EPA 660/3 74 020
August 1974
Ecological Research Series
Estimating Nutrient Loadings
of Lakes from Non-Point Sources
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
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EPA-660/3-74-020
August 1974
ESTIMATING NUTRIENT LOADINGS OF LAKES
FROM NON-POINT SOURCES
by
Paul D. Uttormark
John D. Chapin
Kenneth M. Green
Water Resources Center
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin 53706
Program Element 1BA031
Roap/Task 21 AJE 28
Grant R-801343
Project Officer
Thomas E. Maloney
National Environmental Research Center
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
Prepared for
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND MONITORING
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
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ABSTRACT
Data describing nutrient contributions from non-point sources
were compiled from the literature, converted to kg/ha/yr, and
tabulated in a format convenient for estimating nutrient
loadings of lakes. Contributing areas are subdivided accord-
ing to general use categories, including agricultural, urban,
forested, and wetland. Data describing nutrient transport by
groundwater seepage and bulk precipitation are given along with
data for nutrient contributions from manure handling, septic
tanks, and agricultural fertilizers.
Nutrient content of urban runoff was the highest; forested
areas were lowest. Nutrient export data for agricultural lands
were tabulated as: seepage through vertical soil profile,
overland runoff, and transport by streams draining agricultural
watersheds. The latter group was judged to be most applicable
for estimating nutrient loadings of lakes. Marshes appear to
temporarily store phosphorus and nitrogen during the growing
season and release them at a later time; net nutrient runoff
is estimated to be near zero. Nutrient contributions to lakes
from groundwater seepage require site-specific information for
assessment. Phosphorus and nitrogen transport by groundwater
can be significant. Atmospheric contributions of nitrogen are
large in some areas.
The technique of estimating nutrient loadings of lakes requires
considerable judgment in selecting runoff coefficients; however,
the approach provides insight into potential management options.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Grant R-8013U3 by
the University of Wisconsin under the sponsorship of the
Environmental Protection Agency. Work was completed as of
June 197H.
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CONTENTS
Page
Abstract ii
List of Figures iv
List of Tables v
Sections
I Introduction 1
II Nutrient Sources and Transport Vectors 6
Nutrient Sources 6
Contributing Areas 7
III Nutrient Export from Agricultural Lands 13
Fertilizers 14
Nutrient Losses by Seepage 19
Surface Runoff from Agricultural Lands 24
Nutrient Transport by Streams
Draining Agricultural Lands 29
Manure Handling 40
IV Nutrient Export from Urban Areas 48
Factors Contributing to the Nutrient
Content of Urban Runoff 51
V Nutrient Export from Forests 55
VI Nutrient Losses from Marshes and Wetlands 60
VII Nutrient Influx from Groundwater 62
VIII Nutrient Contributions from Septic Tanks 71
IX Atmospheric Contributions
of Nitrogen and Phosphorus 74
Factors Affecting Nutrient Content
of Bulk Precipitation 74
Cartographic Presentation of Nitrogen
Contributions from Precipitation 78
X Summary 100
111
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FIGURES
No. page
1 Subdivision of Drainage Basins 10
2 Nitrogen Contributions (N03-N S
from Rainfall 87
3a Format for Comparing Nutrient Runoff
Coefficients 103
3b Nutrient Export from Urban Areas 104
3c Nutrient Export from Forested Lands 105
3d Nutrient Export from Agricultural Lands 106
IV
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TABLES
No.
1 Specific Loading Levels for Lakes Expressed
as Total Nitrogen and Total Phosphorus
in g/m2/yr 2
2 "Natural" Modes of Nutrient Transport to Lakes 7
3 Annual Loss of N, P, and Suspended Solids in
Tile Drainage Water, Woods lee, Ontario 15
4 Nutrient Export in Surface Runoff from
Experimental Plots--Sediment and Water Fractions 17
5 Effect of Crop Cover and Slope on Nutrient
Export via Surface Runoff 18
6 Nutrient Export from Croplands by Seepage
through Soil Profile 25
7 Nitrate Export from Croplands by Surface Runoff 30
8 Nutrient Export from Croplands by Surface
Runoff 31
9 Nutrient Transport from Agricultural
Watersheds by Streams 36
10 Nutrient Characteristics of Manure from
Domestic Animals m
11 Export of Nutrients from Urban Areas 49
12 Average Nutrient Concentrations in Urban Runoff 52
13 Nutrient Export from Forested Watershed
via Streamflow 58
14 Nutrient Contributions to Lakes via Groundwater 63
15 Partial List of Methods for Investigating the
Groundwater-Surface Water Interchange 65
v
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16 Groundwater Contributions to the Water Budget
. of Lakes 66
17 Atmospheric Contributions of Nitrogen 79
18 Atmospheric Contributions of Phosphorus 83
19 Influence of Local Conditions on Nutrient
Contributions from the Atmosphere 89
20 Typical Values of Nutrient Runoff Coefficients 108
21 Direct Drainage Areas for Selected Wisconsin
Lakes 109
22 Conversion Factors 112
vx
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INTRODUCTION
Eutrophication is a natural process which affects lakes
at different rates. Some lakes are relatively unaffected
by natural factors which have been operating for thousands
of years. Others have passed through advanced stages of
eutrophication and are now extinct. Although eutrophication
is often described as an aging process, it is important to
realize that the process is not necessarily unidirectional—
reversals are possible and do occur.
It has been known for years that the natural process of
eutrophication can be accelerated by the activities of
people. Analyses of lake sediment cores have been used to
document this observation. The exact mechanisms by which
the activities of people influence the rate of eutrophica-
tion have been identified only in general terms, but it is
reasonable to assume that land use practices are a signifi-
cant factor because they alter the pathways and rate of
nutrient transport from the landscape.
Mounting concern for maintaining water quality in, lakes and
controlling the undesirable effects of eutrophication has
emphasized the need for quantitative information concerning
the nutrient budgets of lakes. It is generally agreed that
the most desirable long-term lake management approach is to
control, insofar as is possible, the influx of nutrients,
although there is considerable disagreement regarding the
selection of nutrient sources which should be controlled,
the method for control, and the benefit which is to be
gained. In particular, the complex internal nutrient cycles
involving lake sediments have been identified as factors
which could potentially negate the beneficial effects of
reducing external inputs of nutrients. Nevertheless, even
though a drastic reduction of the nutrient input may not
alone be sufficient to attain the desired level of water
quality in all instances, nutrient abatement is an essential
component of management efforts. Regardless of internal
nutrient cycles, water quality improvement will not result
if the continuous influx of nutrients is excessive.
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The intricate process of eutrophication is far too complex to
expect that simple relationships can be established between
the influx of nutrients and undesirable plant production or
other parameters of lake quality. Yet, sufficient information
does exist to provide some guidelines.
On the basis of water analyses from 17 Wisconsin lakes, Sawyer
(1947) suggested that if, at time of spring overturn, concen-
trations of inorganic phosphorus and inorganic nitrogen (am-
monia plus nitrate nitrogen) exceeded 0.01 mg/1 and 0.3 mg/1
respectively, a lake may be expected to produce excessive
growths of algae or other aquatic plants. Vollenweider (1968)
statistically analyzed data reported by Thomas (1953) and con-
cluded that the critical levels suggested by Sawyer were
generally borne out by the conditions of lakes in central Europe.
These critical concentrations, although not rigid lines of
demarcation, do provide target values for lake improvement
and protection. However, it is difficult to relate these
values directly to reductions in nutrient input, because the
relationship between nutrient influx and in-lake nutrient
concentrations is poorly understood.
Tentative guidelines for relating the nutrient influx to water
quality in lakes are provided by criteria presented by Vollen-
weider (1968). The surface area of the lake is taken into
account by expressing nutrient influx as a specific loading
rate (g/m^/yr). Residence times are not included in these
guidelines, but the effect of lake volume is included because
permissible rates of specific loading are greater for lakes
of larger mean depth.
Table 1. SPECIFIC LOADING LEVELS FOR LAKES EXPRESSED
AS TOTAL NITROGEN AND TOTAL PHOSPHORUS IN g/m2/yra
Permissible Dangerous loading
Mean depth loading, up to: in excess of:
up to: N
5 m 1.0
10 m 1.5
50 m 4.0
100 m 6.0
150 m 7.5
200 m 9.0
afrom Vollenweider (1968)
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These results are based on data from 30 lakes (12 from
central Europe, 10 from North America, and 8 from northern
Europe) and must be considered to be provisional guidelines
which require confirmation or modification by subsequent
work. Nevertheless, they do provide criteria for assessing
the need for nitrogen and phosphorus abatement and the poten-
tial benefits to be realized in specific situations. Shannon
and Brezonik (1972) conducted a somewhat similar analysis of
nutrient loadings of 55 lakes in Florida and reported per-
missible areal loadings of 2.0 and 0.28 g/m2/yr and critical
loadings of 3.4 and 0.4-9 g/mVyr for nitrogen and phosphorus
respectively.
Refinement of these criteria and the determination of their
regional applicability are dependent on the availability of
valid nutrient loading information for numerous lakes repre-
senting a spectrum of trophic character. Ideally, these
nutrient loadings would be determined by direct measurement;
potentially significant sources would be identified and
their contributions would be documented. However, because
the costs associated with this course of action are prohibi-
tive in most situations, it is necessary that less costly
techniques be developed for use in assessing management
alternatives and establishing priorities. In recent years,
the technique of estimating nutrient loadings has been used
in a number of situations as a guide for management decisions,
The primary objective of this report is to compile nutrient
flux data derived from the scientific literature and present
it in a format applicable to the estimation of nutrient load-
ings for lakes. This report deals primarily with diffuse
nutrient sources, and data are presented which may be used
to estimate nutrient influx to lakes via various transport
mechanisms. It is intended to provide data for predicting
the quantities of nutrients which enter lakes; questions
relating to the ultimate availability of these nutrients are
not addressed directly.
Nutrient availability in aquatic environments encompasses ^
several considerations. Chemical form is important. It is
known that many algal species can utilize both nitrate and
ammonia nitrogen, and some bluegreen algae can use molecular
nitrogen as well. Orthophosphate is generally considered
to be the form of phosphorus most readily utilized.
Transport processes also influence nutrient availability in
aquatic systems. In addition to being in a usable chemical
form, nutrients must come into physical proximity of plants
at a time when they can be used. Therefore, the ultimate
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availability of nutrients depends not only upon their chemical
form upon entry to a lake, but also upon subsequent chemical
transformation and transport. Such considerations are clearly
beyond the scope of this work.
The approach used in this study was to provide data in a
format applicable for the estimation of loadings based on
either inorganic or total forms of nitrogen and phosphorus.
In many practical situations it will be advantageous to pre-
pare an estimate for both total and inorganic loadings—the
latter as an indication of the quantity of nutrients which
are immediately available, and the former as a conservative
estimate of the amounts which could ultimately become avail-
able.
To achieve the objectives of this report, it was necessary
to convert data presented in a variety of forms into a more
usable and consistent format. The units selected were:
kg/ha/yr for transport from land areas, kg/ha of lake surface/
yr for aerial influx, and kg/capita/yr or similar units for
point source contributions. The most common difficulties
encountered in accomplishing these transformations related
to the identification of the chemical species reported and
the analytical procedures by which the chemical determinations
were made. This problem was compounded by differing sample
pretreatment--some are filtered, some are not; and often these
details are not given at all. An attempt was made to be
rigorous but, in some instances, it was necessary to make
assumptions in order to present the data in a consistent
format. Also, in a few cases, data which were collected for
only portions of years are included in the tables. Readers
are cautioned to examine the footnotes for clarifying or
restricting information.
The following terminology is used in this report:
total phosphorus: All forms of phosphorus, whether dissolved
or in suspension, that are measured by an acid-oxidation
procedure.
total, dissolved phosphorus: The amount of phosphorus deter-
mined by an acid-oxidation procedure after sample
pretreatment with 0.45 ym filtration.
dissolved inorganic phosphorus: The quantity of phosphorus
as determined by a procedure for inorganic orthophos-
phorus after sample pretreatment with O.M-5 ym filtration.
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total nitrogen: All forms of nitrogen in a sample, dissolved
or suspended, including NH^-N, N03-N, N02-N, and organic-N,
organic nitrogen: Quantity of nitrogen (as NH^-N) determined
by Kjeldahl digestion.
REFERENCES
Sawyer, C. N. 1947. Fertilization of Lakes by Agricultural
and Urban Drainage. New England Water Works Assoc. J.
_6K2):109-127.
Shannon, E. E., and Brezonik, P. L. 1972. Relationships
between Lake Trophic State and Nitrogen and Phosphorus
Loading Rates. Environ. Sci. Techno1. _6:719-725.
Thomas, E, A. 1953. Empirische und experimentslie Unter-
suchungen zur Konntnis der Minimumstoffe in 46 Seen der
Schweiz. und angrenzonder Gebiete.-Schweiz. Ver. Gas &
Wasserfachm. _2_:3_~IL5.
Vollenweider, R. A. 1968. Scientific Fundamentals of the
Eutrophication of Lakes and Flowing Waters} with Par-
ticular Reference to Nitrogen and Phosphorus as Factors
in Eutrophication. Pub. No. DAS/CSI/68.27, Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development, Directorate
for Scientific Affairs, Paris, France.
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NUTRIENT SOURCES AND TRANSPORT VECTORS
NUTRIENT SOURCES
In considering the flow of nutrients across the landscape it
becomes clear that, in a strict sense, there are no sources
or sinks, but rather, there exists a multitude of cyclic
pathways along which nutrients are transported. In this
context, "sources" are simply points along the nutrient flow
paths which are designated for convenience. Throughout this
report, an attempt has been made to incorporate the concept
of potential management or control in the designation of
nutrient sources and, also, to distinguish between sources
and transport vectors. Toward this end, the following defi-
nitions were developed:
nutrient sources: Sites at which plant nutrients are released,
or areas from which nutrients are exported, and subsequent
transport is determined by uncontrolled natural mechanisms,
point source: A location at which nutrients are released in
quantity and concentration compatible with practical
means of nutrient removal. (example: sewage effluent)
diffuse source: An area from which nutrients are exported
in a manner not compatible with practical means of
nutrient removal. (example: croplands)
specific contributor: Materials or products containing
nutrients which are discarded or used in a manner such
that the nutrients contribute to point or diffuse
sources. (example: detergents, fertilizers)
In the context of these definitions, groundwater, precipitation
and dry fallout (dust fall) are treated as transport vectors,
not sources of nutrients. Urban runoff is treated here as an
export from a diffuse source although it is recognized that
in many situations this runoff is collected in storm sewer
systems and that practical means of nutrient removal may be
applied in some cases.
From the standpoint of nutrient control or abatement, manage-
ment action can usually be most readily applied to point
sources and specific contributors. Both technological and
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regulatory approaches can be used. Control of nutrient
transport from diffuse sources is generally aimed toward
reducing the efficiency of transport mechanisms (for example,
contour farming to minimize runoff from agricultural lands).
The concepts of pathway definition and mode of transport
are particularly important for estimating nutrient flux from
diffuse sources because nutrients may be exported simul-
taneously along many pathways and can be transported by
several mechanisms. For example, soil particles from a given
area could become airborne and reach a lake via dry fallout
or precipitation. Storm runoff could transport nutrients
overland to an inflowing stream, or rainwater could percolate
through the soil profile to the groundwater aquifer and sub-
sequently enter a lake directly or through the base flow
of tributary streams. Waterfowl could feed in a field and
deposit nutrients in a lake. These are just a few of many
potentially significant modes of transport.
CONTRIBUTING AREAS
Table 2 gives a listing of transport mechanisms for nutrients,
points of entry to a lake, and the land areas which contribute
nutrients via the various modes of transport. It is apparent
from this tabulation that, with respect to a particular lake,
the land areas contributing nutrients are not identical for
all modes of transport. Nutrients contained in rainfall may
Table 2. "NATURAL" MODES OF NUTRIENT TRANSPORT TO LAKES
Mode of transport
Groundwater
Surface water
a) streamflow
b) streamflow
c) overland flow
Precipitation
Dry fallout
Miscellaneous
a) waterfowl
b) N-fixation
Entry to lake
land-water
interface
inlet streams
inlet streams
lake perimeter
lake surface
lake surface
lake surface
Contributions from
unknown portion of ground-
water drainage basin
direct drainage basin
indirect drainage basin
immediately adjacent lands
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have been transported for great distances through the air
before returning to earth, and the area contributing these
nutrients defies description. A similar situation exists
for other transport mechanisms which involve air pathways.
Lands contributing nutrients to shallow groundwater aquifers
can be defined more clearly since boundaries of groundwater
basins are often approximately the same as the surface drainage
basins. However, it is not necessary that all groundwater
leaving the basin pass through the lake and, since the extent
of communication between ground and surface waters is often
poorly defined, it is extremely difficult to determine that
portion of the total groundwater basin actually contributing
water to a lake. Contributing lands can only be defined with
reasonable certainty when surface water transport is considered.
Even if all lands within a lake's drainage basin are taken
into account, it is clear that 1) it is not necessary that all
nutrients exported from the land ultimately reach the lake
and, conversely, 2) it is not necessary that those nutrients
which are transported to a lake originate from sources within
the drainage basin. The nature of the situation dictates that
estimates of nutrient input from diffuse sources be based on
considerations of the transport mechanism involved, and nutrient
sources are taken into account only indirectly. Also, land
use characteristics can only be related directly to nutrient
transport to lakes via surface water flows. Lack of definition
of contributing areas prohibits the application of land use
data to other modes of transport.
Contributing Areas - Surface Water Transport
For purposes of estimating nutrient flux from watersheds , it
is often convenient to subdivide the topographic drainage
basin into two or possibly three units: the direct drainage
basin, the indirect basin, and immediately adjacent lands.
This latter category is of lesser importance, and would
probably be used only in special situations. Small lakes
with highly-developed shorelines may be one situation where
this delineation would be advantageous.
The direct drainage basin is defined as that portion of a
lake's drainage basin which does not drain to upstream lakes
or impoundments. The indirect basin(s) include all lands
draining to lakes upgradient from the lake in question. These
lakes may or may not have surface water outlets. Immediately
adjacent lands are a part of the direct basin and are defined
as those areas from which runoff drains overland directly to
a lake without entering a stream.
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An illustration of these basin divisions is given in Figure 1.
Two indirect basins are shown in the sketch, but only one
contributes surface water to the lake below.
Indirect drainage basin
By definition, if surface waters cross the boundary between
indirect and direct drainage basins, the transfer occurs only
at the outlet of a lake. All water flowing from the indirect
drainage basin must first pass through a lake, which is not
only a point of concentration for flow, but is also a dis-
continuity in the nutrient pathway. It is known that, in
general, lakes act as partial nutrient traps; more nutrients
are received than are discharged. Therefore, a lake is a
buffer which retards nutrient flow and protects downstream
waters from the influence of lands above. If the lake has no
outlet stream, the drainage basin contributes no nutrients via
surface water to lakes below.
In view of the difficulties involved in defining the flow of
nutrients through lakes, it is most convenient to treat the
lake outlet as a point source which incorporates the contri-
bution from all lands upstream. This approach requires that
the volumetric rate of outflow and the corresponding nutrient
concentrations be determined or estimated, but avoids the
necessity of defining land use practices throughout the basin
and estimating the efficiency with which the lake inhibits
nutrient passage.
In most instances, it is desirable to determine mean flowrates
and nutrient concentrations on a seasonal basis which corre-
sponds to the thermal regimen of the lake. For deep lakes
in temperate zones, four periods should be considered to
account for: ice cover, spring overturn, summer stratifica-
tion, and fall overturn. Ideally, both flow data and nutrient
data would be available for the lake in question.
Many lakes have control structures at the outlet. Some have
a fixed sill which acts as a broadcrested weir and, if water
level elevations are recorded, the rate of outflow can be
computed with reasonable accuracy. Others have release gates
which are manipulated to regulate outflow, and in these situa-
tions flow records are often maintained. Streamflow records
at some point in the channel downstream may also be used if
they are adjusted to account for inflow received below the lake,
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f N
\
X
V
Direct
Drainage
Basin
i
/
f
i*
/
1
-"I
•
/
/
/
Immediately
Adj acent
Lands
Figure 1. SUBDIVISION OF DRAINAGE BASINS
10
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If flow records are not available, it is possible to synthesize
the outflow hydrograph from rainfall-runoff relationships. By
estimating that portion of total precipitation which results
in runoff, and accounting for storage in snow cover, reasonable
estimates of total discharge for the selected time periods can
be prepared. A technique such as this does not yield accurate
results for short time periods, but is adequate to describe the
average total discharge that might be expected to occur during
a period of several months.
In those situations where lake releases are controlled by outlet
structures, it is important to establish the depth from which
waters are discharged because this may have a significant effect
on both the quantity and form of nutrients which are released.
Dunst, Wirth and Uttormark (unpublished data) found that con-
tinuous hypolimnetic discharge increased the total amount of
phosphorus and nitrogen released from a small impoundment in
southwestern Wisconsin by 22% and 25% respectively as compared
to nutrient output via a surface spillway. Furthermore, during
periods of stratification, the majority of nitrogen and phos-
phorus in the hypolimnetic discharge waters was in readily
available forms—NH^-N and dissolved inorganic-P. In contrast,
nutrients contained in waters released from the surface of lakes
are often in forms not readily available to aquatic plants.
Immediately adjacent lands
Because of their proximity, shorelands have a greater potential
for contributing nutrients to lakes than lands which lie in
remote portions of the drainage basin. Therefore, in those
situations where shorelands are devoted to uses which result
in high rates of nutrient flux, it may be desirable to treat
these lands separately for purposes of loading calculations.
For example, it is reasonable to assume that particulate forms
of nutrients exported from shorelands will be transported to
the lake, whereas this is far less likely for distant lands.
Lakes surrounded by flat, forested areas with extensive ground
cover probably receive only minor contributions from immediately
adjacent lands, and delineation of these areas is probably not
important. In contrast, the contribution to some lakes, par-
ticularly impoundments formed in steep-sided valleys surrounded
by cultivated farmlands, could be considerable, and separate
consideration of these areas would be justified. This may also
be the case for lakes which are surrounded by residences where
lawns are maintained.
11
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REFERENCE
Dunst, R. C., T. L. Wirth, and P. D. Uttormark. 1974. Effect
of Bottom Water Discharge upon the Limnology of a
Reservoir. Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources, Madison,
Wis.
12
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NUTRIENT EXPORT FROM AGRICULTURAL LANDS
The transport of nutrients from agricultural lands to lakes
could occur along innumerable pathways and could involve many
transport mechanisms. For purposes of this report, water is
considered to be the primary transport vector, although it is
recognized that nutrient loss by wind-blown particulate matter
could be large in some instances.
Three data groupings were prepared which describe the flux of
nitrogen and phosphorus from agricultural lands: 1)_seepage
studies, 2) runoff studies and 3) drainage area studies. The
first two study types refer to the transport of nutrients
across the boundaries of land areas. The latter type refers
to nutrient transport by continually flowing.streams. It is
important to recognize that only a few of the investigations
cited were conducted to quantify nutrient runoff from water-
sheds to lakes. The objective of most studies was to measure
nutrient loss from distinct land parcels. Therefore, ques-
tions of subsequent nutrient transport must be addressed before
the data can be used for estimating nutrient contributions from
agricultural lands.
Seepage studies include lysimeter work and analyses of tile-
drained fields. Data from these investigations may be useful
in estimating the transport of nutrients from surface soils
to groundwater aquifers, but the applicability of these results
to the estimation of lake loadings depends greatly on the
extent of groundwater-surface water exchange in the basin
under consideration.
Losses of nutrients by storm runoff have been quantified in
a number of studies. However, the ability to predict_nutrient
loadings from these data is again limited by the difficulty
in defining the probability of transport from agricultural
lands to lakes. This difficulty is amplified by the fact
that a large portion of the nutrients lost from agricultural
lands is associated with particulate matter which may_settle
out at intermediate points along the flow path, especially
during overland flow or in intermittent stream channels.
From the standpoint of lake loadings, some of the most useful
data are provided by drainage area studies because of the
13
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clearly defined pathway for nutrients contained in continually-
flowing streams. However, some trade-offs are involved. Land
use patterns are defined clearly for most seepage and runoff
studies , but subsequent transport of nutrients to a lake is
questionable. In contrast, nutrient flow paths are more
clearly defined for drainage area studies, but descriptions
of land use are very imprecise (i.e., "typical rural environ-
ment" or "mixed farmlands and woodlots").
FERTILIZERS
Large quantities of commercial fertilizers are applied annually
to agricultural lands throughout the United States. Typical
application rates range from 20-200 kg N/ha and from 10-50 kg
P/ha. Because of the large amounts used, fertilizers have often
been singled out as potentially important contributors to lake
eutrophication. Although many studies have been conducted and
much has been written, it is difficult to assess the importance
of nutrient runoff from fertilized croplands because many
determining factors are site-specific and, in addition, pre-
cipitation characteristics are important.
The application of fertilizers increases the amount of nutrients
which could potentially be lost from agricultural lands, but
offsetting factors have been shown in some instances to more
than compensate for the increased potential. Proper applica-
tion, which includes matching the quantity and composition of
fertilizer to crop needs and soil fertility, can reduce the
amount of nutrient loss from croplands by increasing nutrient
utilization by plants, and by increasing crop density which
reduces surface runoff and erosion. Conversely, if the addition
of fertilizers creates a nutrient imbalance, or if excessive
rainfall occurs shortly after application, nutrient losses can
be large.
Taylor et al (1971) compared the additions of fertilizers to
farmlands (near Coshocton, Ohio) to the subsequent nutrient
loss via runoff, and found no relationship between the two.
They identified variations in water flow as the most signifi-
cant variable determining nutrient loss.
Similar results were reported by Kilmer et al (1971) from
studies of two watersheds in North Carolina where fertilizer
applications to bluegrass sod were evaluated. During the first
two years of a three-year study, about 10 kg/ha per year more
nitrogen was lost from the fertilized watershed than from the
unfertilized watershed (fertilizer applied at 112 kg N/ha).
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However, during the third year, fertilizer was applied to both
watersheds and reduced levels of nitrogen loss were noted; in
fact, the nitrogen loss from the watershed receiving fertilizer
for the first time was less than for either of the two years
when no fertilizer was used.
In general, the deep seepage loss of nitrogen is the major
export pathway from agricultural lands. Both nitrate and
ammonium are mobile in soil systems and are readily trans-
ported by seepage water. Zwerman et al (1971) reported that
seepage losses of nitrogen may be as high as 225 kg/ha/yr.
Runoff losses were reported to be generally small except in
those instances when heavy rainfall occurred immediately after
fertilizer application.
Phosphorus, unlike nitrogen, is not particularly mobile within
the soil, and phosphate ions do not leach readily. Phosphorus
is held tightly as a complex anion by clays, and the amount of
phosphate in solution in the soil water at any one time is small.
Most phosphorus is removed from soil systems by either crop
uptake or soil erosion. Soil erosion can be diminished by using
sound conservation practices such as increasing soil aggregation
by the addition of organic residues and providing cover crops
to reduce the impact of rainfall and erosion.
Data showing an increase in annual loss of nitrogen and phos-
phorus in tile drainage water from fertilized crops was pre-
sented by Webber and Elrick (1967) (Table 3). Drainage effluent
Table 3. ANNUAL LOSS OF N, P, AND SUSPENDED SOLIDS
IN TILE DRAINAGE WATER, WOODSLEE, ONTARIO^
N (kg/ha)
Bluegrass sod
Continuous corn
Corn (rotation)
Alfalfa (2nd yr)
No
fert
0.2
5.7
4.6
4.9
Fertb
0.2
11.9
11.5
5.7
Suspended solids
P (kg/ha) (kg/ha)
No
fert
0.01
0.19
0.10
0.07
Fert
0.02
0.21
0.15
0.18
No
fert
15.5
93.0
30.7
29.5
Fert
29.7
84.0
38.0
33.5
afrom Webber and Elrick (1967)
b335 kg/ha 5-20-10 fertilizer applied for all crops each year
plus 110 kg N/ha on the corn.
15
-------
from a tiled area of Brookston clay at Woodslee, Ontario was
analyzed over a 6-year period (1961-1966). Average annual
nitrogen losses ranged from 0.2 kg/ha under bluegrass sod
to 11.9 kg/ha under fertilized continuous corn. Average phos-
phorus loss ranged from 0.01 kg/ha/yr (unfertilized bluegrass
sod) to 0.21 kg/ha/yr (fertilized continuous corn).
Timmons, Burwell and Holt (1968) analyzed the water and sedi-
ment fractions of runoff samples from experimental plots near
Morris, Minnesota. (See Table 4.) The 0.009 ha plots were
on loam soil at 6% slope. Crop residues were left on plots
following harvest and some fertilizer was applied. Except for
the plots of hay, 78-94% of the nitrogen lost in surface runoff
was associated with particulate matter, and nitrogen loss in-
creased as the density of crop cover decreased. The same
general trend is shown for phosphorus loss, but a smaller
portion of the total amount exported is contained in the sedi-
ment fraction. These results illustrate the importance of
erosion control for minimizing nutrient loss from croplands.
Table 5 gives data presented by Eck (1957) which show some
effects of slope and crop cover on the loss of nitrogen and
phosphorus in surface runoff of selected test sites. In
general, nutrient export increased as the slope increased
(different soils types, however), and more nutrients were lost
from row crops than from cover crops. The ratio of N/P in the
runoff water was more dependent on soil type than crop cover.
Although this study and the one conducted by Timmons et al
(1968) were not designed to evaluate the effects of fertilizer
use directly, they do illustrate the importance of erosion
control and crop density—factors which can be influenced
significantly by fertilizer use.
Holt et al (1970) presented data showing increased nutrient
concentrations in runoff from fertilized land as compared to
an unfertilized control, and also the importance of incorpor-
ating fertilizers into the soil.
Total phosphorus
Fertilizer j/pplication (mg/1) in runoff
Control (no fertilizer) 0.08
Broadcast and plowed under 0.09
Broadcast and disked in 0.16
Broadcast (no soil treatment) 0.30
16
-------
Table 4. NUTRIENT EXPORT
IN SURFACE RUNOFF FROM EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS--
SEDIMENT AND WATER FRACTIONSa
Crop
Hay:
sediment
water
total
Oats :
sediment
water
total
Corn ( 1 ) :
sediment
water
total
Corn ( 2 ) :
sediment
water
total
Fallow:
sediment
water
total •
Total-N
kg/ha/yr
0.0
3.5
3.5
5.2
0. 8
6. 0
4.3
1.2
5.5
13.
0.8
13.8
63
3.9
66.9
Total-P
% kg/ha/yr %
0
100
100
87
13
100
78
22
100
94
1
100
94
6
100
0.0
0.23
0.23
0.03
0.01
0.04
0.04
0.07
0.11
0.11
0.07
0.18
0.34
0.05
0. 39
0
100
100
75
25
100
36
64
100
61
__3i
100
87
13
100
Fertilizer applied:
corn (1) 56 kg N/ha
corn (2) 112 kg N/ha
oats 18 kg N/ha
aBased on Timmons, Burwell and Holt (1968)
29 kg P/ha
29 kg P/ha
30 kg P/ha
17
-------
Table 5. EFFECT OF CROP COVER AND SLOPE
ON NUTRIENT EXPORT VIA SURFACE RUNOFFa
Crop
Corn
Oats
Corn
Oats
Wheat
Tobacco
Corn
Oats
Corn
Oats
Hay
Slope
%
3
3
8
8
8
8
11
11
20
20
20
Soilb
A
A
M
M
M
M
F
F
F
F
F
N
kg/ha/yr
18.
8.1 '
21.
7.7
0.9
49.
8.9
35.
42.
38.
3.3
PC avail)
kg/ha/yr
0.48
0.21
0.52
0.24
0 .04
2.1
0.64
• 1.8
2.0
1.7
0.26
N/P
37
39
40
32
22
23
14
19
21
22
13
after Eck (1957)
A - Almena silt loam
M - Miami silt loam
F - Fayette silt loam
18
-------
Other studies have demonstrated that proper use of fertilizers
in concert with good plowing practices reduces nutrient loss
because of increased crop cover and reduced erosion (Neal,
1944; Weidner et al, 1969; Minshall et al, 1970). Positive
correlations between fertilizer additions and nutrient loss
were reported by Bolton et al (1970 , Broadbent and Chapman
(1950), Hendrick and Welsh (1938), and Dreibelbis (1946).
Because of the complexities involved and the differing results
reported in the literature, no attempt is made in this report
to separate data on the basis of fertilizer usage. However,
the practice of spreading manure on farmlands is treated
separately later in this chapter.
NUTRIENT LOSSES BY SEEPAGE
Nutrient loss from agricultural lands by seepage through the
soil profile has been a topic of interest for several decades.
The majority of the earlier studies were conducted to evaluate
alternative agricultural practices, such as, crop rotation,
fertilizer usage, and plowing techniques, and losses of nitrate
nitrogen were studied almost exclusively. In more recent years,
emphasis has been placed on evaluating the effects of agricul-
tural practices on water quality, and losses of phosphorus as
well as nitrogen have been reported.
Two types of studies are reported in the literature which
describe the transport of nutrients by seepage through soils.
These involve the use of lysimeters or the analysis of waters
which flow from tile-drained croplands.
Lysimeters are constructed by surrounding a volume of earth
on the sides and bottom with an impermeable material. The en-
closed soil is more or less disturbed, depending on how it is
placed in the enclosure. The top is exposed to the elements,
and drains are connected to the bottom, so that all water
percolating through the soil profile can be collected and
analyzed. Runoff and erosion are generally prevented by the
design of the unit. Surface areas of these units range from
0.1 to 10m2, and it is reported that some units have been
maintained actively for periods as long as 35 years.
In some parts of the country, particularly those regions in
which irrigation is practiced, large tracts of land are
underlain with tiles or other subsurface collection systems.
Some of the irrigation water percolates through the soil
profile and is removed by these drainage systems. A number of
studies have been reported in which drainage waters were sampled
19
-------
periodically and analyzed for nitrogen and phosphorus to
measure nutrient losses. In many respects, studies of this
type are similar to lysimeter studies, but the surface areas
covered are much larger, and not all of the seepage water is
collected--some is lost to deeper aquifers.
The data from seepage studies presented in this section are
grouped according to crop, but crop cover plays only a partial
(and possibly minor) role in influencing nutrient loss.
Bolton, Aylesworth, and Hore (1970) measured nutrient losses
in tile drainage effluent from twelve 0.1 ha plots at Woodslee,
Ontario (clay soils). Seepage flows were recorded continuously,
and effluent samples were filtered to remove sediment and
analyzed for total nitrogen and phosphorus. The authors con-
cluded that the nutrient loss was influenced predominantly by
the amount of water that percolated through the soil.
Nutrient loss (kg/ha/yr)
N P
Crop
Rotation:
Corn
Oats and alfalfa
Alfalfa, 1st year
Alfalfa, 2nd year
Continuous:
No fert
5.6
4.3
4.8
4.7
Fert
15.1
5.7
3.9
8.6
No fert
0.13
0.13
0.13
0.08
Fert
0.24
0.13
0.15
0.22
Corn
Bluegrass sod
Mean:
6.6
0.3
(4.4)
14.0
0.7
(8.1)
0.26
0.01
(0.12)
0.29
0,12
(0.19)
after Bolton, Aylesworth, and Hore (1970)
In contrast, Sylvester and Seabloom (1962) monitored irrigation
return flows in the Yakima Valley in Washington and found that
more nitrate and soluble-P were lost during the 6-month non-
irrigation period than during the irrigation season even
though 130 cm of water were applied (average rainfall was
18 cm/yr). The return flow consisted of both surface runoff
and seepage through subsurface drains which continued to flow
during the non-irrigation season. Samples were collected and
analyzed for nitrate, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, and dissolved
and total phosphorus. This project was also described by
Sylvester (1961) and separate results are given for surface
and subsurface drains.
20
-------
Irrigation
season
Nutrient loss __(kg/ha)
Non-irrigation
season
Nitrate-N 34. 39.
Dissolved-P 0.78 1.7
after Sylvester and Seabloom (1962)
Annual
73.
2.5
Surface drains
Subsurface drains
Nutrient loss
Total-N
Range Mean
2.8-27 (16)
61-186 (103)
(kg/ha/yr)
Total-P
Range Mean
1.0-4.4 (2.5)
3.8-10 (7.7)
after Sylvester (1961)
Studies in which nutrient losses from croplands by tile drain-
age were compared to losses via surface runoff were also con-
ducted in California and Idaho.
Johnston, Ittihadieh, Daum and Pillsbury (1965) analyzed tile
drainage effluent and surface runoff from irrigated land in
the San Joaquin Valley of California. Four 19- and 60-ha plots
growing cotton, alfalfa and rice were studied. The soils were
heavy silty clays, and tile depth averaged 190 cm. Analyses
Nutrient loss
kg/ha/yr
Fertilizer applied
kg/ha/yr
Crop
Cotton and rice
Tile drainage
Surface runoff
Cotton
Tile drainage
Surface runoff
Alfalfa
Tile drainage
Surface runoff
Rice
Tile drainage
Surface runoff
Total-N
110 .
11.
13.
6.4
3.5
1.6
42.
5.2
Total-P
0.19
0.81
0.05
0.17
0.08
0.20
0.60
0.11
N P
300 52
220 36
none none
94 none
after Johnston, Ittihadieh, Daum and Pillsbury (1965)
21
-------
were made for total nitrogen and total phosphorus. No esti-
mates were made as to the quantity of nitrogen or phosphorus
lost through deep percolation.
Carter, Bondurant, and Robbins (1971) measured nitrate and
dissolved phosphorus in surface runoff and subsurface (tile)
drainage from an 82,000 ha tract in southern Idaho. The major
crops were alfalfa, beans, grain, sugarbeets, corn, and pas-
ture. Precipitation averaged 21 cm per year and irrigation
supplied an additional 200 ,cm of water annually.
Nutrient inputs in kg/ha/yr: N p
Fertilizer 60. 30.
Irrigation water 2.3 1.0
Precipitation negligible negligible
Nutrient losses in kg/ha/yr:
Surface runoff
Tile drainage
Total loss
N03-N
0. 35
35.
35.
Sol-P
0.17
0.13
0.30
after Carter, Bondurant, and Robbins (1971)
In each of these studies, seepage losses of nitrogen were
large compared to losses by surface runoff. On the other
hand, phosphorus losses through surface runoff tended to be
larger. However, phosphorus losses through seepage were
sufficiently large to be of significance from a water quality
standpoint.
Erickson and Ellis (1971) measured the nutrient content in
drainage waters from three experimental farms in Michigan,
and compared the nutrient losses to the amounts of fertilizer
used. Analyses of seepage from uncultivated, unfertilized
Nutrients added Nutrients lost
kg/ha/yr
Ferden farm
Davis farm
Muck farm
N
90
39
56
P
39
50
17
kg/ha/yr
N03-N
12
8
19
Tot-P
0.10
0.09
1.5
Lost/added
percent
N
13
20
(34)
P
0.2
0.2
(8.8)
after Erickson and Ellis (1971)
22
-------
land adjacent to the Muck farm led to the conclusion that the
high values of nutrient loss were in part due to accretion
from surrounding lands, and that only a small part of the
nitrogen and phosphorus added to the Muck farm reached the
drainage water.
Losses of nitrogen as a function of fertilizer usage were
also studied by Broadbent and Chapman (1950). They grew
vetch, clover and mustard in lysimeters at Riverside,
California. The experiment covered a 15-year period and the
average water application (rainfall plus irrigation) was
89 cm.
Fertilizer N applied (kg/ha/yr)
0 112 224
Nitrogen loss (kg/ha/yr)
Crop :
Vetch
Clover
Mustard
30
39
20
79
63
34
100
91
45
Average loss for all crops
and treatments: . 56
after Broadbent and Chapman (1950)
Allison et al (1959) reported the results of experiments con-
ducted near Columbia, South Carolina, in which crotalaria,
millet, rye, cowpeas , and corn were grown in lysimeters. The
lysimeters were 1.2 meters deep and were filled with sandy
soil. Fertilization was reported to be "low." The average
annual rainfall was 108 cm during the 12-year period covered
by the study.
23
-------
Nutrient loss in kg/ha/yr
N03-N Total-N Total-P
Range Mean Range Mean Range
Various crops 2.4-40 24 3.6-46 29 0.09-0.17
Fallow or crops 38-140 90
_•_ _a _i_ * n OUJ-T^U^U
returned to soil
No crop :
Fertilized
No fertilizer
40
30
44
34
0.20
0.14
after Allison et al (1959)
Dreibelbis (1946) also found a correlation between nitrate
loss and fertilizer usage, but Hendrick and Welsh (1938)
reported no significant differences in nitrate loss between
fertilized and nonfertilized plots in a ten-year study con-
ducted in England.
A summary of the data giving nutrient losses from croplands
by seepage through the soil profile is given in Table 6.
Based on considerations of nutrient pathways, data from
lysimeter or subsurface drainage studies are probably most
applicable for estimating nutrient loadings of lakes which
receive irrigation return waters. The data may also be
useful for estimating the flux of nutrients from croplands-
to groundwater aquifers, but subsequent transport to specific
lakes would be highly speculative in most instances.
SURFACE RUNOFF FROM AGRICULTURAL LANDS
A separate data grouping was prepared for nutrient losses
from agricultural lands by surface runoff. In studies of this
type, samples of runoff water, including suspended matter, are
collected periodically from fields or experimental plots.
Runoff is not continuous, but occurs only when excessive water
is applied through irrigation or rainfall.
As was the case for seepage studies, most surface runoff in-
vestigations were conducted to evaluate alternative farming
practices, such as plowing techniques, crop rotations and
fertilizer applications, from the standpoint of minimizing
soil and nutrient losses from croplands. Consequently,
24
-------
Table 6. NUTRIENT EXPORT FROM CROPLANDS BY SEEPAGE THROUGH SOIL PROFILE
N in kg/ha/yr
P in kg/ha/yr
Crop—study
NO 3 NHi.
Dissolved
Total inorganic Total
References
Corn—tile drainage, Lithuania
Corn-oats-hay rotation—lysimeter,
120 kg N/ha added, New York
Corn-oats-hay rotation—lysimeter,
New York
2.6
43.
2.4
Kinderis (1970)
Bizzell (1944)
Bizzell & Lyon (1928)
tn
Corn-oats-wheat-hay rotation—
lysimeter, New York
Corn—lysimeter, Ohio
Corn—tile drainage, Ontario
No fertilizer
Fertilizer added
5.4 with legumes
7.4 without legumes
1.9
6.1 0.20
14.
a
0.26
Dreibelbis (1946)
Bolton et al (1970)
it ii it ii
Cotton—tile drainage, 280 kg N/ha
added, California
Cotton—tile drainage, 220 kg N/ha
and 36 kg P/ha added, California
Cotton & rice—tile drainage,
300 kg N/ha and 52 kg P/ha added,
California
Rice—tile drainage, 94 kg N/ha
added, California
4.11
13.
110.
42.
Meek et al (1969)
0.05 Johnston et al (1965)
0.19
0.60
n it ti it
-------
Table 6 (continued). NUTRIENT EXPORT FROM CROPLANDS BY SEEPAGE THROUGH SOIL PROFILE
N in kg/ha/yr
P in kg/ha/yr
Crop—study
Dissolved
NOs NHi» Total inorganic Total
References
cr>
Oats—lysimeter, England
Barley—lysimeter, England
Wheat—lysimeter, Ohio
Hay—lysimeter, England
Timothy—lysimeter, 1AO kg N/ha
added, New York
Alfalfa—tile drainage, California
Alfalfa—tile drainage, Ontario
Alfalfa—lysimeter, Kentucky
Lespedeza—lysimeter, Kentucky
Lespedeza & rye—lysimeter,
Kentucky
Lespedeza & bluegrass—lysimeter,
Kentucky
Legumes—tile drainage, Lithuania
Vetch—lysimeter, California
Clover—lysimeter, California
Mustard—lysimeter, California
2.5
8.
3.
9.
12.
11.
65.
17.
22.
1.5
3.5
4.8 0.1
30.
39.
20.
0.08
Hendrick & Welsh (1938)
it it ti
Dreibelbis (1946)
Hendrick & Welsh (1938)
Bizzell (1944)
Johnston et al (1965)
Bolton et al (1970)
Karraker et al (1950)
it ii ii ii
it ii it it
Kinderis (1970)
Broadbent & Chapman (1950)
-------
Table 6 (continued). NUTRIENT EXPORT FROM CROPLANDS BY SEEPAGE THROUGH SOIL PROFILE
N in kg/ha/yr
P in kg/ha/yr
Crop—study
NO 3 NHi»
Dissolved
Total inorganic Total
References
Grasses—lysimeter, New York
Grasses—tile drainage, Lithuania
Grasses & wheat—tile drainage,
Lithuania
Bluegrass sod—tile drainage,
Ontario
Meadow—lysimeter, Ohio
^ Pasture—lysimeter, England
2.8
0.3
0.8
4.3
2.6
0.3 0.01
Bizzell & Lyon (1928)
Kinderis (1970)
Bolton et al (1970)
Dreibelbis (1946)
Hendrick & Welsh (1938)
Various crops—tile drainage,
Idaho
Various crops—tile drainage,
Washington
35.
73.
0.13
100. 2.5
Carter et al (1971)
7.7 Sylvester & Seabloom (1962)
Not stated—tile drainage, Illinois 18.
Not stated—tile drainage,
Michigan, Ferden Farm
Davis Farm
Muck Farm
12.
8.
19.
Harmeson et al (1971)
0.10 Erickson & Ellis (1971)
0.09 " "
1.5
-------
Table 6 (continued). NUTRIENT EXPORT FROM CROPLANDS BY SEEPAGE THROUGH SOIL PROFILE
Crop—study
N in kg/ha/yr P in kg/ha/yr
Dissolved
NO3 NHi, Total inorganic Total
References
Fallow (no crop)—lysineter,
South Carolina
Fallow—lysimeter, New York
Fallow—lysimeter, Kentucky
30.
76.
82.
0.14 Allison et al (1959)
Bizzell & Lyon (1928)
Karraker et al (1950)
aTotal dissolved P
bN09 + NOa for 8 no.
r-o
oo
-------
particulate material was intentionally included in the
samples, and particulate, along with dissolved, nutrients
were measured in most instances. Study areas were often
quite small and usually the areas were devoted to single
crops. Fertilization and plowing were generally uniform
within a study area, but large differences occurred amongst
study areas.
Data from surface runoff studies are given in Tables 7 and
8. The data are grouped according to crop, but other
factors, such as slope, soil characteristics, farming prac-
tices, and antecedent soil moisture, as well as duration,
frequency and intensity of precipitation, may have a greater
influence on the quantity of nutrients lost from croplands.
Slopes (not always given) ranged from 3-20% for the studies
reported, and the annual amounts of rainfall and irrigation
water ranged from 75-220 cm.
Data from surface runoff studies may be useful for estimating
nutrient inputs from agricultural lands immediately adjacent
to lakes. However, as shown in Table 8, by far the largest
amount of nitrogen and most of the phosphorus lost from
croplands were associated with particulate matter. The like-
lihood that particulate matter will be transported sufficiently
far to enter a lake must be taken into account before surface
runoff data are used to estimate nutrient contributions from
croplands which exist in distant portions of a watershed.
NUTRIENT TRANSPORT BY STREAMS DRAINING AGRICULTURAL LANDS
A number of studies are reported in the literature in which
streams draining predominantly agricultural watershed were
monitored for nutrient content. These studies typically
involved the continuous measurement of streamflow and periodic
sampling for nutrient determinations. In many cases, sampling
frequency was related to streamflow so that additional samples
were collected during periods of high flow. The amounts of
nutrients transported by the streams were then calculated from
a streamflow record and a time series of nutrient concentra-
tions. Two somewhat different approaches were used to accom-
plish this: 1) the flow hydrographs were subdivided into
segments (usually centered about the dates on which water
samples were collected), and a single nutrient concentration
was then assumed to be characteristic of the total water mass
passing the gaging station during each time segment; 2) sample
analyses were used to develop concentration-streamflow rela-
tionships , and nutrient transport was computed by applying
29
-------
Table 7. NITRATE EXPORT FROM CROPLANDS BY SURFACE RUNOFF
CO
o
kg-N/ha/yr
Crop - study
Corn - Columbia, Mo.
Corn - Morris, Minn.
Cotton - Guthrie, Ok la.
Wheat - " "
Wheat - Columbia, Mo.
Oats - Morris, Minn.
Hay -
Grass sod - Guthrie, Okla.
Bluegrass sod - Columbia, Mo.
Fallow - " "
Fallow - Guthrie, Okla.
Virgin woods - " "
Burned woods - " "
Various crops - southern Idaho
Range
0.07 -0.81
0.35 -0.60
0.05 -0.99
0.11 -0.18
0.001-0.05
2.7 -6.8
Mean
1.1
0.44
0.48
0.36
1.5
0.52
0.15
0.03
0.29
4.8
0.77
0.01
0.19
0.35
Reference
Duley & Miller (1923)
Timmons et al (1968)
Daniel et al (1938)
H 11 n H
Duley & Miller (1923)
Timmons et al (1968)
n n n n
Daniel et al (1938)
Duley & Miller (1923)
n n n
Daniel et al (1938)
n * ii ii
n n n n
Carter et al (1971)
-------
Table 8. NUTRIENT EXPORT FROM CROPLANDS BY SURFACE RUNOFF
Crop - study
Corn
- Geneva, New York
Corn, continuous
- Columbia, Mo.
Corn, rotation
- Columbia, Mo.
Corn, rotation
- southern Wis.
Water only
kg/ha/yr
Total N Total P
11.
negl
Particulate only
kg/ha/yr
Total N Total P
45.
6.7
9.1
2.4
Not filtered
kg/ha/yr
Total N Total P
8.9-42.
Reference
Bryant & Slater (1948)
Duley & Miller (1923)
Eck (1957)
Corn
- LaCrosse, Wis.
Corn
- Lancaster, Wis.
Corn + cover crop
- Marlboro, N.J.
Corn
- Marlboro, N.J.
Corn , cont inuous
- Morris, Minn.
Corn, rotation
- Morris, Minn.
Corn, rotation
- Coshocton, Ohio
1.2-3.9a 0.78-1.8a
12.
19.
11.
21.
0.4-1.2 0.06-0.08 4.1-21. 0.03-.18
1.1-1.3 0.7
1.7-6.6 0.02-0.06
Hays et al (1948)
4.4 1.9 Minshall et al (1970)
Neal (1944)
Timmons et al (1968)
99-265 3.1-10. Weidner et al (1969)
-------
Table 8 (continued). NUTRIENT EXPORT FROM CROPLANDS BY SURFACE RUNOFF
GO
ro
Crop - study
Cotton + rice
- California
Cotton
- California
Rice
- California
Soybeans
- Geneva, New York
Tobacco
- southern Wisconsin
Oats, rotation
- southern Wisconsin
Oats
- LaCrosse, Wis.
Oats, rotation
- Morris, Minn.
Wheat
- Columbia, Mo.
Wheat, rotation
- southern Wisconsin
Wheat, rotation
- Coshocton, Ohio
Water only
kg/ha/yr
Total N Total P Total N Total P Total N Total P Reference
Participate only Not filtered
kg/ha/yrkg/ha/yr
0.22 negl
0.75 0.01
3.6-58a 35-39a
5.2
33.
0.03
12.
3.6-59.
0.9
II If
11. 0.81 Johnston et al (1965)
6.4 0.17
5.2 0.11 " " " "
Bryant & Slater (1948)
37.-66. Eck (1957)
n n
Hays et al (1948)
Timmons et al (1968)
Duley & Miller (1923)
Eck (1957)
12-35. 0.4-1.3 Weidner et al (1969)
-------
Table 8 (continued). NUTRIENT EXPORT FROM CROPLANDS BY SURFACE RUNOFF
Crop - study
Hay, rotation
- southern Wisconsin
Hay, rotation
- Morris, Minn.
Alfalfa
- California
Clover
- Geneva, New York
Bluegrass
£ - Geneva, New York
Bluegrass sod
- Columbia, Mo.
Meadow
- Coshocton, Ohio
Tomatoes + cover crop
- Marlboro, N.J.
Tomatoes
- Marlboro, N.J.
Vegetables + cover
crop - Marlboro, N.J.
Vegetables
- Marlboro, N.J.
Water only Particulate^ only Not filtered
kg/ha/yr kg/ha/yrkg/ha/yr
Total N Total P Total N Total P Total N Total P Reference
1.6-4,8
0.45-6.5 0.07-0.39 0.0-0.03 0.0
°-22-°*54
0.10
negl
0.62 0.10
12. 18.
20. 29.
Eck (1957)
Timmons et al (1968)
1.6 0.20 Johnston et al (1965)
Bryant & Slater (1948)
Duley & Miller (1923)
negl negl Weidner et al (1969)
Neal (1944)
8.8-16. 7.6-14. Knoblauch et al (1942)
21.-30. 18.-30.
-------
Table 8 (continued). NUTRIENT EXPORT FROM CROPLANDS BY SURFACE RUNOFF
Crop - study
Various crops
- southern Idaho
Various crops
- Washington
Apple orchard
- Coshocton, Ohio
Forest + farmland
- Tennessee Valley
Farmland
- Tennessee Valley
Row crops
- Tennessee Valley
Fallow
- Geneva, New York
Fallow
- Columbia, Mo.
Fallow
- Morris, Minn.
Water only Particulate only Not filtered
kg/ha/yr^ kg/ha/yrkg/ha/yy
Total N Total P Total N Total P Total N Total P Reference
1.1-12.
0.17
negl
1.9-3.0 0.42-0.89
3.8-16. 0.78-3.7
18.-36. 4.8-8.5
Carter et al (1971)
2.8-27. 1.0-4.4 Sylvester (1961)
0.91 1.4 Weidner et al (1969)
Fippin (1945)
82.-Ill 37.-53.
1.5-6.3 0.03-0.07 28.-97. 0,17-0.50
Bryant & Slater (1948)
Duley & Miller (1923)
Timmons et al (1968)
a
Data for "cropping season" only
-------
these relationships to the stream hydrograph and integrating
over appropriate time intervals.
A summary of nutrient transport from agricultural lands by
streamflow is given in Table 9. Flux coefficients for these
studies are less variable than for seepage or surface runoff
studies.
Total-N Total-P
(kg/ha/yr) (kg/ha/yr)
max 13.0 2.3
min 1.2 0.03
ave 5.1 0.38
Of the 24- values of total-phosphorus that were compiled,
only 7 were larger than 0.4 kg-P/ha/yr, and 6 of the 7 were
from the Midwest (2 from Illinois, 4 from Wisconsin). The
largest value reported, 2.3 kg/ha/yr, was determined from a
study in Arkansas conducted by Gearheart (1969). In this
study, streamflow draining a 3,100 km2 watershed (80% agri-
cultural, used primarily for pasture and poultry production)
tributary to Beaver Reservoir was monitored for a seven-
month period from October through April. Estimates of annual
values were presented by the author. Whereas the phosphorus
value was larger, the flux of nitrogen, 3.B kg-N/ha/yr, was
less than the average for other data included in this group,
and the ratio of Tot-N/Tot-P was only 1.5—ratios for all
other studies were greater than 10.
Phosphorus transport in the Kaskaskia River watershed in
Illinois was reported by Engelbrecht and Morgan (1959, 1961).
Water samples were collected at approximately weekly intervals
at four sites and monthly at three additional locations during
the period from April-December 1956. Some municipal effluents
were discharged to the river, but contributions from these
sources were subtracted from the total load, and values for
land drainage are presented by the authors. Results presented
as phosphorus loss/unit area/day were extrapolated linearly
to annual values here.
Mackenthun, Keup, and Stewart (1968) and Mackenthun (Chairman,
1966) reported studies on the results of tributaries to Lake
Sebasticook, Maine. The streams studied drained sparsely
populated rural areas with no significant waste discharges.
The primary crops were potatoes, apples, alfalfa, beans, and
35
-------
Table 9. NUTRIENT TRANSPORT FROM AGRICULTURAL WATERSHEDS BY STREAMS
Location - comment
Illinois,
Kaskaskia River basin
„ , i_ % agricul-
Subbasin area tural
2,
5,
6,
13,
32
320
700
100
900
500
km2
"
H
"
H
"
86.
86.
81.
76.
68.
76.
0
2
7
0
9
8
Connecticut, 85 km2 water-
shed, 50% forested,
"typical rural environ-
ment"
Arkansas, 3072 km2 water-
shed, 80% agricultural
Potomac River Basin
(Catoctin Creek)
280 km2, 80% farmland,
20% forest
Ontario, tributaries of
Bay of Quinte, 50% agri-
cultural, 50% forests,
many lakes and bogs
River
Trent
Moira
Salmon )
Napanee)
Area (km2)
13,000
2,700
1,660
P in kg/ha/yr
N in kg/ha/yr DissolvedTot-N
NO3 NHi4 Total inorganic Total Tot-P References
11.
3.8
3.4
3.6
4.3
2.1
1.8
2.4
3.0
0.03'
0.05!
0.85!
0.44!
O.llc
0.10'
Engelbrecht & ,
Morgan (1959)°
Harmeson et al (1971)
0.22 15. Frink (1967)
2.3 1.5 Gearheart (1969)
0.27 16. Jaworski &
Hetling (1970)
Jaworski et al (1969)
0.11 19.
0.08 22.
0.07 34.
0.14 21.
Johnson & Owen (1971)
-------
Table 9 (continued). NUTRIENT TRANSPORT FROM AGRICULTURAL WATERSHEDS BY STREAMS
CO
Location - comment
North Carolina, Pigeon
River watershed,
350 km2
Maine, rural areas,
sparsely populated,
Stetson R, 74 km2
Wisconsin, average for
36 streams, base flow
only, 5.7-370 km2
Ontario, Grand R water-
shed, 3500 km2
Ontario, near Toronto
River Area (km2)
West number 130
(dairy farms)
Little Rouge 78
(mixed farms)
Altona
54
(mixed farms)
England
Arable land
Permanent pasture
P in kg/ha/yr
N in kg/ha/yr DissolvedTot-N
NO3 NHi» Total inorganic Total Tot-P References
1.9
1.2
3.2
8.4
4.0
13.
8.
0.17
0.07
Keup (1968)
0.04 48. Mackenthun et al
(1968)d
0.10 12. Minshall et al (1969)
Missingham (1967)
0.21 15. Owen & Johnson (1966)
Neil, Johnson &
0.35 24. Owen (1967)
0.17 24.
Owens (1970)
-------
Table 9 (continued). NUTRIENT TRANSPORT PROM AGRICULTURAL WATERSHEDS BY STREAMS
CO
CO
Location - comment
Wisconsin, tributaries
to Lakes:
Monona
Waubesa
Kegonsa
Prince Edward Island,
26 km2 watershed, 28%
potato fields, remainder
in pasture and woodlot
Ohio, 123 ha watershed,
25% woodlots, 50% pas-
ture, 25% cropland
(data for 4 con-
secutive years)
Wisconsin,
Menomonee R watershed
Wisconsin, 546 ha water-
shed, dairy farming,
0-15% slopes
P in kg/ha/yr
Dissolved
Tot-N
N in kg/ng/yr
NHu Total inorganic Total Tot-P References
NO
4.9
5.5
7.2
6.7
7.6
9.2
1.1
2.2
9.1
1.8
3.1b 1.3
1.7
3.1
10.6
4.4
0.06
0.11
0.11
0.21
0.03
0.08
0.07
0.08
0.44
0.46
17.
20.
Sawyer (1947)
Smith (1959)
Taylor et al (1971)
1.6'
Zanoni (1970)
8.8
0.58
0.77 11. Zitter (1968)
Ortho-P + maximum inorganic condensed-P - Authors state
that total-P values may be 20-30% higher than those reported.
JN03 + N02
:Total dissolved - Author states that values are within a few percent of total-P.
Data given as loss/day or loss for part of a year—extrapolated linearly
to an annual value.
'Approximated from data presented.
-------
corn, which received an average of 82 kg/ha of phosphorus as
fertilizer. Precipitation was 102 cra/yr. Water samples were
collected during one- to two-week periods in February, May,
July-August, and October-November. Nutrient losses per day
were reported by the authors for each of the four sampling
periods.
Nutrient loads in kg/ha/day
Winter
Spring
Summer
Fall
Stetson
N
0.0029
0.0086
0.0083
0.0015
stream
P
0.0
0.00015
0.00012
0.00018
Mulligan stream
_N_ P
No flow
.00084 .00003
No flow
.0013 .00005
after Mackenthun, Keup, and Stewart (1968)
Annual values were computed here by multiplying each daily
load per season by 91.25 and summing.
Phosphorus transport from a 3,500 km2 agricultural watershed
in Ontario (Grand River) was reported by Missingham (1967).
Total-P
(kg/ha/day)
0.00014
0.00025
0.00021
0.00020
An average value of 0.0002 kg/ha/day converts to 0.07 kg/ha/yr
which is, most likely, an underestimate of the amount of phos-
phorus transported annually from the basin.
Minshall, Nichols, and Witzel (1969) carried out a two-year
study to determine the amount of nutrients in base flow^of
southwestern Wisconsin streams. Flow rates were determined
for 36 streams with drainage areas varying from 570 to
37,000 ha. Samples were collected, and flows were measured
at times when no surface runoff was entering the streams.
The area studied was 90% agricultural, with 40% in contour
strip-cropped farmland (corn, oats and alfalfa), 40% in
39
-------
pasture, and 10% woodland. Livestock enterprises were preva-
lent. Soils were moderately- and well-drained silt loams, and
the mean annual precipitation for the area was 83 cm. An
average of 9 kg/ha/yr of nitrogen was applied as manure or
artificial fertilizers.
Nutrient loss in kg/ha/yr
1966 1967
High
Low
Weighted ave
Tot-N
4.2
0.4
1.1
Tot-P
0.25
0.01
0.08
Tot-N
5.5
0.5
1.4
Tot-P
0.49
0.03
0.12
after Minshall, Nichols, and Witzel (1969)
Zanoni (1970) conducted a study of the Menomonee River basin in
southeastern Wisconsin, and reported that an average of 1.18 kg/
ha of total soluble phosphorus was contributed annually to
Lake Michigan from land drainage in the watershed. The total
watershed contains 350 km2 of which 38% is agricultural, 43%
is urban, and the remaining 19% is woodlots, parks and unpro-
ductive land. An analysis of runoff from sub-basins in the
watershed showed that urban areas contributed 0.58 kg/ha/yr.
Drainage from the remainder of the watershed, primarily rural
lands, can be computed to yield a contribution of 1.6 kg/ha/yr.
MANURE HANDLING
Manure handling problems, particularly those associated with the
dairy industry in the northern portions of the country, in many
instances are met by spreading of manure on frozen, snow-covered
fields for several months of the year. The impervious fields,
coupled with rapid runoff during spring thaws, greatly increase
the possibility for nutrient losses as a result of this prac-
tice.
Nutrient characteristics of manure from domestic farm animals
are given in Table 10 (based on Porcella et al, 1974). A dairy
cow weighs about 450 kg, so on an annual basis the manure
from a single cow would contain on the order of 38 kg of
nitrogen and 25 kg of phosphorus. If it is assumed that
40
-------
Table 10.
NUTRIENT CHARACTERISTICS OF MANURE
FROM DOMESTIC ANIMALS^
Poultry
Ducks
Swine
Dairy cattle
Beef cattle
.Sheep
tit , kg/animal
bO
•H
cu
*0>
bO
ifl
QJ
^
2
2
125
450
450
50
fcT
•o
bO
\
bO
n
0)
3
c
i
it)
•a
•v^
bO
~^,
bO
«»
10
0
OJ
.60
.60-1.6
.42
.34
.18
.25
imal/yr
c
nJ
~--v
bO
•^
r.
*tzt
1
,H
nJ
-H
O
0.5
5.8
23.
38.
53.
11.
-P/animal/yr
bO
y
t*
en
fc
o
,111
cu
en
O
£
0.2
0.2-0.5
8.
25.
13.
2.
aBased on average values presented by Porcella et al (1974).
50 cows are maintained on a 100-ha farm, that for 4 months of
the year the manure from these cows' is spread on frozen fields,
and that 10% of the nutrients are carried in runoff waters,
then about 63 kg-N and 42 kg-P would be lost. Viewing this as
an annual loss distributed over the entire farm, this amounts
to nutrient export rates of 0.6 kg-N/ha/yr and 0.4 kg-P/ha/yr.
Comparing these values with those given in Table 9 shows that
manure handling could result in a very significant loss of
phosphorus from agricultural lands.
A study conducted in Vermont (Midgely and Dunklee, 1945) showed
that from 4.5-13 kg-N/ha was carried in runoff waters from
fields which received winter application of manure at a rate
41
-------
of about 1800 kg/ha (10 tons/acre). Nitrogen loss was reported
to depend primarily on the amount of volatilization which
occurred prior to runoff, and the effect of slope was minimal
because of the impervious nature of the soil. Nitrogen losses
ranged from 3.3-11,5%; phosphorus losses were similar, ranging
from 4.8-10%.
Minshall et al (1970) conducted studies in southwestern
Wisconsin and concluded that up to 20% of the nitrogen and 13%
of the phosphorus contained in manure applied in winter on
frozen ground may be lost under conditions favoring maximum
early spring runoff. In one instance, a 1.5 cm rain in January
caused losses of nitrogen and phosphorus amounting to 17% and
6% respectively, which corresponded to about 15 kg-N/ha and
1.9 kg-P/ha. These investigators also found that summer appli-
cations of manure incorporated into the soil resulted in less
nutrient runoff than plots receiving no manure.
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-------
NUTRIENT EXPORT FROM URBAN AREAS
The hydrology of urban areas contributes to the rapid trans-
port of dissolved and suspended materials from cities to
nearby receiving waters and increases the potential for
nutrient transport. Two factors are particularly important:
1) the large amount of impermeable areas brought about by
urban development and 2) storm sewer systems. Storm sewers
provide a relatively direct pathway from virtually all parts
of a city to the receiving waters; short distances of over-
land flow are sufficient to transport nutrients from remote
portions of an urban watershed. The impermeable areas
prevent infiltration and increase the intensity of surface
runoff. Consequently, considerable amounts of soil and
other particulate matter are eroded and transported through
the storm sewer system. These characteristics, particularly
the intermittent high flows, make it difficult to apply con-
ventional methods of wastewater treatment to storm water
runoff and increase the need for alternate management tech-
niques.
A number of studies are reported in the literature in which
the export of materials in urban runoff have been quantified.
However, many of the earlier studies were conducted in areas
served by combined sanitary-storm sewer systems, and it is
virtually impossible to separate the component appearing in
stormwater outlets due to overloading of sanitary sewers ,
from that due to urban surface runoff (Weibel, 1969). Five
studies, however, have been conducted recently with the
objective of determining the quality of urban surface runoff.
In addition, data were compiled for three locations in which
streams with predominantly urban watersheds were monitored
for nutrient content. A summary of these data is given in
Table 11.
The most extensive study of urban runoff was conducted in
Tulsa, Oklahoma (Avco Corp., 1970). Drainage from 15 test
areas was sampled and analyzed for Kjeldahl nitrogen and
dissolved inorganic phosphorus. The largest annual phosphorus
export, 2.9 kg/ha/yr, was from a light industrial area which
was still under development. Export from all other areas fell
within the range of 0.5-1.2 kg P/ha/yr. Nitrogen export ranged
1*8
-------
Table 11. EXPORT OF NUTRIENTS FROM URBAN AREAS
Study area
Surface runoff studies:
Tulsa, Oklahoma
Durham, North Carolina,
433 ha, 37% impermeable
Ann Arbor, Michigan,
1540 ha
Madison, Wisconsin,
50 ha, residential
Cincinnati, Ohio,
11 ha, 37% impermeable
Drainage area studies:
Rock Creek basin
(Potomac), 20,000 ha,
60% urban, 10% forest,
30% farmland
Milwaukee, Wisconsin,
3160 ha, 98% urban,
50% residential
England, urban areas
kg-N/ha/yr kg-P/ha/yr
Dissolved
N03 NHt> Total inorganic Total References
2.1a
(0.9) (0.8) (2.1)
0.67 .50 5.0
«- 2.8 •*• 8.8
1.8
2. 3
4,
0.9b
(1.0)
0.64
0.02
0.571
Avco Corp. (1970)
1.2 Bryan (1970)
Burm et alc
(3.1)
1.1
(1968)
Kluesener S Lee
(1974)
Weibel (1969)
Jaworski £
Hetling (1970)
Zanoni (1970)
Owens (1970)
organic N
^total disssolved-P
GData given are for three months, June, July, August, only.
-------
from 0.9-4.0 kg/ha/yr and averaged 2.2 kg/ha/yr. Population
densities averaged 15 persons/ha.
One of the first studies of urban runoff was conducted by
Weibel et al (1964) in an 11-ha residential and light com-
mercial area in Cincinnati, Ohio. Resident population
density was 25 persons/ha. Burm et al (1968) conducted a
similar study in Ann Arbor, Michigan; however, the flux of
N and P was reported for only the months of June, July and
August. A comparison of these data with others in Table 11
suggests that export from the Ann Arbor area is considerably
higher than that reported for other cities.
Kluesener (1972) measured nutrient export from a residential
watershed in Madison, Wisconsin and suggested that phosphorus
leaching from leaves may be an important component of urban
runoff. This is supported to some extent by the Tulsa study
(Avco Corp., 1970) where phosphorus export appeared to be
related to the density of tree cover.
Jaworski and Hetling (1970) studied nutrient runoff in the
Potomac basin and reported results for the Rock Creek basin
which is approximately 60% urban. They found that 1.8 kg/ha/
yr of nitrate-N, 2.3 kg/ha/yr of total-N, and 0.02 kg/ha/yr
dissolved inorganic-P were transported from the basin. These
data are not directly comparable to those listed in the upper
portion of Table 11, because this study was conducted by moni-
toring continuously flowing streams, whereas the other data
are for runoff from storm sewers.
Another drainage area study was conducted by Zanoni (1970)
in which nutrient transport from the Menomonee River basin
in southeastern Wisconsin was measured. It was reported
that the annual loss of total soluble phosphorus from a
densely populated urban sub-basin (3160 ha) amounted to
0.57 kg P/ha/yr. All samples were analyzed for total soluble
phosphorus but, periodically, analyses were conducted for
dissolved inorganic and total phosphorus as well. Based on
these results, the author reported that, on the average,
dissolved inorganic phosphorus amounted to 70-80% of total
soluble, and there was very little difference between total
soluble and total phosphorus.
Owens (1970) calculated the nutrient loss from urban areas
to several rivers in England by subtracting sewage contri-
butions from the total load carried by the streams.
50
-------
Table 12 lists the average nutrient concentration reported
for urban runoff. Data for two additional cities, Seattle,
Washington (Sylvester, 1961) and Washington, B.C. (DeFilippi
and Shin, 1971), are also given.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE NUTRIENT CONTENT OF URBAN RUNOFF
Several factors have been identified as being potentially
significant contributors of nutrients in urban runoff; how-
ever, for the most part, studies to document their importance
have not been conducted.
1. urban erosion - Sediment transport, often associated
with the construction industry, is often thought to be a key
factor. A study of land drainage in metropolitan Detroit by
Thompson (1970) indicated that the erosion from areas under
urban development contributed 155 metric tons of sediment
per hectare per year compared with an overall average erosion
rate of about 7 metric tons per hectare per year for the
metropolitan area and an overall average erosion rate of
6 metric tons per hectare per year for southeast Michigan.
Thus, it was concluded that road construction and urban
development would account for significant amounts of sedi-
ment even though the total acreage under construction may be
relatively low.
2. lawn fertilisers - Use of home fertilizers to maintain
luxuriant lawns and gardens is a common practice in urban
areas, particularly in newer residential subdivisions. In-
creased use of fertilizers is likely in future years. One
management approach might be to encourage the use of fer-
tilizers which contain little or no phosphorus because, in
many situations, lawns require supplemental nitrogen but
there is no need for additional phosphorus.
3. animal populations - Surprisingly large populations of
cats and dogs are maintained in many urban areas. Pets
could contribute relatively large amounts of nutrients to
small areas.
H. leaohate from leaves - Cowen and Lee (undated) reported
on the results of leaching experiments in which phosphorus
was removed from leaves by soaking them in water. They con-
cluded that leaves could contribute significant amounts of
phosphorus to urban runoff, and advocated leaf pickup and
removal and advised against burning and storing leaves in
gutters.
51
-------
Table 12. AVERAGE NUTRIENT CONCENTRATIONS IN URBAN RUNOFF
Cn
Study area
Tulsa, Okla
Durham, N.C.
Ann Arbor,
Mich
Washington,
B.C.
Madison, Wis
Seattle, Wash
Cincinnati ,
Ohio
mg-N/1 mg-P/1
Dissolved
NO 3 NHi^ Organic Total inorganic Total
0.85 0.37
0.19
1.5 1.0 1.0 3.5 0.8a 5,0
2.1 1.3
0.60 O.H5 3.5 if. 5 0.57 0.98
0.5 2.0 2.5 0.08 0.21
•*• 1.0 •* 3.1 0.36a
References
Avco Corp (1970)
Bryan (1970)
Burm et al (1968)
DeFilippi 8 Shih
(1971)
Kluesener 8 Lee
(1974)
Sylvester (1961)
Weibel et al
(1969)
Total dissolved-P
-------
5. gasoline additives - It is estimated that 2.5 million
pounds of phosphorus are consumed each year as additives in
gasolines burned in motor vehicles in this country. Concen-
trations in gasoline may be as high as 12.6 mg P/l (Bartsch,
1972). However, even if it is assumed that one-half of all
gasoline is consumed in urban areas, and all of the phosphorus
consumed reaches surface waters, this would amount to only
0.2-2% of the estimated phosphorus contribution from urban
runoff.
6. de-icing compounds - Some de-icing compounds used in
northern cities contain phosphorus, but an analysis by
Struzeski (1971) indicates that this contribution is insig-
nificant in most situations.
REFERENCES
AVCO Economic Systems Corporation. 1970. Storm Water Pollu-
tion from Urban Land Activity. Rep. 11034 FKL 07/70,
Federal Water Qual. Adm., U.S. Dept. of the Interior,
Washington, B.C. 325 p.
Bartsch, A. F. 1972. Role of Phosphorus in Eutrophication.
Rep. EPA-R3-72-001, Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C.
Bryan, E. H. 1970. Quality of Stormwater Drainage from
Urban Land Areas in North Carolina. Rep. 37, Water
Resources Research Inst., Univ. of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, N.C. 4M- p. plus append.
Burm, R. J., D. F. Krawczyk, and G. L. Harlow. 1968.
Chemical and Physical Comparison of Combined and
Separate Sewer Discharges. J. Water Pollut. Con. Fed.
4£: 112-126.
Cowen, W., and G. F. Lee. Undated. Leaves as a Source of
Phosphorus. Water Chemistry Prog., Univ. of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wis.
DeFilippi, J. A., and C. S. Shih. 1971. Characteristics
of Separated Storm and Combined Sewer Flows. J. Water
Pollut. Con. Fed. 4_3( 10) : 2033-205 8.
Jaworski, N. A., and L. J. Hetling. 1970. Relative Contri-
butions of Nutrients to the Potomac River Basin from
Various Sources. Tech. Rep. 31, Middle Atlantic Region,
Federal Water Pollut. Con. Adm. 36 p.
53
-------
Kluesener, J. W. 1972. Nutrient Transport and Transforma-
tion in Lake Wingra, Wisconsin. Ph.D. Thesis, Water
Chemistry Dept., Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
Kluesener, J. W.s and G. F. Lee. 1974. Nutrient Loading
from a Separate Storm Sewer in Madison, Wisconsin.
J. Water Pollut. Con. Fed. 4jj_:920-936.
Owens, M. 1970. Nutrient Balances in Rivers. J. Soc. Water
Treat, and Exam. 19_( 3) : 239-252.
Struzeski, E. 1971. Environmental Impact of Deicing.
Rep. WPCRS 11040 6KK 06/71, Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, B.C.
Sylvester, R. 0. 1961. Nutrient Content of Drainage Water
from Forested, Urban and Agricultural Areas. Tech.
Rep. W61-3, Trans. 1960 Seminar on Algae and Metropolitan
Wastes, Robert A. Taft San. Engr. Ctr. , Cincinnati, Ohio.
p. 80-87.
Thompson, J. R. 1970. Soil Erosion in the Detroit Metro-
politan Area. J. Soil and Water Conservation 25_(1) : 8-10 .
Weibel, S. R. 1969. Urban Drainage as a Factor in Eutrophi-
cation. In: Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences,
Correctives. National Academy of Science, Washington,
D.C. p. 383-403.
Weibel, S. R. , R. J. Anderson, and R. L. Woodward. 1964.
Urban Land Runoff as a Factor in Stream Pollution. J.
Water Pollut. Con. Fed. 3
Zanoni, A. E. 1970. Eutrophic Evaluation of a Small Multi-
Land Use Watershed. Tech. Completion Rep. OWRR A-014-
Wis., Water Resources Center, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison,
Wis.
54
-------
NUTRIENT EXPORT FROM FORESTS
Forested lands are known to have relatively high absorptive
capacities with minimal amounts of surface runoff and accom-
panying soil erosion. Consequently, most studies of nutrient
export from forested lands are conducted by monitoring stream-
flows or measuring vertical nutrient movement through the
soil profile in forested areas. The only surface runoff
study identified was conducted by Daniel, Elwell and Harper
(1938). They analyzed surface runoff from plots of virgin
woods in Oklahoma and found that nitrogen runoff as nitrate-N
amounted to 0.01 kg/ha/yr.
Cole and Gessel (1965) placed tension lysimeters beneath
the floor (2.5 cm depth) and the rooting zone (90 cm depth)
of four 0.04-ha Douglas fir forest areas near Seattle,
Washington. The soil was composed of 50 to 80% gravel. Two
of the plots received added nitrogen at the rate of 224 kg/ha.
Leachates were collected and analyzed monthly.
Nutrient loss (kg/ha/yr)
Total N Total P
Rooting Rooting
Treatment Floor zone Floor zone
Untreated
Clear-cut
Urea fertilizer
Ammonium fertilizer
3.9
11
173
200
0.54
0.97
0.69
1.1
0. 84
2.3
5.5
4.5
0.03
0.11
0.08
0.17
after Cole and Gessel (1965)
Several studies have been conducted in which streams flowing
from forested watersheds were monitored for nitrogen and
phosphorus. Cooper (1969) presented data showing the quanti-
ties of nitrogen and phosphorus removed from forested areas
in northern Minnesota. The data were determined from the
weighted average of weekly samples collected from August to
November. The forests were predominantly aspen-birch and lay
in an area of poor drainage.
55
-------
Nutrient Export in g/ha/day (4 months)
Watershed
area (ha)
2,150
2,850
958
13,000
Mean
NHi,-N
0.43
0.50
0.31
0.43
0.42
N03-N
7.3
6.0
0.7
3.2
4.3
Organic
N
5.9
5.7
2.6
5.5
4.9
Total
P
0.30
0.50
0.23
0.37
0.35
after Cooper (1969)
Sylvester (1961) measured the nutrient content in streams
emerging from three forested areas of the Yakima River basin
in Washington. The watersheds contained large reservoirs,
roads and some logging but no significant human habitation.
The drainage areas were 47,000, 62,000, and 32,000 ha for
the Yakima, Tieton, and Cedar River basins respectively.
Nutrient Export (kg/ha/yr)
Yakima
Tieton
Cedar
Mean
NO 3
2.37
0.95
1.06
1.46
TKN
0.95
0.51
-
0.73
Tot-N
3.32
1.46
-
2.39
Sol-P
0.08
0.05
0.07
0.07
Tot-P
0.83
0.86
0.36
0.68
after Sylvester (1961)
Viro (1953) studied the nutrient loads carried by the five
largest river systems in Finland, representing, in general,
forest areas with granite bedrock. The total drainage area
was 34 million ha, and precipitation within the drainage area
varied from 45-69 cm. River water samples were taken monthly
and analyzed for Kjeldahl nitrogen and total phosphorus.
56
-------
River
Vuoksi
Kymi joki
Kokemaen j oki
Oulujoki
Kemi joki
Mean
Area
(ha)
6.1
4.9
8.4
4.7
9.5
M
M
M
M
M
Nutrient loads
(kg/ha/yr)
TKN
2.2
1.
1.
2.
1.
(1.
6
8
1
7
9)
0
0
0
0
0
(0
p
.29
.26
.29
.32
.18
.26)
after Viro (1953)
Bormann et al (1968) studied the effects of clear-cutting and
herbicide treatment on a small forested watershed in New
Hampshire. Nutrient losses for the treated (15.6 ha) and un-
disturbed (13.2 ha) areas were determined by weekly sampling
and flow rate measurements of streams draining the areas.
Analysis was made for ammonia and nitrate nitrogen. Annual
precipitation was 125 cm. They noted little difference in the
annual flux of ammonia nitrogen from the two areas, but trans-
port of nitrate was much greater from the clear-cut area.
NHi+-N
N03-N
Nutrient loads
Undisturbed
0.5-0.6 (0.55)
1.0-1.5 (1.3)
(kg/ha/yr)
Clear-cut
0.4-1.2 (0.8)
1.3-58. (30.)
after Bormann et al (1968;
A summary of data describing the transport of nutrients from
forested areas as determined by drainage area studies is given
in Table 13.
Export of total nitrogen averaged 2.9 kg N/ha/yr and ranged
from 1.3 to 5.1 kg N/ha/yr. Total phosphorus flux ranged
from 0.01 to 0.86 kg P/ha/yr with an average value of 0.27 kg
P/ha/yr.
57
-------
Table 13. NUTRIENT EXPORT FROM FORESTED WATERSHED VIA STREAMFLOW
en
oo
Study area
Forested watershed,
New Hampshire
Woodlands , marsh , open
fields , Ohio
Four aspen + birch
watersheds in
northern Minnesota
88% fores-ted watershed
in the
Potomac River basin
Three forested areas
in Washington
Woodlands in Ohio,
one watershed, data
for three years
Five large forested
river basins in
Finland
Forested watershed
in Sweden
N
N03
1. 3
2.7
2.2
0. 3
1.2
"«-
2.4
1.0
1.1
0. 8
1.6
0.7
in kg/ha/yr
NH., Total
0. 6
0.16 5.1
0.18 4.5
0.11 1.3
0.16 3.4
1.3 -»• 1.6
3.3
1.5
1.4
3.2
2.8
2.2°
1.6C
1.8C
2. 1C
1.7°
P in kg/ha/yr
Dissolved
inorganic
0.08
0.05
0.07
0.04b
0.0 7b
0.0 3b
n n?
\S 9 \J *-,
Total
0 .02
OC 1
. b /
0.11
0.18
0,08
0.14
0.01
0.83
0.86
0.36
0.29
0.26
0.29
0.32
0.18
n n R
U * \j U
References
Bormann et al
(1968)
Cooke et al
(1973)
Coopera (1969)
Jaworski &
Hetling (1970)
Sylvester (1961)
Taylor et al
(1971)
Viro (1953)
Brink &
Gustafson (1970)
aData given for 4 months, extrapolated to 12 months.
bTotal soluble P
CTotal Kjeldahl N
-------
REFERENCES
Bormann, F. H. , G. E. Likens, D. W. Fisher, and R. S. Pierce.
1968. Nutrient Loss Accelerated by Clear-Cutting of a
Forest Ecosystem. Science 159: 882-884.
Brink, N. , and A. Gustafson. 1970. Lantbrukshogskolan.
No. 1, Institutionenen for Markvetenskap-Vattenvard,
Uppsala, Sweden.
Cole, D. W. , and Gessel, S. P. 1965. Movement of Elements
through a Forest Soil as Influenced by Tree Removal and
Fertilizer Additions. In: Youngberg, C. T. (ed.).
Forest-Soil Relationships in North America. Oregon State
Univ. Press, Corvallis , Ore. p. 95-104-.
Cooke, G. D. , T. N. Bhargava, M. R. McComas , M. C. Wilson, and
R. T. Heath. 1973. Some Aspects of Phosphorus Dynamics
of the Twin Lakes Watershed. In: Modeling the Eutrophi-
cation Process. Middlebrooks , E. J. (ed.). Pub. PRWG136-1,
Utah Water Research Lab., Utah State Univ., Logan, Utah.
p. 57-72.
Cooper, C. F. 1969. Nutrient Output from Managed Forests. In:
Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, Correctives. National
Academy of Sciences, Washington, B.C. p. M-H6-463.
Daniel, H. A., H. M. Elwell, and H. J. Harper. 1938. Nitrate-
Nitrogen Content of Rain and Runoff Water from Plots under
Different Cropping Systems on Vermon Fine Sandy Loam.
Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. jk 230-233.
Jaworski, N. A., and L. J. Hetling. 1970. Relative Contri-
butions of Nutrients to the Potomac River Basin from
Various Sources. Tech. Rep. 31, Middle Atlantic Region,
Federal Water Pollut. Con. Adm. 36 p.
Sylvester, R. 0. 1961. Nutrient Content of Drainage Water from
Forested, Urban and Agricultural Areas. Tech. Rep.' W61-3,
Trans. 1960 Seminar on Algae and Metropolitan Wastes,
Robert A. Taft San. Engr. Ctr. , Cincinnati, Ohio. p. 80-87.
Taylor, A. W., W. M. Edwards, and E. C. Simpson. 1971.
Nutrients in Streams Draining Woodland and Farmland near
Coshocton, Ohio. Water Resources Res. Kl): 81-89.
Viro, P. J. 1953. Loss of Nutrients and the Natural Nutrient
Balance of the Soil in Finland. Comm. Inst. Forest, Fenn.
59
-------
NUTRIENT LOSSES FROM MARSHES AND WETLANDS
Nutrient dynamics of marshes and other wetland areas is one
of the more poorly-defined aspects of nutrient transport from
watersheds; the role of wetlands as nutrient sources or sinks
for down-gradient water bodies has not been established satis-
factorily. Several factors enhance the potential of marshes
to act as nutrient sinks. Flow velocities through marsh
systems are generally low so, if a marsh receives runoff water,
settling removes a large portion of the suspended particulate
materials; high levels of photosynthesis, characteristic of
wetlands, incorporate nutrients into plant tissue; and nitrogen
removal also occurs through denitrification reactions. On the
other hand, the periodic occurrence of anaerobic conditions
increases the possibility for discharge of ammonia and soluble
inorganic phosphorus, particularly in wetlands subject to
pulses of high discharge from runoff.
The development of nutrient budgets for wetlands has been
hampered by the complex hydrology of marsh areas. Groundwater
seepage often accounts for the majority of water input, evapora-
tion accounts for much of the output, and the rates of water
exchange by these mechanisms has proven to be very difficult
to measure.
Bentley (1969) studied four marshes in Wisconsin and estimated
that on a long-term basis, they were neither nutrient sources
nor sinks, but that the marshes tended to accumulate nutrients
during the growing season and released them during spring
runoff. However, even during periods of active photosynthesis,
the marshes were not a barrier to nutrient transport; concen-
trations of dissolved inorganic phosphorus in discharge waters
typically exceeded 0.01 mg/1. Bentley also reported that
nitrate was largely removed from input waters through denitri-
fication and plant uptake. Nitrogen in the discharge waters
was in the form of ammonia or organic nitrogen, the majority
being in the organic form.
Based on laboratory leaching studies, Amundson (1970) concluded
that the practice of draining marshes negated most beneficial
effects and agravated the effects detrimental to water quality.
He estimated that phosphorus runoff from drained marsh lands
may be as large as 5 kg/ha/yr—an amount equal to 10-20 times
the normal contribution from agricultural lands.
60
-------
Water quality characteristics of marshes (managed for northern
pike spawning) adjacent to Houghton Lake, Michigan were studied
by Novy and Pecor (1973). Typical management operations were
to pump lake water into the marshes in early spring and drain
them about two months later. This operation was repeated in
the fall. Nutrient budget computations showed that the marshes
received about 0.04 kg/ha more inorganic nitrogen than was
discharged and, conversely, there was a net release of 0.04 kg/ha
of phosphorus to the lake. Operations during the study year
were atypical, and it was estimated that, under normal condi-
tions , there would be no net phosphorus flux to the lake and
the loss of inorganic nitrogen in the marsh would be somewhat
larger than 0.4 kg/ha.
Based on these studies, it is estimated that the runoff co-
efficients for both phosphorus and nitrogen are approximately
zero for wetlands; however, the range of conditions studied
is too restrictive to establish the general validity of these
findings.
REFERENCES
Amundson, R. W. 1970. Nutrient Availability of a Marsh Soil.
M.S. Thesis, Water Chemistry Dept., Univ. of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wis. 56 p.
Bentley, E. M. 1969. The Effect of Marshes on Water Quality.
Ph.D. Thesis, Water Chemistry Dept., Univ. of Wisconsin,
Madison, Wis. 197 p.
Novy, J. R., and C. H. Pecor. 1973. Impact of Northern Pike
Spawning Marsh Operation on Water Quality. Tech. Bull.
73-2, Michigan Water Resources Com. and the Dept. of
Natural Resources, Lansing, Mich. 40 p.
61
-------
NUTRIENT INFLUX FROM GROUNDWATER
Nutrient contributions from direct groundwater influx are
one of the most poorly defined components of lake nutrient
budgets and, based on the fragmentary information available,
these contributions can be very significant. The mobility
of inorganic nitrogen in soil-water systems, along with the
relatively high concentrations of nitrogen found in many
groundwaters, has led to the general consensus that direct
seepage through lake beds could account for a large portion
of the total nitrogen loading for some lakes (Vollenweider,
1968; Lee, 1970; Keeney, 1972). Lee et al (1969) estimated
that 36% of the total nitrogen influx to Lake Mendota re-
sulted from direct groundwater seepage.
Phosphorus influx via groundwater seepage is generally thought
to be quite small. Lee et al (1969) estimated that only
about 2% of the phosphorus entering Lake Mendota was carried
by seepage. Cooke et al (1973) measured nutrient budgets for
East Twin and West Twin Lakes (Ohio) and reported data showing
that groundwater influx accounted for 3.2 and 7.5% of the
phosphorus entering these lakes respectively over an 18-month
period.
Somewhat larger relative phosphorus contributions from ground-
water have been reported for two small lakes in Wisconsin.
Based on field studies, Hennings (1974) estimated that 24% of
the phosphorus (and 72% of water) enter Pickerel Lake by
seepage. Possin (1973) reported similar groundwater contri-
butions of 25% phosphorus and 21% water for Mirror Lake.
This latter study also indicated that the absolute input of
total phosphorus was also quite significant and amounted to
about 0.12 gm-P/ha/yr. A summary of these data is given in
Table 14.
In very general terms, groundwater contributions are functions
of 1) the nutrient concentrations in the surrounding aquifers,
2) the extent of groundwater exchange between lake and aquifer,
and 3) biochemical modification of nutrient forms during
seepage through the permeable material surrounding the lake,
including the bottom sediments. Of these, nutrient concentra-
62
-------
Table 14. NUTRIENT CONTRIBUTIONS TO LAKES
VIA GROUNDWATER
0)
nj
£j
c s 06
-HO -P O
OP14-1 dP <4-l
11%
25%
72% 44%
21% 34%
M
M \
4J 0) g
!3 -P gO*
ft nS 0
C 5 H -
•H -d M-l M
§0)
C7>-P
O C CO
i— 1 M -H ^
cd D^ 'C T3
o g 00
•P O HO
5-1 M
<*P IH S tn
3.2%
7.5%
24% 1.4
25% 1.74
\
CM
.4
O
M -
0)
tJ* -P
C *d
•H ^
^ 'O
10 C
o 9
H 0
cu (T*
.023
.027
.033
.12
a)
o
a
a)
5-1
o
m
a)
OJ
Cooke et
1973
Cooke et
1973
Hennings
Possin,
al.
al,
, 1974
1973
63
-------
tions in the surrounding aquifer can be determined most
readily. The latter two considerations present considerably
more difficulty.
Water budget measurements have been used to calculate ground-
water exchange with lakes (Allred et al, 1971; Salo and
Cooperman, 1972), but the accuracy of this technique is
often limited by difficulties associated with the determina-
tion of evaporation losses—a second "unknown" in the water
budget equation. More importantly, the budget approach gives
only net exchange, and this information may be insufficient
from the standpoint of nutrient loadings. For example, Born,
Smith and Stephenson (1974) compiled data for 64- lakes in
glaciated, temperate regions of North America and reported
that 40% of these were "flow-through" lakes with respect to
groundwater, i.e. groundwater inflow and outflow occurred
simultaneously within the lakes' basins. Water budget studies
would underestimate the magnitude of groundwater influx in
lakes of this type.
Stephenson (1971) modified results presented by Walesh (1966)
and compiled a list of techniques that could be used for
investigating groundwater-surface water exchange, and dis-
cussed the applicability of these techniques to lakes. (See
Table 15.) He emphasized that field investigations are neces-
sary to establish the degree of water exchange between lakes
and surrounding aquifers. A thorough discussion of the hydro-
logic regime of glacial-province lakes, including a classi-
fication scheme for various types of groundwater exchange with
lakes, is given by Born, Smith and Stephenson (1974).
The relative contributions of groundwater to the water budget
of 22 lakes are given in Table 16. These data illustrate the
wide range of conditions which occur and emphasize the need
for on-site investigations if one is to account for nutrient
influx—and outflow—via subsurface water movement.
Even when quantities of groundwater exchange are known, the
role of lake sediments in altering nutrient constituents of
seepage waters must be taken into account when estimating
loadings. Keeney et al (1971) measured denitrification rates
in sediments using 15N-labeled nitrate and, based on in-situ
experiments in Lake Mendota, they estimated that two-thirds
of the nitrate entering the lake by seepage would be "lost"
from the lake system because of denitrification in the lake
sediments. (It is possible that groundwater seepage through
lake sediments has a greater impact on lakes by providing a
mechanism for enhancing nutrient recycling, than it does by
64
-------
Table 15. PARTIAL LIST OF METHODS FOR INVESTIGATING
THE GROUNDWATER-SURFACE WATER INTERCHANGE
en
en
Factors required in application of method
Method of study
Analytical (mathematical)
Hydrologic balance
Flow net
Numerical (digital)
Well equations
Electrical
Resistance network
analog
Conductive solid
Conductive liquid
Physical
Sand tank
Hele-Shaw
o
42 i-l
O M 60
•HO O
6C y vH
o tu o
*0 1 £ 2
•$ M £ *
X
useful useful
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
§§
Jj tf^
CO 4J
>. p.
M
> U
o co
t-< 4)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
^•j
4-1
•H
*W4
•H
Q
O
« g
4J 5
II
X
X (with
2-D
flow)
X
X
0)
t-l (0
n
-------
Table 16. GROUNDWATER CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE WATER BUDGET OF LAKES
CT)
Lake name
Oyster Pond
Lake Sallie
Pitcher Lake
Booster Club
Pond
Mud Lake
Ria Lake
Lake Poinsett
Krause Pond
Sunshine Springs
Snake Lake
Pickerel Lake
Mirror Lake
Shadow Lake
Location
near Woods Hole,
Mass
Becker Co, Minn
near St. Paul/
Minn
Anoka Co, Minn
Sibley Co, Minn
near Newport,
Minn
Hamlin Co, Minn
Langlade Co, Wis
Langlade Co, Wis
Vilas Co, Wis
Portage Co, Wis
Waupaca Co, Wis
Waupaca Co, Wis
Area <
(ha)
25
486
3
3
13
4
3965
0.4
0.4
6
16
4
16
Max
depth
(m)
6
17
3
2
2
2
5
4
4
5
5
14
14
gw inflow
tot inflow
83%
14%
-
-
-
-
10.30%
^100%
^100%
50%
72%
21%
41%
gw outflow
tot outflow
0(?>
0
(net) 15%
(net) 18%
(net) 10%
(net) 40%
2%
0
0
>0
?
16%
2%
Reference
Emery (1969)
Mann & McBride
(1972)
Allred et al (1971)
n „ (i97i)
ii n » (i97i)
11 " (1971)
Barari (1971)
Carline (1973)
(1973)
Born et al (1973)
Hennings (1974)
Possin (1973)
(1973)
-------
Table 16 con't. GROUNDWATER CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE WATER BUDGET OF LAKES
Lake name
Jyme Lake
East Twin
West Twin
Little
St. Germain
Muskellunge
Lake
Qui ns i g amond
Deep Lake
Lake Lenore
Soap Lake
Location
Oneida Co, Wis
Portage Co, Ohio
Portage Co, Ohio
Vilas Co, Wis
Vilas Co, Wis
Worchester Co,
Mass
Grand Coulee,
Wash
Grand Coulee ,
Wash
Grand Coulee,
Wash
Area
(ha)
0.4
27
34
384
111
312
49
445
336
Max
depth gw inflow
(m) tot inflow
3 0
12 11%
12 25%
5 24%
6 44%
26 (net) 20-60%
98%
33%
84%
gw outflow
tot outflow
^30%
0
0
0
0
0
9%
8%
Reference
Smith et al (1972)
Cooke et al (1973)
ii » (1973)
Hackbarth (1968)
(1968)
Salo & Cooperman
(1972)
Friedman &
Redfield (1971)
Friedman &
Redfield (1971)
Friedman &
Redfield (1971)
Modified from Born, Smith and Stephenson (1974)
-------
adding nutrients from outside sources. However, only this
latter aspect is considered here.)
Considering the present state of knowledge, there appear to
be no general guidelines for the estimation of nutrient
influx via groundwater. More research is needed in this
area, particularly for flow-through lakes where a net loss
of nutrients could occur even though there may be a net
addition of water to a lake. Direct management applications ,
such as the location of septic tanks in areas where ground-
water movement is away from lakes, add further support for a
better definition of the groundwater regime of lake systems.
68
-------
REFERENCES
Allred, E. R., P. W. Hanson, G. M. Schwartz, P. Golany, and
J. W. Reinke. 1971. Continuation of Studies on the
Hydrology of Ponds and Small Lakes. Tech. Bull. 274,
Univ. of Minnesota, Agr. Exp. Sta., St. Paul, Minn.
Barari, A. 1971. Hydrology of Lake Poinsett. Rept. Inv.
102, South Dakota Geological Survey, Vermillion, S.D.
Born, S. M. , S. A. Smith, and D. A. Stephenson. 1974._ The
Hydrogeologic Regime of Glacial-Province Lakes, with
Management and Planning Applications. Inland Lake Renewal
and Management Demonstration Project Report, Dept. of
Natural Resources and the Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison,
Wis.
Born, S. M., T. L. Wirth, J. 0. Peterson, J. P. Wall, and
D. A. Stephenson. 1973. Dilutional Pumping at Snake
Lake, Wisconsin—A Potential Renewal Technique for
Small Eutrophic Lakes. Tech. Bull. 66, Dept. of Natural
Resources, Madison, Wis.
Carline, R. F. 1973. Spring Pond Research—A Progress Report.
Dept. of Natural Resources, Madison, Wis.
Cooke, G. D., T. N. Bhargava, M. R. McComas, M. C. Wilson,
and R. T. Heath. 1973. Some Aspects of Phosphorus
Dynamics of the Twin Lakes Watershed. In: Middlebrooks,
E. J., D. H. Balkenborg, and T. E. Maloney (eds.).
Modeling the Eutrophication Process. PRWG136-1, Proc.
Workshop, Utah State Univ., Utah Water Research Lab.,
Logan, Utah. p. 57-72.
Emery, K. 0. 1969. A Coastal Pond Studied by Oceanographic
Methods. American Elsevier, New York.
Friedman, I., and A. C. Redfield. 1971. A Model of the
Hydrology of the Lakes of the Lower Grand Coulee,
Washington. Water Resources Res. 7_(4) : 874-898 .
Hackbarth, D. A. 1968. Hydrogeology of the Little St.
Germain Lake Basin, Vilas County, Wis. M.S. Thesis,
Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
Hennings, R. G. 1974. A Hydrologic Investigation of the
Pickerel Lake Basin, Portage County, Wisconsin. M.S.
Thesis, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
69
-------
Keeney, D. R. 1972. The Fate of Nitrogen in Aquatic Eco-
systems. Literature Review No. 3, Water Resources
Center, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
Keeney, D. R., R. L. Chen, and D. A. Graetz. 1971._ Im-
portance of Denitrification and Nitrate Reduction in
Sediments to the Nitrogen Budget of Lakes. Nature
233:66-67.
Lee, G. F. 1970. Eutrophication. Occasional Paper^No. 2,
Water Resources Center, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison,
Wis.
Lee, G. F. (chrm.). 1969. Report on the Nutrient Sources
of Lake Mendota. Lake Mendota Problems Committee,
Madison, Wis.
Mann, W. B. , IV, and M. S. McBride. 1972. The Hydrologic
Balance of Lake Sallie, Becker County, Minnesota.
Prof. Paper 800-D, U.S. Geologic Survey. p. D189-D191.
Possin, B. N. 1973. Hydrogeology of Mirror and Shadow Lakes
in Waupaca Co., Wisconsin. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Wiscon-
sin, Madison, Wis.
Salo, J. E. , and A. N. Cooperman. 1972. Lake Quinsigamond
Water Quality Study—1971. Pub. 6306, Massachusetts
Water Resources Com., Div. of Water Pollut. Con.
Smith, S. A., J. 0. Peterson, S. A. Nichols, and S. M. Born.
1972. Lake Deepening by Sediment Consolidation—Jyme
Lake. Univ. of Wisconsin and Wisconsin Dept. of
Natural Resources, Inland Lake Demonstration Project,
Madison, Wis.
Stephenson, D. A. 1971. Groundwater Flow System Analysis
in Lake Environments, with Management and Planning
Implications. Water Resources Bull. 7_( 5) : 1038-1047.
Vollenweider, R. A. 1968. Scientific Fundamentals of the
Eutrophication of Lakes and Flowing Waters, with Par-
ticular Reference to Nitrogen and Phosphorus as Factors
in Eutrophication. Pub. DAS/CSI/68.27, Organisation for
Economic Cooperation and Development, Directorate for
Scientific Affairs, Paris, France.
Walesh, S. G. 1966. Ground Water-Surface Water Interchange—
A Summary of Methodology. Unpub. Independent Study,
Geol. 999, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
70
-------
NUTRIENT CONTRIBUTIONS FROM SEPTIC TANKS
Traditionally, the criteria for assessing the adequacy of
septic tank/soil absorption systems have been related to
health considerations. Design specifications or conditions
for approval (permit requirements) of on-site domestic waste
treatment systems generally relate to the presence of soil
types with infiltration capacities sufficient to prevent
surface discharge of effluent and to prevent contamination
of drinking water supplies. Nutrient migration from soil
absorption fields has been of concern only recently.
A compilation and review of data describing the composition
of household wastewater are given by Ligman et al (1974).
Considering bath, toilet, kitchen and laundry, household
wastewaters contain about 6.5 kg-N and 1.5 kg-P per capita
("average adult") per year. These values were based on
fulltime occupancy, and 50% of the phosphorus originated
from the laundry. Therefore, lesser loadings would be ex-
pected for septic tanks serving seasonal lakeshore properties.
Ellis and Childs (1973) reported the phosphorus load in house-
hold wastewater to be about 0.5 kg/capita/year without laundry
and 1.6 kg/capita/year with laundry.
Nutrient attenuation in the soil absorption field is dependent
upon the loading rate, permeability and absorption capacity
of the soil, depth of overburden above the water table, and
groundwater movement in the saturated zone. Bouma et al (1972)
showed that the formation of crusts in the seepage field
greatly altered performance by reducing infiltration rates
20- to 100-fold and permitting unsaturated conditions to
persist in seepage beds. Ellis and Childs (1973) documented
the down-gradient migration of nitrate and phosphorus for dis-
tances up to 100 and 43 meters from drain fields, respectively.
Field measurements of the amount of phosphorus adsorbed
to soils in septic tank seepage beds around Houghton Lake,
Michigan are also reported by Ellis and Childs (1973). Maxi-
mum observed values for four soil types—expressed as mg-P/kg
of soil—are given below.
71
-------
Observed maximum
Soil type (mg-P/kg soil)
Rifle peat 50
Newton loamy sand ~ 120
Rubicon sand 135
Nester loam 150-300
The influence of phosphorus retention capacity on the migra-
tion of phosphorus from septic tank systems is illustrated
by the following data presented by Ellis and Childs (1973).
Each site received a "high" phosphorus loading, and the data
columns refer to values obtained within 3 m of the drainfields,
or at distances greater than 13 m from the drainfields.
Depth
(m)
0-0.3
0.3-0.7
0.7-1.0
1.0-1.3
Newton loamy
P-retention,
(3m) (
151
117
121
102
sand
mg/kg
13m)
84
79
17
18
Rifle peat
P-retention, mg/kg
(3m)
19
18
7
1H
(13m)
4
23
8
5
after Ellis and Childs (1973)
The Newton loamy sand adsorbed much of the phosphorus input
and still retained some adsorption capacity at 13 m from the
drainfield. The Rifle peat showed much lower phosphorus re-
tention, indicating that phosphorus was migrating through the
soil to the lake; this was documented by groundwater sampling.
A conservative (high) estimate of nutrient loadings to lakes
from septic tank seepage can be computed by applying the
factors 1.5 kg-P/capita/yr and 6.5 kg-N/capita/yr to each
lakeshore dwelling served by septic tank systems. These values
can be reduced, when appropriate, to account for seasonal
occupancy, lack of laundry facilities, areas where ground-
water movement is away from the lake, and phosphorus retention
capacity of soils. Phosphorus retention efficiencies range
from nearly 100% in loamy soils to almost zero for older
systems in peat or light sand.
72
-------
REFERENCES
Bouma, J., W. A. Ziebell, W. G. Walker, P. G. Olcott, E. McCoy,
and F. D. Hole. 1972. Soil Absorption of Septic Tank^
Effluent, a Field Study of Some Major Soils in Wisconsin.
Information Circular No. 20, Univ. of Wisconsin-Extension,
Madison, Wis. 235 p.
Ellis, B., and K. E. ChiIds. 1973. Nutrient Movement from
Septic Tanks and Lawn Fertilization. Tech. Bull. No. 73-5,
Dept. of Natural Resources, Lansing, Mich. 69 p.
Ligman, K., N. Hutzler, and W. C. Boyle. 1974. Household
Wastewater Characterization. J. Environ. Engr. Div., ASCE.
100(EE1):201-213.
73
-------
ATMOSPHERIC CONTRIBUTIONS OF NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS
Data were compiled which describe the quantity of nitrogen
and phosphorus contributed annually via bulk precipitation
at locations throughout the continental United States. Bulk
precipitation is defined to include rainfall, snowfall, and
dry fallout (dust fall). All data were converted to a rate
of nutrient input expressed in kg/ha/yr. Data presented
originally as nutrient concentrations in rainfall were con-
verted by multiplying the concentrations by appropriate
conversion factors and the 30-year average rainfall for that
location as compiled and published in the National Atlas by
the U.S. Geological Survey for the years 1935-1965. A large
amount of nitrogen data was found. However, because of the
scarcity of phosphorus data specific to the United States,_
data for other locations were included as well. Lake loading
values can be computed by multiplying the tabulated coefficients
by the surface area of a lake.
Two related approaches were utilized in this phase of the
study: 1) a compilation of data for specific locations and
2) a cartographic approach based on nitrogen concentrations
in precipitation.
FACTORS AFFECTING NUTRIENT CONTENT OF BULK PRECIPITATION
The .majority of authors found that a simple parts-per-million
measurement of the constituents of rain was a less accurate
prediction of eventual total contribution of nutrients than
such factors as geographic location, agricultural land use,
and season. Two prominent authors, Yaalon (196M-) and Junge
(1958), have suggested a relationship between acidity and
temperature of the soil and total final contribution. Unfor-
tunately, each study seems to suggest correlations and
hypotheses distinct to that area of study.
In an early study in Ottawa, Shutt (1925) reported that "there
was no direct proportionality between the volume of rainfall
or snowfall and the quantity of nitrogen furnished annually
per acre." Since then, numerous confirming studies have been
-------
reported. Matheson (1951) concluded there "were no simple
correlations with atmospheric conditions" in his study in
Hamilton, Ontario. Gambell and Fisher (1966) found similar
results in Virginia and concluded "no single present theory
seems adequate to explain the characteristics shown by the
network NO3 data." Allen et al (1968) also confirmed this
lack of correlation from studies in England where he found
"periods of very high rainfall are associated with greater
quantities of the elements but that the converse is also
true I can see no consistent pattern in months'
fluctuations across sites in either occurrences or magni-
tudes." The only study that proposed a correlation (r = 0.91)
was conducted by Chojnachi and M. Kac Kacas (1966) in the
Pulway Region of the Soviet Union. Unfortunately, only the
abstract has been translated into English.
This lack of correlation is the result of many factors, and
dry fallout appears to be of critical importance. Whitehead
and Feth (1964) estimated that between four to ten times the
nutrient content of rain falls as bulk precipitation.
Eriksson (1952), after exhaustive testing in Scandinavia,
concluded that fallout may contribute three times as much
nitrogen as precipitation. Matheson (1951) determined that
dry fallout comprises 4-0% of the total nitrogen contribution
from the atmosphere for Canada, while Junge (1958) estimated
that 70% of the atmospheric nitrogen contribution in arid
climates comes from dry fallout. Kluesener (1972) found
that for Madison, Wisconsin the nitrogen contribution from
dry fallout is double that of precipitation, while for phos-
phorus it is up to three times that of rainfall.
Distribution of precipitation between rain and snow has also
been cited as an important factor. Shutt (1925) and Barica
and Armstrong (1971) in their Canadian studies found that
snow contributions were considerable and that concentrations
in snow (water equivalent) may be significantly higher than
in rain. In their findings snow contributed from one-fourth
to over one-half of the total, although snow comprised a far
smaller proportion of total precipitation.
Gore (1968) analyzed rainfall over a six-year period_at Moor
House in northern England, and presented data which illustrate
annual variations at one site.
75
-------
Year
1959-60
1960-61
1961-62
1962-63
1963-64
1964-65
Ave
Rain
cm
179
191
203
186
179
176
186
Inorganic-N
kg/ha/yr
-
-
10.7
12.5
14.5
18.6
14.0
Total-P
kg/ha/yr
0.3
0.9
0.3
1.8
0.6
1.1
0.8
after Gore (1968)
Another study conducted in England by Allen et al (1968)
illustrates geographical variations in atmospheric contri-
butions of nitrogen and phosphorus.
Study site
40 km from sea
( 8 km from chemical plant)
Forested lake district
15 km from sea
Open moorland
19 km from North Sea
Coniferous forest
8 km from North Seas
Rain
cm/yr
95
174
162
172
95
116
Nutrient contributions
kg/ha/yr
Total-N Total-P
19.0 0.8
0.3
9.5 0.4
8.7 0.3
8.9 0.2
13.0 0.8
after Allen et al (1968)
The contribution of phosphorus via bulk precipitation has been
studied less intensively than nitrogen because, for both agri-
culture and lake management, other sources of phosphorus are
likely to be more important. Schraufnagel et al (1967) esti-
mated that only 1.2% of the phosphorus found in Wisconsin waters
was contributed by precipitation, and Sridharan (1972) estimated
that the contribution of phosphorus via bulk precipitation in
76
-------
Green Bay was only .5% of the total. Gore (1968) noted that
the scarcity of data resulted from the relative unimportance
of atmospheric sources and aerial pathways of nutrients and
that limited research has generated "insufficient data" so
far, to draw conclusions as to the possible sources of rain-
water phosphorus. From a study of two sites in England he
speculated that possible extraneous sources were household
dust and smoke.
In addition to scarcity of data, sampling problems and tem-
poral and regional variations of phosphorus concentration in
precipitation complicate data interpretation. Gore (1968)
reported that phosphorus utilization by microorganisms can
result in a 30% underestimation of the phosphorus content
unless a preservative such as iodine is added to sampling
vessels. He also reported that bird defecation causes serious
sampling problems.
Several researchers reported considerable seasonal variations
in the phosphorus content of rain. Reimbold and Daiber (1967)
sampled rainfall in Delaware and found phosphorus concentra-
tions in summer to be more than 20 times those found in late
winter and spring.They attributed these variations to "unusual
phosphorus cycles found in the bay areas and marshes along the
eastern United States." They also stress the influence of
agricultural activity during spring planting and of dust from
unpaved roads. Tamm (1951) also identified these contributory
factors. Allen et al (1968) found peak concentration to occur
in December, March and June in England, and also noted that
"the phosphorus quantity showed no consistent close relation-
ship with the quantity of rain, except occasionally for the
extremely high and low rainfalls." Kluesener (1972) conducted
studies in Wisconsin and found that highest concentrations
occurred in May which he attributed to seeds, birds, and
pollen. In England, Carlisle et al (1966) also identified
these sources as contributing to increases in phosphorus con-
centrations. Particularly high concentrations, about 5 times
those reported in most Western countries, were reported by
Vijayalakshmi and Pandalai (1962) in India during the monsoon
season.
Although considerable differences were noted between findings
of the various investigators, there are some areas in which
consensus has been reached. It is generally agreed that storms
and prevailing winds off the ocean are low in phosphorus con-
tent and that the major source of phosphorus in rainfall is
from dust generated over the land. Urbanization and indus-
trialization are cited by Voigt (I960) and others as major
contributors. Soil erosion, industrial ash, and smoke are
also commonly listed.
77
-------
Unfortunately, data interpretation is complicated by sig-
nificant differences which exist between the various studies
reported. In some, only the contribution from rainfall was
measured; gaging instruments were closed during periods of
no rain. Others used open gages that measured both dustfall
and rainfall, and some were constructed to handle snowfall.
In addition, techniques for chemical analyses have changed
considerably during the time span of the reported studies ,
which greatly complicates data interpretation; only recent
papers express concern for nitrogen loss through denitrifica-
tion, or shifts in chemical species during sample storage
prior to analysis.
Data describing atmospheric contributions of nitrogen and
phosphorus are summarized in Tables 17 and 18 respectively.
These tables contain more than 125 determinations of the
annual atmospheric contribution of nitrogen in its various
forms at some 60 locations in the United States and Canada
and over 33 values of phosphorus loadings throughout the
World. These represent the measurements of more than 50
scientists over a period of 50 years and can be taken as
independent data points for checking the reasonableness of
estimations presented in this paper and of any on-site experi-
mental results of nitrogen and phosphorus contribution from
the atmosphere. Care, however, must be taken to incorporate
the information provided in the footnotes for these tables
because only then are the numbers comparable.
CARTOGRAPHIC PRESENTATION OF NITROGEN CONTRIBUTIONS
FROM PRECIPITATION
The most comprehensive research regarding the nitrogen content
of rainfall was reported by Junge (1958). In this paper, he
reported concentrations of nitrate and ammonia at over 60 gaging
stations across'the United States. Data were grouped into
seasonal concentrations of four three-month periods over the
year from July 1955 to July 1956. The study was designed so
that results would be comparable with those found by Eriksson
(1952) in his investigations of precipitation in Scandinavia.
As a result, gages were located at U.S. weather stations away
from large urban areas and industrial sites and were designed
to record only precipitation and not bulk fallout. They were
also equipped with a heating device to melt ice and snow.
A common problem in gaging experiments of this type is to keep
organic matter out of the collection receptors (Gore, 1968).
The primary source for such organic matter is bird droppings,
78
-------
Table 17. ATMOSPHERIC CONTRIBUTIONS OF NITROGEN3
Study
Rainfall
cm
-J
to
Northeastern U.S.
Windsor, Conn
Washington, B.C.
New Brunswick, N.J.
New Jersey
Albany, N.Y.
Geneva, N.Y.
Geneva, N.Y.
Ithaca, N.Y.
Ithaca, N.Y.
Ithaca, N.Y.
Southeastern U.S.
Tallahassee, Fla
Cape Hatteras, N.C.
Cape Hatteras, N.C.
(120 mi at sea)
Greenville, N.C.
N. Carolina - high
N. Carolina - ave
N. Carolina - low
N. Carolina-Virginia
Roanoke, Va
140
137
121
119
121
127
N contribution in kg/ha/yr
N03-N NIU-NTotal N
4.5
Reference
105
115
91
100
100
100
75
5
5
8
6
1
1
8
.1
.6
.4
.7
.1
.4
. 0
0.
5.
3.
1.
8.
4.
4.
6
6
3
5
6
5
1
9.2
10.1
2.3
3.2
0.5
8.0
2.71
l.?l
0. 51
1.4
8.9
0. 8
1.2
1.0
1.3
0.51
2J_|
• T
Jacobson et al (1948)
Junge £ Werby (1958)
Prince et al (1941)
Malo & Purvis (1964)
Junge £ Werby (1958)
Collison et al (1933)
Bizzell (1944)
Wilson (1921)
Leland (1952)
Buckman £ Brady (1961)
Junge £
Junge £
Gambell
Junge £
Gambell
Gambell
Gambell
Gambell
Junge £
Werby (1958)
Werby (1958)
£ Fisher (1964!
Werby (1958)
£ Fisher (1966;
£ Fisher (1966;
£ Fisher (1966;
£ Fisher (1964;
Werby (1958)
-------
Table 17 continued. ATMOSPHERIC CONTRIBUTIONS OF NITROGENa
CO
o
Rainfall N contribution in
Study
Midwest U.S.
Urbana, 111
Urbana, 111
Indianapolis , Ind
Kentucky
Kentucky
Duluth, Minn
Columbia, Mo
Columbia, Mo
Cincinnati, Ohio
Coshocton, Ohio
Coshocton, Ohio
Coshocton, Ohio
Coshocton, Ohio
Hancock, Wis
LaCrosse, Wis
LaCrosse, Wis
Madison, Wis
Madison, Wis
Madison, Wis
Madison, Wis
Madison, Wis
cm
94
94
100
112
80
. 102
102
110
78
89
89
93
45
43
116
44
102
107
90
-
N03-N NHi,-N
2.3 0.7
4.6 2.1
8.0
0.8
1.8 1.9-4.7
8.7 3.5
0.2-15.4°
17.5°
20.0°
20. Oc
20. 9C
3.1 2.8
6.5b 6.8b
kg/ha/yr
Total N
1.7
22.4b
4.1
7.2
9.6
4.5
19.6
16.7
7.7
23. Ob
Reference
Junge & Werby (1958)
Larson & Hettick (1956)
Junge 6 Werby (1958)
Freeman (1924)
Johnson (1925)
Putnam S Olson (1960)
Junge S Werby (1958)
Woodruff (1949)-
Weibel et al (1964)
Taylor et al (1971)
Taylor et al (1971)
Taylor et al (1971)
Taylor et al (1971)
Shah (1962)
Shah (1962)
Shah (1962)
Shah (1962)
Shah (1962)
Shah (1962)
Kluesener (1972)
Kluesener (1972)
-------
Table 17 continued. ATMOSPHERIC CONTRIBUTIONS OF NITROGENa
CO
Study
Rainfall
cm
Midwest U.S. con't
Marshfield, Wis
Marshfield, Wis
Milwaukee, Wis
Sturgeon Bay, Wis
West-Central Wis •
rural
West-Central Wis •
urban
H West/Southwest U.S.
Fresno, Calif
Riverside, Calif
San Diego, Calif
Grand Junction, Colo
Glasgow, Mont
Ely, Nev
Guthrie, Okla
Goodwell, Okla
Oklahoma
Amarillo, Tex
Brownsville, Tex
Tacoma, Wash
69
86
52
100
90
90
N contribution in kg/ha/yr
N03-N NH4-N Total N
4.2
13.1
4.4
18.5
Reference
Shah (1962)
Shah (1962)
Shah (1962)
Shah (1962)
2.8-3.5b 2.9-12.2b 13.2-30.lb Hoeft (1971)
3.7b
1.6
3.6b
4.1
28
23
38
38
75
46
50
53
64
203
1.9
1.3
3.3
0.7
1.1
0.6
0.8
2.0
2.5
4.6
2.4
0.6
2.2
1.0
1.2
1.4
0.8
13.5b Hoeft (1971)
Junge 8 Werby (1958)
9.0-14.6 Broadbent 8 Chapman (1950)
Junge 8 Werby (1958)
Junge 8 Werby (1958)
Junge 8 Werby (1958)
Junge 8 Werby (1958)
Daniel et al (1938)
Finnel & Houghton (1931)
Finnel & Houghton (1931)
Junge & Werby (1958)
Junge & Werby (1958)
Junge 8 Werby (1958)
-------
Table 17 continued. ATMOSPHERIC CONTRIBUTIONS OF NITROGEN*
oo
N3
Study
Canada
Hamilton, Ont
Hamilton, Ont
Ottawa, Ont
Ottawa, Ont
Ottawa, Ont
Ottawa, Ont
Northwest Ontario
Northwest Ontario
Rainfall
cm
60
62
(snow)
snow
snow
N contribution in kg/ha/yr
N03-N
1.8
3 . 7b
2.4
2.0
0.5
NIU-N Total N
3.2
6.5b
5.0
4.4
0.8
4 . 4b 7 . 8b
(4.3)d
(5.8b)d
Reference
Matheson (1951)
Matheson (1951)
Buckman & Brady (1961)
Shutt S Hedley (1925)
Shutt £ Hedley (1955)
Shutt (1925)
Barica S Armstrong (1971)
Armstrong 8 Shindler( 1971)
Footnotes:
a - Unless noted, all values are for rainfall only.
b - bulk precipitation
c - NO3 + NHi,
d - data for 4 months only
-------
Table 18. ATMOSPHERIC CONTRIBUTIONS OF PHOSPHORUS3
CD
co
Study
North America
New Haven, Conn
Delaware
Cincinnati, Ohio
Kent, Ohio
Northwest Ontario
Northwest Ontario
Green Bay, Wis
Madison, Wis
Madison, Wis
Other
Australia, Melbourne
Czechoslovakia
England
England
England - high
England - ave
England - low
France
Gambia
Rainfall
cm
100
P contribution
kg/ha/yr
Inorganic Total
Reference
snow
snow
0.18
0.33b
0.10 Voigt (1960)
0.56 Reimbold & Daiber (1967)
0.80 Weibel et al (1966)
0.14- Cooke et al (1973)
(0.40b)c Armstrong & Shindler (1971)
(0.27b)c Barica 8 Armstrong (1971)
0.08 Sridharan (1972)
0.23 Kluesener (1972)
1.02°
0. 30
0.07-0.16
0.20
O.U3
1.09
0.85
0.12
0.40
0.17
Kluesener (1972)
Attwill (1966)
Chalupa (1960)
Allen et al (1968)
Carlisle et al (1966)
Gore (1968)
tt it
Tl It
Farrugia (1960)
Thornton (1965)
-------
Table 18 continued. ATMOSPHERIC CONTRIBUTIONS OF PHOSPHORUS*
00
Study
Rainfall
cm
Other con't
Germany
Ghana
India, Kerala
Italy
Nigeria
Russia, Voronezh
Scandinavia
Scandinavia
South Africa, Natal
P contribution
kg/ha/yr
InorganicTotal
100
0.13
3.3
4.75
1.6-2.0
0.4-2.6
0.3
0.15-0.50
1.0
8.0
Reference
Ottermann £ Krzysch (1965)
Nye (1961)
Vijayalakshmi 6
Pandalai (1962)
Imporato (1964)
Jones (1960)
Sviridova (1960)
Tamm (1951)
Tamm (1953)
Ingham (1943)
a - Unless noted, all values are for rainfall only.
b - bulk precipitation
c - data for four winter months only
-------
which has forced many investigators to construct elaborate
gaging vessels that must be continually cleaned and checked
for the presence of bird defecation by testing for abnormally
high phosphorus concentrations. This care is important
because not only will the presence of such matter give very
high ammonia readings, but it also increases the chances for
denitrification to occur. Junge (1958) avoided problems of
bird waste by having the collectors covered except during
the time of actual precipitation, which accounts for the
absence of dry fallout information also. Denitrification
was kept to a minimum by using plastic containers which per-
mitted exchange of oxygen, and samples were stored no longer
than 30 days prior to analysis.
Consideration of factors which could potentially influence
Junge's results leads to the conclusion that, if the data
are not truly representative, they are biased toward under-
estimating the nitrogen content of rainfall.
One possible source of error results from the manual operation
of the rain gages. Individuals housed at the gage sites were
to keep the gages covered until the rains began, at which
point the sampling vessels were to be uncovered. However,
as Gambell and Fisher (1964) and others have pointed out, the
concentration of nutrients in rain water, especially ammonia,
is highest at the beginning of storms and declines very rapidly
thereafter. Gambell and Fisher found very rapid washout in
the first minutes of a storm when ammonia concentration dropped
from 8 to 1 ppm. This phenomenon was especially pronounced
in storms of high turbulence and intensity. Angstrom and
Hoberg (1952) described this decline in concentration as an
exponential reduction with time. Therefore, it would appear
that even if the gages were left covered for only a short time
at the beginning of storms, considerable ammonia could have
been lost.
Site location could also significantly influence results.
Hoeft (1971) showed that the proximity to agricultural animal
concentrations is a dominant factor in nutrient contributions.
Also, organic nitrogen is relatively high in these situations.
Junge located his collection sites at the outskirts of urban
areas and in small towns to avoid industrial concentrations.
These sites were probably located near sparse animal concen-
trations. Therefore, in states with high animal concentrations
in the rural areas, Junge's data probably underestimate the
nutrient contribution from the atmosphere.
85
-------
Junge's results were presented in map form with isobars
separating the country into regions of uniform concentration
of nitrogen in precipitation. Each map represented a three-
month period, and nitrate and ammonia were mapped separately.
These concentrations were converted to loadings (kg/ha/yr)
in this study by using 30-year averages for monthly precipi-
tation at the sampling sites. It should be noted that in
some instances exact sampling locations are not given in the
1958 paper of Junge and Werby or in three previous papers,
Junge (1956), (1958a), (1958b), which describe the methodology
for the project.
Loadings for nitrate and ammonia were computed separately and
then combined to cover a one-year period. These combined
data points were transferred to a map (Figure 2 ) and isobars
of equal contributions in terms of kg/ha/yr were drawn under
the assumption of linear transformation between data points.
The gradient between isolines is 0.5 kg/ha/yr. This increment
was selected to show the relative pattern of loadings ; the
approach used is not sufficiently accurate to justify further
interpolation. These patterns are suggestive of general
input distribution but may be subject to considerable local
variation.
Based on Figure 2, the region bordering the southern Great
Lakes receives the largest input of nitrogen from atmospheric
sources, and loading values on the order of 3.0-3.5 kg N/ha/yr
were calculated. However, as discussed above, it is likely
that the values shown in this figure are underestimates of
the actual loading. Dry fallout was not included in the
calculations, and it has been estimated that this factor
could account for 40-90% of the nitrogen input (Hoeft, 1971;
Kluesener, 1972). A comparison of the loading rates shown
in Figure 2 with the data in Table 17 shows considerable dis-
crepancies at some locations and, in general, it appears that
the loading rates shown in Figure 2 are low by a factor of
3 or 4. If this is the case, then the Great Lakes region
of the United States may receive an atmospheric contribution
of nitrogen at a rate of about 10 kg/ha/yr. This corresponds
to the permissible loading rate of 1.0 g/m2/yr for lakes with
mean depths less than 5 meters (Vollenweider, 1968). It
would appear, therefore, that for this region of the country,
it may be extremely difficult to limit the influx of nitrogen
to levels considered permissible or satisfactory from the
standpoint of controlling eutrophication in shallow lakes
because atmospheric contributions alone could be large.
86
-------
2.0 kg/ha/yr
00
-0
Fig. 2. NITROGEN CONTRIBUTIONS
(N03-N & NH^-N) FROM RAINFALL
-------
Although Figure 2 gives only a general estimate of atmospheric
nitrogen contributions, some guidelines are available for
judging the significance of local conditions. Parameters for
these locational variations cannot be identified with sufficient
precision to predict the magnitude of a specific influence;
however, enough is known from the literature to permit the
construction of a matrix indicating the direction of change
resulting from identifiable factors. In this manner, Table 19
may be used as a guide for refining local estimations in the
absence of direct measurements. Approximately forty factors
which influence atmospheric contributions are listed. A "+"
sign indicates that the presence of a given condition tends
to give higher nutrient inputs via bulk precipitation, a "-"
sign indicates lower inputs, and a "0" is used to indicate
no effect. A discussion of many of these factors is given
by Kluesener (1972).
A comparison of factors listed in Table 19 suggests that atmo-
spheric contributions of both nitrogen and phosphorus are
likely to increase in the future. Agricultural and industrial
development, activities certain to increase, tend to increase
atmospheric nutrient contributions, whereas factors which lead
to lower contributions are primarily natural phenomena, not
likely to change and generally beyond the control of man.
This trend is also supported somewhat by data presented in
this report. Of the five study sites where studies were con-
ducted for prolonged periods, higher contributions were
detected in later years in all instances. Also, the station
of longest continuing record at Ottawa, Canada was abandoned
because encroaching industry, intensive agriculture and urban
development gave rise to nutrient concentrations higher than
those recorded in the past. This may have been the result
of truly local influences; however, it may also be indicative
of more general trends. Nevertheless, atmospheric contribu-
tions of nitrogen and phosphorus appear to be more significant
than is generally recognized with respect to control of lake
eutrophication, and these contributions are likely to be
larger in the future.
88
-------
co
to
Table 19 . INFLUENCE OF LOCAL CONDITIONS ON NUTRIENT
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ATMOSPHERE
Condition
1. Existence of intensive
agriculture
2. Animal feedlots and/or
high local agricul-
Nitrogen
+
+
Influence on
Reference
Attshuller '58
Mattson et al '5
Yaalon '64
Hoeft '71
Hoeft et al '72
atmospheric contribution
Phosphorus
5 +
Reference
Reimbold et al
Carlisle et al
'67
'66
tural animal pop
3. Industrial activity
Hutchenson e.a.'69
Firbas '52
Junge '58
Mattson et
Shutt '25
Voigt '60
al '55
U. Urbanization
5. Automobile concen-
tration
6. Power plants and/or ex-
plosives factories,
fertilizer factories
7. Solid waste disposal
plants and sites
Eriksson '52
Firbas '52
Gorham '61
Shutt '25
Voigt '60
Harkins et
Myers '70
al '67
Junge '56
Shy et al '70
Myers '70
-------
Table 19 continued. INFLUENCE OF LOCAL CONDITIONS ON NUTRIENT
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ATMOSPHERE
Influence on atmospheric contribution
Condition
8. Heavy precipitation in
given year relative
to previous years
9. Duration of in-
dividual storms
10. Predominance of short
intense rainfalls
11. Frequent presence of
Q fog and dew
12. Thunderstorms
prevalent
Nitrogen
13. Inshore ocean winds
Reference
Chilingar '56
Chojnacki '64
Daniel et al
Matheson '51
Phosphorus
38
Kluesener '72
Angstrom et al
Wetselaar et al
'52
'63
At twill
Matheson
'66
'51
Eriksson '52
Gambell '63
Gambell et al '64
Gambell et al '66
Hutchinson '57
Junge '58
Virtanen '52
Eriksson '52
Gambell '63
Gambell et al '64
Gambell et al '66
Hutchinson '57
Junge '58
Lodge et al '68
Reference
Allen et al '68
Vijayalakshmi e.a.'62
Reimbold et al '67
-------
CD
Table 19 continued. INFLUENCE OF LOCAL CONDITIONS ON NUTRIENT
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ATMOSPHERE
Condition
Influence on atmospheric contribution
Nitrogen
14. Turbulent storms
(create dust prior
to rain)
15. Distance inland from
major body of water
16. Predominance of snow
as form of
precipitation
17. Arid conditions -
dry soil
18. Tropical conditions
19. Polar conditions
20. Variations in yearly
temperature of soil
(highest contributions
from warming soils)
21. Saturated, poorly
areated soil
22. High exchange capacity
of soils
Reference
Gambell et al '66
Kluesener '72
Gambell et al '66
Junge '58
Thornton '65
Barica et al '71
Herman et al '57
Kluesener '72
Shutt '25
Attshuller '58
Junge '58
Angstrom et al '52
Angstrom et al '52
Lodge et al '68
Allison '55
Yaalon '64
Attshuller '58
Allison '55
Phosphorus
Reference
Thornton '65
Vijayalakshmi e.a.'62
-------
Table 19 continued. INFLUENCE OF LOCAL CONDITIONS ON NUTRIENT
CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ATMOSPHERE
Influence on atmospheric contribution
Condition
Nitrogen
23. pH of soil
Alkaline
Acid
24. Weathered soil,
especially prairie
25. Soils with high humus
content
26. Tidal marshes
27. Forested areas
28. Unpaved roads
29. Prevalence of grass
and forest fires
30. Heavy bird populations
31. Northern latitude
32. High altitude
•f
+
Reference
Allison '55
Junge '58
Kluesener '72
Malo et al '64
Allison '55
Bizzell '43
Allison '55
Attshuller '58
Yaalon '64
Tamm !51
Voigt '60
Gore '68
Shutt '25
Gore '68
Junge '58
Junge '58
Phosphorus
Reference
Reimbold et al '67
Carlisle et al '66
Tamm '51
Reimbold et al '67
Thornton '65
-------
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Precipitation in Wisconsin. M.S. Thesis, Soils Dept.,
Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
Shutt F T 1925. Report of the Dominion Chemist for Year
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Agriculture, Domion of Canada. p. 68-74.
Shutt F. T., and B. Hedley. 1925. The Nitrogen Compounds in
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19:1-10.
97
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Shy, C. M. , J. P. Creason, M. E. Pearlman, K. E. McClain,
F. B. Benson, and M. M. Young. 1970. The Chattanooga
School Children's Study: Effects of Community Exposure
to Nitrogen Dioxide. Part I - Methods; Description of
Pollutant Exposure and Results of Ventilatory Function
Testing. J. Air Pollut. Con. Assoc. 20 :539-545.
Shy, C. M. , J. P. Creason, M. E. Pearlman, K. E. McClain,
F. B. Benson, and M. M. Young. 1970. The Chattanooga
School Children's Study: Effects of Community Exposure
to Nitrogen Dioxide. Part II - Incidence of Acute
Respiratory Illness. J. Air Pollut. Con. Assoc. 20:
582-588.
Sridharan, N. 1972. Aqueous Environmental Chemistry of
Phosphorus in Lower Green Bay, Wisconsin. Ph.D. Thesis,
Water Chemistry Dept, , Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
Sviridova, I. K. 1960. Results of a Study of the Leaching
of Nitrogen and Mineral Elements by Rain from the Crowns
of Tree Species. Dokl. akad. nauk 133:706-708.
Tamm, C. 0. 1951. Removal of Plant Nutrients from Tree Crowns
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Tamm, C. 0. 1953. Growth Yields and Nutrition in Carpets
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1-140.
Taylor, A. W. , W. M. Edwards, and E. C. Simpson. 1971.
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98
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99
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SUMMARY
It is apparent from the data tabulated in this report that con-
siderable variation exists in the quantities of nutrients that
are exported from "similar" areas devoted to the same use. In
considering the contributions of nutrients from diffuse sources,
and considering the flow of water to be the primary transport
mechanism, it would be expected that important contributing
factors would include:
1. General topography, particularly contour.
2. Precipitation characteristics, including: total annual
amount; seasonal distribution; duration, frequency and intensity
of storms; and snowfall/runoff.
3. Soil properties, including: chemical exchange characteris-
tics, mineral composition, grain size distribution, antecedent
soil moisture, and hydraulic properties such as permeability.
4. Vegetative cover, including: type, density and permanence.
5. Manipulative practices, such as paving, plowing, flooding,
and fertilizing.
6. Animal populations—type and density.
Other factors could also be identified, but of those listed,
only the latter three groups relate directly to land use.
Although topography, precipitation, and soil characteristics
influence to some extent the use which is made of particular
lands, these factors generally do not impose restrictions that
severely limit the range of possible uses. Therefore, land use
designations do not account for these parameters, and additional
studies are needed to develop techniques for including them in
the estimation procedure. This could be accomplished by refined
subdivision of drainage areas and the measurement of corre-
sponding nutrient loss or, possibly, by the development of
guidelines for selecting appropriate nutrient flux coefficients
which incorporate these parameters in addition to land use
information.
Those data most applicable for estimating nutrient loadings from
non-point sources are listed below and referenced to tables
included in the previous sections.
100
-------
Contributions from: Tables Pages
Diffuse sources:
agricultural lands 9 36-38
urban areas 11 ^9
forested lands 13 58
wetlands and marshes 60-61
Groundwater transport 62-68
Bulk precipitation 17 & 18 79-84
Miscellaneous:
manure handling 40-42
animal populations 10 41
septic tanks 71-72
Based on the results of nutrient transport studies reported
here, there appears to be little justification for the delinea-
tion of land usage within direct drainage basins beyond four_
categories: urban, forested, agricultural, and wetlands. With
one possible exception—agricultural lands, the available data
are too fragmentary and variable to warrant further specifica-
tion of use categories. Armstrong et al (1974) estimated that
on the basis of surface runoff studies, agricultural lands could
be further subdivided and thet the following flux coefficients
might be considered "average" values.
Nitrogen loss, Phosphorus loss,
kg-N/ha/yr kg-P/ha/yr
N03+NHi+ Total-N Piss Inorg Total-P
Row crops
Close-grown crops
Pasture £ meadow
Idle (fallow) land
1.6
1.7
2.3
3.9
37.
15.
2.5
67.
0.21
0.13
0.22
0.05
1.62
0.47
0.24
1.23
after Armstrong et al (1974)
The coefficients for the soluble inorganic nutrient forms compare
reasonably well with corresponding values determined from stream-
flow studies. However, the coefficients for runoff of total N
and total P are much larger than those determined by streamflow
studies, and the usefulness of these data for purposes of esti-
mating lake loadings is questionable.
101
-------
Nutrient runoff values for urban, forested and agricultural
areas (streamflow studies only) are plotted in Figures 3b,
3c and 3d, respectively. Figure 3a is a plot of the baseline
conditions and key, which are used to provide a perspective
for the runoff data. Throughout the discussion which follows ,
only diffuse sources of nutrients are considered; atmospheric
input is ignored; and it is assumed that drainage basins are
devoted to only one use.
The abscissa for all plots is nitrogen export from watershed
areas in kg/ha/yr; ordinate values are the ratio of nitrogen
export/phosphorus export. The plotted data points refer to
paired values of dissolved inorganic phosphorus and nitrate
plus ammonia-nitrogen (open circles) or total phosphorus and
total nitrogen (solid circles).
For discussion purposes, the plots are subdivided by horizon-
tal and radial lines. The horizontal lines define areas where
N/P > 15, 15 > N/P > 10, and N/P < 10. Based on the nutri-
tional requirements of algae, it might be expected that algal
populations in lakes which receive nutrient loadings with
N/P > 15 would tend to be phosphorus-limited. Conversely, if
N/P < 10, nitrogen limitation might be expected. Obviously,
this is a gross simplification which applies to lake environ-
ments in only a cursory way; but the concept is used here to
illustrate some of the differences and similarities of runoff
waters from lands of various use categories.
The radial lines on the plots are based on a "permissible"
specific lake loading rate of 1.5 g-N/m2/yr and 0.1 g-P/m2/yr
(these rates are equivalent to 15 kg-N/ha/yr and 1.0 kg-P/
ha/yr). Each radial line refers to a given ratio of direct
drainage basin area/lake surface area, and lines for ratios
of 1, 3, 5, 10, and 50 are shown. Data points which lie to the
right (clockwise) of any radial line refer to loading rates
which would exceed both permissible loading limits given above;
points to the left of any radial line refer to loading rates
which are less than these limits.
For example, the open data point in Figure 3a corresponds to
nutrient flux coefficients of about 3 kg-N/ha/yr and a coef-
ficient ratio, N/P, of about 23 (i.e., a phosphorus loss of
about 3/23 = 0.13 kg-P/ha/yr). The location of the point on
the plot indicates that flux coefficients of this magnitude
would result in permissible loading rates in those situations
where basin areas are only 5 times as large as the receiving
lake; but the permissible loading limit would be exceeded if
the basin areas are 10 or more times as large as the lake.
102
-------
H
o
CO
ro
in
O
rH
CO
O
.C
PL,
w
O
x:
DL,
\
en
w
o
0)
bO
O
k
•p
•H
N/P =
o
_o N/P
-M
&,
= 10
Total N£P
O Dissolved Inorganic NSP
X^^iP-Limit at ion
Figure 3a.
0 2 14 6 8 10
Nitrogen loss in kg/ha/yr
FORMAT FOR COMPARING NUTRIENT RUNOFF COEFFICIENTS
-------
o
-p
Figure 3b.
6 8
Nitrogen loss in kg/ha/yr
NUTRIENT EXPORT FROM URBAN AREAS
10
12
-------
Figure 3c
U 6 8
Nitrogen loss in kg/ha/yr
NUTRIENT EXPORT FROM. FORESTED LANDS
10
12
-------
<3
O
cn
Figure 3d.
4 6 8 10
Nitrogen loss in kg/ha/yr
NUTRIENT LXPORT FROM AGRICULTURAL LANDS
12
-------
In addition, the runoff would be relatively rich in nitrogen
so that there may be a tendency toward phosphorus limitation
in the receiving waters.
Runoff coefficients for urban areas are plotted in Figure 3b. ^
Although only six data points are available, this plot dramati-
cally illustrates the very fertile nature of urban runoff. Not
only is this runoff very high in phosphorus on a relative basis,
it is also high in both nitrogen and phosphorus in absolute
terms. Very small drainage areas—basin-to-lake area ratios
of unity or less—are sufficient to provide excessive amounts
of nutrients.
In comparison, nutrient runoff from forested lands (Figure 3c)
is far less intense. Considering only dissolved inorganic
nutrient forms, runoff from forested areas would not approach
the specified loading limit unless the drainage area was more
than 10 times as large as the lake and, in some cases, area
ratios as large as 40 would not cause excessive loadings. It
is interesting to note that the soluble inorganic constituents
of forest drainage are high in nitrogen relative to phosphorus,
whereas the opposite is true for the majority of cases when
total nutrient forms are considered.
A greater degree of variability is shown by the data from
agricultural drainage studies (Fig. 3d). On a relative basis,
most studies showed that agricultural drainage was^high in
nitrogen. Considering only soluble inorganic nutrient forms,
basin/lake area ratios as small as 2 or as large as 40 resulted
in nutrient runoff values that approached the permissible limit
specified.
Table 20 gives nutrient flux coefficients which might be con-
sidered to be high, low, or average values. These values were
obtained by averaging and comparing available coefficients
without regard to geographical location. Thus, the specification
of high or low values is relative to the other numbers in the
data set, and these numbers do not necessarily apply to all
portions of the country. For example, the average runoff coef-
ficient given for dissolved inorganic phosphorus from agricul-
tural lands is 0.1 kg/ha/yr. However, for the upper Midwest,
it would be expected that the "average" runoff coefficient would
be much closer to 0.5 kg/ha/yr, the high value listed in Table
9.
It is apparent that nitrogen export from diffuse sources is far
less variable than phosphorus runoff. Ignoring land use cate-
gories, flux coefficients for total nitrogen vary by a factor
of 10, and soluble inorganic nitrogen values vary by a factor
of 20. In comparison, corresponding values for phosphorus vary
107
-------
Table 20. TYPICAL VALUES OF NUTRIENT RUNOFF COEFFICIENTS
NOa-N+NH^-N
kg/ha/yr
Land use
Urban
Forests
Agricultural
Hig
5.
3.
10.
jh
0
0
0
Low
1
0
1
Diss
.0
.5
.0
Ave
2.
1.
5.
0
6
0
High
10
5
10
.0
.0
.0
inorg-P
kg/ha/yr
Urban
Forests
Agricultural
Hig
2.
0.
0.
h
MM
0
1
5
"Low
0
0
0
.5
.01
.05
Ave
1.
0.
0.
0
05
1
Hi
^HBIBM
5
0
1
gh
.0
.8
.0
Total-N
kg/ha/yr
Low
2.5
1.0
2.0
Total-P
kg/ha/yr
Low
1.0
0.05
0.1
Ave
5.
2.
5.
0
5
0
Ave
1.
0.
0.
5
2
3
by factors of 100 and 200. However, variation within land use
categories is smaller—nitrogen values vary by factors of about
5; phosphorus values vary by factors of 10.
The high and low runoff coefficients can be used to define ratios
of drainage basin area/lake area for which 1) permissible loading
levels would almost certainly be exceeded (low coefficient) and
2) ratios for which loadings would almost certainly be less than
permissible limits (high coefficients). Using the same per-
missible loading levels as above—1.5 g-N/m2/yr and 0.1 g-P/m2/yr-
and considering only dissolved inorganic nutrient forms, this
approach yields the following extreme ratios of basin area/lake
area for which:
t-N loading would be:
below limit above limit
Urban
Forests
Agricultural
3
5
1.5
15
30
15
Dissolved inorganic phosphorus loadings would be
below limit above limit
Urban
Forests
Agricultural
0.5
10
2
2
100
20
108
-------
To place these values in perspective, basin area/lake area
ratios for some of the larger lakes in Wisconsin are given in
Table 21. Of the 26 lakes listed, 6 had area ratios larger
than 15, and 4 had area ratios less than 5.
Table 21. DIRECT DRAINAGE AREAS FOR SELECTED WISCONSIN LAKES3
Name
Impoundments:
Mason L
Arbutus
L Wisconsin
Beaverdam L
Fox L
Sinissippi
St Croix
Menomin
Tainter
Flambeau
Gile Flow
High Falls
Buffalo
Willow Flow
Balsam L
Chequamegon
County
Adams
Clark
Columbia
Dodge
Dodge
Dodge
Douglas
Dunn
Dunn
Iron
Iron
Marinette
Marquette
Oneida
Polk
Taylor
Lake area
ha
Basin area
km2
347
332
3640
2240
858
930
774
599
709
5481
1369
606
990
2078
769
1105
60
16
319
339
98
109
41
23
65
298
137
41
1557
246
282
44
Basin area
Lake area
(dimensionless)
17
5
9
15
12
12
5
4
9
5
10
7
158
16
36
4
Natural lakes :
Bear
Namekagon
Big Sand
L Mendota
Kegonsa
Waubesa
Kangaroo
Franklin
Big Green
^3
Bone
Barron
Bayfield
Burnett
Dane
Dane
Dane
Door
Forest
Green L
Polk
544
1298
567
3938
1099
855
445
361
2964
678
21
34
21
650
62
220
47
78
287
31
4
3
1 ,
4
17
6
26
10
22
10
5
aBased on Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
lake inventory data.
The potential significance of atmospheric contributions of both
nitrogen and phosphorus were discussed previously. In some
parts of the United States, particularly in the Great Lakes
109
-------
Region, these contributions may be large and, also, in
situations where basin area/lake area ratios are small, bulk
precipitation may provide the majority of the nutrient input.
Nutrient content of rainfall and dry fallout has been receiv-
ing a considerable amount of study during the past few years,
and additional study results are continually appearing in the
literature. The data listed here are rapidly becoming obso-
lete and should be viewed as a summary of older studies. An
attempt should be made to locate recent data applicable to the
area in question (particularly for phosphorus) before resorting
to the data listed in this report.
Few generalizations can be made regarding nutrient input to
lakes via groundwater, other than to point out the highly
variable nature of groundwater communication with lakes and
the potential for sizable nutrient contributions—phosphorus
as well as nitrogen—in some situations. At the present time,
it appears that site-specific information is a necessity for
estimating the exchange of water between lakes and surrounding
aquifers and, even when flow rates are known, the poorly-
defined role of bottom sediments as nutrient exchange media
and sites for nutrient transformations greatly complicates
estimation of nutrient influx.
Hydrologic and chemical complexities of wetland areas have,
for the most part, prevented the establishment of nutrient
budgets for wetlands. It appears that some wetland areas act
like "capacitors" which store nutrients for release at a later
time but, on an annual basis, there is no net storage or
release of nutrients. Until such time as the loading criteria
for lakes include consideration of the timing of nutrient
inflow, flux coefficients for wetlands should probably be
assumed to be zero.
Considering the present state of knowledge, the estimation of
nutrient loadings to lakes is as much an art as it is a science.
The selection of appropriate flux coefficients is critical;
a wide range of values is possible; and guidelines to aid in
the selection of runoff coefficients are lacking. Consequently,
management decisions based on estimated loadings must be
balanced against the inherent degree of uncertainty associated
with the technique. This uncertainty cannot be described in
terms of an "accuracy of ± x%," but the limitations of the
technique can be evaluated in a management context.
The estimation of nutrient loadings is a logical first step
in the development of almost any water quality management plan
110
-------
for lakes, because it forces the identification of potentially
significant nutrient sources and provides a measure of their
relative importance. Based on this information, and in con-
sideration of practical constraints and opportunities which
exist, tentative management plans can be specified. For
example, these plans might include a program of nutrient
abatement for the contributing watersheds. At this point,
the adequacy of the estimated loadings can be evaluated. If
the elements of the management plan are sensitive to the flux
coefficients used in the loading estimate, i.e., if the use
of slightly different flux coefficients would lead to the
conclusion that a different management approach should be
followed, then the limitations of the estimation technique
have been exceeded and site-specific field evaluation would
be necessary. If not, it may be possible to rely on the esti-
mated loadings and eliminate, or at least reduce, the need for
extensive field monitoring and evaluation.
In all probability, the practice of estimating nutrient load-
ings of lakes will be expanded in the future. The lack of
comparable alternatives almost assures that increased reliance
will be placed on this approach. The technique has limita-
tions which must be recognized but, despite its shortcomings,
it can be a valuable decision-making tool.
REFERENCE
Armstrong, D. E. , K. W. Lee, P. D. Uttormark, D. R. Keeney,
and R. F. Harris. 197M-. Pollution of the Great Lakes
by Nutrients from Agricultural Land. Great Lakes Basin
Commission, Ann Arbor, Mich. 96 p.
Ill
-------
Table 12. CONVERSION FACTORS
acres x 0.405 =
mi2 x 259 =
m2 x 10-4*
km2 x 100
Ibs x 0.454
ton x 907.2 =
Ibs/acre x 1.12 =
ton/mi2 x 3.5 =
ton/acre x 2242 =
Ibs/mi x 0.00176 =
acre- ft x 1233.5 =
ha
ha
ha
ha
kg
kg
kg/ha
kg/ha
kg/ha
kg/ha
m3
x 2.471
x 0.00386
x 101*
x .01
x 2.205
x .0011
x 0. 892
x 0.286
x 0.000446
x 569. 8
x 0.00081
= acres
• 9
= miz
= m2
= km2
= Ibs
= ton
= Ibs/acre
= ton/mi2
= ton/acre
= Ibs /mi
= acre- ft
112
-------
SELECTED WATER
RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
1. Report No.
}. Accession No.
w
4. Title
ESTIMATING NUTRIENT LOADINGS OF LAKES FROM NON-POINT
SOURCES,
7. Aulhor(s)
Uttormark, P. D., Chapin, J. D., and Green, K. M.
Wisconsin Univ., Madison. Water Resources Center.
5. Report Date
6
3. Performing Organization
Report >
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