EPA-600/5-75-Q12
May 1975
Socioeconomic Environmental Studies Series
Minimum Standards for
Quality of Life
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
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.REPORTING- SERIES
reports of the Office of 3lcsearcn- and Development,
Enwiroiwuental protection A«ency, haves been grouped into five
series, ifhese five broad cateqories were established to
facilitate, farther development ami application of envircmmentajs.
technology. Elimination of traditional <5roupi.Tig was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface
in related fields, "£h<-» five series are:
1. Environiaentai Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4* Beviroronential Konitorinq
5. SoeioecoiKsaic Environmental Studies
report has been assiqued to the S'OCIOFtXJN'OrilC ESV1RONHEKTAL ST^JDIKS
series. This series describes research on the socioeconoroic impact of
«awrirtm»ental problems. This covers recycling and other recovery
Operations with emphasis on raonetary incentives. The non-scientific
r«al»s of lecjaJ BysteRS, ctiltural values, and business systems are
also involved. Because of their interdisciplinary scope, system
c«al3oations and enviroroaental laanafjeiaeBt reports are included in this
series.
report has been reviewed by the Office of Research and
JS&«wtetl0]3Hient,. Approval does not signify that the contents
•necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Environmental
f^n»b(ectdLon Agency, nor does taention of "trade names or commercial
pirothicts constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
is arwailable -to the public through the national 'Technical
Service, ', Springfield,. Virginia 22151,
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EPA-600/5-75-012
May 1975
MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR QUALITY OF LIFE
By
O.W. Markley
Marilyn D. Bagley
EPA Program Element No. 1HA098
Grant No. 803056-01
Roap/Task 21 BAX 02
Project Officer
Robert C. Livingston
Office of Financial and Administrative Services
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20460
Prepared For
Washington Environmental Research Center
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Washington, D.C. 20460
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ii
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES vi
GLOSSARY vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS viii
I INTRODUCTION 1
Objectives and Scope . 2
Potential Applications of the Approach 3
Background 5
Rationale for Looking at QOL from the Minimum
Threshold Level 8
II DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW APPROACH 14
TASK 1: Select Sectors and Issues 14
TASK 2: Develop Conceptual Framework 16
TASK 3: List Standards and Identify Data 25
TASK 4: Analysis 27
TASK 5: Assess Aproach and Make Recommendations. ... 28
III PROVISIONAL FINDINGS 30
Intolerability Thresholds 31
Economics 31
Health 33
Social and Political Environments 34
Natural Environment 36
Physical Environment 37
General Observations—Higher Level Standards and Data . 38
IV PROVISIONAL ASSESSMENT OF QOLM APPROACH 42
QOL/Standards Mapping 42
Reporting of Minimum Life Conditions 44
Technology/Environmental Impact Assessment in
Relationship to Minimum Standards 49
Simulation Modeling of Conditions in Society 50
Monitoring of Citizen (Dis)satisfaction 52
REFERENCES 54
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Most approaches to "Quality of Life" (QOL) assessment, social reporting,
or social accounting have sought to develop a general purpose set of
social indicators representative of all levels of life condition—both
high and low. Although it would still be desirable to achieve such
objectives, efforts to do so have been very broadly scoped and have often
proven infeasible.
This study is an exploration of an approach that may prove to be
more feasible. Rather than focusing on general quality of life, it
focuses on quality of life minimums (QOLM)—those minimum standards for
life quality that are set by existing laws, court decisions, or common
custom. In particular, it focuses on the most fundamental minimums beyond
which life quality may be considered intolerable. The essential contribu-
tions of this study are thus threefold:
(1) an exploration of the idea that QOL assessment might become more
feasible and useful by concentrating (at least initially) on the
collection of objective and subjective data that relate to minimums
set by existing policyj
(2) the development of a conceptual framework with which to relate
objective and subjective data with existing minimum standards
of various types,
(3) the conceptualization of "intolerability thresholds" (i.e.,
fundamental minimum standards at the federal, state, and local
levels) that should receive special attention for enforcement
and monitoring.
A wide variety of QOL concerns in six categories were explored:
Economics, Health, Social, Political, Natural Environment, and Physical
Environment. Within each category three types of available information
were compiled: (1) public laws and other less formal understandings that
establish minimum standards, (2) objective data (indicators) that reflect
ill
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how well those standards are being met, and (3) subjective data that
reflect how people feel about that aspect of the quality of their lives.
For purposes of analysis and presentation, these types of information
were further categorized in a matrix according to how they related to
human needs—defined as "basic" (physiological, safety, or security
concerns) or "higher" (social, ego, and self-fulfillment concerns),
according to the following four logical levels of concern: (1) threshold
level—the setting of a substantive standard of quality, (2) security—
the provision of safeguards that the substantive standard will be met
through time, (3) equal access—standards ensuring that all persons are
afforded access to safeguards, and (4) ability to influence—standards
that allow individuals to influence the setting of minimum standards and
that allow individuals their own methods for achieving tolerable life
conditions.
The study briefly assessed the potential utility that the minimum
standards for quality of life might have for several applications:
(1) the systematic arraying of both existing minimum standards and secondary
source objective indicators for measuring conditions of life quality at
three levels of policy concern—Federal, state and local, (2) the monitoring
and reporting of substandard conditions in society, (3) the estimating of
impacts of emerging technologies in life quality (technology assessment),
(4) the simulation modeling of societal or environmental interactions,
and (5) the monitoring of citizen (dis)satisfaction.
It was concluded that efforts leading to measuring QOL by focusing on
minimum standards is immediately feasible, and with some further work
would be quite useful. In some areas of concern, such as economics
(unemployment) or health (drugs, nutrition), minimum standards and
intolerability thresholds typically emanate from the federal level and
cover all citizens of the nation. In others, such as education or housing,
they emanate from the state or local level; hence, different populations
of the nation are covered by different minimum standards. Therefore, any
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attempt to map minimum standards across various areas of concern must
take these levels into account.
The accompanying table portrays a representative listing of funda-
mental minimum standards and related data. Based on the results of this
study, we recommend that a limited set of eight to fifteen such intolera-
bility thresholds be selected for intensive monitoring and that a periodic
report be prepared that portrays the percentage of various populations
that fall below these minimum thresholds. In certain localities (such
as inner-city poverty pockets) these data would need to be collected and
reported at a sub-SMSA level of aggregation if the true extent to which
some populations suffer from multiple conditions defined by public
policy as substandard is to be known.
The study further concluded that technology assessment and simulation
efforts could benefit from the reporting of substandard conditions, but
the linkage between these applications is sufficiently tenuous so that
the relevance of the minimum standard approach for these two applications
is too low to be a high-priority concern. The application of the minimum
standard concept to the monitoring of citizen (dis)satisfaction is already
partially under way in programs such as the General Social Survey.*
However, if the reporting of substandard conditions were to become a
reality, it would be both important and feasible to monitor citizen
(dis)satisfaction in areas covered by fundamental minimum standards to
a greater extent than is currently being done.
The general conclusion reached by the study team was that the
approach of using public standards that set quality of life minimums as
a general guide for QOL assessment has sufficient feasibility and potential
utility to warrant its further development.
""National Opinion Research Center, University of Chicago, National Data
Program for the Social Sciences: The General Social Survey, Inter-
university Consortium for Political Research, Ann Arbor, Michigan
(July 1972).
v
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REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLING OF EXISTING FUNDAMENTAL QOLM THRESHOLDS AND RELATED OBJECTIVE CONDITIONS
Sector Issue Area
Specific Issue
Definition of Fundamental Minimum Threshold
(and Representative Data)
Economics
Economics
Health
Social
Political
Natural
Environment
Physical
Enviornment
Income
Employment
Nutrition
Education
Citizen
Participation
Air pollution
Housing
Adequacy
Availability
Minimum Daily
Diet
Attainment
Right to vote
Suspended
Particulates
Quality
1974 poverty threshold for nonfarm family of 4 = $4,550
[U.S. average = 11% in poverty; Portland SMSA = 7%;
Birmingham SMSA = 16%]
Unemployment threshold = 6.5% sustained in an area of
100,000 population for three months. [1974 U.S. average =
6.5% (U.S. Bureau of Labor); Portland = 5.2%; Newark,
New Jersey = 7%; San Francisco = 7.9%]
Recommended dietary allowance (RDA): minimum daily diet of
fat/vitamins/protein/minerals needed for health (for data,
see poverty level, which is used as a proxy for nutrition)
Education threshold: ability to read, write, and compute
[Average illiteracy over age 14: United States = 2.4%;
Louisiana = 6.3%; Iowa = 0.7%]
Use of any criteria other than "full" citizenship, at least
18 years of age and having a fixed residence at least 30
days for determination of eligibility (no appropriate data)
EPA primary threshold = 75 fte/md. [A ratio of 1.00 means that
the annual average ambient concentration was exactly at the
level of the primary threshold, 1973; Los Angeles 1.60,
Chicago 1.16, St. Louis 1.28 — CEQ Annual Report 1974.]
Intolerability threshold is structural soundness and minimal
plumbing, defined as "nondilapidated"; [Average population
living in "dilapidated" housing, 1970: United States = 7% —
Census data reported by OMB for all housing units);
Census data reported by MRI
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LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Page
Figure 1. STUDY TASK DIAGRAM 15
Figure 2. A SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE THREE
BASIC TYPES OF QOL INFORMATION AS RELATED
TO ENVIRONMENTAL DECISION MAKING AND
SOCIAL POLICY 19
Figure 3. HUMAN NEEDS MATRIX 21
Table 1. ELEMENTS OF THE RATIONALE FOR A NEW APPROACH
EMPHASIZING MINIMAL STANDARDS FOR QUALITY
OF LIFE 10
Table 2. CRITERIA FOR THE CHOOSING OF SECTORS, ISSUES,
AND REPRESENTATIVE LIFE CONCERNS 17
Table 3. QUALITY OF LIFE CONCERNS INVESTIGATED IN
THIS STUDY 18
Table 4. CELL ENTRIES IN THE HUMAN NEEDS MATRIX .... 23
Table 5. REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLING OF EXISTING FUNDAMENTAL
QOLM THRESHOLDS AND RELATED OBJECTIVE
CONDITIONS 32
Vll
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GLOSSARY
The key terms used in this report are defined as follows:
• QOLM: Quality of Life Minimum(s), an acronym for the conceptual
orientation being explored in this study—one that relates various
minimum standards for life quality that are set by public policy.
• Minimum Standards: Policies set by public law, political decision,
or common custom that state the minimum condition, which if not
fulfilled, would be considered unacceptable for a specified
population in a specified societal context. A minimum threshold
within a minimum standard is a reference point for measuring whether
the standard is met.
• Intolerability Threshold: The most fundamental condition, which
if not fulfilled, would be considered intolerable for a specified
population at all times; intolerability thresholds are a subset of
minimum standards.
• Objective Conditions: Numerical indicators of a physical situation
(e.g., air pollution in ppm, SO , percentage of open space used
£t
for recreation), a sociological situation (e.g., divorce rate,
crime rate, number of ethnic minority groups), or an economic
situation (e.g., consumer price index, personal income averages,
welfare programs in dollars).
• Subjective Attitudes: An individual's understanding and interpre-
tation of a stimulus that can be assessed from his statement in
regard to direction (polarity of effect) and magnitude (strength,
degree, or favorability) of disclosure.
• Quality of Life: A multidimensional variable that expresses the
degrees of well-being of persons in the society. Although
essentially an intangible variable, it is a function of the
objective conditions appropriate to a selected population and the
subjective attitude toward these conditions held by persons in the
society.
viii
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ACKNOWLDGEMENTS
This study was administered by SRI's Urban and Social Systems Division,
Harvey L. Dixon, Executive Director. Willis W. Harman, Director of SRI's
Center for the Study of Social Policy was Project Supervisor; 0. W. Markley
and Marilyn D. Bagley were Coproject Leaders.
The primary team for the data collection and analysis reported here
included Patricia A. Lynch, Michael Reynolds, Joan Rosenbaum, Sally Sherman,
and Marilyn Smulyan.
SRI professionals who reviewed and critiqued the draft material
throughout the study were Arnold Mitchell, Senior Social Economist; Eric
Duckstad, Director of the Urban and Regional Studies Department; Allen
Zink, Legal Social Scientist; Francis W. Dresch, Senior Economist;
Ernest C. Harvey, Senior Economist; Peter Schwartz, Policy Analyst;
Duane Elgin, Policy Analyst; Thomas F. Mandel, Policy Analyst; and Noreen
W. Pedrick, Health Planning Analyst.
SRI is grateful to the following selected experts from outside the
Institute who reviewed the draft report: Daniel Tunstall, visiting scholar,
and Stephen Withey, of the Institute for Social Research, University of
Michigan; and Tom Logothetti, private consultant.
Finally, the support of the project by the Washington Environmental
Research Center, Environmental Protection Agency, and the help provided by
Robert C. Livingston, Grant Project Officer, and Peter W. House, Director,
Environmental Studies Division, is most gratefully acknowledged.
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I INTRODUCTION
Over the past several years "Quality of Life" (QOL) has become the
popularized term for referring to a state of societal well-being. A
number of major countries including the United States, Canada, Japan,
Sweden, and France have actively pursued an analytical approach to QOL
in an attempt to provide a tool to improve understanding of social issues
and to develop social policy. Most efforts to date have concerned them-
selves with ways to identify attributes of "the good life" and to develop
methods for measuring QOL in terms of positive attainments and ideals.
These efforts have met with considerable difficulty, as the following
suggests:
Quality of Life is a very personal expression of one's sense
of well-being. In a very real sense it expresses that set
of things which, when taken in the aggregate, makes the
individual happy. Yet, it is also probably true that if asked
to express the details of this aggregate, an individual would
provide a somewhat different set each time he is queried. (EPA,
Quality of Life Concept, 1973).
For a variety of reasons, attempts to survey individual well-being
on a national scale now seems both economically infeasible and analytically
unproductive. This is not to say, however, that the issue of quality of
life is unworthy of attention. Major governmental programs and a massive
commitment of resources are allocated daily toward the goal of improving
the quality of life for Americans. However, without adequate delivery
system tools, governmental decision makers face a formidable challenge
when establishing policy and programs and allocating resources in ways
that significantly impact the quality of life of different groups of
people in different ways.
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Recognizing the need for improving the tools available to decision
makers responsible for protection of life quality, and the practical
problems associated with past approaches to QOL assessment, the Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA) awared SRI a grant to explore the feasi-
bility of orienting QOL assessment toward minimum levels of fulfillment.
Objectives and Scope
The objectives of this study were:
• To survey and illustrate the types of existing policies that
set minimum QOL standards in various sectors of concern.
• To identify types of indicator data that are or could be used
with standards as currently exist, and to deduce implications
for the art of QOL assessment.
• To make a provisional assessment of the potential utility of
pursuing a minimum standard approach to QOL assessment, in-
cluding identification of potential negative aspects.
To pursue these objectives, however, we found it necessary to specify
two additional objectives:
• Identification of potentially feasible applications of the
minimum standards approach being explored by the study.
• Development of a conceptual framework for holistically por-
traying existing minimum standards with related objective and
subjective data.
As the study is an exploratory one, its scope is oriented more to
the development and assessment of an approach than to the production of
substantive information. In keeping with this scope, the study includes
a preliminary survey of a wide variety of standards and related indicator
data, but looks in any depth at only a few illustrative case issues in-
cluding nutrition, education, employment, income, housing, and air and
water quality.
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Potential Applications of the Approach
Before describing the development of the minimum standards approach,
it may be helpful to consider several applications to which the approach
might be put — all of which would have either direct or indirect rele-
vance to the improvement of public policy. By so doing, we will have a
more concrete basis on which to later assess the approach .
QOL/Standards Mapping
Because QOL/standards mapping is essentially an application of the
procedures to be described in Section II, this application is described
on page 16 of this report .
Annual Reporting of Basic QQL Attainment
The most direct application of this approach would be the prepara-
tion of a report at the three levels of policy concern (Federal, state,
local) that would identify certain basic minimum standards that define
thresholds for unacceptable life quality, and that would further portray
the degree to which these minimal conditions are fulfilled within appro-
priate jurisdiction. This might be done either in addition to or as an
alternative way of structuring the Social Indicators series now being
produced by OMB (Tunstall, 1974) . The levels of aggregation included in
such a report might span from the census tract level to the national
level, and national percentages of various populations (e.g., those in
poverty and various minority groups) would be included.
Such data could be quite useful at all levels of government and to
various citizen interest groups for a variety of purposes, not the least
of which would include needs assessment of deprived populations to ob-
jectively justify funding of antipoverty programs.
Technology and Environmental Impact Assessment in Relationship to
Minimum Standards
Suppose that the reporting described above was being performed in a
satisfactory manner. It then might be feasible to require that all major
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technology and environmental impact assessment studies address the
question: "How might the proposed application of this technology impact
on the attainment of the following minimum standards?" By virtue of
having a defined standard for minimal life quality and the time-series
data that would become available for each minimum standard-indicator,
it should (theoretically) be possible to (1) have a practical set of
standards for life quality to be used in the technology assessment, and
(2) have an operational set of indicators that would reflect changes in
the designated qualities of life that might or might not be due to the
later application of that technology (again leading to improved methods
of establishing accountability for impacts).
Modeling and Simulating Societal Interactions
A fourth application to be considered in the development and assess-
ment of this approach is its use in various societal modeling and simu-
lation efforts. In the next section we argue that the lack of knowledge
about cause/effect relationships between sectors of society is one of the
difficulties preventing further development of the art of social account-
ing. Studies that try to model the dynamic interrelationships of parti-
cular variables such as energy consumption, pollution, employment, and
so forth provide a fairly direct way to increase our understanding of
these complex relationships. The World Dynamics Simulation, sponsored
by the Club of Rome (Forrester, 1971; Meadows, et al, 1972; Mesarovic &,
Pestel, 1974), and the State of the System (SOS) Model, sponsored by the
Environmental Protection Agency (Williams &. House, 1974), are but a few
of the ongoing simulation efforts that might profit by having well-defined
and agreed-upon minimum levels for life quality for use as variables in
their models of societal interactions.
Monitoring Citizen.(Pis)satisfaction
A final application of this approach could be to use an agreed-upon
set of minimum standards in the collection of attitudinal data throughout
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the nation . Various national data collection efforts currently under
way, such as the General Social Survey, ask questions such as "What is
your level of income?' and How satisfied are you financially?" By
slightly reorienting the issue selection criteria for surveys of this
sort (so that they relate more directly to an agreed-upon set of minimum
standards), it should be possible to portray more clearly how different
levels of attainment relate to degree of felt (dis)satisfaction by citi-
zens in various sectors of society. This would, however, require that
the questions not only address levels of attainment set by minimum stan-
dards, but also span levels of life quality that exceed minimums.
Background
The Need for Indicators
The complexity and interrelationship of the various sectors that
combine to make up the broadly defined environment present a formidable
backdrop to those responsible for making major policy decisions, Current
focus on the energy situation, environmental protection, pending world
food shortage, and an endangered economic system add emphasis to the
accelerating need for understanding the cause/effect relationships among
alternative man-induced actions. Social programs have become vast,
technology has grown in leaps and bounds, yet we continue to ask our-
selves, ' Is it all for the good of man?
Advances in social statistics and social sciences over the last
hundred years have enabled us to begin to recognize and sometimes diagnose
societal problems; however, we are still largely ignorant of the causal
mechanisms underlying social behavior. While we continue to push for an
improved understanding of social behavior, we must also strive for a way
to monitor social well-being so that adjustments might be made when the
state of society appears endangered. The move to an analytical approach
to measuring societal well-being has been modeled after widely used
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economic (GNP) and social (unemployment rate, crime rate) indicator
techniques. Most of our nation's present societal indicators can best
be described by a maxim: We have tended to maximize most of what we can
measure best. This has meant a preoccupation with measures such as GNP,
per capita or family income, cars produced, units sold, and so on. As
we have become relatively affluent and satisfied in our material needs,
we have found that our national performance indicators are not well-suited
for the measurement of more ephemeral but equally important aspects of
our existence. Our concern for environmental and urban problems has re-
vealed that we do not have social and physical indicators that can ef-
fectively measure and constructively analyze policy alternatives. More
recently, the overly ambitious use of the term "quality of life" has
heightened the mismatch between the potential and the practical utility
of social indicators.
Current Attempts at Developing Social Indicators and Quality of
Life Measurement Techniques
As mentioned earlier, the United States, along with numerous other
countries, has actively pursued the development of social indicators and
QOL measurement techniques. Current efforts in the United States have
been adequately reviewed by various authors. This report will not attempt
a comprehensive survey of current efforts, but will instead present some
illustrative examples as background to consideration of a new approach.
• In 1969, HEW published Toward a Social Report that attempted
to develop new social indicators to be used along with exist-
ing indicators to evaluate social conditions. This report,
prepared under the direction of then Deputy Assistant
Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, Mancur Olsen, had
substantive merit but did little to provide new theoretical
insights and made little progress in development of indicators.
• The Statistical Policy Division in the Office of Management
and Budget published Social Indicators; 1973 and is now pre-
paring a sequel to this report to be published in 1976. The
first edition by Daniel B. Tunsdall is a compendium of exist-
ing social indicators but includes no attempt at analysis or
assessment of the data.
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• The National Science Foundation has for about a decade funded
social indicator work with a major focus on conceptual work
and experimental approaches to measuring social change. A
recent grant to the University of Michigan, Institute for
Social Research, is directed toward creating a set of subjec-
tive indicators that, along with the more traditional objec-
tive indicators, like the unemployment index, will guide
policy decisions by providing a more accurate picture of what
people care about. The investigation, headed by Stephen B.
Withey and Frank M. Andrews, is largely based on four national
surveys conducted in 1972 and 1973 and has been particularly
aimed at exploring a large variety of approaches that might
effectively measure the quality of life.
• The Council on Environmental Quality and EPA have initiated
efforts to develop improved environmental quality data and
indices (largely discrete physical data such as levels of
pollution). The Washington Environmental Research Center
also sponsored a national conference on quality of life in
1972 directed to determining the key attributes of QOL. Con-
ference proceedings are published in a volume entitled
Quality of Life Concepts .
• More recently, a parallel grant to this study was awarded
by EPA to Midwest Research Institute. This study, headed
by Dr. Ben Liu, entails a compilation of objective QOL in-
dicator data largely abstracted from U.S. Census material.
The work provides comparative quality of life profiles for
all standard metropolitan statistical areas (SMSAs) in the
United States (see Liu, 1975).
Based on a review of the above work, and similarly pointed out in
the HEW report on measurement and the quality of life (Francis, 1973),
a number of conclusions can be drawn:
• The interest and the need for measures of societal well-being
have been substantiated both here and abroad.
• Quality of life entails many issues that are often incommen-
surable; therefore, a single broad-guage measure of QOL is
not realistically feasible or plausibly desired. Instead, a
measurement tool that would point out particular problem areas
is a more realistic objective for QOL.
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• Societal indicators (objective data) measure existing situa-
tions that are readily amenable to numerical representation.
There is no reference point or theoretical basis that would
tell us whether we are better or worse-off today than yester-
day .
» Attitudinal surveys indicate some similarities in what people
care about but also point out the differences among various
interpretations of a quality life. What is good for one
person is not necessarily good for another.
• We do not fully understand the causal mechanisms underlying
social behavior; thus, knowing what and how to measure QOL
variables is extremely difficult, and knowing how to inter-
relate them once they are measured is seemingly more impossible.
• There has been no real attempt to relate objective and sub-
jective QOL data with existing policies to provide an improved
understanding of cause/effect relationships, or appropriate-
ness of policies.
Given these difficulties of realistically measuring the full spectrum
of quality of life, perhaps a more fruitful approach would be to focus
(at least initially) on minimal QOL standards and on related dissatis-
factions, rather than on the general attainment of satisfactory levels
of life quality throughout the society (House, Livingston, and Swinburn,
1974). The present study is a direct outcome of this insight.
Rationale for Looking at QOL from the Minimum Threshold Level
As far back as the development of the Constitution of the United
States, decision makers in this country have been primarily concerned
with assuring Americans a healthy, secure environment in which to prosper.
Standards have become increasingly important in determining welfare pro-
gram coverage and remain a vital part of decision making and policy forma-
tion within the democratic process. Standards are set by public law,
political decision, or common custom, but traditionally our nation has
tried to invoke standards only when necessary. ("He who governs least,
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governs best.") Many of these standards either explicitly state or imply
minimum life conditions acceptable in the United States (e.g., minimum
wage law, minimally acceptable quality of drinking water) . Standards in-
clude those designed to influence or control minimum life conditions and
those designed to provide incentives for meeting minimum life conditions.
It is understood that standards and particularly thresholds are often
reflective of a specific time or situation and that there are policy limi-
tations to QOL indicators based solely on minimum standards. One danger
is the assumption that what is barely tolerable is also desirable. If
widespread application of the QOLM approach led to a political climate in
which only the achievement of minimum standards were given high priority
in policymaking (to the detriment of other important concerns), overall
life quality in the nation would undoubtedly suffer. Another danger
(depending on one's point of view) associated with this approach is that
of increasing citizen unrest. Showing just how bad the objective condi-
tions are for some populations (in relation to existing minimum standards)
might raise their expectations to levels that society has no intention of
fulfilling — thereby raising the level of expressed dissatisfaction with
existing programs and policies. Dissatisfaction throughout society could
also be stimulated if indicators of dissatisfaction for different popula-
tions came to be used as a formal part of the decision logic in social
policy formulation. Also, there is the danger of relying on the types
of quantitative measures that are emphasized by technocratic modes of
governance, one consequence often being the use of political criteria in
the definition and use of the indicator — for example, by designing indi-
cators, data collection procedures, and levels of aggregation so as to
prevent the true level of suffering of some populations from being
revealed.
Some of the above dangers may be more apparent than real: hence
we will return to consideration of them in Section IV where the QOLM
approach is provisionally assessed.
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Focus on Minimal Conditions
Three general concerns make up the rationale for the approach ex-
plored by this study:
• The need for some agreed-upon reference point for measurement
purposes.
• The need to directly relate measured life conditions to exist-
ing QOL standards.
• The need to better understand the relationship among various
policies setting QOL standards, and how they can be understood
in terms of QOL concerns.
The elements of this rationale are summarized in Table 1.
TABLE 1
ELEMENTS OF THE RATIONALE FOR A NEW APPROACH
EMPHASIZING MINIMAL STANDARDS FOR QUALITY OF LIFE
Present QOL Work
Little agreement among people
about what constitutes high
quality of life
Social indicators are not only
expensive to gather, but also
have problematic value when used
as representative of the larger
society
Trade-offs between different
types of social welfare and
lack of knowledge about cause/
effect relationships make
assignment of value (to be
associated with a given direc-
tion of change in the environ-
ment) difficult to assess.
Associated Attributes of QOLM Approach
Focus on minimal thresholds easily
understood by individuals; agreement
more widely shared
Identify types of minimum standards in
terms of the ease with which they may
be translated into clear-cut indicators
for purposes of monitoring
Focus on indicators that are directly
related to standards of minimal life
quality set by existing policy, codes
and so forth
10
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As suggested earlier, one of the difficulties faced by efforts to
measure quality of life as conventionally conceived is that lack of con-
sensus on what constitutes a "high" quality of life; people more generally
tend to agree on what constitutes an intolerable quality of life. (For
example, while people disagree on what constitutes the "best" food, they
all agree that without enough food one's quality of life disappears
altogether.) Hence, it should be more feasible to develop an acceptable
QOL assessment approach by initially focusing on minimal life conditions.
Also, various studies of plausible future conditions in our society
suggest that survival concerns may loom very large during the next two
decades (Heilbroner, 1974). Should intense domestic difficulties emerge
for our nation (e.g., energy shortages, food shortages, economic depres-
sion) , policymakers should find it extremely helpful to have a set of
social indicators that would reveal which segments of our population are
experiencing the greatest distress, and which types of environments have
deteriorated to the greatest extent.
A still different reason for focusing on minimal conditions stems
from judicial and legislative decisions of the last decade mandating equal
opportunity for all citizens. Equal opportunity is often actually afforded
to persons previously discriminated against only when quantitative evi-
dence is brought to bear that the discrimination has continued in spite
of laws to the contrary (cf. U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission,
1974, pp. 8-11) .
Finally, it is worth noting that more legislation is directed at
improving intolerable social situations than at the improvement of already
tolerable situations (e.g., again the basic premise that a democratic
government provides only the minimum and leaves anything beyond to indi-
vidual initiative). If the collection of social indicators is to be
closely related to existing laws and standards (as will be argued next),
it is important to initially focus attention on minimal life concerns.
11
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The Use of Existing Standards
The focus on existing standards has been selected to serve as exem-
plars of what is acceptable. While there are many reasons for wanting to
collect information about the state of society, a high priority should be
placed on the collection of those types of information that would reveal
the extent to which standards set by law are in fact realized in the
society. Among other purposes, legal standards and guidelines exist to
influence people to do that which they should do, but otherwise might not
do (and often do not want to do) . Systematic monitoring of the extent to
which existing standards are being met would not only provide a higher
degree of accountability throughout society; it would also give a much
more valid assessment of those life conditions that are seen as important
by the policymakers (writers of law) — thereby providing them with needed
feedback on the effectiveness of existing law, or where they feel the
threshold should be.
Establish Reference Point for Monitoring and Evaluation of QOL
As alluded to earlier, unless the conclusions of expensive programs
of social monitoring are directly relevant to the improvement of public
policy, they are unlikely to be adequately supported in this day of eco-
nomic difficulties and competition for scarce resources. Thus, the
approach being explored should be biased toward its utility for policy-
making in general, and environmental protection in particular. At least
some consideration should therefore be given to a better understanding of
the standards themselves — at least looking at the variety of standards
that imply different methods for determining when conditions are to be
considered intolerable, different methods for enforcement, and so forth.
It is well known that an improvement in the quality of one sector (e.g.,
transportation) may bring a degradation in another (e.g., land use).
Some methods of monitoring and regulation take this type of difficulty
into account; others do not. Also, many standards probably reflect
12
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welfare concerns that are difficult, if not impossible, to define unequi-
vocally or to measure directly (e.g., equal educational opportunity). In
such instances, policies are often written that combine statements of
purpose with remedial activities — whether or not the progress toward
the purpose can itself by objectively measured.
What monitoring styles are appropriate to given types of standards?
How are different types of information about objective (and possibly
subjective) conditions currently used for regulation and environmental
protection? These questions typify a range of concerns that the approach
should in some way illuminate.
13
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II DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW APPROACH
In response to the rationale presented in Section I and the objectives
outlined for this study, the project team developed the minimum standards
approach through a series of tasks, illustrated in Figure 1 and summarized
below:
• Selection of sectors and issues representative of QOL concerns.
• Development of a conceptual framework for analysis and the
presentation of data.
• Collection of representative standards and data for selected
issues within each sector and applied to framework.
• Analysis and synthesis of information gathered.
• Assessment of the usefulness of the approach and development of
recommendations for further work.
The following section will present a detailed description of the
methodology devised by the project team for the QOL study, although
Appendix A discusses some additional issues.
Task 1; Select Sectors and Issues
The first step taken by the project team was to decide on a set of
categories that would furnish a useful as well as holistic description of
major environments of concern to the American people. The team studied
several types of categorizations in the literature on social indicators
and QOL assessment, reviewing the sector lists produced by other efforts
(see Appendix A ). The team recognized that the "environment" could be
divided or categorized a number of ways, and their final selection of
particular sectors was made in part according to the range and logical
clustering of issues and representative life concerns on which the approach
would focus.
Since the limited scope of this exploratory study could present
only a small number of life concerns as reflected in existing standards,
some of the team members next conducted an exercise to select those issues
14
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TASK 1
Literature Review
and Issues ^^ 1 E]
I Select
Crit
f~ for i
1
Role play
I
«— Select
TASK 2
>A IFF Others
eria
ssues ~^
1
Team
brainstorming
|
Issues — '
Develop Conceptual
Framework
[~
1
Identify information to be collected-
Method for displaying
interrelationships of
List Standards
and Identify Data
economics
Natural
environment
Physical
environment
Social
Health
Political
^^ ^ » T -f ^
Analyze each sector and compare results
1
I-
TASK 5
Summarize Usefulness
and Make
Recommendations
Summary of usefulness
• For measuring and monitoring QOL
• As a tool for decision makers
and social policy formulation
i Modeling and simulation
Recommendations for further work
FIGURE 1. STUDY TASK DIAGRAM
15
-------
for analysis that would consider as many significant problem areas and
subpopulations of the general environment as possible. The exercise
occurred within several day-long sessions in which a multidisciplinary
group of analysts formulated a list of criteria (Table 2) to evaluate a
preliminary set of issues and representative life concerns that would
be chosen for each sector.
The project team employed two methods to develop a preliminary list
of issues and concerns: First, team members role-played among themselves,
employing 38 "people-types" for whom values and life-styles had been
significantly differentiated by previous research (Mitchell, 1973);
second, team members held intensive sessions with representatives of
specialized disciplines at SRI. They then compiled the lists resulting
from these sessions, clustering the concerns into sector/issue categories
and ranking them according to the criteria. The preliminary list was
slightly modified during data collection and analysis, and in the final
stages of the study it appeared as shown in Table 3.
Task 2: Develop Conceptual Framework
A variety of considerations went into the development of a conceptual
framwork with which to organize the study and its findings.
A first consideration had to do with the need to see existing
standards and data holistically—both in terms of being able to see
relationships among various sectors of concern (e.g., economic, health,
natural environment) and in terms of being abi - to see the range of
policies through which standards are enforced. Figure 2 is a schematic
representation of the societal context in which we assume the approach
being explored should inform if it is to be useful. Consequently, the
conceptual framework (1) emphasized the portraying of existing standards
and related objective and subjective data that indicate the status of
life conditions addressed by the standards and (2) includes standards
and other policies that deal with not only minimum thresholds in various
16
-------
Table 2
CRITERIA FOR THE CHOOSING OF SECTORS, ISSUES, AND REPRESENTATIVE LIFE CONCERNS
Criteria for the entire list
• Be broadly representative of the entire range of life concerns
(at least one from each of the categories of interest)
» Include both issues that are expected to easily fit into the
conceptual framework being developed, and ones that would be
difficult to handle
• Include issues that are usually quantified and those that are not.
Criteria for individual life concerns
• Reducible to understandable dimensions
• Relevant to "victims" (of life conditions defined as intolerable)
• Relevant to user agencies at various levels of government
• Relevant as a life concern to a wide variety of populations
• Influenceable
• Differentiates among populations
• Objective and attitudinal data believed to be available.
17
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Table 3
QUALITY OF LIFE CONCERNS INVESTIGATED IN THIS STUDY
Sector
I siue
Mgtura of
Economics
Health
Social
Political
Natural
Environment
Physical
Income level
Employment
Health care
Nutrition
Crime
Criminal Juatice Process
Freedom to be
Family
Education
Civil liberties
Citizen participation
Honest; In government
Access to information
National protection
Air and water quality
Scenic and wildlife resource*
Noise
Radiation and pesticides uae
Land uae
Solid waste
Food and drugs
Housing
Public services
Transportation
Recreation and open space
Manufactured goods and products
Nonreaidentlal buildings and
structures
Guaranteed Income, cost of living, credit opportunity
Availability; quality
Quality; availability
Mlnlrun daily diet
Safety fron crtne
Just treatment; conviction and confinement
Self-expression; protection of privacy
Marriage; children
Quality; availability and equality
Freed'Xi to exercise choice
Right to vote; right to hold office; other forms of participation
Honest and fair representation
Citizens access to government opinions, rules, reports
External threats; natural disasters
Impacts on health, aesthetics (color, taste, odor)
Protection of scenic resources, protection of wildlife and
endangered species
Health hazard; amenities
Healti hazard
Degree of choice
Health hazards
Quality of food and farm products; meat and poultry; drugs;
cosmetics; accuracy of packaging and labeling.
Quality; availability
Solid waste disposal; fire protection
Safety, quality, speed, privacy, cost and availability of
various transport modes
Availability of outdoor facilities and open space; quality of
recreational facilities
Hazardous products; quality of products
Safety and quality of buildings, materials and design.
18
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«£>
RESMARCH
OBJECTIVE
SUBJECTIVE
QUANTITATIVE MEASURES
CONCERNS ABOUT QOL
— WHAT PEOPLE FIND
SATISFACTORY AND
WHAT NOT
ON THE STATE
OF SOCIETY
SURVEYS AND
PUBLIC OPINION
POLLS
INDIVIDUALS AND
INTEREST GROUPS
ENFORCEMENT
$ MARKET
PLACE
SOCIAL POLICY
STANDARDS
PUBLIC LAW
(LEGISLATION
INDUSTRY
• SOCIETAL INDICATORS
• GNP
•CENSUS DATA
• REGULATIONS
• TAX INCENTIVES
• SUBSIDIES
I
POLICIES
(GOVERNMENT
AGCNCIES)
• REGULATIONS
• CODES
• ORDINANCES
• LAWS
• FUNDING PRIORITIES
I
FIGURE 2. A SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE THREE BASIC TYPES OF
QOL INFORMATION AS RELATED TO ENVIRONMENTAL DECISION
MAKING AND SOCIAL POLICY
-------
sectors (e.g., ppm of atmospheric pollutants, or percent unemployment in
the economy), but also deal with procedural and other concerns as well —
for example, laws that mandate ameliorative activity if minimum standards
are not met, or laws that specify equal protection.
The second consideration had to do with relating standards to human
needs. A number of approaches for organizing the study and its findings
were considered before deciding to apply an adaptation of Abraham Maslow's
hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1954, 1962). Figure 3 portrays a human needs
matrix in which is listed, for each sector of concern, a synoptic view
of the issues and representative concerns in the vertical column along the
left side, and then the standards and data in each column that pertain to
a given way of dealing with the concern.
Though we finally settled on categorizing human needs by the terms
"basic" and higher," the terminology is not meant to assume priorities to
needs, but rather to make a distinction between basic physiological/
security needs and social/psychological needs. All needs are considered
fundamental to establishing a minimally acceptable quality of life—for
example, the fulfillment of some higher needs may be a prerequisite to
the fulfillment of more basic requirements for an adequate quality of life.
The team found the hierarchy of needs approach particularly useful
for displaying minimum standards because it defines intolerability thresholds
for several types of need satisfaction. The following briefly describe
each need category:
• By basic needs are meant:
Physiological (to include food, water, shelter, and other bodily
needs).
Safety or security (meaning freedom from bodily harm, protection
against danger, the feeling of having a predictable, stable, and
secure environment).
20
-------
SECTOR
0 Existing Welfar-j
Concerns
B.
1 Threshold
BASIC • Physiological
• Safety and Security
Guarantees to Achieve Minimum Standard
Equal Ability to
2 Security 3 Access 4 Influence
HIGHER
• Social
• Ego
• Self-Actualization
Equal
Ability to
__ •••^»W» >W~.~ WJ -
1 Threshold 2 Security 3 Access 4 Influence
ISSUES AND
CONCERNS
• STANDARDS
• OBJECTIVE
DATA
• SUBJECTIVE
DATA
Figure 3. HUMAN NEEDS MATRIX
-------
• By higher order needs are meant:
- Social needs (friendship, affection, love, belongingness).
- Ego needs (both self-esteem as expressed by feelings of self-
confidence, adequacy, and competence; and esteem of others as
expressed by status, recognition, attention, and prestige).
- Need for self-actualization (growth, development, achieving
one's full potential, creativity, self-fulfillment).
The column headings in Figure 3 for each of the two major need areas,
basic and higher needs, categorize the standards according to four levels
of concern:
• B and H , the existing welfare concern—a definition of the
minimum threshold level beneath which the quality of life is
defined as intolerable.
• B and H security—deals with provisions made by society to
£ £
ensure that the threshold level will be met across time.
« BS and H equal access—standards ensuring equal access for
different populations to the social welfare concerns being addressed.
• B and H ability to influence—standards dealing with alternative
ways by which individuals or institutions can influence threshold
levels and their own access to welfare.
These distinctions are clarified further in Table 4, which lists
types of questions addressed by standards, along with indicator data for
each of the four columns.
This categorization, or mapping process, presents standards so as
to make apparent any gaps, inconsistencies, and problem areas for identified
human needs. It also provides a method for correlating objective and
attitudinal data with existing standards. The visual display of information
facilitates a comparative analysis of issues within one sector or across
several sectors.
22
-------
Column
Headings
Table 4
CELL ENTRIES IN THE HUMAN NEEDS MATRIX
Standards Objective Data
Subjective Data
YHi
What is the minimum level of
(issue) quality that is
considered acceptable beyond
which lack of quality may be
considered intolerable?
Is (issue) of an adequate
quality for this population
at this time; does it meet
minimum standards? What
percentage of population is
below minimum levels?
How do people in this population
feel about the quality of their
(issue), or where the threshold
should be?
B /H
2 2
to
CO
B /H
3 3
B /H
4 4
What provisions exist to
safeguard quality of (issue)
What are the kinds and amounts
of resources or steps taken to
bring (issue) up to minimum
or to increase it when it
does not meet minimum standards? standards (i.e., enforcement)?
What provisions exist to ensure
equal access to at least
minimum acceptable levels of
(issue) quality?
What provisions or widespread
activities exist through which
people determine how they go
about obtaining (issue) quality,
or about influencing (issue)
standards?
What percentage of particular
population types are meeting/
not meeting minimal life
conditions?
What levels of activity are
engaged in to influence
(issue) welfare?
How secure do people feel about
the quality of their (issue)?
How do they feel about the
adequacy of measures taken to
ensure the meeting of minimum?
How do people feel about their
opportunities, relative to
people in the society at large?
How do people feel about their
ability to influence their
(issue) welfare?
-------
To further assess the utility of this approach for a comparative
analysis, an attempt was made to classify the standards according to the
following scheme:
• Location of issuing authority
L - Local (city or local district)
R - Regional (county, group of cities, and so forth)
S - State
F - Federal.
• Type of issuing authority
G - Governmental
1 - By legislation
2 - By court decision
3 - By executive agency ruling, guideline, or code.
NG - Nongovernmental
1 - By professional association or commission
2 - By private corporation
3 - By political influence group
4 - By common custom articulated in some formal way.
• Specificity of intolerability threshold
1 - Sets general goals to be pursued, but does not specify any
threshold intolerability.
2 - Sets some type of threshold of intolerability, but with no way
to assess when threshold is reached or crossed.
3 - Sets some type of threshold of intolerability that contains
with its specification some way of assessing when threshold
is reached.
0 Method of assessing when intolerability threshold is reached
(specified or strongly implied by the wording or interpretation of
the standard)
1 - By direct measure of the objective condition of concern in
quantitative terms (e.g., unemployment rate).
24
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2 - By use of a proxy for the objective condition of concern in
quantitative terms (e.g., welfare recipients as a proxy for
low nutrition of school children).
3 - By computation and synthesis of direct measures, leading to
a quantitative construct that is an indirect quantitative
measure of objective condition of concern (e.g., gross
national product is an indirect measure of productivity).
4 - By a court decision that an intolerable situation has existed
(e.g., that an individual has been libelously attacked and
damaged).
5 - By decision of an executive agency (e.g., EPA).
6 - Other (specify in write-up).
7 - None.
0 Any remedial actions mandated by standard (including enforcement)
Y - Yes
N - No
• Any systematic or periodic collection of data mandated or required
by this or a related standard?*
Y - Yes
N - No
The project team's experience trying to use this classification systen
is briefly described on page 39. in general, however, it proved too
difficult to apply validly (for each standard we considered) without
spending more time than was available in this exploratory study.
Task 3; List Standards and Identify Data
When a preliminary environmental sector/issue list was identified
and the conceptual framework developed, the team began a search for three
*This category was meant to include only data that indicate the extent
to which the minimum standard is or is not being met.
25
-------
basic types of information: standards, objective data, and attitudinal
survey information related to each issue and representative life concern,
refining the definitions of the issues and concerns as necessary.
The search began with federal documents, legislation, and regulations
(see Appendix A for a discussion of sources for standards) and proceeded
to searches for standards at the state and municipal levels as well.
This was particularly true for issues such as housing, crime, and education,
where standards are established at the state and local level-federal
involvement often being limited to special funding programs and general
guidelines for local activity.
Standards included those established by public law, political decision,
or common customs that imply minimum life conditions. The team devised
the following typology for the objective indicators collected:
• A direct measure of objective condition of concern (i.e., minimum
wage law, health and safety regulation, crime rate).
• An indirect measure or political decision regarding objective
condition of concern (i.e., definition of pornography, antitrust/
fairness standards, or aesthetic conditions).
e A proxy for the objective condition of concern (i.e., number of
AFDC mothers as trigger indicator for establishing school lunch
program, or number of autos per square mile as a measure of likely
noise or air pollution).
• An opinion, custom, or norm relating to objective condition of
concern (i.e., protection of privacy, discipline in schools, dress
codes [e.g., public nudity], conservation, historical preservation).
Since the present study's purpose is to assess the feasibility of
using minimum thresholds for measuring quality of life, the standards and
data searched were to be representative rather than inclusive in nature.
Once a representative number of standards had been gathered for each
column in each sector-matrix, the task was to search for objective data
relevant to each standard. The team attempted to incorporate data from
26
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the Midwest Research Institute QOL stud}' (Liu, 1975), also sponsored by
EPA, or to suggest modification to the types of data collected by that
study to improve its relevance for measuring QOL. Other published social
indicator work was used, along with statistical abstracts, annual reports
of federal agencies, and research reports.
A preview of problems encountered with available data during the
search procedure includes the question of exac ,ly what the data attempt
to measure; for example, the number of doctors per 10,000 people does
not really measure the quality or availability of medical care. There
is no way of knowing from an aggregated figure such as this whether it
represents 70-percent gynecologists, 20-percent surgeons, and 10-percent
internists, or whether these doctors are contracted to Kaiser, on staff
at a major medical facility, or available through private practice.
Similarly, when health care objectives are established by each Comprehensive
Health Planning Council (CHPC) for a specified geographic area that does
not coincide with SMSA boundaries, these cannot be measured with typical
SMSA data.
Subjective or attitudinal data (e.g., survey information showing
what people are most concerned about) was by far the most difficult data
to find. Studies such as "Assessing the Quality of Life as People Experience
it", Frank ?,I. Andrews and Stephen Sithey, 1974) or the Federal Social
Survey (National Opinion Research Center, 1972-1974), demonstrate the
potential usefulness of subjective information for QOLM issues. General
survey data collected by popular polling agencies (e.g., Gallup, Yankelovich)
or public interest groups also provide potentially useful information for
ranking the importance of various QOL issues.
Task 4: Analysis
A project team members with expertise in a particular subject area
verified the content of and reviewed the information gathered for each
sector-matrix. After the initial matrices were completed, the survey
27
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results were presented to the entire team for discussion. Other experts
at SRI and outside the Institute were also invited to participate in
presentations. The objectives of the presentations were to verify
interpretation of standards, confirm the placement of information on the
matrix, and, more importantly, to ensure that most relevant information
was included. Matrices were then revised according to recommendations
and again submitted to the project team for approval.
Next, the team selected from each sector list one issue for in-depth
analysis. An attempt was made to include a cross section of issues,
such as standards set at the federal level, standards instituted at the
municipal level, standards readily quantified, and those less amenable
to quantitative analysis. Selected issues were then considered for data
completeness, and a final attempt was made to verify apparent gaps.
Appendix C presents the results of the detailed analysis within each
sector.
Task 5: Assess Approach and Make Recommendations
At this stage we asked the following questions:
(1) To what extent do standards, objective data, and subjective
data exist in each cell of the human needs matrix (Figure 3)?
(2) Where gaps exist, does this appear to be more a function of how
the categories in the matrix were formed or more a lack of
attention to this type of concern in our society?
(3) What type of conceptual definition of the life concern being
dealt with emerges from the existing standards as written?
(4) What properties significant to the needs of societal monitoring
do the various standards, and objective and subjective data
manifest? (By properties, we mean the categories listed in the
preceding sections.) For example, to what extent does the wording
of the various standards lead more or less directly to the
possibility of assessing (by objective monitoring or by other
28
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judgmental processes) whether or to what extent the standard is
being met? Does the enforcement of the standard require the
collection of indicator data? How often, and under what
conditions, are the available objective and subjective data
collected?
(5) What commonalities emerge when comparing standards and existing
data across sectors and issues? For example, what types of
concerns are reflected by standards at federal as opposed to
state or local levels? What types are currently monitored in
quantitative versus qualitative ways?
(6) What problems emerge when trying to interpret and to relate
existing standards and QOL data in this way?
By seeking answers to these questions, we hoped to be able to infer
recommendations for further work using the general approach we have
explored.
29
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Ill PROVISIONAL FINDINGS
In this section we present the central findings that flow from the
exploratory survey of existing standards and related data. In reading
them, keep in mind that these findings are not meant to be definitive,
but only illustrative of the data that appear to be currently available.
For example, in issue areas where state and local sources of standards
were most significant, we looked primarily at California and, within
California, at Santa Clara County or Palo Alto — although regional dif-
ferences are clearly important.
To simplify the presentation, we first explore two questions that
relate directly to three of the potential applications list in the
Introduction (annual reporting of basic QOL attainment, technology assess-
ment, and societal modeling):
• How are the fundamental minimum (or intolerability) thresholds
defined for issues in each of the various sectors?
• To what extent are data available to indicate which basic
minimum standards are/are not being met?
Following this presentation, we will turn to two questions related
to the other potential applications cited (monitoring of citizen satis-
faction and QOL/standards mapping) .
• What kinds of standards (and indicator data) exist for "higher"
needs as well as "basic" needs, and how do they relate to
measuring minimum life conditions?
• How do people feel about the quality of their lives; what
evidence is there that people "below" the minimum standards
are highly dissatisfied, and those above are more satisfied?
30
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Intolerability Thresholds
The level of life quality that is set by one or the few most funda-
mental minimum standards establishes thresholds in each issue area that
call attention to those very minimal life conditions that persons are
considered to need for a minimally satisfactory quality of life.
Table 5 lists, in a highly summarized version, minimum thresholds
that are either defined or can be inferred from existing standards,
together with illustrative data that portray how well these minimum
standards are being fulfilled . More detailed information on each of the
thresholds cited in Table 5 is presented below, and still more detailed
information is contained in the write-ups of each of the specific issues
selected for detailed treatment (all of which appear in Appendix C).
Economics
Income Level — The primary threshold for income is that level
beneath which a citizen is considered to be in poverty. Because various
government agencies, such as the Office of Economic Opportunity, the
Department of Agriculture, and the Census Bureau, have used the concept
of poverty for somewhat specialized purposes, various definitions of
poverty exist. However, the differences pertain more to how the poverty
threshold is to be used than to how the threshold itself is defined.
The threshold as defined in 1974 was:
FAMILY SIZE NONFARM FARM
1 $ 2,330 $ 1,980
4 4,550 3,870
7 6,770 5,750
Employment Rate — A second fundamental issue in the economics
sector concerns employment availability, usually defined as the rate of
unemployment. In contrast to income level, which addresses life quality
at the individual level, the minimum acceptable level of unemployment
31
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TABLE 5
REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLING OF EXISTING FUNDAMENTAL QOLM THRESHOLDS AND RELATED OBJECTIVE CONDITIONS
Definition of Fundamental Minimum Threshold
Sector
Issue Area
Specific Issue
Economics
Economics
Health
Social
Political
Natural
Environment
Physical
Enviornment
Income
Employment
Nutrition
Education
Citizen
Participation
Air pollution
Housing
Adequacy
Availability
Minimum Daily
Diet
Attainment
Right to vote
Suspended
Particulates
Quality
1974 poverty threshold for nonfarm family of 4 = $4,550
[U.S. average = 11% in poverty; Portland SMSA = 7%;
Birmingham SMSA = 16%]
Unemployment threshold = 6.5% sustained in an area of
100,000 population for three months. [1974 U.S. average =
6.5% (U.S. Bureau of Labor); Portland = 5.2%; Newark,
New Jersey = 7%; San Francisco = 7.9%]
Recommeaded dietary allowance (RDA): minimum daily diet of
fat/vitamins/protein/minerals needed for health (for data,
see povurty level, which is used as a proxy for nutrition)
Education threshold: ability to read, write, and compute
[Average illiteracy over age 14: United States = 2.4%;
Louisiana = 6.3%; Iowa = 0.7%]
Use of any criteria other than "full" citizenship, at least
18 yeans of age and having a fixed residence at least 30
days forr determination of eligibility (no appropriate data)
EPA primary threshold = 75 ^ig/m3. [A ratio of 1.00 means that
the annual average ambient concentration was exactly at the
level of the primary threshold, 1973; Los Angeles 1.60,
Chicago 1.16, St. Louis 1.28 — CEQ Annual Report 1974,]
Intolerability threshold is structural soundness and minimal
plumbing, defined as "nondilapidated"; [Average population
living in "dilapidated" housing, 1970: United States = 7%--
Census data reported by OMB for all housing units);
'Census c.ata reported by MRI (Liu, 1975) for single Occupancy
units orly: Portland = 1.8%, Birmingham = 3.1%J
cc
to
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addresses life quality at a collective level. The threshold included in
Table 5 is inferred from the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act
of 1973 (CETA), which provides assistance for geographical areas of
100,000 or more population that suffer a rate of unemployment equal to
or greater than 6.5 percent for three consecutive months.
Minimum thresholds in the economic sector generally have the advan-
tage of being quantitatively defined and associated with systematic and
periodic data collection efforts. They have the disadvantage, however,
of suffering from various measurement problems, probably the most severe
of which is the relatively high number of uncounted persons (e.g., persons
employed part-time but seeking full-time employment are counted as employed)
who fall within the conceptual definition of intolerability. Another prob-
lem is that, due to inflation, the dollar thresholds constantly change;
thus, by the time indicators are collected, the true situation may be
considerably different.
Health
Minimum thresholds in the area of health are difficult to infer,
largely because most existing standards deal with availability of treat-
ment services rather than with health quality per se — for example,
physician-to-population minimum ratios of 1:4000 (if in a city); formulae
or tables designating the number of general hospital beds per number and
type of population; availability of emergency services. Days free of
bed disability is a threshold advocated by an earlier study (U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1969), but we could find
no existing standards that used this measure as a threshold. We con-
sidered trying to infer specific minimum thresholds by looking at the
types of substantive coverage afforded by various health insurance
schemes. This was impractical, however, because the coverages afforded
are too numerous and because they are not assigned any priorities. One
way to resolve this dilemma could be the use of "inability to work due
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to illness or injury as a minimum threshold. Such a standard could be
justified on the basis of common custom and policies such as disability
insurance.
Nutrition — Adequate nutrition, however, is perhaps the most funda-
mental prerequisite for minimal health. For this reason, and because it
is defined in objective and quantitative terms, we chose to use it as the
provisional basic intolerability threshold in the health sector. Most
federal food programs employ two basic threshold indicators to define
minimum nutrition: the RDA (Recommended Dietary Allowance) and the
Secretary of Agriculture's Income Poverty Guidelines.
The RDA is a direct standard (hence, usable as an indicator) for
adequate nutrition, being "designed for the maintenance of good nutri-
tion of practically all healthy people in the U.S.A." However, because
of the difficulties inherent in measuring the actual nutritional intake
by populations thought to suffer from inadequate nutrition, and because
evidence exists indicating that persons suffering from poverty are apt
to suffer from inadequate nutrition as well, the Income Poverty Guide-
lines are often used as criteria for food assistance program availability,
rather than inadequate nutrition, per se. Thus, poverty is often used as
a proxy indicator for malnutrition, and either minimum standard can be
considered as defining the nutritional threshold .
Social and Political Environments
More than most, the social and political sectors represent key issue
areas where "higher" needs may be seen as fundamental to quality of life.
The right to vote and emotional security provided for within the family
structure are examples of psychological/social/cultural needs that are
basic to both individuals and to society.
With the exception of education, however, most of the issue areas we
looked at in the social and political sectors have minimum thresholds
that are relatively well-defined, but are defined so as to make objective
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monitoring operationally or conceptually difficult. Various civil
liberties, freedom from loss due to crime, voting rights, and related
concerns, tend to be defined in absolute terms. All citizens should
have the right to vote or to speak within certain specified limitations;
all should be free of crime, also specified in detailed terms. However,
these are not numerical thresholds and thus present difficulties when
attempting to measure conditions.
One problem is that the protection of these rights is often on a
case-by-case basis (as, for example, with libel or pornography). Another
problem is that while a graded series of severity or importance may
exist (as, for example, with various types of crime), we found no way
to designate any particular level as designating a measurable "intolera-
bility threshold," as we use the term. Although all types of crime are
considered intolerable, only lack of access to uniform justice has been
found "of fundamental interest" by the courts.
Thus, although a variety of indirectly relevant data exist (such
as the percentage of eligible citizens who actually vote, or the Uniform
Crime Statistics series) , it is unclear how such indicators could be
used in connection with fundamental minimum thresholds that are expressed
in simple terms.
Education — Although not a physiological, safety, or physical security
need, education — like the right to vote and the right to legal defense
when accused of a crime — has been defined by the courts as being "of
fundamental interest," a legal conception from which we can infer that
these issue areas are "basic" 5OL needs. While various state standards
exist relating to compulsory school attendance and minimum standards for
high school graduation, these are more properly thought of as "higher"
standards insofar as the present approach is concerned. The primary
minimum threshold for attainment in education can be inferred as minimal
mastery of the "three Rs" — ability to read and write well enough to
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perform tasks such as filling out a job application, ability to count
well enough to make change, and so forth. This threshold is readily
amenable to monitoring.
Educational quality, like that of health services, is typically
defined in terms of guarantees (Column 62 in the matrix) such as teacher
certification (which is virtually defined in terms of preparation, rather
than competence) rather than actual quality as could be measured by any
objective criteria. Thus, the principal minimum threshold for educa-
tional quality is operationally defined as "not having a certified
teacher." The principal minimum standards for equality of opportunity
for education are stated in terms of prohibitions, e.g., against "separate
but equal" educational services. While objective measures of racial
"opportunity" (defined either as access, racial mixing, or attainment)
exist, the lack of an adequately precise conceptual definition of "equal"
prevents adequate measurement in this area.
Natural Environment
The natural environment includes those issue areas alluded to by the
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 and of most direct concern to
the EPA. Typical of the minimum thresholds found in this sector are
those for air and water quality. Two thresholds that apply nationally
are distinguished: primary standards (judged necessary with an adequate
margin of safety to protect the public health) and secondary standards
(judged necessary to protect the public welfare from any unknown or
anticipated adverse effects of a pollutant) .
Clearly, the primary standards qualify as fundamental minimum
thresholds, and since they deal with physical properties of the environ-
ment, they are readily quantifiable for measurement and monitoring.
Standards establishing minimum thresholds for air and water quality are
good examples of state, regional, and local policies that have gone
beyond the minimum of federal standards by setting more stringent standards
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than are applicable nationally. California air quality standards, for
example, have more strict thresholds than those set by EPA. In this
case, then, it is necessary to consider indicators (objective data)
within the State of California in the light of California standards.
National averages or comparisons among states would be of less signifi-
cance than establishing the problem areas within the political jurisdic-
tion of the state where minimums are not being met.
Finally, the natural environment sector appears to be the only
sector outside of economies where monitoring methods and indicator work
have been established in a deliberate way. However, it may b.e argued
that the state of the art is still progressing and that thresholds often
represent reference points based on the best available knowledge (e.g.,
health hazards of various concentrations of pollutants in the air) .
Physical Environment
The basic minimum thresholds for food, drugs, and cosmetics may be
considered to be those causing sickness or death (due to impurities or
side effects) for an average person, i.e., one having no allergic reactions
and so forth. In an operational sense, however, these thresholds are de-
fined in terms of purity of product, accuracy of the label, and permis-
sion from the Federal Drug Administration to market them. Hence, moni-
toring on a national scale would have to be on an extremely disaggregated
basis, with each type of food, drug, and cosmetic considered on a separate
basis.
For housing, the intolerability threshold is a housing unit that is
"dilapidated" — defined as having one or more serious defects, such as
no plumbing, no heat, infestation, toxic paint, and so forth — all such
defects being specified by various (and numerous) building codes, which
are typically set by the state and local governments and thus must be
measured at that level of political concern.
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The threshold for manufactured commercial and industrial products
is generally viewed in terms of "unreasonable" risk of injury to the
consumer. The Consumer Product Safety Commission has a broad range of
evaluative criteria, often subjective, for each of the many product
types. These criteria are often defined differently for different pro-
ducts according to their performance characteristics and intended use.
Minimum thresholds for public services, such as fire and police
protection, are similarly viewed in terms of unreasonable risk to public
health and safety. While such risk factors can be objectively estimated,
these standards are difficult to translate into precise thresholds of
intolerability.
General Observations — Higher Level Standards and Data
The systematic arraying of minimum standards and related data, both
objective and subjective, proved to be a most difficult task — even in
this exploratory study. Rather than focus on the specific findings,
which are included in Appendix C, it is more useful to discuss some of
these difficulties, for they bear directly on the assessment of the QOLM
approach to be discussed in the next section.
Difficulties in Searching Out Standards
The primary difficulty in searching out relevant standards is that
there are so many that should be included — especially in areas (such
as housing or education) where most standards emanate from the state or
local level. Although a number of very useful reference aids (such as
the Code of Federal Regulations) exist to help one assess existing stan-
dards, we found that it takes prior familiarity with a substantive area
to know all of the right "keywords in context" to use such aides effec-
tively. Thus, in checking our results with substantive specialists
within the Institute, significant standards were often suggested that
were not possible to assess by standard search procedures. This problem
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is especially pronounced for the "higher" standards. Hence, we concluded
that any gaps in the various cells of the matrix included for each issue
treated in detail might well stem from insufficiently exhaustive searching
of existing standards, rather than from the fact that no such standard
exists.
A second difficulty is that many standards that imply a minimum
level of life quality or performance have been interpreted — often in
differing ways — by either executive guidelines or by the judicial pro-
cess. Legislative and judicial history can rather straightforwardly be
researched, but it is extremely time-consuming. Hence, this aspect of
minimum standards was relatively neglected in this study.
Problems of Interpretation
Once a wide range of standards and related data was collected, a
variety of difficulties faced the analysts as they sought to place them
in the appropriate place in the matrix, and to code them so as to provide
a numerical estimate of the types of standards and data that seem to exist
in the various sectors.
An initial issue was whether the given standard should be considered
as a "basic" or a "higher" standard. While this might be of only aca-
demic conern, to the extent that any subsequent applications of minimum
standards/data mapping would focus only on "basic" concerns, the resolu-
tion of this issue has real import for the scope (hence the feasibility)
of the work. Generally, we found it necessary to expand the conceptual
definition of "basic" and "higher" needs, given on page 20 , in the
following ways. A standard would be defined as "basic" if either:
(1) It was so defined by existing statute or interpretation.
(2) Its fulfillment is widely considered to be a significant
prerequisite to the fulfillment of other basic needs.
Examples of (1) include the right to vote, the right to adequate
defense when accused of a crime, and access to basic education — all
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of which have been defined by the courts as "of fundamental interest"
to the welfare of the individual. Examples of (2) are harder to docu-
ment because of the lack of rigorous cause/effect knowledge that charac-
terizes social science generally. As an example, however, the report of
the National Goals Research Staff (1970) recognized Basic Research as a
primary sector in its treatment of life quality, thus recognizing the
importance of a "higher" needs concern to the fulfillment of other life
concerns.
A more severe problem was presented by the task of trying to code
the various standards according to the categories described on page 24
With a few exceptions, the categories themselves worked well, but the
time necessary to check adequately all necessary background documents
proved to be beyond the scope of this project. Hence, providing validly
illustrative data on the types of standards found, by use of the cate-
gories, was not possible. Instead, the coding is used to illustrate how
it could benefit a more detailed study by enabling frequency counts, by
sector, of the standards that implied a definite threshold, that mandated
monitoring, and so forth.
Another problem of interpretation concerned the matching of a given
standard with one (or more) available objective or subjective datum.
Without addressing the question of the adequacy and characteristics of
data cited, data matching was somewhat uncertain at times. We did try
to match data and standards so as to illustrate the extent to which the
fulfillment of various standards was possible to evaluate. It appears,
in many instances, that the problems of measurement (e.g., in education)
are such that the operational definition of a given life concern is
significantly different from the conceptual definition contained in the
standard. In other instances (e.g., in various civil rights), it is
simply not feasible to measure the concern directly.
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In summary, we concluded (1) that the detailed findings reported in
Appendix B are informative but they should not be considered in any way
complete; and (2) that both a high degree of analytical sophistication
and expenditure of effort would be required to complete our survey of
representative standards and associated objective and subjective data.
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IV PROVISIONAL ASSESSMENT OF THE QOLM APPROACH
A number of interesting methodological issues associated with the
QOLM approach could be discussed in their own right, but we believe that
the utility of this study will be heightened by discussing such issues
in connection with several potential applications of the approach.
In the introduction to this report we briefly identified five poten-
tial applications in which the QOLM approach might prove useful: (1) a
procedure that might be terms "standards mapping"; (2) reporting of
intolerable conditions in the society; (3) technology/environmental
impact assessment; (4) simulation modeling of conditions in society;
and (5) monitoring of citizen (dis)satisfaction. Each of these potential
applications is discussed below.
QOL/Standards Mapping
Various federal, state, and local government agencies are responsible
for ensuring compliance with a large and often confusing array of poli-
cies, guidelines, and standards. Although fairly straightforward proce-
dures exist through which one can become aware of the applicable stan-
dards for any given activity, the standards that pertain to a given topic
area or that are a single agency's responsibility are rarely listed so
that the reader can readily grasp the overall ogic. Furthermore, it is
currently virtually impossible to obtain a synoptic view of the entire
range of significant standards and data that exist across various sectors
of concern. The human needs matrix of existing standards and related data
introduced in Figure 3 and applied in Appendix B might be used — either
in its present form or as modified so as to make it a reasonably efficient
way to portray significant policies and related conditions in the society.
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The basic question to be addressed here, then, is, To what extent
is it feasible, and might it be useful, to pursue the activity of map-
ping existing standards and associated data at the three levels of
governance that were explored in this study?
A first consideration is whether it is feasible to map "all fronts,"
as it were, as opposed to mapping only the jurisdictional responsibilities
of a given agency, such as EPA, or a given political area, such as a city.
Given the difficulties we experienced in even this brief exploration
(noted in the previous section on results), it is clear that a mapping
of all fronts — desirable as it might be — would be a large undertaking
and would require considerable analytical sophistication. It is a task
that lies outside the jurisdictional responsibility of any given agency,
although a foundation with programmatic interest in social indicators
might be willing to support such an effort. Due to the scope of such a
study, however, such foundation support is not very probable, unless it
could be demonstrated that such a study would have high probability of
leading to useful applications.
The most useful applications of QOL/standards mapping probably would
lie in the area of policy enforcement and policy formulation/modification
— either due to internal agency initiative or due to political pressure
by interest groups.
If an interest group perspective were to be taken, the approach
might be much as we explored, but with an emphasis only on standards
that clearly state minimum conditions to be fulfilled. This would essen-
tially mean eliminating consideration of the vast sets of programs we
tried to survey in columns B/H2, B/H3, and B/H4 of the matrix, and might
indeed make an all fronts mapping effort feasible.
If the interests of a given agency were to be served, on the other
hand, it might be feasible to map only those standards that the agency
has a responsibility to fulfill, and to add programs as a discrete ele-
ment in the matrix (in addition to standards, objective data, and subjective
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data), thereby showing what programs are intended to address particular
minimum standards, and what indications exist that they are successful
or critical needs exist. This would have the added advantage of
clarifying the distinction between "standards" and "programs" — a dis-
tinction that became quite blurred in this study.
If either of the above modifications were to be made to the approach
we have explored, we believe that further pursuit of standards mapping
would be feasible and useful, although expensive. At the very least, it
would further illuminate the gap between stated standards and existing
data collection procedures, and at best it would lead to the improvement
of both public policy and its monitoring. In terms of longer-range
consequences, attention to the wide range of standards (both "basic" and
"higher") might tend to alleviate some of the potential difficulties
discussed earlier, if undue attention came to be placed on minimum condi-
tions and on life dissatisfactions.
Reporting of Minimum Life Conditions
The periodic monitoring and reporting of conditions specified by a
selected list of intolerability thresholds (the most fundamental of
minimum QOL standards in various sectors) is the most basic and possibly
a "least ambitious" application of the QOLM approach. As we shall see,
however, even this application would be quite difficult; and given the
failures of earlier social indicator/reporting/accounting program attempts
(noted in the Introduction), the potential ability of QOLM to avoid similar
difficulties should be questioned.
Let us first assume that there was agreement among the responsible
agencies regarding the desirability of having a selected list of (perhaps
eight to fifteen) intolerability thresholds to be periodically monitored
and reported; that this list should be broadly representative of the
range of concerns making up life quality; and that because the list
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includes those most fundamental minimum standards, it is considered a
worthwhile investment of public funds to seek resolution of all signifi-
cant technical problems of measurement and reporting. For purposes of
discussion, the thresholds discussed previously (summarized in Table 5)
may be thought of as making up such a list.
Let us first consider a problem that was not possible to solve with
earlier approaches, but which should be no problem for the QOLM approach
— that of the normative property:
[By normative social indicator is meant] a statistic of direct
normative interest which facilitates concise, comprehensive,
and balanced judgments about the condition of major aspects of
a society. It is in all cases a direct measure of welfare,
and is subject to the interpretations that if it changes in
the "right" direction while other things remain equal, things
have gotten better, or people are better off. Thus statistics
on the numbers of doctors or policemen could not be [normative]
social indicators, whereas figures on health or crime rates
could. (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
1969, p. 97)
While we would not make any claims about the QOLM approach's ability to
render up "comprehensive and balanced judgments" about life conditions
in the society, we do assume that indicators relating directly to mini-
mum standards do have the normative property: at least at levels of
attainment located on or about the minimum standard itself, "more is
better." If for no other reason, this is true because of the way mini-
mum standards are conceived and legally based — they set levels of
attainment that are to be fulfilled and, if not, typically call for
some mode of action that makes fulfillment of the minimum standard more
likely.
A second problem that afflicted earlier attempts at QOL assessment
is the problem of differing values and differing priorities — thereby
making it impossible to forge consensually valid conceptions of aggregate
life quality. With the QOLM approach, this problem reduces to an issue
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of identifying the range of minimum thresholds that exist for various
populations. For thresholds in areas such as health or economics, this
presents no problem, because the standards in these areas emanate pri-
marily from the federal level — thereby covering the entire population
of the nation. In areas such as housing, however, local codes predominate,
thereby raising the following issue: "Where local minimum standards
differ, should a national monitoring effort report local conditions in
relation to an averaged minimum standard?" Our brief exploration suggests
that measurement against most standards is useful only within the area of
political jurisdiction that the standard applies to. In other words,
Federal standards can be measured by national indicator data, and state/
local standards can be measured within their own political jurisdiction.
However, because these standards differ, they need not be compared with
other states or averaged across the country. For the most fundamental
standards or intolerability thresholds, however, the opposite may well
be the case. Although differences in local codes do exist, the range of
variation in the definition of, for example, intolerable housing condi-
tions is not all that great. Hence the use of intolerability thresholds
to apply to the entire country for purposes of monitoring should be
feasible, and would certainly be desirable.
A third problem that afflicted earlier attempts at QOL assessment is
the problem of assigning relative priorities among types of life (e.g.,
Is clean air more important than access to transportation?). At the mini-
mum threshold this is not a problem because the prevention of all types
of minimum conditions (that are sufficiently fundamental to life quality
to warrant their inclusion on the selected list) could be assumed to
have imperative priority.
A fourth problem is that of valid measurement. At least three as-
pects of this problem need to be cited: adequate conceptual definition
of the threshold, adequate operational definition of the threshold, and
adequate measurement of conditions.
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Unequal educational opportunity has been defined by numerous
national policies as an intolerable condition of fundamental importance.
As yet, however, che important political factions have been unable to
agree on a satisfactory conceptual definition of "equal educational
opportunity." For some, it should be equal access (availability or
years of attainment); for others equal (skill) mastery; for still others,
equal economic success in later life. Unless a satisfactory conceptual
definition can be obtained, there is no possibility of satisfactory
monitoring that directly relates to the threshold. It should be recog-
nized, however, that the definitional debate over equal educational
opportunity is addressed to a higher level needs concern than that which
we have called the fundamental intolerability threshold (which, for
education, might be defined as minimal mastery of the "three Rs"). If,
in the application we are considering, equal opportunity in areas such
as education or nutrition or income was addressed only at the most fun-
damental threshold, we suspect that difficulties of conceptual defini-
tion could be rather readily resolved. Setting of a precise threshold
level might well, of course, remain politically difficult to accomplish.
Problems of operational definition also present difficulties. Various
concerns that we explored in the social and political sectors, for
example, have clear-cut conceptual definitions but are notoriously dif-
ficult to translate into terms that could be quantitatively measured.
Although many standards in the social and political sectors require
monitoring or data collection, the kind of monitoring mandated by such
standards is often procedural rather than substantive (i.e., required
reporting on compliance with regulations rather than on objective condi-
tions in relation to minimum standards). These problems may not be re-
solved within the currently dominant measurement paradigm of Western
science that stresses the supremacy of objectivity, reductionism, and
quantification. Their resolution would be more probable, however, if
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a sustained search was made for viable measurement options applied to a
small set of high-priority thresholds.
Even if adequate conceptual and operational definitions exist,
there are still difficult measurement problems to be resolved if the
reporting of fundamental minimum life conditions in society is to be
satisfactory. Here, issues in the economic sector, such as income and
unemployment, provide the most well-understood examples (although much
has been written about crime statistics artifacts as well). It is well
known that the current series of poverty and unemployment statistics are
portraying a distorted picture of objective conditions in the United
States — just how distorted is a matter of some debate (Spring, 1971;
Gross, 1974). One problem stems from uncounted people who fall within
the conceptual and operational definitions (of poverty or unemployment)
but are not detected by existing measurement techniques, a second from
insufficient disaggregation in reporting, and a third from politically
biased selection of operational definitions. Because these issues are
complex enough to require more discussion than is appropriate here, we
will merely note that evidence exists to suggest that if all persons who
should be counted as unemployed using existing operational definitions
were so counted, and if the operational definition of unemployment were
broadened to include "subemployment" (i.e., those persons working full-
time, but receiving less than the legal minimum wage for their efforts),
then the objectively valid level of unemployment in various urban ghettos
would exceed thirty percent (Spring, 1971, p. 189).
Let us now move forward a decade and assume that this application
has been tried and found successful, both in scientific and political
terms. What ordinarily unanticipated consequences might occur? One
consequence might be that substandard or intolerable conditions have
significantly diminished. This would clearly be desirable. However,
if more widespread applications of the QOLM approach led to a political
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climate in which only the achievement of minimum standards was given
high priority in policymaking (to the detriment of other important con-
cerns) , the results might not be so desirable. Given the continued
priority that many "higher" pursuits have had in our society, the undue
emphasis on relieving intolerable conditions is judged unlikely.
In summary, we conclude that the pursuit of this application of the
QOLM approach would entail some formidable difficulties, but is both
feasible and desirable. It would require careful selection and definition
of a limited set of fundamental minimum (intolerability) thresholds that
most informed persons would find legitimate. It would require collection
and presentation of data at a level of aggregation no higher than the
SMSA level and, in areas of the country where conditions are most minimal,
at sub-SMSA levels as well. Furthermore, we believe that it would be
both feasible and desirable to collect and report these data so as to
allow multiple-category cross tabulation across indicators within the
three levels of government (federal, state, local) so that it would be
possible to portray the multiple types of intolerable conditions that
are suffered by some of our citizens.
Technology/Environmental Impact Assessment in Relationship to Minimum
Standards
The use of explicit minimum standards — especially those that set
the very fundamental thresholds — as a way to define areas of potential
impact caused by application of a new technology might seem to be both
straightforward and objective. Surely any technology whose application
might bring a reduction in life quality to less than specified minimum
conditions should receive most careful scrutiny. Furthermore, because
the types of minimum conditions we have been considering generally have
the legitimacy of law, this application should be further explored.
Several dangers, however, can be anticipated. One very plausible
difficulty is the proliferation of minimum standards mandated for inclusion,
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It would be good to require a technology assessment to consider a few
of the most basic minimum standards, but if the approach caught on it
is likely that increasing numbers of minimum standards would be mandated
— resulting in the type of bureaucratic nightmare that so often charac-
terizes enforcement of administrative regulations.
A second difficulty — especially pronounced if numerous minimum
standards had to be considered in a given assessment — is that life
conditions not explicitly called out by mandated minimum standards would
tend to be ignored. Currently, it is thought that technology assessment
should include all types of potential impacts, whether covered by exist-
ing standards or not.
Moving beyond the level of technology assessment to that of techno-
logy regulation, however, the QOLM approach brings out the following
issue: "What legitimate rationale can be used for banning application
of a technology other than its impact on life conditions covered by
legally-based minimum standards?" In the brief review of previous work
in QOL assessment, we noted the difficulty of trying to get agreement on
priority weightings of QOL concerns. A similar difficulty would surely
be found in trying to get agreement on undesirable impacts not treated
by existing minimum standards.
Because of the above difficulties, and because the emerging field
of technology/environmental impact assessment is faced with other complex
difficulties not relevant to treat here, we conclude that (1) technology/
environmental impact assessment activities could benefit from the report-
ing of minimum life conditions, but (2) the feasible linkage between the
two types of efforts is too low to be a high-priority concern.
Simulation Modeling o_f Conditions in Society
One of the various analytical tools with which to better understand
society and its governance is that of dynamic simulation modeling
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(Forrester, 1971; Meadows, et al, 1972; Williams & House, 1974). To
what extent might the QOLM approach offer this type of effort anything
of value?
Forrester (1971, pp. 60-64) used quality of life as a measure of
performance in his world model — QOL being defined as a "computed
quality-of-life standard ... [made up of] ... four multipliers derived
from material standard of living, crowding, food availability, and pol-
lution." In a more refined version of the model, Meadows, et al (1972)
found that they had to avoid using a global QOL indicator due to the
considerable difficulties faced when incorporating the complex of social
variables that should be considered part of such an indicator, though
they did find it useful to incorporate basic components of QOL directly
in the model.
One difficulty of applying the QOLM approach to highly aggregated
simulation models is that substandard conditions (in the United States)
tend to cluster in small geographical areas. Therefore, unless the simu-
lation model is designed to accomodate regional differences — the direc-
tion taken in Mesarovic and Pestel's (1974) second-generation Club of
Rome project — it is not likely to be able to demonstrate how various
impacts on quality of life generally would impact on specific types and
concentrations of intolerability. Also, models such as the State of the
System (Williams &. House, 1974) tend to emphasize input/output relation-
ships without much consideration of life quality levels. Models of this
type would have to be extensively redesigned to adequately portray the
fulfillment or nonfulfillment of significant minimum standards.
Therefore, we conclude that unless some application of the general
QOLM approach documents not only existing standards and associated ob-
jective and subjective data but also the amounts of resources devoted to
meeting those minimum standards — and at a low level of aggregation
(all of which would probably be infeasible) — then the link between QOLM
assessment and societal simulation modeling is too tenuous to pursue.
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Monitoring of Citizen (Pis)satisfaction
The systematic monitoring of the subjective component of intolerable
or substandard life conditions could be a most important contribution to
public policy formulation in the United States. To what extent are citi-
zens who suffer from multiple, as opposed to single, intolerable conditions
dissatisfied? Which substandard conditions bring the most dissatisfaction
and suffering? By combining these types of data with objective data, one
should be able over time to identify the populations who are worst off,
and to determine whether their welfare is improving or diminishing rela-
tive to the larger population whose fundamental needs are being met.
The General Social Survey (National Opinion Research Center, 1972-
1974) exemplifies the type of activity through which this type of analysis
can take place. Its results are stored in computers at a number of loca-
tions, thereby allowing the analyst to use the data in whatever ways are
most appropriate (e.g., to cross tabulate across various variables at a
low or a high level of aggregation).
Inasmuch as the General Social Survey is not designed to emphasize
substandard life conditions (or populations), however, we suggest that
special piggyback studies be considered in which (1) the survey instru-
ments would include both subjective and objective questions relating to
a small set of intolerability thresholds, and (2) the sampling design
would place high emphasis on validly portraying life conditions and dis-
satisfactions in geographical areas known to suffer from multiple types
of substandard conditions — even if this means aggregating such data at
the census tract level and seeking to contact people left out of the
national census.
The importance of conducting this type of data collection is sug-
gested by former Labor Secretary Willard Wirtz in a confidential memo
to President Johnson reported by Spring (1971, p. 188): "if a third of
the people in the nation couldn't make a living, there v/ould be a
52
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revolution." Wirtz's Labor Department figures indicated that in 1966
while national unemployment stood at 3.8 percent, some 30 percent of
the urban poverty neighborhood work force failed to earn more than
poverty wages. However, the subemployment index, published in 1967,
was discontinued and no subsequent attempts have been made to document
either the extent of unemployment (or other intolerable conditions) in
poverty areas or the levels of dissatisfaction that exist in such areas,
53
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REFERENCES
Andrews, Frank M. and Withey, Stephen B., of the Institute for Social
Research, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, "Assessing
the Quality of Life as People See It" (draft), for presentation to
the annual convention of the American Sociological Association,
Montreal, Quebec, Canada, August 1974.
Andrews, Frank M. and Withey, Stephen B., "Developing Measures of Perceived
Life Quality; Results from Several National Surveys," Social Indicators
Research. I (1974).
Environmental Protection Agency, Quality of Life Concept: A Potential New
Tool for Decision Makers. Washington, B.C., 1973.
Forrester, Jay W., World Dynamics. Cambridge, Mass.: Wright-Allen
Press, 1971.
Francis, W. J., A Report on Measurement and the Quality of Life. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, January,
1973.
Gross, B. M. , The State of the Nation: Social Systems Accounting.
London: Social Science Paperbacks, 1966.
Gross, B. M. and J. D. Straussman, "The Social Indicators Movement."
Social Policy. Sept/Oct 1974, 43-54.
Hielbroner, R. L. , An Inquiry into the Human Prospect. New York:
Norton, 1974.
House, P., R. Livingston and C. Swinburn, Monitoring Mankind; The Search
for Quality. Washington, D.C.: Environmental Protection Agency, 1974.
Liu, B., Quality of Life in Metropolitan Areas of the United States, Kansas
City, Mo., Midwest Research Institute, 1975.
Markley, 0. W., Alternative Futures: Contexts in Which Social Indicators
Must Work. Menlo Park, CA: Stanford Research Institute, Report
No. EPRC-6747-11, February, 1971.
Maslow, A. H., Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper, 1954.
Maslow, A. H., Toward a Psychology of Being. Princeton: Van Nostrand,
1962.
Meadows, D. H. , D. L. Meadows, J. Randers, and W. Behrens III, The Limits
to Growth. New York: Universe Books, 1972.
54
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Mesarovic, M. and E. Pestel, Mankind at the Turning Point. The Second
Report to the Club of Rome. New York: E.P. Button, 1974.
Mitchell, A., 1973: Life Ways, Life Styles. Menlo Park, CA: Stanford
Research Institute, Long Range Planning Report No. 500.
National Goals Research Staff, Toward Balanced Growth: Quantity with
Quality. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, July,
1970.
National Opinion Research Center, University of Chicago, National Data
Program for the'Social Sciences: The General Social Survey, Inter-
University Consortium for Political Research, Ann Arbor, Michigan
(July 1972).
Spring, W. J., "Unemployment: the Measure We Refuse To Take." New
Generation, 5.3(1), Winter, 1971, 187-194.
Tunstall, D., Social Indicators, 1974. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1974.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Toward a Social Report.
U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, D.C., January, 1969.
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Affirmative Action and
Equal Employment. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office,
January, 1974.
Williams, E. R., and P. House, The State of the^System (SOS) Model:
Measuring Growth Limitations Using Ecological Concepts. Washington,
D.C.: Office of Research and Development., Environmental Protection
Agency, February, 1974.
55
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPENDICES
Page
INTRODUCTION TO APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: METHODOLOGY .
1.
2.
3.
List of Issues and Concerns from
Role-Playing Exercise
Social Sector Lists (SRI) (Non-SRI)
Literature Search Procedures. . . .
APPENDIX B: SECTOR/ISSUE EXEMPLARS,
1. Economics
2. Health
3. Social
4. Political
5. Natural Environment
6. Physical
57
A-l
A-2
A-18
A-21
B-l
B-l
B-28
B-60
B-103
B-126
B-160
56
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INTRODUCTION TO THE APPENDICES
This section of the Appendix contains specific issue writeups for
each sector of the study. A multidisciplinary team was responsible for
these writeups, with specific issues assigned to those with expertise in
an area of concern. Later, the writeups were reviewed by the entire project
team. Each issue writeup begins with a brief introduction to the sector,
explaining why a specific issue was chosen for analysis. An interpretation
of the data for each matrix then follows the introduction.
Each entry in the "minimum standards matrix," has been coded in
the following manner (refer to the categories described on pages 24 and 25
of the main report):
B-1-S-G3-2-7-Y-N
Basic concern
Related to minimum threshold
Issues by State level
by executive agency
No systematic data collection mandated
Remedial actions mandated
No method of assessing when threshold is reached
Sets some type of "threshold of intolerability",
but with no way to assess when threshold is
reached or crossed
Policy Level Data (Minimum Standards)
The method used in gathering policy level data (i.e. standards) are
discussed in "Literature Search Procedure" in the Appendix section on
methodology. The search for this type of data was not meant to be an
57
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exhaustive one, but its purpose, rather, was to indicate the types of
standards that would be relevant. In areas where many standards were
available, the standards assumed to be precedent to all others were
sought. The specific categories of the matrix (threshold, security,
equal access, and ability to influence) are not necessarily mutually
exclusive. The purpose of this classification was to structure the analy-
sis, not to rigidly categorize, and each standard appears in the most
relevant category.
Objective Data
In viewing the objective data, the reader should be aware of some
problems with the existing data. These include questions of operational
definitions and of data collection and analysis. During our search for
objective data that could describe the "true" objective conditions, we
encountered an additional barrier, in that data often reflected only
the positive side of a situation. For example, data for program progress
in the employment issue often shows only the number of jobs provided with-
out furnishing the corresponding number of jobless individuals in a target
population. Data on discrimination was found to reflect only the number
of recorded cases, without regard to the actual number of individuals
suffering from discrimination.
Subjective Data
It is readily apparent that the matrices do lack subjective data
relevant to many of the issues. This is in part because the same problems
with objective data are intensified when using existing attitudinal
survey data. Most of the attitudinal data that we reviewed was not
specific enough to be used within our matrices but, as responses to very
generally phrased questions, was more a measure of a vague notion of quality
of life. The project team feels, however, that subjective data is essential
58
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to the approach we have taken and, moreover, that such data could be more
meaningfully developed by orienting collection of subjective data such
that they relate more directly to intolerability thresholds set by
existing policy.
59
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Sector
QUALITY Og LIFE CONCERNS INVESTIGATED IN THIS STUDY
Issue . Nature of Concern
Economics
Health
Social
Political
Natural
Environment
Physical
Personal Income
Employment
Health care
Nutrition
Crime
Criminal Justice Process
Freedom to be
Family
Education
Civil liberties
Citizen participation
Honesty in government
Access to information
National protection
Air and water quality
Scenic and wildlife resources
Noise
Pesticides use
Land use
Solid waste
Food and drugs
Housing
Public services
Transportation
Recreation and open space
Manufactured goods and products
Nonresldential buildings and
structures
Guaranteed income, cost of living, credit opportunity
Availability; quality
Quality; availability
Minimum daily diet
Safety from crime
Just treatment; conviction and confinement
Self-expression; protection of privacy
Marringe; children
Quality; availability and equality
Freedom to exercise choice
Right to vote; right to hold office; other forms of participation
Hones': and fair representation
Citizens access to government opinions, rules, reports
External threats; natural disasters
Impacts on health, aesthetics (color, taste, odor)
Protection of scenic resources, protection-of wildlife and
endangered species
Health hazard; amenities
Healti hazard
Degree of choice
Healt.i hazards
Quality of food and farm products; neat and poultry; (inigs;
cosmetics; accuracy of packaging and labeling.
Quality; availability
Solid waste disposal; fire protection
Safety, quality, speed, privacy, cost and availability of
various transport modes
«
Availability of outdoor facilities and open space; quality of
recreational facilities
Hazardous products; quality of products
Safety and quality of buildings, materials and design.
60
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Appendix A
METHODOLOGY
Information and support material described in Section II of the
report are as follows:
1. Role-playing Exercise
The first page shows the 38 "people types" role-played by SRI
team members. A list of issues and concerns in each of the seven
sectors (economic, political, physical, social, health, psychological
and natural environment) was compiled as a result of this exercise.
The issues and concerns built up in this way appear on pages A-2/A-13
under the Sector headings. The numbers refer to the typology segment
shown on the legend page. These lists could be greatly extended by
using additional typologies and more usefully by having the ratings done
by people with a variety of backgrounds.
In addition to responding to the sectors we asked ourselves three
other questions that seem to have a good deal to do with QOL: (1) What
are expectations for the future?, (2) What are the prime causes of
problems?, and (3) What are the remedies for the problems? Items under
these headings appear on pages A-14/A-16.
A-l
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QOL - ISSUES AND CONCERNS
Legend
1 EPRC - survival/security
2 EPRC - belonging
3 EPRC - esteem
4 EPRC - self-actualization
5 Life Cycle - prosperous bachelor/career girl
6 Life Cycle - newly wed
V Life Cycle - full nest
8 Life Cycle - empty nest
9 Life Cycle - solitary survivor
10 Jung - sensing/thinking
11 Jung - intuition/thinking
12 Jung - intuition/feeling
13 Jung - sensing/feeling
14 Income - ^ $3000/family/year
15 Income - $7500 - 12,000
16 Income - < $20,000
17 Kohlberg - universalistic
18 Kohlberg - social contract/duty
19 Kohlberg - deference to authority
20 Lifeway - Maker
21 Lifeway - Preserver
22 Lifeway - Taker
23 Lifeway - Escaper
24 Lifeway - Changer
25 Lifeway - Seeker
26 Images of Man - Economic
27 Images of Man - Existential
28 Images of Man - Humanistic Transformationalist
29 Images of Man - Behavioristic
30 Maslow - Survival
31 Maslow - Security
32 Maslow - Belonging
33 Maslow - Esteem
34 Maslow - Self-Actualization
35 Age - 20-35
36 Age - 35-50
37 Age - 50-65
38 Age - 65+
A-2
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ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT
Higher social security payments 1, 9, 22, 38
Limit after-tax income 1
Job guaranteed at minimum wage 1, 14, 22, 23, 24, 30
Profit-sharing with workers 1
Guaranteed annual income for all 1, 14
Workers bigger voice in company 1
Capitalism is OK - don't fool with it 2, 3, 20
No limit on after-tax income 3, 20
Profits should not be shared 3
Business ethics should not be regulated by government 3, 21
Business social spending is up to it 3
Nationalization of industry is wrong 3
Taxes should be much reduced 3, 9, 15, 21
Economic growth is not tied to technology 4
Opportunity for financial advancement 5, 7, 15, 20, 32
Good employment opportunities 6, 20, 31, 35
Secure and stable economy 6, 8, 10, 12, 13, 16, 20, 21, 22, 31, 32
Minimum inflation 7, 9, 15, 16, 20, 21, 31, 32, 35, 38
Stable job structure 6, 8, 15, 19, 31
Economic growth required 10, 20, 21, 31
Functionality for today is main economic criterion 10, 18, 21
Equitable distribution of goods and income 11, 14, 17, 24, 25
Job must be challenging and meaningful 11, 17, 20
Marketplace should be more responsive to esthetics 12
Friendly, warm, protecting job atmosphere 13, 19, 22
Higher minimum wages 14
Job protection, unemployment insurance, etc. 14, 22
Participative management essential 17, 24
Share corporation resources with society 17, 24
Work and investment should earn a fair profit 18
Higher corporate pensions 22
Whole system is wrong 24
More regulation of industry 24
More consumer protection 24
Business should spend much more on social concerns 24
Economic goal is reasonable prosperity—not rampant growth 25
Leaders should receive meta-pay, not huge salaries 25
Materialism is the way to go 26
Competition is the way 26
Rugged individualism makes a good economic system 26
Economic progress is a rational matter 26
Economic well-being is not important 27
Economic progress is a process, not a pragmaticism 28
Purpose of economics is leisure 28
Purpose of economics is realization of higher potential 28
Behavior-shaping can enhance economic productivity 29
A-3
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POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT
Unions should be freer to work for members 1
Welfare recipients shouldn't be penalized for moonlighting 1
Only slow change is acceptable 2
Always obey the letter of the law 2
World peace depends on economic aid to UDC 2
Society's needs come before the individual's 2
Force should be met with force 3
The U.S. must not be subservient to the UN 3
Initiatives should be left to individuals 3
Union membership should not be job prerequisite 3
The least government is best 3, 21
Public education should be more independent of national government 4
Police should enforce laws, not maintain order 4
Government should not compel citizens to protect system 4
OK for U.S. to relinquish power to supranational institution 4
Communist threat is overestimated 4
Policies should assume most people are trustworthy 4
Radical change may be necessary 4
Avenues for the individual to affect the system 5, 9
Need local, community power 7, 24
Need means of suppressing radicalism 8
National defense too costly 9
Need more national defense 9, 13, 21
Don't expect moral perfection 10
Politics should be pragmatic and practical 10, 13
Need to attain much higher levels of equality 11, 24, 25, 34
Need to attain much higher levels of justice 11, 17, 24, 25, 34
Need to attain much higher levels of liberty 11, 24, 25, 34
Government must be highly responsive to all citizens 11, 17, 24, 34
Orientation should be to one world 11, 25
Should stay out of personal affairs 12, 23
Government's main purpose is to provide safety and security 13, 22
If big brother!sin necessary for secure system, OK 13
Government must give everyone a fair shake 14, 30
To be heard in local affairs 14, 30
We get it from both ends (i.e., rich and poor) 15
Don't upset the applecart 16
I should get favors 16, 26
Politics need complete revamping 17
Politicans have too much power 17
Citizens should be much better informed 17
Politics are for the individual, not the system 17
Need to attain much higher levels of opportunity 17, 24, 25
Justice should go by letter of the law 18
Anything goes, if I'm protected 19
We need democracy led by elite (me) 20
A-4
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POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT (Continued)
Job of government is to care for the failures 20
Job of government is to defend the system 20
Isolationism is good 21
Need much wider participation in government by citizens 24, 25
Need system for consensus decisions 24
Government's purpose is to facilitate personal growth 25
Civil liberties jazz is for the birds 19
Those who have it, should; hell with the others 26
There is no political norm 27
We relate to others by example, therefore... 27
Good politics requires cooperative participation 28
Political units should be neither too large nor toe small 28
Politics is a major arena for farming men 29
The law scares »nd threatens me 30
Benefits and protection should be expanded 31
Maintain at least minimum civil liberties 31
The problem is how to get around the system 31
A free press, free speech, etc. 33
Higher efficiency in system 33
Societal stability is foremost 33
Opportunity for complete participation in system 34
Avoiding trouble with the law 35
Is anyone listening—does anyone care? 38
A-5
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PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Concern over pollution is overdone 3
Mandatory sterilization is wrong 4
Technology alone cannot overcome many problems 4
Need decent apartments at reasonable rates 6, 35
Good housing key to healthy family life 7, 30, 35
Need good public transit to schools, etc. 7
Esthetic environment (so children will learn appreciation of beauty) 7, 28
Comfortable, reasonable housing 8, 30, 31
Esthetic surroundings important to well-being and happiness 8, 10,
11, 12, 17, 24, 25, 34, 37
Friendly, helpful neighbors are important 9
Better facilities for elderly 9, 38
Comfort 13
Many (social and recreational) facilities for the good (hedonistic) life 13, 23
Eliminate slums, rats, bad sanitation 14, 24
Need city playgrounds and other places for children to play safely 14
Extensive and cheap public services 16, 17, 22, 24
Esthetics second to "real" needs 16, 21, 24
Urban renewal needed 20
Better public transportation 20, 22, 24
Better, cheaper, handsomer public housing 14, 22, 24
Government aid in buying houses 22
Need control over my local environment 23
Comfortable, healthy, diverse surroundings, not lavish 25
Organize physical environment for economic purposes 26, 28
Surroundings form the basis of perceptions, ergo 28
Rats, plumbing, slums 30
Access to public services 31, 38
Keep the home (car, plant, etc.) running /.SI
Better surroundings, car, home, etc. 32
Impressive, handsome community 33
Better quality of goods 33
Pleasant, functional home, car, services, etc. 34, 36, 38
Finding a good place to live within means 35
Finding and retaining adequate housing 38
A-6
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SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
Train so people can defend themselves in court 1
Recreational facilities for poor are inadequate 1
Education should deal with more practical matters 1, 20
Needs of society over those of the individual 2
A warm, loving, protective family and community 2, 13, 21, 25, 32, 34, 36, 38
Strong institutions increase individual freedom 2
Family is central to human happiness and goodness 2, 7, 11, 13, 15, 20, 22
Educational tuition should be deductible 2
Down with deviance 2
Practical matters come before ideals 3
Private property is a good basis for society 3
Educational system should be uniform 3, 22
Educational system should emphasize alternative value systems 4
Techniques for controlling people are improper 4
Brutality is always wrong 4
Technology cannot solve the serious problems 4
Education should stress broad areas of arts, letters, science 4, 25
Enculturation is not the purpose of education 4
Social rights should be equal for all 4
Obedience as a virtue is overdone 4
Esthetics and creativity over practical matters 4
Education should have many aims and ways 4, 12
Justice is much more than written law 4
More recreational facilities 5, 23, 32, 35
Better schools and universities 5, 32
Opportunity to meet interesting people 5, 6, 23
Opportunity to travel 5
Opportunity to do whatever I like 5
Having a good time 5
More chance to engage in outdoor activities 6
Better local night school facilities 6
Great sex life 6
Sociable community 7, 32
Pleasant work relationships 7
Pleasant church relationships 7, 8
Freedom from physical threat 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 20. 21, 31, 36, 38
Freedom from property damage 7, 31, 32, 36, 38
Inexpensive family recreational facilities 7
Safe neighborhood 7, 8, 9, 14, 15, 20, 21
Morally proper TV and other mass media 7
Bigger and better police and fire services 8, 16
Decent housing 9
Decent transportation services 9
Public education costs taxpayers too much 9
Means of contacting others of similar (intellectual) interests 11
A-7
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SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT (Continued)
More support of abstract, theoretic work and principles 11
More advanced education 11, 33
More acceptance of creativity and the non-regulation 12
Jobs tend to express creativity 12
Institutions tend to put everyone in same box 12
Group norms should prevail over individualistic 13
Keep the family together 14, 22, 30, 31
Need strong, authoritarian government 14, 19
Need strong, authoritarian churches 14, 19
Need strong, authoritarian family leadership 14, 19
Need strong, authoritarian industrial leadership 14, 19
Opportunity to get ahead is foremost 15
Many entertainment facilities to break boredom 15
Too much senseless change 16
Much good in traditional ways 16, 18, 21
Educational opportunity is foremost 16, 20
Schools should teach universalistic ethics 17
The individual comes before the system 17
Social stability is essential 18, 21, 22, 38
Schools should emphasize logic, rationality 18
Children should be socialized in American success 20
Work is more important than play 20
Home and family should be inviolate 20
Private education is needed as well as public 20
Religious (church) values central 21, 22, 30
Enculturation is the main purpose of education 16, 21
Nice neighborhood, all pretty much the same 22
Good public education 22, 35
Free education through college 24
More power to local levels 24
Education should socialize in the socialist mode 24
Society should be geared to promote self-actualization 25, 34
Education should promote inner understanding 25
Children are most prized possessions of society 25
Interpersonal (process) relations are central 25
Need more noncompetitive jobs and activities 25
Accumulation of goods 26
Prestigeful job of influence 26
Since chaos is the law, social environment undefinable 27
No matter what, man is essentially alone 27
Self-realization ethic should govern 28, 34
Ecological ethic should govern 28
Sense of interdependence and oneness 28
An environment that trains beneficially 29
Access to formal religion 30, 31, 38
Keeping the kids in school 31
Getting the kids into college 32
A-8
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SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT (Continued)
More cultural opportunities 33, 34, 37
Time for recreation, family 33
Comfortable old age 33, 38
Deep family relationships 34
Need for sense of the cosmos 34
Good setting for raising a family 35
Getting children through college and launched 36
Stable, one-world system 37
Maintenance of family ties 38
Specialized recreational facilities for elderly 38
A-9
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HEALTH
Free health care 1, 14, 24
Health services should be more evenly distributed in population 1, 30
Subsidize and insure medical and dental care 1, 31
Families with children should get a break on health bills 1
Mentally ill should be committed by society 2
Psychedelics should be banned 2
Health insurance should be cheaper 6, 7
More effort should go to overcoming childhood diseases 7, 35
Faster emergency services needed 8
Public health clinics are terrible places to be 9
Need more geriatric R&D 9
No way to avoid old folks home or dependency on family 9
Robust physical health is essential 10, 13, 26
Vigorous mental health is essential 11, 25
Mental freedom to be oneself is essential 12, 25
Self-knowledge is key to health 12, 25
Inspiration and creativity is key to health 12
All the fun things are bad for your health 15
The family physician system is best 16
Clinics are too impersonal 16
Too much regulation of medicines, etc. 21
National health care for all 22, 24
More R&D on addiction, alcoholism, etc. 23
Mental hospitals need thorough overhaul 24
Stricter regulations to protect the innovent 24
Place greater trust in the wisdom of the body 25
Expect health to vary—not meaningful 27
Psychosomatic illness growing 28
111 health may stem from technological change 28
Need to be conditioned out of mental influences 29
Better access to health care 30
Medicine for kids 31
Getting healthy diet 31, 38
Paying doctor bills 32
Avoiding depression—blues 33
Doctors for pregnant mothers 35
Avoiding degeneracy diseases 37, 38
A-10
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NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
Need places to get away from it all 5, 23
Pollution is a major hazard 7, 24, 33
City noise is bad 7
Children need to get out into the country periodically 7
Things should be rolled back to the way they were 8
Some despoliation of nature is inevitable 10
Need more appreciation of cosmic events 11
Spaceship earth 11, 25, 34
Every blade of grass is sacred 12
Conservation above all 12, 17, 24
Beautification of cities, highways, etc. 12
Need more city parks, wild areas, national parks, etc. 13, 24
Public lands should en enlayed and preserved 11
More view and "gentlized" nature areas 13, 22
Leave the ecology hullabullo to government 13
Pollution isn't that bad—anyway you can move out 15
Nature is great but people and progress come first 16, 18, 19, 20, 21
Wilderness must be kept inviolate 17, 35
Some pollution is inevitable—be reasonable 20
Ecology costs too much 21
More attention to the little outdoors 22
Develop more near-in outdoor recreation areas 22
Return to the land—communes, etc. 23
Ecology liber alles 24, 35
Aim should be human ecology—man/nature symbiosis 25
Resource wastage must be stopped 25
Mastery over nature remains the problem 26
Source of affirming self 26
Essential to self-understanding 28
Man is but an animal 29
Quality of tap water 31
Disposing of garbage 31
Quiet neighborhood 33, 36, 37, 38
Access to wilderness 33
Create a natural world 34
Clean air and water 33, 36, 37
A-ll
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PSYCHOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT
Parents should run the family with hand of Iron 1
All this ESP, TM, paraX business is dangerous 1
Life should have order, discipline, godliness 1
One's first concern should be for others 2
Mind-altering chemicals should be outlawed 2
To excel, an individual must stand alone 3
Patriotism is a great virtue 3
Competition promotes progress 3
The best rise to the top 3, 16
Family norms should dominate social norms 4
Intuitive knowledge is reliable 4
Experiment with non-addictive, harmless drugs 4
People are good 4, 25
Job must be rewarding, fulfilling, well-paying 5, 10, 16, 20, 21
Plenty of friends 5
A trustworthy environment 5, 6, 7, 8, 13
Getting ahead is very important 6, 16
Self-regard 6, 9, 11, 20, 23
Mutual respect among friends, family 6
High morality (to teach children) 7, 15, 17, 18, 19
Too much change is bad 8, 13, 21
Having old, reliable friends 9
Access to people and events 9
Need of praise, fame, status 10, 11, 16
Need to get things done 10, 16, 20
Environment responsive to me as a person 11
Means of extensive, fast communication with others 11
Freedom to unfold in my way 12
Excess of prejudice, hatred, inequality in society 12
To build a pcoket of friendliness in harsh world 14, 30
Not representative Influence in affairs 15
Individuals, not institutions, should have the power 17
Actions should be logical, calculated 18
All things in moderation 18, 22
I'll play the game if you'll protect me 19
We need mastery over the environment 20
Strict, authoritarian moral code 21
Can trust only solid types like me 21
Need many avenues of escape 23
No control over my world 23
Things too fixed—stodgy 24
Need to meld work and play 25
Progress is growth of people 25
Self-actualization is central 25
Peak experiences are central 25
Need great openness among people 25
Change for good reason is fine 25
Goal is inner harmony 25 A TO
™
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PSYCHOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT (Continued)
Need close, deep friendships 25, 33, 34, 36, 38
Insight into self 25
Up with the Protestant Ethic 26
Wholly subjective 27
More attention to subtle inner factors 28
More attention to social-psychological factors 28
More attention to spiritual attunement 28
More attention to influence of physical surroundings 28
Construct it so as to create appropriate behavior 29
Acceptance of rigid code of ethics 30
Trustworthy neighbors 31
Opportunity for change 31
World a bit too much 31
Work that satisfies 32,:;33, 36
Inner growth 34
Inner contentment—serenity 34, 38
Sense of opportunity for progress 33, 35
Sense of accomplishment 33, 36, 37
Sense of trust in human relationships 38
Sense of self-worth—of being needed 38
A-13
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EXPECTATIONS FOR THE FUTURE
Things are really taking off 5
The world is glowing now—this can't last 6
High hopes, especially for the children 7
The end is coming round the bend 9
The past was better than the future is likely to be 10
Great—a transformation is underway 12
Things should be bigger, shinier 13, 20
Hopeful, if lucky or times are better 14
I'll do fine—but I'm not so sure about you 15
Bigger and better if those radicals don't take over 16, 22
Hopeful, but fear the worst 17
Things will be good if we don't try to change everything 18
This great nation will move on to greater glory 19
Things are going to hell in a handbasket 21
Very much in doubt 23
Things will be better because I'll make 'em so 24
Better, because the world is within me 25
There are no expectations, only present reality 27
Alternating despair and hope 28
I don't expect much 30
Warmer, closer, better 32
A-14
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PRIME CAUSE OF PROBLEMS
Neglect, being forgotten by friends and system 9
My way is not sufficiently honored 12
Too much change too fast 13, 21, 15
The system is against me 14, 30
Caught between the rich and the poor—I bear everyone's burden 15
Liberals and radicals with too much power 16, 21
Immorality, especially in high places 17
Immoral system 17
Irresponsible wildnesses and excesses 18
Too much tampering and experimenting 20
Constraints on a free system 20
Others, the system—anything but the self 23
Conservatives, crooks, liars, and frauds 24
The Watergate syndrome 24, 17
Insensitivity, indifference 25
Unnecessary regulation 26
Existence itself 27
The technological society/industrialism 28
Society 30
Lack of opportunity 31
Inflation, etc., will take all I have away 10
We'll have to give up progress owing to shortages, inflation, etc. 10
Status quoism could produce regression 12
I haven't the influence to put the right people in power 14
Environmentalists will put us back to primitive conditions 16
Hopelessness 30
A-15
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REMEDY FOR PRIME PROBLEMS
Better environment in which to raise a family 7
Society geared to people and their growth 12
Slow down, relax, take it easy 13
Return to proven traditional ways 13
Have the system provide for all of my physical needs 14
Soak the rich 15
Throw the bastards out 17, 20
A tough, authoritarian leader who'll enforce rules 18, 19
Leave things alone—hands off 220
Return to the good old days 21
Make sure the pie is divided evenly 22
Take my advice 24
Cease to exist 27
Transformed society 28
"Them" 30
Opportunity—a chance 31
Work harder 32
Give me my special niche 23
Vote out the old fogies 24
Personal wisdom and insight will remove external blockages 25
Eliminate superindustrial state 28
Produce post-industrial state 28
A-16
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QUALITY OF LIFE
Intolerability Levels
1. Economic Environment
2. Political Environment
3. Physical Environment
e Social Environment
5. Health
60 Natural Environment
7e Psychological Environment
iiate:
Typology;
Group;
Filled Out by;
expectations cause remedy
A-17
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2. SOCIAL SECTOR LIST (OTHER THAN SRI)
INSTITUTE FOR Tig FUTURE
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT b BUDGET
I
M
CD
Security.
• violence
• sickness
• safety
• old age
• Job
Economic Prosperity!
Economic Environment'.
• work satisfaction
• income
• income distribution
• economic security
Political Environment;
Employment:
• work environment and job satisfaction
• employment security
Income :
• low income population
• income distribution
• material standard of living
Justice:
• effectiveness and equality of justice system
Spiritual:
• diversity
• opportunity for self-fulfillment
Environment:
• air
• water
• sound
• facilities
Culture;
• education
• recreation
• leisure
• media
National Security!
• rhreat from Internal and external enemies
Involvement;
• opportunities for participation
Civil Liberties!
• voting
• free speech
• informed constituency
• civil liberties
• electoral/non-electoral participation
• government responsiveness
Physical Environment
• housing
• transportat ion
• material quality
• public services
• aesthetics
Social Environment:
• community
• social stability
• culture
• physical security
• family
• socialisation
• recreation
Health!
• physical
• mental
• nourishment:
Natural Environment:
• air and water quality
• radiation
• solid vaati!
• toxicity
• noise
• level of personal income
Housing & Physical Environment:
• housing and quality of living conditions
• neighborhood quality
• environmental quality
Education:
• basic skills for everyone
» opportunity for advanced learning
Leisure and Recreation;
• time available
• participation
Public Safety/Legal Justice:
• safety from crime
• equitable criminal justice
Health;
• long life
• physical and mental veil being
Population;
• population
• living arrangements
• family structure
-------
2. SOCIAL SECTOR LIST (SRI)
SECTOR
Physical
Environment
(Manmade)
Natural
Environment
Economics
(Preliminary List)
ISSUES
Quality of Goods & Services
Housing
Built Environment
Transportation
Recreation
Scenic Resources
Wilderness Areas &
Endangered Species
Open Space & Natural veg.
Natural Resources
Radiation
Pesticide
Air Quality
Water Quality
Income
Employment
Taxes
Social Welfare
CONCERNS
Pood & Drugs
Consumer Products
Quality
Availability
Visual Qual. of Public Spaces
Natural Hazards & Protection
Safety & Operation
Availability
Opportunities
Quality of Experience
Preservation
Quality
Protection of
Availability
Availability
Protection
Visibility
Ecological effect
Visual Quality
Taste
Cost of living
Distribution
Availability
Quality of
Discrimination
Inflation
Availability
Quality
A-19
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SECTOR
Health
Psychological
Systemic
Social
Political
ISSUES
equal access to health care
equal quality of health care
equal cost of health care
adequate food/diet in both cost, nutrition, and quality
self-fulfillment
incomprehensibility/complexity
vulnerability of system
job discrimination
business ethics
family—divorce/child abuse
education: quality/availability/cost
women's lib
one man, one vote—representation proportion
honesty in government—Proposition 9
access to information—freedom of info. act.
A-20
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3. Literature Search Procedures
Standards
The search procedure for gathering standards for the QOL study began
at the federal level and then preceded to the state and local levels
as necessary. The research team's approach involved several steps, The
first was to look up pertinent legislation in several listings and indexes.
Useful guides were, the Congressional Information Service, an index of
the contents of bills, hearings, congressional reports and committee
prints from 1970 on; the Congressional Quarterly, which contains a
subject index to articles discussing the status of current bills and
analyzing the issues surrounding important legislation; the Monthly
Catalog of U.S. Government Publications, which also indexes hearings,
committee prints and bills; and the United States Code Annotated, which
contains a general subject index to federal laws.
A review of federal law indicated whether a federal mandate or policy
existed for an issue. More specific regulations and guidelines for the
laws were found in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) and the Federal
Register. The Code of Federal Regulations, codified into fifty titles,
contains the substance of federal regulations for sperific programs
and provides also a current indicator of which fedei^l programs are
alive and receiving funding. To determine whether regulations have
been amended or repealed, one can check the "codification Guide" in the
front of each daily issue of the Federal Register, as well as its
cumulative monthly and quarterly guides.
A-21
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Definitions of eligibility are often deferred to states or are
transmitted in guidelines issued annually by the Secretary of the Depart-
ment responsible for issuing regulations. Most federal regulations
furnish program guidelines for states to follow but allow criteria for
eligibility for a specific program to be determined at the state and
local levels. An exception would be the federal welfare laws, which
give nationwide eligibility criteria.
After reviewing the regulations, the researchers requested
supporting literature from federal and state agencies and from various
interest groups concerned. These are usually nonlegal summaries
restating policy and regulations in more readable form than the CFR,
the Federal Register, or other official literature.
A final step was interviewing federal, state, and local officials
directly, in order to gain a better understanding of the standards. The
above approach was used in research for all the sectors, except in the
social area. This sector encompassed the issues of education, crime,
family, and freedom to be. In most instances, these standards are
set at state and local levels only and can be found in state or district
codes. For example, standards for education were found in the California
Education Codes, in the California Civil Codes, as well as in school
district codes. Further information was obtained by interviewing
school officials.
Objective and Subjective Data
The QOL research team had no standard procedure for gathering
objective and subjective data. Most of the objective data came from
state and federal sources (Bureau of the Census, Bureau of Labor
Statistics, or committee reports and hearings.) To the extent feasible,
we tried to use objective data included in the parallel MRI study
A-22
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(LIU, 1975). Subjective data was obtained primarily from three sources:
"Assessing the Quality of Life as People Experience It," by Frank M.
Andrews and Stephen B, Withey of the Institute for Social Research,
University of Michigan; Social Indicators published by the Office of
Management and Budget in 1973; and public opinion polls such as the
Harris, Gallup, and Roper polls.
A detailed listing of the sources used appears in the bibliographies
following each sector writeup.
A-23
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Appendix B
SECTOR/ISSUE EXEMPLARS
1. Economics
General
The economic sector of the Quality of Life study includes the issues
of income level and employment. Within the issue of income level, are
the concerns of guaranteed income, cost of living, and credit opportunity.
Employment is defined as availability and quality of working conditions.
Both the issues and the specific concerns were determined by the criteria
set forth in the section on methodology (Appendix II). The issue of
employment availability was chosen for extended analysis, for the follow-
ing reasons:
• Employment availability is essential to quality of life
• Objective data concerned with unemployment is regularly
collected
• This issue illustrates how an established threshold level can
actually change during periods of unusual stress.
Conceptually, work (employment) is viewed as a basic institution
through which individuals and society experience a reciprocal relation-
ship. Traditionally we find the individual working both for society
and his own ego needs. Society provides the means for obtaining food,
clothing, and shelter and ego satisfaction, neither society nor the
individual being able to function alone. Employment availability is a
basic concern of most people. In fact, it can be assumed to be of concern
to all people since everyone is dependent upon the stability of the
economic (and therefore all other) environment(s). Therefore, the
relevance of employment availability for overall qualify of life is of
central importance. If the additional factors of time--the amount of
time the average person spends working—and health—the relationships
between work and mental and physical health—are considered, the function
of work in the overall quality of life becomes immense. A work-related
B-l
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SECTOR: ECONOMICS
ISSUE: Employment--Availability
B,
Basic Heed/Threshold
9 Comprehensive Employment
and Training Act of 1973
- Sets standards of 6.5%
unemployment which can
be Inferred as the in-
tolerability threshold
(B-1-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
• Employment Act of 1946
- Establishes general
employment goals
(B-1-F-G1-1-7-N-K)
• Fair Labor Standards Act^
- Restrictions on the
employment of child
labor—generally 16
years of age
(B-1-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
Security
• Comprehensive Employment
and Training Act of 1973
- Provides assistance to
areas of 100,000 or
more when unemployment
threshold is reached
(B-2-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
• Emergency Jobs and Unem-
ployment Assistance Act
of 1974 (Amended Title
VI of CETA)
- Provides funding for
public service jobs
(B-2-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
• Wagner-Peyser Act of 1933
- Established state employ-
ment agencies
(B-2-F-G1-1-7-Y-Y)
• Social Security Act.
1971 Amendments
- Established work incen-
tive progrns (KIHJ to
help AFDC recipients
move quickly into appro-
priate work
(b-J-F-Gl-l-7-N-Y)
• Job Corps
- Program for job training
and placement for youth
(B-2-F-G1-1-7-N-Y)
• Vietnam-era Veteran Re-
adlustment and Assistance
Act of 1972
- Mandates Federal con-
tractors to list job
openings with local
employment service
agencies with special
emphasis on selling
jobs with Vietnam-era
and disabled veterans
(B-2-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
Equal Access
• Title VI Civil Rights Act
of 1964
- Prohibits employment
discrimination
(B-3-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
• Equal Employment Opportu-
nity Act of 1972. Title
VII—Executive Order
11246
- Prohibits employment
discrimination and
provides for affirma-
tive action programs
(B-3-F-G1-3-4-Y-Y)
• Age Discrimination Act of
1967
- Prohibits employers of
25 or more persona
from discrimination
against persons aged
40-65 years
(B-3-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
• Standards
* Objective Data
+ Subjective Data
Ability to Influence
Equal Employment Opportu-
nity Act of 1972
- Provides direct contact
to courts
(B-4-F-G1-3-4-Y-Y)
Comprehensive Employment
and Training Act of 1973
- Provides for continued
research in expanding
work opportunities and
assuring access to those
for all who desire It
(B-4-F-G1-1-7-N-N)
National Commission for
Manpower Policy
- Examines policies of
manpower services in
order to suggest ways
of dealing with unem-
ployment more effec-
tively
(B-4:F-Gl-l-7-N-N)
B-2
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SECTOR: ECONOMICS
ISSUE: Employment--Availability (continued)
B. B,
Basic Meed/Threshold
• Bureau of Labor Statistics
- City, county, state and
national unemployment
statistics
9.01 California
(Dec. 1974)
9.11 San Francisco
County (Dec. 1974)
6.5S National
Security
Department of Labor Annual
Report 1973
- Statistics on number of
.Jobs provided through
programs with number of
persons potentially
eligible for programs
WIN Program FY73
1,280,000 registered
325,000 appraised
142,000 placed in
unsubsidized employ-
ment
U.S, Employment Service
More than 4.S million
job placements
- Veterans 1/5
- Minority group 337.
- Poor persons 29%
2.2 million agricultural
placements
395,000 Vietnam-era
veterans
Equal Access
* U.S. Department of Labor
Statistics on unemployment
by age, sex, race
- 1973 unemployment rate
by sex and color
All White Negro ers
Males 4.1 3.7 7.6
Females 6.0. j.3 10.5
Total 4.9 4.3 8.9
* Manpower Program Digest
Nov. 1974
Unemployment rates:
- young veterans (20
to 24) * 117.
- minority veterans
- 23.21
* Manpower Administration
- As of November 1974,
123 Indian prime
sponsors have been
approved under Title II
of CETA
Ability to Influence
Cases in which the courts
have ruled practices
discriminatory
+ University of Michigan ISR
How do you feel about your
chance of getting a good
job if you vent looking
for one?
B-3
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SECTOR: ECONOMICS
ISSUE: Employment—Availability
"l
Basic Seed/Threshold
Security
Labor Management Reporting
and Disclosure Act
- Enforces and secures vol-
untary compliance in
connection with union
activities, employee wel-
fare and pension plan
disclosures
(H-2-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
• National Labor Relations
Act
- Provides bargaining
agreements for union
employees
(H-4-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
• Labor Management Reporting
and Disclosure Act
- Provides assistance in
improving labor-manage-
ment relations
(H-4-F-G1-1-7-N-N)
B-4
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identity is assumed to be common for most working people and a lack of
one can have a profoundly detrimental effect on those who are unemployed.
The search for standards relating to this sector focussed on basic
federal legislation for employment availability. S^Qce this sector is of
such basic concern, numerous standards are known to exist at all levels:
federal, state and local. It was impossible to include all relevant
standards and, therefore, it was decided to focus on the federal legislation
considered to be fundamental to all other relevant standards.
B Column - Basic Need/Threshold
The conceptual definition of employment availability (as inferred
from existing standards) is unemployment level, both for society as
a whole and for specific groups within society. In attempting to define
the basic threshold level (B ), we asked, At what point is the level of
unemployment viewed as unacceptable? Legislation establishing standards
for minimum unemployment threshold levels is discussed below.
The most significant federal standard defining the threshold level
is contained within the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act of
1973 (CETA). CETA provides assistance for areas of 100,000 or more
having a rate of unemployment equal to or in excess of 6.5 percent for
three consecutive months. Since this Act sets a rate of 6.5 percent
unemployment to obtain assistance, we infer that this rate defines the
intolerability threshold. This standard is quantitatively operational
in that the threshold is based on a measurement of objective conditions.
Data for measurement of the objective conditions is available from
the Department of Labor. Types of relevant statistics regularly collected
B-5
-------
include:
• Percent national unemployment
• Percent state unemployment
• Percent county unemployment
These statistics, which are utilized by the Department of Labor to define
objective conditions of unemployment, in fact exclude a number of cate-
gories of unemployed persons. The Department of Labor bases the unem-
ployment rate on the number of people in the civilian labor force. This
figure does not, however, include civilians under sixteen years of age,
persons doing less than fifteen hours of work per week, seasonal workers
who were temporarily working and who thus were not counted as unemployed,
as well as those who did not report that they had made specific efforts
to find a job within the previous four weeks. A subemployment index
based on underemployment, such as the one developed by Labor Secretary
Wirtz in 1966, would be a much better indicator of objective conditions.
This index included individuals whose earnings were below the poverty
level as well as those who had been discouraged into dropping out of
the labor force or who were working only part-time when they actually
desired full-time work. Comparing the statistics based on Wirtz's
index with the figures based on the Department of Labor's unemployment
categories, it becomes obvious that the intolerability threshold of
6.5 percent unemployment, does not truly reflect actual conditions of
employment availability as it relates to an individual's basic needs.*
The Emergency Jobs and Unemployment Assistance Act of 1974 (EJUA)
changed the established threshold level in that it allocates a portion
of funds for securing public service jobs on the basis of 4.5 percent
*
William J. Spring, "Underemployment: The Measure We Refuse to Take,'
New Generation, 53,1 (Winter 1971).
B-6
-------
unemployment in an area. This certainly is an example of a change, at
least a temporary one, in a threshold level during a period of unusual
stress. But since the rationale for this change seems to be one of
preventing areas with lower unemployment rates from reaching the established
intolerability threshold and since most of the funds are still allocated
on the basis of 6.5 percent unemployment, this Act is listed in the
security section of the matrix, rather than the basic need/threshold
(B ) column.
A second standard in the basic need/threshold column, the Employ-
ment Act of 1946, is also relevant to employment availability. This
federal legislation mandates that the President will, at the beginning
of each session in Congress, set levels of employment production, and
purchasing power that can be met in the United States to maintain and
foster a free competitive enterprise and general welfare. Unlike the
Emergency Jobs and Assistance Act, however, the Employment Act of 1946
is not an operational one; rather, it sets descriptive goals but does
not attempt to specify thresholds or measurement of goals.
The last standard listed at the threshold level is the Fair Labor
Standards Act which sets restrictions on the use of child labor. This
Act is operational in that there are direct measures of violations of
employment restrictions on youth under sixteen years of age. Systematic
data regarding this standard is collected, and remedial action is
mandated when the standard is not met.
The subjective conditions of this sector are reflected in public
attitudes towards job availability and unemployment. Sample survey
data concerned with attitudes of individuals toward their ability to
find a job that will fulfill the basic needs are relevant. (It seems
likely that the subjective conditions would be found similar to the
data reflected by the Wirtz index). Indirect measures of subjective
B-7
-------
conditions may also be useful as, for example, accounts of attempts by
organized groups to make the government more responsive to employment
attainment.
B Column - Security
The next column in the matrix is concerned with basic security
needs (B ). In attempting to define these needs, we view security as it
relates to the standards at the basic threshold level. The question asked
is - What insures us that the minimum threshold levels enacted by the
standards will be met?
The first act found relevant is the most recent one, the Emergency
Jobs and Unemployment Assistance Act (EJUA) which created a new Title VI
of CETA. The main purpose of CETA is to establish or provide programs
that will insure job training and employment opportunities "for
economically disadvantaged, unemployed, and underemployed persons, and
to assure that training and other services lead to maximum employment
opportunities and enhance self-sufficiency by establishing a flexible
and decentralized system of federal, state, and local programs." The
security question is answered by the mandate that such programs are to
be provided when the threshold level is reached.
The temporary EJUA program is more specific and is designed to
have an immediate impact at the local level by reducing high
unemployment rates. This program makes funds available for public
service jobs. These funds must be used within a specific limited time
period ending June 30, 1975. The trigger points for funding are
B-8
-------
as follows:
Of the funds which will be appropriated among eligible applicants
*
(prime sponsors ) ninety percent will be distributed according to the
following basic formula:
• Fifty percent in proportion to each area's share of unemploy-
ment as compared to the number of unemployed persons in the
entire nation
• Twenty-five percent in proportion to an area's share of
unemployment in excess of 4.5 percent
• Twenty five percent to be distributed among areas of substantial
high unemployment, which would be an unemployment rate of at
least 6.5 percent for three consecutive months.
The remaining ten percent of funds is to be used by the Secretary
of Labor for specific problems.
The impact of both CETA and EJUA can be measured directly by the
number of jobs provided and the resultant effect on the overall unemployment
rate. However, the standard provides security only for a finite number of
jobs; it does not actually provide security that enough jobs will be
created to lower the unemployment rate to or below 6.5 percent.
Additionally, the EJUA Act is a temporary program, not to exceed twelve
months. It is assumed that if unemployment rates are still above 6.5
percent at the end of twelve months, legislation will be enacted either
to extend this program and/or to create a new program.
if
"Comprehensive Employment Assistance Act of 1973." A prime sponsor
can be a state, a unit of general local government with a population
of 100,000 or more persons, any combination of units of general local
government having a population of 100,000 or more, or any unit of
general local government, without regard to population, which is determined
by the Secretary of Labor (1) to serve a substantial portion of a
functioning labor market area or (2) to be a rural area with a high
level of unemployment and a demonstrated capability of carrying out an
assistance program as effectively as the state
B-9
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The Wagner-Peyser Act of 1933 also sets security standards by
providing for employment services. The U.S. Employment Service is
designed to furnish placement, counselling, industrial, and labor
services. It sets goals for increased job placements but does not
seem to set any thresholds of intolerability. The objective conditions
of the security provided by this service can be obtained by direct
measure of the number of jobs provided as a percent of the potential
number of people eligibile for employment services (possibly the target
population includes everyone who is unemployed).
Other federal legislation provides security that employment
opportunities will be made available to specific groups within the
population. In addition to the programs listed on the matrix (WIN,
Job Corps, Vietnam-era veterans), EJUA and CETA give special considera-
tion to certain groups. EJUA's general requirements for all applicants
are that they must be experienced workers who have exhausted all
unemployment benefits or are ineligible for these and, also, who have
been jobless for fifteen weeks or longer.
Both CETA and EJUA give special consideration to those unemployed
persons who served in the Armed Forces in Indochina or Korea on or aftei
August 5, 1964 in filling transitional public service jobs; persons
who received dishonorable discharges are excluded. The goal of the
Veterans Action Plan, 1975, is a total of one million placements,
with targets for the following public agencies:
• By state employment services, 333,000
• Through the National Alliance of Businessmen, 200,000
• In the federal government, 70,000.
Some CETA funds are provided to create additional manpower services
for certain groups who need to be employed but who have particular
difficulty obtaining employment. These groups include youths, offenders,
B-10
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persons of limited English-speaking ability, and older workers.
Examples of other relevant programs are Indian manpower programs for
Indian and Alaskan native communities where serious unemployment, along
with economic hardships, exist. The Migrant and Seasonal Farmworker
Manpower Program provides assistance where "chronic seasonal unemploy-
ment and underemployment in the agricultural industry exist." Youth
programs and other special programs provide part-time employment, on-the-
job training, and useful working experience for: (1) students from
low-income families who are in the 9th through 12th grades of school or
who are of an equivalent age and in need of income to permit them to
resume or maintain attendance in school; and (2) unemployed or under-
employed, or low-income persons age sixteen and over.
The objective conditions for all of the above programs can be
measured by the number of jobs provided as a percent of the target popu-
lation .
The subjective conditions of security can be found in public atti-
tudes towards security both in finding and keeping employment that ful-
fills the basic needs. The question, "How do you feel about the pay and
fringe benefits you get and security of your job?", from the Institute
for Social Research study on the quality of life, serves as an example
of an attitudinal research question. Unfortunately, this particular
question is triple barreled and refers to security as well as quality of
present employment. Attitudinal questions or scales concerned only with
employment security would be more appropriate.
Bo Column — Equal Access
The next column in the matrix, basic equal access (83), relates back
to security. The question asked is, "What insures that all persons have
equal access to the employment opportunities provided?" The forerunner
of federal legislation that insures to some degree equal access to
B-ll
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employment without fear of discrimination is the Civil Rights Act of
1964. This Act prohibits discrimination because of race, color, reli-
gion, sex, or national origin "in any term, condition, or privilege of
employment." Although the Civil Rights Act set the intolerability
threshold for equal access, it did not set up a means for assessing
when a threshold was reached, except through specific court actions.
The Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972 greatly strengthened
the powers and expanded the jurisdiction of the Equal Employment Oppor-
tunity Commission in enforcing the Civil Rights Act. As amended, Title
VII now covers:
• All private enterprises employing fifteen or more persons
• All educational institutions, public and private
• State and local governments
• Public and private employment agencies
• Labor unions with fifteen or more members
• Joint labor-management committees for apprenticeship and
training
The method of assessing when the intolerability threshold for equal ac-
cess is reached is based on direct measures such as number of employees
within specific job categories by sex and race as well as court decisions.
In cases where an employer feels that direct measure does not reflect the
requirements of a specific job, a technical validation procedure is re-
quired. Another relevant act is the Age Discrimination in Employment
Act of 1967. This Act prohibits employers of twenty-five or more per-
sons from discriminating against persons forty to sixty-five years for
any job because of age. Direct measures such as the ages of new employees
as well as ages of employees laid off can be used for assessing when this
threshold is reached, although there appears to be no requirements for
systematic collection of data.
B-12
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The objective conditions of basic equal access can be observed in
Bureau of Labor Statistics figures on unemployment by age, sex, and race.
the statistics listed on the matrix show that unemployment is higher for
both females and non-whites. Additionally, it can be observed that
non-white females have the highest unemployment. If one considers the
method of computing unemployment rates (discussed previously in the
basic needs/threshold section), it is quite likely that the true unemploy-
ment rates for females and non-whites are actually higher than those re-
flected in the Bureau's statistics.
The subjective conditions of basic equal access can be found in
public attitudes towards discrimination in employment opportunities.
Questions such as the following would be appropriate:
« Do you feel that individuals are usually hired for a job because
of their ability to perform the work well?
• Do you feel that all applicants for a job are given an equal
chance?
64 Column — Ability to Influence
The last column in the basic needs matrix is concerned with ability
to influence (B^). This need level is viewed in relation to all three
previous levels: threshold, security, and equal access. The question
asked is, "What ability do individuals have to influence standards at
the other levels?"
The most relevant act is the Equal Employment Opportunity Act, as
amended in 1972. This Act allows discrimination charges to be filed by
organizations on behalf of aggrieved individuals, as well as by employees
and job applicants themselves. EEOC has direct contact now with the
courts. The federal government has established litigation centers in
five regions to provide more rapid and effective court action. The courts
B-13
-------
may enforce specific affirmative actions by numerical hiring promotional
goals. Action under all these laws on behalf of individuals or groups
may be taken to court by individuals, private organizations, trade
unions, and other groups. When a discrimination charge is filed against
an employer, it is up to the employer to prove that the discrimination
is not occurring.
Other federal legislation showing a concern with this need is again
found in CETA which provides for continued research in expanding work
opportunities and in assuring access to work for all who desire it.
Additionally, the National Commission for Manpower Service was established
to examine the policies of manpower services in order to suggest ways and
means of dealing with unemployment more effectively.
Other standards concerned with the ability to influence employment
availability are related directly to the political sector. The right
of citizens to vote, to lobby, and to be participants within the decision-
making process are all means which individuals can use to influence em-
ployment availability.
The objective conditions of the basic ability to influence can be
observed somewhat by researching court cases that have involved discrimi-
nation charges. Examples of such cases include: Newton v. Anaconda
Aluminum Co.; U.S. v. Virginia Electric Power Co.; Robinson v. Lorrillard
Corp.; U.S. v. Household Finance Corp.; Schultz v. Wheaton Glass Co.,
Madlock v. Sardis Luggage Co.; and U.S. v. Libbey-Owens Ford Co., Inc.
The subjective conditions of the basic ability to influence are
again reflected in individual attitudes. Sample survey data of responses
to the following types of questions would be appropriate:
• How do you feel about the amount of influence you can have in
finding a job?
• Do you feel that you can have any influence in setting standards
for employment opportunities?
B-14
-------
Do you feel that there is any place you can go to for hel p if
you have trouble finding a job?
HI Column — Higher Threshold Level
In attempting to find policy level indicators of thresholds at the
higher needs levels, we were concerned with employment availability at
a level beyond that of only acquiring a job. At the higher threshold
level, employment availability becomes concerned with the quality of the
job itself; the quality of working conditions is viewed as a separate
circumstance. Through work, many higher needs can conceivably be met:
ego needs, social needs, and self actualization needs. Therefore, the
definition of employment availability becomes the availability of "good"
or "meaningful" employment which could fulfill the above needs.
Within the course of our study, we did not find policy level stan-
dards relating to the higher threshold level of employment availability.
Possible reasons for this gap include, first, a problem with our defini-
tion of higher level employment needs since terms such as "good" and
"meaningful" are so value-laden. Second, it is possibly due to the
matrix categorization and to overlaps with other sectors. Finally,
there may not, in fact, be any thresholds set at the higher needs level.
Since we have been able to find indicators of both objective and subjec-
tive conditions, however, it seems likely that the problem is not with
the matrix or our definition, but is due to a gap at the policy level.
The objective conditions of the higher threshold level exist in
data concerned with employee satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Data con-
cerned with responses to questions whether the respondents would choose
the work they now do if they could start over again is relevant. The
subjective conditions can be determined by data that reflects the desire
for employment to be satisfying.
B-15
-------
H.2 Column — Higher Security
The higher security level relates back to the higher threshold level
and is concerned with assurance that the standards at the policy level
will be met. Since we were unable to find standards at the threshold
level, it does not seem surprising that we were unable to find standards
relating to higher security, although, again, we can find indicators of
the objective conditions.
The objective conditions of security can be viewed in statistics
showing unemployment rates for specific occupations, as, for example,
the number of teachers or physicists unable to find work within their
profession. The subjective conditions of higher security can be deter-
mined by analyzing results of attitudinal questions concerning respondents'
ability to find employment that could meet higher needs. The question,
'How do you feel about your chance of getting a good job if you went
looking for one?", from the Institute for Social Research quality of
life study, is appropriate.
H3 Column — Higher Equal Access
The ability to have equal access to higher level employment oppor-
tunities is the concern of this part of the matrix. The inability to find
standards relating to higher equal access seems to be related to the idea
that equal access is such a basic concern that there are not separate
standards relating to it at a higher level. The standards listed at the
basic level actually are in effect at the higher level also.
The objective conditions of higher equal access are probably best
viewed in statistics concerned with employment broken down by sex, race,
and age.
The subjective conditions would be reflected in attitudes towards
the ability to secure higher level jobs broken down by the same factors.
B-16
-------
H4 Column — Higher Ability to Influence
The higher ability to influence is viewed in relation to an indivi-
dual's ability to influence the previous higher level standards. Even
though there are not actual standards at the other levels, there do appear
to be some standards at this level.
Title VII of Public Law 92-854 requires annual employee performance
evaluation in all companies having twenty-five or more employees, as well
as government contractors and government agencies.
The National Labor Relations Act which provides for bargaining agree-
ments for union employees also sets a standard at this level. Both of
the above Acts give individuals some ability to influence the quality of
employment.
There is one sector which is generally thought to be closely re-
lated to the higher levels of employment availability, namely, education.
If we were to adhere to the assumption that higher education and, thus,
more professional types of jobs, are related to higher levels of employ-
ment satisfaction, we could find in education legislation additional
policy level standards for the ability to influence, specifically, legis-
lation concerned with compulsory education to age sixteen, equality in
education, and the availability of federal funds for compensatory and
continuing education.
The objective conditions of the ability to influence can be found
in statistics relating to unionization and demands met through unions.
Additionally, information concerned with informal lines of communication
involving the availability of good jobs is applicable.
The subjective conditions of the ability to influence are reflected
in individuals' attitudes towards their ability to influence the attain-
ment of a good job.
B-17
-------
ECONOMICS SECTOR
ISSUE: Personal Income
- Income level
- Opportunity for credit
Basic Seed/Threshold
Concern: What are the pre-
sent indicators that insure
people an adequate income
when needed?
Security
Equal Access
Concern: What measures pro-
vide security that the mini-
mum will be met?
Concern: To what portion of
the population are the
assurances of adequate income
applicable?
Ability to Influence
Concern: To what degree is
the individual or group of
individuals able to influence
the minimum thresholds in
providing a needed income?
• Poverty Threshold
1974 OEO Poverty Guide-
lines-Revised annually or
sooner if feasible and
desirable
Family Ron
Site Farm Farm
1 $2,330 $1,980
4 4,550 3,870
7 6,770 5,750
(B1-F-G13-3-1-N-Y)
• Eligibility for Unemploy-
ment Insurance by State
- Maid mm amount payable
In California is 26
tines the weekly
benefit
(B1-FS-G3-1-Y-Y)
• Eligibility for Supple-
mental Social Security
Assets:
Income:
Single Couple
$1,500 $2,250*
585,
390
1,680 2,520J
Blind, disabled, aged (over
65 years)
(excluding home, home
goods, and insurance
valued less than $1,500)
Maximum quarterly
MsiMimm yearly
Payment per Month
$140 - Single
$210 - Couple
(B1-FS1-G1-3-3-Y-N)
• Social Security Act
(Supplemental)
- Guaranteed income for
aged, blind and disabled
* Pension benefits for
persons who paid into
Social Security
- Guaranteed cost of liv-
ing increases in Social
Security benefits when
Consumer Price Index
exceeds 3 percent
- AFDC (aid to families
with dependent children
(B2-FSL-G1-3-7-N-Y)
• EJUA-Emergencv Job Unem-
ployment Assistance Act
of 1974
- Established employment
programs for 1 year in
needed areas. Also
extends unemployment
insurance benefits.
Maximum salary $10,000
• CETA-Comprehensive Employ-
ment Training Act of 1973
- Provides assistance in
establishing public
service programs when
unemploynent exceeds 6.5
percent in a populated
area of 100,000 or more
(B2-FSL-G1-3-1-N-Y)
• Civil Rights Act
Titles VI and VII
- Prohibits employment or
any other kind of dis-
crimination because of
sex, creed, religion,
national origin or
color
(B3-F-G1-7-Y-N)
• Age Discrimination in Em-
ployment Act of 1967
- Promotes the employment
of the older worker
based on ability rather
than age. Prohibits age
discrimination for most
Individuals who are at
least 40 but less than
65 years of age
(B3-F-G1-7-Y-N)
• Equal Pay Act of 1963
- Prohibits pay discrimi-
nation on the basis of
sex. Only applies to
employees subject to the
minimum wage
(B3-F-G1-3-7-Y-N)
• Economic Opportunity Act
of 1964 - Job Corps
- Must be at least 14 but
not yet 22 years at time
of enrollment
- Low income individual or
member of low income
family
- Living in a cultural de-
prived environment or in
a disruptive home life
- Must be free of medical
and behavioral problem?
(B2-FSRL-G1-3-1-Y-N)
• National Labor Relations
Act
- Any individual or group
of employees may present
grievances directly to
the employer providing
the bargaining repre-
sentative has been given
the opportunity to be
present
(B4-F-G1-3-7-Y-H)
• Private Pension Plans
• Courts
B-18
-------
ECONOMICS SECTOR
ISSUE: Person*! Income (continued)
- Income level
- Opportunity for credit
B,
Basic Need/Threshold
Security
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
• Food Stamp Act-(1964)
Secretary of Agriculture
semi-annual maximum
allowable monthly Income,
January 1975:
Food
Bouse- Maximum Stamp
hold Allowable Allot-
Slze Income ment
Economic Opportunity Act
of 1964 - Title IV
- Provides management
assistance and loans up
to $25,000 with a maxi-
mum maturity of 15 years
to low income persona
for small business in
urban and rural areas of
1
2
3
4
:5
6
7
8
9
10
$ 194
280
406
513
606
700
793
886
959
1032
(B-2-F-G3-3-1-1
$0 to $46
NA
HA
NA
NA
NA
NA
$266
NA
NA
J-N)
high unemployment
(B2-F-G1-3-1-Y-N)
• Indian Financing Act of
1974
- Provides capital on a
reimbursable basis to
help develop and utilize
Indian resources to pro-
mote a higher standard
of living
Counties apply to the
State Department of Social
Services to operate a
Food Stamp Program
(B-2-F-G1-1-7-N-N)
* Income Tax Lavs
- Tsxes figured according
to income level, marital
status and number of
dependents
(B2-FR-G13-3-1-Y-Y)
• Grants to states for employ-
ment compensation
• Fgdera1 - S t a t es Unemp 1 oyjnen t
Compensation Act of 1970
- Extended unemployment
compensation
(B2-FSRL-G13-1-N-Y)
• Emergency Unemployment^ Coin^
pensation Act of 1971
(voluntary state partici-
pation only)
- Provides further compensa-
tion 'for those who have
exhausted their regular
and extended compensation
(B2-FSL-G1-3-1-N-Y)
(B2-F-G1-3-1-Y-N)
• Economic Opportunity Act
- Job Corps
$35 per month allowance for
all enrollees for first 6
months-not to exceed $50
thereafter
- Compensation benefits for
disability or death for
Job Corps enrollees. (Same
as Grade GS-2 federal employee)
(B2-FSLR-GU3-1-N-Y)
B-19
-------
ECONOMICS SECTOR
ISSUE: Personal Income (continued)
- Incone level
- Opportunity for credit
Bl *2 *3 **
Basle Need/Threshold Security Equal Access Ability to Influence
• Pension Reform Act of 197S
- Provides protection
against the loss of
pension
- Must be at least 25 or
have 1 year of service
to qualify
(B2-F-61-3-1-Y-H)
• Disaster Relief Act
- Provides temporary
assiatance in the form
of mortgage,etc. payments
in financial hardship
areas caused by a major
natural disaster
- Also provides assistance
to those unemployed
because of a najor
disaster
(B2-FSRL-G3-1-6-N-N)
• Trade Expansion Act
- Provides assistance to
vorkers adversely
affected by increased
Imports from foreign
trade
(B2-F-01-1-6-N-N)
• Snvoer Act (PL 67-85)
- Provides assistance for
living needs to needy
Indians on reservations
when assistance is not
available from state or
local public areas
(B2-F-C1-3-1-7-N-N)
• Fair Labor Standards Act
of 1938
- Periodically changes the
ainlBum vage level. Recent
changes have occurred in
1968 and 1974. Present
1974 wage is $2.10 per hour
for n&n-agricultural em-
ployees and $1.60 for
agricultural workers
(B2-F-G1-3-2-7-H-Y)
• Emergency Employment Act of
1971
- Provides for public service
programs when national unem-
ployment exceeds 4.5 percent
and 6 percent for local areas
for three consecutive months
(B2-F-9-L-C1-3-3-N-N)
• California State Disability
- Provides financial assist-
ance for loss of work due
to sickness or injury
(B2-S-C1-3-2-Y-N)
B-20
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SECTOR: ECONOMICS
ISSUE: Personal Income
B!
Basic Need/Threshold
* Department of Labor
Statistics
- Social Security Benefits
of 29 million Americans
are tied directly to
the Consumer Price In-
dex fluctuations
* Statistical Abstract of
theLU_._S.
- In 1971, approximately
16.2% of all white
families income level
was below $5,000
1972 Statistics
Economic Report to the
President
* 11 percent below poverty
level
* 33 percent of female-
headed households below
poverty level
* 6 percent were male
* 53 percent of black fe-
male headed households
below poverty level
* 18.i percent of popul?
tion were 65 and over
* Adjusted income levels
by geographic area
* Percent of full-time
employed at less than
poverty wages
Security
* Average minimum wage in-
crease for past five years
Statistical Abstract of the
U.S. 1973
* Percent below low income
level in 1969:
- Alabama 22.1%
- New York 11.5%
* 13.3 percent of U.S. popul-
ation receive one or more
benefits
* Average amount of benefits
for retired is $165.4 and
for disabled $197.3 (1973)
* Amount of fiscal budget
spent on social welfare
* Average amount received
for unemployment per state
* Number of California citi-
zens collecting disability
--average amount received
- Number turned down
Equal Access
* Number of Job Corps en-
rol lees by SMSA
* Percent of minorities on
welfare
* Percent minorities at
minimum wage level
1974 Economic Report to the
President
* 1969 average female
annual salary was 62 per-
cent of a male's average
salary
* 1973 average usual week-
ly earnings of male
worker, 35-44 years with
12 years education
- White male, $231
- Black male, $178
* National Association of
Counties Research
Foundation
- For 1972, 12 percent
of all families and
35% of all black
families were headed by
women
Ability to Influence
* Number of Job Corps
trainees by age and sex
per SMSA
* Number of strikes per
year based on cost of
living increases per SMSA
* Percent union employed
* Percent of involuntary
part-time employment
+ How discouraged ou are
before negotiating for
pay increases
university of Michigan
ISR
- What do you have to pay
for basic necessities?
•i- University of Michigan
ISR
- How secure are you
financially?
+• University of Michigan
ISR
- The usefulness, for you
personally, of your
education and abilities
-1- University of Michigan
ISR
- Ability to influence
minimum wage
B-21
-------
ECONOMICS SECTOR
ISSUE: Personal Income
- Income Level
- Opportunity for credit
_ Basic Seed/Threshold
• Consigner Price Index--1967
Base Year ("cost of
living")
Bureau of Labor Statistics
- The official "market
basket" of the Bureau of
Labor Statistics which
makes up the CFI covers
396 different types of
goods and services put
together in 1961-62
(H2-G3-3-1-N-N)
• Bankruptcy Laws
(H1-FS-G1-3-1)
» Eligibility for Credit
(i.e. Bank of America)
Security
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
°T Loans^
- FHA
- Veterans loans
- Conventional loans
(General mortgage loans)
To qualify for a loan a
person must have worked
for at least 1 year and
have 1 year of residency
in the same area. Amount
of loan is usually 1/5 of
gross income or 1/4 of
net income
(H1-L-NG2-3-1-N-N)
• Equal Credit Opportunity
Act
- Extended credit
(H2-F-G1-3-1-7-Y-N)
• Consumer Credit Protection
Act of 1970
- Protects consumer by re-
quiring full disclosure
of the terms and conditions
of credit transactions
- Restricts the total garnish-
ment of wages- only 25
percent
- Restricts discharge from
employment by reason of
garnishment
(H2-F-S-G1-3-1-7-Y-NJ
• Fair Credit Reporting Act
of 1971
- Protects consumers against
the circulation of inaccu-
rate or obsolete informa-
tion
- Requires consumer report-
ing agencies to exercise
responsibilities in a fair
and equitable manner
(H2-F-S-G1.3-1-7-Y-N)
• Real Estate Protection Act
of 1974
• National Labor Relations
Act
- Provides for individual
and collective bargain-
ing for union workers
• Stock options for executives
• Security Exchange
Commission
- Rules and regulations
concerning the issuing
of new stocks
(H2-F-S-G1-3-1-7-Y-N)
• Federal Depositors Insur-
ance Corp.
(H2-F-G1-3-N-Y)
• Union Contracts
- Escalator clause for cost
of living increases
/
• Severance Pay
- Private companies
B-22
-------
ECONOMICS SECTOR
ISSUE: Personal Income (continued)
- Income level
- Opportunity for credit
Security
* Percent with garnished
wages per SMSA
* Number of credit card
applications refused per
SMSA
Basic Need/Threshold
Bureau of Labor Statistics
* Paychecks for 5.1 million
workers are covered by
contracts with escalator
clauses tied to the
Consumer Price Index
- Incomes of another 44
million are affected by
movements in the index
- Benefits of 2 million
retired military per-
sonnel, federal civil
service workers and sur-
vivors and 600,000 postal
workers are affected by
the index
Bureau of Labor Statistics
* A one percent increase in
the Index triggers a $1
billion increase in incomes
under escalator provisions
alone
* Per capita disposable income
* Median family income
+ University of Michigan, ISR + University of Michigan, ISR
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
* Number of loans received in * Cost of living raises for
1973 by minorities per SMSA federal employees
* Number of loans made to * Pay levels by number of
Indians years of education
* Percent of minorities in
professional positions
* Gini Coefficient
- How comfortable and well
off you are
- The pay and fringe benefits
you get, and security of
your job
+ University of Michigan,ISR
- Ability to influence
your pay to meet
higher needs
- Educational opportunity
B-23
-------
SECTOR: ECONOMICS
ISSUE: Employment--Quality
«!
Basic Need/Threshold
• Fair Labor Standards Act
of 1938
- Sets standards to pro-
tect against labor
conditions detrimental
to the maintenance of
the minimum standard
of living necessary for
health, efficiency and
general welfare
(B-1-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
• Work Hours Act of 1962
- Sets standards of eight-
hour work day and a 40-
hour work week with
overtime compensation
of one- and a half
times the basic rate
of pay for work done
in excess of 40 hours
in one week for work
done by laborers and
others under contract
by federal government
• Occupational Health and
SafetT Act 1970
- OSHA has set standards
that cover general in-
dustry, maritime and*con-
struction in order to
provide a safe and
healthful working en-
vironment (e.g. permiss-
ible noise exposures-
8 hour duration, 90 dBA)
(B-1-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
• Federal Coal Mine Safety
Act
- Sets standards to allow
miners the opportunity
to work underground "
during the entire adult
working life without
Incurring disability
from pneumoconiosls or
other related diseases
(B-1-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
Security
• Fair Labor Standards Act
- Provides for minimum
wages
- Premium pay for overtime
(B-2-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
• Occupational Health and
Safety Act 1970
- Through the Occupation-
al Health and Safety
Administration ensures
safe and healthful
working conditions
(B-2-F-G1-3-3-Y-Y)
* Univ. of Michigan - ISR
- How do you feel about
the pay and fringe bene-
fits you get and security
of your Job?
Equal Access
• Civil Rights Act Title VI
and VII
- Prohibits discrimina-
tion in employment
(B-3-F-G1-3-1-Y-N)
• Equal Pay Act of 1963
- Prohibits employers
using federal monies
from discriminating on
the basis of sex in the
payment of wages for
equal work
(B-3-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
Ability to Influence
• OSHA
Office of Research
- Developing department-
wide plan and coordina-
tion mechanism for
research on quality of
employment
(B-4-F-G1-1-7-N-H)
B-24
-------
SECTOR: ECONOMICS
ISSUE: Employment--Quality (continued)
B2
Basic Need/Threshold
* Department of Labor Sta-
tistics on occupational
injuries and illnesses—
by industry and incidence
rate
+ University of Michigan
ISR
- How do you feel about
what it is like where
you work—the physical
surrounding, the hours,
and the amount of work
you are asked to do?
Security
Department of Labor Annual
Report for 1973
- Statistics on number of
inspections and viola-
tion
OSHA-FY73
47,595 inspections
31,379 first time
9,136 repeat
7,080 follow-up
Total of approximately
12 million employees
whose work places have
been inspected
Equal Access
+ University of Michigan
ISR
- How do you feel about
the work you do on your
job—the work itself?
What about the things
you have available for
doing your job—I mean
equipment, information,
good supervision, and
so on?
Department of Labor Annual
Report for 1973
- Statistics on wages by
sex
Under Equal Fay Act,
29,618 employees found
underpaid in 1973
Ability to Influence
B-25
-------
SECTOR: ECONOMICS
ISSUE: Employment—Quality
*!
Basic Need/Threshold
Security
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
• National Labor Relations
Act
- Provides bargaining
agreements for union
employees
(H-4-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
• Title VII. Public Law
954 Revised Executive
Order
- Requires annual employee
performance evaluation
(H-4-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
* Satisfaction/Dissatisfac-
tion Data
* Department of Labor unem-
ployment statistics by
occupation
B-26
-------
ECONOMIC SECTOR - Bibliography
California Employer published quarterly by the California Employment
Development Department, Health and Welfare Agency, Volume 28,
Number 2 (December 1974).
City of San Jose, "Affirmative Action Plan, 1973."
Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, "Federal Labor
Laws," committee print, 88th Congress, 1st Session, April 1963.
Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, United States Senate, "Legisla-
tive History of the Fair Labor Standards Amendments of 1966," committee
print prepared for the Subcommittee on Labor, 90th Congress, 2nd
Session, June 1968.
Committee on Ways and Means, House of Representatives, "Compilation of
Social Security Laws, Volume I," House of Representatives Document
No. 93-117, Vol. I, 93rd Congress, 1st Session, 1973.
"Economic Report of the President," transmitted to the Congress (February
1974).
Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget,
"Statistical Reporter," Number 75-6 (December 1974).
"Manpower Report of the President," transmitted to the Congress (April
1974).
National Association of Counties Research Foundation, "County Manpower
Report," Volume 3, Number 6, Washington, D. C. (December 1974).
U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, "HEW Newsletter,"
Number 126 (March 1975).
, "Guides for Day Care Licensing," DHEW Publication
No. (OCD) 73-1053, Office of Child Development, Bureau of Child
Development Services.
, "National Assessment and Social Indicators," DHEW
Publication No. 73-11111, National Center for Educational Statis-
tics, Office of Education, Education Division (January 1973).
, Social Security Bulletin, Volume 35, Number 12,
Social Security Administration (December 1972).
B-27
-------
U. S. Department of Labor, "Sixty-First Annual Report, Fiscal Year 1973."
, "Major Programs, 1974," Bureau of Labor Statistics (1974)
, "Survey of Working Conditions," a final report froiO
the Survey Research Center, University of Michigan, published by
the Employment Standards Administration (August 1971).
, "Federal Labor Laws and Programs," Bulletin 262, Division
of Employment Standards, Employment Standards Administration (Revised,
September 1971).
, "Laws on Sex Discrimination in Employment," Women's
Bureau, Employment Standards Administration (Reprinted May 1973
with new appendixes).
, "Manpower Program Digest," Volume VI, Number 8,
Manpower Administration (22 November 1974).
, "Unemployment Insurance Statistics," Manpower Adminis-
tration (November 1974).
B-27 A
-------
2. Health
Because of its overall importance to quality of life, health is
presented as a sector. Within this sector, the issues of health care and
nutrition have been selected. The concerns related to the issues of
health care and nutrition have been defined as follows:
• Health Care Availability
Quality
• Nutrition Minimum Daily Diet
Availability considers number of facilites, distribution of health
personnel, as well as accessibility. Quality encompasses minimum
performance standards, types of available services, and licensing criteria.
A number of health standards initiated at the federal level apply
nationwide, particularly in nutrition where a minimum daily dietary
allowance has been established for various subpopulations (males, females,
children, infants, and pregnant and lactating women). Health care, both
quality and availability, however, is more a local or regional issue,
with standards formulated at these levels. For purposes of this discussion,
the issue area of nutrition has been selected for more detailed review
to demonstrate how the matrix approach can be applied for analysis.
Nutrition is basic to health and for this reason is selected as a
representative issue for the health sector. The nutrition area may also
furnish an indicator of a federal policy which stresses a remedial approach
to QoL rather than a preventive one, for as now constituted federal
nutrition policy, except for the WIG Program (Special Supplemental Food
Program for Women, Infants and Children), does not link malnutrition to
general health problems.
The concept of nutrition means not only an intake of sufficient
and appropriate food substances for basic health but also includes the
B-28
-------
SECTOR: HEALTH
ISSUE: NUTRITION
Standard s
Objective Data
Subjective Data
Basic Need/Threshold
Concern: Docs the program
provide a minimally adequate
diet?
Security
Recommended Daily Dietary
Allowances (UDA), 197-1
(Food and Nutr i tion Board) ;
(WAS-NRG)
- Designed for the mainte-
nance of good nutrition
of practically all healthy
people in the USA.
(B-1-F-NGI-2-7-N-N)
Concern: What measures pro-
vide security that the mini-
mum will be met?
• Recommended Da lly_D_let^ary
Allowances (ItDA)
- Used in School Lunch Pro-
gram, the WIC Program,
and nutrition projects
funded by Older Americans
Act.
(B-2-F-G3-2-7-Y-N)
Equal Access
+ Malnutrition has been poorly
defined and most studies of
nutrition of Americans have
been incomplete,
+ "In America in 1974, a person
should be considered mal-
nourished if for economic
or other reasons beyond his
control he experiences re-
petitive periods of pro-
longed hunger even though
his total intake of nutri-
ents is sufficient to pro-
tect h in from symptoms of
deficiency disease."2
* Food Stamp Act (1964) •
- USDA Economy Food Plan
Budget (1/3 of Poverty
Income Level) provides
minimum RDA.
(B-1-F-G3-2-7-N-N)
Concern: To what portion of
the population are the assur-
ances of adequate nutrition
applicable?
• Recommended Daily Dietary
Allowances (KDA)
- Children in school lunch
programs. Women, infants
and children in WIC pro-
gram. Persons over age
60 in participating
agencies,
(B-3-F-G3-1-7-N-N)
* Food Stamp Act (1964)
- Secretary of Agriculture
semi-annual maximum
allowable monthly income,
January 1975:
House- Maximum Food
hold Allowable Stamp
Size Income Allotment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
(B-2-F-G3-3-1-Y-N)
* Counties apply to State Dept.
of Social Services to operate
a Food Stamp Program.
(B-2-F-C1-1-7-N-N)
$194
280
406
513
606
700
793
886
959
1O32
$0 to $46
NA
.
,
$266
NA
NA
Food Stamp Act (1964)
- Eligibility is defined
on a household basis:
1) share living quarters
2) economic unit
3) buy and prepare food
together
- If all members receive
public assist ance, house-
hold is eligible. For
all other households,
income standards apply.
(B-3-F-G3-3-3-Y-N)
Ability to Influence
Concern: To what degree is the
individual able to obtain an
adequate diet?
• Recommended Dally Dietary
Allowances (RI3A)
- Revised periodically with
new knowledge of nutr i —
tional needs.
(B-4-F-NG1-2-7-N-N)
* USDA Food and Nutrition
Service
- Monitors State administra-
tion of Federal nutrition
programs (compliance with
standards in regulations)
(B-4-F-G3-2-5-Y-N
Food Stamp Act (1964)
- Federal mandate for out-
reach (nutrition educat ion
for poor); administered by
counties.
(B-4-F-G3-1-7-N-N)
Fair hearing procedure by
State welfare department
given within 60 days of
request. Claimant receives
food stamps at least until
date of hearing, regardless
of whether case is won or
lost.
(B-4-F-G3-1-5-Y-N)
* USDA Food Consumption Sur-
vey, 1965-66:
2/3 households below $3,000
had diets below RDA.
1/3 households had less
than 2/3 RDA for one essen-
tial nutrient.3
+ "The only solution is a
just, dignified, guaranteed
income Maintenance program
that ensures that no person
lives without adequate
income."4
* USDA statistics show March
'73 to March '74 price of
Economy Food Plan increased
by 21.0 percent.
"... since January 1974, an
estimated 30-45 million per-
sons have been eligible for
the program...but only an
estimated 13.5 million par-
ticipated as recently as
March 1974."7
The poverty line is particu- + "...food stamp certification
larly irresponsible to rapid offices should be open from
rises in food end shelter ...9 to 5 all weekdays...
cost s. several even ings a week, and
half a day on Saturday.
B-29
...total federal, state,
and local expenditures for
state and local outreach
in FY 1973 amounted to only
about $130,000."9
"USDA should be required
to collect data...in order
to facilitate the identi-
fication of areas where
the program is failing and
where some form of cor-
rective act ion is needed
.,10
-------
SECTOR: HEALTH
ISSUE: NUTRITION
(continued)
Baalc Need/Threshold
• National School Lunch Act
1946
• Standards
.*. Objective Data
+ Subjective Data
B
Equal Access
National School Lunch Act
1946
- Nutritional requirements:
Type A lunch gives 1/3
RDA for 10-12 year old
boys and girls:
1) 1 cup milk "
2) 2 oz. lean meat/
fish; or 2 oz.
cheese
or 1 egg
or 1/2 cup cooked
dry beans
or 4 T. peanut
butter
3) 3/4 cup vegetable
or fruit
4) 1 slice bread
(B-1-F-G3-3-5-Y-N)
- School Is required to
serve free lunches to
needy children.
- National average per
lunch payment prescribed
by USDA and revised semi-
annually.
- Income Threshold.
Free lunches to needy
children defined by Sec.
of Agriculture's Annual
Income Poverty Guidelines.
(B-2-F-C3-3-2-Y-N)
• Special Food Service
Hutritional Requirements:
- Prescribed components for
a) Breakfast
b) Lunch/Supper
c) supplemental food
- Minimum quantities pre-
scribed for
a) age 1 to 3
b) age 3 to 6
c) »ge 6 to 12
d) age 12 and over
- No supplemental food if
institution also operates
Special Milk Program
(B-1-F-C3-2-5-Y-N)
National School Lunch Act
1946
- All children in a par-
ticipating school.
(B-3-F-G3-1-7-N-N)
• Special Food Scrvico
Two policies for free meals:
- Free meals to all; or
* Paid, reduced price, and
free seals.
- Income Threshold:
Free meals to needy chil-
dren defined by Secretary
of Agriculture's Annual
Income Poverty Guidelines,
plus consider number of
children In family attend-
ing school or child-care
center.
(B-2-F-G3-3-2-Y-N)
* Of more than 1.5 million
poor children in day-care
centers, only 195,000 were
reached by the day-care
program in FY 1973. Aver-
age daily attendance was
1,175,000.l4
* Less than 16 percent of
children who receive free
and reduced lunch prices
in the school year partici-
pate in the sutuer feed-
Ing program.
15
For day-care centers, the
value of the program has
been Increasingly compro-
mised by the extra-ordinary
low reimbursement rates from
Ability to Influence
National School Lunch Act
1964
- School must establish
hearing procedure for
eligibility appeals.
- FNS review of state ad-
ministration of program.
- Child Nutrition Division
may approve variations in
Type A lunch where nutri-
tionally sound and neces-
sary to meet ethnic,
religious, economic, or
physical needs.
(B-4-F-G3-1-5-Y-N)
* 5,3OO,OOO children, of whoB
roughly 2,000,000 are needy,
attend schools which still
refuse to participate.11
+ The fact that children of
all economic levels may par-
ticipate (In school nutri-
tion programs) broadens the
base of support and has
probably helped more chil-
dren to participate than an
exclusive anti-hunger appeal
could have achieved.^
• Special Food Service
Program lor Children
- Child-care institutions
located in:
1) areas of poor economic
conditions
2) areas with 50 percent
working mothers.
(B-3-F-G3-1-1-N-N)
Special Food Service
Program for Children
- Institution Is required
to establish hearing pro-
cedure for eligibility
appeals.
- State agency responsible
for adequate program opera-
tion* through administra-
tive evaluations.
(B-4-F-G3-2-5-Y-N)
- USDA Child Nutrition Divi-
sion may approve variations
In meals where nutrition-
ally sound and necessary
to meet ethnic, religious,
economic, or physical needs
(B-4-F-G3-1-5-Y-N)
limited funds.
13
B-30
-------
SECTOR: HEALTH
ISSUE: NUTRITION
• Standards
* Objective Data
+ Subjective Data
Bsslc Heed/Threshold
• Child Nutrition Act (1966)
Special Milk Program
Security
Equal Access_
— 1 cup milk per day
(B-1-F-C3-1-7-Y-N)
• Child Nutrition Act (1966) • Child Nutrition Act 1966
Special Milk Program
- School or institution
required to serve milk
free at least once a day
to needy children.
- Income Threshold:
Needy children defined by
Secretary of Agriculture's
Annual Income Poverty Guide-
line.
- Reimbursement rates:
1) 1/2 pt./child/day w/food
program
2) 1 pt./child/day w/o food
program
(B-2-F-G3-3-1-Y-N)
• Special Milk Program
- All children In a partic-
ipating school or child-
care Institution.
(B-3-F-C3-1-7-N-N)
Oct. 1973: 8,900 schools with
2.6 million children did not
participate.1
16
The fact that children of all
economic levels may partici-
pate (in school nutrition
programs) broadens the base
of support and has probably
helped more poor children to
participate than an exclusive
anti-hunger appeal could have
Ability to Influence
Child Nutrition Act 1966
Special Milk Program
- School or institution must
establish hearing procedure
for eligibility appeals.
- FNS review of state admin-
istration of program.
(B-4-F-G3-2-5-Y-N)
achieved.
12
• Child Nutrition Act (1966) '
School Breakfast Program
- Nutritional requirements:
- 1/2 pt. milk
- 1/2 c. fruit or juice
- 1 slice bread
— (as often as practicable):
1 egg; 1 oz. neat,
poultry, or fish; 1 oz.
cheese; 2 T. peanut butter
(B-1-F-G3-2-5-Y-H)
Child Nutrition Act (1966)
School Breakfast Program
- School is required to serve
free breakfasts to needy
children.
- National average per break-
fast payment prescribed by
USDA and revised semi-
annually.
- Income Threshold:
Free breakfasts to needy
children defined by Secre-
tary of Agriculture's
Annual Income Poverty
Guidelines.
( B-2-F-G3-3-2-Y-N)
Child Nutrition Act (1966)
School Breakfast Program
- All children in a partic-
ipating school.
(B-3-F-G3-1-7-N-N)
* Less than 3 percent of
nation's 50 million school
children receive school
breakfasts. No more than
13 percent low-income
children participate
17
The fact that children of
all economic levels may
participate (in school
nutrition programs) broad-
ens the base of support
and has probably helped
more poor children to
participate than an exclu-
sive anti-hunger appeal
could have achieved.
Child Nutrition Act (1966)
School Breakfast Program
— School must establish
hearing procedure for
eligibility appeals.
- State agency responsible
for adequate program
operations, through admin-
istrative evaluations.
(B-4-F-G3-2-5-Y-N)
- USDA Child Nutrition Divi-
sion may approve variations
in food components of break-
fasts where nutritionally
sound and necessary to meet
ethnic, religious, economic,
or physical needs.
(B-4-F-G3-1-5-Y-N)
B-31
-------
NUTRITION continued
eshold
* WIC Program (Supplemental
Food for Women, Infants
end Children) (1972)
• Sutritlon ^Threshold:
- Infanta:
- 100X RDA for protein,
calcium, iron, and
vitamin C
- 90Z RDA for vitamin A
- 100X RDA for calories
to 3 Booths; 7SZ RDA
for calories 4 months
to one year
- Children, 1 to 4;
- 1001 RDA for protein,
calcium, iron, vita-
min* A and C
- 66X RDA for calories
- Fregnant/lactating women:
- 25X RDA for calories
- 60-100X FDA for proetln,
calcium, iron, vita-
mina A and C
(B-1-P-G-3-3-1-Y-Y)
t WIC Program
- Indicators of nutri-
tional risk:
Security
» MIC Program
- VIC is a pilot program,
funded through FY 1975
* FNS selects eligible
clinics which apply:
- By demonstrated need
for program
- Ability to *eet pro-
gran goals
(B-2-F-C3-3-1-N-Y)
Equal Access
i WIC Program
- Local health or welfare
agencies eligibility:
- Severeity of health
problems In area
- X of low-Income real-
dents
- Expertise and experi-
ence of clinic.
- Eligibility of persona:
- Must reside In
approved project
area
- Also eligible for
toedleal a&slstance
determined to be at
nutritional risk.
(B-3-F-C3-3-2-N-Y)
- Known inadequate
nutrition
- Anemia
- Prematurity or mis-
carriage
- Inadequate growth
- Infants and children:
- 7)eMc1pT»r jrowrh
- Anemia
— Known Inadequate
nutrition
(B-1-F-C3-3-1-Y-Y)
* "The death rate for lov
birth weight infants Is
30 times greater than
for babies weighing over
S.5 pounds at birth."18
+ "When we speak of fetal
and early infant malnu-
trition we are speaking
i..of nothing less than
vested lives and lost
potential...It is simply
that the damage...can
never be made up...The
food dollars...we fall
Invest here cost the
tion many times the!
value later on/'l^
* At least 4.6 million
women, children and in-
fants eligible; yet nun-
bar served by VIC is less
than .5 million. Supple-
mental food Is available
to barely 11 percent of
those who need it.20
Ability to Influence
• jfIC Program
- Data collection requited
for evaluation of food
intervention upon persons
at nutritional risk.
(B-4-F-G3-1-5-Y-Y)
State agency shall es-
tablish a hearing pro-
cedure by which persons
can appeal eligibility
decisions.
(B-4-P-C3-2-5-Y-S)
+ Eligibility for WIC should
be on a acre equitable
basis.21
USDA should institute a
a national Income eligi-
bility floor similar to
that for the child nutri-
tion programs.22
B-32
-------
NUTRITION
shold
Security
Equi
• Older Americans Act
- One hot meal/day, 5 or
•ore days per week. Each
meal muse provide 1/3
RDA.
(B-1-F-G1-J-5-Y-N)
• Older Americans Act
- Nutrition Program for
the Elderly
- Funds allotted to any
state for FY 1973 and 1974
to disburse as grants
to agencies which carry
out programs.
(B-2-F-G1-1-7-Y-N)
iqual Access
Older Americana Act
- Recipients of project
grants or contracts who
agt'ee to carry out legi-
slated program
(B-3-F-C1-1-7-N-N)
• Older Americans Act
Individuals age 60 or over
who
— Cannot afford to eat
adequately
- Lack skills to prepare
meals
- Limited mobility
- Lack incentive to pre-
pare and eat meals alone.
(B-3-F-G1-2-7-N-N)
Ability to Influence
• Older Americans Act
- Outreach to assure maxi-
mum participation;
evaluate effectiveness
and feasibility of each
project.
(B-4-F-G1-2-5-Y-N)
* 1/2 to 1/3 of deaths over
65 caused by malnutrition
(estimate published in
Crowing Old in the
Country of the Young,
by Senator Charles Percy)
B-33
-------
concept of a diet which gives a feeling of well-being; this would mean
having a variety of food choices and the ability to select those
which satisfy cultural or ethnic preferences.
Adequate nutrition is crucial to quality of life, and it has, furthermore,
become a very critical issue of the day. If food price inflation has
given the issue of food itself more than the issue of nutrition prominence,
so it* has also given publicity to the Food Stamp Program, whose basic
Quality of Life indicators will be discussed.
The following discussion outlines standards and objective data as
these appear from left to right across the needs matrix.
B Column - Basic Need/Threshold
Two questions are posed in discussing B.^ indicators: What are the
basic threshold indicators in federal nutrition programs, and, What are
the assumptions of these standards, which we take to indicate a basic
threshold level?
Five federal nutrition programs and the Food Stamp Program will be
discussed. The food programs of the federal government were created by
three legislative acts, the National School Lunch Act of 1946, the Food
Stamp Act of 1964, and the Child Nutrition Act of 1966, as well as by
later amendments to these acts.
The majority of federal food programs employ two basic threshold
indicators to define minimum standards. These are the RDA (Recommended
Dietary Allowance), a direct indicator of nutrition, and the Secretary
of Agriculture's Income Poverty Guidelines which measure eligibility for
receiving free meals, supplemental food, or free milk.
The RDA is the product of research by the Food and Nutrition Board
of the National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council and
B-34
-------
"is designed for the maintenance of good nutrition of practically all
healthy people in the U.S.A." It is revised periodically to incorporate
new research in nutrition, and it is an aggregate figure not applicable
to specific health or nutrition problems.
The Income Poverty Guidelines are issued annually by the Secretary
of Agriculture and are based on income and family size as well as being
"based on the previous year's proverty level adjusted for the year-to-
2
year change in the Consumer Price Index."
The National School Lunch Program regulations essentially base the
Type A lunch pattern on the RDA, the lunch providing one third of the
RDA for 10 to 12 year old boys and girls. The Lunch Program regulations
furnish no guidelines as to what quantities will furnish minimum RDA to
younger or older age groups, but the regulations do allow the state
agency to recommend lesser portions to younger children and to encourage
larger servings to older boys and girls. Regulations for the Special
Food Service Program for Children, on the other hand, indicate minimum
quantities for four different age groups: ages one to three; ages three
to six; ages six to twelve; and age twelve and over. The same regulations
do not, however, indicate the corresponding RDA that is provided in
these differing quantities. The WIG Program regulations specify not
only quantities but the RDA percentages the quantities will provide
women, infants and children.
The School Breakfast Program serves three basic foods: one half a
pint of milk, one half a cup of fruit or juice, and one slice of bread.
Protein (one egg; one ounce meat, poultry or fish; one ounce cheese; or
two tablespoons peanut butter) is to be served "as often as practicable"
and is not a minimum component of breakfasts as in the lunches of the
National School Lunch Program. School breakfasts do not explicitly
provide minimum RDA, and, in fact, they may affect a child's carbohydrate-
fat-protein balance by providing him too many carbohydrate calories.
B-35
-------
The Special Food Service Program for Children specifies the kinds
of meals (breakfast, lunch, supper, and supplemental food) which may be
served, along with the kinds of foods for each meal and the recommended
quantities for four different age groupings, but none of these quantitative
or qualitative prescriptions is based upon RDA. Like the School Lunch
Program, minimum amounts of component foods may vary according to the
3
age range of participants but are not tailored to size, weight, or sex.
The basic threshold of the Special Milk Program is frequency, that
milk must be served at least once a day free to needy children. It is
not based upon a minimum nutritional threshold. The rate of reimbursement
to schools for milk served free to eligible children also furnishes a
threshold: reimbursement is for one half a pint/child/day in institu-
tions which also provide a food service, and one pint/child/day in
4
programs which do not offer a food service to children. In either
case, it appears that a needy child will receive at least two cups of
milk a day, assuming milk also comes with a free lunch or breakfast.
Eight glasses of milk fulfill the MDR (Minimum Daily Requirement) for
protein for children.
Nutritional guidelines for the WIG Program, a 1972 amendment to
the Child Nutrition Act, explicitly state the percentage of RDA which the
maximum monthly quantities of the "nutritionally desirable foods" selected
by the USDA will provide to infants, to children of one to four years,
and to pregnant or lactating women.
In addition to nutrition thresholds, all of the nutrition programs
employ poverty income thresholds to determine eligibility for free and
reduced price meals, or milk, or supplemental food. Schools which
elect to participate in federal food programs are required to serve
free meals to children from families whose income is at or below the
applicable income level in the Secretary of Agriculture's Income
B-36
-------
Poverty Guidelines. It is the school's responsibility to determine
whether a child is entitled to & free meal. The methods for doing this
are very complicated, and this requirement is often difficult to administer.
Following the annual issuance of the Secretary's guidelines, "Each
State educational agency is required to prescribe income guidelines for
both free and reduced-price meals, by family size, for use by schools in
the State." State thresholds may not fall below the Secretary's guide-
lines, which represent a minimum, nor may they exceed a ceiling, prescribed
by regulation, of 25 percent above the minimum for free meal eligibility,
or 75 percent above the minimum for reduced price meal eligibility.
Each local School Food Authority responsible for the administration of
one or more schools and which has the legal authority to operate food
programs therein is required to submit for approval a free and reduced
price policy statement to the state educational agency. The Secretary's
guidelines and procedure govern institutions participating in the
National School Lunch Program, the School Breakfast Program, and the
Special Food Service Program for Children. Though specific income
criteria are not applied in the WIG Program, local health clinics which
administer WIG are required to demonstrate that they serve low income
populations considered to be at nutritional risk.
The Food Stamp Program differs from the programs described above
because it does not specify minimum nutritional components, food types,
or quantities. In contrast to the programs which contain separate
nutritional and income indicators, the assumption of the Food Stamp
Program is that one third of the current poverty income figure can be
spent for a diet which will furnish the minimum RDA. The poverty income
budget for food is based upon the quantities of particular foods allowed
by the Economy Food Plan, the lowest-cost of the five Family Food Plans
devised by the Agricultural Research Service.
B-37
-------
The Economy Food Plan was originally developed from a Department
of Agriculture food consumption survey of 1955 and a Bureau of Labor
Statistics family expenditure survey from 1960-61. These indicated that
a low-income family spent an average of one third of its income after
taxes for food. In formulating an Economy Food Plan, the Agricultural
Research Service made substitutions and revisions in the food choices
reflected by the food consumption survey in order to insure that an
g
Economy Food Plan would furnish a minimum RDA. Estimates of quantities
9
of food established a food budget, which became the USDA measure of
the minimum amount of money a family of four needs in order to obtain
10
basic nutrients.
In turn, the cost of the Economy Food Plan (the cheapest of the five
Family Food Plans), multiplied by three (since food expense was found to
consume one third of a low-income family's budget), was the methodology
used for determining a poverty income level in 1965. "Each year. . .
until 1969, the cost of the foods in the Economy Diet Plan were repriced
on a national basis, and multiplied by 3 to arrive at the poverty income
level for that year. . . . After 1969, the poverty line already developed
from the cost of an Economy Diet times 3 would be used as the base, but
the yearly adjustments would come only from the single, all-items price
12
change reflected in the Consumer Price Index." The Consumer Price
Index does not reflect the disproportionate amount that food and shelter
13
consume of a poor family's budget.
The Secretary of Agriculture now issues nationwide income poverty
.. 14
guidelines for the Food Stamp Program; these are revised semi-annually.
It is a claim of the Food Stamp Program that the coupon allotment is
nutritionally based. However, maintaining an adequate diet within the
budget of the Economy Food Plan requires nutritional awareness and
educated buying. The RDA assumes a caveat of a wide variety of foods
B-38
-------
which either are not affordable within the Economy Plan budget or
whose frequent use is restricted by the stated minimum quantities upon
which the Plan is based.
By utilizing income thresholds, federal programs propose to equate
inadequate nutrition with poverty. The use of an income level indicator
is, at best, an indirect way to promote nutrition. The semi-annual
poverty income adjustments do not keep pace with spiraling costs of foods
and other life necessities, and thus the budget based on the Economy
Food Plan is often inadequate. Regional differences in cost of living
also accentuate inadequacies in food budget allocations. The use of
income level as a surrogate indicator of adequate nutrition does not
reflect a coherent federal nutrition policy.
B Column - Security
Under the National School Lunch Act, the USDA supports school lunch
programs with payments for lunches which meet the Type A lunch pattern
requirements, based on one third of the Recommended Dietary Allowance
for boys and girls 10 to 12 years old.
Schools are paid on the basis of performance funding, with payment
for each lunch served. Funding is now open-ended, with minimum payment
and maximum reimbursement rates prescribed by the Department and
adjusted semi-annually to reflect changes in costs of operating a school
lunch program. Two funding categories pay three different rates for
free, reduced price, and fully paid lunches. General cash-for-food
assistance funds provide across-the-board lunch subsidies for all Type A
lunches served in a state in a fiscal year. Special cash assistance
funds pay for lunches which are served free or at a reduced price to needy
children who meet poverty income criteria. Payments are made to states
several times during a year by the Department, using projections of
lunches served.
B-39
-------
The state educational agency may adjust the assistance payment per
lunch based upon its determination of the financial need of each school.
Thus, a state receives currently 11.750 per lunch, which is the national
average factor prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture for the
period January 1 to July 1, 1975. In California, for example, the state
educational agency may give the Beverly Hills school lunch program a
50 per lunch subsidy and the Compton school district 150 per lunch, up
to a maximum of 17.50. If it pays one district more than the 11.750
average allotted, it must therefore apportion less to some other
15
school district.
In order to participate in the Lunch Program, schools are now
required to serve free or reduced price lunches to children who are
determined to be unable to pay. The special cash assistance funds
supplement the base subsidy of 11.750 with a current national average
payment rate of 52.50 for free lunches and 100 less for reduced price
lunches, the maximum free lunch subsidy being 79.20. The ceiling on
subsidies is imposed so that in no event will the per lunch reimbursement
exceed the per lunch cost of providing a Type A lunch.
Although nutrition programs were initiated on a federal level
beginning in 1946, none of them carries a federal mandate. The closest
thing to a mandate is the positive obligation of participating schools
to serve free or reduced price meals to needy children. Federal programs
reach the local level only through the optional participation of schools
or institutions which apply to the state education agency.
A matching fund requirement secures each participating state's
financial commitment for the Lunch Program. The regulations call for
matching each dollar of federal general cash-for-food assistance funds
each fiscal year with three dollars of funds from sources within the
state. These matching state funds must have been determined by the
B-40
-------
Secretary to have been expended in connection with the Program. Sources
of funds include children's payments for lunches, local general school
district funds, as well as state funds expended for local (not state
level) administration of lunch programs.
California follows the policy orientation of federal nutrition
programs of preserving local choice by not mandating school or institutional
food programs. In 1974, Governor Reagan signed the Mbscone Bill, which
provides a reimbursement from state revenues of 5
-------
demonstrate that nutrition should have a status equal to a school's
athletic program. This would eliminate the present welfare stigma
from free breakfasts and lunches.
It has been argued that only federal legislation which mandates
school and institutional participation will accomplish the goal of reaching
all school children and, more particularly, needy children with
nourishing lunches and breakfasts, or nourishing meals in child-care
institutions.
Fiscal support for the Lunch Program is now based on performance
funding. The method used formerly was once-a-year apportionment, and
this was often exhausted long before the end of the school year. The
number of free lunches served increased greatly when schools and
institutions were required to provide free meals to children who were
determined eligible. Beginning in January 1974, the federal lunch
payment factor was adjusted semi-annually to reflect changes in costs
of operating a lunch program.
Increasingly liberal regulations and financial support may encourage
participation in food programs, but the National School Lunch Act was
not part of a coherent federal policy to achieve these ends. The
National School Lunch Program was created originally to utilize
surplus agricultural commodities. World wide food demand has made
domestic surplus commodities less available, and although the emphasis
of the food programs has changed considerably since the National School
Lunch Act of 1946, a basic federal commitment to promote nutrition
still does not exist.
Even without a participation mandate, if adequate nutrition were
defined as a national priority and programs received full federal support,
in fiscal as well as in policy terms, a necessary level of participation
and commitment might be achieved. The public and the legislators have
B-42
-------
been reluctant to commit themselves to a comprehensive nutrition program
of a preventative nature. Several federal nutrition programs were born
of the "hunger crisis" of the late 1960s; a comprehensive federal
nutrition policy may only take shape in the event of subsequent crises.
B Column - Equal Access
Federal food programs reach children through schools and child-
care centers. Participation in the National School Lunch Program and
the School Breakfast Program is available to any school. Location and
income are indirect indicators used to identify eligible children.
Participation in the Special Milk Program is open to any school and, in
addition, to any child-care institution which submits a free and reduced
price policy statement and signs a written contract with the state
education agency.
In two programs, the Special Food Service Program for Children
and the Nonfood Assistance Program, the location of the school or
institution is a criterion for participation. A child-care institution
applying for the Special Food Service Program for Children must provide
a description of its location and appropriate data to prove that it
serves children from an area where poor economic conditions exist or
from an area with a high concentration (at least 50 percent) of
working mothers.
The Nonfood Assistance Program also requires submission of data to
demonstrate that a school draws a substantial portion of attendance
from areas of poor economic conditions. This program, which helps needy
schools obtain equipment to operate a food program, requires participation
either in the School Lunch Program or in the School Breakfast Program
with the state agency bearing a positive obligation to help such schools
obtain equipment to operate an adequate feeding program.
B-43
-------
Participation in the WIG Program is limited to health clinics
which can demonstrate that they serve low income populations considered
to be at nutritional risk and which, furthermore, have the necessary
facilities and other resources to effectively carry out the WIG Program.
As a result of these restrictions, many of the nutrition programs
are limited to institutions which can meet the strict qualifying criteria.
This means that programs do not reach directly those who are otherwise
eligible, often due to the economic, geographic, or demographic criteria
which institutions must meet in order to receive funding. There is a
complex array of factors with which institutions must comply in order
to become eligible.
For three of the food service programs, identical eligibility
criteria apply. Children qualify for free milk under the same rules
used to determine eligibility for free breakfasts and free lunches.
The criterion schools use is the Secretary of Agriculture's Poverty
Income Guideline issued annually to state educational agencies and
with which a School Food Authority's free and reduced price policy
statement must comply.
In the Special Food Service Program for Children, in addition to
the same income guidelines which apply to the school meal programs,
the number of children in a family who attend school or a child-care
institution is considered.
Schools and child-care centers apply voluntarily to participate in
food programs. Once approved for participation, however, each institution
is obligated to determine which of its children qualify for free or
reduced price meals. Only institutions which serve free meals or free
milk to each child do not have to submit a separate free and reduced
price policy statement for approval. Instead, such schools file an
affidavit stating that no discrimination of any kind exists in their
food service programs.
B-44
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B Column - Ability to Influence
"All of the nutrition programs financed by the federal government
wholly or in part have been characterized by the lack of a built-in
evaluation procedure.
Evaluations should be of at least three kinds. The first should
determine whether or not the participants in the programs perceive them
to be helpful and designed to meet their needs.
A second kind of evaluation should quantify the nutritional benefits,
if any, that participation in the program confer.
A third kind of evaluation must be made of the degree to which
present programs reach all those in need." (pp. 10-12)
This criticism was given by the Panel on Nutrition and Special
Groups to the Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs of the
United States Senate.
Most of the federal nutrition programs discussed previously provide
by regulation a hearing procedure for eligibility appeals and, in addition,
for an administrative evaluation of local programs by the state agency
or by the Food and Nutrition Service. The purpose of these two
mechanisms is to resolve situations which may vary from prescribed
regulation. The existing rules are applied to individual cases, and
the purpose of such review is not to call into question the effectiveness
of the program itself.
The kind of evaluation suggested by the Panel on Nutrition and
Special Groups, however, is one which continually monitors the
effectiveness of the nutrition programs. This kind of program evaluation
is not built into present programs except, to a limited extent, into the
WIC Program.
B-45
-------
The WIG Program is a pilot program funded through June 1975.
"Although the WIG Program will supply nutritious foods to participants,
a major object of the program is the collection and evaluation of data
which will medically identify benefits of this food intervention program.
In addition, data will be collected and analyzed to measure the
administrative efficiencies of various methods of making food available
,,17
to participants."
The WIG Program makes an effort to devise a feedback mechanism to
monitor its effectiveness, but it does not include a way to assess
whether its benefits are reaching all the women, infants, and children
who may need supplemental food. This lack, referring again to the
Panel's observation, characterizes all federal nutrition programs.
If the central criterion of program effectiveness is whether it
reaches all those who need it, this would imply, at the least, full
federal fiscal support or some such insurance of the fullest extension
of a particular program to its proper constituents. This would also
imply a federal nutrition policy with a goal of correcting the existing
malnutrition among all population categories in the United States.
B-46
-------
Health Sector - Issue Writeup: References
1. "Recommended Daily Dietary Allowances, Revised 19745" National
Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, Washington, D.C. (1974).
2. Federal Register, 39 F.R. 16178 (7 May 1974).
3. Mr. Jack Bradley, Director, Child Nutrition Division, Western Region,
U.S. Department of Agriculture (letter communication).
4. Ibid.
5. (2)
6. Federal Register, 39 F.R. 26885 (24 July 1974).
7. Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, United States Senate,
"Studies of Human Need," p. 148, committee print, 92nd Congress,
2nd Session, June 1972.
8. Ms. Mavis Bucholz, Home Economist, Nutrition and Technical Service,
Western Region, U.S. Department of Agriculture (personal communication),
9. U.S. Department of Agriculture, "Family Food Plans, Revised 1964,"
Consumer and Food Economics Research Division, Agricultural Research
Service, Hyattsville, Maryland (issued November 1964).
10. (7)
11. Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, op. cit., p. 149.
12. Ibid.
13. Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, United States Senate,
"National Nutrition Policy Study, Report and Recommendations--VIII,"
p. 52, committee print prepared by the Panel on Nutrition and Special
Groups, 93rd Congress, 2nd Session, June 1974.
14. Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, United States Senate,
"National Nutrition Policy Study, Report and Recommendation—VIII,"
p. 44.
15. Mr. Brian_.Allison, Program Operations, Child Nutrition Division,
Western Region, U.S. Department of Agriculture (personal communication),
B-47
-------
Health Sector - Issue Writeup: References (continued)
16. Mrs. Betty Murray, State of California Administrator for Bay Area
School Food Service Programs (personal communication).
17. Federal Register, 38 F.R. 18447-18451 (11 July 1973).
B-48
-------
HEALTH SECTOR
ISSUE: Health Care; Quality and Availability
B,
Basle Need/Threshold
Concern: What are the
thresholds for quality and
availability of adequate
health care?
Facilities
• Hill-Burton Act
Number of general hospi-
tal beds (CFR 42, Sec.
53.11) - Formula below:
Current area use rate
X projected area popu-
lation
368
» average daily census;
average daily census +10
O5
» number of beds needed
(B-l -F-G3-3-3-Y-Y)
• Calif. State Plan
Guidelines
Minimum hospital beds/
population/health
planning area
Minimum
Population Beds
500,000+ 300
200-500,000 200
125-200,000 150
B,
OO 100-25
50- 75,000 75
Remote, low- One 50 bed
density area facility
(B-1-S-G3-3-1-N-K)
• BACHPC Recommended Occu-
pancy Levels
- Med/Surg 90Z
- Maternity 75
- Pediatric 75
- Psychiatric 90
- Nursing Home 90
(B-1-R-G3-3-1-N-N)
Security
Concern: What measures pro-
vide security that the mini-
mum will be met?
Hospital Survey and Con-
struction Act of 1946
(the Hill-Burton Act)
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
Grants to States for
Hospital Planning and
Construction
(B-2-F-G1-1-5-Y-Y)
• California State Plan
Guidelines
Bay_Area Comprehensive
Health Planning Council
(BACHPC)
Areawide Health Facilities
and Services Flan and
Individual county CUP
agency recommendations
(B-2-R-G3-1-5-Y-N)
"How do you feel about:
The doctors, clinics and
hospitals you would use in
this area?" (May 1972)—
Institute for Social
Research ,
Delig. Pleas. Mos. Sat.
11% 5« 32*
Mixed Mos. Piss. Unhap.
Ill 5Z 42
Terr.
3Z
Concern: To what portion of Concern: To what degree is
the population are the assur- the individual able to influ-
ences of adequate facilities/ ence availability and quality
services/quality of care of health care?
applicable?
• Hill-Burton Act
States which submit a
State Plan
(B-3-F-C1-2-5-Y-Y)
• CHPC Review Process
Chapter 1451 of 1969
California statutues
gives 12 areawide CHPCs
responsibility for re-
view and approval of
facilities licensed by
State Department of
Health
(B-4-S-G1-1-5-Y-Y)
BACHPC
- Public Hearing and Appeal
Process
- Consumer Representation
- Participation of providers
(B-4-R-G3-1-7-N-N)
1972 Amendments to Social
Security Act requires
State planning agencies to
review capital expenditures
for coordinated develop-
ment of services
(B-4-F-G1-3-5-Y-Y)
BACHPC recommends all
general hospitals develop
a 5-year plan coordinated
with PL 92-603 (1972 amend-
ments 3-year capital expen-
diture funding
(B-4-R-G3-1-7-N-N)
B-49
-------
HEALTH SECTOR (continued)
1Baslc Need/Threshold
Facilities (continued)
• California State Health
Planning Council
Estimate for general
hospital beds for an area
•ay not exceed State Plan
estimate, calculated on
an 85Z maximum occupancy
factor
(B-1-S-G3-3-1-Y-Y)
» BACHPC Occupancy Rate
Planning Factors
Med/Surg.
(incl. psych.) 85Z
Maternal 70
Pediatric 65
(B-1-S-G3-3-5-T-Y)
Security
qual Access
• Accessibility (Facilities)
• California State Flan
for Hospitals,
Recommendations for
hospital accessibility:
- High density urban:
vlthln 10-mile radius,
or 30 minutes auto
travel tine
- Suburban: within
15-mile radius or 30
minutes auto travel
tine
- Rural: Within 45-
mile radius or one
hour auto travel time
- Public transportation:
No more than 1-1/2
times auto travel time
- Where transportation
is inadequate, hospl
tal should provide
(B-3-S-G3-2-7-N-N)
Ability to Influence
o BACHPC
General hospitals should
develop services In com—
nunlty to improve conven-
ient access
(B3-S-G3-1-7-N-N)
Accessibility (Personnel)
• Physician Distribution
• Emergency Health Personnel
Act
Interim Criteria for defi-
nition of Physician/Dentist
Shortage:
Primary care physician-to-
population ratio of less
than 1:4000 (if a city)
Dentist-to-population
ratio less than 1:5000
(B-1-F-C3-2-1-H-H)
In San Francisco (pop.:
700,000 - 1971 est.),
there are more than 1800
physicians and 600
dentists.3 (Physician
ratio appro*. 1:400).
Hunter's Point, S.F.:
50,000 pop., 5 physi-
cians. (Physician ratio:
1:10,0001-
Health services scarcity
areas are neighborhoods
recognized as major poverty
pockets, and these comprise
almost one-half of the
total land area of San Fran-
cisco 2
• Emergency Health Personnel
%ct (1970)
National Health Service
Corps
Secretary of HEW designates
cities or areas which have
a shortage
(B-2-F-G3-3-5-N-N)
FT 1*72: ^.75 additional
conmunltifes assigned health
personnel, providing support
for 175-225 communities
with a total population of
700,000 to 900.000.5
i Emergency Health Personnel
Act
Eligibility for considera-
tion of application:
Designation as a "critical
health manpower shortage
area" by a State CEP agency
(B-3-F-G-3-1-7-N-N)
Health Personnel
Act
Burden of proof is upon
applicant
B-50
-------
HEALTH SECTOR (continued)
D,
Basic Seed/Threshold
Emergency Medical Services,
Availability and Quality
• PL93-154
Requirements:
- Personnel to provide
services on 24-hour
basis
- Central communications
- Adequate vehicles
— Adequate number of
accessible facilities
— Provide for transfer
of patient
- Assure services in
disasters, national
emergencies, etc.
(B-1-F-G1-2-5-Y-Y)
• California AB515
Statewide 911 system
required by 1982
(B-1-S-C1-3-5-Y-Y)
Security
Equal Access
• Criteria developed by the
Emergency Medical Care
Committee of San Mateo
City
- Emergency services must
be easily accessible at
any time by the general
public
- Initial unit must be at
scene within 5 minutes
of receipt of call
(B-1-R-G3-3-1-Y-Y)
• PL93-154
Emergency Medical Services
Systems Act (1973)'
(B-2-F-G1-2-1-Y-Y)
Service Area determined
by Secretary of HEW on
basis of size/population/
economic diversity
(B-2-F-G3-2-5-N-Y)
' PL93-1S4
Access to specialized
facilities
Shared personnel and
equipment
Provide, without prior
inquiry, necessary emer-
gency medical services to
all patients requiring
such
Provide for provision of
services on reciprocal
basis
(B-3-F-G1-2-5-Y-Y)
• California AB515 (1972)
Mandatory Operational
and Technical Standards
- Required agreement
between public agencies
sharing common boundar-
ies to respond if called
outside normal
Jurisdiction
(B-2-S-G1-3-5-Y-Y)
• Emergency Medical Care
Committee (San Mateo)
For each county required
by California law. (Its
only function is to submit
an annual report) .
(B-2-S-G1-1-7-N-Y)
o San Mateo County
Performance standards
must be legally mandated
State standards to define
minimum acceptable levels
of capabiliiv for 4 levels
of service:
- First-in Unit
- Basic Res- ;ie
- Basic Emergency
Ambulance
- Emergency^Paramedic
Service
(These are not yet mandated)
(B-3-S-G3-3-5-N-Y)
• San Mateo County
Availability of each
level of service will be
dependent on need and
availability of resources
(B-3-R-G3-1-7-N-N)
Ability to Influence
• PL93-154
Grants and Contracts for
research
HEW study to determine
medical barriers to medi-
cal care in emergency
conditions
• PL93-154
Further requirements of
Act:
- Provide training
- Public participation in
policy formulation
- Standardized record-
keeping system
- Public education
programs
- Periodic review
(B-4-F-G3-1-7-N-N)
• San Mated County
There must be an ongoing
monitoring mechanism
with sanctions
Medical records will be
available for review
(B-4-R-G3-1-7-Y-Y)
Long-term Nursing Care
• BACHPC
Facilities.should separate
patients of differing ages
and problems
(B/H-1-R-G3-1-7-N-N)
BACHFC
All Health Facility Planning
Areas should have
- Skilled nursing care
- Intermediate care
B-2-R-G3-1-7-N-N)
BACHPC
Facilities and services
should be accessible to
population served
(B-3-R-C3-1-7-N-N)
BACHPC
Each facility should have
a strong utilization re-
view system
(B-4-R-G3-1-7-N-N)
R-51
-------
HEALTH SECTOR (continued)
B,
Basic Need/Threshold
• BACHPC
Method for estimating long-
term nursing beds:
1979 65+ population
1972 65+ population
1972 long-term care
patient days
(90S) occupancy rate X 365
= Estimate for beds
(B-1-R-G3-3-5-Y-Y)
Security
• State Advisory Health
Council
BACHPC estimate for any
area may not exceed esti-
mate in State Plan for
Hospitals
(B-2-S-G3-3-5-Y-Y)
• Santa Clara City Health
Facilities Licensing
and Certification
24-hour skilled nursing
care means:
- Direct supervision by
licensed nurse
- Dietary Therapeutic
Program
- Patient Activity
Program
(B-2-S-C3-2-5-Y-Y)
• Currently the Santa
Clara County Health
Facilities Licensing
and Certification uses
Medicare and MediCal
standards
(B-2-S-G3-2-2-Y-Y)
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
• BACHPC
Major consumer repre-
sentation
All long-term care facili-
ties should develop long-
range master plans
(B-4-R-G3-1-7-N-N)
• Calif. Nursing Home Admin-
istrators Act
Nursing home administrators
must be licensed:
- Exam
- 100 hours continuing
education par year
(B-1-S-G1-3-2-Y-Y)
• Medical Assistance Programs
(Social Security)
• Social Security, Title I:
Care and Services eligible
for payment:
-' Inpatient hospital
- Skilled nursing-home
- Physicians' services
- Outpatient hospital or
clinic
- Home health care
- Private duty nursing
- Physical therapy
- Dental services
- Laboratory and X-rays
- Prescribed drugs, eye-
glasses, dentures
- Diagnostic services
- Any other medical care
recognized under State
law
(B-1-F-G1-2-5-Y-Y)
• California Nursing Home
Administrators Act
(1972)
(B-2-S-G1-3-2-Y-Y)
• Social Security, Title I
Grants to States for Old-
Age Assistance and Medical
Assistance for the Aged
(B-2-F-G1-2-5-Y-Y)
• Social Security, Title V
Maternal and Child Health
and Crippled Children's
Services
(B-2-F-G1-1-5-Y-N)
* FY 1971: 56 projects
providing care to 141,000
mothers and 47,000
Infants.
B-52
• Social Security, Title I
States which submit a
State Flan
• Social Security, Title I
65+ not receiving old-age
assistance and vnable to
pay for neces^. medical
services
• Social Security . Title I
No care or services for any
inmate of a public (except
medical) institution
(B-3-F-G1-3-5-Y-Y)
• Social Security, Title V
States which submit a State
Plan
Grants to extend services,
especially in rural or
areas of severe economic
distress
(B-3-F-G1-2-5-Y-N)
• Maternity, infant care,
school and preschool
children
(B-3-F-G1-1-5-Y-H)
• Social Security, Title I
Rehabilitation services
to help such individual
attain self-care
(B-4-F-C1-2-7-N-N)
-------
HEALTH SECTOR (continued)
Basic Need/Threshold
Security
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
• Social Security, Title XVI • Social Security, Title XVI • Social Security. Title XVI
Care and services eligible
for payment:
(sane as for Title I)
(B-1-F-G1-2-5-Y-Y)
Social Security, Title
XVIII
Basic Hospital Insurance
Benefits for any spell of
illness:
- Inpatient hospital treat-
ment up to 150 days
- Post-hospital 100 days
- Post-hospital home health
services 100 visits
Plus supplementary Medi-
cal Insurance benefits
(B-1-F-G1-3-5-Y-Y)
Supplemental Security In-
come for Aged, Blind, and
Disabled
No payment may be made to
States for Titles I, X, or
XIV, if State receives
grants under Title XVI
(B-2-F-G1-1-5-Y-N)
Social Security, Title
XVIII - Medicare
Provides health insur-
ance for people eligible
for old-age insurance
(B-2-F-G1-3-5-Y-Y)
States which submit a State
Plan
- Aged: 65+
- Needy
a) 65+
b) Disabled
c) Blind
(B-3-F-G1-3-5-Y-Y)
i Social Security, Title
XVIII - Eligibility:
Individuals 65+ and entitled
to benefits under Title II
(Sec. 202):
- Who is fully insured
- Has attained age 62
— Has filed application for
old-age Insurance benefits
- Individuals under 65 en-
titled to various disa-
bility insurance benefits
(see Sec. 226)
(B-3-F-G1-3-5-Y-Y)
• Social Security, Title XVI
Rehabilitation services
to help such individuals
attain self-care
(B-4-F-G1-2-7-N-N)
FY 1971: Protection to
20,300,000 and payments
on behalf of 4,500,000.'
• Social Security. Title XIX • Social Security, Title XIX • Social Security, Title XIX
Care and services eligible
for payment:
- Inpatient hospital
- Outpatient hospital
- Other lab. and X-ray
- Skilled nursing facility
— Services
- Physicians' services
- Medical care recognized
under State law
— Home health care
services
- Private duty nursing
- Clinic
- Dental
- Physical therapy
— Prescribed drugs, den-
tures, prosthetic
devices
- Other diagnostic services
- Inpatient hospital for
65 or over in TB or
mental institution
- Intermediate care
— Inpatient psychiatric
hospital for under 21
- Any other medical care or
remedial care recognized
under State law
(B-1-F-G1-3-5-Y-Y)
• Public Health Service,
Title III
Basic services:
- Ambulatory patient diag-
nosis and follow-up for
acute
— Preventive services inte-
grated Into treatment
- Emergency medical/dental
- Dental care
'B-1-F-G3-3-5-Y-Y)
Grants to States for
Medical Assistance Payments
(Medicaid)
(B-2-F-G1-1-2-Y-N)
FY 1971; 18,200,000
recipients of medical
assistance.
• Public Health Service,
Title III, Part A,
Sec. 310
Health Services for
Domestic Agricultural
Migrants
(B-2-F-G1-1-5-Y-N)
* FY 1971: 108 grants to
migrant health projects
for $14,000,000s
States which submit a State
Plan
Eligibility of Individuals:
- Public assistance (welfare)
recipients
- "Medically Needy": not on
welfare but are 65+; blind;
disabled; family with a
child under 21 who is w/o
support of a parent
— Indlgents under 18 who
cannot get AFDC
- Indigents 18-64
(Note: #3 and #4 must be
within AFDC income eligi-
bility limits)
(B-3-F-G1-3-5-Y-Y)
• Social Security, Title XIX
Rehabilitation and other
services to help such
individuals attain sell-
care
(B-4-F-G1-1-7-Y-N)
• Public Health Service,
Title III
Public or nonprofit
private agencies to serve
domestic agricultural
migrant workers
(B-3-F-G1-1-5-V-N)
B-53
Public Health Service,
Title III
Project Policy Board
required
Methods for evaluation
required
(B-4-F-G3-1-5-Y-Y)
-------
HEALTH SECTOR (continued)
1Ba3ic Need/Threshold
• Public Health Service Act
Title III
Secretary of HEW is
authorized to accept State
and local assistance in
enforcement of quaran-
tine regulations
(B-1-F-G1 -1-5-Y-N)
• Public Health Service Act
Title III
Secretary is authorized
to extend temporary
assistance in health
emergencies (to States
and localities)
(B-1-F-G1-1-5-Y-N)
^Security
• Public Health Service Act
Title III
Secretary shall consider
the extent of the problem:
- Measured against the
highest immunization
levels ever attained, by
annual Immunization Sur-
vey by the Census Bureau
(B-1-F-03-3-1-Y-Y)
• San Francisco Dept. Public
Health
School-Entry Survey under-
taken by San Francisco
Health Cap t. »TV? «rhool
districts
(B-1-L-G3-3-1-Y-Y)
Venereal diseases reported
to the health department
with percentages reported
by private physicians
e Public Health Service_Act
Title III. Part B
Federal-State Cooperation
(B2-F-C1-1-5-Y-H)
Equal Access
^Ability to Influence
1 Public Health Service Act
Title III. PlrT~B
Grants for Vaccination
Programs and Other Com-
municable Disease Control
Programs
In San Francisco in 1971
312 new cases of IB and
44.4 cases/100,000 pop.
This Is 2.5 tinea rate
for Calif, and nation.10
TB rate of Chinatown la
6 times the rate for
San Francisco,11
• Public Health Service Act
Title III. Part B
Projects and Programs
for the Prevention and
Control of Venereal
Disease
(B-2-F-G1-3-1-Y-Y)
* FY 1971: 72 federal
health officers assigned
to State and local health
depts. for VD control
activities.13
• Public Health Service Act
Title X
Population Research
and Voluntary Family
Planning Programs
(B-2-F-G1-1-5-Y-Y)
* FY 1971;?'62 new projects
funded for $10,200,000.
700,000 women benefited
in 1971, and an estimated
1,500,000 will benefit in
19721*
• Public Health Service Act
Title III
State health authorities
* Public Health Service Act
Title III
Grants to States, locali-
ties, public and nonprofit
entitles for projects
States must submit a State
Flan for approval
(B-3-F-G1-2-5-Y-Y)
B-54
1 Public Health Service Act
Title X
A. Public or nonprofit
private agencies
Secretary shall take into
account:
- Number of patients
- Extent of local need
for planning services
- Relative need of appli-
cant and ability to
make effective
contribution
(B-3-F-G1-3-5-Y-Y)
B. State Health Authori-
ties which have submitted
a State Plan
Priority given to persons
from low-Income families;
"low-income" to be defined
by the Secretary
(B-3-F-G1-1-5-Y-Y)
-------
HEALTH SECTOR (concluded)
B.
•"•Basic Need/Threshold
• PL 83-568
Hospital and health facili-
ties for Indians
Conservation of health of
Indians.
Security
• PL 83-568
HEW/PHS shall bear respon-
sibility for maintenance
and operation of hospital
and health facilities
(B-2-F-G1-1-5-Y-N)
• PL 83-151
Funds to construct health
facilities
(B-2-F-G1-3-5-Y-N)
»3
Equal Access
^Ability to Influence
• PL 83-151
Public or nonprofit agencie
as a more desirable alter-
native to direct Federal
construction
(B-3-F-G1-3-5-Y-N)
FY 1972: 1,000,000 out-
patient preventative
visits; 1,300,000 out-
patient visits to
hospitals.15
• PL 93-222
Health Maintenance
Organization Act (1973)
Assistance for establish-
ment and expansion of
HMOs
' PL 93-222
Organizations, to receive
assistance, must be
- A legal entity providing
basic health services
- Fiscally sound
(B-3-F-G1-3-5-Y-K )
FY 1972: an estimated
117 grants and 65 con-
tracts for HMO planning
and development will be
funded totaling
$21,700,000.16
B-55
-------
HEALTH SECTOR, NUTRITION MATRIX - References
Source
Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, United States Senate,
"National Nutrition Policy Study, Report and Recommendation — VIII,
committee print print prepared by the Panel on Nutrition and
Special Groups, 93rd Congress, 2nd Session, June 1974.
1. P. 7
2. p. 7
3. p. 69
4. p. 31
5. p. 20
6. p. 52
7. p. 51
8. p. 35
9. p. 30
10. p. 39
11. p. 112
12. p. 107
13. p. 94
14. p. 92
15. p. 97
16. p. 107
17. p. 107
18. p. 70
19. p. 72
20. p. 79
21. p. 83
22. p. 84
B-56
-------
HEALTH SECTOR MATRIX - References
1. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, "HEW Catalog of
Assistance. Programs Providing Financial Support and Services
to States, Communities, Organizations, and Individuals," U. S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. (1972), Pt 152.
2. San Francisco Comprehensive Health Planning Council, "San
Francisco Plan for Health, 1973," San Francisco, California
(1973), p. 5.
3. Ibid.
4. SFCHPC, p. 13.
5. HEW Catalog, p. 179.
6. HEW Catalog, p. 162.
7. HEW Catalog, p. 346.
8. HEW Catalog, p. 333.
9. HEW Catalog, p. 171.
10. SFCHPC, p. 4.
11. SFCHPC, p. 16.
12. San Francisco Department of Public Health, "Statistical
Report, 1973," San Francisco, California (1973), p. 12.
13. HEW Catalog, p. 142.
14. HEW Catalog, p. 150.
15. HEW Catalog, p. 157.
16. HEW Catalog, p. 177.
B-57
-------
HEALTH SECTOR-BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bay Area Comprehensive Health Planning Council, "Short Version of the
Areawide Health Facilities and Services Plan, Effective Date:
January 1, 1974 - December 31, 1974," San Francisco, California (1974)
California Medical Association, "Socio-Economic Reports," published by
the Division of Socio-Economics and Research, San Francisco,
California.
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 7: Agriculture ( 1 January 1974), and
Title 42: Public Health ( 1 October 1973).
Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, United States Senate, "Compilation
of Selected Public Health Laws, Volume I: Health Law," joint com-
mittee print, 93rd Congress, 1st Session, March 1973.
, "Compilation of Selected Public Health Laws, Volume II:
Food, Drug, and Related Law," joint committee print, 93rd Congress,
1st Session, March 1973.
Department of Health Education and Welfare, HEW Catalog of Assistance.
Programs Providing Financial Support and Services to States,
Communities , Organizations, and Individuals, U. S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D. C., (1972).
Department of Health, Education and Welfare, "Establishing a Health
Care Practice in Your Community, Guidelines and Procedures"
(draft), The National Health Service Corps, The United States
Public Health Service.
Everstine, Louis, et al., "Community Needs for Mental Health Services,"
PERT Reports: 2, Santa Clara County Health Department, San Jose,
California ( 15 December 1972).
Federal Register, various issues.
Boilings, Ernest E., "Hunger in America," Super-marketing, pp. 41-60
(June 1971).
The Liaison Committee on Medical Education of The Association of American
Medical Colleges and The Council on Medical Education, American
Medical Association, "Functions and Structure of a Medical School"
(June 1973).
6-58
-------
Special Criteria for Programs in the Basic Medical
Sciences" (December 1973).
National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, Recommended
Dietary Allowances, Eighth Revised Edition, 1974, Washington, B.C.
(1974).
National Commission on Accrediting, "Accreditation in Medicine,"
Washington, D.C. (November 1970).
San Francisco Comprehensive Health Planning Council, "San Francisco
Plan for Health, 1973," San Francisco, California (1973).
San Francisco Department of Public Health, "statistical Report, 1973,"
San Francisco, California (1973).
Select Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs, United States Senate,
"Hunger—1973," committee print, 93rd Congress, 1st Session,
May 1973.
, "National Nutrition Policy Study, Report and Recommendation—
VIII, committee print prepared by the Panel on Nutrition and
Special Groups, 93rd Congress, 2nd Session, June 1974.
, "studies of Human Need," committee print, 92nd Congress,
2nd Session, June 1972.
State of California, "California State Plan for Community Mental Health
Centers, July 1, 1972 - June 30, 1973," Bureau of Health Facilities
Planning and Construction, Department of Public Health, Sacramento,
California.
, "California State Plan for Hospitals, J'lly 1, 1970 - June 30,
1972," Bureau of Health Facilities Planning and onstruction,
Department of Public Health, Sacramento, California.
B-59
-------
3. Social
The social sector includes various types of environmental influ-
ences which affect interpersonal skills and relationships. For this
sector we sought out standards and related data in five issue areas,
each of which was subdivided further into the following concerns:
• Crime: Safety from crime
• Freedom to be: self-expression; protection of privacy
• Family: child abuse; marriage; adoption
• Education: quality; availability; equality
• Criminal Justice Process: just treatment; conviction and
confinement
The matrices portray the various standards and related data identi-
fied in our brief exploration of the issue areas of crime, freedom to
be, family, and the criminal justice process.
Education
Education, the fourth issue area of the social sector, was selected
for more detailed exploration, both because, of its unquestioned impor-
tance to life quality in general, and because the monitoring of education
has received greater attention relative to other issues in the social
sector.
Matrix Analysis: Another Example. As an alternative way of
introducing the standards and data pertaining to education, they are
presented and discussed below in a somewhat different format than
is used in the standard matrix. First, we consider definitional and procedural
standards, then educational availability/attainment, and then quality and
equality. Following this alternate approach, the various standards and
data are then presented in the same matrix format for other case examples.
B-60
-------
SECTOR: SOCIAL (S) ISSUE: EDUCATION (4)
BASIC EDUCATION CONCERNS
Definitional
and Procedural
Serrano v. Priest
(Calif. Supreme
Court):
Defines common
public education
to be of "funda-
hence a basic
welfare concern.
(B-1-S-G2-3-4-Y-N)
Common custom: Noi
being able to reat!
write, or cipher
Is a deficit that
is considered
intolerable for ai
adequate adult
life.
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Education
Quality, Availability, and Equality
• Standards
* Objective Data
f Subjective Data
Basic fteed/Threshold
Concern: What are the
thresholds for quality and
availability of adequate
education?
Security
Concern: What measures pro-
vide security that the
minimum will be met?
Equal Access Ability to Influence
Concern: To what portion of Concern: To what degree is
the population are the assur- the individual able to
ances of adequate facilities/ influence availability and
instruction/quality of quality of education?
education given?
• Serrano v. Priest (Calif. • California Education Code
Supreme Court) 1974
Defines common public
education to be at "funds-
nental Interest", hence a
basic welfare concern
(B-1-S-G2-3-4-Y-N)
Common custom: Not being
able to read, write or
cipher li a deficit that
i* considered intolerable
for an adequate adult life
* Percent of Population
over 14 years of age
illiterate in 1960: *
U.S. » 2.4X
Iowa - .11
Louisiana -6.31
• California Education Code
13103
Sets standards for teach-
ing credentials and
special training programs
(B-1-S-G1-3-5-N-H)
e California Education Code
13188
Sets minimum years of
study and degrees required
for teaching credentials
(B-1-S-G-1-3-5-S-N)
Requires all children
through age 16 to attend
a school meeting minimum
standards
(B-2-S-G1-3-5-Y-Y)
Article IX-5. California
Constitution
Free common schools to be
provided and open at least
six months/year
(B-2-S-G1-3-1-N-Y)
• California Education Code
6720
Encourages establishment of
technical, agricultural,
end natural resource conser-
vation schools in areas
where they are needed in
order to reduce the number
of school dropouts, combat
juvenile delinquency, and to
provide skilled and trained
workers
(B2-S-G1-1-7-N-N)
e Title V of Civil Rights
Act of 1964
Requires "Equality of
Education Opportunity
Survey" and a related report
on availability and quality
of education for minorities
(B-3-F-G1-1-6-N-Y)
• Brown v. Board of Education
(U.S. Supreme Court, 1954)
Outlawed segregation in
public schools
(B-3-G2-3-4-Y-N)
• Project Head Start (PHEW)
Provides programs of pre-
school instruction for
children of welfare or
poverty families
(B-3-F-G1-3-1/2-Y-Y)
Project Follow Through
(PHEW)
Provides programs of
instruction to sustain
gains made in Read Start
Program
(B-3-F-G1-3-1/2-Y-Y)
• California Education Code
5761
V
Mandates'special instruc-
tion for non-English speak-
ing children
(B-2-S-G1-2-5-Y-N)
• Amendment X, U.S. Consti-
tution
By omission, reserves
education as a function of
the states
(B/H-4-F-G1-7-N-N)
• Public Law 20- USC 123
Prohibits Federal "control"
of education
(B/H-4-F-G1-3-4-N-N)
• California Education Code
8574
Local school district
governing boards shall set
tniniffluin acsdecilc standards
for high school graduation
* Equality of Education
Opportunity Survey:
Weighted and standardized
achievement scores (mean
- 50, standard develop-
ment » 10) of white 9th
graders in 1965 is 52.8;
of black Is 41.6; of Puerto
Rican is 40.6
+ Equality of Education
Opportunity Survey:
"Attitudes such as a sense
of control over one's
environment highly related
to student achievement,
and minority students are
far less likely than others
to feel they have a chance
to control theirs
B-62
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Education (continued)
B!
Basic Need/Threshold
Security
• Public Law 93-380
Elementary & Secondary
Education Act of 1965.
Title I
Provides programs to pro-
mote equal educational
opportunity for all
students
(B-2-F-G1-1-2-Y-Y)
• California Education Code
6812
Allows special, non-
standard experimental
programs for multiple-
handicapped students
(B-2-S-G1-1-7-N-N)
• California Education Code
894
Education of Handicapped
Act:
Provides grants to pre-
school and elementary
school programs for
handicapped
(B-2-F-G1-1-7-Y-N)
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
Curriculum Development &
Supplemental Materials
Commission
Specifies methods with
which to establish stan-
dards for classroom text-
books
(B-4-S-G1-1-7-Y-N)
B-63
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Education
Quality, Availability, and Equality
Basic Need/Threshold
California Education Code
8575
Mandates successful comple-
tion of 200 semester hours
and certain substantive
courses of Instruction for
highschool graduation
(H-1-S-G1-3-1-N-N)
• Palo Alto Unified School
District Board Policy
3-8.6
Mandates successful
completion of 210 semester
hours and certain sub-
stantive courses of
instruction for high-
school graduation
(H-1-L-G1-3-1-N-Y)
• National Assessment of
educational Progress
Under authority of Educa-
tion Commission of the
States, collects periodic
national data on achieve-
ment of various age
groups in art, career &
occupational development,
citizenship, literature,
math, music, reading,
science, social studies
and writing.
* Number of high school
graduates as a percentage
of entering 9th graders:
U.S. - 79%
Minnesota = 92%
Mississippi = 59%
(National Education
Association)
Security
H3
• Educational Amendments of
1972. Title III (P.L. 92-
3181
Provides assistance to
marginal institutions of
higher education whose
survival is threatened
(H-2-F-G1-1-7-Y-N)
• California Education Code
1075.5
Establishes criteria for
state interest-free loans,
scholarships, and grants
for Higher Education
(H-2-S-G1-1-7-Y-N)
• Public Law 93-380
Prohibits Federal funds
to any school not comply-
ing with guidelines for
access/protection of
records about the student.
(H-2-F-G1-3-5-Y-N)
• California Education Code
5736
Mandates offering of
classes in citizenship for
and notification of
applicants for naturaliz-
ation.
(H-2-S-G1-1-7-Y-N)
Equal Access
• Public Law 93-380
Provides grants to local
educational agencies to
provide programs for
gifted children
(H-3-F-G1-1-7-Y-N)
• California Education Code
8553
Requires social science
instruction in schools to
include contributions made
by minority persons to
development of the state
(H-3-S-G1-1-7-Y-N)
• California Education Code
1075.5
Prohibits racial discrim-
ination when considering
eligibility for financial
assistance (loans, etc.)
(H-3-S-G1-1-7-N-N)
* Graduates of vocational
schools earn 36% less
than college graduates
doing the same work
(National Institute
of Education Survey)
Ability to Influence
• Specific Federal guide-
lines for Head Start and
Follow ftirough Programs:
require community advisory
committees
(H-4-F-G3-3-Y-Y)
• California Education Code
22700
Sets commission for
accreditation of state
colleges
(H-4-5-G1-1-7-N-&)
• California Education Code
1070
Mandates counseling ser-
vices for high school
students and their parents
to assist in planning and
evaluating students
educational program
(H-4-S-G1-1-7-Y-N)
* 1974 Gallup Poll:
SIX of college graduates
perceived having made
significant personal
progress during past year
as compared to 35Z of
those with only grade
school education
• California Education Code
25517
Sets minimum credits for
graduation In state
colleges
(H-1-S-G1-3-1-K-N)
• California Constitution IV
Prescribes "Moral Improve-
ment" as one of the prin-
cipal purposes of public
schools
(H-2-S-G1-1-7-Y-Y)
• Advanced Placement Pro-
gram (College Entrance
Examination Board)
Enables high school stu-
dents to receive college
credits for some courses
taken in high school
(H-4-0-NG2-1-7-Y-Y)
B-64
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Education (continued)
«!
Basic Need/Threshold
• Federation of Regional
Conmissions of Higher
Education
Establishes minimum stan-
dards for accreditation of
Higher Education
(H-1-0-NC1-3-5-N-Y)
Security
H3
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
* Advanced Placement Program
In California -
74X of the eligible stu-
dents do not now have the
opportunity to join the
program because their
high schools do not
offer it
• California Education Code
8506
Teaching about repro-
ductive organs, etc. may
not be done unless
parents are informed and
given a chance to have
their child exempted
from this instruction
(H-4-S-G1-3-4/5-N-N)
B-65
-------
The former type of presentation may be easier to read than the matrix,
because it more easily allows one to make an ordered inquiry into the
following questions:
• Is education a basic or a higher order concern?
• Who has responsibility for setting educational standards and
ensuring that they are met?
• What are the basic standards in education which if not met are
to be considered an intolerable situation?
• How is the meeting of these standards attempted and/or guaranteed?
• How, if at all, is the meeting of these standards monitored?
Definitional/Procedural Standards and Related Data. Although
education is not an issue involved with physiological needs, safety, or
security per se, there is at least one standard from which we can infer
that education is, in our society, indeed a basic life concern. In the
majority opinion of Serrano v. Priest, common education (kindergarten
through grade twelve) was defined to be "of fundamental interest" or
importance to the welfare of the individual, because it is a necessity in
our society for the fulfillment of basic human needs (Sullivan, 1971).
Based on common custom, the accepted basic threshold for the types
of skills development usually thought of as education is the adequate
mastery of the "three Rs": reading, writing, and ciphering. As Social
Indicators, 1973, indicates, the average level of illiteracy of persons
in the United States over 14 years of age is 2.4 percent, with a high
in Louisiana of 6.3 percent and a low in Iowa of 0.7 percent (National
Education Association, 1972).
B-66
-------
Some might infer from existing standards, such as California
Educational Code, 8575, that mastery over additional subjects such as
some required for high school graduation--an adequate understanding
of the English language, our system of government and its history, how
to stay healthy--also should come under the definition of basic mini-
mums. We consider these skills to come under the definition of higher
needs, the H side of the matrix.
At least two legal standards (USC 123A, X Amendment U.S. Constitu-
tion) reserve education as a function to be fulfilled by the various
states, and therefore virtually all minimum standards pertaining to
education emanate either from state or local governments or else from
associations of professional educators. The federal government has,
nevertheless, taken a strong role in education, including assistance
in providing equal educational opportunity for all citizens and in the
monitoring of educational affairs. Some of the guidelines that are
mandated by federal programs in education (for example, the requirement
for community advisory committees (Head Start and Follow Through Pro-
grams) may be in conflict with the prohibition against federal control
of education expressed in USC 123-A.
Minimum Educational Attainment and Availability. Although the
procedures for setting minimum educational attainment and availability
vary widely among the several states, the standards themselves are quite
similar due largely to common processes of accreditation (Markley, 1974).
Most states mandate compulsory school attendance through at least 16 years
of age and specify the types of topics that are to be taught (as, for
example, in California Education Codes 12101 and 8575). In the case of
Wisconsin v. Yoder, however, the U.S. Supreme Court held that public education
beyond the eighth grade would intolerably injure the quality of life of the
Amish communities who, for religious reasons, "view secondary school education
as an impermissible exposure of their children to a 'worldly* influence
in conflict with their beliefs." This case is in essential agreement with
B-67
-------
the common custom that basic skills in the "three Rs" is the basic
minimum standard for education of all citizens. It further supports the
contention that higher QOL needs are a function of the eye of the beholder,
and that although minimum "higher" standards exist, they do not apply to
all populations.
While minimum standards for availablility of educational opportuni-
ties are rather clearcut, the minimum standards for attainment are not.
As can be inferred by California Education Codes 12101 and 8575, as
well as Article IX, Section 9 of the California Constitution, high
school graduation is typically based more on the amount of time exposed
to required topics than on demonstrated mastery of topics taught. It
is as though not being able to graduate from high school (even though
there are many graduates who are virtually illiterate) has come to be
an intolerable condition in our society, and at least one lawsuit has
been launched against the schools for graduating a student who, never-
theless, could not read or write well enough to fill out ordinary employ-
ment application forms.
The use of "seat time" as a criterion of educational attainment
stems from two problems: clientele and measurement. The public school
system must offer its wares to all children, whether or not they want
to learn. While the schools must provide exposure, they can in no way
be held responsible for what is essentially an individual right: dis-
position to choose to learn or not to learn. On the measurement side,
numerous problems exist when one tries to validly measure educational
achievement defined as competence or mastery. It is relatively easy
to collect statistics on school attendance and matriculation, and
hence these have come into heavy use as indicators of educational
attainment. (See table below for attendance standards of different states.)
B-68
-------
ATTENDANCE REQUIREMENTS
STATES
ALABAMA
ALASKA
ARIZONA
ARKANSAS
CALIFORNIA
COLORADO
CONNECTICUT
DELAWARE
FLORIDA
GEORGIA
HAWAII
OAHO
UJNOIS
MDIANA
IOWA
KANSAS
KENTUCKY
LOUISIANA
MANE
MARYLAND
MASSACHUSETTS
MICHIGAN
MINNESOTA
MISSISSIPPI
MISSOURI
MONTANA
NEBRASKA
NEVADA
NEW HAMPSHIRE
NEW JERSEY
NEW MEXICO
NEW YORK
N6OTH CAROLINA
NORTH DAKOTA
OHO
OKLAHOMA
OREGON
PENNSYLVANIA
RHODE ISLAND
SOUTH CAROLINA
SOUTH DAKOTA
TENNESSEE
TEXAS
UTAH
VERMONT
VIRGINIA
WASHINGTON
WEST VIRGINIA
WISCONSIN
WYOMING
COMPULSORY
ATTENDANCE
7-16
7- 16
8-16
7-15
6-16
7-16
7-16
6-16
7-16
7-16
6-18
7-16
7-16
7-16
8-15
7-16
7-16
7-15
7-17
6-16
(b)
6-16
716
7-lLXCi
7-15
7-16
7-17
6-16
6-16
8-17
6-16
7-16
7-16
6-18
7-18
7-18
8-17
7-16
7-16
7-16
7-16
7-17
6-18
7-16
6-17
8-15
7-16
7-16
7-16
PERMITTED
6-21
6-21
5-21
6-21
7-21
6-21
6-2O(p)
5-21
6-20
(«)
5-21
6-21
6-2 1|h)
5-21
6-21
7-21
5-20(m)
6-21
6-2 1
-------
Quality and Equality. Similar problems exist in defining and
measuring educational quality. Thus, the education profession relies
heavily on accreditation of schools (Western Regional Accreditation
Commission) and on the use of certification and credentialing of teachers
as a way to ensure quality of education (California Education Codes 1303
and 13188).
The existence ot unequal educational opportunity, defined by Brown v
Board of Education and other national policies to be an intolerable
condition, is one of the reasons most often given for federal involve-
ment in education. The "Equal Educational Opportunity Survey," typi-
fies federal QOL monitoring efforts. As the results of this survey
indicate, minority students suffer both objectively and subjectively
from unequal opportunity as this term has come to be used (Mayeske et
al, 1973). But beyond a very loose concensus of concern, there is no
general agreement on what equal educational opportunity means (Thomas &
Danner, 1974). For some it means availability of programs that meet
the specific needs of educationally disadvantaged; for others it means
equal levels of educational attainment; and for still others it means
equal expectation of life success, often in terms of employment and
salary. Added to this confusion is the lack of understanding how to
measure quality, and hence equality (other than by the standard of
academic attainment, which many believe to be the wrong measure), in
terms of the cause and effect relationships between the inputs of educa-
tion and its outputs. Hence it is understandable that such a difficulty
exists in the monitoring of educational quality and equality, and why,
as exemplified by Elementary and Secondary Act PL 93-380, many policies
are written to improve an intolerable situation with remedial actions
but without a clear-cut definition of the minimum threshold nor with
guidelines for measuring the extent to which such conditions are
experienced.
B-70
-------
Higher Educational Concerns. While standards exist to specify
minimum levels for quality in various fields of higher education and
professional training, these were considered beyond the scope of this
exploratory study. Thus, we only observe that the general form and style
of such standards seem to parallel those which exist for basic educational
concerns. Many of the same types of issues discussed above apply equally
well to higher educational concerns (see, for example, National Commission
on the Financing of Postsecondary Education, 1973).
B-71
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR, EDUCATION MATRIX - References
1. Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget,
Social Indicators, 1973, U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C. (1973).
2. Equality of Educational Opportunity Survey, mandated by PL 93-380,
Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965.
3. Ibid.
4. National Education Association statistic.
5. National Institute of Education Survey, conducted by W. W. Wilms,
University of California, Berkeley, California (1974). Reported
in the Redwood City Tribune (21 November 1974).
6. Gallup Poll (1974).
7. "A Head Start for College," San Francisco Chronicle (19 December 1974)
B-71a
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Crime
- Safety from crime
Basic Need/Threshold
Concern: What is the thres-
hold for availability of
adequate protection from
crime?
Security
Concern: What measures pro-
vide security that the
minimum will be met?
Equal Access
Concern: What portion of the
population is provided ade-
quate protection?
Ability to Influence
Concern: To what degree is
the individual able to
influence assurance of
safety from crime?
• Penal Code California
- Defines specific crimes
and punishments
(B1-S-G3-3-4-Y-K)
• Art. 4 - U.S. Constitution • P.s. Consltltution
- Right of the people to be
secure in their persons,
houses, papers against
unreasonable searches and
seizures
(B2-F-G3-1-4-N-N)
• Seven major crime cate-
gories in hierarchical
order •
1. Murder
2. Rape
3. Aggrevated assault
4. Burglary
5. Car theft
6. Larceny
7. Robbery
• Penal Code California
187 - Murder
- Unlawful killing of a
human being with malice
aforethought
(B1-S-G3-3-4-Y-1Q
• Penal Code California
240 - Assault
- Unlawful attenpt coupled
with a present ability,
to commit a violent injury
on the person of another
(B1-S-O3-3-4-T-IO
• C.S. Constitution - 10th
Amendment
- Denies general police
powers to the Federal
Government and reserves
them for the states or
local government
(B2-F-G3-1-4-N-N)
• Bill of Rights
- Congress gave the respon-
sibility and Hiithority
for protection of persons
and property to the state
and to representatives of
local government
(B2-F-G3-3-2-Y-N)
• Article 11 - Sec. 5b
California Constitution
- All city charters shall
provide for by the laws
of this state, the con-
stitution regulation, and
government of the city
police force
(B2-S-G3-1-5-N-N)
• Omnibus Crime Control &
Safe Streets Act - 1968
- Provides funding to develop
and adopt plans to improve
state and local problems
(B2-F-G3-1-5-H-Y)
• Public Law 93-83
*• All states must have a
comprehensive program
for Improvement of
juvenile justice
- Everyone is given the
right to life, liberty,
and the pursuit of
happiness
(B3-F-G3-1-7-N-N)
• Civil Rights Act
- Prohibits discrimination
(B3-F-G3-3-4-Y-N)
• Equal protection
Supreme Court has held
that a state can't dis-
criminate on the basis
of a person's sex
(B3-F-G2-1-4-N-N)
• Equal protection when
threatened by violator
• Public Law 93-83
National Advisory Commis-
sion on Criminal Justice
Standards and Goals (1971)
- Formulating, for the first
time, national criminal
justice standards and
goals for crime reduction
and prevention at the
state and local level
(B4-F-G3-1-5-Y-Y)
• Public Law 93-83
- Establishment of Crimi-
nal Justice Coordinat-
ing Council for local
governments with a pop-
ulation of 250,000 or more
to assure improved plan-
ning of law enforcement
and criminal Justice
activitites
(B4-F-G3-3-5-Y-Y)
• Citizen's arrest
• Police Department's
citizens education pro-
grams on security measures
• 5th Amendment - U.S.
Constitution
- Equal rights when accused
of being the violator
• Right to bear arms
+ When asked if you would
favor or oppose a law
which would require a
person to obtain a police
permit before he or she
could buy a gun, 1,099
out of 1,500 were In
favor (Roper Public
Opinion Research)5
(B2-F-G36.1-1-5-N-N)
(B3-F-G3-3-4-H-N)
B-72
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
ISSUE:
Crime (continued)
- Safety from crime
B.
Basic Need/Threshold
Security
President Commission on
Law Enforcement and Admin-
istration of Justice
- 911 designated as a
nationwide telephone
number giving the public
direct access to an
emergency answering
center
(B2-F-G3-1-7-N-N)
Equal Access
California Government
Code - 53100
- Every local public
agency shall establish
and have in operation
by December 1982, a
"911" emergency tele-
phone system
(B3-S-G3-1-7-N-N)
Ability to Influence
• Civil Rights Act of 1866
- Gives civil and criminal
remedies against federal
law enforcement officers
who deny an individual
of his civil rights
(B2-F-G3-3-4-Y-N)
• Preventive detention by
keeping criminals off the
streets
• Protective Services
Poiice Force
Sheriffs Office
FBI
• Physical protection
Child abuse
Drunk driving
Narcotic users
• Penal Code Califonia
261 - Rape
- Sexual intercourse
with a female by
fraud, or force, or
against her will.
Any sexual penetration
is sufficient to com-
plete this crime
(B1-S-G3-3-4-Y-N)
+ Evaluations of overall
Federal, State, and Local Law
Enforcement Official's perform-
ance, by demographic charac-
teristics, 1970--nationwide,
all regions, 60% thought
they were doing a good job
4- 58%, nationwide, support
heavier sentence for those .
committing armed offenses
(Gallup, 1969)
• Penal Code California
Revision- of Rape Laws
(1974)
- Protects rape victims
from intimidating ques-
tions about their sex
lives
(B2-S-G3-3-4-Y-N)
• Penal Code - Michigan
Revision - (1974)
- Provides that a rape
victim need not prove
she resisted to the
utmost
+ Public attitudes toward
reducing crime—more
police - 29% - reforming
courts for fairer and
speedier justice - 457.-
improving jails, more
people rehabilitated -
397. - longer and tougher
prison terms - 347. -
stricter discipline over
children by parents - 42%
cleaning up slums and
ghettos - 54%6
B-73
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Crime (continued)
- Safety from crime
Basic Need/Threshold
Security
* Rate per 100,000 females in
U.S. in 1972, there were
43.5 forcible rapes report-
ed compared to 23.5 report-
ed in 1965
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
+ In a recent Roper survey
of 1,504 people, 748
thought that pornography
lead people to commit
rape
* In 1971, there were 2,359
persons under 18 years of
age arrested for forcible
rape, and 8,801, 18 years
and over (nationwide)
• Colleges and universities,
nationwide, are providing
security on campuses to
protect women students
from rape
(B2-NG1-3-1-Y-N)
* Midwest's Big Ten univer-
sities had more than 200
reported rapes on campuses
in the last three years
* Serious crime in the nation
during 1973 climbed 5%
above 1972 level with a
16i spurt in final quarter
of 1973, 15% increase in
1st quarter of 1974
* Rate of victimization for
violent crime was 358 per
100,000 population com-
pared to reported rate of
198
+ When asked "What's behind
the high crime rate in the
U.S.?" 25% thought that
laws are too lenient/
penalties not stiff enough;
-23% responded the lack of
religion; television and
movies glamorize crime;
and overpopulation (Gallup
Poll, 1972, 21 years and
older)
4- Americans rate progress
over last 2 years in com-
batting crime:
- much progress - 2%
- some progress - 19%
- stood still - 24%
- lost some ground - 29%
- lost much ground - 23%
(State of the Nation Poll
1974) 2
-I- Degree of public concern
about major national issues
ranks amount of violence in
American life 91 and crime
in this country 90 (composite
B-74
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Crime (continued)
- Safety from crime
Basic Need/Threshold
Security
+ 457. of the population is
afraid to walk near home
at night; 46% of the homes
contain at least one gun;
at least 87. experienced
crime in their own homes
-*• Public opinion on govern-
ment spending to combat
crime should be - increased
64S; kept at present level
- 247.; reduced 7,6%; ended
altogether - 17.
4- In the nation's five largest
cities, actual crime outran
reported violations 2 to 5
times. Respondents' reasons
for not reporting crimes:
347. - nothing could be done,
they lacked proof; 287. - was
not important enough; 87» -
police wouldn't want to
bother; 77. - reported to
other than police; 57, - too
inconvenient; 47. - private
matter; 27. - feared reprisal
(1974) (Bureau of Census)
Equal Access
Ability to Influenc
B-75
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Crime
- Safety from crime
Hl
Basic Need/Threshold
Individual security from
unlawful seizure
• Penal Code California
211 - Robbery
- Felonious taking of
personal property in
the possession of
another
• Penal Code California
459 - Burglary
- Unlawful breaking or
entering with Intent
to comr.it a felony or
a theft
• Penal Code California
484 - Larceny
- Theft of $50 sod over
In value which is not
taken by force, vio-
lence, or fraud
• Penal Code California
314 - Indecent Exposure
— Exposes his person ^r
private parts in public
place where other per-
sons are present
• Penal Code California
311 - Obscene Matter
- Distributing to minors,
advertising and promotion
of obscene matter
Penal Code California
248 - Libel
- A nalicious defamation,
expressed either by
writing, printing, or
by signs or pictures,
to impeach the honesty,
integrity, virtue, or
reputation of a person
« Penal Code California
258 - Slander
- A malicious defamation,
orally uttered
• Penal Code California
415 - Disturbing the
Peace
- Disturbance of public
•eetlngs or causing a
riot, or threat of
violence by 2 or aore
persons
(HI -S-<33-1 -4-y-K)
(Includes all of H )
Security
• Availability of life,
theft, fire and auto in-
surance from private in-
surance companies
* The largest amounts of
arrests made throughout
the nation in 1971 were for
larceny-theft rate per
100,000 - 434.2, and
burglary-breaking or enter-
ing rate per 100,000 -
202.9 (FBI statistics -
1ST. of U.S. population)
* As unemployment rises, so
does the number of new
prison admissions each year
(Library of Congress study)
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
• Theft insurance rates go up
when the crime rate goes
over a certain %
B-76
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
Crime
REFERENCES FOR OBJECTIVE (*) AND SUBJECTIVE (+) DATA
1, +• Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics. Table 2.5, p. 134 (1973).
2. + Gallup Poll (1969).
3. * Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Reports (1973).
4. * Ibid.
5. + Roper Poll.
6. + Watts and Free, State of the Nation (1974).
7. + Roper Poll (1974).
8. * "Why Students are More Vulnerable to Rape," New York Times (February 1975),
9. * Gallup Poll
10. * U. S. Department of Commerce, Social Indicators (1973).
11. + Gallup Poll (1972).
12. + Watts and Free, op. cit.
13. + Ibid.
14. + Roper Poll (1974). National adult sample of 1,484 respondents.
15. + Watts and Free, op. cit.
16. + Census Bureau (1974).
17. + State of the Nation Poll, 1974.
18. * Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Reports (1972).
B-77
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Criminal Justice Process
B,
Basic Need/Threshold Security
Concern: What are the thres- Concern: What measures pro-
holds for quality and avail- vide security that the
ability of an adequate minimum will be met?
Criminal Justice Process?
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
Concern: Is the due process
of law guaranteed to every-
one?
Concern: .To what degree is
the individual able to influ-
ence availability and quality
.of-the Criminal Justice Process?
Just Treatment for the
Accused
• Right to trial by an
impartial jury
• Assistance of counsel
• Attendance of witnesses on
behalf of the defendent
• Be present at trial with
counsel
(Bl-F-S-Gl-l-4-Y-N)
• Calif. Constitution -
Art. 1
- A person cannot be tried
twice for the same crime
- Be a witness against him-
self
- Be deprived of life,
liberty, or property
without due process of
the law
(B1-F-S-G1-3-4-Y-N)
• The rights of defend-
ants are fundamental
interest which the
Supreme Court has pro-
tected (Sullivan 1971)
(B1-F-G3-4-Y-N)
• Miranda Ruling of 1966
- Statements Bade during
police Interrogation can-
not be used as evidence
unless a defendant was
advised of his rights to
remain silent and have a
lawyer present during
questioning
(Bl -F-S-G3-3-4-Y-H)
• 4th Amendment U.S. Consti-
tution
- Bight to trial by Jury
(B-2-F-G3-1-4-N-H)
• Ball Reform Act (1966)
- Provides lor pre-trial
release of persons accused
of noncapital crimes
(B2-F-G1-3-7-Y-N)
• 5th Amendment -U.S. Consti-
tution
- Excessive bail, fines, or
punishment prohibited
(B2-F-G1 -3-4-Y-N)
• Penal Code California 858
- Magistrate to inform de- ,
fendant of the charge and
right to counsel when he is
brought before him upon
arrest
(B2-S-G3-3-7-N-N)
• D.S. Const. - Art 1
Section 9
- The privilege of the writ
of habeas corpus shall not
be suspended, unless when
in cases of rebellion or
invasion the public safe-
ty may require it
(B2-F-G-3-3-4-Y-N)
• Penal Code California 1096
- A defendant in a criminal
action is presumed innocent
until he is proven guilty
(B2-S-G3-7-Y-N)
• Criminal Justice Act
- All defendants have the
right of representation
by a private attorney or
Legal Aid Society attorney
(B3-F-G1-1-7-N-H)
• Penal Code California 1896
- Every person unlawfully
imprisoned or restrained
of his liberty, under any
pretense whatever, may
prosecute a writ of habeas
corpus to inquire into the
cause of such imprisonment
or restraint
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Criminal Justice Process (continued)
B, B.
Basic Need/Threshold
• Existing correctional in-
stitutions for imprisonment
of persons convicted of
serious crimes in California
- Calif. State Prisons at
San Quentin & Folsom
- Institution for Men
- Vocational Institution
- Training Facility
- Medium Security Prison
- Correctional Institution
- Industrial Farms and Road
camps
- Special Security Facility
- Institution for Women
- Federal Youth Center
- Calif. Rehabilitation
Center (exclusively for
narcotics addicts com-
mitted through civil
court procedures)
(B1-S-G3-3-4-Y-N)
Security
Equal Access
• Penal Code California 2652
- Cruel and unusual punish-
ment not permitted in
prisons
(B2-S-G3-1-7-N-N)
• USC 4042 Public Law 90-317
- Improve correctional
services to those convict-
ed of violations to reduce
recidivism
(B2-F-G3-1-7-N-N)
* Dept. of Corrections (Calif.)
is responsible for 28,000 men
and women in institutions,
another 15,000 under super-
vision of parole agents
* In California, the number of
sentenced defendants and
actual % placed on pro-
bation by areas:
Northern - 395 60 \
Eastern 381 58.5%
Central 1,374 61.77.
Southern 908 53.47.
(1970 Sourcebook-Criminal
Justice)
Ability to Influence
* In Federal Prison System
inmate population has
increased from 21,430 in
1972 to 23,300 in 1974.
The system is 3,400 over
capacity
-I- Death Penalty - 64% In
favor, 36X opposed.
Majority support among all
population groups. Non-
white and young people
closely divided
(Gallup Poll 1974)
+ 37% believe the main
emphasis in most prisons
is to protect society;
735 think that the
emphasis should be to
rehabilitate the prisoners
(1970 Gallup Poll)7
B-79
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Criminal Justice Process (continued)
B,
Basic Need/Threshold
Security
* In California, 1970, there
were 8,692 males, 560
women, and 40 juveniles
arraigned and awaiting
trial
+ Belief that elapsed tine
from arrest to trial is
excessive, nationwide, 78%
thought there was too long
a time
• Legal Aid Bill (1974)
- Provides local poverty
lav firms with funds to
represent the poor in
ordinary day-to-day legal
difficulties
(B2-F-G1-3-7-H-N-)
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
i American Bar Association
Standards
Fair Trial and Free Press
- Specifies types of pre-
judicial information
which lawyers in a case
should not release to
press
- Encourages court and law
enforcement to follow
similar rules to avoid
prejudice to accused
- Basic facts about crimes
comitted should be re-
leased promptly to the
press
- Press free to publish in-
formation obtained on their
own
Conviction and Confinement
• Penal Code California
4OOO - County Jails
- Persons charged with
crime and committed for
trial
- Detention to secure their
attendance as witnesses in
criminal cases
- Persons coaoitted for con-
tempt, or upon civil pro-
cess
- Persons sentenced to im-
prisonment therein upon
conviction for a .crime
(B1-S-G3-3-4-Y-N)
• Penal Code California
4001 - County Jails
County jails must provide
separate rooms for persons:
- Committed on criminal pro-
cess and detained for
trial 5
- Already convicted and held
under sentence
- Detained as witness for
civil process or contempt
- Males separately from
females
(B2-S-G3-3-7-N-N)
o Penal Code California
2920
- Time credit reductions
from term of confinement
for good behavior
(B4-S-G3-3-5-T-H)
• In 1972, State Supreme
Court held the death
penalty unconstitutional.
January 1974, a limited
death penalty in effect
now
(B4-S-G2-3-4-T-N)
B-80
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Criminal Justice Process
Basle Need/Threshold
Just Treatment for the
Accused
Security
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
• Right to a speedy, public
trial
(H2-F-G1-1-7-N-N)
• Art. I. Sec. 7. Calif. Const.
- In civil actions three
fourths of a Jury may
render a verdict. Need 12
jurors unless both parties
agree to less.
(H2-S-C1-1-7-N-N)
• Bail Reform Act • Bail Reform Act
- A person may be released on - Discourages use of money
his personal recognizance,
or by putting up bail in
the amount specified by the
judicial officer. Excep-
tions include crimes
punishable by death
(H2-F-G1-3-7-N-N)
bail requiring judge to
seek other means to in-
sure defendant would
appear at his trial
(H3-F-G1-3-7-N-N)
• Article 4. Sec. 2. U.S. Const.
- A person must return to the
state having jurisdiction of
the crime
(H2-F-G1-3-7-Y-N)
• 8th Amendment, U.S. Const.
- Excessive bail shall not be
required, nor excessive
fines be imposed, nor cruel
and unusur-i punishments
inflicteu
(H2-F-G1-3-7-N-N)
• 5th Amendment, U.S. Const.
- Guarantees that a person
cannot be tried before
Federal or state court
more than once for the
same crime
(H2-F-G1-3-4-Y-N)
* With the passing of the Legal
Aid Bill, Legal Services
lawyers are no longer per-
mitted to file actions in
connection with desegregation,
o
labor or abortion cases
B-81
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Criminal Justice Process (continued)
H
Basic Heed/Threshold
Conviction and Confinement
Security
Equal Access
• Adult Authority Head
Calif. 1975
- New" policy for immediate
granting of tentative
parole dates to majority
of California's 25,000
convicts within 1 year's
time
(H2-S-G3-3-1-Y-Y)
* 1971 plan to control
violence in prisons, 707.
of the convicts received
parole dates, compared to
1974 when only 207. received
parole dates
• MAC Corrections Standard 5.4
- Prompt confinement of pro-
bationers who exhibit
behavior that is a serious
threat to themselves and
others
(H2-F-G3-3-5-Y-N)
Ability to Influence
* 5 year follow-up studies
indicate that about one-
half of the inmates re-
leased from correctional
institutions in California
do not return
* Nearly 907. of men and women
released from correctional
institutions and camps are
required to undergo a
period of parole supervision
* More than 2,000 private
citizens volunteers are in
institution and parole
programs
• Drug prevention grant offer-
ing women prisoners communi-
cation classes and chance to
narrate TV public service
announcements on drugs,
child abuse, and jobs for
ex-convicts
11
B-82
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
Criminal Justice Process
REFERENCES FOR OBJECTIVE (*) AND SUBJECTIVE (+) DATA
1. * American Bar Association, American Criminal Law Review (Fall 1974).
2. + Louis Harris and Associates Poll (1970).
3. * Sourcebook of Criminal Justice (1970).
4. * California Corrections Program Summary.
5.. * American Bar Association, op. cit.
6. + Gallup Poll (1974).
7. + Gallup Poll (1970).
8. * "Legal Agencies Face Changes," San Francisco Chronicle (5 August 1974),
9. * "New Head of Adult Authority Changes in Parole," San Francisco
Chronicle,(18 February 1975) .
10. * California Department of Corrections, Programs and Security Control.
11. * Ibid.
12. * Ibid.
B-83
-------
SECTOR: SOCIAL
FREEDOM TO BE
H,
Only the HIGHER issues
and concerns were considered
Threshold Level
Security
SELF EXPRESSION
• Freedom of
- worship
- liberty of conscience
- speech
- press
- assembly
(H1-F-G1-1-4-Y-N)
+ Twice as many Americans
believe religion is in-
creasing its influence
on society - 317. today
to 14* in 1970X
• Supreme Court Ruling (1974)
on Obscenity
- Local, not national,
standards apply in judg-
ing whether books and
movies cross the obscen-
ity line
(H1-F-G1-3-4-Y-N)
• Disturbing the Peace
• Nudity
- Forbidden in public
places*
(H1-S-G1-3-4-Y-N)
• Cigarettes & Alcoholic
Beverages Lavs - age
requirements
- Anyone 18 years and
over may purchase
cigarettes
- Anyone 21 and over may
purchase alcoholic
beverages
(H1-S-G3-3-4-Y-N)
• Use of drugs prohibited
(H1-S-G3-2-4-Y-N)
• U.S. Constitution - Art. I
- All citizens have the
right to the freedom of
speech, press, assembly,
petition and religion
(H2-F-G1-1-4-Y-N)
• U.S. Constitution- Amend-
ment I - Rellelous Freedom
- No law can be made to
establish an official
church for all Americans
or prohibit free exercise
thereof
(H2-F-G1-1-7-Y-N)
• U.S. Constitution - Art. VI
- A person's religious
beliefs are no indication
of his patriotism, his
ability, or right to
serve his country
(H2-F-G1-2-4-Y-N)
• California Penal Code 653
- Obscene telephone calls
with the intent to annoy
another person
• California Penal Code - 314
Nudity
- Forbids public exposure
of private parts of
people
- Assisting any person to
expose himself
- Partaking in any model
artist exhibition
- Exciting people by
vicious or lewd acts
(H2-S-G3-3-4-Y-N)
• California Supreme Court
7 Ruled unanimously that
nudity,^or nudity for the
purpose of sexual excita-
tion does not constitute
Che crime of indecent ex-
posure in California. It
Is considered a public
nuisance rather than a
heinous crime
Eoual Access
Ability to Influence
national Labor Relations
Act
- Allows certain employees
to present their griev-
ances to their employers
(H*-F-Gl-3-Y-N)
Fair Credit Report Act
of 1971
- Law requires credit re-
porting firms to dis-
close most of the Inform-
ation In their files to
consumer (medical data
may be withheld)
(H4-F-G3-1-4-Y-Y)
• California Penal Code
3185-6
- City and county ordi-
nances may set degree
of nudity allowed in
public performances
and nudity of employees
of an eating and/or
drinking establishment
(H4-S-G2-3-4-Y-N)
(H2-S-G1-3-4-Y-N)
B-84
-------
SECTOR: SOCIAL
FREEDOM TO BE (continued)
«l
Threshold Level
Prostitution
• Prostitution is currently
a crime in every state
except Nevada. The
statutes explicitly apply
only to females, ignoring
the fact that males and
homosexuals can be
prostitutes
(H1-S-G3-3-4-Y-N)
Security
• Mann Act of 1910
- Prohibits interstate
transportation of women
for immoral purposes
(H2-S-G3-3-3-4-Y-N)
• California Penal Code 266
- Protects female minors
from being enticed for
prostitution
- An adult female without
consent
- Compel a female to live
illicitly with another
nan and receive money
for this
- To sell females for
illicit use
- Place wife in a house of
prostitution
(H2-S-G3-3-4-Y-N)
* In 57 cities over 250,000
population, there were
45,416 arrests for pros-
titution and commercial
vice in 19712
• California Penal Code
- It is a felony to entice
an unmarried, minor fe-
male of previous chaste
character, or take a
woman without her consent
for the purpose of pros-
titution
(H2-S-G3-3-4-Y-N)
+ The courts have said that
arbitrary and unfair law
enforcement under the
vagrancy and loitering
statutes is opposite to
concepts of due process,
equal protection and indivi-
dual liberty3
Equal Access
• California Penal Code 647
- It is not illegal to be
a prostitute, but if
apprehended while solicit-
ing or engaging in pros-
titution, she may be
prosecuted as a vagrant
under disorderly conduct
statute
(H3-S-G3-3-3-Y-N)
+ Judicial ruling that male
clients of prostitutes can
be arrested along with
prostitutes. Merely citing
the men caught with women
violates the women's.civil
rights (Calif. 1975)
Ability to Influence
• Red Light Abatement Act
- Considers a place of
prostitution as a nuis-
ance and outlines pro-
cedures to close it down
(H4-S-G1-3-4-Y-N)
- Nationwide organization
numbering 8,500. A coali-
tion of prostltues, ex-
prostitutes and friends.
Goal is not to legalize
but to decriminalize
prostitution
• American Civil Liberties
Union
+ Attutudes regarding how
police should react to
vice/gambling, nationwide,
79J women, 70% men thought
they should stop inter-
fering®
PROTECTION OF PRIVACY
• 4th Amendment - U. S.
Constitution
- Search and seizure provi-
sions
(H1-F-G3-3-4-Y-N)
• California Penal Code 1523
- Requires a search warrant
in order to search pri-
vatly owned property
(H2-S-G3-3-4-Y-N)
B-85
• U.S. 388 (1971)
- Civil relief in the
form of money damages
awarded for gross in-
trusion of person's home
by federal narcotics
agents
(H4-F-G2-4-Y-N)
-------
SECTOR: SOCIAL
FREEDOM TO BE (continued)
H,
hreshold Level
- Security
H3
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
Protection of Privacy
(continued)
+ Olms tead v. U.S.-277 (1920)
- "The right to be let
alone" ie the most com-
prehensive of rights and
most valued by civilized
sum (Justice Brandels)
- Detention of a defend-
ant's mail by Post
Muter pending conclu-
sion of statutory pro-
ceedings
- Only after authority
of the Post Master
General or a person
holding a search war-
rant, authorized by law,
may open any letter or
parcel of first class
(H1-S-G3-2-4-V-H)
• California Penal Code 630
- Prohibits wire tapping
(H2-S-G3-4-Y-N)
* Great majority of police
searches and seizures are
made without a search
warrant, but within recog-
nized exceptions to 4th
Amendment requirement
• California Civil Code 4006
* Obscene, lewd matter,
things, device is unlaw-
ful to send in the mall
(H2-S-G3-1-4-Y-N)
• California Civil Code -
Title 18
- Protection of personal
and all other mail from
being embezzled by a
postal worker
(H2-S-G3-1-4-Y-N)
.* Omnibus Crime Control Act
- Prohibits private elec-
tronic surveillance and
strict limitations by
public law enforcement
personnel
s U.S. Code 4057
- Upon the approval of the
Postmaster General,
first class mail may be
opened
(H4-F-G1)
• Sexual Freedoms
Legal bans against sexual
activities:
- Between two persons of
opposite sex in marriage
(e.g., anal, oral)
- Between two persons of
tame sex (homosexuality,
lesbianism
• Proposed Reforms-Homo-
sexual
- Private consensual sex
acts between persons
over the age of consent
shall not be offenses
- Solicitation for any
sexual act shall not
be an offense except
upon the filing of a
complaint by the
aggrieved party, not a
police officer or
agent
• Proposed Reforms for Homo-
sexuals
- Neither the police de-
partment nor any other
government agency shall
keep files solely for
the purpose of identify-
ing homosexuals
- The practice of harrass-
ing bars and other
establishments and of
revoking their licenses
because they cater to
homosexuals cease
B-86
• Homosexual Organizations
- Society for Individual
Rights
- Gay Information Center
- Whitman Radclyffe Founda-
tion
- Daughters of Bllltls
• AB 489 - 1975 (California)
- Legal bans against many
sexual activities be-
tween consenting adults
would be removed if this
bill passes
(H4-S-G1-3-1-Y-N)
• Amendment to 1964 and 1968
Civil Rights Acts before
Congress to strengthen
the rights of homosexuals
(1975)
-------
SECTOR: SOCIAL
FREEDOM TO BE (continued)
H!
Threshold Level
Proposed Reforms - Homo-
sexual (continued)
- A person's sexual
orientation or practice
shall not be a factor
In the granting or re-
newing of federal secur-
ity clearance, visas, and
the granting of citizen-
ship
- Service in and dis-
charge from the armed
forces and eligibility
to VA benefits shall
be without reference
to homosexuality
- A person's sexual •.
orientation or practice
shall not affect his
eligibility for employ-
ment with federal,
state or local govern-
aents (Society for
Individual Rights)
Security
Proposed Reforms for Homo-
sexuals (continued)
- The registration of sex-
offenders shall not be
required
- City ordinances involv-
ing sexual matters shall
be rescinded and these
matters left to state
legislators (Society
for Individual Rights)
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
B-87
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
Freedom to Be
REFERENCES FOR OBJECTIVE (*) AND SUBJECTIVE (+) DATA
1. + Gallup Poll
2. * Social Indicators, 1973, U.S. Dept. of Commerce
3. + Coyote publication, October 1974
4. * Court Ruling, March 1975 (California) S. F. Chronicle
5. + Criminal Victimization in the U.S., P. H. Ennis
6. * Olmstead v US 277, U.S. Supreme Court
7. * Right to be Let Alone, report by Santa Clara University
B-88
-------
SECTOR: SOCIAL
ISSUE: Family
threshold Level
MARRIAGE
• Marriage Is a recognized
Institution which estab-
lishes a family
+ Disagree that marriage
la becoming obsolete:
Noncollege youth - 627.
College youth - 67%
+ Looking forward to being
legally married:
Noncollege youth - 487.
College youth - 53%
+ 851 white respondents
felt marriage was
happier if there were
children, only 87. men
and 6% women believed
it Is happier without
children (Gallup Poll
1973)3
+ Activities thought
morally wrong:
Noncollege College
Youth Yoi.ith
1973 - 1969 1973 - 1969
Abortion
48% - 637. 327. - 36%
Relations between con-
senting homosexuals
471 - 72% 25% - 42%
«
Casual premarital sex
34% - 58% 22% - 34%
* The largest missing per-
sons detective agency in
the country reports that
this year, for the first
time, it is searching for
more wives (1,136) than
husbands (989) who have
run away from
Security
Equal Access
Marriage is a solemn com-
mitment between a man and
a woman only to be broken
by legal action
• Eligibility for Marriage
• Any person who Is 18 or
older may consent to
marry. Minors must have
consent of parents and
court. Both parties must
pass a syphilis test
(B3-S-G3-3-7-Y-M)
Ability to Influence
• California Civil Code 4201
- Persons under 18 must
have the consent of their
parents and the court to
marry
(B4S-G3-3-7-Y-N)
• California Civil Code 4205 • California Civil Code 4201
- Marriage solemnized by
Judge, commissioner, of
a court of record or
justice, priest, minis-
ter or rabbi, all of
whom are 18 or older
(B2-S-G3-3-7-Y-N)
- Obtain a license and pre-
sent certificate stating
that both parties have
passed a test, within last
30 days for syphilis.
Women must also have bad
a test for rubella
(B3-S-G3-3-7-Y-N)
The state of marriage only
applies to a man and woman
of 18 years of age or older
• Some geographical areas
prohibit interracial
marriages
• California Civil Code 4213
- When unmarried rsons,
not minors, hav.. been
living together, they
may, without a license,
be married by a clergyman
without obtaining health
certificates
(B3-S-G3)
• California Civil Code 5101
- Husband is the head of
the family. He may
, choose any reasonable
place or mode of living
and the wife must con-
form thereto. Repealed
effective Jan. 1975
(inconsistent with the
Equal Rights Amendment)
(B3-S-G1-3-7-Y-N)
• Courts - legal action
• California State Commis-
sion for the Status of
Women
-I- Institute for Social
Research Study 1972-73
Satisfied with their lives-
married, bet. 18 and 29
with no children—women
80%, men 72%; married,
over 29 with no children—
women 68%, men 75%;
married, youngest child
bet. 5 and 17—women 68%,
men, 65%. Least satis-
fied—divorced women 327.,
men 42% 6
* In 1974, for the first
time in 16 years, the U.S.
marriage rate declined to
10.5 per 1000 population,
a decrease of 3.77.. Di-
vorces rose 4.5% to 4.6%
per 1000 population 7
+ Fewer than 1/2 of non-
college women to 2/3 of
those in college believe
that women are discrimin-
ated against and that
"women's place is in the
home" is nonsense: age
group--16 to 25--1974
(Opinion Research Organi-
zation)6
+ Against having children
outside formal marriage:
Minority youth - 44%
White youth - 61%
-------
SECTOR: SOCIAL
ISSUE: Family
B,
Threshold Level
Security
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
California Penal Code
269A
- Every person who lives
in a state of cohabita-
tion and adultery is
guilty of a misdemeanor
which is punishable by
o f
-------
SECTOR: SOCIAL
ISSUE: Family
"l
Threshold Level
Security
MARRIAGE
• Depository Institution Act
Amendment 1974 Equal Credit
Act
- When a creditor falls to
comply, an aggrieved
applicant may Institute
civil action for pre-
ventive relief
(H2-F-G1-3-4-Y-N)
Equal Access
• Depository Institutions Act
Amendment 1974 - Equal
Credit Act
- Prohibits discrimination
based on sex or marital
status for consumer
credit or extensions of
credit
(H3-F-G1-3-4-Y-N)
* Fewer than 20% of U.S.
colleges and universities
provide family planning
services for their stu-
dents according to surveys
of nearly 3000 institu-
tions made by National
Center for Health
Statistics16
Ability to Influence
• Bead Start Program Day
Care Centers for pre-
school welfare children
* Licensed non-profit day
care centers for pre-
school children of work-
Ing mothers increased
from 3.8 million in 1960
to 6 million in 1970.
In 1962, Federal grants
became available to
states and localities.
Between 1962 and 1965,
$5 million were devoted
to improvement of state
licensing and standardsl7
* According to the Labor
Statistics Bureau, of the
4.6 million mothers who
had children under 6 and
were in the labor force
in 1970, 2.3 million had
children aged 3, 4, or 5
with none under 3, and
the same number had less
than 3-year olds
18
The American Bar Associa-
tion has called on all
states to eliminate exist-
ing legal restrictions on
access to contraceptive
information, procedures
and supplies
B--91
-------
SECTOR: SOCIAL
ISSUE: Children
B,
Threshold Level
Security
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
CHILDREN
• When a child Is no longer
• child--males and fe-
males 18 years and older
California Constitution -
Amendment IX - Protection
of Privacy
- A state cannot Interfere
with the decision of a
pregnant women and her
physician to terminate
pregnancy by abortion
during first 3 months
(B1-S-G3-1-7-Y-N)
In 1)61. 6.11 of women
aged 18 to 24 expected to
have one child in their
lifetime; 1973 the per-
centage has risen to
9.61, an increase of more
than 501 19
• Welfare & Institutions
Code 8254
- Provides for steriliza-
tion of certain Inhab-
itants of mental
hospitals
(B2-S-G3-3-1-Y-N)
• Children's Rome Society
and other state operated
organizations provide care
for unwed mothers and
illegitimate children
(B2-S-HG1)
* In 1969, 10* of all
births in the country
were illegitimate, 291
were to girls 19 or
younger out of wedlock?0
* Two thirds of the births
to low income mothers
occur in city and county
hospitals, and one third
are financed by Medicaid
in voluntary hospitals.
The average cost per
pregnancy is $97I21
• Law 290 - Attorney Gen-
eral-1970
- Non-therapeutic steril-
ization of prisoners Is
allowed with Informed
consent of prisoner
(B2-S-G3-3-1-Y-N)
• Callfomi-r. Civil Code 34.6
- Sterilization operations
cannot be performed on
minors without parental
consent
(B3-S-G3-3-1-Y-N)
* California 1973 - More
than one-fourth of the
babies born to white teen-
agers and nearly three-
fourths to black teens
were illegitimate (up
from 16.71 and 52.37. In
1966)22
• Health & Safety Code 1225 • Birth Control
- Voluntary sterilization
Is legal. Clinics and
hospitals that perform
sterilization operations
can't Impose non-medical
requirements such as age,
marital status and number
of children for contra-
ceptive purposes
(B-3-S-G3-7-Y-N)
* For all races, the non-
marital birthrate among
15-19 year olds, fell from
24.71 In 1970 to 22.27. in
1971 per 1,000 unmarried
women In the 15 states
that enacted abortion
reform Iaws23
• California Civil Code 34.5
- A minor, regardless of
age, may obtain an aborr
tion without parental
consent. Abortions are
covered by states' wel-
fare program through
Medi-Cal with prior okay
from Department of
Health Care Services and
must be performed in
hospitals
(B3-S-G3-3-7-Y-N)
B-92
• Abortion Requirements
- Abortion is available to
women of all ages,
including minors
• Sterilization Requirement
- Anyone of legal age and
minors with consent of
parents
(B4-S-G3)
• Welfare and Institutions
Code 14010
- The parents of a child
under 21 shall not be
held financially respons-
ible for health care or
related services which
child may consent under
express provision of law
(abortion, pregnancy,
treatment for VD)
(B4-S-G3-3-7-Y-N)
• Welfare Reform Ace - 1971
- Family planning services
to all former, current
or potential recipients
of chlldbearing age,
15-44, Inclusive, with-
out regard to marital
status, age or parent-
hood. Minors do not need
consent of parents
(B4-S-G3)
• California Government Code
26808
- Law requires county
clerk's or marriage
license bureaus make
available a list of
county birth control
clinics when applying
for marriage license
• California Civil Code 34.5
Therapeutic Abortion Law-
1967
- Three grounds: to protect
physical and mental
health of mother; rape;
and incest
-------
SECTOR: SOCIAL
ISSUE: Children (continued)
Threshold Level
Security
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
CHILDREN
* In 1972, there were more
than 200,000 unwanted
births among teenagers
nationally (Institute
for Family Research gc
Education)24
• California Civil Code
- In most cases of divorce
women are awarded cus-
tody of the children and
husbands are ordered to
pay child support until
they reach 18 years
(B2-S-G2-3-Y-N)
* Across the nation, accord-
ing to U.S. Census Bureau,
9 million children under
age 18 are being raised
by one parent only—more
than 8 million by mothers,
800,000 by fathers25
* SOS of all child support
payments ordered by the
courts are never made
.26
• 1974 - Abortion is decision
solely between a woman and
her doctor—up to 20th week
of pregnancy
• Dept. of Social Welfare
- Has not issued regula-
tions advising local wel-
fare departments how to
comply with the law re-
garding sterilization—
final decision rests
with Courts
* End of 1973, unmarried,
unemancipated girls 18
years old could consent to
their own contraceptive
services in 41 states, and
with no age restrictions
in 22 states (Family Plan-
ning Digest)27
* State Department of Health-
the number of legal abor-
tions has risen from 5,000
in 1968 to more than
136,000 in 197228
+ Abortion—517. in favor,
49% opposed—better edu-
cated 2 to 1 in favor of
abortions during first
3 months--non-whites and
Catholics most opposed
(Gallup Poll—Nov. 1974)29
• Women's Liberation Groups
* Based on number of women
enrolled in federally
funded family planning
programs during 1966-71,
the number of births
averted was between
614,000 and 874,000.
Estimated $174 million
was spent on family
planning
30
B-93
-------
SECTOR: SOCIAL
ISSUE: Children (continued)
Threshold Level
Security
CHILDREN
Adoption
• Requirements for adoption:
- Consent of child over 12
years
- Adoptive parent must be
10 years older than per-
son to be adopted
- Consent of parents needed
for legitimate children
- Comprehensive review of
prospective parents by
county adoption agency
- Required waiting time
before legal petition foi
adoption: infant, 6
months, older child 8
months
(B2-S-C2)
* Average waiting period for
Infan^ 3 months to 1 1/2
years; older child, 1 to
8 months31
* Number of visits from
social worker before court
petition: 2 visits to home
and office before child is
In home and 4 visits after32
* In last 5 years, complete)?
adoptions have decreased
501 despite 30,000 adop-
Equal Access
Requirements to adopt--A
married couple, 23 years
or older, married for 2
years or more. Must not be
older than 36 to adopt an
infant.
- Not necessary to own
their homes
- Adoptive parents are
eligible for state
financial aid if they
adopt a handicapped child
(B3-S-G3-3-7-Y-N)
Ability to Influence
* Increasing tendency for
young unmarried mothers to
keep their babies. The
number of babies adopted by
nonrelatives In California
between 1967-1968 and 1971-
1972 fell from 11,257 to
5,807
36
• California Civil Code 224m • California Civil Code 224m
- A minor parent has the
right to put child up
for adoption
(B3-S-G3)
- A minor parent has the
right to put child up
for adoption
An application fcr adoption
which has been rejected can
be contested to supervisor
of the agency who may
assign a new social worker
to the couple
New abortion laws and Hedl-
Cal abortion services
tion requests a year
33
* In 1965. the Children's
Hone Society, private adop-
tion agency, placed 500
children a year; in 1974
they placed 6934
* Families most Interested In
adopting handicapped
children are apt to have
Incomes under $20,000 and
live In rural areas39
e Aid to the Adoption of
Special Kids (AASK)
- Foundation serving as
clearinghouse bringing
prospective parents and
hard to adopt children
together
• County Adoption Agencies
- Investigate prospective
parents to qualify for
adopting children
-------
SECTOR: SOCIAL
ISSUE: Children
»1
Threshold Level
CHILDREN
Security
• California Civil Code 224
- Legitimate child cannot
be adopted without con-
sent of parents
(B2-S-G3)
* AASK has placed 150 hard-
to-adopt children, nation-
wide in the last 6 months
(1974)37
Foster Children
• Welfare & Institution Code-
Sec.600 - Foster Children:
- Declared dependents of
the juvenile court
- Voluntarily placed by
parents with county wel-
fare departments
(B2-S-C3-3-7-Y-N)
* 58% of 30,000 foster
children in California
were shifted around to 2
or more foster hotnss,
32t placed in 3 or more.
When declared independent
by the courts, a child
averaged 4 1/2 years in
foster care 38
* There are 40,000 foster
children in California.
Survey covering the 31,300
under AFDC program showed
1205 increase in last 10
years (1974) 39
* Foster care rates set by
counties range from $98
to $160 per month *°
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
Child Abuse
• Penal Code California
(1968) '
- Reporting child abuse is
mandatory and provides
immunity from legal
action to person making
report
(B2-S-G3-3-1-Y-N)
• Child Abuae Prevention
and Treatment Act- 1974
- Created the National
Center in Child Abuse
and Neglect, Office of
Child Development (OCD)
(B2-F-G1-3-1-Y-N)
B-95
• National Center in Child
Abuse and Neglect (OCD)
Law directs the center to:
- Compile and publish train-
ing materials
- Develop and establish
training programs for
personnel
- Training programs for
children and persons
responsible for welfare
of children
-------
SECTOR: SOCIAL
ISSUE: Children
Threshold level
Security
CHILDREN
(Child Abuse) continued
• Reporting child abuse to
the Child Protective
Services, Division of
County Welfare Department,
and to the head of Police
Department, the Sheriff,
or the District Attorney
(B2-S-G3-3-7-Y-K)
* Estimates indicate that
74,000 to 90,000, or about
1 child in every 100 under
18 years of age are abused.
Hundreds of thousands more
are physically, mentally,
and emotionally scarred
each year 41
* Studies indicate that abus-
ing parent most often was
an abused child *2
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
• Influential child abuse
groups in major cities in
California:
- The Child and Family Pro-
ject (San Francisco)
- Friends of the Family
(Los Angeles)
- Department of Social
Services—Department of
Mental Health (San Diego)
- Parents Anonymous (10
groups in Los Angeles
area)
• TALK - Telephone Aid in
Living with Kids (Bay Area)
- Hot Line to help parents
talk out aggressions be-
fore they start hitting.
Funded for three years by
Junior League--staffed by
60 volunteers—open 8 to
midnight--? days a week.
B--96
-------
SECTOR: SOCIAL
ISSUE: Children (continued)
Threshold Level
Security
CHILDREN
Sex Education
• California Constitution IV
- Prescribes "moral im-
provement as one of
principal purposes of
public schools
• Sex Education (Health and
Family
- It is legal to teach in
California, but certain
conditions are set for
teaching grades 1
through 12. Subjects
covered are health, edu-
cation, human sexuality,
and family life
education
(H2-S-G3)
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
• Education Code of Cali-
fornia 8507 - 1972
- Elementary and secondary
schools may offer VD
education with assist-
ance from State Depart-
ment of Education.
Grade level determined
by school district
board
(H2-S-G3)
• Education rode of Cali-
fornia- 1091
- Parent of each pupil to
be enrolled in venereal
disease education
classes shall be noti-
fied in vriting at
least 15 days prior to
commencement of class .
Also advise them of
their right to inspect
material to be used and
request that their child
not attend
• Education Code of Cali-
fornia-8506-Schmitz Act
- No pupil may be requir-
ed to attend a class in
which reproductive
organs, their functions,
and processes are de-
scribed. If such
classes are offered,
parent must be notified
in writing. Parental
consent is not required
only a note from those
who don't want their
child to attend
Education Code of Call-
fornia-1091
- No pupil may attend class
in VD education if a
request that he not attend
has been received by the
school
• Ediieation Code of Cali-
fornia-8506
- Parents shall be noti-
fied they can inspect
material to be used in
sex education classes
B-97
(H2-S-G3)
-------
SECTOR: SOCIAL
ISSUE: Children (continued)
*!
Threshold Level
CHILDREN
Security
Sex Education (continued)
• Education Code of Cali-
fornla-13301
- When needed, school
districts may employ
lecturers, not required
to hold credentials, to
teach sex education
• State Board of Education
Resolution - 1969
- Earliest instruction
relative to human re-
production not to be
introduced prior to
age 9
• Sex Education - ECC 13132.5
- Minimum requirements for
teaching credential, com-
pletion of 1 unit of
health education on the
effects of alcohol, nar-
cotics , drugs and tobacco
• Education Code of Cali-
fornia S701
- Child may be excused
from sex education in-
struction by reason of
religious beliefs
* In survey of 1,100 teen
wor n, sex education was one
of the needs not met--blacks
- 44%, Mexican Americans -
66%, and whites - 38%
(YWCA) 43
* Legislature finds and de-
clares incidence of venereal
disease in California has
reached epidemic proportions
(AB 71 - 1972) 44
* The gonorrhea rate in Cali-
fornia has risen 1321 in the
last 6 years 45
* During calendar year 1973,
there was one case of
gonorrhea for every 87 boys
and girls aged 15 to 19 In
H3
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
Criteria used to rate
film*
- nudity
- language
- violence
• Rating guide for motion pic-
tures X-rated, PG, restricted,
etc., aids parents to deter-
mine the range of material
likely to be seen in a film
and if suitable for minors
to see
B-98
FTT received a $46.9
million appropriation from
Senate and House Committee
to take action to protect
children from excessive
programming of violence
and obscenity on television
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
Family REFERENCES FOR OBJECTIVE (*) AND SUBJECTIVE (+) DATA
1. + The New Morality, A Profile of American Youth in the 70' s, D. Yankelovich
2. + State of the Nation, Watts and Free, 1974
3. + Gallup Poll - 1974
4. + Gallup Poll - 1974
5. * Tracers Co. of America, San Francisco Chronicle,, March 2, 1975
6. * State of Calif., Dept. of Health, Registrar of Vital Statistics
rj -j. " " IT II IT TI I!
8 * Institute for Social Research Study, 1972-73
9. * HEW 1974 Statistics
10. + Opinion Research Organization (State of the Nation)
11. + The New Morality, A Profile of American Youth in the 70fs
12. =1= Registrar of Vital Statistics (State of Calif.)
13. + The New Morality
14. * U.S. Census Bureau
15. *
16A * New York Times, Jan. 25, 1975
16. * Census Bureau
17. * Hat'l Center for Health Statistics, Family Planning Perspectives 1974
18. * HEW - Day Care Centers booklet, 1974
19. * Bureau of Labor Statistics (State of the Nation)
20. * U.S. Census Bureau, 1974
21. * Family Planning Perspectives, Summer 1974 - Vol. 6
22 *
23. * " " " Fall 1974
24. * Institute for Family Research and Education
25. * Family Planning Perspectives, Summer 1974 - Vol 6
26. * " " " , September 1974
27. * U.S. Census Bureau
28. * Legal Assistance Foundation, San Francisco (S.F. Chronicle article)
B-99
-------
(Continued)
SOCIAL SECTOR
Children
29. * Adoption information obtained from San Mateo County Adoption Center
and Children's Home Society
30. * San Francisco Chronicle - 1-28-75 on Adoption
34. * State Dept. of Health - Family Planning magazine
35 + Gallup Poll, November 1974
36. + Gallup Poll, 1974
37. * Family Planning Digest
38. *
39- * S.F. Chroncile, AASK Foundation article, 1975
40. * The Family Protection Act of 1975
41. * " " " "
42. * "
43 * Hearings on Child Prevention Act, 1973, Senate Comm. on Children & Youth
44. * Rights of Children, 1972, Senate Hearings, Child Abuse and Day Care
45. + Attention is Needed, Action is Called For, Nat'l YWCA Resource Center on
Women, 1974
46 *
47> *
48. * American Social Health Association, 3-3-75
B-100
-------
SOCIAL SECTOR
Bibliography
Equality of Education Opportunity Survey, mandated by PL 93-380, Title I
of Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965.
Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget,
Social Indicators, 1973.
Gallup Poll, "Public Attitudes Toward Education" (1974).
Gatov, Elizabeth R., ed., Sex Code of California, A Compendium, Public
Education and Research Committee of California (1973).
Markley, 0. "The Normative Structure of Knowledge Production and Utilization:
Interim Report," Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, California
(December 1974)
Mayeski, George et al., "study of Achievement of Our Nation's Students,"
Report (OE) 72-131, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
Washington, D.C. (1973).
Palo Alto Unified School District Board Policy.
State of California, Constitution.
, California Education Codes.
"Framework for Health Instructions in California Public Schools,
Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve," Department of Education (1970).
"Project Arise - Reform of Intermediate and Secondary Education,
Department of Education (1974).
Sullivan, J.,California Supreme Court majority opinion in Serrano v. Priest,
California Official Reports, No. 25 (14 September 1971).
Thomas, T. and J. Danner, "Definitions of Equal Educational^Opportunity
and Their Policy Implications: Interim Working Draft," Stanford
Research Institute, Menlo Park, California (March 1974).
U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, "Head Start - Policies
and Instructions Manual," Office of Child Development (September 1967)
B-101
-------
4. Political
The political sector has been broken down into five major issues:
civil liberties, citizen participation, honesty in government, access to
information, and public protection (internal and external). The first
issue, civil liberties, as defined by the QOL study, includes the basic
freedoms of U.S. citizens to exercise the rights inherent in the Consti-
tution. Citizen participation includes three subissues: the right to
vote, right to hold office, along with other forms of participation such
as community involvement. Honesty in government is the need for honest
and fair representation to be exercised by all elected officials and civil
employees. The fourth issue, access to information, means citizen access
to all government opinions, rules, and reports. The last issue in this
sector, public protection, covers standards ensuring safety against ex-
ternal aggression, insurrection and natural disasters. These issues and
specific concerns were determined by the criteria set forth in the section
on methodology in the report.
The subissue, right to vote, was selected as a representative concern
to detail the political sector for various reasons:
• First of all, there are specific standards relating to
registration and voting functions, many of these differ-
ing from state to state.
• Registration and voting standards also have quantitative
indicators which are reflected in available objective and
subjective data.
• And, finally, the subissue, right to vote, was selected
because of the relevance of the vote in a democratic
system.
B-103
-------
Standard
Objective Data
Subjective Data
SECTOR: POLITICAL
B.
lThres
i hold
2
Security
CITIZEN PARTICIPATION
- Right to vote
- Right to bold office
- Other forms of
participation
«. California Beterendums
- Must have at least 5% of
votes in last guberna-
torial election for
rejection of a statute
- For amendments must have
S% of vote in last
gubernatorial election
- Referendum measure for
an amendment must be
presented 90 days after
enactment of the statute
with 5* pf the vote to the
Secretary of State
• To Vote in Presidential
Elections
- 18 years old
j - SO-day residency re-
quirement
* Absentee voting 7 days
prior to election and
return of ballot by
close of polls
• Public Law 89-110
- Protects against the pas-
sing of any law by any
state that will Infringe
the citizen's right to
vote on account of race,
sex, religion, national
origin
- 18 years old
- 3O-day residency
• To be a Representative
- Must be 25 years old and
7 years a United States
citizen
• Senator
• SO years old and 9 years
a United States citizen
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
• Voting Rights Act Amend-
ments of 1970
- Prohibits the use of
literacy testa as pre-
requisite for voting
- Allows for a person 18
years of age to vote
- Maximum 30-day residency
requirement
- Maximum absentee voting
requireuwjijL wl 7 uaya
prior to an election and
return of ballot by close
of polls
• Article IV, California
Constitution
• Public Law 93-443 Campaign
Reform Bill — 1974
- Required time for polls
to close will be 11 p.m.
in the East, 1O p.m. in
the Midwest, 9 p.m. In
the mountain states, S
p.m. In the West
• Article II, California i
Constitution
- Mentally deficient, in-
sane, convicted criminals
of Infamous crimes are
not allowed to vote
• Article I, California
Constitution, Section 24
- No pronerty ouallfications
to vote
• Public Law 89-110
- Local voting procedures
Imposed on account of
race prohibited
e Article I, United States
Constitution
- Each House will estab-
lish their Rules of
Proceedings, punish
members for bad beha-
vior and replace members
- Insures the right of clti- • XXIV Amendment, United
zens to use the referendum
and initiative
State Constitution
- Right to vote can' t be
denied by reason of
failure to pay any poll
tax or other tax
Article I, California
Constitution, Section 10
- Guaranteed right of peti-
tion to people
i Article' IV, California
Constitution, Section 23
- ftnnrantfiori n<*u"?r of th?
electors to propose
atatutes and amendments
to the Constitution and
to adopt or reject them
. XIV Amendment, United
States Constitution
— No state shall make or
enforce a law which shall
abridge the privileges
or immunities of citizens
of the United States
- Due process of law
guaranteed
• Lobbying Laws
- Federal
- State
• California Representation
- Must be 18 yrs old and
a citizen at the time
of the election to hold
a civil office
- (Primary Elections)
Requirements - Ca.
Party must have recei-
ved at least 2% of entire
vote of the state in pre-
ceding gubernatorial
•lection
- Or petition represen-
ting 10% of entire vote
in preceding gubernator-
ial election and received
before the 135th day be-
fore any election
- Party disqualified when
registration falls be-
low 1/15 of 1% of re-
gistered voters.
Article I, California
Constitution
- Ho property qualifica-
tions can be required
In order to vote
• California Elections Code,
Section 201 fc 204
• Civil Rights Act - 1964
Title VII
- Provides civil and cri-
minal remedies against
federal law enforcement
Officers who unjustifi-
ably deny an Individual
his civil rights
B-104
- Does not require a set
number of registration
places throughout each
county
• Hatch Act
- Prohibits political parti-
cipation for all Federal
employees other than
Secretaries of Departments:
V.P.s, etc.
• San Francisco Charter
- Prohibits political par-
ticipation for city
employees
-------
SECTOR: POLITICAL
Thre0hold
Security
CITIZEN PARTICIPATION (continued)
(Lobbying Laws, continued)
•Or petition representing
10% of entire vote
*nd received before
the 135th day be-
fore any election
-Party disqualified
when registration
falls below l/15tb
of 1% of registered
voter*
* Statistical Abstract
- Total voting age popula-
tion In 1972 equaled
136,803,000
Equal Acceaa
* Statistical Abstract of
the U.S. 1973
Total number who voted
by years of education
- 8 yr« of less - 47.4%
- 9-11 yrs - 52.0%
- 12 yrs - 65.4%
- 12 yrs + - 78.8%
California
- U.S. it State
Legislature - 11
- City fc County
Offices - 45
- Law Enforcement - 14
- Education - 60
Total 130
United States
- U.S. & State
Legislature - 256
- City fc County -
Offices - 1,264
- Law Enforce-
nent 334
- Education - 767
Total 2,621
Total Black elected
Officials (1970-1973)
* Percent who voted in
primaries
Ability to Influence
* Statistical Abstract of
the U.S. 1973
- Total Voting Age Popu-
lation who voted in
1972 in U.S. = 55.7%;
in Calif. - 605
f
" Women = 53% of the
voting population
- Percent of iemal.es wr.o
voted in 1972 = 625
- Percent of males who
voted in 1972 = 64.1%
- Total black vote equals
9.8% of the voter popu-
lation
Dniv. of Michigan. ISR
+ Your Independence or free-
don, the chance you have
to do what you want
+ The way other people
treat you (registra-
tion, public services)
Univ. of Michigan. ISR
+ The extent to which you
get what you are entitle
what is rightfully yours
+ Your opportunity to
change things around
you that you don't like
Statistical Abstract of
the U.S. 1973
* Total voting age popu-
lation between 18 and 20
years of age = 11,022,000
equaled 8% of total voting
age population
* Total 18-20 yrs who voted
5,318,000 equaled 48.3J
Univ. of Michigan. ISR
+ How discouraged are you
before you even register?
+ How Important is your vote?
•f The respect other people
have for your rights
+ Is voting more trouble
than It's worth
+ The extent to which you
get what you are entitled
to, what is rightfully
yours
Univ. of Michigan. ISR
Do you feel that you are
forced to earn the privi-
lege to vote?
B-105
-------
Thre
shold
Security
JEqual Access
Ability to Influence
CITIZEN PARTICIPATION
- Right to vote
- Right to hold office
- Other forms of
participation
» Art II Calif. Const.
- All elections are free
— Federal employees are
prohibited from active
campaigning
tCalif. Elections Code
- Calif. State employees
are prohibited from
political participation
other than voting
• Proposition 9, 1974 Laws
- $50 cash limit on pol.
donations in Calif, over
this must submit name,
address and money in
security check form
• Art II Calif. Const.
- Elections are free
» Hatch Act
- Prohibits pol. activity
on the part of federal
civil servants
• Calif. Const. Art II ,
- All voters are privi-
leged from arrest while
at or while going and re-
turning home from his poll-
ing place (excep- for
treason, felonies, and
breach of peace
• Calif. Elee. Code
Sec 203
- Registration will be in
effect at all times except
30 days before elec.
- Absentee reg. must be filed
7 days before election and
returned by close of polls
- Only party registered
voters may vote in primary
elections
Fed. Personal Manual
- All fed. employees are
allowed to be excused
up to one day in order
to vote, register,
Calif. Elec Code
See 14400
- All Calif, employees
are allowed to be excused
up to 2 hours with pay
in order to vote
B-106
-------
Voting, in theory, is the most influential action citizens can exer-
cise. The vote initially determined the system we now live under, and it is
our chosen democratic system which ultimately determines standards across
all the sectors.
How can we argue the right to vote as a basic need? In Maslow's
theory of a hierarchy of needs, basic needs include security needs along
with physiological needs. In Sullivan, 1971, the U.S. Supreme Court de-
fined the right to vote as a fundamental interest. The right to vote is
a safeguard for insuring the continued existence of democracy. Finally,
the vote is an essential prerequisite of a representative form of govern-
ment and is the primary means American citizens use to express and effect
their will.
B Column - Basic Need
Threshold
It was not until 1970 that a major election reform law was passed
to suspend the use of literacy and other tests and establish uniform stan-
dards for general elections throughout the United States. This law, re-
ferred to as "The Voting Rights Act Amendments of 1970," set a minimum age
requirement of 18, a 30-day residency requirement, absentee voting applica-
tion requirement of seven days prior to an election, and the return of the
ballot no later than the time of closing of the polls, as well as balloting
standards for all states to follow. Although the law set a uniform voting
age requirement for Presidential elections, it did not establish when a
person must be 18 in order to vote in primary elections. To participate
in a primary election, however, a voter in California must be 18 on the
day of the primary; whereas, in Indiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia, a voter may be 17
and vote in the primary election.
B-107
-------
Residency requirements cannot exceed 30 days for a Presidential
election. In California, a person must establish state, county, and pre-
cinct residency 30 days prior to an election, differing from Florida and
*
some other states which have no residency requirement.
Registration requirements for primary and general elections differ
a great deal among states. In California, a voter must register 30 days
before a primary election in order to vote. In Nebraska, a voter may wait
until the second Friday before the primary. Both states require a voter
to register in person.
Objective Data
• See list of requirements for age, residency and
registration deadlines by state on Table A.
• Percent of registered voters in California as com-
pared to percent registered in Nebraska.
Subjective Data
• Do you feel the voter registration laws discourage a
person's interest in trying to vote?
B Column - Security
Is the freedom to exercise opinion in the form of a vote protected
and insured for all U.S. citizens?
As U.S, citizens, our right to vote is guaranteed in the U,S. Consti
tution. Article 26, Sec. I, gives citizens who are 18 years of age or
older the right to vote. Article 19 protects citizens from being denied
Information supplied by the chief election officials and League of
Women Voters in 1974, 'Voter's Service, Citizen Alert."
B-108
-------
League of Women Voters of the United States
1730 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036
Pub. No. 522
The abbreviations used in the following table are:
b = absent on business
d = disabled persons
e = not absent, but prevented by employment from
voting at polling place
m = military personnel (including families)
r = absent for religious reasons
s = student s
t = temporarily out of county
FPCA = Federal Post Card Application form
B-109
-------
DATE BY WHICH A
RESIDENCE REQUIREMENTS
REGISTRATION DEADLINE
WHERE TO REGISTER
ALABAMA
ALAsToT
ARIZONA
ARKANSAS
CALIFORNIA
COLORADO
CONNECTICUT
DELAWARE
flORIDA
GEORGIA
HAWAII
IDAHO
IlllNOIS
INDIANA
IOWA
KANSAS
KENTUCKY
LOUISIANA
MAINE
MARYLAND
MASSACHUSETTS
MICHIGAN
MINNESOTA
MISSISSIPPI
MISSOURI
MONTANA
NEBRASKA
NEVADA
NEW HAMPSHIRE
NEW JERSEY
NEW MEXICO
NEW YORK
NORTH CAROLINA
NORTH DAKOTA
OHIO
OKLAHOMA
OREGON
PENNSYLVANIA
RHODE INLAND
SOUTH CAROLINA
SOUTH DAKOTA
TENNESSEE
TEXAS
UTAH
VERMONT
VlRfiitaA
WASHINGTON
WEST VIRGINIA
WISCONSIN
WYOMING
DC
PUERTO RICO
VIRGIN (SUNOS
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titr ttti DI Btr«' putitc pixi dciianiiee fcv
aHiticl. at tt pc" rtfMr 1»>
coorir» Ksutrti or (.if ;lt tH- e* fn*iid
cttict »* CMinti boj'd of tJtcngni
board of «l*c!iom oftitt ai a>i>$Mttd
ngifirattvit ptK«
iftantv ttcchoa ba* *nr atteul ttqnirtii
tthct
cM>t »a*H f«itf -*aiitrr>«fl ti *p«aut iiinti
locjl feeiid at ca«bMMn
CMM* tend at (otir nottnanM a(f>ci
otf at COnrfty lud'to) IBwnihip f> loi*n
dt-rk, at nurwippl dunci eflitti
CMMf alKiio* cemrntKan ottco BI win
prvcimt ri|.tlr»r
ceontr t» wit nc ' i^«:a< W IM/M' dtpalHH
cwMf mditatt e+1-c« daputv '•ajatian. city
& law* Mrki
altiM al d*n at tot count? CMI
•arwval dart 01 boaid ot ilacDa* caawu
ttantn
nry ei tottatr dirt I efhct
Dmnci B«i*dirt|. 0 C nsbiic hatinti &
etlur rftiN}iut*d pi««
tek»al. taaiK«t>mi to **tnn*nie.i wha
wui »H mifrKt!
affKt if bMrd of vlfctiom atiwi a<«cat 2
MM Man rtet.M
B-110
-------
CANCELLATION OF REGISTRATION
PARTY AFFILIATION
ABSENTEE REGISTRATION
Why is a vottr's registration cancelled?
MM*. iaaamoMMnl. mwwty . rotfiottfiution
(•fan t« MM M 4 i it : rtiiitrtitM in tnathtr ualo
Wwt M Mti « tet ftfll H*rn«. MMV cenwerwn
Man M Mti « 4 fit, Mvt how to., umt the. .
(*•»» MfjMl*H«d
ttfer* t« **i m gawnal dutiwt
Man n vvto m ttMtaJ atetion
wwjcMw^^tnM.tow.
MM tnw ttiw, Mvt to IOM m 2 eoBmmrva gin 1
MtttM
M if«t«L aw*, (com mta or to lalon* eomKtion.
MEMMMMV WoTf (0 return purge
M*n to wia M 3 yrv ccftrttiw* al trim, ludjuwnt
of i*ocv»* r«a*rtv
tfjtvra M wttt i" ttoetioo. ft . ftquti t by votar
Ifflart n Mtt in 8 jn . Mwy coavictton
M*rt tt «1o in 4 yti.
faJwv Itj wtt I* 2 yn
tajlart t« Mart c*a«o* ot wo* w WoVtti. fMtm I*
MU M 4 yn
thmta •< MM. efcanga •* •«••"
•OtvoMtMMg
MM n vttt M 4 frt (QrtfOM Pantft. fttfera
10 ma » 1 ri 1
••N IT** CBQjmoajtf or it«a
M*n tt vtu n § yn. rotMit BY voitr
MMd — » HJlCITrt )• IMHIll UNUt
faVvro (0 Mtf 1* 4 yrj. clung* «* **<»B Of aldmi
MM aflfti OMfdianlMO _ _
swwM3:K::M?.js.!s:s:?3:r*;rp:T:!'.: ;:•::;'= :s
ctattanoa at oMMKatiam. lailutt (ft vfltc m pitstdtflTiil
••M trow *n»*enon. <«iluif » *W( is 91* ittetwn.
(•MI MM otat*t»ff twnca
MMd Dt dwd
MM M vou in 4 ft, convKtiM at tomo
MHHti. Woitf fulttd to vott in gtncnt
M**r tMMCtwt, comnutBwiit 1o MDIBI h«pn*J.
fMhft ra record du*g« »f additu or 10 «oti
»**• 2 ,^
Wan t« Mil in 4 i n
OfatnDon tHnrterf MiKt to von tor 2 in
Wwt M vott i« two T«n *rie*r coevictiOR,
Wf/ttmtM Ofuwhirf
if wun' BM«Wit ••MmaWt n ^m«d
Wm u MM HI ? in
M n* in 2 Vn
Wwt it vtu 111 4 ctmtcuiivf ft teoih.
•m frwR twrty. MI«»I irtomptr»«c«
dM«t el «WM t*iu:i to *on tor 4 in .
Mttf twwtliw Wan 10 MM fo> 3 »rj
•••facat* t*^aifWi«fl
•tw ITMI ta«n
tajetwl of rfiidwci. ltl«»r COHVKIIOA.
oa>Li
Ttl
v=:
v«
M
-
in lorai
m
ft*
TW
no
V0«
rt»
T«
?«
mi »Jlowtd to
T«
M>
t"
y«
m
r«
"•
How does one *e -register?
M TMW VOI*.
'O-ftvutor »nd sign Miti
mum tijnrt cavd (Worn mast p*tii«n
CHrt)
U Wifinal rifutiitian
rviuin cart « la-iagtsttr
at oriftnaJ ngulrilion
*nn«n ifqirtft »pr tonltnwtion.
if moved n-'tgitlor in MW (own
wmttn or phorw itqunt
wif> tup of fiteliom thai mtvi u
unclungad
*t Origtnkl raaittritiOit
at angiflal rt|ittntian
ftunng with cawntv cltrk wittmi
1Q d«yi ol itttipl of notici
m rtfiilK in ptnon
iHurn Buigt miicc or rtguict » mm
rwir
B oriffiJi*! inotrUiefl
tM "Wtwn t« Rtgntai'
•aoiat Mora co M of itaction and
arfln o4»f iMity
(•gattf ttflittrniBit procadura
EWtKt rtcnttaf
*t onyiiot rtgntritiOfl
'••rtgntK in ptnon
ftHittf bcfwr txti clttk
tt wtfliort rtfitiralion
Boirfl
« OTHJIMI itgmriltDn
u original (tgntni'on
« '0|nrratto» 'd •>* avrrf 10 yr
dork tr try pa«c»d
H oiigiMf rtBiitfifion
rt rtjtttrr in pfrjOfl ft' n» mail
wrttun eounry
niurn rwtitnauon card, o> rtg n
**w nut
» origmal (tfntritian
10 d«v> of nDliftcatian or tt-rtgaiti
HOB try phon* Ittiai. tn BfTJ^n rf
fi.ltri ID voi*
it iitablmtJirmaM
~.fTp«M to t»nc^«ti«n «»« in 3D
d«vi w apply m p*'«n lo bd ot
d»dlint for dtcUratton of
party to voti in primary
M ptw ifWiMiM Fao^cifa4
J.«t
50 dan ^^ ••Kt'M
M phai *H*)«1ta« ratwrri
3D tart Wera 4*1.™
ataciion day « a< pn*wy rat* wn* t(NHMtt*(
no party t>clwatf«n
no piavfovi arlihation laa^irao*
dtclart party wttf voting
M piwwu awty •FlriijliOM rtejuirtd
tf«y «1 pfMUfy it wt irtiliattd th*ngt 20 dwrt
btlon
bt'oti prtcadtng ft*' ftachon. MM votan 30
days aaVota pnaiary
30 0*yi Btfori tltciton
ckanft. 3 MaMta Wlera. original
dadantian, any tuna
ttoM at raftltianan
dfctMi piny •< 00H. chango 28 d*yi
bifort ttKtion
no flifty tttilxno* itlott*4
M pafty ragiitrarton
....
30 4ayi Men Pfciw*
90 davi Man (taciian. ind»p»ndflRtt may dtclatt
tfltolltd in parry pnoi to latt gmrd
tltctrtn. tofoat tarottmcnt availatlt
f»F ntw win
OM thtKartx o' "***' '" voting for maionrv of
oth«i p«fTY in lait oirt'l tltttign
31 tttyi bttdt fittiiwi
30 days b^on etrction
no pitvtws iHiU«lior> rtquirtd
Ki»* dapbcila raftttrttiftfl Card
M P<«VIIMI affritatwi 'sautirt
no (trmoui tftdmion ftqvtrrt
M s*rty »H*»tiM
M party •*«•*»
30 days Won ataciioft
N ptavtoM atWMfofl 'tajairad
may ttgntar al poHi
30 dayf t*'** alMiiae
Who can register absentee?
i. m. & thaw taMntanti
•nvwt; Mtliai rtgiitration rto^ifaawHl
«. Mfow ttaaatnnn; Mr af tUlt
MM
i
d. i. m. b t
m. ciMbaa U i M*«!«yM U*^ a!aaflii4aMtl
M. flit* CfQM. Ptact Cortt. timportfiry
a*««nt tnm tan limm of U S
d. i. n. t
IflVBoa who 9Mirtiii aj abtlMH uttltr
d. i. m. 1. 1
d, t «. ». t
no n«
I d
1
t. d. Irttnf itrwcoi Mt rt^Mirtd
flOfW
amatvyaat MI at eaMntrv, mantbort o* ra-
ligioui at wafara Offncwi wnth wm«J forcat
out of county 1w 30 dvyt baloia oltction.
CitnHiM U S tmplovttl ovtrMH
M thou in govt anitien. tnoM
hvtnj tamporantv ourtidt U S
a. m 1. 1
•U votan
alactien eam«ttiMn«n onty
m & spovto
all panain
A s m. fc, !
d. t. in. • Bi laouM param or chrfdrin
KCtaipMTiaaj I
fltghu Aci
batora MiMy puWic t tegutaf in anvrtoi
counrv d may rtg at horn*
**Jf«r« ar| . wrfk »r«iftf toicft U S tm-
ployaai omxtai & dtp of abovt
US goniMwirt tfflBiovtes ovoncai
IHldtMff
d. s. m, b. t
owm aucttnf wtftnct n«ofit)Mn
wi HKftsMf ttf afafMflO voting
tr«« tUH ior Bttaswy c*ui*
tmdantt
official af bd ol aiaciioRi
ctnlrxt ontmtt Ml
How dots ont riqutsl
•estotM rtgj form?
loft or
talit. antw^, i* etna*
tfttaf. a«flt*r4
~
•kana. lamr. botkard. "i
•HIMLffCA
plwna, Itntr. pottcard. i"
ptfia*
Ititar, BMtecri
lontf. amiurd
ant), poittart. iflilicirion by
paiaML IIOMI. tMd or ubiinf
•boa*, hmtt. paitca^. <* oarten
ia HroM. by awf
-
lanif, pMturd. FPCA
Hfln. iMttird
•JWM. «TRH. HitUrt
~
latt at, la amon
ngitiir bafera piitico ot ttia
paoca or mar* RuWK
ptioia. Itrttr. tottcafd- in par-
nn by an a«aM whoi • ngu-
tftad vtlii
ra'atin at tovnt. in panon
DA«M. limr. puicifd. i* pi""
a*ow. tuicafd Itltar. talogrtph
•kana. kttai. IB p«non
fiwK coMty claik. local IWV
phono. Itttw. pnuatd, in paraoii
•ton. Ittttt. a«iturf
latin, a«t(«rt. to panon.
itfunt by »*noti auiiliod
te «ii FPCA
ptMiw. lattat. B«ic*i i* ptnon
l«Tlir. in ptnon
FPCA
•anM. or by taint
relotm
*t w«H* ratuatt l»r rttonift
boNot
B-1H
-------
the right to vote on account of sex. Article 15 protects the right to
vote from being denied or abridged by the United States or any state on
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Finally,
Article 24, adopted in 1964, protects all eligible citizens from being
denied the right to vote by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or
other tax. Our vote is thus guaranteed in the U.S. Constitution.
The methods and requirements for casting a vote, on the other hand,
are regulated by state laws or, in some cities and counties, by local
charter. In California, if a citizen continuously votes in every gen-
eral election and does not relocate to another county, he will remain
eligible to vote. However, if he does not vote in a general election,
*
his registration is cancelled and he becomes ineligible to vote. So,
in a particular state, the right to vote may exist within certain defini-
tions of eligibility. Article II of the California Constitution insures
the right to vote to a citizen 18 years of age. It further provides for
a free election and that all voting will be kept secret.
A citizen cannot always be present in his or her prospective precinct
on election day. For these citizens to exercise their right to vote,
there is the absentee voting system. The 1970 Voting Amendments estab-
lished a minimum time requirement for registering as an absentee (see B )
This enables people who are in the military, away on business, disabled,
students away at college, and others to vote. In California a person may
request an absentee registration form by phone, letter, postcard, in person,
**
or through a federal postcard application form.
*
Art. II, California State Constitution.
**
Information supplied by the chief election officials and League of
Women Voters in 1974, "Voter's Service, Citizen Alert."
B-112
-------
Objective Data
• According to William E. Bieker, Director of University of
California State Data Program at Berkeley, ten percent of
California's voters lose their eligibility following each
election because of laws requiring them to re-register in
person every time they move. Furthermore, the average
Californian moves every four years.
• Census Bureau Report on the 1974 Elections
- 64 percent of the 18-21 year olds and 53 percent of the
21-24 year olds failed to register in 1974.
- Only 45 percent of a record 141 million eligible voters
were reported to have voted in 1974. The report further
showed that not since 1958 had such a high proportion of
those eligible failed to vote; in that recession year,
only 43 percent voted.
• U. S. Statistical Abstract - 1973
48.3 percent of the 18-20 year olds voted in the 1972
Presidential elections.
Subjective Data
Various attitudinal data on the effectiveness of our federal and
local governments has been collected by the Institute for Social
Research in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
In 1972 the following questions were asked concerning our
national government:
B-113
-------
"How do you feel about: The way our national government is operating?'
(May 1972)
What our national government is doing?"
(November 1972)
Delig.
Pleas. Mos. Sat.
Mixed Mos. Diss.
Unhap. Terr.
1% 8%
1% 5%
1% 4%
25%
28%
21%
38%
45%
42%
15%
14%
18%
7%
5%
10%
6% (May)
2% (Nov.)
4% (Nov.)
Sample of 1118 respondents.
Sample of 1072 respondents,
"How do you feel about:
5%
The way your local government is operating?'
(May 1972)
What your local government is doing?"
(November 1972)
Delig. Pleas. Mos. Sat.
1% 13% 32%
Mixed Mos. Diss. Unhap. Terr.
13% 6% 5% (May)
34%
30%
37%
5%
4% (Nov.)
B Column - Equal Access
O
Can everyone, 18 years of age or older, who is a citizen of the United
States, vote? Do all people follow the same system of registration and voting
procedures in order to express their choice on the candidates?
B-114
-------
The 24th Amendment of the Constitution ensures that an eligible
citizen cannot be denied his or her right to vote by reason of failure
to pay poll tax or other tax. Article II in the California State Consti-
tution provides for free elections throughout the state.
In California, as well as in many other states, certain people are
denied the right to vote. These include a "severely mentally deficient
person, insane person, a person convicted of an infamous crime, embezzle-
*
ment or misappropriation of public money." A voter is free from arrest
going to, or returning from, his or her polling place, except for indict-
able offenses, which include treason, felony, and breach of peace com-
*
mitted during attendance at elections.
Finally, Public Law 89-110 prohibits any state or county, etc., from
imposing any local voting procedures which would prohibit persons from
voting on account of race or color. TJSC 43 of 1971, insures all U.S. citi-
zens the right to vote without distinction of race, color, or previous
servitude. In 1974, according to the Census Bureau, only 45 percent of
a record 141 million eligible voters were reported to have voted. Further,
the Census Bureau stated that not since 1958 had such a high proportion
of those eligible failed to vote. Approximately 57 percent did not vote
that year.
Another major issue of concern is the access a person has to voter
registration. Registration is the first and most important step in the
voting process. In most cases when people register, they usually vote.
Where is a person required to go to register? In California, a person
may register, in person, in any city before a deputy registrar, at a
firehouse, or at the Office of Registrar of Voters. The State of Cali-
fornia does not require a certain number of registration places throughout
Art. II, California State Constitution.
B-115
-------
each county other than at the above-mentioned places. It is left to each
county to establish a sufficient number of registration places and en-
courage voter registration. Registration of voters is required to be in
progress at all times except during the 30 days preceding any election
in California. However, this occurs only at the Office of Registrar and
at firehouses. Deputy registrars only actively register people immediately
prior to an election. The major political parties make attempts through
the use of deputy registrars to register additional people. Their major
interest, of course, is to obtain additional votes for their particular
candidates. Therefore, they concentrate on registration in areas where they
anticipate votes. The preceding standards indicate that the law does not
require local officials to take the initiative to reach potential voters.
A subjective concern here might be the experiences of people as they
seek to register to vote. The cost in terms of time, inconvenience, and
energy needed to register will vary among potential voters, and consider-
ing these factors, it is not surprising that many people choose not to vote.
Objective Data
• Percent of voters by age, sex, race
• Percent of door-to-door registration by county
• Percent of firehouse registration
• Percent of voter registration at the Office of Registrar
• Percent of people who did not register due to lack of access.
Subjective Data
• Why did people not register?
• If they registered and did not vote, why did they not vote?
• Do citizens think that they should take the initiative in
order to qualify as a voter?
*
California State Elections Code, Sec. 203.
B-116
-------
• According to a 1974 Census Bureau's report, minorities
and women showed the least interest in Congressional
elections and in the selection of governors and local
officials.
B Column - Ability to Influence
4
There are two ways in California for electors to initiate change
in the State government other than voting itself. First is through the
initiative which is the power given to electors to propose statutes and
amendments to the Constitution and to adopt or reject them. In the
case of a statute, a petition must be certified to have been signed by
electors equal in number to five percent of the votes for all candidates
for governor in the last gubernatorial election. For a proposed amend-
ment, a petition must have been signed by at least eight percent of the
voters in the preceding gubernatorial election.* The second way is through
the referendum which is the power given to the electors to approve or re-
ject statutes or parts of statutes except urgency statutes. These include
statutes addressing elections, and statutes providing for tax levies or
appropriations for usual current expenses of the State.
In the case of a referendum, a petition must be certified to have been
signed by at least five percent of the voters in the preceding gubernatorial
election within 90 days after the enacting date of the statute. In some
cases, after the petition has been submitted to the Secretary of State,
the governor may call a special statewide election for the measure. Usually,
a measure is included at the next general election held at least 31 days
**
after it qualifies.
Apart from the use of the initiative and referendum, the vote is the
most effective way to change the system. The question here is, why do so
many eligible citizens choose not to vote? In our present election system
*
**
Art. IV, Sec. 22, California State Constitution.
Art. IV, Sec. 23, California State Constitution.
B-117
-------
a citizen must be forced to earn the privilege to vote when actually
it should be an insured right. The federal government and states have,
in most cases, mandated specific voting requirements for people to follow
in order to vote. However, standards that would set a threshold of in-
tolerability concerning actual voting participation have not been estab-
lished. The past 1974 election, although not a Presidential election,
had only approximately 45 percent of eligible voters participate. A sub-
jective condition here would be the percent of people who fear their vote
would be misrepresented.
Objective Data
• Number of certified initiatives and referendums that qualifiy
in California.
Subjectivei Data
• Do voters see the system as giving him/her a non-choice?
• Estimated 76 million who stayed home said that they were
either uninterested or disliked politics in the post-
*
Watergate era.
*
Based on a Census Bureau report which interviewed more than 100,000
eligible voters within two weeks after the election in 1974.
B-118
-------
SECTOR: POLITICAL
Threshold
-Security
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
CIVIL LIBERTIES
- Basic freedoms to exer-
cise our constitutional
right* u citizens of the
U.S.
• U.S. Preamble
- Establish justice, In-
jure domestic tran-
4ulllty, provide for the
common defense, and
promote general welfare
* Requirements for the
Rlrilt to Hold Assembly
- Registration w/ police
department
- Will not disturb the
public (disturbing the
peace)
e Art. IV U.S. Constitution
- Freedom of movement
- All citizens of each
state shall be entitled
to all privileges and
Immunities of citizens
of each state
- To be secure In their
persons, houses,
papers 2nd effects
• California State Consti-
tution
- Liberty of conscience
for all
- All voting will be kept
tecret
e Art. I U. S. Constitution
- Freedom of Press, Reli-
gion, speech, assembly
• Art. V U.S. Constitution
- Private property
not be taken by the
Federal government with-
out compensation
• Art. I Sec. 9. U.S.
Constitution
- Right of Habeas Corpus
- Protection against un-
warranted search and
seizure
- Protection against bill
of attainder or expose
facto law
California Civil Rights
Act-1964 Title VII
- Protects all individuals
both citizen and non-
citizens, domiciled or
residing In the U.S.
against discrimination
on the basis of race,
color, religion, sex,
or national origin
- Provides civil and
criminal remedies
against federal law en-
forcement officers who
unjustifiably deny an
Individual his civil
rights
• Art IV U.S. Constitution
- All citizens are en-
titled to all privi-
leges and immunities
that every citizen of
•very state has
• Civil Rights Act-1964
and Executive Order 11246
- Prohibits discrimination
based on sex, color,
creed, religion,
national origin and re-
quires affirmative
action to ensure equal-
ity of opportunity in
all aspects of employ-
ment. Applies to
Federal government and
organizations having
contracts with the
Federal government
XIV Amendment. U. S.
Constitution
- Prohibits all states
from making or enforcing
a law that may infringe
on our civil liberties
• V Amendment. U.S.
Constitution
- A person does not have
to incriminate himself
unless on presentment
for indictment of a
grand Jury
• Art. I California Con-
sti tution Sec. 21
- All citizens have the
same privileges and
immunities granted
them
Art. IV California Con-
stitution Sec. 45
- At election time only
registered qualified
voter may sign an
initiative, referendum,
recall, nominating pe-
tition or other paper
concerning a state
issue or person
XII Amendment. V. S.
Constitution
- Right of citizens to
vote
e Art. I U.S. Constitution
- Freedom of press, speech,
assembly and petition
• Art. I U.S. Constitution
- Only the House of Repre-
sentatives has the
sole power of Impeach-
ment.
- The Senate has the sole
power to try all impeach-
ments. Must have 2/3's
concurrence to convict
- Congress must meet at
least once annually
(January 3 of each year)
• California Constitution
Art. IV. Sec. 22 and 23
- The right to propose
and approve or reject
statutes, a-,er,dment3
through the use of
referendums and
Initiatives
Art. XXIII Sec. 1 Cali-
fornia Constitution
- Recall of public
officers. Guaranteed
right of electors
to remove any elected
public officer through
recall petition
XIV Amendment. U.S.
Constitution
- No state shall make or
enforce a law which
shall abridge the privi-
leges or immunities of
citizens of the U.S.
- Due process of law
guaranteed
Civil Rights Act-1964
Title VII
- provides civil and
criminal remedies
against Faderal law
enforcement officers
who unjustifiably deny
an Individual his
civil rights
B-119
-------
SECTOR: POLITICAL
Threshold
CIVIL LIBERTIES (continued)
Security
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
Art.I California Constitu-
tion
- No person can be impri-
soned for debt unless in
cases of fraud or will-
ful Injury to person or
property
• Judicial System
- Right to bring suit
against another person
- Right to bring suit
against the Federal
government
»VI Amendment U.S. Const.
- Right to counsel
- Right to jury trial
- Right to speedy trial
• V and XIV Amendment
U.S. Const.
- Right to due process of
law
• VIII Amendment U.S. Const.
- Right not to have ex-
cessive bail and cruel
and unusual punishment.
Statistical Abstract of
the U.S. 1S73
* Total no. of civil cases
In 1972 - 96,173
* Total no. of criminal
cases in 1972 - 47,043
Univ. of Michigan. ISR
+ Your jndependence or
freedom, the chance you
have to do what you want
Univ. of Michigan. ISS
+ The extent to which you
get what you are entitled
to what is rightfully
yours.
+• Your opportunity to change
things around you that you
don't like
Univ. of Michigan, ISR
The respect other people
have for your rights
B-120
-------
SECTOR: POLITICAL
ISSUE: HONESTY IN GOVERNMENT
Honesty and fair
representation to be
exercised by all
elected and civil
officials
Threshold
Security
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
• All civil officers of the
U.S. are subject to im-
peachment and conviction
of crimes of treason,
bribery and other high
crimes
• All U.S. Representatives
and Senators are privi-
leged from arresc during
their attendance at ses-
sions and in their homes
except for treason,
felony, and breach of
peace
• Recall
- The power of citizens
to remove public offi-
cers from the govern-
ment
• U.S. Const. Art 2, Sec 2
- Insures conviction of
civil officers for
crimes committed
• Art I See 9 U.S. Const.
- All accounts of receipts
and expenditures of
public funds will be
published periodically
• Art I Sec 6 U.S. Const.
- Protection of all U.S.
Representatives and
and Senators from
arrest while in Con-
gress
• Intergovernmental Coop-
- To improve the operation
of the federal system
through the cooperation
and coordination of ac-
tivities among the
different levels of
government
• U.S. Constitution
House Rules Committee
- Committee has authority
to set rules and prac-
tices that the Senate
and Congress must
follow
• Art XXIII, Calif. Const.
(Recall)
- Every elective public
officer of the State of
California may be re-
moved from office at
any time by the electors
entitled to vote for a
successor of such in-
cumbent
- Must have at least 12%
of the entire vote cast
at the last preceding
election for the office
sought to be removed
- For a State officer
a petition must have
at least 20% of the
entire vote cast. Pe-
tlon oust be circulated
in at least 5 counties
Percent of public offi-
cials removed from office
in California
How effective is the
system?
B-121
-------
SECTOR: POLITICAL
ISSUE: HONESTY IN GOVERHMEOT
Threshold
Security
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
• GAO will audit all em-
ployees of the executive
legislation and judicial
branches who earn over
$20fOOO a year
- Will audit the five
previous years of each
employee
• Public Law 93-443
Campaign Reform Act
Of 1974
• Campaign Spending and
Donations Limits
- Individual donations
cannot exceed $1,000
nor can an individual
make contributions
aggregating more thar.
$25,000 in any calen-
dar year
- Organizations cannot
exceed $5,000 at one
tine
• Primary and General
Elections
• Spending limits
- $75,000 for repre-
sentatives
• Hatch Act
- Prohibits political par-
ticipants on the part of
Federal employees except
for a few exceptions
- President and Vice Pres-
ident
- Heads and assistants, and
beads of executive depart -
nents
• Public Law 93-443
Campaign Reform Act
of 1974
• Hatch Act
- Includes all postmasters
and post office employees,
persons employed on an
irregular temporary part-
time and emergency basis
and employees on leave
and furlough status
San Franci SCO Ci t y
Charter, Part 2, Code
8:311
- Prohibits political
participation for all
city employees
• Campaign Reform Bill 1974
| Federal Payments
- Can only be used for
five purposes:
- Television
- Radio time
- Newspaper advertising
- Postage for direct
•ailing
- Billboards and tele-
phone banks
- Prohibits foreign con-
tributions to American
political campaigns
- A vote fraud will impose
a maximum of a ten year
jail sentence and $10O,OOO
floe for any person convicted
• Qualifications for
Federal Payments
- Candidate must have
raised 10% of his maxi-
mum allowable in con-
tributions of $50 or
less
- Must have separate
bank account to hold
fed. payments
' Bank Loans for
Campaigning
- Are treated as politi-
cal contributions
- Endorser is treated as
a contributor,e.g.,
$10,000 bank loan would
need 10 endorsements in
order not to exceed the
$1,000 individual limit
> Federal Matching Grants
- Representatives must
raise at least $10,000
and Senate candidates
at least $125,000 to
qualify for matching
Federal funds
- Pres candidates must raise
$100,000 in private con-
tributions of $5,000 in
at least 20 states to
qualify for public match-
ing grants for primaries
B-122
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POLITICAL SECTOR
Issue:
National protection
and security from national
emergencies caused by
external threats or
internal natural disasters
Threshold
• Art I Sec. 8 U.S. Const.
- Only Congress may
declare war against
another nation
• 32 CTR. Sec 502
- Only the President can
declare an area a
"disaster area."
Only the Governor of a
state may call in the
National Guard
Security
• Art I Sec. 10 U.S. Const.
- A state alone cannot
enter into an agreement
with another power or
engage in war (unless
actually envaded) without
the consent of Congress
• Art IV Sec. 4 U.S. Const.
- U.S. Government guaran-
tees to every state
a Republican form of
government, protection
against invasion and at
times against domestic
violence. Must have
legislative or execu-
tive approval
• 32 CFR. Sec 502
- Provides relief through
all the federal agen-
cies in times of national
disasters
• II Amendment. U.S. Const.
- All states will have a
well regulated militia
• Disaster Relief Act
- Provides temporary
assistance in the
form of mortgage,
etc. payments in
financial hardship
areas caused by a.
major natural dis-
aster
- Also provides assis-
tance to those un-
employed because of
a major disaster
(B2-FSRL-G3-1-6-N-N)
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
• Art IV Sec. 4 U.S. Const.
- U.S. Government guaran-
tees to every state a
Republican form of gov-
ernment , protection
against invasion and at
times against domestic
violence. Must have
legislative or execu-
tive approval
II Amendment. U.S. Const.
- All state will have a
well regulated militia
• II _ Amendment, U . _S' .Const .
- The right to keep and bear
arms is a right of the
people that cannot be
infringed upon
B-123
-------
POLITICAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Access to Information
- The public's right to
know in a free society
^Threshold
• Freedom of Information
Act of 1974
- Citizens oust have
access to all reports,
etc... not published
in the Federal Register
or for sale through the
government agencies
- Public access to
advisory meeting* of
federal agencies
- Congress oust keep and
publish all proceedings
except for parts In
their judgement warrant
secrecy
- Guaranteed the liberty
of speech and of the
press
• Privacy Act of 1974
- Allows an individual
to decide vhat kinds
of information about
him/her will be col-
lected, how and by
whom it will be used
Security
Freedom of Information
Act of 1974
- Requires all government
agencies to publish
reports not published
In the Federal Register
or offered for sale
(includes the Postal
Officer, Exec. Office
of the President, 0KB
- Detailed reports must be
submitted to Congress
regarding Implementa-
tion of the Act
Privacy Act of 1974
- Protects an individual
against the release of
information about bin
against his wishes
• Art I. O.S. Const^
- Requires Congress to
keep and publish their
proceedings, etc., (e.g.
Congressional Record,
Federal Register)
• Art I. U.S. Const.
- Ability to read
alnost anything
• Art I. Sec 9. Calif. Const.
- Insures that all citizens
may freely speak, write
and publish their senti-
ments on all subjects.
Further insures that no
law can be passed to
restrain or abridge the
liberty of speech or of
the press
Equal Access
Freedom of Information
Act of 1974
- Determinations on
request for reasonably
identifiable records must
be made within 10 days
- Appeals must Ire made
within 20 days
- Fees for records, etc.,
must be uniformed through
the departmental agencies
- Index of precedential
materials must be made
available for all the
government agencies
State & Local Fiscal
Assistance Act of 1972
- Under this P.L. all
state and local gov-
ernments must make
available through a
statewide newspaper,
and to the media, a
detailed report of all
proposed plans and
amounts to be spent
^Ability to Influence
• Freedom of Information
Act of 1974
- Governmental failure to
comply with time limits
is justification for a
requestor going to court
- Established criminal
penalties against fed-
eral employees who will-
fully violate this law
• Privacy Act of 1974
- Provides civil remedies
against federal agencies
for violations of the
provisions
- Established criminal
penalties against fed-
eral employees who will-
fully violate this law
• Art I. Sec 9. Calif. Const.
- Jury will decide if a
person has committed
libel against someone
* Number of libel suits
brought to court in Calif.
* Number of cases brought
to court concerning
violations of Freedom of
Information Act
NOTE: No available data concerning this Issue
B-124
-------
POLITICAL SECTOR—BIBLIOGRAPHY
"A Symposium: The American Bar Association Standards Relating to the
Administration of Criminal Justice, Part I," The American Criminal
Law Review. Volume 12, Number 2 (Fall 1974).
Constitution of the State of California, as last amended November 7, 1972,
distributed by the California Legislature Assembly (1973).
Constitution of the United States of America, as amended through July 1971,
House of Representatives Document No. 92-157, 92nd Congress, 2nd
Session, 9 February 1972.
Executive Office of the President: Office of Management and Budget,
Social Indicators, 1973, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. (1973).
League of Women Voters Education Fund, "Administrative Obstacles to Voting,"
Pub. No. 206, a report of the Election Systems Project, League of
Women Voters of the United States, Washington, D.C. (1972).
, "Voters Service, Citizen Alert 1974, Registration and Absentee
Voting Procedures by State 1974," Pub. No. 522, League of Women Voters
of the United States, Washington, D.C. (1974).
State of California, California Election Laws, 1972, Carlisle Graphics,
San Francisco, California (1972).
U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, "Foresight,
Annual Report, FY 1973,"
, "In Time of Emergency, A Citizen's Handbook on Disasters,"
H-14-B (May 1972).
, "Introduction to Civil Preparedness," CPG 1-1 (September 1972).
, "Introduction to Civil Preparedness, Summary for Public Officials,'
CPG 1-4 (December 1972).
, "Standards for Civil Preparedness," CPG 1-5 (December 1972)
U.S. Department of Defense, Office of Civil Defense, "Government in
Emergency, Suggestions for Including Civil Defense Principles in the
Social Studies Curriculum: Grades 1-12," MP 56 (May 1971).
B-125
-------
5. Natural Environment
The Natural Environment sector is organized to include those issue
areas alluded to by the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 and
which are of most direct concern to the Environmental Protection Agency.
The overriding consideration in each issue under this sector is the degree
of "productive and enjoyable harmony between man and his environment"—
in this case, environment meaning the ecological system and natural
resources important to human life. Issues and related concerns include:
• Air and water quality—impacts on health; aesthetic impacts (color,
taste, odor)
• Noise—health hazards; amenities
• Radiation and pesticides—health hazards
• Land Use—degree of choice
• Solid waste
• Scenic and wild life resources—protection of resources and
endangered species
Though some standards in the Natural Environment sector are well
established (specifically, the quality of drinking water), others are
relatively new and untested with respect to their overall effect on
quality of life. The issue area of air and water quality has been
selected for detailed review in this sector for the following reasons:
• Air and water quality are not only essential to life
itself (basic need) but also to satisfy a number of
higher needs (aesthetics).
• Standards within these areas are numerically defined
and are amenable to objective evaluation through
monitoring.
• It is representative of an issue where standards are
primarily formulated and enforced through federal
legislation.
B-126
-------
The completed matrix for the Natural Environment sector is shown in
Tables 1-3. Each of the matrix cells for the issues of air and water
quality is described below, moving from left to right across the differ-
ent need columns.
B Column - Basic Need/Threshold
Threshold levels for air and water quality under the basic need
category are directly related to human health and welfare.
Existing Standards
The clean air standards established by EPA and published in
the Federal Register are divided into two separate categories, primary
and secondary.
The national primary ambient air quality standards are the levels
of air quality which the Administrator of EPA judges are necessary,
with an adequate margin of safety, to protect the public health. The
national secondary ambient air quality standards are the levels of air
quality which the Administrator judges necessary to protect the public
welfare from any known or anticipated adverse effects of a pollutant.
For example, the primary air quality standard (threshold) for carbon
monoxide is:
(a) 10 milligrams per cubic meter (9ppm)-maximum 8 hour concentra-
tion, not to be exceeded more than once per year
(b) 40 milligrams per cubic meter (35ppm)-maximum one hour concen-
3
tration, not to be exceeded more than once per year.
These thresholds are based on evidence that low levels of carboxyhemoglobin
in human blood may be associated with impairment of ability to discrimi-
nate time intervals.4 Other air quality standards specified by EPA are
5
shown in Table 4.
B-127
-------
SECTOR: NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
ISSUE: WATER QUALITY
Human Health & Aesthetic Impacts
B. B,
Table 1 Basic Needs
Security
Equal Access
Basic Need/Threshold
Concern: What are the thres- Concern: What measures pro- Concern: To what portion of
holds for quality and avail- vide security that the mini- the population are the
ability of water quality? mum will be met? assurances of adequate water
quality applicable?
Ability to Influence
Concern: To what degree is
the individual able to In-
fluence availability and
quality of water?
• U.S. Drinking Standards
not to exceed for health
reasons. Examples include:
- Iron 0.3 mg/1
- Sulfate 250 mg/1
- Nitrite 45 mg/1
• Safe Drinking Water Act,
Amended to Include U.S.
Drinking Standards, plus:
- Bacteria
- Turbidity
- Radioactive materials
• EPA criteria for primary
contact waters (recrea-
tional swimming & bathing) :
- Fecal coliform-log mean
of 200 per 100 ml
- pH ' 6.5 to 8.3
- Temp - 30° C-<86"F)
- Clarity - visible at
4 ft.
* Concentration of pollutants
- Nat'l Water Surveillance
Network (STORET)
* Statistical evaluation
indices
- PDI *
- SPI 2
- Envirs-control
* In 1970, 27% of the U.S.
stream and shoreline miles
were polluted
Safe Drinking Water Act
(1974)
Federal Water Pollution
Control Act (1972)
- Nat'l Pollution Discharge
Elimination System,
Systems Permits
- Court injunctions
- Inspection rights
- Record and monitor
- Administrative orders
• U.S. Public Health Service
• State & Regional Water Pollu-
tion Control Board's Policy
• Federal Water Pollution
Control Act (1972)
- States required to hold
public meeting once
every 3 years to revise
standards
Special interest groups
(Environmental Def ens e
Fund)
• National Environmental
Policy Act
- Environmental Impact
Statements
* To date, 36 states have
passed legislation to
enable then to take over
the function at issuing
permits and enforcing
then, 16 state programs
have been approved by
KPA4
* $9 billion for fiscal
1976 allocated to muni-
cipalities for construc-
tion of sewage treatment
facilities5
+ "How do you feel about:
Die conditions of the natu-
ral environment — the air,
land, and water in this
area?" (May 1972)
Del i^. Pleas . Mos. Sat.
5* 181 271
Mixed Mos. Piss. Unhap.
211 12S 10%
Terr.
71
(Institute for Social Research)
- public disclosure of
impacts
B-128
-------
SECTOR: NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
ISSUE: AIR QUALITY
Human Health 6. Aesthetic Impacts
H. "«
Table 2 Higher Needs
Security
Basic Need/Threshold
• Non deterioration pristine • State & Regional Pollution
areas--areas not already Control Board
polluted should be
protected
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
• Citizen Action Groups
* Number days of low visibility
(Yellow haze, smog):
scenic vistas masked
ISSUE: WATER QUALITY
Human Health & Aesthetic Impacts
• U.S. drinking water stan-
dards based on taste,*
color, odor, and turbidity
could include examples as
follows:
- Iron--0.3
- Copper —1.0 mg/1
- Zinc—5.0 mg/1
- Dissolved solids—
500 mg/1
- Color--free from per-
ceptible color, less
than 15 units on
scale of 0-500
- Detergents (methyleije
blue active substarch)
0.5 mg/1
• EPA proposed criteria for
recreational waters (same
as B
• Federal Hater Pollution
Control Act
• State & regional water
pollution control board
• U.S. Public Health Services
(Inspection)
• Parks & Recreation Agencies
B-129
-------
SECTOR:
ISSUE:
NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
AIR DUALITY
Table 3 Basic Needs
Human Health & Aesthetic Impacts
• Standards
* Objective Data
+ Subjective Data
Basic Need/Threshold
Concern: What are the
thresholds for quality and
availability of clean air?
EPA Primary and Secondary
Air Quality Standards (see
attached text): example:
sulfur oxides: primary
0.03 ppm, annual - 0.14
ppm for 24 hr.
California Emergency
Episode Plan
Pollution thresholds 24 hr.
for sulfur dioxide:
- Stage 1 - Health Advisory
Alert - 0.2 ppm
- Stage 2 - Warning level -
0.7 ppm
- Stage 3 - Emergency - 0.9
ppm
Security
Concern: What measures pro-
vide security that the mini-
mum will be met?
• Clean Air Act (as amended)
- Thresholds cannot be ex-
ceeded more than once per
year
- EPA emission standards
for motor vehicles (1974,
1975, 1976)
• State Air Pollution Agen-
cies Calif. Air Resources
Board Emergency Episode
Plan
- Stationary Source Cur-
tailment Plans
- Traffic Abatement Act
- Hew, stricter smog con-
trol standards on 1977
American cars
Equal Access
4
Concern: To what portion of
the population is the assur-
ance of adequate air pollu-
tion control provided?
• Standards designed to pro-
tect the general public
• Calif. Emergency Episode
Plan - Stage 1
- Persons with respiratory
or coronary artery disease
are notified to take pre-
cautions; schools are
notified
Ability to Influence
Concern: To vhat degree Is
the Individual able to in-
fluence availability and
quality of clean air?
• Rational Environmental
Policy Act - 1969 '
- Public disclosure of en-
vironmental impacts
• Special interest group
pressure (e.g., National
Resources Defense Council)
Public hearing and comment
when regulations or stan-
dards are promulgated
Air Pollution Control
District
* Concentrations of pollu-
tants
- National Air Surveill-
ance Network (NASK)
Sulfur Oxide: annual
average concentration
range from 0.002 ppm in
Kansas City, Mo., to
0.17 In New York City
- Continuous Air Monitor-
ing Project (CAMP)
Sulfur Oxides: these over
6 year period show mean
annual concentrations
ranging from 0.01 ppm in
San Francisco to 0.18 ppm
In Chicago
- Mitre Air Quality Index
(MAQI)
- Extreme Value Index (EVI)
- Pindex
SO levels--1962-67 (ppm)
for Chicago 0.14, Phila-
delphia 0.08
- Oak Ridge Air Quality
Index
- State Air Pollution
Emission Inventories
- Air Quality Control Region
Systems
- Urban Systems Inventories
Inspection program for auto
emissions- reported data
Licenses denied for station-
ary source facilities
* HEW statistics: For sulfur
oxides:
- At concentrations of
about 500 ug/m (OU9
ppm) of sulfur dioxide
(24 hour mean) with low
partlculate levels, in-
creased mortality rates
may occur
- At concentrations rang-
ing from 105 ug/m to
265 ug/m (0.37 ppm to
0.092 ppm) of sulfur
dioxide (annual mean)
accompanied by smoke con-
centration of .about
185 ug/m , Increased
frequence of respiratory
symptons and lung disease
may occur
+ EPA Survey: BIZ of persons
polled opposed letting air
pollution increase in areas
that now have clean air—
591 opposed relaxing pollu-
tion controls for factories 3
* I population with reported
respiratory disease, heart
disease, circulatory prob-
lems
* Health Advisory - Alert days
in Air Pollution Control
District
* Increases in morbidity and
mortality associated with
fluctuation in pollution
concentrations (short-
term pollution episodes)
* Number of Environmental
Ispact St-adiss or Environ-
mental Impact Reports held
up because of air pollu-
tion impacts
* Number of court cases,
petitions against polluters
B-130
-------
TABLE 4
NATIONAL AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
Pollutant
Primary Standards
Secondary Standards
Sulfur Oxides
(a) 80 micrograros
per cubic meter
(0.03 ppm) - annual
arithmetic mean.
(b) 365 micro-grams
per cubic meter
(0.14 ppm) - maxi-
mum 24-hr, concen-
tration not to be
exceeded more than
once per year.
(a) 60 micrograms
per cubic meter
(0.02 ppm) - annual
arithmetic mean.
(b) 260 micrograms
per cubic meter
(0.1 ppm) - maxi-
mum 24-hr, concen-
tration not to be
exceeded more than
once per year, as a
guide to be used in
assessing implementa-
tion plans to achieve
the annual standard.
(c) 1,300 micrograms
per cubic meter
(0,5 ppm) - maximum
3-hr, concentration
not to be exceeded
more than once per
year.
Particulate
Matter
Carbon Monoxide
Photochemical
Oxidants
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen Dioxide
(a) 75 micrograms
per cubic meter -
annual geometric
mean •
(b) 260 micrograms
per cubic meter -
rn.sxirr.ur1. 24— h^r. c.r.r.-
centration not to
be exceeded more
than once per year.
(a) 60 micrograms
per cubic meter -
annual geometric
mean, as a guide to
be used in assessing
implementation plans
to acjiicve Lhc 24-hr.
standard.
(b) 150 micrograms
per cubic meter -
maximum 24—hr. con-
centration not to
be exceeded more than
once per year.
(a) 10 milligrams per cubic meter
(9 ppm) - maximum 8-hr, concentra-
tion not to be exceeded more than
once per year.
(b) 40 milligrams per cubic meter
(35 ppm) - maximum 1-hr, concentra-
tion not to be exceeded more than
once per year.
160 micrograms per cubic meter (0.08
ppm) - maximum 1-hr, concentration
not to be exceeded more than once
per year.
160 micrograms per cubic meter (0.24
ppm) - maximum 3-hr, concentration
(6 to 9 a.m.) not to be exceeded
more than once per year.
100 micrograms per cubic meter (0.05
ppm) - annual arithmetic mean.
B-131
-------
Though national ambient air quality standards apply uniformly
throughout the U.S., some states and regions have initiated standards
more stringent than federal levels. The state of California, for example,
6
has established the standards shown in Table 5. Though air quality
standards are meant to establish minimal acceptable levels of concentra-
tion for protecting human health and welfare, some would argue the
effectiveness of the thresholds. One argument against the appropriate-
ness of thresholds established for acute levels of pollution has been
presented by Hickey, Boyce, Haines, and Clelland (1970), who maintain
that the long-term low-concentration levels of exposure which cause
relatively little irritation, discomfort or odor may in reality consti-
7
tute a more serious health hazard. The federal ambient air quality
standards are merely one uniform set of thresholds for the whole nation.
California and others have gone beyond this national level to be more
specific. In California, for example, there are three pollution thres-
hold levels: Stage 3—the emergency level; Stage 2—the warning level;
and Stage 1—the health advisory alert level, in descending order of
importance. If pollution levels reach the emergency level, a short-
term emergency episode plan is activated to bring the pollution level
under control. Pollutant levels are shown in Table 6 for each of these
8
stages.
Water quality thresholds under the B column heading include U.S.
drinking water standards. These standards, originally researched under
the Public Health Service Act of 1912 and formulated under the Water
Pollution Control Act of 1948, establish clean water standards necessary
9*
for public health.
Pursuant to the new Safe Drinking Water Act (1974), EPA has prepared
more comprehensive drinking water regulations to include all standards
specified in the existing act plus other standards for bacteria,
turbidity, and radioactive materials.
B-132
-------
TABLE 5
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nvfA?
tea vt/tf
•*
"
M0«c/k>
(O.M F»)
-
B»e«»l.rr *'
&•.« ••
PrlMt7 Btd.
Su« ..
mur7
atand.rdt
S*M ••
Priaary
luadart
CO »'
150 m/.'
~
~
Prl«U7
•tudart
-
lUthM7
Ch««llt«io«Becat
lUtbod
«o^M»p of olr ouallty aaoaaary. Mt aa alootuto aargla or aaftty, to protaet
tbo »oolirb..lth. I.=b atara au.t a'.t.in tli. Briaary attilard. BO Ittar tiao tkroa y«.ra .rter tbit at.to'a
l^loaaotatlon pi., la approtad ky tut EnvtroaBt.tal Protottloa Agtacy (ETA).
4 B.tioe.1 S.cotid*r« Staj^ardti tba l.T.la or air (ruallty B.caoaary to protect tb. public wtlf.ft froa aey kaawa
ar^IScipl!"? .Z.r.r.rr,Na ™ a p-,llut..t. Eacb .tit. ~.t attain tba aoeaadary at.ad.rd. -Itbla a l*..ot.clon plan la approved by toa EPA.
7. laroraec. avthod aa e^a.
Vaaalato.t ralatloaa^l;
icrlb.^ by th. IP». An -«oui*ol«at lothod* or aaaauroaoat aay ka utd kot auat ba»a t
p t.
-------
Table 6
California
ETOODE CX rmtlA LEVELS
Photochemical Oxidant
(Including Ozone)
Carbon Monoxide
Sulfur Dioxide
Averaging
Tbne
(Hour
IHow
12 Hours
IHour
MHoura
Stage [-(Health
Advisory-Alert)
JO ppm
40 ppm
20ppm
OJ ppm
0.2 ppm
Stage!
(Warning)
.40 ppm
75 ppm
35 ppm
14 ppm
0.7 ppm
State 3-(Emertency)
£O ppm for one hour ind
predicted to persist for one
additional hour.
100 ppm for one hour and
predicted to persist for one
additional hour.
SO ppm
lOppIB
05 ppm
EPISODE STAGES
Listed below in order of increasing air pollution severity are the episode stages where
specific actions will be required:
A. Stage 1 (Health Advisory-Alert)
A health advisory is issued when the concentration of pollutants specified for this stage
is predicted or reached. Persons with respiratory or coronary artery disease should be
notified to take precautions against exposure. Schools should be notified so they can
curtail students' participation in strenuous activities. Abatement action for this stage
will be voluntary.
B. Stage 2 (Warning)
A warning is called when the concentration of pollutants specified for this stage is
predicted or reached. This is an intermediate stage. Abatement actions needed under
this stage can, therefore, range from voluntary measures to mandatory measures.
C. Stage 3 (Emergency)
An emergency is called when the conditions specified for this stage are reached; and in
the case of the one hour criteria for carbon monoxide or oxidant, are predicted to
persist for one additional hour. If local district efforts for abatement are not adequate,
the State may take action under the appropriate provisions of the State Peacetime
Emergency Plan developed pursuant to the Emergency Services Act.
D. Episode Termination
A stage is to be terminated whenever the concentration of the pollutant(s) which
causes the declaration of such episode has been verified to have fallen below the
criteria level for the declaration of the episode, and meteorological data indicate that
the pollutant concentration is expected to decrease.
B-134
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As with air quality standards, these thresholds apply nationwide; however,
in some cases, states or municipalities have initiated more stringent
drinking water standards. Generally speaking, drinking water standards
also apply to primary contact waters (those waters where the body may be
submerged, such as recreational activities, or water which may be
ingested). Thresholds criteria are very specific, as those proposed by
EPA for primary contact waters. These health and safety considerations
are clarity, bacteriological levels (the fecal coliform concentration
should be an average of no more than 2000 per 100 ml, with a maximum of
4000 per 100 ml), pH range, recommended to be 6.5 to 8.3 with a minimum
level of 5.0 to 9.0 and temperature which should not be in excess of 86 F
10
unless due to natural occurrence.
Standards which indirectly affect human health have been established
under the Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act, and EPA
has proposed criteria for marine water quality to protect important
species in the aquatic food chain. Other water quality standards (thres-
hold levels) that affect humans directly and indirectly are those which
apply to public water supply and agricultural and industrial water supply.
Control of pollutants and the general improvement of the quality of
water makes it available for more uses and protects against harmful
residuals such as toxins and poisonous chemicals. It is important to
note that there are specific thresholds correlated to specific water uses,
such as for drinking, swimming, or viewing, and that such categorization
implies an enforcement priority, the most important one being against
hazards to health.
Objective Data
Since both air and water quality deal with physical properties
of the environment, they are amenable to quantification for both initial
measurement and continued monitoring. Considerable research has gone
into establishing air and water quality threshold levels for individual
B-135
-------
constituents, and this research effort continues as progress is made in
the area of health sciences. Likewise, an extensive effort has been
initiated for developing surveillance networks for monitoring both air
and water quality. These range from national to local in scale. Examples
include the following:
Air
• National Air Surveillance Network (NASN)
• Continuous Air Monitoring Project (CAMP)
• State Air Pollution Emission Inventories
• Air Quality Control Region System
• Urban Emission Inventories
Data from the above is collected and published through the Office of
11
Air Programs of EPA in its Air Pollution Technical Documents.
Water
• National Water Surveillance Network—STORET
"... provides a national repository for all water
quality control data collected by EPA and co-
operating agencies (includes federal agencies,
states and regions).
Statistical indexes and models have been developed to show how well
standards are being met. These vary according to how data is calcu-
lated for evaluation. Indexes for measuring air quality include the
Mitre Air Quality Index (MAQI), the Extreme Value Index (EVI), and
the Oak Ridge Air Quality Index (ORAQI). Table 7 shows data derived
13
from the above indexes. As Berry points out, "the problem with these
indexes is they develop total standard-achievement measures as the sum
of achievement ratios for the individual pollutant, without due regard
being given to the interdependencies and interactions among pollutants
,,14
that arise from their physical relationship in the environment.
One proposed index discussed by Berry is Babcock's PINDEX (1970).
The PINDEX index includes provision for particulate matter - sulfur
B-136
-------
TABLE 7
AIR POLLUTION DATA UTILIZING MAQI,
EVI, AND ORAQI MEASURES
NEW YORK
1968
1969
1970
BALTIMORE
1968
1969
1970
BIRMINGHAM
1968
1969
1970
BOSTON
1968
1969
1970
PHILADELPHIA
1968
1969
1970
ST. LOUIS
1968
1969
1970
MILWAUKEE
1968
1969
1970
ATLANTA
1968
1969
1970
DETROIT
1968
1969
1970
MAQI
6.07
5.01
3.48
3.51
3.28
4.17
5.09
4.25
5.05
2.35
2.51
2.12
3.84
2.72
3.99
3.82
5.35
4.41
4 .27
3.17
2.69
2.88
2.51
2.60
4.01
3.68
3.39
EVI
20.06
13.39
7.38
6.95
4.48
15.15
26.67
22.41
16.13
3.24
2.58
1.09
9.15
5.53
13.38
18.07
27.24
13.15
30.82
10.17
6.41
2.22
1.10
3.44
17.90
12.11
9.17
ORAQI
e
246
181
116
127
117
114
135
107
76
84
79
76
128
82
150
157
163
125
119
89
70
108
91
86
145
138
102
Source: U. S. Council on Environmental Quality (1972)
B-137
-------
oxides synergisms, as well as the effects of oxidants as both primary
and secondary pollutants. Data from the PINDEX model is shown in Table
8 15
Proposed statistical indexes for water quality evaluation include:
(1) Prevalence - Duration - Intensity Index (PDI)
This measure considers the relationship of actual water
quality to state standards. It has been computed for
a nationwide network of 10,000 stations, leading, however,
to a single judgemental decision as to whether water
at each station is polluted or not polluted.
(2) Enviro-Control Water Pollution Measurement System
This measurement system focuses on DoD as a criterion
and has been computed for 140 selected stations with
the reliable DoD data. A problem is that the 142-
station network is not closely correlated with the
urban system.
(3) Syracuse Pollution Index (SPI)
The important feature of this index is that it provides
a single measure of water quality relative to permis-
sible use standards. This is perhaps the most inclusive
index available.
The PDI index "... allows any water body to be describee1 in
terms of the prevalence, duration, and intensity of its water
pollution, corrected for natural background pollutant levels,
and taking into account the flow characteristics of the water
courses for which it is computed. The index is based on how
much water quality deviates from Federal-State water quality
standards, which vary from place to place, depending on lo-
cally established use designations as to use, as for drinking,
swimming, industrial waste discharge, etc."17
The prevalence of water pollution was first assessed
systematically on a nationwide basis in 1970 and reported
in The Annual Report of the Council on Environmental Quality.
The 1970 figures indicated that 27 percent of the U.S. stream
B-138
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TABLE
PINDEX LEVELS FOR SELECTED U.S. CITIES*
Chicago
Cincinnati
Denver
Los Angeles
Philadelphia
Saint Louis
San Diego
San Francisco
San Jose
Washington
Pindex Levels
Chicago
Los Angeles
Saint Louis
Philadelphia
San Jose
Denver
Cincinnati
San Francisco
Washington
San Diego
PM
(ug/m3)
124
154
126
119
154
143
69
68
92
77
0.47 '
0.34
0.42
0.49
0. 26
0.35
0.44
0.19
0.26
0. 19
SOX
(ppn>)
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0,
0.
0
0
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0
0
0
.14
03
01
.02
.08
.04
01
.01
.01
.05
. 42
.06
.14
.24
.03
.03
.09
.03
.15
.03
NOX
(ppm)
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
o .
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
>\
0.
0.
0.
14
06
07
13
OS
07
05
14
12
07
56
52
26
32
48
29
24
56
28
20
CO
(ppra)
12.0
6.0
7.9
11.0
6.8
5.8
3.0
3.2
5.0
6.0
0. 38
0. 34
0.18
0. 21
0.16
0.25
0.19
0.16
0. 18
0.09
HC
(ppm)
3
3
2
4
2
3
6
3
4
3
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
.0
.0
.4
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.3
.0
11
15
11
07
15
09
11
11
11
22
Oxidant
(pom)
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
c.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
01
02
03
05
01
04
03
02
02
02
10
50
36
10
30
29
20
20
20
30
TOTAL
2.04
1 .91
1.47
I .43
1.38
1.30
1.2-*
1.2i
1.13
' C "*
'(approximated from 1962 to 1967 data).
Source: Babcock (1970),
B-139
-------
and shoreline miles were polluted. EPA assessed it again a
year later and found that, despite improved field reporting,
the prevalence of pollution was about the same nationally
(29 percent) in 1971.
Table 9 summarizes the EPA data for major drainage
basins.!8 unfortunately, of the four apparently significant
shifts in reported water pollution that took place—in the
Ohio, Gulf, Missouri, and Northeastern Basins—three are so
obscured by procedural variations that it is impossible to
evaluate the degree of real change. Both the Gulf and
Missouri Basins reported an enormous improvement in compliance
with state water quality standards, but the apparent improve-
ment between 1970 and 1971 is almost certainly due to more
accurate reporting, not to better water. In the case of the
Ohio River Basin, the 1970 assessment overlooked a large number
of smaller tributaries which were polluted.
The last column of Table 9 shows the duration-intensity
factor for the 1971 figures. Whereas the prior columns
simply indicate what portion of the stream was polluted, the
duration-intensity factor indicates how badly polluted it
was and for how long during the year it was in violation of
the standards. To obtain the complete PDI index, the number
of polluted stream miles is multiplied by the duration-
intensity factor. Thus, the higher the factor is, the worse
the pollution.
The PDI index has several advantages. It covers all
U.S. surface waters. It considers the relationship of
actual water quality to state standards of desirable water
quality.
The above is merely representative of objective data available
for measuring air and water quality. Similar data is recorded at
state, regional, and local agency levels in addition to data available
through universities and private research institutions.
B Column - Security
£t
Moving on now to the B column of the needs matrix, which considers
the major acts and enforcement mechanisms that insure standards will be
B-140
-------
TABLE 9
HATER POLLUTION INDEX SUMMARIZED FOR MAJOR DRAINAGE
AREAS, 1970 AND 1971
Major
Watershed
Ohio
Southeast
Great Lakes
Northeast
Middle
Atlantic
California
Gulf
Missouri
Columbia
Stream
Miles
28,992
11,726
21,374
32,431
31,914
28,277
64,719
10.448
30,443
Polluted miles
1970
9,869
3,109
6,580
11,895
4,620
5,359
16,605
4,259
7,443
1971
24,031
4,490
8,771
5,823
5,627
8,429
11,604
1,839
5,685
Change
+13,746
+ 1,381
+ 2,191
- 6,072
+ 869
•f 2,499
- 5,001
- 2,420
- 1,758
1971
Duration-
Intensity
Factor
0.42
.74
.45
.61
.47
.27
.35
.31
. -12
UNITED STATES
260,324 69,739 76,291 + 5,435
UNITED STATES
LESS OHIO 231,332 59,870 52,263 - 8,311
UNITED STATES
LESS COLUMBIA
229,881 62,296 70,614 + 7,193
.41
.40
.43
Source: Environmental Protection Agency, "The Cost
of Clean Water" (1972).
B-14I
-------
met over time. Legislation for air includes: The Clean Air Act, as
amended in 1973; EPA emission standards; state and regional air quality
standards; and for water, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of
1972 and more recently the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974. The federal
government, under these Acts, has the power to seek court injunction
against polluters who create health hazards or endanger livelihood.
States must adopt standards for intrastate waters and submit these to
EPA for approval. Further, EPA has the power to enter and inspect any
polluting facility to check its records and monitoring equipment and
to sample discharges. EPA may enforce the criteria for permit condi-
tions and other requirements of the law by issuing administrative orders
that are enforceable in court, or by seeking court action.
Objective Data
Air pollution episodes in New York City have been associated
with exposures similar to those of the London episodes. In one
case, for example, excess deaths were detected in New York fol-
lowing a 24-hour period during which sulfur dioxide concentrations
exceeded 1500fltg/m3 (>0.5 ppm) (as measured by the hydrogen
peroxide titrimetric method) and suspended particulate matter
was measured as a soiling index of 6 cohs or greater.
For Rotterdam, there have been indications of a positive
association between total mortality and exposure for a few days
to 24-hour mean concentrations of 500ULg/m3 (0.19 ppm) sulfur
dioxide. Further, it has been reported that: "There is a faint
indication that this will happen somewhere between 300 and 500
JAgS02 per m3 per 24 hours" (0.11 ppm and 0.19 ppm).
A survey of emergency clinics at major New York City hospi-
tals revealed a rise in visits for upper respiratory infections
and cardiac diseases in both children and adults in all four
hospital studies during a 10-day period of elevated pollution
levels. Sulfur dioxide ranged between 200U, g/m3 and 2460txg/m3
(0.07 ppm to 0.86 ppm) during the period studied; hospital ad-
missions were clearly elevated at a time when concentrations had
not yet exceeded 715icg/m3 (0.25 ppm). Smoke shade was close to
3 coh units.
In London, a one-day exposure to a daily average level of
600*tg/m3 of sulfur dioxide (0.20 ppm) caused accentuation of
B-142
-------
symptoms in persons with chronic respiratory disease on the day
following the high sulfur dioxide level if particular matter
20
at a substantial concentration was also a pollutant.
Subjective Data
Various attitudinal data on the quality of the natural environment
has been collected by the Institute for Social Research in Ann Arbor,
Michigan. The following question was asked concerning air and water
21
quality:
"How do you feel about: The conditions of the natural environment —
the air, land, and water in this area?" (May 1972)
Delig. Pleas. Mos. Sat. Mixed Mos. Piss. Unhap. Terr.
5% 18% 27% 21% 12% 10% 7%
B Column - Equal Access
*J
Federal standards for air and water quality are designed to protect
the general public and therefore apply nationwide. As mentioned above,
state and regional standards are in some cases more stringent than
federal standards; however, in every case these apply uniformly to all
populations within their jurisdiction.
The problem lies in fact that standards (thresholds) are set to
protect the general public and do not necessarily reflect health dangers
for subpopulations of persons already combating health problems (e.g.,
respiratory diseases, heart malfunctions, circulatory problems). These
persons are generally more susceptible to air pollution hazards and,
thus, their activities are even more restricted during acute pollution
days.
B-143
-------
Objective Data
One objective measure of equal access to air quality might be the
number of air pollution alert days in an air quality control district
along with correlated morbidity and mortality rates for the same days.
A measure of access to water quality might be the effectiveness of
enforcement measures or bodies or stream miles of polluted water of the
total available. Geographic areas which suffer from extensive pollution,
then, would be cited as not having access to tolerable water in their
living environment. The volume of bottled drinking water sold in a
district would be one method of measuring the extent of intolerability
as perceived by the general public in that district.
B Column - Ability to Influence
4
In a general sense, the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
establishes the overall policy of public disclosure of environmental
impacts to allow for public response and action. Though thresholds
themselves are not easily influenced by the general public (they are
primarily established and adjusted through research), both security and
access to security can be accomplished by the public, the typical case
being a request by industry to relax the standards until they can be
met in a more cost-effective way (e.g., auto emission standards).
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act additionally requires the
states to hold public hearings to review their water quality standards
and, if necessary, to update them at least once every three years. Other
means of public influence might be through special interest group asso-
ciations, such as the Natural Resources Defense Council, as well as
applying pressure on public regulating bodies, such as the Air Pollution
Control Board, or private industrial polluters.
B-144
-------
Objective Data
The number of environmental impact statements reporting negatively
on the adequacy of air and water pollution control employed by a
proposed project might be one measure of public influence. Court cases
based on examples such as the above or on personal health hazards from
uncontrolled pollution would offer another measure of influence.
Subjective Data
Percent of persons willing to attend public hearings.
H Column - Threshold Level/Higher Needs
Moving from left to right across the needs matrix for the issues
of air and water quality brings us to the task of defining QOL threshold
levels for meeting higher needs. For purposes of this report, a prelimi-
nary decision was made on the dividing point between basic and higher
need levels. The division was made to include as basic needs only those
standards (threshold) pertaining to health and safety; all other thres-
holds were considered to be higher needs because they dealt with such
things as taste, color, odor and aesthetic appeal. The argument here
could be made that odoriferous air or water may cause psychological
stress, which may affect human health and safety indirectly; however,
thresholds do not seem to reflect this premise as yet. Perhaps, as
further cause-effect information is uncovered, standards will reflect
also psychological stressors defined as health hazards.
Threshold Levels
For drinking water and for water used for recreation, standards
have been established based on tolerance levels for taste, color, odor
and turbidity. Standards also specify thresholds for copper, zinc,
B-145
-------
iron, dissolved solids, and detergents. For recreational water, EPA has
proposed criteria for limiting pH, providing clarity, controlling mico-
organisms, and establishing temperature levels suitable for water used
for bathing and swimming. These thresholds stem from such general aesthe-
tic objectives as the following:
a) All surface waters should be capable of supporting life
forms of aesthetic value.
b) Surface waters should be free of substances attributable
to discharge or wastes (e.g., objectionable deposits,
floating debris, oil, scum, substances producing objectionable
22
color, odor, taste, or turbidity, and so on).
In addition to the established standards, a number of surveys have
been conducted by the Bureau of Parks and Recreation in particular, in
an attempt to establish further thresholds based on aesthetic proper-
ties of water. To date, these have not moved beyond recommended guide-
lines.
Objective Data
Data sources for indicating where regions and states do not conform
to the water quality standards in the H column would be the same as
those identified under the B column.
H Column - Security
£t
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, along with state and regional
pollution control boards, offers security for assuring that higher need
thresholds will not be ignored. U.S. and state public service monitor-
ing of recreational waters provides further security in addition to
enforcement measures taken by parks and recreation agencies.
B-146
-------
Objective Data (example)
• Number of swimming areas closed for pollution clean-up.
Subjective Data (example)
• Annual park-user complaints based on aesthetic criteria.
H Column - Equal Access
Standards cited for water quality apply to all bodies of water and,
therefore, to all persons. However, enforcement of standards may vary
from region to region and thus may by default discriminate. The appor-
tionment of tax dollars for water pollution control, for example, may
be quite different between areas facing similar water quality problems.
This may or may not reflect user interests.
Objective Data
One relatively objective measure might be the degree of choice
or number of approved recreational water areas, within a geographic
area.
H Column - Ability to Influence
4 _____
Individuals or groups of individuals may influence the quality of
recreational waters within their local area through public hearing,
special interest group pressure (petitions), letters to public officials,
or referendums.
The most effective method, however, may be through purchasing
power (e.g., patronage of recreational areas).
B-147
-------
Objective Data
• Public hearing attendance
• Pressure grouping and special interest groups (Sierra Club)
• Referendums passed and defeated for improved water
quality used for recreational purposes
Subjective Data
• Survey results from "willingness to pay" for improved
water quality based on aesthetic criteria.
B-148
-------
SECTOR: NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
ISSUE: SCENIC AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES
Protection
Basic Need/Threshold
Protects any wild mammal,
fish, bird, amphibian, rep-
tile, mollusk or crustacian
threatened with extinction
Calif. Coastal Zone includes
mountain ranges or five
miles from the nean high
tide line whichever is the
shorter distance
Security
• Wild & Scenic Rivers Act
Sec. 1271-1273
• Marine Protection Research-
Sanctuaries Act of 1972
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
• Special interest groups
- Audubon Societies,
Sierra Club, and garden
cluba
• Scenic Highways Act
• National Coastal Zone Act
• Calif. Coastal Zone Con-
servation Act
* Approximately two million
people or 20% of the popu-
lation of Southern Cali-
fornia live within the
five-mile, coastal zone of
Los Angeles & Orange
Counties
* Over 100 animals in the
U.S. (including 50 birds
and 31 fish) are in danger
of becoming extinct
(Source: U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service)2
The Coastal Zone Conser-
vation Bill of 1972 (Calif)
reached the ballot by
citizen initiation and
was voted into law by
551 of the electorate
B-149
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SECTOR: NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
ISSUE: NOISE
Health hazards iajaenities
»,
Basle Need/Threshold
• MBcl-num level - 73 dB of
4000 HZ noise for a contin-
uous exposure of 8 hours
• Critical sound exposure
levels (Dickerson 1970)
safe - 70-80 dB(A)
hearing loss begins -
90 dB(A), 50% probability
of impairment - 95 dB(A),
losses of all exposed indi-
vidual - 105 dB(A)
• Persons suffering
pr esbycusi >
i Temporary threshold shift
in loss of hearing
Security
Equal Access
• State & local quantitative
and qualitative noise ordi-
nance for motor vehicles
• Airport citing restrictions
• KEPA
• Noise Control Act (1972)
Ability to Influence
• Legal action
• Croup appeals
• Individual complaints
• Rational Environmental
Policy Act
* Court action
* Complaints issued to
- petitions to city
councils
ISSUE: RADIATION
e 10 CFR Chap 1, Part 20
No licensee shall cause:
- (1) radiation levels
which, if an individual
were continuously present
in the area, could re-
sult in his receiving
a dose in excess of 2
mirt-icens (2 mrem) in
any one hour or (2)
radiation levels which
if an individual were
continuously present in
the area could result
in his receiving a dose
in excess of 100 mil-
licens in any 7 con-
sesecutive days
• VWPC Act
• EPA Radiation Alert Net-
work Station
• Tritium Surveillance
Systems
• National Council on Radia-
tion Protection and
Measurement
• Federal Radiation Council
• EPA special structure
group— limit of 5 mrem
per year per reactor at
the site boundary
• National Council on Radia-
tion Protection and
Measurements
- Figure of 170 mrem per
year per reactor at the
site boundary
* Gross Beta radioacting
pll/m2
* Ralnfall-ms
B-150
* Beta radioactivity deposi-
tion mcl/m
-------
SECTOR: NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
ISSUE: NOISE
Health hazards & amenities
Basic Need/Threshold
• Intrusion noise interfer-
ence with activity or
annoyance maximum level
45 dB indoors, 55 dB
outdoors
Security
• Noise control U.S. Code
No. .42, 4901-4819
• Municipal ordinances—
emission levels for
specific sources e.g., loud-
speakers, construction
projects
• HUD guidelines for location
of projects
• EPA--noise from truck tires
Equal Access
H
Ability to Influence
• Legal action
• Group action
• Individual complaints
• NEPA
* Maximum noise limits at
residential boundary (M3)
Chicago--63 dB(A), Anaheim
--60, Fairlawn, N.V.,
Chicago M-2—58, Beverly
H111S--431
* Loss of sleep due to noise,
survey results
* Loss of property values
due to expressway noise
• Court action
• Complaints issued
B-151
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SECTOR: NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
ISSUE: PESTICIDES
Health Hazards 6t amenities
B,
Basic Need/Threshold
• EPA pesticide pollution
residuals most important
- DDT
- Dieldrin
- Heptachlor
- Heptachlor Epoxides
- Toxaphene
- Parathion/Paroxon
• EPA- minimum standard for
certifying applications
Security
• Federal Water Pollution
Control Act
• State Water Pollution
Control Boards
• Consumer Protection
Program
• Food & Drug Administration
* U.S. Department of
Agriculture
• Federal Environmental
Pesticide Control Act
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
B-152
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SECTOR: NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
ISSUE; LAND USE
Degree of choice
Basic Need/Threshold
No quantitative thresholds
established at national
levels
Local ordinance—limits on
lot coverage and floor
area ratio and standard
resident zoning regulations
Court decisions: "No
community has the right to
make, by itself, decisions
that adversely affect
other communities."
Security
• Land use, lot coverage,
and floor area ratios de-
termined at municipal
levels
- Zoning laws related
ordinances (code enforce-
ment)
- Building permits, public
power
• Soil Conservation Act 16
USC 59 OFF
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
• Public review built into
General Plan and aspects
of zoning administration
• Variance and appeal
process
• EIR process
• Citizen groups and special
interest groups (developers'
groups, real estate)
• Historic & Archaelogical
Sites Act
• HUD 701 Program (Comprehen-
sive Planning Assistance
• State land use planning
acts (e.g., Connecticut
Plan of Conservation &
Development) identifying
critical areas for review
* In urbanized areas, popu-
lation per square mile
has declined from 6,580
in 1920 to 4.2301
* 5 per type of land use
- Residential
- Commercial
- Industrial
- Extractive
- Public, quasi-public
- Transportation, commu-
nication, utilities
- Agricultural recrea-
tional, water
• General Plan - Regional
and local level (specific
distribution of different
land uses)
• Specific land use Acts
e.g., Williamson Act of
California to preserve
agricultural land through
tax incentive
* In the U.S., estimated
10,000 local governments
with independent, auton-
omous authority over land
use decisions2
* New York metropolitan area-
500 separate jurisdictions
control land use-^
* Cook County, Chicago —
130 separate zoning author-
ities4
B-153
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SECTOR: HATUHAL miRONMENT
ISSUE: SOLID WASTE
B
Basic Need/Threshold
Security
* Health hazards connected
with solid waste pollu-
tion—fly and rodent
borne disease
• Local ordinances related
to solid waste disposal,
odors & visual impacts
• State & local rules on
handling of solid wastes:
• Solid Waste Disposal Act
(1965)
* EPA National Survey of
Solid Water Practices
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
B-154
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NATURAL ENVIRONMENT - ISSUE WRITEUP: REFERENCES
1. Federal Register, 38 F. R. 25678 (14 September 1973).
2. Brian J. L. Berry et al., Land Use, Urban Form and Environmental
Quality, p. 40, Research Paper No. 155, Department of Geography,
University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois (1974).
3. Berry, op. cit., p. 41.
4. Berry, op. cit., p. 40.
5. Berry, op. cit., p. 41.
6. California Air Resources Board, "California Air Quality Data, July,
August, September 1972," p. 15, Volume IV, No. 3.
7. Cited in Berry, op. cit., p. 57.
8. California Air Resources Board and Office of Emergency Services,
"California Air Pollution Emergency Plan," pp. 3-4 (July 1974).
9. Berry, op. cit., p. 109.
10. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Proposed Criteria for Water
Quality, Volume I," pp. 401-404, Washington, D. C. (October 1973).
11. Berry, op. cit., pp. 32-33.
12. Berry, op. cit., p. 86.
13. Berry, op. cit., p. 52.
14. Berry, op. cit., pp. 52-53.
15. Berry, op. cit., p. 55.
16. Berry, op. cit., p. 117 and p. 128.
17. Berry, op. cit., p. 128.
18. Berry, op. cit., p. 129.
19. Berry, op. cit., pp. 128-130.
B-155
-------
20. U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, "Air Quality Criteria
for Sulfur Oxides, Summary and Conclusions," pp. 10-11, Consumer Protec-
tion and Environmental Health Service, Public Health Service, reprinted
from Air Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides, issued by the National Air
Pollution Control Administration, Arlington, Virginia (February 1969).
21. Andrews, F. M. and Withey, S. B., "Developing Measures of Perceived Life
Quality; Results from Several National Surveys," Social Indicators
Research, I (1974).
22. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, op. cit., pp. 340-341.
B-156
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NATURAL ENVIRONMENT - BIBLIOGRAPHY
Andrews, Frank M. and Withey, Stephen B., "Developing Measures of Per-
ceived Life Quality; Results from Several National Surveys," Social
Indicators Research, I (1974).
Babcock, Jr., L. R., "A Combined Pollution Index for Measurement of
Total Air Pollution," Journal of the Air Pollution Control Associ-
ation, Vol. 20, No. 10 (October 1970).
Berry, Brian J. L. et al., Land Use, Urban Form and Environmental
Quality, Research Paper No. 155, Department of Geography, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois (1974).
California Air Resources Board, "California Air Quality Data, July, August,
September 1972,"Volume IV, No. 3.
California Air Resources Board and Office of Emergency Services, "California
Air Pollution Emergency Plan" (July 1974).
Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, A Compilation of Federal
Laws Relating to Conservation and Development of Our Nation's
Fish and Wildlife Resources, Environmental Quality, and Oceanography,
committee print, January 1973.
Flax, Michael J., "A Study in Comparative Urban Indicators: Conditions
in 18 Large Metropolitan Areas," URI 20006, The Urban Institute,
Washington, D. C. (April 1972).
Environment Report, published by Trends Publishing, Inc., National Press
Building, Washington, D. C. (4 September 1974).
Environmental News, news releases, briefs, and addresses, issued by the
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D. C. (1 August
1974 and 27 February 1975).
Hickey, R. J., D. E. Boyce, E. B. Harmer, and R. C. Clelland, Ecological
Statistical Studies Concerning Environmental Pollution and Chronic
Disease. Summary in Digest of Technical Papers, 2nd Internationsl
Geoscience Electronics Symposium, IEEE, Washington, D. C. (April 1970).
"Land Use: More and Better Choices for America," address given by the
Honorable Russell E. Train, Administrator, U. S. Environmental Pro-
tection Agency, at a land conference sponsored by the Natural Resources
Council of Connecticut and the Connecticut Department of Environmental
Protection, Northford, Connecticut, 26 November 1974 (released in
Environmental News, December 1974).
B-157
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Marine Advisory Program, Sea Grant Program, University of Southern Cali-
fornia, "Changing the Future of the Coast: Increasing Public Access,
A Report on the Coastal Plan of the South Coast Regional Coastal
Commission," Los Angeles, California (February 1975).
National League of Cities, "Recreation in the Nation's Cities, Problems
and Approaches," Washington, D. C. (December 1968).
U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, "Air Quality Criteria
for Sulfur Oxides, Summary and Conclusions," Consumer Protection
and Environmental Health Service, Public Health Service, reprinted
from Air Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides, issued by the
National Air Pollution Control Administration, Arlington, Virginia
(February 1969).
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, "National Primary and Secondary
Ambient Air Quality Standards," Federal Register, Vol. 36, No. 84,
Pt. II (30 April 1971).
, "Proposed Criteria for Water Quality, Volume I," Washington,
D. C. (October 1973).
B-158
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NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
REFERENCES FOR OBJECTIVE (*) AND SUBJECTIVE (+) DATA
Air Quality
1. * Land Use, Urban Form and Environmental Quality, Berry, Brian J. L.,
University of Chicago for EPA
2. * Air Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides, U. S. Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, 1969 - booklet
3. * Environmental News, August 1, 1974 (EPA-A-107) article - "Impact of the
Fuel Shortage on Public Attitudes Toward Environmental Protection
Water Quality
1. *-2. *-3. * Land Use, Urban Form and Environmental Quality, Berry,
Brian J. L., University of Chicago for EPA
4. * - 5. * Environmental News - February 27, 1975 - "EPA Approves $40 million
for State, Interstate Water Programs"
Scenic and Wildlife Resources
1. * "Changing the Future of the Coast: Increasing Public Access" - Marine
Advisory Program, Sea Grant Programs, University of Southern California
Report
2. * "U. S. List of Endangered Fauna," U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
3. * "Changing the Future of the Coast: Increasing Public Access" - Marine
Advisory Program Report (University of Southern California), February 1975.
Noise
1. * - 2. * - 3. * Lend Use, Urban Form and Environmental Quality, Berry,
Brian J. L. for EPA
Land Us e
1. * - 2. * - 3. * - 4. * "Land Use: More and Better Choices for America"
Environmental News, December 1974, EPA
B-159
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6. Physical
General
Perhaps the most visible indicator of a nation's quality of life it
the condition of its physical environment. The state of any nation's
physical environment depends on its wealth of natural resources as well
as man's use of those resources in manufacturing, processing and develop^
ment activities. In this section we are primarily concerned with the
feasibility of measuring the impact of the man-made environment on quality
of life, although this sector necessarily involves certain aspects of the
natural environment as well.
The built environment represents an extremely broad sector, and the
key issues concerning this sector are many. For the purpose of our
analysis, seven separate issues have been identified. These seven issues
represent a sufficiently broad spectrum to facilitate the analysis of
virtually any concern relating to man's control over the physical environ-
ment. The seven issues are:
• Housing
• Nonresidential buildings and structures
• Food, drugs, and cosmetics
• Commercial and industrial products
• Public services
• Transportation
• Recreation and open space
For each of these issues, a variety of sub-issues are relevant, although
the sub-issues for each category vary considerably. Sub-issues relating
to the commercial products category, for example, would include such
concerns as cost economy, durability and ease of use, whereas sub-issues
relating to transportation would include such concerns as safety, availability,
and privacy. Although it is possible to develop a reasonably comprehensive
B-160
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PHYSICAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Housing-
B!
Basic Seeds/Threshold __
Concern: Is my basic shelter Concern: How secure do
of adequate quality? people feel about the quality
of their shelter?
_ Secur itv
• Bureau of the Census
Bousing classification
standards. Establishes
definitions of sub-
standard housing according
to measures of structural
soundness & the avail-
ability of plumbing
(B-1-F-G1-3-1-N-Y)
• HUD Minimum Property
Standards
Establishes design, materi-
al & construction standards
by type of dwelling unit
(B-2&B-3-F-G3-3-1-Y-Y)
• Uniform Building Code
Establishes standards for
building material, design
& construction
(B-2&B-3-S-NG1-3-1-N-N)
• Manual of Acceptable
Practices
Detailed supplement to HUD
Minimum Property Standards
(B-2S.B-3-F-G3-3-1-Y-Y)
• IJnifonn Mechanical Code
Establishes standards for
Installation & maintenance
of heating & ventilation in
dwelling units
(B-2&B-3-S-NG1-3-1-N-N)
• The HUD Act of 1968
States basic Federal hous-
ing goals & policies
(B-2&B-3-F-G1-1-2-Y-N)
• Uniform Plumbing Code
Standards for materials
use & installation
(B-2&B-3-S-NG1-3-1-N-N)
• Palo Alto City Building
Code
Adds to or amends the
Uniform Building Code
standards
(B-2&B-3-L-G3-3-1-Y-N)
* 71 of households in 1970
were living in sub-
standard housing (B-l)
-I- Gallup Poll. November 1974
"Bow vould you rate the
condition of your house &
property?" excellent - 28%;
good - 46X; fa^r - 181;
and poor - 21.
Equal Access
Concern: To what proportion
of the population are the
assurances of housing
quality applicable?
• HUP Minimum Property
Standards
Establishes design materi-
al & construction standards
by type of dwelling unit
(B-2&B-3-F-G3-3-1-Y-Y)
• Uniform Building Code
Establishes standards for
building material, design
& construction
(B-2&B-3-S-SG1-3-1-S-U)
• Manual of Acceptable
Practices
Detailed supplement to HUD
Minimum Property Standards
(B-2&B-3-F-C3-3-1-Y-Y)
• Uniform Mechanical Code
Establishes standards for
installation & maintenance
of heating & ventilation in
dwelling units
(B-2&B-3-S-NG1-3-1-N-N)
• The HUD Act of 1968
States basic Federal hous-
ing goals & policies
(B-2&B-3-F-G1-1-2-Y-N)
• uniform Plumbing Code
Standards for materials
use & installation
(B-2&B-3-S-NG1-3-1-N-N)
" Palo Alto City Building
Code
Adds to or amends the
uniform Building Code
standards
(B-2&B-3-L-G3-3-1-Y-N)
* In 1970, 22Z of the black
population lived in sub-
standard housing, and 61
of the non-black popula-
tion lived in sub-standard
housing (B-3)
• Standards
* Objective Data
+ Subjective Data
B4
Ability to Influence
Concern: To what degree is
the individual able to
influence housing quality
standards?
• Palo Alto Municipal Code
Establishes procedures for
applying for a building
variance
(B-4-L-G3-1-3-N-S)
• Dept. of Housing & Develop-
ment Law - 1974
- Requires federal subsidies
for public housing be cut
from local housing author-
ities that fail to enforce
rent collection
B-161
* Recent survey revealed that
subsidies for public hous-
ing, nearing $500 million
a year, have been inflated
by failure of local hous-
ing authorities to collect
full rents from tenants
(General Accounting Office)
* More than 3 million low-
income Americans live in
public housing owned and
operated by public agen-
cies {GAD Investigation,
1974)
-------
PHYSICAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Bousing
Basle Need/Threshold
Concern: Does quality hous-
ing contribute to a resi-
dent's status, prestige or
self-esteem?
Security
Concern: To what degree can
one feel secure about find-
ing ego fulfillment in
quality housing?
Equal Access
Concern: To what degree are
people provided equal access
to security about finding
ego fulfillment in quality
housing?
Ability to Influence
Concern: To what degree can
the individual's ability to
influence housing quality
standards affect status,
prestige, or self-esteem?
• Palo Alto Municipal Code
Title 21 - Subdivisions &
Other Divisions of Land
Establishes standards for
the quality of land
divisions
(H-1-L-G3-1-2-Y-H)
• P»lo Alto Municipal Code
Title 18 - Zoning
Establishes zoning stan-
dards for all types of
dwelling units in the city
(H-1-L-G3-1-2-Y-N)
> Standardized requirements
for facilities for social
interaction in a planned
community
(H-2&H-3-L-NG2-1-Y-N)
• Binding agreements to
maintain a certain implic-
itly prestigious character
of appearance of houses &
yards in a neighborhood or
housing association
(H-2&H-3-I.-lfG2-1-Y-N)
• Standardized requirements
for facilities for social-
interaction in a planned
community
(H-2SJI-3-L-NG2-1-Y-N)
Binding agreements to
maintain a certain implic-
itly prestigious character
of appearance of houses &
yards in a neighborhood or
housing association
(H-2&H-3-1-NG2-1-Y-N)
B-162
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issue list containing only seven components, the number of sub-issues
relative to any given issue is enormous, especially if one were to
consider sub-issues by each type of product, service or facility.
Because a comprehensive analysis of this type is beyond the scope of this
feasibility study, only indicative issues and sub-issues are being
considered.
Matrix Analysis—An Example
To demonstrate the feasibility of using the impact matrix methodology
to measure quality of life in the physical environment, the issue of
housing has been chosen as an illustrative example. The issue of standard
housing relates to quality of life (QOL) in that it is a fundamental
concern to most individuals, and as such is a widely accepted indicator
of quality of life in general. In addition, the housing issue concerns
many basic level needs which must be fulfilled to some degree as a
prerequisite to the fulfillment of higher need concerns represented in
other issues relative to QOL. The issue of standard housing is also a
good illustrative example of QOL in the physical sector because:
• Housing standards deal primarily with basic need concerns as do
most physical sector concerns.
• Housing standards exist at all levels of government, and thus
represent the full spectrum of sector standards.
• Housing policy often has many implications in policy decisions
relative to other aspects of the physical environment.
Because housing quality is a fundamental aspect of the housing issue,
the sub-issue of quality and safety of housing materials, design and
construction will be considered for this illustrative matrix example.
Quality design would include such considerations as square footage, number
of bedrooms, etc. Existing design standards are intended to prevent
overcrowded housing conditions, and such standards are typically measured
B-163
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in terms of what is inadequate. Other types of housing quality concerns
can be measured in a variety of ways, but perhaps the dominant means of
measuring or standardizing such concerns is in terms of defining,
quantifying and remedying substandard conditions. That is, housing quality
and housing design quality is standardized according to what it is not
(e.g., substandard or inadequate). Other less significant conceptual
considerations include fire insurance grading schedules (with evidence of
higher quality correlated to degrees of standardization), and the more
abstract conceptual realm of assessed market value.
The general search procedure used to accumulate matrix data is
described in the appendix. This search procedure was slightly different
for some issues within the physical sector—such as housing—for which
the issue concerns are ultimately addressed at the local level. Although
housing standards exist on the state and federal level, the true measure
of the threshold concern was typically found in municipal ordinances and
codes. The search procedure for this particular issue, then, proved most
fruitful at the local level, usually in municipal libraries or civic
information centers or city offices.
The complete matrix corresponding to the housing quality concern is
shown in Figure 2. Each of the matrix cells is described below, moving
from left to right across the eight columns corresponding to different
levels of the human need hierarchy.
B Column -Basic Need/Threshold
In this first column we are concerned with identifying the basic need
threshold level for housing quality, the level below which housing quality
could be considered intolerable. A subjective concern regarding that
threshold level is whether or not one's basic shelter is of standard quality;
this concern is noted in Column B . A concern relative to design quality
B-164
-------
might be whether or not one's shelter is of adequate quality (which could
indicate crowding or cost factors).
Existing Standards. Standards responding to the basic concern of
standard housing quality are essentially definitions of what is substandard.
Although compliance with local codes is the ultimate measure of whether or
not a dwelling is considered to be substandard, certain more general
standards exist on the national level as well. For example, the Bureau
of the Census uses two subjective measures to determine housing quality—
I/
structural soundness and availability of basic plumbing facilities. These
threshold level standards are summarized in Column B .
Objective Data. The total number of households or percentage of all
households that are living in substandard housing units is one objective
measure of the basic level subjective concern. Column B includes data
2/
prepared by the Office of Management and Budget (according to the Census
Bureau standards) which indicate that in 1970, 7% of the nation's population
was living in substandard housing units.
Attitudinal Data. In response to the question: "How would you rate
the condition of your house and property?" (Gallup Poll, November 1974),
a representative sampling of the national population responded as follows:
28% rated their housing as "excellent"; 46%, good; 18%, only fair; 6%, poor;
and 2% of the sample gave no answer. These data are summarized in Column B ,
I/ A structurally dilapidated housing unit is identified as unsafe due to:
(1) one or more serious defects, (2) numerous intermediate defects in
sufficient numbers to require considerable repair or rebuilding, or
(3) inadequate original construction. A unit can also be considered
substandard if it is lacking any of the following basic facilities:
private bath, private flush toilet, or hot running water (at least
part of the time).
2/ Social Indicators; 1973, Executive Office of the President: Office
of Management and Budget, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington
B.C., 1973.
B-165
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B Column-Basic Need/Security
_2
In this second column we are concerned with people's perception of
security regarding housing quality. The subjective concern heading the
column then is: "what type of standards exist to guarantee that housing
quality will be above the threshold level?"
Existing standards. Despite the difficulty of identifying and
measuring levels of householders' security, the issue of providing housing
quality is nonetheless real, and there exist seemingly innumerable laws
and standards aimed at providing quality and safety of housing materials,
design and construction. Virtually all of these standards can be included
in Column B because their very existence represents an assurance to the
£t
householder that he can feel reasonably secure about the safety and
quality of his dwelling. Examples of these standards are noted in Column
B and include:
2
• HUD Minimum Property Standards - nationally applicable; mandatory.
• Manual of Acceptable Practices - nationally applicable; voluntary.
• Uniform Building Code - privately set standards; mandatory
statewide if officially adopted.
• (Palo Alto) City Building Code - mandatory municipal code.
As demonstrated in just these four examples, standards may be mandatory
or voluntary, and be applicable at the local, regional or national level.
Numerous other standards are applicable to less generalizable aspects of
dwelling construction such as the Uniform Plumbing Code or the Uniform
Mechanical Code.
These few standards are indicative of the immense network of codified
regulations aimed at providing minimum standards of quality and safety in
dwelling units. The effectiveness of these standards depends upon an
equally immense network of inspection, review and enforcement. It is
very difficult to analyze such a complex regulatory network, not only
because of its size, but also because considerable diversity in quality
B-166
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standards exists in each locality. In fact, local standards are the
ultimate determinants of housing quality. Nonlocal standards are usually
broadly defined, most often representing generalizable policy guidelines.
It is at the local level, however, that the most effective guarantees of
appropriate housing quality standards exist, and this is true for several
reasons:
• Regional differences in climate, topography
• Regional differences in lifestyle
• Local and regional differences in levels of urbanization, ruralization,
growth and development
• Local and regional differences in political and economic priorities,
union requirements and pressures
• Local and regional differences in materials use and availability
• The need to preserve distinctly regional architectural character.
People's basic and higher order housing needs and concerns may vary
so much from one region to the next that a national housing index would
have to be so generalized as to be of little use as a policy tool. A
locally applicable measure, on the other hand, should aid policy makers
in responding to the particular needs of specific constituencies.
As with the B threshold column, the intolerability threshold for
each standard in the B column is very specific. The absolute security
£
threshold is confused, however, simply because there exist so many
different standards, each specifying different threshold measures. None-
theless, for the sake of our analysis, the important point to note is that
the threshold level is assessed according to a direct measure of the
objective condition, and in the case of housing quality standards, these
objective conditions are highly delineated (i.e., spacing of doors,
windows, support beams, types of materials, etc.) Each of the specific
elements in a local building code, for example, represents a standard
which can be assessed by measuring that particular (objective) condition.
B-167
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Objective Data. Objective data to measure the adequacy of housing
quality standards is very difficult to obtain because it is difficult
to determine an appropriate measure of standards adequacy (i.e., security).
In a sense, the designation of housing as "substandard" or "not up to
code" represents a type of guarantee of threshold level standards adequacy
(even though the reality of housing shortages makes this type of standard
enforcement impossible, forcing portions of the population to live in
substandard dwellings.) Nonetheless, the objective data to measure this
condition could be viewed as the number of housing units designated as
"substandard". This measure is noted in Column B , although actual data
&
of this sort would have to be obtained through further research at the
local level.
With regard to considerations of housing quality above the threshold
level, (i.e., municipal building codes with higher order quality standards)
the "adequacy" of these standards is a subjective measure of degree, and
the actual quality condition cannot so easily be measured by objective data.
Attitudinal Data. An example of the type of question that would be
a useful measure of attitudes about the adequacy of housing quality standards
is included in Column B : "How adequate are existing housing quality
&t
standards?" The answers to this type of question could be keyed to a
semantic or a numerical differential scale for ease of quantifying and
organizing responses. To the best of our knowledge, no such attitudinal
data now exist, and would have to be generated in a companion attitudinal
study if the MQOL methodology were to be used for the analysis of this
sub-issue.
B Column-Basic Need/Equal Access
Moving across the impact matrix, the next level of need is "equal
access," or the issue of regulatory applicability. In the case of
B-168
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housing quality, we are not so much concerned with the accessibility to
quality housing as we are with people's access to existing standards to
housing quality. Our subjective concern, then, could be stated: "To what
portion of the population are the assurance of housing quality applicable?"
This concern is noted in Column B .
O
Existing Standards. As mentioned above, the items in Column B are
— •" —- • ~ O
measures of regulatory applicability. And for every regulatory standard
the applicability is either implicit or explicitly stated. For example,
the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968, noted in Column B , states
O
explicitly that every American have a decent home and a suitable living
environment. Although this is essentially a policy of housing accessibility,
the terms "decent home" and "suitable living environment" represent a
policy of quality assurances as well, though policy and reality may be
two different things. Unless otherwise noted, then, the standards set
forth in that Act are applicable to every American, in all types of housing,
whether public or private, owned or rented.
Further examples of existing standards that could be included in
Column B are many. In fact, every existing standard that could be
*J
included in Column B has a domain of applicability once that standard
2
is adopted.
For example:
• Uniform Building Code - all citizens of states where adopted
• Palo Alto City Building Code - residents of Palo Alto
• HUD Minimum Property Standards - persons residing in HUD-financed
housing units.
The real issues concerning applicability and equal access are apparent
when considering a variety of related criteria such as:
• That group of citizens living in housing that is not up to code.
(access to quality housing is effectively the same issue as access
to quality housing assurance.)
B-169
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• What are the residency requirements in Palo Alto? (income? race?)
• Who qualifies for HUD-financed housing? (subjectively biased
criteria?)
Because the standards noted in Column B are a duplication of those
standards found in Column B , it follows that the Specificity of the
threshold level of each standard, and the method of assessing when the
intolerability threshold is reached will be the same in Column B as
in B.
Objective Data. As we move from column to column, it becomes
apparent that the resolution of needs becomes more difficult as one
moves higher on the need hierarchy. Even basic need resolution becomes
more complex as we move from left to right, because it is harder to
quantify degrees of need fulfillment than it is to quantify absolute
need fulfillment. And clearly, as we move higher on the need hierarchy,
the possible degrees of need fulfillment are expanded. In addition, the
greater complexity of higher order need issues should indicate that the
objective condition indicative of that issue has resulted from a
multiplicity of issue concerns and not just "equal access." For these
reasons, then, it is very difficult to find a single objective condition
that is an accurate indicator of the issue concern.
Nonetheless, we have chosen the example of racial balance in sub-
standard housing units as an apparent indicator of the equal access
issue. The data collected indicates that in 1970, 227, of the black
population in this country lived in substandard housing, while only
6% of the nonblack population lived in substandard units. Apparently,
then, American blacks are discriminated against in the housing market--
they do not have equal access to quality housing. This may be true, but
it is a measure not only of access to housing quality, but a measure of
the more fundamental issue—housing availability. Historical economic
I/ Social Indicators—1974.
B-170
-------
and social repression, voluntary and involutary segregation, ignorance of
legal access, an actual discriminatory denial of legal access—all could
be considered reasons for the statistic, yet it is impossible to weigh
all these reasons or even be sure that they all contribute to the statistic.
Attituclinal Data. Again, we know of no existing attitudinal data that
is an appropriate measure of the subjective concern for this particular
column. An example could be suggested, however, "Do you feel that you have
access to quality housing?" It should be realized, however, that other
criteria are involved. One may have legal (or actual) access, but not
have financial access.
(Note: The only nearly appropriate attitudinal data obtained was
from State of The Nation, Watts & Free, 1974, which showed that the
degree of public concern about the provision of adequate housing for
the nation's population, particularly low-income families, received
a composite score of '71'. This composite score is a computational
derivation used to keep State of the Nation data consistent, and it
is explained in the appendix to that document. The same source
showed that this particular issue concern ranked as the 21st most
important concern to the American people.)
B Column-Ability to Influence
Housing codes and building standards encourage the uniform and discourage
the unique. Variances are granted on rare occasions and a citizen's ability
to influence the adoption or affect the change of housing quality standards
are usually limited. The subjective concern for Column B , then, is
"To what degree is the individual able to influence housing quality standards?"
Existing Standards. Many of the standards included in B an(^ B include
— £ 3
specific provisions for initiating standards changes, additions or amendments,
and in that respect represent "standards" to facilitate change or to allow
for individual influence. In addition, existing political standards
designed to facilitate participatory democracy and citizen involvement
B-171
-------
are many, and they represent an officially legislated means to register
dissent and to affect change in society.
The specificity of the threshold level of "influence" and the method
of assessing when that level is reached cannot be as easily described as
for the lower level issue concerns. This is true because standards to
guarantee the ability to influence are typically open-ended means of
appeal such as "When sufficient justification exists...", or "When there
is apparent breach of the law...", or "Whenever reasonable grounds exist
to petition.. . " .
Objective Data. The measures that a citizen can take to influence
housing quality standards encompass the full range of political activism,
and several such measures can be suggested, even though substantiating
data is unavailable. Examples include:
» Numbers of applications for variances
• Class action suits challenging the applicability of building codes
(e.g., Mendocino's owner-built homes)
• Political lobbies (construction industry, citizen groups, etc.)
• Municipal amendments or additions to regional or national codes
• Letters, petitions, political pressure on private standards-setting
groups.
Attitudinal Data. Although we are unaware of appropriate attitudinal
data, we can suggest a survey topic example: "Do you feel that you have
adequate means to affect change in housing quality standards?" "How do
you perceive the adequacy of standards intended to assure individual ability
to influence housing quality standards?" In addition, attitudinal data
could be used to reflect the degree to which changes in people's values
are affecting the rather rigid and inflexible housing standards. The
emergent values associated with a new age lifestyle, for example, might
B-172
-------
include an increased desire for older homes or for simpler cabin-type
dwellings or for experimental households based on energy self-sufficiency
and waste and materials recycling. Attitudes about the "ability to influence'
in this type of nontraditional context would add significant depth to the
analysis of the issue.
HI Column-Higher Order/Threshold
In the physical sector most easily identifiable subjective concerns
deal with basic level needs. This is true because most aspects of the
physical sector, but especially housing, have been developed in response
to a physiological need. Very few aspects of the physical sector have
been developed primarily to satisfy higher order needs relative to social
need, ego need, or self-actualization, although certain aspects of these
higher order needs are apparent in virtually every physical sector issue
concern.
Continuing the example of housing quality, several high order subjective
concerns could be suggested. For this analysis, a single ego need has
been chosen, the the concern could be stated, "Does quality housing
contribute to a resident's status, prestige or self-esteem?"
Existing Standards. Standards aimed at threshold level higher need
cannot really be legislated, although many existing standards do somehow
facilitate or allow for higher need fulfillment. An example of this type
of standard would be one of the many types of local controls that are
involved when a home owner wants to add on to his home. Some type of
higher need fulfillment may be derived from a larger home, even though
the standards do not specifically aim at that goal.
Objective Data. Because no existing standards address the issue of
H concern, it is not possible to note objective data illustrative of
the degree of standards compliance or divergence. The only accurate
B-173
-------
measure of higher order need fulfillment, therefore, is attitudinal data.
Attitudinal Data. An example of an attitudinal survey topic question
t would Toe appropriate to this issue c<
"Do you feel proud of your housing unit?"
H Column -Higher Order/Security
that would be appropriate to this issue concern is noted in Column H :
The subjective concern for this second column could be stated "To
what degree can one feel secure about finding ego fulfillment in quality
housing?"
Existing Standards. Any housing standard that addresses any issue other
than basic physiological soundness or safety could be considered a higher
order standard. These types of standards would include all types of
aesthetic design standards, and to a degree, space planning standards and
natural light availability. Although a resident would not necessarily
fulfill his ego needs by living in an environment in which higher order
quality standards exist, he would have access to a certain degree of
security that the means for his ego fulfillment were provided in those
standards. Specific examples of these types of standards would include
requirements for facilities for social interaction in a planned community,
or legally-binding requirements to maintain a certain implicitly prestigious
character of appearance of house and yard in a neighborhood or housing
association. These standards are noted in Column H .
2
Objective Data. The numbers of such communities as noted in the
standards in Column H would be one way to objectively measure the concern.
&
Attitudinal Data. An example of an attitudinal survey topic question
that would be appropriate to this issue concern is noted in Column H —
2
B-174
-------
"How adequate do you perceive existing housing quality standards to be in
terms of assuring access to ego fulfillment?"
H Column-Higher Order/Equal Access
Standards relating to higher need security are included in Column B .
£t
These standards provide access to the fulfillment of higher needs relative
to housing quality, although the issue of equal access is not necessarily
addressed in each standard in an explicit manner. As with the basic need,
B equal access column, the regulatory applicability of each standard is
O
sometimes implicit, sometimes explicit. Therefore, the subjective
concern relative to equal access is 1(To what degree are people provided
equal access to security about finding ego fulfillment in quality housing?"
A more specific concern might be Do existing standards ensure that a
variety of housing types are available to choose from?
Existing Standards. As in the B column, items to be included in the
- — ~~ *^^~" ^ ._.--_ j
H column would include virtually all of the standards listed in the
3
previous column (B , H ) . The degree of applicability of these standards
2 <£
is either implicitly or explicitly stated, and this applicability represents
the codified standards relative to equal access. Examples of these standards
would be seen in the residency requirements for these planned communities,
neighborhoods or housing associations, and these residency "standards" would
in turn represent the whole range of evaluative criteria: economic, social,
personal, etc.
Objective Data. The most obvious objective measure of the existing
standards as noted would be the actual numbers of persons who actually
live in planned communities, neighborhoods or housing associations where
such standards exist. Caution should be taken, however, as this typo of
data may measure only what is available, and not what is desired.
B-175
-------
Attitudinal Data. Again, for a higher order concern, the attitudinal
component appears the best indication of the actual objective condition.
An example of a survey topic example appropriate to the H concern would
*5
be: "Are other people happier than you because they have special access
to quality housing?" Another example would be: "Do you feel that you
have a full range of choices of living environments?" The answers to these
questions would reveal people's perceived relation between prestige and
housing quality.
H Column-Higher Order/Ability to Influence
In this last column we are concerned with the degree to which individuals
are able to affect changes in the way that housing quality regulations
facilitate the fulfillment of higher order needs. The subjective concern
might well be: "To what degree can the individual's ability to influence
housing quality standards affect status, prestige, or self-esteem?"
Existing Standards. As already indicated, existing standards to assure
the fulfillment of higher order needs are far less common than are standards
to assure the fulfillment of basic needs. This is especially true of
standards in the highest need Column H . Certain standards do exist,
however, that do facilitate H need fulfillment, although most of these
standards are primarily intended to provide fulfillment of other, lower-
level needs. Examples of such standards would include deed restrictions,
zoning, density restrictions, setbacks, etc. In addition, the individual
can achieve a degree of ego fulfillment by participating in the already
existing mechanisms (B ) which allow him to affect change in housing
quality standards.
Although the BA standards in themselves do little to assure the fulfill-
4
ment of the H concern, an individual's participation in the process of
affecting change may encourage pride, self-esteem, or provide him with new
B-176
-------
found status in the eyes of the community. So, then, an individual's
ability to influence housing quality standards can affect his status,
prestige or self-esteem, but this type of ego-fulfillment cannot necessarily
be assured through standardization. For this reason, Column H contains
no specific standards.
Objective Data. The change in one's own ego perception can be measured
only through honest response to attitudinal inquiry. Objective data
indicating ego fulfillment due to the H /ability to influence could be
suggested—more ostentatious purchase patterns, more selective choice of
peer group—but these conditions would be extremely hard to quantify,
and even harder to attribute directly to the (ego > fulfillment of the H
concern.
Attitudinal Data. A measure of H fulfillment could be suggested in
4
the form of the attitudinal inquiry: "HOW has your participation in
changing quality standards influenced your self image?" This sample survey
topic is noted in Column H .
B-177
-------
PHYSICAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Food, Drugs & Cosmetics
Basic Seed/Threshold
Concern: Are available food,
drug, and cosmetic items of
adequate quality?
Security
Concern: How secure do people
feel about the quality of
available food, drug, and
cosmetic items?
Equal Access
Concern: To what portion of
the population are the
assurances of food, drug,
and cosmetic quality applic-
able!
Ability to Influence
Concern: To what degree is
the individual able to
influence quality standards
for food, drug, and cosmetic
items?
• Federal Meat & Poultry
Inspection Acts
Acts establish minimum
quality and content policies
for federally inspected meat
and poultry
(B-2-F-G1-1-5-N-N)
« Regulations for Meat &
Poultry Inspection (USDA)
CFR, Title 9
Detailed inspection stand-
ards in compliance with
Meat & Poultry Inspection
Acts
(B-2-F-G1-3-1-Y-N)
• Federal Food, Drue &
Cosmetic Act
Establishes container fill
and product content identify
& labeling standards to avoid
deceptive packaging, & assure
quality, safety
(B-2-F-G1-3-1-Y-N)
• Food and Drug Administration
Regulations - 1975
Ordered that ingredients
be listed on all cosmetics,
and warning labels appear
on feminine sprays in an
effort to reduce consumer
injuries
(B-2-F-G1-3-1-Y-N)
• Public Health Service Ac^
Authorizes FDA to advise
state and local sanitation
standards required to pre-
vent Qifectious diseases
in food products
(B-2-F-G1-1-Y-N)
B-178
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PHYSICAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Public Services
Bl B2 B3 B4
Basle Need/Threshold Security Equal Access Ability to Influence
Concern: Are available public Concern: How secure do Concern: To what portion of Concern: To what degree is
services of adequate quality? people feel about the quality the population are the the individual able to
of available public services? assurances of quality public influence quality standards
services available? for public services?
• 42 U.S.C. 3251-3259
Solid Waste Disposal Act
Promotes waste management
resource recovery so as
to enhance the environment.
(B-2-F-G1-1-5-N-N)
• Palo Alto Municipal Code
Title 5 Health & Sanita-
tion
Provides for refuse dis-
posal to protect public
health, safety, welfare 6c
the environment.
(B-2-L-G3-3-1SA-N-K)
+ "How do you feel about: The
services you get in this
neighborhood—like garbage
collection, street main-
tenance, fire and police
protection?" (May 1972)
Institute for Social Research
Delia. Fleas. Mos.Sat.
7% 322 35%
Mixed Mos. Piss. Unhap.
13? 6Z n
Terr.
«4
• Palo Alto Municipal Code
Title 15 Fire Protection
Establishes standards for
protective administration
& maintenance, and for fire
alarms & facilities.
(B-2-L-G34NG1-1&2&3-1&2-N-N)
• Uniform Fire Code
International Conference of
Building Officials
Provides standards for fire
safety of buildings &
equipment.
(B-2-L-NG1-1&2&3-1&3&6-N-N1
B-179.
-------
PHYSICAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Public Services (continued)
B. B B3 B4
Basle Seed/Threshold Security Equal Access Ability to Influence
• Grading Schedule for
Municipal Fire Protection
Insurance Services Office
Recommends standards for
water supply, fire depart-
ments, fire service eonnuni-
cations, fire safety control
& other deficiencies.
(B-2-L-NG1-3-2-N-N)
• Palo Alto Municipal Code
Title 12 Public Works &
gtllities
Establishes municipal stand-
ards for the construction
and maintenance of city
public works & utilities
(streets, sidewalks, under-
ground utilities, etc.)
(B-2-L-G3-1&2-1-N-N)
B-180
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ratSICAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Recreation 6. Open Space
Basic Need/Threshold
Concern: Are existing
recreational facilities
and open space lands of
adequate quality?
Security
Equal Access
Concern: How secure do people Concern: To what portion of
feel about the quality of
existing recreational facil-
ities and open space land?
the population are the
assurances of quality
recreational facilities and
open space land applicable?
Ability to Influence
Concern: To what degree is
the individual able to
influence quality standards
for recreational facilities
and open space land?
41 National Recreation and
Park Association
Bulletin No. 4
Recommends picnic stan-
dards of 10.5 tables per
acre and 1 grill per 5.1
tables with maximum use
set at 220.1 picknickers
per day per acre
(B-1-L-G3-3-1-N-N)
• National League of Cities.
Dept. of Urban Studies
The American Society of
Planning Officials.
Accepts 10 acres of parks
for each 1,000 population
for cities having less than
500,000 inhabitants, sug-
gests 10 acres per 2,000
for cities over 500,000,
and 10 acres for cities
over 1,000,000
• Planning Facilities for
Health Physical Education
& Recreation Athletic
Institute
Recommends space planning
standard of 100 acres or
more of city parks per
5,000 population
(B-1-L-NG-1-3-3-N-N)
• Menlo Park Municipal Code
Chapter 15, Section 16.170
Recreation requirements
for residential sub-divi-
sions
- Defines portion of open
space acreage that must
be Included in each
residential subdivision,
for public use
• Menlo Park^Municipal Code
Chapter 15.02. Section
.02.020
Preservation of municipal
character--The city adopts a
policy to regulate and limit
the density of population;
encourage the most appro-
priate use of land; to con-
serve land and stabilize
the value of property; to
provide adequate open space
for light, air and fire
protection etc.
• The California Land Con-
servation Act
(The Williamson Act)
• Open Space and Conservation
Element Menlo Park General
Plan
The city shall provide open
space lands for a variety of
recreation opportunities,
make improvements, construct
facilities, and maintain
programs which encourage a
maximum of resident partici-
pation
(B-2-L-G3-1-5-N-N)
16 TJ.S.C. 460
Federal Water Project
Recreation Act
Provides for the construe- •
tion, maintenance and
operation of outdoor
recreation facilities when
and if such a project would
be consistent with the
planned purpose of federal
multipurpose water resources
projects
16 U.S.C. 460k to 460k-4
Recreational Use of
Conservation Areas Act
Provides for the adminis-
tration of fish and wild-
life conservation areas
for appropriate public
recreation
• Public Law 88-607
Public Land Management
Regulation
Promotes use of public
land for recreation along
guidelines to protect the
health, safety and com-
fort of the public, and
to preserve the environment
(E-3-F-G1-1-7-N-N)
Open Space and Conservation
Element Menlo Park General
Flan
The city shall provide open
space lands for a variety of
recreation opportunities,
make improvements, construct
facilities, and maintain
programs which encourage a
maximum of resident partici-
pation
(B-3-L-G3-1-5-N-N)
* California with a population
of 18,426,000, aggregate re-
creation acreage (includes
all Federal, state, and
county recreation acreage)
of 41,904,500 has 2,274,000
public outdoor recreation
acreage per 1,000 population;
more acreage than the total
of the West South Central
States (Arkansas, Louisiana,
Oklahoma, and Texas)(U.S.
Dept. of the Interior) 8
B-181
-------
PHYSICAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Recreation b Open Space (continued)
Basic Heed/Threshold
• Book of Recreation
Resources
Soil Conservation Service
Rec
Security
Equal Access
88-29
_...n_jends as an adequate
apace standard, 2-4 boats
per acre for fishing from
trolling boats
(B-1-L-C3-3-1-H-S)
national Outdoor Recreation
Plan
Mandates a policy ta let
forth the needs of the
public for outdoor
recreation
(B-2-F-G1-1-7-S-N)
• P.L. 90 542
Wild & Scenic Rivera Act
Establishes guidelines to
protect the outstanding
recreational value of vild
and scenic rivers
(B-2-F-C1-I-7-N-H)
Ability to Influence
+ "Hov do you feel about: The
outdoor space there is for
you to use outside your
home?" (Hay 1972)(Institute
for Social Research, Univer-
sity of Michigan)
Delia. Pleat. Mas. Sat.
18% 371 241
Mixed Moi. Dls». Onhap.
81 SI 41
terr.
4X
+ "Hov do you feel about :
Outdoor places you can
go in your spare time?"
Pellg. Pleas. Hos.Sat.
171 34* 29*
Mixed
9*
Terr.
IX
The sports or recrea-
tion facilities you your-
self use, or would like
to use- -I ncan things
like parks, bowling
alleys, beaches?" 14
chose not to answer
this question) (May
1972) (Institute of
Social Kesearcit, univer-
sity of Michigan)
Pelig. Pleas. Mos.Sat.
91 321 331
Mixed Mos.Dlss. Unhap.
121 7S 41
•f ?How do you feel about:
Nearby places you can
use for recreation or
sports?"
Your chances for relsxa-
t ion- -even for a short
time?" Nov. 1972)
(Institute for Social
Research, University of
Michigan)
Fleas. Mps. Sat.
61 33Z 42Z
Mixed jfas.Dtss. Unhap .
6Z 2X
B-182
-------
PHYSICAL SECTOR
ISSUE: Commercial & Industrial Products
B!
Basle Seed/Threshold
Concern: Are commercial and
industrial products
sufficiently safe?
B.
Security
Concern: How secure to
people feel about the safety
of coomercial and industrial
products?
Equal Access
Concern: To what portion of
the population are the
assurances of commercial
and industrial product
safety applicable?
Ability to Influence
Concern: To what degree is
the individual able to
influence commercial and
industrial product safety
standards?
• P.L. 91.601
Poison Prevention Packag-
ing Act.
Provides for special
packaging to protect
children from serious
personal injury or
serious Illness resulting
from handling, using or
ingesting houshold
substances
(B-1-F-G1-2-1-Y-N)
• Sherman Antitrust Act
Minimum retail prices
sanctioned by federal
government in 36 of the
50 states.
Minimum retail prices
sanctioned by federal
government in 36 states
known as "Fair trade
lavs."
• Rational Bureau of Stand-
ards, Technical Note 762
Tabulation of Voluntary
Standards and Certifica-
tion Proerams for Con-
sumer Products.
Provides a listing of de-
tailed standards references
for 700 product areas, 1000
standards titles covering
products found in the home
(B-1-F-NG1-1-1-N-N)
• P.L. 92-573 S 3419
Consumer Product Safety
Act
Establishes the Consumer
Product Safety Commission
to protect consumers from
unreasonable risk of injury
from hazardous products by
setting standards for per-
formance, composition,
design construction, finish
or packaging, & for labels
& instructions
• D.S.C. 1261-1274
Federal Hazardous Substan-
ces Act 15
Establishes policy and pro-
vides for the setting of
standards & regulations
declaring hazardous sub-
stances, prohibited acts &
penalties, etc. to protect
consumers from unsafe
products
(B-2-F-G1-1-5-Y-Y)
• P.L 91-113. S1689 ,
Amending the Federal Hazard-
(IHLiBubstances Act to protect
chwiren from toys and other
articles which are hazardous
due to the presence of
electrical, mechanical or
thermal hazards 4 for
purposes
(B-2-F-G1-1-5-Y-Y)
The Price Reduction Act of
197j (Pending Legislation)
Abolishing federal anti-
trust exemption for fair
trade
* In ten states which hare
abolished fair trade laws,
rate of failure of small
retail firms between 1933
and 1968 was no larger than
in 36 states where the laws
have been retained. (Federal
Trade Commission Report)
* Consumer Federation
(publishers of Consumer
Reports magazine) states
that in fair trade states
an item sells for one-
fourth higher than in non-
fair trade states3
» P.L. 92-573 S 3419
Consumer Product Safety
Act /
Establishes the Consumer
Products Safety Commission
to protect consumers from
unreasonable risk of injury
from hazardous products
by setting standards for per-
formance, composition,
design construction, finish
or packaging, & for labels
& instructions
• P.L. 92-573-S 3419
Consumer Product Safety
Act
Provides regional offices
and a toll-free telephone
number whereby consumers
can register product
complaints or report
product-related injuries
(B-2-P-61-2-3-Y-Y)
F.L-. 92-573 S 3419
Consumer Product_ ^afety
Act
Any interested person may
petition the Commission
to begin proceedings to
issue, amend,.or revoke
a consumer product safety
rule
(B-3-F-G1-2-2-Y-Y)
(B-1-F-Gl-l-l-Y-t)
(B-2-F-G1-1-1-Y-Y)
B-183
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PHYSICAL SECTOR
ISSUE: G
cial & Industrial Products (continued)
V
Basic Need/Threshold
Consumer Product Safety
Commission
List of banned Products.
Regularly issued and up-
dated list of hazardous
consumer products that are
banned from the marketplace
Security
i Refrigerator Safety Act
Title 15. U.S.C.
Chapter 26
Provides for the regu-
lation of unsafe refriger-
ators by requiring that
refrigerators for inter-
state coranerce be manu-
factured such that they can
be opened from the inside
(B-1-F-G1-3-1-Y-N)
• 15 P.S.C. 1191
The Flammable Fabrics Act
Provides for the establish-
ment of standards & regula-
tions to protect the public
against unreasonable risk
of the occurrence of fire
from flammable fabrics
(B-2-F-G1-1-5-Y-N)
+Rov do you feel about: The
goods and services you can
get when you buy in this
area—things like food,
appliances, clothes? (May
1972)
Delig. Pleas. Mos. Sat.
4% 261 40%
Mixed. Mas. Piss. Dhhap.
18% 81 21
Terr.
2Z 1
Equal Access
• Numbers of product com-
plaints and injury reports
received by the CPSC
• Numbers of petitions to
the CPSC to investigate
allegedly hazardous
products
Ability to Influence
• Federal Environmental Pesti-
cide Control Act
CFR Title 7
Provides for and specifies
regulations for the use of
pesticides
(B-2-F-G1-2-3-X-N)
• Federal Trade Commission
Regulation - 1972 Door-to-
Door Sales
Gives consumers a three-
day cooling off period in
which to cancel, without
penalty or fee, a purchase
from a door-to-door sales-
man. The rule applies only
to consumer goods and ser-
vices costing $25 or more.
B-184
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PHYSICAL SECTOR
ISSUE; Non-Residential Buildings, Structures
Basic Need/Threshold
Concern: Are existing non-
residential buildings and
structures of adequate
quality?
Security
Concern: How secure do
people feel about the quality
of existing non-residential
buildings and structures?
Equal Access
Concern: To what portion of
the population are the
assurances of quality non-
residential buildings and
structures applicable?
Ability to Influence
Concern: To what degree is
the individual able to
influence quality standards
for non-residential buildings
and structures?
Uniform Mechanical Code
International Association
of Plumbing & Mechanical
Officials, and the Inter-
national Conference of
Officials
Contains requirements for
the installation heating,
ventilation, cooling &
refrigeration systems
(B-2-L-NGI-1&3-1&3-Y-N)
Uniform Building Code
Standards
International Conference of
Building Officials
Presents in a compact manner
all of the national test,
material & design standards
referred to in the Uniform
Building Code
(B-2-L-NG1-3-1-Y-N)
Uniform Building Code
ICBO
Covers the fire, life, and
structural safety aspects of
all buildings and related
structures
(B-2-L-NG1-3-1-Y-N)
Uniform Plumbing Code
International Association of
Plumbing and Mechanical
Officials
Provides standards for materi-
als, design & construction of
plumbing facilities
(B-2-L-NG1-3-1-Y-N)
Uniform Fire Code
ICBO
Establishes safety standards
for the flamability of certain
industrial plants, recreation-
al facilities, storage facili-
ties, and places of assembly
(B-2-L-NG1-3-1-Y-N)
Guide for Space Plann: g &
Layout
General Services Administration
Establishes space program plan-
ning standards (occupancy,
interim space, etc.) for all
public buildings
(B-2-F-G3-1&2-1&5-Y-N)
P.L. 90-480
Elimination of Architec-
tural Barriers to the
Handicapped
Establishes standards for
certain federally-financed
buildings to assure access-
ibility to the physically
handicapped
(B-3-F-G1-1-5&6-N-H)
B-185
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PHYSICAL SECTOR
Non-Residential Buildings, Structures (continued)
Basic Need/Threshold
B_
Security
* Minimum Requirements of
Construction & Equipment
for Hospital & Medical
Facilities HEW
HEW requirements to con-
form with Title VI of the
Public Health Service Act
ensuring properly planned
and well constructed
health care facilities of
all types.
(B-2-F-G3-1&3-1S.3&5-N-N)
• Palo Alto Municipal Code
Title 16 Building Code
Adds to and amends the
Uniform Building Code,
with detailed standards
for zoning, density, etc.
(B-2-L-G3-3-1&3&5-Y-N)
• Occupational Safety &
Health Act
Establishes legally en-
forceable regulations to
assure safe and healthful
workis'* conditions;
detailed standards are
published in the CFR.
(B-2-V-G1-3-1-Y-N)
• Administrative Services
and Facilities for
Hospitals—a Planning
Guide HEW
Establishes planning guide-
lines for the design & con-
struction of hospital
facilities.
(B-2-F-G3-16.2-1&5-Y-N)
Equal Access
Ability to Influence
B-186
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PHYSICAL SECTOR-BIBLIOGRAPHY
Food and Drugs
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 9, Chapter III, Subchapter A:
Meat Inspection Regulations; Title 21, Parts 10 to 129, Office of
the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Service,
General Services Administration, Washington, D.C. (1 April 1974).
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, As Amended (August 1972).
Poultry Products Inspection Act.
Public Health Service Act.
U. S. Department of Agriculture, "Federal Food Standards," AMS-548,
Agricultural Marketing Service (April 1974).
, "USDA Standards for Food and Farm Products," Agricultural
Handbook No. 341, Agricultural Marketing Service (April 1973).
, "Meat and Poultry Inspection Manual," MPI-7, Meat and
Poultry Inspection Program, Animal and Plant Health Inspection
Service (September 1973).
, "Meat and Poultry Inspection Regulations," Meat and Poultry
Inspection Program, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
(May 1973).
, "Standards for Meat and Poultry Products—A Consumer
Reference List "Meat and Poultry Inspection Program, Animal and
Plant Health Inspection Service (1974).
The Agricultural Marketing Act of 1946.
The Federal Meat Inspection Act.
Housing
Gallup Poll, "Rating of Condition of House and Property and Attractiveness
of Neighborhood" (November 1974).
International Conference of Building Officials, Uniform Building Code (1973)
, Uniform Building Code Standards.
, Uniform Code for the Abatement of Dangerous Buildings.
B-187
-------
, Uniform Housing Code.
, Uniform Mechanical Code, International Association of
Plumbing and Mechanical Officials.
, Uniform Sign Code.
Palo Alto Municipal Code.
Title 18, Zoning
Title 21, Subdivisions and Other Divisions of Land
U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, "Land Planning
Principles for Home Mortgage Insurance," No. 4140.1, Housing
Production and Mortgage Credit - Federal Housing Administration
(May 1973).
, "Volume I - Minimum Property Standards for One and Two
Family Dwellings," HUD 4900.1.
, "Volume 2 - Mimimum Property Standards for Multifamily
Housing," HUD 4910.1.
"Volume 3 - Minimum Property Standards for Care-Type
Housing," HUD 4920.1.
, "Volume 4 - Manual of Acceptable Practices," HUD 4930.1,
U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. (1973).
Public Services
Insurance Services Office, "Grading Schedule for Municipal Fire Pro-
tection," New York, New York 10038 (1974).
International Conference of Building Officials, Uniform Fire Code,
Western Fire Chiefs Association, Inc. (1973).
Palo Alto Municipal Code.
Title 5 - Health and Sanitation.
Title 12 - Public Works and Utilities
Title 13 - Improvement Procedure
Title 15 - Fire Protection
Solid Waste Disposal .Act, 42 U.S.C. 3251-3259.
Recreation and Open Space
Association of Bay Area Governments, "How to Implement Open Space Plans
for the San Francisco Bay Area, Volume 1," a report prepared by the
Overview Corporation (June 1973).
B-188
-------
City of Menlo Park, "Open Space and Conservation Element of the Menlo Park
General Plan," prepared by the Department of Community Development
(June 1973).
Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, U, S. House of Representatives,
A Compilation of Federal Laws Relating to Conservation and Development
of Our Nation's Fish and Wildlife Resources, Environmental Quality,
and Ocean_o_gr_aphy_, committee print (January 1973).
Federal Water Project Recreation Act, 16 U.S.C. 460.
Menlo Park Municipal Code.
Title 15, Design and Improvement Standards
Title 16, Zoning
Palo Alto Municipal Code.
Title 22, Parks
Recreational Use of Fish and Wildlife Areas, 16 U.S.C. 406k to 406 k-4.
U. S. Department of the Interior, "America Voices Its Recreation Con-
cerns, 10 Public Forums on Nationwide Outdoor Recreation Planning,"
Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (June - July 1972).
, "Digest, Federal Outdoor Recreation Programs and Recreation-
Related Environmental Programs," Bureau of Outdoor Recreation,
Washington, D. C. (1973).
, "Outdoor Recreation: A Legacy for America, A Summary of Outdoor
Recreation in America: 1972-1978, Office of Economic Analysis
(December 1973).
, "Outdoor Recreation Space Standards" (March 1970).
, "Selected Outdoor Recreation Statistics, 1971."
"The Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, Focal Point for Outdoor
America," (0)-508-474, Washington, D. C. (1974).
Manufactured Goods and Products
Business Week, p. 56 ff. (18 May 1974).
Christian Science Monitor.
Chuman, Sophie J., "Tabulation of Voluntary Standards and Certification
Programs for Consumer Products," National Bureau of Standards Tech-
nical Note 762, National Bureau of Standards, U. S. Department of
Commerce (March 1973).
Conference Board Record, p. 30 ff. (April 1974).
Consumer Produce Safety Act ( P. L. 92-573 ), 15 U.S.C. 2051.
B-189
-------
"CPSC Sets Its Rules for Standards-Setting," Industry Week, p. 23 ff.
(20 May 1974).
"CPSC—What You Don't Know Can Hurt You," Industry Week, p. 38 ff.
(29 October 1973).
Executive Office of the President: Office of Management and Budget,
Social Indicators 1973, U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C. (1973).
Journal of Marketing, p. 68 ff. (October 1973).
"Making America Safe for Consumers," Management Review, p. 9 ff.
(August 1974).
National Commission on Product Safety, Final Report, presented to the
President and Congress (June 1970).
National Observer.
"New CPSC Rules May Start Standards Writing 'Industry'," Industry Week,
p. 19 ff. (21 January 1974).
New York Times.
"Product Safety—Remember This Number," Sales Management ( 18 March 1974).
San Francisco Chronicle,
The Child Protection and Toy Safety Act of 1969 (P. L. 91-113), 15 U.S.C. 1262
The Federal Hazardous Substances Act, 15 U.S.C. 1261.
The Flamable Fabrics Act, 15 U.S.C. 1191.
The Poison Prevention Packaging Act of 1970, 15 U.S.C. 1471.
The Refrigerator Safety Act of 1956, 15 U.S.C. 1211.
U. S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, "Background Paper, Item 1:
News Briefing - Consumer Product Hazard Index" (28 September 1973).
, "Banned Products, Volume I, Part l" (1 October 1974).
, "Crib Safety," CPSC Publication No. 6305-74 (1974).
B-190
-------
, "Fact Sheets," Numbers 1 to 43.
, First Annual Report, Fiscal Year 1973 (November 1973).
, "Gasoline is Made to Explode," 0-535-599 (1974).
, "Hazards of Flammable Liquids," 0-551-933 (1974).
, "National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS),
Fiscal Year 1974 Tabulation of Data from July 1, 1973 - June 30,
1974," Bureau of Epidemiology, National Injury Information
Clearinghouse, Bethesda, Maryland.
, "Preventing Childhood Poisonings," 0-527-801 (1973).
, "Your Voice Counts," 0-536-933 (1974).
U. S. Department of Commerce, "List of Voluntary Product Standards,
Commercial Standards, and Simplified Practice Recommendations,"
National Bureau of Standards List of Publications 53 (Revised
November 1973).
Wall jtreet Journal^
Watts, William and Free, Lloyd A., State of the Nation 1974, Washington,
D. C., Potomac Associates (1974).
Nonresidential Buildings and Structures
City of Palo Alto, "1974, A Report to the Citizens of Palo Alto".
General Services Administration, Guide for Space Planning and Layout,
Public Buildings Service, Federal Stock Number 7610-145-0168.
International Conference of Buildings Officials, Uniform Building Code (1973)
, Uniform Building Code Standards.
, Uniform Code for the Abatement of Dangerous Buildings.
, Uniform Housing Code.
, Uniform Mechancial Code, International Association of
Plumbing and Mechanical Officials.
, Uniform Sign Code.
B-101
-------
Palo Alto Municipal Code.
Title 16, Building Regulations.
U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, A Summary of Selected
Legislation Relating to the Handicapped, 1972 (June 1973).
, "Administrative Services and Facilities for Hospitals,
A Planning Guide," Health Services and Mental Health Administration.
, "Minimum Requirements of Construction and Equipment for
Hospital and Medical Facilites," HEW Publication No. (HRA) 74-4000,
Division of Facilities Utilization, Health Resources Administration,
Public Health Service, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
D. C. (1974).
, "The Respiratory Care Service, Functional Programing Work-
sheets," DHEW Publication No. (HRA) 74-4004, Division of Facilities
Utilization, Health Resources Administration, Public Health Service.
, "The Surgical Suite, Functional Programing Worksheets,"
DHEW Publication No. (HSM) 73-4005, Health Care Facilites Service,
Health Services and Mental Health Administration, U. S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D. C. (February 1973).
U. S. Department of Labor, "All About OSHA," OSHA 2056, Occupational
Safety and Health Administration.
, "Questions and Answers to Part 1910, the OSHA General
Industry Standards, Office of Standards, Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (1973).
, "Setting New Standards for Job Safety and Health,"
OSHA 2027, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, U. S.
Government Printing Office 926-325.
General
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1973 Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Part 33, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
"T
Andrews, Frank B. and Withey, Stephen B., Developing Measures of Perceived
Life Quality; Results from Several National Surveys," Social Indicators
Research, I (1974).
B-192
-------
Code of Federal Regulations (1 July 1973).
Executive Office of the President: Office of Management and Budget,
Social Indicators, 1973, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
D. C. (1973).
General Services Administration, "index of Federal Specifications and
Standards, January 1, 1974," FPMR 101-29.1 (41 CFR 101.29.1),
Federal Supply Service.
U. S. Department of Labor, "Employment and Earnings" (May 1974).
, "Employment Standards Administration Pocket Packet."
, "Major Programs 1973," Bureau of Labor Statistics.
, "Manpower Report to the President" (April 1974).
, "Sixty-First Annual Report, Fiscal Year 1973."
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Current Laws, Statues and
Executive Orders" (January 1972).
, "index of EPA Legal Authority, Statutes and Legislative His-
tory, Executive Orders, Regulations."
, "Legal Compilation, Statues and Legislative History, Execu-
tive Orders, Regulations, Guidelines and Reports" (January 1973).
, "The Challenge of the Environment: A Primer on EPA's Statu-
tory Authority " (December 1972).
B-193
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/5-75-012
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR QUALITY OF LIFE
5. REPORT DATE
May 1975
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7, AUTHOR(S)
O.W. Markley & Marilyn D. Bagley
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Stanford Research Institute
Menlo Park, California
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1HA098
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
R-803056-01-0
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Protection Agency
WERC
CM-2, Rm. 1026, Wash., D.C. 20460
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA-ORD
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16-ABSTRACTThis study"addresses a number of issues of concern under various sectors of
man's environment. For each issue three types of available information are compiled:
(l)public laws and other less formal understandings that set minium standards, ^obj-
ective data that reflect how well those standards are being met, and(3)subjective data
that reflect how people feel about that aspect of the quality of their life.
Man's needs are grouped into two major areas—(1) basic needs, including minimal life
conditions necessary to meet physiological and security needs, and (2)higher needs, to
include social needs, ego needs, and a needfor self-fulfillment. Standards are being
categorized under each major need area, according to four levels of concern, arranged
in a heirarchical order: First, the existing welfare concern—a statement of the
threshold level; second, security—standards insuring the welfare for all persons; and
finally, ability to influence—standards that allow individuals to influence threshold
levels and their own access to welfare.In addition to identifying the range of minimal
standards that have been 'edified, this study will: (1)assess the various ways in which
these standards apply to re'al conditions(e.g.,social indicators and additudinal data),
(2) identify 'gaps' and inconsistencies in existing standards that need to be remedied,
and (3) analyze the policy implications and effectiveness of using this approach as a
way to describe and improve quality of life in the United States.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COS AT I Field/Group
Analytical Techniques; Data Gatherin
Quality of Life; Legislation;
Surrey; Matrix Analysis; Norms
Quality of Life;
Data Collection
Analytical Techniqi
Matrix Analysis
Minium Standards &
Legislation
es;
13. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
21. NO. OF PAGES
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
22. PRICE
EPA Form 222O-1 (9-73)
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concept of the research and are sufficiently specific and precise to be used as index entries for cataloging.
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ended terms written in descriptor form for those subjects for which no descriptor exists.
(c) COSATI FIELD GROUP - Field and group assignments are to be taken from the 1965 COSATI Subject Category List. Since the ma-
jority of documents are multidisciplinary in nature, the Primary Field/Group assignment(s) will be specific discipline, area of human
endeavor, or type of physical object. The application(s) will be cross-referenced with secondary Field/Group assignments that will follow
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EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73) (Reverse) *U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1975 631-577/904 1-3
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