EPA-600/5-74-010
Socioeconomic Environmental Studies Series
Comprehensive Management of
Phosphorus Water Pollution
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington. O.C. 20460
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BSSS&RCB REPORTING SERIES
ResearcJh reports of the Office of Research and
-Monitoring, Environmental Protection Agency, have
beengroiijnad into five series. These five bread
categories' *»ere; established to facilitate further
development and application of environmental
technology. EJoroinatictn of traditional grouping
was consciously planned to foster technology
•transfer and a gtaximum .interface'- in related
-.fields* Tiie five series are: -
. .;• 1..-; Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Eevircmseatal Protection Technology
3-." Ecological Besearch
4* Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioecooomic Environmental studies
•This report bas been assigned to the SCX:iOBCO!iOJ4IC
SNVIBOSiMEIiTAL STUDIES series. This series
describes research on the .^>cioecooomic impact of
eavironsjental problesis, Th±s covers recycling and
other recovery operations with emphasis on
•Monetary incentives* The non-scientific realsis of
legal sy stera s, caltaral values r and business
systems are also involved. Because of their
interdisciplinary scope* system evaluations and
environmental management reports are included in
this series. : ' . •' .
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EPA-600/5-74-010
February 1974
COMPREHENSIVE MANAGEMENT OF
PHOSPHORUS WATER POLLUTION
by
D. B. Porcella, A.B. Bishop, J. C. Andersen,
O. W. Asplund, A. B. Crawford, W. J. Grenney,
D.I. Jenkins, J. J. Jurinak, W. D. Lewis,
E. J. Middlebrooks, R. M. Walkingshaw
Utah State University
Logan, Utah 84321
Contract No. 68-01-0728
Program Element 1BA030
Project Officer
Dr. Roger Don Shull
Implementation Research Division
Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C. 20460
Prepared for
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D. C. 20460
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Go-vemment Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 • Price $1.05
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EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency and approved for publication. Approval does
not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views
and policies of the Environmental Protection Agency, nor
does mention of trade names or commercial products con-
stitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
11
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ABSTRACT
The environmental problems of phosphorus pollution are examined using
an activity analysis approach to account for phosphorus inputs to sur-
face waters. For purposes of analysis, this study assumes phosphorus
to be the limiting factor in algal growth and eutrophication. A mass
flow model, general enough to be applied to specific lakes or river
basins, was developed in order to relate the flow of phosphorus from
all activities in a basin to the consequences of eutrophication. Various
control tactics to limit mass flow and thus eutrophication were defined
from the standpoint of both supply and demand for phosphorus producing
products and the management of phosphorus uses.
Combinations of feasible controls, designated as strategies, were
applied to the model to determine the cost-effectiveness of the strategies
in minimizing eutrophication. An hypereutrophic hypothetical lake
basin, Lake Michigan, and Lake Erie were analyzed as case examples
to test the model and control methods. Overall strategies were derived
for the hypothetical lake and then applied to Erie and Michigan using
available information on these lakes. In simple terms, phosphorus
management strategies seemed feasible for control of eutrophication in
present-day Lake Michigan, while waste treatment together with manage-
ment strategies were necessary for Lake Erie.
111
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This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract No. 68-01-0728 by
Utah State University under the sponsorship of the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency. Work was completed as of June 30, 1973.
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CONTENTS
Page
EPA Review Notice ii
Abstract iii
List of Figures vii
List of Tables xi
Acknowledgments xv
Sections
I Summary and Conclusions 1
II Recommendations 7
III Introduction 10
IV Eutrophi cation 22
V Phosphorus Sources to Surface Waters 56
VI Phosphorus Activity Analysis and the Mass Flow Model
Overview 149
VII Management Tactics for Controlling Phosphorus 195
VIII Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Strategies for
Phosphate Management 261
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CONTENTS (Continued)
References Cited
Bibliography
Appendices
VI
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FIGURES
No. Page
1 General scheme for the stepwise solution to environmental
problems 16
2 The derived demand for goods and services and side effects
for phosphate intensive and other production activities 17
3 Phosphate source, use, and final destination with possible
points of control 20
4 Diagram of aquatic system nutrient and energy flow 25
5 Maximum specific growth rate batch (n^) of Selenastrum
capricornutum and the relation to initial phosphorus
concentration (SQ) in PAAP medium (jj.^ calculated from
absorbance measurements) 29
6 Relationship between maximum cell concentration (X, mg
SS/1) and the initial concentration of phosphorus (S ) 30
7 Correlation between concentrations of soluble nitrate and
phosphate in eutrophic lakes (A, B,C, from Stumm and
Leckie (1970); D from Edmundson (1972)) 33
8 Spring concentrations of total phosphorus apparently are
related to total phosphorus loading (from Vollenweider,
1968) 44
9 Average spring- summer phosphorus flow in Hyrum
Reservoir, April 4 to November 4, 1971 45
VII
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FIGURES (Continued)
No. Page
10 Chlorophyll ji concentration appears related to winter
orthophosphate and summer total phosphorus concentrations 48
11 Relative eutrophication in lakes having different mean depths 53
12 Simplified present-day mass flow diagram, for phosphorus in
the USA 57
13 Activity analysis for phosphate indicating the major pathways
to any lake for the most typical uses 60
14 Vertical distribution of extractable phosphorus in control and
surface applied phosphorus fertilized soil in Wisconsin 69
15 Sales history of soaps and detergents 88
16 Location of major phosphoric acid plants in the United States
(taken from Fullam and Faulkner, 1971) 116
17 Flowsheet for lime neutralization of gypsum pond water
(Adapted from Fullam and Faulkner, 1971) 117
18 Primary calculated outputs from the phosphorus mass flow
model 150
19 Diagram of the phosphorus distribution used to program the
effect of phosphorus fertilizer application on the phosphorus
load of surface waters 158
20 Treatment methods that have been applied to animal manures
and feedlot runoff 169
21 Flow diagram for subroutine TREAT 173
22 Schematic diagram showing unit processes associated with
common phosphorus removal systems 174
23 Percent phosphorus removal vs. applied molar ratio Fe/P 177
viii
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FIGURES (Continued)
No. Page
24 Capital costs for tertiary chemical coagulation 179
25 Selective ion exchange 180
26 Total costs for reverse osmosis treatment of municipal
effluent 182
27 Total costs for reverse osmosis treatment of industrial
effluent 183
28 Applicable control methods for phosphorus generating
activities 197
29 Control points superimposed on the phosphorus activity
analysis showing the major application points for pertinent
control tactics (see Table 37) 198
30 Control tactics applied to urban and rural watersheds and
domestic wastes 202
31 Control tactics applied to agriculture 203
32 Control tactics applied to animal waste production 204
33 Control tactics applied to the industrial sector 205
34 Control tactics applied to mining wastes 206
35 Control points superimposed on the phosphorus activity
analysis showing the major application points for effluent
controls (see pp. 247-250) 248
36 Phosphorus discharges are related to damages and control
costs 264
37 Cost-benefits and cost-effectiveness analysis related to
phosphorus mass flow 266
IX
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FIGURES (Continued)
No. Page
38 Example cost-effectiveness curves 273
39 Hypothetical Lake--relative contributions from phosphorus
activities prior to application of controls 276
40 Lake Erie--relative contributions from phosphorus
activities prior to application of controls 277
41 Lake Michigan--relative contributions from phosphorus
activities prior to application of controls 278
42 Hypothetical Lake--effects of control on relative
eutrophication (see text for description) 281
43 Lake Erie--effects of controls on relative eutrophication
(see text for description) 282
44 Lake Michigan--effects of controls on relative eutrophication
(see text for description) 283
45 Hypothetical lake--cost-effectiveness of various treatment
levels in relation to eutrophication based on available
phosphorus loading 291
46 Lake Erie (20 m mean depth)--cost-effectiveness of various
treatment levels in relation to eutrophication based on
available phosphorus loading 292
47 Lake Michigan--cost-effectiveness of various treatment
levels in relation to eutrophication based on available
phosphorus loading 293
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TABLES
No. Page
1 Selected Water Systems in North America in Relation
To An Estimation of the Limiting Nutrient 38
2 Methods of Controlling Eutrophication and Its Effects 40
3 Improvement in Eutrophication Effects Resulting from
Decrease in Nutrient Input 42
4 Phosphorus Consumption in the USA 59
5 Effect of Management Practice (Prevailing and Improved)
and Corn Crop on Runoff in a 4-Year Rotation 74
6 Estimated Annual Amounts of Constituents in Runoff from
Rural Land as Affected by Management Practice (Prevailing
or Improved) and Cover Crop . 75
7 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Balance in Tile Drained Soils 76
8 Sales of Organophosphorus Pesticides (U.S. Tariff
Commission) 80
9 1970 Estimated Distribution of Phosphorus by Product Class
of All Detergents/Cleaners 89
10 Total U.S. Production of Selected Phosphate Chemical (1970) 90
11 Costs Associated with 90 Percent Total Phosphorus Removal
from Raw Wastewater (Weber et al. , 1970) 96
XI
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TABLES (Continued)
No. Page
12 Costs Associated with Phosphorus Removal from Raw
Wastewater by Lime Coagulation, Two-Stage Clarification
and Additional Advanced Processes (Bishop et al., 1972) 97
13 Costs Associated with 80 Percent Removal of Total
Phosphorus from Raw Wastewater in Conventional Treat-
ment Facilities (Convery, 1970) 99
14 Costs Associated with Lime Treatment of Secondary
Effluent (EPA, 197la; Gulp and Gulp, 1971; Smith and
McMichael, 1969) 103
15 Costs Associated with Alum Coagulation (with Polymer)
of Secondary Effluent 105
16 Estimated Costs for a 10 mgd Ion Exchange Plant (Dryden,
1970) 107
17 Estimated Costs for a 1 mgd Selective Ion Exchange
Plant (EPA, I970a) 107
18 Estimated Costs for a 10 mgd Reverse Osmosis Plant
(Dryden, 1970) 109
19 Cost Estimates for Reverse Osmosis (Besik, 1971) 109
20 Estimated Costs for a 10 mgd Electrodialysis Plant
(Dryden, 1970) 111
21 Industrial Uses of Phosphorus in 1968 Based on Lewis
(1970) and Logue (1958) 113
22 Physical Characteristics of Livestock Defecation 124
23 Nutrient and Sanitary Characteristics of Domestic Fowl
Manures 126
XI1
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TABLES (Continued)
No.
24 Nutrient and Sanitary Characteristics of Swine Manures 126
25 Nutrient and Sanitary Characteristics of Cattle Manures 127
26 Nutrient and Sanitary Characteristics of Sheep Manures 129
27 Feedlot Runoff Characteristics 133
28 Estimate of Nutrient Contributions from Various Sources
(Goldberg, 1970) 136
29 Annual Nutrient Loss for Two Seasons for the Natural-
Rainfall Erosion Plots (Timmons et al. , 1968) 137
30 Ranges of Some Selected Nutrients in Sewage Effluents and
Land Drainage Entering the Great Ouse: Concentrations
in the River Water are also Included (Owens and Wood,
1968) 138
31 Mean Nutrient Concentrations from Runoff Sources in Parts
per Billion (Sylvester, 1961) 139
32 Soluble Phosphorus Concentrations Reported for Waters
Draining Rural Watersheds (Verduin, 1967) 140
33 Nutrient Losses from Lancaster, Wisconsin, Plots on
January 23 and 24, 1967 from Snowmelt and Rains
(Minshall et al., 1970) 143
34 Average Concentrations of Pollutants in Runoff Before and
After Percolation through 30 Inches of Soil Growing Crops
as Shown (Wells et al., 1970) 145
35 Representative Example of Program Output Showing
Phosphorus Activity Analysis, Mass Flow and Relative
Eutrophication 190
xm
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TABLES (Continued)
No. Page
36 Important Variable Parameters in Phosphorus Input to
Surface Waters Program (Completes Inputs Listed in
Appendix D) 194
37 Summary Listing of Control Tactics 200
38
Estimated Dry Weight of All Detergents Consumed per
Person in the United States
213
39 Revenue from Detergent Excise Tax at Different Rates
and Elasticities (1967 Data) 214
40 Revenue from Detergent Excise Tax at Different Rates
and Elasticities (Estimated 1973 Data) 215
41 Summary Listing of Control Tactics 268
42 Cost Savings Attributable to Strategies for Lake Erie Case 297
43 Analysis of Excise Tax on High Phosphate Detergents--Lake
Erie Example 301
xiv
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Unfortunately, there is no accurate way of giving equivalent credit in
relation to effort and contribution to the members of this project. A
multidisciplinary project as broad in scope as this one can only be con-
sidered an exercise in group intraeducation. Consequently, except for
the first two authors who directed the project, authors are listed in
alphabetical order. All coauthors are from Utah State University
except David I. Jenkins, Department of Sanitary Engineering, University
of California, Berkeley. We also appreciate very much the guidance
and encouragement of the project officer, Roger Don Shull, Environ-
mental Protection Agency. In addition to these persons, acknowledg-
ment of significant contributions must be made to Paul Uttormark,
University of Wisconsin Water Resources Center, Yacov Haimes, Case
Western Reserve University, and James R. Duthie, Procter and Gamble.
Mrs. Janet Rogers suffered through 11 styles of multidisciplinary hand-
writing to type this report. Also, other staff of the Utah Water Research
Laboratory (Jay M. Bagley, Director) and the Utah State University
deserve acknowledgment.
xv
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SECTION I
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This study represents the development of an approach for analyzing and
assessing the impact of pollutants on surface waters (or any other eco-
system) and determining the cost-effectiveness of implementing control
methods and strategies.
The approach developed consists of an activity analysis of producing and
consuming sectors which mobilize the pollutant so that it may enter or
be discharged to receiving media. A mass flow model accounts for
actual pollutant loadings from the various activities based on a set of
parameters which describe each activity's output.
In particular, this study focused on phosphorus pollution in surface
water under the assumption that it is the limiting factor in algal growth
and lake eutrophication. Phosphorus does not limit algal productivity
in all lakes and commonly phosphorus is not the limiting factor in the
eutrophication of streams and marine coastal waters.
An activity analysis was formulated as a general phosphorus mass flow
model which could be applied to any river basin. The model was tested
and operated for three case examples: A hypothetical basin, Lake
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Michigan, and Lake Erie. No laboratory or field experimental work
was performed on this project. The information presented is the result
of library research and the coordination of technical, economic, and
sociological information on phosphorus uses, sources, treatments,
cost relationships, and management schemes.
The first step was to analyze the role of phosphorus in eutrophication
of surface waters and to develop a relationship between phosphorus input
to a body of water and the resultant level of eutrophication. Algal growth
and phosphorus concentrations for both laboratory and field studies
showed a linear relationship as long as phosphorus alone was limiting.
Methods of defining and measuring the limiting nutrient were described
and surface waters where such information previously existed were
listed. The Great Lakes, particularly Lakes Michigan and Erie, were
determined as representative water bodies where phosphorus was the
probable limiting nutrient. The relationship between algal population
density and hence eutrophication and annual phosphorus loading (g/m ' yr)
as developed by Vollenweider (1968) was used to relate phosphorus in-
put and eutrophication. Although further work on this relationship is
needed, it represents a simple yet intuitively useful representation of
the actual pollution problem which is eutrophication.
The next step was to describe the cultural activities and natural phos-
phorus sources which result in phosphorus input to surface waters.
This description, an activity analysis, was used at a later point in the
development of phosphorus control strategies to determine the controls
which would be most effective in reducing eutrophication. Basically,
sources were divided into two groups: Natural and man-caused or
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cultural. Then sources were further divided into diffuse and point
sources. The activities were also classified into one of the following
seven categories; (1) Nonbasin activities (rainfall on the lake, river
flow into the basin from another basin, groundwater as a source and
as a recipient; groundwater was discussed but not included in the analysis);
(2) agriculture (fertilizer and pesticide use, irrigation return flows);
(3) urban and rural watersheds (solid waste disposal, managed forests,
grazed watersheds, undisturbed and developed natural watersheds,
urban runoff); (4) domestic wastes (human wastes, detergent phosphorus);
(5) industrial wastes (industrial detergents, water softeners, miscel-
laneous industrial uses, metal finishing, food wastes); (6) mining
(phosphorus mining activities, runoff from strip mining); and (7) animal
production (animal wastes from cattle, poultry, pigs, sheep). These
uses were related to the ultimate source of phosphorus.
Ultimately, all of the phosphorus used by society comes from the
phosphorus mining industry. In 1968 mined phosphorus was distributed
approximately as follows: 76 percent to phosphorus fertilizers, 3 per-
cent to animal feeds, 7 percent to detergents, 3 percent to metal
finishing, and 11 percent to other miscellaneous, largely industrial,
uses. Thus these distributions provided an initial estimate of the best
control points. However, the distribution among uses is deceptive and
actual inputs to surface waters needed to be described to determine the
important and feasible control points.
A mass flow model was constructed which calculates the input quantities
from the major phosphorus producing sources to surface waters. This
particular model is simple, requires minimal input information, and
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calculates the relative eutrophication as a function of available phos-
phorus input loading (g/m pyr). Because of its simplicity it is relatively
easy to use, but, consequently, care must be taken that the simplicity
does not lead to erroneous conclusions.
A broad range of control methods (tactics) were described and analyzed
as to where they can be used in the phosphorus flow system to reduce
or eliminate phosphorus inputs from the activity sectors. The control
tactics were considered in detail including: (1) Supply and demand
controls such as subsidies, excise taxes, and content labeling; (2)
resource controls (mining restrictions, etc. ); (3) methods for manage-
ment of phosphorus uses (resource and product substitution, recycling
and reclamation, etc. ); (4) management of phosphorus discharges
including both point and diffuse sources, for example, land management
and use practices and controls, pollution standards, and effluent changes;
(5) judicial regulation including class action, judicial review and common
law remedies; (6) wastewater treatment technology; and (7) in lake
treatment techniques and lake modification. Not all tactics were con-
sidered equally feasible and some were rejected outright. Other tactics
were considered feasible under some circumstances but not under others.
The category of control tactics estimated as feasibly restricting of
phosphorus input to surface waters were combined to develop manage-
ment strategies.
In the last section of the report (Section VIII) the mass flow model was
used to test the combinations of control tactics woven into the different
management strategies and to determine the relative level of effective-
ness of the management strategies in reducing eutrophication. The
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levels of effectiveness achieved were then examined in relation to the
costs for implementation of the management strategy. Only treatment
costs could be considered within the scope of the research, although
other real costs associated with management strategies were identified
and the cost-effectiveness analysis was structured so they could be
effectively included.
The particular management strategies studied were treatment of
municipal wastes to remove phosphorus, utilization of non- or low
phosphate detergents, land management of phosphorus to minimize
eroded phosphorus, animal waste disposal controls, minimization of
urban runoff and industrial uses of phosphorus, and the sewering of
all combined sewers and direct discharges so that the waste entered
municipal treatment plants.
Different strategies resulted in differing levels of effectiveness of
phosphorus input minimization depending on the particular basin studied.
Thus, detergent phosphorus control and advanced waste treatment for
phosphorus removal might be sufficient to reduce eutrophication in a
particular basin and be of little effect in another; a combination of land
use strategies and waste treatment might be effective in a third, or
required to reach an acceptable level of plant production. These con-
siderations reinforce the necessity for regional planning to prevent
counter-productive solutions being applied in water supply basins (or
other units).
The costs associated with such analyses were restricted primarily to
treatment costs; a method was explained where relative costs could be
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compared as necessary to allow decision makers to identify "cost-
effective decision" in selecting appropriate management strategies.
The results of the study point to two overall conclusions, one specific
and one general. Specifically, the case studies and analysis using the
phosphorus mass flow model demonstrate that the model has general
application for analyzing the phosphorus pollution problems of any river
basin, and in the hands of planners can be a useful tool in assessing
the impact of various proposed management strategies for control of
phosphate pollution in the basin. Generally, the usefulness of the activity
analysis approach developed for analysis of phosphorus pollution indi-
cated that it could be applied in analyzing the impact of any pollutant on
an ecosystem and in an examination of the most effective strategies for
management control. The example case studies indicated that phos-
phorus uses management strategies seemed feasible for control of
eutrophication in present-day Lake Michigan, while waste treatment
for phosphorus removal together with management strategies were
necessary for Lake Erie.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations generally point to areas where more
research and better quantitative data are needed to improve the results
of the study. In addition it is proposed that the method described in
this report be applied to specific basins.
1. Planning and management data for river basins. Information
•which can be utilized in the mass flow model should be
compiled for each river basin in the country. Such data
would be useful not only to this activity analysis, but to
similar analyses applied to other pollutants (pesticides,
nitrogen, BOD, toxic metals). Some examples of necessary
input data would include human populations, animal numbers
and types, and land use area definition. The compendium
would be similar in scope to that of the Water Resources
Council (1968).
2. Cost-effectiveness and economic analysis. While the cost
analysis dealt effectively -with treatment costs, further study
needs to be undertaken in order to develop estimates of the
real costs of strategy implementation to be incorporated
into the cost-effectiveness analysis. Work should also be
undertaken in defining the benefit side of pollution control
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measures, initially through the development of pollution
damage functions.
3. The relationship between loading and eutrophication. Func-
tional relationships between pollutional parameters and
pollutional effects are necessary to perform analyses such
as in this report. This should include a better understanding
of physical, chemical, and biological interactions. Estab-
lishing these relationships and then demonstrating their
actual existence is extremely difficult. Their development
should relate concentrations, loading, and mass emission
rates where possible. At least the first steps should be
taken to develop others similar to those for nitrogen and
phosphorus.
4. Phosphorus analysis. The fate of phosphorus in terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems needs to be better understood in
order to: (1) Estimate the availability of phosphorus to
plant growth no matter what its source; (2) quantitatively
estimate growth response to its addition; and (3) determine
sinks for phosphorus where it can be considered unavailable
for recycle.
The development of these research areas would contribute materially
to refinement of the model and the analytical approaches developed in
this research, and are suggested as worthwhile follow-on programs to
this study.
Furthermore it is recommended that other river basins and target lakes
should be analyzed using this approach in order to define possible
8
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control strategies and legislation for eutrophication control. Such
analysis will define the feasibility of this approach for economical
phosphorus control but extend its possible application to other types
of pollutants and problems.
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SECTION HI
INTRODUCTION
SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
Phosphorus is a nonmetallic element absolutely required for all forms
of life. In nature it is primarily observed as phosphate minerals but
is chiefly available for the natural plant and animal communities of
aquatic systems as orthophosphate. Because of limited availability
and of solubility in aqueous solutions of the geological matrix, phos-
phates are quite often a limiting factor for both aquatic and terrestrial
natural ecosystems. The addition of phosphorus to such ecosystems
by human society frequently leads to increased productivity. However,
whereas in agriculture the addition of phosphorus to terrestrial eco-
systems is frequently necessary and of beneficial use, phosphorus and
other nutrients frequently are introduced to aquatic ecosystems along
with waste materials. This fertilization and resulting increased pro-
ductivity in the aquatic ecosystem leads to conditions which decrease
the beneficial uses of the water. Limitation of phosphorus inputs to
surface waters is considered a practical means for restoring beneficial
uses to aquatic ecosystems. However, such ecosystems are extremely
complex and require complete analysis to ensure that proposed changes
10
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in various inputs and their controls will in fact lead to the result which
is intuitively expected (Forrester, 1971).
Environmental management of particular resources implies that the
particular system within which a resource is distributed is well under-
stood and the mechanisms of distribution are well known. The phos-
phorus resource is relatively well described; phosphorus control is of
interest because of its important role in the development of eutrophic
conditions in lakes. Because of this role many suggestions have been
made towards the elimination of some of the phosphorus input to sur-
face waters and thus the control of eutrophication. These proposed
methods have included phosphorus removal from detergent formulations,
removal of phosphorus from domestic wastes, and the application of the
concept of zero discharge from point sources. These manipulations of
phosphorus input are considered rather simplistic solutions of complex
problems and immediately one questions first, whether these kinds of
manipulations will produce improvement in the conditions, and second,
whether in fact these solutions may be counter-productive in terms of
the total economy of the region or nation involved.
Thus it was assumed at the beginning of this study that a relatively
complete understanding of phosphorus cycling in the social-technical-
ecological system would allow the development of a strategy for phos-
phorus control which would decrease eutrophication effects at a
minimum cost. Thus, benefits would be maximized in relationship
to costs. Because of the difficulty in quantitating the economic values
of various benefits, this kind of study is forced to approach the pro-
blem from a cost-effectiveness point of view, i. e. , to maximize the
11
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effectiveness of control of phosphorus input to surface waters at least
cost. Therefore, many of the decisions that have been made in this
study as to how to approach phosphorus control have been made with
this constraint in mind. Evaluation of benefits of phosphorus restric-
tion in natural waters, then, must be an intuitive judgment based on
best available knowledge.
A last major consideration was the time scale for implementation.
Long-term solutions or merely hypothetical and proposed (untried)
controls were only mentioned and not woven into the overall strategy.
Therefore, the objectives of this study were first to describe the system
in which phosphorus is utilized, second, to determine the possible
alternatives for controlling phosphorus input to surface waters, and
third, to find the least-cost strategy for controlling that phosphorus
input.
Specifically, to achieve the objectives described above, the following
areas were studied:
I. Environmental damages caused by release of phosphorus:
1. General discussion of eutrophication
2. Concept of multiple limiting factors
3. Evidence of phosphorus causality
4. Concentration relationship between phosphorus and algae
5. Definition of critical phosphorus levels
6. Feasibility of phosphorus control resulting in eutrophication
control
. 12
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II. The major sources of phosphorus to aquatic systems:
1. Natural runoff (includes direct precipitation)
2. Agricultural
a. fertilizers
b. animal wastes
c. irrigation drain waters
d. irrigation tail waters
e. agricultural land runoff
f. phosphorus-based pesticides;
3. Municipal wastes
a. human and domestic wastes
b. detergents
c. urban runoff;
4. Industrial
a. mining operations
b. detergent
c. phosphorus acid uses
d. industrial wastes
e. water softening;
ITT. The relationship between phosphorus sources and surface water
phosphorus concentrations (to be applied to basin or subbasin):
1. Mass balance approach using numbers obtained from litera-
ture
2. Relative importance of various sources
3. Relative importance of various "controllable" sources
4. Effect of natural removal systems
5. Beneficial effects of phosphorus control on related parameters
6. Relation of phosphorus level to one use or multiuse concepts
13
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IV. Major uses of phosphorus by society and their relative and quanti-
tative role in the phosphorus mass balance:
1. Fertilizers
2. Detergents — domestic and industrial
3. Human nutrition
4. Animal nutrition
5. Accelerated erosion
6. Mining and industrial uses
V. Possible control measures, their feasibility and costs:
1. Detergent changes
2. Fertilizer management changes
3. Advanced waste treatment of municipal and industrial wastes
4. Product modifications other than for detergents
5. Controls over land use, mine wastes, etc.
6. Evaluation of bottom sediments and suspended sediments as
a source or sink of phosphorus
7. Evaluation of treatment methods for removal of other waste -
water parameters (e. g. , BOD) as incidental methods for
phosphorus removal
VI. Relation of uses to benefits and to the requirements for phosphorus
use. This will allow the proper estimation of trade offs, etc.
For example:
1. Increased land use vs. intensive phosphorus application to
small land areas
2. "Whiter clothes, cleaner dishes, automated food handling"
vs. less of the same
3. Stricter treatment standards for human and animal wastes
vs. source control
14
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VII. Analysis of the above controls in terms of actual lake systems.
NATURE OF THE PROBLEM
As can be seen in Figure 1, a particular environmental problem can
be broken down to three general phases, problem description, analysis,
and solution. Each of these general phases can be further broken down
into several subphases. In the case of the phosphorus problem in the
environment, i. e. , the development of eutrophic lakes, much of the
"observation of the problem," "development of public pressure and
regulations, " and "description of the problem" has largely been accom-
plished. Although the implication that phosphorus is the sole factor
involved in the problem of eutrophication is incorrect, the development
of the analysis described in this study has been predicted on the assump-
tion that control of phosphorus will to some extent allow control of
eutrophication. The reasons for this assumption are described in later
chapters.
A large part of the phosphorus (as well as most other pollutants) which
is found in surface waters results from human activity. Naturally high
concentrations of phosphorus occur only in unique circumstances.
Human demands for goods and services give rise to production processes
and facilities which mobilize the basic materials found in nature. In
Figure 2, the box on the right of the page represents human wants.
The necessities and comforts of life which contribute to human welfare
can be enumerated and are designated as Y . These are the motivators
for all activities, as designated by the black arrows that go "through the
production systems," and are the individual components of human wants.
15
-------
Description
of Problem
Public Pressure
Involvement of
Regulatory
Agency
Analysis of
Activities
Contributing
to Problem
Anticipation
of or
Observation of
an Environ-
mental
Problem
Determination
of Feasible
Activity Controls
and their
Costs*
Description
Optimizing
the Minimiza-
tion of the Pro-
blem and the
costs* of con-
trolling the
Problem
Development
of Control
Strategies for
eliminating the
Problem
"Costs" include technological, implementation, and social costs.
Figure 1. General scheme for the stepwise solution to environmental
problems.
16
-------
SYSTEM OF USE
Phosphate "THE RELATIONSHIPS"6
Intensive Components
Production f * ~"> of Human
Activities
Environmental
Effects
Noninten.sive
or
Phosphate
Free
Production
Activities
Z. = phosphate base detergents,
phosphate fertilizer, etc.
U = soaps, non-use, etc.
These are instruments with which
the system can be altered
Y - Food, fiber, shelter,
industrial goods, services,
etc.
X - Effects on land, air and
water (impact can be posi-
tive or negative)
These are targets which gener-
ally define the desired high level
of consumption and desired low
level of environmental deteriora-
tion. Tradeoffs among these are
generally available
This set of relationships is defined by production functions which relate
the inputs of labor, capital, and raw materials to the outputs of both
"goods" which are consumed, and the "bads" which are the detrimental
environmental effects imposed on people as they use the environment.
Figure 2. The derived demand for goods and services and side effects
for phosphate intensive and other production activities.
(Classification based on Tinbergen, 1962.)
17
-------
In most cases these Yn can be produced by various alternative processes.
For simplicity, these are divided into two groups with respect to pro-
duction of phosphate concentrations, the Z- list of activities which are
intensive (e. g. , phosphate detergents) and the other nonintensive (U, )
1C
activities (e. g. , nonphosphate or low phosphate detergents). These
activities meet the demands for goods and services through the economic
system.
Each of these Z and U type activities gives rise to effects on the air,
land, and water components of the environment (X ). The nature of
these relationships is also represented in the center part of Figure 2.
This environmental effect, in turn, has direct impacts on human wel-
fare. The system of relationships defines the output of the desired
goods and services as well as the environmental impacts associated
with inputs of various combination factor inputs. Much of the work of
this project is concerned with altering the proportions of components
of wants or welfare that are produced by phosphate intensive as compared
to other activities, diverting the adverse effects on environmental
factors that arise from the production activities, and minimizing the
adverse effects of the environmental degradations that are not practically
avoidable by sequestration, changing locations, and other measures.
A key point of this figure is that the process of degradation arises
mainly from meeting human wants and needs. The satisfaction of these
wants and needs must remain a major factor of consideration as control
and management measures are devised.
18
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BASIC MODEL OF THE CONCENTRATION
PROCESS
One of the terms most frequently used in the environmental movement
is "recycle. " This is an important aspect of the available control and
management possibilities, as shown in Figure 3. Once phosphate is
mobilized from its original source, the number of times of use or the
"round-aboutness" with which the material enters into final receiving
waters becomes an important determinant of how much actually enters
the water. Three general points of control can be exercised. The first
is at the source, where the amount brought into the production system
is controlled. Another is at some (possibly several) point before final
disposition, where the amount which is allowed to leave the production
system is either stored or controlled to divert the material back into
the production process (recycled). The third is the possibility of (1)
diverting the effluent to a sink rather than letting it enter the environ-
ment of a water course or lake; or (2) to cause it to enter a sink in the
lake itself. Basically, all control and management systems fall into
these three categories.
METHOD OF ANALYSIS
The project was divided into several phases. First, the mass balance
of phosphorus uses and resultant inputs to surface waters was developed.
Then possible control strategies and possible methods of implementing
these control strategies were defined. The mass balance analysis then
was reevaluated and control technology and implementation strategies
again defined in the light of the reevaluation. This feedback effect
19
-------
Source
or
Mine
A
Control
Point
(or valve)
Recycle
Uses
Receiving
Water
A A A
Control Control In-lake
Point Point
treatment
(or valve)(or valve) (receiving
water reno-
vation)
Figure 3. Phosphate source, use, and final destination with possible points of control.
Geological
Storage
-------
allowed the development of the activity analysis and the series of control
strategies described below. These strategies were then manipulated
to reduce the level of phosphorus in surface water and thus reduce
eutrophication levels. At the same time the costs of such strategies
and their implementation were estimated.
Because of the rather wide variation in the social structure, economic
development, hydrologic relationships, and population distribution in
the United States, it was decided that the system descriptions would be
general enough so that regional strategies could easily be developed,
i. e. , strategies which would be specific for that particular region.
The realization that environmental management requires a regional or
perhaps even a basin-wide or subbasin level of coordination and imple-
mentation has been developing throughout the Environmental Protection
Agency and seems implicit in the new 1972 Amendments to the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act (P. L. 92-500). Such a regional capability
of strategy implementation becomes a necessity not only from the
point of view of practical technology, but from the point of view of
implementation.
21
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SECTION IV
EUTROPHICATION
THE PROBLEM OF EUTROPHICATION
Definitions
Eutrophication is the enrichment of surface waters with plant nutrients;
oligotrophic (nutrient poor) lakes become eutrophic (nutrient rich) as
nutrient concentrations in the lake waters increase. Increased levels
of plant nutrients lead to increased plant productivity. The problem of
eutrophication results entirely from increased productivity and its
consequences caused by the fertilization of lakes, i.e. , increasing
nutrient concentrations in the lake waters. Nutrient levels increase
or decrease naturally in lakes depending on the lake1 s age and on the
geology and past history of a lake basin, but human activities in the
basin frequently accelerate nutrient addition and result in what is called
"cultural eutrophi cation. " Generally, lake waters that have many high
quality uses are considered desirable by human society; these lakes
coincide with low-nutrient lakes because the water is less turbid, more
aesthetically pleasing, and supports a desirable food chain. Cultural
eutrophication decreases these high quality uses. (Detailed descrip-
tions of eutrophication and its effects can be found in Bartsch, 1972;
22
-------
Hutchinson, 1973; National Academy of Science, 1969; Stewart and
Rohlich, 1967; and Vollenweider, 1968. )
Naturally eutrophic lakes occur when the drainage basin provides waters
which are high in phosphorus and other nutrients, when sedimentation
fills in the lake until it is shallow enough for the lake sediments to
participate directly in supplying nutrients to the lake nutrient budget,
or when productivity over a period of many years causes the buildup
of rich organic sediments so that rapid recycling of nutrients can occur.
However, without human influence many lakes will remain oligotrophic
for long periods of time. For example, Lake Tahoe--a lake on the
order of 2 million years old--is still oligotrophic because of its great
depth and the paucity of nutrients in its drainage basin; it is only along
the shoreline areas where the activities of man have resulted in higher
nutrient concentrations that significant increased productivity is being
observed (Goldman and Armstrong, 1969; McGauhey et al., 1971). As
another example, hydrographic changes due to human activities have
apparently coincided with periods of eutrophication in Lago di Monterosi
(Hutchinson, 1969).
Effects of Nutrients
Increased concentrations of plant nutrients fertilize the lake leading to
increased plant productivity. Eventually this increased productivity
results in a decrease in dissolved oxygen concentrations and severe
interferences with the typical food web relationships and with the
balance between different trophic levels in the food web. The geological
nutrient pool is the ultimate source of all nutrients for a given lake
23
-------
(Figure 4). Through human activities and natural occurrences in the
lake basin, these nutrients enter a body of water, and through biological
reactions driven by solar energy (photosynthesis), are fixed and utilized
in the food chain. As nutrient concentrations increase, more plant
growth occurs until the following consequences are observed: 1) Dis-
solved oxygen concentrations exhibit diurnal cycles of super saturation
and deficit and the lake bottom becomes deficient in oxygen; 2) loss of
community diversity and stability occurs as blue-green algae become
more competitive and occasionally occur as near unialgal dominants in
certain lakes (Home and Goldman, 1972); 3) blue-green algal blooms
cause problems of taste and odor and increased filtration problems in
domestic water supplies; 4) physical and chemical factors (e.g., causing
skin rashes) interfere with recreational and aesthetic uses and thus
further recreational development; 5) fish populations change from game
fish to rough fish, largely due to low dissolved oxygen concentrations,
but also due to changes in food sources; and 6) aquatic weed production
interferes with navigation, recreation, and other uses.
Factors Limiting Plant Growth
The logic of controlling phosphorus concentrations (or for that matter,
any nutrient) in natural waters so that they limit plant growth and thus
control plant productivity, is based on a functional relationship between
plant productivity and nutrient concentration. The concept of a limiting
growth factor has been developed from "Ldebig1 s Law of the Minimum"
(Hutchinson, 1973; Odum, 1959) which can be stated that growth of
plants will be controlled by the growth of energy factor in shortest
supply.
24
-------
to
Ul
Geological
Nut fie nt
Poo
Export of
Nutrients
and Organic
Material or
Input to Sedi-
ments Where
Recyc ling
Can Occur
Plant Productivity
Nutrient
Enrichment
in
Surface
Waters
Algae
Higher Plants
Nutrient
Source s
Loss
of Diversity
and Stability
Increase in
Plant (c Algal
Production
Blue'Green
Algae are
Domina
Change
in Food
Chain
Balance
Oxygen
Depletion
AFFECTS
BENEFICIAL USES
Domestic & Industrial
a) Taste it Odor
b) Filtration
Kec reation
a) Fishing
b) Swimming
c) Aesthetic
Agriculture
a) Toxins
b) Soil Clogging
Navigation
Development
Natural
Nutrient
Sources
Natural
Eutrophication
CE - stored chemical energy
Effects of nutrient enrichment
Nutrient flow
Energy flow
o
o
Figure 4. Diagram of aquatic system nutrient and energy flow.
-------
Many factors are important in controlling levels of plant biomass in
aquatic ecosystems (light, temperature, mixing, grazing, CO2>
nutrients), but only certain factors appear to be controllable by man as
a practical and economical method of decreasing plant productivity.
These are the intrinsic factors of an aquatic ecosystem; macrochemistry
of the water, toxicant levels, concentrations and types of organisms
present, and the nutrients themselves, nitrogen, phosphorus, iron,
manganese, molybdenum, and other trace elements and chelating
agents (Porcella, 1969).
Although estimates have been made that a wide variety of nutrients can
become limiting to algal communities (e.g., Goldman, 1965), it is pro-
bably only the geochemically rare (in relation to algal growth and plant
growth requirements) macronutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus, which
control the development of the aquatic blooms (Goldman, 1965; Hasler,
1947; Hutchinson, 1957, 1973; Sawyer, 1947). Nitrogen is an essential
component of proteins, nucleic acids, and other biologically important
macromolecules. The chief sources of nitrogen to algae are the major
inorganic forms (mineral nitrogen), nitrate, nitrite, and ammonia.
Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by blue-green algae and by bacteria
and bacterial degradation of organic nitrogen to release ammonia can
also serve as important nitrogen sources in the aquatic ecosystem.
Generally, phosphorus is available to algae only as orthophosphate.
Phosphorus is often stored in cells as polyphosphates and is utilized
primarily in nucleic acids, nucleotides, and phospholipids. Cycling of
phosphorus from sediments, degradation of organic phosphates, and
the hydrolysis of polyphosphates to orthophosphates may serve as a
26
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phosphorus source to algae, but the primary though not always the most
immediately important of phosphorus sources are in the waters influent
to a lake.
The observed effects of high nutrient levels (productivity increase,
oxygen deficit, food web changes) have served to define the levels of
nitrogen and phosphorus which constitute eutrophication in a lake.
Sawyer (1947) has suggested that above a threshold of 0. 01 mg P/l and
0. 3 mg N/l as a mean winter concentration, eutrophication would exist.
Vollenweider (1968) utilized Sawyer' s estimates and estimated the
following values in terms of annual loadings:
P, 0. 2 - 0. 5 g/m2 yr., and N, 5-10 g/m2 yr.
When more than sufficient nutrients are present in a lake to cause
eutrophic conditions (e.g., exceeding Sawyer1 s concentrations), plant
growth probably becomes limited by extrinsic factors rather than by
nutrients. Light and temperature are the major nonnutrient seasonal
factors which limit productivity. Light can also limit overall produc-
tivity when turbidity occurs due to significant concentrations of algae
and other suspended matter and color. Temperature has important
effects on growth rate as well as placing upper limits on survival of
specific algae species (Eppley, 1971; Goldman et al., 1972; Reynolds
et al., 1973). Because both atmospheric CC>2 and dissolved carbonate
species can adequately supply the carbon necessary for algal growth
under the most eutrophic conditions likely to be encountered naturally
(Schindler, 1971; Goldman et al., 197Z), carbon is included with light
and temperature as being extrinsic variables which in a practical sense
are not easily controlled (Porcella, 1969).
27
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PHOSPHORUS AS A LIMITING FACTOR
Algal Growth and Phosphorus
Assuming that phosphorus limits growth, i.e., if the factor is at a
minimum in relation to all other needed factors, certain relationships
between algal growth rate and standing crop can be defined. A theoret-
ical and experimentally defined relationship (Monod, 1949) shows that
as the nutrient concentration increases the algal growth rate of a uni-
algal culture increases linearly but that eventually the growth rate
approaches a constant maximum value (Figure 5). This first-order
zero-order relationship (linear-constant) for growth rate apparently
results from the kinetics of uptake of nitrogen and phosphorus (e. g.,
Eppley et al. , 1969; Ketchum, 1939). A similar type of relationship
can be developed between the maximum standing crop of algae and the
limiting nutrient concentration (Figure 6). The standing crop-nutrient
concentration or yield relationship occurs because other factors become
limiting as the concentration of a particular limiting factor increases.
These results imply that in lakes a linear relationship between produc-
tivity and nutrient concentration occurs only when the limiting nutrient
is well below the "saturation level. " Thus, if one wishes to decrease
algal productivity by decreasing phosphorus concentrations, levels of
phosphorus must be attained where algal productivity is proportional to,
or limited by, phosphorus concentrations.
Ordinarily, as all the growth factors increase in intensity in nature,
the final limitation of growth will be either the innate ability of the
28
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2.0
\>
JO
i
CO
LU
I
IT
O
u.
o
UJ
cu
in
5?
X
1.5
1.0
0.5
o
K- 20/ig P//
_L
O S 1.0
D S 2.1
O S 3.0
A S 4.0
O S 4.1
O A
100
200 300 400
INITIAL PHOSPHORUS ,S0 ,
500
60O
p//
Figure 5. Maximum specific growth rate batch (|ab) of Selenastrum capricornutum and the
relation to initial phosphorus concentration (S ) in PAAP medium (fi, calculated
from absorbance measurements). Figure taken from Porcella et al. (1970).
-------
200
no
S
X 150
O
>—t
H
W
O
§
o
w
u
100
50
/I
1000 mg ce!ls/mg P
O S 1.0
O S 3.0
O S 4.1
100
500
600
200 300 400
INITIAL PHOSPHORUS, jig P/l
Figure 6. Relationship between maximum cell concentration (X, mg SS/1) and the initial concentration
of phosphorus (SQ). Figure taken from Porcella et al. (1970).
-------
organisms to growth, or limitation by some extrinsic factor such as
carbon, light or temperature (Goldman et al. , 1972; Jitts et al., 1964;
Thomas, 1966). From the point of view of controlling phosphorus and
thereby productivity, it is necessary to make phosphorus limiting in
relationship to all other intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
Methods of Determining the Limiting Nutrient
Methods of determining limiting factors in a particular body of water
include: 1) The analysis of nutrient concentrations in the water; 2) bio-
assays performed either in the lake in enclosures, or in bottles placed
in the lake or laboratory with and without the addition (or ' spiking' ) of
nutrients; and 3) comprehensive limnological analysis of the lake. The
most accurate method is a comprehensive limnological analysis, but it
is expensive and time consuming and cannot be performed routinely.
The use of chemical analysis and the development of standard algal bio-
assay techniques (Provisional Algal Assay Procedures, 1969; Environ-
mental Protection Agency, 1971) provides a more rapid and less expen-
sive method, though not as rigorous a method, for analyzing the trophic
state of the water and for determining the limiting nutrient, especially
if spiking techniques are used.
Analyses of nutrient content of both water and algae have provided
(1) threshold estimates of nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations that
limit algal growth (Sawyer, 1947); and (2) ratios of N:P in waters that
tend to indicate when one or another of these elements is growth limit-
ing; thus, when the N:P weight ratio in the water is < 15:1, nitrogen
is likely limiting, and when the N:P ratio is > 15:1, phosphorus is the
possible limiting nutrient (Environmental Protection Agency, 1971;
31
-------
McGauhey et al., 1969; Schindler, 1971; Vollenweider, 1968). Within
the N:P range of ratios of 10:1 to 20:1, multiple limitiations are indi-
cated (Ketchum, 1939; Middlebrooks et al., 1971; Porcella et al. , 1970).
The N:P ratio of 15:1 merely allows an approximation to determine the
growth limiting factor.
Whenever the available form of a nutrient in a water is essentially
undetectable, it is possible that it is limiting to algae. Thus, relation-
ships between concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus have been
used to indicate which of these two nutrients are limiting. From Figure
7 it can be seen that considerable nitrogen remains in solution in these
lake waters while phosphate concentrations approach zero. Thus, one
might conclude that for these two nutrients under these conditions
phosphorus is limiting.
The estimation of limiting factors in lakes and water samples by
analyzing dissolved nutrients has occupied considerable effort and in
some cases has led to some confusion (see discussion in Likens, 1972
and in O! Brien, 1972). This has occurred especially when the role of
other factors were not considered, such as light limitation caused by
suspended inorganic sediments and other particulate matter. For
example, in Clear Lake, California, the algal community is light
limited in the springtime because of the high turbidity of the spring
runoff and apparently becomes nitrogen limited later in the growing
season when the lake becomes less turbid. In this case nitrogen
limitation leads to considerable nitrogen fixation by blue-green algae,
amounting to about 40 percent of the total nitrogen budget (Home and
Goldman, 1972).
32
-------
N
56
52
48
44
Lake Constance
N
60
40
20
'B
Lake Norrviken
I I
0.2
0.4 0.6
P
1 2345 67
P
N
1000|.c
750
500
250
Lake Zurich
45
N
30
15
Lake Washington
j I
0 10 20 30 40 50
P
Figure 7. Correlation between concentrations of soluble nitrate and
phosphate in eutrophic lakes (A, B,C, from Stumm and
Leckie (1970); D from Edmundson (1972)). Data in A, B, C
are from various depths and times. The dots in D show
the mean particulate N and P in the top 10 m during July
and August and the end of the lines attached to the dots
shows the dissolved nitrate-N and phosphate-P in the
previous winter (January to March) in the top 10 m. Dates
in D show the year of analysis and thus reflect concen-
tration changes as a result of nutrient input management.
33
-------
Further confusion occurs because of problems with sampling in time
and space and the interpretation of those results. For example, low
concentrations of specific nutrients, or specific forms of a nutrient,
are often observed during a bloom leading to the conclusion that a
particular nutrient is limiting (e.g., see Doyle, 1971; Ferguson, 1968;
and Kuentzel, 1969). As has been shown in natural systems where
winter measurements are correlated with bloom conditions (see
Edmundson, 1972; Sawyer, 1947), and in bioassays conducted on
physical cutrophication test models (McGauhey et al., 1969) the
measured nutrients after the bloom only indicate what the algal bloom
has left in solution. In such cases if the solution nutrient is close to
zero, the nutrient could be limiting; but the nutrient is not necessarily
limiting because intracellular storage ("luxury uptake") can cause
essentially complete removal of certain nutrients particularly phos-
phorus (Overbeck, 1962b; Porcella et al., 1970; Toerien et al. , 1971).
If significant quantities of the nutrient remain in solution, then that
nutrient is not limiting. The converse argument that "if a nutrient
remains in solution in significant quantities during a bloom then it is
not limiting" can be used with greater confidence to show that the
nutrient is not growth limiting. These conclusions are indeed the maxi-
mum reliable information that can be derived from nutrient levels in
solution with regard to whether or not a particular nutrient is growth
limiting.
In terms of spatial orientation, comprehensive sampling is often
necessary (e. g. , see "synoptic sampling" in Home and Goldman, 1972).
This is because the growth of different kinds of algae in the same lake
apparently can be limited by different nutrients. Fitzgerald (1969) used
34
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direct analysis of cells from algal blooms dominated by a single algal
species and showed nitrogen limited and phosphorus limited algae at
the same time in Lake Mendota. Thus, in using such a technique,
different limiting factors could be demonstrated for a particular lake
if there were insufficient regard for differing algal physiology.
B'ioassays
Bioassays are useful for determining trophic state and nutrient limitation
because they integrate the effects of all intrinsic factors. Such tests
have been performed in the laboratory using sealed bottles or open
flasks as well as in the field using closed bottles and polyethylene bags.
These tests allow an estimation of the trophic state of the lake by com-
paring the algal growth in the lake with that obtained in the test. One
method of estimating trophic state is based on growth rates (Figure 5):
Low growth rates and intermediate growth rates indicate that the waters
are oligotrophic and mesotrophic respectively (assuming no toxic sub-
stances in the sample). High or maximum growth rates indicate that
the waters are eutrophic, i.e. , nutrients are not growth rate limiting.
In addition, toxicity can be estimated using dilution techniques and the
specific limiting nutrient may be estimated by spiking with one or more
nutrients and observing the response of the algae. Relative toxicity and
biostimulation have been demonstrated for varying treatments of waste-
water (Middlebrooks et al., 1971) while several investigations of limit-
ing nutrients for different algae and different waters have been conducted
using spiking techniques (e. g. , Gerloff, 1969; Maloney et al., 1972).
35
-------
Schindler studied a lake where nitrates and phosphates were added to
make it eutrophic (in analogy to bottle tests where spiking occurs) and
found that the lake became growth rate limited by the rate of CO?
diffusion into the lake. However, it was the added phosphorus that con-
trolled the development of the algal bloom itself and the lake waters
became eutrophic because of the additions of nutrients (Schindler, 1971;
Schindler et al. , 1971; Schindler, 1972).
Similarly, Goldman and Carter (1967) determined that nitrogen was the
probable limiting factor in Lake Tahoe waters by spiking large plastic
bag in situ enclosures of lake water with specific nutrients.
Another way of determining the relative importance of the various nutrients
as growth limiting factors is to examine the typical stoichiometries and
growth yields of various algae. Some suggested stoichiometric algal
formulae are C.n,H. ,0O. _N, ,P, (Stumm and Leckie, 1970),
lOo £o3 11U lo 1
C106H181°45N16P1 • -dC520N54Pl to C98N6. 6P1
(depending on whether phosphorus or nitrogen respectively were limit-
ing, Porcella et al. , 1970). These formulae demonstrate that phos-
phorus is the lowest constituent of those reported and therefore one
might reason that it must be reduced to the lowest concentration
relative to the other nutrients to cause it to become growth limiting.
By comparing directly the tissue concentrations of important nutrients
in plants to these ratios one can estimate whether a particular nutrient
may be limiting. Gerloff (1969) has done this for aquatic plants in a
very detailed way while Fitzgerald (1969) has indicated that more
sophisticated analyses of plants and algae can indicate which nutrients
are limiting.
36
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NUTRIENT CONTROL AND EUTROPHICATION
Limiting Factors and Control Methods
of Algal Blooms
Considerable effort has been expended on estimating the seriousness of
eutrophication as a worldwide problem as well as a U. S. problem.
Federal Government estimates of eutrophic waters amount to 25-40
percent of U.S. surface waters (House Committee on Government
Operations, 1970). Okun (1972) has estimated that 15 percent of the
population contributes to eutrophication of inland surface waters. In
the Great Lakes Basin where a significant percentage of the North
American fresh water supply and population is located, eutrophication
is already a severe problem in Lake Erie (FWQA, 1968), a developing
problem in Lake Ontario and Lake Michigan, and a potential problem
in Lakes Superior and Huron (Table 1). These lakes are apparently
phosphorus limited under natural conditions as are most of the Canadian
Shield lakes (Schelske and Stoermer, 1972; Schindler et al. , 1971).
A selection of North American waters where limiting factors have been
described shows that although many factors may be involved, ultimately
nitrogen and phosphorus are the most likely limiting factors for algal
growth (Table 1). Although the more productive marine waters tend to
be nitrogen limited, freshwater environments exhibit a variety of pro-
bable limiting factors. It is imperative to remember that lakes are
homogeneous in neither time nor space and that Table 1 presents only
a selection of estimates; however, for a particular time and place these
results represent a considerable body of information and can be useful
37
-------
Table 1. SELECTED WATER SYSTEMS IN NORTH AMERICA IN RELATION
TO AN ESTIMATION OF THE LIMITING NUTRIENTa
„ , „ . . _, J Estimated Limiting
Lake Trophic State _ . ° References
r Nutrient
Clear Lake, Calif. Eutrophic Light (turbidity), Home and Goldman (1972)
then nitrogen
Lake Tahoe, Calif. Oligotrophic Nitrogen Goldman and Carter (1965)
McGauhey et al. (1969)
Lake Washington, Wash. Eutrophic Phosphorus Edmundson (1972)
Lake 227, Canada Eutrophic (due to Phosphorus Schindler et al. (1971)
<*» added nutrients)
Lake Mennetonka, Minn. Mesotrophic? Phosphorus Megard (1972)
Lake Michigan (Great Lakes) Mesotrophic Phosphorus Schelske and Stoermer (1972)
Lake Sebasticook, Maine Eutrophic Extrinsic Factors? Mackenthun et al. (1968)
San Joaquin Delta, Calif. Eutrophic Light & Nitrogen DiToro et al. (1971)
Brown et al. (1969)
Marine Coastal Waters
Receiving Sewage Effluents
Atlantic Shore Productive Nitrogen Ryther and Dunstan (1971)
Pacific Shore Productive Nitrogen Eppley et al. (1971)
aFor references on studies of a large number of lakes, see Frey (1966), Lee (1970),
Maloney et al. (1972), Milway (1970), Rawson (I960), Shannon and Brezonik (1972), and
Vollenweider (1968).
-------
in extrapolating the effects of different nutrient control schemes on a
variety of lake environments.
Once a limiting nutrient has been defined, it is necessary to interpret
that result in terms of practical control measures for eutrophication.
Some common control methods are only of a temporary nature, attacking
the symptoms and effects of eutrophication; other methods are directed
at nutrient removal (the causative agent for algal blooms) or to changing
the conditions within the body of water to minimize the effects of algal
blooms (see Table 2).
By removal to a limiting level of a single factor necessary for plant
growth, a reduction in plant productivity will occur. Consequently,
efforts towards nutrient removal for effluents have been directed pri-
marily toward the intrinsic factors and chiefly towards phosphorus
removal. Agreements between Great Lakes States and the Federal
Water Pollution Control Administration (now Environmental Protection
Agency) require 80 percent phosphorus removal and new agreements
may lead to an effluent standard of less than 1 mg P/l (Lee, 1972). The
relative geochemical rarity, ease of chemical removal from wastes,
and the lack of an atmospheric source of supply as for carbon and
nitrogen have led to the development of technology for. phosphorus
removal in waste effluents, in spite of the fact that phosphorus is least
required in relation to carbon and nitrogen. In addition, there is an
extra advantage to phosphorus removal from lakes where phosphorus is
limiting because one would expect an immediate response by a lowering
of the algal productivity.
39
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Table 2. METHODS OF CONTROLLING EU TROPHIC A TION
AND ITS EFFECTS3"
References Citing
Specific Examples
Temporary Control Measures
Harvesting of weeds and/or algae
Biological
Grazing organisms (fish, manatees)
Blue-green algae viruses
Chemical
Copper sulfate
Organic herbicides
Permanent Control Measures
Watershed management
Diversion of nutrient-containing
wastes
Nutrient removal from wastes
Nutrient precipitation in lakes
Dilution of nutrients in lakes
Deletion of certain specific chemicals
from chemical products (polyphos-
phates in detergents)
Lake Modification (see Born, 1972)
Deepening of lake
Aeration
Removal of bottom sediments
See Brezonik and Lee (1968)
Young and Grossman (1970)
See Prowse (1969)
See Fitzgerald (1971)
See Likens (1972)
See Table 3
See Rohlich and Uttormark
(1972) for review
See Jernelov (1970)
See Oglesby (1969)
See Congressional Hearings
(1969)
See Fast (1971)
Many of these techniques have been discussed in more detail
previously (National Academy of Sciences, 1969; Milway, 1970).
40
-------
Because of the problem of sediment storage of phosphorus and later
release to the overlying waters when phosphates in the water become
limiting (e. g. , Porcella et al. , 1970), it has not been satisfactorily
demonstrated that a reduction in phosphorus concentration alone in a
lake will cause an immediate reduction in algal blooms. The studies
by Edmundson (1972) on Lake Washington in Seattle and Sonzogni and
Lee (1972) on the Madison lakes indicate that sediment release is not
significant (possibly because the upper layers of sediment become
exhausted of available phosphorus rather quickly (Porcella et al. , 1970)).
Edmundson' s results are not completely clear with respect to the effects
of phosphorus removal on productivity in the lake. The peak algal popu-
lation is correlated with the winter maximum orthophosphate concen-
tration, but this might correlate with other factors because phosphorus
was not the only nutrient removed by diversion of sewage effluents from
Lake Washington. Hence the input of many factors (such as organic
substances, nitrogen, vitamins, growth factors, trace metals, chelating
agents, etc., which could contribute significantly to productivity) have
been removed as well as phosphorus; though it seems likely that at
present phosphorus is the growth limiting factor in Lake Washington
(Figure 7), the results of other large-scale eutrophication control
schemes have not been as well studied (Table 3), and caution is required
in interpreting those measures in terms of phosphorus.
Influent Phosphorus Distribution to Lakes
In assessing the effect of the concentration of phosphorus influent to a
system it is important to understand that not all forms of phosphorus
41
-------
Table 3. IMPROVEMENT IN EUTROPHICATION EFFECTS
RESULTING FROM DECREASE IN NUTRIENT INPUT
Method of _ ,
_ . . Reference
Control
North American Lakes
Lake Washington,
Washington Diversion Edmund son, 1972
Indian Creek Reservoir,
California P Removal Porcella et al., 1972
Lake Monona, Wisconsin Diversion Mackenthun et al., I960
Green Lake, Washington Dilution Oglesby, 1969
European Lakes
French Lakes Diversion Laurent et al. , 1970
Bavarian Lakes Diversion Liebman, 1970
(the so-called "total phosphorus") are immediately available to algae
for growth. Generally speaking, dissolved orthophosphate is immediately
available; dissolved and particulate organic phosphates require bacterial
attack (and dissolution) to release dissolved orthophosphate; inorganic
condensed phosphates can be readily hydrolyzed by bacteria to dissolved
orthophosphate (Overbeck, 1962a); particulate inorganic phosphates
(either precipitated or sorbed to clay minerals) require dissolution,
usually by pH decrease, to become readily available to algae as dis-
solved orthophosphate. Thus a total phosphorus analysis--an analysis
that is commonly performed on agricultural drainage waters--does not
indicate how much phosphorus is immediately available for algal growth,
but it may represent the potentially available phosphorus.
42
-------
However, the total phosphorus concentration during the summertime
algal bloom in eutrophic lakes when most of the phosphorus is in the
algal cells appears to be closely related to the winter dissolved ortho-
phosphate concentrations, i. e. , the phosphorus which is available for
algal growth (Edmundson, 19*72). Thus, Vollenweider' s (1968) loading
rates which are expressed on an annual basis for total phosphorus
seem more reasonable. Moreover, he has shown a reasonable correla-
tion between spring total phosphorus concentrations and annual total
phosphorus loadings in eutrophic lakes (Figure 8).
Phosphorus entering a lake can be distributed between several phases
(Figure 9): The water (epilimnion and hypolimnion), and sediment (and
its interstitial water), the biota, and the inorganic particulate material.
All of these phases interact and therefore are involved in the natural
phosphorus cycle of the lake. Based on the nutrient budget of 11
eutrophic European lakes it has been estimated that an average of about
55 percent of the phosphorus entering the lakes was retained in them,
presumably in the sediments (Vollenweider, 1968).
Analyses of waters entering a small eutrophic reservoir in Utah (Hyrum
Reservoir) have indicated that of the total phosphorus input, less than
50 percent was dissolved orthophosphate and directly available for algal
growth (Porcella et al., 1972b). During algal bloom conditions, ortho-
phosphate became incorporated into algae and other plants and decreased
eventually to almost undetectable concentrations in the water. Settling,
incorporation into the food chain, and decay tended to remove the
majority of the accumulated algal biomass to the sediments although a
fraction was removed via outflow. Fifty-four percent of the influent
43
-------
80 |j,g P. m • yr/g- 1
Eutrophic lakes
2.0
Annual Phosphorus Loading, g/rn • yr
Figure 8. Spring concentrations of total phosphorus apparently are related to total phosphorus loading
(from Vollenweider, 19 68).
-------
Natural
and Cultural
Sources
Total
Influent
Phosphorus
74|igP/L
Outflow
Total
Effluent
Phospho-
rus
10
30
Orthoph
i, * I20 •»
osphate 1 ™
Plant
Growth
— wi
i
Particulate
and Combined
Phosphate
24
40
Figure 9. Average spring-summer phosphorus flow in Hyrum Reservoir, April 4 to November 4,
1971. (Porcella et al. , 1972b. )
-------
pnosphorus remained in this lake--a figure very close to that of
Vollenweider quoted above. However, one should not be misled by this
similarity because the percentages of incoming phosphorus retained in
eutrophic lakes or reservoirs can be quite variable, from about 89
percent in a new reservoir formed from, treated effluent (Porcella et al.,
1972a) to nearly zero in a naturally eutrophic lake (Frink, 1967).
These transfers to the sediment sink have been conceptualized in terms
of a lake phosphorus residence time independently by Vollenweider
(1969) and Megard (1971) and elaborated by Sonzogni and Lee (1972).
The relationships expressed in this report were taken from the work of
Uttormark (1973). The phosphorus concentration (C) within a com-
pletely mixed system is the same as in the outflow and if the inflow con-
centration (C.) is partitioned between the aqueous and sediment phases,
a hydraulic residence time (R.,- = V/Q, V is the volume and Q the
V
outflow) and a phosphorus residence time (R = Q , where k
represents the fraction partitioned to the sediments) can be defined
such that
°o - -Iff) eX" <-t/RP> (1)
H
and C can be determined for any time (t). Where the system is
assumed to be at steady state the ratio of R /Rrr can be determined
from estimates such as in Figure 9, i.e., C/C. = R /R^. For Hyrum
Reservoir R /R = C/C. = 0.46 and since R averages about 0.2
P H i H
years (Porcella et al. , 1972b), the mean steady state phosphorus resi-
dence time would approximate 0. 1 year.
46
-------
The partition values signify the vast quantity of phosphorus in the sedi-
ments (Megard, 1971; Stumm and Leckie, 1970; Vollenweider, 1968).
Transfer of phosphorus to the sediments will have an important role in
shortening the recovery time needed for a lake where phosphorus input
is restricted, especially in comparison to models based only on
hydraulic residence time.
Relationship of Algal Growth to
Phosphorus Concentration
As was showii in Figures 2 and 3, the relationship of phosphorus con-
centration to algal growth rate and to biomass levels was linear at first
but eventually reached a constant maximum value. However, the situ-
ation is more complex because of factors such as intracellular phos-
phorus storage (Overbeck, 1962b) and interrelationships with other
growth limiting factors. In spite of these seeming complexities and
the problems associated -with lake estimations of algal populations,
Edmundson has shown straight line relationships
Chlorophyll a (p.g/1) = 1.4 (PO4~P, (ig/l) + 7. 9, r = 0.89; and
Chlorophyll a (p.g/I) = 0. 94 (Total P, ^g/1) - 4. 2, r = 0. 96, (2)
to exist between phosphorus and chlorophyll concentrations in Lake
Washington for the years 1962 to 1970. (Data extrapolated from Figure
10A, see Edmundson, 1972. ) From this type of correlation it would
appear that phosphorus concentrations have controlled algal growth in
Lake Washington, at least within the last decade. Prior to that time
other factors apparently limited algal growth. A linear relationship
between phosphorus concentration and algal concentration (for example
47
-------
§•
u
_r = 0. 911(0. 877;64
. 63
62-
. 66 ' 65
~57 -o
u' 7orb8
5.0.'
69
PO -P
4
67
o
fH
O
1—I
J3
U
r = 0.933
62.
66.-65
. 64
.63
,.67
Total P |ig/l
A. Lake Washington, planimetric means for the top 10 meters
of phosphate (January/March) and chlorophyll a_ and total
phosphorus (July and August) (Edmundson, 1972). Correlation
coefficients (r) are shown; value in parentheses includes
1957 data point.
n = 0. 58 F
s
= 10. 3
4. 2
y -x
s, = 0. 0024
D
mg/m
Total Phosphorus (F )
B. Lake Minnetonka, surface samples from 11 locations
(Me gar d, 1972)
Figure 10. Chlorophyll zi concentration appears related to winter
orthophosphate and summer total phosphorus concentrations.
48
-------
as in Lake Washington) apparently will exist when phosphorus is the only
limiting factor. Megard (1972) developed the relationship:
Chlorophyll a (ng/1) = 0.6 Total P (JA g/1) + 4. 2 (3)
for the summer populations of algae and the total phosphorus concen-
tration for Lake Minnesota (Figure 10B). The differences between the
slopes of the relationships of Megard and Edmundson most probably
reflect the differences in the lakes and their algal communities.
Multiple Limiting Factor Model
While relationships such as those of Edmundson (1972) and Megard
(1972) are of value in specific situations, for the general situation where
factors other than phosphorus could be limiting, a more general model
is more applicable than such linear relationships and would include the
effects of other limiting factors. Models relating specific growth rate
(jx ) to limiting factors have been derived for nutrients in lakes (Chen,
1970) and using outdoor laboratory ponds for light and temperature
(Middlebrooks and Porcella, 1970). If combined, these relationships
would have the general form:
dX ^C SN SP 1 ' 047T-20°C
Xdt " " SC+KC
(4)
"
in which X = mass of cells, ML
t = time, t
|JL = maximum specific growth rate, t
1 = light intensity
o
T = temperature, C
all K values are half saturation constants
49
-------
S_,S , S = concentration of available nutrients in the liquid phase
o
(C = carbon, N = nitrogen, P = phosphorus), ML" .
The relationship between growth rate (fa.) and levels of eutrophication is
still unclear; however, as noted in the section on bioassays, a lake is
generally eutrophic when the measured bioassay growth rates are near
maximum and oligotrophic when bioassay growth rates are low. The
utility of determining growth rate lies in models which describe popu-
lation changes in terms of rates, such as growth, settling, predation,
hydrodynamics, lake depth and morphology (e.g., Chen, 1970; DiToro
etal., 1971; Porcella et al., 1970).
Single Factor Limitation
An alternative and simpler approach to estimating the relationship
between limiting factors and algal growth is to use yield factors or
stoichiometric formulations as have been previously discussed. The
yield (Y) is defined as the mass of algae (X) obtained per unit of limit-
ing nutrient utilized. For a worst possible situation one might assume
that all the limiting nutrient will be utilized.
Therefore, for any limiting nutrient
X = YS (5)
o
in which S is the influent limiting nutrient (phosphorus) concentration.
o
Essentially, this concept is equivalent to the linear relations of
Edmundson (1972) and Megard (1972).
50
-------
Schindler et al. (1971) have taken another approach which they based on
Vollenweider1 s work (1968). They calculated a log functional relation-
ship for "admissible (A)" and "dangerous (D)" nitrogen and phosphorus
o ___
levels between nutrient loading (g/m «yr) and the mean depth (Z) of the
receiving water:
log!0PA = 0.601og1() Z+ 1.40
log1()PD = 0.601og1()Z + 1.70
log!0NA = °-601og10 Z + 2'57
log1()ND = 0.601og1() Z + 2.87
Oligotrophic lakes are found to occur at loadings below admissible levels
while eutrophic lakes occur at loadings above dangerous levels and pre-
sumably mesotrophic lakes lie in between the admissible and dangerous
loading levels.
Both Vollenweider (1968) and Schindler et al. (1971) have suggested
considerable caution in the use of these relationships because of the
lack of confirmatory studies and the great error in using such a simple
formulation for the description of such a complex and highly variable
system. With this warning in mind, further extension of Vollenweider' s
loading estimate will be made to obtain provisional guidelines to esti-
mate the relation between influent phosphorus and eutrophication.
51
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DEVELOPMENT OF A SIMPLE MODEL FOR
RELATING ALGAL GROWTH AND LOSS OF
BENEFICIAL USES OF PHOSPHORUS INPUT
For lakes having different fixed mean depths (Z), Equation 6 gives an
estimate of the two points, admissible and dangerous, on the
eutrophication-phosphorus relationship (see Figure 11). Thus, an
annual phosphorus loading rate can be calculated from the phosphorus
input model (see Section VI for description of phosphorus input model,
pp. 149- 152) and related to the mean depth of a particular lake using
the relationships in Figure 11. The effect on phosphorus input by a
particular phosphorus management scheme can be related to levels of
eutrophication and then evaluated in terms of cause and effect in relation
to the cost of the management scheme. Further analysis of relation-
ships between algal growth parameters and loading are contained in
Appendix A.
Assumptions Involved in the
Eutrophication Model
The foregoing analysis is based on Vollenweider' s model (Figure 11)
and relies on many assumptions, some of which are too broad, some
too inclusive, and some probably incorrect. However, the model shown
in Figure 11 represents an attempt to quantify a relationship between
eutrophication and phosphorus input so that the effects of certain phos-
phorus management strategies can be assessed on a specific lake. The
model has the advantages of being simple and unsophisticated and
requiring the minimum of input data. The following discussion lists
52
-------
w
Dangerous
o Loading
HH
H
-------
the major assumptions made in the model and discusses these assump-
tions in relation to the project objectives:
1. Only phosphorus limits growth--in the lakes that will be used
as examples, the initial assumption is that phosphorus is the
limiting nutrient. In the context of the project this is the
rationale for minimizing phosphorus input to lakes at least
cost (even though in some cases this may do little to alleviate
the eutrophication problems in the lake). In the examples
lakes will be studied (Lake Erie and Lake Michigan) which
are considered phosphorus limited or, at least, where phos-
phorus can likely be made limiting.
2. The model of phosphorus loading versus eutrophication effects
applies to all lakes — such a simple model (Figure 11) only
considers one variable in lakes (depth) while lakes vary in
other morphological factors in their chemistry, biology, light,
temperature, hydrology, geology, etc. Until further analysis
of loading-response relationships in a wide variety of lakes
is achieved, it seems reasonable to utilize Vollenweider1 s
simple formulation.
3. The number of variables involved can be minimized--this
model only considers depth and nutrient loading; formulations
exist which contain more variables (e.g., Shannon and
Brezonik, 1972). However, these models do not contain
more sophisticated cause and effect relationships; the models
do require considerably more data without eliminating any
significant deficiencies for the purposes of this project.
4. The phosphorus loading factor is based on input of phosphorus
which is considered "available" for algal growth rather than
54
-------
for total phosphorus. Where convenient, relative eutrophi-
cation will be shown for available and total phosphorus load-
ing but available phosphorus loading will be the basis for cost
calculations. This assumption seems the most reasonable in
terms of current knowledge of the natural system but is an
assumption which should be checked at the earliest opportunity.
55
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SECTION V
PHOSPHORUS SOURCES TO SURFACE WATERS
OVERALL SUMMARY OF PHOSPHORUS SOURCES
Ultimately all phosphorus comes from minerals. These minerals are
weathered by natural processes or utilized by man and other organisms
causing the release of phosphorus for recycling through biological com-
munities or for transport to the oceans. After entering a lake or
ultimately the ocean, the processes of biological deposition, physical
deposition, and chemical precipitation transfer phosphorus to the bottom
sediments where it is stored until geologic time restores it to the land
surface for further utilization.
Although there are many natural processes which serve as sources of
phosphorus to surface water, human activities, at least in the USA,
probably account for the majority of phosphorus mass inputs (see
Figure 12). Cultural processes cause an increase in phosphorus input
to surface waters in comparison to the natural inputs normally expected
for a particular system. Natural inputs consist largely of solution
effects as water passes over and weathers geological formations.
Some phosphorus becomes cycled through biological materials prior to
entering water systems as inorganic or organic phosphorus compounds,
56
-------
Geosphere
•v 0. 1% P
Phosphate
Mineral
Reserves
I
Runoff From
Forests and
Other Nonfarm
1
Uptake t
Accumulation
in Natural
Communities
Mining &
Manufacturing
I Fertilizer! [ Detergent]
79. 3%
7.
Other Uses of
Industry
""{Agriculture |
I
Human
Consumption
cn
-4
Agricultural
Wastes - Decomposition
and Burning,
Return Flows
Runoff:
Erosion
& Sediments
Air
Pollution and
Natural Air Input
Rain
0.9-3.2x10
kg/yr
Marine Sediments (STOR. )
Phosphate
Removal
(STORAGE)
Runoff into Surface Waters
Lake Sediments (STOR. )
Figure 12. Simplified present-day mass flow diagram for phosphorus in the USA. Data from Ferguson, 1968; The Institute
of Ecology, 1971; and Table 4, this report.
-------
but ultimately, these biologically derived compounds come from phos-
phorus minerals also.
CULTURAL USE OF PHOSPHORUS
Essentially all use of phosphorus by human society depends on the phos-
phorus mining industry. In 1968, the estimated distribution of phos-
phorus obtained from mining activities was primarily to agriculture
(about 80 percent used in fertilizers and commercial animal feeds),
with a considerably smaller amount (7-13 percent) used as phosphate
builders in the detergent industry and the remaining 7-13 percent used
for various industrial purposes and as product additives (see Table 4).
Future changes in the usages of phosphorus, particular fertilizer and
animal feeds, detergent, and industrial uses, will depend primarily on
population changes, changes in agricultural practices (chiefly due to
urbanization of agricultural lands and international trade policies),
possible restrictions on detergent phosphorus uses, and on industrial
uses. Technological developments will probably have minimal effect
on the use of phosphorus products.
The pathways shown in Figure 12 indicate that most of the activities
involved with phosphorus entering surface waters are associated with
human activities. The natural sources are quite variable and are depen-
dent on many factors as will become evident in the description that
follows. The cultural uses tend to be more constant, but the inputs to
surface waters vary with discharge regulations and geography for the
diffuse sources.
58
-------
Table 4. PHOSPHORUS CONSUMPTION IN THE USA
Uses
Amount Used, 100 Kg/yr'
as P (percent of total)
Year: 1958C
Fertilizers
Animal Feed
Detergents
Metal Finishing
Other Uses
Water Softening
Food and Pharmaceutical
Gasoline Additives
Plasticizers
Pesticides
Miscellaneous
TOTAL
896 (69.7)
107 (8.3)
171 (13.3)
15 (1.1)
97 (7.6)
35 (2.7)
38 (3)
8 (0.6)
16 (1.3)
1286 (100)
1968C
^ejtimates).
2406 (76. 3)
94 (3)
227 (7. 2)
94 (3)
331 (10.5)
35 (1.1)
58 (1.8)
29 (0.9)
210 (6. 7)
3153 (100)
To obtain 1000 short tons of P/yr, multiply by 1. 1013.
JTaken from Logue (1959).
*
'Taken from Lewis (1970).
The flow chart shown in Figure 12 has been combined together with
information in Table 4 to develop an activity analysis (Figure 13); i. e.,
to identify and quantify as precisely as present literature allows all of
the natural and cultural activities which tend to produce phosphorus
inputs to surface waters. These have been classified into 1) nonbasin
activities; 2) agriculture; 3) urban and rural watersheds; 4) domestic;
5) industrial; 6) mining; and 7) animal production.
59
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ACTIVITIES
Non-bojln
Animal
Production
DIRECT RAINFALL
RIVER INFLOW
AGRICULTURE
IRRIGATION RETURN FLOW
PESTICIDES
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
MANAGED FORESTS
GRAZED WATERSHED
DEVELOPED WATERSHED
NATURAL WATERSHED
URBAN RUNOFF
DOMESTIC WASTES
DOMESTIC DETERGENTS
INDUSTRIAL DETERGENTS
WATER SOFTENING
MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIAL USE
METAL FINISHING
FOOD WASTES
P MINING
MINING RUNOFF
CATTLE
POULTRY
PISS
SHEEP
Indicant not directly from mining
Receiving Water
LoKe 01 interest
Figure 13. Activity analysis for phosphate indicating the major path-
ways to any lake for the most typical uses.
60
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NONBASIN ACTIVITIES
These activities are those which are not directly controllable by man or
are outside the basin of interest. The first of these includes direct
rainfall or precipitation on the water surfaces in the basin. This input
has been shown to be a measurable value for Lake Michigan by Lee
(1972) and considers the concentration of phosphorus in precipitation.
Chapin and Uttormark (1972) have shown that the phosphorus concen-
tration in rainfall is quite variable across the United States. The
availability of phosphorus in rainfall to algae is still in question.
The sources of phosphorus in rainfall are probably natural particulate
phosphorus which is carried by wind, or other particulate input pro-
cesses, into the atmosphere and later is removed by rainfall and other
precipitation. However, industrial processes, particularly phosphorus
mining activities, can lead to rather high concentrations of phosphorus
in rainfall (Fuller, 1972). Although such activities can be significant
in a particular basin depending on season, prevailing winds and pre-
cipitation, they generally represent an uncontrollable source. Another
input to the atmosphere which is probably an uncontrollable source is
the addition of organic phosphates to gasoline. These phosphates are
generally considered to enter the atmosphere and be distributed in that
phase. The total quantity of phosphorus used as a gasoline additive is
rather small, about 500,000 kg/year, or 0.01 percent of the total USA
phosphorus consumption in 1968, and can be ignored. Similar industrial
uses of phosphorus could also end up in the atmosphere, but generally
are rather small in comparison to the controllable inputs.
61
-------
In general, one would conclude that the phosphorus content of direct
rainfall on water surfaces is not manageable, with the possible exception
of phosphorus particles resulting from phosphorus mining operations.
River flow into the basin is a special addition to the system of study,
which allows the calculation of phosphorus input via water carriage
arising from activities in another basin. An example of this is the
inflow into Lake Erie from Lake Huron. If the analysis is being per-
formed only on the Lake Erie basin, one is not able to be concerned
with the activities occurring above that basin. Thus, Lake Huron input
is calculated separately and independently of the activities in the Lake
Erie basin. Any rivers or activities which are specific to the basin or
which arise in the basin will be analyzed as part of the overall activities
in the basin. Thus, this is the only part of the phosphorus activities
basin which takes a typical nutrient budget approach, i.e., the concen-
tration in the river water inflow to the lake of interest times the volume
of inflow.
The question of groundwater sources was considered to be an area
where (1) little control could be exercised, (2) little information about
sources to lakes in terms of water flow or phosphorus concentration
was available, (3) previous investigators have largely ignored the
effects of groundwater. One of the most careful analyses of the ground-
water contribution to the phosphorus nutrient budget was performed
recently for two small lakes where groundwater influent would likely
be quite important because of septic tanks, the gravelly soil substrate,
62
-------
and relatively high annual rainfalls (Cooke et al, , 1973). These investi-
gators found that with the one exception of 20. 1 percent obtained during
the winter the percent of the phosphorus budget from groundwater
varied within the range of 1. 8 to 13. 1 percent over the various seasonal
quarters. The median contribution was 4.4 percent. On an annual
basis about 5. 3 percent for the West Twin Lake and 2. 8 percent for
East Twin Lake came from groundwater input. The authors state that
groundwater influent phosphorus contributions •". . .are small and con-
stant. " Although for these two lakes groundwater would be expected to
contribute considerable phosphorus, Cooke et al. (1973) showed that it
was a minor input. Thus, for the three reasons cited above, the ground-
water contribution to lakes is not determined for this study and ground-
water phosphorus is considered a minor but constant input to the system.
Conversely, it would be expected that lakes could contribute phosphorus
to the groundwater pool. Except for coarse textured soils, phosphorus
travel through soils is generally very low because of the opportunities
for chemical precipitation, sorption, and exchange on calcium carbon-
ate surfaces. Under appropriate conditions (anaerobic, low Eh and pH)
transport of phosphorus from lakes to groundwater, soil to groundwater,
or groundwater to lake would be maximized. Septic tank drainage,
feedlot location, and groundwater recharge would be good examples of
how conditions could occur which maximize such transport. In the
lakes described by Cooke et al. (1973) septic drainage entered the
surface waters. Hence, evidence for such transport mechanisms for
phosphorus is not available at this time and so such possibilities for
transport will not be considered in this report.
63
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AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES (SOIL EROSION,
AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES, AND
IRRIGATION RETURN FLOWS)
The use of fertilizer and crop harvesting are the most important agri-
cultural practices in terms of the total mass of phosphorus resulting
from nonurban human activities.
Phosphorus Pollution of Waters and
Fertilizer Use
Agriculture is man' s oldest effort to manipulate nature to satisfy his
fundamental need for food and fiber. With the advent of planned
incentive to increase yields in plant and animal production, it soon
became apparent that the more productive a system is, the simpler the
system becomes, i.e., a decrease in the diversity and the complexity
of the species occurs. Herein lies one of the major problems of
environmental pollution, for the simpler an ecological system becomes,
the less stable it is with regards to damage from outside sources
(Cooper, 1970).
The development of agricultural technology has resulted in a dramatic
increase in man's capability to simplify certain ecosystems. These
in turn interact with other ecological processes to create chain-like
events of major importance beyond the limits of the original ecosystem.
In the quest of increasing agricultural production and its corresponding
economic gain, the original, closed biochemical nutrient cycles of a
64
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given ecosystem have been altered to the extent where worldwide con-
sequences are now evident.
The efficiency of the fertilizer industry has played a major role in the
degradation of the closed nutrient cycle in nature. The economics of
commercially available nutrients are such that the application of com-
mercial fertilizers to agricultural lands is essential for a viable
enterprise. It is estimated that from 1/3 to 1/2 of all agricultural pro-
duction depends on the use of commercial fertilizers (Viets, 1970).
Indeed, agriculturists have substituted chemical fertilizers for land,
labor, and other inputs which are less economically attractive. Inten-
sive agricultural management has produced remarkable results in the
USA. Whereas the population has increased by 54 million between
1950-1969, the cultivation area decreased in this period from 142
million hectares to 135 million hectares. Equally revealing is that
only about 5 percent of the population is actually involved in feeding the
nation (Nelson, 1972; Viets, 1970).
Total fertilizer consumption in the USA was 5.5 million metric tons in
1954 increasing to 14. 3 million metric tons in 1970. Elemental phos-
phorus (P) consumption doubled during this period increasing from
0.92 million metric tons to 1. 84 million metric tons (Nelson, 1972).
On a weight basis elemental phosphorus used is about 1/3 the amount
of elemental nitrogen used in fertilizers in the USA.
The decrease in quality of the nation1 s waterways during this period of
rapidly increasing fertilizer consumption has been cited as proof
(Nelson, 1972; Viets, 1971; Vollenweider, 1968) that fertilizer usage
65
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is directly related to the increased nutrient supply in surface waters.
However, concrete evidence to support this indictment is difficult to
find in the literature. The case against agriculture is supported by the
report of the American Water Works Association Task Force (Task
Group 2610P, 1967). They concluded that agricultural runoff was the
greatest single contributor of nitrogen and phosphorus in waters. The
estimated phosphorus contribution was 0.4 to 4. 0 pounds of phosphorus
per year per acre for each of the 308 million acres under cultivation in
the USA. In contrast, Webber and Elrick (1967), in a review, stated
that phosphorus losses from agricultural lands ranged from . 003 to 1.0
pounds per acre per year. The discrepancy between these two reports
points out the problem of extrapolating data from specific watersheds
to large land masses and the need of pin-pointing the source of phos-
phorus in each waterway before control measures are adopted.
Chemistry of Phosphorus in Soils
Pertinent to the problem of phosphorus pollution by agricultural runoff
is the chemistry of phosphorus in the soil. Soil phosphorus can be
divided into two broad categories, inorganic and organic. The pro-
portion of phosphorus in these two forms varies widely between soils.
Since organic phosphorus is a constituent of the organic matter in soils,
its accumulation and loss follow the general pattern of total organic
matter (Black, 1968; Thompson et al., 1954). The source of all organic
phosphorus is plant and animal residues. Organic phosphorus is higher
in the surface soil than in the subsoil and is converted to its inorganic
form (mineralized) as the organic matter is decomposed by bacterial
action in the soil.
66
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The origin of all inorganic orthophosphate in the earth1 s crust comes
from the class of minerals called apatite (Black, 1968; Buckman and
Brady, 1969; Russell, 1961). This mineral is an insoluble calcium
phosphate which can exist in several forms. This type formula is
Ca -(PO ) ,X where X is usually OH" or F~ (Fried and Broeshart,
1967; Stumm and Morgan, 1970). The chemical weathering of apatite
-1 -2 -3
produces orthophosphate ions, i. e., H PO. , HOP. or PO. . The
predominant ionic species in solution is a function of the pH of the
system (Stumm and Morgan, 1970).
The orthophosphate ion reacts with a variety of cations in the soil, e.g. ,
+ 2 +^ +2 4-^
Ca , Fe , Zn , Al , etc. , to form a series of insoluble compounds
(Buckman and Brady, 1969; Russell, 1961; Stumm and Morgan, 1970).
In acid soils, phosphate ions interact predominantly with Fe and Al
while in alkaline soils, Ca-phosphate compounds predominate. In addi-
tion to forming insoluble compounds with soil cations, orthophosphate
ions are sorbed on a number of mineral surfaces which greatly reduces
its solubility in the soil solution (Black, 1970; Stumm and Morgan, 1970).
The result of the reactivity of orthophosphate with the soil components
is that the soluble phosphorus concentration in the soil solution is low,
usually between 0. 1 to 0.01 mg/1 phosphorus or less (Biggar and Corey,
1969; Fried and Broeshart, 1967; Russell, 1961). The chemistry of
phosphorus dictates that any input of soluble phosphorus to soils either
as commercial fertilizer, plant residues or animal manure, remains
near the point of application (Black, 1968, 1970; Viets, 1971). The
exception is in sandy or peat soils which exhibit little tendency to react
with phosphorus (Black, 1968; Ozanne et al., 1961; Spencer, 1957).
67
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An example of the nonmobility of phosphate fertilizer when applied to
the surface of a soil is shown in Figure 14. The data show that after a
normal growing season the phosphate fertilizer applied in spring is
confined to the surface.5 cm of soil. A continued use of phosphate
fertilizer can be expected to result in a buildup of the total phosphorus
content in the surface soil. This condition is enhanced by the fact that
normally only 5-15 percent of the phosphorus applied as fertilizer is
available for plant growth (Buckman and Brady, 1969; Russell, 1961).
The remaining 85-90 percent of the applied fertilizer is converted to
slightly soluble compounds or surface complexes which constitute the
bulk of the inorganic phosphorus in the surface soil.
Evidence exists which suggests that some organic forms of phosphorus,
e.g., farm manure, have a greater mobility in soils than inorganic
phosphorus. This apparent increased mobility is ascribed to the
incorporation of phosphorus into soil microorganisms during the break-
down of the organic matter (Hannapel et al., 1964). This area probably
needs more investigation, especially since animal manures are and will
be applied to agricultural lands as a method of disposal.
Phosphorus in Field Drainage Effluent
Phosphorus chemistry precludes the possibility of a large concentration
of phosphorus being found in tile drain effluent. However, considerable
variation is found suggesting many factors are involved in determining
the final phosphorus concentration in tile effluent that is monitored.
Johnston et al. (1965) studied nitrogen and phosphorus in tile drainage
effluent in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Irrigated plots were
68
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£
o
vO
a.
UJ
a
135 Kg of P
ADDED PER HECTARE
I
0
20
40 60
EXTRACTABLE PHOSPHORUS,
80
100
of Soil
Figure 14. Vertical distribution of extractable phosphorus in control and surface applied
phosphorus fertilized soil in Wisconsin. Taken from Black (1968).
-------
subjected to various fertilizer and crop sequences. The mean average
of soluble phosphorus found was 0.08 mg/1 phosphorus with a range of
0.05 to 0.23 mg/1. The area had received considerable commercial
fertilizer over a period of 30 years; the soils were deep, permeable,
and calcareous. The tile depth varied from 5.5 to 7. 0 feet in the
various plots.
A similar type experiment, under natural humid rainfall conditions,
was conducted by Zwerman et al. (1972) near Aurora, New York. The
soil was predominantly a moderately -well drained silt loam with the
tile set at about 4. 5 feet. The phosphorus concentration ranged from
only 0. 004 to 0. 001 mg/1 phosphorus in the effluent. In both of these
studies the rate of phosphorus applied was high, about 32 kg/ha as
elemental phosphorus; yet a large difference was found in the maximum
amount of phosphorus monitored. The inference from these data is
that intensive agriculture requiring high amounts of fertilizer and
irrigation water would be suspected in terms of phosphorus pollution.
This conclusion is corroborated by the findings of Sylvester and
Seabloom (1963) who studied the Yakima River Basin in Washington.
A total indictment against irrigation agriculture cannot be made. A
comprehensive study of the salt and nutrient balance in the Snake River
Valley of Idaho was made by Carter et al. (1971). The area studied
involved 203, 000 acres (82, 030 ha) and had been under irrigation for
65 years. All irrigation water is diverted from the Snake River which
has an average soluble phosphorus concentration of 0. 021 mg/1 phos-
phorus. The soils are calcareous and have a silt loam texture. The
total phosphorus input from both commercial fertilizers and irrigation
70
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water averaged about 10 kg/ha. The drainage effluent contained phos-
phorus in the concentration range of 0.002 to 0.005 mg/1 phosphorus,
with an average concentration of 0. 004 mg/1 phosphorus. In this case,
irrigation removed over 70 percent of the phosphorus in the input water
with no evidence of fertilizer phosphorus found in the drainage. Irri-
gation decreased the downstream phosphorus load -which is contrasted
to the total salt and nitrogen load, both of which increased.
The amount of phosphorus in the tile effluent reflects quantitatively the
solubility of the predominate insoluble phosphate compound which exists
under the prevailing conditions in a given soil profile. Because phos-
phorus in the soil solution is slow to attain equilibrium with the matrix,
it is not possible to predict with accuracy the exact compound regulating
the soluble phosphorus concentration. Proper soil management gives
some control over the amount of phosphorus in the soil solution, e. g.,
regulating soil pH (Black, 1968; Buckman and Brady, 1969; Russell,
1961). However, a dilemma exists. Agricultural crop production is
based on maintaining a maximum amount of phosphorus in the soil solu-
tion, whereas the demands of water quality require that the phosphorus
concentration be minimal.
The low threshold value of phosphorus required to trigger algal blooms
in lakes, i.e., 0. 01 mg/1 phosphorus (Sawyer, 1947), results in the
fact that most drainage effluent can be regarded as a water pollutant.
The impact of tile effluent phosphorus on the quality of receiving water
can only be assessed in terms of total effluent volume relative to the
total volume of stream flow.
71
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The cost of phosphate fertilizer lost by tile effluent drainage is insig-
nificant. If the concentration of the tile effluent is 0. 1 mg/1 phosphorus,
every acre-foot of drainage water represents a loss of about 0. 27 Ib of
phosphorus. If treble superphosphate sells at $90 per ton, fertilizer
loss amounts to 6. 2 cents per acre-foot of tile effluent. To eutrophy
this acre-foot of water (43,560 cubic feet), assuming the threshold value
for algal bloom is 0. 010 mg/1 phosphorus, costs as little as 0. 6 cents
using treble superphosphate as the nutrient source. Strategies for
control of such phosphorus additions will be developed in Section VII.
Phosphorus in Agricultural Land Runoff
It is the consensus that the majority of the total phosphorus load of the
nation* s waterways results from rural land runoff. The accumulation
of phosphorus at the soil surface, in both inorganic and organic forms,
is posidonally highly vulnerable to transport in particular forms during
soil erosion (Armstrong and Rohlich, 1971; Biggar and Corey, 1969;
EPA, 197Ib; Martin et al., 1970; Taylor, 1967; Viets, 1971; Wadleigh
and Britt, 1969). The organic form of phosphorus is particularly
susceptible to transport because of the low density of organic matter.
The nutrient load carried by stream sediments depends to a large
extent on the fertility level of the soil eroded. A productive soil has
a higher concentration of plant nutrients than a nonproductive soil. In
addition, eroded soil sediments represent the surface of the soil which
contains more nutrients per unit mass than does the soil that remains
(Viets, 1971). The composition of sediments is predominantly silt,
clay, and organic matter (Holt et al. , 1970). Any cultural practice
72
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which reduces soil erodability can be expected to reduce the total
nutrient load of rural land runoff (Armstrong and Rohlich, 1971; EPA,
1971b, c; Taylor, 1967; Viets, 1971).
Both soil management practices and types of crops grown influence the
amount of runoff as well as the amount of constituents in agricultural
land runoff. An example of this is shown by the data of Weidner et al.
(1969) in Tables 5 and 6. Table 5 shows that during a 4-year rotation,
the two years in meadow showed a marked decrease in field runoff
particularly under the prevailing cultural practices. Improved manage-
ment which included contour tillage, liming and increased fertilizer
application, also showed a marked effect in reducing runoff. The
improved management practices tended to reduce the effect of crop
types. Table 6 shows the analyses of the runoff in terms of its con-
stituents. These data show the importance of a sod crop in terms of
both soil erosion and nutrient loss from land. Since suspended solids
(sediments) in surface water is considered a major water pollutant in
its own right, the principle of continuous ground cover in water quality
control is clearly evident. The data of Weidner et al. (1969) also
show that despite the increase in fertilizer and manure applied, a
marked decrease occurred in pollution load. This supplies evidence
that existing technology can provide a means of reducing agricultural
pollution when applied in the proper situation. Correspondingly,
Johnston et al. (1965) showed the similar effect of management and
cropping pattern on both surface and drainage effluent. These data are
shown in Table 7. System 6 was in cotton-rice and 7 was in cotton,
whereas systems 14 and 16 were alfalfa and rice respectively. The
importance of surface runoff in terms of total phosphorus loss is
73
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Table 5. EFFECT OF MANAGEMENT PRACTICE (PREVAILING
AND IMPROVED) AND CORN CROP ON RUNOFF IN
A 4-YEAR ROTATION3"
Crop
Corn
Wheat
Meadow
Total Runoff
Av. Monthly
Runoff (inches)
Prevailing
0.43
0.21
0. 10
Improved
0.20
0. 14
0.07
for 4-year Rotation
Total Runoff
(inches)
Prevailing
2.31
1.95
3.51
7.77
Improved
1.09
1.29
2.41
4.79
aTaken from Weidner et al. (1969).
clearly shown. These data show that phosphorus was removed from
the irrigation water by the soil. System 16 shows that phosphorus lost
in the tile effluent was considerably greater than surface runoff. This
occurred because the rice system was flooded during much of the period
giving a strong bias to the drainage tile data.
Although a definite relation exists between the total phosphorus load in
a given water and soil erosion, the question remains whether phos-
phorus associated with suspended particles is equally available to
algae as soluble phosphorus. If the organisms are in direct contact
with the sediments, results show that adsorbed or particulate phos-
phosus can be utilized (Porcella et al., 1970). However, when sus-
pended particles settle out, the associated phosphorus may become
positionally unavailable unless mixing of the waters occurs (Holt et al. ,
1970b; Martin et al., 1970; Zicher et al., 1956).
74
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Table 6. ESTIMATED ANNUAL AMOUNTS OF CONSTITUENTS IN RUNOFF FROM RURAL
LAND AS AFFECTED BY MANAGEMENT PRACTICE (PREVAILING OR IMPROVED)
AND COVER CROP3"
Improved
Prevailing
Improved
Prevailing
Improved
Prevailing
Cover
Corn
Corn
Wheat
Wheat
Meadow
Meadow
TS
#/acre
3,600
13,220
480
1,730
Trace
Trace
BOD
#/acre
27.5
120.0
3.7
15.5
Trace
Trace
COD
#/acre
480
1,300
64
170
Trace
Trace
P04
#/acre
8.4
27.7
1.1
3.6
Trace
Trace
Total N
#/acre
88
237
11
31
Trace
Trace
LTaken from Weidner et al. (1969).
-------
Table 7. NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS BALANCE IN TILE DRAINED SOILS'
System
6
Cotton-Rice
7
Cotton
14
Alfalfa
16
Rice
Element
N
P
N
P
N
P
N
P
Pound s
Fertilizer
22,216
4,025
14,112
2,328
0
0
3,864
0
Applied
Irrigation
Water
1,263
373
347
54
1,317
165
1,357
156
Pounds Lost
Drainage
Effluent
14,836
25
843
3
282
6
1,528
22
Tailwater
1,539
109
414
11
132
16
191
4
Applied element
loss, %
70
3
9
1
31
13
33
17
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Sediments are not nutrients, but they do affect the nutritional status of
water. Inorganic sediments can serve as both a source and sink for
soluble phosphorus, and thus act as a control or buffer to large con-
centration changes. The efficiency of this phosphorus buffer action
depends to a large degree on the thermal or mechanical mixing required
for continual water-sediment interaction. The majority of data indi-
cates that most sediments are phosphorus deficient in relation to over-
lying 'waters and actually scavenged phosphorus reducing its concen-
tration in solution (Grissinger and McDowell, 1970; Harter, 1968; Holt
et al. , 1970a; Latterell et al. , 1971; Taylor, 1967). Whether inorganic
sediments add or remove soluble phosphorus depends on the degree with
which contacting water is saturated with respect to the phosphorus
associated with the suspended particles. Hence, sediments originating
from soils managed under an intensive fertilizer program can be expected
to be greater potential sources of soluble phosphorus than those orig-
inating from soils under natural vegetation (Armstrong and Rohlich,
1971; EPA, 1971b; Viets, 1971). The data suggest that the source and
nature of rural runoff is of prime importance in determining phosphorus
abatement strategies for various waters.
Phosphorus in runoff has been associated with seasonal variation.
Spring snowmelt runoff has been shown to carry greater amounts of
phosphorus than during other times of the year. This has been obser-
ved both under agricultural and natural conditions (Hanson and Fensfer,
1969; Holt et al., 1970a; Martin et al. , 1970). Most of the phosphorus
is considered to originate in plant residues that accumulate during
winter on the frozen soil. The phosphate released by these residues
does not have sufficient time to interact with the semi-frozen soil during
77
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the spring runoff period. Snow runoff in Minnesota (Hanson and Fensfer,
1969) has been shown to have about five to six times more soluble phos-
phorus (0. 16 mg/1) than water which had percolated through soil (0. 03
mg/1)
The runoff source of soluble phosphorus from agricultural lands may be
more significant than previously considered (Armstrong and Rohlich,
1971; Biggar and Corey, 1969; Martin et al., 1970; Weibel et al. , 1966).
It appears that any management practice which incorporates fertilizer,
animal manures, or plant residues in the soil will reduce the soluble
phosphorus load in the runoff. An example of how soil management
affects phosphorus in runoff is given as follows (Holt et al., 1970):
„ .... . .. .. Total Phosphorus
Fertilizer Application , ... . _f ,-
K£- (mg/1) in Runoff
Control (no fertilizer) 0. 08
Broadcast and plowed under 0.09
Broadcast and disked in 0. 16
Broadcast (no application) 0. 30
These data show that surface fertilization materially increases the
phosphorus load and that the deeper the incorporation of the fertilizer
in soil the less the effect of fertilizer application. In this study even
the control was adding a considerable amount of soluble phosphorus in
the runoff.
It is difficult to assess the true status of phosphorus in agricultural land
runoff as it contributes to the eutrophication of receiving water. Most
reported data fail to discriminate between soluble phosphorus, adsorbed
or particulate phosphorus, and organic phosphorus. In addition, total
runoff and sediment volume are necessary to determine the total contri-
bution of land runoff to the nutrient load of a stream. Total phosphorus
78
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content of runoff does not provide the necessary information since only
the soluble orthophosphate form is readily available for organism meta-
bolism. The other forms of phosphorus in the system create a reserve
or pool which can be drawn upon •when needed or they can serve as a
sink to tie up phosphorus in a form not readily available.
Pesticides
The switch from DDT to other types of pesticides as a result of the ban
on the use of DDT and probable coming bans on other chlorinated hydro-
carbon pesticides has led to an increase in the use of organophosphorus
pesticides. Generally, these pesticides are composed of 10-12 percent
of phosphorus by weight and thus a measurable input of phosphorus to
the waters of interest can be calculated. The hydrolysis of organophos-
phate pesticides produces a quantity of esterified phosphates which are
not available for the growth of algae. However, hydrolysis of phos-
phate pesticides can go all the way to orthophosphates.
The total quantities of organophosphorus pesticide sales (one can assume
sales are equivalent to use) in the U.S. are listed in Table 8. The
total amount of organophosphorus pesticides sales since 1967-1970 was
142 million kg and an average of 36 million kg per year. The quantity
of sales was variable over the four years, but it can be expected that
the quantities will increase in the coming years as the result of pro-
bable coming bans on other common chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides.
However, in terms of the possible phosphorus input from such use, the
quantity of phosphorus is essentially immeasurable (4 million kg/year
or about 0. 1 percent of the total USA consumption of phosphorus); this
input is included for completeness of the analysis.
79
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Table 8. SALES OF OR GANG PHOSPHOR US PESTICIDES
(U.S. TARIFF COMMISSION)
Phosphorusa
Year use. million
1967
1968
1969
1970
kg/yr
3. 1
4.2
4.6
3.7
Total
28
38
42
34
Million kg/yr as Pesticide
Parathion
7
9
?
7
Methyl ParathionC
14
20
23
18
Other
7
9
19
9
Assume total pesticide is about 11 percent P.
Parathion is C.QH NO PS, P approximately 10 percent.
c
Methyl parathion is C0H NO PS, P approximately 11 percent,
o lu 5
URBAN AND RURAL WATERSHEDS
Nonurban Watershed Runoff
Because of the paucity of data on phosphorus output from natural and
other kinds of nonurban watershed areas, it was decided to make some
quite arbitrary decisions concerning such runoff. First, the nonurban
watershed was divided into four separate groups; natural watersheds,
developed watersheds, grazing lands watersheds, and managed forests
watersheds. These areas were all considered as separate entities and
information relating to their relative distribution in a particular basin
was obtained from the Water Resources Council (1968).
80
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Managed forests would include those forests where fertilizers are
applied and high rates of production are desired (Cooper, 1969). Grazed
watersheds would consider those kinds of areas where low density animal
grazing occurs as for lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service
and the Bureau of Land Management. These lands are located primarily
in the western part of the United States. These areas have population
densities of 2-5 cows per square mile and serve primarily as a multi-
use type of forest land. Developed watersheds include all those kinds of
urban, suburban, and recreational construction which are beginning to
occur, particularly in high mountain areas, e.g., condominiums and
ski developments. Campsites and other high intensity recreational use
of watersheds involving people and disposal of their wastes are included
in this area. McGauhey et al. (1971) showed that for the Lake Tahoe
Basin such developments produced approximately twice as many nutrients
as undeveloped watersheds.
All undeveloped or undisturbed watersheds are considered natural water-
sheds. Any watershed areas which were not subject to forest manage-
ment, grazing, or development were considered natural watersheds.
Levels of nutrient concentration were estimated using data from Likens
(197Z), Likens et al. (1964), and McGauhey et al. (1971). The other
kinds of watershed areas were related by the use of simple factors;
assuming that developed watersheds would produce the most runoff
phosphorus, and that there were some data indicating this would be
about twice the level for the natural watershed (McGauhey et al., 1971),
it was decided that managed forests and grazed watersheds would be
approximately midway between natural and developed watersheds.
Therefore, for developed, grazed, and managed forest watersheds,
81
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factors of 2, 1. 5, and 1. 5 were used to relate them to natural watershed
runoff.
By directing runoff from the disturbed watersheds through a natural
watershed, it might be possible to control some of this runoff phos-
phorus. However, in most cases, the amount of phosphorus coming in
from the natural and disturbed watersheds would not be significant in
comparison to other activities in the basin. If they were significant, it
would be likely that little could be done to control eutrophication in that
particular basin. One last point concerning watersheds would be that
if sufficient management controls were applied to agricultural usages
of fertilizer and crops, it would be possible to reduce the agricultural
watershed to the equivalent of the nonurban watersheds; these represent
a lower limit for agricultural runoff phosphorus concentrations.
Urban Runoff
The analysis of urban runoff is based entirely on the excellent work of
Weibel et al. (1969). Their study was quite comprehensive and answered
many of the kinds of questions that this project required to identify phos-
phorus concentrations in runoff. Weibel et al. noted that a runoff factor
of 0. 37 corresponded to the amount of impervious surface in the urban
watershed and in addition noticed that phosphorus concentrations of
0. 36 mg/1 in runoff water were obtained in spite of the fact that rainfall
concentrations average about 0.08 mg/1. This indicated a relatively
high input of phosphorus from urban, social, and cultural activities was
occurring.
82
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Some of these inputs might be the large pet population in the United
States and their fecal material (estimated 40-50 million household cats
and dogs in the USA), the use of phosphorus-containing deicing compounds
(Struzeski, 1971), and the use of fertilizers around the home for lawns
and gardens. Control of these kinds of inputs to urban runoff phosphorus
might be exercised by the following list of management proposals.
However, they do not seem feasible and little further discussion will
occur.
1. Control of animal populations in urban areas appears to be
necessary for a variety of reasons, including humane ones.
Pets can contribute relatively high concentrations of phosphorus
in a relatively small area. In addition, their capacity for
possible disease transmission and other nuisance problems
seems relatively high. Eventually, it seems that control of
such pet populations is likely to be necessary.
2. Use of other compounds other than phosphorus compounds in
deicing seems to be an unlikely necessity because the amount
of phosphorus used in deicing is relatively small (Struzeski,
1971).
3. Use of home fertilizers represents a relatively uncontrollable
source of phosphorus to the basin. Changes in life-style seem
necessary here, but their likelihood seems doubtful. Lawns
and luxuriant gardens seem to be an important part of our
culture, and fertilizer is a major part of the development of
these. Use of urban green belts and green areas, such as is
practiced in Denver and around Washington, D. C. , seems a
feasible solution and can be compared to similar proposals
83
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for agricultural croplands. It would be expected that such areas
would provide many additional benefits in addition to removing
a lot of the phosphorus and other pollutional contaminants of
urban runoff. Transferring urban runoff to reservoirs within
cities such as is practiced in Denver seems to be a logical
step, especially for those areas where combined sewers are a
problem. Some of the problems Denver has experienced could
be profitably studied to obtain information of use to a city anti-
cipating such "runoff reservoirs. "
Solid Waste Disposal
This particular question is specific to landfill and to open dumps, but
is not an important one in terms of the overall phosphorus input to
natural lake systems. It is possible that for particular lakes or drain-
age systems it will be important, but this is unlikely and it is only
included here for the sake of completeness. Also, it is possible to
minimize the output of phosphorus from landfills relatively easily--
this would probably be done because of more serious pollutants contained
in landfill runoff.
The control feature of leachate recycle (if physically possible) is a
significant finding if this source of phosphorus is important in terms of
mass contributed to surface waters. Design of landfills to incorporate
recycle might be required because of the need for controlling other
pollutants (BOD, nitrogen) in the leachate. A detailed analysis of
leachate phosphorus is contained in Appendix B.
84
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DOMESTIC ACTIVITIES
Domestic utilization and disposal of phosphorus almost exclusively
involves human wastes and washing products. Except for septic tanks
and the possibility of direct discharge (in combined sewer overflow or
direct disposal) all of this phosphorus enters the municipal treatment
plant. After some short discussion of the characteristics of domestic
wastes, the factors involved in waste treatment of phosphorus and the
program utilized to calculate treatment costs and efficacy will be dis-
cussed in this section.
Characteristics of Domestic Wastewater
Domestic wastewater refers to the liquid wastes entering a sewer system
from residences, business buildings, and institutions. The water typi-
cally carries a total solids concentration of 800 mg/1, of which about
70 percent is dissolved. Approximately 50 percent of the total solids is
organic matter and 60 percent of this fraction is biodegradable, exerting
\
a biochemical oxygen demand (5 day, 20 C) of 200 mg/1. The principal
groups of organic substances found in sewage are proteins (40-60 per-
cent), carbohydrates (25-50 percent), and fats and oils (10 percent).
A wide variety of synthetic molecules may also be present in significant
amounts, for example, surfactants. The major inorganic constituents
of the water are ammonia nitrogen (20 mg/1), phosphorus (10 mg/1),
chlorides (50 mg/1), and alkalinity (100 mg CaCO,/l). The inorganic
ions as well as many of the synthetic organic chemicals are not removed
by present-day treatment processes.
85
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The concentration of total nitrogen in domestic raw wastewater is
generally in the range of 15-90 mg/1 with an average of about 40 mg/1.
Most of the nitrogen is initially combined in proteinaceous matter and
urea. Free ammonia is rapidly formed by biological decomposition.
Nitrate is found in only low concentrations in fresh sewage. The total
phosphorus concentration ranges from about 2 to 25 mg/1 with an average
of about 10 mg/1. Thirty to 50 percent is derived from human waste
and 50-70 percent from detergents containing phosphate builders. When
sodium hexametaphosphate or other phosphorus compounds are used as
corrosion and scale control chemicals in water supplies, phosphorus
concentrations may be up to 20 percent higher. Usually 85 percent or
more of the phosphorus is in the form of orthophosphate.
Human Wastes
Mean per capita human waste values have been calculated by Vollenweider
as follows:
Phosphorus = 2. 18 g/,capita day
Nitrogen = 10. 8 g/capita day
The N:P weight ratio would be about 5:1; this is out of balance for
phosphorus in relation to optimum algal growth requirements (15:1).
These ratios compare with the average N:P ratio of about 4:1 in domes-
tic waste. The 4:1 ratio occurs because other activities (detergent use)
add phosphorus to domestic waste. Usually detergents supply about
50 percent of the phosphorus in sewage; thus the total of 4. 36 g/capita
day times a volume of about 115 gals/capita day of wastewater volume
86
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provides 10 mg/1 of total phosphorus. A specific estimate of a suburban
community in Utah gave 2. 7 g/capita day from human waste and 3. 5
g/capita day from detergent use (Porcella et al. , 1973). Because it
was suburban and also because little dilution from other activities
occurred, these values will not be used herein.
Household Detergent Use
As shown in Figure 15, use of synthetic detergents increased linearly
from 1945 to about 1957 and thereafter until 1968, but at a lesser rate.
Soap usage has declined to a relatively constant value constituting about
one-sixth of the market by 1968. Difficulties in classifying such cleaning
products as to their use by different segments of the U. S. community,
and by their content of phosphorus, makes it difficult to adequately
assess the use of phosphorus in this particular area (Table 9). Note:
Detergent builder formulations, toxicity, and other problems of deter-
gents have been considered previously and will not be discussed herein
(Jenkins et al. , 1972). If one estimates the total phosphorus use from
the production of chemicals that could be used in detergents (Table 10)
one would obtain an estimate of 300 x 10 kg of phosphorus. Assuming
that 80 percent of the phosphorus in these chemicals is utilized by the
soap and detergent industry, as was the case in 1967, this would indicate
that in 1970 use of phosphorus by soap and detergents would be in the
range of 240 million kg. Dividing by the population for that year (204
million) one obtains a rough estimate of 1. 2 kg of phosphorus used per
capita year (3. 2 g/capita day) in the use of cleaning products. A further
subdivision can be made based on commercial-industrial use where it
is estimated that in 1970 20 percent of all cleaning products phosphorus
87
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3 5
0)
IH
0)
03
Tt
n
C
O
CO
0
Total Soap and
Detergent
U. S. Population
en
4§
c
•1H
c
3 5
1940
1945
1950
1955
I960
1965 1970
Figure 15. Sales history of soaps and detergents. (From Jenkins
et al. , 1972.)
88
-------
Table 9. 1970 ESTIMATED DISTRIBUTION OF
PHOSPHORUS BY PRODUCT CLASS OF ALL
DETERGENTS/CLEANERSa
Household %
Synthetic Heavy Duty Granules 68. 0
Machine Dishwashing 4.2
Heavy Duty Liquids/Liquid Cleaners 2. 9
Scouring Cleansers 1. 7
Powdered Cleaners and Miscellaneous 3. 8
Subtotal Household (80. 6)
Commercial/ Industrial
Machine Dishwashing 6. 6
Synthetic Heavy Duty Granules 4. 6
Miscellaneous, Alkaline Cleaners, Liquids
and Cleanser 6. 2
Subtotal Commercial (17.4)
Unclassified ( 2. 0)
TOTAL 100.0
Based on 1967 Census of Manufactures and information on typical
product formulations of 1970. Table taken from Duthie (1973).
were utilized in this area, and 80 percent in households. Thus, on a
per capita basis, 0. 96 kg of phosphorus per capita year was utilized
in the household and 0. 24 kg per capita year was utilized in the indus-
trial sector.
Because of the wide variety of washing products, particularly with
respect to phosphorus content, further analysis of the detergent question
89
-------
Table 10. TOTAL U.S. PRODUCTION OF SELECTED
PHOSPHATE CHEMICAL (1970)a
106 kg P
Trisodium phosphate 9. 1
Tetr as odium pyrophosphate 11. 6
Sodium tripolyphosphate 273. 0
Tetra potassium pyrophosphate 6. 6
300.3
3.
Data taken from U. S. Department of Commerce, 1972. Analysis
provided by Duthie (1973).
required some classification. A rather arbitrary classification into
soaps, no phosphate detergents, low phosphate detergents, and high
phosphate detergents was made. Estimates of the proportion utilized
by different segments of the population were obtained as follows: (1)
The fraction of population using soap was estimated from production
curves in Figure 15 but was rounded to 0. 1; (2) the fractions using
detergent were estimated for populations in jurisdictions which had
enacted legislation restricting phosphate content of detergents. Those
results represent the fraction of the population using detergents which
use high, low, or non-phosphate detergents as being 0. 78, 0. 18, and
0. 04, respectively. Correcting to the total population (i. e. , including
soap users) and rounding off one obtains a crude distribution of high,
low, and non-phosphate detergents and soap users of 0. 7, 0. 1, 0. 1,
and 0.1.
90
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WASTE TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL SEWAGE
Phosphorus Removal by Chemical Precipitation
Removal of phosphorus by chemical precipitation and flocculation has
been studied extensively in conjunction with domestic wastewater treat-
ment processes. Up to 99 percent of the total phosphorus has been
removed by chemical precipitation with metallic ions. The total phos-
phorus concentration in the effluent can be reduced to the range of 3. 0
to 0.3 mg/1. Multimedia filtration, or split chemical dosing, is normally
required to consistently reduce phosphorus residuals below about 1 mg/1.
Relatively low capital costs and moderate operating costs make these
processes especially attractive for new or existing treatment facilities
that are intermittently required to reduce effluent phosphorus concentra-
tions to meet stream standards. The major liabilities of these methods
are the difficulties introduced by the additional inorganic sludge mass
and the increase in total dissolved solids in the effluent.
Chemistry--
Phosphorus exists in three forms in domestic wastewater; orthophos-
phates, condensed inorganic, and organic phosphates.
The "orthophosphates" are defined as those phosphorus-containing
compounds or ions which are derived from orthophosphoric acid, H PO :
H
O
i
HO - P - OH
11
O
91
-------
In solution the protons will dissociate from the compound and the con-
centrations of the various ionic forms which exist are determined by
the hydrogen ion activity. HPO is by far the dominant form in typical
wastewater. Orthophosphates constitute from 50-90 percent of the total
phosphorus in secondary wastewater effluent (Gulp and Gulp, 1971;
Sawyer, I960).
Condensed phosphates, e. g. , polyphosphates, are derived from ortho-
phosphates by combination of one or more orthophosphate units with
the elimination of water, e. g. :
O O
II It
pyrophosphoric acid HO - P - O - P - OH
O O
H H
Polyphosphates can be looked upon as polymers of phosphoric acid from
which water has been removed. Complete hydrolysis results in forma-
tion of orthophosphate. The polyphosphates gradually hydrolyze in
aqueous solution and revert to the ortho form. The rate depends on
temperature, pH, and the original form. Polyphosphates may also be
hydrolyzed by biological activity. In a well stabilized secondary effluent,
condensed phosphates normally constitute no more than 10 percent of
the total phosphorus present (EPA, 197la; FWPCA, 1969).
The biomass in biological treatment processes contains about 1-3 per-
cent phosphorus. Decomposition of this material releases orthophos-
phates. In general, conventional treatment processes remove 0-30
92
-------
percent of the total influent phosphorus by biological assimilation and
settling (Directo, Miele, and Masse, 1972; Kaufman and Humerick,
1970).
The chemistry of phosphorus removal by interactions with metallic
ions is complete and not completely understood, Orthophosphates will
react with lime and form a calcium-phosphate precipitate as represented
by the following equation:
5Ca+ + 4OH + 3HPO~ —• Ca^OHfPO J_ , + 3H O
4 5 431 2
The precipitate has the basic structure of a hydroxyapatite; however,
the Ca to P atomic ratios in the solid material are found to vary from
1. 3 to 2. 0. The hydroxy apatite is almost completely insoluble at pH
levels above 9. 5 (Gulp and Gulp, 1971).
Orthophosphates will combine with aluminum ions to form insoluble
aluminum phosphate. Alum (Al (SO ) ) tends to neutralize the pH of
L* ^x J
the water and the final pH is a function of the buffering capacity (alkalinity)
of the water. Therefore, the A1:P ratio necessary for treatment will
depend to some extent on the chemical characteristics of the water.
In typical wastewaters and at optimum pH of 5. 5 to 6. 5, Al:P atomic
ratios from 1.3 to 3. 0 have resulted in phosphorus reductions of from
75-95 percent. Alum is the most common source of aluminum, although
sodium aluminate (NaAlO ) is an alternate source (EPA, 197la).
L*
Ferric and ferrous ions can also be used to precipitate orthophosphate.
In typical wastewaters with pH adjusted to the optimum range of 5 to
93
-------
5, 5, Fe:P molar ratios from 1. 5 to 3. 0 have resulted in phosphate
reduction of 75-95 percent. Experience has indicated that ferrous ion
is required in about the same amounts. Good removals can also be
obtained at higher pH's.
Polyelectrolytes, or polymers, are frequently used to improve the
flocculation and clarification of the precipitate. The usual dose is
about 0. 10-0. 50 mg/1. Characteristics of the flocculation may also
be improved by recycling a portion of the sludge (Thomas, 1972).
The polyphosphate ions, in general, do not form particularly insoluble
salts with metallic ions unless there is a relatively high ratio of metals
to polyphosphates. A significant amount may be removed, however,
by sorption on flocculation particles (EPA, 197 la).
Methods and Costs_--
Numerous schemes have been suggested for the chemical precipitation
of phosphorus in conventional waste treatment facilities. These schemes
generally differ in the type, amount, and point of addition of the metallic
ions. In the following discussion, methods have been grouped into
broad categories to facilitate the presentation of cost data. More
detailed information about specific processes can be found in the
references (Gulp and Gulp, 1971; EPA, 197la).
Chemical Addition to Raw Wastewater--
Addition of chemical coagulating agents to raw wastewater may signifi-
cantly increase the removal of organics and phosphorus during primary
94
-------
sedimentation. Total phosphorus removal may be increased from 5-10
percent to 70-90 percent; suspended solids removal increased from
40-70 percent to 60-75 percent, and BOD removals increased from
24-40 percent to 40-50 percent. Where organic loading is primarily
in the form of suspended solids, this chemical-physical type process
may be able to replace secondary biological treatment, at little, if any,
additional cost, and provide a significantly greater reduction in phosphorus.
With the addition of carbon adsorption and dual media filtration following
primary clarification, 97 percent BOD and 90 percent total phosphorus
reduction may be achieved (Convery, 1970; Weber et al. , 1970; Bishop
et al. , 1972).
A 7, 200 gpd pilot plant consisting of ferric chloride coagulation, clari-
fication, dual media filtration and carbon adsorption in series was
operated on raw sewage for one year. Consistent removal rates of 97
percent BOD, and 90 percent total phosphorus were maintained.
Effluent phosphorus concentrations were about 5 mg/1. Costs, in part
estimated from previously published data and adjusted to June 1967,
are shown in Table 11 (Weber et al. , 1970; Smith, 1968).
A 100,000 gpd pilot plant consisting of lime coagulation, two-stage
clarification with intermediate recarbonation, dual media filtration,
ion exchange and granulated carbon adsorption was operated on raw
wastewater from Washington, D. C. The two-stage lime process alone
consistently reduced the phosphorus concentration from about 8. 5 mg/1
to 0.45 mg/1. The estimated costs for a 300 mgd plant based on 1970
prices are shown in Table 12. Costs include sludge incineration and
50 percent lime recovery (Bishop et al. , 1972).
95
-------
Table 11. COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH 90 PERCENT
TOTAL PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL FROM RAW
WASTEWATER (WEBER ET AL. , 1970).
PROCESS INCLUDES FERRIC CHLORIDE
COAGULATION, CLARIFICATION, DUAL
MEDIA FILTRATION AND CARBON
ADSORPTION IN SERIESa' ' °
Plant Size
mgd
1.0
10.0
100.0
Process Cost (Capital)
$1,000
Preliminary Coagulation-
Treatment Sedimentation
15 52
65 400
250 3200
Filtration
90
410
1900
Process Cost (Operating) £/1000
1.0
10.0
100.0
29
16
10
Granulated
Carbon
380
1600
6800
gal
ct
Include amortization charges, 4. 5 percent, 25 years.
Costs adjusted to June 1967.
c
Not including sludge disposal.
A complete review has been conducted covering the performance and
costs associated with the addition of chemical coagulants to the raw
wastewater influent to conventional activated sludge plants (EPA,
1971a).
96
-------
Table 12. COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL FROM RAW
WASTEWATER BY LIME COAGULATION, TWO-STAGE CLARIFICATION AND
ADDITIONAL ADVANCED PROCESSES (BISHOP ET AL. , 1972)
Process Costs £/1000 gala
Pump and
Item *..
Grit
Operations and
Maintenanc e
Chemicals
b
Capital Cost
Total
Total Phosphorus
in effluent mg/1
0.48
_
0. 6
1. 1
8.5
Lime
c
Treatment
1.7
2.2
4. 1
8.0
0.45
Filtration
0. 6
0.3
1.0
1.9
0. 2
Solids
Disposal
2. 3
0. 1
1.5
3,9
A.C.
Adsorption
2.8
-
4.8
7.6
0. 15
Ion ,
d
Exchange
2. 8
2.6
4.6
9.7
0. 15
Total
10.4
5.2
16.6
32. 2
300 mgd, June 1970 costs.
Annual capital cost computed at annual rate of 8 percent including interest and amortization.
Sludge incineration, 50 percent lime recovery.
Ion exchange (clinoptilolite) primarily for nitrogen removal.
-------
Significant increases in efficiency can be obtained by adding the coagulant
at two points; before primary and before secondary clarification. In
comparison to conventional systems, the amount of primary sludge
increases and the secondary sludge decreases. Generally, sludge
filterability is about the same as for sludges without mineral addition;
however, in the case of lime addition, the waste activated sludge may be
more difficult to dewater.
Up to 93 percent removal of the total phosphorus can be achieved by the
use of alum (A1:P of 1. 5-3. 0) plus an anionic polymer. Phosphorus
residuals in the effluent can be reduced to 0. 5 mg/1. Phosphorus removal
of 60-80 percent can be obtained by the addition of iron coagulants (Fe:P
of 1. 5-2. 0) and polymers. High concentrations of Fe may remain in
the effluent. These high concentrations have been reduced by adding
lime to increase the pH to about 8 before clarification. Alum and iron
have been used successfully without the addition of flocculation basins
before the primary clarifier (EPA, 1971b).
In plants providing secondary treatment, phosphorus removal by lime
is limited to about 80 percent because pH's greater than 10 in the flow
from the primary clarifier to activate sludge may adversely effect the
biological process. Increased settling of suspended solids plus the
chemical sludge may result in up to 300 percent the normal amount of
sludge in the primary clarifier.
Average costs associated with the addition of chemical coagulants to
the raw wastewater stream in conventional treatment plants are shown
in Table 13. Prices do not include additional sludge handling facilities.
98
-------
vO
vO
Table 13. "COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH 80 PERCENT REMOVAL OF TOTAL
AW WASTE WATER IN CONVEX
FACILITIES (CONVERY, 1970):
PHOSPHORUS FROM RAW WASTEWATER IN CONVENTIONAL TREATMENT
,a,b,c
Plant
Size
mgd
1
10
100
Capital
$1000
21
72
697
Costs (Fe or Al)
£/1000 gal
.446
. 154
. 149
Capital
$1000
58
241
926
Costs (Ca)
tf/1000 gal
1.6
0.7
0.3
Chemical
Fe
3.6
3.6
3.6
Cost £/
Al
4.2
4.2
4.2
1000 gal
Ca
1.4
1.4
1.4
Amortization of capital cost at 6 percent over 25 years.
Chemical costs include polymer.
Not including additional sludge handling facilities.
-------
Chemical costs based on assumed 80 percent phosphorus removal with
1. 5:1 atomic ratios of A1:P and Fe:P and for 150 mg/1 dosage of CaO.
The minimum total operating cost is probably about 1. 0^/1000 gallons
(Convery, 1970).
Chemical Addition Preceding Secondary Treatment--
Methods of adding chemical coagulants to primary clarifier effluent
preceding activated sludge treatment have been reviewed in detail
(EPA, 197la). Dosages of metal ions in the atomic ratios, Al or Fe:
orthophosphate of 1.5-3 have resulted in phosphorus residuals of 3. 5-
0. 3 mg/1. Calcium does not appear to be an effective precipitant because
the pH required for calcium phosphate precipitation is higher than the
optimum range for biological activity in the aerator.
Alum addition of 2. 3:1, A1:P, has given an average reduction in total
phosphate concentration from 10-1.4. Mixtures of alum and lime may
be more effective than pure alum in some cases (Srinath and Pillai,
1972). Sludge has increased 1.5 to 2 times normal conventional amounts
but has better thickening qualities. Volatile suspended solids in the
aerator sludge are reduced from about 80 percent of total suspended
solids (conventional) to about 60 percent of TSS (with alum coagulating).
•
Total operating costs for alum additives depend on the characteristics "
of the wastewater and on the quality of the effluent. Assuming no capital
costs are required, approximately 3. 1^/1000 gallons will achieve an
effluent quality of 3. 3 mg/1 and 8. 0£/1000 gallons a quality of 0, 3 mg/1.
Studies have been conducted with the addition of ferric chloride to an
activated sludge plant serving a population of 20, 000 in Uster,
100
-------
Switzerland. The addition of 7. 7 mg/1 ferric chloride plus the recycling
of some ferric phosphate sludge has resulted in reducing total phosphorus
an average of 85 percent with an effluent residue of 0.46 mg/1 (Thomas,
1972). Iron content in the discharge water ranged between 0, 1 and 0. 6
mg/1. The ferric sludge helped thicken the activated sludge and little
increase in total sludge volume was experienced. No release of soluble
phosphorus from the sludge has been observed due to reduction of the
ferric ion during anaerobic digestion {Singer, 1972).
Studies at a 2. 2 mgd activated sludge plant in Pomona, California
(Directo et al. , 1972), indicated that the conventional system removed
approximately 13 percent of the total phosphorus leaving a residue of
10 mg/1 in the secondary effluent. With the addition of 1. 9:1 atomic
ratio of A1:P (in the form of alum) directly to the aerator, the phosphorus
removal ranged from 60 to 84 percent with an average value of 75 percent.
The average concentration in the secondary effluent was 2. 9 mg/L No
increase in efficiency was observed with the addition of anionic or cationic
polymers. Sludge mass increased 1. 95 times the conventional amount,
but excess sludge volume did not increase. The inorganic fraction of
the mixed liquor suspended solids increased from 17 to 42 percent. At
the same plant, tests with ferric chloride indicated an average of 80
percent removal with a Fe:P atomic ratio of 1.5:1. Residual total
phosphorus in the effluent was 2. 2. The mass of sludge produced was
approximately twice that of conventional; however, the volume of waste
sludge did not increase appreciably. Fe:P atomic ratios greater than
3:1 were observed to interfere with the biological removal of BOD.
Phosphorus residue concentrations in the secondary effluent could be
reduced to about 1. 2 mg/1 by polishing with a two-stage pressure sand
101
-------
filtering system. Chemical costs for alum and ferric chloride in the
secondary system at various levels of residual dissolved phosphate
concentrations are discussed below. The cost of polishing sand filtration
for a 10 mgd plant was estimated at 4. 6^/1000 gallons. To achieve 90
percent phosphorus removal with a wastewater containing 10 mg/1 of
phosphorus, the alum costs would be 2. 4£/1000 gallons (alum at 24£/lb)
at a mole ratio of 1.4:1 A1:P. Total operating and maintenance costs
would be about 3. 6£/gallon.
Tertiary Treatment by Chemical Coagulation
of Secondary Effluent--
Tertiary treatment is accomplished by adding chemical coagulants to
the secondary effluent in a rapid mixing basin followed by flocculation,
single or two-stage sedimentation, and mixed media filtration. Depend-
ing on the process, pH adjustment may be necessary at various stages.
A state of the art survey has been conducted and details of the various
processes are presented in the report (EPA, 197la).
Lime doses are usually in the range of 300-400 mg/1 as CaO for two-
stage treatment, and from 150-200 mg/1 where single-stage treatment
is satisfactory. The amount of P removed is a function of pH which is
related to the alkalinity of the water. Therefore, the lime dose depends
to a large extent on the alkalinity of the influent. The two-stage clari-
fication system at South Lake Tahoe, California (Gulp and Gulp, 1971),
which has a capacity of 7. 5 mgd, can routinely maintain an effluent with
a phosphorus concentration of about 0. 4 mg/1 before the filters and less
than 0. 1 mg/1 after filtration. Table 14 shows costs based on data
102
-------
Table 14. COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH LIME
TREATMENT OF SECONDARY EFFLUENT
(EPA, 197 la; GULP AND GULP, 1971;
SMITH AND MCMICHAEL, 1969)a'b
Total Cost for Lime Treatment of
Treatment
Single-stage w/o filtration
Two -stage w/o filtration
Dual media filtration
1
13
16
8
Secondary Effluent
Cost (£/1000 gal)
Plant Size (mgd)
10
7
9
3
100
4
6
1.4
Capital Costs
Treatment
Cost ($)
Plant Size (mgd)
Single-stage w/o filter
Two- stage w/o filter
Dual media filtration
1
100,000
160,000
110,000
10
1,200,000
1,500,000
510,000
100
5,500,000
7,900,000
2,300,000
Capital costs updated to December 1970. Amortization is at 6 percent
for 25 years.
Recalcination equipment not included in 1 mgd plant, no cost included
for sludge disposal.
obtained from Tahoe and other sources. Recalcination of the sludge is
probably not economical for plants with capacity less than 10 mgd.
103
-------
Alum dosages of 50-100 mg/1 (A1:P atomic ratio of 1:1 to 2:1) are
sufficient to produce a residual phosphorus concentration of about
1 mg/1 by settling alone. Residuals may be reduced to less than 0. 1
mg/1 by multimedia filtration. Estimated costs are shown in Table 15
(Ross, 1970). Economical methods have not as yet been developed for
recovering Al or Fe from the sludge.
Studies at the Pomona tertiary plant with ferric chloride (Directo et al. ,
1972) indicated that Fe:P atomic ratios of 1. 5:1 would result in about
84 percent removal of total phosphorus with a residual concentration of
about 1.6 mg/1 in the effluent stream after filtration. The addition of
0. 2 mg/1 of an anionic polymer was necessary to obtain a good floccula-
tion. Solids-liquid separation became more difficult at Fe:P atomic
ratios exceeding 2. 2:1. Efficiency in total phosphorus removal was
increased by adding the ferric chloride to both the primary and secondary
effluents. Removals of 96 percent with phosphorus residuals of 0. 5
were obtained by the split addition of chemicals with Fe:P ratios of
1. 5:1. The ferric ion concentration in the effluent averaged about 2.4
mg/1. Estimated chemical costs are discussed below.
Experiments have been successful in removing phosphorus from trickling
filter effluents by chemical coagulation. Ferric chloride dosages
sufficient to provide Fe:P atomic ratios of 2. 5 to 3. 75 resulted in about
85 percent removal with phosphorus residuals of 0. 1-6 mg/1 (Keinath,
1972). Chemical costs were estimated at 3^/1000 gallons for Fed,.
Phosphorus removal can be increased to 97 percent with consistent
effluent residuals of 0. 2-0. 5 mg/1 by the addition of multimedia filtration.
Costs to provide 90 percent phosphate removal with alum for 50 mgd
104
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Table 15. COSTS ASSOCIATED WITH ALUM COAGULATION
(WITH POLYMER) OF SECONDARY EFFLUENT. PROCESS
DOES NOT INCLUDE SEDIMENTATION; FLOCCULA-
TION IS FOLLOWED DIRECTLY BY MIXED-MEDIA
FILTRATION AND ACTIVATED CARBON ADSORPTION
(EPA, 1971a)a
Process
Coagulation
Filtration
Carbon adsorption
Operating labor
1
4.9
1.8
6.3
13.0
28.0
41.0
Total Unit Costs £/1000
Plant Capacity (mgd)
10
3.5
1. 1
4.5
9. 1
5.6
14.7
100
3.2
1.0
4.0
8.2
1.8
10.0
a
Estimated costs include an annual charge of 8. 5 percent of the capital
cost for debt service and maintenance combined. Based on February
1970 prices.
flow in a 75 mgd plant with dual media filtration were estimated at 6. 5-
8.2^/1000 gallons (EPA, 197la).
105
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Other Tertiary Methods
Ion Exchange--
The Pomona, California, ion exchange pilot plant is a strong-acid weak-
base process designed for the reduction of total dissolved solids (Dryden,
1970). Phosphorus removal is outstanding, with a reduction of 8. 8 mg/1
to 0. 1 mg/1 (98. 8 percent). Total dissolved solids are reduced from
611 mg/1 to 81 mg/1 (86.7 percent). Average costs for a 10 mgd plant
are shown in Table 16.
Experiments using strong-acid cation and weak-base anion ion exchange
columns indicate costs ranging from 6.7 to 23. 8 £/1000 gallons, depending
on the extent of treatment and alkalinity of the water (EPA, 1971c).
Phosphorus reductions of 6. 1 mg/1 to 0. 16 mg/1 were obtained using
lime coagulation as a pretreatment at an average cost of 18^/1000
gallons. Without lime pretreatment reductions of 6. 1 mg/1 to 0. 65
mg/1 were obtained at a cost of 15.3^/1000 gallons. Activated carbon
adsorption (40-60 percent removal total organic carbon) precedes the
ion exchange columns to prevent resin clogging.
Activated alumina has been used successfully to selectively remove the
forms of phosphate normally found in wastewaters including orthophos-
phate, pyrophosphate, tripolyphosphate, and hexametaphosphate (Yee,
1966). Effluent concentrations of 0.07 mg/1 to 0. 14 were obtained,at
chemical costs of 3. 9^/1000 gallons for 14 mg/1 removal and 6. 4^/1000
gallons for 23 mg/1 removal, based on 8 percent loss of alumina during
each regeneration cycle.
106
-------
Table 16. ESTIMATED COSTS FOR A 10 MOD ION EXCHANGE
PLANT (DRYDEN, 1970). TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS
REDUCED FROM 700 MG/L TO 75 MG/L AND
PHOSPHORUS REDUCED FROM 9 MG/L TO 0. 1 MG/L
Capital Cost £/1000 gal
$1,370, 000; 20 years @5% 3.0
Operation and Maintenance
Chemicals 16.2
Operation and Maintenance 2. 8
Total 22.0
Table 17. ESTIMATED COSTS FOR A 1 MGD SELECTIVE ION EXCHANGE
PLANT (EPA, 1970a). INFLUENT CONCENTRATION OF 10 MG/L
REDUCED TO NOT MORE THAN 0. 32 MG/L*
Capital Cost = $221,970
Cost Per 1000 Gallons
Capital Cost 7. 61
Chemical Cost 17.71
Operating and Maintenance 9. 06
Total Cost 34. 38
lBased on plant life of 30 years at 4 j percent interest.
107
-------
Other experiments using selective ion exchange processes have demon-
strated the reduction of phosphorus content from 10 mg/1 in the influent
to not more than 0. 32 mg/1 in the effluent at a cost of about 35^/1000
gallons for a 1 mgd plant (EPA, 1970a). Estimated costs are shown in
Table 17.
Reverse Osmosis--
Reverse osmosis is a process in which water is separated from dissolved
salts in solution by filtering through a semipermeable membrane at a
pressure greater than the osmotic pressure caused by the dissolved
salts in the wastewater. Operating pressure varies from atmospheric
to 1,500 psi.
The reverse osmosis process provides excellent removal of dissolved
solids. In the Pomona, California, pilot plant (Dryden, 1970) total
dissolved solids were reduced from 759 mg/1 to 59 mg/1 (92. 1 percent)
and phosphorus was reduced from 10. 9 mg/1 to 0. 2 mg/1 (98. 4 percent).
Costs associated with this process are shown in Table 18. Although
these costs are relatively high in comparison to those of other methods,
improved membranes could considerably increase the efficiency. Other
estimates indicate TDS reduction greater than 90 percent and phosphate
reduction greater than 99 percent at costs in the range of 30-60^/1000
gallons (EPA, 1970b). Costs estimated for the reverse osmosis process
for water reclamation in a closed system are shown in Table 19 (Besik,
1971).
108
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Table 18. ESTIMATED COSTS FOR A 10 MGD REVERSE OSMOSIS
PLANT (DRYDEN, 1970). INFLUENT TDS REDUCED FROM
750 MG/L TO 59 MG/L AND PHOSPHORUS REDUCED
FROM 10. 9 MG/L TO 0. 2 MG/L
Capital Cost 1/1000 Gallons
$4,020,000; 20 years at 5% 8.8
Operation and Maintenance
Chemicals 7.3
Membrane Replacement 14.4
Other 11. 1
Total 41.6
Table 19. COST ESTIMATES FOR REVERSE OSMOSIS (BESIK,
1971). TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS REMOVAL FROM 585
MG/L TO 24 MG/L (96 PERCENT) AND PHOSPHORUS
REMOVAL FROM 1 MG/L TO 0. 1 MG/L (90 PERCENT)a'b
Plant Size (mgd)
Capital Cost
Total Treatment Costs
£/1000 Gal
0. 1
80,000
40.0
0.5
336,000
27.0
1.0
617,000
22.0
Based on 4. 5 percent for 25 years in June 1967.
Brine disposal not included.
109
-------
Electrodialysis - -
In the electrodialysis process, ionic compounds of a solution are separa-
ted through the use of semipermeable ion-selective membranes. Appli-
cation of an electrical potential between the two electrodes causes an
electric current to pass through the solution, which, in turn, causes a
migration of cations towards the negative electrode and a migration of
anions towards the positive electrode.
Pilot plant operations at Pomona, California, indicate reduction of total
dissolved solids from 705-465 (34 percent) and phosphorus from 10. 1
to 7. 8 (23 percent). Because of the low removal rates, it was concluded
that electrodialysis is not competitive with ion exchange or reverse
osmosis (Dryden, 1970). Costs are shown in Table 20.
Soil Spreading--
Where adequate land is available at reasonably low cost, soil spreading
may be an efficient method for the disposal of secondary treatment plant
effluents. In pilot plant studies near Phoenix, Arizona, effluent from a
sewage treatment plant was pumped to six 20 ft by 700 ft plant-soil filters.
At a loading rate of 300 acre-feet of secondary sewage effluent per year
per acre of filter, about 90 percent of the phosphorus was removed by
adsorption to soil particles or by precipitation into.the soil profile. The
basins were operated on a 14 day wet, 10 day dry cycle to maintain a
satisfactory infiltration rate and to allow for reoxygenation of the soil
surface. Costs were estimated to be $5/acre-foot (U. S. Department of
Agriculture, 1969). Induced percolation of municipal effluent through
110
-------
Table 20. ESTIMATED COSTS FOR A 10 MGD ELECTRO-
DIALYSIS PLANT (DRYDEN, 1970). COD REMOVAL
15 PERCENT, TDS REMOVAL 34 PERCENT, AND
PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL 23 PERCENT
Capital Costs £/1000 gallons
$1,830,000; 20 Years at 5 Percent 4.0
Operation and Maintenance
Chemicals 4.4
Membrane Replacement 3. 3
Other 5.3
Total 17.0
a peat soil resulted in from 76 to 92 percent removal of phosphorus.
Ferric iron in the soil was probably the principal phosphorus fixation
agent. Removal was observed to decrease with time.
INDUSTRIAL USES OF PHOSPHORUS
As was listed in Table 4 only a small amount of the total phosphorus
produced by mining activities (approximately 11 percent) enters the
industrial cycle. As shown in Table 21 there are a myriad of industrial
uses, only a few of which are both significant and enter surface waters.
Metal finishing wastes represent phosphoric acid used as an improve-
ment in certain operations over sulfuric acid for etching, cleaning,
111
-------
and metal plating operations. Frequently such operations are, or
should be, required to treat their wastes in-plant as source control of
metals wastes. Phosphorus will probably be removed in metals waste
treatment. Estimates of phosphoric acid use in such processes indicate
that its use will likely increase; however, that should constitute a
negligible input of phosphorus because of the in-plant waste treatment.
Use of phosphorus in food and pharmaceutical compounds can probably
be ignored because it represents a human use and as such will be
included in the human waste component.
Use of water softening compounds has increased with the increased
industrial uses of cooling water and other thermal applications. How-
ever, use of phosphorus-based softening compounds has been static
apparently since 1958 (Jenkins, 1973). In addition, the discharge of
softened industrial water is probably minimal because of the economic
value of recycling treated water where possible. Also, depending on the
type of phosphate softening compound, there will be no discharge (a
sludge is formed) or if hexametaphosphates, for example, are used,
soluble complexes will be formed and these could enter the water supply
if discharged. Thus, although certain types of water softening compounds
can be considered a point source discharge, and these can be treated
at a municipal treatment plant, it is probably a minimal problem and
the use of the phosphorus-bearing water softening compounds may
gradually decrease to zero without any pressure from regulatory agencies.
Certainly, the addition of supply and demand pressures (Section VII)
might hasten the decrease in its use if such action seemed necessary.
11Z
-------
Table 21. INDUSTRIAL USES OF PHOSPHORUS IN 1968
BASED ON LEWIS (1970) AND LOGUE (1958)
Metal Finishing Wastes
Food and Pharmaceutical
(includes soft drinks, toothpaste,
shaving cream, baking powder)
Water Softening
Other Miscellaneous Uses
Rat poisons
Matches
Flame retardents
Plastics (plasticizers)
Gasoline additives
Bone china
Dyes for textiles
Glass
Photographic film and chemicals
Military uses
Silk fabrics
Sugar processing
Oil refining
Pesticides
Total
Estimated
P use
1000 Kg/yr
94.
58.
35.
293.
b
6.4
0.5
Likelihood
of entering
surface waters
4
426
a
a
a
a
d
a
b
a
b
b
a
b
b
d
a = not likely; b = doubtful; c = point source to surface water;
d = diffuse source to surface water.
Dashes indicate not estimated.
113
-------
The other uses of phosphorus in manufactured products with the exception
of pesticides—described elsewhere in this section—have been grouped
into a category called miscellaneous uses. Loss of phosphorus from the
industries manufacturing these products is considered to be a proportion
(0. 5) of the total amount utilized in the category.
Strictly speaking, the food processing industry is not an industrial use
of phosphorus. Because it is an industry and food contains phosphorus
•which may, due to the possible hydrolysis of organic phosphorus com-
pounds in the process of biological treatment, be liberated from food
wastes, this industry is considered in this section. It is probably not
a significant source of phosphorus to surface waters because of the more
important problem of high BOD and the low concentration of phosphorus
in foods (~ 1 percent by weight). Also, it is unlikely that phosphorus
release from foods is significant except over long term biological
activity.
All of these industrial uses are essentially minimal compared to other
phosphorus inputs to surface waters. The only really significant phos-
phorus use in industry involves industrial detergent. Estimates of
such use are frequently quite crude because of the wide range of cleaners
utilized by the great number of different industries. For example, one
estimate was 0. 23 kg/capita year (see detergents). Another estimate
can be obtained by subtracting the total domestic use (204 x 10 people
x 0. 800 kg/capita year (from Vollenweider, 1968) = 1. 64 x 10 kg/year)
5
from the total phosphorus use in the detergent industry (2. 27 x 10 kg/
year); this indicates that industrial use would be about 28 percent of the
total detergent use in the USA. This value is not too much different
114
-------
from the approximately 20 percent industrial use estimate of detergent
use by commercial/industrial applications and unclassified uses shown
in Table 9.
Use of industrial detergents and other industrial phosphorus uses are
probably similar to any generalized water use in industry, i. e. , the
water is collected and discharged directly into the sewer or into the
surface water system. Although it is possible to require in-plant
treatment, such a requirement seems impractical. Consequently, all
industrial uses are added to the municipal waste stream, where appli-
cable, or discharged to the surface water.
MINING ACTIVITIES AND PHOSPHORUS USE
The mining and processing of phosphorus is distributed throughout most
regions of the USA; for example, phosphoric acid production is the major
phosphorus processing industry and is distributed as shown in Figure 16.
The principal producing states are Florida, Idaho, Tennessee, and North
Carolina. The estimated total consumption of mined phosphorus was
3159 metric tons (Lewis, 1970); although U.S. Department of Commerce
(1972) estimates were 3451 for 1968, Lewis' number was used because
of his closer relationship to the industry.
Processing produces many waste streams, some of which are recycled
in the mining and refining processes and some of which are discharged
to settling ponds, or where dilution is sufficient, to surface waters
(Figure 17). Most of the waste streams are treated for fluoride removal
and phosphorus removal and the incentive is primarily economic.
115
-------
•
• WET PROCESS PHOSPHORIC ACID
A FURNACE PHOSPHORIC ACID
Figure 16. Location of major phosphoric acid plants in the United States {taken
from Fullam and Faulkner, 1971).
-------
QUICK LIME
FRESH WATER
POND MATER
WASTE RECYCLE
TO POND
WASTE RECYCLE
TO POND
CLEAR EFFLUENT
TO DISCHARGE
(3-10 mg/lP04-P)
Figure 17.
Flowsheet for lime neutralization of gypsum pond water
(adapted from Fullam and Faulkner, 1971).
117
-------
Application of water quality standards has enforced a closed cycle type
of operation on mining activities; direct discharge of phosphorus-bearing
wastes is negligible in the absence of spills and settling pond dike failure.
Costs of treating effluents (lime precipitation) to current acceptable
water quality standards with dilution (3-10 mg/1 phosphate P) averages
about $1. 90 per short ton of P^Oj. produced (Fullam and Faulkner,
Lt 3
1971).
Specific regions will require significant effort to prevent phosphorus
mining effluents from affecting water supplies. Because of the impor-
tance of the industry to the national economy and the fact that it is a
point source and easily located, stringent discharge controls seem to
be a reasonable requirement.
ANIMAL WASTES AND PHOSPHORUS
Background of the Problem of Animal Waste Disposal
Historically, the major effort has been devoted to the control of pollu-
tional problems caused by urban centers, such as industrial pollution,
domestic liquid waste, solid wastes, and storm water runoff. Agricultural
related environmental quality problems have received little attention
until the last ten years, and perhaps this lack of attention is attributable
to a point of view that control of pollution from agriculture was impossible,
or that the contribution was insignificant and should not be considered
along with the much more complex problems produced by the urban
centers. It is possible that this rather naive observation would have
allowed us to ignore the agricultural problem for many more years had
agricultural practices remained static.
118
-------
However, remarkable changes have taken place in the United States with
respect to methods of agricultural production (Loehr, 1972). Farm size
and productivity per farm worker have increased significantly, and
intensive crop and animal production have taken on essentially the same
characteristics of an industrial complex. Because of this increased
efficiency of agricultural production, a variety of environmental problems
have developed. Also, increased production of agricultural products
are being encouraged as a result of balance of payments question. It is
now quite obvious that this increase in agricultural production has had
detrimental effects on environmental quality. Furthermore, the influx
of suburbia into rural areas has made many more people aware of the
problems generated by handling and disposing of agricultural wastes.
The intensive agricultural practices and the public awareness of the
degradation of the environment caused by agricultural waste disposal
practices has forced legislatures and the federal government to recognize
these problems and all of the recent legislation directs specific controls
toward solving agricultural pollution problems. Most of the legislation
has been prepared with the point that control of agricultural sources of
pollution must be carried out in a manner that will allow agriculture to
continue to produce at a rate that is adequate to avert food shortages.
The legislation also insists that adequate controls be provided to protect
the environment, or provide an environment acceptable to the public.
Many attempts have been made in the past ten years to evaluate the
effect of the changes in agricultural production procedures on the envir-
onment. Many conflicts are apparent when one considers the alternatives
that must be evaluated. However, it is essential that the agricultural
119
-------
producer be aware of the consequences of his waste disposal practices
when new facilities are constructed. Many of the existing problems
caused by agricultural practices could have been prevented if proper
land use laws had been prepared many years ago. The construction of
many of the feedlots and intensive agricultural activities such as poultry
raising could have been prohibited from developing in their present
locations if proper planning had occurred.
The management of animal wastes would be much simpler if a signifi-
cant proportion of the contribution were concentrated in feedlots so
that the wastes could be handled at one location. This is not the case
in many sections of the U. S. where small dairy and beef cattle feeding
operations are carried out in relatively isolated areas separated by
great distances. The majority of these small dairy and beef feedlots
are located along small streams and use the stream as a means of
disposing of their excess manures. Many of these operations in the
past used manure spreading as a means of disposing of a proportion of
their manure, but with the advent of inexpensive artificial fertilizers,
it is no longer advantageous to dispose of animal manures by spreading
them on the ground. Also, as the operation becomes larger it is more
difficult to utilize the entire production of manure on the land. This
necessitates hauling the manure to other land disposal sites or attempt-
ing to sell the material as a soil conditioner. Little success has been
achieved in commercial enterprises attempting to dispose of significant
quantities of animal manures. All of the difficulties that are involved
in disposing of excess manure have contributed significantly to the
quantities of manure that eventually reach our water courses, deplete
the oxygen supply, and add excessive quantities of nitrogen and phos-
phorus which stimulate algal growth.
120
-------
New recommended regulations developed by the Environmental Protection
Agency make an attempt to control the contribution of all types of
agricultural wastes. It is a noble gesture on the part of the federal
government and some of the state agencies to attempt to control the
discharge of manures to our waterways. However, that these agencies
will have success in enforcing these regulations is doubtful. The ability
to monitor the waste discharges from industrial and municipal sources
is limited in the majority of the United States, and the federal government
has little effort and manpower involved in monitoring activities when the
entire picture is evaluated. Therefore, it appears that the only effective
control that can be implemented will be the reduction of the waste
materials that are discharged from concentrated feedlot and poultry
raising operations.
These sources produce large quantities of material that would exhibit
a significant effect on the waterways that could easily be detected if the
waste were indiscriminately discharged. Pollution resulting from land
spreading and eventual runoff would be extremely difficult to identify,
and the ability to monitor and control such activities is very limited.
If effective control were to be accomplished, a force approximately
the size of the production force would be required to insist that pollu-
tion or excess nutrients not be discharged to the environment by agri-
cultural activities.
An excellent example of the difficulty that would be encountered in
enforcing agricultural practices or agricultural pollution control
legislation can be seen in the State of Utah. Here, the majority of the
dairy and feedlot operations are relatively small, consisting of less
121
-------
vthan 50 cows per farm. These installations are located, in the majority
of the cases, along the shores of the many relatively small streams that
emanate from the mountains. There may be 2 to 20 miles between each
of these operations and there are many hundreds located in the state.
The manpower that would be required to periodically inspect and ensure
that enforcement activities are carried out would be economically
prohibitive. The situation in the State of Utah is very similar to the
problems that would be found in all of the Intermountain area and much
of the other rural areas of the USA.
Similar situations probably exist elsewhere in the United States even
where the majority of the animal raising activities are concentrated
in massive feedlots. In brief, it appears that the control of nutrients
and pollutants from small agricultural operations will have to rely on
the integrity of the individual farmer. And as the majority of the small
farms are at best marginal profit making operations, it is doubtful that
the regulatory agencies can honestly expect a small farmer to devote a
significant proportion of his time to managing water quality control
facilities.
Considerable interest is being developed in using agricultural lands as
a means of disposing of municipal sewages and sludges. If a significant
quantity of sewage and sewage sludges are disposed of on agricultural
lands, this will contribute significantly to the amount of material that
would be classified as agricultural runoff. In general this type of
wastewater disposal will be subjected to far better control than is normally
exercised in agricultural installations. The source of discharge of
wastewater that has been used for irrigated agriculture could be classified
122
-------
more or less as a point source, and the contribution to the overall
phosphorus budget of a particular operation should easily be measured
and, in turn, more easily controlled.
Characteristics of Animal Wastes
The mass of wet manure produced per gram of animal per day and the
solids concentration of wet manures are shown in Table 22 for poultry,
swine, dairy cattle, and beef cattle. A comparison of the average
weight of wet manure produced per weight of animal per day for all the
animals shows that the values range between 0. 062 grams for poultry
to 0.084 grams for cattle. Considering that the data were collected at
different farms and by different investigators, the difference between
the average values reported for all of the domestic animals is very
narrow, and it could be safely assumed that the production of manure
per weight of animal is essentially the same for all domestic animals.
The dry solids content of manures ranged from 0. 0079 for dairy cattle
up to 0. 014 grams of total solids per gram of poultry per day. This
range is somewhat wider than the one mentioned earlier for the pro-
duction of wet manures; however, the differences are not drastic in
view of the variability within each of the individual samples. The per-
centage of total solids by wet weight were the greatest for poultry
manures and little difference was noted between the swine and cattle
and sheep. The volatile solids percentage of the total solids ranged
between 71.8 percent up to 81.7 percent with the lower value representing
the poultry and the higher value beef cattle. This variation in volatile
content of the solids is probably insignificant if one were attempting to
123
-------
table II. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVESTOCK DEFECATION
ANIMAL
Poultry
Wet
Manure
«/g of
Animal-day
0.0234
0.027-0. 087
0. 074
f
f
^
0.072
0.083
Total
Solidi
g/g of
Animal-day
Q.OH
0.011-0. 022
0.021
0.014
0.013
0.013-0.019
0. 0086
-
Total
Solidi
•*> at W. W
45.0
25-48
28
-
„
.
12
•
Volatile
Solidt
g/g of
Animal-day
„
0. 0084-0. 017
.
0.0098
0.0101
,
0.0054
-
Volatile
Solidi
"m of T. S.
B
74 79
.
70
77.5
.
63
-
REFERENCES
Moore, 1969
Taiganidei and Hazen, 1966
Hart. 1960
Dornbufth and Anderson, 1964
Hart and Turner, 1965
IH'ot. of Sci. and Induit. Res., 1 9fc4
lownshend et al. , 1969
Keirl, 1966
Average
o.ou
is)
0.014
SO. 3
0.0096
71.8
Swine
Average
Cattle (Dairy)
(Dairy)
{Dairy)
(Dairy)
(Dairy)
(Dairy)
(Beef)
(Beef)
(Beef)
(Beef)
(Beef)
(Beef)
Average (D)
Average (B)
Sheep
Ducks
0.084
0,029-0,095
0. 087
,
^
.
_
.
0.074
0.074
0.071
0.058
-
0. 124
0,082
0.039-0. 074
0. 063
0.067
^
0.063
0.084
0.066
0.072
-
0.011
0. 008-0. Olb
0.016
0. 0080
0. 0097
0.0050
0.0071
0.0048
0.0059
0.0099
0.0089
0.0114
0.0087
0.0104
0.0068
0,0075
0.0025
0.0197
0.0095-0.0114
0.0095
0.0090
O.OD36
0.0050
0.0091
0. 0079
0.0095
0.016
0.016
li. 1
12-28
16
.
.
8
-
17.4
16.0
15
.
-
2
24.0
13-27
15
15
-
9
-
11. 0
16.4
23
-
.
0.0068-0.0136
.
0.0063
0.0080
0.0035
0.0033
0.0047
0.0070
0.0054
.
-
0.0083
0,0057
0.0018
.
-
-
0.0069
0.0032
0,0040
-
0.0053
0. 0047
-
-
_
83-87
_
78. 5
B2. 5
70
„
68.8
79.7
71
76.5
..
-
80. 3
R3. 8
7Z
,
-
-
77
89
79
-
78,7
81.7
-
-
Moore, 1969
Taiganides and Hazen, 1966
Hart, 1960
Hart and Turner, 1965
Taiganidcs et al. , 1964
Clark, 1965
Dept. of Sci. and Induit, Rei., 1964
HumeniV, 1972
Schmid and Lipper, 1969
Townshend et al. , 19f>9
Moore, 1969
Hart, I960
Hart and Turner, 1965
Witiel et al. , 1966
Dept, of Sci. and Induit. Res. , 1964
Townshend et al. , 1969
Moore, 1969
Taiganides and Hazen, 1966; Taiganide*, 1964
Hart, I960
Loehr and Agnew, 1967
Witzel et al. , 1966
Townshend et al. , 1969
Dale and Day, 1967
Hart, 1960
FWPCA, 1966
-------
operate an anaerobic system. However, the nitrogen, COD, and BOD
content may indicate this not to be the case.
Table 23 shows the BOD, COD, and nutrient contents of fowl manures
_3
in weight per weight of animal per day x 10 . The results reported
by the various investigators vary widely from sample to sample. How-
ever, considering that none of the operating characteristics of the
animal-raising operations were available, the numbers probably are as
good as can be expected. Although wide differences can be shown for
each of the constituents, in general the mean values are fairly charac-
teristic of the majority of the data reported and can safely be used in
the estimates of the contribution of nutrients to waterways by animal
manures.
Table 24 shows the characteristics of swine manures as reported in
the literature, and a comparison of the characteristics of swine manures
with those of fowl manures indicates that they are quite similar. How-
ever, the nitrogen and phosphorus content per gram of animal per day
is less than that found in poultry manures. But the BOD and COD
content of fowl manures is higher than that found in swine manures.
Table 25 shows the characteristics of cattle manures divided according
to beef cattle and dairy cattle. An examination of the mean values for
ibeef and dairy cattle indicates that there is little difference in the BOD,
COD, and nutrient content of these manures. In general, the reports
in the literature of the phosphorus and nitrogen content of cattle manures
were consistent and differed little from one study to the other. However,
the differences noted in BOD and COD for the various types of cattle
125
-------
Table 23. NUTRIENT AND SANITARY CHARACTERISTICS OF DOMESTIC FOWL MANURES
CSJ
ANIMAL
Poultry
Average
Ducks
BOD
-
-
-
3. 33
2.91
3. 33-7. 11
1. 33-2.22
-
3.74
4.27
3.46
2.0-4.0
Characteristics of Fowl
g/g of Animal-day x
c _ Ammonia Total
Nitrogen Nitrogen
1.12
0.27-1,27
1. 1
11.1 0.13 0.67
11.2 0.52 0.70
-
-
0.23
7.1 - 0.58
0.12
9.8 0.26 0.74
8.0
Manures
i
10'3
Phosphorus
P2°5
0.72
0. 22-1. 00
0. 58
0. 60
_
.
0. 37
0.72
-
0. 60
0.6-1.6
Table 24. NUTRIENT AND SANITARY CHARACTERISTICS
ANIMAL
Swine
BOD
-
-
-
2.0
4. 3
-
2.5
2.2
5.6
*
3. 1
2.0
3. 2
Characteristics of Swine
g/g of Animal-day x
_ Ammonia Total
Nitrogen Nitrogen
0.51
0.42-0.60
0.53
7. 6 0. 24 0. 32
5.4 - 0.64
4. 7
-
0.70
-
0.41
6.4
5.2
9.3 - 0.44
Manures
ID'3
Phosphorus
P2°5
0.32
0.29-0. 32
-
0. 25
-
-
-
-
-
0, 55
-
-
0.67
REFERENCES
Potassium
K20
0. 36 Moore, 1969
0.11-0.42 Taiganides and Hazen, 1966
Hart, 1960
, - Dornbush and Anderson, 1964
0.27 Hart and Turner, 1965
Little, 1966
Dept. of Sci. and Indust. Res. , 1964
Vollenweider, 1968
Townshend et al. , 1969
Kearl, 1965
0. 30
FWPCA, 1966
OF SWINE MANURES
REFERENCES
Potassium
0. 62 Moore, 1969
0.34-0.62 Taiganides and Hazen, 1966
Hart, 1960
0.11 Hart and Turner, 1965
Taiganides et al. , 1964
Clark, 1965
Little, 1966
Poelma, 1966
Dept. of Set. and Indust. Res. , 1964
Vollenweider, 1968
Humenik, 1972
Schmid and Lipper, 1969
Townshend et al. , 1969
Average
3. 1
6.4
0. 24
0.51
0.42
0.40
-------
Table 25. NUTRIENT AND SANITARY CHARACTERISTICS OF CATTLE MANURES
Characteristics of Cattle Manures
AN1MA1, . j
g/g of Animal-day x 10
BOD COD Ammonia
Nitrogen
Beef Cattle
:; :: ::
1.11-2.22 10.0
1.02 3.2b 0.11
--
1.87 15.0
1.84
Average 1.61 9.42 0.11
Dairy Cattle
1.53 19.1
0.31 1.53 B.4
1.32 5.8
0.44
0,95 S,7
Average 0.31 1.15 9,8
Total
Nitrogen
0. 36
0.35-0.44
0.29
0. Z6
0.26
0.41
0. 16
--
0. 32
--
--
0. 23
--
--
0, 23
Phosphorus
0.115
0. 11-0. 12
--
0.25
0.31
--
0.18
0. 30
0.38
0.37
0.49
0.1 fc
0. 34
REFERENCES
Potassium
0.274 Moore, 1969
0.27-0.34 Taiganides and Haz«-n, 1966; Taganides et al. , 1964
Hart, 1960
Loehr and Agnew, 1967
Witzel el al. , 1966
Vollenweider, 1968
Townshend et al. , 19fc9
Date and Day, 1967
0. 29
Hart, 19bO
Jeffery et al. , 1963
0.12 Hart and Turner, 1965
Witzel et al. , 1966
Dept. ofSci. and tndust. Pes., 19^4
0. 11 Townshend et al. , 14fc9
0. 12
-------
•wastes varied widely between the different studies. This can probably
be attributed to the types of feed supplied to the animals. The carbon
content could vary quite •widely, and in all probability the phosphorus,
nitrogen, and potassium contents of the feed would remain essentially
the same regardless of the carbon content.
Table 26 shows the characteristics of sheep manure; only two sources
of data were found for sheep. These limited data indicate that the
nutrient content of sheep manures is relatively high in nitrogen content
and essentially the same as the other manures in phosphorus content.
Agricultural Runoff of Manures
Agricultural runoff consists of discharges; which range from almost
natural runoff from forests and unused lands to such point sources as
confined animal feedlots and fertilized fields. Control of runoff from
animal feedlots and fertilized fields generally can be exercised by
waste management and land conservation techniques. However, it is
almost impossible to do anything about the more general nonpoint
discharges such as those discharged from range lands and recreational
areas. Because of the difficulty associated with controlling agricultural
runoff from grazing lands and recreational areas, the following discussion
will concentrate primarily on the contribution from point sources such
as confined animal feedlots. It should also be pointed out that soil
erosion contributes significantly to the pollution contributed by agricul-
tural runoff. However, this subject will also be omitted from this
discussion because it has been covered previously in Section V. Some
128
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Table 26. NUTRIENT AND SANITARY CHARACTERISTICS OF SHEEP MANURES
Characteristics of Sheep Manures
ANIMAL g/g of Animal-day x lO'3 REFERENCES
Sheep
BOD COD Ammonia
Nitrogen
Total
Nitrogen
0.86
0.34
Phosphorus
P2°5
0.25
Potassium
Hart, 1960
Vollenweider, 1968
Average 0. 60 0.25
-------
data relating to manures and the contribution of nutrients from natural
drainage areas and urban areas will be presented.
It is relatively simple to examine and define the influence of point
sources from agricultural industry on water pollution. However, it is
extremely difficult to quantify water pollution problems and nutrient
contributions resulting from general agricultural runoff. The following
presentation will attempt to summarize the results that have been found
by several investigators. These results will show the tremendous
variability involved in the quantitative results obtained for various
installations.
Animal Feedlots
In many areas of the United States, animal manures are still returned
to the fields as a source of fertilizer. However, this practice is being
eliminated because of the economics involved in disposing of large
quantities of animal manures. Also, the large increase in the number
of large feedlots that produce animals for slaughter has tended to cause
large quantities of manure to accumulate in and around these feedlots.
This manure does not present a significant water pollution problem
until the wastes are disposed of by spreading on the ground or until
they are washed into a receiving body of water.
If runoff from large feedlots is confined to the area, little difficulty
occurs. However, the practice in the past has been to encourage drain-
ing from the confinement areas into the drainage pattern of the surround-
ing land. This provided a convenient method of disposing of the manures
130
-------
and solved the disposal problems for the individual farmer. The conse-
quences of such a disposal system, primarily fish kills (e, g. , Vollen-
weider, 1968), were usually ignored by the individual farmer until he
was forced to accept the responsibility for the damage that he had caused.
The identification of the problems caused by these slug discharges of
manures to a stream or impoundment have led enforcement agencies
to attempt to develop solutions for these problems.
As mentioned, the quantity and quality of runoff from feedlots is quite
variable, and depends on several factors, i. e. , soil water content,
concentration of cattle on the feedlot, method of feedlot operation, soil
characteristics, topography, and intensity of the rainfall (Loehr, 1972).
Because of this large number of variables, the characteristics of feed-
lot funoff are unpredictable, and it is difficult to interpret runoff-pollu-
tional characteristics relationships. In the past few years studies have
been conducted that provide information about natural and simulated
rainfall events that allow a broad interpretation of the quantity and quality
of rainfall runoff under various environmental conditions.
The concentration of nutrients found in manures on feedlots will depend
upon the time of year and the age of the manure. During the winter
there will be much less decomposition than would occur during the
summer months, and a large concentration of pollutants would be
expected to accumulate. The characteristics of the runoff from a feed-
lot will be a function of the physical and biochemical changes that are
occurring. The concentrations of the various pollutants in feedlot
runoff will be the highest during the initial phase of the rainfall and will
decrease as runoff continues. After the feedlot surface becomes covered
131
-------
with manure, the water quality parameters of the runoff are no longer
affected by the depth of manure that has accumulated on the surface.
The quality of feedlot runoff after the surface is covered is affected by
the pollutional constituents in the manures, rainfall intensity, water
content of a manure pack, and the type of feedlot surface (Miner et al, ,
1966).
The results of several studies describing the magnitude and variability
of constituents in feedlot runoff are summarized in Table 27. The
variability of runoff is illustrated by the range of values reported for
the BOD which varied from 500 mg/1 to 12,000 mg/1. Solids and nitrogen
concentration show even wider variations. The variable nature of the
runoff indicates the significant slug effect that these discharges could
have on a stream. The slug effects and the use of holding ponds pre-
ceding discharge have been evaluated as a means of eliminating some
of the impact that slug discharges may exert upon a stream (Gilbertson
et al. , 1971; Loehr, 1970; Loehr, 1972; Meyers et al. , 1972; Wells
et al. , 1970; Willrich, 1966).
The characteristics of runoff are significantly affected by the environ-
mental conditions in the area of the feedlot. For example, the longer
the manure remains wet, the better the chances of biological degrada-
tion of the pollutional compounds. The biological degradation is also
significantly increased during warmer weather. In dry climates when
manure dries out rapidly, the pollutional constituents of the manure
remain essentially constant. When the manures are wetted again, the
discharge to a water course is essentially the same as it would have
132
-------
Table 27. FEEDLOT RUNOFF CHARACTERISTICS
ANIMAL
Cattle
Cattle
Cattle
Cattle
Cattle
Cattle
Cattle
Cattle
Range of Values for Constituents, m^/l
Suspended
Solids
3,400-13,400
--
1, 000-7, 000a
--
1,400-12,000
--
1, 500-1Z, 000
1,400-12, 000
Ortho-
phosphate
P°4
--
--
15-80
ZO-30
--
6Z-l,460b
Organic
Nitrogen
6-800
--
--
600-630
--
265-3,400
Ammonia
Nitrogen
2-770
--
1-139
270-410
16-140
--
Nitrate
Nitrogen
0-1, 270
--
0. 1-11
--
--
BOD
500-3, 300
1, 000-12, 000
300-6, 000
1, 500-9, 000
--
5, 000-11,000
800-7, 500
COD
2,400-38, 000
4,000-15,000
2, 500-15, 000
16, 000-40, 000
3,000-11,000
--
REF
Owens and Griffin, 1968
Wells et al. , 1970
Norton and Hansen, 1969
Loehr, 1969b
Miner et al. , 1966
Loehr, 1969a
Miner, 1967
Townshend et al. , 1970
OO
Volatile solids.
Total phosphorus as
-------
been if the material had been discharged at the time it was first deposited
on the ground (Filip et al. , 1973; Gilbertson et al. , 1971; Meyers et al. ,
1972).
Loehr (1970) has shown that the pollution from an uncovered livestock
area is related to the amount of precipitation that becomes runoff and
reaches surface streams. The original condition of the manure on the
feedlot as well as the slope of the feedlot directly affects the amount of
runoff that occurs after a rainfall. A relationship between precipitation
and runoff expressed in inches of water at small surfaced and unsurfaced
feedlots was described by Loehr:
Runoff = -0.34 + 0.945 (Rainfall) (8)
Gilbertson et al. (1971) showed that from 0. 22 inches to 0. 35 inches of
precipitation occurred before runoff was detected at cattle feedlots.
The relationship between runoff and rainfall in inches of water was
found to be:
Runoff = -0. 135 + 0.53 (Rainfall) (9)
All studies of animal feedlot runoff indicate that a small percentage of
the oxygen demanding materials in the wastes is removed by runoff.
However, the water pollution potential of livestock feedlots, is related
to the waste production per animal, number of animals confined, and
the management practices applied to the wastes discharged on the lots.
If cattle were fattened on the range, a much smaller concentration of
pollutants in runoff would be detected. However, the trend today is
toward more and larger livestock feedlots.
134
-------
The contribution of pollution from livestock feedlots by runoff can
easily be controlled with unsophisticated "waste management practices.
Proper diking and collection of rainfall runoff in holding ponds can
solve the majority of the problems that presently exist. The systems
must be designed to prevent overflow except under unusual rainfall
conditions, and the liquids and solids collected in the ponds should be
dispose'd of by application to pastures and croplands. If properly
operated, such a scheme should essentially eliminate the impact of
feedlot runoff on the receiving streams in the vicinity of such an opera-
tion. It is unlikely that the expense of using conventional waste treatment
techniques for feedlot runoff and animal wastes will be employed in the
near future.
Loehr (1972) has recommended a number of feedlot runoff control
measures, e. g. , diversion, retention ponds, confinement, location,
evaporation ponds, and land disposal. It appears that these techniques
are the most popular methods of controlling feedlot runoff at this time,
and in all probability will remain the most popular as long as land is
available, principally because of the economic advantages. If such a
system is properly operated and the liquid and manures collected in the
retention pond are disposed of properly on the land, the impact on a
water course is essentially the same as that reported for agricultural
lands used for grazing purposes. Examples of the concentrations of
phosphorus and other constituents that may be discharged from various
types of runoff are shown in Tables 28-32.
135
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Table 28. ESTIMATE OF NUTRIENT CONTRIBUTIONS FROM VARIOUS SOURCES (GOLDBERG, 1970)
oo
Nitrogen
Source
Domestic waste
Industrial •waste
Rural runoff:
Agricultural land
Nonagricultural land
Farm animal waste
Urban runoff
Rainfallb
Pounds
per year
(millions)
1, 100-1,600
> 1,000
1, 500-15,000
400-1,900
> 1,000
110-1,100
30-590
Usual
concentra-
tion in
discharge
(mg/l)
18-20
0-10,000
1-70
0. 1-0.5
a
1-10
0.1-2.0
Phosphorus
Pounds
per year
(millions)
200-500
a
120-1,200
150-750
a
11-170
3-9
Usual
concentra-
tion in
discharge
(mg/l)
3.5-9.0
a
0.05-1. 1
0. 04-0.2
a
0.1-1. 5
0.01-0.03
Insufficient data available to make estimate.
Considers rainfall contributed directly to water surface.
-------
Table 29. ANNUAL NUTRIENT LOSS FOR TWO SEASONS FOR THE
NATURAL-RAINFALL EROSION PLOTS (TIMMONS ET AL. , 1968)
Cropping
Treatments
Avg
Annual
Kilograms
Per
Hectare
Soil Loss
Avg
A nnua I
Centi-
meters
Runoff
Avg Kg per
Total
Na NH -N
4
Hectare Nutrient Loss
NO -N
P
K
1966
Fallow
Corn- continuous
Corn- rotation
Oats -rotation
Hay- rotation
8, 518.
807.
426.
22.
0.
0
0
0
4
0
9.
2.
5.
0.
8.
65
31
20
51
66
29. 1 0.
4.48 0.
2.24 <0.
0.11 0.
0.34 0.
33
11
11
0
0
0.
0.
0.
<0.
0.
90
11
33
11
11
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
04
11
11
0
11
2.0
0. 56
0. 67
<0. 11
0.90
1967
Fallow
Corn- continuous
Corn- rotation
Oats -rotation
Hay- rotation
23,044.0
7, 039.0
1. 389.0
2, 286.0
0.0
11.
7.
5.
5.
9.
76
56
96
30
72
100.8 0.
21.5 0.
7. 5 0.
10. 5 0.
6. 4 0.
22
34
11
11
0
0.
0:
0.
0.
0.
54
90
08
18
04
2.
0.
0.
0.
0.
9
04
11
11
33
5. 1
1. 3
0. 67
0. b7
5.8
Excludes NH - and NO -N.
4 2
-------
Table 30. RANGES OF SOME SELECTED NUTRIENTS IN
SEWAGE EFFLUENTS AND LAND DRAINAGE ENTERING THE
GREAT OUSE: CONCENTRATIONS IN THE RIVER WATER ARE
ALSO INCLUDED (OWENS AND WOOD, 1968)
Nutrient
Carbon (soluble)
Ammonium -N
Nit rate -N
Nitrite -N
Organic-N
Potassium
Total soluble phosphorus
Silicon
Sewage
Effluent
(mg/l)
6. 7-24. 0
0.0-48.0
0.0-35.0
0.0-14.5
0.0-13. 6
16.0-32.0
3.0-14.0
1.9-11.0
Land
Drainage
(mg/l)
2.8-8.0
0.0-0.5
5.5-29.4
0.01-0.1
0. 3-0.9
6.0-16. 5
0. 02-0.3
0.7-5.0
River
Water
(mg/l)
3.5-12.4
0.0-9.8
3.0-14.2
0.01-0.4
0.0-2.9
6.8-9.0
0.17-0.73
0.07-5.0
138
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Table 31. MEAN NUTRIENT CONCENTRATIONS FROM RUN-
OFF SOURCES IN PARTS PER BILLION (SYLVESTER, 1961)
Urban street drainage
Urban street drainage
(median)
Streams from forested areas
Subsurface irrigation drains
Surface irrigation drains
Green Lake
Total
Phos-
phorus
(P)
208
154
69
216
251
76
Soluble
Phos-
phorus
(P)
76
22
7
184
162
16
Nitrates
(N)
527
420
130
2,690
1,250
84
Total
Kjeldahl
Nitrogen
(N)
2,010
410
74
172
205
340
139
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Table 32. SOLUBLE PHOSPHORUS CONCENTRATIONS REPORTED
FOR WATERS DRAINING RURAL WATERSHEDS (VERDUIN, 1967)
Author
Type of watershed
Phosphorus
c one ent ration
M-gP/1
Engelbrecht and
Morgan, I960
Engelbrecht and_
Morgan, 1953e
Sylvester, 196ia
Sylvester, 1961
Sawyer, 194?'
Putnam and Olson,
1960a
Ha r low, 1966
Owen, 1965b
Hardy, 1966b
Hrbacek (1965)
Farmlands in Kaskaskia River
basin, Illinois 60
Eight lake and reservoir
stations, pollution-free 35
Forest streams 7
Irrigated land, return flow
drains, Washington 173
Rural drainage around Lake
Mendota, Wisconsin 48
St. Louis and Black rivers,
western Lake Superior
tributaries 40
Raisin River, Michigan 60
Ontario agricultural watershed 33
Upstream areas of Big Muddy
River system, Illinois 110
Two reservoirs in Czechoslovakia 21
As reported by Mackenthun (1965)
b '
Private communication to Verduin, plus papers presented at the Ninth
Conference on Great Lakes Research, Chicago, 1966.
140
-------
Treatment Methods for Animal Wastes
As pointed out in the previous sections, the control measures most
likely to be employed for disposing of animal manures and feedlot runoff
are diversion, retention ponds, confinement, proper location, evaporation
ponds, and land disposal of manures. Many other methods of disposal
have been employed in field and laboratory experiments. These are
described in detail in the mass flow model presented in Section VI on
animal waste disposal (Figure 20).
Excluding the control methods listed above, and the more sophisticated
techniques of drying, incineration, and composting, the most frequently
used method of disposing of manures and runoff has been through varia-
tions of the simple technique of stabilization pond disposal. Many of
the variations of stabilization ponds have been employed, such as multi-
stage ponds, aerobic systems, anaerobic, and facultative ponds. The
control of oxygen consuming constituents has been satisfactory with the
majority of the pond applications. However, the ability of any of the
conventional biological treatment schemes to remove phosphorus is
limited, and one of the most effective methods of removing phosphorus
is the proper application of manures to the land. Land application does
not serve as a complete method of removing phosphorus; however, the
amounts removed as the leachate seeps through the soil is quite signifi-
cant, and if runoff from land applications is controlled, a very signifi-
cant proportion of the phosphorus will be removed.
141
-------
Land Disposal--
Minshall et al. (1970) reported that up to 20 percent of N, 13 percent of
P, and 33 percent of K nutrients may be lost from manure applied on
frozen ground where conditions favor maximum early spring runoff.
Nutrient losses from surface runoff from plots having manure applied
in the summer and incorporated into the soil were less than from check
plots that received no manure. If manure is spread on unfrozen ground
and incorporated into the soil, little water pollution should result from
manure disposal. Minshall et al. (1970) results are summarized in
Table 33.
Humenik (1972) has shown essentially 100 percent phosphate removal
from swine waste lagoon effluent applied to Norfolk sandy loam soil
lysimeters at a rate of 2. 54 cm per week. The lysimeters were loaded
at this rate for approximately five months, and the phosphate-phosphorus
concentrations applied ranged between 2. 2 to 20. 6 mg/1 with the majority
of the loadings having a concentration greater than 9. 8 mg/1 of phosphate-
phosphorus.
Liquid dairy manure was applied at rates of 0. 5 and 2. 0 cm per week
to lysimeters filled with Cecil sandy clay loam soil for a period of
approximately three months (Humenik, 1972). Phosphate-phosphorus
concentrations of the liquid manure ranged from 6.4 to 30. 0 mg/1, and
the leachate from the lysimeter contained less than 0. 007 mg/1 of
phosphorus for both loading rates.
142
-------
OO
Table 33. NUTRIENT LOSSES FROM LANCASTER, WISCONSIN,
PLOTS ON JANUARY 23 AND 24, 1967 FROM SNOWMELT
AND RAINSa (MINSHALL ET AL. , 1970)
Jan 23 and Jan 24 A.M. Snowmelt and 0. 5 in. Rainfall
Plot
numbe r
(1)
3
7
1
6
2
5
4
8
Average 2,
3,4, 5, 6, 7,
8
Average 1
and 6
Ratio 1 and
6/others
Percentage
of applied
manure
Type of
manure
and time
applied
(2)
None
Average
Fresh
January
Average
Fermented
May
Average
Liquid
May
Average
Runoff in
inches
(3)
1. 103
1.000
1.032
0.456
0.814
0. 635
0.871
1.074
0.973
1.384
1. 160
1. 272
1.099
0. 635
Losses
Total N
(4)
0.89
0. 93
0. 91
0.46
0.55
0.51
0. 64
1.42
1.03
0. 77
0. 70
0. 74
0. 90
0.51
in pounds per acre
Total P
(5)
0.17
0. 12
0.15
0.06
0.08
0.07
0. 16
0. 16
0.16
0.20
0. 18
0. 19
0. 17
0.07
Soluble K
(&)
1.63
1.78
1.71
0, 93
1.79
1.36
1.02
2.00
1.51
3.07
0. 50
1.79
1. 67
1.36
Jan 24 P.M. 0. 75 in. Rainfall
Runoff in
inches
(7)
0.681
0.850
0.770
0.858
0. 620
0.739
0.808
0. 602
0.705
0. 643
0. 808
0.726
0. 733
X
0.739
I_o aaes
Total N
(8)
0.57
0.30
0.44
16. 53
17.93
17.23
1.44
0. 68
1.06
0.49
0.32
0.41
0. 63
17. 23
27x17.5
17.5
in pounds per acre
Total P
(9)
0.14
0.13
0.14
2.31
2.01
2.16
0.22
0.13
0.18
0.13
0.11
0.12
0. 14
2.16
15x6. 2
6.2
Soluble K
(10)
1.28
0.68
0.98
3. 34
5.20
4.27
1.97
0.72
1.35
0. 95
1.70
1.46
1.23
4.27
3.5x3.8
3.8
Manure at the rate of 15 tons per acre was applied to plots 1 and 6 shortly before this rain. Pounds per
acre nutrient values applied, from Table 1, N = 96, P = 32. 8 and K = 86. 5.
-------
Wells et al. (1970) reported removals of constituents other than phos-
phorus from cattle feedlot runoff when applied to lysimeters containing
30 inches of soil growing various crops. The results are summarized
in Table 34. Based upon the results reported by Humenik (1972) and
several other investigators (Utah State University, 1969) showing
retention of phosphorus by soils from irrigation waters, it is very likely
that excellent phosphorus removal would be obtained with any type
animal waste or runoff when applied to the soil mantle.
Biological Treatment of Animal Wastes--
Hart and Turner (1965) performed a series of anaerobic lagoon studies
with poultry manures and found phosphorus removals to range from 16
to 65 percent; however, effluents contained high concentrations of phos-
phorus (> 50 mg/1). Phosphorus removal did not appear to be directly
related to the loading rate, but the lowest and highest percentage
removals were related inversely to the loading rate.
Humenik (1972) reported average phosphate removal by swine waste
secondary lagoons to vary from 15 to 34 percent. Values for the reduction
in the primary lagoons were not reported. The phosphate-phosphorus
concentration in the secondary effluent was greater than 8. 2 mg/1.
Studies of lagoon and oxidation ditch treatment of swine wastes indicate
that these treatment methods do not produce an effluent that can be
discharged directly to a water course (Townshend et al. , 1969). Treat-
ment of swine waste with lagoons designed for a mean hydraulic retention
time of 6 and 12 months yielded supernatants •with phosphorus concentrations
144
-------
Table 34. AVERAGE CONCENTRATIONS OF POLLUTANTS
IN RUNOFF BEFORE AND AFTER PERCOLATION THROUGH
30 INCHES OF SOIL GROWING CROPS AS SHOWN
(WELLS ET AL. , 1970)
Concentration Percolating Through
Pollutant
pH
BOD mg/1
COD mg/1
NH_ mg/1
o o
ORG-N mg/l
NO- mg/1
T.S. mg/1
V.S. mg/1
S. S. mg/1
Concentration
In Runoff
6.85
4100
9500
423
67
40
11,770
6223
322
Cotton
7.9
20
386
0
2
573
4634
1252
164
Grain
'Sorghum
8.03
19
474
4
19
105
10,520
1104
260
Midland
Bermudagras s
8.0
13
250
0
0
787
2551
1440
150
of 0.43, 20, and 28 mg/1, respectively. Oxidation ditch treatment of
similar wastes produced supernatant phosphorus concentrations of less
than 3 mg/1 for a mean hydraulic retention time of two months and
584 mg/1 where a six months hydraulic retention time was employed.
Difficulty was experienced in separating the solids from the oxidation
ditch mixed liquor.
145
-------
Many studies report laboratory and field studies of anaerobic digestion
and lagoon treatment of various animal wastes; however, other than
the one specifically referred to above, phosphorus removal data are
unavailable except for chemicaltreatment studies (Clark, 1965; Edwards
and Robinson, 1969; Hart and Turner, 1965; Loehr, 1967, 1971; Loehr
and Agnew, 1967; Okey et al. , 1969; Townshend et al. , 1970). The
chemical treatment removals of phosphorus from animal wastes are
comparable with the results reported for sewage treatment. Phosphorus
concentrations of less than 0. 16 mg/1 can be obtained; however, it is
very unlikely that the agricultural industry can afford to install these
costly treatment schemes.
Most of the animal waste treatment studies utilizing biological methods
have not studied phosphorus removal, probably because of the relatively
small (less than 25 percent) removals obtained in biological treatment
of domestic wastewaters. The few studies mentioned above indicate that
the control of phosphorus discharges to the environment are unlikely
to be controlled by "conventional" biological processes such as lagoons
and digestors.
Animal Waste Phosphorus Discharge Control Strategy
The above summary of the characteristics and treatability of animal
wastes and runoff from animal feedlots indicates the wide variability
in both the characteristics and performance of treatment facilities. It
is also shown that the impact on the water quality caused by animal
wastes is due largely to the periodic slug discharges of pollutants that
reach a waterway. Because of this slug discharge characteristic, in
146
-------
all probability it will be easier and most economical to control by a
combination of the methods porposed by Loehr (1972). A number of
feedlot runoff control measures were proposed, such as diversion,
retention ponds, confinement, proper location, use of evaporation ponds,
and land disposal of the excess liquid and accumulated solid matter.
Under certain environmental conditions all of the above methods can be
easily adapted to fit a particular situation and control water pollution
from feedlot runoff.
It appears that the expense of using conventional waste treatment
techniques for feedlot runoff and animal waste will be unnecessary
because of the availability of the above mentioned techniques that are
relatively unsophisticated and inexpensive. The application of one or
all of the proposed techniques for controlling feedlot runoff will vary
with the rainfall amount and frequency, geography, and rainfall patterns
for a particular area. Several states are considering, or have adopted,
legislation for design rainfall criteria. Perhaps the key to controlling
feedlot and animal waste pollution is in the selection of the location of
the feedlot. Most of the problems that have occurred in the past could
easily be avoided had the feedlots been located in areas that were
suitable for feedlots. Having located a feedlot properly, land for
disposal would also have been available, and the potential for pollution
would have been reduced considerably with just these two considerations.
Another factor probably as significant as proper location is the number
of waste management alternatives that are made available to a feedlot
operator. Usually, it does not cost any more to include several alter-
natives for waste control during the initial construction phase.
147
-------
In brief, it appears that the control of animal manures can most easily
be handled by relatively unsophisticated and inexpensive techniques.
It also appears that the agricultural industry is incapable of absorbing
the costs of conventional waste treatment at this time. The costs for
nutrient stripping are very high for agricultural wastes and exceed the
costs reported for sewage treatment processes. Therefore, wherever
possible, the location of feedlots should be such that the old reliable
method of confinement and land disposal can be employed.
148
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SECTION VI
PHOSPHORUS ACTIVITY ANALYSIS AND THE
MASS FLOW MODEL OVERVIEW
In order to have a system which could be analyzed from the point of
View of phosphorus control, a simple program was developed for the
major phosphorus-using activities and natural sources (Appendix C).
The program utilized simple input information and then calculated
phosphorus output according to different activities. This basic approach
is summarized in Figure 18. Some of these activities are further
affected by various types of treatments or distributions based on whether
wastes are directly discharged or enter treatment plants. The total of
all the activities is calculated, as well as the total after treatment, or
that portion of the phosphorus which actually enters the surface water;
finally, the total of the fraction which enters the surface waters and is
actually available for algal growth is calculated. Calculation of eutro-
phication effects due to phosphorus addition to surface waters is based
on two loading rates (total after treatment, and total available for algal
growth) because of the uncertainty of the defined relationship between
nutrient loading rate and eutrophication. (See Vollenweider, 1968, and
Section IV, this report. )
149
-------
A. Total Phos-
phorus Output
B. Total After
Treatment
Phosphorus
Activity
Analysis
(See Figure 13)
SINKS 4
Waste
Treat-
ment
C. Total Avail-
able for algal
growth a
Surface
Water
Algal
Not
Available
Phosphorus
Removed in
Treatment
Based on Figure 11 where:
Eutrophication = f(B)
Eutrophication = f(C)
Figure 18. Primary calculated outputs from the phosphorus mass flow
model. The subroutines are listed as the different phos-
phorus-using activities in Figure 13.
150
-------
The overall scope of phosphorus input to surface waters is outlined in
.Figure 13. This figure shows the defined phosphorus inputs, whether
minor or major, which would be typical for any particular basin of
interest and includes those inputs which are of cultural importance as
well.as those which would occur naturally. These activities or inputs,
then, all contribute phosphorus to surface waters in varying degrees.
These activities are discussed in relation to this computer program.
At the same time, particular literature which relates to the program
are referenced. The described inputs have been classified into several
major categories, and discussion of these categories in a general way
,'
is made in this section of the report. The actual definition of the
parameters and how they operate in the input program are defined
following this section according to a classification based on methods
of control.
PHOSPHORUS USING ACTIVITIES AND
METHODS OF CONTROL
The use of phosphorus in various industrial, agricultural, and domestic
activities plus natural inputs of phosphorus all contribute to surface
water phosphorus content. For each of the major defined activities
(Figure 13), appropriate and reasonable control points can be devised
at the supply and demand side of the activity as well as for the techno-
logical and treatment side of the activity. These controls can be
categorized and will be discussed in detail in Section VII. The costs of
instituting the controls will be obtained where appropriate. In this way
a cost-effectiveness relationship can be defined.
151
-------
The analysis of the phosphorus inputs to a particular receiving water
will be based on particular subroutines and/or numbers obtained from
the literature for those particular inputs. These will be based on
average values imputed to various activities. For example, (1) domes-
tic wastes phosphorus loadings will be based on a per capita basis;
(2) industrial wastes will be based on particular industrial uses;
(3) natural inputs, fertilizer runoff, pesticides, and mining wastes will
be related to activities placed on an area basis; and (4) animal wastes
solid wastes will be on a per capita basis. Thus, for a given subbasin
the input of information based on per capita and area estimates of the
different activities, will provide an input in terms of mass of material
per unit time. This will be coupled to the receiving water eutrophication
model as developed in Section IV (Figure 11).
Specific subsections correspond to the subroutine and main program
of the phosphorus input program. They have been grouped for discus-
sion purposes into the four following classifications:
1. Minor Diffuse Sources are controllable for other reasons,
not very important in terms of percentage of the whole, or
not economically controllable.
2. Controllable Diffuse Sources include all sources not described
in the first section.
3. Minor Point Sources are controllable for other reasons, not
very important in terms of percentage of the whole, or not
economically controllable.
4. Controllable Point Sources include all sources not described
in the third section.
152
-------
Although the subsections do not include every possible source of phos-
phorus, they are undoubtedly more detailed than necessary except for
specific situations. This will become evident in the analysis of the
results. However, the individual subsections are all included to com-
plete the description of phosphorus input to surface waters and allow a
more complete analysis of control strategy. The following sections
contain a brief outline and definition of the various parts of the program.
The program goes through a series of subroutines described as follows
in the order of their appearance in the program to determine the various
inputs and then calculate outputs. The upper case words in parentheses
refer to parameters in the actual program (see Appendix C). Input
values, typical output, and units of the values are in Appendix D,
Internal variables will be described only in the text. The actual values
(often rough approximations) utilized will be referenced where possible;
arbitrary estimates had to be made in the absence of concrete information.
MINOR DIFFUSE SOURCES
The first subroutine (PEST) concerns organophosphate pesticides and
the output (OPOUT) is a function of the area (cm ) of fertilized agricul-
ture (FACRE) in the basin multiplied by a factor (OPFAC, (0. 408 x 10" )):
OPOUT = (0. 11)(OPFAC)(FACRE), g/yr (10)
The factor (OPFAC) is the proportion where pesticides are used (two-
thirds) of the total area of fertilized agriculture in the USA (9. 7x10
2
cm , Water Resources Council, 1968) divided into the total annual
pounds of organophosphate pesticides consumed (36 million kg/yr,
153
-------
Table 8) multiplied by a factor (0. 11) which relates the phosphate con-
tent to the weight of organophosphate pesticide.
The next subroutine (MINST) is concerned with runoff phosphorus from
mining activities that are not associated with phosphorus mining. Thus,
strip mining and mine tailings will produce a higher runoff of phosphorus
than any other kind of watershed. This output (XMOUT) is a function
of the area of strip mines and tailings (XMACRE), the annual precipi-
tation rate (PRATE), the concentration (XMCONC) in the runoff water
(estimated to be 0. 5 mg P/l), and the ratio (XMFAC) of the runoff
water to the total precipitation (assumed to be 0. 5):
XMOUT = (XMACRE)(PRATE)(XMCONC)(XMFAC), g/yr (11)
The next subroutine (SOLWST) concerns solid waste disposal; the phos-
phorus output from solid waste disposal (SWOUT) is related to the mean
annual precipitation (PRATE), the surface area (SACRE) of the landfill,
open dump, etc. , the concentration of phosphorus in landfill runoff
(SCONC) and a runoff factor:
SWOUT = (SACRE)(PRATE)(SCONC)(PRATE/PRATE 4- 25),
g/yr (12)
The runoff factor is calculated using a first order-zero order type
equation to provide a maximum rate of runoff when the surface becomes
saturated. This equation is similar to one derived by Enderlin and
Markowitz (1962); it was assumed that their soil-vegetation-permeability,
etc. , factor could safely be ignored. The runoff factor is obtained
using a ratio of the annual precipitation rate divided by the annual
154
-------
precipitation rate, PRATE plus 25 cm/yr, the half maximum value for
runoff from solid waste disposal sites. The concentration of phosphorus
in the runoff water (SCONC) from landfills is calculated to be 1 mg/1,
and represents an estimate obtained from a study performed on runoff
from Clear Lake, California (Silvey, 1970). This subroutine provides
a very small input in terms of total phosphorus and its output can be
easily treated for other reasons (BOD removal, etc. ).
The next subroutine (RFALL) is concerned with direct rainfall onto
surface waters in the basin; thus, the area of surface waters in the
basin (WACRE), the rainfall phosphorus concentration (RAIN) which as
determined by Weibel et al. (1969) is 0. 08 mg/1, and the mean annual
precipitation (PRATE), provides a relationship to estimate the phos-
phorus entering the streams directly (RAFO):
RAFO = (RAJN)(WACRE)(PRATE), g/yr (13)
Rainfall phosphorus concentrations are quite variable and this parameter
should be changed to suit local conditions where it constitutes a signi-
ficant source (Lee, 1972; Tyler and Uttormark, 1972).
CONTROLLABLE DIFFUSE SOURCES
This subroutine (URBOFF) is concerned with urban runoff and the listed
values have been obtained from Weibel et al. (1969). The output (UOUT)
is related to the developed urban area (UACRE), the annual precipitation
(PRATE), the concentration in urban runoff (UCONC) of 0. 36 mg/1
phosphorus, and a factor relating runoff to precipitation (UFAC) which
is 0. 37 (Weibel et al. , 1969):
155
-------
UOUT = (UACRE)(PRATE)(UCONC)(UFAC) (14)
The next subroutine (NATIN) concerns runoff from natural watersheds
and developed, managed forest, and grazing land watersheds. What is
done in this case is to determine a runoff rate per unit area (F) which
involves the annual precipitation (PRATE), the concentration in runoff
from natural watersheds (XNCONC), and a first order-zero order type
runoff relationship obtained as follows: The ratio of annual precipita-
tion rate (PRATE) divided by annual precipitation rate plus 10 cm/yr
yields a factor which is related to the saturation of the watershed soil:
F = (PRATE)(XNCONC)(PRATE/PRATE + 10) (15)
After the runoff rate has been obtained, it is multiplied by the area of
the particular kind of watershed and a given unit factor (FXD). Because
all outputs are related to the phosphate concentration from a natural
watershed, the unit factor is 1 for natural watershed areas. Evidence
from several investigators (McGauhey et al. , 1971, and Likens et al. ,
1964) indicates that developed watersheds produce about twice as much
phosphorus runoff as natural watersheds; the factor (FXD) is 2 for
developed watersheds. For managed forests, the factor (FXF) is 1. 5,
and for grazing lands (FXG) the factor is 1. 5. These latter two rather
crude factor estimates are based on estimates obtained from Cooper
(1969). These outputs (XNAT, XDEV, XFOR, XGRA) are all summed
up to produce the total estimate of watershed runoff (XNOUT) as
follows:
156
-------
XNAT = (F)(XNACRE)
XDEV = (F)(FXD)(XDACRE) , .
(16)
XFOR = (F)(FXF)(XFACRE)
XGRA = (F)(FXG)(GACRE)
XNOUT = XNAT + XDEV + XFOR + XGRA (17)
Areas of natural watershed (XNACRE), developed watershed (XDACRE),
managed forest (XFACRE), and grazing lands (GACRE) can be estimated
from planning agency reports (e. g. , U. S. Water Resources Council,
1968).
One of the most important controllable diffuse source subroutines
(FRTLZR) concerns the application of fertilizer to farmlands. The
following program is based on a soil-plant model (Figure 19) described
by Jurinak (1973). The model distributes phosphorus into various
phases and then phosphorus enters surface waters as a result of runoff
and erosion. An annual estimate of fertilization rate in kg P/ha is
obtained (FERT). This annual estimate is related to plant growth and
uptake of phosphorus using a first order-zero order equation where the
maximum value constant is 9 kg/ha year and the half maximum value is
20 kg/ha. Thus, plant uptake (PLA) is calculated as follows:
PLA = 9(FERT)/(20 + FERT), kg/ha (18)
The remaining fertilizer (DS) is then calculated by subtracting the plant
direct uptake of fertilizer from the total applied (FERT - PLA). Then
that difference is incremented to the previous level of solid phase
phosphorus in the soil for a unit area 15 cm deep (SLDPH):
157
-------
RAINFALL P
COMMERCIAL
FERTILIZER
PER
SOLID
PHASE
(SLDPH)
XINP
SOLUTION P
DRAINAGE
GROUNDWATER
in
oo
IRRIGATION
RETURN FLOW
(IRRF) ' —
PLANT-
SYSTEM
DRA
t
LANT ROOT
TOTAL PLANT
i
MICROBIAL P
MAN OR
ANIMAL
PLANT AND
ANIMAL
RESIDUE
RUNOFF
P
EROSION
ORP
ORGANIC
P
DOMESTIC OR
SOURCE
ANIMALWASTE JSTORE
RECEIVING
WATER
ERATE,
TOTP
Figure 19. Diagram of the phosphorus distribution used to program the effect of phosphorus
fertilizer application on the phosphorus load of surface waters. (Note: Results
.were based on net phosphorus transfer. )
-------
SLDPH = SLDPH + (DS/CF), ppm (19)
These values are expressed in parts per million (CF •= 2. 27 and con-
verts kg/ha to ppm). Then the remaining plant uptake (SA) is calculated
based on this solid phase phosphorus and is again a first order-zero
order equation having the maximum relative factor of 12. 7 ppm and the
half maximum value of 330 ppm. Thus, the total plant uptake of phos-
phorus (PLA) is obtained as follows:
PLA = PLA + SA, kg/ha (20)
in which
SA = (12. 7(SLDPH)/(330 + SLDPH))(CF), kg/ha (21)
Then the solid phase portion is recalculated, subtracting uptake by the
plant and adding back a portion of the plant which is considered to have
either decayed on an annual basis or been replaced as roots or litter:
SLDPH - SLDPH - (SA/CF) + 0. 25(PLA/CF), ppm (22)
The decay, roots, and litter portion is considered to be about 25 percent
of the mass of the plant. This factor (0. 25) will vary considerably with
crop type, cultivation practice, etc. , but it has minimal effect on the
outcome and only is used as a reasonable estimate.
The erosion model is the Universal Soil Loss Equation; values can be
estimated from Handbook 282 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture
(Wischmeier, 1968). This function relates: Erosivity (R), which is a
factor relating rainfall rate and intensity to erosion rate; the K (SK)
factor which concerns the variation in the soils and properties of erosion
which primarily are a function of soil type; the cropping management
159
-------
factor (C); a practice factor (P) which concerns such things as contouring,
terracing, strip cropping, or other practices which reduce erosive
potential of runoff; and a length-slope (L-S) relationship.
The length-slope relationship is as follows (Wischmeier and Smith,
1965): The mean length of slope times the quantity 0. 0076 + 0. 0053S
2
+ 0. 00075S in which S is the percent slope for a particular basin
cropland system. For this model three grades of land slope were
utilized: From 0-1 percent, from 1-5 percent, and 5-10 percent. A
mean slope within each grade of 0. 5 percent, 3 percent, and 7. 5 percent
was used providing slope effects values of 0.01044, 0. 03025, and
0. 08954, respectively. Mean length of slope was estimated to be 400
feet for the 0. 5 percent slope (FL.1), 150 feet for the 3 percent slope
(FJL2), and 80 feet for the 7, 5 percent slope (FL3). The proportion of
lands which fall within each grade of slope (FA1, FA2, FA3) are esti-
mated and a summation of the proportion for the three grades equals 1.
Because the Universal Soil Loss Equation provides data as tons/acre,
a factor (0. 00224) is used to convex
applies to the overall erosion rate.
a factor (0. 00224) is used to convert to g/cm ; the conversion factor
Thus, for each general type of land within a basin an overall constant
(Z) is estimated:
Z = (R)(SK){C)(P)(0.00224) (23)
Then the erosion rate for each type of land (Al, A2, A3) in terms of
the length-slope relationship and the relative quantities of land having
a particular length-slope is obtained:
160
-------
Al = (FA1)(FL,1)(Z)(0. 01044)
A2 = (FA2)(FL,2)(Z)(0. 03025) (24)
A3 = (FA3)(FL3)(Z)(0, 08954)
The overall erosion rate (ERATE) is the sum of the above type-constant
erosion rates:
ERATE = A1+A2+A3, g/cm2-yr (25)
The several phases of phosphorus contributions are calculated: 2. 5
percent of the soil is assumed to be organic matter and thus 2. 5 percent
of the eroded material contains organic phosphorus (A):
A = 0.025(ERATE), g/cm2-yr (26)
The fraction of this organic material that is organic phosphorus is
estimated to be 0. 0056; thus, organic phosphorus in runoff from agri-
cultural lands (ORP) is:
ORP = (A)(0. 0056), gP/cm2.yr (27)
The remainder (97. 5 percent) of the eroded material contains the inor-
ganic phosphorus tied up with soils:
B = ERATE - A, g/cm2-yr (28)
The inorganic phosphorus (XINP) is equal to the quantity of nonorganic
soil eroded times the solid-phase phosphorus per unit area of 15 cm
depth:
XINP = (B)(SLDPH/1,000, 000), g P/cm2.yr (29)
Soluble phosphorus is considered to be a constant value per unit area
as long as sufficient solid-phase phosphorus is present in the soil; this
161
-------
is usually the case for most cropped soils. This constant value (DRA)
is estimated to be 1.2 p.g P/cm «yr.
Thus, the total phosphorus output from fertilized soils (cropland) is
equal to the organic phosphorus in the eroded soil (ORP) plus the inor-
ganic phosphorus in the eroded soil (XINP) plus the soluble orthophos-
phate (DRA) runoff. When the area of the cropland (FACRE) is considered,
the total output (TOTP) from the basin can be calculated as follows:
TOTP = (ORP + XINP + DRA)(FACRE), g P/cm2 (30)
Outputs from the individual sources are also determined. The erosion
rate (ERATE, g/cm -yr) is also an output; i
to metric tons/ha-yr by multiplying by 100.
rate (ERATE, g/cm -yr) is also an output; it can be converted simply
MINOR POINT SOURCES
This subroutine (IRRRF) is concerned with irrigation return flows;
although this is a rather minor point source input of phosphorus, it is
included for completeness. It becomes a point source through channeli-
zation, tail waters, and drain collection systems. Because treatment
of irrigation return flows for other reasons (e. g. , salinity and nitrate
removal) may be necessary (Brown, 1971), it is also possible to remove
phosphorus, though this is usually a minimal part of the problems
associated with return flows. Irrigation return flow phosphorus output
(RFOUT) is calculated as follows:
RFOUT = (FLOW)(RFONC), g/cm2 (31)
in which the quantity of irrigation return flow is FLOW, and the concen-
tration in the return flow is RFCONC containing 20 (j.g/1 orthophosphate
162
-------
phosphorus (Biggar and Corey, 1969).
The next subroutine (RIVR) is concerned with the possibility that a
river flowing into the basin of interest represents activities far removed
from that particular basin. This subroutine merely calculates the
phosphorus input from that river (RIVER) as a function of the phosphorus
concentration in the river (RCONC) and the mean annual flow of the river
(RFLO):
RIVER = (RCONC)(RFLO) (32)
This is considered an uncontrollable phosphorus input to the surface
water of interest.
CONTROLLABLE POINT SOURCES
This first subroutine (DOWST) is a calculation of input of phosphorus
via waste products of human populations (DOUT). DOUT is considered
a function of the human population (CAP), the grams of phosphorus
excreted per year by the average human (795. 6 g/yr, estimated from
Vollenweider, 1968), and a factor (SFAC 2(1)) which relates the amount
of sewered to the total population:
DOUT = (CAP)(795. 6)(SFAC 2(1)) (33)
It is assumed that garbage disposal wastes, cooking water, etc. , can
contribute phosphorus but that it is included in this total. No attempt
has been made to estimate that contribution separately. The septic
tank portion of phosphorus (SEPD) is also estimated and it is the non-
sewered population. As discussed further on, this quantity is considered
163
-------
as a "sink," i. e. , it does not enter the surface waters. However, in
unsuitable soils, etc. , and when septic tanks fail as many do in their
lifetime, phosphorus will enter the surface waters.
Also, a proportion (DFAC) of the sewered population directly discharges
into surface water and this value (DOUTD) is calculated. The amount of
sewered which goes to the treatment plant then is added into the domestic
sewage total value discussed below.
The detergent subroutine (DTERG) is used twice, for domestic use
(denoted by (1)) and for industrial detergent use (denoted by (2)), because
of the method used for calculating detergent phosphorus contributions.
First, washing products were classified in four groups; High phosphate
(HP) detergents, low phosphate (LP) detergents, no phosphate (NP)
detergents, and soaps (SO). In addition, estimates of the fraction of
detergents used by the population were made for each particular classi-
fication of detergent (PHP, PL.P, PNP, PSO, respectively). The mean
estimated phosphorus concentrations (PL.BHP, PL.BJLP, PLBNP,
PLBSO, respectively, P/g detergent) and the mean relative use of the
detergent (PHPPC, PLPPC, PNPPC, PSOPC) was calculated for each
classification. Then the total detergent phosphorus contribution (D) is
calculated by summing for each of the four classifications the products
of (1) phosphorus concentration in the particular detergent; (2) detergent
phosphorus concentration; and (3) detergent use per capita. Then this is
multiplied by the population (CAP):
D = ((PHP) (PHPPC MPLBHP) + (PLP) (PLPPC) (PLBLP)
+ (PNP) (PNPPC )(PLBND) + (PSO)(PSOPC)(P:LBSO))
(CAP)(SFAC) (34)
164
-------
This total is multiplied further by the septic tank factor (SFAC) des-
cribed above in the human wastes subroutine. The discharge of domestic
detergent into septic tanks (a "sink"), direct discharge of detergent into
the river, and discharge into the sewer system is based on the same
factors as for the human wastes subroutine.
The industrial detergent and cleansers phosphorus use is based on the
same method of detergent type classification, concentration, and uses.
However, the population of industrial users has been determined in a
different way. This population is calculated based on the industrial
consumptive use of water and the total amount of phosphorus used in
detergent manufacture minus the amount of phosphorus utilized by the
domestic population. (It is estimated that 28 percent of the total phos-
phorus in detergent manufacture is used industrially, ) This value is
corrected to the population in the basin. Further explanation of the
industrial consumptive use of water and per capita relationships is
contained in the subroutines on other industrial use of phosphorus in the
paragraph below. Appropriate adjustments of the distribution for the
discharge of industrial detergents to septic tanks, sewers, or direct
discharges are made in the subroutine for industrial detergent phos-
phorus also.
The next subroutine (INDUST) is concerned with industrial usage of
phosphorus excluding detergents and cleansers. Several major types
of phosphorus uses in industry are considered.
A common industrial use of phosphorus is in water softening. This
use (DWSOUT) was estimated by multiplying the population (CAP) by
165
-------
the output of phosphorus from this activity (DWSFL.O) and by a consump-
tion factor related to population (DMCONC) obtained for each particular
basin from data supplied by the Water Resources Council of the U. S.
(1968):
DWSOUT = (DWSFL.O) (DMCONC) (CAP) (35)
The Council has described 21 particular basins for which water uses
have been determined. The consumption factor (DMCONC) was obtained
by assuming consumptive industrial use of water was related to the use
of water softening compounds (also of industrial detergents as described
and of miscellaneous phosphorus uses). Then for each basin this value
is divided by the total population of the basin. The total use of water
softening compounds containing phosphorus can be estimated (Lewis,
1970). It is estimated to be 38,000 tons per year; that value is unchanged
from 1958 because it is estimated that although water softener use in
industry has increased, nonphosphate products have represented the
increase in use. This number is divided by the annual consumptive
use of water and multiplied by the consumptive use per capita for each
of the 21 basins.
Another industrial output of phosphorus is a summation of many indus-
trial activities. These are called miscellaneous industrial phosphorus
output. They are analyzed in the same way as for water softening. A
calculated output (DMOUT) based on industrial consumptive use (DMFL.O)
is multiplied by the consumption factor (DMCONC) and population (CAP)
of the basin:
DMOUT = (DMFLO) (DMCONC) (CAP) (36)
166
-------
Metal finishing (pickling or metal etching) wastes often contain large
amounts of phosphates because of the use of phosphoric acid in this
process. These are calculated on an estimated use of phosphoric acid
in this industry (DMTL). It is best to actually determine this phosphorus
use for a particular basin.
Two specialized industrial outputs are from food wastes and from phos-
phorus mining activities. Food wastes phosphorus are calculated as
coining from loss of food materials (DFWT) and are based on a loss
factor (DFUSE) of about 10 percent of the foods reaching the processor
and on a phosphorus concentration (DFCONC) of 1 percent in the food.
This output (DFOUT) is considered to be entirely organic phosphorus:
DFOUT = (DFWT)(DFCONC)(DFUSE) (37)
Phosphorus mining activities are fairly well controlled, primarily
because they are a point source and other pollutants associated with
output from these activities such as fluorides have attracted considerable
regulatory attention. The output from these activities (DPMOUT) is
calculated as being the concentration in the mining waste that enters
the surface water (DPMIN) multiplied by the flow of wastewater or
spilled wastes (DPMFLO):
DPMOUT = (DPMIN) (DPMFLO) (38)
Generally, phosphorus mining companies are fairly careful with their
liquid wastes and usually these kinds of wastes meet standards (which
may or may not be too permissive) or are released only under spill
type conditions. Strict enforcement or higher standards for pond storage
167
-------
building codes might prevent this kind of spill relationship and elimin-
ate this source of phosphorus. These five outputs from the industrial
subroutine plus industrial detergent use constitute the total phosphorus
output from industry.
The next subroutine (ANMAN) is output from animal wastes and merely
calculates the animal waste phosphorus based on a per capita output of
phosphorus on an annual basis and the population number for each of
four groups of animals. The phosphorus output per animal is derived
from the data reviewed in Section V of this report. These values are
3,564 g/yr (PCOW) from typical cattle, 92.4 g P/yr (PCHIC) from
chickens, 888 g P/yr (PPIGS) from pigs, and 456 g P/yr (PSHEP) from
sheep and goats. Note that horses are included in the cattle output.
However, they are a small number (about 3 percent; Vollenweider,
1968) in comparison to the total cattle population. Thus, the total
cattle output for a basin is merely the phosphorus output times the
number (COWS) of cattle and horses and similarly for the other domestic
animals:
GOUT = (PCOW)(COWS) (39)
Animal waste treatment is based on the flow chart shown in Figure 20.
In this flow chart, there are various possible means of treatment con-
sidered. The input variables and symbols for the various distributions
are shown in the flow chart. The values of phosphorus output from a
particular animal group is calculated based on the particular distribution
of treatment methods used in the basin. By substituting certain other
kinds of treatment one can obtain an estimate of the effect as related
to that particular treatment on phosphorus release into surface waters,
168
-------
CWW U.I)
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TREATMENT
AT
Figure ID. Treatment method! lh»t h»ve been tpplied to animal manures jnd leedlut runoif.
-------
The subroutine asks certain questions about the different treatments and
then calculates "whether the treatment results in land disposal or disposal
directly to receiving waters. The model calculates the amount disposed
on the land (XLDISP) and then calculates the amount disposed into
receiving water by summing the direct discharge into receiving water
(RECW) with the amount disposed on land multiplied by a factor (RZ)
of 0. 05 (estimated by Vollenweider, 1968) for each particular group of
animals. Biggar and Corey (1969) estimate a loss of about 5 percent of
i
applied manure to frozen ground in the Lake Mendota drainage system,
so Vollenweider's value represents an upper limit. This results in a
final summation for each kind of animal (ANOUT for cattle, chickens,
pigs, and sheep) for the amount of phosphorus entering the surface
water:
ANOUT = ((RECW) + (RZ)(XLDISP))RJAN (40)
The fraction of animal waste phosphorus considered available for algal
growth (RJAN) was estimated as 0. 5.
MODEL REPRESENTING PHOSPHORUS
REMOVAL PROCESSES
Subroutine TREAT (see Appendix C for details) has been developed to
represent the sewage treatment plant component of the Phosphorus
Mass Flow Model. From a set of alternatives, the subroutine selects
the least cost system which will provide adequate phosphorus removal.
170
-------
Following are descriptions of the terms used in the subroutine:
Input Terms
P: phosphorus concentration in the influent stream (mg/1)
Q: flow on influent stream
NTYPE: the total number of treatment process alternatives to be
considered (integer)
ITYPE (I): identification number of Ith individual treatment system
alternative to be considered (integer)
POMAX: maximum allowable phosphorus concentration in the
effluent stream (mg/1)
Output Terms
ITYPES: identification number of the least cost treatment system
required to provide an effluent concentration of POMAX
(integer)
a. if no treatment is required, ITYPES = 17 to
flag the main program
b. if degree of treatment required cannot be pro-
vided by any of the system alternatives, ITYPES
= 16 to flag the main program
PO: phosphorus concentration in the effluent from system
ITYPES (mg/1)
COST: cost of treatment system ITYPES ($/year)
Internal Terms
QMQD: flow of influent stream in mgd
QMGY: flow of influent stream in million gallons per year
XGOST (I): cost of providing treatment by ITYPE (I) ($/year)
XPO (I): phosphorus concentration in effluent from ITYPE (I)
(mg/1)
I: index of current system alternatives (integer)
171
-------
PMIN1-
PMIN10: minimum phosphorus concentration obtainable in effluent
from current system (mg/1)
ITEST: indicator to flag situation where degree of treatment
required cannot be provided by any of the systems
alternatives (integer)
A flow diagram of the subroutine is shown in Figure 21. Values for
P, Q, NTYPE, and POMAX are input from the main program. If the
influent phosphorus concentration (P) is less than the maximum allow-
able (POMAX) in the effluent, no treatment is required; ITYPES is
set equal to 17 and control is returned to the main program. Other-
wise all of the alternatives systems are checked one by one to deter-
mine: (1) If the system currently being considered can provide adequate
treatment (i. e. , is a feasible process); (2) the cost of providing this
treatment XCOST (I); and (3) the effluent phosphorus concentrations
from this system, XPO (I). The annual cost of each feasible system is
checked against the annual cost of the previous feasible system and the
minimum is retained as COST. After all alternatives have been con-
sidered, values for ITYPES, PO, and COST are returned to the main
program. If no feasible system exists, ITYPES is set equal to 16.
TREATMENT SYSTEM ALTERNATIVES
Figure 22 is a schematic diagram showing the unit processes associated
with common phosphorus removal systems. Because all of the possible.
combinations of unit processes depicted in the figure do not represent
practical treatment systems and because some practical combinations
have similar removal and cost characteristics, selected unit processes
172
-------
INPUT: P,Q, NTYPE.ITYPE
POMAX
CAN SYSTEM
ITYPE(I) PROVIDE
EQUIRED REMO
VAL?
FOR SYSTEM ITYPE(I)
CALCULATE: XCOST(I)
S XCOST(I) THE LOWES
CALCULATED SO
FAR?
COST =
XCOST(I)
20 CONTINUE
CAN ADEQUAT
REMOVAL BE
CCOMPLISHED?
WRITE INFORMA
TION
STATEMENT
PO = P
ITYPES = 16
RETURN VALUES
FOR: ITYPES.PO, COST
I
C END J
Figure 21. Flow diagram for subroutine TREAT.
173
-------
-PRIMARY TREATMENT*
PRODUCT WATER STREAM
SECONDARY TREATMENT
-TERTIARY TREATMENT
SEDIMENTATION
MOVING BED
FILTER
SLUDGE
I
SUPERNATANT
t . I
TRICKLING
FILTER
ACTIVATED
SLUDGE
8
SEDIMENTATION
i!
SLUDGE
MIXED MEDIA
FILTRATION
EXCHANGE
REVERSE I
OSMOSIS I
^SEDIMENTATION!
SLUDGE
TO
EXPENDED
CARBON
WASTEWATER—F1LTER BACKWASH (lo)
INFLUENT
SLUDGE
CONDITIONING
^RECYCLE
"PORTION
SLUDGE (13)
BRINE (11,12)
FINAL
"DISPOSAL
REJUVENATE
* AND
RECYCLE
OCEAN DISPOSAL
DEEP WELL INJECTION
OTHER
DIGESTION
FINAL
DISPOSAL
CHEMICAL
RECOVERY
RECYCLE
CHEMICALS
Figure 22. Schematic diagram showing unit processes associated with common phosphorus removal systems.
-------
have been grouped into four process systems which represent the
general range of removal efficiencies and costs. The four treatment
systems which have been selected for the example runs are as follows:
1. Chemical coagulation at an existing activated sludge plant.
No additional clarification or sludge handling costs are
included.
2. Tertiary chemical coagulation of secondary effluent.
3. Selective ion exchange. Not including lime disposal.
4. Reverse osmosis. Not including lime disposal.
Costs and removal efficiencies have been taken from data reported in
the literature. Because of the wide variability in the data, depending
on the location of the facility and the characteristics of the wastewater,
the removal levels and cost functions developed in this section are
intended only to represent the relative ranges of the systems. For
example, phosphorus residuals in the range of about 2 to 0. 5 mg/1 may
be reasonable levels to expect in effluent from chemical coagulation in
secondary treatment plants and 0. 5 to 0. 1 mg/1 have been reported for
tertiary coagulation followed by mixed media filtration (Jenkins et al. ,
1971; Gulp and Gulp, 1971). In order to represent a "typical" plant
for the model, the minimum phosphorus level which could be consistently
maintained for processes 1 and 2 was set at 1. 0 mg/1. All costs have
been adjusted to the 1971 ENR Construction Index (base year 1967 =
100). A capital recovery factor of 0. 08 was used in the calculations.
1. Chemical coagulation at an existing activated sludge plant. (Zenz
and Pivnicka, 1969; EPA, 1971e; Jenkins et al. , 1971; Directo
et al. , 1972) Functions are based on precipitation with Fe (III).
175
-------
a. Unit process combinations (from Figure 22):
2,4,5,7,8; 2,4,6,7,8; 2,4,5,8; 2,4,6,8;
2,5,7,8; 2,6,7,8
b. Minimum concentration which can be obtained by the
process = 1.0 mg/1
c. Maximum possible removal 95 percent
d. Chemical cost ($ ) dollars per year (Figure 23):
\^
= 1.0 0% < removal < 74%
Fe (% removal) - 62.0
— = — - -
,
1257 < removal
$_ = 2. 251*P*QMGY*£f-)
v-> F
e. Chemical storage and labor ($ ) dollars per year:
J_i
X = 73. 2*( )*P*QMGD (Ibs feed/day)
$_ = 5600; 0 < X < 1000
i_i
0 5935
$_ = 4800 + 33. 6 X ; 1000 < X < 6000
LJ
$T = 2.065X°'6?92 + 33. 62 X°*5935; 6000 < X
Ju
f. Total cost per year:
$/year = $ + $
2. Tertiary chemical coagulation of secondary effluent. (Convery,
1970; EPA, 1971a)
a. Unit process combinations (from Figure 21):
9,13
b. Minimum concentration which can be obtained by the process
= 1.0 mg/1
176
-------
-J
-g
100
a)
>
O
g
4)
PC;
80
60
(Directo et al. , 1972)
I
I
1.5 2.0 2.5
Molar Ratio Fe/P
3.0
Figure 23. Percent phosphorus removal vs. applied molar ratio Fe/P.
-------
c. Maximum possible removal = 95%
d. Capital costs ($ ) dollars per year (Figure 24):
cap
$ = 13,600mgd0'856
cap
e. Chemical and operating costs:
Same as Process No. 1
f. Total cost in dollars per year = $ + $ + $
cap \j J_i
3. Selective ion exchange. (EPA, I970a; EPA, 1971d; Bishop et al. ,
1972)
a. Unit process combinations (from Figure 21):
11
b. Minimum concentration which can be obtained by the
process = 0. 5 mg/1
c. Maximum possible removal = 98%
d. Capital costs ($ ) dollars per year (EPA, 197 Id):
QADJ = QMGD 0 < P-PMAX < 10
QADJ = QMGD*(P"P^AX) 10 < P-PMAX
$ = 19, 832 QADJ0'920
cap
e. Chemical and operating and maintenance costs (Figure 25)
in dollars per year:
$ = [0. 18 QADJ"°* 3815 -1- 0. 09 QADJ"°* 2245]*QMGY*1000
f. Total cost in dollars per year = $ f $T
cap Li
178
-------
100
80
60
40
20
Q
0
8 10
P.
X (EPA. 1971a)
O (Convery, 1970)
6 8 10 (
Capital Cost {$) x 10
12
14
16 18
Figure 24. Capital costs for tertiary chemical coagulation.
179
-------
100
80
60 -
40 —
20 —
a
a
n)
a B
at 8
0
6 -
4 -
2 -
P = 10 mg/1
O(EPA, 1970a)
.1 -2
Cost $/1000 Gal
Figure 25. Selective ion exchange.
180
-------
4. Reverse osmosis. (Besik, 1971; Dodson, 1971; Dryden, 1969;
EPA, 1970d; Kerr, 1971)
a. Unit process combination (from Figure 21):
12
b. Minimum concentration which can be obtained by the
process = 0. 05 mg/1
c. Maximum possible removal = 99%
d. Flow recovery = 85%
e. Blending:
QADJ = QMGD(P--8*POMAX)
in which QADJ = amount of flow to be treated
f. Total cost in dollars per year (Figures 26 and 27):
$ = 0.705 - 0.243 log QADJ TDS = 1500 to 5000
$ > 0. 30
$ = 1.05 QADJ~°'3132 TDS = 35,000
$ > 0.25
DISTRIBUTION OF SEWERED AND UNSEWERED POINT
SOURCE PHOSPHORUS ACTIVITIES AND THEIR
TREATMENT AND COSTS
After calculation of all the subroutine phosphorus-using activities and
their outputs, further distributions as to direct discharge and/or treat-
ment in-plant or treatment at a municipal treatment plant is evaluated
(see Figure 13, Section V, showing distributions). These calculations
are performed in the main program (Appendix C).
181
-------
100
80
60
40
ZO
10
8
o
*
O
1
.8
.6 -
.4 -
.2 _
Municipa I
TDS 1500-5000
X (EPA, 1970d)
A (Dryden, 1969)
O (Kerr. 1972)
.20 .30 .40 .50 .60
$/1000 Gal
.70
.80
Figure 26. Total costs for reverse osmosis treatment of municipal effluent.
182
-------
10
8
_ 6
- 4
- 2
8
o
ri
&
ri
U
1.0
.8
- .6
.4
X (EPA, 1970d)
- .,2
Industrial
TDS = 35,000
.2
.4 .6 .8 1.0
$/1000 gal
6 10
Figure 27. Total costs for reverse osmosis treatment of industrial
effluent.
183
-------
First, urban runoff (UOUT) is distributed to direct discharge or to the
domestic treatment plant (SURB) if combined sewers are in use; no
provision for overflow of combined sewers is made as this factor is
considered in the apportionment between direct discharge and sewering.
Phosphorus from industrial and domestic wastes which would overflow
from combined sewer overflow are not included in this output because of
the complexity of the interrelationships, even though such material
can be significant as in Lake Erie (Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration, 1963). Also, it is anticipated that problems with com-
bined sewer overflow will be eliminated by EPA enforcement actions.
A simple factor indicating the proportion of sewered to total urban
runoff is used (FAC1). Thus, unsewered urban waste (USURB) goes
directly into the surface water.
Next, the outputs of the industrial waste from detergent use, water
softening use and miscellaneous industrial phosphorus uses are distributed.
The sum of these outputs (DON) is multiplied by a factor (FAC2) reflecting
the sewered portion (SIND). The sewered portion is subtracted from the
total to provide the unsewered material (USIND), discharged directly
into the surface water; the sewered portion goes into the municipal
treatment plant.
Analysis of metal finishing wastes is performed as follows: First, a
portion may have the possibility of in-plant treatment. The fraction
which is not treated (WALK) is determined by subtracting the total
metal finishing waste minus the total output of metal finishing wastes
multiplied by a factor (FAC3). The remaining material (BOB) is
apportioned to in-plant treatment (subroutine TREAT). The concentration
184
-------
(CON1) is calculated by dividing the remaining material (BOB) by a flow
value (FLiOl) which is input data. Then a treatment level is ascribed
and in the usual case 80 percent (TT1) removal is required which means
that the effluent concentration of phosphorus (POM) from treatment
must be 0. 2 times the concentration of phosphorus in the influent. Then
the treatment subroutine (TREAT) is called. The output from the treat-
ment subroutine (PDS1) in g P/yr is then added to the material which is
not treated (POR = WALK + PDS1). Also, a portion of this effluent
can be discharged directly to surface water (UPOR) so a sewered portion
(SPOR) is obtained by multiplying by a factor (FAC4); these outputs are
distributed to direct discharge or to the municipal treatment plant.
Food wastes are treated similarly to metal finishing wastes, i. e.,
there is in-plant (BILL) and no treatment (GREN) distributed using a
factor (FAC5); The concentration (CON2) is calculated by dividing the
in-plant portion by flow input data (FLO2); a level of treatment (TT2)
required to produce an effluent of a desired phosphorus concentration
(POM) is defined; the output from treatment (PDS2) plus the amount not
treated in-plant is totaled (CEL) and distributed (1) to the municipal
treatment plant (SCEL) by multiplying by a factor (FAC6) and (2) to
direct discharge (UCEL) by difference. The output from in-plant
treatment of food wastes is considered to be essentially zero because
such wastes are biologically treated and require phosphorus additions
to make up for the wastes being phosphorus deficient for microbial
metabolism.
The amount of phosphorus entering the municipal treatment plant
(DOMIN) is the sum of human wastes output (DOUT), domestic detergent
185
-------
use (DTOUT), urban runoff in combined sewers (SURE), industrial
use of detergents, water softeners, and miscellaneous uses which enter
the sewer system (SIND), and the amount of phosphorus entering sewers
from metal finishing (SPOR) and food wastes (SCEL). To determine
treatment levels and costs this total (DOMIN) is divided by the flow
(FLO6) of all the individual inputs to determine concentration (CON3).
This flow is obtained by summing the input flows from metals and food
wastes which directly enter sewage ((FL,O1)(FAC4), (FL,O2)(FAC6)) and
the following calculated flows: (1) The domestic flow (FL.O3) is based on
the product of population (CAP), mean population use of water (100 gal/
cap-day), and the proportion of sewered population (SFAC); (2) urban
runoff flow (FLO4) is based on runoff as calculated from the urban run-
off subroutine, i. e. , urban acreage (UACRE) times precipitation rate
(PRATE) times the runoff factor (UFAC) times the portion entering the
sewer (FAC1) times a conversion factor to liters (0. 001); (3) the output
from the grouped industrial wastes (FLO5) is considered a function of
industrial consumptive use and is calculated by multiplying the population
by the factor related to consumptive use for the particular basin (BASF)
and the factor related to discharge into the sewer (FAC2).
The program then apportions the total flow (FLO6) at a level of phos-
phorus removal (TT3), 0, 25, 80, 95, or 99 percent removal, to the
various treatment plants in the basin (1,N treatment plants) using a
series of factors (FFAC(l), FFAC(N)). Thus, the treatment costs
($/year) and methods are determined according to whether the basin
treats the sewage at a single site (to obtain economy of scale) or at
many sites. The output (TPMIN) is a summation of all the phsophorus
186
-------
from all the treatment plants. A separate listing of each treatment
plant is included specifying the flow (I/year), the influent concentration
(mg/1), the effluent concentration (mg/1), actual percent P removed,
and the cost ($/year). Also, the values for flow and cost are totaled for
the year.
Wastes from phosphorus mining plants are treated similarly to the
other industrial wastes except that entering the municipal treatment
scheme is not provided. Direct discharge before treatment can occur
using a proportion (FAC7) of the total output fr,om phosphorus mining
(DPMOUT) as going to the TREAT subroutine (SMIN) and the remainder
(UMIN) as direct discharge. The phosphorus concentration entering
TREAT (CON4) would be equal to the proportion treated (SMIN) divided
by an input flow value (FLO7). The phosphorus effluent from treatment
is then PDS4.
SUMMATION OF PHOSPHORUS ENTERING
SURFACE WATERS
The activities previously described all produce phosphorus of various
forms which enter surface waters. These forms are not all equally
available to plant growth and thus are not all of equal importance in their
role in causing eutrophication. Also, not all of the activities which
produce phosphorus actually result in additions to the surface water of
interest. Consequently, several totals are calculated (refer to Figure
18). First, the total for all the phosphorus producing activities is
calculated; this total (TOTAL,) is the sum of the pesticide output, the
strip mines and tailings runoff, total watershed runoff, the fertilized
187
-------
agricultural output, the irrigation return flow output, the output from
the four animal groups after treatment, domestic waste output, the
domestic detergent use output, the industrial wastes output, the solid
waste and urban runoff, phosphorus mining output, direct rainfall on
the surface water, whatever river inflow enters the system, and direct
release of domestic detergent and human phosphorus outputs. This,
then, is the total of all the activities producing phosphorus in the system.
The next total (EFFP) represents the actual amount which is likely to
enter the surface water of interest and is composed of the pesticide,
strip mine and tailings runoff, total watershed runoff, fertilized agri-
cultural runoff, irrigation return flow, outputs from the four animal
groups after treatment, solid wastes, the unsewered urban runoff,
unsewered industrial wastes from detergent, miscellaneous, and water
softening uses, and unsewered portions of metal finishing wastes and
food wastes, plus the output from the municipal treatment plant, the
direct rainfall on the water, the untreated mine wastes entering the
water, and its unsewered portion plus the river inputs and whatever
direct discharges of domestic human and detergent uses which occur.
Because not all of this total is actually considered available to growth
of organisms, a further breakdown, called available effluent phosphorus
(AEFFP), is totaled. A crude estimation of whether or not the material
in question is in the insoluble inorganic or organic form is made to com-
pose this total. Thus, the available phosphorus for plant growth is
considered to be the total of the runoff from strip mines and tailings,
the inorganic phosphorus portion from the fertilized agriculture output,
irrigation return flow, total watershed runoff, a percentage (RJAN) of
188
-------
the total of the animal wastes which enter the surface waters (usually
50 percent), solid wastes runoff, plus direct rainfall onto the surface
waters plus the treatment plant effluent (all of which is considered
available), the unsewered urban runoff and the unsewered portions of
industrial and phosphorus mining activities, one half of the total material
entering through any influent river (RAFO), and the unsewered direct
discharge of domestic human and detergent phosphorus. These totals
represent the areas of interest in regard to minimizing eutrophication.
One important point concerning direct discharge of industrial wastes,
runoff from mining, and other possibly toxic materials is that cessation
of their discharge may remove a toxic factor suppressing algal growth.
Such discharges have a double-edged effect: (1) Discharge of phosphorus
may be unimportant because of toxicity; and (2) cessation of discharge
may increase productivity because of removal of toxic materials.
OUTPUT FROM THE PROGRAM
The output from all of the different activities as described above and
the miscellaneous totals and subtotals which are of interest are all
printed on a single page (the multiple treatment plant information as
described above is listed on a second page) and are listed in Table 35;
first, each activity is named and then the quantities of phosphorus:
Column 2 lists the amount of phosphorus actually generated in g/year,
and then in fractions of the three different totals enumerated just above;
the third column is the fraction of TOTAL; the fourth column is the
fraction of the material actually entering the surface water (EFFP); and
the fifth column is the fraction of material which is assumed to be
available (AEFFP).
189
-------
vD
O
Table 35. REPRESENTATIVE EXAMPLE OF PROGRAM OUTPUT SHOWING PHOSPHORUS ACTIVITY ANALYSIS, MASS FLOW AND
RELATIVE EUTROPHICATION
« L « H
STH1P
KAfF
1NUKU rHUSPHURuS
IHH KCruAri FLUN I*
SULII) N»5IE OUT
NAT ULV KuNuFr
M»(UHAL HUKQFF
HAH. FoH
liKAZtNu KUNOFF
RAINFALL
OUri UIKLCt Ul»CrlAK6L
OUH Otl UIRICI OJiCrt
SEMtrttU UuMCSTtC
SEM OUH. uEI f
URBAN RUNuFF
INO ULlCK OUT
HISC P UUI
MATCR SOFICNtne
HtTAL FIi4 OUT
roan NAsrt. uui
NIN1N& f JUT
HUN TNtAT INFLUt^l
INO otl * utHtu Ii.J
CUri HANUKt UUI
CHICK HA4uKi. UUI
PIG MANUHL UUI
SHEtf MANURE (JUT
IN-PLAHT IRf MEIALS
JN-CLANT IRf fOJJi
UNT^EATtl) TOTAL
CUH AKTEH TNCAT
CHICK AFTtR TKEAT
Plti AHEH TKEAT
SHtLf AFTtK rrtTAf
UNStHtH UnR.
UNSEHtK t,(0«
ONfHEAIED HLTALS
UNTHCArCO FUOUS
THE«T KLH..T Etr
THLAT f MjNINu tFI-
UNTKEATCO HiNINU
TMtuftu TuTAL
AVAIL TR
uun stn
OET
TufAL
(A;00*00
O.J7J
4U09426141.J4
74640000,00
ISaOO.OO
132042.04
062635541. »/
616333333. 3J
90613333.33
O.OO
1 4 7608073 .00
1 7601 6000u.ll9
3306600000. OU
0,00
0.00
2*22960000.0?
340238080,00
2062109760,00
1373625000,00
916500000.00
12000000.00
14701/0.00
O.UO
1274106S10<..72
1166661760, UO
123808000.00
162624004. 00
6393600(1,00
35978400.00
2400000.00
1*7000. v!)
27107913940,7?
26905903.60
40725113. 20
5337B30.00
703332^.47
327 14)793.20
£l?73^73BOtGO
S20SOU.OO
16750.00
12'HOo1*! 'la. (V
O.OO
O.OO
2600-4166723.76
U. JO01
O.'JOOt
0. l"7»
O.UU2i
O.OOOu
(I.OOilO
O.OJlu
0.0227
0.0t>36
0.0000
o.ooiD
0. ut.it!
D.123-*
i. 1)000
O.OOOu
0. 0960
11. 0120
il. » 761
0.0507
0.0301
0.0004
Q.UOUO
0.0000
0.470'J
0.1371
U. 00-46
0.006U
J.0021
o.ooi i
• I.VD43
j.oooi
O.UOU4
0.2000
0.1496
0.002H
0.0000
o.oouo
0.0322
0.0230
0.0037
J.OOOO
o.OObS
u,0660
0.1220
O.OOWO
ii.OOOO
0.0010
0.0015
0.0002
O.OOUJ
o. 01^2
0.0794
y.OUOO
o.OOOO
0.47S3
j.onuO
0,0000
O.UU03
0.003d
O.OUOO
O.OOUO
0.0140
0.0*0^
0. 10*16
0,000'
O.GulO
0.0001
O.OUU2
0.01 A'
0. 1093
O.OOOU
O.OOQO
0. ftl^rt
O.lluOO
O.OUOO
33490432. 00
UVOOOOOOtOu
!>ii2156ua2<>2>56
Ovb680000,0u
1B7200.00
9994594,59
10331626500. WW
7395999999.92
1183360000. Oj
0,00
1772266500. Ou
21kl7*20000>l6
39679200000*00
0.00
O.OU
31475520000.16
4170B56960.UO
24751U77120.0w
1630^300000,00
97VdOOOOOO.OO
148000000.00
176«000.00
0.00
26*tt>1^64duO »OU
^12^^341 1 20 • 00
I«d6a56000.bo
1951480000. Ou
767232000.00
O174UBOO.OO
J3UV7921B36.lt>
323030843. 2u
4B87013B2.4U
61294041.60
81399929.61
iv2al25542>42
2")3^0^88560.0U
yfi496UVj
706t)bauo00.1c>
0.00
o.oo
0.00
1U.1296
jrt .
v.vl ^
0.3437
0.1033
-------
The sixth column is an accumulation of the annual output which is
summed over a period of 12 years (or any other number). Although
only the twelfth year is usually printed, this format allows monthly
increments and yearly or greater increments if such information is
desired. Not all accumulation will be equal to 12 times the annual
phosphorus production by a given activity because some change with
time (e. g. , the fertilizer subroutine). Also, population, areas of
activities, and annual precipitation rate can easily be programmed to
change with time but are not in this particular program. The next two
columns refer to the treatment subroutine (TREAT). The first of
these columns tells whether the treatment is unnecessary (NO TRT),
whether no process will produce the desired level of treatment (NO PRO),
or if treatment does occur, which of the three particular processes
which result in the desired level of phosphorus removal. This column
is blank for municipal treatment plant effluent because of the separate
listing for possible multiple treatment plants. It is in the separate
listing that the specified process for each plant is listed (Table D-5,
D-6, and D-7, Appendix D). Then the second of the columns lists the
costs of such treatment in dollars/year.
The last calculation made in Table 35 is the evaluation of eutrophication
in terms of the phosphorus loading rate, g/m • yr. It is calculated
(1) by dividing total input to surface waters (EFFP) and the available
fraction (AEFFP) in g P/yr by the surface area of the receiving water
body (RWA'CRE) to obtain loading, and (2) solving for "relative eutro-
phication11 as a fraction of loading for lakes of differing mean depth
(Figure 11). Arbitrary numerical values for eutrophication have been
assigned as follows:
191
-------
Lake Class Relative Value
Eutrophic > 10
Mesotrophic 5-10
Oligotrophic < 5
The numbers represent a very empirical derivation (Vollenweider,
1968) and give no estimate of the functional relationship between
different levels of bio stimulation, i. e. , the comparison of eutrophic
to oligotrophic may indicate a linear, logarithmic, geometric, etc. ,
progression of effects in relation to loading. However, if one assumes
plug flow (no mixing), a residence time of one year to calculate the
inflow (i. e. , the treated total entering the lake, EFFP), and the appro-
priate mean depth with the area of the lake to calculate the volume, the
mean concentration can be estimated (assuming phosphorus behaves
conservatively--is not removed); it is the relative eutrophication value.
For example, in Table 35 for the 50 m lake, the mean concentration of
total phosphorus would be 20. 8593 ng/1 as P and for available phosphorus
15.2984 p.g/1 as P.
CASE STUDIES
Initially, a hypothetical lake and basin were constructed to test the
computer model. The data for this lake were selected to ensure that
(1) the basin contained most of the pertinent activities shown in Figure
13; (2) the lake would be very eutrophic so that many strategies could
be applied to the basin; and (3) the system would utilize many numbers
and data which would be common to most systems. This last point was
done to simplify data requirements for application to actual lake systems.
192
-------
A summary of the important variable parameters for the three systems
utilized in the program lists the values of the parameters and the source
of the estimates (Table 36). A complete listing of input values is in
Appendix D.
193
-------
Table 36. IMPORTANT VARIABLE PARAMETERS IN PHOSPHORUS INPUT TO SURFACE WATERS
PROGRAM (COMPLETES INPUTS LISTED IN APPENDIX D)
Mnemonic of
Parameter
PRATE
FAC1
FAC2
FAC3
FAC4
FAC5
FAC6
FAC7
FERT(I)
FLOW(±)
SLFPH
FACRE
CAP.
DMCONC
DPMIN
SACRE
UACRE
XNACRE
XDACRE
RWACRE
WACRE
XFACRE
GACRE
RFLO
RCONC
R
P
FA1
FA 2
FA 3
References
Values of Parameters
Units
cm/yr
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
Kg/ha.yr
l/yr
ppm
2
cm
number
MGD/cap.
g/m
2
cm
2
cm
2
cm
2
cm
2
cm
2
cm
2
cm
2
cm
l/yr
gA
NAa
NA
ratio
ratio
ratio
Hypothetical
50
1.0
0.5
0
1.0
0
1.0
1.0
40
0.78 x 109
500
0. 12 x 1014
0.5 x 106
f
0.1 x 10
2.0
0.5xl010
0.25 x 1013
0. 6x 1014
0.5 x 1012
0.127 x 1013
0.177 x 1013
0.904x 1012
0.13 x 1013
0
0
50
1.0
0.6
0.35
0.05
Lake Michigan
79
0.943
0.06
0
0.943
0
0.943
0
10
0
500
0.322 x 1014
0. 36 x 10?
.5
0.71 x 10
0
0.36x 1010
0. 17 x 1014
0. 66 x 1015
0. 64 x 1014
0. 578 x 1015
0.578 x 1015
0
0.128 x 1015
0
0
100
0.5
0.8
0.2
0
Lake Erie
86
0.9
0.86
0
0.943
0
0.943
0
10
0
500
0. 622 x 1014
0.125 x 108
-5
0. 71 x 10
0
0.125 x 1011
0. 304 x 1014
0.4 x 1015
0. 32xl014
0. 257 x 1015
0. 257 x 1015
0
0. 639 x 1014
0. 167 x 1015
0. 198 x 10"4
100
0.5
0.8
0.2
0
Source of Data
Hypothetical
1
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
1
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
7
7
4
4
4
Michigan
1
2
2
4
Z
4
2
4
4
4
4
1
1,5
1
4
6
6
1
6
1
1
1
1
4
4
7
7
4
4
4-
Erie
1
3
3
4
3
4
2
4
4
4
4
1
3
1
4
6
6
1
6
1
1
1
1
3
3
7
7
4
4
4
1. Water Resources Council (1968); 2. Lee (1972); 3. Federal Water Pollution Control Agency (1968);
4. Estimated based on judgement of project staff; 5. U.S. Department of Commerce (1972);
6. Based on population estimate; 7. Based on Wischmeier (1968).
194
-------
SECTION VII
MANAGEMENT TACTICS FOR
CONTROLLING PHOSPHORUS
DEFINITION OF CONTROL TACTICS
Management tactics refer to the range of methods and techniques which
could be applied in controlling phosphorus inputs to surface waters.
Strategies are combinations or sets of tactics used in a coordinated
manner for basin-wide management. The purpose of this section of
the report is to identify and describe potential control tactics for con-
trolling phosphate flows from the major sources described in Sections
V and VI. In Section VIII these tactics are integrated into overall
strategies for testing and application in case studies of hypothetical
and actual river basin systems.
To structure the phosphate flow model and to facilitate the development
and analysis of management strategies, the sources of phosphorus to
surface waters are grouped according to the following major activity
systems:
1. Nonbasin
2. Agriculture
3. Urban and rural watersheds
195
-------
4. Domestic
5. Industrial
6. Mining
7. Animal production
Likewise, the tactics or methods of control are grouped according to
the following classifications:
1. Supply and demand as applied to consumer habits and
production activities
2. Resource control: Mining and manufacturing
3. Management of phosphate use
4. Management of phosphate discharges
5. Judicial controls
6. Wastewater treatment
7. Lake renovation
As an overview, the matrix in Figure 28 illustrates the general relation-
ship between phosphorus sources and the control tactics available. An
"X" in the matrix indicates that the group of controls is generally
applicable to the activity source. The problem of developing manage-
ment strategies, viewed in the context of the matrix, amounts to formu-
lating a coordinated set of specific controls from the available tactics
to be used in reducing phosphate discharges from the activity systems.
Procedures for examining the combination of controls in order to identify
the overall best strategy are treated in Section VIII.
Looking more specifically at the phosphate sources within each activity
system, the flow diagram of Figure 29 illustrates for which sources the
196
-------
D
G
. methods generally
;ivity source
Strategic Concept of Controls
and Phosphorus Generating
Activities
1. Natural Processes
2. Agriculture
3. Urban/Rural Watersheds
4. Domestic
5. Industrial
6. Mining
7. Animal Production
"8
rt
q
c
a)
cn
X
X
X
X
X
X
'wi
ti
•H
0
CQ "-i-j
O fi
^ S
c cl
0 p
u ^
n
0) d
3 2s
o ri
M .H
W rj
rt •=.
X
X
w
CQ
D
PH
r, .
O
•JJ
ti
E
0)
60
3
rt
2
X
X
X
X
X
en
bo
h
rt
XI
u
CQ
• r-l
Q
A
<+-(
o
^>
ti
s
anage
s
X
X
X
X
X
X
CQ
1— 1
o
f-{
^
o
O
rt
•H
y
•H
T>
^S
H^
X
X
X
X
X
X
fl
OJ
1
0}
(11
FH
^i
4)
"rt
^
+J
CQ
rt
^
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
a
0
• r-t
d
;>
o
cl
Pi
^
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Figure 28. Applicable control methods for phosphorus generating activities.
-------
ining ^
Mining
Animal
Productio
DIRECT RAINFALL
RIVER INFLOW
AGRICULTURAL
IRRIGATION RETURN FLOW
PESTICIDES
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
MANAGED FORESTS
GRA/ED WATERSHED
DEVELOPED WATERSHED
NATURAL WATERSHED
URBAN RUNOFF
DOMES~1C WASTES
DOMESTIC DETERGEMT5
INDUSTRIAL DETERGENTS
WATEP- SOFTEN1NQ
MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIAL USE
METAL FINISHING
FOOD WASTES
P MINING
MINING RUNOFF
~l
J
1
|
POULTRY
I Subroutine in tile Input
Program (Section V.I) |
Figure 29. Control points siiperimposed on the phosphorus activity
analysis showing the major application points for pertinent
control tactics (see Table 37).
198
-------
general categories of control methods are applicable. Figure 28
emphasizes that the point at which controls are applied is also an
important element of strategy. Table 37 provides a detailed breakdown
of the options available within each class of control tactics. These
approaches include both technological and management (economic, legal,
social, and educational) possibilities.
Using Table 37 as an outline, the function, operation, and implementa-
tion of various methods and techniques for control are discussed in this
section. The flow diagram for each phosphate mobilizing activity
(Figures 30 to 34) illustrates where the full range of possible control
tactics could be applied in the system. To the left of the dotted line,
the boxes in each flow diagram illustrate the human wants giving rise
to the demand for and supply of phosphorus products; to the right of the
line are the physical processes by which the phosphorus then finds its
way into receiving waters. On the arrows connecting the boxes in
Figures 30 to 34 are listed the possible controls (keyed to the listing
in the outline of Table 37) which might be applied to reduce phosphate
flows at that point. Examinations of the diagrams reveal the large
number of possible combinations of methods and points of intervention
in the system. Clearly all of these combinations cannot be discussed in
detail. However, from the combinations shown in the figures, strategies
are developed in Section VIII that seem to be most promising and effec-
tive. These strategies are then tested in the phosphorus flow model
(Figure 29) and analyzed as to their effectiveness for the case study
areas.
199
-------
Table 37. SUMMARY LISTING OF
CONTROL, TACTICS
A. Supply and demand (applies to consumer habits and producer
activities)
1. Excise taxes or other taxes
2. Subsidies (nonphosphorus products)
3. Tax breaks and credits
4. Price controls
5. Advertising and education
6. Nonmonetary recognition
7. Content labeling
8. Moral suasion
9. Boycotts
B. Resource control, mining and manufacturing
1. Requirements for recycling
2. Phosphate mining restrictions (rationing)
3. Manufacturing/production restrictions
4. Emission controls
C. Management of phosphorus uses
1. Resource and product substitution
2. Technology improvements in processes or uses
3. Monitor requirements with enforcement of application rates
(e. g. , fertilizer)
4. Recycling and reclamation
D. Management of phosphorus discharges
1. Imposition of pollution standards
2. Land management practices
a. Reduction of cultivated acreage
b. Increased or decreased fertilizer use
c. Erosion control--cropping and fertilizer management
d. Erosion control--irrigation practices
e. Erosion control--green belts and buffer zones
f. Solid waste recycling
200
-------
Table 37. CONTINUED
3. Land use controls
a. Zoning
b. Licensing
c. Leasing
d. Codes and subdivision regulations
e. Permits
4. Solid waste management
a. Disposal regulation
b. Fees
5. Effluent charges
6. Bans
7. Fines
E. Judicial controls
1. Judicial review
2. Class action
3. Common law remedies (nuisance,trespass, negligence)
F. Wastewater treatment—for phosphorus removal
G. Lake modification
CONCEPTS OF CONTROL TACTICS
Major concepts of the various control tactics listed in Table 37 have
been subjected to analysis according to several common criteria. These
include a brief description of the control tactic including where it is
applied, to which points in the system, and to which activities such as
feedlots, etc. Then the effects of the control tactic in changing phos-
phorus output for particularly important activities are described. Also
the elements which make it a controllable variable may be discussed;
201
-------
HUMAN VUT
(SUPPLY AI
/
rs AM) MEEDS ___
«D DEMAND)
DBTERCEHT
HANVFACTURE
AND SUPPLY
^,
PROCESSES AND HECHAN1S1MS
DOMSSTIC HASTES
IN;
o
URiXS
NATOLSH£D
ACTIV1TIE$
PLANT AND
AMIHAI. KATIES
PROM HUMAN
Acrirm
MAKACED
WATERSHEDS
(FOREST,
CRAZING)
DEPOSITION
OP PLAMT/
AX 1 HAL MATTER
HOUSEHOLD
INBUSTSIAL
COMMERCIAL
•AGRICULTURAL
DISPOSAL
POLICIES
SOLID HASTES
SOLID UASTL
MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES
1) SAN, LANDFILL
2) INCINERATION
3) OPEN DIIHP
—
LEACH INS |
Figure iO. Control tactica applied 1
urban and rural watersheds and domesti'
-------
SUPPLY OF
AGRICULTURAL
COMMODITIES
HUMAN WANTS
FOR CEREALS
AND FIBERS
DEMAND FOR
AGRICULTURAL
COMMODITIES
AGRICULTURAL
CROPPING
DECISIONS
(TYPES AND
ACREAGES)
*
1
|
LAND AND WATER
RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT
DECISIONS
1
1
t
PEST
CONTROL
DECISIONS
HUN
(su
X
\
— —
X*
^
IAN WANTS
TPLY AND DEMAND)
MANUFACTURE
AND SUPPLY OF
FERTILIZERS
DEMAND FOR
FERTILIZERS
i __ ^ „,„
1
1
\£j
<$>
DEMAND FOR
PESTICIDES |
MANUFACTURE
AND SUPPLY OF
PESTICIDES
. X'.
^
••• r R\J\sC.£
FERTILIZER
APPLICATION
PRACTICES
>SES
^
\
\ " OVERLAND
\ __ *• Binjnrp
SOIL EROSION
FROM TILLAGE
PRACTICES
IRRIGATION
PRACTICES
(RETURN
JLOW)
PESTICIDES
APPLICATION
PRACTICES
\ , y
y/ r^^
A / L< RECEIVING
/ V .A WATER
-------
HUMAN WANT AND NEEDS
(SUPPLY AND DEMAND)
DIETARY
WANTS FOR
MEAT AND
ANIMAL
PRODUCTS
\
X.
X
FEED AND
FEETH.OT f
PRACTICES C2 ^ FEEDLOT
(fUK A WASTES
PARTICULAR
*' /
/
\
LAND
DISPOSAL
PRACTICES
WATER
DISPOSAL
PRACTICES
Figure 32. Control tactics applied to animal waste production.
-------
HUMAN WANTS •
-PROCESSES
tNJ
o
(Jl
HUMAN WANTf
FOR FOOD
HUMAN WANTS
FOR MEAT
SUPPLY OF
CANNED
GOODS
DEMAND FOR
MEATS
DEMAND FOR
METAL FINISH
PRODUCTS
DEMAND FOR
PHOSPHATES
FOR METAL
FINISHING
DEMAND FOR
PHOSPHATES
FOR WATER
CONDITIONING
DEMAND TOR
VARIOUS
INDUSTRIAL
PRODUCTS
DEMAND
CANNED
GOODS
FOR
SUPPLY
MEATS
OF
CANNERY PRACTICES
AND PROCESSES
MINING AND
PROCESSING
OF PHOSPHATE
MINERALS
SUPPLY OF
PHOSPHATES
FOR
INDUSTRIAL USE
MEAT PACKING
PROCESSES
C2 fc
MEAT PACKING
WASTES
METAL FINISHING
MANUFACTURE AND
SUPPLY
A2.D7
METAL
FINISH
WASTES
WATER CONDITIONING
FOR INDUSTRIAL
USES
A2.D7
PROCESS
AND BOILER
WASTES
Ct,
•*>
DOMESTIC
SEWER
SYSTEM
Figure 3J, Control tactics applied to the industrial sector.
-------
HUMAN WANTS
PROCESSES
PHOSPHATE
USES (SEE
OTHER FIGURES)
WANTS FOR
MINED
MATERIALS
DEMAND FOR
PHOSPHORUS
1) FERTILIZER
2} DETERGENTS
3) ANIMA1 FEEDS
4) INDUSTRIAL
- METAL FINISHING
- WATER SOFTENING
- FOOD AND DRUG
- GAS ADDITIVES
- PLASTICIZER
- PESTICIDE
- OTHER
SUPPLY OF
PHOSPHATES
PHOSPHATE
MINING AND
REDUCTION
PRACTICES
DEMAND FOR
OTHER MINED
PRODUCTS
SUPPLY OF
MINED
MATERIALS
MINING PRACTICES
(MANAGEMENT OF
OVERBURDEN, MINE
DRAINAGE, ETC.)
UASTEHATER
STREAMS
DIRECT
RUNOFF
Figure 34. Control tac'irs applied to mining wastes.
-------
how tactics are combined to make a strategy set, how the tactic works
and is implemented, and the cost of each tactic or combination of tactics
(strategy) may be described where data justify the discussion. These
concept discussions allow development of feasible strategies for phos-
phorus control. The following discussion sections are keyed to the
listings in Table 37.
A. Supply and Demand Controls
Supply and demand controls refer to the methods and techniques that
can be used to alter phosphate producing activities or to change or
modify consumer habits and behavior relative to phosphate-bearing
products. The controls fall into two broad categories: (1) Those which
are effected through the economic market itself (excise taxes, subsidies,
and price controls); or (Z) those which attempt to alter the attitudes of
consumers or producers in the economic market (e. g. , advertising,
labeling, boycotts).
1. Excise Taxes--
General applications--Excise taxes are a series of levies imposed on
specific commodities or groups of commodities. They may be quoted
as a percentage of retail price, ad valorem; or as a specific amount
per commodity sold, unit tax.
While several reasons justify their existence, three dominate: (1) To
correct existing external diseconomies in the system by extracting the
true social cost of production from the buyer of the taxed commodity;
207
-------
(2) to generate revenue (usually used to finance programs related to the
commodity); and (3) to alter consumption patterns deemed undesirable
by representatives of society. The first group is relatively new and
consists of emission taxes on air pollutants, and charges on various
uses of public lands. The second group, often referred to as a tie-in-
tax, is represented by gasoline taxes used to finance highway construc-
tion, and "addictive" excises on liquor and tobacco. The final group
consists of sumptuary or luxury excises. Excises applied to phosphate
pollution control would of necessity contain elements of all three. They
would help adjust for diseconomies, help finance treatment facilities,
and change consumption patterns toward nonphosphate products.
An excise tax could be applied at several points in the system:
1. On sales from the mine
2. On sales of pesticides
3. On sales of fertilizer
4. On detergent sales
5. On water softening equipment
6. On sales of meat if one type of animal produces more
phosphate than some others
An excise tax on these sales would make this input more expensive to
the industries or consumers using it. If effective, this would induce
them to seek cheaper alternatives (substituting effect) or to find ways
to cut down on the use of phosphorus (income effect). It would, if the
tax could not be passed along, reduce the profitability of production and
hence lead to a cutback in supply.
208
-------
An excise tax is most effective and most desirable when dealing with a
good (bad) commodity which has effective alternatives and which is
nonnecessary {relatively elastic) in nature.
A tax on sales from the mine would be relatively cheap to administer
since it is mined only a few places. It would be a hidden tax to the
consumer which might be desirable from a political standpoint. It
would be a nonselective levy and would restrict all uses of phosphorus
regardless of their desirability. The tax burden would fall most heavily
on those who had no good input alternatives. As mentioned, it would
not be a tax observable to the consumer and would not, therefore, act
as a signaling service to them that the government was wishing to cut
down on phosphorus use. It is a tax unlikely to be applied at the local
or state level because of the direct effect it would have on the mining
operation, unless there was some local feeling that the resource needed
to be conserved.
In the case of pesticides, fertilizer, and water softening where only
inferior alternatives are available, its only effect would be to cut back
on usage. Whether or not it was effective would depend on whether or
not the increase in cost (owing to the tax) was sufficient to outweigh
the additional revenue from increased production.
Finally, in the case of detergent or meat sales, where there does exist
real alternatives, the effect could be substantial provided the tax was
large enough to alter costs not only relatively, but absolutely. If the
alternative is inferior (soap does not clean as well as detergent),
however, then the impact will not be as great. If the inferiority is
209
-------
psychological rather than physical, then a tax would need to be combined
with some kind of advertising campaign to break down the psychological
barriers.
An excise tax generates revenue and one of the problems with such a
system has always been that governments form a strong attachment to
the revenue, especially when it goes into the general fund. As a result,
rates are frequently kept low enough so as not to hinder production and
consumption in any appreciable fashion.
Application of excise tax to deter gents--Taxes are an important manage-
ment tool and so this particular situation will be discussed extensively.
To illustrate what would happen if an excise tax were applied to deter-
gents, two approaches might be useful. The first is to look at a real
example which closely approximates our own circumstance, the other
to apply a hypothetical levy and make some best estimates as to what
might occur. Margarine, a product which has been extensively taxed,
has a close substitute, butter, just as phosphate detergents have sub-
stitutes of low phosphate detergent and/or soap.
Margarine was developed in response to a competition sponsored by
Napoleon the Third to ease a butter shortage in France. It was an
instant success with the public, but also formed some obvious enemies.
It was attacked by some as an artificial substance and therefore undesir-
able and unhealthy. Attempts were made in this country in the late
1800's to ban its use outright but such laws were judged unconstitutional
by the courts. Laws were then passed specifying its color (white) and
conditions under which it could be sold. One wonders what might
210
-------
happen if a law were passed requiring all detergent that is sold to be
colored black. In addition, an excise tax was levied on margarine at
the federal level and by most states as well. There is no question that
when the tax was high enough to make butter the cheaper product that
margarine sales fell to extremely low levels. Generally butter was
still more expensive and margarine became therefore, in spite of the
tax, increasingly popular. After the law regarding color was elimin-
ated, the shift to margarine was particularly pronounced.
What the tax really did was to generate funds for governmental use,
perhaps to subsidize dairies for their lost sales. It became clear that
the government became very attached to the revenues being generated
and began gradually looking at the levy as a tax instrument rather than
as a regulatory device. If there is no justifiable reason to regulate
margarine, then the unfairness of taxing it and not butter becomes
apparent. Today there are only a couple of states left which levy a
tax on margarine. (A case history for the State of Utah can be found
in Appendix E.)
The experience with the tax on margarine clearly illustrates that if the
tax is high enough to alter comparative prices relative to a substitute
it will be effective. If it does not alter them it can be a considerable
source of funds. Finally, the collecting of funds in this way will only
be politically justifiable provided that consumption of the product is
causing real damage to individuals or their environment.
The second way of looking at the excise tax is to imagine what would
happen if a tax were placed on all detergents. Production figures were
211
-------
used in this analysis because they were most available. A look at the
export figures indicated that less than two percent of detergent produced
in the United States is sold abroad so that production serves as a good
proxy for consumption. This result is shown in Table 38. The next
two tables (Tables 39 and 40) show the loss of sales and the revenue
which could be collected if the various rates of tax -were applied. The
E in each case refers to elasticity or the assumption that is being made
about lost sales. An E of 1 means that a one percent increase in price
(because of the tax) leads to a one percent decrease in sales. In all cases
it is assumed the tax is borne by the consumer. Except in the extreme
case of E = 0 (no loss of sales), there is some finite tax rate which
will maximize revenues. This rate becomes smaller as E rises.
For comparative purposes, in Tables 39 and 40 liquid detergents have
been converted to dry by taking value equivalents. The numbers in
Table 40 are estimates. It is obvious from these tables that a national
excise tax on detergents would raise large sums of money which could
go a long way towards covering the costs of treatment.
2. Subsidies--
According to a Congressional Report by the Joint Economic Committee
in I960:
A subsidy is an act by a governmental unit involving either 1) a
payment; 2) a remission of charges; or 3) supplying commodi-
ties at less than cost or market price, with intent of achieving
a particular economic objective, most usually the supplying to
a general market a product or service which would be supplied
in as great a quantity only at a higher price in the absence of
the payment or remission of charges.
212
-------
Table 38. ESTIMATED DRY WEIGHT OF ALL
DETERGENTS CONSUMED PER PERSON
IN THE UNITED STATESa
1954
1958
1963
1967
1973
Dry kgs,
millions
1,500
1,854
2,000
2,408
2, 752 est.
Population,
thousands
161, 191
173,320
188,483
197,457
209,000 est.
Per Capita,
kgs
9.3
10.7
9.9
12.2
13.2 est.
1954, 1957, 1963, and 1967 data from survey of manufacturers.
1973 data estimated using previous figures (U. S. Department of
Commerce, 1968).
There are various reasons currently used to justify such payments.
Shoup (1969) lists the following: (1) Internalize externalities; (2) redis-
tribution of income; (3) consumer protection- and (4) facilitation of the
dynamic process.
Often an item is said to have benefits which are external to the consumer,
which accrue to society as a whole and which are not considered by the
individual in making his consumption decisions. Since price does not
represent the true value to society, it is argued that this leads to
underconsumption of the goods. Examples often cited are education and
various disease prevention vaccines. In order to stimulate consumption
of these items to the desired level and the correct level for society as
213
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Table 39. REVENUE FROM DETERGENT EXCISE TAX AT DIFFERENT
RATES AND EI^ASTICITIES (1967 DATA)
(quantities are in million kg and tax revenues in dollars)
Tax rate /unit
Case 1
Quantity
Tax revenue
Case 2
Quantity
Tax revenue
Case 3
Quantity
Tax revenue
Case 4
Quantity
Tax revenue
Case 5
Quantity
Tax revenue
Case 6
Quantity
Tax revenue
0
E= 1.05
3530
0
E = 1.0
3530
0
E = 0.95
3530
0
E = 0.90
3530
0
E = 0.75
3530
0
E = 0
3530
0
0.05
2706
289.01
2745
302.33
2784
306. 65
2823
310.97
2941
323.92
3530
338.7
0. 10
2047
450.89
2117
466.44
2188
481.99
2259
497. 54
2470
544. 18
3530
777.4
0. 15
1508
498.21
1604
530. 11
1701
561.91
1797
593.71
2086
689. 11
3530
1166.0
0.20
1059
466.55
1177
518.37
1294
570. 19
1412
622.01
1765
777.48
3530
1554.8
0.25
683
376.46
819
451.09
954
525.70
1090
600. 33
1496
824. 18
3530
1943.5
Converted liquid into dry equivalent values by assuming that the average price of all units
(Ibs and gal) was $0. 20. Thus, total units = 1554. 8/0. 20 = 7774 million Ibs or 3530 x 10° kg.
$1554. 8 millions was the total value of detergents produced in 1967.
-------
r\j
Table 40. REVENUE FROM DETERGENT EXCISE TAX AT DIFFERENT
RATES AND ELASTICITIES (ESTIMATED 1973 DATA)
a
(quantities are in million kg and tax revenues in dollars)
Tax rate /unit
Case 1
Quantity
Tax revenue
Case 2
Quantity
Tax revenue
Case 3
Quantity
Tax revenue
Case 4
Quantity
Tax revenue
Case 5
Quantity
Tax revenue
Case 6
Quantity
Tax revenue
0
E = 1.05
3852
0
E = 1
3852
0
E = 0. 95
3852
0
E = 0. 9
3852
0
E = 0.75
3852
0
E = 0
3852
0
0.05
0.2222
2953
325.27
2996
329.98
3039
334. 69
3082
339.41
3210
353.55
3852
424. 25
0. 10
0.4
2234
492. 13
2311
509. 10
2388
526.07
2465
543.04
2696
593. 95
3852
848.5
0. 15
0. 5454
1278
571. 11
1796
578.59
x
1751
578.59
1961
648.01
2276
752. 13
3852
1272. 75
0. 20
0. 6666
1156
509.22
1284
565.78
1412
622. 24
1541
678. 90
1926
848.58
3852
1697.0
0.
0.
746
410.
894
492.
1042
573.
1190
655.
1634
899.
3852
2121.
25
7679
89
34
78
23
56
25
Converted liquid into dry equivalent values by assuming dry to liquid ratio continues as in
1967. Thus, total units = 1.4 x 6061 = 8485 million Ibs. Data taken from Table 38.
-------
a whole, the government subsidizes the product through one of the three
methods in the previous quote.
Frequently, the humanitarian nature of our society considers the redis-
tribution of income justification enough for a subsidy. For this reason
such subsidies as food stamps, unemployment compensation, and ser-
vices to the disabled, the aged, and war veterans have come into
existence.
Protection of various industries developed for a variety of reasons.
Often a specialized input (usually labor) becomes highly immobile and
as the market in which this industry functions weakens, subsidies
become necessary in order to continue the employment of this factor.
Our agriculture price supports stem from such beliefs. Similarly, if
domestic demands for a foreign made item cause a serious balance-of-
payments deficit, subsidized production of that item is often preferable
to a tariff.
Finally, subsidies can be used to facilitate dynamic adjustment. If a
large manufacturing plant is constructed in an economically depressed
area, it may be that the increased amount of taxes and decreased aid
payments will more than recoup the costs of subsidizing the construction
in a short period of time. Therefore, the government might want to facilitate
or enhance the opportunities of location of this firm in the area through
subsidy measures (Laird and Rinehart, 1967).
Subsidies are negative taxes and could be used at similar points to
excises and represent rewards rather than penalties for specified
216
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actions. They could be used to cheapen the cost of substitute products
or to pay for lost revenues from decreased production.
Subsidies represent a drain on the public treasury and on equity grounds
would be used when it is felt that the benefit is general and not specific.
Laws allowing subsidies must be carefully written so as to ensure that
the subsidy is not collected unless there is a noticeable change in
behavior. Subsidies could also be used to locate phosphorus using
activities in the most appropriate places by rewarding businesses and
activities for locating in desired areas.
Subsidies could be used to encourage appropriate technological innova-
tions by rewarding the desired behavior. The Department of Agriculture
has had several such programs, the most conservation-minded of which
was the Rural Environmental Assistance Program which has now been
discontinued. It provided cost sharing to farmers for environmentally
desirable changes. The Farmers Home Administration also provides
loans and grants for conservation programs. Loans are at favorable
rates of interest for extended periods of time (3. 5-5 percent and 30-40
years).
3. Tax Breaks and Credits--
Closely aligned to subsidies are tax breaks or credits. These are given
through tax laws either by a reduction in the size of the tax base or
through preferential rates on that base. The income tax laws are full
of such breaks (sometimes called loopholes). The purpose of such
breaks is to encourage certain desired types of behavior.
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Tax breaks can be given to anyone or anything that pays taxes. The most
notorious example of tax breaks is the mineral depletion allowance.
This allows a mining firm to deduct a percentage of its gross income--
up to 50 percent of its taxable income each year--in addition to the other
"ordinary" deductions. It is not a substitute for the regular depreciation
that all firms are allowed on new investment, but is an additional benefit.
The depletion allowance is available each year regardless of what invest-
ment has taken place and this means that new investment could be easily
written off at far more than 100 percent of value over a few years. The
depletion allowance is, of course, designed to encourage production of
more minerals. Several reports have indicated that they have not been
very effective. Senator Gore, in discussions concerning the 1969 Tax
Reform, stated that the additional reserves developed in the oil industry,
above what would have taken place anyway, amounted to 150 million
dollars (Department of Treasury, 1969). This was obtained at a loss
to the treasury (taxpayers) of between 1 1/2 and 2 billion dollars. The
1969 Tax Reform lowered rates on the depletion allowance somewhat.
In the case of phosphorus the allowance was lowered from 15 to 14
percent.
The miners of phosphorus, therefore, receive a considerable tax break.
The value of mined phosphorus in 1967, the last year for which published
data are available, amounted to 296. 6 million dollars. At the then
current rate of 15 percent, this meant an allowance of 45 million dollars
could be claimed, assuming that the tax rate was 50 percent, it would
have given the phosphate mining industry a tax break of 22. 5 million
dollars. This would be approximately the equivalent of a 4 dollar subsidy
per ton of phosphate mined.
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The removal of the depletion allowance would make the mining of phos-
phate less profitable and raise the cost to users, and would lead to a
reduction in the availability and use of phosphate. The mining industry
also receives other tax considerations as well but none are as large and
important as this.
It is one of the problems of large organizations like the federal govern-
ment that conflicts in desired goals often arise. Parts of the federal
system may want to cut back on phosphate use for environmental pur-
poses, while at the same time other parts of the system are encouraging
its production.
The greatest appeal of tax breaks and credits is political. They are a
subtle subsidy and may not be recognized as such. They are of generally
greater value to the rich than to the poor, both firms and people. They
may just be a windfall payment to a firm for doing what it would have
done anyway. Among the most common loopholes available to businesses
are investment credits, accelerated depreciation, and depletion allow-
ances.
4. Price Controls--
Price controls are an attempt by government to set price and then allow
production and consumption to establish their own levels. A price floor
will create surpluses, a price ceiling shortages. In the first case,
government must buy up the excess and stockpile it or run the risk of
widespread illegal marketing. In the second, government must ration
the commodity in some other way, such as waiting lists or coupons.
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Under-the-table payments are always cropping up in this situation as
is the case with rent controlled apartments in New York City.
Anywhere an exchange of goods for money takes place a price control
could be used. In this case the relevant approach would be a price floor
below which phosphorus or products made from phosphorus could not
sell. Appropriate points of application might be:
1. Sales from the mine
2. Sales of pesticides
3. Sales of fertilizer
4. Sales of detergent
5. Sales of water softening equipment
6. Sales of meat
By keeping prices artificially high relative to market conditions, it
would cut back on the use of phosphorus or of the phosphorus-generating
product.
Price controls (ceilings) are currently in fashion. Their effect can be
immediate and obvious. It shows the determination of the government
to create change. However, based on past experience, price controls
do not appear to be a long-run solution. The temptation to cheat and
the enforcement problems connected with this policy are just too great
in the long run. Punishment of wrong doers is selective, arbitrary,
and generally ineffective. Price controls are best used as a last gasp
or crisis measure.
220
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5. Advertising and Education- -
Advertising and education programs oriented toward controlling the use
and consumption of phosphorus and phosphorus products might prove to
be effective. EPA's Hooty the Owl ("Give a Hoot, Don't Pollute")
might direct his attention to phosphorus pollution. His audience might
be detergent-using housewives, homeowners who use phosphorus fertili-
zers in lawns and gardens, and farmers. Through TV and possibly the
press, such a program could be expected not only to reduce levels of
phosphorus consumption, but also create a broad based public aware-
ness of the problem. The problem might be disseminated on a national
basis, or directed toward locales whose eutrophication problems are
acute and chronic.
The Department of the Interior's Johnny Horizon program (administered
by the Bureau of Land Management) might also zero in on the problem
of eutrophication. Presumably the emphasis here would be on land
management practices (erosion control, proper fertilizer use, etc. ),
and the audience would be farmers and other land managers.
Education and advertising as a means of control should not neglect
future generations of users and consumers. Films, workshops, and
special projects dealing with the role of phosphorus in eutrophication
and remedial measures should be incorporated in programs of environ-
mental education in grade schools and high schools. Since erosion from
agricultural lands is a principal source of phosphorus, the Future
Farmers of America is one group of young people for whom an educa-
tional program might be designed.
221
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6. Nonmonetary Recognition--
Providing nonmonetary recognition such as awards, commendations,
certificates, press coverage, etc. , is another possible way of motivating
people to engage in sound environmental practices. This technique
could probably be used most effectively in programs aimed at grade and
high school students.
7. Content Labeling--
In June, 1971, the Federal Trade Commission proposed the following
labeling requirement for detergents containing phosphates:
The container of every detergent must list all ingredients by
common or usual name--or if there is none, by chemical
name--giving percentages by weight, and weight in grains
per recommended use level of each, in descending order of
predominance.
The FTC also proposed that the following statement appear on each
phosphate detergent product:
Warning: Each recommended use level of this product contains
grams of phosphorus, which contributes to water
pollution. Do not use in excess. In soft water areas, use of
phosphate is not necessary.
A series of hearings were held both by the FTC and the House of
Representatives concerning the FTC proposal during 1962. As a result
of these hearings, the porposal was never implemented.
8. Moral Suasion--
Moral suasion is an appeal by the government without legal backing to
an individual or group's social conscience. It is, however, frequently
222
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combined with a threat of legal action or economic sanctions which
tends to improve the social conscience. President Johnson's version
of moral suasion was called jawboning.
Moral suasion is most effective where the threat of sanctions is a
serious and believable one, and where society's conscience is making
noises. (President Kennedy's rolling back of steel prices by means of
a heart to heart talk with the head of U. S. Steel (Mr. Blount) is the
most widely advertized instance of this type. The government is a big
consumer of steel and the price rise was unpopular, so it worked. )
It also works better when the number of necessary arm twists is limited.
Moral suasion could be effective with a big phosphate generator such as
a mine company or a large feed yard in getting them to adopt more
favorable practices.
9. Boycotts--
Consumer boycotts might provide still another means of controlling
phosphorus inputs into receiving waters. The grape boycotts of 1971
and 1972 organized by Caesar Chavez and supported by the AFJL-CIO
for the purpose of securing union contracts for farm labor exemplifies
the potential effectiveness of consumer boycotts. It might be possible
for activist environmental groups to organize and gain support for a
boycott of high phosphate detergents. Other possibilities are boycotts
on meats traceable to polluting feedlots and nonorganically raised
vegetables.
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B. Resource Control--Mining and Manufacturing
Mining and manufacturing of phosphorus as a source for various indus-
trial-domestic-agricultural uses is largely a regional activity concen-
trated in Florida, Tennessee, and Idaho-Wyoming mining operations
(Logue, 1958). For a particular basin of interest it will frequently not
be a problem. However, in the areas noted previously, eutrophication
problems might arise due to discharge of waste phosphorus directly
(seepage, pond dike erosion) or addition to the atmosphere and subse-
quent rainout.
1. Recycling Requirements--
Recycling of scarce resources has long been practiced in primitive as
well as modern societies. Recycling resources which are not scarce
or which would lead to a change in production economics is a rather
recent concept which largely resulted from the environmental movement.
of the 1960's. The supply of known, available, phosphorus ores (> 8
percent phosphorus) extractable by phosphorus mining techniques is
estimated to last at present use rates about 1800 years; phosphorus
cannot be considered a scarce resource, especially in comparison to
other elements such as helium (Institute of Ecology, 1971); thus, at
present recycling would be required only from the point of view of
lessening pollution.
Perhaps the most important areas applicable to recycling or multiple
usage of phosphorus compounds concern its use as a nutrient for agri-
culture: (1) Use of effluent for irrigation waters; (2) use of biological
224
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sludges from wastewater treatment plants to reclaim soils (e. g. , strip
mine operations) or as a fertilizer (e.g. , "Milorganite"); and (3) use
of animal manures for fertilizer. The placing of farm ponds for fish
aquaculture adjacent to pig farms as in Southeast Asia is an example
of application of these principles to aquatic systems.
Also, it has been proposed that the calcium phosphate precipitates from
phosphorus removal at the wastewater treatment plant be utilized for
building blocks. This would be primarily a means of sequestering phos-
phates rather than recycling the phosphorus; also, it would possibly
s
provide a dollar generating activity which would eliminate some of the
cost of chemical sludge disposal, an important aspect of phosphorus
removal costs.
2. Phosphate Mining Restrictions (Rationing)--
One method of enforcing recycling of phosphorus is to restrict the amount
of phosphorus mining in some way, e. g. , by rationing. Rationing, or
the limitation in the annual amount of phosphorus mined would undoubt-
edly increase the cost of mined phosphorus and hence decrease the
utilization of phosphorus, particularly for those phosphorus using
activities which are not absolutely necessary (e. g. , detergents) or which
at times use more phosphorus than may be considered necessary (e. g. ,
fertilizers). In addition, this action might increase the value of
recycling phosphorus. Additional benefits from such limitation would
include: (1) Preservation of resources which are strategically located;
(2) maintenance of land resources in areas where land might be in short
supply (e. g. , Florida); (3) elimination of by-product pollution (fluoride
toxicity).
225
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However, the effects and interactions caused by limiting phosphorus
mining activities would be very complex: (1) Interference with export
trade of phosphorus fertilizers; (2) upset of local economy; (3) inter-
ference with food supply and possible long-term effects on U. S. agri-
culture; and (4) enforcement problems with illegal sales (black market).
For these reasons it was decided that rationing would not be a feasible
nor effective control strategy.
,3. Manufacturing/Production Restrictions--
Certain aspects of the phosphorus mining and manufacturing process
seem amenable to changes in process which could be controlled by
various restrictions. Such changes are primarily directed at processes
which produce a waste product (a presently unused resource) or at pro-
cesses which are wasteful of phosphorus because of spillage and
unnecessary usage. A problem associated with the mining and process-
ing industry, particularly in the "pebble phosphorus" deposits in Florida,
not so much in the hard rock deposits in Tennessee and Idaho-Wyoming,
is the handling of phosphate slurries (Tyler and Waggaman, 1954).
These slurries, about 33 percent of the total mined in Florida, consist
of colloidal suspensions of phosphate ore which are not easily separated
from water. As a result, they are disposed into large ponds for rela-
tively indefinite storage. The ponds are eyesores and promote inefficient
use of land as •well as representing a possible source of phosphorus
which enters the surface water via seepage or the breaking of pond
dikes. Drying, direct use, and phosphorus extraction and/or benefica-
tion (increasing the phosphorus content) to allow use of this "waste
product" have all been suggested as possible alternatives for handling
226
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the slurries. Direct uses as a soil amendment, addition to pasture
land, and other agricultural uses are primarily limited by transportation
from the regions where mixing occurs. Research is continuing on the
process changes necessary to allow the utilization of slurries; at present,
it does not seem feasible to force this particular process change at
this time because of the economic problems.
Consideration of phosphate substitutes in cleaning and washing products
are discussed elsewhere in this report. Substitutes for products used
in various industrial processes such as in water conditioning products
and metal finishing acids are being developed. However, these uses
as present do not seem to be significant or can be handled in a better
manner.
4. Emission Controls in the Mining and
Manufacturing of Phosphorus--
Most controls in this industry have been directed at fluoride, a toxic
contaminant in the phosphate minerals being processed (primarily a
problem in the phosphorus pebble ore of Florida). Prevention of phos-
phorus input to surface waters is largely achieved by discharge of
unusable materials to settling ponds. Seepage and dike erosion allow
phosphorus to enter the surface water, but these types of inputs are
not amenable to emission controls or discharge standards. States with
phosphorus mining have regulations on phosphorus pollution, but because
the present problem is largely accidental (dike erosion) the regulation
is not generally applicable to "spill-type11 additions. Monetary fines,
pond dike building codes and construction safety factors, sealing of
227
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ponds to prevent seepage, could all be utilized to control this input, but
other incentives, e. g. , the process changes described above, might be
of more long-term value as a preventative. This would be so because
of the economic incentive to the producer to regain the present approxi-
mately 30 percent of the resource which is being lost. Until such pro-
cess changes have been developed, emission controls seem to be a
feasible alternative.
C. Management of Phosphate Uses
In those activities where phosphate is used as a part of the production
process or where end products containing phosphates are used for
particular purposes, there exists an opportunity for controlling the
phosphate through better management of the producing or using activi-
ties. The possibilities for management of phosphate uses are described
in four general areas:
1. Resource and Product Substitution--
Where there are reasonable substitutes for products or processes
having phosphates, then through the use of such substitutes the phos-
phates wastes and residuals could be eliminated. Some of the possibili-
ties for phosphate substitutes in production processes include the use
of acids other than phosphoric in metal finishing processes, nonphosphate
based processes in water conditioning, and the use of nonphosphate
builders in detergents. In making such substitutes, however, care
must be taken that the substitute is not a potentially greater environ-
mental threat, such as could possibly be the case for the use of NTA
228
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in detergents. Otherwise one problem may be exchanged for another
that may be more serious.
Substitutes may also be sought for other phosphate-containing products.
For example, using soap to replace detergent, or the use of other
types of pesticides that do not contain phosphate. In the case of either
process or products, inducing substitution will virtually always require
the application of other supply and demand or judicial control tactics.
2. Technology Improvements in Processes
orProducts- -
Technology improvements in products or processes also represent a
potential means of reducing phosphate residuals entering the aquatic
system. These may come about through changes which reduce discharges
from industrial processes such as metal finishing and water conditioning,
or through improved mining practices. Some of these possibilities are
elaborated in more detail in other parts of this section. However, since
this area largely represents long range solutions that are not immediately
implementable, there will be no further discussion.
3. Monitoring Requirements and Application Rates--
Monitoring requirements and establishing application rates and standards
for use of phosphorus-containing products could do much to reduce
excess concentrations of phosphorus which find their way into effluent
discharges. Without precise knowledge of what is a sufficient applica-
tion rate, the practicing philosophy is usually that more is better. This
229
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is often true with regard to fertilizer application for agriculture, and
to lawn and garden use. Soil sampling and analysis to determine base
requirements for phosphorus fertilizer applications for agriculture
could do much to reduce excessive application practices which increase
the concentrations of phosphorus in soil erosion and runoff into water
courses. Comparison with the USDA pesticide registration program
seems advisable in this regard. Likewise, guidelines for application
of fertilizer in home lawn and garden use could reduce concentrations
in urban storm runoff. Other areas where monitoring and guidelines
could prove effective is in the separation and handling of solid wastes,
such as phosphorus chemical formulations, vegetable matter, and
discarded wash products, which have greater concentrations of phosphorus,
and also in monitoring the handling of feedlot wastes.
4. Recycling and Reclamation--
Recycling and reclamation serve a key function in reducing phosphorus
pollution by reusing phosphorus residuals in the system rather than
mobilizing new phosphorus to serve the activity. Some of the possibili-
ties of recycling, for example, include the use of wastewater effluents
for irrigation water, the use of sludge from wastewater treatment
operations as fertilizers and soil conditioners, and the long used
practice of using animal wastes as fertilizers. Similar possibilities
for recycling processes exist in mining and industrial uses (see also
B. 1).
230
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D. Management of Phosphorus Discharges
Diffuse and point sources are included in this discussion and it is manage-
ment of these sources enforced by some of the controls described in
Table 37 (A, E, F) which is the crux of the phosphorus control question.
Managing phosphorus discharges appears to be the most logical and
economical means of reducing phosphorus input to surface waters.
Management implies several levels of interaction depending on whether
the source is diffuse or at a point.
1. Pollution Standards--
While no specific national standards have been established for phos-
phorus levels in surface waters, the National Technical Advisory
Committee (Water Quality Criteria, 1968) recommended the following
to the states: That levels of phosphate in flowing streams should not
exceed 100 H-g/1, or more than 50 p. g/1 where streams flow into lakes
or reservoirs.
Most states have no specific criteria or standards for phosphorus
levels in surface waters. An attempt cannot be made here to provide
a complete summary of criteria that have been established, but the
following is illustrative:
California standard for Lake Tahoe: A mean annual concentration
not greater than 7 [xg/1 of phosphorus at any point in the lake.
Nevada standard for East Fork Carson River: Annual average
of total phosphorus not to exceed 0. 1 mg/1 (100 (J.g/1); single daily
value or average not to exceed 0. 2 mg/1 (200 |J.g/l).
231
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Illinois standard for Lake Michigan open water: Total phosphorus
annual average not more than 0. 03 rng/1 (30 pg/1); single daily
value or average not more than 0. 04 mg/1 (40 Hg/1).
Pennsylvania standard for all surface water: Total phosphorus
not to exceed 0. 10 mg/1 (100 [J-g/1) or natural levels, whichever
is greater.
Indiana standard for municipal effluent: All municipalities in
Great Lakes tributary basins will be required to provide at least
80 percent reduction of total phosphorus on or before the end of
1972.
A summary of water quality standards listing phosphate criteria was
issued by the EPA, Office of Water Programs, on March 1, 1972.
In compliance with the 1972 amendments to the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act, it is expected that many states will modify existing, or
establish new, standards for phosphorus, especially with reference to
the effluent from municipal treatment facilities and other point sources.
Section 314 of the 1972 amendment states:
CLEAN LAKES
SEC. 314. (a) Each State shall prepare or establish, and
submit to the Administrator for his approval--
(1) an identification and classification according to
eutrophic conditions of all publicly owned fresh water lakes
in such State;
(2) procedures, processes, and methods (including
land use requirements), to control sources of pollution of
such lakes; and
232
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(3) methods and procedures, in conjunction with appro-
priate Federal agencies, to restore the quality of such lakes.
(b) The Administrator shall provide financial
assistance to States in order to carry out methods and
procedures approved by him under this section,
(c) (1) The amount granted to any State for any
fiscal year under this section shall not exceed 70 percentum
of the funds expended by such State in such year for carrying
out approved methods and procedures under this section.
(2) There is authorized to be appropriated
$50,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1973;
$100, 000, 000 for the fiscal year 1974; and $150, 000, 000
for the fiscal year 1975 for grants to States under this
section which such sums shall remain available until
expended. The Administrator shall provide for an
equitable distribution of such sums to the States with
approved methods and procedures under this section.
Presumably, compliance with Section 314 will require the establish-
ment of specific standards.
The input model described in Section VI can, under certain assumptions,
be used to calculate phosphorus concentrations in a lake and thus be
used to determine whether or not a given body of water succeeds in
meeting a given standard. The input model calculates the "relative
eutrophication" in a lake by dividing the annual g P/year input by the
water surface area of the lake (area in m ) for a series of mean depths
(m). If it is assumed that the lake has a mean residence time of one
year and undergoes "plug flow" (no mixing), the numerical value of
relative eutrophication is equivalent to the mean concentration of phos-
phorus in the lake (|J.g P/l). Thus, this allows the estimation of phosphorus
233
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concentrations in the lake and comparison to standards assuming that
the total annual input is diluted in the lake by the volume at any time
and that there is no net loss within the lake (i. e. , deposition in the
sediments or outflow); such a formulation is equivalent to a steady
state inflow of phosphorus of a conservative substance and is of value
only for crude comparative purposes.
2. Land Management Practices for Phosphorus Control
From Agricultural Sectors--
Although no conclusive evidence can be cited that fertilizer use is
definitely the major source of phosphorus in waterways, one cannot
deny that fertilizer usage represents a potentially serious source of
pollution, if not properly managed. Since the soil is a natural sink
for phosphorus, it can be concluded that essentially all of the phosphorus
removed from a soil system is either by crop harvest or surface runoff
(erosion) with little loss occurring by internal drainage. The relation
that exists between surface runoff, soil erosion, and sediment load of a
stream suggests that any management strategy that results in the reduc-
tion of surface runoff necessarily reduces the sediment load of streams.
In a real sense, the reduction in the sediment load may be of more bene-
fit to society than the corresponding reduction in phosphorus load.
It is a well documented principal that soil erosion, defined as the,
detachment and transport of soil particles, is best controlled by keeping
land under continuous, full cover vegetation, i. e. , pasture and wood-
land. Any program to reduce phosphorus in surface runoff will neces-
sarily use the concept of maximizing the vegetative cover of land to
minimize runoff and soil erosion.
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a. Reduction in cultivated acreage--An ovbious control strategy is to
reduce the total acreage of cultivated land thus lessening the erosion
potential of a given basin. Ideally, this option should be implemented
in a manner which does not affect the overall agricultural productivity
of a region. To maintain production levels, as marginal cultivated
acreage is removed from cultivation, more intensive fertilization and
management must be used on the land remaining in tilled crops. The
first lands to retire from cultivation should be those with highest
erosion potential, that is, land that has a slope of > 3 percent or some
internal feature which limits crop growth, e. g. , stoniness, shallow
soil, drainage, etc. The retired land should be converted either to
natural grass or woodland to provide a total vegetative cover for the
soil surface and to maximize the organic matter content of the soil, thus
minimizing soil detachment. This land will produce revenue in the form
of cattle grazing, timber production, and recreational usage, as well as
reducing erosion to a level comparable with natural ecosystems.
b. Increased usage of fertilizers as a strategy in erosion control--
Increasing the rate of fertilizer application (N and P) on the remaining
Class 1 cultivated land is in itself a strategy to reduce erosion and
thus P pollution. Maintenance of high soil fertility and productivity
is an effective means of erosion control. The production of bumper
crops produces maximum ground cover and adds vitally needed organic
matter to maintain the infiltration rate and permeability of soils to
water. The role of high crop productivity in erosion control is often
overlooked. Under intensive production, soil erosion cannot be totally
eliminated but it can be reduced to a lower level.
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c. Technical management--The strategy of maximizing agricultural
production of Class 1 lands to reduce erosion of the resulting P load of
receiving water relies heavily on technical agricultural management.
For example, chemical soil tests provide an index as to the amounts of
P fertilizer that can be effectively applied to the soil in terms of crop
response and economic return. A low rating from a soil test may
suggest 30-50 kg P/ha can be added to reach a yield plateau whereas a
high rating would suggest a low rate of application or perhaps no P
fertilization. The frequency and amount of P fertilization must be
regulated by crop need. A continuous high application rate of P fertilizer
should be avoided since it not only is an environmental hazard, but it is
also economically a bad investment. A diligent monitoring program of
the phosphorus status of both the soil and the plant is a necessary part
of an intensive fertilizer schedule.
Although not recognized generally as an erosion control method, the
wide use of fertilizer, manure, and soil amendments can be as effective
in preventing soil erosion as many of the traditional cropping and
mechanical methods.
Proven cropping methods which reduce sheet and till erosion on
cultivated slopes invariably include contour tillage. In this system
cultivation is done across the slope rather than with it. If in conjunction
with contouring, alternating growing crops such as corn and potatoes
with hay and grain in strips is incorporated, the practice is called con-
tour strip cropping. This technique noticeably reduces the velocity of
runoff down a slope. When these simpler management techniques are
inadequate, terraces can be constructed across the slope. Terraces
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are generally designed to catch runoff and conduct it away at a gentle
slope. Traditional methods of soil conservation have stood the test of
time; however, implementation of their usage by individual farm mana-
gers remains a barrier.
d. Erosion control using irrigation practices--Run off from irrigated
lands does not contribute significantly to the sediment load of waters.
Most erosion occurs from uncontrolled natural precipitation. Since
surface flow irrigation systems are designed and developed with refer-
ence to the infiltration rate of the soil and since the length of run along
with rate of water application is regulated, erosion is generally not a
problem in an irrigated agriculture. The general usage of sprinkler
irrigation essentially eliminates any surface runoff, even on steep slopes,
since the water application rate can be set below the infiltration rate of
a given soil. In principle, sprinkler irrigation can be regulated to
eliminate drainage output. Irrigation methodology is not considered an
important management alternative in P control in waters.
e. Erosion (sediment) control by development of vegetative belts
adjacent to receiving waters--This strategy involves land use planning
as applied to agricultural lands which border streams. Buffer strips of
natural vegetation will be fostered to serve as barriers or filter areas
through which all field runoff from agricultural land must pass. In
principle agricultural runoff will be treated in these zones to the extent
that the sediment load will be reduced to levels commensurate to runoff
from natural grass and woodlands. To achieve this goal the zones must
be of sufficient width to treat the surface runoff of adjacent fields. It
is estimated that a width of at least 200-300 meters would be necessary
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for buffer belts around major surface streams. This strategy necessarily
requires that land adjacent to streams, by virtue of their position, be
removed from cultivation. In essence, this amounts to the reduction
in cultivated acreage of a given basin requiring more intensive cultivation
of remaining land (see D. 2. a).
The buffer zones will be multipurpose. Not only will they abate phos-
phorus pollution, but they will afford an economic return in terms of
livestock grazing, wildlife habitat, and recreational development.
f. Cycling animal manures as a strategy to reduce phosphate fertilizer
usage--A strategy to reduce the total P load of waters incorporates the
use of less commercial fertilizer by cycling barnyard and feedlot manure
back to the field. This strategy is based on the fact that, on the average,
10 tons of feedlot manure has the same phosphorus content as a 100 Ib
bag of superphosphate (20 percent P) fertilizer. A solution is thus
generated for the solid waste disposal problem of animal manure and at
the same time the need for commercial fertilizer is reduced. Utilization
of feedlot manure also decreases the input of P in surface waters by
reducing feedlot drainage which constitutes an important point source
of phosphorus pollution. This program can also be applied to sludge
and municipal waste disposal problems.
By fluidizing and injecting manure below the surface of the soil or by
mechanically incorporating it into the soil, the runoff loss of organic
P can be eliminated. At the same time, the introduction of organic
matter into the soil greatly enhances the infiltration properties of the
soil thereby reducing the erosion hazard. This fact alone is sufficient
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to endorse the cycling of manure as a major strategy in phosphorus
pollution control.
The time of year at which manures are spread is also important in
controlling agricultural runoff problems. Usually manures are spread
at the end of winter before spring planting constrains the farmer's time.
In cold climates this is the worst time of year because runoff occurs
immediately after spreading and a larger input with runoff occurs.
The use of land disposal for animal manure is not a new concept in
agricultural management systems. However, modern fertilizer techno-
logy has made the economics of the use of manure as a source of plant
nutrients questionable. In the context of pollution control the economics
of land disposal of manure in agricultural operations must be reevaluated.
Summary of Land Management Strategies
The strategies listed above are based on the need to redefine the use of
the land resource for the betterment of society. Essentially they
involve:
1. Removing erodable land from agricultural production;
2. Intensifying cultivation on remaining land;
3. Creation of vegetative buffer zones adjacent to waterways; and
4. Using land disposal for animal manures to recycle phosphorus
in agricultural production.
The strategies constitute the regulation of land use patterns to control
the quality of water. The result will be to concentrate productive lands
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into smaller units with optimal control over fertilizer usage and land
management practices, thus maximizing agricultural production while
minimizing erosion and surface runoff.
3. Land Use Controls--
Most of the sources of phosphorus identified in the input model are
directly affected through land use. It is thus important to review the
kinds of land use controls that are available and to indicate the range
of application for each.
a. Zoning—A widely used method of controlling land use is through
zoning. Zoning practices and theories are so numerous, complex,
and dynamic that it would be impossible to give anything but a very
general account here. Zoning belongs to statutory law and is based on
the police power. In the United States, ultimate zoning authority resides
with the states. All the states have enacted enabling legislation which
delegates zoning power from the state to counties and municipalities.
In recognition of the need for comprehensive regional planning, such
power is also delegated to area and regional planning units or is retained
by the states. Often, enabling legislation requires that the zoning
authority prepare a "plan" for controlling development and land use.
The A-95 Circular issued by the Office of Management and Budget and
the pending federal land use bills require the states themselves to develop
a comprehensive land use "plan" and would have the effect of giving more
power to planning units above the municipal and county levels.
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Zoning can be used to control overall patterns of development and
interrelations among land uses. It can control the nature and intensity
of development so that environmental protection, properly scaled public
facilities, and other necessities and amenities can be provided.
Zoning in an enlarged planning context--a context which incorporates the
natural resource base as well as the concept of rural zoning--may be
used to control the input of phosphorus into receiving waters from land-
fills, development on watersheds, grazing lands, and tilled lands. This
technique may be used to preserve green belts or vegetative buffer zones
(as discussed under D. 3, Land Management Practices) and to reduce
erosion.
b. Licensing--In Legal Study 17 of the National Water Commission
(NWC-L-72-043) completed in December of 1971, it was concluded that
licensing agencies have authority and an important role to play in pro-
tecting environmental values. The study noted that environmental
quality standards should be given high priority in licensing, and that
environmental impact statements, hearings concerning these statements,
and adversary proceedings should all be an integral part of the licensing
procedure.
Special commissions (e. g. , the San Francisco Bay Conservation and
Development Commission) and agencies (e.g., Wisconsin's Consolidated
Natural Resources Department) have adopted such a concept of licensing
and would be in a strategic position to enforce phosphorus controls.
Pending federal land use bills, if adopted, would require federal projects
to conform with state land use planning and licensing procedures.
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c. Leasing--The above discussion of licensing applies as well to
leasing procedures. Grazing lands, land utilized for mining, forests
managed by timber industries, recreational and private developments
on Forest Service, and other public lands--all potential sources of
phosphorus pollution--are activities controllable through leasing
procedures.
d. Codes--Through building codes, plumbing codes, minimum housing
codes, etc. , a planning or regulatory unit can assure that construction
on a given parcel of land is sound, safe, healthful, and includes appro-
priate facilities. To give just one example of how this kind of control
relates to the control of phosphorus pollution, a regulatory unit might
reguire sealed spetic tanks or else a sewerage system in an area whose
surface waters would receive open septic tank leaching.
e. Permits--Section 402 of the 1972 Water Pollution Control Act
requires a permit for the discharge of any pollutant from any point
source, including publicly owned waste treatment works.
Until the 1972 act was passed, permit granting activities related to
water pollution had been administered under the Refuse Act of 1899 by
the Corps of Engineers in cooperation with EPA. The EPA now controls
this activity until it issues its guidelines to the states and approves the
state programs. (On an interim basis, EPA can authorize a state
control agency permit program for up to 150 days after enactment or
until it approves the state program formally, whichever comes first.
Any permit granted under this interim authority is subject to individual
EPA review and possible revision. ) Permits granted under the Refuse
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Act will remain in effect for their term. Applications for permits under
the Refuse Act on which decisions have not been reached will become
applications for permits under this act.
The state control agency, in operating its permit granting program,
must notify the public and the EPA of each application and provide
opportunity for public hearing before making a ruling. If granting a
permit would affect another state downstream from the permitting
state, the downstream state is notified by EPA and has an opportunity
to express its views.
Each permit granted by a state control agency must have a fixed term
and can be for no longer than five years. It must set forth the applicable
effluent and other limitations plus the monitoring requirements needed
to demonstrate compliance.
The state control agency will notify EPA of every action it takes on
every permit application, including its decision to grant a permit.
Even after approving the state agency program, EPA retains the right
to review and approve any proposed permit, unless it specifically
waives that right at the time it approves the state program.
4. Solid Wastes Management--
Solid waste disposal sites such as landfills and open dumping are rela-
tively unimportant in terms of the overall strategy for controlling phos-
phorus because little phosphorus in comparison to other sources actually
gets into the surface waters except for isolated situations. However,
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it may be advantageous to control solid waste leachate for other reasons,
for example, BOD, nitrogen, and possibly toxic organic chemicals.
a. Disposal regulation--This particular control could be exercised with
regard to specific compounds, refuses, or garbages that were high in
concentration for particular compounds, in this example, phosphorus.
By restricting or segregating their disposal, elimination of their presence
in the landfill or open dump could be accomplished. Other disposal
regulations would include the kinds of regulations which are now being
exercised in controlling open dumps and landfill construction. Building
codes and permits -which regulate how landfills are constructed and
maintained and the elimination of open dumps would prevent many of
the abuses which are now occurring. An additional building code to
allow the construction of drains for collection of leachates and channeli-
zation for runoff waters carrying leachates would allow the possibility
of treatment by taking the leachate and returning it to the surface of the
landfill to allow it to percolate through the soil. As described previously
in Section V, recycling of leachate through the landfill effectively re-
moves most of the phosphorus.
b. Fees—Fees collected specifically to construct landfill, channeliza-
tion, or drain systems might be appropriate for controlling output from
solid wastes facilities. These fees could be based on either the per
capita or a mass disposal rate basis. The effect of fees, however,
would be minimal because solid waste disposal is a factor which would
not be controlled by the use of increasing fee schedules; most studies
have indicated that usage of disposable solid waste materials is likely
to increase independently of control methods.
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5. Effluent Charges - -
Application to effluents--These charges are defined as the fees leveled
on actual output of the pollutant from a process. Effluent charges are
a direct incentive to reduce waste product discharge. The basis for
the fee should be the opportunity cost of the pollutant which can be
defined as either the cost of cleaning up the pollutant to a satisfactory
level or the cost of indemnities to reimburse those who are damaged
by the pollutant. The tactic is to set these charges so that the producer
has a choice to either clean up or let the pollutant enter the system and
pay the charges, whichever is in his interest which, in a free market,
would also be efficient to society. Graduated scales may be part of the
scheme in developing the strategy. The objective is to internalize all
costs to producers so that prices will reflect the true social costs of
production and the consumers' preferences for these goods as compared
to others. The motive is to change the system of production which pro-
duces the waste, or to provide for funds to remove the damaging factor,
or to reimburse those who are harmed.
The effluent charge can be assessed in two ways. The first is by con-
tinuous monitoring and measuring to determine the exact output to which
the level of charge can be applied to arrive at a total payment. The
second is by some standard being set which could be randomly monitored.
Ordinarily, the administrative costs will be much less with random and
occasional monitoring than with continuous enforcement and charges for
each unit of discharge.
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In geographical locations where several similar activities contribute
pollutants to a reach of a stream the costs of cleanup may be lessened
by group action through a larger removal plant. In this case, the
effluent charge may be reduced to account for these economies of scale,
or the group may strive to develop an action to remove the pollutants
at some point on the stream and avoid the effluent charge.
One of the problems of utilizing effluent charges in any kind of river
basin context is that point sources must be identified. A large number
of effluent producers involved, or a diverse set of entry points from
a single producer, such as a large landowner, may preclude use of
this tactic.
The charge is placed on activities based on the discharge of the offending
particular pollutant. This can be assessed on an outflow basis or on a
mass discharge basis (mass/unit time). The latter would be the most
logical for phosphorus. Because it is based on pollutant output rather
than product output or other general measure of activity, this measure
may be a most efficient means of control in some cases. It offers
alternatives based on efficiency of courses of action. First, the pro-
duction process may be changed. Presumably, most firms are efficiently
organized in their production processes based on costs which are internal
to the firm. If discharges of pollutants are priced to the firm then
alternate processes which produce less of the offending discharge, or
clean the discharge prior to leaving the premises, may become
economic.
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On the other hand, it may be that the firm would choose to proceed
with offending discharge because it may be cheaper to, either individually
or as a group, clean the stream rather than change production processes.
Finally, it may simply be less costly to indemnify receivers of the
pollutants depending on the use made of the water and the costs of the
above courses of action. To be an efficient system of operation, the
least costly of these options must be made available to the producer,
and it must be used by him.
The appropriateness of the system in the several phosphate producing
activities is summarized in Figure 35. In many cases special conditions
may change these evaluations. The technique can only be utilized where
identification, measurement, and evaluation of the opportunity costs can
be accomplished.
Notes on Feasibility of Effluent Charges
These notes are based on Figure 29 to which numbers and symbols have
been added to form Figure 35. The numbers and symbols show the
point of application and the feasibility of effluent charge. The discussion
is tied to Figure 35 by the appropriate numbers and explains in more
detail the possible problems of applying effluent charges to the parti-
cular activity.
1. No control is possible.
2. This source is a balancing variable in the model. Control
would be in another basin with all the same phosphorus activi-
ties as in the particular basin under consideration.
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Flgur. 35 Control point* luperimpoied on the phonphoru* activity «n«lv*i« •how-ing the rn*jor applicnion potnti lor effluent contrail («ae pp, 247-250).
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3. Sources are extremely diffuse and difficult to monitor in most
situations.
4. It requires channelizing to collect flows except in situations
involving underground drains, otherwise same as 3.
5. Sources are diverse and usually difficult to monitor.
6. Measurement and identification are not simple. If the desired
result is to reduce output of phosphate, this may be ineffective,
since the leachates may be difficult to collect.
7. Sources are diverse and may be difficult to monitor in some
cases. However, this alternative may be appropriate where
few operators are involved in special geographic situations.
8. Same as 7.
9. Same as 7.
10, No control is possible. Sources are diffuse and monitoring
is difficult or impossible. It is impossible to define a respon-
sible party.
11. Sources are diffuse. In most cases the charge would have to
be levied against the local governmental unit rather than
against individual entities. The local government would thus
need to devise an allocation system.
12. Since sources are so diverse, it seems impossible to trace
the problem back to the offenders. Effluent charges would
therefore not likely change the production of effluent, but may
provide for equity to those harmed by either paying for treat-
ment, or paying indemnities. Homeowner sewer taxes, etc. ,
are in one sense an effluent charge.
13. Same as 12 because wash products would be included in domestic
sewage.
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14. These seem to be measurable and industry would have control
of the process.
15. The offenders can usually be easily identified. The production
system may change and equity served. A note of concern is
that other effluent components may be more critical. Possibly
a combination of elements need to be monitored and the charges
related to the group of pollutants rather than to phosphorus
alone.
16. Same as 15.
17. The phosphorus effluent is usually in the form of accidental
spills. Thus, continuous monitoring would be required. This
method, however, seems to be highly appropriate for control,
since it would promote careful management and minimize spills.
A system of fines seems more applicable here.
18. Although diffuse, sources are identifiable and feasible to
measure. One or few operators can be identified. Maybe a
feasible approach for other pollutants, however, may not be
socially acceptable.
19,20, The system may be effective for very large concentrated feed-
21,22. lots or production facilities. Small producers represent diverse
sources which are difficult to identify and monitor.
In summary, effluent charges would be an efficient control measure
in some cases. This measure focuses on the output of the offending
item, rather than on the inputs to the production process, or control
of the desirable outputs of goods and services; both efficiency and equity
can be served.
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6. Bans--
Numerous states and municipalities have placed partial and complete
bans on the sale of phosphate detergents. Some examples are:
New York: Sale of phosphate detergents banned after June 1,
1973, with the exception of incidental .concentrations as may be
authorized by the Department of Environmental Conservation.
The law was modified to exempt cleaning products used in dish-
washers, food, beverage processing, etc.
Connecticut: After June 30, 1973, all phosphate detergents are
banned with the exception of detergents manufactured for use in
automatic dishwashers, and dairy, beverage, food processing,
industrial cleaning equipment. This ban was later postponed to
June 30, 1974.
Florida: Ban on phosphate detergents restricting to 8, 7 percent
phosphorus as of January, 1973. Dade County and the City of
Kissimmee have total bans.
Indiana: Detergents containing more than 3 percent phosphate are
banned after January 1, 1973. Some exemptions for automatic
dishwashing products and for some industrial-institutional uses.
Chicago: Ban on the sale of phosphate detergents effective June
30, 1972. This law was declared unconstitutional on March 6,
1973, and is no longer in effect.
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Detroit: All phosphate detergents banned after July 1, 1972.
This ordinance was preempted by state law which limits phosphorus
content in detergents to 8. 7 percent,
Considerable litigation has resulted from these statutes and ordinances.
The Soap and Detergent Association particularly has filed a number of
suits. The litigation has resulted in an evaluation of the bans as
reflected in the examples. Arguing that the ban is nonviolative of the
Due Process or Equal Protection Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment,
Judge Stevens of the Indiana Supreme Court stated in an opinion C3 ERC
at 118, 1120:
In other words, to put it more directly, if the people of
Indiana prefer to wear gray shirts and have a little hardness
distilled on their glasses, so forth and so on, as a price for
obtaining cleaner water, or for obtaining a chance of having
lesser phosphate content which in turn may produce or may
not produce, we don't know, lesser amounts of algae, that
is a choice •which we feel the people of Indiana should make
through the Indiana Legislature.
In a similar case but oriented to the particulars of the region where
the Chicago detergent control ordinance -was struck down, Judge
MacMillian of the Northern District of Illinois, Eastern Division, U. S.
District Court stated in a decision and order (No. 71 C 1054):
The evidence of increased costs of manufacture and dis-
tribution, however, is relevant to show a burden on interstate
commerce. It then becomes the task of the defendant City to
justify its ordinance by showing at least some need to protect
the public health, safety or welfare. ...
More to the point, however, is the fact that the Illinois
and Mississippi Rivers are so overloaded -with phosphates that
the removal of phosphates from detergents can have no effect
on their plant or fish life.. ..
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This does not mean that similar ordinances in other
jurisdictions cannot be sustained, where the effects of
discharging phosphates into the public water supply may
outweigh the interference with interstate commerce.
Bans could also prove to be effective in agriculture. If it were deter-
mined that the soil in a given area is sufficiently rich in phosphorus
content that phosphorus fertilization is not needed and/or manure
applications could augment soil phosphorus at desirable levels, a ban
might be placed on the use (and possibly sale) of phosphorus fertilizer.
E. Judicial Controls
Judicial controls are playing an increasingly important role in the area
of environmental management. Judicial review, class action suits, and
the common law remedies of nuisance and negligence will be discussed
as follows.
1. Judicial Review--
Under the Federal Administrative Procedure Act, a federal court will
set aside an agency's actions if they are arbitrary, capricious, abusive
of discretion, contrary to the Constitution, in excess of statutory
jurisdiction, or unsupported by substantial evidence (5 USCA § 706,
1967). Similar statutes have been established for the review by state
courts of state administrative agencies. Although limited review by
courts has been the general rule, the process of judicial review seems
to be gaining momentum as a significant judicial control in environmental
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management. In Environmental Defense Fund v. Ruckelshaus (2 E. R. C,
1114, D.C. Cir. 1971), the court stated:
We stand on the threshold of a new era in the history of
the long and fruitful collaboration of administrative agencies
and reviewing courts ... (Where) courts (once) regularly up-
held agency action, with a nod in the direction of the "sub-
stantial evidence" test, and a bow to the mysteries of admin-
istrative expertise . . . (they now frequently set aside agency
actions and require) that administrators articulate the factors
on which they base their decisions. . ..
Judicial review must operate to ensure that the admin-
istrative process itself will confine and control the exercise
of discretion. Courts should require administrative officers
to articulate the standards and principles that govern their
discretionary decisions in as much detail as possible.
In a comprehensive study entitled Legal Devices for Accomodating
Water Resources Development and Environmental Values, Hillhouse
and DeWeerdt (1971) stated:
9. Judicial review does have a valuable, if limited, role
to play. With respect to the (Cross-Florida) Barge Canal,
the case filed by the Canal Authority may provide some
answers to the troublesome separation of powers question
and thereby provide a basis for an improved review system.
To the extent that the Barge Canal or other projects are
implemented in violation of NEPA or other governing law,
courts can avoid environmental damage in particular cases
and provide impetus and guidelines for the development of
sound projects in other cases.
Environmentalists face serious practical problems, however, when
they ask a court to strike the actions of governmental agencies. Some
of the practical problems facing potential plaintiffs are: The difficulty
of becoming a party or gaining standing, the doctrines of the "ripeness
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of a case," the doctrine of "exhaustion of administrative remedies,"
the ability of administrative agencies to shape the development of the
record, the fact that "burden of proof" lies with the plaintiff, and the
fact that plaintiffs must frequently rely on the voluntary services of
legal and scientific experts in long, drawn-out cases. These practical
disadvantages have spurred environmentalists to take another judicial
avenue, that of class action suits.
2. Class Action Suits--
Rule 23 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure states:
If persons constituting a class are so numerous as to
make it impracticable to bring them all before the court,
such of them, one or more, as will fairly insure the adequate
representation of all may, on behalf of all, sue or be sued,
when the character of the right sought be enforced for or
against the class is ... several, and there is a common
question of law of fact affecting the several rights and common
relief is sought.
When a wrong is being committed against a group so numerous that it
is impracticable or impossible to bring them all before the court, thus,
a class action can be used. As a number of recent cases attest, the
wrong in question might involve the savings of a million dollars in
abatement costs by a polluter by inflicting a few dollars of damage on
each of a million citizens.
A number of states have passed legislation enabling class action to be
taken. The Michigan legislation, drafted by Joseph Sax of the University
of Michigan Law School, has become a model both for other states and
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for the Hart-McGovern Bill in Congress. The latter declares that each
person has a right to the protection of the environment and that it is in
the public interest for Congress to provide adequate remedy to imple-
ment this right through class action. The bill is offered as an explicit
response to the need for more public participation in decisions affecting
environmental values. This bill would sweep away the defenses of lack
of standing and would shift "burden of proof" from the plaintiff to the
polluter. Section 4 of the bill states:
When the plaintiff has made a prima facie showing that the
activity of the defendant affecting interstate commerce has
resulted in or reasonably may result in unreasonable pollu-
tion, impairment, or destruction of the air, water, land, or
public trust of the United States, the defendant shall have the
burden of establishing that there is no feasible and prudent
alternative and that the activity at issue is consistent with and
reasonably required for promotion of the public health, safety,
and welfare in light of the paramount concern of the United
States for the protection of its air, water, land, and public
trust from unreasonable pollution, impairment, or destruction.
Although the Hart-McGovern Bill may never be enacted (it has been
opposed both by EPA and CEQ as well as industry), class action is
gaining momentum in various states and has already gained a federal
foothold through the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.
The 1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act also recognizes citizen
suits. Section 505 of this Act states that any citizen or group of citizens
having an interest which is or might be adversely affected (as interpreted
in Sierra Club v. Morton, 40 U.S. L. W. 4397 (1972)) may, after a 60-
day notice, commence a civil suit in the district court against alleged
violators of effluent standards or limitations or of orders issued with
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respect to such standards or limitations by either EPA or state control
agencies, except in those situations where the appropriate control
agency is already prosecuting the case.
Similarly, any interested citizen or group may commence action against
EPA where there is alleged a failure of EPA to perform any act or duty
which is not discretionary.
3. Common Law Remedies--
After a potential plaintiff has gained standing in a court, he must plead
a claim for which the court has the power to provide relief. Two
traditional common law remedies are nuisance and negligence. Each
of these remedies have important environmental implications.
Private nuisance--A private nuisance is a civil wrong based on the
interference with a property right. Section 822 of the Restatement of
Torts has set out the elements of nuisance as follows:
The actor is liable in an action for damages for a nontres-
passory invasion of another's interest in the private use and
enjoyment of land if,
(a) the other has property rights and privleges in respect
to the use or enjoyment interfered with; and
(b) the invasion is substantial; and
(c) the actor's conduct is a legal cause of the invasion;
and
(d) the invasion is either
(i) intentional and unreasonable; or
(ii) unintentional and otherwise actionable under
the rules governing liability for negligent,
reckless or ultra-hazardous conduct.
257
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A private nuisance remedy might effectively be sought against feedlots,
a principal source of phosphorus pollution in many areas. Precedence
for such action might be traced as far back as the decision in 1611 in
William Aldred's Case (77 Eng. Rep. 816) wherein it was found that
the odor from the defendant's hog sty was a nuisance.
Traditional courts have pursued a "balancing of interests" approach in
private nuisance actions. The weakness of this balancing doctrine in
environmental cases is apparent, since the powerful polluter will never
be stopped unless he injures an equally large economic interest. In
Madison v. Ducktown Sulphur, Copper and Iron Company (113 Tenn. 331,
83 S. W. 658, 1904), for example, the court refused an injunction on
the grounds that in order to prevent harming farms of little value it
would be necessary to close down the plant thus destroying nearly half
of the country's tax base and creating massive unemployment. However,
courts are tending to view pollution cases in modes other than that of
balancing economic losses. An example of this new attitude is found in
Department _of Health v. Owens-Corning Fiberglass (100 N. J. Super.
336, 242 A. 2d 21, 1968) in which the court held that "it is not unreason-
able for the State, in the interest of public health and welfare, to seek
to control air pollution. Even if this means the shutting down of an
operation harmful to health or unreasonably interfering with life or
property, the statute must prevail."
Negligence--Negligence is defined by the Restatement of Torts as con-
duct which falls below the standard established by law for the protection
of others against unreasonable risk of harm. This doctrine has been
effective primarily where a single polluter has acted so as to cause
258
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specific demonstrable injury to a plaintiff and where the injury is not
minor. The doctrine has been ineffective in prosecuting broader public
interest cases.
F. Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater treatment at the levels described in Section V can be utilized
to remove phosphorus at a central, or several central, treatment plants.
Because of the detailed discussion in Section V, it will suffice to say
that application of treatment levels can be forced using judicial controls,
management policies, standards, and bans (such as zero discharge
concepts). The application of fines to municipalities or other treatment
districts which have allowed spill type discharges or other "accidental"
releases of pollutant to surface waters should, however, be instituted.
It seems that many "dischargers" build into their system the possibility
for accidental discharge due to overloading, spills, malfunctions, etc.
This should not be permitted, and fines should be set up so that such
occurrences are minimized and compensation is sufficient.
G. Lake Modification
As described in Section IV, in the amelioration of eutrophication effects
in lakes, there are many methods available to restore lakes for such
uses (Table 2). Some of the most feasible of these are destratification
techniques and precipitation of phosphorus compounds in the lake;
deepening (sediment removal) and weed control measures are apparently
feasible possibilities.
259
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For certain kinds of lakes, especially those where most of the phosphorus
input comes from diffuse and/or uncontrollable sources, lake modifica-
tion (lake restoration) is probably the most economical approach. What
it implies, however, is that a certain amount of eutrophication is per-
missible at certain levels depending on the costs involved. It is prob-
ably not feasible for controlling eutrophication in large lakes or in lakes
where the major parts of the input are point sources. Further consider-
ation of lake modification is not within the scope of this report and it is
mentioned here primarily as a possibility. Future developments in
this field, however, likely will make it an important solution, particu-
larly for areas where there is a low tax base, it is expensive to apply
nutrient control measures, or the lake is not receiving wastes of point
source nature.
260
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SECTION VIII
COST-EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS OF STRATEGIES
FOR PHOSPHATE MANAGEMENT
APPROACH TO STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT AND
COST-EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS
The development and analysis of strategies for management of phosphorus
in a river basin require a comprehensive assessment of the magnitude
of input sources and a knowledge of the tactics available for controlling
the flows from those sources. An in-depth examination of phosphate
sources is presented in Sections V and VI and detailed descriptions of
management control methods and tactics and points in the flow system
where they can be applied are described in Section VII. This section
examines the implementation of sets of control methods and analyzes
their effectiveness as comprehensive strategies for basin-wide phos-
phate management.
Using the Phosphate Mass Flow Model
The Phosphate Mass Flow Model for water resource basins described in
Section VI (see also Appendices C and D) is used as a basis for testing
and evaluating the effectiveness of various strategies for phosphate
261
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management. The model operation provides an accounting system for
calculating the total phosphorus mobilized in a basin, tracks its flow
and loading on the surface water, and computes the potential eutrophica-
tion impact of those loadings. The effects of different control strategies
are then examined by manipulating the model inputs to simulate the
effects of applying reasonable control methods to the phosphorus input
activities and determining the change in eutrophication levels.
Coordinating Controls for Management Strategies
The coordination of a set of control methods and tactics for management
of phosphate inputs for an entire water resources basin constitutes a
strategy. Hence, a strategy consists of the combination of methods
that are implemented to control phosphorus flows from the activity
systems (agriculture, urban and rural watersheds, domestic, industrial,
mining, and animal production) represented in the mass flow model.
There are, of course, a very large number of possible strategies which
can be constructed from the various combinations and permutations of
control tactics, their points of application in the system, and the degree
or; level of control applied. This section of the report analyzes only a
limited number of these which are representative of the range of
strategies that could be implemented. The strategies were selected on
the basis of more detailed analysis of the mass flow model and best
judgment.
For any management strategy to be successful in reducing potential
or actual problems of eutrophication, it must be capable of being imple-
mented and operated basinwide. The analysis, therefore, is developed
262
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under the assumption that machinery for basin-wide strategy imple-
mentation is or can be established.
In applying the strategies to the basins of the case examples, some of
the actions which must be cooperatively carried out by political and
institutional jurisdictions within a basin are to levy and collect taxes,
to construct and operate treatment facilities, to require compliance
with specified management practices by producers and consumers, to
limit or ban the use of certain products or processes, and to provide
appropriate monetary incentives and performance standards for control
of phosphate-generating activities.
Analyzing Cost-effective Management Strategies -
A comprehensive analysis of strategies for phosphorus management in
water would certainly involve consideration of both benefits and costs
associated with achieving various levels of phosphorus. Hence, there
are two parts of the evaluation problem. Benefits are related to a
marginal damage curve which is calculated from the incremented changes
in the total damage curve. This shows how much damages increase with
each increment in the rate of phosphate discharge, or, conversely, the
damages that can be averted by increased control of phosphorus. It is
shown by the downward sloping curve in Figure 36. It can be interpreted
as showing that damages per unit of phosphorus decrease as concentrations
are lowered, or conversely the benefits gained by averting damages
decrease as concentrations are reduced. The second curve shows
marginal control costs, i. e. , the incremental changes in total costs of
263
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P
in
o
o
03
O
UJ
I-
UJ
>
UJ
CE
QL
CO
UJ
1
EUTROPHIC
MARGINAL
CONTROL
COSTS
MARGINAL
DAMAGES
B
PHOSPHORUS CONTROL LEVEL
Figure 36. Phosphorus discharges are related to damages and control costs
-------
reducing phosphorus concentrations. As could be expected, the last
increments of phosphorus removal become more and more expensive.
Note that cost per unit of control is high in the region of R where
most of the phosphorus discharges are averted. The incremental costs
are low in region R where little is done to avoid discharges.
To achieve an optimal rate of discharge it is necessary to operate
where the marginal control cost equals the marginal damages. This
occurs at rate R . At R marginal control costs exceed marginal
u J
damages. Therefore, a higher level of discharge would be more effi-
cient. On the other hand, at R marginal damages exceed marginal
control costs. This implies that more controls should be applied to
avert damages.
Since there are no adequate data on the benefits from reduction in
discharges, this study is mainly concerned with comparison of alterna-
tive control measures based on a criterion of selecting the least cost
or most cost-effective control strategy.
In considering only the cost side of the problem, a benefit/cost compari-
son is needed to test the question of whether the cost is worth the bene-
fits received. It should not necessarily be assumed that control justifies
itself, as is often assumed in setting standards. However, cost-effective-
ness analysis provides a rational basis for decision given the stated
desire or objective of society to achieve an efficient solution to a
problem. An overview of benefit-cost and Cost-effectiveness analysis
as applied to the phosphate flow management system is shown in
Figure 37.
265
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LCONOMC
SOCIAL AND
LEGAL CONTROLS
ON ACTIVITIES
PHOSPHORUS
HASTES
INPROVID MINING
AND NANUFACTt*£
MAGT1CCS 10
REDUCE PHOSPHATE
POLLUTION
ALTERATION OR
MANAGEMENT
-OF WCWUSMS
X^ FOR PHOSPHATE
POLLUTION
MECKAMSH
FOR PhOSCKATt
ENTRY iKTO
AQUATIC SYSTEM
COHTROLS Olt
USlNfi/PROCUCIHG1
MTIYITY-
WDIFICATIM
OF PRACTICES
AND TECHNOLOGY
ECONOMIC
SOCIAL ADD LEGAL
CONTROLS OH PRODUCT!,
OR SERVICES REQUIRING
PHOSPHAHS
HASTt WATtR
TREATMEKT
TtCHNOLOGV
FOR PKOSPHATL
.HOVAL
BEKEF1C1AL
USE OF
WATER SOURCt
W BOlrt
tCOMMIC, SOCIAL
AND t»VIRONMLm*L
BENLFilS FROM
ttTER USi
Pt>P«"^
ENVIRONMENTAL
DAMAGE TO yATEK
SOURCE AND
DELATED USES
ENVtKONHlNTAL
UAMAGL
COiTS
Figure 37. Coit-benefit and co»t-e£feetiven«|B *naJyii§ r*luted to j>ho*phoru» mavb flow.
-------
In analyzing "cost-effective" strategies, costs are defined as "real"
costs, i. e. , only those items "which divert resources from other pro-
ductive uses in providing goods and services are real costs. In general
terms four kinds of costs are identified as real costs, as opposed to the
separate category of transfer payments. Real costs may be imposed
on society as a whole as program or administrative costs for govern-
mental units, while the incidence of others usually is at the consumer
level, although many are levied at the producer level and indirectly
passed on. A more specific description of costs and transfer payments
is provided in the following discussion. Also in the accompanying
Table 41, the various kinds of costs are associated with the control
methods previously enumerated and described in detail as follows:
a. Production Loss--
Actions which diminish the production of desirable goods and services
may be among the most promising pollution control mechanisms. This
arises because of the production externalities problem, which simply
says that production of certain "bads" accompanies production of goods.
Thus, an obvious way to diminish production of the pollutants or "bads"
is to diminish production of goods.
b. Production Cost Increases--
Production costs can be divided into investment (or capital) costs and
operating costs. These are incurred directly by the producing firm,
but most evidence would indicate that they are passed on to the
consumer, especially if competing firms are faced with the same
267
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Table 41. SUMMARY LISTING OF CONTROL TACTICS
A. Supply and demand (applies to consumer habits and producer
activities)
AT 1. Subsidies (nonphosphorus products)
AT 2. Tax breaks and credits
AC 3. Price controls
ATC 4. Excise taxes or other taxes
AP 5. Advertising and education
AP 6. Nonmonetary recognition
AP 7. Content labeling
AP 8. Moral suasion
ALC 9. Boycotts
B. Resource control, mining and manufacturing
AC 1. Requirements for recycling
ALC 2. Phosphate mining restrictions (rationing)
ALC 3. Manufacturing/production restrictions
ALC 4. Emission controls
C. Management of phosphorus uses
ALC 1. Resource and production substitution
AC 2. Technology improvements in processes or uses
APLC 3. Monitor requirements with enforcement of application
rates (e. gi , fertilizer)
APLC 4. Recycling and reclamation
D. Management of phosphorus discharges
APLC 1. Pollution standards
2. Land management practices
AL a. Reduction of cultivated acreage
AC b. Increased fertilizer use
ALC c. Technical management
ALC d. Irrigation practices
AL e. Green belts and buffer zones
APLC f. Solid waste recycling
3. Land use controls
AL a. Zoning
ATL b. Licensing
APL c. Leasing
AL d. Codes and subdivision regulations
ATL e. Permits
268
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Table 41. CONTINUED
4. Solid waste management
AC a. Disposal regulation
AT b. Fees
AT 5. Effluent charges
AL 6. Bans
ATC 7. Fines
E. Judicial controls
ALC 1. Judicial review
ALC 2. Class action
ALC 3. Common law remedies (nuisance, trespass, negligence)
F. Wastewater treatment—for phosphorus removal
AC
G. Lake modification
APC
T = Transfer payments
L = Production loss
C = Production cost increases (operating and capital); may be
borne by individuals or groups
P = Program cost to governmental unit
A = Administrative costs
requirements and the same operating conditions. Treatment plants
attached to an individual firm or to a group of firms or individuals
are examples of cost-increasing actions. In most cases, pressure
would need to be brought to bear on the firms to bear the increased
costs. This pressure may be among any of the general kinds of controls
as shown in Table 41.
269
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c. Government Program Costs--
This represents direct actions by government and is, in many ways,
comparable to the production costs increases noted. Direct outlays by
government are implied in this case, as distinguished from adminis-
trative costs defined below. This kind of cost may be most appropriate
for overcoming problems in which the sources are difficult to identify,
or for other reasons the external effects cannot be internalized to the
producer. Since the cost of these government programs represents an
alternative to production of other private or public goods and services,
they are a true cost as distinguished from the transfer payments.
d. Administrative Costs--
In each kind of program, certain costs of administration for monitoring
and supervising compliance will be needed. Personnel costs, instru-
mentation expenses, and other expenditures will be incurred to enforce
conformity to the controls. As with program costs, these are real
costs since other goods and/or services could be obtained if these
expenditures were not made.
e. Transfer Payments--
These are not real costs since they represent a redistribution of
wealth and income from one set of individuals to another. To illustrate,
assume that Net National Product is an adequate representation of the
income accruing to people in the country. Welfare payments, revenue
sharing, and other examples can be cited which shift income from one
270
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segment of society to another, but no new wealth is created. Therefore,
these transfers do not increase or decrease Net National Product. Note
that in Table 41 the control methods with which transfer payments are
associated do imply that resources are shifted from one part of society
to another. In every case, administrative costs are associated with
these transfers and in two cases production losses are implied since
with licenses and use permits some controls may be placed on the way
in which resources may be utilized.
While the costs described above appropriately belong in the cost-
effectiveness analysis, a considerable amount of data collection and
analysis is necessary in order to accomplish this. A detailed cost
analysis would have to be prepared for each control measure based on
a set of specifications for its implementation. The performance of
such cost analyses is further complicated by the fact that specifications
and therefore costs will depend on the particularities of the basin area
being considered. Hence, many of the components of "real" imple-
mentation costs for control strategies could not be examined within the
scope of this research. In view of this, the cost-effectiveness analysis
is approached from the standpoint of "real" costs that are readily
available and calculable. These are process costs for treatment of
wastewater discharges for removal of phosphorus. These processes
and costs are discussed in detail in Section VI, and are incorporated
into the Phosphorus Mass Flow Model as a subroutine. The subroutine
will accept flows from specified phosphorus activity sources and deter-
mine the minimum-cost treatment to achieve a given level of removal.
The cost-effectiveness of various management strategies is then analyzed
in terms of cost-savings which can be accrued by avoiding the need to
271
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apply treatment in order to achieve the same level of effectiveness in
terms of relative eutrophication.
The following simple example depicted in Figure 38 serves to illustrate
this approach. In the figure a measure of the relative eutrophication
of the lake is plotted on the ordinate versus the treatment cost of
achieving that level on the abscissa. Two cost-effectiveness curves
derived from the P-Mass Flow Model are shown. The first assumes a
strategy which relies solely on treatment processes for all phosphorus
removal; in the second a set of management controls (a strategy) is
applied along with treatment. It is seen from the plot, that the effect
of the management control is to reduce the level of eutrophication to
R. To achieve the same level through the use of treatment technologies
would have a cost of J3 dollars per year. In terms of selection of a
strategy to reduce eutrophication to level R, if the "real" cost of
implementation of the management strategy is less than S then it pays
to adopt the management control.
Further, if the desired effectiveness in eutrophicatiop level were Q,
then the cost-savings of implementing the management controls increases
considerably. The cost of achieveing this level through treatment only
would be TJ dollars per year and the cost savings of implementing the
management controls in achieving the same level of relative eutrophi-
cation, Q, is the amount T dollars per year. In this case the
management strategy should be implemented so long as the real costs
are less than T dollars per year.
272
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ro
O
•H
X
a
o
O
fi
o
W
0)
o
W
Strategy B-
Management Control •& Treatment
Strategy A-
Treatment Only
R —riT
Cost, $/Yr
Figure 38. Example cost-effectiveness curves.
-------
To summarize, the application of the Phosphorus Mass Flow Model and
treatment subroutine can be used to generate a set of cost-effectiveness
curves for comparing alternative management strategies. Given a
desired achievement level for which a water body can be maintained in
a noneutrophic state, and a decision-maker's estimates of real strategy
implementation costs for his particular situation, a cost-effective
strategy can be selected. Similarly, if the total program budget is
fixed, then a strategy can be selected which maximizes the level of
effectiveness. Three case examples are presented in the following to
illustrate the model outputs and analysis approach for a real system.
ANALYSIS OF BASIN CASE EXAMPLES
Three case examples of -water resources basins are analyzed in order
to test the model and analysis concepts. One is a hypothetical basin
with the data set made up as necessary to test the model during its
development. The others are the Lake Erie and Lake Michigan Basins
with the data based on information contained in Appendix D.
The latter two basins provide a basis for examining and evaluating the
application of the modeling and analysis procedures for examining
phosphate management strategies in an actual setting.
Targeting P-Activities for Application of
Control Strategies
The beginning step in the analysis is to identify those activities in the
basin that are responsible for the major inputs of phosphorus into the
274
-------
surface waters. To accomplish this, a model run is made for the
presently existing conditions in the basin. This established the current
levels of P-discharges from each activity and readily identifies those
that contribute the majority of the P-loadings on the surface waters.
These are the activities that should be attacked in order to control
eutrophication. The baseline condition for the three basins, Hypothetical,
Erie, and Michigan, are shown in the bar graphs of Figures 39, 40,
and 41. The charts show phosphate outputs produced by each activity
as a percentage of the total output generated in the basin. For a
number of activities within each basin the output level is so slight as
to be negligible so these can be ignored insofar as the application of
control strategies. On the other hand, major input sources, such as
domestic wastes and domestic detergents for Lake Erie, are prime
targets for application of a strong and effective set of controls. Using
the baseline analysis of the P-discharges of activities in each basin,
those activities were selected for the development of specific control
strategies. This set of activities for the basins generally includes the
major inputs of agriculture, domestic wastes, domestic detergents,
industrial detergents, and a collection of minor inputs including other
industrial wastes, urban runoff, and animal wastes. The management
controls judged to be most effective as controls on these sources are
discussed in the following paragraphs. An estimate of their effect in
reducing P-outputs is then input to the model in order to examine the
cost-effectiveness impact of the strategy.
275
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Percent of Total Phosphorus Input
5 10 15 20
25
Direct rainfall
River inflow
Agricultural erosion
Irrigation return flow
Pesticides
Solid waste disposal
Managed forests
Grazed watershed
Developed watershed
Natural watershed
Urban runoff
Domestic wastes
Domestic detergents
Industrial detergents
Water softening
Miscellaneous
industrial use
Metal finishing
Food wastes
P mining
Mining runoff
Cattle
Poultry
Pigs
Sheep
Figure 39. Hypothetical Lake--relative contributions from phosphorus activities
prior to application of controls.
276
-------
10
15
20
25
Direct Rainfall
River inflow
Agricultural effects
Irrigation return flow
Pesticides
Solid -waste disposal
Managed forests
Grazed watershed
Developed watershed
Natural watershed
Urban runoff
Domestic wastes
Domestic detergents
Industrial detergents
Water softening
Miscellaneous
industrial use
Metal finishing
Food wastes
P mining
Mining runoff
Cattle
Poultry
Pigs
Sheep
]
]
]
Figure 40. Lake Erie--relative contributions from phosphorus activities
prior to application of controls.
277
-------
10
15
20
25
ZI
Direct rainfall
River inflow
Agricultural erosion
Irrigation return flow
Pesticides
Solid waste disposal
Managed forests
Grazed watershed
Developed watershed
Natural watershed
Urban runoff
Domestic wastes
Domestic detergents
Industrial detergents
Water softening
Miscellaneous
industrial use
Metal finishing
Food wastes
P mining
Mining runoff
Cattle
Poultry
Pigs
Sheep
Figure 41. Lake Michigan--relative contributions from phosphorus activities
prior to application of controls.
278
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FORMULATING COMPREHENSIVE MANAGEMENT
STRATEGIES
Analysis of Mass Flow Program for
the Different Lakes
Although the mass flow program was applied to Lake Erie and Lake
Michigan without any special adjustments for curve fitting, reasonable
agreement with the actual situation was observed. Calculated phos-
phorus concentrations were about 4 |Jig P/l for Lake Michigan and 42
|J.g P/l for Lake Erie. These values compare fairly closely with esti-
mates of about 2-6 |xg P/l for Lake Michigan (Schelske and Stoermer,
1972) and 11-90 [J. g P/l in filtered water from Lake Erie (Lange, 1971).
Thus application of activity analysis and cost-effectiveness to these
actual lakes appears reasonable.
After many exploratory runs to determine what kinds of activities should
be attacked in order to control eutrophication, a series of strategies
were devised. These included treatment of municipal wastes, deter-
gent control, land use management, animal waste controls, fertilizers,
and a series of controls for minor inputs.
Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters
The first series of runs of the mass flow program involved only treat-
ment and no attempt at any management controls. Municipal waste
treatment included zero removal (baseline), 25 percent P removal,
279
-------
80 percent P removal, 95 percent P removal, and 99 percent P removal.
Results were obtained in terms of the amount of phosphorus removed
and the cost of treatment. Zero removal established the base case
from which cost savings are calculated.
The effects of these treatments on the three lakes can be seen in Figures
42, 43, and 44. (Note: The numbers refer to controls applied to the
mass flow program, ) Numbers 1 through 5 on the abscissa correspond
to zero, 25 percent, 80 percent, 95 percent, and 99 percent phosphorus
removal, respectively.
Implementation of such controls would most likely be dependent on
effluent standards; however, effluent charges, recycling requirements,
or judicial actions might precede such standards.
Detergent Control Strategies
Going back to the situation where no municipal waste treatment was
being practiced and no other management controls were applied, deter-
gents were manipulated. In this case, what was done was to decrease
the estimated proportion of the population using high phosphate deter-
gent and distribute this use among the other kinds of washing products.
It was not material which of the other distributions were utilized,
because none of them contributed appreciable amounts of phosphorus.
For this case when high phosphate detergent was reduced, the no
phosphate detergents and soaps were increased correspondingly in
approximately equal ratios. The no phosphate detergent was slightly
favored. No distribution to low phosphate detergent was utilized,
280
-------
Relative Eutrophication
100
150
200
0
25
80 '
95
99
DomDet
Treat
it
IndDet
ii
ii
AgMgmt
11 + slope
11 P Factor 0.01* 16
" " 0.25
ANWST-land*
Zero minor*
Water soft. =0*
0** CmpMgt
25 »
80 "
95 »
99
26
Available A
P-loading-'
250
Initial Conditions
*Varied treatment levels were later applied with all these strategies to form
CmpMgt. (Note that P = 0. 01. )
**Sewered all Ind wastes, urban runoff cone = 0. 5 orig.; CmpMgt.
Figure 42. Hypothetical Lake--effects of controls on relative eutrophication
(see text for description).
281
-------
Relative Eutrophication
« 12 16
20
0 Treat
25
80
95
99
DomDet
IndDet
10
" 12
AgMgmt 14
" + slope
" P. Factor 0.01* 16
11 " 0.25
ANWST-land* 18
Zero minor*
Water soft.=0* 20
0** CmpKiRt
25
80
95
99
22
24
26
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r I
x\^x\\\^^x^^^^cs^v^^c>c^\\^x^^
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available I
P-loading
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]!
J I
*Varied treatment levels were later applied with all these strategies to form
CmpMgt. (Note that P = 0. 01. )
**Sewered all Ind wastes, urban runoff cone = 0.5 orig. ; CmpMgt.
Figure 43. Lake Erie—effects of controls on relative eutrophication (see text
for description).
24
282
-------
1. 0
Relative Eutrophication
2.0 3. 0 4. 0
5.0
6.0
0
25
80
95
99
DomDet
it
ti
IndDet
n
ii
ii £
Treat
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Total PA. J
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10
12
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ANWST-land*
Zero minor*
Water soft. = 0*
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25 "
80
95
99 "
18
22
24
26
\x\VVx\x\\xxM
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I Algal
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P-loading
*Varied treatment levels were later appHed with all these strategies to form
CmpMgt. (Note that P = 0. 01. )
*#Sewered all Ind wastes, urban runoff cone = 0, 5 orig. ; CmpMgt.
Figure 44. Lake Michigan--effects of controls on relative eutrophication (see
text for description).
283
-------
because it was assumed that most regulations applied to detergents
would require a level of phosphate closer to zero than low phosphate
detergents actually have. Thus, from the initial distribution (Number
1) of 0. 7, 0. 1, 0. 1, 0. 1 for high phosphate, low phosphate, no phosphate,
and soap, a series of other distributions were made as follows for the
respective wash products: (Number 6) 0. 2, 0. 1, 0. 35, 0. 35; (Number
7) 0. 35, 0. 1, 0. 3, 0. 25; {Number 8) 0. 5, 0. 1, 0. 2, 0. 2; and (Number
9) 0. 0, 0. 1, 0. 5, 0.4. A similar approach was taken with industrial
detergents; it was assumed that low phosphate detergents would not be
used in industrial applications. In this case the initial levels (Number
1) were 0. 9, 0. 0, 0. 0, and 0. 1. The series of changed use distributions
were: (Number 10) 0. 25, 0.0, 0.35, 0. 4; (Number 11) 0. 45, 0.0, 0.25,
0.3; (Number 12) 0.65, 0.0, 0.25, 0.1; and (Number 13) 0.0, 0.0, 0.6,
0.4.
As can be seen in Figures 42, 43, and 44, significant effects on eutro-
phication levels were seen for domestic detergent controls (DomDet)
but not for industrial detergent controls (IndDet); this results because
of different use ratios in the two areas of society (Table 9).
Implementation of controls to produce the above effects has begun
already in certain areas of the USA (see Section VII). Likely controls
other than the bans already used would include supply and demand
controls, particularly excise taxes, and product substitution. (For
discussion, see Jenkins et al. , 1972. ) Costs of such controls are not
easily computed because of the difficulty in estimating development
costs, possible costs in changing washing machines or other processes
to match the products, consumer acceptance, cleaning levels,
284
-------
etc. Analysis of such costs and other management costs should be
performed to have a complete picture of phosphorus cost-effectiveness
controls applied to detergents. Discussion of excise taxes applied to
detergents as introduced in Section VII, occurs further on in this
Section.
Land Use Management Strategies
In this case there were four succeeding steps. First (Number 14),
soluble available phosphorus leached from agricultural lands was
reduced to zero (AgMgmt). This kind of control could be brought about
by green belt legislation and by other types of phosphorus removal
programs, e. g. , increased natural or cultivated vegetation. The
second step (Number 15) was to eliminate all highly sloped land (AgMgmt
+ slope); only Class A (the 0-1 percent slope) land was utilized; the
others were taken out of production. At the same time as the second
step, the soluble available phosphorus was kept at zero. Such a control
measure likely could be brought about by subsidies, zoning, land bank
requirements, etc. The efficacy of such control measures in farming
sociology and the relative proportion of prime farm lands in the U. S.
which fall into this category as well as a consideration of domestic and
export needs for farm products is unfortunately unknown. Further
analysis of these questions would be necessary before suggesting the
implementation of such control measures.
The third step (Number 16) was to keep the first two management steps
and to change the practice factor to 0. 01 (AgMgmt + slope + P factor
0. 01). This is assuming a high degree of competence in controlling
285
-------
runoff and erosion rate. In later analyses the minimum practice factor
utilized was 0. 10. By using sprinkler irrigation, careful use of ground
cover and developing large green belts, etc. , it might be possible to
reduce runoff to that particular point for sediments. A reason for
doing this lies not necessarily in controlling phosphorus, but in controlling
the major problem of suspended sediments and other eroded materials.
The fourth step (Number 17) was a less drastic one than the third step,
and this was to use a more reasonable practice factor of 0. 25 and all
other controls as in the third step (AgMgmt + slope + P factor 0. 25).
Similar control measures could be implemented to achieve the effects
seen in Figures 42, 43, and 44.
Except for erosion control, little effect on eutrophication was seen. In
fact, very little effect in comparison to the zero treatment eutrophication
level (Number 1) could be seen for available phosphorus eutrophication
levels. This observation reflects the decision that in general phosphorus
or eroded soils are not available for algal growth in natural ecosystems.
Animal Wastes Control
In this step (Number 18) it was assumed that the most logical and
feasible thing to do would be to require that all animal waste be disposed
to lands and that the land disposal should be done in a fairly competent
way so that direct discharge of •wastes into surface waters could not
occur (ANWST-land). Subsidies, effluent charges, land management
practices, and bans and fines could be used to implement such control
measures. In addition, a requirement that feedlots not be allowed to
locate near a watercourse, or be required to move away from
286
-------
watercourses, would prevent most accidental spills. Also, requirements
that the application of manures to lands utilize good erosion control
practices and that green belts be utilized would minimize land runoff.
The runoff factor from lands obtaining animal waste was assumed to be
about 5 percent. This is the maximum value that Vollenweider (1968)
suggested for animal manures phosphorus runoff. It is also the level
estimated by Biggar and Corey (1969) for frozen land runoff of animal
manures in the Lake Mendota watershed. The effect of this control
seemed somewhat significant for Lake Michigan (Figure 44) but not for
Lake Erie (Figure 43).
Other Miscellaneous Control Devices
Fertilizer application rates were maintained at a relatively low value
(10 kg P/ha* yr) because of their effect on eroded material and its con-
centration of phosphorus. The level chosen was one which would main-
tain phosphorus levels in the solid phase phosphorus, but which would
not cause the eroded phosphorus to increase significantly. Another
control was to cause all minor inputs to be zero (zero minor). These
could be accomplished by a variety of tactics. The minor inputs were:
Irrigation return flow, pesticide runoff, solid waste runoff, and strip
mining runoff. In some cases these values were already zero because
it was assumed that the particular activity did not occur in the basin,
e. g. , strip mining runoff in Lake Michigan. Solid waste runoff can be
minimized by recycling the leachate to percolate through the overlying
soil in the landfill. Phosphorus pesticides runoff can be minimized by
utilizing different pesticides or applying pesticide during the low
287
-------
runoff season of the year. Irrigation return flows can be collected and
removed from input to natural surface waters: (1) Bypass the lake of
interest; and (2) treat for salinity and/or nitrate removal as has been
practiced in California (Brown et al. , 1971).
Thus, these minor inputs can easily be minimized; they were zeroed
in this case. The application of all these controls resulted in the
changes noted in Number 19.
A last minor input concerns the use of phosphorus-bearing water soft-
eners in industrial uses. Because of the advent of organic water
softening compounds, the amount of phosphorus-based water softeners
has remained the same since 1958. However, there is also the possi-
bility that the phosphorus-based water softeners can be eliminated
entirely by use of bans or other such controls. This control (water
soft. = 0) was added to control of minor inputs and produced a negli-
gible effect in all cases (Number 20), Therefore, it seems reasonable
to let water softening phosphorus use disappear without application of
controls.
Application of Comprehensive Strategy and
Municipal Waste Simultaneously
The next step was to apply the different control strategies to produce a
certain desired result in terms of eutrophication of the lakes. These
were determined with the hypothetical lake system first and then applied
without further experimentation directly to Lakes Michigan and Erie.
The first step was to select the particular strategies, and these were:
288
-------
(1) To ban use of high phosphorus detergent, both in the domestic and
industrial use patterns; (2) apply land use controls so that practice
factors brought about by various kinds of green belts, etc, , would
reduce erosion rates to 0. 10 of the initial, to eliminate the high-slope
lands ("greater than one percent") and to eliminate soluble surface
phosphorus runoff; (3) animal waste was shunted to land disposal and
10 kg/ha* yr was the maximum level of fertilization allowed; (4) all
industrial waste was required to go through the sewage treatment
plant: Thus direct discharge of wastes to streams was prohibited
("zero discharge11); by eliminating certain kinds of runoff conditions
and minimizing phosphorus use in road deicing compounds, and in home
garden use, the amount of phosphorus coming from urban runoff was
cut in half; and (5) all minor inputs and water softening were reduced to
zero. Then, using this rather comprehensive strategy (CmpMgt), the
levels of treatment were applied as in the first condition (Numbers 1-5),
i. e. , 0 percent removal (Number 21), 25 percent (Number 22), 80
percent (Number 23), 95 percent (Number 24), and 99 percent (Number
25) removal were practiced. The results of all these applications of
strategy to the mass flow model were dramatically improved over any
single strategy--especially for the hypothetical lake (Figure 42) and
Lake Erie (Figure 43).
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Strategy
Implementation
The cost-effectiveness analysis of implementing the final set of control
strategies, screened out as being potentially most effective, is developed
along the lines suggested in the example analysis a't the beginning of this
289
-------
section (Figure 38). Data for the cost-effectiveness curves are gener-
ated by a series of model runs which simulate the effect of the manage-
ment control together with wastewater treatments specified for the
levels of 0, 50, 60, 70, 80, 84, 86, 88, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98,
and 99 percent removal of phosphorus. For each percentage of phos-
phorus removal, a eutrophication level and treatment cost are computed.
The eutrophication level is measured by the indexing number previously
discussed, where the smaller the index number, the less the eutrophic
condition of the water body. Costs are in dollars per year. These two
values, then, determine a point on the cost-effectiveness curve for that
management strategy. The collection of points plotted for the range
percentage removals generates the entire cost-effectiveness curve for
the strategy.
The set of cost-effectiveness curves for the three case examples are
presented in Figures 45, 46, and 47 for the Hypothetical, Lake Erie,
and Lake Michigan basins respectively. The final set of management
controls analyzed were the same for each case. The strategies identi-
fied by the phosphorus sources to which they are applied are noted
below for ease of reference in the following discussion:
1. Treat- Treatment processes are applied to all phosphorus
inputs from sources which can be treated. This estab-
lishes the base case from which cost savings are
calculated.
2. DomDet- Use of domestic detergents is shifted or eliminated.
through management controls.
3. IndDet- Use of industrial detergents is shifted or eliminated
through management controls.
290
-------
W
d
O
•f-»
*j
rt
o
• r4
a
o
tH
-4-1
P
u
U)
c
n
rt
20
40
60
CmpMgt
A-l,^—
-A O
7D
DomDet ^ Treat
80 M
100
DomDet»( I
120
140
IndDet -»
160
180
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Annual Cost of Removal of Phosphorus at the Treatment Plant, $ x 10"
Figure 45. Hypothetical lake--cost-effectiveness of various treatment levels in relation to
eutrophication based on available phosphorus loading.
291
-------
CO
10
15
12
a
o
•2 ZO
0.
o
w
oo
.3
n
3
K
I
25
30
35 I
40
O Treat
Q IndDet
A DomDet
CmpMgt
CmSew (CmpMgt without sewering all industrial wastes)
Annual Cost of Removal of Phosphorus at the Treatment Plant, $ x 10
Figure 46. Lake Erie (20 m mean depth)--cost-effectiveness of various treatment levels in relation to
eutrophication based on available phosphorus loading.
-------
t>0
u>
W
<
G
O
£
ri
u
0
In
-M
3
w
bO
a
-r-*
n
rt
o>
M
u
.5
1.0
. 5
2.0
.5
3.0
1 Treat
2 DomDet
3 IndDet
4 AgMgmt
5 CmpMgt
6 CmSew
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Annual Cost of Removal of Phosphorus at the Treatment Plant, $ x 10
Figure 47. Lake Michigan--cost-effectiveness of various treatment levels in relation to eutrophication
based on available phosphorus loading.
-------
4. AgMgmt- Agricultural practices are altered in accordance with
prescribed management controls.
5. CmpMgt- Comprehensive management controls applied to all
major and minor input sources.
6. CmSew- Comprehensive management controls applied to all
major and minor inputs except the required sewering
of all industrial wastes.
A general conclusion which can be drawn from the curves for all three
cases is that increased effectiveness of treatment processes can be
obtained at lower cost by first applying management controls to sources
in order to reduce phosphorus loadings. This, of course, was expected
and confirms the validity of using the concept of cost-savings, or avoid-
ance of treatment costs, as the basis of a decision rule for determining
whether a management strategy should be implemented. To restate the
criterion: If the real costs for strategy implementation are less than
the treatment costs saved (or avoided) then the strategy should be
used.
In addition, a few other general observations about the cost-effectiveness
curves should be made. First, AgMgmt evidences no effect on the
system since its cost-effectiveness curve corresponded identically with
the Treat strategy. Hence, this control strategy does not appear on the
cost-effectiveness plots. The reason, however, is due to using eutro-
phication numbers calculated from the phosphorus available for algal
growth rather than total phosphorus residual in the system for the
measure of effectiveness (see p. 54ff for discussion). AgMgmt does
effectively reduce total phosphorus, but mostly in the forms that are
not considered available to algae.
294
-------
Second, each cost-effectiveness curve reflects segments of cost
functions from three different treatment processes, namely coagulation,
ion exchange, and reverse osmosis. The treatment subroutine selects
the minimum cost treatment process based on constraints which specify
acceptable influent concentration and the effluent concentrations which
are obtainable in the process. When a higher level treatment process
is selected, such as ion exchange or reverse osmosis, there is a
discontinuity in the cost-effectiveness curves (shown by the dashed line)
which reflects the substantially higher cost function of the higher level
process.
Finally, the g.eneral picture from the cost-effectiveness curves of impact
of the management strategies for the three basin examples appears about
the same. The specific conclusions for each basin, however, are quite
different because of differences in the initial conditions of relative
eutrophication in the lake and in the constituent phosphorus sources of
the basin.
SPECIFIC CONCLUSIONS OF MANAGEMENT
STRATEGIES APPLIED TO THE INDIVIDUAL LAKE BASINS
Hypothetical
The hypothetical basin is only briefly discussed since it is primarily
of academic interest in developing and testing the mass flow model.
In the hypothetical case, the lake size is small relative to the size of
the basin inputs; hence, the phosphorus loading rate is very high, and
consequently, the relative eutrophication. As the cost-effectiveness
295
-------
curves indicate, CmpMgt is required together with reverse osmosis
treatment to approach the acceptable range of 5-10 for relative eutro-
phication. The annual cost for treatment alone under such a program
would be $7-8 million. Furthermore, the curve indicates that relatively
little effectiveness is gained in going from coagulation at an annual cost
of $600, 000 and relative eutrophication of 25-35 to reverse osmosis with
an annual cost of about $7, 000, 000 and relative eutrophication of 10-15.
Whether or not these very high expenditures would be justified where actual
improvement seems doubtful is a question that would need careful study.
.Lake Erie
Lake Erie presents an interesting case where a combination of manage-
ment controls and treatment processes can, in fact, reduce the relative
eutrophication levels to within an acceptable range of 5-10. Here, a
more detailed examination of the cost-effectiveness curves for the
various management approaches can yield further insight into an appro-
priate course of action.
An initial question is what costs would be justified in the implementation
of strategies to control a particular pollutant source? According to the
stated decision rule, this must be answered in terms of the treatment
cost-savings anticipated. These cost-savings are easily derived from
the cost-effectiveness curves. Using, for example, the Lake Erie case
shown in Figure 46, calculations summarized in Table 42 are made in
the following way. The relative eutrophication for the system with no
management or treatment is 38. . With CmpMgt, which implements
all management options, relative eutrophication is dropped 17 points
296
-------
Table 42. COST SAVINGS ATTRIBUTABLE TO STRATEGIES FOR LAKE ERIE CASE
sD
rt Relative
Strategy . ,.
eut r ophi cation
System is as 38
CmpMgmt 21
IndDet 35
DomDet 26
Combined IndDet & DomDet
All Other
Total %
Change change for
eut r ophi cation management
strategy
17 100%
3 18%
12 70%
15
2 12%
$
savings
attributable tcr
strategy
$11.5 m
2. 0 m
8. 1 m
1.4 m
-------
to 21. ,At a relative eutrophication level of 21, cost of the Treat strategy
is $11. 5 million. The treatment cost-savings attributable to CmpMgt
if implemented is $11. 5 million. Therefore, it pays to apply a CmpMgt
strategy if the total cost of doing so is less than $11. 5 million. The
proportion of those savings due to the IndDet and DomDet strategy
components can also be calculated assuming they are in the same
proportion as the percentage of the total change in relative eutrophication
that they contribute. The assumption of linearity and superposition
seem reasonable since there is little interaction among the subsystems,
and a specific drop in relative eutrophication can be associated with
particular substrategies included within CmpMgt. Thus, DomDet
is responsible for 12 of the total 17 points change or 70 percent. The
treatment cost-savings due to the DomDet strategy, then, are 70 percent
of $11. 5 million, or $8. 1 million, and hence it pays to implement the
DomDet strategy if it costs less than this. Similar reasoning applies
to IndDet and the remaining strategy components.
In applying cost-effectiveness analysis, the selection of an action
strategy should be approached from the standpoint of the desired level
of effectiveness and of the constraints on available budget. For example,
consider a policy objective to achieve an effectiveness level of less
than 10 in order ,to ensure noneutrophic lake conditions. The cost-
effectiveness curves of Figure 46 indicate that the management options
can produce significant cost-savings at this level. The curves show
that a eutrophication number in the range of 10, if it is attainable under
/
Treat at all, can only be achieved with reverse osmosis at a cost in the
order of $132 million. Using CmpMgt plus treatment by coagulation
a level of 10 is attainable for a cost of $9 million. For this specific
298
-------
level of effectiveness, then, the net savings in treatment cost from
CmpMgt is some $123 million. This amount is an upper limit on
costs of implementing CmpMgt and any implementation cost less than
that represents a net cost-savings.
Even though management may desire to achieve a high level of effective-
ness, it is often constrained by budget limitations on what it actually
can do. It is also worthwhile, therefore, to identify the management
strategy which achieves the highest level of effectiveness for a given
budget. Since the cost-effectiveness curves do not incorporate strategy
implementation costs, again it is necessary to examine the decision in
light of allowable implementation costs. For example, say the total
budget cannot exceed $15 million. The highest level of effectiveness
achievable for less than $15 million treatment cost is CmpMgt in
conjunction with treatment by coagulation. With this strategy a relative
eutrophication of 8 can be attained for a treatment cost of $10. 5 million.
This combination would then be selected so long as the implementation
costs of CmpMgt were less than $4. 5 million, the difference between
the treatment cost of $10. 5 million under CmpMgt and the budget
constraint of $15 million. If this criterion could not be met, then a
similar examination of other strategies would proceed until the highest
level of effectiveness is achieved within the budget constraint.
Some control measures would not only be cost-savings because of
reduced treatment requirements, but would also generate revenues
which would be used to effect or carry out that treatment, just as
highways are financed by a tax on gasoline.
299
-------
In Section VII, the possible revenue potential of a national excise tax
on phosphate detergents was examined. What such a tax might do in
the Lake Erie basin is presented here as an example case. Beginning
with present usage patterns of high phosphate, low phosphate, no
phosphate detergents, and of soap in the basin, the question for analysis
is: What will be the case if a change in use patterns is brought about
by means of a tax on high phosphate detergents? To do this, four cases
representing shifts from use of high phosphate detergents are analyzed
to determine the tax rates necessary to induce the change, the potential
revenue from the tax, and the effect on treatment cost generated from
the model. Analysis is based on the following assumptions. First,
some elasticity (percentage change in quantity divided by the percentage
change in price) for the change caused by introducing the tax is assumed.
An elasticity of 0. 75 (4 percent change in price gives a 3 percent change
in quantity) is selected because it seems a reasonable one. There would
be no precise way of knowing before the change what the response is
going to be. Second, assume that people are consuming on a per capita
basis approximately 32 pounds of cleaning agents per year. See 1973
estimate in Table 38 for consumption of detergent. In the example
soap adds another 10 percent to the total initially. Finally, assume
the price of high phosphate detergent to be 20£ a pound initially, the
prices of other products to remain constant. With these assumptions,
the kind of tax rate would be required to bring about the changes in
consumption patterns postulated in Table 43 on Lake Erie and the
revenues that would be generated by it are calculated.
It can be observed that Case 3 provides the greatest revenue and that
while going to Case 4 may be cost-saving at some levels of treatment
300
-------
Table 43. ANALYSIS OF EXCISE TAX ON HIGH PHOSPHATE
DETER GENTS--LAKE ERIE EXAMPLE
Initial Condition
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
_4_>
ct
ft
to
0
•+-> rfl
?r nS ft
"fl ti
cti M .rf
•o 1 «
bfi j-i
S^ rt rf
.7
.6
.5
.35
. 2
'o «
O "^
~j .«H PH
4J ' •!-> 03
•-4 ft O
03 --,
^* M hh
0) o ..7
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22.4
19.2
16
11.2
6.4
o
O K(!
• iH "^
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o S
o «
r-H «J
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•8 c
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127
109
91
64
36
CO
"fl
0)
u
, — ,
CO
oT
•4-1
rt
X
ri
None
3.8
7.6
13.4
19.0
oo
9)
0
fl
V
t-t °
i — I
rt M
None
9. 22
15.20
18.76
15. 20
(1) per capita consumption X population of 12.5 million
(2) this is the rate needed to bring about the change postulated in each
case given that elasticity = . 75
e. g. Case 1
% A in Q
75 =
% A in P
18.2
127 14.3%
X % X %
X = 19.2% and
19.2% of 20£ is
(3) consumption X rate
301
-------
it would, in this example, result in a loss of revenues. For instance,
for a treatment level at 90 percent removal, the following cost-savings
and revenues would be realized.
Initial Condition
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Cost
37. 1 M
23.4 M
21.9 M
35.2 M
35. 2 M
Savings
-
13.7 M
15.2 M
1.9 M
1.9 M
Rev.
-
9.21 M
15.2 M
18.8 M
15.2 M
Total
-
22.9 M
30.4 M
20.7 M
17. 1 M
In this situation, Case 2 yields the greatest total cost-savings and tax
revenues combined. Other removal rates would yield different results.
This has been a simple example which has precluded some very real
problems and some hidden assumptions. Some of these are that all
four materials have equal cleaning power per pound, that the higher
price of high phosphate detergent causes a substitution and not a
reduction in overall purchases of cleaning agents, and finally that
people change their consumption patterns rather than their shopping
location to an untaxed area. The lower the level of government levying
the tax the more likely people are to avoid it by simply buying outside
the taxed area,
This example, however, does illustrate that if a tax is to be used as a
regulating device that our model could be used to suggest what the
appropriate rate of tax should be.
302
-------
Summarizing a general conclusion for Lake Erie in terms of management
policy, it is clear that the lake can be brought to noneutrophic levels
through comprehensive management and the use of coagulation as a
relatively inexpensive treatment method. Furthermore, expensive
treatment processes are not able to accomplish this without the use of
some management of phosphate sources in the basin.
Lake Michigan
For the Lake Michigan case, the present phosphorus loading will
apparently not cause serious problems of eutrophication. From this
standpoint, therefore, treatment would be unnecessary. Nevertheless,
consideration of providing a margin of safety by implementing manage-
ment control on various inputs could be valuable in preserving the
future quality of the lake. A decision of whether or not such a control
is justified would be made following the same line of reasoning developed
in the previous examples. As a general conclusion for Lake Michigan,
where future costs to correct problems can be averted it makes sense
to opt for better management of phosphorus sources in preference
to treatment programs as the means for ensuring maintenance of the
eutrophication level in the presently acceptable range.
Summary
This section has developed the basic analytical notions for application
of cost-effectiveness analysis in selection of strategies for phosphate
management. While the real costs of strategy implementation were
discussed, the actual estimation of such costs for use in cost-effectiveness
303
-------
analysis could not be accomplished within the scope of this project.
Certainly a useful extension of this research would be further elaboration
of the cost-effectiveness analytical framework through investigation
and estimation of these costs, and using them in further testing and
applying the mass flow and treatment optimization models in cos't-
effectiveness studies for selected basins. Even so, partial cost-
effectiveness curves based on the impact of various strategies plus
treatment were derived and the concepts of analysis and strategy
selection described. The analysis was applied to two actual cases,
Lake Erie and Lake Michigan. For Lake Erie, it was seen that a
combination of management controls plus treatment could bring the
relative eutrophication within acceptable levels. For Lake Michigan,
implementatidn of low cost control strategies would ensure that presently
acceptable levels are maintained or improved.
304
-------
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APPENDIX A
FURTHER RELATIONS BETWEEN EUTROPHICATION LEVELS
AND STANDING CROP ESTIMATES OF ALGAE
EUTROPHICATION PARAMETERS AND
PHOSPHORUS LOADING
The relationships between phosphorus loading and phosphorus concen-
tration in the water (Figure 8) can be expressed as:
P cone, (J.g/1 = 80 (P loading rate), g/m yr (41)
Averaging the results of Edmundson (1972) and Megard (1972) for
chlorophyll ji versus phosphorus concentration (Figure 10), a relation-
ship between total phosphorus concentration and an index of algal
productivity can be obtained:
Chlorophyll a_, p.g/1 =0.8 (Total P cone, ^g/1) (42)
Further, an inverse relationship between water clarity and chlorophyll
a can be estimated (see Figure A-l B; r = 0.89, calculated from
Edmundson, 1972):
1 = 0.02 (chlorophyll a, fig/1) + 0. 3 (43)
Secchi depth, meters
333
-------
00
C
B
T3
O
OT
T3
V
c
(X
a
10
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0
,•
»
" i —
i
o\ • Data from April 1969-April 1970
t \ o Data from April 1970-April 1971
« \,
\
\ •
^ o
• ^ o
-------
A similar relationship between suspended material composed mostly
(> 50 percent) of organic matter has been obtained (Figure A-l A;
Dugan et al. , 1971):
Secchi depth, meters = °'01
-------
2
Spring P cone, |j,g/l = 80 (Annual P loading rate, g/m yr)
Chlorophyll a, pg/1 = 64 (Annual P loading rate, g/m yr)
= 1. 28 (Annual P loading rate, g/m yr)
Secchi depth, m
(45)
As shown in Figure A-2, the relation between phosphorus loading rates
and chlorophyll a_ and Secchi depth allows definition of levels correspond-
ing to admissible and dangerous levels of eutrophication. These values
would only be of relative value to indicate in quantitative terms a crude
definition of algal population levels corresponding to a eutrophic lake;
as such they should be compared to other lake systems varying in their
degree of eutrophy.
336
-------
Relative
Eutrophication
Permissible
Dangerous
Biomass Parameter
Chlorophyll a. tig/1
26
52
Secchi Depth, m
1.02
0.85
Relative
Eutrophication
permissible
dangerous
0
Annual total phosphorus loading rate, g/m yr
Figure A-2. An example of how a biomass (algal bloom) parameter can
be related to phosphorus loading rate. Assumed mean
depth of lake is 100 meters.
337
-------
APPENDIX B
LANDFILLS AS A SOURCE OF PHOSPHORUS
The prediction of the quantity of phosphorus contributed to surface waters
from sanitary landfill is not simple because it depends upon the con-
dition of the landfill (saturated or not saturated) and upon whether the
leachate from the fill enters surface or ground waters.
That there is some phosphorus contributed to groundwaters beneath,
within, and downstream from, sanitary landfills has been demonstrated
as early as 1954 (Merz, 1954). By drilling wells upstream in the ground-
water aquifer running below the Riverside, California, landfill, it was
demonstrated that phosphorus concentrations were higher in the water
beneath and downstream from the landfill. An abbreviated list of this
data is presented in Table B-l. (All data in this discussion were pre-
sented as phosphate and have been converted to phosphorus. )
While these data show that sanitary landfills do contribute phosphorus to
groundwaters through leaching, such field studies are difficult to draw
conclusions from in terms of phosphorus loadings from a unit (such as
a metric ton or a hectare-meter) of sanitary landfill. For such data one
must invariably turn to laboratory or lysimeter studies on the production
of leachate from (typically) saturated "synthetic" sanitary landfills.
338
-------
Table B-l. EFFECT OF LANDFILL LEACHATE ON PHOSPHORUS
CONTENT OF UNDERLYING GROUNDWATER
Location of Well
Inorganic phosphorus
mg/1
1952-1953 1953-1954
Upstream of landfill in aquifer
At head of Landfill in aquifer
Immediately below landfill in aquifer
Below landfill 4 ft into aquifer
Below landfill 6 ft into aquifer
Below Landfill 10 ft into aquifer
Below landfill 6 ft into aquifer
Below landfill into aquifer (depth
unspecified)
Below landfill into aquifer (depth
unspecified)
Below landfill 6 ft into aquifer
Below landfill into aquifer (depth
unspecified)
Below landfill into aquifer (depth
unspecified)
At end of landfill 4 ft into aquifer
At end of landfill into aquifer (depth
unspecified)
0.02
0.015
0.055
0.036
0.013
0.006
0.026
0.075
0.015
0.05
0.28
0.14
0. 22
0,4
0.02
0.02
0. 022
0. 0&5
0.015
0. 026
0. 036
0. 15
0.022
0.08
1.04
0. 16
0.3
339
-------
Merz conducted such lysimeter studies in which parallel lysimeters
were used. One lysimeter was saturated and then water applied at the
rate of 76 I/week (equivalent to 2.5 cm/week). Leachate was collected
and analyzed. Merz1 s data for total phosphorus are replotted in Figure
B-l. From an estimation of the area under the curve it was determined
that 5300 1 of water applied to 9 m of uncompacted refuse produced 70
3
mg total phosphorus. Assuming a density of 120 kg/m for uncompacted
O
refuse means that during this period the leachate produced 7. 83 x 10 g
P/l refuse. Note that phosphorus continues to leach from the lysimeter.
If one assumes a phosphorus content of 1. 3 mg/gm (calculated from
Fungaroli and Steiner, 1971) then this means that some 0. 9 percent of
the phosphorus has been leached during this period. It is notable that a
second lysimeter left exposed to the natural weather of Southern
California failed to produce any leachate at all when there was a natural
rainfall of 38 cm/year.
Some more definitive figures of the phosphorus production from satu-
rated sanitary landfills can be obtained from later work in this area.
Fungaroli and Steiner (1971) studied leachate composition from refuse
2
in laboratory lysimeters which were 0.56 m square and contained 2.44
m refuse with a 0. 61 m soil cover. The lysimeters were not saturated.
At the start of the experiment and during 452 days, 49.5 1 leachate was
collected. This leachate contained 0. 36 g total phosphorus--a quantity
that represented approximately 0.5 percent of the phosphate in the
lysimeter. To compute the phosphate loading per kg dry refuse, the
following calculations were made:
3
Volume of refuse = 8. 2 m
3
Dry refuse density as placed = 194 kg/m
340
-------
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Volume of Water Applied After Saturation, Gal
1400
Figure B-l,
Phosphate concentration in leachate from water-saturated
refuse (uncompacted vol. = 9 m3 (320 ft3)), after Merz,
(1954).
341
-------
.•. total dry refuse as placed
Total leachate contained 0. 36 g P
/. P loading in leachate
= 8. 2x 194 = 1590 kg
0. 36 g P
1590 kg refuse
0.226 x 10'6 P/g refuse
Pohland (1972) conducted lysimeter studies on refuse containing 50
percent paper, 25 percent garbage, 7 percent glass, 5 percent rags,
5 percent stone and sand, 4 percent metal, 3 percent plastic, and 1
percent wood. About 1270 kg of this synthetic refuse were placed in
bins to an initial uncompacted depth of 3 m and covered with 76 cm soil
and then sod to produce even distribution of water. The refuse was then
saturated with 950 1 water and leachate collected over 312 days. This
leachate contained 1. 06 g P which amounts to a phosphorus loss per g
of uncompacted refuse of about 0. 85 x 10~ g P/g.
It is notable that in Pohland1 s experiments a parallel lysimeter was used
in which leachate was recycled. During the 312 day experimental period
the net production of phosphorus from this lysimeter was nil. This
might well be considered as a control procedure for this source of phos-
phorus; of course, the length of the experiment was less than one year
and phosphorus may eventually breakthrough even with leachate recycle
through the landfill.
Armentrout and Bortner (1971) in what appears to be a pilot experiment
to that of Pohland (1972) placed 3.1m refuse in a 4. 3 m cylinder and
placed a soil cover over it. The refuse was compacted, assuming a
density of 318 kg/m , the weight of compacted refuse would be
3. 1 x 318 = 985 kg
342
-------
The fill was saturated and in 11 weeks approximately 2. 03 m water were
applied, generating 165 1 leachate with an average phosphorus concen-
tration of 9. 1 mg/1. This amounts to a phosphorus output of
165 1x0.0091 g/1 . c, ..-6 _,
985000 g =1.53x10 g P/g refuse
Again in these experiments a parallel leachate recycle lysimeter was
run with a resultant phosphorus concentration of 0. 21 mg/1 compared
with the 9. 1 mg/1 found in the lysimeter leachate without recycle.
The figures for phosphorus loadings from refuse in laboratory lysimeters
are summarized below in Table B-2. These figures are consistent if
one examines the pattern of phosphorus release from landfills as shown
by the work of Merz (1954) in Figure B-l. Initially there are high con-
centrations of phosphorus in leachate which gradually decrease. Fungaroli
and Steiner1 s experiments were on unsaturated refuse and short circuit-
ing may have occurred thus causing a lesser concentration. Armentrout
and Bortner1 s experiments and those of Pohland commenced after the
landfill was saturated. The shorter duration experiments of Armentrout
and Bortner included more of the initial high phosphate release than
the longer term experiments of Pohland and therefore the former workers'
phosphate leachate loadings are higher. The extremely low values of
Merz (1954) cannot be explained at this time.
One must conclude that the loadings of phosphate in leachate from sani-
tary landfill will be variable, depending on the degree of saturation and
the age of the fill. However, excluding the results calculated from Merz,
the range of values (0.226 to 1.53 jig P/g refuse) is not vastly different.
343
-------
Actual runoff concentrations may, however, not be easily related to
these values. Hence, runoff concentrations from an open dump were
used in the mass flow computer program (Silvey, 1970); this allowed
relating the output from solid wastes to the area of waste and the rainfall.
Table B-2, COMPARATIVE P LOADINGS IN LEACHATES
FROM EXPERIMENTAL LANDFILLS
Investigator
Landfill
Saturated
Duration of
Experiment,
days
P loading
in leachate,
refuse
Fungaroli and Steiner (1971) No
Pohland (1972) Yes
Armentrout and Bortner (1971) Yes
Merz (1954) Yes
452
3125
77!
365!
0. 226
0.85
1.53
0.0783
After saturation
344
-------
APPENDIX C
PHOSPHORUS MASS FLOW PROGRAM
FILE 5M.MPUT
COMMON /GUVPflATE(12)»CAP»WACRE»SFAC
-— — ' COMriON /CiOE/GPFAC
COMlON /MiNL/XMACR£»XMCUNC»XMFAC
COMrtON/f ErtG/SLl)PH»KAIN.F£KTl 12)»FACrtE
COMMQN/I««/FLUWC12)
COMrtON/ANIM/CUHS( 1 i*) • CHlCK{ 12} » P IGS( 1 2 } » SHEEPC 12 J
COHMON/ANIC/C«W<4» ll)»F£FD
CUMrtDN /nUST/uMFLU*DflCOriC*OHTi.tDpMFLu»DPMlN»U»ACHt;*SCUNC __
COMMON YUKHAN/UACRE»UCONC»UFAC ~ ""
CUKriON /NATuRL/XNACKifXNCUNt.XOACKE
COMMON/i^AT/XFACRE.GACKE _
COMrinN/KlV/RFLO»RCONC»DFAC»ODFAC ~" "
COMriUN/COMl/KFCONC
C(JMWON/COrt2/PCOW»PCrtlC»PPlGS»PSHEP
COMrtON/CQrt'*/FxD,FXF»FXG
COMHON/COM5/R»SK»C»P,FA1»FA2»FA^»FL1»FL2»FL3
COMrtON/COM6/PHPPC»PLPPC»PNPPC»PSOPC»PLBHP»PL«LP»Pt8NP»PLBSO
FKACC I 00) »CUSJ( 100} » 1 1 3( 100) » P3( 100) * Xb2( 100) » FLRU( 100>
U( 1 >/.07a/»lH2)/.Obl/,U( 3)/.026/»DC»)/.0?0/»U(5)/,Ol3/»D(?. J/.
1010/»U(7)/.UOa/
DAT* PKUC(6)/6HtfH(i /»PROC( 10)/6HREtf OS/» Pt
-------
(ITYPA( I},I=1,NTYA>
(IFYPCI I),Irl
(ITYPDU).i«l»NTri))
DO uOO 1=1.60
600 CUNUNUt
UFLMGaO
TTAL=l>»0
50
NRITE(6»1341)(BUF( I). I a 1,7)
GO 10 (l. 2. 3»<».5»6» 7. d.V.10»ll»l2»13.1a»lb. 16. 17.18.19.^0*21. 22. 23
2*46*47,
1U1 UFLrtGM
GO fO 100
1 00 60 1 = 1.'.
' PKAIEtI)«dJF(I*l)
60 CUNUNUt
- fcU 10 ^0
2 UO &1 I*7»ld
J
QU 10 50
3
FACJ=BUFC4)
GO 10 50
FACF»BUF(2)
FLUi=bUF(J)
RFCuNC*tJUFCj>
GO 10 50
"5'"DO" 04 1 = 1 »6
64 CUNIINUt
*""GO TO 50
6 00 65 1-7*12
65 CUNI
GO 10 50
7 OU 66 1=1 »&
----- FLO«CI)=BUFCI*-1)
346
-------
t>6 CONTINUE
GO 10 50
8 DO 67 1*7 »12
FLUrtC I)=BUFl 1-5)
67 CUNdNUt
— ..... GU (0 50
9 DO 08 IM»
-------
20 UO (9 1=7*11
CtHi2» I >»Hi)F( 1-5)
f9 CONI IMJt
U
29 PHPi2)=bUF(2)
PLPi2>=BUF(3)
SFAu2(2)=HUF<6)
GO (0 50
30 t)MFuO = auF(2)
-• OMCUNts6UF(3) ""
348
-------
GO fQ 50
31
OPF«C»BUF16>
SFAw=bUK(7)
l>0 10 50
32
" SCG.iC*BUF(3)
GO IQ 50
33
WACrtt*BUFC7)
ao ID so
Xf Av
GO 10 50
35 PCQrf=bUF<2)
PCHiCBBUF(3J
---- GO 10 50
36
GO «fl 50
37 UU 36 I*
d6 CUMIINUt
GO 10 50
36 TRTC
OU o7 1*1*5
X( I j
349
-------
87 "CONTINUE '"
iiD 10 50
39 DO 08 I=6»ll
38 CONTINUE
GU IU 5U
SLl)UsbUF(4)
----- RLS*BUFC7)
GO 10 50
-Hi AT*BUK2>
RZ*dUF(4)
BSUL«bUf(6)
FXO«8UF(7J
------ GO 10 50 ~
•42 FXF*BUF(2J
FXG=8UF(3)
SK«t»uF(5)
--- PeBJFCD
GU 10 50
43 FA1=BUF(2)
FA3»BUF(4)
FL1*BUFC5)
FL2=BUF(6J
FL3«BUF(7)
GU 10 50
TT2»BUF(3)
TT3=BUF(4)
TT«*BUF(5)
URA*BUF16)
GU in
- HRI1EU»1062)(FFACCL),L*1»NN)
GO 10 50
46 CQNIINUL
<|7 CONTINUE " ----------- " """
46 CUNI 1NUL
GU 10 50
00 tQv M=1»12
CALL PESTlUfQuT}
350
-------
CALL MlNSfCXMuUT)
CALL FKTLTXINP»TISP)
CALL IKKRI- CRFUUT)
CALL ANMArtU'OUT,»CHtjUT.PaUT»SHl)UT}
CALL ANwSrtCOuT* 1»CHUUT)
CALL ANWSM tHuUT»2»HNQ»n )
CALL ANrtSHpQuT,3,PNOuT)
CALL ANhSf (;3HuUT»4»SNOyT)
CALL OlJrtSI (UUUT»S£Pl)»DOuTO}
CALL UTLRi,< 1»DTCJUT,S£PT»SDD) ----
CALL DTERnC2.UUTaUT»S£Pl)D»SOI)
CALL iNUU6TtL)MOUT»UMTLa»OPHUUT*UWSQUT»DFOUT»USUM)
DSUrtM*DUTi»ulf+OSUM .....
CALL
CALL
CALL FlFALL(rtAfO)
CALL RIrfRO:uV£ft> ' " " "" "
CALL NATIN(XNAT, Xu£V »XfUR»Xt,RA»XNDUT)
DON'OUTUUl +J^SOUT+UMUUT
SlNUxUOMAf AC2
B0830MTLO*FAC3
WALNsOMTLU"t$Ub
. 0
CALL TR£Al(CONi»FLUl.NTrA»jTYPA»POM»ITYl»^CJl»CJSTl)
~PDSi*
-------
DO no K*UNN
FT(M«FTUT+FFAC(K>
7io cumiNut * ----------------------- .--.--..
JFUTUT.Lr.i. ooi. AND.FTOT.GT. 0.999) uo TO 711
HKI IE(6»lUSo) FTOf
— • TUMIN»I.OL20
00 fO 713
711 TDHIN'O
COS13«0 ~ "'
UU l\2 1*1. NN
FLOf«FL06*F* ACU) _
FLOJ(I)*FLUT ~
CALL Trt£ArccaN3.FLQr»NTYC*lTYPC»POM,ITY3*PtJ3»CUS)
TOM1N«TUM1N+(P03*FLU1)/1000.0
cosrs-cosrs+cos
_ IT3U)«ITT3
P3Ci)*P03
712 CONTINUE
713 SMIu*UPMOUT*FAC7
CON«*»(OPMUUT/FL07)» 1000.0
_
C AL*.~TR£ A T ( C'0^4 , FLU \f » NT YD »"l TYPO*
.0
AEFKP*XHOUT+TISP+RFUUT*KJAN*(CNUUT+HMOUT+PNUUT+SNUUT
TTALsTTAL+IUTAL
X1»UPUUT/TOTAL
X2«XMOUT/TOTAL~
X3«KOUT/TUTAL
X««KFOUT/ TOTAL
X5«UOUT/TGTAL
X6«CHOUT/rOfAL
X7»fOUT/TUTAL
X8«i»HOUT/lnTAL
X9«JOOT/TUTAL
X10«DTOUT/fOTAL
Xll-DUTOur/IOfAL
XIZ'OMOUT/TUTAL
X13-DMTLO/TUTAL
Xl4*DPMUUr/IOIAL
X15*OHSUUT/IOTAL
X16-OFOUT/TOTAL
X17*DOMlN/TurAL
XIS'O&UHH/TUTAL
Xl9»ShOuT/TuTAL
352
-------
X20aUOUT/TOTAL
X2l*Xwf)OT/TuTAL
X22=RAFu/rt)fAL
X23=OPOUT/EFFP
X24«XrtOUT/EFFP
X25«FUUT/tFFP
X26*RFOUT/EFFP
X27=CNOUT/EFFP
X30=SN(JUT/EFFP
X31*SWQUT/EFFP
X32»XNOUT/tFFP
X33«UbUKB/EFFP
X3MUSIND/EFFP
X35*UPOR/EFFP
X36«UC£L/tFf P
X37=»TUMIN/£FFP
X38«RAFO/tFFP
X3V«PD54/tFFP
X41-XNAT/EFFP
X42"XNAT/fOTAL
X47«XliRA/L"FFP
X48s*X(iRA/TOTAL
X50=R1
X51»DUUTO/EFFP
X52»DOUTD/TUTAL
X53»SUO/EFFP
X54-SUO/TUTAL
X56»TURP/LF^P
X57*TORP/TOTAU
X5ti«TXIKP/£FFP
X59*TXINP/TUTAL
X60*TlSP/tFFP
X61»TlSP/TurAL
X62«XMOUT/AtFFP
X65«RJAN*CNOUT/AEFFP
X6B*R JAN* SNOUT/ AEFFP
X69»SHDUT/A£FFP
353
-------
X70=XKOUT/A£FFP
xn = RAFU/MEFFP
X72=TDnIN/A£FFP
X73*PUS<»/AEFFP
X7«=USURB/AEFFP
X75*USIND/AEFFP
X77*UC£L/AEFFP
X7hsUrtIN/AEFFp
X7y*RIVER/At:FFP
XttO-»AtFFP/TuTAL
-- X8l=EFFP/TOTAL
DO 195 |»i,r»N
Xb2tl)»(CUN3-P3(I})/CUN3
295 CONTINUE ----------- "~
TUJaUD + OPOuT
T(lu}sT(10)+XNOUT
T(li)»T(ll)+RAFo
T(lj)»TCl3)+DTUUT
TCi«4}*T{!'4) + Dt!7ulJ
T(l3)aT(i5)+DMOuT
Ttl6)sT(16)+OMTLO
T(ly>*T(19)+OFUuT
T(2u)=Tt20)+OSUM
T(2J)=T(23)+USURa
= T(31)*CHOUT
354
-------
T(3/)-T<3n*£FFp
T(3V)=TC
T(40)=T<
TC46)=T(
IFCH.LT.12) GU TO 200
HRII£C6»104J)
WKHEC6.1044) H _
WRITEf6»1001) UPOUT»Xl»x23.TCi)
WRI I EC 6. 100 3) SLDPH.FQUT,"x3»X,j5*T<3)
KRITE(6»IU6<4) ERATE
TXINP»X59»X58»T(43)
WRI
tvRI
KRIIEC6.
1010) XwQUi»X21»X32»XTO»T(10>
WRI IE(6»104t>) XUEV.X44,X43»T(39)
WRIIE(6»1046)
WKI IEC6»10'*
-------
HKHE(6»i036)
HKI «E(6»ioot>)
HRIi£(6»1006)
Tl)TAL,T(36>
CNOUT»X2/'.X65»T(5)
HNOUr,X2«.X&6»T<6)
HKIl£(6»1023)
HRI
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WKIIEl6»1034) SEPQ»T(3aj
HRI «E(6»103S) S£PT»H35)
PLOrtO=EFFP*lO.O**7/HWACRE
DO JOO 1=1,t
300 CUNIlNUt
400
DO **00 1*1, f
EUTU)=U(I)*PLUAD
CQNIINUE
OU
I £( 6*1040)
!ES6»1U61)
430 1=1. HN
430
CONTINUE
CUAL=0.0
FALLsO.O
UO 440 1 = 1, NN
FALLsFLQUC
I»FLUUU)»CON3»P3(I).X02(I)»COS3
4» Flo. 2)
4»F 10.2)
356
-------
1007
1006
1009
1010
1011
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
1017
1013
1019
1020
1021
FORriAT(2lri PlQ'AFTER
FUHHATC21H
FORrtATUlrt
SOLlU wAiVt
NAT UEV
KAiNFALL
THEAT
U»JT
FOFMATUlri
* UHrtAH2lti
FOHMATC21H
FORMAK21H
FORMAT(21rt
1023 FUKrtATC2lH
1024 FURHAT(21rt
1025 FURrtAT(21H
1026 FUR,-tAT(21H
1027 FUK.1ATC21H
12)
1028 FURMATC21H TREAT P
115*2)
1029 FUKHAH21H
1030
UUH» UET P
1NU JETErt OUT
HlSC P UUT
METAL FIN OUT
M IN ING P OUT
SUKIENING
WASTE GUT
TREAT INFLUENT
INJ UET + orhEh IND
URdAN KJNOFF "
UNStWEK
UNTREATED METALS
uNVHEATEU FUUUS
PLANT EFF
EFF
1033 FURrtAT(2tri
FORrtAT(21H
FtWrtAT(21ri
FORHAT<2lri
fORriAT(21H
1036
1039
1040
1041
1043
UNTREATED MINING
COrt r MANURE OUT
CHICK «AHU«E OUT
rl(i MAHUKt OUT
SHEEP MANUrtt OUT
uOn SEPTIC TANK
UET SEPTIC TANK
UNTREATED TOTAL
TOTAL
»5X.Fl64?,F26.4»Fl3.4»Fld.2)
•5X»F16.2»F26«4»F13.4»Flo.2)
»5X.F16,2.3F1J.4.F18.2J
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FORriAT(lHl)
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1044 FOR.1AT(21H"
1045 FORMATC21H
1046 f-URiiAF(21rt
1047 FOftrtAT(21ri
1043 FORrlAT(2lH
1049 FOrtrtAT(2lH
1050 FOR,iAT(2lri
1051 FURrlAT(21H
1052 Kl«MAT(21ri
1053 FORrtAT(21ri
LUTRUPHICATION (EFF) »7F14"74)
2»6E15.3>
rtPAKAMETLR,5XVflHY "E"
LFF»7X»6HP AtFF,7X»l
** R »I2» 6X»10HAHT
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NATURAL RUNOFF "»5X»Fl6.2.2F13.4»F31.2)
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MAN. FuR. RUNUFF »5X«F16«2»2F13.4'F31*2)
GRACING KUNOFF »5X»F16,2»2FI 3.4»F31.2>
OKG PnUSPhORUS »5X»Fl6*2»2f13.4»F31.2)
G PHCJSPHOHUS »5X»F16,2»2F13.4.F31.2J
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UOM UIKECT OISCHARSE»5X»F16.2»?F13.4»F31.2)
UOK DET DIRECT QISCH«5X,F16.2»2F13.4»F31.2)
357
-------
1054 FGRrtAKZlrt AVAIL rHLAFEO TOTAL » 5X. F16. 2»2K1 i.4»F3l ,2»/
1055 KUKrtAT(22rl tUTRQPHlCATiuN ( AEFF) • fFiM. -1)
10S6 FUHriATCZlrl iM-PLAwT TUT METALS .5X,K16.2.61X»AA.Kl5.2i
1037 FortfiAT(2in IN-PLANT TRT FJOOS »5x»Fi6.2»6rx»K6»Fis.2)
10&8 FOrtnATC^AM UOn FLU»( PERCENT QT J .0» 5X»5HFTQT»»FZ5.4 J
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1060 FO««AT(iOF^.3J
1061 FORriATCiir-'f PLANT FLOWCL/TK) INFLU£NT(MG/L>
1 EFrLUEMTCMu/L) P REMUVAHPERCEN f) CiJbT
1062 f OR,1AT( IX. lUFd.3)
1063 FURHAT(///»UH TOTAL*F28t4*53X»Fl6.2>
1064 FUflriATCZlH EROSION RATE »5X»Fir.3>~
END
SUBrtOOTINt IRKRF(RFQuT)
CONrtQN /1KK/FLOWC12) ""
CUMrtON/MON/rt
CUMrtQN/CQHl/RFCONC
KFOUT«FLOW(H)*RFCONC
RETURN
END
tt**t*******t9*tIt*ttt*9*t**9*1tt******tt****************** *******
SUBHOUTlNt ANrtANCCOUT.CHOUT, POUT. SHOUT)
CUMHON /ANlM/COrtS(l^).CrtICK(12)'
COHrtON/HQN/H
COHHOH/COM2/PCOf(,PCMIC»PPlGS»PSHEP
CHOUT«PCHiC*CHlCKCM)
PDUf«PPlGS*PIliS(M)
SHQUT«PSH£P*SHEEPtM}
RETURN
END
*****t*ft**t*t»**ttt**f****f******************************tt**1***
SUBrtOUTlNE AN^ST(AOOT»J»ANOUT)
LOHrtOM /ANIC/C<*K(4.11),FEEO "
COHnON/COM3/THT(^).XCll).RJAN,XLIQ.AU.SLUD,XL,rtLS,AT.RZ.BSOL
XLCn*0.0
XLD1SP»0 ~"
RtCn«0
00 100 N«l.f
358
-------
• • IF(CHW(J,N).EcliO*0> GO TO 100
XLDiSP=ALUlSP»CwtfCJ»N)*AOUT*TrtT(N)*XCN)
REC« = KECW+Cw«UJ»rt>«AiJUT*TRT
100 CONIINUE
lF(cWW(J»d),Eu.O.O> GO TO 110
no jF.Eu,o«o) au ro 120
J»9)*AOUT*SLOO*XL
120 IFtCWrK J.10J.EQ.O.O) GO TO 130
XLCn=XLCHtCt*W(J,10J*AOUT*(1.0-SLDL»
130 IF(CHW( J»ll),Ea.O«0) GO TO 140
» ll)*AOUT*Sl.i)D*XL
XLDiSP=XLUISP+X(ll)*AT*(1.0"RUS)*XLCH
140 ANQJT=
RETUKN
END
SU8KOUT1NE RFALL(HAFO)
COKrtOM /G£N/PRATE£ I*;) * CAP, WACRE* SFAC
COMiiON/MON/ri
COMrtON /F£RG/5LOPH*KAIN»F£RT(12)»FACRE
RAFU=PRATt(M)*«AlN*rtACR£
RETURN — ~—
END
ttttttit.it** ##*****
SUSrtOUTlNE UOrtSTCUUUr»SEPU»DOUTU)
COMrtOiN/KIV/RFLO,RCUNC»DFAC»DDFAC
COMMON /GtN/PKATEC it) » CAP* WACRE, SFAC
£ 1,0-SFACJ*795.6
DOUID1!DUUr*uFAC
OOUI=UOUT-DOUTD
RETURN
END ------- ..... "~
359
-------
Mffff ***M*ff MfMf ****** ****Mf****ff**f **Of«*f*Jif M**f *******
SUBROUTINE
COM.10N /Gt-N/PRATE(12)»CAP*WACRE»SFAC
CUMrlON/SOUlD/SACRtfSCOfJC ____ __
COMrtOM /MUN/M "" ............
SHOuT«PKArE(M)*SACKE*SCONC*(PHArE
RETURN
END "~~ ""
t******rf ****** ft ft ************* ****** ***************************
COMMON /G£N/PRATE(li;)»CAP»WACKE»SFAC
COMMON /MUN/M
— COMrtON /URBAN/UACRE.UCQNC»UrAC
RETURN
END
SUBROUTINE'NATIN(XNAT»XUEV;XFOR»XGRA»XNOUT)
COHrtON /GCN/PhATEU2)»CAP»KACRE»SF AC
COHrtON /NATURE/XMACKE»XNCONC»XOACRE ____
COMMON /MON/M "
COHrtON/NAT/XFACRE»GACR£
»FXG
XNAT«XNACKE*F
XOE*»XDACne*FxD*F
XFOriiXFAC*E*FxF*F
XNOUT«XUA(+XDEV+XFUK*XGRA
KETURN _ _
END
SUBROUTINE MlNSTCXMOUT)
COMrtON /GEN/PHATE(12)»CAP»HAC»E»SFAC
COMMON /Mi*£/XMACKt:»XMCpNC»XMFAC
COMrtON /MUM/M"~~ ....... """
XMOuT«XMACK£*pRATE(M)*XMCONC*XMf AC
RETURN
END ------ ------- ~ ...... " ~ ........
360
-------
SU8HOUT1NE PESTCQPOUT)
COMrtQN /MU"*/M
COMnON/FERG/SL.DPH»RAiN,FERTtl2>»FACRE
COMrtON /ClOt/uPfAC
OPOuTsFACrt£*(JpFAC*0.11
RETURN
END "
SUBrtOUTlNE FRTLZSCTOTP, TORP,TX INP» TISP) ""
COHnQN /Ft«li/SLDPH»KAlN»FERT(12)»FACRE
COMrtON/FEK/uRA
COMrtON /MUN/M " " ............ . - -
COMriON/COM5/H»SK.C»P,FAl»FA2.FA3»FLl»FL2*FL3
CUMMON/COH7/£KATE
PLA*C9.0*FERT(H))/(20.) ~
SLOPH*SLDPH+DS/CF
PLA«PLA*SA
4LOlr'H«SLDr'H-SA/CF+0.25*PLA/CF
Z«R*SK*C*P*u.022<*
AP0.025*ErtATE
B«£rtATE-A
ORP«A*0.005o
XINP«B*SLUPH/iQOOOOl>«0
--- TXIrtpsXINP«KACR£ .........
TI5r*URA*FACRt
HETuRN
--------- tND ••- " " ...................
f »*#»*§*#«***»«»»«**»»»***» **»****«
SUBrtOUTlNL
CUMhON /GEN/PRATE(12)»CAP»WACRE»Sf AC
COMrtON
361
-------
COMrtQN /OUST/DMfLa»UHCOHC»DMTL»UpHFLU»DPMlU,UwSFLu,pFftT(12)»DFCuNC
l.DFUSE
UMOuT»DMFLO*OrtCt)NC*CAP
UMTLO«OMTL __
OPMUUT-OPMlMDPHFLU
UFGuT«DfWf(M)*OFCGrtC*UFUSE
RETURN
END
*************** *************************************************** ft**
SUSrtOUTINt UT£HG(J*UtS»SD) _______ _____ __ _
--- COMhQN
COMrtQN /OJST/UMKLG»UHCONC»DMTL»UPMFLU»DPHIN»DNSFLU»UFMT(12)*GFCUNC
l»OFuS£ . ______ __ _ _ __
COMrtON/RIV/KFLO»RCONC»OFAC»ODFAC "
COMMON /DETtR/PHPC2>»PLP(2>»PNP<2)»P$Q(2)»UPOPC2)»SFACi?l2>
CUMMON/COMA/PriPPC»PLpPC»PNPPC»PSOPC»PLBHP.Pl.aLP»PLbNP»PLBSO
UPOP(2)*OMCUNC»OOFAC*CAP
U«tfHP{J)*PHPPC*PLBHP+PLPCJ)*PLPPC*PLBLP+PNP(J)*PrtPPC*PLBNP+PSO(J}
l*PSuPC*PLBSu)*UPOP( J)*SFAC2(J) _____ __ ___ __
Se(u*(r.O-SFAC2(J))J/SFAC2(J)
D=D-SD
RETURN
END
ttti*i**tt*ttt*9*l**t***tt*f**9*****t***f*****************************
SUBROUTINE KlVR(RlVfc.R)
COH»ON/RIV/KFLQ»RCONC»UFAC»DDFAC
-RIVLR«HCONC*RFLO"~ ~~
RETURN
END
t**t*****tit*t*t *********************** *******************************
SUBrtOUTINE TREAT(P.U»NTYPE.ITYPt.PMAX»ITYPES<._PjJ»CCJST) _______
PHAX) GO TO 60
362
-------
60
COSl=0.0
massi
GO ID 40
COS f *0
DO <:o
GO iO (1 »2»3»4»5»6»7»6»9»10*U'12*13»14»15)
CONTINUE
PU«f
COSfsO.O
GO 10 40
•2 CONTINUE
GO ro 20
3 CUN1INUE
GO 10 20
GU f(J 20
5 COi^dNUE
GO TO 2,0 ..... .....
6 CONIINUE
CUAGULATION INCLUDING LABOR AMD STORAGE
PMlN6°1.0
1F(«EM.GT. 0.95D GU TO 20
IF(r'MAX.Lr,PMIN6) GU TO 20
XPOU)=PMAX .......
IFCKEH.LT. 0.743 FEP=1,0
DOLC=i;.25l*P*QMGY*Ft.P
IF(A.LE. 1000.0) DULL=5600.0
IF( X, G T.I 000. O.ANO.X.LT. 6000.0) DOLLs4300.0*33.6*X**0.5V35
IF(X,GE.6000.0> OULLa2.065*x**0.6/'92+33«6«J*X**0.5y35
XCU6TU)»L)OLCtUOLL __
GO TO 30
7 CONIINUE
GO JO 20
8 CUNtlNUE ----- --------- -....-. -.- -
COAGULATION INCLUDING LABOR* STORAGE* AND CAPITAL COSTS
IFCiiEM.GT. 0.951) GG TO iO
IF(PMAX.LT.rMlN6) GU To 20
XPUi I)=PMAX
IFCr{EH.(iE.0.7t) F£P*(REM"0.62)/0.1257
IFCKEH.LT.0,74) FF.P=1.0
DULL=5600.0
363
-------
IFt>
GU ro 30
9 CONl'INUE.
GU 10 20
10 COwUNUt
KtVLHiF. QSMUS1S
-'- IFCKEM.GT. 0.991) GU TO 20
IFCPHAX.LT.PMiNlO) uU TO 20
QADj*grtliD«(iP-0.b!i«PMAx}/P}
IFUP-PMAX)«LL»20.0) GO TO 21
XCUiTCI Jsi.05*QAOJ**C-0.313«;)
IFCACUSTC n.U.O. Jti) XCUST( JL)«0.3S
22
GU IQ 30
21 XCO^TC I) = 0.?Ot,-0.2<»3*ALGGlO(QAOJ)
IFCXCUSTCD.LT.O^JO) XCJSTUJ-0.30
GO 10 22
11 COl-lflNUt
"SELECTIVE ION EXCHANGE ~"
IF(rt£M.GT.0.9bl) GU TO 20
IFCr'HAX.LT.PMlNll) GO Tu 20
IF ( tp-FnAX) .LT. 10.0) wAuJ
IF(lp-pnAX>.G£. 10.0J QAuJ=QMGi)*((P-PMAX)/lO.Oi
OOLP=19b32.0*tiADJ**0.y2 " "
UOLLsC 0. 1 <>*u AU J** C -U.33 15 ) + 0*09*0 AD J* *( -0. 2245 ))*QAOJ* 3&5250.0
XCUiTtDaUOLPtOOLL ___
GO 10 30
_
"GU 10 20
13 CONIINUt
GO 10 20
14 CONTINUE
GO HJ 20
15 CUNJINUt
---- GO fO 20 •
30 H (ACUSI ( D.GT.COST) GU TU 20
COSI=XCUST( J)
CUNIINUE ------
IF( iTLSf ,GT.O> GO TU 40
364
-------
COSlaO.O
t|U RETURN
-- tNO
365
-------
APPENDIX D
INPUT AND OUTPUT INFORMATION FOR
PHOSPHORUS MASS FLOW PROGRAM
366
-------
Table D-l. INPUT DATA: EXAMPLE VALUES LISTED IN
TABLES D-2, D-3, D-4, FOR HYPOTHETICAL LAKE,
LAKE MICHIGAN, AND LAKE ERIE, RESPECTIVELY
FOR A GIVEN LINE AND COLUMN
Line Column Parameter Value
1,2 all PRATE(I) cm/yr
3 1 FAC1 ratio
4
5,6
7,8
9,10
11,12
13,14
15,16
17,18
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
all
all
all
all
all
all
all
FAC2
FAG 3
FAC4
FAC5
FAC6
FAC7
FL01
FLO2
RFCONC
RJAN
FERT(I)
FLOW (I)
COWS(I)
CHICK(I)
PIGS(I)
SHEEP(I)
CWW(1,I)
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
1/yr
1/yr
g/1
ratio
kg/hectare
1/yr
number
number
number
number
ratio
19,20
all
CWW(2,I) ratio
Description
annual precipitation
sewereda to total urban
runoff
sewered to total for
general industrial
in-plant treated metal finish-
ing to total metal finishing
sewered to total metal fin-
ishing
in-plant treated food wastes
to total food wastes
sewered to total food wastes
sewered to total mining
(phosphorus only) wastes
liquid flow in metal finishing
liquid flow in food industry
mean phosphorus concentra-
tion in irrigation return flow
amount of animal waste P
•which is available for algal
growth
fertilizer application rate
irrigation return flow
number of cows and horses
number of poultry
number of swine
number of sheep and goats
distribute animal wastes to
eleven treatments, COW
distribute animal wastes to
eleven treatments, CHICK
367
-------
Table D-l (Cont'd)
Line Column Parameter Value
21,22
23,24
25,26
27
28
29
all
all
all
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
6
1
CWW(3, 1}
CWW(4, 1)
DFWT(I)
XMACRE
XMCONC
XMFAC
SLDPH
RAIN
FACRE
PHP(l)
PLP{1)
PNP{1)
PSO(l)
SFAC2(1)
DPOP(l)
CAP
PHP(2)
ratio
ratio
g/yr
2
cm
g/cc
ratio
ppm
g/cc
2
cm
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
number
number
ratio
2
3
4
PLP(2)
PNP(2)
PSO(2)
ratio
ratio
ratio
Description
distributes animal wastes to
eleven treatments, PIGS
distributes animal wastes to
eleven treatments, SHEEP
amount of food processed
area of strip mines and
tailings
P concentration in runoff
from XMACRE
runoff to total precipitation
solid phase phosphorus in
soils
P concentration in rainfall
area of fertilized agriculture
fraction of domestic popula-
tion using high-P detergents
fraction of domestic popula-
tion using low-P detergents
fraction of domestic popula-
tion using no-P detergents
fraction of domestic popula-
tion using soaps
sewered to total domestic
waste = SFAC
number of people = CAP
number of people
fraction of industrial popula-
tion using high-P detergents
fraction of industrial popula-
tion using low-P detergents
fraction of industrial popula-
tion using no-P detergents
fraction of industrial popula-
tion using soaps
368
-------
Line Column
30
Table D-l (Cont'd)
Parameter Value
31
32
33
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
3
4
5
6
1
2
4
5
6
1
2
4
5
SFAC2(2)
DMFLO
DMCONC
DMTL
DPMFLO
DPMIN
DWSFLO
DFCONC
DFUSE
OPFAC
SFAC
SACRE
SCONC
UACRE
UCONC
UFAC
XNACRE
XNCONC
XDACRE
RWACRE
ratio
g/MGD. yr
MOD/ capita
g/yr
m /yr
g/m
g/MGD. yr
ratio
ratio
g/cm . yr
ratio
2
cm
g/cc
2
cm
g/cc
ratio
2
cm
g/cc
2
cm
2
cm
Description
sewered to total (always
1.0 for industry, see FAC2)
miscellaneous industrial P
use (related to DMCONC)
industrial consumptive water
use per capita
actual phosphorus used in
metal finishing
outflow from P mining activities
P concentration in P mining
effluents
water softening P use (related
to DMCONC)
fraction of food which is
phosphorus
wastage of food materials in
processing
use of organophosphorus
pesticides in agriculture
sewered to total domestic waste
area devoted to solid waste
disposal
P concentration in runoff from
solid wastes
urban area
P concentration in urban
runoff
runoff to total precipitation
area of natural watershed
P concentration in natural
watershed runoff
developed areas in natural
watershed
water surface area of lake
in question
369
-------
Line Column
34
Table D-l (Cont'd)
Parameter Value
35
36
37,38
6
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
all,l
WACRE
XFACRE
DFAC
GACRE
RFLO
RCONC
PCOW
pcmc
PPIGS
PSHEP
PHPPC
PLPPC
PNPPC
PSOPC
PLBHP
PLBLP
PLBNP
PLBSO
TRT(I)
2
cm
2
cm
ratio
2
cm
1/yr
g/1
g/number,
y*
g/number,
y*
g/number,
g/number,
y*
g/cap.yr
g/cap. yr
g/cap.yr
g/cap.yr
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
Description
total water surface area
in basin
area of managed forest in
watershed
fraction of direct discharge
of sewered domestic wastes
area of grazing lands in
watersheds
flow of river entering basin
P concentration in river
entering basin
annual P output per
individual cow
annual P output per
individual chicken
annual P output per
individual pig
annual P output per
individual sheep
use rate of high P detergent
use rate of low P detergent
use rate of no P detergent
use rate of soaps
grams P per gram high P
detergent used
grams P per gram low P
detergent used
grams P per gram no P
detergent used
grams P per gram soap
used
phosphorus output per input
for seven animal waste
treatment schemes
370
-------
Line
38
39
40
41
42
Column
2,5
all
Table D-l (Cont'd)
Parameter Value
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
XLIQ
AU
SLDD
4
6
1
3
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
XL
RLS
AT
RZ
BSOL
FXD
FXF
FXG
'}
SK J
C
»
P
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
ratio
Not
Applicable
Not
Applicable
Description
animal waste P distribu-
tion: ratio of total applied
to land disposal
liquid portion of animal
waste treated by source
separation
aerobic treatment output
from liquids from source
separation
P fraction in solids from
drying, incineration, and
composting
portion of SLDD disposed
on land
portion of XLS discharged
to receiving water
portion of XLS aerobically
treated and distributed
proportion of land-disposed
manure P entering surface
water
SOL which is discharged
developed watershed runoff
P concentration to natural
managed forest watershed
P concentration to natural
grazing watershed P con-
centration to natural
erosivity, Universal Soil
Loss Equation
soil factor (K), Universal
Soil Loss Equation
cropping factor, Universal
Soil Loss Equation
practice factor, Universal
Soil Loss Equation
371
-------
Table IX1 (Cont'd)
Line Column Parameter Value
43
44
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
FA1
FA2
FA3
FL1
FL2
FL3
TT1
ratio
ratio
ratio
ft
ft
ft
ratio
4
5
TT2
TT3
TT4
DRA
BASF
ratio
ratio
ratio
g/cm . yr
1/yr. cap
Description
area of fertilized agricul-
ture in Slope Class I
area of fertilized agricul-
ture in Slope Calss II
area of fertilized agricul-
ture in Slope Class HI
mean length of slope in
Slope Class I
mean length of slope in
Slope Class II
mean length of slope in
Slope Class III
fraction remaining from
treatment of metal finishing
wastes
fraction remaining from
treatment of food wastes
fraction remaining from
treatment of domestic
wastes
fraction remaining from
treatment of P mining wastes
output of soluble orthophos-
phate from fertilized
agriculture
annual industrial consump-
tive use of water per capita
45
4Sff
1 NN number
2ff FFAC1 ratio
number of treatment plants
in basin
fraction of domestic flow
going to each treatment
plant
Sewered indicates the flow enters the municipal treatment plant (DOMIN)
372
-------
Table D-2. INPUT DATA FOR HYPOTHETICAL LAKE BASIN (KEYED TO TABLE D-l)
u>
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
b
V
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
26
?9
30
31
32
33
34
31>
36
37
38
3V
40
41
42
43
44
45
49
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. 5 U 0 1 + v P
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i 3
-------
Table D-3. INPUT DATA FOR LAKE MICHIGAN (KEYED TO TABLE D-l)
1
2
3
4
6
7
a
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
16
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
3d
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
,790t+0?
.600L-01
0,
o.
0.
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0.
0.
0,
.500S. + 00
n.
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0.
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-------
Table D-4. INPUT DATA FOR LAKE ERIE (KEYED TO TABLE D-l)
-j
en
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
&
9
10
11
12
13
U
15
16
17
la
19
20
21
?2
23
24
25
?6
?7
2tj
29
30
31
32
3J
34
3t>
36
37
30
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
.^Ot*«? .06110(12
. Mci't * U9 . Of UK + ')r?
, 6 o U t " O 1 . tJ U 0 F -Ml 0
0, .120O10
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, 1 JOOO? . li)v)F + 'V
.TdOOOl . M JF»09
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. 1 7ftOu? . J 76F + 07
. 1 7 6 1. + 07 .1/6O1/
,72JL+us . ^20F •*•(!'>
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-------
Table D-5. HYPOTHETICAL LAKE: PHOSPHORUS OUTPUT FROM THE MASS FLOW
MODEL FOR UNCONTROLLED CONDITIONS AND FOR THE MAXIMUM APPLIED
CONTROL STRATEGIES--SHOWING 99% PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL IN WASTE TREATMENT
M«AMm« T C A II It »HI CO/TIO ._,f IOTAL _ ..,
OMOAku riw» PHI »m*i».oo 0.0002
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Table D-5 (Con't)
PUNT noici./vii> inriucxnm/u trm/tnTou/Li r ftCNavAKPCAami con cnoct*s
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-------
Table D-6. LAKE MICHIGAN: PHOSPHORUS OUTPUT FROM THE MASS FLOW MODEL FOR
UNCONTROLLED CONDITIONS AND FOR THE MAXIMUM APPLIED CONTROL STRATEGIES--
SHOWING 99% PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL IN WASTE TREATMENT
PAKAMLTCil » t A N 14
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-------
Table D-6 (Con't)
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Table D-6 (Con't)
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-------
Table D-7. LAKE ERIE: PHOSPHORUS OUTPUT FROM THE MASS FLOW MODEL FOR UN-
CONTROLLED CONDITIONS AND FOR THE MAXIMUM APPLIED CONTROL STRATEGIES--
SHOWING 99% PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL IN WASTE TREATMENT ,
UO
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Table D-7 (Con't)
00
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INK RtlUH) tUUH P
JULIO HASH OUT
NAIUHAL HUHOFf
OEvtLOr1 HU«0>F
HUN. FUN. HUHQFF
(UINFALL
OUt OIKtCI UlKriAHlU
DUX Olf OINtlt UI1CH
SC»CREU OJKLSIU
III DUX' uLI P
INO otrin our
m$c c uui
«*TCR iOFICnlNC
NCTtL > IN OUT
FUUD "«llt UUI
NlNlNIi P UUI
KUN IK£»! IllfLUtNf
INtt Dtl » UIHtR 1HU
Cu« MinUHt uUI
(HICK HAKjHt UUT
P1Q HANUHL UU(
SHECP HADJHt UUI
IN-PLANT INI riCI4tl
1N-PLANT INI tOUOk
UnTRCATCO TUTAL 1
CU« »FItH THEAT " "
CHICK »FUH THCAT
P10 »MCK IHLAT
UniE»Crt MU.
UKTRCAICO fuOus
TREAT P HINlXi, IFF
TMCATtU 1J1XL
AVAIL THCATLO TUTAU
DON SCPTU TANK
Oil SCPtU IA«K
CUTROPHICATIUN (A^FFI
AMI (0/YH)
0.00
0.1)0
o.on
0,00
o.on
tt2tlSlM.tr
4l63333Jj.il
o'.on
l^AtttbOO^UiOZ
)3066|)00!)U * yf
u.oo
0,00
mtoosooo.oo
ir4ii«04u,oo
22*ul/60.00
0.00
12000000,00
O.oD
9F324JU02.40
iimnrtu.on
12JOOOOOO.UO
3J9/- 1)400. 00
2400000. on
irj9»«(,IZ2?.21
2S»S»0«!u!l
""""I::!
o.uo
g.ul
K.l/0
72VI02>l>Btir2
4>SO.r2
IVSVOOOOOO.OO
22.129* 14
ij.»m ' *
P TUTAL
0.0009
0,0001)
9.06J5
O.Vl'O
0,000')
0.0001)
0>0000
0.0499
0.0350
o.oujr
O.OOOd
0.1022
0."5)>
OiOOOU
0,00<10
0.0204
o.oioi
Q.OOli
oloooo
0.000'
0.0000
0,0000
O.S626
O.OB15
O.OOT2
0,0044
o.ooir
0.0021
0 4Z1J
0.2411
.•tat
.0)01
P CFF
ti.uooo
0,0000
V.14U}
0.0*02
tl.Hbl
o.uooo.
ii.OHOO
g.uoao
U.1I81
U.OilO
0.0133
u.onoo
_ V.l'il
u.oooo
a. ooo)
o.uooi
tf.OOO*
tl.OOOi
0.0224
u.oooo
U.0900
u.om
o.«ooo
D.UOCO
0.42*1
4)4031
r Mr
0,0000
0.0000
0,0000
0.0000
o.ia»t
olrsAt
9
0.0004
0.0004
O.OU03
0,0001
O.OJoO
0.0000
0,0000
0.001)0
0.0214
0.0000
O.ODOO
i.4740 .
J.S4U
ACCU«UL«UO TK p«oc cost
O.Oil
0,1)0
0.1)0
0.00
UtlltOCOO.lt)
o.no
2i2tryzoooo.it
0.00
0.00
4211141000. Ojf
37«B?1 1 JO.nil
it»or»ooooo.oo
O.Ol)
I44oaoooa
-------
Table D-7 (Con't)
'»•••»
INrLUlMltMt/LI CrrLUtNHMC/l.) f «C
-------
APPENDIX E
MARGARINE EXCISE TAXES
The tables in this appendix were developed to show the impact of an
excise tax on the consumption of butter and margarine. A look at Table
E-l shows that margarine consumption has risen while butter consumption
has steadily fallen. Quite clearly the two products are substitutes. In
Utah, where margarine was heavily taxed relative to many other parts
of the country, consumption was less than for the country as a whole.
The federal excise tax was repealed in 1959, leading to a considerable
shift in 1961. The restriction on color was also repealed.
A simple equation was next developed to look at the effect on margarine
consumption of a change in prices and income. This was done for the
United States in Table E-2 and for the State of Utah in Table E-3. The
tables perhaps show that price is a more important variable than income.
The one major surprise, however, and the reason these tables are
included are the generally positive signs attached to income. Many
people grew up with the idea that margarine was an inferior product,
that people only ate it because they couldn't afford butter. If this were
true, then as income rose the consumption of margarine should have
fallen. These tables show that for the most part, higher incomes have
not meant less consumption of margarine at all. It might very well be
385
-------
true that high phosphate detergent is popular not because of its supposed
superior cleaning power relative to soap, but mostly because it is
cheaper.
The revenue from Utah1 s 10^-a-pound excise tax is now over one
million dollars and will be repealed as of July 1, 1973. The big argu-
ment for retaining it was because of its revenue potential. Reapportion-
ment has given greater representation to the cities and the repeal passed
easily with only the representatives of counties with large dairy interests
voting against it.
386
-------
Table E-l. PER CAPITA MARGARINE AND BUTTER
CONSUMPTION (1927-1970)
Year
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
Butter, U.S.
Pounds
17.7
17.5
17.5
17.2
17.4
17.3
18.0
18.1
17.8
18.2
17.1
16.4
16.3
16.4
17.3
16.9
15.9
15.6
11.7
11.8
10.8
10.4
11.1
9.9
10.4
10.6
9.5
Margarine, U.S.
Pounds
1.72
1.85
2.08
1.84
2.09
2.97
2.42
2.70
2.81
2. 23
1.71
1.72
1.91
2. 76
2.89
3.01
3.19
2.54
2.29
2.59
2.70
3.38
3.82
4.35
3.61
4.15
5.93
5.76
5.53
6.39
Margarine, Utah
Pounds
.870
.300
.021
.030
1.070
1.100
1.820
1.760
. 690
.910
1.750
3.370
3.280
3.360
3.490
3.210
4.860
8. 600
8.340
6. 140
9.460
387
-------
Table E- 1 (Cont'd)
Year
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
I960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
Butter, U.S.
Pounds
8.6
8.5
8.9
9.0
8.7
8.3
8.3
7.9
7.5
7.4
7.3
6.9
6.8
6.4
5.7
5.5
5.6
5.4
5.3
Margarine, U. S.
Pounds
7.95
8.05
8.50
8.20
8.20
8. 60
9.00
9.20
9.40
9.40
9.30
9. 60
9.70
9.90
10.50
10. 50
10.80
10.80
11.00
Margarine, Utah
Pounds
9.200
9.890
8,910
8.480
8.090
8.010
8.310
8.750
7.130
8.580
8.000
8.770
7. 610
8.050
8.410
8.350
8.360
10. 240
10.000
388
-------
Table E-2. UNITED STATES MARGARINE CONSUMPTION
00
vO
Dependent Variable
Margarine /Pop
(1920-70-UNAO
(1920-70-A)
(1930-70-UNA)
(1930-70-A)
Independent Variables
Intercept
6.936
.112
14.763
6.967
.117
25.871
Price of Margarine
-0.096
( 5.653)
-0.168
(14.373)
-0.022
( 0.2814)
-0.108
( 3.341)
-0.139
( 4.908)
-0.013
( 0.129)
Price of Butter
0.053
( 4. 293
0.117
(21.249)
-0.048
( 6,064)
0.057
( 2.667)
0.109
(12.045)
-0.107
(26.214)
Butter /Pop
-0.053
(20.778)
-0.503
(30.633)
-0.310
( 7.472)
-0.780
(60.792)
Income U. S.
0.001
( 16.937)
0.002
( 34.784)
0.001
( 1.574)
0.001
( 10.595)
0.002
( 26.991)
-0.001
( 2.232)
df
46
47
46
36
37
36
R2
.96
.95
.95
.95
.94
.96
-------
Table E-2 (Cont'd)
Dependent Variable
Margarine/Pop Intercept
(1920-70-UNA) -0.
(1930-70-UNA) -0.
(1920-70-A) 0.
(1930-70-A) -2.
(1930-70-WWII-UNA) 0.
(1950-70-UNA) 5.
529
161
741
548
099
769
Independent Variables
Price of Margarine Price of Butter Butter/Pop
Price Difference Variable
0.083
(16.265)
0.089
(18.563)
-0. 637
( 6.868)
-0.016
( 0.093)
0.833
(15.140)
-0.023
( 0.326)
Income U. S.
0.002
( 55.387)
0.002
( 42.511)
0.005
(375.110)
0.006
(116.234)
0.002
( 40.351)
0.002
( 41.842)
df R2
48 .94
38 . 94
48 .92
38 .76
33 .94
18 .82
-------
Table E-3. UTAH MARGARINE CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA
sO
Dependent Variable
Margarine /Pop
(1920-70-UNA)
(1920-70-A)
(1930-70-UNA)
(1930-70-A)
Intercept
7.
-3.
15.
0.
-3.
20.
892
204
251
90S
854
229
Price of
-0
( 4
-0
( 9
0
( o
-0
( o
-0
( o
0
( o
Margarine
.142
.929)
. 218
.079)
.051
.697)
.066
.581)
.077
.801)
.057
.748)
Independent
Variables
Price of Butter Butter /Pop
0.131
(10.706)
0.207
(23.573)
0.005
( 0.033)
0.140
( 7.702)
0.168
(14.209)
-0.007
( 0.036)
-0.
(18.
-0.
(36.
-0.
( 1.
-1.
{34.
517
964)
878
517)
217
410)
039
576)
Income Utah
-0.
( 1.
0.
( 1.
( -o.
( o.
0.
( o.
0.
( 1.
-0.
( 3.
001
663)
001
766)
001
866)
000
002)
001
094)
003
049)
df
46
47
46
36
37
36
R2
.92
.89
.91
.92
.91
.89
-------
Table E-3 (Cont'd)
ts)
Dependent Variable
Margarine /Pop
(1920-70-UNA)
(1930-70-UNA)
(1920-70-A)
Intercept
-3.337
-3.031
-1.806
Independent Variable
Price of Margarine Price of Butter Butter /Pop
Price Difference Variable
0.199
(36. 530)
0.230
(52.449)
-0.033
( 0.701)
Income Utah
0.001
( 2.867)
0.000
( 0.023)
0.006
(172.400)
df R2
48 .89
38 .90
48 .82
-------
APPENDIX F
SUMMARY OF MODEL OUTPUT FOR COST
EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS
393
-------
Table F-l
Hypothetical STRATEGY: All MGMNT; FAC2 = 0. 5
System Total: 1. 66 x 10
Strategy Total: 9. 14 x 10
EFF:
EFF P
A EFF P
TREAT
% removal
0
50
60
70
80
84
86
88
90
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
Eut
85
55
49
43
37
34
33
32
31
- -
„
28
27
..
26
25
g/y
5.41 x
io8
3.48x
io8
3.10x
io8
2.71x
io8
Z.32x
io8
2.17x
io8
2.Q9x
io8
2.01 x
io8
1.94 x
io8
..
..
1.78x
io8
l.glx
IO8
„
1.63x
io8
1.59x
io8
System
% removal
67
79
81
84
86
87
87
88
88
..
..
89
90
90
90
Eut
81
51
45
38
32
30
29
28
26
24
23
21
21
g/y
i
5.14.x
io8
S.glx
io5
2.83 x
io8
2.44x
io8
2.g6x
10
l.POx
io8
1.82x
io8
1.75x
io8
1.67x
io8
..
1.52x
10
1.44x
io8
1.36x
io8
1.32x
io8
Before
6.82
6.82
6.82
6.82
6. 82
6. 82
i 6.82
6. 82
6. 82
6.82
6.82
6.82
6. 82
After
6.82
3.41
2.73
2.05
1.36
1.09
0.95
0.82
0. 68
0.41
0.27
0.14
0.07
COST
$/yr
0
2. 67 x
10
2. 67 x
10
2. 67 x
10
3. 72 x
10
4.49 x
10
2.55 x
io6
2. 55 x
io6
2. 55 x
iog
6. 38 x
io6
6. 47 x
io?.
6. 56 x
io6
6. 60 x
io6
Treatment
Process*
C
C
C
C
C
I
I
I
R
R
R
R
CONCENTR.
* C = Coagulation
I = Ion Exchange
R = Reverse Osmosis
394
-------
Table F-l (Con't)
Hypothetical
STRATEGY: P = 0. 10
System Total: 1- 6b x 10
c
Strategy Total; I. 42 x 10'
% EFF:
EFF 1- A EFF P CONCENTR.
TREAT
"k removal
0
50
bO
70
80
84
at-
e»
90
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
Eut
175
113
101
89
7fe
71
69
66
64
59
56
54
53
g/yr
l.JI x
10
7. 19
xlO8
6. 41 x 1
io8
5. 62 x
io8
4.83 x
ios
4.jj2x
io8
4. 36 x
io8
4. 21 x
ios
4.p5x
io8
3.33 x
io8
3.|8x
los
- .
3.42 x
ios
3. 34 x
io8
' System
% removal
33
%7
•1
1~ r
71
73
~<*
75
76
78
78
.
79
80
Eut
164
103 ,
i
90. i
78
65
60
58
55
53
51
49
48
47
46
44
i
43
42
g.'/r
I.Q4x
10^
6.41 x
io8
^ J2x
io8
4. 94 x
io8
4. 15 x
io8
3.84x
ios
3. 68 xH
io8
3.52x
io8
3.37x
io8
3.21 x
10
3.J3x
10
3 05 x
io8
2.97x
io8
2.89x
io8
2.82 x
10
2 74 x
io8
^766 x
io8
Before
12.42
12.42
12.42
12.42
12.42
12.42
..
12.42
..
12.42
12.42
12.42
12.42
12.42
12.42
12.42
12.42
After
12.42
6.21
4. 97
3. 72
2.48
1.99
1.74
1.49
1.24
0.99
0. 87
0. 74
0. 62
0, 50
0.37
0. 25
0. 12
COST
S/yr
5. 18 x
10
5- 18 x
10
5. 18 x
10
7. 28 x
10
8.79 x
10
9. 56 x
10
1.03 x
io£
l.fcl x
10
3. 06 x
ios
3.g9x
10
3, 11 x
io6
3. 14 x
10°
7.04x
10?
7. 09 x
io6
7. 14 x
10&
7. 18 x
10^
Treatment
Process*
C
C
C
C
c
c
c
c
I
I
I
I
R
R
R
R
C - Coagulation
I = Ion Exchange
R Reverse Osmosis
395
-------
Table F-1 (Con't)
Hypothetical STRATEGY: INDUST PET
System Total: 1. 66 x 10
c
Strategy Total: 1. 55 x 10 '
EFF: 6. 6
EFF P
A EFF P
TREAT
% removal
0
50
60
70
80
84
86
88
98
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
Eut
196
139
127
116
104
100
97
95
93
..
88
86
84
83
g/yr
1.25*
10^
8.81 x
io8
8.08 x
io8
7. 35 x
io8
6. 63 x
io8
6,33x
io8
6.19x
^jo8
6.04x
io8
5.90x
io8
„
5.61 x
io8
5.46x
'108
5.31 x
to8
5.24x
io8
System
% removal
25
47
51
56
60
62
63
64
64
66
67
68
68
Eut
146
89
77
66
55
50
48
45
43
38
36
34
33
g/y
9. 29 x
io8
^X
!o^x
4. 19 x
io8
3.|6x
10
3-J.7
io8
3.03x
io8
2.88x
io8
2.g3x
10
2.44x
io8
2.30x
io8 .
2.15x
io8
2.08x
io8
Before
11. 51
11. 51
11.51
11. 51
11. 51
11. 51
11. 51
11. 51
11.51
11.51
11.51
11.51
11.51
After
11. 51
5. 75
4. 60
3.45
2. 30
1.84
1.61
1.38
1. 15
0.63
0.46
0.23
0. 12
COST
$/yr
0
4. 82 x
10
4. 82 x
io5
4, 8Z x
io5
6. p x
10"
8 17
10
8. 88 x
ios
9. 60 x
10
1.03 x
10^
2.94 x
io6
7.04 x
io5
7. 14 x
10&
7.18 x
10*
Treatment
Process*
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
I
R
R
R
CONCENTR.
* C = Coagulation
I = Ion Exchange
R = Reverse Osmosis
396
-------
Table F-1 (Con't)
Hypothetical STRATEGY; Alt MGMNT
System Total: 1. 66 x 10
Q
Strategy Total; 9. 24 x 10
EFF: 44
EFF P
A EFF P
CONCENTR.
TREAT
% removal
0
SO
60
70
80
84
86
86
90
92
93
94
95
9b
97
98
99
Eut
8b
52
45
38
32
29
28
26
25
22
21
20
19
g-'y
5.4! x
io8
3.28*
io8
2.|fex
10
2.43 x
io8
Z.Olx
io8
1.84 x
io8
1.25x
io8
1.67x
io8
1.58 x 1
ios
l.glx
10
1.33*
io8
1.24x
io8
1.20x
io8
System
% removal
67
SO
83
1
85
88
89
89
90
90
92
92
93
93
Eut
81
48
41 ;
i
14
27
25
23
22
21
18
17
15
15
gjyr
5, 14 x
io8
3. 02 x
ios
Z. 59 x
10
E.lTx
io9
1.74x
io8
1.57x
io8
1.49x
io8
1.40x
ios
1.32x
io8
1.15x
io8
1.06x
io8
9. 25 x
10'
9.32x
L 10
Before
7. 51
7. 51
7. 51
7. 51 '
7. 51
7.51
7. 51
7. 51
7.51
7. 51
7. 51
7.51
7. 51
After
7, 51
3.76
3.01
2. 25
1.50
1.20
1.05
0.90
0.75
..
0.45
..
0.30
0.15
0.08
COST
S/yr
0
2. 92 x
10
2.92 x
10
2. 92 x
10
4.07 x
10
4.92 x
10
5.34 x
10
2. 55 x
io6
2.&5x
10
„
„
6. 38 x
io6
..
6.47 x
10*
6. 56 x
10
6. 60 x
iog
Treatment
Proceas*
C
C
c
C
c
c
I
1
R
R
R
R
* C = Coagulation
I = Ion Exchange
R = Reverse Osmoais
397
-------
Table F-1 (Con't)
Hypothetical STRATEGY: DOMDET
System Total: 1. 66 x 10
Strategy Total: 1. 35 x 1Q9
EFF: 19
TREAT
% removal
0
50
60
70
80
84
86
88
90
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
Eut
164
127
120
112
105
102
101
99
98
__
95
93
_ _
92
91
EFF P A EFF P
g/yr
1.04x
10*
8.08 x
10
7.61x
108
7.l4x
io8
6.68 x
ios
6. 49 xl
IO8
6.40x
io8
6.30 x
io8
6.21 x
io8
- .
6.02x
IO8
5.93 x
IO8
_ _
5.84x
io8
5.29x
io8
System
% removal
37
51
54
57
60
61
61
62
63
64
04
__.
65
65
Eut
114
77
70
63
55
52
51
49
48
45
_ _
44
..
42
41
g/yr
7.25*
io8
4.91 x
IO8
4.45x
io8
3.98 x
io8
3. Six
io8
3.33 x
io8
3.23x
io8
3.14x
io8
3.05x
ios
_ _
2. 86 x
io8
— -
2.77x
io8
2.67x
io8
2.63x
io8
CONCENT R.
Before
7. 37
7.37
7.37
7.37
7. 37
7.37
7.37
7.37
7. 37
^ _
..
7.37
7.37
7.37
7. 37
After
7.37
3.69
2.95
2.21
1.47
1. 18
1.03
0.88
0.74
..
„
0.44
_ _
0.29
0. 15
0.07
COST
$/yr
3.18x
10
3. 18 x
10
3. 18 x
10
4.44 x
io5
5.3JX
10
5. 83 x
10
2. 77 x
io6
2.77x
io6
..
..
6. 95 x
io5
- -
7.04x
IOK
7. 14 x
io6
7. 18 x
io6
T reatment
Process*
C
C
C
C
C
C
I
I
R
R
R
R
* C = Coagulation
I = Ion Exchange
R = Reverse Osmosis
398
-------
Table F-l (Con't)
Hypothetical STRATEGY: TREAT
System Total; 1. 66 x 10
Strategy Total:1- k(> * 1°
% EFF: 0%
EFF P
A EFF P
CONCENTR.
TREAT
V removal
0
50
60
70
80
84
86
88
90
92
93
94
•)b
96
9"
98
99
Eut
214
152
140
128
115
110
..
105
100
99
98
97
94
93
92
g/yr
l.$6x
10
9. 67 x
JO8
8.£9x
10*
8. 10 x
io8
7.32x
io8
7.00x
io8
6.68x
io8
6.37x
io8
6.29x
io8
6.22x
io8
6.14x
io8
6.06x
io8
5.98x
io8
5. 90 x
io8
5. 82 x
io8
System
% removal
18. 1
41.7
46.4
51.2
55.9
57.8
59.8
61. 6
62. 1
62. 5
63. 0
63.5
64. 0
64.4
64.9
Eut
164
103
90.1
78
65
60
55
51
49
48
47
46
44
43
42
g/yr
l.Q4x
10
b. 51 x
io8
5.72x
io8
4.94x
io8
4.1Sx
io8
3.84x
io8
3.52x
io8
3.21x
io8
3.13x
io8
3.05x
io8
2. 97 x
io8
2.89x
io8
2.§2x
10
2.24x
io8
2.66x
io8
Before
U.42
12.42
12.42
12.42 '
12.42
12.42
12.42
12.42
12.42
12.42
12.42
12.42
12.42
12.42
12.42
After
12.42
6.21
4.97
3.72
2.48
1.99
1.49
0.99
0.87
0.74
0. 62
0.50
0.37
0.25
0. 12
COST
$/yr
t>. 18 x
10
5. 18 x
ios
5. 18 x
10
7.28 x
10
8. 79 x
10
1.03 x
iog
3.06x
io5
3.09 x
iog
3.11 x
196
3. 14 x
10&
7.04 x
iog
7.g9x
10
7.14 x
1Q&
7.18 x
10&
Treatment
Process*
C
C
c
c
c
c
I
I
- I
R
R
R
R
R
* C = Coagulation
I = Ion Exchange
R = Reverse Osmosis
399
-------
Table F-2
MICHIGAN STRATEGY: NIL
(100 m)
System Total: 1-77 x 10
,0 % EFF: 0-00
Strategy Total:!. 77 x 10
EFF P
A EFF P
CONCENTR.
TREAT
% removal
0
50
60
70
80
84
86
88
90
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
Eut
3.92
3.32
3.20
3.08
2.96
2.91
--
2.86
--
2.81
2.80
2.79
2.78
2.76
2.75
2.74
2.73
g/yr
l.74xlOK
1.47xl01(
1.42xl010
1.37xl01C
1.31xl010
1.29X1010
--
1.27X1010
--
1.25xl010
L25X1010
I.24xl010
L.23X1010
1.23X1010
1.22X1010
1.22xl01C
1.21X1010
System
% removal
1.7
17
20
23
26
27
--
28
--
29
29
30
31
31
31
31
31
Eut
2.60
2.00
1.88
1.76
1.64
1.60
--
1.55
--
1.50
1.49
1.48
1.46
1.45
1.44
1.43
1.42
g/yr
LlbxlO1'
8.91 x 10
B.SSxlO9
7.85xl09
7.31 x 109
7.10xl09
--
6.89xl09
--
6.67 x 109
6.62 xlO9
6.57 x 109
S.SlxlO9
5.46xl09
6.41xl09
6.35xl09
6.30xl09
Before
5. 33xl09
11.18
5.33x10'
11. 18
5.33xl09
11. 18
S.33xl09
11. 18
5.33x10'
11.18
5.33xl09
11.18
--
5.33x10?
11. 18
--
>. 33x10"*
11.18
5.33x10'
11. 18
5. 33x10"*
11. 18
5.33xl09
11. 18
5. 33x10'
11. 18
5.33x10^
11. 18
5.33x10*
11. 18
5.33x10'
11.18
After
5. 33 x 10^
11. 18
5. 33 x 10'
5.59
5. 33xlOY
4.47
5.33xl09
3.35
5. 33xl09
2.24
5. 33 x 109
1.79
--
5.33x109
1.34
--
5.33X101*
0. 89
5. 33x10?
0.78
5.33x10^
0.67
5.33x109
0,56
5.33x109
0.45
5. 33x109
0.34
5.33x10'
0. 22
5.33x10'
0. 11 ,
COST
$/yr
0.00
3.33xl06
3.33xl06
3.33xl06
4. 73xl06
5.75xl06
--
6.78xl06
--
1.39xl07
1.40xl07
1.41xl07
1.43xl07
4. 03xlO?
4. 06xlO?
4. 09xl07
4.13xlO?
Treatment
Process*
* C = Coagulation
t ~ Ion Exchange
R - Reverse Osmosis
400
-------
Table F-2 (Con't)
MICHIGAN
(100 m)
STRATEGY: DOM DET
System Total: 1.77x10
Strategy Total;!. 54x 10
10
10
% EFF: 13%
EFF P
A EFF P
CONCENT R.
TREAT
% removal
0
SO
60
70
80
84
86
88
90
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
Eut
3.40
3.06
2.99
2.92
2.85
2.83
2.81
2.80
2.79
--
--
2.76
--
2.74
--
2. 7?
2. 7Z
g'v
LSlxlO10
1.3&X1010
1.33xl010
1.30xl010
1.27xlOl°
UfcxlO10
1.25X1010
1.24X1010
1.24 xlO10
--
—
1.23xl01C1
--
1.22xl010
--
1.21 xlO10
1.21 xlO10
System
% removal
15
23
25
26
£8
29
29
30
30
--
--
31
--
31
--
32
32
Eut
2.09
1.75
1.68
1.61
1.54
1.51
1.50
1.49
1.47
--
--
1.45
--
1.43
--
1.42
1.41
g'y*
9.27xl09
7.76 x 109
7.46 x 109
7.16xl09
6.85 xlO9
6.73xl09
6.67 xlO9
6.61 xlO9
6.55xl09
--
--
6.43 xlO9
--
6.37x10
--
5.31xl09
5.28
Before
3.03xl09
6. 35
.03xl09
6.35
3. 03 x 109
6.35
3. 03xlb9
6.35
3.03xl09
6.35
3.03x10^
6.35
3.03x109
6.35
3.03x109
6.35
3. 03 x 10^
6.35
--
--
3. O^xlO^
6. -;
--
3.03x109
6.35
--
3.03x10"*
6.35
3.03x10^
6.35
After
3.03x 10*
6.35
1.51x10^
3. 18
1.21xlOv
2.54
9.08x10°
1.91
6. 06 xlO8
1.27
4. 84 x 10°
1.02
4. 24 xlO8
0.89
3,63x10°
0.76
3.02xl08
0.64
--
--
1.82x10"
0.38
1 -
1.21x108
0.25
--
6.06x10'
0. 13
3. 03 x 10'
0.06
COST
$/yr
0. 00
1.93xl06
1.93xl06
1.93xl06
2.72xl06
3. 31xl06
1.36xl07
1.36xl07
1.36xlO?
--
--
3. 96xl07
--
4.0? xlO7
--
4. 09xl07
4. 13xl07
Treatment
Process*
C
C
C
C
C
C
1
I
I
R
R
R
R
* C = Coagulation
I - Ion Exchange
R = Reverse Osmosis
401
-------
Table F-2 (Con't)
MICHIGAN STRATEGY: IN DET
( 1 00 m)
System Total: 1.77x10
in % EFF: 3.4%
Strategy Total: 1-71x10
EFF P
A EFF P
CONCENTR.
TREAT
"it. removal
0
50
60
70
80
84
86
88
90
92
93
94
95
96
07
9fr
99
'
Eut
3.78
3.22
3. 10
2.99
2.88
2.83
2.81
2.79
2.76
-•
--
2.72
--
2.70
--
2.67
2.66
g/y
L68x 1010
1.43xlOl°
L38xl010
1.33X1010
1.28xlOl°
L26x,010
U25xlOi0
L24x'0l°
1.23X1010
--
--
L21xl010
--
L20x1010
--
L19X1010
LlSxlO10
System 1
% remova- •
i
5.1
19.2
22.0
24.9
27.7
28.8
29.4
29.9
30.5
--
31.6
—
32.2
32.8
33.3
Fiut
2.47
1.90
1.79
1.68
1.57
1.52
1.50
1.47
1.45
__
--
1.4-
--
1. 38
--
1.36
1.35
g/yr
LOxlO9
8.47 x 10^
7.97X10*3
7.46xl09
6.96x10
6.76x10
6.66xl09
E>.56xl09
5.46x10
--
--
6.26xl09
--
6.15xl09
--
i.05 x 109
i.OOxlO9
Before
5.03xl09
10.56
5. 03xl09
10.56
5.03x10^
10.56
5. 03 x 10V
10.56
5. 03xl09
10.56
5.03x 109
10.56
5. 03 x 10?
10.56
5. 03 x 109
10.56
5.03x 109
10.56
--
--
5. 03x1 09
10.56
--
5. 03xl09
10.56
-
5. 03xl09
10.56
5.03xl09
10.56
After
5.03x10'
10.56
5.03x!CP
5.28
5.03x10^
4.22
5.03x 10"*
3.17
5.03xl09
2. 11
5.03xl09
1.69
S.OSxlO9
1.48
5.03xl09
1.27
5.03xt09
;.06
--
--
5.03 xlO9
0.63
--
5.03xlOv
0.42
--
5.03 xio"*
0.21
5.03xl09
0.11
COST
$/yr
0.00
3.15xl06
3.15x10
3.15xl06
4.47x10
5.44x10
5.93xl06
6.41xl06
6.89xl06
--
--
1.36xl07
.-
403xlO?
:
4.09xl07
4.13xlO?
Treatment
Process*
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
I
R
R
R
C - Coagulation
I = Ion Exchange
R - Reverse Osmosis
402
-------
Table F-2 (Con't)
MICHIGAN STRATEGY: 10% P
100 m)
System Total: 1.77x10
10 % EFF: 26.0
Strategy Total: 1-31 x 10
EFF P
A EFF P
CONCENTR.
TREAT
% removal
0
50
60
70
80
84
86
88
90
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
Eut
2.88
2.28
2. 16
2.04
1.92
1.87
1.84
1.82
1.80
--
--
1.75
1 . '.*
--
1.70
I.b9
g/yr
12.8xl09
lO.lxlO9
9.59xl09
9.06 x 109
6.?2xl09
S.JlxlO9
8.21 xio9
9
8. 1 0 x I 0
7.99x!09
--
7.78x1''."
9
67x10
--
7.56* 109
7.51x'09
System
% removal
27.7
42. -i
45.8
48.8
51.9
53. 1
53.6
,4.2
54.9
-
•-
56.0
56.-
--
> .3
57.6
Eut
2.60
2.00
1.88
1.76
1.64
1.60
1.57
1 55
i. 52
1.50
1.49
1.48
1.46
1.45
1.44
1.43
g/yr
1C
1.16x10
a 91 x to9
8.38 xlO9
7.85xl09
7.31xl09
MOxlO9
6.99
i.89x!09
6.78
6.67xl09
6.62xl09
6.57xl09
6.51xl09
6. 46 xlO9
6.41 xlO9
t>.35x!09
6.30x10
Before
5.33xl09
11. 18
5.33xiO°
11. 18
5. 33x 109
11. 18
5.33x 109
11. 18
5.33xl09
11. 18
5. 33 x 109
11. 18
--
5.33x109
11. 18
11. 18
5.33X109
11. 18
5.33xl09
11. 18
5. 33x109
11. 18
5. 33xl09
11. 18
5.33x109
11. 18
5.33x10^
11. 18
5.33xlOv
11. 18
5.33xlOv
11. 18
After
5.33xlOy
11. 18
2.66 xlO9
5.59
2-13 x 109
4.47
1.60xl09
3.35
1.07xl09
2.24
8.52xlOB
1.79
1.56
6.39x108
1.34
1.12
4.26xl08
0.89
3.73x 10s
0.78
3.20x108
0.67
2.66x108
0.56
2.13x108
0.45
1.60xl08
0.34
1.07xl08
0.22
5.33xl08
0. 11
COST
$/yr
0.00
3.33xl06
3.33xl06
3.33xl06
4.7? xlO6
5.75x10
6.27xlOb
6.78xl06
'. 29x10"
1.39xlO?
1.40xl07
1.41 xlO7
1.43 xlO?
4.03 xlO7
4.06xl07
4.09xl07
4.13xl07
Treatment
Process*
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
* C = Coagulation
I = Ion Exchange
R - Reverse Osmosis
403
-------
Table F-2 (Con't)
MICmGAN STRATEGY: ALL
(100 m)
System Total: 1.77xl010
„ % EFF:
Strategy Total: 9. 83x 10'
44.5
EFF P
A EFF P
CONCENTR.
TREAT
% removal
•J
50
60
70
80
84
86
88
90
92
93
94
95
9*-
97
98
99
Eut
2. 13
' «»1
1.75
1.69
1.62
l.-O
1.58
1.57
1.56
•-
--
1.53
--
1.5Z
1.51
1.50
e/y
9.46 x 109
8.06 x 109
7.77 xlO9
7.49 xlO9
7.21 xlO9
7.lOxl09
7.04 xlO9
6.99 xlO9
6.93x!0q
--
--
6.82xl09
-
6.76 xlO9
--
6.71 xlO9
6.68 » 103
System
% removal
46.6
54.5
56. 1
57.7
59.3
59.9
60.2
60.5
3-.i. 8
--
61.5
--
61.8
--
62.1
63.3
Eut
1.87
1.56
1.49
1.43
: 37
1.34
1.33
1.32
1.30
--
1.28
--
1.26
--
1.25
1.25
n/y
8.32 xlO*
6.91x 10
6.63 xlO9
6.35xlOS
6.07xl09
5.96xl09
5.90xl09
J.SSxlO
5.79 xlO9
--
--
5.68 x 10S
--
5.62xl09
--
5.57xl09
5.54xlOS
Before
2.81 x 109
7.04
2.81x10^
7.04
2.81x 109
7.04
2.81x 109
7.04
2.81 x 109
7.04
2.81 xlO9
7.04
2.81 xlO9
7. 04
2.81xl09
7. 04
2.81 xlO9
7.04
--
--
2.81 xlO9
7.04
--
2.81 xlO9
7.04
--
2.81 xlO9
7.04
2.8lxl09
7.04
After
2.81xl09
7.04
2.81xl09
3.52
2.81x 109
2.82
2.81xl09
2. 11
2.81xl09
1.41
2.81 xlO9
1. 13
2.81xl09
0.99
2.81xl09
0.84
2.81xlOy
0.70
--
--
2.81 xlO9
0.42
--
2.81 xlO9
0.28
--
2.81 xlO9
0. 14
2. 81 xlO9
0.07
COST
S/yr
0. 00
l.SOxlO6
l.SOxlO6
l.SOx 106
2.53xl06
3.08xl06
1.19xl07
1.19x10
1.19x10
--
--
3.38xlO?
--
3.43xlO?
--
3.49 xlO7
3.52xlO?
Treatment
Process*
C
C
C
C
C
I
I
I
R
R
R
R
C - Coagulation
I " Ion Exchange
R ; Reverse Osmosis
404
-------
Table F-2 (Con't)
MICHIGAN
(100 m)
STRATEGY: ALL. EX FAC2
System Total: 1.77x10
Q
Strategy Total: 9.83x10
10
EFF: 44. 5
ZFF P
A EFF P
TREAT
% removal
0
50
60
70
80
84
86
88
90
92
93
94
95
96
97
9«
99
Eut
2.13
1.83
1.78
1.72
1.66
1.63
1.62
1.61
1.60
--
--
1.58
--
1.56
-
t.55
1.55
g/y
9.46xl09
S.lSxlO9
7.89xl09
7.63xl09
7.37xl09
7.27xl09
7.21xl09
7.16xl09
7.11xl09
--
--
7.01xl09
--
6.95xl09
--
6.90 xio9
6.87xl09
System
% removal
46.6
54. 0
55.4
56.9
58.4
58.9
59.3
59. 5
59.8
--
--
60.4
--
60.7
--
61.0
61.2
Eut
1|87
1. 58
1.52
1.46
1.40
1.38
1.37
1.35
1.34
--
--
1.32
--
1.31
--
1.30
1 29
g/yr
8.32x 10
7.01x10
6.75x10'
6.49 x 10S
6.23 xK?
6.12xl09
6.07 x 10
6.02 x 10
5.97 x 10
--
--
5.86 x 109
--
5.81x10
--
5.76 x 109
5.73x10
Before
2.61xl09
6.09
2.6lxl09
6.09
2.6lxl09
6.09
2.61 xlO^
6.09
2.61 x 109
6.09
2.61xl09
6.09
2.61X109
6.09
2.61 xlO9
6.09
2.61xl09
6.09
--
--
2.61 xlO9
6.09
--
2.61xl09
6.09
--
2.61 x!0v
6.09
2.61x10?
6.09
After
2.61xl09
6.09
2.61xl09
3.05
2.61x10?
2.44
2.61x10?
1.83
2.61 xlO9
1.22
2.61xl09
0.97
2.61 xlO9
0.85
2.61x10"*
0.73
1.61x10?
0.61
--
--
2.6lxl09
0.37
--
2.61xl09
0.24
--
2.61xl09
0.12
2.61xl09
0.06
COST
S/vr
0.00
1.67xl06
1.67xl06
1.67x10
2.36 xlO6
1.25x10
1.25xl07
1.25xlO?
1.25x10
--
--
3,60xl07
--
3.66xlO?
--
3.72x 10?
3.75x 107
Treatment
Process*
C
C
C
C
I
I
I
I
R
R
R
R
CONCENT R.
* C = Coagulation
I - Ion Exchange
R = Reverse Osmosis
405
-------
Table F-3
Lake Erie
(20 m)
STRATEGY ALL
System Total: 2. 86 x 10
10
Strategy Total: 1. 65 x 10
10
EFF: 42. 3
EFF P A EFi I- CONCENTR.
TREAT
% removal
0
SO
60
70
80
84
86
88
i
90
92
93
34
95
9b
97
98
99
Eut
24
17
IS
14
13
12
12
11
11
10
--
10
10
10
g/yr
IO9
16.1
11. 3
10. 3
9.33
8. 35
7.96
7.77
7.57
7.38
b. 99
-
0.80
b.60
6.50
System
% removal
43.7
60.4
63.9
67.3
70.8
72.1
72. b
73.5
74.2
75. 6
76.2
76.9
77.3
Eut
21
B/yr
109
14. 3
14 9. 39
13
11
10
8.42
7.45
6.48
9 6.09
9
9
8
8
7
7
7
5.89
5.70
5. 50
5. 11
--
4.92
4.72
4.63
Before
9.73 x lo'
b. 7r
o. 76
b. 76
6.76
6.76
6.76
o.76
6.76
6.76
6.76
--
6. 76
6.76
6.76
After
9. 73 x 10
6.76
3.38
2.70
2.03
1.35
1.08
0.95
0.81
0.68
0.41
--
0.27
0.14
0.07
COST
S'yr
0.00
6.00 x
10*
6. 00 x
10*
6.00 x
10*
8.53 x
io6
1.04 x
10
3 23 x
10
3.23 x
10
3.23x
10
1.13x
io8
--
1.15x
io8
l.J7x
io8
1.18x
io8
Treatr-ient
Process*
C
C
C
C
C
I
I
I
R
R
R
R
C - Coagulation
I = Ion Exchange
R = Reverse Osmos-
406
-------
Table F-3 (Con't)
Erie
STRATEGY: All Ex FAC2
System Total: 2.86x10
10
Strategy Total: 1- 65 x 10
10
% EFF: 42. 3
EFF P
A EFF P
CONCENTR.
TREAT
% removal
0
50
60
70
80
84
86
88
90
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
Eut
24
17
16
15
13
13
13
12
12
11
11
11
11
g/y
IO9
16.1
11. 6
10. 7
9.82
8.91
8.55
8.37
8. 19
8.01
7. 65
7.47
7.29
7.20
System
% removal
43.7
59.4
62. 6
65.7
68. 8
70. 1
70.7
71.4
72.0
72.3
..
73.o
74. 5
74.8
Eut
21
15
13
12
11
10
10
9
9
..
9
..
8
8
8
y/y
io9
16.1
9.74
8. 84
7.94
7.03
6. 67
o. 4v
31
6. 13
..
„
5.77
„
5.59
5.41
5.32
Before
9. 03 x IO9
6. 28
6. 28
6. 28 ,
6. 28
6. 28
6.28
6. 28
6. 28
6. 28
..
..
6. 28
6.28
6.28
6. 28
After
9.03 x 10
6.28
3.14
2. 51
1.88
1.26
1.00
0.88
0.75
0. 63
..
..
0.38
0.25
..
0. 13
0.06
COST
$/yr
0.00
5.57 x
iog
5. 57 x
ioe
5. 57 x
io5
7. 93 x
io6
9. 67 x
io5
3.23 x
io7
3. 23 x
10
3. 23 x
10
„ _
1.13x
io8
1.15x
io8
__
1.17x
io8
l.lBx
io8
Treatment
Process*
C
C
C
C
C
I
I
I
R
R
R
R
R
* C = Coagulation
I = Ion Exchange
R - Reverse Osmosis
407
-------
Table F-3 (Con't)
Eri«
STRATEGY: INDEX
System Total: 2. 86 x 10
10
Strategy Total:2. 66 x 10
10
% EFF: 7. 0
EFF P A EFF P CONCENTR.
TREAT
% removal
0
50
60
70
80
84
86
88
90
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
Eut
39
26
24
21
18
17
17
16
16
15
14
13
13
g/yr
io10
2.63
1.75
1.57
1.39
1.22
1.15
1.11
1.08
1.04
.972
.936
.901
.883
Syitem
% removal
8.04
38.8
45.1
51.4
57.3
59.8
61.2
62.2
63.6
66.0
67.3
68.5
69.1
Eut
35
22
19
17
14
13
12
12
11
10
10
9
9
g/yr
io10
2.35
1.47
1.29
1.11
.937
.867
.832
.796
.761
.690
.655
. 620
.602
Before
'»»•
10.98
10.98
10.98
10.98
10.98
10.98
1. 54
10. 98
10.98
10.98
10.98
10.98
10.98
After
l'tt*
10
10.98
5.49
4.39
3.29
2.20
1.76
1. 54
1.32
1.10
0.66
0.44
0.22
0.11
COST
$/yr
0.00
l.QSx
10
l.OSx
10
l.QSx
10
1.5,4x
10
i.a6x
10
2. Q4 x
10
2.21 x
10
2.38x
10
3.61 x
IO7
..
l.27x
10B
..
1.29x
IO8
i.aix
io8
Treatment
Process*
C
c
C
c
c
c
c
c
I
R
R
R
* C = Coagulation
I = Ion Exchange
R = Reverse Osmosis
408
-------
Table F-3 (Con't)
Erie
STRATEGY: DOM PET
System Total; 2. 86 x 10
10
Strategy Total; 2.05 x 10
10
% EFF: 28.3
EFF P
A EFF P
CONCENT R.
TREAT
% removal
0
50
60
70
80
84
86
88
90
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
Eut
30
22
Zl
19
18
17
17
Ib
16
..
..
15
15
..
15
15
g/yr
io10
2.01
1.49
1.39
1.28
1. 18
1. 14
1.11
1.09
1.07
..
..
1.03
1.01
..
.989
.978
Syitem
% removal
29.7
47.9
51.4
55. 2
58.7
60.1
61.2
bl.9
62.6
_ _
64.0
..
64.7
- -
65.4
65.8
Eut
26
18
17
15
13
13
12
12
12
_ _
11
11
11
10
g/yr
10"
17.3
12. 1
11. I
10.0
8.96
8.54
8.33
8.12
7.91
7.49
„ ^
7.28
7.08
6.97
Before
!;»•
6.52
6. 52
6. 52
6. 52
6. 52
•}. 52
6. 52
6. 52
6. 52
6.52
6. 52
6. 52
6.52
After
1.05 x
ioy8
6.52
3.26
2. 61
1.96
1.30
1.04
0.91
0.78
0.65
0.39
0. 26
0.13
0.07
COST
$/yr
0.00
6.44 x
10*
6.44 x
10*
b. 44 x
10*
9. 18 x
10*
l.yZx
10
3.52 x
10
3, 52 x
10
3. 52 x
10
..
l.ZSx
ios
r. §7 x
108
--
1.29x
io8
1.31X
io8
Treatment
Process*
C
C
C
C
C
I
I
I
R
R
R
R
* C = Coagulation
I = Ion Exchange
R = Reverie Osmosis
409
-------
Table F-3 (Con't)
System Total; 2. 86 x 10
10
STRATEGY: TREAT
Strategy Total: 2. B6 x: 10
10
EFF 0
EFF P
A EFF P
CONCENTR.
TREAT
% removal
0
50
60
70
80
84
86
88
90
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
Eut
42
28
26
23
20
19
..
18
„
16
16
16
16
16
16
15
15
g/y
io10
2.83
1.90
1.71
1.53
1.34
1.27
..
1.19
..
1.12
1.10
1.08
1.06
1.04
1.02
1.01
.986
System
% removal
1.04
33.5
40.2
46.5
53.1
55.6
..
58.4
..
60.8
61.5
62. 2
62.9
63. 6
64.3
64.7
65.5
Eut
38
24
21
18
16
15
„
14
__
12
12
12
12
11
11
11
11
P''yr
io10
2.55
1.62
1.43
1.25
1. 06
.985
.910
_ _
.836
.817
.799
.780
.761
.743
.724
.705
Before
y
11.61
11.61
11.61
11.61
11.61
11. 61
..
11. 61
..
11.61
11.61
11.61
11. 61
11.61
11.61
11.61
11.61
After
!;«"
11. 61
5.81
4.65
3.48
2.32
1.86
..
1.39
..
0.93
0.81
0.70
0.58
0.46
0.35
0.23
0.12
COST
$/yr
0.00
1.14 x
10
1.14 x
10
1.14 x
10
1.63 x
10
1.38 x
10
..
< }4x
10
_ _
3.21 x
10
3.25 x
10
3.28 x
10
3.ai x
10
1.27x
io5
1.28x
io5
1.29x
ios
1.31 x
io8
Treatment
Process*
C
C
C
C
C
C
I
I
I
I
R
R
R
R
C - Coagulation
I - Ion Exchange
R = Reverse Osmosis
410
-------
Table F-3 (Con't)
Erie
STRATEGY: 10% P
System Total: 2. 86 x 10
10
Strategy Total; 2.77 x 10
10
EFF: 3. 1
EFF P A EFF P CONCENTR.
TREAT
% removal
0
50
60
70
80
84
86
88
90
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
Eut
41
Z7
24
22
19
18
17
16
It
15
14
14
13
g/yr
io10
2.74
1.81
1. 62
1.44
1.25
1.18
1.14
1.10
1.07
.990
.953
. 916
. 897
System
% removal
4. 2
36.7
43.4
49.7
56. 3
58.7
60. 1
61. 5
62. 6
65.4
66.7
68.0
68.7
Eut
38
24
21
19
16
IS
14
14
13
12
11
11
11
g/y
io10
2.55
1.62
1.43
1. 25
1.06
.985
.948
.910
.873
.799
.761
.724
.705
Before
!;«"
11. 61
11. 61
11. 61
11. 61
11.61
11. 61
11. 61
11. 61
11. 61
11. 61
„
11. 61
11. 61
11. 61
After
!;«"
11. 61
5.81
4.65
3.48
2.32
1.86
1.63
1.39
1.16
0.70
„
0.46
..
0.23
0.12
COST
$/yr
0.00
1.14 x
10
1.14 x
10
1.14 x
10'
1.63 x
10'
1.98 x
10
2. 16 x
10
2.34 x
10
2.5,2x
10
3.28 x
10
„
1.27x
io8
„
1.29x
io8
1.31 x
io8
Treatment
Process*
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
I
R
R
R
* C = Coagulation
I = Ion Exchange
R = Reverse Osmosis
411
*US. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1974 546-316/268 1-3
-------
SELECTED WATER
RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
o
^jfr ..' No.
w
Comprehensive management of phosphorus water pollution
7 Author(s)D-B* Porcella, A. B. Bishop, J. C. Andersen, O. W.
Asplund, A. B. Crawford, W, J. Grenney, D.I. Jenkins, J.J.
Jurinak, W. D. Lewis, E.J. Middlebrooks, R. M. Walkingshaw
Utah Water Research Laboratory, Utah State University,
Logan, Utah 84321
12. Spon*Jita6fe action Environmental Protection Agency
15. Supplementary Mows
Environmental Protection Agency report number,
EPA-600/5-74-010, February 1974.
8. PeitO'VJig On:
per? Me
10. PlOjeU N".j.
R.FP WA72-A66
U. CtMitracl/Gi
68-01-0728
13. Type of Repast and
- , Period '
16. Absizhtt rpke environmental problems of phosphorus pollution are examined using
an activity analysis approach to account for phosphorus inputs to surface waters. For
purposes of analysis, this study assumes phosphorus to be the limiting factor in algal
growth and eutrophication. A mass flow model, general enough to be applied to specific
lakes or river basins, was developed in order to relate the flow of phosphorus from all
activities in a basin to the consequences of eutrophication. Various control tactics to
limit mass flow and thus eutrophication were defined from the standpoint of both supply
and demand for phosphorus producing products and the management of phosphorus uses
Combinations of feasible controls designated as strategies, were applied to the model tc
determine the cost-effectiveness of the strategies in minimizing eutrophication. A
hyper-eutrophic hypothetical lake basin, Lake Michigan, and Lake Erie were analyzed
as case examples to test the model and control methods. Overall strategies were
derived for the hypothetical lake and then applied to Erie and Michigan. In simple
terms, phosphorus management strategies seemed feasible for control of eutrophica-
tion in present-day Lake Michigan while waste treatment together with management
strategies was iccessary for Lake Erie.
i?a. Descriptors Eutrophication, nutrients, algal blooms, primary productivity,
trophic levels, agriculture, industry, recreation, water quality, economics,
lakes, excise taxes.
i?b. identifiers Costs, cost-benefit, cost-effectiveness, regional management,
phosphorus, detergents, mass flow model, waste treatment, runoff, mining.
I7i,. OOWRR Meld & Glow
18. .\vallafcilny
'.9. Sec* My Ciws.
(Roport)
HI Securitj Class.
2I/'No. of
Pages
22.
Send To:
WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
WASHINGTON. D-C. 20240
------- |