5 meter zone undergoing conversion to hard
bottom will be at least 70 percent (Table 6). Table 6 also points out that
the lower biomass in 1977 versus 1976 was due to a 50 percent reduction in the
soft bottom areas. Biomass actually increased over hard bottom. According to
147
-------
IF CHLOROPHYLL? THEN SECCHI
I0;jg/l 1.2m
5.6;jg/l 1.8m
3.0>ig/l 3.1m
2.5>ig/l 3.6 m
DILLON AND RIGLER, 1975
10 15
CHLOROPHYLL 9. (;jg/l)
20
25
Figure 6. Relationship between water clarity and chlorophyll a.
148
-------
24
22
20
u
u.
..16
x
3S 14
O '*
PC
£12
x
h-
=3
2
X
8
4
2
IF SECCHI THEN
1.2m (3.9 ft)
1.8m (5.9ft)
3.1m (10.2 ft)
3.6m (11.8ft)
MAXIMUM-DEPTH
2.3m (7.5 ft)
3.0m (9.9ft)
4.6m (15.2ft)
5.2m (17.1 ft)
Y = 2.73 + l.22x
r2 = 0.53
N = 55
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
8
12
Figure 7.
10
SECCHI DISC; FEET
Water clarity versus depth of weed growth.
14
16
18
-------
Ul
o
1000
900
^800
-------
1976
800
600
"E400
o»
200
-------
700 -
MACROPHYTES
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST
SEPTEMBER OCTOBER
Figure 10. Macrophyte biomass and inlake P during 1977.
-------
TABLE 4. COMPARISON OF MACROPHYTE FREQUENCY OCCURRENCE AT THE 0-0.5 m DEPTH
FOR SOFT VERSUS HARD BOTTOM
1976
Species
Potamogeton Robbinsii
Potamogeton amplifolius
Potamogeton praelongus
Potamogeton illinoensis
Megalodonta Beckii
Myriophyllum spicatum
El odea canadensis
Myriophyllum exalbescens
Potamogeton pectinatus
Potamogeton zosteriformis
Heteranthera dubia
Chara spp.
Najas flexilis
Valisneria americana
Sagittaria spp.
Number of samples
Soft
94
23
0
23
42
41
66
25
35
19
66
0
17
.5
0
190
Hard
61
4
0
53
1
7
0
0
23
1
1
97
23
0
0
70
1
Soft
98
28
8
18
52
16
6
3
16
9
.1
.1
4
.1
.1
203
977
Hard
79
14
1
48
5
4
0
0
29
1
0
78
18
0
0
85
TABLE 5. COMPARISON OF MACROPHYTE
FREQUENCY
OCCURRENCE
AT THE
0.5-1.5 m DEPTH
FOR SOFT VERSUS HARD BOTTOM
1976
Species
Potamogeton Robbinsii
Potamogeton amplifolius
Potamogeton praelongus
Potamogeton illinoensis
Megalodonta Beckii
Myriophyllum spicatum
Elodea canadensis
Myriophyllum exalbescens
Potamogeton pectinatus
Potamogeton zosteriformis
Heteranthera dubia
Chara spp.
Najas flexilis
Valisneria americana
Sagittaria. spp.
Number of samples
Soft
98
44
1
26
42
33
43
12
29
16
28
0
8
.6
0
180
Hard
45
55
0
35
2
2
0
3
12
2
0
90
50
0
0
60
1
Soft
98
41
6
27
58
6
4
2
16
12
0
0
1
0
0
188
977
Hard
91
49
0
89
7
1
0
0
9
0
0
8
13
0
0
76
153
-------
TABLE 6. COMPARISON OF MACROPHYTE BIOMASS BETWEEN 1976 AND 1977 FOR EACH
BOTTOM TYPE*
Soft Bottom Hard Bottom
Water Depth 1976 1977 1976 1977
0 - 0.5 m 790 345 38 76
0.5 - 1.5 m 898 432 71 125
>1.5 m 659 335
TABLE 7. COMPARISON OF MACROPHYTE BIOMASS BETWEEN WATER DEPTHS AND BETWEEN
BOTTOM TYPES*
0-0.5 m 0.5-1.5 m >1.5 m
Potamogeton Robbinsii
Hard 25 55
Soft 305 389 128
P. ampliforlius
Hard 3 22
Soft 5.3 12 84.5
P. praelongus
Hard 0.2 0
Soft 0.7 1.2 46.4
P. illinoensis
Hard 8.4 44
Soft 3 4.7 6.5
Megalodonta Beckii
Hard
Soft
1.0
8.1
1.8
17.5
0
* Biomss in g/m2 dry weight.
154
-------
Table 7, P. minoensis, P. amplifolius and £. Robbinsli would be expected to
dominate In the 1.5-3.0 meter hard bottom zone.
If water clarity is sufficient to permit macrophyte growth on the soft
sediments at 3+ meters, the 4 species now dominant at 1.8 meters would be
expected to invade the area (Table 7). P. amplifolius normally produces peak
biomass at 1-3 meters but will grow to a depth of 5 meters. Little is known
about the depth distribution of the other 3 species, but they are often found
in deep water. Of the 5 most abundant species at present, only Megalodonta
Beckii will undergo a sharp reduction after dredging.
FISH
In the spring length measurements were taken from all species and scale
samples were collected from the primary species for age-growth analyses. The
sport fishery is comparatively poor on this lake. The predominance of small,
slow growing fish is thought to be due primarily to the extensive macrophyte
beds. The original plan included calculation of growth rates prior to, dur-
ing, and following treatment. The changes in growth could then be related to
other environmental variables. The fish species present last spring are shown
in Table 8. The extent of the fishkill has not yet been determined, but
young-of-the-year have since been observed for several species.
INVERTEBRATES
Benthic invertebrate samples were collected with an Eckman dredge in
April. Eight samples were taken; four over sand bottom and four over soft
sediments. Additional sampling will be conducted this spring prior to the
start of dredging in order to provide a solid base for comparison with during
the post-dredging populations.
Zooplankton are being collected biweekly May through September. The work
is non-intensive, involving a single tow from the bottom to the surface with a
#20 mesh net near the center of the lake. These samples are being examined
for species composition and enumeration and size distribution. Significant
reduction in the population would be expected during the dredging activity if
high turbidity occurs in the lake. And a whole new group of species should
invade the subsequent lake (e.g. limnetic area).
SEDIMENTS
An important question surrounding any dredging project is the permanency
of treatment. Using a piston corer near the lake center, 100 cm of sediment
was removed, sliced into 2.5 cm segments, and dated by the Pb 210 method. The
average infilling rate over the past 100 years has been 0.5 cm/yr. A tech-
nique has not yet been selected to date the deeper sediments.
An isopach map will be constructed by probing for the depth of soft
sediments in the winter immediately following the dredging operation and in
the last year of the study. The information will be used to evaluate whether
the 10:1 slope, maximum depth of 6.1 meters can be maintained or whether the
sediments will move toward and partially fill in the deeper area.
155
-------
TABLE 8. FISH SPECIES PRESENT; MARCH 15, 1977
Species Common Name
Lepomis macrochirus Bluegill
Micropterus salmoides Largemouth bass
Chaenobryttus gulosus Warmouth
Pomoxis nitromaculatus Black crappie
Ictalurus natal is Yellow bullhead
Esox lucius Northern pike
Perca flavescens Yellow perch
Morone interrupta Yellow bass
Lepomis cyanellus Green sunfish
Ambloplites rupestris Rock bass
Catostomus commersonnii White sucker
TABLE 9. DISSOLVED OXYGEN DEPLETION RATES INSIDE SOD CHAMBERS—JULY 5-13,
1977*
Chamber Depletion Rate (mg/l/day)
#1
#2
#3
#4
T
B
T
B
T
B
T
B
0.84
>1,14
0.79
>1.16
1.0
>1.04
0.96
<0.98
* T = 10 cm (4 inches) from the top of the chamber.
B = 43 cm O7 inches) from the top of the chamber.
TABLE 10. WATER CHEMISTRY OF THE GROUNDWATER; MARCH/AUGUST, 1977
Parameter GW Well No. 123
SRP (pg/1)
TSP (ug/1)
Chloride (mg/1)
Conductivity (microhmos/cm at 25%C)
Nitrite/Nitrate-N (mg/1)
Ammonia-N (mg/1)
Total Organic-N (mg/1)
<4
<20
27
890
<.02
0.74
0.4
5
<20
17
539
<.02
0.12
<0.2
<4
<20
29
912
<.02
1.2
0.7
221
241
29
861
<.02
6.3
2.6
156
-------
Four opaque sediment oxygen demand (SOD) chambers are being used to
determine the oxygen demand and the N and P release rates from the sediments.
The chambers were installed near mid-lake during July 1977. Sampling was
conducted 2-4 times per month from 10 and 43 cm below the top of the chamber.
The chamber top is 61 cm above the sediment surface. Each chamber covers 1.17
square meters of lake bottom and contains 0.71 cubic meters of water. The
rates will be determined prior to dredging, prior to and shortly after alumi-
num sulfate application, and in the last year of the project. This will
permit determination from existing and newly exposed sediments, plus the
effects of an overlying aluminum floe.
The sediments are exerting a significant demand on the oxygen resources
of the lake (Table 9). Low levels were, however, never measured during sum-
mer, and the demand is apparently readily offset by photosynthetic activity
and atmospheric oxygen transfer into the lake. Even during the winter, under
ice cover, photosynthetic activity appears to be important (Figure 11). In
January dissolved oxygen concentrations dropped rapidly and a severe fishkill
resulted in early February. Warm weather occurred soon after, causing the
disappearance of the overlying snow. Improved light penetration apparently
enabled the increase in dissolved oxygen levels through the remainder of the
winter.
The highest concentration of SRP in the SOD chambers was 19 ug/1 (Figure
12) under anoxic conditions. In each chamber the concentration appeared to
reach a peak and then decline to a slightly lower level. Under aerobic condi-
tions within the lake, the highest value was 6 ug/1 (Figure 10). Ammonia-N
levels continued a steady increase through the period of observation. The
concentration rose 0.05-0.07 mg/l/day, producing a release rate of about 30-42
mg/m2 of lake bottom/day. The dissolved oxygen values represented for SOD #1
were typical for each of the 4 chambers. Sediment chemistries to be conducted
later this spring will include total and interstitial P and N analyses.
HYDROGEOLOGY
The present investigation is concerned with determining the flow pattern
and water budget in the vicinity of the lake. Data are provided by a network
of 20 observation wells surrounding the lake (Figure 13). Other data have
been obtained through the use of seepage meters implanted in the lake bottom
(Figure 14). Fluctuations in lake level have also been recorded. In addi-
tion, a piezometer nest consisting of three wells has been emplaced in the
center of the lake through the winter ice. This nest will be removed before
the spring thaw.
To data, eight observation wells have been providing data since July,
1976. These eight wells consist of four pairs placed at approximately the NE,
SE, SW, and NW extremes of the lake. Each pair consists of one well within a
few feet of the lake with the other well placed directly away from the lake at
a distance of roughly 100 feet. The purpose of these pairs is to provide
nearshore groundwater gradients. An additional nine wells have been under
observation since November, 1977. Their purpose is to fill out the water
table profile around the lake. In January, 1978, three new wells were in-
stalled; two on the two hilltops around the lake to determine whether there is
157
-------
01
00
10
__ 8
"v
O»
E 6
•*•
o
§«
o
9 2
o*
-O.I4mg/l/day
I
-0.4mg/l/day
-h0.08mg/l/day
r> +0.15 mg/l/day
I
DECEMBER
JANUARY
FEBRUARY
MARCH
Figure 11. Inlake dissolved oxygen levels during 1976-77.
-------
20
o>
=k
» •»
0.
tt|
WI
•
o
o
o
10
8
66
o
92
o
JULY
Figure 12.
AUGUST
SEPTEMBER
OCTOBER
Release of P and N from sediments inside the SOD chambers
(average concentration within chamber).
159
-------
WHEATLAND
NEW MUNSTER
\
Gravel
Pits
15
7
i
X.
BASSETT
\
^
^
i
Gravel Pit \
\
Figure 13.
160
-------
KENOSHA COUNTY
NE I/4SEC11T1NRI9E
, . . • .T77-T4'
Figure 1°-. Location of inlake seepage meters,
-------
significant groundwater mounding under those hills, and one to replace a well
which we will lose access to in the spring.
Lake level and water levels in the original four pairs of observation
wells have been plotted against time. These plots provide both a rough pic-
ture of water table gradients at four points along the lake shore, and an
indication of how those gradients vary with time. They indicate clearly that
groundwater is entering the lake in the SW (wells 2 and 2a), lake water is
entering the groundwater system in the SE (wells 1 and la) and NE (wells 4 and
4a), and flow sometimes occurs both ways in the NW (wells 3 and 3a) but usu-
ally from lake to groundwater system.
Data from the other wells confirm the hypothesis that there is indeed a
gradient from the SW (well 5) and WSW (wells 6 and 7) which results in move-
ments of groundwater into the lake. When wells 8 and 9 are taken into ac-
counts with wells 3 and 3a in the NW, there is a very clear gradient away from
the lake, that is lake water is entering the groundwater system there. In the
spring of 1977 however, there was a period when it appeared that groundwater
was entering the lake at that point. This could possibly be related to the
spring melt. Although lake levels have not been obtained since the lake froze
in November, 1977, water levels in well 13 in the S and in wells 11 and 12 in
the E have been consistently below the mean lake level, indicating probable
discharge of lake water into the groundwater system.
Well 14 was installed in January, 1978, on a hill to the SW of the lake.
It extends down to about 25 feet below the lake surface. The few readings
taken so far in that well indicate a water level slightly higher than that of
the lake, although no significant mounding of water seem to occur there. Well
15 was also installed in January, 1978, on a hill to the N of the lake. A
barrier which could not be penetrated by our drilling mechanism was encount-
ered about 25 feet above the lake surface, and the hole is dry. Information
from commercial drillers, however, indicates that the water table.beneath that
hill is below lake level.
Beginning in May, 1977, and continuing until October, 1977, nine seepage
meters, as described by Lee (1977), were implanted in the nearshore lake
bottom sediments around the perimeter of the lake. In July, 1977, an addi-
tional thirteen seepage meters were installed in two lines crossing the lake,
roughly N-S and E-W, and were monitored through September, 1977. Plastic bags
containing 500-800 ml of water, and having a total capacity of about 1500 ml,
were affixed to each seepage meter. After four to six hours, the plastic bags
were removed and the change in water volume was measured. An increase in
water volume indicated an influx of groundwater into the lake, while a de-
crease in water volume indicated that water was leaving the lake.
The data obtained from these seepage meters are in overall agreement with
the flow picture derived from the observation wells. They clearly show that
groundwater is entering the lake on the west side and leaving on the east and
north, with the south side showing both groundwater inflow and outflow. This
is in agreement with the regional flow system as delineated by Cotter, et al.
(1969), which shows a generally easterly movement of groundwater towards the
Fox River.
162
-------
The distribution of seepage magnitude however does not coincide with the
model constructed by McBride and Pfannkuch (1975). Their model indicates that
the majority of seepage should occur in a narrow band near the lake shore,
with an exponential decrease in seepage with increasing distance from shore.
Our experience at Lilly Lake has been that while in general the larger magni-
tude seepages do seem to occur near shore, there is not a regular exponential
decrease with increasing distance from shore, and in fact, relatively high
magnitude inflows were consistently recorded in the very center of the lake.
An explanation for this seeming anomaly might be that there are zones of
relatively high permeability beneath the lake which cause deep springs to
occur in the vicinities of some of our seepage meters. Such a situation has
been reported by Cooke and McComas (1974) at West Twin Lake in Ohio. We have
attempted to confirm the strong inflows in the center of the lake by means of
a three-well piezometer nest emplaced through the winter ice, but to date, the
deepest well has not equilibrated sufficiently for reliable measurements to be
taken, and information from the two shallower wells is ambiguous.
At this point it is possible to draw several conclusions regarding the
probable effects of the dredging project on Lilly Lake. It appears that the
organic sediments to be dredged have little effect on the flow system. They
are extremely permeable, and that portion to be dredged, at least, does not
act to seal the lake off from the groundwater system. It is expected that
when dredging begins, lake level will decline, all outgoing gradients around
the lake will reverse, and groundwater will flow into the lake around its
entire perimeter. As long as this condition persists, we expect that the
relatively high level of nutrients (Table 10) found in the groundwater system
at the NE extreme of the lake will flow into the lake, rather than away from
it. When dredging is completed however, and equilibrium reestablished, the NE
sector should revert to its original state of outflow.
The dredged sediments are to be disposed of by piping them to an inactive
gravel pit situated just west of the Fox River (Figure 1). It is thought that
the high water content of the sediments will allow them to be transported as a
slurry, with no additional water needed. The gravel pit will have an earthen
dike constructed across its open end and the sediments will simply fill the
pit. Considering the high permeabilities of sand and gravel, however, it is
thought that the water within the sediments will tend to seep away, most
probably in the direction of the nearby Fox River. A network of observation
wells will be installed around the gravel pit, and between the pit and the
river, to try to follow this anticipated flow. In the event that the amount
of sediment dredged exceeds the capacity of the gravel pit, the remainder will
be used in an experimental program of spray irrigation on nearby farm lands.
All of our observation well and seepage meter monitoring will continue,
insofar as possible, through the dredging period and until the system has
reestablished equilibrium. The response of the system to the dredging will
then be evaluated in the hope of developing a computer model of the process
applicable to other similar situations. If the Lilly Lake project is as
successful as we anticipate it will be, we hope to set a precedent for many
future lake renewal projects.
163
-------
REFERENCES
1. Cooke, G. D. and M. R. McComas. Geological, hydrological and limnolog-
ical description of the Twin Lakes watershed, Ohio, USA: presented to
the North American Project, Centre for Inland Waters, Burlington, On-
tario, 1974. 139 pp.
2. Cotter, R. D. , R. D. Hutchinson, E. L. Skiner, and D. A. Wentz. Water
resources of Rock-Fox River basin, Hydrological Investigations Atlas
HA-360, USGS, 1969.
3. Dettman, D. H. and D. D. Huff. A lake water balance model: Eastern
Deciduous Forest Biome-Memo Report #72-126, 1972. 22 pp.
4. Lee, D. R. A device for measuring seepage flux in lakes and estuaries:
Limnology and Oceanography, v. 22, no. 1, pp. 140-147, 1977.
5. McBride, M. S. and H. 0. Pfannkuch. The distribution of seepage within
lakebeds: Journal of Research of the USGS, v. 3, no. 5, 1975. pp.
505-512.
164
-------
EVALUATION OF DREDGING AS A LAKE RESTORATION
TECHNIQUE, LAKE LANSING, MICHIGAN
by
C. D. McNabb*
Lake Lansing in Ingham County, Michigan, has been selected by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency as a site to test the efficacy of hydraulic
dredging as a lake restoration technique. This lake is the only major surface
water resource for recreation in the Lansing metropolitan region. It has
become gradually eutrophic with intensive use over the past several decades.
Blue-green algae blooms and extensive beds of vascular hydrophytes have caused
the economic and aesthetic value of the resource to decline.
Wastes of the residential and business community in the watershed of the
lake were sewered nearly a decade ago to retard nutrient input. The watershed
is presently stabilized in terms of erosion. Proposed dredging will deepen
the littoral zone of the lake and improve beach and public park shorelines.
The objectives of this study are to (1) quantify the annual nutrient budget
for the lake basin, (2) correlate changes in production of macrophytes, algae,
invertebrate animals and fish with physical and chemical changes that occur in
the lakes as a result of dredging, and (3) to evaluate the ecological impact
of dredged materials on disposal sites. Evaluation of dredging will extend
over a period of five or more years. Intensive sampling will begin in April
of 1978.
LIMNOLOGICAL STUDIES
The research design for limnological portions of the study has been based
on certain physical features of the Lake Lansing basin. Marsh and Borton
(1974) have identified the features of drainage in the watershed as shown in
Figure 1. In addition to precipitation on the surface, water enters the lake
via springs and seepage through surrounding marsh lands. Young et a_L (1974)
calculated a mean annual discharge of 0.1 m3 sec-1 and estimated the nominal
retention time of Lake Lansing to be 1.6 years at present. For purposes of
sampling and data interpretation, the water in the lake is virtually standing,
with surface winds, rather than stream-flow, being responsible for the mixing
that occurs.
A bathymetric map of the present state of the lake basin is presented in
Figure 2. It has been taken from the Lake Inventory map of the Michigan
* Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East
Lansing, Michigan 48824.
165
-------
INGHAM COUNTY, MICHIGAN
T 4N R 1W
Watershed Area- 8.42 sq. km.
Watershed Perimeter - 14.32 km.
Watershed Shape Factor - 1.39
Lake Area - 182 ha.
Lake Perimeter- 5.88 km.
Lake Shape Factor - 1.22
Lake Area: Watershed Area -1:4.58
LAKE
LANSING
Figure 1. The pattern of overland flow in the Lake Lansing watershed and
statistics of size and shape of the watershed and lake. Shape
factors are the ratio of length of the perimeter to the length of
the perimeter of a circle having the enclosed area (from Marsh and
Borton, 1974).
166
-------
LAKE LANSING
INLET
-N-
0
.25
.5
KM
Figure 2. Bathymetric map of Lake Lansing. Depth 4.5 m is the present depth
to which macrophytes of the littoral grow.
167
-------
Institute for Fisheries Research dated 8/14/38, and modified according to
depths at locations sampled in recent years by limnology classes at Michigan
State University. A north and south basin exist in the lake as shown.
Figures 3, 4, 5 and 6 were obtained from the bathymetric map using a
polar compensating planimeter. These figures accentuate the shallowness of
the present basin. The littoral zone of the lake, as defined by the depth to
which rooted aquatic macrophytes grew in 1974 and 1975, extends to the 4.5 m
contour. This is the approximate depth of the suface of the hypolimnion in
the south and the north basin in summer (Young et a_L , 1974). It can be seen
from Figures 3 and 4 that the combined area of the hypolimnetic surfaces over
the two deep holes in the lake is 15% of the total lake surface. The truly
open-water, pelagial regions of the lake are thereby confined to 15% of the
surface area. The littoral region lies beneath 85% of the surface area of the
lake.
Figures 5 and 6 show that only 1.73% of the volume of the lake is con-
tained in the hypolimnion of the south basin, and only 6.6% of the volume is
contained in the hypolimnetic region of the north basin. Nearly all of the
existing limnological data from the lake has been previously obtained by
sampling over and into the two deep holes (cf. Young et aj., 1974). The
preponderance of area and volume in the littoral region, as well as the lack
of limnological data gathered for that region, have been important factors in
causing sampling emphasis in this document to be placed in the shallows.
The littoral zone of Lake Lansing is well occupied by a diverse native
flora. Emergent cattails, bulrushes, and species of Sagittaria are inshore of
water lilies along undeveloped portions of the shoreline. An El odea canaden-
sis-Najas flexilis association dominates the submersed macrophyte community of
the south basin. Characean meadows and mixed communities of potamogetons,
water milfoils and Vallisneria americana are the dominant associations of the
north basin. Epipelic algae, principally blue-greens, commonly begin develop-
ment on the littoral sediments and rise to float freely at the surface in
summer. Filamentous algae of the metaphyton are relatively abundant. A
succession of algae in the plankton occurs through spring and summer, culmi-
nating in blue-greens. Littoral and phytoplanktonic production has never been
quantified for Lake Lansing (except for the effort of Young et aJL, 1974,
using meager C02 data). Young et a]_. (ibid) found Secchi disc transparency in
the growing season to be in the range of 1-3 m.
McNabb (1975) has suggested that recreational lakes of southern Michigan
can be positioned within Figure 7 by analyses of standing crops of the various
plant associations. Gathering the quantitative data to locate Lake Lansing
within this scheme before and after dredging has been given a major emphasis
in the limnological portion of this proposal. Visual observations on the lake
in recent years would suggest that the crops of planktonic and filamentous
algae, and macrophytes would presently place the lake on the right-hand por-
tion of the "plateau of nutrient competition."
Figure 8 (ibid) suggests the impact of two exotic species on the native
submersed flora of southern Michigan lakes. Myriophyllum spicatum (eurasian
water milfoil), and Potamogeton crispus (curly-leafed pondweed), both intro-
168
-------
400
AREA (m*xlO~0)
800 1200
1600
2000
I i I i I
LAKE AS A WHOLE
4
5
200
200
400
7
9
II
I
SOUTH
BASIN
NORTH
BASIN
Figure 3. Depth-area curves for the littoral of Lake Lansing above and for the
two deep holes of the lake below.
169
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PERCENT OF SURFACE AREA
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
80 90 100
UJ
Q 4
LAKE AS A WHOLE
1
10
5
7
9
II
_L
SOUTH
BASIN
NORTH
BASIN
Figure 4. Depth-percent surface area curves for the littoral of Lake Lansing
above and for the two deep holes of the lake below.
170
-------
0
2
~ 4
x
8
10
600 1200
VOLUME (m3x I0~3)
1800 2400 3000
3600 4200 4800
VOLUME (m°x 10")
STRATUM
3.0-4.5
4.5-5.5
5.5-6.5
6.5-7.5
7.5-8.5
8.5 - 9.5
9.5 -10.5
I
SOUTH
BASIN
133
53
18
II
1.5
NORTH
BASIN
440
167
93
35
17
4
1.5
1
Figure 5. Depth-volume curve for Lake Lansing with tabled volumes for strata in the two deep holes
in the lake.
-------
PERCENT OF VOLUME
30 40 50 60 70
PERCENT OF
LAKE VOLUME
SOUTH
BASIN
NORTH
BASIN
STRATUM
3.0-4.5
4.5-5.5
5.5-6.5
6.5-7.5
7.5-8.5
8.5-9.5
£5-10.5
Figure 6. Depth-percent volume curve for Lake Lansing with tabled percentages
of total volume for strata in the two deep holes of the lake.
172
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RELATIVE MAGNITUDE OF
GROWING SEASON MEAN
STANDING FRESH WEIGHTS
PLANKTON 1C ALGAE
FILAMENTOUS ALGAE
t
ANNUAL MAXIMUM
FRESH WEIGHT
STANDING
CO
PLATEAU OF NUTRIENT COMPETITION
DIVERSITY DECLINE
TOWARD
Elodea canadensis
Ceratophyllum demersum
fi MODERN EXPANSION
f OF SUBMERSED
NATIVE MIXED FLORA
ACCEPTABLE PUBLIC
HEALTH STAGE
EQUILIBRIUM
TO ZERO IN ANAEROBIC
SEWAGE "LAKES"
•^ PRE-DEVELOPMENT STAGE EQUILIBRIUM
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS AVAILABLE TO PLANTS
Figure 7.
Generalized relationship of standing crops of aquatic plants in recreational lakes of southern
Michigan of increasing fertility (McNabb, 1975).
-------
t
ANNUAL
MAXIMUM
FRESH WEIGHT
STANDING
PLATEAUS OF NUTRIENT COMPETITION
Myriophylluml
spicatum
REPLACES
NEGATIVE
AGGRE-
GATIONS
Potamogoton crispus
JOINS EXPANDING
NATIVE AGGREGATIONS
^-PRE-DEVELOPMBNT STAGE EQUILIBRIUM
DIVERSITY
DECLINE WITH
Potamogeton
crispus AND
Myriophyllum spicatum
PERSISTING
ACCEPTABLE
PUBLIC HEALTH
STAGE EQUILIBRIUM
TO ZERO IN ANAEROBIC
SEWAGE "LAKES"
•/vwi-
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS AVAILABLE TO PLANTS
Figure 8.
Generalized relationship of standing crops of eurasian water milfoil (M_. spicatum) and standing
crops of native submersed macrophytes and P_. crispus in recreational lakes of southern Michigan
of increasing fertility (McNabb, 1975).
-------
duced from Europe, are major weed species of the region. Both can exist in
relatively nutrient poor lakes reaching high biomass by presumably tapping
nutrient resources of the sediments. While the native flora and P. crispus do
not cause severe weed problems in depths greater than 2 m, M. spicatum does
reach the surface with high biomass from 4 m (Coffey and McNabb, 1974). As a
weed, the latter plant thus removes more surface acres from recreational use
than P. crispus or the native flora, and achieves a higher annual biomass for
the lake as a whole as shown in the figure.
Neither of the exotic weeds is important in the flora of Lake Lansing at
the present time. There is no reason at the present time to suspect that the
habitat will be unsuitable for their growth in the post-dredging era. Dredg-
ing the littoral zone to 4 m (Snell, 1975) will not reduce its area from that
presently existing. Post-dredging analyses of the littoral vegetation will be
important in an evaluation of the technique as a restoration tool. Quantita-
tive base-line data will be collected in the 1978 growing season.
Limnological theory has advanced to the stage of predicting that changes
in the primary productivity of Lake Lansing will be causally related to chan-
ges in chemical and physical attributes of the environment. A comparison of
the analyses of these attributes before and after dredging is a principal
feature of this research. In particular, Wetzel (1975) has suggested that the
rate of decalcification of the littoral-epilimnetic regions in a growing
season is related to productivity so as to be more rapid in more productive
systems. The high rate of decalcification in eutrophic systems in the absence.
of changes of the same order of magnitude in the more conservative Mg , Na
and K can be at least partially implicated in lowering the monovalent:diva-
lent cation ratio in the zone of production.
If plant productivity in the lake is depressed as a result of dredging,
the rate of decalcification in the surface waters in summer should decrease,
and the monovalent:bivalent cation ratio should decrease as well. A low ratio
is typical of unproductive marl lakes in southern Michigan. This observation
is relevant to the study for the reason that Lake Lansing appears to have
progressed historically from a marl lake system to a eutrophic system with
cultural development of the watershed. Figure 9 suggests that a depression of
primary productivity as a result of dredging should cause the metabolism of
Lake Lansing to shift in some degree away from its present eutrophic state
toward that of either a marl lake of an oligotrophic lake. Changes in the
cation ratio can be used as an index of the degree and the direction of this
shift. For these reasons, analyses for the cations have been included in the
proposal.
Analysis of changes in dissolved organic matter (DOM) are proposed here
for the reasons shown by Figure 9. Fractions of this component in the water
serve as chelators for essential metals (e.g., iron) and as an energy source
for heterotrophic bacteria. Bacterial metabolism provides organic micronutri-
ents (e.g., algal vitamins) and free-C02 to populations of primary producers.
The rationale for including analyses for forms of nitrogen and phosphorus has
been well discussed in the limnological literature, and is illustrated in
Figure 9 as well. Silicon has been included in the study because of the
relationships between it and diatom productivity established by Schelske and
175
-------
LOW PRODUCTIVITY
LOW ALOAL1* MACROPHYTIC
PHOTOSYNTHESIS ' "
LOW NUTRIENT
RELEASE FROM
SEDIMENTS
LOW MID CATION RATIOS |
^^ LOW
AVAILABLE CARBON
•Co SUPER (HIOHpH.HCO
SATURATION
-HIGH Mg
•LOW No
LLOWK
H
LOW Ft
LOW Mn
LOW P
LOW COMPLEXING
OMNORGANICS
^^PARTICULATE CoCOj
LOW ORGANIC
MICRONUTRIENTS
LOW BACTERIAL
POPULATIONS
ORGANIC
MATTER
LOW NUTRIENT
RELEASE FROM.
SEDIMENTS
)W PRODUCTIVITY.
LOW ALGAL a MACROPHYTIC
• PHOTOSYNTHESIS *t
LOW ORGANIC
MICRONUTRIENTS
ORGAN 1C COMPOUNDS
-LOW N
-LOW P
-LOW MICRO-,
NUTRIENTS
LOW BACTERIAL.
POPULATIONS
LOW DISSOLVED
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
LOW ORGAN 1C
MATTER
CARBONATE
HYDROXIDE a
PHOSPHATE LOSS
(-PERMANENT)
HIGH HYPOLI MNETIC-
OXYGEN CONCENTRATIONS
.HIGHHYPOLIMNETIC
OXYGEN CONCENTRATIONS
en
HIGH PRODUCT IVIT
HIGH AU3AL a MACROPH'
~" PHOTOSYNTHESIS
HIGH NUTRIENT
RELEASE FROM "
SEDIMENTS
.HIGH N
•HIGH P
.HIGH MICRONUTRIENTS
I
LI
VARIABLE AVAIL ABLE
CARBON ,
HIGH)
BACTERIA'
(8 TURNOVER
t t
HIGH COMPLEXING* HIGH DISSOLVED
OF INORGANICS «=».».•/•
HIGH ORGANIC
MICRONUTRIENTS
•ANAEROBIC HYPOLIMNION
HIGH ORGANIC
MATTER
Figure 9. Limnological relationships that have served as a guide
made in the Lake Lansing study (from Wetzel, 1975).
for selecting the measurements to be
-------
Stoermer (1972). King (1972) has shown that the concentrations of free-C02)
determined knowing pH, alkalinity and temperature, is at least partially
implicated in favoring obnoxious blue-greens at low concentration.
European and American workers have used the rates of oxygen depletion or
carbon dioxide increase in the hypolimnion in summer or the tropholytic zone
in winter as indices of rates of production under low input of allochthonous
organic materials to lakes (cf. Wetzel, 1975). While Young et al_. (1974) have
summarized useful data concerning these parameters, measurements of each are
proposed here for a short pre-dredging interval in 1978 to strenghten the base
of data. Each of these analyses is to be done in the post-treatment period
and these data will be related to changes in primary productivity.
It is proposed that during the period of the study, samples of the lake
and its outflow be analyzed for arsenic, copper and mercury on a regular
schedule. The first two of these have been used over the years to control
aquatic weeds in Lake Lansing. The concentration of mercury in the sediments,
presumably from urban and industrial drift from the metropolitan area located
to the southwest of the lake, has been found to be in the range of 0.5-1.0 ppm
by analyses in the Water Chemistry Laboratory of the Institute of Water Re-
search at MSU. We propose to monitor the mobilization of these elements to
water of the lake and to the downstream environment before, during, and after
dredging because of their potential toxicity.
Scrutiny of the biological food chain to fish is an important aspect of
this work for the reason that the sport fishery of Lake Lansing is a substan-
tial recreational resource. Presently existing detrimental effects on the
fishery due to excessive primary production of macrophytes is suggested by the
work of Roelofs (1958). Since condition of fish populations in the lake may
have changed substantially in the years since that report, a p.re-dredging
assay of them will be done in the fall of 1978. Since qualitative and quanti-
tative data on the zooplankton and benthic invertebrates of the lake are
entirely lacking, pre-dredging analyses on these associations will be done as
well. Similar post-dredging studies will be done for comparison.
METHODS OF LIMNOLOGICAL SAMPLING
THE LITTORAL ZONE COMMUNITIES
The state of the aquatic macrophyte community of the lake will be de-
scribed by 1) a map of the distribution of the dominant species in the basin
at the height of the growing season, 2) detailed physiognomic profiles of the
plant communities along six transects through the littoral zone, and 3) an
estimate of the annual maximum standing crop of this vegetation in the lake.
Each of these aspects of the study will include the dominant filamentous algae
of the lake as a component of the macrophytic vegetation. The work will be
done in August and early September of 1978, and again in years following
completion of the dredging.
The map of distribution of dominant species will be made from the obser-
vations of teams of swimmers working over contour intervals with compass
reference to landmarks. The 0-1 m, 1-2 m, 2-3 m, and 3-4.5 m depth intervals
177
-------
will be mapped, in succession. Observations on the lake in recent years indi-
cate that particular vegetational associations exist to a depth of 4.5 m in
the basin. In particular, the extent of stands of emergent vegetation and
submersed characean meadows, Elodea-Najas communities, and mixed communities
of potamogetons, milfoils, and Vallisneria will be documented.
Figure 10 shows the locations of transects that will be made through the
littoral communities from shore to the 4.5 m contour. These locations have
been selected over the major sediment types in the lake, and through areas in
which dredging will be done. Reference to the figure will show that two of
the transects (1 and 6) will be done over peat, two will be done over marl (2
and 3), and one will be done over alternating peat and marl sediments (5), and
the remaining transect (4) will course over sand. Profiles of the vegetation
showing the location of species and the height of component species will be
made at each location.—
For the purpose of sampling to estimate the maximum macrophyte biomass
during the pre-dredging year of 1978, the lake has been sectured as shown in
Table 1.
TABLE 1. THE ALLOCATION OF NUMBERS OF SAMPLES FOR PRE-DREDGING BIOMASS ESTI-
MATES OF LITTORAL ZONE VEGETATION IN LAKE LANSING.
Stratum
Totals
Area (ha)
of Samples
155.6
100
on Transects
0-1 m
1-2 m
2-3 m
3-4.5 m
0-1 m
1-2 m
2-3 m
3-4.5 m
4.9
6.1
4.9
2.8
23.5
40.9
57.9
14.6
SOUTH BASIN
3
4
3
2
NORTH BASIN
17
26
37
8
1
1
1
1
5
5
5
5
For the lake as a whole, the areas of 0-1 m, 1-2 m, 2-3 m, and 3-4.5 m
contour intervals are in the approximate ratio of 2:3:4:1. The total area of
the littoral zone of the south basin is approximately 1/7 of that area in the
north basin. The total number of samples to be taken has been proportioned
within basins and within contour intervals to reflect these relationships.
For each sample, an area of vegetation having a maximum biomass will be selec-
ted. A cylinder 60 cm deep with a cross-sectional area of 0.1 m2 will be
placed over the vegetation and pushed into the sediments. The plant material
178
-------
INLET
OUTLET
INDICATES TRANSECT
STARTING POINT
MARL
PEAT
Figure 10.
Distribution
Snell, 1970)
traverse the
of marl and peat in Lake Lansing sediments (after
and starting points for sampling transects that will
littoral to 4.5 m.
179
-------
will be removed by hand. It can be noted in Table 1 that each contour inter-
val of the six littoral transects will be sampled in this way to incorporate
the feature of biomass into the profiles of the vegetation obtained along
these lines.
The map of the distribution of the vegetation cited above will be used to
select sampling areas outside of the transects. An estimate of percent cover
within each contour interval will also be available from that map. After the
samples of vegetation have been individually washed free of sediments, dried
at 105°C and ashed at 530°C, an estimate of biomass (biased toward the maxi-
mum) will be obtained for each contour interval, and the littoral zone as a
whole, from the relationships of mean sample weight and percent cover. As the
plant material is handled to obtain weights, the filamentous algae will be
separated out and treated as a distinct component.
A new bathymetric map will be made in the post-dredging years. The new
distribution of littoral vegetation will be superimposed upon it by using the
techniques for mapping described above. Transects 1 through 6 will be rede-
scribed. The size of the annual maximum standing crop of aquatic macrophytes
and filamentous algae will be estimated from the same total number of samples
using the same approach as applied in the pre-dredging year.
THE PLANKTON AND THE AQUEOUS MEDIUM
The littoral and pelagial portions of Lake Lansing will be sampled separ-
ately to obtain information relevant to the effects of dredging on the system.
A pelagial station will be established over each of the two deep holes on the
basin shown in Figure 2. The 0.5 m, 1.5 m, 2.5 m and 3.75 m contours in
Transects 1 through 6 of Figure 10 will serve as littoral stations in the
pre-treatment year of 1976. These stations will be located by appropriate
triangulation and will serve as sampling points in the dredging and post-
dredging period as well.
Three 2 L water samples will be taken from mid-depth at each station on a
littoral transect. These will be composited by contour, resulting in four
samples of 36 L each per sampling date. At the pelagial stations, composite
samples representing the epilimnetic and hypolimnetic regions will be ob-
tained. Three 3 L samples from each of 0.5 m, 1.5m, 2.5 m and 3.75 m depths
will compromise the former. Three samples at each depth beginning at 5.5 m
and spaced 1 m apart to within 1 m of the bottom will be taken as representa-
tive of the latter. Aliquots of these composites will be consigned to various
analyses.
The phytoplankton of a sample will be described by making a list of the
dominant species, counting the cells per unit volume of water for those spe-
cies, converting all counts to cell volume by species, and measuring the
chlorophyll a per unit volume. The kinds and numbers of zooplankters will
similarly be recorded. Aliquots will be used for chemical analyses essential
to the nutrient budget of the lake as described below.
Vertical temperature and oxygen profiles will be obtained at these same
stations using a YSI model 54 unit standardized for dissolved oxygen against
180
-------
the azide modification of the Winkler method. In the open-water period of the
year, these profiles will be obtained at dawn-dusk-dawn on successive days so
that diurnal and nocturnal excursions in oxygen can be recorded. During the
period of ice-cover on the lake, these measurements will be made near mid-day
principally to follow the time-course of oxygen depletion in the tropholytic
zone. Simultaneous treatment of pH and alkalinity will be used (along with
temperature) to develop carbon dioxide relationships in the profiles.
A surface and submarine cell of a Schueler photometric system will be
used to obtain percentages of surface light transmission that can be trans-
formed into vertical extinction coefficients for the lake.
THE NUTRIENT BUDGET
While phosphorus and nitrogen are the nutrients primarily implicated in
controlling the state of primary production in lakes of our region, additional
elements are of interest in Lake Lansing for reasons expressed earlier in this
paper. These are Si, Ca, Mg, Na, K, As, Cu, Hg, total organic carbon (TOC),
and dissolved organic carbon (DOC). These and nitrogen and phosphorus will be
measured as inputs to the lake, within the lake, and as outputs to the down-
stream environment. The analytical methods will be those recommended by
EPA-Water Programs under Title 40, Part 136, Federal Register, Volume 41, No.
232, pages 52780-52786 on December 1, 1976.
Figure 1 of this document shows the watershed of Lake Lansing to be
relatively small (8.42 km2) and poorly drained in terms of surface point
discharges to the lake. Wetlands in the watershed trap a significant portion
of the precipitation as indicated by the arrows on that figure. Adjustments
between the elevation of the surface of the lake and the water standing in the
wetlands are made largely by seepage through glacial till, with intermittent
overland flow. Young et al_. (1974), using data that was gathered early in the
1970's estimated the nominal retention time of the lake to be 1.6 years.
In the fall of 1976, a previously existing concrete overflow structure on
the outlet of the lake was replaced in accord with a newly established legal
lake level. The summer lake level is now regulated at 2.54 cm above the
previous standard; the drawdown winter lake level is set at 12.7 cm below the
previous standard. The past year has been unusually dry for this region.
There has been no surface discharge from the lake since July, 1976; the sur-
face of the lake has been 15-20 cm below the established outfall elevation.
Estimates of the rate of water removal during dredging suggest that the lake
level will be depressed by that process. Sampling to obtain the best possible
estimates for a nutrient budget will be done with due regard to the hydrologic
condition of this system.
Changes that occur in the lake in the amounts of the elements of concern
will be determined from weekly samples in the interval from mid-March through
October, and by two-week sampling over the remainder of the year. A composite
sample from 18 locations over each of the 0.5 m, 1.5 m, 2.5 m and 3.75 m
contours will be obtained each date for the littoral zone. Over the two
depressions in the basin, a composite of three samples each will be made from
the above depths and at 5.5 m, 6.5 m , 7.5 m, 8.5 and 9.5 m. Following labor-
181
-------
atory analysis, concentrations in these samples multiplied by the volumes of
water within the sampled contour intervals will yield estimates of the quanti-
ties present in the basin. Volumes of water within contours will be obtained
from depth-volume curves like that of Figure 5 of this document adjusted by
mapping for changes due to dredging. Because of limited overland flow to or
from the basin, in-lake sampling will be an important aspect of the budget and
is likely to show significant changes due to dredging, if they occur.
Precipitation could account for a significant fraction of the phosphorus
and nitrogen budgets of the lake. Annual precipitation is on the order of
60-70 cm (Young et al., 1974). On the basis of the work of Chapin and Uttor-
mark (1973), 0.01-0.1 g P m-2 yr-1 and near 1 g combined inorganic N m-2 yr-1
would be expected to fall on Lake Lansing. Vollenweider (1968) considered
values close to these to be dangerous from the standpoint of eutrophicational
control in shallow basins like Lake Lansing (<5 m mean depth).
Precipitation on the surface of the lake will be measured with a Weather
Measurement Corporation P511-E heated gage that is acceptable for both rain
and snow. The gage will be coupled with a P522 clock-drive long-term event
recorder to obtain a record of the occurrence and quantity of precipitation.
Evaporation will be measured with a standard WMC E810 manual evaporation
station. Precipitation for nutrient analyses will be collected by a custom
built 2 m diameter polyethylene funnel set on an insulated plywood box that
can be heated to Sk-lQkC in winter. The funnel will lead to a 40 liter col-
lection carbuoy. The instruments will be mounted in a protected area on the
shore of the lake at the Lake Lansing Yacht Club. They will be attended each
day a crew is in the field, except that precipitation for nutrient analyses
will be brought into the laboratory within 8 hours of each event. Incident
solar radiation for the study will be determined by planimetry of curves from
a recording Epply pyrheliometer maintained at MSU's South Farm climatological
station located approximately 5 km from the lake.
Six culverts join Lake Lansing with adjacent wetlands. Movement of water
through these tends to coincide with periods of heavy rainfall and rapid
snow-melt. Weekly measurements will be made of the volume of flow at these
points using hydraulic cross-sections in the culverts and estimating current
velocity with a Pygmy-type water current meter. Samples for analytical analy-
ses will be taken when flow occurs. If periods of unusually high runoff occur
during the study, these inputs will be sampled 2-3 times weekly. The inter-
vals of the general schedule will also be shortened if removal of water from
the lake by dredging is observed to significantly alter the rates of flow from
surrounding wetlands. Return water from the dredged materials disposal sites
will be sampled when it discharges, and results will be included in the bud-
gets for the lake.
The occurrence of an outfall from the lake will be checked on each day a
working crew is in the field; for the five-year program, the longest interval
between observations would be one week. If an outfall occurs, it is likely on
past history to be intermittent. When a discharge is first noted, its rate
(e.g. mVsec) will be determined. The volume of water in the lake above dis-
charge elevation of the spillway will be estimated from depth at the spillway
and surface area of the lake at that elevation, The time required for the
182
-------
lake to return to base level will be computed without regard for losses by
evaporation. A sampling schedule will then be constructed such that t0 is the
time of first observation of discharge (and sampling), t0-t!, t!-t2, t2-t3,
t3-t4 and t4-ts are equal intervals, and t5 is the time when base level should
be reached. At each time of measurement and sampling collection after t0, the
time required to reach the base level will be recalculated. If the result is
< ts, the sampling will progress as planned; if the result is > ts, a new
sampling schedule like the first will be constructed. Under no circumstances
will the interval between samples be longer than 7 days.
NUTRIENTS IN THE SEDIMENTS
The exposure of sediments of different solid-phase constituents and
interstitial water equilibria will occur as dredging is done in Lake Lansing.
Thus nutrient availability in the absorptive layer for rooted aquatic plants,
or quantitative aspects of concentration gradients in the region of the water-
sediment interface could be changed by dredging. These aspects of the nutri-
ent regime will be studied by use of the sample collecting device of Mayer
(1976) shown in Figure 11. It depends in principle upon diffusive equilibra-
tion of solutes between interstitial water and the content of removable dialy-
sis bags. These samplers will be used to measure concentrations of nutrients
in 10 cm strata from 50 cm above the sediments to 50 cm below their surface.
WATER
SEDIMENT
V
Figure 11. Diagrammatric presentation of interstitial water sampler with one
dialysis bag in place (from Mayer 1976).
183
-------
Equilibration times will be determined in the laboratory prior to samp-
ling with Lake Lansing sediments at sampling temperature according to the
methods of Mayer (ibid). A 50 cm depth in the sediments has been chosen on
the basis of our observations of root penetration by macrophytes in the lake,
and on the strength of the work of Hynes and Grieb (1970) who showed movement
of phosphorus to overlying water from undisturbed anoxic sediments occurred
from a depth of at least 10 cm in 2 to 3 months.
Mayer sampling will be done in the mid-June and late-July interval. The
purposes of this timing are to obtain data from year to year under relatively
constant conditions of temperature, and after thermal stratification has
set-up in deep portions of the basin. The locations of sampling will be in
those areas that are selected in the final plan for dredging. Sediments to be
dredged have been designated by Snell (1970; Figure 10 here) as marl, peat
(gyttja), and sand. Five samplers will be set at each of three permanently
located stations within each sediment type in each year. Individual samplers
will be set in macrophyte-free portions of the littoral. After equilibration,
the samples from each of ten depths will be composited for analyses by sta-
tion. Soluble phosphates (unreactive P, reactive P, total p), inorganic
nitrogen (N02~N, N03-N and NH3-N) and silica (Si02) will be measured by tech-
niques used in this study for water analyses.
BENTHOS AND FISH POPULATIONS
A Ponar dredge will be used to obtain samples of the benthic communities
of Lake Lansing. Eight sampling stations will be used per date of sampling;
one over each of the two deep holes in the lake and one on each of the six
transects shown in Figure 10. Samples from a transect will be taken at 1978
depth 2.5 m. These positions will be permanently located by triangulation
using landmarks. In the post-dredging period, these stations as well as
stations on the newly located 2.5 m contour will be sampled. Three samples
will be taken at each sampling point. Periphytic invertebrates and those on
the sediments will be included in samples from the littoral region. Those
organisms taken by the dredge and retained on a U.S. Standard No. 30 sieve,
will constitute a sample. They will be enumerated and weighed by type so that
estimates of biomass will result.
Electrofishing gear of the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife at MSU
will be the principle tool for sampling fish populations. Seines, gill nets
and traps will be employed as supplemental devices. Species of fishes exist-
ing in the lake will be identified. Their relative abundance in collections
will be determined. The individuals will be sexed and scale samples will be
utilized for determination of age and rate of growth. Coefficients of condi-
tion will be calculated from measurements of length and weight. Estimates of
the size of populations will be made from records of catch per unit effort,
and from tag and recapture studies.
ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS ON DREDGED SPOILS DISPOSAL SITES
Hydrous materials from the bottom of Lake Lansing will be lifted by a
hydraulic dredge to diked disposal areas in the vicinity of the lake. In the
early stages of planning the project, close-by marshes in private ownership
184
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were considered as the most probable sites for disposal. Cole and Prince
(1976), responding to the need for an ecological evaluation of the marshes,
classified most of the wetland areas in the immediate vicinity of the lake.
One hundred twenth-four ha of wetlands were categorized according to the
scheme of Golet and Larson (1974). Over time however, the marshes have been
excluded from use as disposal sites. Dredgings will be lifted to uplands on
the watershed. At the time of this writing, there is some question as to the
specific locations that will be used. Whatever the final choice, vegetational
changes and changes in use by animal species will be recorded for the sites
over the five or more years of the study. The discharge water from disposal
sites will very likely course through marshes on its return to the lake.
Where this occurs, the impact on the marshes will be measured in terms of
retention of nutrients and sediments, and the effects of these on the vegeta-
tion and animal and human use.
REFERENCES CITED
Chapin, J. D. and P. U. Uttormark. Atmospheric contributions of nitrogen and
phosphorus. Tech. Rep. Wat. Resources Ctr. Univ. Wis. 73-2, Madison,
1973. 35 pp.
Coffey, Brian T. and Clarence D. McNabb. Eurasian water-milfoil in Michigan.
Mich. Bot. 13:159-165, 1974.
Cole, R. A. and H. H. Prince. Fish and wildife values of wetlands bordering
Lake Lansing proposed as potential spoils disposal sites. East Lansing,
Mich., Dept. Fish and Wildl., Mich. State Univ., 1976. 25 pp.
Dunst, Russell C. , Stephen M. Born, Paul D. Uttormark, Stephan A. Smith,
Stanley A. Nichols, James 0. Peterson, Douglas R. Knauer, Steven L.
Serns, Donald R. Winter and Thomas L. Wirth. Survey of lake rehabilita-
tion techniques and experiences. Madison, Wisconsin, Tech. Bull. No. 75,
Department of Natural Resources, 1974. 179 pp.
Golet, F. C. and J. S. Larson. Classification of freshwater wetlands in the
glaciated northeast. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife Research
Pub: 116, Washington, D.C., 1974. 56pp.
Hynes, H. B. N. and B. J. Greib. Movement of phosphate and other ions from
and through lake muds. J. Fish Res. Bd. Canada 27:653-668, 1970.
King, D. L. Carbon limitation in sewage lagoons. In G. E. Likens, ed. ,
Nutrients and Eutrophication. Special Symposium, Amer. Soc. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 1:98-110, 1972.
Marsh, William M. and Thomas E. Borton. Michigan inland lakes and their
watersheds. Lansing, Mich., Michigan Department of Natural Resources,
1974. 166 pp.
Mayer, L. M. Chemical water sampling in lakes and sediments with dialysis
bags. Limno. Oceanogr. 21:909-912, 1976.
185
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McNabb, Clarence D. Aquatic plant problems in recreational lakes of southern
Michigan. Lansing, Mich., Michigan Department of Natural Resources,
1975. 53 pp.
Roelofs, Eugene W. The effect of weed removal on fish and fishing in Lake
Lansing. East Lansing, Mich., Dept. Fish and Wildlife., Mich. State
Univ., 1958. 10 pp.
Schelske, C. L. and E. F. Stoermer. Phosphorus, silica, and eutrophication of
Lake Michigan. In G. E. Likens, ed., Nutrients and Eutrophication.
Special Symposium, Amer. Soc. Limnol. Oceanogr. 1:157-171, 1972.
Snell, John R. Restoration of Lake Lansing. Lansing, Mich., Ingham County
Lake Board and John R. Snell Engineers, Inc. , 1970. 86 pp.
Snell, John R. Lake Lansing dredging and restoration project, EPA No. 66405.
Lansing, Mich., Snell Environmental Group, 1975. 243 pp.
Vollenweider, R. A. Scientific fundamentals of the eutrophication of lakes
and flowing waters, with particular reference to nitrogen and phosphorus
as factors in eutrophication. Rep. Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development, DAS/CSI/68.27, Paris, 1967. 192 pp.
Wetzel, Robert G. Limnology. Philadelphia, Pa., W. B. Saunders Co., 1975.
743 pp.
Young. Thomas C. , Robert K. Johnson and Thomas G. Bahr. Limnology of Lake
Lansing, Michigan. East Lansing, Mich., Tech. Rep. No. 43, Inst. Water
Research, Mich. State Univ., 1974. 77 pp.
186
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DILUTION EFFECTS IN MOSES LAKE
by
E. B. Welch and C. R. Patmont*
INTRODUCTION
The effects of adding low nutrient dilution water to eutrophic lakes, for
the purpose of reducing their algal content, are twofold and lead directly
from the dynamics of continuous cultures. By reducing the inflow nutrient
concentration, the maximum biomass possible in the reactor vessel of a contin-
uous culture is likewise reduced, and, by increasing the water exchange rate,
nutrients and algal biomass are more rapidly washed out of the reactor, pre-
venting an accumulation. Since the concentrations of nutrients and biomass in
the reactor are the critical parameters in lakes, the controlling factors in
continuous cultures are often analogous in lakes.
The effect of inflow concentration follows from Vollenweider's (1969)
model for the steady state phosphorus concentration;
Z(p+a)
where L is the area! loading, Z is the mean depth, and p and a are the coef-
ficients for the flushing (water exchange) and sedimentation rates, respec-
tively. Clearly if the flushing rate (p) can be increased proportionately more
than the areal loading (L), which is the result of adding water_with low
nutrient concentration, then the steady state P concentration (P) should
decrease. That should theoretically reduce the potential biomass of algae in
the lake. If enough water can be added so that the exchange rate approaches
the growth rate of the algae, then biomass reduction can occur through washout
of cells at a rate that exceeds the growth rate.
Both mechanisms were thought to have potential in Moses Lake, but mainly
that of a reduction in inflow nutrient concentration (Welch, et aj_. , 1972).
Because the bluegreen algal component (mostly Aphanizomenon) was found to grow
at a rate of at least 0.5 day-1, water exchange rates approaching that magni-
tude were thought to be necessary to control biomass. However, an additional
observation in the earlier bioassays was that the growth of bluegreen algae
was poorer and that of diatoms better as the percent of dilution water in-
creased. It was of interest, from the standpoint of food chain energy trans-
* University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195.
187
-------
fer and nuisance conditions, to see if such a species change occurred on a
large scale with the influx of Columbia River dilution water.
This paper describes the results of adding Columbia River water to an arm
of Moses Lake in Eastern Washington during the spring-summer of 1977. Because
of intensive monitoring of trophic state indicators during 1969-70, the rela-
tive improvement in water quality in 1977 could be evaluated with respect to a
normal year. The characteristics of Moses Lake are shown in Table 1.
Water was diverted through Parker Horn of Moses Lake from a large irriga-
tion system via the Eastlow Canal and Rocky Coulee Wasteway (Figure 1). The
proposal was to add water at about 32 m3 sec-1 for 10 days in the spring.
Based on studies with a physical hydraulic model (Nece, et aj., 1976), the
results of which compared closely with those from a simple continuity model,
that magnitude of water input was considered adequate to maximize the reduc-
tion of total phosphorus in Parker Horn. Depending upon the rate of return to
pre-dilution lake P, a second and possibly a third 10-day application was
proposed during the summer.
That the concentrations of nutrients in Columbia River water relative to
the lake and highly favorable for such a dilution project is shown in Table 2.
Of interest is the much higher concentration of TP in the lake, versus Crab
Creek, the natural inflow. The high lake values are a result of wind blown
algae into upper Parker Horn, resuspension of sediment by wind, and excretion
by carp.
While water was not available in the exact quantities or at times pro-
posed, nevertheless, climatic conditions and continual coordination with U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation personnel at Ephrata, Washington provided an experimen-
tal design that was adequate for the purpose intended, which was to;
1) determine if TP in Moses Lake could be controlled with dilution
water as predicted by physical and mathematical models,
2) determine if the algal blooms (chl a) could be reduced in proportion
to the reduction of TP and if water clarity could be improved,
3) observe if a species shift from bluegreen algae to diatoms as a
result of the TP reduction occurred, and
4) estimate what the optimum pattern of dilution water input would be
to control algal crop to about 20 ug I-1 chl a and TP to 50 ug I-1.
PROCEDURE
ANALYSIS
Sampling of water for the determination of total phosphorus (TP), Ortho P
(OP), nitrate nitrogen (N03-N), total N (TN), chlorophyll a (chl a) and plank-
ton counts was conducted by pumping water from a depth of about 0.4 m at 7
horizontal transect sites (Figure 1). At a midpoint of each transect, pro-
files of DO, pH, temperature and specific conductance were also determined, as
188
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TABLE 1. LIMNOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MOSES LAKE (1969-70),
Area
Mean Depth
Volume
Flushing Rate
Nitrogen Load
Phosphorus Load
Average Inflow P Concentration
Chi a (summer mean)
Secchi Disk (summer mean)
Total P (summer mean)
Ortho P (summer mean)
2,753 hectares
5.6 meters
153.7 x 106 m3
1.8 yr-1
18.7 g m-2 yr
2.1 g m-2 yr-1
190 ug I-1
100 |jg I-1
0.5 m
135 ug I-1
50 ug I-1
TABLE 2. CONCENTRATIONS OF NUTRIENTS
DURING 1969-70 IN |jg I-1.
AND Chi a IN MOSES
LAKE AND INFLOW WATER
Total P
Ortho P
Nitrate N
Ammonia N
Total N
Chi a
Parker Horn
178
35
74
--
(1480)
148
Columbia River
30
17
3
--
80
(2)
Crab Creek
92
38
843
--
(1180)
16
( ) estimated because data lacking
189
-------
ROCKY
COULEE
WASTEWAY
MOSES LAKE
STATE PARK _
LAKE OUTLE
MOSES LAKE, WASHINGTON
Figure 1.
190
-------
well as Secchi disk depth. Samples were also collected in the profile for the
determination of nutrients and chl a, but were not used in this analysis. The
horizontal samples were used to compare with values from 1969-70, determined
from similar collections.
Samples were collected weekly, except during the three dilution periods
when they were collected every other day. Filtration and other sample prepar-
ations were conducted at facilities at Moses Lake, but nutrient and chl a
analyses were performed the following day at Seattle. Procedures for nutrient
analysis were largely those from Strickland and Parsons (1968) with the fol-
lowing characteristics;
1) phosphate - ammonium molybdate heteropoly blue complex
2) total phosphorus - persulfate digestion
3) nitrate - copper cadmium reduction column
4) organic nitrogen - u.v. light oxidation
5) chlorophyll a - fluorometric analysis of acetone extracts
6) DO, pH, temperature and specific conductance - Martek water quality
analyzer
THE 1977 ADDITION
Dilution water was added to Parker Horn during three periods in 1977.
The periods, the average inflow rates for Columbia River water plus Crab
Creek, Crab Creek alone, and the resulting water exchange rates, are given in
Table 3. The first period lasted about 1.5 months at a rate of 0.25 day-1.
The second period was only two weeks, and the last was nearly a month.
TABLE 3. AVERAGE FLOWS OF CRAB CREEK AND DILUTION WATER (COL. RIVER) AND
AVERAGE WATER EXCHANGE RATES FOR PARKER HORN DURING THREE PERIODS IN
1977.
m3 sec-1
3/20-5/7
5/22-6/4
8/14-9/10
Total Inflow
34.0
11.8
19.8
Crab Creek
Base Flow
0.40
1.34
2.50
Water Exchange
Rate, Day-1
0.25
0.09
0.15
These rates of exchange were calculated for Parker Horn alone, which
includes stations 5 and 7. They will be used to compare the observed changes
191
-------
in P, N, chl a and conductance with what would be expected from the following
equation:
Ct = Ci + (Co - Ci) e"kt
where C. is the concentration at time t, Ci is the inflow concentration, Co is
the initial lake concentration, and k is the water exchange rate, the expec-
ted levels in Parker Horn were calculated on a weekly basis.
RESULTS
EFFECTS OF DILUTION
The effect of the three treatments of dilution-water addition was to
reduce conductance, P, N, and chl a content and increase the Secchi disk
depth. The average values from May through August, 1977 are compared to
similarly calculated values during 1960 and 1970 in Figures 2 through 5. An
interesting point is that water quality improvement was also observed well
into Lewis Horn, the main lake and into lower Pelican Horn. Thus, the effect
of adding dilution water to Parker Horn via Rocky Coulee Wasteway is much more
extensive than just in upper Parker Horn. However, the reduction in total P
and chl a was greatest in upper Parker Horn, as would be expected, since that
volume would have been most completely replaced by Columbia River water. The
actual Secchi disk depth, on the other hand, was greatest at the lower lake
stations, although relative improvement was still better in Upper Parker Horn.
The overall better visibility (greater Secchi disk depths) in the lower
lake is related to the actual lower chl a values (Figures 4 and 5), even
though percent improvement was not as great as in the upper lake. There are
two processes happening that could account for this trend of downlake decreas-
ing chl a and increasing clarity. First, the degree of wind-induced turbu-
lence would decrease vertically in downlake progression. With less turbu-
lence, the sedimentation of algae and other particulate matter from the water
column would increase. Second, the south winds tend to blow floating blue
green algae up into upper Parker Horn. That this is the factor operating is
indicated by the similar P content in Parker Horn and the lower lake, while at
the same time there is the trend of changing chl a and Secchi disk values,
which are clearly inversely correlated.
The important observation from the management standpoint is that dilution
water entering upper Parker Horn also markedly improved the lower lake. The
area of lake beneficially affected was greater than expected. This can be
shown numerically in Table 4 where the percent improvement in P, chl a, con-
ductance and Secchi disk depth with respect to expected goals was nearly as
great (or greater) in the lower lake (Station 9) as in Parker Horn (Station
7). Of course, as indicated in Figures 3, 4 and 5 the actual percent reduc-
tion in P and chl a and percent increase in water clarity in upper Parker Horn
(Station 5) was more than that in the lower lake largely due to the more
complete replacement of Parker Horn water with Columbia River water, as noted
earlier.
192
-------
300jjm/cm
MILE
Figure 2. Average spring-summer (May-August) conductivity (|j mhos cm-1) in
Moses Lake in 1969-70 and in 1977.
193
-------
100>ig/l-P
1 MILE
Figure 3. Average spring-summer (May-August) total phosphorus content (ug I-1)
in Moses Lake in 1969-70 and in 1977.
194
-------
50jjg/l
1 MILE
Figure 4. Average spring-summer (May-August) chlorophyll a (ug I-1) in Moses
Lake in 1969-70 and in 1977.
195
-------
1969-70
1977
1m
MILE
Figure 5. Average spring-summer (May-August) Secchi disk depths in Moses Lake
in 1969-70 and in 1977.
196
-------
The interesting and apparently anomalous result of the dilution demon-
stration is further indicated in Table 4. Initially it was proposed that in
order to reduce algal content (chl a) and improve clarity (Secchi disk depth),
P content must first be reduced. It has been hoped that P would be lowered to
an average of 50 |jg I-1 or less which should have resulted in a chl a content
of 20 pg I-1 or less, based on the predictive equation of Dillon and Rigler
(1974). According to the average levels of P (78 and 91 ug I-1) the expected
mean chl a content should have been about 40 and 50 ug I-1 respectively.
While it can be argued that the system was changing too much from the three
separate inputs of water for a valid use of the Dillon and Rigler equation,
which is more representative of an equilibrium condition, the results indicate
that chl a was reduced far more than could be expected from P reduction alone
and came much closer to attaining a goal in spite of the poorer improvement in
P. Likewise Secchi disk depth was increased far more than would have been
expected based solely on chl a, and even exceeded the goal in the lower lake.
TABLE 4. AVERAGE TOTAL P, TOTAL N, Chl a AND SECCHI DISK DEPTH IN 1977 (MAY-
AUGUST) COMPARED TO 1969-70 FOR PARKER HORN (STATION 7) AND THE
LOWER LAKE (STATION 9).
PARKER HORN (STATION 7)
Total P Conductance Chl a
LOWER LAKE (STATION 9)
SD (m)
1977
1969-70
Goal
% Improved*
78
135
50
67
311
403
300
89
29
73
20
83
1.2
0.6
1.5
67
1977
1969-70
Goal
% Improved*
91
135
50
52
309
402
300
91
24
44
20
83
1.9
1.0
1.5
180
* Concentrations are in pg I-1 and conductance in umhos/cm. Percent improve-
ment for Total P, Conductance, and Chl a was calculated by the difference
between 1960-70 values and the goal for restoration. Thus, percent improved
refers to the extent to which the goals were attained in 1977.
The changes in the variables measured throughout the spring and summer of
1977 are shown in Figure 6 through 9. The values reported here are from the
horizontal collections at a depth of about 0.4 m. While it is apparent that
the P levels in Moses Lake north and south of the 1-90 bridge were lower
197
-------
1400
1200
1000
T 800
S600
00
tr.
400
I
200
r 280
- 240
f
- 200
-7 160
CO
-0120
o
CL
CO
- 40 -
0
1
AVERAGE P (MAY-AUGUST) =
AVERAGE N (MAY-AUGUST) = 526ug I"1
PHOSPHORUS
NITROGEN
lA/v/v
V
>V
V
FIRST DILUTION
I
1
SECOND DILUTION
I
I
I
THIRD DILUTION
I
MARCH
APRIL
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST
Figure 6. P and N concentrations from horizontal transects at Station 7, Moses Lake, North of the 1-90
bridge, 1977.
-------
1200
-240
1000
-200
800
- 160
600
o
or
i-
400
200
•
o»
i
o:
o
^80
- 40
AVERAGE P (MAY-AUGUST) = 91 jug r1
AVERAGE N (MAY-AUGUST) = 643jugT
GOAL FOR TOTAL R 50 mg/l
FIRST DILUTION
1
1
SECOND DILUTION
1
1
1
THIRD DILUTION
1
MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST
Figure 7. P and N concentrations from horizontal transects at Station 9, Moses Lake, South of the 1-90
bridge, 1977.
-------
Average Secchi Disk (May-August) = 1.2 m
Average Chi S (May-August) = 29.3>ig 1"1
1969-70
1977
SECCHI DISK GOAL
THIRD
DILUTION
FIRST DILUTION
MARCH
APRIL
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST
Figure 8. Chlorophyll a from horizontal transects and Secchi disk measurements at Station 7, Moses Lake,
North of the 1-90 bridge during 1969-70 and 1977.
-------
Average Secchi Disk (May-August) 1.9 m
Average Chi 9. (May-August) =236>igl~I
I969-7O
1977
* SECCHI DISKGOAbJ
SECOND
DILUTION
THIRD
DILUTION
FIRST DILUTION
Chi 9 GOAL
_ _
I X / ~"~
MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST
Figure 9. Chlorophyll a from horizontal transects and Secchi disk measurements at Station 9, Moses Lake
South of the 1-90 bridge during 1969-70 and 1977.
-------
during the addition of dilution water, the variability also indicates that
other factors affected the levels. The P levels appeared to increase at the
beginning of the first dilution water addition. That was no doublt a result
of the detritus and debris that had accumulated in the wastewater and was
washed into the lake with the introduction of the first quantity of water. A
few days after initial addition the P level dropped and remained relatively
low, at least to around the 50 ug I-1 goal, for at least the duration of the
dilution period and for two to three weeks after termination of the addition.
That was particularly true in Parker Horn, north of the 1-90 bridge.
Clearly, the P level increased markedly during July and early August when
dilution water was not entering the lake. The concentrations attained were
commonly greater than 100 ug I-1, and on one occasion in Parker Horn nearly
200 pg I-1 was attained. Since the concentration in Crab Creek averaged
considerably less than that, the source of P that raised the levels so high
must be internal.
Total N appeared to behave in a slightly more conservative manner than
did P. During the first dilution period N was reduced and remained low and
more stable than P. Of course, it increased during the non-dilution period in
July and early August similar to P, but the levels were not closely correlated
with P.
Figures 8 and 9 show the seasonal comparison of chl a and Secchi disk
depth between 1969-70 and 1977. While the dilution water addition greatly
reduced chl a during the first period, the level was not below the 1969-70
level. However, Secchi depth was considerably greater. This may have been
due to the fact that normal , rather turbid, runoff in the springs of 1969-70
kept chl a down due to a high exchange rate, but also held the clarity low
because of non-algal turbidity.
For the remainder of the summer, however, the chl a level and Secchi
depth were much improved over those in 1969-70. Secchi depth reached a maxi-
mum of 15 feet in the lower lake in mid June coincident with the minimum chl a
content. The second dilution water addition, although the lowest rate of
exchange (0.09-1 day), effectively reduced chl a and increased Secchi depth
both north and south of the bridge. In fact, that observation is one of the
more surprising ones in the study. In spite of P remaining relatively high at
that time (well above 50 ug I-1 in the lower lake), chl a decreased promptly
with the addition of the dilution water and remained below 20 (jg I-1 for over
a month.
During late July and early August, about 1.5 months after cessation of
the second dilution, chl a increased rapidly to a level exceeding 100 pg I-1.
Chl a promptly dropped coincident with the start of the last dilution water
influx.
The main point to be observed in the Figures 6 through 9 is that dilution
water had a more pronounced and lasting effect on chl a and Secchi depth than
it did on P and N content. This implies that large amounts of added dilution
water, which are necessary to attain low P levels, were.not necessary to
effectively reduce and control chl a and improve water clarity. This suggests
202
-------
one of at least two mechanisms that could be operating. Either sufficient
time was not available for the algae to build a biomass in proportion with the
higher-than-predicted P content caused by non-inflow (internal) sources of P,
or that some factor(s) in the dilution water discouraged the growth of blue-
green algae, which resulted in their biomass decrease in proportion to the
rate of water exchange.
PREDICTED VERSUS OBSERVED EFFECTS
To illustrate this point further, the observed changes in the pertinent
variables are compared with predicted values in Parker Horn based on the
previously mentioned equation of continuity. First, specific conductance was
used as a conservative "element" and Figure 10 shows that reductions in lake
levels were reduced largely in proportion to the input of dilution water.
Total N was less consistent (Figure 11), but was affected more consistently
than Total P (Figure 12) as was indicated previously in Figures 6 and 7. In
Figure 12, the large peak of 100 pg I-1 after the beginning of the first
dilution period had already been ascribed to debris from the wasteway canal
washing into the lake. However, the other, seemingly anomalous peaks during
the second and third dilution periods, were coincident with windy weather
during sampling. In shallow unstratified lakes, the effect of vertical resus-
pension of settled matter through wind-driven mixing is probably an effective
internal source of P. This then appears to be a strong inhibiting factor to
the effective decrease in lake P content by the addition of low nutrient
dilution water in a shallow lake.
As it turns out, however, the reduction of P does not appear to be a
prerequisite for effective control of algae in Moses Lake by the addition of
dilution water. As shown in Figure 13, the reduction of chl a in the lake
follows the predicted decline almost precisely in the manner of a conservative
property. That is particularly true for the last dilution period. If the
algae were growing, then the biomass level, which is the difference between
growth and loss, should have remained at higher levels than those predicted.
This was actually true during the first period, but not the second and third.
Even the low rate of water exchange during the second period (0.09/day) was
adequate to cause total washout of biomass.
The algal crop that ceased growth and washed out during the third dilu-
tion period was nearly 100 percent bluegreens, mostly Aphanizomenon. As shown
in Figure 14, the large biomass at the start of the dilution period was prac-
tically 100 percent bluegreen algae. The decrease in chl a as a result of
washout was nearly proportional to that of bluegreens. Also observable is
that the rapid decrease in bluegreen algae was accompanied by an increase in
diatoms particularly, but also some green algae, to replace the bluegreens.
Diatoms increased from 2,000 cells ml-1 on 8/10 to 55,000 on 9/29. Green
algae increased from 2,000 ml-1 to over 20,000 ml-1 and decreased again to
8,000 ml-1 by 9/29. By October, one month after the cessation of dilution,
bluegreens had reattained their dominance (82 percent).
Clearly then the presence of Columbia River dilution water greatly re-
duces and even stops the growth of bluegreen algae in the lake. This was
shown in experiments performed by Buckley (1967) in which the quantity of
203
-------
500
ro
o
Tg400
M
O
E
5 300
t
>
0200
o
o
o
100
O—O Observed concentrations at Station 7, North of 1-90
—A Predicted concentrations in Parker Horn Based on a Dilution Equation
FIRST DILUTION
I I I I I I I II
SECOND DILUTION
I i i i i
3/13 3/27 4/10 4/24 5/8
THIRD DILUTION
oc
Ul
100^
LU
50
LU
O
tr
o £
i i i i i i
5/15 5/29 6/12
8/7
8/21 9/4
Figure 10. Predicted and observed specific conditions in Parker Horn, 1977.
-------
1400
1200
1000 -
PO
o
en
7 800 -
z
S 600
o
cr
<400
o
200 -
O O Observed concentrations at Station 7, North of I-9O
A—-A Predicted concentrations in Parker Horn from a Dilution Equation
FIRST DILUTION
I I I I I I I I I
SECOND DILUTION
I I I I 1
THIRD DILUTION
1 I I I I I
3/13 3/27 4/10 4/24 5/8 5/15 5/29 6/12 8/7 8/21 9/4
Figure 11. Predicted and observed Total Nitrogen concentration in Parker Horn, 1977.
-------
ro
o
Ch
120
100
80
CO
D
O
g 60
a.
CO
o
40
20
O O Observed concentrations at Station 7, North of 1-90
A—-A Predicted concentrations in Parker Horn from a dilution equation
FIRST DILUTION
I I I I I I I I
I
SECOND DILUTION
I I I I I
THIRD DILUTION
I I I I I
3/13 3/27 4/10 4/24 5/8 5/15 5/29 6/12 8/7 8/21 9/4
Figure 12. Predicted and observed Total Phosphorus concentrations in Parker Horn, 1977.
-------
120
100
!_ 80
ro
o
o>
=*>
01
X
a.
o
a:
o
x
o
60
40
20
O O Observed concentrations at Station?, North of I-9O
A A Predicted concentrations in Parker Horn from a dilution equation
FIRST DILUTION
SECOND DILUTION
THIRDA\ DILUTION
3/13 3/27 4/10 4/24 5/8
5/15
5/29 6/12
8/7 8/21
9/4
Figure 13. Predicted and observed Chlorophyll a concentrations in Parker Horn, 1977.
-------
INS
8
UJ
K 100
UJ
00
80
60
< 40
?
&
>»
a>
*.
oj
6
20
FIRST DILUTION
D86
Chl2
\
BG
P
I
I
I
SECOND DILUTION
THIRD DILUTION
3/13 3/27 4/10 4/24 5/8 5/15 5/29 6/12 8/7 8/21 9/4 9/18
Figure 14. Composition of bluegreen algae, where "one cell" is equal to 40 m length and 400 m2 of area
for filaments and colonies, respectively, and diatoms + greens together, compared to chloro-
phyll a and dilution period during 1977.
-------
bluegreens, after three weeks of exposure in 0.5 m deep plastic bags, de-
creased in direct proportion to the amount of dilution water added (Figure
15). This was thought to be caused by the reduction in P content, which is
also indicated in Figure 15. At concentrations below about 50 uh I-1 P it
appeared that little bluegreen algae was produced. This was also tied to the
growth rate as shown in Figure 16. As the percent lake water decreased to
around 25 percent or less, growth rate approached zero. At lower levels the
bluegreens apparently died. Buckley also observed that as bl.uegreen growth
decreased with increased amounts of Columbia River water the growth of diatoms
increased, which is what actually occurred in the lake in 1977 and was partic-
ularly evident during the August dilution. Earlier in the season, the lake
contained so much relatively "low" nutrient Columbia River water that diatoms
(and some green algae) completely dominated the plankton.
The percent of lake water remaining at which complete cessation of growth
of bluegreens occurs probably varies seasonally. Growth of diatoms did not
appear to stop during the first dilution period, as evidenced by the larger
than predicted biomass remaining (Figure 13) even though exchange rate was
highest at 0.25/day. In August, growth of bluegreens was apparently stopped
at a water exchange rate of 0.15/day. The percent lake water that was reached
during the last dilution was about 50 percent, based on conductivity. How-
ever, washout was occurring earlier when the percent lake water was about 75.
The theoretical level to which the percent lake water should have been reduced
to is about 0 percent (see predicted curve in Figure 10). It appears that a
rate of input of dilution water of about 20 m3 sec-1 (700 cfs), that would
theoretically result in a 0 percent lake water in about 2 weeks, is more than
enough to attain adequate control of bluegreen algae.
While the experimental dilution rates 'were not low enough to observe an
optimum input for control, there is room to speculate that an input of about 2
to 3 times the flow of Crab Creek should be adequate to prevent a dominance by
bluegreens and maintain relatively low levels of chl a. Such an input of 2 to
3 times Crab Creek would be between 100 and 200 cfs (2.8 to 5.7 m3 sec-1) of
Columbia River water depending on the base flow of Crab Creek.
SUMMARY
1. The addition of Columbia River water to Parker Horn and the lower
portion of Moses Lake in spring-summer of 1977 greatly improved lake quality.
The effect occurred throughout the lower lake as well as in Parker Horn.
Chlorophyll and phosphorus were greatly reduced and water clarity increased.
The improvements, with respect to the goals previously set, were 83, 52-67 and
67-180 percent for chl a, P and water clarity, respectively.
2. Chlorophyll a was effectively reduced and Secchi depth increased by
the physical effect of washout at water exchange rates as low as 9 percent per
day and reduction in residual lake water to about 50 percent.
3. The effective washout of bluegreen algae succeeded in an effective
reduction in and further control of biomass because the presence of dilution
water apparently inhibits their growth. This was demonstrated in earlier
experiments at lake water concentrations between 25 and 50 percent. This
209
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(75%)
(100%)
(50%)
(25%)
(%} = LAKE WATER
25
50
75
-I
100
125
150
175
;jg 1"' TOTAL PHOSPHORUS
Figure 15. Maximum biomass of bluegreen algae in 100 1, 0.5 m deep plastic
bags supplied with Moses Lake water diluted with Columbia River
water to provide the given total P concentrations. The test water
was renewed at 10% per day with the appropriate test. Moses Lake
water and Columbia River water ratio to simulate continued flow of
the mixture through the lake section, and lasted for 3 weeks.
210
-------
0.3
- 0.2
i
- o.i
UJ
tr
1 o
O
tr
-0.1
BLUE GREEN
ALGAL GROWTH
l
I
I
25 50 75
PERCENT LAKE WATER
100
Figure 16. Growth rate of bluegreen algae exposed to various concentrations
of lake water diluted with Columbia River waters with an exchange
rate for the culture medium of 10% per day.
211
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cessation of growth and washout of cells was observed during the third dilu-
tion period in August at a lake water concentration of about 50 percent based
on specified conductance.
REFERENCES
T. Buckley, J. A. "Effects of low nutrient dilution water and mixing on the
growth of nuisance algae." M.S. Thesis, University of Washington, 1971.
116 pp.
2. Dillon, P. J. and Rigler, R. H. "The phosphorus-chlorophyll relationship
in lakes," Limnol. and Oceanog.. 1974. 119pp., 767-773.
3. Nece, R. E., Reed, J. R. , and Welch, E. B. "Dilution for eutrophication
control in Moses Lake: Hydraulic model study," Department of Civil
Engineering Tech. Rep. No. 49, 1976. 57 pp.
4. Strickland and Parsons, T. R. "A practical handbook of seawater anal-
ysis*" Bull. Fish. Res., Bd. , Canada, No. 167, 1968.
5. Welch, E. B., Buckley, J. A., and Bush, R. M. "Dilution as an algal
bloom control," J. Water Pollut. Cont. Fed., 1972. 44 pp. 2245-2265.
6. Vollenweider, R. A. "Possibilities of limits of elementary models con-
cerning the budget of substances in lakes," Arch. Hydrobiology, 66, 1969.
pp. 1-36.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The effort on this project from March through August, 1977 was funded by
an EPA demonstration grant to Brown and Caldwell Engineers, Seattle, and a
Research Contract to the University of Washington from the Moses Lake Irriga-
tion District. The authors acknowledge the effort of Mr. Sam Edmondson of
Brown and Caldwell for institutional arrangements with the Bureau of Reclama-
tion, and local irrigation districts, which were crucial to the project. Dr.
Tommy Lindell, University of Washington, and Messrs. Steve Bingham and Mac
Smith assisted with the sampling program. Mr. Ron Tarn, University of Washing-
ton, performed the chemical analyses.
212
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DETAILED EVALUATION OF THE
LONG LAKE IMPROVEMENT PROJECT
by
R. V. Blomquist and W. Wood*
My presentation will be on the Long Lake Improvement Project. The De-
tailed Evaluation Grant on this project has been awarded within the last
month, and as a result, no work has actually begun on the Detailed Evaluation.
Today I would like to describe to you some of the rationale and the
history behind the Long Lake Improvement Project itself, some of the reasons
for its existence, and some of the goals of this project.
Long Lake is located in the city of New Brighton, a suburb directly north
of the Minneapolis/St. Paul, Twin City area. New Brighton was historically a
small agricultural community, near a large city, which has in the last fifteen
years become engulfed by the spreading suburbs of the Twin City metropolitan
area. New Brighton is a bedroom community of about 25,000 people, the major-
ity of these people are employed in the downtown area.
Long Lake is the focal point of the Rice Creek Watershed District.
Watershed districts may be a level of government organization which some of
you are not familar with, but which are common in Minnesota. Watershed dis-
tricts are established by order of the Minnesota Water Resources Board, acting
under the authority of the Minnesota Statutes. One of the main purposes of
the watershed district is to deal with matters which cross county and munici-
pal boundaries. The affairs of the district are administered by a board of
managers appointed by the County Commissioners of the affected counties. In
this case, there are 5 district managers; two of which are appointed by Ramsey
County, two from Anoka County and one from Washington County.
The Rice Creek Watershed encompasses 201 square miles which drain into
Rice Creek and eventually into the Mississippi River. Long Lake is located at
the focal point of the watershed and receives surface drainage from 195 square
miles which contain rural areas, located in the north; and residential, com-
mercial and industrially developed areas in the south. The lake itself has a
surface area of approximately 200 acres and is divided into two basins, a
north basin containing about 75 acres and a southern basin containing about
125 acres. The mean lake depth is 12 feet. The maximum depth is 35 feet.
Rice Creek enters the lake on the northeast corner and leaves the lake on the
* National Biocentric, Inc., 2233 Hamline Avenue, North, St. Paul, MN 55113
213
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northwest corner. Other areas drain into the lake, entering it from the south
basin.
Long Lake has experienced problems of excessive sedimentation in the
northern basin, an overall degradation in water quality, and occasional local
flooding in the area.
The Long Lake improvement project encompasses not only Long Lake, but
involves a series of restoration measures undertaken to improve water quality
in a chain of lakes to the south. In addition to Long Lake, other lakes that
will benefit from this project include Lake Johanna, Lake Josephine, Valentine
Lake, Pike Lake, Jones Lake and other small lakes in the immediate vicinity.
The Rice Creek Watershed District submitted the grant application and was
subsequently awarded a Lake Restoration Grant to conduct the improvements on
the Long Lake chain of lakes.
The improvements can be divided into four broad categories (Figure 1).
First, a sedimentation basin will be installed in Rice Creek before it enters
Long Lake. Second, channel repairs and upstream improvement to control ero-
sion are to be undertaken. The various improvement projects are spread
throughout the area of the watershed. It should be noted that the upstream
improvements and channel repairs are proposed in the more heavily urbanized
areas of the watershed. The third category involves the dredging of a portion
of Long Lake which has filled in as a result of sedimentation which has oc-
curred over the last decades. Fourth, is a wetland treatment system which
will be installed in an area which receives a large amount of runoff, and will
allow for treatment before the water enters Long Lake.
The transport and deposition of sediments in the Long Lake system has
been studied in an effort to determine the quantity as well as the sources of
the sediments. Three sources, Rice Creek, Pike Lake, and Lake Johanna, are
the major tributaries to Long Lake and contribute the majority of sediments
being deposited in the lake. The sediments result from sheet erosion in open
space areas and channel and stream bank erosion in other locations, which are
then transported to the lake.
Of the three sources, Rice Creek and its associated upstream watershed,
constitute the largest single source of sediment deposition. The sediment
load via Rice Creek is estimated to be 2,000 tons per year. Approximately 200
tons per year are estimated to result from Pike Lake and an estimated 500 tons
per year from Lake Johanna.
Nutrient balance considerations for Long Lake indicate that 13,000 pounds
of phosphorus enter the lake annually, of this amount, 5000 pounds are de-
posited as bottom sediments or utilized by aquatic plants and 8,000 pounds are
discharged via the lake outlet. Rice Creek accounts for approximately 60% of
both the water and the nutrients which enter Long Lake annually.
At the inlet of Rice Creek to Long Lake, a delta has been forming as the
result of deposition of sediments over the years. Currently, in the spring of
the year, water flows down the creek and into the lagoon before moving out
into the lake. The improvement project calls for dredging the inlet to Long
Lake, and allowing the water to move directly into the lake.
214
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..
HENNEPIN :j_.,. CO
:
SEDIMENTATION BASIN
LAGOON DIKE AND DREDGING
COUNTY DITCH NO. 2 REPAIRS
COUNTY DITCH NO. 4 REPAIRS
COUNTY DITCH NO. \Z REPAIRS
LONG LAKE DREDGING
WETLANDS TREATMENT SYSTEM
Figure 1. Long Lake chain of lakes improvements.
215
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PHOSPHORUS BALANCE
Inlet
Rainfall
Direct R.O.
Rice Creek
Pike Lake
Lake Johanna
Lbs.
23
814
8,035
817
3,615
13,304
Outlet
Rice Creek
Di fference
Lbs.
7,984
5,320
13,204
From: Grant Application, Long Lake Improvements. Rice Creek
Watershed District, 1976.
WATER BALANCE
Inlet
Rainfall
Direct R.O.
Rice Creek
Pike Lake
Lake Johanna
Million
Gallons
Per Year
135
154
6,256
1,053
2,987
10,585
Outlet
Rice Creek
Evaporation
Million
Gallons
Per Year
10,405
180
10,585
From: Grant Application, Long Lake Improvements. Rice Creek
Watershed District, 1976.
216
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Immediately upstream is the general area for construction of a sedimenta-
tion basin. It is anticipated that this basin will remove much of the sedi-
ments carried from the large rural portion of the watershed into the lake.
The sediment basin is designed to accommodate the three-year rainfall event
and to have a five-year clean out interval. This represents a storage capa-
city of approximately 9,000 cubic yards.
The Pike Lake sub-watershed, and particularly County Ditch #2, has sig-
nificant erosion problems. It is proposed to coordinate municipal park devel-
opment projects with the lake improvement techniques in this area to maximize
efficiency.
The Lake Johanna portion of the watershed carries water from Lake Jose-
phine, Johanna, and from Island, Valentine, and into Long Lake. Starting in
the southernmost portion of the watershed, Lake Zimmerman receives runoff from
freeways and urban development, both residential and commercial; there's even
a golf course over on the right-hand side of the lake. Water from this south-
ern portion of the watershed drains north into Lake Johanna. The southern
area of the watershed, that which is drained by Lake Zimmerman, is primarily
residential; whereas that drained by County Ditch 14 is primarily commercial
and industrial. Important features of this area of the watershed are the
trucking operations and shopping centers with their large parking lots, which
present problems from the standpoint of runoff. The ditches which drain the
parking areas and shopping centers from this portion of the watershed are very
large in order to handle the runoff. When these ditches fill immediately
after a heavy rain, large volumes of water move through these ditches and
carry along debris.
Water also enters Lake Johanna at its southeasterly corner. There is a
beach located on Lake Johanna that receives quite a bit of usage. The outlet
from Lake Johanna is not large enough to effectively handle the outflow and
can sometimes act as a dam after heavy rains. Part of the improvement project
calls for improving the outlet and increasing its ability to handle large
volumes of rain without creating flooding conditions.
Island Lake is located in the northern half of the Lake Johanna subwater-
shed. Water from this area moves through Island Lake, Valentine Lake, and
finally joins up with the water from Lake Johanna. Island Lake is surrounded
by primarily residential areas; however, it does receive some drainage from
industrial office-type facilities.
The area between Lake Johanna, Valentine Lake, and Long Lake is proposed
for the construction of the wetland filter system. There will be some biolog-
ical uptake, some entrapment, and some microbial activity which would remove
some nutrients from the water before it enters Long Lake.
That pretty well summarizes the lake improvement project. The improve-
ment project has not been designed by our firm, or people under my supervi-
sion.
The detailed evaluation program on Long Lake has two aims: first , to
evaluate the specific treatment projects, that is the sedimentation basin, the
217
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wetland filters, the channel repairs and the dredging, to determine whether
they are meeting their design specifications; and, the second objective will
be to evaluate the water quality in Long Lake and also in the other lakes in
the system, to determine whether or not the lake restoration techniques have
had any effect on water quality.
Because of the position of Long Lake with respect to the entire water-
shed, the limnological evaluation will include not only Long Lake itself but
other lakes in the watershed. However, the primary effort will be on Long
Lake. As stated earlier, the actual evaluation has not begun at this time;
however, we anticipate collecting some of our first samples through the ice
within the next two weeks. There are still thick layers of ice on the lakes
in Minnesota. In fact, when I left on Monday, only one day had been recorded
when the temperature had been above freezing since December 19th.
EVALUATION OF LAKE RESTORATION PROCEDURES
1. Sediment Basin
Upstream versus Downstream
Hydrologic
Sediment
Nutrient
Continuous Hydro!ogic
Regular Water Quality (Lake and Solids)
Periodic Storm Event
2. Erosion Control/Channel Improvements
Not Well Defined
Regular if Possible
Periodic Storm Events
3. Wetlands Filter
Upstream versus Downstream
Hydrologic
Sediment
Nutrient
Regular
Periodic Storm Event
4. Dredging (Not Well Defined)
Lake Depth
Nutrient Removal
Sediment Removal
Since improvement of water quality is one of the primary objectives of
the lake improvement project, the limnological investigation will play an
important role in the overall detailed evaluation. The success of this evalu-
ation is based on both the base line data and the data collected in years
following the implementation of the improvement technique. At this point, I
would not like to comment extensively on the potential problems in scheduling
218
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except to point out that the schedule for the resotration project has not been
firmed up, and may, in fact, continue beyond the completion date for the
detailed evaluation.
Our schedule for Long Lake calls for the initiation of water quality
monitoring in the spring of 1978. As I indicated, we will likely be in the
field within the next two weeks to collect samples through the ice. At that
time, we will also collect sediment cores and begin some of the dating evalua-
tions of the sediments. Our program calls for monthly water quality sampling
through the ice. Samples will be collected every three weeks from June
through November, and on a oi-weekly basis from ice-out through May. Surface
water and volume proportional composite samples will be collected and analyzed
for the phosphorus complex, the nitrogen complex, chlorophyll a and alkalin-
ity. On site field data, such as Secchi disk, dissolved oxygen profile, and
conductivity profile, will be collected. Extensive data regarding time of
sampling, climatological data, will also be recorded.
The biological analysis will be aimed at trying to collect data which
will allow for a complete understanding of the relationships of the lake's
aquatic ecosystem. Algal data will include species identification and enumer-
ation. Primary productivity will be analyzed in the spring, summer and fall.
Alkaline phosphatate activity will be evaluated throughout the year in an
effort to assist in the interpretation of the relationships between many of
the inlake factors. Analysis of the macrophyte population will be conducted
twice per year to identify the species present, determine the standing crop,
and estimate productivity. Zooplankton analysis will be conducted during the
summer months to determine the species present and the population size. This
information will allow for comparisons between algal abundance and zooplankton
present. At this time, it is proposed to conduct some fishery analysis in
Long Lake. This information should be useful in determining the overall
aquatic relationships.
The hydrology of Long Lake is complicated by the fact that the lake
consists of a north and south basin. The inflow from Rice Creek comprises the
major hydrologic input and enters at the northeast corner of the north basin.
The outflow is also from the north basin; however, there are also inlets to
the south basin, and there is also interchange between the two basins. It is
our aim to get a better handle on the hydrology of the Long Lake system. This
should be useful in interpreting the limnological results and evaluating the
effect of the lake restoration project.
In addition to the surface water entering and leaving Long Lake, we are
proposing to evaluate the groundwater relationships with respect to the lake.
Based on existing data, we have been able to conclude that there is a complex
groundwater system in the vicinity of Long Lake. Existing information indi-
cates that Long Lake lies diagonally across a buried bedrock valley. We are
proposing to drill observation wells and conduct a simulation analysis of the
groundwater flow in the area.
Although the improvement project is aimed at removing external sources of
nutrients and sediment, internal loading can be an important factor which
could delay the response of a given lake as a result of decreased external
219
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loading. We are proposing to evaluate the direct internal loading from the
sediment, as well as indirect loading as a result of bottom feeding fish or
macrophytes, which may pump nutrients from the sediments into the water.
I would be happy to entertain any questions you may have. Once again I'd
like to point out that we are at the organizational stages of our evaluation.
However, based on what you have heard this morning, any comments particularly
suggestions, would be appreciated. Working on this project with me are Mr.
Will Wood, who is the head of our National Science Group at National Biocen-
tric, and Dr. Joseph Shapiro, from the University of Minnesota.
220
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Quantitative
Techniques
Lake Restoration
Demonstration
Project
/ Input A |
V Sources J
^X
1
1
s
\
i
I Impacted Sector,
I State and /or
A \ Region t
f i
Qualitative
Techniques
Impact
Order and
Measurement
The Likelihood of
Impacted Socio-
economic Elements
.Receptors
I Benefit/Cost
Analysis
Tangible
Elements
ible \
ents f
I
Intangible
Elements
\
Multidimensional
Scaling
Extrapolation
from Surveys
Multivariate
Regression
n
Changes in Cost,
Output, Real
Income, 8 Em-
ployment in the
Industry
I
Export - Base
I Multiplier or
I/O Coefficient
M
Changes Through
Interindustrial &
Environmental
Linkages
Dynamic
Simulation 8
Statistical
Deduction
Water Quality
Improvement ft
Supply Increase
Economic Struct.
Changes, Social
Welfare
Changes in
Carrying
Capacity or
Opportunity Cost
Ordinal
Scenario
Approach
Changes Through
Interdependent
Alternatives
Delphi
Preference
Scaling
Uncertainty
Q Random
Shock
S
Probabilistic or
Cross- Impact
Analysis
Total Assessment \
Impacts for: \
1. Demonstrated Techniques \
2. Water Quality a Lake )
Environment Improvement /
3. Households /
4. Governments /
5. Society at Large /
Figure 1. Structure of the BCCIPA Model.
223
-------
where i, t and r are, respectively, the ith type of benefit and cost quan-
tified in time period t, which are weighted by the social rate of discount
(r) to yield the net present value (V) of the project over its life span.
The baseline extrapolation technique will be employed to measure the
direct improvement in water quality, recreational values brought about by the
investment, and changes in basic economic variables, such as growth in employ-
ment and/or real income per capita. The ordinal-scaled scenario technique
will be utilized to identify direct, intangible impacts, such as changes in
carrying capacity, opportunity costs, and the aesthetic values. For instance,
not only will the clean lake investment program have a direct economic impact
on employment in that a number of new jobs may be created, but also the
resulting high water quality will increase the recreational usage and aesthetic
values of the lake as additional social benefits.
INDIRECT IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Indirect or second-order impacts arise when the direct impacts are
viewed in concert with the environments within which the direct impacts take
place. For instance, the changes in water resource capital investment policy
directly affect the regional carrying capacity of water supply and, hence,
the utilization and performance of various related public and private programs.
The indirect impacts of this capital expenditure will also include the "substi-
tution" and/or "stimulation" effects on the regional economy in resource
allocation and distribution. The export-base multiples derived from the
Leohtief's (1970) Input-Output model may be employed, as by Liu (1971) and
others, to measure the indirect impacts on income or employment. The Leon-
tief's I/O model appears in matrix form as the following:
(X - A X) = Y; or (I - A) X = Y and X = (I - A)-1 Y
where X, Y, and (I - A)-1 are, respectively, the intermediate goods and ser-
vices, the final demand for goods and services, and the multiplier itself; A
is the technical input-output coefficient matrix.
The Delphi preference scaling technique or subjective judgment method
will be used to assess the changes through interdependent alternatives classi-
fied as the intangibles.
INDUCED IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Tertiary or induced impacts are further repercussions entirely within the
physical and institutional environments of the first- and second-order changes
and result from, but are not directly associated with, the direct impacts.
They may occur as intended or be concomitant responses to the indirect impacts.
The induced impacts of any environmental policy and/or program, like others,
can also be differentiated according to the time lapse in which each event
occurs. In addition to spatial and subjective matters of varying sequential
importance, direct impacts are generally observed immediately, indirect im-
pacts are created later, and tertiary impacts are felt much later.
224
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While the dynamic simulation developed by Gordon and Haywood (1968),
Johnson (1970), Rochbert (1970), Bloom (1977), Mitchell et aj. (1977) and
others may be constructed to identify and generate information on induced
impacts brought about by regional structure changes, the proposed probabil-
istic cross-impact analysis will be utilized to evaluate the uncertain ele-
ments of the intangible, social and private benefits or costs induced through
all sorts of externalities, and to develop a weighting scheme for induced
impact quantification. Ultimately, it is hoped that the output of this model
will provide sufficient objective information essential to decisionmaking,
especially when weighing project efficiency criteria against project equity
considerations. The cross-impact probabilistic approach may be summarized as
follows:
Pj
PJ C1 " PJ
P., for t < t.
"
; for
V
A
where P. is the estimated probability of occurrence of j by time t; P. is the
j j
revised probability of occurrence of j by time t. after i occurred; S.. is a
measure of the strength and mode of the impact of i on j; E(V). is the expect-
ed value or subjective importance assigned for j; and W. is the impact weight
J
sought for overall benefit-cost aggregation.
MODEL APPLICATION AND DEMONSTRATION PROJECT EVALUATION
The proposed model will be applied to the selected lakes where the
technical restoration demonstration project has already been launched. A 3
year observation is designed as the period under study for project evaluation
so that incremental impacts can be better understood and the dynamic sequen-
tial evaluation procedures as proposed in the model can be employed, adjusted,
and finalized, together with the limnological studies conducted simultaneous-
ly.
Furthermore, the results will also be compared externally against those
"control lakes" where no such demonstration project whatever has been imple-
mented. Nonetheless, the control lakes have to be homogeneous, if not nearly
identical in nature, in terms of eutrophic, econologic, pollution and other
environmental conditions to the studied lakes.
Thus, the cost-effectiveness of the demonstration projects will be
finally evaluated not only through internal changes over a period of 3 years
but also through external comparisons to better assess the direct, indirect
and induced impacts.
Although the proposed model is to be applied to water resource project
evaluation in the United States, it is expected to be useful in other coun-
tries and for other public investment projects as well.
225
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REFERENCES
Bloom, M. F. Time-Dependent Event Cross-Impact Analysis: Results from a New
Model. Technological Forecasting and Social Change. Vol. 10, No. 2,
1977. pp. 181-201
Enzer, S. A Case Study Using Forecasting as a Decisionmaking Aid. Futures,
Vol. 2, No. 4, 1970. pp. 341-362.
Gordon, T. J. and H. Haywood. Initial Experiments with the Cross-Impact
Matrix Method of Forecasting. Futures, 1. 1968. pp. 100-116.
Johnson, H. Some Computational Aspects of Cross Impact Matrix Forecasting.
Futures. Vol. 2, No. 2, 1970. pp. 123-131.
Leontief, W. Environmental Repercussions and the Economic Structure: An
Input-Output Approach. Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. Ill,
No. 3, 1970.
Liu, Ben-chieh, Interindustrial Structure Analysis: An Input/Output Approach
for St. Louis (St. Louis: RIDC). 1969.
Liu, Ben-chieh. Impacts of Defense Expenditures upon Metropolitan Economy:
A Case Study on St. Louis. LAND ECONOMICS, Vol. XLVII, No. 4, 1971.
Liu, Ben-chieh. Federal Investment Impact: An Empirical Benefit-Cost Evalu-
ation. Socioeconomic Planning Sciences, Vol. 11, 1977.
Liu, Ben-chieh. A Quality of Life Production Model for Project Impact Assess-
ment. In Finsterbusch, K. and C. P. Wolf (eds), Methodology of Social
Impact Assessment (Stroudsburg, Pa: Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Inc),
1977. pp. 182-199.
Mitchell, R. B. et al_ Scenario Generation: Limitations and Developments in
Cross-Impact Analysis. Futures. Vol. 19, No. 3, 1977.
Peterson, S. A. and D. B.'Porcella. Evaluation of Lake Restoration Methods:
Project Selection (EPA, Con/all is, Oregon, CERL-034), 1977.
Rochberg, R. Information Theory, Cross-Impact Matrices, and Pivotal Events.
Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Vol. 2, No. ^1, 1970. pp.
53-60.
226
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EFFECT OF RESTORATION PROCEDURES UPON LIBERTY LAKE,
FIRST STATUS REPORT
by
W. H. Funk, H. L. Gibbons and G. C. Bailey*
INTRODUCTION
STUDY SITE BACKGROUND
Liberty Lake originated as the inundated remnant of a glacier dammed
valley. The lake now occupies a basin of approximately 316.1 ha (781 acres).
The watershed is relatively undisturbed and drains an area of 3,446 ha (13.3
sq mi). The major tributary, Liberty Creek, is usually very low in nutrient
content, unless heavy precipitation results in water exchange with the marsh
that parallels the last .8 km (% mile) of creekbed toward the lake. Mean
residence time of lake water is three years and during the usual quiescent
summer period weak stratification will occur from mid-May to September. Water
temperatures, however, vary less than 5C from bottom to surface. Mean depth
is 7.0 m (23 ft) and maximum depth is 9.1 m (30 ft). Other morphological
characteristics are listed in Table 1.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
By the turn of the century three large resorts were in operation around
the lake. A railroad line to Liberty Lake completed in 1905 brought thousands
of visitors. Boating, camping and open air dancing facilities were offered to
the public. A 1914 photo (Kalez, 1972) shows about 3,000 bathers and picnick-
ers in front of hotels and pavilions. With the advent of better roads and
improved automobiles, just prior to World War I, many of these recreational
activities shifted to Coeur d'Alene Lake. By the mid-fifties another upsurge
in recreational activity occurred at the lake. One large resort and three
smaller fishing and boat rental establishments now provide services. A large
ranch (=804 ha) at the southern end of the lake was recently acquired by
Spokane County and designated a county park. In 1977, it attracted over
40,000 visitors (Angove, 1977). Much of the original resort property is now
occupied by year around homesites. Residential, commercial development, and
Department of Game facilities occupy 85% of the shoreline. The remaining
portion exists as the county park, camping area, and wildlife preserve at the
inlet area of the lake.
* Environmental Engineering, Washington State University, Pullman, Wash.
99164.
227
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TABLE 1. SELECTED LIBERTY LAKE CONSTITUENTS AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS,
1974-75.
Parameter
Description
Stream Inflow &
Residence Time
Estimated Phosphorus
in Inflowing Waters
Estimated Nitrogen
in Inflowing Waters
Mean Concentration
Dissolved Phosphorus in
Lake Water (.45 urn filtered)
General Lake
Characteristics
Total Annual
6.3 x 106m3
Mean Lake Residence Time
=3 years
Total Annual
263 kg
Mean Concentration
.03 mg/1
Total Annual
2763 kg
Mean Concentration
.27 mg/1
Mid to Late Summer
.001 to .004 mg/1
Fall
.02 to .04 mg/1
Total Alkalinity pH
14 - 26 mg/1 6.6-9.3
Hardness as
15 to 37
Physical
Characteristics
Shoreline
Configuration
1.27
Volume
20.23 x 106m3
Development
of Volume
1.27
Surface area
316.1 ha
Mean Slope
1.9%
Mean Depth
7.0 m
Waste disposal practice has consisted of sump holes and septic tanks
after the pit privy stage. Unfortunately, large portions of the relatively
shallow soils (Spokane series) are underlain by bedrock at a depth of .5 to 2
m with a 4 to 70% slope toward the lake; in turn, many of the homesites over-
lay this area. Soil column migration tests performed by Gibbons et al. (1975)
utilizing radioactive phosphorus (32P) indicated a possible movement of phos-
phorus (up to 8 cm during a 24/hr period) toward the lake. Nitrogen as ni-
trate could be expected to move much faster.
The first sewage collection system built in 1910 diverted about 40% of
the residential wastes encroaching from the western shoreline. In 1966, the
system was enlarged to contain about 50% of the wastes. However, tests con-
ducted in 1974 by Futrell, Redford and Saxton (now Michael Kennedy Enginers)
suggest considerable exfiltration.
Kemmerer et al_. (1924) made the first reported water quality investi-
gation of the lake on July 31, 1911 during what he called "a bloom stage" of
228
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158,200 algae per liter. His counts included both green and blue green algae.
In contrast, our counts on July 26, 1977 were in excess of 5.5 x 106 per
liter. Kemmerer's field data show oxygen levels at 5.8 mg/1 in the surface
layers and 4.1 mg/1 near the bottom. Unfortunately no nutrient or trace metal
data were taken.
PREVIOUS STUDIES
Residents around the lake had noticed and complained about increased
algae growth in the lake since the late 1950's and 60's. By 1968 large masses
of decaying blue green algae consisting primarily of Anabaena flos-aquae and
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae were being deposited upon the beaches along with
fragments of aquatic weeds. Members of the Property Owners Association con-
tacted the Washington State University Environmental Engineering section in
1968 for assistance in identifying the algae problem. In 1971 we began a
modest cooperative water quality sampling program with the property owners and
lake ecology committee for one year. These studies were repeated in 1973. A
water balance study was also completed (Orsborn, 1973) at that time. These
data suggested that nutrient inflow from Liberty Creek was low, with the
exception of waters flushed through the marsh to the southern end of the lake.
From the time of completion of the latter water quality study sponsored
by the lake Property Owners Association, occasional sample collection and
analyses were made by WSU Environmental Engineering. Based upon these add-
itional data a proposal to the Washington State Department of Ecology was made
through the State of Washington Water Research Center to further examine nu-
trient constituents of the waters, soils and sediments of the Liberty Lake
basin. A second major effort was to be made to determine the feasibility of
alleviating the massive algal blooms (by aluminum sulfate treatment) until
long term solutions could be instituted. The proposal was approved for fund-
ing in the early summer of 1974. Matching funds from the College of Engin-
eering were utilized in the early spring to obtain nutrient runoff data in
cooperation with the lake Property Owners Association.
Several sediment cores were also driven in the lake at that time and
algal bioassays conducted upon the spring runoff waters. These preliminary
data suggested that nutrient influx into the lake by Liberty Creek could
simply not provide the amount of nutrients necessary to support the massive
amounts of algae and weeds. Laboratory studies of nutrient release from cored
sediments indicated that while the lake bottom is definately a source, the
aerobic conditions and limited stratification that predominates in the lake
would somewhat limit its contribution. Under present conditions the cored
sediments did reveal a considerable increase in nutrients in the top 15 cm of
the core (in comparison to lower sediments). Dating by 137Cs (Ritchie et a]_. ,
1973) established an estimated unconsolidated deposition rate of 15 mm per
year. Metal analysis of the cores also indicated a considerable increase in
several metals in the upper 15-20 cm layers. The increase in Zn, Pb, Mn, Cu,
etc. corresponds in time with shoreline cultivation and with the practice of
disposing of metallic solid wastes such as tin cans, buckets, wire and other
debris in the lake.
229
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This practice was apparently common to many of the lakes in the Spokane
region until relatively recent times (10-20 years). While these solid waste
practices have largely ceased, the need to dispose of sewage from increased
permanent human populations around the lake has grown. As previously men-
tioned, the shoreline area is now 85% developed and all remaining open areas
back from the lake have been purchased for residential development, with the
exception of the county owned marsh at the southern end and the large Spokane
county public park at the southeastern end of the lake. Public access to the
lake is excellent with the Washington State Department of Game maintaining a
large fishing and boating launch area at the northern end of the lake with
parking and restroom facilities.
A smaller access area is located in the Wicomico Beach area. All of
these public and private facilities have led to increased summertime residen-
tial populations as well as an estimated 90 to 100 thousand tourist visits per
year. Lake outline, surface inflow-outflow and previous sample stations are
shown in Figure 1.
It is believed that there are insufficient nutrients either in the lake
water or in the non-bloom producing algae characteristic of the mid-summer
period to account for the massive late summer blue green blooms. Whether the
weeds deteriorate because of lower temperature or less light intensity is not
known at this time, but the prodigious numbers of blue green algal cells
appear to be the direct result of nutrient release from the weed beds. Sol ski
(1962) has shown that 20 to 50% of the phosphorus content of macrophytes may
be released within a few hours after death, and at least,65% of the remaining
content over a longer period of time. Hutchinson (1957) also postulated the
rapid decomposition of littoral vegetation as a possible phosphorus source
feeding algal blooms. Recent studies at Liberty Lake by Kaufmann (1977) have
further documented the weed-algae cycle. Kaufmann, while studying the growth
of periphyton upon natural and artificial substrata at five lake stations,
noted clouds of plankton appearing among and in the vicinity of deteriorating
weed beds. He made cell counts in the weed areas and in the open waters and
found at least one magnitude of difference, with greater numbers in the weed
bed areas, during the late summer months.
Based upon the previously described data, it was decided to aim a large
scale aluminum sulfate treatment at a time to intercept the fall nutrient
release from the weed beds, as well as to reduce ambient levels of dissolved
phosphorus before it could be incorporated into blue green algae. In October,
1974, 95.3 metric tons (105 T) aluminum sulfate were distributed by barge over
a four day period (Funk et al., 1975, 1977). A moderately large Anabaena
flos-aquae bloom (8000 + cellsTml) immediately ceased. Cells in surface scums
from untreated areas drifted into treated areas, but by the time that lake
wide treatment occurred all visible remnants of the bloom had disappeared.
With precipitation of much of the dissolved nutrients, suspended matter, and
algal cells, water clarity greatly improved. In many instances even the
bottom was visible. Within five days after treatment periphyton growth accel-
erated. Kaufmann (1977) reported up to 1010 cells/m2. Zooplankton numbers
averaged about 10 per liter by December. Dissolved (.45 pm filtered) phos-
phorus remained low (<.01 mg/1) during the later summer-fall period and
through June, 1975 when scheduled sampling ceased due to lack of funds. The
230
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14
UNNAMED
OUTLET
10
11 SANDY
BEACH
ALPINE
SHORES
WICOMICO
BEACH
13
12'
EAST INLET
(Liberty Cr.)
WEST INLET
® LAKE STATIONS (WATER SAMPLES)
• LAKE CORES TAKEN BY CORING BARGE
A LAKE CORES TAKEN BY SCUBA
• SHORELINE CORES TAKEN BY HAND OR MECHANIZED CORING DEVICE
Figure 1. Lake water sample stations and location of core sediment samples.
(Figure outline from Lakes of Washington by E. E. Wolcott.)
231
-------
CO
rvj
or
| 20
10
A J
T I T
I F I
I i
S 0
1974
N D J F M A
1975
M J
Figure 2. Ortho and total phosphorus concentration in euphotic zone, Liberty Lake, southeast station,
1974-1975.
-------
ro
co
CO
O»
=1
60
50
40
(r
§30
Q.
c/>
g 20
Q_
10
i i i r
A J
S 0
1974
N 0 J F M A
1975
M J
Figure 3. Ortho and total phosphorus concentration in euphotic zone, Liberty Lake, northwest station,
1974-1975.
-------
massive blue green algae blooms that had been occurring for the past 10 years
were avoided for two years following treatment. High precipitation in 1975-
76, along with the macrophytes acting as nutrient pumps, helped restore the
nutrient inventory, followed in turn by massive blooms of Anabaena flos-aquae,
Anabaena spiroides. Coelosphaerium Naegelianum and Apham'zomenon flos-aquae in
August 1977. Figures 4 and 5 show the rise in reactive phosphorus in early
August at the southeast station and mid-September at the northwest station.
RESTORATION PLANS
In April 1976, the Liberty Lake community passed a bond issue for the
construction of a sewer collection and treatment system for almost the entire
lake. Concurrently, the lake "Ecology Committee", the sewer district and
their consultants successfully proposed a lake restoration plan to the United
States Environmental Protection Agency. The plan was based largely upon data
generated by the studies previously described in this report. The major
objective of the restoration plan was the curtailment of excessive nutrient
flow to the lake (chiefly phosphorus and nitrogen) and, secondarily, the
reduction of nutrient recycling within the lake. Special emphasis is being
placed upon phosphorus because of the successful alum precipitation experiment
of 1974.
Sewage collection and diversion is expected to be completed by early
1979. It is expected that leaching from sump holes and septic tank fields
will continue for about seven years.
In-lake restoration plans include partial drawdown during a fall period,
and excavation of nutrient rich sediments from the shoreline. These pro-
cedures will be followed by shallow suction dredging of about 80.9 ha (=200
acres) of the lake bottom.
Following dredging, precipitation by aluminum sulfate treatment is pro-
posed to: (1) remove phosphorus released from sediments, (2) reduce turbidity
caused by dredging activity.
In order to reduce the level of nutrient from stream inflow, it is pro-
posed that the stream channels be cleared of debris and deposited materials
that cause excessive overflowing and flushing of the marshlands to the lake.
Diversion gates would be installed to maintain water levels in the marsh.
Finally, repair and reconstruction of the dike separating the marsh and lake
to further reduce free movement of nutrients from the marsh to the lake.
Figure 6 outlines areas in the rehabilitation plan.
ASSESSMENT OF LAKE RESTORATION PROCEDURES
PURPOSES
The proposed study will attempt to measure the effects of lake rehabili-
tation by observing certain biological, chemical, and physical parameters for
one year prior to lake manipulation and for two years following rehabilita-
tion.
234
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80
• 60
s
§
Q.
£
40
30
20
10
J \ 1 L
Figure 4.
18 26
JULY
Total reactive
October, 1977.
II 17 22
AUGUST
J L
1
1
1
31 14 20 6
SEPTEMBER OCT
phosphorus Liberty Lake, southeast station, July-
10
SURFACE
T
18 26
JULY
II 17 22
AUGUST
31 14 20 6
SEPTEMBER OCT.
Figure 5. Total reactive phosphorus Liberty Lake, northwest station, July-
October, 1977.
235
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VALI EY WAY RD
SPRAGUE AVE
-(1) OUTLET
CHANNEL
IMPROVEMENTS
OUTLET CONTROL
DEVICE
MODIFICATIONS
DREDGING
DRAWDOWN- uj
EXCAVATION
5M5J LIBERTY LAKE
CHANNEL
CLEANING
DIVERSION GATE
INSTALLATION
LIBERTY
DRIVE
DIKE RECON-
STRUCTION
LIBERTY
CREEK
ROAD
Figure 6.
Liberty Lake rehabilitation plan. Roman numerals represent pro-
posed sediment core sites for assessment study.
236
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Careful monitoring of the rehabilitation project should provide infor-
mation for practical application to other eastern Washington and northern
Idaho lakes as well as other lakes in the United States.
Another broad objective would be that of public education regarding the
problems and cures for lakes suffering from heavy population and recreational
pressures.
Tangible benefits such as reduction or elimination of algal blooms, less
aquatic weed growth, improved water clarity, and general esthetic improvement
of the lake would be easily recognized by the public.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1. Recalculation of prime nutrient budget (P&N) of the lake based upon
measurement of nutrient inflow.
2. Attempt to quantify septic tank seepage and inflow of groundwater by use
of seepage meters as outlined by Lee (1977).
3. Estimation of phytoplankton productivity and species change before,
during, and after utilization of each renovative technique.
4. Determine nutrient content (N&P) of sediments to be dredged before dredg-
ing, and that of the new layer of sediments exposed after dredging--as
well as the nutrient content of waters overlying these areas, before and
immediately after dredging operations.
a. Analyses of segmented core samples would be helpful in determining
if dredging were useful (depth to which sediments should be re-
moved) .
b. Cores would be of value in predicting success of this lake renova-
tion method in terms of nutrient budget removed.
5. In areas where large beds of aquatic weeds will be removed as a result of
the dredging of nutrient containing sediments, study quadrants will be
established to determine regrowth rates.
6. Dike reconstruction area at the southern end of the lake will be moni-
tored by aerial infra-red photography to observe change in weed growth
patterns when seepages through breaks are eliminated.
7. Aerial infra-red photographs of Liberty Lake will also be taken periodic-
ally for comparison with those taken over the years 1968-74, when algal
blooms and aquatic weed masses inundated the beaches.
8. Joint seminars or evening sessions will be conducted with the Property
Owners Association, sewer district, and Kennedy Engineers for information
exchange, progress reports and to preserve the spirit of cooperation
which has existed to date.
237
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METHODS
The following procedures and methods have been proposed for purposes of
establishing lake characteristics, recalculating nutrient budgets, and con-
firming earlier baseline data. In addition, it is thought that these proce-
dures will aid in evaluating rehabilitation techniques such as the proposed
drawdown, diking, dredging, and the alum treatment following the dredging
operation.
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
1. Three permanent inflow stations to the lake will be established, an
additional intermitent urban drainage stream will be monitored. Monitor-
ing will be accomplished by automated flow weighted composite samplers.
It is planned to sample these sources weekly during run-off and summer
growth (bio-reactive) periods. An outlet station will also be sampled
during flow (May-June).
2. Two lake stations will be established and sampled at 2 m intervals or
more frequently, if necessary, during the period of weak-moderate strati-
fication (usually July-September). Each station will be sampled weekly
during the months of May through October, and then monthly for the re-
mainder of each year. An exception to this procedure will be made after
certain rehabilitation techniques have been instituted, such as dredging,
and immediately after alum treatment. At these times, intensive short
term sampling for phosphorus, aluminum, sulfate, conductivity, alkalinity
and pH will be undertaken. Other exceptions will be during periods of
high turbulence and runoff. At such times, sampling frequency may be
increased to several times per week for phosphorus components.
3. Phosphorous, because of its dominant role in controlling lake productiv-
ity, will receive special attention. Components determined would be
total, total dissolved and soluble reactive phosphorus. Correspondingly,
the other major nutrient, nitrogen, would be determined as nitrite,
nitrate and ammonia nitrogen.
4. Routine water quality parameters measured will be:
a. Temperature j. Calcium Hardness
b. pH k. Sodium
c. Dissolved Oxygen 1. Potassium
d. Conductivity m. Aluminum
e. Turbidity n. Iron
f. Total Alkalinity o. Calcium
g. Sulfate p. Magnesium
h. Chloride q. Silica
i. Total Hardness
(Parameters "a" through "f" would be determined weekly during May to
October; parameters "g" through "m" would be determined at least monthly.
238
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BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
1. Phytoplankton samples for qualitative and quantitative enumeration will
be taken by continuous pump sampler at the same time and at the same lake
stations that weekly chemical-physical measurements are made. One to six
liter samples will be collected in the euphotic zone in accordance with
methods described in EPA - Biological Field and Laboratory methods (EPA,
1973).
2. Zooplankton sampling will be carried out at a minimum of two lake sta-
tions, at the same time that weekly chemical-physical measurements are
made. Collection will be made at 2.0 m intervals from surface to bottom
by rapid continuous pump sampler passing waters through #10 and #20
plankton nets. One oblique tow at each station will be made by Clarke
Bumpus Sampler equipped with flow meter.
3. Chlorophyll "a" samples will be taken for analysis by continuous pump
sampler at each lake station and depth where water samples are collected.
At least one liter at each depth will be collected and immediately
treated with magnesium carbonate. Collection and analysis will be simi-
lar to that described in EPA - Biological Field and Laboratory methods.
4. Carbon 14 i_n situ lake productivity measurements will be made on a bi or
tri weekly schedule at each lake water quality station during the May
through October period. Incubation will be carried out at three depths
through the euphotic zone for four hours. Incubation bottles will be in
triplicate at each depth. Procedures followed will be that gi-ven in
APHA - Standard Methods 14th Edition (1975).
5. An estimation of the extent of aquatic weed beds will also be made by
SCUBA procedures, during the late summer period for an estimation of
maximum standing crop. Other specialized studies will be carried out as
described in the Assessment Objectives to observe the effect of the dike
repair at the southern end of the lake and in the dredged areas. Steel
quadrants of 1 sq m will be fabricated and located randomly in these
areas. They will be harvested at selected intervals to measure biomass.
The same procedures will be carried out to measure regrowth of areas
exposed during drawdown.
6. Benthic invertebrates will be cataloged bi-monthly from each quadrant of
the lake from April to October by Ekman grab sampler. Three to six
random samples will be taken at each station. Organisms will be collec-
ted by passing sediments through a U.S. Standard #30 Sieve. Number of
samples will be increased or decreased after a baseline survey, as sug-
gested by APHA - Standard Methods (1975).
REFERENCES
Angrove, S. Personal Communication (Spokane County Parks Director), 1977.
American Public Health Association. Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater. 14th Ed., 1975.
239
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Entrance (Michael Kennedy Engineers). Rehabilitation Project, Liberty Lake,
Washington. Liberty Lake Sewer District Proposal to EPA, 1975, 52 pp.
Environmental Protection Agency. Methods for the restoration and enhancement
of quality of freshwater lakes. Office of Air and Water Programs and
Office of Research and Development. EPA Wash. D.C., 1973, 238 pp.
Futrell, R. and Saxton. Comprehensive wastewater and treatment plan for the
Liberty Lake Sewer District. FRS, Spokane, WA, 1974, 94 pp.
Funk, W. H., H. L. Gibbons, D. A. Morency, S. K. Bhagat, G. C. Bailey, J. E.
Ongerth, D. Martin and P. J. Bennet. Determination and nature of non
point source enrichment of Liberty Lake and possible treatment. Dept. of
Ecology Proj. No. 22, State of Washington Water Research Center Rpt. No.
23. PUllman, WA, 1975, 163 pp.
Funk, W. H. and H. L. Gibbons. Effectiveness of an alum treatment at Liberty
Lake, Washington. Paper presented at Restoration Session, 44th PNPCA
Conf. Portland, Or., 1977 29 p.
Gibbons, H. L., F. Demgen and J. Ewing. Nutrient migration in Liberty Lake
soil columns. Unpublished data, 1975.
Hutchinson, G. E. A treatise on limnology. Vol. I. John Wiley & Sons, N.Y. ,
1951, pp. 750-751.
Kalez, J. J. Saga of a Western Town Spokane. Lawton Printing Company,
Spokane, WA., 1972.
Kaufmann, P. Littoral primary production and related factors in Liberty Lake,
Washington with special reference to periphyton. M.S. thesis, Washington
State University, Pullman, WA., 1977.
Kemmerer, G., J. F. Bovard, and W. R. Boorman. North Western Lakes of the
United States: Biological and chemical studies with reference to possi-
bilities in production of fish. Bull. U.S. Bureau of Fisheries Vol.
XXXIX:51-135, 1924.
Lee, D. R. A device for measuring seepage flux in lakes and estuaries.
Limnol. and Oceanogr. 22 (1) 140-147, 1977.
Orsborn, J. R. Water balance of Liberty Lake, Washington. Rpt. to Futrell,
Redford and Saxton, 37 pp.
Richie, J. C., J. R. McHenry and A. C. Gill. Dating recent reservoir sedi-
ments. Limnol. & Oceanogr. 18 (2) 254-263, 1973.
Solski, A. Mineralizacja ros'lin wodnych I. Uwalnianie fosforui postasu
przez wymywanie. Pol. Arch. Hydrobiol. 10:167-196, 1962.
Wolcott, E. E. Lakes of Washington. Volume II Eastern Washington 3rd Ed.
Dept. of Ecology, Olympia, WA., 650 pp.
240
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ECONOMIC IMPACT OF LAKE RESTORATION
LIBERTY LAKE, WASHINGTON
by
K. C. Gibbs and L. E. Queirolo*
INTRODUCTION
In general, as a lake ages it undergoes changes and a natural maturation
process takes place. Limnological research being done is directed toward
finding technically feasible methods of improving water quality. At some
point, however, enhancement of a lake must be conceptualized in social rather
than physical terms. Methods of improving and maintaining water quality, when
established, will have to be acceptable to or desirable for the people and be
worth doing in order to be implemented. In other words, protecting or improv-
ing water quality, fish spawning grounds, or waterfowl habitat are not in
themselves the ends of social policy.
Whenever decisions are made on a broad policy issue, such as restoring
water quality in a lake, some individuals or groups will benefit and some will
incur detrimental impacts. Given the scarcity of available resources for
water quality improvement, it is imperative that they be devoted to projects
where the payoff, in terms of benefits, is greatest. The economic evaluation
of water pollution control is often difficult, especially if, as in the case
of Liberty Lake, Washington, many of the benefits are in the nature of "extra
market goods," such as outdoor recreation.
Liberty Lake is situated about 13 miles east of Spokane, Washington. The
lake is primarily a recreational lake, 781 acres in size and receives runoff
from a 13.3 square mile watershed. It is the purpose of this proposed study
to estimate the significant economic impacts (not necessarily recorded in a
market, but in terms of what a person or group would be willing to give up to
have higher water quality) on recreationists, and on adjacent and nearby
landowners at Liberty Lake.
As a result of a delay in project funding, research on the economic
impact of lake restoration at Liberty Lake will begin March 15, 1978. A
literature search and theoretical model formulation will then begin. Details
of the project are given below.
* Resource Recreation Management Department, School of Forestry, Oregon State
University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331.
241
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RESEARCH PROJECT
ECONOMIC IMPACT OF LAKE RESTORATION
RESEARCH CONTEXT
In many lakes, accelerated growth of biological organisms has resulted in
levels of water quality restricting or hampering the use of this water re-
source for certain recreational pursuits. Research is being carried out by
the Environmental Protection Agency and others on the physical and biological
aspects of this enrichment process.
In general, as a lake ages it undergoes changes and a natural maturation
process takes place. Precipitation and natural drainage contribute nutrients
which support and facilitate the growth of vegetation within a lake. The
extensive activities of man, however, can increase the amounts of nutrients
deposited in a lake in several ways: by a more intensive use of the agricul-
tural land; by urbanization; and by the discharges of industrial wastes, and
waste treatment plant effluents. The process of enrichment of waters with
nutrients that occurs naturally is often accelerated by man's activities. The
resulting quality of the water may thus change significantly and often at a
relatively rapid pace. Some recreational activities may be discouraged (such
as swimming) while others (waterfowl hunting) may be facilitated.
The limnological research being done is directed toward finding tech-
nically feasible methods of improving water quality. At some point, however,
enhancement of a lake must be conceptualized in social rather than physical
terms. Methods of improving and maintaining water quality, when established,
will have to be acceptable to, or desirable for, the people and be worth doing
in order to be implemented. In other words, protecting or improving water
quality, fish spawning grounds, or waterfowl habitat are not in themselves the
ends of social policy.
OBJECTIVES
Whenever decisions are made on a broad policy issue, such as restoring
water quality in a lake, some individuals or groups will benefit and some will
incur detrimental impacts. It is the purpose of this proposed study to esti-
mate the significant economic impacts (not necessarily recorded in a market,
but in terms of what a person or group would be willing to give up to have
higher water quality) on recreationists, and on adjacent and nearby landowners
at Liberty Lake, Washington. More specifically, the objectives of this pro-
posed study are to examine Liberty Lake and:
1. Refine current methodologies and estimate the economic value of lake
restoration to recreationists engaged in various water oriented activ-
ities.
2. Estimate the economic impact of lake restoration to adjacent property
owners.
3. Identify and evaluate costs of lake restoration.
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It is very important that any research done on the economic impact of
lake restoration coordinate with the other two significant aspects—namely the
limnological and other social impacts. This will be a primary goal in this
study, to attempt to keep communications open with personnel performing phys-
ical work on Liberty Lake (see Funk, 1975; and Kennedy, 1977) and with the EPA
funded project to estimate the sociological impact of lake restoration on
Liberty Lake (Honey and Hogg, 1977). This represents a unique opportunity
that the limnological, economic and other social aspects on a single lake
could be coordinated where each discipline gains from the others and a more
realistic product is the outcome.
Given the scarcity of available resources for water quality improvement,
it is imperative that they be devoted to projects where the payoff, in terms
of benefits, is greatest. The economic evaluation of water pollution control
is often difficult, especially if, as in the case of Liberty Lake the benefits
are in the nature of "extra market goods," such as outdoor recreation.
This proposed research is directed toward evaluating the economic bene-
fits resulting from increased utilization of water resources for outdoor
recreation. This is important for at least two reasons: First, it provides a
guideline for decision-makers concerned with the allocation of public funds
for water quality improvement, in the case of Liberty Lake. Second, it is
anticipated that the methodologies developed in this study will be useful in
the evaluation of recreational benefits resulting from water quality improve-
ments in other cases. In regard to the latter point, it should be noted that
some recent developments in economic analysis have provided for the estimation
.of the demand for outdoor recreation. The theoretical models, however, need
to be developed further to permit an application to a more diversified range
of problems.
STUDY AREA
Liberty Lake is situated about 13 miles east of Spokane, Washington.
Liberty Lake is primarily a recreational lake, 781 acres in size, and receives
runoff from a 13.3 square mile watershed. The lake occupies a shallow basin
with a maximum water depth of 30 feet and a mean depth of 23 feet. It is fed
by a perennial stream entering through a marsh at the upper end of the lake.
The south end of Liberty Lake has a gradually sloping bottom and supports
significant amounts of aquatic weeds. During the summer months, these weeds
reach nearly to the surface as far as one-third of a mile from the south
shore.
Liberty Lake is classified as a shallow, soft-water, meso-eutrophic lake
(Funk, et al., 1975). It is these characteristics which play an important
role in impacting the current use of the lake. With increased growth of
Spokane in the last several years came increased pressure on the Liberty Lake
community. This community was once a summer resort and rural-agricultural
community. It has since absorbed rapid growth from the Spokane Valley.
Land adjacent to Liberty Lake is used primarily for residential purposes.
In addition, a wildlife refuge and outdoor recreation area is maintained to
the south. The trend is toward suburban-type residential and recreational
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development. This area is being looked at as a desirable location for further
development. Several resorts are located within the proximity of Liberty Lake
and some people live here and commute to their jobs in Spokane. Other estab-
lishments in the community include several taverns, a grass seed growing
business, and a grocery store.
Recreational activities on Liberty Lake include trout fishing, swimming,
camping, hiking, picnicking, and water skiing (thought not to be observed on
other lakes in the close vicinity of Spokane. See Kennedy, 1977). Swimming
and fishing are the two most important activities on the lake.
This lake was chosen for study primarily because both limnological and
sociological aspects are currently being studied on Liberty Lake. Much rele-
vant physical data were already accumulated. This is helpful in that economic
impacts can be related to known conditions, and variables in models can be
more realistically specified. In addition, close coordination with the socio-
logical aspect can be maintained.
PROCEDURE
While a more thorough literature search and review is required to fully
utilize the state of the arts and to determine what methodological and modifi-
cations might be required, preliminary findings suggest the following ap-
proach.
OBJECTIVE 1
Background
In order to estimate the benefits to recreationists of lake restoration,
a demand relationship is needed. This relationship is composed of the quality
demanded as a function of price, income, price of substitutes and tastes and
preferences. The difficult problem when dealing with a commodity, such as
outdoor recreation, that is publicly provided or otherwise consists mostly of
common-property resources, is the lack of a price (or at least a negligible
fee with a significant variation). To estimate the demand for a non-market
good or service, the consumers' reaction to price increases is simulated
either by evidence gathered from direct questioning or by observing their
reactions in already existing and related markets.
Procedures have been developed to estimate demand curves using both
general procedures. Direct questioning methods have been used with some
success and seem appropriate in certain instances where no expenditures can be
observed in any subsidiary markets. (Knetsch and Davis, 1966) (Pearse Bowden,
1970 and 1971). In these cases, asking recreationists what they would be
willing to pay, rather than do without the activity, must be done in a careful
manner not to get hypothetical answers. Biases, tainting the accuracy of the
estimates, must be guarded against. This procedure will be evaluated for use
in this study.
The other general category of procedures to estimate demand for recrea-
tion, the indirect observation of expenditures in related markets, deserves
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further attention. These types of methodologies involve the use of some
surrogate, or proxy for price. More precisely, the recreationist's willing-
ness to pay is based on observations of costs actually incurred to recreate at
a facility. Hotelling (1947) is credited with the original idea of using
travel cost (the cost of overcoming distance between the facility and a series
of more or less concentric distance zones between the facility) as a proxy for
the price of a visit to the facility, although Clawson (1959) provided the
first application of Hotel ling's idea. Later variations and refinements of
the so-called "travel cost approach" include Clawson and Knetsch (1966), Brown
et al. (1964), Burt and Brewer (1971), and Pearse (1968). Most advocates of
this method incorporate travel costs as well as on-site costs as the price
variable. In addition, income, distance, time, and other socio-economic
variables are included in the analysis. Two relationships are estimated: one
representing the total recreational experience (including travel, anticipa-
tion, recollection, and actual time on-site): and the second, derived from
the first, to estimate the responsiveness in the quantity consumed of changes
in a user fee.
Some shortcomings of the traditional travel costs approach have been
raised in the literature (see Edwards, et al., 1976; Gibbs, 1969; and Jenn-
ings, 1975), and as a result, variations of the indirect method have been
developed. In these, alterations have been made with respect to the price
variable. Total trip costs are divided into travel costs (all costs incurred
while enroute to and from the facility) and daily on-site costs. These two
components are then expressed as separate explanatory variables, with on-site
cost the choice of the facility proxy.
Whatever their differences, a major common feature of all the indirect
approaches is the assumption that the price of using a recreational facility
can be reasonably represented by the costs of certain goods and services that
are purchased in conjunction with facility use.
Model
This study would first analyze the types of recreation occurring on
Liberty Lake, characteristics of the recreation!sts (travel distance, etc.),
and related services provided. Then, coupled with a thorough literature
review, devise a theoretical framework to estimate recreation demand in this
area. Total recreational usage can be defined as the product of the number of
days a recreationist uses a recreational site per visit and the number of
visits to a recreational site. If both the length of stay and the number of
visits are variable and reflective of water quality, then two relationships
should be estimated with each as independent variables. The theoretical model
postulated herein will have the following general form with possible modifica-
tion based on further study:
DV. = f (C, T, S, WQ, SB)
V. = f (C, T, S, WQ, SE)
Total Usage = DV-V
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Where Dv. is the number of days per visit the recreationist uses the
lake 1
for activity i, and V. is the number of visits a recreationist makes per year
to participate in activity i. The unit of measure is the recreation group
since this is the decision-making unit rather than an individual or family
(more and more non-family groups are enjoying recreational activities). The
primary water-related activities are swimming, fishing, boating, and lake
related camping. These will be accounted for separately since a change in
water quality would impact each of these activities differently.
The following explanatory variables are thought to be the ones to
most significantly explain days per visit and number of visits. C is the
daily on-site costs incurred by the group participating in a particular
activity. These are the costs to which a recreator reacts in deciding
how many days to recreate. T is the group's travel cost for each visit.
This cost is fixed with respect to the number of days at the site per
visit but variable when considering the number of visits to make.
S is used to represent a variable to account for substitution among
activities and lakes in the study region. This will be examined and
specified in more detail during the study period.
The various degrees of water quality are to be represented by WQ.
These will include those outcomes of water quality improvement that
affect each activity. For example, it is not the presence or absence of
nitrogen that induces a swimmer to participate elsewhere, but the biolog-
ical effect of N; e.g., blue-green algal blooms. These variables will be
defined in association with EPA personnel, limnologists, and recreation-
ists in the area. Recreationists will be asked how their use, in terms
of the number of trips, length of stay, and resulting activities, will
vary as the water quality improves.
SE refers to a set of socio-economic variables found to signifi-
cantly influence recreation use in the area. These may include items
such as income, age, size of group, destination visitor, equipment util-
ized, amount of recreation-related time per year, etc. A further study
of the area, users of the area, and past studies will lead to the selec-
tion of the variables used here.
A sample of recreationists will be drawn at public access points sur-
rounding Liberty Lake. Measures of the variables in the model will be ob-
tained via a personal interview. Enough recreationists will be contacted to
ensure a statistically sound demand estimation. In addition, water quality
variables will be obtained from secondary sources.
After estimating the demand model, estimates of value will be made util-
izing consumer surplus. The local expenditures will also be tabulated to
recognize the impact of recreationists on the local communities.
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OBJECTIVE 2
In addition to the impacts of an improvement in water quality on those
recreationists utilizing the lake's resources via public access, another
segment of the population gains value through the appreciation of private
property values. One of the most important sources of land value increases
around a body of water is the value as a recreational or aesthetic resource.
The increment to the value of property attributed to the lake is an expression
of the benefits derived from the water. Higher land values adjacent to lakes
are hypothesized to represent a capitalization of a portion of these benefits.
These land values will be sensitive to the quality of the water in its prox-
imity. This portion of the study will utilize a methodology to estimate the
increase in property values attributed to an improvement in the quality of the
water adjacent to or near the property.
Several past studies have concerned themselves with the identification
and relative significance of factors which affect the values of residential
property. Jack L. Knetsch (1964) reported that land bordering surface water
does have incremental value attributed to the presence of a reservoir or
artificial lake. He compared land with water frontage to similar land without
water frontage to observe the difference in the per acre sales price of indi-
vidual parcels.
David and Lord (1969) reported that land bordering surface water does
have incremental value attributable to the presence of a reservoir. Their
study was concerned with determining the extent to which certain character-
istics influence the demand for recreational land on artificial lakes. Im-
provements to the property were included in the value of the tracts.
Research by Schutjer and Hallbert (1968) indicates that capitalization of
recreational facilities of water based state parks into local land values has
occurred. Taking observations on transfers before and after the development
of a reservoir, they observed the influence of water-recreation availability
on land prices in the nearby area. They used multiple regression analysis
with 15 independent variables on the sales observations of the same tracts of
land before and after the development of the park.
Connor, et al. (1973) used two methods of estimating the value of the
presence of water frontage to typical residential property in the Kissimmee
River Basin, Florida. The first used multiple regression to analyze the
effect of several independent variables, including lake frontage, on vacant
residential lot sales. The second estimated the value attributed to the
presence of water frontage from owners' estimates of the value of their prop-
erty (with houses) with and without water frontage.
The first step in accomplishing this objective is to make a thorough
search of the literature to gain insight into models that have been used (and
their success) to estimate the value of improvements in water quality and/or
the presence of water on property values. Most of the land adjacent and near
Liberty Lake, especially on the northern end, is used for residential pur-
poses. This ownership is where the primary impact on property values will
occur. Thus, an estimate of the increase in residential property values will
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be estimated. Benefits to resorts, and those charging fees to the public for
recreational purposes, will be reflected in their receipts.
The model ,to estimate the increase in property values proposed at this
time, but subject to refinement as more information is obtained, is generally
as follows:
Y = f (Yr, Ls, WF, P, T, WQ)
A sample of residences will be drawn from those immediately adjoining Liberty
Lake and those in the proximity of the lake. Actual sales of property, with
and without structures, will be analyzed in the basin. In addition, personal
interviews will be conducted with those land owners in the sample to derive
information of their perceptions of the impact of a change in water quality.
The variables in the model are defined as:
Y is the sales price of the property expressed either as a total
price or on a per acre basis depending on the type of property consid-
ered. If sales records are not adequate, this variable will be estimated
utilizing appropriate questions posed to owners of property.
Yr is the year either of the sale or date of evaluation of this
piece of property. This is expected to have a positive relationship to
sales price since sales prices have increased with inflation and the
expanding demand for this type of property.
Ls, the size of the lot, is measured in the number of acres. It is
hypothesized to have a positive relationship with total sales price, but
negative with respect to the price per acre.
WF is defined as the distance of the property to the lake. This is
importance since the mere presence of water has a significant impact on
the sales price. But, a change in water quality has an impact on land
near but not adjacent to the lake. This impact will be different, it is
hypothesized, depending on the relationship of the property to the lake.
P represents the proximity of the land in the area. This could
include variables such as distance to paved roads, access to the prop-
erty, utilities available, and so forth. The specific variables will be
identified upon a more thorough examination of the area.
T refers to the types of structures on the property. This would
have an impact on the property value that needs to be accounted for even
if vacant lots were analyzed.
WQ is the water quality variable. This variable, as in the case of
the model utilized on visiting recreationists, will be defined on the
basis of the outcomes to which participants are responsive. The exact
formulation of this measure will be identified after close association
with EPA personnel and local individuals.
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After data collection, the model will be estimated using multiple linear
regression analysis. From the estimated relationship, the change in the
property value associated with changes in water quality (WQ) can be estimated.
This influence can also be isolated on different lot sizes, for different
types of developments, types of structures, etc. That is, by manipulating the
values of the other independent variables in the model, the influence of water
quality can be estimated for different situations that may occur in other
areas. Thus, the model will serve as an attempt to draw some conclusions of
the impact under various circumstances, even though it must be kept in mind
that the data are from one specific area. Applicability to other areas does
exist, however.
Other impacts of water quality improvements on adjacent communities,
primarily of an indirect nature due to increased expenditures in the area, may
be important in some areas. However, it is believed that, in the case of
Liberty Lake and the nearby region, a change in water quality will not appre-
ciably increase expenditures in the local area. The lakes in this area are
not nationally or even regionally known. They are utilized primarily by local
or nearby residents. Upon lake restoration activities taking place, few addi-
tional persons from outside the area will be attracted to the lakes. Thus, an
increase in economic activity will likely not be significant.
OBJECTIVE 3
In addition to recognizing benefits received from restoring a lake, costs
must also be identified. These come in two main categories: the initial cost
of improving the lake, and the alterations, either structurally or non-struc-
tural ly, required to maintain the increased quality.
Initial costs can be estimated based on limnological research being
conducted in the study area and the degree to which a lake is to be improved.
These procedures will be identified in c)ose consultation with EPA personnel,
other limnologists, and other individuals. It is anticipated that lake res-
toration would consist of a "vacuuming" of the lake to remove the vast amount
of aquatic weeds and nutrients accumulated and then in addition a treatment of
alum. Costs of this treatment will be calculated based on work under way by
William Funk, limnologist at Washington State University.
In addition to treatment costs or removing excess nutrients from the lake
other changes are needed to slow the nutrient input into the lake. This can
be accomplished by changing the waste disposal activities of the adjacent
residents. A switch from septic tanks to a central waste disposal plant is
required. The cost of this will be estimated and capitalized over its expec-
ted life.
Other ways of reducing the flow of nutrients into the lake, such as less
lawn and garden fertilization, will be attempted via an educational system to
induce residents to want to change their patterns.
After results are obtained from all three objectives, estimates of econ-
omic benefits and costs of lake restoration will be available for Liberty
Lake, Washington. The economic feasibility of cleaning the lake can then be
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assessed. The other social impacts must also be evaluated and integrated into
the decision to clean a lake or not. As a result of this proposed study,
procedures will be available to estimate the benefits and costs of lake res-
toration at other locations.
SUMMARY
A final report will present the data in tabular form, summarize the most
important findings, and make recommendations as to its appropriateness and
application for future use.
Probable Duration
24 months: February 15, 1978 - February 15, 1980
University Units Involved
Forest Research Laboratory, Resource Recreation Management Department -
research staff, equipment and services.
Agricultural Experiment Station, Agricultural and Resource Economics
Department.
Cooperation
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
LITERATURE CITED
Brown, W. G., A. Singh, and E. N. Castle. An Economic Evaluation of the
Oregon Salmon and Steel head Sport Fishery. Corvallis, Oregon Agr. Exper-
imental Station Tech. Bulletin 78, 1964.
Burt, 0. and D. Brewer. Estimation of Net Social Benefits from Outdoor Recre-
ation. Econometrica 30(5):813-828, 1971.
Clawson, M. Methods of Measuring the Demand for and Value of Outdoor Recre-
ation. Wash., D.C., Resources for the Future Reprint No. 10, 1959.
Clawson, M. and J. L. Knetsch. Economics of Outdoor Recreation. Baltimore.
The Johns Hopkins Press, 1966.
Conner, R. J., K. C. Gibbs, and J. E. Reynolds. The Effects of Water Frontage
on Recreational Property Values. Journal of Leisure Research. 5(Spring):
26-38, 1973.
David, E. L. and W. B. Lord. Determination of Property Value on Artificial
Lakes. Dept. of Agr. Econ. Bui. 54. Madison. Univ. of Wis. , 1969,
Edwards, J. A., et al. The Demand for Non-Unique Outdoor Recreational Ser-
vices: Methodological Issues. Con/all is, Oregon Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech.
Bui. 133, 1976.
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Funk, W. H., et al. Determination, Extent, and Nature of Non-point Source
Enrichment of Liberty Lake and Possible Treatment. Report No. 23, Wash-
ington Water Research Center. Pullman, Washington, 1975.
Gibbs, K. C. "The Estimation of Benefits Resulting from an Improvement of
Water Quality in Upper Klamath Lake: An Application of a Method for
Evaluating the Demand for Outdoor Recreation." Ph.D. Dissertation.
Corvallis. Oregon State University, Oregon, 1969.
Honey, W. D. and T. C. Hogg. "Social Research Strategy for Lake Restoration
Programs: An Assessment Manual." Unpublished manuscript submitted to
EPA, Corvallis, Oregon, 1977.
Hotelling, H. Letter cited in "The Economics of Public Recreation: An Econ-
omic Study of the Monetary Evaluation of Recreation in the National
Parks." U.S. National Park Service, Wash. D.C., 1947.
Jennings, T. A. "A General Methodology for Analyzing Demand for Outdoor
Recreation with an Application to Camping in Florida State Parks." Ph.D.
Dissertation, Gainesville, University of Florida, 1975.
Kennedy, M. A. Consulting Engineers. "Existing Environmental Conditions,
Liberty Lake, Washington." A Preliminary Report. (Unpublished manu-
script). Spokane, Washington, 1977.
Knetsch, J. L. "The Influence of Reservoir Projects on Land Values." Journal
of Farm Economics. 46:231-243, 1964.
Knetsch, J. L. and R. K. Davis. "Comparisons of Methods for Recreation Evalu-
ation." In: Water Research, Allen V. Kneese and Stephen C. Smith, eds.
Baltimore. Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1966.
Pearse Bowden Economic Consultants. The Value of Non-Resident Sport Fishing
ui British Columbia. A Report Prepared for the British Columbia Fish and
Wildlife Branch. Study Report No. 4. Victoria, B.C., 1970.
Pearse Bowden Economic Consultants. The Value p_f Fresh Water Sport Fishing jri
British Columbia. A Report Prepared for the British Columbia Fish and
Wildlife Branch. Study Report No. 5. Victoria, B.C., 1971.
Pearse, P. H. "A New Approach to the Evaluation of Non-Priced Recreational
Resources." Land Economics 44(1):406-407, 1968.
Schneider, R. "Diffuse Agricultural Pollution: The Economic Analysis of
Alternative Controls." Ph.D. Dissertation, Madison. Univ. of Wis. ,
1975.
Schutjer, W. A. and M. C. Hall berg. "Impact of Water Recreational Development
on Rural Land Values." American Journal of Agr. Econ. 50(3):572-583,
1968.
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SOCIAL IMPACTS OF LAKE RESTORATION,
LIBERTY LAKE WASHINGTON: A STATUS REPORT
by
T. C. Hogg and W. D. Honey*
INTRODUCTION
Funding notification for the social impact study of Liberty Lake was
received from EPA in September of 1977. The initial phase of the research
was (and still is) a review of pertinent literature and the beginning of a
compilation of resources on the historical and cultural background of the
research setting (Spokane and Spokane County, WA). Preliminary field observa-
tions, including contact with a number of people with special knowledge (key
informants) of the project and its social parameters, started in mid-February
and will continue through May 15, 1978. We, therefore, are just underway
with the effort.
The major objectives of our Liberty Lake studies are to (1) further
identify and describe the range and types of social impacts that are asso-
ciated with lake restoration, (2) analyze the function and significances of
all identifiable social impacts, including those associated with planning,
lake treatment and restored lake phases and, (3) explain the process of
cultural-environmental interplay which operates in the impacted setting and,
(4) refine our methodology for later more precise and effective use.
The methodology employed in this social impact assessment is what com-
monly is referred to as cultural ecology. It entails the holistic description
and analysis of relationships between human cultural systems, including
values, organization and technology, and features of natural environment.
Projection of future circumstances requires explanation of systems through
time, i.e., a processal perspective. It is essential, therefore, to consider
cultural systems in historical or evolutionary perspective (Buckley, 1968:
491). It is for this reason that historical data are so germaine to assess-
ment. In this report we offer an overview of the phases of cultural develop-
ment that preceded Liberty Lake's restoration. While they no longer operate
as dominant systems, they nevertheless still influence contemporary cultural-
environmental relationships. They offer an intellectual context for examining
Liberty Lake in the present, and projecting social impacts of restoration
into the future. Indeed, if a present social profile is instrumental to
making reasonable projections of future circumstance, then the past at least
provides intelligibility for the present. The implications prehistory has
* Department of Anthropology, Oregon State University, Corvallis,
Oregon 97331.
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for the present might not be obvious, but they nevertheless raise questions
for the present since they constitute alternative models of lake usage by
human beings. The importance of this historical orientation will be given
fuller explanation in the final part of our presentation on Liberty Lake
Social Impact Methodology.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The history of human involvement in the Liberty Lake Region involves
adaptive cultural systems and environmental interplay. They are (1) hunting
and gathering systems represented by American Indians, (2) agrarian systems
in the early Euro-American period, and (3) the industrial-urban system that
first emerged in the late 1800's and early 1900's and persists to the present.
HUNTING AND GATHERING
The Coeur d'Alene and Spokane Indians were two contiguous groups indige-
nous to this area. Each represented a unique and quite different human
adaptation. The Spokanes were a riverine adapted people; the Coeur d'Alene
were oriented to lakes and their exploitation. The Coeur d'Alenes pertain
directly to Liberty Lake.
Occupying the majority of present day Idaho and a portion of eastern
Washington above Spokane Falls, the Coeur d'Alene illustrate a systematic
human exploitation of a lacustrine province. Their technology reflected this
orientation. Quite early they had developed a rod and reel apparatus (fishing
pole) that was used not only for fish but also to snare ducks and geese
(Teit, 1904). Lakes were also used to trap land animals such as deer. The
most widely used canoe was the variety referred to as "Sturgeon-Nose." It
was more adaptable to lake use in that it could withstand rough waters (Tur-
ney-High, 1941). Occasionally Coeur d'Alene used Tule reed rafts, but these
were used primarily for individual hunting and fishing rather than in group
or communal subsistence quests.
The only documented use of Liberty Lake by Indians is noted by Vernon
Ray in a collection of testimonies obtained from aboriginal informants and
reported in 1936. Ray's informants mention a Coeur d'Alene village site
comprised of some thirty families at the south end of Liberty Lake near the
marsh (Ray, 1936: 132). No time reference is given, however, for its occupa-
tion, but presumably it was occupied until the mid-19th century.
FUR HUNTERS AND TRADERS
The coming of white furriers and early traders started a transition
period from the former hunting and gathering culture to an agrarian system in
the Northwest. The initial white penetration of the Northwest and the Spokane
area occurred in the 1790's with the explorations of Alexander Mackenzie of
the Northwest Company. MacKenzie was instrumental in charting most of the
Frazer River drainage to the north of the Spokane Valley.
Fur trade with local aboriginal groups actually did not occur until 1810
when the Northwest Company, under the direction of David Thompson, established
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the "Spokane House" near the confluence of the Spokane and Little Spokane
Rivers (Tyrell, 1916). Earlier in 1805, the Americans, through the explora-
tions of Lewis and Clark, and the later Pacific Fur Company, had established
a stronghold in the Spokane Region, but trade had not developed. In 1813,
however, American interests withdrew and by 1821 the Hudson's Bay Company
emerged as the sole monopoly which was to dominate trade with Indians in the
Northwest (Rich, 1950).
Canadian, American and British furriers represented an entirely new
element of population and culture in the region. Their effects were profound.
In addition to altering the aboriginal lifestyle by introducing a dependency
for trade wares, they also succeeded in providing a stimulus to attract more
Euro-American settlers and explorers. Individuals such as David Thompson
succeeded at early dates in mapping and charting not only the Spokane drainage
systems, but also that of the Columbia. Cumulatively, the furriers were
successful in introducing market oriented exploitive behaviors among the
aboriginal populations, who became unwitting front line agents of a new
culture. The fur trade continued until the 1870's, but by the early 1830's
it brought the introduction of a new cultural system whose advance guard came
in the form of white missionaries.
AGRARIAN CULTURE
The late 1830's marked the presence of Catholic and Protestant Missionary
involvements in the Spokane area (Drury, 1976:82). The success or failure of
these religious endeavors is for the most part relatively unimportant for or-
ganization of people or resource exploitation. What is important is that
they brought additional publicity for settlement by advertising and identi-
fying the attractiveness and availability of abundant resources in the North-
west. Their initial concerns were for the "souls" of the heathen, but passive
plateau Indians, but the societies they represented were anxious to establish
white communities in the Northwest. Settlement in the Spokane region was
slow because the Willamette Valley was the chief attraction to new settlers.
The year 1850 brought a culmination of previous Euro-American settlement.
efforts. The Donation Land Act, designed to open up Oregon to white settle-
ment, had an enormous effect upon the still relatively isolated western
United States, including the Spokane region. It served to legitimize existing
land claims in some areas, but its principal impact was to stimulate settle-
ment throughout the Northwest (Robbins, 1974). The Act served as an impetus
in establishing a strong agrarian base in Washington as well.
Agricultural settlement was the primary result of demand for land and
national territory. More isolated areas such as the Spokane Valley became
dependent upon the development of line of transport for settlement. In 1858
the Mullen Road was built from the Columbia to the Missouri and effectively
centralized trade between the two river systems (Elliot, 1923:207). It
received heavy use from freight wagons, stages, miners, and settlers from the
Missouri to Walla Walla, Washington.
Another stimulus to permanent settlement in the Spokane region was
mining activity in the Northwest after the 1850's. It succeeded in attracting
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individuals from California, Nevada and other regions and necessitated a
strong resource support base, one that included agriculture and lumber as
well as transportation facilities and networks. Portland was a redistribution
center and the Spokane River Valley initially participated only in a peri-
pheral manner. The city of Spokane nevertheless profited from the contiguous
mining operations of Central Washington, Idaho, Montana, and to some extent,
Oregon from the 1860's until, actually, the present day (Pomeroy, 1965:50).
This profit came from its function as a supply dispersing point to mines and
by providing such support as lumbering and smelting operations.
The new white resource orientations put substantial pressures upon the
previously eroding aboriginal systems. Political policies and national goals
foreclosed on Indian lands. New foci of human activity emerged with the
agrarian system. Farming, hand lumber operations and minerals were important
to the continuing persistence and survival of the new system. Liberty Lake
per se did not receive commercial white attention or settlement until the
1870's when a retired Hudson's Bay Company trapper took residence near the
lake. He continued trapping operations while engaged in subsistence farming
(Meany, 1937). By the mid-18701 s other people came to Liberty Lake and
engaged in small-scale farming/ ranching operations near the lake's margins.
During the 1880's it is noted that some logging and road building activities
also occurred near the lake (Kennedy 1977:23).
INDUSTRIAL-URBAN
The late 19th and early 20th centuries marked the onset of the indus-
trial-urban cultural system. It is represented by sophisticated means for
harnessing energy and large concentrations of people. The railroad, water
power/irrigation, and industrialized mining were especially important to the
Spokane Valley. The industrial-urban systems required a reorientation of
people's value and attitudes toward resources and settlement patterns.
The growth of Spokane and the adjacent area are attributed to the natural
resource potentials. It possesses water for power and irrigation, lumber,
good soils, a mild climate and strategic location (Meany, 1946). The dis-
covery of minerals in the Coeur d'Alene Mountains had a dramatic effect upon
Spokane's industrial development and population growth. By 1889, Spokane had
nearly 25,000 residents, a 2500% growth in some 5 years (Fargo, 1950). In
1890, a dam was constructed on the Spokane River which provided hydroelectric
power to the populus as well as to associated industrial developments.
The railroad perhaps was the greatest single stimulus for the area in
growth and urban development. The 1880's marked the establishment of two
transcontinental railroads and several interregional lines for Spokane (Gil-
man, 1923). It not only supplied mining operations, but also brought more
permanent settlers, and increased trading potential.
Attention of the industrial-urban system to Liberty Lake emerged on or
about 1894 with the first commercially promoted recreational activities. By
1899 irrigation development emerged from the lake to provide water for agri-
culture in the eastern Spokane area. An electric railroad was established in
1905 in order to transport individuals to the lakeside for recreational
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pursuits. During this same time span, ranching and farming continued to
develop near the lake area (Kalez, 1973).
It was not until World War I that attention was directed toward other
resources of the Spokane region. This was due in part to the emergence of an
improved highway system and the automobile. Eventually it was necessary to
abandon the railroad due to infrequency of use. In addition, small scale
housing developments appeared on the western portion of the lake shore.
At present we have not obtained sufficient documented material to discuss
the period from the 1930's through the 1960's. We will, therefore, discuss
some of the social and political events leading up to the restoration program
for Liberty Lake.
SOCIAL AND POLITICAL EVENTS LEADING TO RESTORATION OF LIBERTY LAKE
This immediate chronology was gleaned from several sources: 1) from
newspaper articles, 2) from brief interviews with key informants involved in,
or who have promoted, the Liberty Lake restoration program, and 3) from
unpublished notes of people involved.
By the early 1950's, Liberty Lake residents became aware of serious
algae blooms in the lake. As a result of more severe late blooms, the lake
residents in 1968 established a group called the Liberty Lake Ecology Com-
mittee. Upon their formation, they sought assistance to determine the extent
of natural and cultural aging of the lake. Limnologists from Washington
State University prepared a report on several recreational lakes in western
Washington, and from this report, an issue emerged as to whether lake aging
actually meant that there was a bonafide water pollution problem at Liberty
Lake. Individuals as well as agencies took opposing sides in this issue, but
one thing was clear—there was a real use decline on many of these recrea-
tional lakes.
In the early 1970's, the first systematic study of Liberty Lake was con-
ducted by Washington State University. From the results, the Ecology Commit-
tee concluded it was necessary to implement sewering. The committee reorgan-
ized itself into the Liberty Lake Sewer District. It immediately sought to
enlist public support and formulated the Annual Ecology Day which concerned
itself with the cleanup of debris on the shoreline. In 1974 a sewer plan was
prepared and action was taken for a bond election. Countergroup activities
formed in opposition of the bond election. The "Committee of Concerned
Liberty Lake Tax Payers" effectively counteracted. Action was not successful
as only the sewer plan and the revenue assessment passed. The general obli-
gation bond failed. This was an important setback, however, since the obli-
gation bond was needed to implement the sewer system.
In preparation for a March 1975 election, a reconsideration of the
general obligation bond occurred, but countergroup action was again successful
in defeating it. More careful planning was given to the issue for the Novem-
ber 1975 election. The bond amount was reduced, the committee solicited
endorsements from EPA and the County Commissioners. Countergroups action was
again strong, and the bond was once again defeated.
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In March 1976, however, they were able to secure federal and state
funds. A Corps of Engineers report stated that the Spokane Aquifer was being
polluted from septic tanks in the area provided the necessary impetus to
obtain passage of the bond. In July of 1976 the Washington State Department
of Ecology held hearings to hear requests for lake restoration projects.
Although some opposition emerged, favor and support emerged for Liberty Lake.
In February of 1977, EPA approval was granted to Liberty Lake and the project
emerged as the first Clean Lakes Program in the western United States. Early
proponents of this program envision it as becoming a model for urban develop-
ment in a rural area.
HISTORICAL SUMMARY
The evolution of cultural systems in the Spokane River Valley and Liberty
Lake area must be viewed in a progressive and processal sense. The tech-
nological base shapes attitudes toward the ecological or environmental system.
History reveals that the more efficiently energy is harnessed the more elab-
orate and exploitive the systems become. Values, attitudes, and orientations
towards the region's resources dramatically shift from population to popula-
tion.
Thus, we come to the point of our entry into inquiry on the social
impacts of Liberty Lake's restoration. Historical data suggests industrial-
urban growth to be a major factor (or set of factors) in accelerating eutro-
phication of the lake. Whereas conditions undoubtedly created water quality
problems at earlier points in time, these either were naturally alleviated or
ignored until sufficient density of settlement, demands for unrealized prop-
erty value potential, or recreational usage created recognition of water
quality problems, and demanded organization and action to correct them.
Our research effort enters the scene at a time when lake treatment is
impending and restoration is incipient. It is precisely at this point that
it becomes important to describe the nature of the research, together with
its anticipated results. The next phase of this paper will offer a descrip-
tion of our methodology.
LIBERTY LAKE METHODOLOGY
GENERAL
Assessment of the social impacts of public works projects represents a
new concern and activity. Legislation of the 1960's and 1970's has required
public agencies to adopt research programs to evaluate the "overall" effects
of their developmental programs, including the social parameters of such
development. Shortly after the passage of the National Environmental Protec-
tion Act in 1971, different federal agencies developed separate guidelines
for such research and social impact assessment lacked direction. Most impor-
tant as a correction to this problem was the Water Resource Council's Estab-
lishment of the Principles and Standards (volume 38, no. 174 of the Federal
Register, 1973). This document attempted to unify objectives of all federal
agencies, especially with regard to assessing project impacts on the quality
of life and social well-being of a related population.
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As this workshop attests, the social impact assessment of the Clean
Lakes Program is in its incipient stage. In spite of its recency, the art of
social impact analysis has progressed very rapidly over the past decade and a
number of different methodologies have emerged to the benefit of Lake Restora-
tion Evaluation. Over 50 different methodologies have hit the literature
since 1964. Some of the more celebrated ones are (1) Battelle Environmental
Evaluation System (Dee et al., 1972), (2) the Bureau of Reclamation's The
Multiagency Task Force Method, (Bureau of Reclamation, Mississippi, 1972),
(3) The Environmental Impact Center Method (Environmental Impact Center,
1973), (4) The Corps of Engineers' Valley Diversion Method (U.S. Army ED,
1976), and (5) The Soil Conservation Service's Guide to Environmental Assess-
ment (Soil Conservation Service, 1974). Another is the Techcom Methodology
developed and refined by Peterson et al., (1971) and now employed in a number
of studies. An important recent synthesis is developed by Solomon et al.,
(WRAM) at Vicksburg, Mississippi (1977). Still, as one might predict, no one
approach is generally accepted, even though a number of those available could
substantially improve assessments.
Solomon et al., (1977) evaluation of eight different methodologies has
revealed that none met all of his criteria for adequacy or completeness. He
correctly points to the lack of measurement techniques and predictive tech-
nologies for many required variables in social impact analysis (Ibid., 1977:
18). The state of the art in social impact assessment, therefore, is diffused
and demanding some theoretical integration. As Solomon et al. point out,
appropriate methodologies must be (1) responsive to Principles and Standards,
(2) comprehensive of all kinds of impacts, (3) dynamic enough to incorporate
new variables and techniques, (4) sufficiently flexible to be applicable to
various magnitudes and locales of development, (5) objective from either the
standpoint of quantitative or subject data, (6) implementation in the field
and with time or money constraints, and (7) replicable to the extent that
others using the same framework would produce the same results in the same
setting. Short of this we remain in a quandary.
CULTURAL ECOLOGY AS A METHOD FOR SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
We regard the restoration of lakes as a cultural process. It involves
more than just the application of a technology to a resource in order to
modify it and thereby make it more immediately useful to groups of people.
It also encompasses people's values, both pro and con, and their actions in
order to finally employ an appropriate technology. As is the case in any
technologically induced change of a resource, the new circumstance of the
resource reciprocally feeds back upon human beings both in the immediate and
peripheral setting. The more relevant the resource is in the first place,
the more marked the impacts of its change. Social impacts normally are of a
very broad nature. They filter through various kinds of institutions and
ultimately affect people's attitudes and values in either direct or indirect
ways.
The design and theoretical orientation for our social research into lake
restoration at Liberty Lake are derived from a cultural-ecological model
modified after Julian Steward (1955). Steward notes the utility of consider-
ing human adaptation and cultural development in terms of evolutionary pro-
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cesses. The evolutionary model makes explicit the relatedness of cultural
and ecological systems whether they are part of a greater systematic linkage
or are linked to each other in a causal or developmental manner. The field
of cultural ecology derived from this orientation takes the linkage into
account in terms of three fundamental procedures: (1) analysis of interrela-
tionships of exploitive or productive technology and environment, (2) analysis
of human behavioral patterns involved with the exploitation of a given area
or resource, and (3) analysis of "the extent to which the behavior patterns
entailed in exploiting the environment affect other aspects of culture"
(Steward, 1955:40-41).
Implicit in Steward's design is the following type of relationship:
Exploitive or Productive
Technology
Environment ^ -* +- Other features of
the cultural system
Figure 1. Cultural-Environmental Interrelationship
The fundamental linkage of the cultural system to environment, according to
Steward, is the role of technology. Some technological features emerge as
more important so far as cultural relatedness is concerned. Steward points
out that the "relevant environmental features depend upon the culture: in
that more developed cultures are less dependent upon the environment" (Ibid.,
1955:40). Our own work (Hogg and Honey, 1975) has caused us to doubt this
proposition of Steward. In fact, we have found that industrial-urban cultures
are more intricately tied to features of environment. We will admit that
Steward properly notes that a full grasp of the relationship between cultural
and environmental systems can only be attained by a holistic examination of
such factors as demography and settlement patterns, land use and tenure, and
social structure, both in the past and present. To consider any of these
separately runs the risk of failing to note their critical linkages. He
correctly emphasizes that only by tracing the relevant history of a culture
can we expect to understand its specific nature. An empirical rather than
deductive method, therefore, is essential to the reconstruction out of which
factors of form, function and sequence might be identified (Steward, 1955:18-
19).
The determination of these features of a cultural system's interrelated
behavior patterns, as these in turn relate to the environment, is the objec-
tive of cultural ecology. The manner in which technology is utilized by a
cultural system and the extent to which an environment permits the use of a
given technology will vary reciprocally. Cultural ecology, then, seeks to
explain the origin of particular cultural features and patterns which charac-
terize different areas.
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Of further importance to this model is the concept of "cultural core,"
or central environmental feature. For the most part, a central environment
feature can only be empirically determined and is usually associated with a
long and involved .cultural history. The immediate distinguishing significance
of the central environmental feature is its interrelationships with primary
cultural activities such as subsistence of economy. Examples include lakes,
rivers, topographical features, flora and fauna. These clearly vary from one
cultural context to another.
The appropriateness of Steward's work to social impact assessment of
lake restoration projects, as at Liberty Lake, is seen through the notion of
linkage of technological and environmental features to certain kinds of
associated behavioral patterns, and then to other aspects of culture such as
values and attitudes of people. These are linked in a specific way, one
which fundamentally depends on the nature of technological-environmental
relationships. Environment thus becomes an effective influence on culture,
and provides an explanation of the origins of particular features and patterns
of culture which characterize different areas. In this manner, then, cultural
evolution can be attributed to new adaptations made by people as required by
changing technologies and behaviors in relation to differing environments.
The application of Steward's theoretical framework to social impact
assessment of a lake restoration prgram emerges in the form that is diagram-
matically illustrated in Figure 2. The principal components of the design
are as follows: 1) the historical emphasis serves to identify and explain
the nature of the central environment feature (or the centrality of a partic-
ular feature) and its interrelationship with patterns of culture; and 2) the
environmental-cultural system interplay determines to what extent the environ-
ment will permit or prohibit technological innovations; and, it identifies
the special features of the cultural system on which adaptation of people
depends.
Environmental
System 1
Historical
Circumstances
Cultural
System!
Environmental
System 2
Technological
Change Proposal
Impact
Analysis
Technological
Change
Cultural
System 2
Figure 2. Cultural Ecology and Impact Analysis
The design possesses qualities of a "dynamic systems model" (cf. Fitz-
simmons et al., 1975) in that it calls for the observation and analysis of
related cultural components such as the economy, resource use and abuse,
institutional involvements, socio-political process, and public attitudes.
It thus allows for the conceptualization of the cultural-environmental circum-
260
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stance. The application of the design is not restricted by the size or
complexity of the project or its setting.
The application of the cultural ecology framework to social impact
analysis establishes a comprehensive requirement for data and explanation not
realized in many other methods of social research. This method demands
historical, geographical, and ethnological information bases and requires a
specification of their relationships. Properly employed, a cultural ecolog-
ical study will show basic developmental patterns which have led to the
present social circumstances of an area planned for subsequent development.
Insofar as it specifies processes through time, it allows for intelligible
projections of future circumstances based upon knowledge of definite cultural
processes which operate in the present.
PRESENT STATE OF THE RESEARCH
Our data collection for our social impact research on Liberty Lake com-
menced with a comprehensive literature search of all pertinent materials
extant on the Spokane Drainage Basin in eastern Washington. Information now
is being assembled from public and private collections from various agencies,
individuals, and institutions from the states of Washington and Oregon.
Holdings of libraries, museums/historical societies, state and federal agen-
cies and others, as appropriate are being included. Such information primar-
ily is being selected from newspapers, journals, diaries and letters, books,
periodicals, research documents, and any other written material that describes
or explains the cultural-environmental circumstance of the Liberty Lake area.
Emphasis here is on the history of the technological-environmental situation
of Liberty Lake, the extent to which Liberty Lake has been a relevant resource
(to whom and when. }
As an interim phase in our methodology,.we now are in a field orienta-
tion/indoctrination period in conjunction with the literature collection
phase. This consists of visits to the physical setting, establishing prelim-
inary contacts and introductions with selected individuals and agencies
involved in the rehabilitation effort. Field observation will allow for more
precise formulation of specific hypotheses and for refinement of our analytic
framework.
The two preceding steps are providing a basis for preparation of instru-
ments for collection of quantitative information in the field. Quantitative
data will emerge from two sources; they are interviews and written enumerative
sources.
Structured interviews also will be conducted to collect quantitative
data on social characteristics and attitudes of the population. They will be
administered to a representative sample of the population adjacent to and in
near proximity to Liberty Lake. Three samples will be selected. They are
(1) recreational and other users, (2) residents of the immediate area impacted
by restoration, and (3) residents of the secondary or adjacent area within
Spokane Valley. Quantitative data collected on users will be drawn from
individuals or groups participating in some recreational or commercial activ-
ity at the lake. These data will provide details of the present technology
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and the lake, as well as behaviors and attitudes pertaining to the lake. The
primary impact area sample will be comprised of resident property owners,
operators of commercial establishments, and/or agencies that are usually in
close proximity to the lake and who will be more immediately, and directly,
impacted by the restoration effort. Secondary respondents are those usually
more geographically removed and less immediately affected (cf. Hogg and
Honey, 1977). Data derived from this sample will allow measurement of the
extent of Liberty Lake's centrality as a resource.
Unstructured interviews will serve to supplement data gathered for
analysis of change in the use of Liberty Lake, the behaviors of people in
reference to the lake, and the relationship of these to attitudes and values.
The aforementioned literature review provides the primary base for the un-
structured interviews. Unstructured interviews primarily will be aimed at
key individuals who have a special or unique understanding or knowledge that
relates to some facet of the research problem. Other unstructured interviews
will be directed at various public and private agencies who also can assist
in the information gathering process. Post coding of unstructured interview
data will allow for quantification of some items.
Quantitative data will be subjected to computer analysis. They will be
processed to develop population profiles through cross-tabulations and fre-
quency distributions. Different types of statistical analysis will be accom-
plished, most likely including analysis of variance (ANOVA) and regression
analysis to determine variable linkages. Non-quantitative data will be
analyzed typologically for special interpretations of cultural process and
function. . Efforts in the research will primarily be directed toward main-
taining a "qualitative-quantitative mix" (Pelto, 1970:44-45). Subjectively
derived data will be employed to give additional interpretation of numerical
data. All data will be analyzed in a manner which will provide an interpre-
tation of the past, a profile for the present, and a reasonable projection of
the future circumstances of Liberty Lake.
A "typical" evaluation study of lake restoration projects is impossible
to specify since so few have yet been completed. An ideal type study should
at least accomplish several major procedures (Honey and Hogg, 1978). We
specify first that preliminary ethnographic and library research is essential
for determining the cultural-ecological circumstance of the setting to receive
the project. Second, a social profile is essential for any meaningful projec-
tions of "with and without project configurations" and for determining evolu-
tionary trends. Third, the isolation of significant effects categories and
effects, as evaluated by meaningful criteria of social and cultural function-
ing, is the final and most important step in the typical process. In our
case, it allows for assessments of adaptation and maladaptation to environ-
mental features. These, then, should be monitored to test the methodology
employed.
Several levels of assessment may be sought in any project. First in-
volves simply the identification of key social variables where impacts might
reasonably be expected. Second includes an examination of interrelationships
between variables in the social present in order to establish a baseline for
subsequent future circumstance projections. Third, from these levels the
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research may accomplish projections of a "without project, with project, and
with project alternatives" patterns from which comparisons can be made and
significant effects and effect categories can be isolated. The research
should specify at its onset the level of understanding sought. It should
detail any socio-cultural omissions made. Our approach in this project is to
attempt to achieve all three levels of analysis and to omit as little as
possible.
Finally, we feel it should be noted that social impact assessment is far
more than just basic social science research. Here the ethics of objectivity
and social responsibility come head on in a serious circumstance where real
people's life quality and social well-being must be carefully examined but
treated in objective terms. We all live with biases, but these must be ac-
knowledged and ignored so far as objective assessment is concerned.
REFERENCES CITED
Becher, E. Spokane Corona, C. W. Hill, Printers, Spokane, 1974.
Dee, N. e_t al_. Environmental Evaluation System for Water Resources Planning
final report. Battelle-Columbus Laboratories for U.S. Department of
Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Columbus, Ohio, 1972.
Drury, C. M. Nine Years with the Spokane Indians: The Diary, 1838-1848, of
Elkanah Walker, The Arthur H. Clark Company, Glendale, 1976.
Elliott, T. C. The Mullen Road: Its Local History and Significance, in
Washington Historical Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 1, Seattle, 1923. pp.
206-209.
Environmental Impact Center, Inc. A Methodology for Assessing Environmental
Impact of Water Resources Department, Environmental Impact Center for
U.S. Department of Interior, Office, of Water Resources Research, Washing-
ton, D.C., 1973.
Fahey, J. Inland Empire; D.C. Corbin and Spokane, University of Washington
Press, Seattle, 1965.
Fargo, L. F. Spokane Story. Columbus University Press, New York, 1950.
Fitzsimmons, S. J. , L. I. Stuart, and P. C. Wolff. A Guide to the Prepara-
tion of Social Well-Being Account. Social Assessment Manual. Abt
Associates, Cambridge, Mass., for the U.S. Department of Interior,
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, 1975.
Gilman, L. C. Spokane Portland and Seattle Railway, in Washington Historical
Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 1, Seattle, 1923. pp. 14-20.
Glover, R. (Editor). David Thompson's Narrative 1784-1812, Toronto Press,
Toronto, 1962.
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Hogg, T. C. and W. D. Honey. Dam the River: The Proposed Days Creek Dam and
the Human Ecology of the South Umpqua River Basin, Oregon. Department
of Anthropology, and Water Resources Research Institute, WRRI #43,
Corvallis, Oregon, 1976.
Hogg, T. C. and W. D. Honey. Social Research Strategy for Lake Restoration
Programs: An Assessment Manual. Report for the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Environmental Research Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon,
1977.
Lewis, S. H. A History of the Railroads in Washington, in Washington Histor-
ical Quarterly, Vol. 2, No. 3, Seattle, 1912. pp. 186-197.
Meany, E. History of the State of Washington, MacMillan and Company, New
York, 1937.
Pel to, A. Anthropological Research: The Structure of Inquiry. Harper and
Row, New York, 1970.
Ray, V. Native Villages and Groupings of the Columbia Basin, in Washington
Historical Quarterly, Vol. 27, University of Washington, Seattle, 1936,
pp. 99-152.
Robbins, W. Land: Its use and abuse in Oregon, 1848-1910. Rockefeller
Series, Oregon State University, Con/all is, 1974.
Rich, E. E, (Editor). Peter Skene Ogden's Snake Country Journals, 1824-26,
The Hudson's Bay Record Society, London, 1950.
Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Environmental
Assessment Procedure. Washington, D.C., 1974.
Solomon et al. Water Resources Assessment Methodology (WRAM). Impact
Assessment and Alternative Evaluation. Environmental Effects Labora-
tory, U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, 1977.
Steward, J. Theory of Culture Change, University of Illinois Press, Urbana,
1955.
Teit, J. The Salishan Tribes of the Western Plateau, Bureau of American
Ethnology, 45th Annual Report, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton, D.C., 1930.
Turney-High, H. H. Ethnography of the Kutenai, Memoirs of the American
Anthropological Association, Vol. 43, No. 2, Part 2, Menasha, 1941.
Tyrrell, J. B. (Editor). David Thompson's Narrative of His Exploration in
Western America, 1784-1812, The Champlain Society, Toronto, 1916.
U.S. Army, Engineer Division, Lower Mississippi Valley, C. E. A Tentative
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174, 1973.
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PROPOSED METHOD FOR EVALUATING
THE EFFECTS OF RESTORING LAKES
by
D. B. Porcella*, S. A. Peterson**, and D. P. Larsen**
INTRODUCTION
An ongoing program to demonstrate methods for restoring polluted lakes
and preventing pollution of clean lakes is being funded with EPA/local match-
ing (50/50) money as directed by sections 314/104(h) (Clean Lakes) of PL92-500
(Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972). To aid in evaluat-
ing the efficacy of the various restoration techniques, comprehensive limno-
logical evaluations are being conducted on a subset of lakes selected from all
those being restored under the 314 program (Porcella and Peterson, 1977).
The evaluation grants are the outgrowth of several questions about lake
management. Suppose the quality of a lake is perceived as needing protection
or as being undesirable; can objective criteria be related to that perception?
How does one change a lake to another specific condition or at least change
its water quality? What are the effects of changes that occur in the water-
shed or in the lake on the water quality of the lake? How do various restora-
tion techniques compare in terms of effectiveness?
Thus, the objectives .of these detailed limnological evaluations of lake
restoration projects are:
1) To determine the effectiveness of the specific restoration manipula-
tion^) at a given lake.
2) To compare the effectiveness of various restoration processes on
different lakes.
The above questions and objectives reflect a need for predicting lake
dynamics and future steady states as related to physical, chemical and biolog-
ical factors and their interactions. Although it is probably not possible at
this time to use sophisticated and precise means of predicting lake, biotic
community, and specific organism responses to specific manipulations, it is
* Utah Water Research Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan UT 84322.
** Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Corvallis, OR 97330.
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necessary for managers to be able to predict manipulation effects on general-
ized variables that represent the more detailed and complex interactions of
aquatic communities. Such "target" variables must be measured so that the
effects of lake restoration projects can be evaluated and then the above
questions answered. For the limnological evaluations discussed above, the
target variables will be measured over a period of time extending from prior
to the application of restoration (baseline) to a significant time after the
restoration has been completed.
Two basic approaches will be used in achieving the evaluation objectives:
1) target variables will be based on the concept of nutrient balance similar
to Vollenweider's analysis that began in the late 1960's (Vollenweider, 1968,
1976; Dillon and Rigler, 1974); 2) target variables will be selected to repre-
sent general lake water quality and combined in a logical fashion to provide
an index number (Lake Evaluation Index, LEI).
Data appropriate for determining phosphorus and nitrogen loading of lakes
and for estimating the LEI from the individual target variables will be used
to compare lake quality before and after application of lake restoration
methodology in each lake and to estimate the quantitative effects of the
restoration on that specific lake. Then the effects of specific restoration
methodology will be evaluated in terms of effects on external and internal
loading and the predicted effect of that changed loading as compared to ob-
served values in all lakes being evaluated. Similarly, calculated and ob-
served effects on individual target variables and the LEI will be determined.
The individual target variables that compose the LEI will be transformed to
produce a scale of 0 to 100 so that comparisons can be made easily.
In this report we describe the basic concepts of lake quality evaluation
and the data needed to perform the evaluation. In addition, we describe the
concepts relating to the development of a LEI useful in performing the evalua-
tion. We emphasize that we are presenting proposed methods; modifications and
refinements no doubt will occur as our experience increases.
EVALUATION VARIABLES
BASIC APPROACHES
Many variables can be and have been measured in lakes; most measurements
are fairly costly but results are not all of equal value in assessing lake
quality. This is why it is necessary to develop concepts and approaches which
limit the number of measurements. It is assumed that the Vollenweider Ap-
proach and the LEI are useful concepts for meeting the objectives of EPA's
Clean Lakes evaluation program.
VOLLENWEIDER APPROACH
Considerable development of the phosphorus loading concept has occurred
(see Vollenweider, 1976; Dillon and Rigler 1975; Lorenzen, et aJL , 1976; Lung
et a_K, 1976; Larsen and Mercier, 1976; Chapra and Tarapchak, 1976); the
necessary measurements are listed in Table 1. This approach seems reasonable
because it is relatively simple, has feasible data requirements, considerable
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TABLE 1. A LISTING OF MEASUREMENTS NECESSARY TO PERFORM ANALYSES OF LAKE
ECOSYSTEMS USING NUTRIENT LOADING CONCEPTS (VOLLENWEIDER APPROACH).
Parameter
Water
Phosphorus
Nitrogen
depth area curves
depth volume curves
evaporation
precipitation
inflow (Q)
outflow (Q)
mean depth (maximum
volume and area)
inflow concentration*
in lake concentration*
sediment bulk concen-
trations and/or
sediment release rates
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
See Larsen, D. P., this publication pp. 311 for sampling protocol.
research has been done or is in progress, and external inputs are related to
watershed activities and thus to possible control strategies.
LAKE EVALUATION INDEX
Various trophic state indices have been proposed (120 separate citations
were reviewed by Shapiro, 1977; Uttormark and Wall, 1975; and Brezonik, 1976).
The reviews conclude that there is no universal and completely satisfactory
index of lake water quality. Generally, indices are designed for specific
uses and for a set of regional or local lakes (Table 2). Ideally, a simple
index of lake quality should be developed that 1) is not lake specific, i.e.,
it can be generalized to all lakes, 2) is related to all uses, and 3) is
objective, independent of other variables, and easily measured. However,
lakes are complex systems having many variables and their waters have many
beneficial uses; at our present state of lake understanding an indicator(s)
may be inadequate to satisfy all of the above criteria.
The difficulties in achieving these criteria can be seen in the variety
of lake classification schemes shown in Table 2. Many critical reviews of the
concepts and approaches for lake classification have been published but with
little consensus (Bortleson, et aj. , 1974; Brezonik, 1976; Carlson, 1977a;
Donaldson, 1969; Fruh et aJL , 1966; Hooper, 1969; Inhaber, 1976; Margalef,
1958; Shapiro, 1977; Sheldon, 1972; Stewart, 1976; USEPA, 1974; Uttormark,
1977; Vallentyne, et al_., 1969). Some consensus can be gained from observing
that the most commonly used variables include Secchi depth, DO, phosphorus,
chlorophyll a, and nitrogen compounds.
In this discussion an LEI is proposed that incorporates a minimal set of
limnological variables required to evaluate the limnological effects of lake
267
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TABLE 2. THE CLASSIFICATION OF LAKES USING VARIABLES THAT REFLECT THEIR LIMNOLOGICAL CONDITIONS.
no
CT>
00
Reference
Brinkhurst et al., 1960
Brook, 1965
Carlson, 1977b
Dillon & Rigler, 1975
Dobson et al. , 1974
Harkins, 1974
Hayes, 1957;
Hayes et al_. , 1964
Hutchlnson, 1938
Jarnefelt, 1958
Lueschow et al. , 1970
McColl, 1972~
Megard et al_. , 1978
Michalski & Conroy, 1972
Miller et al. , 1974
Mortimer, 1941
Neel, 1977
Raws on, 1960
Reynoldson, 1958
Rodhe, 1958, 1969
Ryder, 1965
Sawyer, 1947
Shannon & Brezonik, 1972
Skulberg, 1966
Stockner, 1972
Toerien et al. , 1975
USEPA, 1974
Uttormark & Wall, 1975
Vollenweider, 1968
Winner, 1972
Dependent Number of °ther Variables
Variable Variables TP OP TIN TON TN POC PP CA DO pH SD Morph. M/A WQ Ratios Floral Faunal
Trophic state
Trophic state
TSI
Trophic state
Trophic state
Standards SM
Fish PI
Trophic state
Trophic state
RTSI
RTSI
Trophic state
Trophic state
Trophic state
Trophic state
TSI
RTSI
Trophic state
Trophic state
Fish production
Trophic state
TSI
Trophic state
Trophic state
Trophic state
RTSI
LCI
Trophic state
RTSI
Frequency of use
1
1
3
3
4
4
3
1
1
5
9
1
6
1
1
2
8
1
1
2
2
7
1
1
1
6
4
2
9
X
X
X X X
X X X
X XXX
X X X BODS
alk.
Mean
depth,
cm
X
(X) (X) X X X X Algae
XXX XXX Alk
Fe, Mn
Light
Trans.
XX X Mean Fe/P
•4nn+- hi
deptn,
Ryder
Bio-
assay
X
Resi- Mg/Ca
dence
Time
X X Mean Temp., Plankton Benthos,
depth TDS fish
X
* v me
X TOS
X X
X X XX X Cond. Cation
Bio-
assay
Sediment
diatoms
Bio-
assay
XXX XXX
XX X Fish
kills
X X
XX X Seston Assi- P/B, Diversity Diversity
mi la- pig-
tion ntent
8442113892 11 6 5 12 5 4 6
* Abbreviations: TP - total phosphorus, OP - orthophosphate P, TIN - total inorganic nitrogen, TON - total organic N, TN - total N, POC - particulate
organic carbon, PP - primary productivity, CA - chlorophyll a, DO - dissolved oxygen, SD - Secchi depth, Morph. - various morphological parameters,
M/A - macrophyte and other algal variables, WQ - other water quality variables.
-------
restoration projects. (A discussion of data needs for phosphorus distribution
in lake ecosystems is contained in the paper by Larsen, pp. 311 in this publi-
cation). The LEI is intended for a specific use although its generality may
increase with application to other studies. The concept is simpler than the
Vollenweider Approach, but data requirements are quite similar. The measure-
ments relate to previous studies and in some cases conform to perception of
lake problems and, therefore, to phenomena the general public can see.
Lake quality variables can be grouped roughly into hydrological, morpho-
logical, physical-chemical and biological types (Table 3). In most cases
hydrology is not expected to be significantly affected by lake restoration.
Changes in mixing patterns and residence times will occur in dilution/flushing
projects; mixing can result from some dredging, aeration, and other projects.
Some morphological variables will be greatly affected; depth and volume will
be changed by dredging and/or outlet structure changes and diversions. Most
changes will be seen in terms of physical-chemical interactions (nutrients,
other salts, light and temperature) and biological responses to these changes
(flora, fauna and dissolved oxygen). Measurement of all factors related to
these changes is impractical. Thus it is necessary to select target variables
that indicate general water quality.
TABLE 3. CATEGORIES OF MAJOR LAKE RESPONSE PARAMETERS
Hydrologic
Inflows
Evaporati on-transpi rati on
Precipitation
Outflows
Mixing
Residence time
Physico-chemical
Phosphorus
Nitrogen
Iron
Trace Metals
Carbon
Cation/Anions
PH
Light*
Temperature*
Morphologic
Shoreline shape
Mean depth
Area
Volume
Biological Response
Chlorophyll a
Secchi disk
Macrophyte biomass
Faunal densities
Phytoplankton parameters
Dissolved oxygen
* affect nutrients and growth responses
SELECTION OF TARGET VARIABLES FOR LEI
The basis for the LEI concept is that lake water quality problems are
defined as being caused largely by or associated with increased nutrient
269
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concentrations in the lake. In most cases, phosphorus will be the nutrient of
concern (Bartsch, 1972; Porcella et aJL , 1974; Schindler, 1977). For example,
in Figure 1, a sequence of cause and effect events are shown which would occur
under conditions where phosphorus was limiting. An increase in lake phos-
phorus concentration would cause an increase in primary productivity as mea-
sured by chlorophyll a. Simultaneously there would be decreases in Secchi
depth (higher turbidity) and hypolimnetic DO (higher BOD from algal growth,
i.e., respiration exceeds production). For this scenario, data on Total P
(TP), chlorophyll a (CA), Secchi depth (SD), and DO can be used to express
changes in lake water quality.
This scheme applies when phosphorus limits primary production of phyto-
plankton but not when nitrogen is limiting (USEPA, 1974; Miller et aJL , 1974).
Thus it is necessary to measure nitrogen compounds (total nitrogen, TN) as
well. Other nutrients can limit primary production of lakes (Goldman, 1965);
such an occurrence is infrequent relative to phosphorus and nitrogen limita-
tion and thus those factors will not be included in order to maintain the con-
cept of measuring only the essential variables for developing a reliable LEI.
Macrophytes (MAC) are an important part of lake primary production that
are not measured by phytoplankton chlorophyll a or most primary productivity
methods and yet have significant effects on nutrients, DO, SD and other water
quality parameters and lake beneficial uses. Whenever lakes are relatively
deep, primary productivity is dominated by phytoplankton. Sedimentation in
lakes decreases lake depth (whether sedimentation is due to settling of or-
ganic materials produced in or out of the lake or is due to settling of inor-
ganic materials). Also some lakes are naturally shallow for topographical or
geological reasons. In all cases lakes having shallow zones (<6 meter depth
contours) usually develop significant macrophyte growth when nutrients are
available. Therefore data on macrophytes are required also.
The evaluation phase has been designed to analyze productivity problems.
However, lake water quality problems resulting from BOD inputs and suspended
solids loadings would affect the target variables DO and SD, also. Additional
analyses would be required to determine effects of lake restoration on bacter-
iological problems as would be required for other non-eutrophication related
problems (toxicity, oil spill, salinity). Although investigations at specific
lakes need be concerned with those problems where relevant, time and dollar
constraints confine this overall evaluation phase to those limnological vari-
ables related chiefly to eutrophication problems.
DEFINITION OF TARGET VARIABLES OF THE LEI
The above rationale suggests that the following target variables are
sufficient for the purposes of developing an LEI:
1) Secchi depth (SD) 4) Chlorophyll a (CA)
2) Total phosphorus (TP) 5) Dissolved oxygen (DO)
3) Total nitrogen (TN) 6) Macrophytes (MAC)
These target variables have the following attributes: 1) They span most of
the major water quality problems that affect uses of lakes, 2) they duplicate
270
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VARIABLES
Total Phosphorus
Input Loading
Total Phosphorus
Concentration
Mean Annual
Cone, of Total
P in Lake
Total Phosphorus
Concentration
Chlorophyll a
Concentration
Secchi Depth
Spring Cone.
of Total P in
Lake
Mean Summer
Cone, of Chi. a
in Lake
Increased Turbidity
from Primary Products
Reduces Secchi Depth
Dissolved
Oxygen
Concentration
Death and Decay of
Primary Producers Reduces
DO in Hypolimnion
Figure 1. Conceptual sequence of cause and effect relationships in lake eutro-
phication processes (modified from Chapra and Tarapchak, 1976).
271
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most of the parameters contained in other indices and in the Vollenweider
Approach and 3) they are commonly and for the most part, relatively simply
measured.
However, the target variables are not mutually exclusive, independent
variables. They are interrelated in complex ways. They may be additive, as
may be the case for MAC and CA. In other cases there may be a concentration
dependent maximum in reference to one variable (CA and DO) and a relatively
linear relation in reference to another (CA and TP). Because the LEI is a
composite of variables that in specific cases or at different seasons can be
unrelated, negatively related, or positively related, interpretability of the
LEI will probably be limited. However, the range of lake types to be evalu-
ated will be broader.
Having selected the above target variables, other questions arise:
-When, where and with what frequency are they measured?
-Are other data needed to calculate the target variables?
-Are other data needed to support the development of an LEI?
The following sections provide some answers to these questions. Sampling
needs and concepts, previous work on each target variable, and other data re-
quirements are discussed. Methods of analysis are specified in Appendix A.
SAMPLING
For practical reasons, funding will limit the frequency and density of
sampling. During critical flow periods (spring runoff, summer low flows) and
the growing season (periods of high primary productivity), sampling should be
at least biweekly and weekly if possible. Overlap of these periods provides
some sampling economy. For uniformity the July-August period is specified for
the target variables as used in the LEI. At other periods monthly sampling
should be adequate. Generally, time of day is very important and lake mea-
surements should be restricted to 1000 hrs to 1400 hrs standard time, prefer-
ably closer to 1200 hrs.
At least 90% of the tributary inflow should be determined by measure-
ments, continuously if feasible (USEPA, 1975a). Estimates of runoff (USEPA,
1975a) and groundwater input (Lee, 1977) should be obtained and their signifi-
cance to loading assessed to determine if more accurate measurement is neces-
sary (USEPA, 1974).
Sampling for chemical analysis should allow estimation of the total lake
loading of TP and TN and in-lake mass at a point in time for TP, TN, DO, and
CA. Sampling of the major lake basins and littoral zones should be as judged
appropriate by the investigator. Vertical profiles of the variables should be
determined at least by a bottom, midpoint and near surface sample at the deep
station(s).
Variables such as chlorophyll a, open water primary productivity, and
nutrients relate principally to measurements made in the water column in the
272
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epilimnetic zone (defined as being the layer enclosed between the water sur-
face and the lake bottom or water depth at the thermocline).
For the LEI, mean epilimnetic zone nutrient and CA concentrations will be
used. Mean upper level concentrations (such as 10 meter depth, etc.), photic
zone, maximum epilimnetic concentrations, and maximum lake concentrations
could be used if necessary. Although loadings, total lake mass (kg/lake), and
areal measurements (mg-m-2) are useful concepts, they are not used herein for
the LEI because such measurements vary greatly and independently with drainage
basin, lake volume, area, and residence time. They may be combined at some
future time since data can be normalized using various loading equations to
relate lakes of differing morphology (Allurn, et a_L, 1977).
SECCHI DEPTH
The depth of light penetration into lakes is controlled by the sun and
climate, season, water color and turbidity (Tyler, 1968). Light controls
photosynthesis hence primary production in the lake, defining zones that limit
the depth of phytoplankton net production and the distribution of macrophytes.
The SD Is a common and simple method for estimating the maximum depth of light
penetration in lake waters. SD needs to be measured at the same time (near
noon) as other variables and as often as the lake is sampled; however, SD is
measured only at the deepest sampling station.
Because we expect SD to estimate the limit to light penetration during
the growing season, the target variable will be the mean SD during the months
of July and August. During this period SD will vary chiefly according to the
concentration of phytoplankton. Because the highly colored waters of certain
lakes affect SD (Shannon and Brezonik, 1972), it may become necessary to
separate lakes into classes or types. Although classification will be avoided
if possible, color should be noted where observed.
TOTAL PHOSPHORUS
Sawyer (1947, 1966) was the first to rate eutrophication levels based on
nutrient concentrations; inorganic phosphorus concentrations of 10 mg*m-3 when
vertically uniform concentrations exist was defined as the threshold above
which nuisance algal blooms could be expected to occur. Vollenweider (1968)
used Sawyer's estimate to define eutrophic conditions by relating total phos-
phorus in the spring and summer to annual loading rates from inflows. More
sophisticated mass balance models consider sediment loading (Lorenzen et al_.,
1976; Lung et a_L, 1976; Larsen and Mercier, 1976; Vollenweider, 1976) and
attempts are now being made to define the role of the different forms of
phosphorus. For example, TP includes non-algal P and would introduce some
error in interpretation. For purposes of the LEI, summer (July and August)
total P (TP) concentration averaged through the epilimnetic zone will be used.
TOTAL NITROGEN
A value of 300 mg-m-3 of total inorganic nitrogen similar in concept to
phosphorus, was defined by Sawyer (1947, 1966) to relate to incipient eutro-
phication problems. Leuschow et al_. (1970) proposed that total inorganic and
273
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total organic N be used as variables for lake characterization. Because total
N would include inorganic nitrogen forms (potential growth of primary produc-
ers) as well as particulate nitrogen (primary producers), it was chosen as the
lake target variable. Unfortunately total N also includes detrital N and
soluble organic forms of N that might or might not be available for growth; in
addition there is considerable analytical error in the Kjeldahl measurement
and this plus its difficulty and cost often lead to its exclusion as a measur-
ed parameter. For purposes of the LEI, the summer (July and August) TN con-
centration averaged through the epilimnetic zone will be used even though
these disadvantages exist.
CHLOROPHYLL A
Many investigators have correlated chlorophyll a and phosphorus loading
and thereby related a level of eutrophication to chlorophyll levels (NAS-NAE,
1973; Jones and Bachmann, 1976; Dillon and Rigler, 1974; Porcella et al.,
1974; USEPA, 1974). These approaches have a logarithmic functional relation-
ship in common; thus, loss of beneficial use occurs with increasing chloro-
phyll a concentrations, but detriment increases more rapidly at low concentra-
tions and less rapidly at higher concentrations.
Dobson (1974) defined chlorophyll a as a function of clarity using the
inverse of SD in meters: CA = 1.14 (30/SD). Similarly, a non-linear approach
was used by Carlson (1977b): In SD = 2.04 - 0.68 In (CA).
Because CA concentrations are a function of other variables and like SD,
can be related to a perception of the quality of a lake system, epilimnetic
zone concentrations can be used to define levels of quality for the other
target variables. For this reason it is an important variable. However, CA
does not provide the dimension of the composition of the phytoplankton popula-
tion. Consequently, it is necessary to characterize the algal species com-
prising the phytoplankton community. To minimize effort and costs associated
with this task, only the three dominant genera and their numerical concentra-
tion in a single epilimnetic zone composite sample collected in conjunction
with the CA sample need to be determined. The CA target variable is defined
as were TP and TN: the summer (July and August) CA concentration averaged
through the epilimnetic zone.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Several approaches have been used for analyzing DO data: hypolimnetic DO
has been used to characterize lake trophic status (Uttormark and Wall, 1975);
DO deficit (Hutchinson, 1938) and deficit rates (Mortimer, 1941) have been
suggested (Hutchinson, 1957); hypolimnetic concentrations (Lueschow, et aK ,
1970; Michalski and Conroy, 1972), a transformed minimum DO (USEPA, 19741, and
DO concentration (Harkins, 1974) have been used.
These approaches all have disadvantages. Hypolimnetic DO represents a
water layer which has a continuous demand due to heterotrophic breakdown of
organic matter (excess production) but little or no replenishment from other
sources (atmosphere, diffusion processes, inflow, primary productivity).
Almost all of the demand for hypolimnetic DO comes from organic material
274
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settling through the hypolimnion or contained in the sediments (Lasenby,
1975). Consequently, oxygen demand by the sediments represents previous
history of the lake system and changes in lake nutrient and productivity
status may not be reflected in a change in DO demand without a significant
time lag. Significant changes in nutrient inflow that are applied over a long
period of time and/or changes in existing sediment chemical composition would
be required before hypolimnetic DO patterns would be significantly affected.
Epilimnetic DO increases during the day due to photosynthesis and de-
creases at night from respiration. Sampling times must be uniform or, prefer-
ably, determined over diel cycles.
Total lake DO is the sum of these two layers and 1) could exceed calcu-
lated temperature limited equilibrium DO levels if photosynthesis is relative-
ly high or 2) fall short of the saturation levels where respiration is rela-
tively high. Ideally hypolimnetic DO would be the most useful indicator of
respiration and respiration would be relatively independent of time and space
effects on sampling. Unfortunately the volume of the hypolimnion of many
lakes, particularly the lakes being restored in the Clean Lakes program, is
small relative to the lake bottom area or is nonexistent. Thus many of the
approaches described in the literature cannot be used due to morphological
differences in lakes (Lasenby, 1975).
As a first step in developing a target variable based on DO, we have
assumed that it is possible to estimate the instantaneous total lake equili-
brium DO (EDO, mg/lake) from atmospheric pressure and the temperature-depth
profiles. This value (EDO) is defined as the reference value for a clean
water lake. A comparison of this value with the calculated instantaneous
total lake DO (CDO, kg/lake) allows analysis of the relative quality of the
lake ecosystem with respect to physical processes and respiration/photosynthe-
sis. However, in highly productive lakes that stratify during the summer, DO
supersaturation can occur in the surface waters while zero DO or undersatura-
tion occurs in the bottom waters. Addition of these quantities (a positive
and a negative) to obtain total DO could result in essentially no difference
in comparison with EDO. Thus, for analysis of DO the incremented absolute
values of the net difference with depth between EDO and CDO will be utilized
to evaluate lakes:
, i = ZM
net DO = 77 I | (EDO - CDO).| AV.
v i = 0 1 - 1
where ZM is maximum depth, AV is the volume at a selected and convenient depth
increment, and i is the increment. Determination of EDO and CDO would require
measurement of DO and temperature profiles with depth at sufficient sampling
sites to estimate total "lake DO. Measurements should be based on average
summer (July and August) values. Significant (<5%) inflow/outflow or volume
changes would require adjustment of EDO estimates.
275
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MACROPHYTES
So far we have, defined variables that relate principally to the pelagic
area of lakes, i.e., the deeper zone of open waters. Most eutrophic lakes are
relatively shallow, but even deep lakes have shallow regions (the littoral
zone) typical of neither the pelagic zone nor the drainage basin (watershed)
which nourishes the lake. The littoral zone contains macrophytes which mark
the transition from rooted upland or terrestrial producer organisms to plank-
tonic producers of the open water ecosystem. Because macrophytes have not
been used to a great extent for lake indexing, we present more background
information on macrophytes than the other target variables.
Our concern is to develop a relationship between macrophyte biomass and
nutrient variables (water concentrations, sediment concentrations, loadings)
within the littoral zone because macrophyte problems occur in approximately
1/3 of the funded Clean Lakes demonstration projects. Generally, we define
that high quality lakes have few macrophytes and lower quality lakes have more
macrophytes in the littoral zone. Kettelle and Uttormark (1971) listed more
than 40% of U.S. problem lakes as having macrophyte problems. Uttormark and
Wall (1975) indicated that more than 20% of all the lakes they surveyed in
Wisconsin had observable macrophytes and 40% of their problem lakes (Lake
Condition Index >10) had severe macrophyte problems. Also, macrophyte produc-
tivity in the littoral zone can be a major fraction of organic matter to the
lake system (Wetzel, 1975) and may be a significant source of nutrients as
well (Howard-Williams and Lenton, 1975; Klopatek, 1975; Cooke and Kennedy,
1977). Hence, characterization of macrophytes generally is necessary to
assess eutrophication processes in most lakes in addition to the analysis of
watershed and open water processes and, for the lake restoration program, to
estimate littoral zone areal distribution and biomass of macrophytes.
Macrophytes (algae, mosses, and vascular plants or weeds) may be attached
emergent, submerged, submerged with floating leaves, or free-floating forms.
These plants obtain nutrients in part from the water but also from the bottom
sediments where many are anchored; thus they mark a second interface within
the lake ecosystem, that between the lake bottom and the water. Among other
physiological differences, vascular plants differ from algae and mosses be-
cause they are sensitive to pressure, probably because of the presence of gas
containing tissues necessary for maintenance of the life cycle (Wetzel, 1975),
and are thus physiologically depth limited to no more than approximately 10
meters. Most are limited to much shallower depths due to light attenuation.
The littoral zone can be divided into three different regions on the
basis of macrophyte distribution zones (zones slightly modified from Hutchin-
son, 1975; Wetzel, 1975): 1) shallow zone (<1 meter deep); emergent, rooted
macrophytes; these include swamps, marshes, and shallows, and can be classi-
fied as wetlands; 2) mid zone (1 to 3 meters); floating leaf vegetation ("usu-
ally are perennials that are firmly rooted with extensive rhizome systems";
Wetzel, 1975; p. 335); 3) deep zone (0.5 to 10 meters for weeds and deeper to
the limits of the photic zone for mosses and macroalgae). Macrophyte dynamics
include community and nutrient interactions and flux with time and among
water, sediment and biotic components. Wetlands (shallow zone macrophytes)
are excluded from evaluation because we are interested principally in the res-
276
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ponse of definable lake systems to restoration (Hutchinson, 1975). However,
significant inputs of materials from wetlands should be assessed, if possible.
The lake area itself will still extend to the typical boundary of the lake
margin (water-land interface). Wetlands in freshwater ecosystems are defined
as the area enclosed by the emergent (throughout most of life cycle), rooted,
aquatic vegetation line on the deepening slope and by the line on the upland
slope where vegetation requires saturated soils for growth and reproduction
(Federal Register: 40/173: 41297, September 5, 1975).
Evaluation of macrophytes excludes wetlands but considers that the bio-
mass of a lake ecosystem is the result of allochthonous inputs (tributaries,
wetlands, direct runoff from terrestrial systems) and autochthonous plant
growth (macrophytes, benthic and attached algae, and phytoplankton). Defining
the area of macrophyte growth is the first step in developing an approach for
evaluating macrophyte productivity.
The distribution of macrophytes in a lake, where no other growth require-
ments are limiting, is controlled largely by light. Consequently, denser
macrophyte growth occurs on the surfaces of water by essentially free-floating
plants (water hyacinth, duckweed) and throughout littoral zones of lakes where
rooted plants receive sufficient light. Turbidity derived from allochthonous
particles, turbulence, or due to phytoplankton or self-shading, can decrease
light penetration and reduce the depth to which macrophyte communities extend.
Thus, watershed activities or eutrophication effects which cause increases in
phytoplankton may cause changes in macrophyte density. It may be feasible to
relate SD to vascular plant distribution limits, because of its relationship
to light penetration (e.g., 2 times SD; Dillon and Rigler, 1974; 2-5 times SD;
Hackenthun, 1969; p. 30). Thus, the vascular plants of interest for evalua-
tion are restricted to the littoral zone bounded by the shoreline, wetland or
a.n upper limit maintained by mechanical disruption of life cycles by wave
action or shearing by ice and bounded in deeper water by pressure or light
limitation (e.g., defined by mean SD during the growing season, July-August).
The variables for relating macrophyte populations to nutrients and lake
condition are obviously complex and interrelated with other variables. For
example, it is possible for macrophyte problems to occur in lakes that have no
algal blooms and vice versa. This complication arises because of differing
nutrient sources and interaction with the phytoplankton community. Macro-
phytes obtain nutrients directly from the water column and from the lake
sediments (via the roots) but phytoplankton obtain nutrients only from the
water column. Also, in contrast to algal communities, primary production in
macrophyte communities might be limited by nitrogen. There is no documenta-
tion of aquatic macrophytes1 ability to fix nitrogen as occurs with terres-
trial legumes or in lakes with heterocystous blue-green algae. Also, develop-
ment of shallow water zones will be increased by the presence of macrophytes
due to increased siltation rates as a result of their dampening effect on
water velocities in specific areas of lakes.
Population density of macrophytes may or may not be related to changes in
Secchi depth or DO and needs to be estimated as a separate parameter. Because
of the dearth of management-oriented information on macrophytes, an arbitrary
approach has been taken for macrophytes; based on experiences of the State of
277
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Minnesota (Jessen and Lound, 1962) and the State of Wisconsin (Dunst, Wiscon-
sin Dept. Natural Resources, 1976; personal communication), the following
parameters of macrophyte communities have been defined as requiring measure-
ment: Species present, density (plants/unit area), percent of lake surface
area covered, water depth and substrate type for the type of plant, percent of
theoretically available substrate determined on the basis of the 10 meter
contour line or the light-limited macrophyte growth contours, whichever is
least. The specific approach has been prepared in step-by-step fashion in
Appendix B.
Using this approach and obtaining synoptic data from a large number of
lakes, several hypotheses that relate macrophyte distribution and population
density to light (turbidity) and nutrients in sediments and/or the water
column could be tested:
1) total macrophyte biomass and/or density is related to light input
and nutrient availability;
2) the light-limited distribution of macrophytes is a function of a
Secchi Depth parameter;
3) the composition of nutrients is very important to macrophyte succes-
sional sequences;
4) nutrient availability is governed by sediment interstitial water
and/or water column nutrient concentrations;
5) total macrophyte biomass in a lake system is relatively independent
of the species composition and diversity;
6) the transport of sediment interstitial water nutrients into the
water column by macrophytes is dependent on water column concentra-
tions primarily and sediment concentrations secondarily.
In summary, the analysis of aquatic vascular plants (predominantly angio-
sperms) would allow 1) evaluating lake restoration techniques and 2) assessing
whether certain functional relationships exist between light/nutrients and
macrophytes. Thus, the study of macrophyte distribution is expected to inte-
grate the effects and interactions of many environmental variables on macro-
phyte growth and distribution, namely light (season, latitude and turbidity),
nutrients (sediment, water sources and nutrient type), and other variables
(bottom substrate type, cations and anions, temperature, toxicants).
OTHER REQUIRED DATA
In addition to the above target variables and data required for the
Vollenweider Approach (Table 1), the following data are required for all lakes
although they are not part of any specific lake index (rather they are inde-
pendent variables): area and volume relationships with depth, pH and tempera-
ture depth profiles with time, identification of 3 predominant algal genera
and macrophyte genera, and total macrophyte biomass. This is a minimum pro-
gram for evaluation.
278
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Other analyses of specific research interest and specific to the particu-
lar problems of the region or locality are not precluded and in fact attention
to those problems is needed. The data needs described in this report are
designed to meet the overall objectives of the limnological evaluation pro-
jects and have been selected to minimize duplication and unnecessary addition-
al work; thus, the collection of these data should not preclude other methods
of evaluating lakes. In addition it may be important to establish relation-
ships between certain variables as necessary for the specific problems of a
specific lake. For example, measurements of SD relate closely to other vari-
ables, particularly turbidity. Suspended solids (SS, mg*!-1) relate to tur-
bidity and hence SD. If inorganic solids settle out and are not resuspended,
SS and SD relate to phytoplankton biomass and should have some relationship to
chlorophyll a and primary productivity. Where data are available, primary
productivity (mg'cm-^yr-1) and algal biomass estimates (mg-1-1) from cell
counts are useful for developing relationships to chlorophyll a concentra-
tions.
TRANSFORMATION OF VARIABLES
In order to use the target variables in a meaningful way, they must be
transformed to represent a scalar quantity which represents a value judgment
(e.g., good or bad, best or worst, beneficial or damaging, etc.). The range
of true scalar quantity must be the same for all target variables to allow
variables to be combined and to allow comparisons between variables for dif-
ferent restoration projects. The approach suggested here derives from Carl-
son's (1977b) method of transforming SD data.
Carlson's approach was to take the greatest and least expected values for
SD and assign a rating scale of 0 to 100. Then the functional shape of the
curve relating the ratings was described mathematically. Conceptually, this
can be accomplished for SD where 100 can-be assigned to essentially no light
transmission, 0 can be assigned to the light transmission of pure water and
the Beer-Lambert Law can be assumed to apply to the functional relationship
for the ratings. For the other variables the functional relationships that
transform measured values to rating values are not as clearly defined even
though a reasonable range of minimal (0) to maximal (100) impact can be as-
signed. These other variables are not as simply related to a single target as
SD is for clarity (light penetration). Carlson avoided this problem in part
by relating TP and CA to SD.
SECCHI DEPTH (SD)
To relate lake trophic state to a measurable variable, Carlson assumed
that light intensity (I/I0) as measured by Secchi disk disappearance decreases
with depth (Z) according to the Beer-Lambert Law:
In I/Io = -nZ
Increased turbidity owing to phytoplankton and other suspended material would
increase the value of the extinction coefficient (n) and cause the disk to
disappear at shallower depths. Carlson felt that using a logarithmic base of
279
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2 instead of the natural logarithm would be more useful for translating the
rating to the public.
Using a maximum limit for SD of 64 m (41.6 m was the maximum reported in
Hutchinson, 1957; 43.25 m was reported for Lake Tahoe by Goldman, 1974),
Carlson developed a trophic state index (TSI) for SD:
TSI = 10(log2 (64) - log2(SD))
TSI = 10 (6 - Iog2 (SD))
Carlson's TSI was equated with the scalar rating value, XSD, for use in the
LEI as follows:
XSD = 60 - 14.427 In (SD)
and XSD < 100.
(All rating values are confined to the range 0 to 100 to prevent undue weight-
ing of single variables on the LEI.) Comparison of SD and the rating values
are shown in Table 4.
Carl son ''s relationships for SD are based on surface concentrations of TP
and of CA. The LEI target variables are defined for epilimnetic zone concen-
trations. Different slope values would be expected for rating curves of
epilimnetic zone concentrations as compared to surface samples. Correlation
of TP and CA using surface samples (Carlson, 1977b) or epilimnetic zone sam-
ples (Dillon and Rigler, 1974) indicated that differences in equation coeffi-
cients were minimal. Although SD coefficients could vary significantly,
Carlson's will be used for the target variables in the LEI as defined for the
photic zone concentrations, until new data show that significant differences
occur.
TOTAL PHOSPHORUS (TP)
The shape of the curve relating the scalar value (XTP) to TP July-August
average epilimnetic zone concentration is based on relationships between
chlorophyll a and TP (e.g., Carlson, 1977b; Dillon and Rigler, 1974; Jones and
Bachmann, 1976) and chlorophyll a and SD (Edmondson, 1972; Carlson, 1977b).
These relationships suggest that TP is logarithmically related to the quality
of lake water; higher TP results in greater algal populations and lesser
transparency but the impact of the rate of concentration increase is less at
higher concentrations.
The limits of Carlson's scalar values include the lower TP measurements
but the higher values (> 768 mg-m-3) must be defined as equal to 100. Oligo-
trophic lakes have lower values on the order of 1 mg-m-3 (Waldo Lake, OR;
Malueg et al_., 1972; Lake Tahoe, CA-NV, 0.9 mg-m-3; Goldman, 1974). Eutrophic
lakes exhibit a wide range of maximum values of springtime orthophosphate P or
summer TP (150 mg-mg-3, Jones and Bachmann, 1976; 330 mg-m-3, Miller e_t al_.,
1974; up to 3660 mg-m-3 of median TP, USEPA, 1974).
280
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TABLE 4. RATING SCALE FOR LAKE WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS.
ro
oo
Rating
(X)
0 (minimally
impacted)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100 (maximally
Secchi
Depth
meters
64.
32.
16.
8.0
4.0
2.0
1.0
0.50
0.25
0.125
<0.062
Total P
mg*m-3
0.75
1.5
3.0
6.0
12
24
48
96
190
380
>770
Total N
mg«m-3
5.2
10
21
42
83
170
330
670
1300
2700
>5300.
Chlorophyll a
mg*m-3
0.04
0.12
0.4
0.94
2.6
6.4
20.0
56.0
150.0
430.0
1200.0
Net DO
mg*!-1
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
>10.0
Macrophytes
% available
lake area
covered
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
impacted)
-------
Carlson's equation transformed for use in the LEI is:
XTP = 4.15 + 14.427 In TP
and XTP < 100
TOTAL NITROGEN (TN)
The formulation of TN July-August average epilimnetic zone concentration
in the rating scale (XTN) was determined in relation to TP. The N/P ratios
for phytoplankton average about 16/1 (mole/mole) or 7/1 (weight/weight)
(Bartsch, 1972; Stumm and Morgan, 1970; p. 429). Thus TN is equivalent to 7.0
TP and the scalar rating is:
XTN = 14.427 In TN - 23.8
and XTN < 100.
Equivalent values of XTN and TN are shown in Table 4.
Oligotrophic lakes show values of TIN (TN data incomplete) to be about
1-50 mg-m-3 (Waldo Lake, OR, 50 mg N-m-3, Malueg et al, 1972; Lake Tahoe,
CA-NV, 0.9 mg N-m-3 (NH4 assumed to be 0.0); Goldman, 1974). Values for
eutrophic lakes vary widely (710 mg TIN«m-3, Miller et aT., 1974; median value
7355 mg TIN-m-3, USEPA, 1974), and XTN must be restricted to 100 when includ-
ing values greater than 5330 mg-rn-3.
CHLOROPHYLL A (CA)
The average July-August epilimnetic zone concentration of chlorophyll a
(corrected for pheophytin; see Holm-Hansen et al., 1965; APHA, 1975 for analy-
tical methods and Fee, 1976 for discussion of sampling problems for chloro-
phyll a) is related to the scalar value (XCA) as a logarithmic function as was
discussed for TP, above. Concentrations of chlorophyll a in oligotrophic and
eutrophic lakes are encompassed by Carlson's equation (Table 5):
XCA - 30.6 - 9.81 In (CA)
and XCA < 100.
Equivalent values of XCA and CA are listed in Table 4.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)
The net DO calculated as an average over the principal summer months
(July-August) is based on what the DO would be in a pure water lake and what
is actually measured (see section on defining target variables). Without
contrary information the scalar value (XDO) is assumed to be a linear function
of the net DO. The best situation (XDO = 0) would occur if net DO was zero,
and a very poor quality (XDO >100) would exist if net DO is >10:
XDO = 10 (net DO)
and XDO < 100.
Equivalent values of XDO and average net DO are listed in Table 4.
282
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TABLE 5. SOME MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM CHLOROPHYLL A VALUES MEASURED IN LAKES.
Chlorophyll a*, mg*m
_3
Reference
Dobson, et al_. , 1974
Jones & Bachmann, 1976
System or Lake
Great Lakes
16 Iowa Lakes
Maximum
Values
25.4
262.2
Minimum
Values
0.4
6.8
USEPA, 1974
Winner, 1972
Shannon & Brezonik, 1972
Fee, 1976
Malueg, et al_., 1972
Holm-Hansen, 1976
Extremes
" " " and
compiled data**
209 lakes in National
Eutrophication Survey
5 Colorado Lakes
55 Florida Lakes (mean)
ELA lakes
Waldo Lake, OR
Lake Tahoe, CA-NV
400.0
381
34.
39.
327
1.64
0
1
1
400
0.3
1.0
1.0
1.8
<1.0**
0.13
(Mean,
0-60
m deep)
0.1
0.1
* not all data corrected for pheophytin a
** estimated from graphical data
MACROPHYTES (MAC)
The area of the lake subject to growth of macrophytes can be defined as
the area encompassed by the lake margin and either the 10 m line or the depth
at which light becomes limiting to vascular plant distribution and growth (2
times SD) whichever is shallower. The percent of this area that is actually
covered by vascular plants is defined as the target variable. Only relatively
crude surveys during the growing season (July-August) are needed to assess the
percent of that area that is actually covered by the vascular plants. The
target variable, percent macrophyte area covered (PMAC), could be assessed in
terms of a rating value (XMAC) as a simple percentage:
XMAC = PMAC
The least impacted system would be defined as having zero percent cover and
the most impacted system as having 100 percent cover. Equivalent values of
XMAC and PMAC are listed in Table 4.
283
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A PROPOSED FORMULATION OF THE LEI
RATING VALUES AND TROPHIC LEVELS
The target variables used for evaluation are not mutually exclusive or
independent variables and their comparison as a rating value for a given lake
will not necessarily agree. Furthermore, each measures slightly different
lake functions. Thus; the rating values are not expected to agree among
themselves for a lake or set of lakes. This is apparent when comparing rating
values for complementary variables such as macrophytes and chlorophyll a;
however, the relationship between these variables, SD and the other target
variables is sequential where one is a function of another.
The most difficult target variables to relate to problems or perceptions
of problems are the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus because they are causes,
not effects. Also, nitrogen may be considered limiting on the basis of nutri-
ent ratios (see USEPA, 1974; Miller, et aJL, 1974), but be supplied from
atmospheric nitrogen by nitrogen fixing blue-green algae (Bartsch, 1972; Home
and Goldman, 1972; Schindler, 1977). Although ratios of nitrate to orthophos-
phate concentrations in lakes can be constant (Stumm and Morgan, 1970), the
ratio does not allow interpretation of possible effects of nutrients directly.
Loading and mass balance models (Vollenweider Approach) seem to offer the best
approach to determining the effect of nutrient changes on lake quality and
will be used to define trophic levels in relation to nutrient concentrations.
Morphological (depth) and hydrologic (flow through rate) factors affect
significantly the nutrient, DO, macrophyte and chlorophyll a concentration in
lakes. For these reasons it is important to look at the individual variables
in terms of meeting the evaluation objectives, i.e., a comparison of the
effects of specific lake restoration projects.
Various suggested levels of chlorophyll a concentrations have been re-
lated to trophic levels and Chapra and Tarapchak (1976) averaged these values
to obtain reasonable quantitative definitions of trophic state (Table 6).
Similar values have been estimated, for SD, inorganic nitrogen (TIN) and
orthophosphate (TIP) as well as other parameters.
Good agreement with the values in Table 6 was obtained when the USEPA
(1974) ranked 209 NES lakes and, by summing percent!le rankings for 6 separate
parameters, provided a breakpoint of 500 for oligotrophic lakes and 420 for
mesotrophic lakes. These totals correspond to average percent!le limits of
83.3 and 70.0 for eutrophy and oligotrophy, respectively. Values of parame-
ters corresponding to these percentiles (Table 7) indicated very narrow ranges
"defining oligotrophic and eutrophic" over the rather broad spread of actual
concentrations shown in Table 5 for the rating value. The values in Table 4
were plotted and then the levels associated with different trophic states
(Table 7) were noted for comparison (Figure 2). The variables that define
different trophic states agree surprisingly well and in defining selective
limits, show that rating values of less than 45 indicate oligotrophy and
values greater than 50 indicate eutrophy.
284
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TABLE 6. SOME ESTIMATES OF EUTROPHICATION LEVELS ASSOCIATED WITH SPECIFIC
VARIABLES THAT MEASURE LAKE QUALITY.
OLIGOTROPHIC EUTROPHIC REFERENCE
Variables in LEI
Chlorophyll a
photic zone mean, mg-m-3
<4 >10
0.3-2.5 5-140
<4.3 >8.8
<1 >6
Overall average
peak photic zone, mg-m-3
Secchi Depth, m
TIN, mg-m-3
TIP, mg-m-3
Non-LEI variables
PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY-14C02 uptake
mean daily, mg cm-2 day-1 30-100
total annual g cm-2 day-1 7-75
mean daily, mg cm-2 day-1 <200
HYPOLIMNETIC DO DEFICIT
rate, mg 02-m-2 day-1 <250
NUTRIENT LOADING (at mean depth, z)
TP, g-m-2 yr-1
TN, g-m-2 yr-1
<2.75
<3
>6
>8.7
>20
<3
>300
ALGAE, number-ml-1
BIOMASS, mg I-1
CELL VOLUME, mm3-!-1
ROTIFERS, number-I-1
MICROCRUSTACEA, number-I-1
SPECIES DIVERSITY
<2000
<1
<5
NAS-NAE, 1972
Sakamoto, 1966
Dobson, et aK , 1974
Carlson, 1977b
Chapra and Tarapchak, 1976
Landner, 1976
Dobson, et a/L , 1974
Sawyer, 1947
300-3000 Rodhe, 1969
75-700
>750 Landner, 1976
>550
Mortimer, 1941
>0.3 (20 m) Vollenweider, 1968
>0.8 (100 m)
>4 (20 m)
>1 (100 m)
>15,000 Landner, 1976
>30
>250
<1 >25
low (high is mesotrophic) low
285
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ro
oo
MINIMALLY
IMPACTED
^024
20
u
-i
<
o
40
o60
z
o:
80
IOQ
VARIABLE VALUES (ARITHMETIC)
8 10
\ i II ^ST I l I I
\ Chlorophyll 97\. Total Nitrogen;
— \mg-m"3, (log)—^x. mg«m"3(Time80.li
(log)
•
ecchi Depth,m (log)
Total Phosphorus, mg-m"3
(log)
Oligotrophic
Macrophytes-, Percentage of
area available (Times 0.1)
—netDO,
iX i i r l i M
Limits defined
Mesotrophic "I by USEPA data,
(Table?)
0.01
MAXIMALLY
IMPACTED
O.I
1.0 10.0
VARIABLE VALUES (LOGARITHMIC)
100.0
Figure 2. Relation between rating values and variable values compared to eutrophication levels.
-------
TABLE 7. CONCENTRATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH TROPHIC STATE DEFINED BY A RELATIVE
RANKING OBTAINED FROM NES DATA ON 209 LAKES (USEPA, 1974).
Oligotrophic Eutrophic
Parameter [percent!le <83.3] [percent!le >70]
median total P, mg-m-3
median dissolved P, mg-m-3
median total N, mg«m-3
median chlorophyll a, mg-m-3
minimum observed DO, mg*l
mean Seech i depth, m
<14
<8
<140
<4.8
>7.2
>2.8
>25
>11
>180
>7.4
<6.2
<2.0
* Estimation based on three sampling times (spring, summer, and fall) and 1
or more sampling sites and more than 1 sampling depth.
LEI
The formulation of the LEI was based on a number of assumptions, limited
data, and as yet relatively untested concepts of the authors. The formulation
of the LEI is hypothetical, and to a certain extent, arbitrary. It is pro-
posed as an hypothesis that will be tested by applying synoptic data obtained
from the evaluation grants or from literature data or NES data (USEPA, 1975b).
The LEI is not intended to be unalterably structured. It is anticipated that
testing the concept may result in some alteration of the LEI formulation.
The LEI has a range of 0 to 100 and was obtained by averaging specific
target variables. Primary productivity in lakes is the sum of phytoplankton
productivity and macrophyte productivity, therefore, the rating values of
these two variables (XCA, XMAC) were summed and averaged; XSD and XDO were
included directly; the nutrient variable was assumed to be XTP because of its
typical importance but XTN could be (and will be for testing the hypothesis)
substituted. Generally, if phosphorus is limiting, lower rating values for TN
will be obtained than for TP. This comparison (XTP vs. XTN) is one way of
determining whether to use XTP or XTN; i.e. the higher rating value of either
XTP or XTN will be used. This resulted in the following equation:
LEI = 0.25 [0.5 (XCA + XMAC) + XDO + XSD + XTP]
As defined, the LEI is a simple number that ranges from 0 to 100 (minimal
to maximal) and is related primarily to clean water uses as a function of
eutrophication. Obviously, uses dependent on lake productivity such as fish-
ing or largely unaffected by lake productivity such as irrigation storage are
not related to the LEI. The formulation of such relationships will require
utility functions. These utility functions would be cost/benefit functions,
primarily but not exclusively. Utility functions for the LEI and lake use
would include 1) optimality relationships (fishing, wildlife habitat), 2)
linearly decreasing relationships (aesthetic, swimming, water supply, indus-
trial uses), and 3) non-productivity affected relationships (irrigation, waste
disposal, flood control, navigation). These would be influenced by the avail-
287
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ability of such factors as alternative lake sites or water supplies and alter-
native activities or resources.
Also the LEI does not reflect other conditions such as toxicants (pesti-
cides, heavy metals), salinity, inorganic sedimentation problems, spills. It
is limited to productivity problems, i.e., eutrophication. Application to
such problems would require modification and/or the development of other
concepts.
SUMMARY
Two basic approaches, the Vollenweider or mass balance loading models and
a lake evaluation index (LEI), are proposed to evaluate restoration manipula-
tion^) applied to a specific lake and to evaluate specific restoration tech-
niques by studying a set of lakes. Although the Vollenweider Approach appears
reasonable for phosphorus to a certain extent and has been accepted for manag-
ing lakes, a review of the literature reveals that little consensus exists on
the development of indices for evaluating lake quality.
The LEI as proposed herein has a conceptual basis and includes the most
commonly used target variables for limnological analysis of lakes: Secchi
Depth (SO), Total Phosphorus (TP), Total Nitrogen (TN), Chlorophyll a (CA),
net Dissolved Oxygen (net DO), and Percent Macrophytes (PMAC). Recommended
sample collection and analysis appropriate to the LEI, the Vollenweider Ap-
proach, and associated necessary data are listed in Appendix A. Some of the
target variables and associated data will be utilized in a quality assurance
program to insure that comparable data are obtained.
Investigators on the evaluation grants will perform analyses appropriate
for developing an understanding of lake limnology and the effects of restora-
tion and analyses necessary to calculate the LEI and nutrient loadings. These
will be used to assess treatment effects on individual lakes and to compare
similar treatments on different lakes to achieve the objectives cited in the
Introduction and to modify the LEI so that the most accurate and reproducible
interpretation of lake response can be obtained. As the first step in this
latter process a set of data for 28 lakes from the state of Washington have
been evaluated using the LEI (Appendix C).
288
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234567 8 9 10 II 12 13 14
i -- 1 -- 1 - 1 - 1 - r- — i — i
PINE LAKE, WISCONSIN
Figure B-l.
Bathymetric map of Pine Lake, Wisconsin, with grid
pattern for selecting sections for macrophyte survey.
291
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PINE LAKE
Macrophyte
Communities
Open
(sporadic
weeds)
N
Submergent Species
Rrobbinsii Dominant
Floating Leaf Species
Bulrushes
Figure B-2.
Map of Pine Lake, Wisconsin indicating
distribution of major macrophyte types.
292
-------
Show this information on a bathymetric lake map (Lind, 1974). The map
should show distribution of the communities and a species list with the appro-
priate abundance symbol for each location (Fassett, 1960).
5. Density, frequency and depth. This analysis is applied to the selected
sections as defined in steps 2 and 3.
Follow the grid pattern as much as possible using a compass and shoreline
reference points, being reasonably precise.
Within the center of each selected section will be an imaginary circle
with a six foot radius. Mentally divide the circle into quadrants and using
an underwater viewer (Lind, 1974) determine the density of growth for each
species according to:
1 = present in one quadrant
2 = present in two quadrants
3 = present in three quadrants
4 = present in four quadrants
5 = very abundant in all four quadrants
Visual determinations should be possible in most instances; however, a
garden rake can be utilized if necessary to provide more reliable results.
Additional measurements at each stations shall include:
a. Water depth (lake water level at the time of sampling should also be
recorded),
b. percent of open surface area within the six foot radius,
c. sediment type (include combinations),
i. rock
ii. gravel
iii. sand
iv. muck—decomposed organic materials
v. detritus—undecomposed organic materials (e.g., leaves, sticks,
peat, etc.)
vi. marl—whitish in color, fizzes profusely when muriatic acid is
applied.
Reporting. In the report compute frequency occurrence, average density
rating, and depth of growth for each species during each sampling period for
the lake as a whole; however, furnish all of the original data. Numerically
identify the approximate location of each sampling station on a map.
Indicate the total area available for macrophyte growth (10 m depth line
and/or the contour line for 2 times mean Secchi depth for July-August), and
the percent total lake surface covered by macrophytes.
293
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APPENDIX C
APPLYING THE LEI (LAKE EVALUATION INDEX) TO WASHINGTON LAKES THAT ARE OF
VARYING MORPHOLOGY AND TROPHIC LEVEL.
The LEI was developed for evaluating the effects of lake restoration
techniques. Data adequate for illustrating the use of the LEI were obtained
for a set of Washington lakes (Bortleson, et aK, 1976). Four separate re-
ports written by the Washington DOE and US Geological Survey on Washington
lakes have been published; a single report was selected at random (Part 3) and
all 28 lakes therein were evaluated. Data from the 28 lakes do not meet the
specifications for the LEI described previously; they are reconnaisance data
and were used only to illustrate the method for determining the LEI.
MORPHOMETRY (DEFINITIONS AS IN HUTCHINSON, 1957)
Areas (A), volume (V), perimeter (P), mean (ZB) and maximum (ZM) depth,
and dissolved oxygen (DO) and temperature (T) relationships with depth were
obtained along with Secchi depth (SD), total phosphorus (TP), total nitrogen
(TN), chlorophyll a (CA), and percent area of the total lake covered by macro-
phytes. These data were used as input to a simple computer program for esti-
mating the LEI. The development ratio (DL) was calculated as the ratio of the
true perimeter to the circumference of a circle having the measured area of
the lake. The diameter (D) of the lake can be determined assuming that the
lake surface is a circle with area, A (Table C-l). The diameter can also be
determined by assuming a geometric shape for the lake and by using the dimen-
sions of this geometric shape to calculate D.
The calculation of various components of the LEI (particularly net DO)
requires information about lake volumes which correspond to particular depth
increments. If these volume increments are not available, they can be calcu-
lated by the method outlined below. The method assumes a lake to correspond
to a particular geometric shape.
A cone shape has been suggested as a possibility (Hutchinson, 1957) but
analysis of lake data indicated that a paraboloid would provide a better
approximation of lake volume. The idealized relationships for conic and
parabolic shapes compared to a hypothetical vertical plane of a lake can be
visualized as in Figure C-l; certain types of morphometric configurations
would produce ratios of the empirically determined area (Ae) to such volume-
based areas (Av) that vary from unity depending on whether the actual plane
was less or greater than the idealized planes shown in Figure C-l.
As a comparison of the goodness of fit by either the conic or parabolic
shape, 1) the surface diameter (D) was calculated from the empirically deter-
mined volume using the conic (dvc) and then the parabolic (dvp) equations;
294
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CONIC VOLUMES PARABOLIC VOLUMES
IDEALIZED SHAPES
SOLID
FORM
VERTICAL
SECTION
(A/AV=I.O)
TYPICAL LAKE TYPES
IDEALIZED
ACTUAL
REGULAR
PROFILE
(A/AV
-------
2) the area was calculated from each diameter using the equation of a circle;
and 3) these idealized areas were compared to the empirically determined areas
using ratios. These ratios (Table C-2) indicate that the paraboloid approxi-
mates the set of 28 Washington lakes better than the conic because 1) more
ratios of calculated to measured areas for the parabolas are closer to 1.0
(the ideal) than for the cone (20 were better; 3 about the same and 5 were
worse); it should be noted that the cone did fit some of the lakes better; 2)
based on a t-test the mean ratio of the 28 lakes for the parabola was not
significantly different from 1.0 (p<0.99) whereas that for the cone was dif-
ferent. Also, note that the cone and parabola ratios were significantly dif-
ferent from each other. Attempts to correlate deviation of the idealized
shapes from measured shapes with development ratios (DL) were unsuccessful.
Essentially, the ratios of calculated to measured areas for the 28 lakes rep-
resent a normally distributed set of data with mean of 1.0 (Figure C-2).
TABLE C-l. MORPHOMETRIC ALGORITHMS FOR USE IN DETERMINING THE LEI.
1. Surface Area (A):
A = *r*
2. Perimeter (P) and development ratio (DL):
circumference = Ttd
DL = P/n = P
3. Lake volume (V) ratios
a. Conic
V = | 7tr2h = ~ 7td2h = ^ nd2ZM
2a
_ n ZM2
dy = 2Vy7a =
296
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TABLE C-2. COMPARISON OF 28 WASHINGTON LAKES INDICATES THAT PARABOLOIDS
APPROXIMATE LAKE VOLUME BETTER THAN CONES.
Rati os
Conic area/
measured area
1.590
2.080
1.396
1.402
1.201
1.200
1.380
1.766
1.544
.969
1.378
1.600
2.052
1.799
1.921
1.119
1.380
.943
1.309
1.091
1.199
1.024
1.219
1 . 255
1.722
1 . 777
1.446
1.898
mean 1 . 45
Standard deviation 0.326
Standard error 0.062
Range 1 . 1 37
t-value
(compare to 1.0) 7.35*
t-value (compare
conic to parabolic) = 6.54*
Parabolic area/
measured area
1 . 060
1.387
.931
.934
.801
.800
.920
1.178
1.029
.646
.918
1.067
1.368
1.199
1.281
.746
.920
.629
.873
.727
.799
.682
.813
.837
1.148
1.185
.964
1.266
0.968
0.217
0.041
0.758
0.78**
* significantly different at P > 0.99
** not significantly different at P < 0.95
297
-------
^•7^
«/ */
98
X.
rREQUENC>
00 CD CO
O O cn
UJ 70
> 60
-------
The area for that paraboloid, V , is determined from the area of a circle
for the base of the parabola (Table C-s?).
EXAMPLE
Goodwin Lake, WA is shown in Figure C-4 along with DO and temperature
profiles with depth for spring and summer, 1972. Interpolated data for 2
dates for oxygen and temperatures at specific depths are shown in Table C-3.
Table C-4 summarizes the data and displays the transformed values calculated
with the equations described previously. Although the example data are sparse
and do not rigidly meet the requirements listed in the text, they illustrate
the process.
LEI values were calculated for each of the 28 Washington lakes mentioned
previously, and the lakes were ranked in ascending order. This ranking was
then compared with qualitative describers given in Bortlesen et al. (1976).
Table C-5 demonstrates relatively good agreement between the LEI values and
the qualitative describers of trophic character; the low LEI values tend to
correspond with lakes of low biological productivity and the higher value with
lakes of higher biological productivity.
301
-------
1000 2000
FEET(x0.3048 =
GOODWIN LAKE
DEEP POINTS, CONTOUR IN FEET
ZM = 50 FT (15.24m)
ZB = 23 FT (7.01 m)
V = 13000 ACRE-FT (15.8931 xl06m3)
A = 560 ACRES (2.2672x|06m2)
D= 1.70
MARCH 13
JULY 27
TEMPERATURE
a
SECCHI DEPTHfA)
48
1
10 14 18 22
°C
DISSOLVED
OXYGEN
OUTFLOW
48
1012 14
mg/l
0 4 8 12
mg/l
Figure C-4.
Areal dissolved oxygen deficit calculations are determined based
on above data traced from Bortleson, et aK (1976), for Goodwin
Lake as an example of 28 other lakes taken from the report.
302
-------
TABLE C-3. DATA ON GOODWIN LAKE FROM BORTLESON et aJL , 1976 (See Figure C-3).
Spring (March 13) Summer (July 27)
Depth (m)
0 (surface)
6.4
7.3
9.8
13.4
15.24 (bottom)
DO (mg-1-1) Temp. (°C) DO (mg-1-1)
12. 7. 8.8
unchanged 8.8
to bottom 8.8
0
0
0
Temp. (°C)
21.
21.
19.
12.
10
10
TABLE C-4. DATA NEEDED FOR LEI USING EXAMPLE OF GOODWIN LAKE (FROM BORTLESON
et al., 1976).
Variable
Secchi Depth (m)
Total P (ug-1-1)
Total N (ug-1-1)
Chlorophyll a, (ug*!-1)
Net Dissolved Oxygen (rag*!-1)
7/27/72
Data*
4.27
12.
820.
12.3
2.52
Calculated LEI
data (variable)
39
73
73
55
25
(XSD)
(XTP)
(XTN)
(XCA)
(XDO)
[Measured-Saturated from Table C-3]**
Percent total area covered by macrophytes 1.0 1.7 (XPMAC)
LEI __ 41
* Transform of only one data point; in practice the average of weekly data
collected in July and August would be used. For DO, the average of the
calculated total differences would be used.
** These data corrected for temperature:
DOSAT = 522/(36 + 0.5T).
If lake is not at sea level, correction for pressure should be made
ff _ actual PN
(T 760 mm P;
303
-------
TABLE C-5. COMPARISON OF LEI VALUES FOR 28 WASHINGTON LAKES WITH ESTIMATED
TROPHIC STATE (BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY, BORTLESON et al. 1976).
Lake
Wye
Phillips
Retreat
Goodwi n
Wallace
Ward
Mason
Wai ker
Offutt
Roesiger (North Arm)
Mineral
Echo
Stevens
Roesiger (South Arm)
King
Deer
St. Clair (North Arm)
Diamond
Hicks
Heritage
Boren
Pierre
St. Clair (South Arm)
Thomas
Leo
Frater
Sherry
Gillette
LEI
27.48
29.70
31.36
33.19
33.79
34.93
35.10
35.87
36.64
36.97
37.23
37.35
39.88
40.96
44.25
44.92
47.82
47.84
48.16
48.57
49.34
50.80
52.45
53.42
53.65
55.79
55.81
63.06
Trophic Character
(biological productivity)
Low
Low
Medium
Medi urn
Low
Low
Low
Low to Medium
Medium High
Low to Medium
Moderate
Medium
Medium
Medium
Medium
Low to Medium
Moderate to High
Medium
Moderately High
High
Medium to High
Moderate to High
Moderate to High
Medi urn
Medium to High
Medium to High
Medi urn
Medium to High
304
-------
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310
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The time dependent solution is:
[P] =
ext
At steady state:
J
Jext /
pw >
Q V a + P
(4)
[P] =
ext
w
CTp + pv
(5)
where p = annual water washout coefficient = H (yr )
_i
a = annual fractional loss of lake P to sediments (yr ).
Since a direct determination of o is difficult, alternate methods for
estimating its value have been suggested. Dillon and Rigler (1974b) showed
that a could be estimated by determining how much inflowing P left a lake
through the outlet for a lake in a steady state. For lakes in which the P
content changes over the year, the net annual flux of P to the sediments can
be estimated from input-output differences if the change in lake P is includ-
ed.
fraction of inflowing P which sediments annually. Equations 4 and 5 can be
rewritten as:
Dillon and Rigler (1974b) showed that a = R p /(1-R), where R was the
p w
[P] =
J
ext f, _ n\ _
Q C1 R;
j
dext
Q
J *-
and [P] = -^ (1 -
(1-R) - [Po]
-
R)
e -
w
1 - R
(6)
(7)
R can be determined by measurement (Dillon and Rigler, 1974b) or by using
one of the empirical (Larsen and Mercier, 1976; Vollenweider, 1976) or theore-
tical (Chapra, 1975) expressions. These expressions are:
R =
and R =
1
w
(Larsen and Mercier, 1976)
(Chapra, 1975)
where v = net annual settling velocity (m/yr) and
q = areal water loading = Q/lake surface area.
Equations 6 and 7 form the basis for projecting expected changes in phosphorus
when P input supplies are altered.
313
-------
In many lakes, although net deposition occurs on an annual basis, the
rate of deposition might not be constant (or a constant fraction of the
amount of phosphorus in the lake), or net release from the sediments might
occur over periods of up to months (for examples, see Ahlgren, 1976; Welch,
1977; Larsen et al., 1975). These events, especially sediment P release,
might be important in controlling algal productivity and bloom formation
particularly during summer months. To identify these short term events,
equation (2) can be rewritten to form the analytical framework:
- S = V - Jaxt
By measuring all the terms on the right side of equation (8) precisely on a
weekly or biweekly frequency, the net source-sink flux can be determined by
difference. Essentially, the change in lake P content (V d[P]/dt) not attri-
butable to_ differences between surface supplies and losses is attributable to
the internal source-sink term.
It must be emphasized that this method estimates the net flux of P to or
from the sediments. Conceptually it is similar to the method described by
Dillon and Rigler (1974b) for experimentally determining the annual retention
of P in lake sediments, but equation 8 uses shorter time intervals to deter-
mine when major internal fluxes occur. Measurements of gross fluxes of P to
or from sediments requires a considerably more elaborate experimental program.
This program might include the measurement of P release by isolating sections
of the lake bottom with cores incubated in the lab (Bannerman et al., 1974),
or by using submerged chambers (Sonzogni et al., 1976; Welch, 1977); measure-
ment of deposition with settling traps (HSkanson, 1976; Kimmel et al., 1977);
and assessment of the importance of macrophyte communities as a source/sink of
P (Lie, 1977). Since many of the techniques for measuring gross flux are not
yet standard and might require resources which cannot presently be supplied by
Clean Lakes funding, it is probably infeasible to experimentally determine
gross fluxes at this time.
An evaluation of the timing and magnitude of net internal fluxes can be
used to identify factors which control these fluxes. For example, in shallow
lakes, high winds might resuspend sedi merited P. When qui scent conditions are
re-established, algal blooms might develop using the store of dissolved P
which was stirred up. Or sediment release of P and accumulation in the hypo-
limnion can occur when anaerobic conditions develop in large lakes. Then,
erosion of the thermocline can transfer significant amounts of P into the
epilimnion with the potential of stimulating algal proliferation (Stauffer and
Lee, 1973). Careful measurements, using equation 8 as a framework, can show
the occurrence of these events. Correlation with other environmental vari-
ables can lead to an establishment of causal factors.
An assessment of internal fluxes can also be used evaluate the effec-
tiveness of restorative treatments directed at reducing sediment P supply.
Nutrient inactivation and dredging are two techniques which attempt to reduce
314
-------
that supply. A before-after evaluation can show how well the internal fluxes
have been altered by treatment. Cooke et al. (in press) used basically this
technique in analyzing the effectiveness of hypolimnetic application of alum
in Twin Lakes, Ohio. Their results suggested that hypolimnetic application of
alum was ineffective in reducing epilimnetic P concentrations significantly
because most of the epilimnetic P was probably supplied from epilimnetic
sediments.
OBJECTIVES
This portion of the evaluation of the response of Clean Lakes to remedial
treatment will use equations (l)-(8) as the basis for projecting the lake's
expected response and evaluate the effectiveness of remedial treatment.
Specifically, we propose to:
1) Quantify the changes in external and internal P supplies to selected
lakes resulting from remedial treatment and project the expected
changes in lake P content resulting from reduction in P supplies.
2) Quantify the seasonal changes in P content of selected lakes to
determine the importance of internal supplies of P and to evaluate
the effectiveness of treatment methods designed to reduce internal P
loading.
3) Relate the development of algal biomass to the P content of selected
lakes and to show how algal biomass is expected to change with re-
ductions in lake P content.
4) Determine how well the Lake Evaluation Index (Porcella and Petersen,
1977) relates to the P content of lakes.
Data Base and Suggested Frequencies for Sampling
The following list of environmental variables and sampling frequencies
are offered as guidelines, and are not meant to make up a rigid protocol.
Certainly each principal investigator understands the system which he is
assessing best, so he should tailor a sampling program to optimally quantify
the treatment and the effect within the lake of interest.
1. Water budgets: Obtain the best estimates of flows from tributaries,
rainfall, overland flow, storm water inflow and lake outflow. Sampling
should be structured to obtain measurements of the most important con-
tributors most frequently, particularly during storm events. Also samp-
ling frequency should be higher for sources contributing the most P.
2. Total phosphorus (TP), total dissolved phosphorus (TOP), soluble reactive
phosphorus (SRP): Sample above identified sources. Frequency of samp-
ling should be dictated by variability of P concentrations as well as
magnitude of particular sources. Those sources of greatest impact should
be sampled weekly, or more often if possible; use of flow-weighting
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compositors is recommended for the major sources. Events which are
likely to cause large inputs of P over short periods of time should be
sampled intensively. Flow measurements should accompany P sampling.
3. In-lake TP, TOP, SRP: Sample vertical profiles at one or more sites in
the lakes, the number of sites depending on the spatial variability in
the lake. Depth frequencies should be adequate to describe the profile
(1.5-2m if stratified; less frequently if well mixed). A suggested fre-
quency is biweekly or weekly (especially if temporal variability is
severe). Consideration should be given to augmenting vertical profiles
with volume-weighted samples obtained at other sites in the lake. Sample
intensively when windstorms or cold fronts are likely to generate turbu-
lence which might redistribute P within the lake or resuspend.
4. In-lake chlorophyll a (corrected for phaeophytin)--sample in a manner
similar to P sampling. Note: Regarding the standard acetone methanol
extraction procedures for extracting chla, recent experiments using an
acetone-DMSO (dimethyl sulfoxide) mixture have improved extraction effi-
ciencies for algae for which complete chla extraction has been difficult
(see Shoaf and Li urn, 1976; Stauffer and Armstrong, 1977). Some of the
variation in the chla-total P relationships might be attributable to
incomplete extraction of chla when certain algae (blue-greens, greens)
become dominant.
5. In-lake temperature—vertical profiles with P sampling, particularly to
define thermocline.
6. In-lake dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, conductivity, nitrogen compounds:
Sample at least 1 station, vertical profile, frequency as for P.
7. Lake morphometry—surface area and volume hypsograph: Obtain seasonal
variation in lake volume (lake level) if such variation is significant.
8. Meteorology: Windspeed and direction (daily)
Air temperatures (min - max)(daily).
Solar radiation (daily).
Light extinction (weekly).
9. Macrophyte community—evaluate likely interaction between macrophyte
areas and open lake water from perspective of phosphorus flux. Estimate
areal distribution at maximum density.
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REFERENCES
Ahlgren, I. Role of sediments in the process of recovery of a eutrophicated
lake. In: Interactions between sediments and freshwater. [Ed.] H. L.
Golterman. Dr. W. Junk B. V. Publishers, The Hague, 1977. pp. 372-377.
Bannerman, R. T. , D. E. Armstrong, G. C. Holdren, and R. F. Harris. Phos-
phorus mobility in Lake Ontario sediments. Proc. 17th Conf. Great Lakes
Res., 1974. pp. 158-178.
Chapra, S. C. Comment on 'An empirical method of estimating the retention of
phosphorus in lakes' by W. B. Kirchner and P. J. Dillon. Water Resour. Res.
11:1033-1034, 1975.
Cooke, G. D. , M. R. McComas, D. W. Waller, and R. H. Kennedy. In Press. The
occurrence of internal phosphorus loading in two small, eutrophic, glacial
lakes in Northeastern Ohio. Hydrobiologia.
Dillon, P. J., and F. H. Rigler. The phosphorus-chlorophyll relationship in
lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 19:767-773, 1974a.
Dillon, P. J. , and F. H. Rigler. A test of a simple nutrient budget model
predicting the phosphorus concentration in lake water. J. Fish. Res. Board
Can. 31:1771-1778, 1974b.
Dillon, P. J., and W. B. Kirchner. Reply. Water Resour. Res. 11:1035-1036,
1975.
HSkanson, L. A bottom sediment trap for recent sedimentary deposits. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 21:170-174, 1976.
Kimmel, B. L. , R. P. Axler, and C. R. Goldman. A closing, replicate-sample
sediment trap. Limnol. Oceanogr. 22:768-772,1977.
Larsen, D. P., K. W. Malueg, D. W. Schults, and R. M. Brice. Response of
eutrophic Shagawa Lake, Minnesota, U.S.A. to point source, phosphorus re-
duction. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 19:884-892, 1975.
Larsen, D. P., and H. T. Mercier. Phosphorus retention capacity of lakes. J.
Fish. Res. Board Can. 33:1742-1750, 1976.
Lie, G. B. Phosphorus cycling by freshwater macrophytes - the case of Shagawa
Lake. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1977.
Nicholls, K. H., and P. J. Dillon. In Press. An evaluation of phosphorus-
chlorophyll -phytoplankton relationships in lakes. Int. Rev. ges. Hydrobiol.
Porcella, D. B., and S. A. Peterson. Proposed methods for evaluating the
effects of restoring lakes. Manuscript, 1977.
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Shoaf, W. T., and B. W. Lium. Improved extraction of chlorophyll a and b from
algae using dimethyl sulfoxide. Limnol. Oceanogr. 21:926-928, 1976.
Sonzogni, W. C., P. C. Uttormark, and G. F. Lee. A phosphorus residence time
model: Theory'and application. Water Research 10:429-435, 1976.
Sonzogni, W. C., D. P. Larsen, K. W. Malueg, and M. D. Schuldt. Use of sub-
merged chambers to measure sediment-water interactions. Water Research.
11:461-464, 1977.
Stauffer, R. E., and G. F. Lee. The role of thermocline migration in regu-
lating algal blooms In: Modeling the Eutrophication Process. Ed. E. J.
Middlebrooks, D. H. Falkenborg, and T. E. Maloney. Proceedings of a workshop
held at Utah State University, Logan Utah, 1973. pp. 73-82.
Stauffer, R. E., and D. E. Armstrong. A multiple comparison among acetone,
acetone-dimethyl sulfoxide, methanol-dimethyl formamide as chlorophyll extrac-
tants for a planktonic blue-green algae. Manuscript, 1977.
Welch, E. B. Nutrient diversion: resulting lake trophic state and phosphorus
dynamics. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Ecological Research Series
Report EPA-600/3-77-003, 1977. 91 pp.
Vollenweider, R. A. Input-output models. Schwiez. Z. Hydrologie. 37:53-84,
1975.
Vollenweider, R. A. Advances in defining critical loading levels for phos-
phorus in lake eutrophication. Mem. 1st Ital. Idrobiol. 33:53-83, 1976.
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SOCIAL EVALUATION OF THE CLEAN LAKES PROGRAM
by
Neils Christiansen*
INTRODUCTION
This paper describes the research which should be completed in the
socioeconomic evaluation of the Clean Lakes Program. It begins with a brief
statement of the rationale for such research and of the information needed by
decision makers who are considering whether or not to undertake a lake restor-
ation. Next is a discussion of some of the factors which serve to set the
scope of the research to be initiated during the next year or so. Finally,
the objectives which should be fulfilled as part of the research currently
underway, or to be initiated during the coming year, are set forth along with
some description of the issues which need to be considered in meeting those
objectives.
The next step will be to evaluate the particular activities of each of
the current grantees using this statement as a guide. The result will be a
specification of the work still in need of undertaking by any future grantees.
RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY
Social research in the Clean Lakes Program is interested in the entire
process of human concern, action and consequences of lake restoration and
protection. The research is therefore concerned with the kinds of questions
commonly encountered by all the social science and managerial disciplines.
The researcher views a restoration effort as one point on a time continuum of
stimulus and response which began with man's first involvement with the lake,
and which will continue forward more or less indefinitely.
The questions of interest to the social researchers thus include the
following: What forces from outside the current community have affected man's
involvement? What sort of attitudes exist with regard to the role of the lake
in individual and community affairs? What process led to the current concern
over the condition of the lake? What is the power structure in the community
and how has that structure affected thinking about the lake? Who will benefit
from lake restoration? What form will the benefits take? Who will bear the
burden of the costs and what form will the costs take? What are the relative
importance of the different benefits and costs, i.e., how will the community
trade them off one against another?
*Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Corvallis, OR 97330.
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In attempting to answer the questions above, the social research in the
Clean Lakes Program should provide information which will be helpful in making
decisions about possible future lake restorations or protection. The decision
makers in need of such information may be the general citizenry, private firms
or public officials at the local, state, or national levels. The general
nature of the necessary information is clear: what are the resources re-
quired, the benefits derived, and how does the anticipated net benefit compare
with the alternative uses for the resources? Thus, in essence, what is needed
are the elements of a benefit-cost analysis. However, to be appropriate, the
benefit-cost analysis must be viewed in broader terms than has sometimes been
the case.
The end result of a benefit-cost analysis is sometimes considered to be
a benefit-cost ratio.1 The project is then considered to be justified or not,
depending on whether the ratio is greater than, or less than, unity. Concep-
tually, such an approach is correct. Only those projects in which anticipated
aggregate benefits are in excess of all costs are desirable. However, in
practice, several conditions are usually present which make a benefit cost
ratio an insufficient basis for decision making:
1. The benefits and costs may be unequally distributed among the popu-
lation.
2. Some benefits or costs may not be measurable in financial terms, at
least with acceptable precision.
3. Some significant benefits or costs may not have been recognized in
the analysis at all.
The social evaluation of environmental issues to date indicates that all
three of the conditions listed above may be present in any attempt to derive
a benefit-cost ratio for a lake restoration effort. Therefore, in considering
the merits of a project it seems likely that something is needed besides the
traditional benefit-cost ratio.
In view of this fact, one might wonder why bother with a benefit-cost
ratio at all. Why not concentrate on identifying as many of the social im-
pacts as possible, then present a description of each of those impacts to the
decision makers. Although such an approach is possible the results will often
be very voluminous. This coupled with the variety of impacts (both positive
and negative) may cause such an approach to be of little help to a decision
maker. He may simply lack the time or ability to review and synthesize all
the material. The combination of multiple and diverse impacts described in
detail is often apparent in environmental impact statements.
1. Substituting the alternative measures of discounted (present) net worth,
internal rate of return and equal annual equivalent does not alter the ideas
which follow, although the standard of comparison will differ: zero for dis-
counted net worth and equal annual equivalent and the guiding rate of interest
for internal rate of return.
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Such an approach has been characterized as "write down everything we know
about the problem and hope it makes sense."2 A better approach is to sum-
marize, to condense the information to the essence. It is for just such
reasons that benefit-cost analysis was developed in the first place, since
many human values can be validly accounted for in financial terms. Therefore,
what is needed is an analysis which identifies all the significant social
impacts. These impacts should then be analyzed in an effort to state them in
common terms so that trade-offs can be recognized with as little difficulty as
possible. This process will, in most cases, lead to a final statement which
contains both a financial analysis (such as a benefit-cost ratio) and some
considerable description about the benefits and costs that are not adequately
represented in the financial analysis.
INFORMATION NEEDS
The information needed by decision makers to arrive at an informed deci-
sion about whether or not to undertake restoration of a lake, what procedures
to use and how intensively to use them requires, as a minimum, the four types
of information listed below.
1. Water Quality
Information about the changes in water quality parameters which would
result from treatment activities of various sorts. Ideally this information
would be in the form of predicting equations, with one equation for each com-
bination of water quality parameter, type of treatment and treatment tech-
nology. For example:
Pa=f (A,
(1)
where
P = phosphorus content before (P. ) and after (Pa) treatment
D o
A = quantity of alum used
where
Pa = f(vs, Pb,...)
V = the volume of sediment removed
P = as above
(2)
and where, in each case, there is a certain technology used.
Presumably the equations would be dependent on a number of other vari-
ables such as the area and depth of the lake. Also, new imputs to the lake
would tend to offset the treatment so that strictly speaking, (1) and (2) are
dynamic.
, P0,AP/At, t,...)
2. Inhaber, Herbert. 1975. Environmental
New York. 178 pages. Seep. 152.
321
(3)
Indices. John Wiley and Sons.
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2. User Demand Functions
Information which can be used to predict the number of users of different
sorts (swimmers, fishermen, etc.) using a lake as a function of water quality
parameters, other lake characteristics and the socioeconomic circumstances of
the users. For example:
Qs = f(B,C,S,Y,T,...) (4)
where Q = number of swimming recreationists using the site
o
B = some measure of blue-green algae concentrations
C = clarity
S = surface area of the lake
Y = swimmer's income
T = travel costs incurred in reaching the lake
3. Socioeconomic Benefits
Information which can be used to specify the value to individual users
(direct effects) and to the region (indirect effects) arising from various use
levels and thus, ultimately to the water quality of the lake with and without
some form of treatment.
4. Costs
Information which can be used to predict the cost of lake treatment and
any necessary use facilities. Lake treatment costs are a function of the
intensity of treatment and the treatment technology. Costs of facility devel-
opment and maintenance will depend on the types of use anticipated as well as
the number of users. The costs are thus dependent on many of the same vari-
ables as the water quality information.
FUNCTIONS VS. PROCEDURES
In all of the above, it would be nice to have functional relationships.
To the extent this is possible the decision maker can insert the appropriate
values of the independent variables into the functional equations, carry out
the necessary arithmetic and obtain a valid measure of net benefit. However,
in view of what was said above about benefit-cost analysis, and in recognition
of the fact that the socioeconomic, and probably also the limnological rela-
tionships, vary so much from one part of the country to another, it is prob-
ably impossible to obtain generalized functions which can be used as described
above. What is possible, is to develop a set of procedures (or models) which
can be given empirical content for a given lake at a given time. The pro-
cedures need to be adaptable to situations where more or less money is avail-
able to finance them (presumably the precision will vary also). Furthermore,
the procedures need to be elaborated, and enough general guidance given, so
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that the decision-making agency, perhaps with the aid of some consultation,
can reasonably be expected to successfully use the procedures. It is the pur-
pose of the research in the Clean Lakes Program to develop such procedures.
Conceptually, the procedures can be put into four categories:
1. Procedures to identify as many of the social impacts as may exist in
any given area.
2. Procedures to screen the impacts identified in order to determine
those of sufficient importance to be analyzed in some depth.
3. Procedures to use in ascertaining the human consequences of the
important impacts.
4. Procedures for determining the trade-off values of the important
impacts.
PREDETERMINED CONDITIONS
Obtaining the information specified above through a research effort by
EPA is conditioned by several items which appear to be in the nature of
givens:
1. The budget available to the effort for the next year is limited to
the $375,000 available for extramural funds, some travel and com-
puter money for EPA employees, and the existing grants to Oregon
State and the University of Wisconsin.
2. Part of the sociological research being conducted on the program is
to be located at Liberty Lake near Spokane, Washington under a grant
with Oregon State University. The remainder of the sociological
research (as well as some economic research) is being conducted at
White Clay, Mirror and Shadow Lakes in Wisconsin by the University
of Wisconsin. It is desirable to integrate the sociological and
economic aspects of the research.
3. Any significant amount of money for conducting in-house research is
unavailable.
4. It is desirable to determine the degree to which user's perceptions
of a lake's quality are correlated with limnological measures. This
means that ideally any lake studied in the socioeconomic research
would also have undergone a limnological evaluation. An acceptable
substitute would be the availability of limnological analysis from
another source if:
a. the limnological analysis is consistent with those carried out
in lakes undergoing limnological evaluation;
b. the limnological data are sufficiently detailed to be useful in
developing user demand and cost functions where they are log-
ically dependent upon water quality changes.
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4. The major thrust of the Clean Lakes Program demonstration projects
to date is in restoring lakes for recreational (both physical and
aesthetic) activity of one form or another. Therefore, for the re-
search the social analysis should be confined to recreational use of
lakes, deferring analysis of domestic and industrial consumption,
irrigation, and other uses, unless there is some unavoidable con-
nection with recreational use. However, in the longer run, if more
money becomes available for social research, such other water uses
should be considered for possible study.
SCOPE OF STUDY
In general, any given lake is part of a system of lakes which are sub-
stitutable, one for another, as bases for recreational activity. Furthermore,
the several forms of recreational activity are not all compatible with one
another in a confined area (e.g. swimming, waterskiing, sailing and hunting).
Thus, the question of whether or not to restore a lake is really a whole
series of questions including:
1. Which recreational uses are to be allocated to which lakes?
2. Which lakes are to be treated in one fashion or another?
3. What technique shall be used in treating each lake?
4. How intensively shall each lake be treated?
An important point about the questions above is that the answer to any
one of them depends, to a considerable degree, upon the answers to all the
others. Thus, ideally, the questions should be considered simultaneously in
order to arrive at "good" answers. To do so requires that the four types of
information needs described above (limnological and social) be considered for
all the lakes in a region. Ideally, the boundaries of the region would be set
such that it is a logical unit. Unfortunately, what is a logical unit in one
sense may not be in another. From a limnological point of view, a logical
unit may be a watershed. From an administrative point of view, a logical unit
may be a governmental subdivision such as a village or county. And finally,
from a use point of view, a logical unit may be a cluster of lakes lying in
different governmental units and watersheds. The final definition of the
region will need to be a compromise of the various viewpoints.
At this stage in the social research of the Clean Lakes Program it is
clear that the extremes of complexity ought to be avoided. For example, the
lakes around Seattle could be studied. But such a choice would be unwise be-
cause of the size and complexity of the region's economy and water based
recreation activity. The latter is made all the more difficult by the pre-
sence of Puget Sound. A better approach would be to use less complicated
regions to develop the procedures, then at a later date test their applicabil-
ity to a region such as that around Seattle. On the other hand, a lake which
is isolated from human concern has no social relationships and is thus not
suitable for study. Between these extremes, there is a need to define the
regional characteristics which should either be included in the research study
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regions or accounted for in some other way. One such characteristic is the
availability of secondary data. The more such data are available the further
the available research dollars can be stretched.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
There are several objectives which should be incorporated into the socio-
economic evaluation of the Clean Lakes Program. What follows is an enumer-
ation of those objectives with some discussion of how each objective might be
met.
1. Cost Information
The costs of changing the water quality parameters of a lake are of two
sorts. The direct costs are those incurred in purchasing supplies, hiring
labor, and using equipment to carry out a treatment such as dredging, spread-
ing alum, or installing sewers along the shoreline. The indirect, or oppor-
tunity, costs are the decrease (if any) in benefits which occur as a result of
the lake treatment. Consider a lake used by waterfowl for habitat. A dredg-
ing operation which reduces nutrients, and thus macrophytes and algae, may
increase the benefits to swimmers. However, the loss of waterfowl may mean a
decrease in benefits to hunters or bird watchers. Or, if land use regulation
is judged to be an appropriate means to achieving lower nutrient inputs into a
lake this may increase the costs, or decrease the income, of those who operate
on the land. And, finally, there may be non-market costs which arise from the
production of materials to be used in the lake manipulation. These costs
might take the form of increased air pollution or energy use. Such costs
could arise far from the region where the lake manipulation is being conduc-
ted.
For purposes of this statement costs will be used to mean direct costs as
defined above. Indirect, or opportunity, costs will be discussed below under
the heading of benefits.
Lake treatment cost data-should be available as part of all the demon-
stration projects. This data can be used to obtain the required cost func-
tions. However, caution is necessary: The costs incurred in the demonstra-
tion projects may run high compared to those of a routine procedure. Costs
for facilities development should be readily available through standard engi-
neering, architecture, and landscape design and estimating procedures.
2. User Demand Information
The reaction of users to any change in a lake's characteristics can be
obtained in two ways. One is to ask them about their preferences through
interviews, using questionnaires, photographs, etc. The second way is to
observe their actions when faced with real life choices between lakes of
different characteristics. Since there is evidence to the effect that people,
particular!'ly consumers, act differently in real life than they indicated they
would in answering questions about preferences, actual observation is the
better method where it is available.
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Such observation will be available (at least to a degree) for users of
lakes studied as part of this research program. However, it is not clear
whether the results obtained from the study lakes will be transferrable to
other lakes. If the underlying social influences are sufficiently diverse,
the results will not-be transferrable. If such is the case, then, observation
is not available as a general procedure since all decisions about restoration
must be made before their effects can be observed.
To determine the transferrability of the results of the lake restoration,
any predictive model developed from observation of users' reactions at one
lake should be tested by application to a second lake for which observations
are also available.
Since the results obtained through observation may not be transferrable,
it is desirable to use the current research to develop techniques for pre-
dicting user demand responses based on interviews, etc., before the restora-
tion, and then to test and refine them by comparison with the results observed
after restoration.
Because of the number of factors affecting recreationist's choices,
considerable care must be used in establishing a research design that isolates
changes in recreationist's actions due to differences in lake characteristics
from changes due to differences in other factors. Thus, if observations of
recreation use are taken before and after some lake treatment, care must be
used to separate out the effects of possible differences in income, prefer-
ences or other circumstances of the recreation population. The same care must
be exercised if the recreational uses of two different lakes are compared.
Research on user demand should begin by developing a list of the various
user groups to be considered (swimmers, fishermen, etc.). Next a model, or
perhaps several models, which are appropriate to the Clean Lakes Program can
be identified. Such models should then be tested empirically through appli-
cation to the several lakes chosen for study. The applications will require
statistical analysis of site and user characteristics. To be useful in esti-
mating the value of the lake to its users, the use demand information should
contain an economic demand function. The social characteristics of the users
(age, etc.) which are used as independent variables in such functions need to
be identified. Such identification can be greatly assisted by close-coordi-
nation between the economic and sociologic aspects of the research. Each test
application will differ in locality and perhaps also in the lake treatment
activities being used. And the investigator may be different. Consequently,
there will need to be close coordination of the several grantees' work to
insure the broadest applicability of the results.
3. Social Benefits
The social benefits arising from the presence of a lake can be grouped
into five categories:
a. Those benefits accruing to individuals who use the lake for on-site
activities such as swimming, hiking, viewing or residential living;
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b. Those benefits accruing to individuals who may never visit the lake,
but who value its existence either for the option of visiting it at
some future time, or, perhaps, just because they consider the lake
to be part of a good environment;
c. Those benefits accruing to people in the watershed whose land use
activities are necessarily modified as part of the lake manipulation
effort;
d. Secondary benefits arising in the region as a result of the patterns
of attitudes, activities and economic trends. Such secondary bene-
fits are derived from the primary benefits listed in items a - c
above. The expenditures by on-site recreationists for travel,
equipment, etc. are income for the suppliers. They, in turn, in-
crease their expenditures and so on. In a similar way, the indivi-
duals whose attitudes and ideas are directly impacted by visits to
the lake, or by the happy knowledge that it exists, affect the
ideas, attitudes and activities of other individuals, creating
additional impacts;
e. Any social benefits arising outside the region as the result of
activities associated with lake restoration.
Each of the procedures identified in the preceding section on "Social
Benefits" is described below:
a. Benefits to on-site users. One measure of benefits to on-site users
is consumer's surplus. If the information on user demand is in
functional form, with price as one of the independent variables,
consumer surplus can be derived using standard procedures. This has
been done in a number of recreation studies using such items as
travel and on-site cost as proxies for price. In the case at hand,
the recreational resource is frequently located close to potential
users and provided essentially free of cost. Therefore, some proxy
other than travel will need to be identified. Since any lake mani-
pulation may work to the benefit of some users and to the detriment
of others, there may well be both positive and negative elements of
benefit.
These benefits will accrue annually (though not necessarily at
a constant rate). To compare these benefits with various other time
streams of benefits and costs they should all be discounted to a
common point in time. Therefore, it will be necessary to identify
the appropriate rate of discount. That rate of discount may be
determined either in legislative pronouncements by government or in
the opportunity costs associated with using public capital.
It is quite possible that the econometric analysis of on-site
user demand will contain errors either in specifying the functional
form of the equations or in specifying the independent variables for
inclusion in the function. Although such errors can be reduced
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by careful analysis and coordination between the economic and soci-
ological aspects of the study it is important to recognize that such
errors should be identified and interpreted as to their consequen-
ces. Here again, close cooperation can be helpful.
b. Procedures to identify the benefits to individuals who do not
actually visit the lake, but who value it either for the option of
future use, or as simply part of a good environment, need to be
identified. Such benefits may be sizeable or insignificant in any
given case. To the extent that such benefits are significant, there
is a need to not only identify them in qualitative terms but also to
develop procedures analagous to consumer surplus (as described
above), which can be used to quantify as well as possible the values
involved.
c. Costs of land use modification. If land use modifications in the
drainage basin are part of the lake manipulation project, they may
lead to either increased costs or decreased incomes to the indivi-
duals who must change their activities. Such results can be of many
different sorts. Examples are installing sewers to avoid ground
water contimination, and changing agricultural and forestry tech-
niques to reduce siltation. At this time it is impossible to anti-
cipate all such possibilities. What is needed is a systematic
process to identify whether or not such impacts exist and, if so,
how to analyze them.
d. Regional benefits. In the short run, changed levels of economic
activity in the region will arise only if exports of regional pro-
ducts (including recreation) are increased, or if regional imports
are decreased. In most cases, lake modification will not lead to
creation of any significant increase in export of regional product.
Such an increase would only arise by attracting recreationists from
outside the region. Unless the recreational opportunities to be
enhanced are sufficiently unique to attract outsiders, in spite of
the travel and other costs involved the increase in exports will be
negligible.
Decreasing regional imports of recreation may occur if the
residents of the region substitute local recreation sites for sites
outside the region. This may probably occur to some extent, but may
or may not be very significant. What is likely to occur is a shift
in leisure time activities and attitudes of the regional residents.
Whether this will lead to observable changes in the level of econo-
mic activity is uncertain.
In the longer run, the regional impacts of environmental im-
provement including lake improvement is to make the region a better
place to live. This may lead to increases in population and the
location of new firms (or it may avoid decreases). How significant
this effect is likely to be will depend on a number of other charac-
teristics of the region.
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The models for ascertaining any regional impacts in economic
activity are economic base and input-output models. They are well
developed conceptually and need only be structured to fit the needs
of the Clean Lakes Program. Their use in the research should be to
answer two questions: 1) what are the circumstances, if any, in
which regional impacts of lake manipulation are significant, and 2)
what is the most efficient way to structure the models to identify
regional impacts at various budget levels for data collection.
The significant regional social impacts which are not contained
in the economic impact as described above need to be enumerated,
described, and quantified where feasible. One obvious question
concerns who it is that received the benefits, and who bears the
costs (both financial and non-financial). Some of this information
may be obtained in terms of income and employment. However, there
is need to identify any possible other secondary social impacts,
such as an increase (or decrease) in community cooperation or a
shift in what Smith and Hogg3 term the benefactors and benefici-
aries.
e. Impacts beyond the region. The alternative lake restoration tech-
niques used need to be reviewed to ascertain whether they require
equipment or materials which have significant impacts that are not
incorporated in the market prices involved in their production. If
they do, the nature of those impacts should be identified and mea-
sured as well as possible.
4. Allocation Procedures
If a region contains several lakes and the best allocation of recrea-
tional uses and resources is not obvious, then some means to identify or at
least approximate, the best allocation is needed. Any particular allocation
implies certain use levels for each lake with the consequent benefits and
costs. Transportation costs of the consumer may well vary from one allocation
to another. Public expenditure for transportation facilities, recreational
development and police will possibly differ. To the extent that two alloca-
tions imply different patterns of residential development, costs for the whole
gamut of social services may also differ.
In such a situation, an allocation model is needed. The model can be
used to both identify alternative allocations which should be given serious
consideration as well as to estimate the social and private resources which
will be needed to implement the alternatives. There are several such allo-
cation models available. Those best suited need to be identified and struc-
tured to meet the needs of the Clean Lakes Program.
PHASES OF WORK
The work should be carried out in three phases: (1) Establishing a
3. Smith, Courtland L. and Thomas C. Hogg. 1971. Benefits and Benefici-
aries: Contrasting Economic and Cultural Distinctions. Water Resources
Research 7(2):254-263.
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conceptual framework; (2) initial application of the framework to specific
cases using such empirical data as can be readily obtained, and (3) refining
the relationships obtained in phase (2) through replication of study areas and
also through longer term study.
The conceptual framework will provide a guide for the specific analysis
in phases (2) and (3). Phase (2) will provide a quick (and hopefully not too
dirty) estimate of the results to be obtained in any actual case of lake mani-
pulation. Thus, decision makers will have a basis for making relatively in-
formed decisions regarding lake manipulation. Phase (3) will provide a more
precise basis for such decisions. As in all research work, there will be
feedbacks from phases (2) and (3) about the appropriate conceptual framework.
Phase (2) will be particularly important in this regard if the conceptual
framework is to be sufficiently detailed and specific to be useful in real
life decision making.
Phase (1) will require:
1. Literature searches.
2. Discussion with knowledgeable individuals involved in the Clean
Lakes Program.
3. Selection of research regions.
4. The development of a theoretical formulation of the various models
to be used.
Target date for completion: June 1978
Phase (2) will require;
1. Collection of primary and secondary data including sampling consi-
derations.
2. Analysis of the data using the theoretical formulation developed in
Phase (1).
3. Review and revision of the theoretical formulation
Target date for completion: June 1979
Phase (3) will essentially duplicate Phase (2) but in a more thorough
manner. Phase (3) should be partially completed upon termination of the
grants to be funded with current monies, i.e., in 1981. However, the research
envisioned with the current funds will be insufficient to carry phase (3) very
far.
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THE CHANGING POLITICS OF WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
by
G. J. Protasel*
THE EMERGENCE OF REGULATORY POLITICS
Two significant political transformations have gradually evolved in the
United States which have had a marked effect on water pollution control ef-
forts. First of all, new political demands for water pollution control have
come on the scene. One has witnessed the rise and proliferation of environ-
mental groups, not just at the national, but also at the local level. Secon-
dly, centralized governmental control has become an important factor in water
pollution control. Historically, there has been a pronounced shift from local
to national controls.
These two political transformations have come about largely because of
the increasing interdependency of American society. The scope and nature of
the water pollution problem has necessitated control by larger jurisdictions.
Local communities that traditionally had responsibility for clean water found
themselves unable to exercise their responsibility effectively. Downstream
residents could not control the behavior of upstream residents. As a result,
water pollution control has become centralized.1
As American society has become more complex and interdependent, there has
also been an increased awareness of the ^negative side effects of economic
growth. Private decisions have been sometimes seen to produce "collective
bads" such as water pollution. The fact that the natural ecosystem was often
ruthlessly exploited led to the generation of new political demands to halt
environmental degradation.
These transformations (environmentalist demands and centralized pollution
control), that have resulted from the increased interdependences of the
American economy and society, have changed the politics of water pollution
control. First of all, government now exercises more coercion than in the
past. The national government now exercises more immediate control over the
conduct of individual and corporate behavior than ever before in the area of
water pollution control. Secondly, the decision-making and policy-making
process has become more conflictual. Environmental interests are no longer
willing to tolerate the laissez-faire doctrine of non-interference in private
decisions, which have produced large social costs in the past. This cleavage
between development and environmental protection interests is well known.
*Department of Political Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR
97331.
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Increased governmental coercion and increased decision-making conflict
indicate that water pollution control policy has entered the "regulatory
arena" of politics.2 The pattern of politics found in the regulatory area
fits the pluralist pressure-group description of American politics. Coali-
tions of common interest are forged only after much bargaining and logrolling
have taken place amongst interest groups. Environmentalist and development-
alist interests are eventually accommodated, but only after some decision-
making conflict.
In the regulatory arena the government acts essentially as an umpire for
the bargaining organized interests (unorganized interests are kept out of the
decision-making process). Regulations governing individual and group behavior
are the outcome of the pluralistic bargaining process. This interest group
bargaining is facilitated by broad legislative mandates which permit the
details of regulation to be worked out to fit the needs of the interests
affected. A combination of symbolic politics and organizational capture thus
characterizes regulatory politics.
Government regulation and decision-making conflict are basic facts of
life in the area of water pollution control policy. One should recognize,
however, that this particular pattern of politics shows signs of instability.
Unless one fully comprehends the sources of the instability, one is likely to
ignore important undercurrents of politics that might significantly alter the
politics of water pollution control. The instability of regulatory politics
is discussed below.
THE INSTABILITIES OF REGULATORY POLITICS
In one sense, regulatory politics is inherently unstable because it
relies on a bargaining process to form a common interest. The common interest
is subject to continual redefinition as support for different winning coali-
tions waxes and wanes in the process of bargaining. There are other sources
of instability, however, which though exogeneous to the bargaining process
threaten to disrupt the regulatory pattern of politics. These sources of
instability are outlined below.
Reluctance of environmentalist groups to bargain.
There are times when environmentalist groups will take an intransigent
Nader-like stance and refuse to bargain.3 Needless to say, failure to adhere
to the regulatory pattern of politics (bargaining and logrolling) expands the
level of decision-making conflict. Emphasis on the physical parameters of the
ecosystem shifts the political debate from the individual to the systems
perspective. The policy-making arena becomes filled with ideological pleas to
readjust life styles to the era of the spaceship earth. The multiplicity of
sides which the pollution issue had in the regulatory arena is reduced to just
two sides—development/protection. The need for governmental coercion is
stressed. Certainly leviathan is preferable to oblivion.
This ideological expansion of policy-making conflict from the group to
the systems level, with the expectation that governmental coercion is neces-
sary to resolve the conflict, signals a shift from the regulatory to the
332
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redistributive arena of politics. The message is that governmental policy
must be designed to cause society to fundamentally alter its behavior, or else
face ecological disaster.
Reluctance of developmentalists to alter behavior.
While environmentalists sometimes refuse to participate in the regulatory
bargaining process, developmentalists sometimes refuse to recognize environ-
mentalists' interests. Some developmentalists certainly would prefer to shun
the regulatory arena altogether and instead embrace the old doctrine of
mutual-noninterference, which previously dominated water resources politics.
Under the doctrine of mutual-noninterference, coalitions of common interests
would not have to be formed with environmentalist or other interests. Instead
coalitions of uncommon interests would prevail which would eliminate the need
for interest group bargaining. Individual and corporate interests would
simply try to get what each could from government in the way of favorable
policy treatment. Pork barrel legislation such as that authorizing the con-
struction of dams by the Army Corps of Engineers exemplifies this old type of
distributive politics.
Of course, it is extremely unlikely that the U.S. could ever go back
completely to the old distributive politics where environmental concerns were
sacrificed under the doctrine of mutual-noninterference. Modern technology
has made it possible though for a new type of distributive politics, a new
privatization of the public interest, to occur. It is technologically fea-
sible to centrally collect and process polluted water. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency grants to construct water treatment facilities, for example,
permit the maintenance of a coalition of uncommon interests so characteristic
of distributive politics.4 Technology achieves the water quality standards
the environmentalists want without requiring the polluters to change their
private behavior. Both public and private interests are seemingly protected
by this new distributive politics.
As with old distributive politics, the new distributive politics occurs
without regard for costs in the short run. In the long run, one wonders if
there will be enough money for construction projects to meet the growing
demands for pollution control. Will technological break-throughs occur which
will make the new distributive politics even more cost-effective?
Even if one believes that technology will be able to solve the pollution
problem, the pressing question remains as to whether the public sector should
have to shoulder alone the burden and cost of pollution cleanup? Perhaps a
strategy which would provide polluters with incentives to change behavior
would be more effective public policy. One needs only to compare the efficacy
of water and air pollution control expenditures to see the advantages of such
a strategy.5 Unlike polluted water which can be centrally collected and
treated, polluted air does not lend itself to a centralized treatment ap-
proach. Air pollution control efforts have thus been forced by the nature of
the pollution problem to be directed at the sources of pollution. In compari-
son with construction projects designed to treat polluted water, air pollution
control efforts have made more progress.
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The old adage that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure is a
message that might make the new distributive politics less stable than the old
distributive politics. As budgetary pressures mount and uncertainties about
technological breakthroughs arise, there may be pressures to abandon the new
distributive pattern of politics.
Pressures to eliminate governmental red tape and make government more
responsive to the public.
Regulatory politics is accompanied by a proliferation of rules and proce-
dures. This regulatory red tape is a direct result of the broad mandates
which Congress gives administrative agencies. Regulatory legislation is
purposely broad and symbolic in nature to accomodate administrative rule-
making and secure the support of the public. The effectiveness and legitimacy
of the government is impaired, however, whenever the red tape becomes exces-
sive and the public becomes disenchanted with the government's ability to
deliver on its promises.
Symbolic politics and the proliferation of regulation are results of the
extreme difficulty of directly controlling individual behavior in a vast
complex society. The fact that individual actors find multitudinous ways of
evading the "stick" approach to government further exacerbates the problem.
Consequently, there has been considerable discussion that governmental policy
should be formulated more along the lines of the "carrot" approach i.e. mani-
pulate the rules of conduct which govern behavior modification, rather than
controlling it directly.6 Social contact through behavior modification,
rather than through direct governmental coercion, seems to have certain ad-
vantages over the regulatory approach. The deliberate manipulation of the
environment of conduct by government characterizes what will be termed the
self-regulatory arena of politics.
Self-regulatory politics is distinguished by efforts to design appropri-
ate incentives, penalties, and rewards which minimize the need for governmen-
tal coercion. Government control is exerted indirectly through a reliance on
user charges, effluent taxes, etc., rather than directly through regulations.
It should be noted that the design of appropriate incentives probably mini-
mizes the phenomenon of organizational capture that occurs so often in the
regulatory arena. Pressure group politics no longer dominates the-governmen-
tal agency. Government no longer looks on as a spectator or umpire, but
instead takes the role of an active manipulator. Self-regulation is a struc-
tural rather than a procedural approach to policy making and as a result the
strength of interest groups is diluted.
While the self-regulation strategy undoubtedly reduces the red tape that
is associated with administrative-rule making, the manipulation of incentive
systems accentuates the need for governmental responsiveness. Manipulation of
incentives must be done in the name of the public interest. The self-regula-
tion strategy thus makes the problem of defining the public interest more
critical than ever before. The design of appropriate incentives requires
consensus regarding the legitimate scope and direction of governmental activi-
ties.
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The other side of self-regulatory policy-making concerns the manipulation
of the symbolic environment in order to build the social consensus that is
necessary to legitimize governmental intervention. Manipulation of the symbo-
lic environment in the self-regulatory arena is different, however, from the
symbolic politics which commonly occurs in the regulatory arena. Here we have
systematic effort at government propaganda. This is not merely the erection
of a symbolic screen behind which powerful organized interests bargain, but
represents a geniune effort to actively and positively direct the efforts of
government. The social indicators movement typifies these efforts.
At a time when it is said that the nation is suffering from an identity
crisis, and when the multiplication of subgroups appears to threaten to carve
up the body politic, there are pressures to achieve governmental unity by
focusing the public's attention on common points of reference.7 The idea of a
social performance index for corporations which is strongly resisted by indus-
try seems to be a prerequisite for responsive self-regulatory politics. Less
government is feasible only if there is some way to monitor and shape corpor-
ate performance in the public interest. If society wants to avoid the high
costs of regulation, it seems that industry might be forced to bear the burden
of performance evaluation by government.
EXPLAINING CHANGES IN PATTERNS OF POLITICS: A THEORETICAL CONSTRUCT
The politics of water pollution control have been shown to be dominated
by the emergence of regulatory politics. The instabilities of the regulatory
pattern of politics have been described above. Illustrations have been made
of how the regulatory pattern of politics might easily give way to three other
patterns of politics—redistributive, distributive, or self-regulatory. In
this section factors which cause the patterns of politics to shift are more
systematically examined.
Before one can examine the forces which may produce different patterns of
politics one needs to agree on a schema for identifying the public policy
arenas which invariably generate the different patterns of politics. The
following typology based primarily on Theodore Lowi's framework seems useful
for this purpose.8
Likelihood of Coercion
Remote coercion Immediate coercion
Applicability
of
Coercion
Individual
conduct
Environment
of conduct
DISTRIBUTIVE
SELF-REGULATORY
REGULATORY
REDISTRIBUTE
Figure 1. Typology of public policies.
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The public policies are classified according to two dimensions—likeli-
hood of coercion and applicability of coercion. Distributive and regulatory
policies are similar to the extent that government coercion acts directly on
the individual or group, but are different to the degree that distributive
politics are less coercive than regulatory policies. Likewise, redistributive
policies are more immediately coercive than self-regulatory policies, but are
similar in that coercion acts through the environment of conduct. Of course,
it should be remembered that in the final analysis all government is somewhat
coercive.
It should be noted that each of the policies is associated with a parti-
cular pattern of politics (described in previous sections). Policies deter-
mine politics. Policy is the independent variable and politics the dependent
variable. The prevailing policy definition shapes the decision-making agenda
by shaping political actions. Political behavior is thus structured by policy
expectations. Below two propositions are set forth which attempt to explain
why policy arenas, and thereby patterns of politics, change.
Proposition One.
Increases in social interdependences increase the likelihood of govern-
mental coercion.
As society becomes more interdependent the external costs of private
actions increase which bring about pressures for governmental coercion.
Whenever private decisions begin to play havoc with the public interest, the
initial governmental response to any such public bad is to handle it with a
dose of immediate coercion. The image that many people have of government as
the ultimate authority perhaps explains why there is so much governmental
regulation. Nothing seems more just than direct governmental regulation of
individual or group behavior that threatens the public interest.
Proposition Two.
Increases in decision-making costs increase the likelihood that govern-
mental coercion will be applied through the environment of conduct rather than
individual conduct.
As the costs of governmental decision-making increase, there is an incen-
tive to cut costs by indirectly applying governmental coercion through the
environment rather than through individuals and groups directly.9 Disenchant-
ment with red tape and the cost of governemnt regulation spawn searches for
new types of governmental intervention which don't get bogged down in trying
to control individual behavior. Increased costs of information and control
encourage more indirect methods of social control.
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Graphically the determinants of patterns of politics can be displayed as
follows:
High
SELF-REGULATORY REDISTRIBUTE
Decision
Costs
DISTRIBUTIVE REGULATORY
Low
Low Interdependences High
Figure 2. Theory of policy change.
POLICY PERSPECTIVES AND THE EPA CLEAN LAKE PROGRAM
Up to this point this paper has been concerned with the impact that
patterns of politics have on the water pollution control agenda and with the
forces that shape policy arenas, which in turn structure patterns of politics.
In the previous section, attention was given to factors which may shape policy
arenas in the long run - social interdependences and decision-making costs.
In this section, attention now shifts to factors which may also shape policy
arenas, but in the short run. The focus will be on the policy perspectives of
decision-makers at different levels in the intergovernmental system and how
their perceptions are likely to affect the implementation of the Clean Lake
Program.
No single pattern of politics may necessarily dominate the intergovern-
mental decision-making arena. Different actors at different points in the
federal system are concerned with different facets of politics and perceive
the water pollution control agenda in different ways. For ease of discussion,
the analysis will be limited to the contrast between national and local poli-
tical perspectives.
It is believed that national decision-makers tend to look at the problem
of lake eutrophication from a structural perspective. Their concern is with
finding a structural or institutional solution to the deteriorating lake
problem. Their efforts center on eradicating a public bad, not providing a
public good. In terms of the previous discussion, this implies that national
policy makers tend to view the task of cleaning up the lake in terms of regu-
latory or self-regulatory policy.
In contrast, local officials are likely to have an allocative perspective
of the Clean Lake Program. Local decision-makers are concerned with the
allocative consequences of cleaning up the lake, i.e., who benefits and who
loses. For this reason the deteriorating lake problem is likely to be defined
in terms of distributive or redistributive policy. As one will see below, the
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fact that the issue of lake cleanup is hard to separate from the issue of land
use tends to accentuate this allocative dimension.
The Structural Perspective
The EPA Clean Lake Program (Section 314 of the 1972 Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments) provides grants for demonstration projects designed to
combat non-point source pollution. This focus on demonstration projects stems
from a recognition of the fact that the nature of non-point source pollution
makes the traditional EPA regulatory strategy difficult to carry out. Every
lake is a unique ecosystem. Nonpoint source pollution is caused by many
different factors not subject to uniform technological control. Controlling
nonpoint source pollution thus demands flexible policy making.
The regulatory approach that is successful for halting pollution as it
comes out of the pipe may be too burdensome to control non-point source pollu-
tion. After all, a regulatory strategy implies the ability to detect and
punish individual violators. Non-point source pollution makes this immediate
exercise of coercion through the individual rather difficult. Usually regula-
tory politics is dominated by a few large organized interests who are respon-
sible for most of the pollution. In the case of non-point source pollution,
however, the pollution stems from the entire community. Regulating a commu-
nity is a different task from regulating a polluting industry.
In short, there are reasons to believe that a traditional regulatory
approach will not work successfully in cleaning up non-point source pollution
of lakes. Many of the ingredients for effective regulatory policy are mis-
sing, such as clearcut standards, proven technology, and readily identifiable
sources of pollution.
From a structural perspective there appear to be mounting pressures which
discourage a strict regulatory approach to non-point source water pollution
control. A self-regulatory or community development strategy thus becomes as
an attractive alternative. The chief problem with a self-regulatory strategy
is that it relies upon an appropriate unit of government to take the responsi-
bility for clean lake management. Oftentimes existing governmental juris-
dictions (state, city, county or special district) may not be particularly
interested in or capable of lake management. Effective lake management may
thus require the design of new units of government capable of dealing directly
with the problem of eutrophication.10
The theory of collective good may be used to provide guidelines for
decision-makers with a structural perspective who wish to design lake manage-
ment districts. According to the theory, for a collective good to be provided
at an optimal level there must be a match between the boundaries of the
collective good and the boundaries of the governmental jurisdiction which pro-
vides the good or service.11
If benefits spill over governmental boundaries then there will be disin-
centive to produce the good or service at an optimal level. For example, if
a cleaner lake attracts greater numbers of the public from outside of the
lakeside governmental jurisdiction (tourists, fishermen, swimmers, skiers,
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etc.) then this may act as a disincentive for lake cleanup. Under such cir-
cumstances, less than an optimal level of water pollution control may be
reached. Grants-in-aid are frequently used to remedy such a situation. The
intergovernmental transfer payments compensate the unit of government for
producing benefits which spill over jurisdictional boundaries. The EPA Lake
Restoration Grant Program illustrates such an approach.
The problem of benefit spillovers is not the only type of mismatch be-
tween the boundaries of the collective good and the boundaries of the govern-
mental jurisdiction which can occur. When the boundaries of the governmental
jurisdiction are larger than the boundaries of the collective good there is
also a disincentive to produce an optimal amount of the good. For example, if
the primary beneficiaries of a cleaner lake are the landowners immediately
surrounding the lake then this may act as a disincentive for a governmental
jurisdiction, which is large enough to contain many other elements of the
public, to clean up the lake. The majority of citizens may not want to pay
the full cost of lake restoration which would benefit a minority of lakeside
residents. The governmental jurisdictions which overlap the lake's boundaries
may simply be too large to provide an optimal level of the collective good.
More often than not, it would seem that the problem of lake restoration
centers around the problem of how to deal with overlapping governmental juris-
dictions which are too large, rather than the problem of benefit spillovers,
which result from governmental jurisdictions which are too small. If this is
the case, then certain questions need to be raised about the effectiveness of
a grant-in-aid approach to encourage lake restoration. There would seem to be
an asymmetry of grant-in-aid effectiveness that would depend on whether the
less than optimal provision of a collective good was the result of governmen-
tal jurisdictions that were "too small" or "too large". Grants-in-aid are
most effective in dealing with benefits spillovers which flow from governmen-
tal jurisdictions that are smaller than the boundaries of the collective good.
In this situation, the level of provision of the collective good can be
increased with a minimum of organizational^effort. An existing organization
simply expands its production. On the other hand, when the unit of government
is larger than the boundaries of the collective good, a larger amount of
organizational inertia will have to be overcome before the amount of the
collective good produced will increase; perhaps requiring a larger grant-in-
aid stimulus. Oftentimes, a new subunit will have to be created to deal with
the problem, which further complicates the undertaking.
If self-regulation is to work, there must be appropriate size juris-
dictions for lake management. To achieve a close match between the boundaries
of the collective good and the boundaries of the governmental jurisdiction
probably will require more government rather than less. A community develop-
ment strategy whereby the potential beneficiaries of lake restoration are
given the opportunity to organize and design a lake management district, whose
boundaries closely correspond with the boundaries of the collective good,
seems to be a viable policy option. It appears that the institutional aspects
of lake management must first be ironed out before the traditional grant-in-
aid approach will act as an effective incentive for lake restoration.
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The Allocative Perspective
At the local level, decision-makers are especially concerned with the
allocative consequences of cleaning up the lake. The question of who benefits
and who loses as a result of lake restoration is likely to be paramount in the
public's mind as well. There are some factors which suggest that controlling
non-point source lake pollution would be perceived as a distributive outcome
i.e., each individual benefiting, while costs are shared by the entire commu-
nity.
First of all, the costs of non-point pollution control are relatively
diffuse. In contrast to point source pollution control, where the costs of
cleanup would be paid by a few large industrial polluters, the costs of non-
point source pollution control are more evenly spread throughout the commun-
ity. It is therefore less likely that one will have a situation where a large
organized interest will object to the costs of pollution control and try to
keep it off the political agenda.12
Secondly, it appears that lake restoration provides benefits to a wide
range of interests. Indeed, it could be argued that both development and
protectionist interests benefit from a clean lake. After all, a clean lake
enhances property values of the surrounding area, facilitating further devel-
opment of the region.
It is the difficulty of separating the issue of clean lakes from the
issue of land use control, however, that is likely to move the water pollution
control efforts into a redistributive policy context i.e., a direct conflict
between environmentalists and developmentalists. It has often been the case
that no-growth minded citizens have taken up the environmentalist banner to
halt development. In the case of lake restoration efforts this familiar
strategy will not necessarily work to the advantage of those who wish to cur-
tail growth. For example, cleaning up the lake, say by installing a sewer
system, is likely to make the lakeside area a more attractive place for
development.
Those who fear development might be expected to point to the "crowding
effect" that a cleaner lake might generate. The last thing that a no-growth
advocate wants is for the lake to be turned into a tourist haven, or become a
population center. No-growth advocates and other protectors of community
life-styles may thus find themselves in the strange situation of being on the
opposing side of an environmental issue. On the other hand, growth proponents
may be able to use the environmental issue to their advantage. Support for
water pollution control is not necessarily synonymous with a no-growth philos-
ophy.
In conclusion, it can be said that support for land use control may
really underlie the politics of lake restoration at the local level. Prevail-
ing community attitudes toward growth might very well determine where on the
continuum of distributive-redistributive politics the issue of lake restora-
tion will lie. Lake restoration efforts will be successful to the extent that
the issue of the clean lake can be separated from the development issue. A
lake management district without any police powers of land use control would
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seem to be the type of institution that would be needed to withstand the
conflicts of redistributive politics.
NOTES
1. It should be pointed out that the centralization of water pollution
control did not really cause local governments to lose power in the
federal system. No real loss of local power occurred because local
communities were incapable of exercising their responsibility to begin
with.
2. For vivid analytical descriptions of regulatory politics see Theodore
Lowi, "American Business, Public Policy, Case-Studies and Political
Theory", World Politics, 16 (July 1964), pp 677-715; and Murray Edelman,
The Symbolic Uses of Politics, Chapter 3, Urbana: University of Illinois
Press, 1964, pp. 44-72.
3. For a discussion of the political art of compromise as it affects water
resource policy making see Daniel M. Ogden, Jr., "The Real World of
Political Decision-Making in Water Resources Policy", Treatise £n Urban
Water Systems, Maurice L. Albertson, L. Scott Tucker, and Donald C.
Taylor, eds., Colorado State University, Fort Collins, July 1971, pp.
740-752.
4. Helen Ingram and J. R. McCain, "Federal Water Resources Management: The
Administrative Setting", Public Administration Review, September/October
1977, Vol. 37, No. 5, pp. 448-455.
5. Air and water pollution are skillfully compared in J. Clarence Davies III
and Barbara S. Davies, The Politics of Pollution, Indianapolis, Indiana:
The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., 1976, second edition, pp. 23-25.
6. Charles L. Schultze's argument that government should rely more on mar-
ketlike incentives to further public policy ends states this point of
view well. See Charles L. Shultze, The Public Use of Private Interest,
Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1977.
7. The need to have a system of social indicators which would provide a
common focus of attention for policy makers and the public is described
in R. D. Brunner and J. P. Crecine, "The Impact of Communication Techno-
logy on Government: A Developmental Construct" paper prepared for de-
livery at the 1971 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science
Association, Conrad Hilton Hotel, Chicago, Illinois, September 7-11.
8. This typology is based on Lowi's except that it inserts Salisbury and
Heinz1s notion of self-regulatory policy in place of Lowi's constituent
policy. See Theodore J. Lowi, "Four Systems of Policy, Politics and
Choice", Public Administration Review, July/Aug. 1972, pp. 298-310;
341
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Robert Salisbury and John Heinz, "A Theory of Policy Analysis and Some
Preliminary Applications" in Policy Analysis jn Political Science, ed.
by Ira Sharkansky, San Francisco: Markham, 1970, pp. 39-60.
9. It should be noted that the concern here is for the costs of decision-
making within particular policy arenas. This differs from Salisbury and
Heinz's treatment of decision costs. For example, according to Salisbury
and Heinz's theory, high decision-making costs might result in the pas-
sage of regulatory policy. This clearly contrasts with the notion that
high costs of decision-making cause movement away from the regulatory
policy arena.
10. Lowell L. Klessig, "Open Marriage: Community Development and Environmen-
tal Management", Journal of Extension, Vol. XV, Sept./Oct. 1977, pp. 6-
11.
11. Mancur Olson, Jr., "The Optimal Allocation of Jurisdictional Responsibi-
lity: The Principle of 'Fiscal Equivalence1", in The Analysis and Evalu-
ation of Public Expenditures: The PPB System. U.S. Congress, Joint
Economic Committee, 91st Congress, 1st. Session, 1969, pp. 321-331.
12. An analysis of how organized interests are capable of keeping pollution
control off of the policy making agenda is contained in Matthew A. Cren-
son, The Un-Politics of Air Pollution, Baltimore: The John Hopkins
University Press, 1971.
342
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing}
REPORT NO.
EPA-600/3-79-005
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Limnological and Socioeconomic Evaluation of Lake
Restoration Projects: Approaches and Preliminary Result;
5. REPORT DATE
January 1979 issuing date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
Spencer A. Peterson, compiled papers
PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Coryallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis. Oregon 97330
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1BA608
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
2. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
same
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
in-house
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/02
5. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
6. ABSTRACT
Nineteen papers were presented at the workshop held 28 February - 2 March, 1978 on
the campus of Oregon State University. The objective was to assemble grantees and
project officers associated with EPA's Lake Restoration Evaluation Program so that
they could become familiar with each other's work. Outside experts were invited to
offer constructive criticism of the current approach to assessment of techniques.
Several lakes were considered for limnological, social and economic aspects. A draft
copy of the Lake Evaluation Index (LEI) developed by EPA was presented and discussed.
7.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COS AT I Field/Group
lake restoration
06/F
8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to public
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
20. SECURITY CLASS (ThispageJ
unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77)
343
798-083
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