EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT Compiled by Virginia L. Sharp Edited by David R. Mlnard U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION PACIFIC SOUTHWEST REGION ------- TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE I. INTRODUCTION 1 Background 1 Purpose and Scope 2 Authority 3 Acknowledgements 3 II. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 4 Temperature 4 Lethal Tolerance Levels 4 Responses to Non-lethal Temperature Changes 8 Dissolved Oxygen 14 Salinity 18 pH 26 Turbidity and Siltation 27 General Biological Effects of Existing Marine Outfalls 29 III. TOXIC MATERIALS ' 36 Pesticides 36 Acute toxicity 36 Chronic toxicity 53 Dissolved Gases 64 Ammonia 64 Carbon Dioxide 68 Heavy Metals 69 Copper 69 Chromium 73 Zinc 75 Iron 77 Phenolic Substances 77 Petroleum Wastes 80 Sulfides 84 Cyanides 87 Halogens 89 Radioactive Substances 90 Surface Active Agents 107 ------- I. INTRODUCTION Background In developing recommendations for disposal of wastes from the San Francisco Bay and Delta area, the San Francisco Bay-Delta Water Quality Control Program made an appraisal of the ocean as a possible receiving area. An .Important part of the appraisal included a search of the literature on the effects of toxicants and other environmental factors on.-fctoe marine biota. The most cursory examination will reveal that until recently the number of such studies has been few when compared with similar work perfomed 1n the fresh water environment. Two reasons for this disparity have been 1) a commonly held assumption that contamination of the marine environment and the subsequent effects on biological populations would be unlikely because of the dilution provided by the large volume of receiving water, and 2) the difficulties and cost Involved 1n conceiving, executing and evaluating quanti- tative studies In both the laboratory and field. The problems Inherent In a laboratory study stem primarily from the complex nature of sea water, the presence of natural contaminants, the complexity of the ecosystems occurring In various environmental situations, and the many environmental factors which must be controlled; while those encountered 1n evaluating field data are related mainly to the uncertain influences of uncontrollable environmental factors. Fortunately the great Interest 1n the marine environment during the last decade and the concern which developed over the present and potential damages to It changed the traditional views. The world ocean 1s no longer regarded as an Infinite sink and, despite the technical difficulties, ' 1 ------- efforts are being made to understand how toxic materials affect the complex marine ecosystem. As a result a considerable amount of Information has emerged on the subject. Purpose and Scope "On July 6, 1967,j)the Director of the Bay-Delta Program requested the assistance of the Federal Mater Pollution Control Administration In searching out and summarizing material on the effects of certain environmental factors • and pollutants. Included with the^request was a 11st of subjects arranged 1n priority of Importance with respect to 1) presence 1n a combined waste stream and 2) potential effects on the biota. The effects of productivity stimulants was not Included since this subject had been assigned to a consulting firm. The request specified a deadline date of October 1, 1967,x,4n order to conform with the Program timetable. The form of presentation agreed upon was a summarized'description of the research conditions and results, similar to that found 1n Chapter VI in the 2nd edition of Water Quality Criteria (McKee and Wolf, 1963). This report Includes only Information that has not'been presented 1n Water Quality Cr1teriat and may therefore be regarded as a non-official supplement to 1t. Essentially all of the Information presented herein was forwarded to the Bay-Delta Program in rough draft form shortly after the deadline date. Since subsequent revisions have not supplemented the subject matter, this report reflects work completed in the area of marine pollution only through 1967.- ------- Authority Authority for the preparation of this report Is provided 1n Section 5(b) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1965, as amended. Acknowledgements Acknowledgments should be made to all the primary researchers working on the many facets of marine pollution who were kind enough to supply data from their own projects and Information concerning the work of others. A special acknowledgment and thanks should also be made to Patricia Powell, California Department of Fish and Game Library, Terminal Island, California, for her help 1n obtaining artlcJes not 1n general circulation. ------- II. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS TEMPERATURE One of the most Important physical factors in the marine environment is ambient temperature. Naylor (1965) suggests that 1n artificially heated areas several types of effects on local organisms could be observed: 1) Cold water stenothermal forms could be eliminated or made incapable of breeding 1n a heated location and could survive, therefore, only by recruitment from outside areas; 2) more eurythermal species might become warm-adapted by acclimation and survive to breed, evolving perhaps Into separate races; and 3) immigrant warm-water stenothermal species could be encouraged to breed there. In these ways, the entire biological complexion of an area could be changed. Lethal Tolerance Levels • Unacclimated adult western purple sea urchins, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (Farmanfama1-ah-an-d-Gtes*7~l-963), ^introduced into water of 25°C (77°F) became Ump In four hours and died within 24 hours I Sea urchins acclimated for 10 days in running seawater at 20°C died in three days 1n water of 25°C. Specimens kept at 23.5°C (74.3°F), however, remained normal, which Indicates a rather sharp upper lethal tolerance limit between 23.5°C and 25°C. Evans (1948) observed behavioral changes in eleven species of littoral mollusks at temperatures increasing at a constant rate until the thermal death temperature was reached. He recorded the thermal death points as follows: ------- Species Patella vulqata Patella depressa Patella athlotica L i t to r ina littorca Littorina littoral is Littonna rudis Temp. (°C) Species 42.0 41.G 40.2 46.0 44.3 45.0 Littornia neritoides Gibbula umbicalis Gihbula cineraria Osilinus lincatus (iucella lapillus Temp. (°C) 46.3 42.1 36.2 45.0 40.0 These same species, when exposed to given temperatures, had the following survival times: Species Littnrina neritoidos Littorina littorea Osilinus lincatus Littorina rudis LUtorina littoral is PateTia denressa Patella vulgata 'emp. Survival °C) time (hrs) 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 35 14 - 15 VI. 5-1 2 6 - 6.5 9.5-10 4.25-4.5 3.5-3.75 2.75-3.0 10 Species Gibbula trnibicalis 40 35 Patella anthletica 40 35 llucella lapillus 4C 35 30 Gibbula cineraria 40 35 31 Temn. Survival (°C) time (hrs) 0.75-1 10 0.75-1 8.5-9 0 - 0.25 2.5-3 8 0 1.25-1.5 5 - 5.25 These littoral mollusks show quite high resistance to high temperatures, probably because they are intertidal in their habitat and are frequently exposed for periods of time to the atmosphere. Other mollusks, which are not intertidal, cannot tolerate such extremes of temperature. Scallops (Placopecten magcllanicus) taken from a depth of 40 fathoms (73 m) in southeastern Passamaquoddy Bay on the Atlantic coast of Canada, and acclimated at 5.2, 10.5, and 15.5°C, registered 50 per cent kills at 22.1, 22.9, and 24°C, respectively (Dickie, 1958). The temperature to which these scallops v/ere most frequently exposed and at which they g-rew most vigorously and spawned successfully was 10°C. A rise or fall of 5°C in the acclimation temperature produced a corresponding change in the lethal temperature of 1.0°C; for any acclimation temperature 50 per cent ------- of a group of scallops could be killed in 120 hours (5 days) by temperatures about 0.3°C lower than the 48-hr TLm. Dickie (1963) used the above findings plus knov/ledgo of the hydrography of the southwestern Gulf of St. Lawrence to explain formerly unexplainable mass mortalities of scallops in this area. The mortalities occurred only in summer or in early autumn and were most serious and sudden in waters where wind-induced oscillations in the level of the thermocline might suddenly expose scallops to water of lethally high temperatures. Another instance of natural kills due to sudden warming of ambient water temperature was studied by Colton (1959). In May 1956 he discovered decomposed larvae of ycllowtail flounder (Limanda forrugim'a), whiting (Merluccius bilinearis), and blennies in plankton net hauls to the southern edge of Georges Bank, where contrasting tongues of Maine coastal and Gulf Stream water occur. He postulated that these recently hatched larvae had been exposed to a greater than 20°F increase in temperature (46 -C8°F) over a period of less than 24 hours and that this sudden change not only occurred at a faster rate'than the stenothemiic larvae were able to adapt to, but also far exceeded their temperature tolerance limit. When the effect of temperature on the survival of the American lobster (Homarus americanus) was studied (McLeese, 1956), it was found that lobsters acclimated in 23.0°C water for 10 to 24 days died in 8 to 72 hours when exposed to water of 30°C. Lobsters acclimated at 9°C had a 48-hr. TLm of 26.5°C. Leighton, Nusbaum, and Mulford (1967) found the upper le-thal temperatures for the following species: ------- Species Upper lethal Temp. Time Sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus 85°F (29.5°C) 1 hour franciscanus and S. purpuratum 7b°F (24.5°C) 24 hour Havy top snail (Astrea undosa)9b°F (35°C) 1 hour Smooth brov/n turban snaTT (Horn si a norrisii) 94°F (34.5°C) 1 hour Green ahalone (Haliotis fulgens) 95°F (35°C) 1 hour Northern Kelp crab (Pugetlia producta) ~"90.50F (32.5°C) 1 hour Opal eye (Girella nigri cans) 95°F (35°C) 1 hour Tidepool sculpin TClinocottus analis) 88°F (31.0°C) 1 hour The resistance and acclimation of marine fishes to temperature changes was studied by Doudoroff (1942, 1945). He obtained the following results: Acclimation Acclimation Tin (°C) Species Temp. Time 24 48 72 Groenfish. Girella nigricans 20°C 31.4°C (Opal eye) • 28 31.4 12 28.7 Killifish. Fundulus parvipinnus 14 58-70 days 32.3 20 30-51 28 57-63 36.9 Topsmelt, Atherinops affinis 18.5 30.5 30 2 days 31 McCauley (1962) found that the prolarvae of the sea lamprey (Pctromyzon marinus) was deformed by being bent at right angles when developed in water of 25°C and that sea lamprey eggs generally hatch over a 10°C range from 15-25°C. Brawn (1960) found that unaccliniated herring (Clupoa harpngus) from 8 - 11°C Passamaquoddy Bay water had a 48-hour TLm of 19.5°C. Adult striped bass (Roccus saxatilis) were tolerant to abrupt ch'anges between salt and fresh water at temperatures ranging from 45 - 80°F (Tagatz, 1961). Juvenile'striped bass survived abrupt changes between salt and fresh water at temperatures ranging from 55 - 70°F, but could not tolerate transfer ------- from fresh water at these temperatures to salt water at 45°F. Mortal-i occurred to juvenile bass when they were changed from water of 55° to 1^ F to water of 45°F. Adult American shad (Alossa sapidissima) could tolerate a change from fresh to salt water with a 16°F temperature difference,'but could not tolerate a 25°F change. Juvenile shad tolerated abrupt transfer from salt to fresh water over a temperature range from 45 - 70°F, but could • not tolerate fresh-to-salt water changes at the same temperatures. In tests for temperature tolerance only, juvenile bass mortalities occurred in all trials having a water temperature change of at least 7°F. Responses to Non-lethal Temperature Changes Primary productivity in the York River Estuary increased significantly when the ambient water temperature increased by 10°C because of the discharge of thermal effluents into the Lstuary. But when the temperature increased by 10 - 15°C, productivity significantly declined (Warriner and Brehmer, 1964). In winter, maximum diversity of the benthic fauna was found to occur where the warmed water had the greatest influence, while in summer the maximum diversity of species and numbers was found at the station farthest removed from the warm water outfall. In February, a total of 70 species were identified in the Estuary, but in August only 17 were present, with an equal reduction in the numbers of individuals. Larvae of the saft-shelled clam (Mya arenaria) from Chesapeake Bay grew more slowly at 11°C than at 14° or 28°C, while larvae from Boothbay Harbor, Maine,all died after 14 days at 38°C (Stickney, 1964). However, the growth rate of the latter larvae increased with temperature increases from 8.6° 8 ------- to 23°C. The final mean size of postlarval Ponacus aztecus was found to increase with temperature between 15° and 32.5°C, but decreased markedly at 35°C (Zein-Cldin and Griffith, 1966). Survival rate, however, while increasing between 15° and 20°C, dropped above 25°C, and 100 per cent mortality occurred after 15 days at 35°C. The barnacle Balanus balanoidcs, kept at 15°C for one month, required four months at 6°C and total darkness to produce egg masses; animals held at 15°C for two months required another two months at 6°C and darkness to produce egg masses (Barnes, 1963). There appeared to be a critical temperature near 10°C above which the animals would not reproduce. Herring (Clupea harengus) eggs had poor survival at 5°C and took 21 days to hatch, whereas at 14°C only seven days were required for hatching (Holliday, Baxter, and Lasker, 1964). A comparison of the development of four southern California fishes revealed the following: Temperature reqin.reir.ents for; Species Egg gastrulation Egg hatching flax, tolerance California killifish (Fundulus parvipinnus) 12.9 - 37.7°C 16.6 - 28.5 Topsmelt (Atherinops affinis) 31.0 and below 26.8 and below 27 - 28.5 i California grunion (Leurosthes tonuis) 12.0 - 32.5 14.8 - 26.8 25.9 - 26.8 Mussel blenny (Hypsohlennius sp.) 12.0-26.8 12.0-26.8 15-16 Kinne (1963) demonstrated that in the euryhaline desert pupfish (Cyprinodon macularius), differences in the growth rate of the young hatched at temperatures ------- ranging from 15-35°C did not necessarily persist as the young matured. Indeed, initially slow-growing young hatched and held at 15-20°C finally surpassed in length initially fast-growing individuals hold at 25°, 30°, and 35°C, ultimately reaching a greater final length and age. Lasker showed that the northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax) was at an advantage over the Pacific sardine (Sardinops caerulea) in California waters because the eggs of the former hatch earlier at lower temperatures (11-12°C) and develop a functional jaw at these some low temperatures. Sardine larvae on the other hand, cannot see or feed until 65-75 hours after hatching at their higher optimal growth temperature of 16-17°C (Lasker, 1964). Hence, the anchovies can food at lower temperatures and earlier in the year than can the sardines. The standard metabolic rate of young sockeye salmon was measured to be 41t3.2mg02/kg/hr at 5°C and 196ll3ng02/kg/hr at 24°C (Brett, 1964). Active metabolism rose from 514l31mg02/kg/hr at 5°C to a maximum of 895t49mg02/kg/hr at 15°C with some decrease at higher temperatures. At temperatures up to 15°C the active metabolic rates were ten to twelve times the standard level and the combined action of temperature and activity elevated respiratory metabolism by a factor of 22, equal to the influence of activity on the metabolic rate of many mammals. The brain cholinesterase activity of a group of six southern Atlantic fish—Nassau grouper, Epinophclus striatus; Holbrook's porgy, Diplodus holbrooki; spot snapper, Lutianus synagris; fantail filefish, Monocanthus spilosoma; tomato clownfish, Amphiprion fronatus; and anemone clownfish, Amphiprion percula—acclimated to a temperature of i 25°C fell significantly when the group was exposed to temperatures below 10°C. 10 ------- The enzyme activity, of a group of northern Atlantic fish—killifish, fundulus hcti'roclitus; northern blackfish, Tautoga onitis; goldfish, Carassius auratus; and northern stargazer, Astroscopus guttatus—acclimatcd at 15°C remained fairly constant down to a temperature of 2°C (Caslow and Iligrelli, 1964). Killifish acclimated at 30°C had a 40 per cent lower chlolinesterase activity at 2G°C than ki Hi fish acclimated at 18°C. Scallops placed -in water 20°C warmer than water to which they were acclimated became sluggish and produced mucus (Dickie, 1958). Mucus production stopped, however, after 12 hours and after 38-48 hours the animals were behaving normally. These high, but non-lethal, temperatures may have a debilitating effect on the scallops and may, therefore, hasten their death from other causes, i.e. predation (Dickie, 1963). Halcrow (1963) found that 20°C was beyond the thermal limit to which the marine copepod, Calanus finmarchicus, could physiologically adjust. An increase of about 5°F in Southampton Water, England resulted in extension of the breeding season of the marine isopod Linmoria and an increase in the incidence of the shiowonn Teredo (Pannell, Johnson, and Raymont, 1962). Smaller species of diatoms in the Ouse Estuary, Sussex (Stauroneis / salina, fiitzschia closterium, and Havicula spp.) had a greater surfacing velocity than larger species (Tropodoneis vitrae and Pleurosigma spp.) when the ambient water temperature rose from 5 to 15°C, but at 20°C the velocity of three of the species decreased (Hopkins, 1963). Rhode Island hard clains (Moreenaria mercenaria) doubled in size when transferred to Florida waters from Rhode Island waters; Chesapeake Bay oysters spawned ------- after one year in Florida waters at temperatures 5°C higher than those in which the parent stock spawned (Butler, 19G5). The spawning period of the latter increased fron three and one-half months to five months. Laboratory studies indicated that oyster spawning could be initiated by a 5° temperature rise over a 30-day period. However, southern oysters transferred to more northern waters failed to spawn. U.S. Fish and V/i-ldlifc Servtce ('1966) found a direct relationship between temperature and salinity on the development of blue crabs, Callinectes sapidus. More than 70 per cent of megalops survived in salinities from 10-40 parts per thousand at 68°, 77°, and 8G°F, but at 59°F survival was only 10-50 per cent in 20-40 parts per thousand salinity. At 59°F and 10 parts per thousand and at 68° and 5 parts per thousand, no megalops survived to metamorphosis. The duration of the megalops stage was five days at 86°F : and 67 days at 59°F. Groenfish (Opaleye) (Girella nigricans) had a tendency to select a temperature of about 26°C in a laboratory temperature gradient of 14-32°C, even though they had been living in waters off the southern California coast of 14-16°C (Doudoroff 1938). Squire (1967) examined warm water outfall areas / off the coast of southern California and found that the temperature of cooling water discharge into these areas ranged from 12.5-22°F above that of water at the intake areas. He surmised that these large volume discharges (1,187,400 gpm and 1,236,000 gpm) into offshore waters could impede the migration of such marine game species as bonita (Sarda chi!iensis)and barracuda (Sphyraena argentea). ------- From 1957 through 1959 there was an unusual warming of Pacific Ocean water off the coast of the United States and Canada (Tully, Dodimead, and Tabnta, 1961 and Radovich, 1961). A progressive intrusion of water warmer than 6.5°C to a depth of 125-225 m northward off the Canadian coast caused anomalous sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus ncrki) migrations in 1957 and 1953. (Tully, Dodimcad, and Tabata, 1961). Normally the per cent of salmon approaching / the Fraser River system by way of the northern passages is about 6 per cent. In 1957 it was 12 per cent and in 1958 at least 23 per cent; 76 per cent of the fish appearing in the commercial troll fishery off Vancouver Island were taken at the northern end. Because of this wanning off the California coast a number of warm-water species moved north of their usual ranges and were caught in large numbers (Radovich, 1961). In 1958, 23 species were taken north of their usual ranges; ten represented northern records. In 1959, 26 species were recorded north of their usual ranges and eleven species were new records. These latter included: liobula japanica - spinetail mobula Trachinotus rhodopus - grafftopsail pompano Traclnnotus paitensis - Paloma pompano fiemramphus saltator - longfin halfbeak ficmatistius pectoral is - roosterfish Vonier declivifrons - Pacific moonfish Parathunnus sibi ~ bigeye tuna Kathetostoma averruncus - smooth stargazer Carcharhinys improvisus - slender requiem shark Dasyatis violacea - pelagic stingray Taractes asper - pomfret Based on a comparison of annual sea surface temperatures off the coast of California and striped bass catch-pcr-effort, Radovich (1963) theorized that a cold-water barrier off the Golden Gate retards the seaward run of striped bass. Such barriers do not exist on the Atlantic coast, hence the fish are able to make extensive coastal migrations and are known as surf fish. 13 ------- DISSOLVED OXYGEN Galtsoff and Whipple (1931) found that the oxygen consumption of the oyster varied between 6.45 and 15.04 cc/hr/10 gr dry weight and was not influenced by the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water until the concentration of the latter fell below 2.5 nig/1. The Passamaquoddy Cay scallops studied by Dickie (1953) (sec section on temperature) were more sensitive to increased temperatures with decreased dissolved oxygen concentrations. Respiration rates of some planktonic copepods from the northeastern coast of the United States were measured (Raymont, 1959), with the following results: Species Temperature (°C) Mean respiratory rate (ulOo/copepod/hr) Tortan us discaudatus 15 0.275 Contronages hamatus 15 ' 0.137 ' 20 0.172 Pseudocalanus minutus 15 0.104 20 0.139 Eurytcmora herdmani 15 0.104 "20 0.100 E. herdmani (female) 20 0.125 E. hcrdnani (male) 20 0.073 To.'iorg longicnrnis 15 0.1 M Contropngos tynicus 15 0.157 i'lotridin TUcnns 15 0.317 Cook and Boyd (1965) found the Gammarus oceanicus, if allowed to choose between an anoxic situation (water into which nitrogen was bubbled) and an aerated situation (water into which oxygen was bubbled) in a laboratory pre- ference chamber, not only spent most of the time (p>0.001) in the aerated region, but also either ceased its exploratory excursions at the boundary zone between the aerated and anoxic sides of the chamber or significantly (p>0.001) increased its velocity in the anoxic region (escape response) in attempting to return to the aerated water. 14 ------- Lethal oxygen concentrations were determined by lloff (1967) for winter flounder, common silverside and northern swell fish. The experiments were conducted with sets of two fish in glass jars, with and without water circulation. The lethal oxygen concentrations were recorded when one fish in each jar died. The following table was compiled from the mean values found from 14 observations of. each species: Temp Specios (°C) Winter flounder 12.0 ( Psoudopl e uronoctes 18.5 amoricanus) 25.0 Common silverside 12.0 (l-'ienidia menidia) 18.5 25.0 Northern swell fish 12.0 (Snhcroides maculatus) 18.5 "" 25.0 Av. Test length (min) 1866 759 455 1926 646 341 1977 1010 509 Lethal oxygen cone, (mg/1) 0.66 0.87 1.03 0.77 0.93 0.70 0.92 1.3G McLcese (1956) established the minimum oxygen levels which produced a 50% mortality among American lobsters (Homarus americanus) over a 48 hour period. Each value in the following table is the average of three observed lethal levels under the same acclimation conditions: Acclimation conditions Minimum lower lethal level Temperature Salinity (°C) (0/00) (nig/1) 25 30 1.24 25 25 1.32 25 20 1.52 15 30 0.77 15 ' 25 0.90 15 20 0.95 5 30 0.27 5 25 0.44 5 20 0.74 15 ------- Kalinina (1961) suggested that the following "safe" levels of dissolved oxygon be recognized for young Black Sea fishes: 4 mg/1 for whiting (Gadus mcrlangus); for other pelagic and benthic species, 5 mg/1 and 2.5-3 mg/1, respectively, at water temperatures nf 9-10QC. Oxygen starvation of fingerling pelagic and coastal species of the Black Sea occurred at 2.5-3 nig/1 and concentr- ations below 2 mg/1 were lethal. For fingerlings of benthic species, oxygen starvation occurred at concentrations below 1.5-2 mg/1, but the lethal oxygen concentration was very low. Holliday, Baxter, and Lasker (19G4) measured the oxygen uptake of the eggs and larvae of the herring, Clupea harennus, asXi/mg dry weight/hr (Qo2)- They found that the oxygen uptake of eggs during the hatching period was directly related to the state of activity of the eggs—anesthetized and inactive eggs had mean QG^'S of 0.94 and 1.10, respectively, while eggs measured during hatching had a mean OQ,, of 5.21. Anesthetized larvae had a 0.02 of 2.0, slightly active and active larvae, 2.90 and 3.37, respectively, but actively swimming larvae measured Qo2's Greater tlian 19- Oxygen uptakes by developing eggs and larvae of Clupea harengus from two different areas were found to be unaffected by varying salinities: Rearing Salinity 5 o/oo 15 o/oo 35 o/oo 50 l/oo Mean Qo? of prehatch eggs (Baltic) 1.07 1.01 0.93 0.99 (Norwegian) 2.00 1.99 1.87 1.97 Saunders (1963), studying the respiration of the Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), determined that small cod consumed oxygon at a greater rate than did large cod (153 mg/kg/hr versus 92 mg/kg/hr for starved fish and 229 mg/kg/hr versus 136 mg/kg/hr for fed fish). He also found that the rate of oxygen consumption increased more in large fish than in small fish 16 ------- with temperature increases from 3 to 10°C; between 10° and 15°C, the oxygen consumption rate in"small cod leveled off, but continued to rise in large ones. When the oxygen level was reduced, there was little change in the rate of oxyqen consumption, but the respiratory volume (amount of water pumped over gills per unit time) increased markedly as the ambient oxygen level was reduced from 10 mg/1 to 3'mg/l. The respiratory volume of smaller fish increased from 7.1 to 27.1 1/hr and that of larger fish from 18 to 90 1/hr. He suggested that cod may be under increased stress at all dissolved oxygen levels below air saturation because the oxygen consumption at reduced levels does not increase to keep pace vath the increased metabolic cost of irrigating the gills. Postlarval flounders, Paralichthys 1ethostigma, withdrew from water of low oxygen concentration in the following times: Oxygon concentration Temperature Total withdrawal time mg/1 TO (minutes) • 1.09 6.1 23 1.03 25.3 7 0.68 14.4 13 There was no withdrawal in any test until the water oxygen level was reduced to 3.7 ml/1 or lower (Deubler and Posncr, 1963). Sturgeon (Acipenser guldenstadti) egg development at varying oxygen concentrations was studied by Yurovitskii (1964). He found egg mortality rates of 13 and 100 per cent at dissolved oxygen concentrations of 5.5 and 3.5 mg/1, respectively, and water temperature of 17°C. Control eggs kept at 1.5 mg/1 had a mortality rate of 12 per cent. At the lower oxygen concentrations the larvae developed more slowly and gained weight less rapidly than controls. 17 ------- Anatomical characteristics of embryos developing at 5.5 mg/1 flowing water were similar to those of embryos developing at 9.5 mg/1 in still water. Yurovitskii concluded that 5.5 mg/1 was the minimal oxygen con- centration for the normal development of sturgeon eggs. Reduction of dissolved oxygen concentrations from air saturation to levels of 7, 6, 5, 4, and 3 mg/1 resulted In the reduction of maximum sustained swimming speed of coho.salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) by 5, 8,, 13, 20 and 30 per cent, respectively (Davis, Foster, Warren, and Doudoroff, 1963). The dissolved oxygen concentrations causing a 50 per cent mortality to American shad (Alosa sapidisslma) were found to be dependent on the average rate of decrease (Tagatz, 1961). Starting at 7 mg/1, the following results were obtained: Oxygen reduction Cone, producing Elapsed rate (mg/l/hr) 50% mortality (mg/1) time (hrs) 1/9.5 0.9 57.5 1/11 0.9 68.0 1/3 1.4 17.0 When the dissolved oxygen concentration was slowly lowered, shad remained schooled until 1t reached 1.4 mg/1; when lowered rapidly, they left schools at 2.4 mg/1. Juvenile American shad had no mortality for 42 and 54 hours when exposed to dissolved oxygen concentration of 1.8-2.9 mg/1 and 3.0-3.8 mg/1. respectively. SALINITY Three species of salmon fry (coho—Oncorhynchus kisutch; sockeye— 0. nerka; and chum—0. keta) were fed the same diet, kept at 10°C, and the salinity was varied to determine its effect on growth (Canageratnam, 1959). Percentage increases on initial average weights were as follows: 18 ------- Species Time(weeks) Salinity (o/oo) Per cent increase in weight Co ho 5 10 5 10 5 5 0 6 1? 0 6 12 0 6 (35% survival) 0 G G 30 77.2 83.1 155.3 215.1 251.2 421.5 192 117 320 336 120 166 Sockeye Chum Preference of different species of salmon fry for salinities of given concentrations was found to vary with season (Mclnerney, 1964). Chum salmon (Oncnrhynchus keta), which migrate to sea during their first year, show a preference for fresh water in Hay, for 3 o/oo chlorine in water in June, 6 o/oo in July, 8 o/oo in August, and 10 o/oo in October. Pink salmon (0. gorbuscha). which also migrate during their first year, showed the same order of preference, but reverted back to a freshwater preference in November; the following March, they again developed a preference for more saline water. Coho salmon (0. kisutch) fry, however, which usually migrate to the sea as smolt after a year in fresh water, never showed a preference for water of salinity greater than 3 o/oo chlorine during their first year. Spring salmon (0. tshawytscha) resembled pink salmon in their preference sequence. Sockeye (0. nerka) fry, which usually remain in freshwater lakes during their first year, showed two distinct preference peaks in f!ay--one at 3 o/oo chlorine (similar to coho) and one at 14 o/oo chlorine (unique to sockeye). Two peak preferences were also present in June, but from September to December, the preference remained at about 3 o/oo chlorine. In January, a single preference peak appeared and was followed by an orderly progression 19 ------- of preferences, terminated by a preference for 18 o/oo chlorine in August. These peaks seemed to be indicative of the migratory habits of these various salmon species. Bagger-man (1960) demonstrated the same pattern of response to salinity changes for four of the above salmon species (chum, pink, sockeye, and coho) and noted also the correlation with migratory habits. Radtke and Turner (1967) proposed that high total dissolved solids concentrations block the spawning migrations of striped bass up the San Joaquin River. Sampling of striped bass during spawning migration throughout the disolved solids gradient in San Francisco Bay and Delta indicated a direct relationship between catch and "US concentration at the time of sampling: 52b.ass/hr caught at high tide (275 ppm TUS) compared with 2 bass/hr at low tide (475 ppm TDS). The highest average catch was 24.6 bass/hr at 251-300 ppm. A TDS concentration of 350 ppm seems to be critical, although striped bass eggs seem to be even more sensitive; only G8 eggs were taken in 44 tows, 51 of the eggs from water with TDS concentration of less than 15U ppm. It would appear that striped bass require a lower TDS for spawning than for upstream migration. Herring (Clupea harengus) 10.2-24.2 cm in length were found by Brawn (1960) to be very resistant to water of lowered salinity and could withstand salinities down to 5 o/oo for four weeks with only low mortality (15-PO per cent) when tested between 4 and 8°C. He concluded that short-term exposures to low salinity would be unlikely to have any directly adverse effects on herring unless the salinity were to fall below 5 o/oo. Salinities of 6-8 o/oo were found to have an inhibiting effect on the activity of sturgeon sperm (Orabkina, 1962). Experiments showed them to be most active in water with a salinity of 2 o/oo. 20 ------- Studies on the larvae of menhaden, Brovoortia typrarmus, indicated that survival time at various salinities was dependent on temperature; as temperature increased, so did survival time (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Beaufort, North Carolina, 19G6a). Actual results were as follows: Survival tine (hours) of fish larvae acclimated at 10°C Tost Salinity Tenineraturc (°C) 2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6 4 4 7 7 13 Survival 4 6 4 7 8 0 .2 .2 .0 .8 .0 time .5 .0 .5 .2 is 5 14. 33. >96 >96 >96 of fi 15. 44. 26. 50. 96 2 0 sh 8 5 2 2 10 ~ 27.5 59.0 >9G >96 ^•% larvae 46.0 53.0 ^•96 ^96 ^96 Tb 34.0 77.6 ^96 >9G >9G fo/no^ 20 25. 53. ^96 >9G ^>96 acclimatrd 26.8 56.0 >96 >96 ^96 16. 51. *?CJ^j ^ JQ >96 0 2 at 2 2 25 21. 40. >96 ^96 ^96 15°C 14. 27. 39. >9G ^96 5 0 0 0 5 30 15.2 26.5 35.0 ^"96 >96 10.2 10.5 14.0 48.0 >96 Evidence1 suggests that yearly fluctuations in the abundance of!white shrimp (Penaeus setiferus) may be related to changes in the salinity of the shallow coastal waters of the Gulf of Mexico. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Galvcston, Texas, 1966). There appears to bo a negative relationship between the August and December catch of white shrimp from Louisiana and the velocity of spring water flows in the Mississippi River. Juvenile brown shrimp, Ponaeus aztocus, concentrated in water salinities less than 10 o/oo, but as -they grew larger were found distributed uniformly throughout the salinity gradient, and the largest shrimp were found only in salinities between 20 and 30 o/oo. Combinations of various salinities and temperatures gave the following percentage survivals of summer postlarvae of brown and white shrimp: 21 ------- Temperature °F 59 64.5 77 92.5 Salinity (o/oo) B H B "l-J E II B *l-l 2 (1) - 49 79 5 32 20 52 96 25 100 80 ~ — 100 82. 100 90 40 100 08 98 90 86 98 Salinity of 18.4 o/oo was postulated as being too low for the completed development of eggs of v/hite shrimp, Pcnacus setiferus (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, 1966). Nauplii could be seen moving inside the egg, but they did not hatch. Postlarval brown shrimp, Ponaeus 'aztocus, died four hours after being transferred to water of 2 o/oo from water of 23 o/oo. Brown shrimp appeared to t • no.e sensitive to lowered salinity than to increased salinity. This conclusion appeared to be borne out by Zein-Eldin (1963), who studied the effects of salinity on the growth of penaeid shrimp. She observed 100$ survival in waters of 25-40 o/oo salinity and good growth even at 40 o/oo. At low water temperatures (60°F), increased salinity significantly delayed the development of blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) megalops to the first crab stage (U.S. Fish and VJildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Beaufort, North Carolina, 1966). Costlow and Bookhout (1965),studying five species of crabs, obtained the following results: Salinity Matching Salinity for Sprcics found in(o/oo) salinity(o/oo) complete development Rhithropanoneus harrisi Panopeus herbsti Sesarna cub ere urn tiepatus opheliticus Callinectes sapidus ovioerous females "low" to 33 26.5-35.0 "high" £0.1 22-35 2.5-40 12.5-31.1 12.1-31.1 20-40 20.1-31.1 30-35 20.1-31 .1 22 ------- Survival at various salinities varied with species and with temperature: larvae of R. harrisi did not survive at 1 o/oo beyond the second zoeal stage; at 2.5 o/oo and 25-30°C there was some metamorphosis of mega!ops to the first crab stage. The first zoeal stage of S. cinoroum v.'ithstood high salinities (26.7-31.1 o/od bettor than lower salinities (12.5-20.1 o/oo), but there was 50-83 per cent mortality of the last zoeal stage at 31.1 o/oo-- zosae died while molting to the megalops stage. McLcese (1956) obtained the following salinity TLm's for the Anon'can lobster (Homarus amoricanas) at the temperature and oxygen conditions given: Temperature (°C) Oxygen (mg/1) 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 salinity (o/oo) 1.0 18.0 21.n 20.4 22.0 30.0 2.0 13.3 12.6 12.0 11.2 12.0 15.0 3.0 11.6 10.4 9.6 9.0 9.3 11.2 30.0 4.0 11.4 9.7 9.4 9.0 9.3 11.2 20.4 5.0 11.0 9.5 8.8 8.8 9.3 11.2 17.8 6.0 9.8 8.8 8.4 8.4 9.3 11.2 16.4 Baker (1963) suggests that because there is an apparent direct relationship between the size of both fossil and recent ostracods and the salinity of the water in which they exist, it might be possible that euryhaline ostracod species make use of the increased salts in more saline waters to increase the size of their carapaces. Clams (Hyj^ arenaria) from Chesapeake Bay water of 10 to 15 o/oo salinity were acclimated for two weeks to Maine coastal water of 32 o/oo, but would not spawn until the salinity of the water was reduced to 20 o/oo (Stickney, 1964). Growth of Chesapeake Bay clam larvae was best at 16 o/oo; 23 ------- 70 per cent survived and 23 per cent developed straight hinge larvae. Survival and development of clam eggs from Coothbay Harbor, Maine and Woods Hole, Massachusetts v/ere best at salinities of 23-31 o/oo (49 per cent survival and 35 per cent straight hinge larvae) and 22-31 o/oo (99 percent survival and 82 per cent developing straight hinge larvae), respectively. Survival and development dropped off rapidly below 20 o/oo, and below 16 o/oo were zero for the Woods Hole samples. Below lf> o/oo 4 percent of the Boothbay eggs survived and 1 per cent developed into straight hinge larvae. I'iattiessen (1960) studied a population of ilya arcnnria living under highly saline conditions in a salt pond. He found that larger members of the group v/ere more tolerant to lowered salinities than were juveniles: \ Survival of Hya jm;iTfirja_ in distilled water Size (mm) Time (hrs) Per cent survival 15-25 48 100 f>-10 4JJ 65 2-4 42 0 Clams 5-10 mm in size could be exposed to 0 o/oo salinity for 2-3 days and still return to normal behavior; exposure time could be increased as the salinity increased~5-6 days at 2 o/oo, and an indefinite length of time at 4 o/oo. The pumping rate of Mya varied only slightly between 15.5 and 31 o/oo, but dropped sharply when the salinity was reduced to 3 o/oo, and ceased completely when the salinity dropped to 4 o/oo or lower. Oysters v/ere found able to adjust to wide fluctuations in salinity from almost fresh v/ator to a 3.5 per cent salt concentration (Galtsoff, 1960). Cy hermetically sealing their valves, they could survive without food or water for as long as three weeks. 24 ------- Activity of the shipworm Teredo naval is, a wormlike pclocypod, decreased as the salinity decreased below 9 o/oo (Blum, 1922),and the lethal threshold for this niollusk was found to be between 4 and 6 o/oo. Tcredo nor vegjcus, found in sea v/ater of 35 o/oo salinity, was postulated to be much less able to adapt to low salinities than T. navnlis. Distribution of phytoplankton species off the coast of eastern United States, between southern :!ew England and Bermuda, as related to salinity was studied by Hurlburt and Iterir.ian (1963). Salinity varied between 31.60 o/oo (mouth of Hudson and Kan tan Rivers) and 36.53 o/oo (near Bermuda). The majority of species were found at the lower salinities. Rhizosolenia alata was found 16 times in salinities below 33 o/oo and twice at salinities above 35 o/oo. Skeletonema costatuin, i Coscinosira oostrupti, and Prorocpntruni mi cans were found only in waters with a salinity below 34.5 o/oo. ilitschia closteriuin was found at all observed salinities. Three species- Syracosphaera nicditorranoa, Coccolithus huxleyi, and Discosphaera tubifer-wore clearly associated with hirjl.er salinities, the latter two being found only once below 34 o/oo. At low salinities diatoms were more numerous than dinoflagcllates or coccolithophores (these were more numerous at higher salinities), but increases in salinity appeared to be no barrier to the growth of meritic diatoms. Several species found more frequently between 31.68 and 34.5 o/oo than between 34.5 and 36.53 o/oo wore found to have optimal growth at even lower salinities. Prorocentruni mi cans, Coratium fusus, and C. tripos grow best at 20 o/oo, but grew well also between 15 and 40 o/oo. 25 ------- pH The tolerance of embryos and larvae of clams, llerconaria merconaria, and oystors, Crassostrea virninica, to p!l changes v/as studied by CalaiVrcsc and Davis (10CG). The pH was adjusted to levels from 0.00 to 9.50, with 0.25 unit increments. Clam and oyster eggs developed normally between pH's of 7.00- 8.75 and 6.75-8.75, respectively, but the number of eggs of both species developing normally at 9.00 was greatly reduced and there; v/as almost no development of either species at 9.25 and 9.50. At pH 6.25 only 29.5 per cent of the clam eggs developed, but 92.4 per cent of the oyster eggs did. At pH 6.00, 21.5 per cent of the oyster larvae survived, but all clam larvae died. A sharp increase in both clam and oyster larvae survival was noted with an increase in pll from 6.00 to 6.25, or from 20 per cent survival to 70 per cent survival. A sharp decrease from more than 70 per cent survival to about 40 per cent survival was noted when the pH was increased from 8.75 to 9.00. After a few days at pH 9.00, more than 50 per cent of surviving larvae died; no larvae of either species survived at pH 9.25 and higher, normal growth for clam and oyster larvae occurred between pM levels of 6.75-8.50and 6.75-3.75, respectively. Clam larvae showed the most rapid growth between pH 7.50 and 0.00, while oyster larvae grow best at pH 8.25-8.50. Below 6.75 and above 8.00, growth rate decreased rapidly. The tolerance of young chinock salmon to low and high pH values in sea water was determined (Washington State Department of Fisheries, 1964): 26 ------- Total Kills Total Kills Hours pl-l Hours p!l 3.5 3.18 8-24 9.b6 3.7 3.28 72 (20% 9.24 4.5-5.5 3.56 kill) 34 4.88 Control 8.23 and 7.77 55 5.51 (no kill) llelykochatko (1963) determined that the optimum pH conditions for stenion and eurion fishes were between pH's of 7.2 and 7.6 and the limits within which fish may function and live were Between 6.0 and 0.0. Cut above or below those limits, signs of depression appear as follows: £l]_ Symptoms 6.0-5.0 and 8.0-9.0 Greater or lesser signs of depression 5.0-4.0 and 9.0-10.0 (larked depression; live for sonic months or days; hyperemid nccrotic branchiae and soon die 4.0-3.0 and 10.0-11.0 Fish die in 8-22 minutes 3.0-0.0 and 11.0-14.0 Die with marked paralysis of respiratory center and heart He breaks down the typical death syndrome at pli 4.0-3.0 or 10.0-11.0 as follows: 1) normal swimming; 2) after 3.5 minutes, become immobile; 3) sink to bottom, then rise to surface and snatch air; li) dart erratically, hitting sides of aquarium; 5) head up and down, swim sideways, belly up; 6) convulsive body contractions; 7) irregular respiratory rhythm; 8) skin and branchiae anemic, later becoming hyperemic with necrosis at margins; 9) convulsions increase; 10) lie on side at bottom with mouth open. TURBIDITY AMD SILTATION Turbidity may adversely affect many game or commercial fish by irritating the gills or making foraging difficult because of reduced visibility. By inhibiting photosynthesis it can also remove vegetation that provides cover needed for survival by young fish and surfaces for egg attachment by spawning fish (Mollis, Boonc, Derosc'and Murphy, 1964). 27 ------- Siltation can completely change the composition of the bottom and may also cover the benthic organisms living there. In the Burnt and Po-./dcr Rivers in Oregon, for example, silt from gold dredging operations increased the turbidity from 5 to 1700 parts per^million, and the density of fish food organisms dropped to almost zero. Downstream the density increased to more than 2 gm/ft2 as the turbidity decreased to 17 parts per million. Silting and turbidity caused by excavations along the coast of Rumania resulted in suffocation and respiratory difficulties for some fauna, > inhibition of photosynthesis ^migration of pelagic species from turbid areas A (Bacescu, 1965). Quantitative studies of life on rocks showed that heavy silting resulted in disappearance of stenobiotic species which were rapidly replaced by more tolerant species. The return of normal flora and fauna displaced by the excavations took two to five years. Kobyakova (1962) reported that the intensive silting of a number of partly enclosed bays and gulfs of the Gulf of Peter the Great in the Sea of Japan had led to a change in the biotic composition. Sand.-loving speices had been replaced by silt- loving ones. This condition, along with an increase of fresh-water to the area had led to the near extinction of oysters and large decreases in stocks of commercially important scallops and Mactra, while the stocks of mussels and sea cucumbers were considerable. In one of the bays alone, at 4-G meters, the population density of sea cucumbers was 0.43 specimens per square meter, ? with a biomass of 81.4 gm/m . Studies by Loosanoff (1961) indicated that 0.1 gni/1 of silt produced a 57 per cent average reduction in the pumping rate of adult oysters. At 3.0-4.0 gm/1 silt, the average reduction was 90 per cent. Shell movements 28 ------- in turbid waters were clearly associated with frequent ejection of large quantities of silt and mucus accumulating on gills and palps. Mortality to oysters occurred only when they were kept in large quantities of water (more than 25-50 gal/individual). In smaller amounts of water, the oysters could effectively remove silt from the water in the form of pseudo feces, rendering the water clear, but could not do this in larger quantities of water. Silt proved to be much more harmful to oyster eggs than to clam G99s: Esg survival (%) Silt concentration (mq/1) dam Oyster 0.25 90 31 0.5 39 0 At 0.75 gin/1, growth of oyster larvae was seriously affected; at 1.5 mg/1 growth was negligible. Reduction in light intensity affected the vertical migration of a diatom community in the Ouse Estuary, Sussex (Hopkins, 1963). Although on bright sunny days the community came to the surface with 25 cm of water still covering the mud, on days with reduced light intensity it appeared only after the fall of the tide. GENERAL BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF EXISTING MARINE OUTFALLS Hastewater discharged from the Orange County Treatment Plant f/2 off Newport Beach, California, produces a boil of water of low transparency (Allan Hancock Foundation, 1964). At the surface the transparency of the water is reduced to 10 percent or less the transparency of air; this increases to 70-75 per cent two hours downstream. The productivity of the plankton in the first three meters of water is disturbed for the first 10 hours by the 29 ------- presence of the sewage. The sedimentation of the sewage was dPtonm'nod to be of minor importance to pelagic organisms, but would probably greatly alter the ecology of the bottom. Domestic sewage and industrial wastes containing substances which would settle out in sea water would be quite harmful to-oyster beds (Gnltsoff, 1960). Accumulation on the sea bottom of the soft sticky sludge would cover and smother oysters, killing then or rendering them useless for consumption. Unabated pollution of this typo would eventually convert a hard or semi hard bottom into one of soft, l-^S-saturatcd mud, totally unsuitable for growing oysters. Results of studies (Pescheck, 1963) on the effects of mineral solids, settleable fibers from paper and textile wastes and organic solids from domestic sewage and food-processing wastes on fisheries indicated that while they did no direct damage to fish, they did detrimentally affect the environment and the productivity of the water, indirectly causing mortality, migration from the area, lower water quality, and an increase in the lower organisms. St. Joseph's Bay near Port St. Joe, Florida, is the receiving water for the waste effluents from a paper mill (45 mgd), a paper-mill by-product plant (20 mgd), a chemical plant (22 mgd), and a municipal wastewater treatment plant. Species diversity studies by Copeland (1966) indicate that the number of species in this bay has been reduced to almost two-thirds that found in the Gulf of Mexico (9 species/1000 individuals). A similar instance of sewage effects involved the disappearance of bottom- dwelling invertebrates, Dranchiostoma caribaeum, a lancelct, and Cilottidia pyromidata, a lampshell, from Hillsborough Bay in Tampa Bay. This was attributec by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries 30 ------- Biolocjicnl Laboratory at St. Petersburg, Florida (1967) to the domestic and industrial pollution which exists there. Since these two species were eaten by demersal fishes and crabs and since their planktonic larvae provided food for pelagic species, their disappearance aided in the decline of the formerly valuable fisheries which once existed in the area. Injuries to marine species,which have been attributed to sewage effluent, (Youna, 1964) include': 1) dull-colored, listless and soft California halibut; 2) small weight-length ratio of turbots; 3) exopthalmia of spotfin croakers and white seabass; 4) large body lesions on white seabass; 5) tumor-like sores around mouths of white-croakers; 6) low weight-length curve of White Point (Calif.) black nbalones as compared with Santa Catalina black abalones. Copeland (1966) found that the respiration rate of the killifish Cyprinodon varieqatus in 56 per cent effluent water from St. Joseph's Bay was one and a half times greater than in normal seawater. North (1964) observed that during a three day noriod in water collected over the San Diego municipal outfall in San Diego Bay the photosynthetic activity of the young fronds of the kelp Macrocystis pyrifcra dropped by 71-100 per cent. Eutrophication, or the stimulation of phytoplankton growth by nutrient enrichment, often produces severe oxygen depression with associated effects on marine life. This is found in the Kulti River estuary in India (David, 1959), which receives primary treated sewage effluent from Calcutta. Ebb flow first carries the sewage downstream, but when the tide turns, sewage is carried back upstream, 18-20 miles above the outfall. The dissolved oxygen con- centration of the estuary is always depleted, plankton is scarce, diatoms and 31 ------- blue-green algae predominate. Fish can survive in the Kulti for only about four liours of each tidal cycle near the outfall and farther upstream the survival period is even less. The catfish, Pangasius pangasiur., remains because it has the ability to store air in its buccal cavity and can respire subcutancously. The fish larvae and prawns used for seeding Lracl:ish-water fish farms upstream have almost entirely disappeared. The effects of pollution abatement on the benthic populations of the Raritan River Estuary v/ere studied by Dean and Haskin (1964) in 1950 when a major trunk sewer system began diverting waste discharges from the estuary to the lower Raritan Valley. Especially significant were changes in the dissolve' oxygen concentration of the water. In 1957, no dissolved oxygen was detected in surface and bottom water samples 3.3 and 7.4 miles upstream from the mouth of the river', but in summer 1958, bottom concentrations of 36 per cent sat- uration v/ere measured, and 44-92 per cent saturation was detected in bottom samples in November 1958. Variation in the dissolved oxygen was probably important for benthic fauna, since the concentrations found were probably near the threshold level and could have an effect on the distribution of the fauna. The most obvious change in the henthic fauna in 1958 was the presence of the barnacle Balanus improvisus on all previously uninhabited firm strata. Dominant species of the 6 freshwater and 21 marine species present in 1958 and the 3 freshwater and 28 marine species in 1959 were oligochaetes, Linnodriliis spp, the leech, Erpobdella punctata, and the bivalve, Sphaerium sp. In 1960 a density of 7,102 organistns/m'- was found at one station. Recovery of the fauna in Raritan River Estuary by the end of the study was such that both species distribution and population densities gave the classic V-shaped curve for estuaries. 32 ------- The plankton population of water one rrilr offshore in Santa Monica Bay in southern California, receiving effluent from the secondary treatment Hyperion Plant, has changed considerably since the outfall began discharging (Hume, Gunnerson, and Imel, 1962). Dinoflagcllates and copepods showed a 00 per cent increase in 1957, while diatoms increased 15 per cent and tunicate oilo- p]£ura, tintinnids, and annelid larvae also increased. Reduction of suspended solids discharged from 180 tons/day to 70 tons/day caused a decrease in the distance from the outfall to the area of maximum fish crop—from 3 miles to about one and a half miles. The digested sludge from the Hyperion Plant is diluted to less than one per cent_sludge and discharged seven miles offshore in 320 feet of water. On the surface of these deposits were seer, fish, sea stars, sea urchins, and a few anemones. At the time of the study there were 13 families of polychaetes present, with Cnpitolliriao and Dorvilleidae pre- dominating—more than 5000 individuals per square meter. Faunal growth on cement slabs located near a cooling water outfall at Cavendish Dock, Barrow-in-Furness, where the water temperature measured at all times 10°C higher than the seasonal water temperatures, indicated the following chronological succession (florkowski, 1960): November - December Actinia January Cordylophora lacustris April Lnteromorpha intcstinalis u_ aiilncriana November - May iiytilus edulis February - July Coriopeus spiculatum Nomatories and annelids were present at both the intake and the outfall; the crustaceans, Snhaoroma hookeri and Garanarus zaddachi salinus and the mollusk, Hydrobia jenl-.ensi, were also present in great numbers. Organisms appeared earlier in the year at the outfall than at the intake, indicating that this area might be more beneficial to organisms in colder weather. 33 ------- Cooling water discharged into docks at Swansea, South Hales was also studied for effects on fauna (Naylor, 1956). The surface water in Queen's Dock, into which cooling water was discharged, was consistently 10°C higher than the outside sea temperatures. The most interesting changes occurred after I960, when the power production of the steam-electric plant was reduced. Native Critish species,1 not previously found in the warm-water docl; were recorded for the first time; Balanus crenatus, Ganmarus lacustris. Aurelia aurata, Cryptosula pallasiana, and Elnn'nus r.iodestus. Kalanus amphitrite, which previous to 1961 was the only barnacle present in Queen's Dock, began settling later in the year because of the lowered dock temperature (U. anphitrite needs a temperature of 17-in°C to breed). Interesting also was the appearance in 1962 of small Brachynetus and Carcinus, indicating a possible effect of temperature on the breeding habits of these crabs. Cooling and brine waters discharged from San Diego's saline water conversion plant on Point Loma were found to have deleterious effects on intertidal life in the area over which the effluent flowed at low tide (Leighton, Nusbaum and Hulford, 1967). This portion of the intertidal zone was lacking in any of the typical algae and most"animals, except for a few temperature and hypersaline tolerant shore crabs (Pachygraosus) and the anemones, Cribrina and Antliopleura (Leighton, Nusbaum, and i-lulford, 1967). Field records taken at"the discharge site indicated that a discharge temperature of 100°F would have been hot enough to kill the following species, had they been present: Strongylocentrotus franciscanus., red sea urchin; S. purpuratus, purple sea urchin; Astrea undosa. wavytop snail; Norrisia norrisii, smooth 34 ------- brown turban snail; Haliotls fulgens, green abalone; Pugettia producta, northern kelp crab; Girclla m'firicans, opa-leye; and Clinocottus anal is, tidepool sculpin. Bioassays conducted with the brine water, to which chlorine and scale and foaming inhibitors had been added, showed that sea urchins died in 12 hours in 75 and 100 per cent concentrations of the effluent and in 24-40 hours in a 20 per cent concentration at 18°C; green abalone died in 72 hours in a 50 per cent effluent solution and in 17 hours i at higher concentrations. 35 ------- III. TOXIC MATERIALS PESTICIDES Perhaps no environmental contaminant has engendered so much contro- versy as has the group of "economic poisons" commonly referred to as pesticides. These chemicals, because of their extreme toxiclty to the many organisms with which they come In contact, must be regarded as highly dangerous additions to the environment. Aside from the fact that they are acutely lethal when present in sufficient quantity, there is evidence that they act in other less direct and less recognizable ways when present in very low or sub-lethal quantities. This can either enhance their lethality or bring into their spheres of action completely , unexpected (nontarget) specfe$v The effect of sub-lethal quantities of organic phosphate pesticides on the amount of acetyl cholinesterase in the brains of fish and the phenonmenon of biological magnification as manifested in the case of the disappearance of the western grebe from Clear Lake, California,may be cited as examples of these unexpected and unforeseen complications to their use. To reflect as accurately as possible the effects of these contaminants on the marine environment, it is necessary to consider as many aspects of their appearance there as possible. Acute Toxicity The tolerance of marine phytoplankton to several pesticides was studied by Ukeles (1962). Exposure of five species Monochrysis lutheri. Dunallella euchlora. Chiore11 a sp., Protococcus sp., and Phaeodactylurn tricornutum to stock solutions produced the following results: 36 ------- Pesticide. Conc.(msA) Effects Dipterax 50 less than 50 per cent inhibition of each species 100 lethal to one speciss Dowacide A 50 Reduction in rate of growth of 3 chlorophytes; inhibition of P_. tricornutum and 11. lut!ieri_ 100 Inhibition of growth" of 3 chlorophytes; death of 2 spc-cies Chloronitropropane 3 Chi ore 11a sp. sensitive at this concentration Sevin 1 Complete suppression of £_. tricornuturn and M. lutneri 10 Lethal to 3 specTes Nabam 10 Lethal to all species Lindane 7.5 Inhibitory to P. tricornutum and M. lutheri Toxaphene 0.01 Tolerated by 4 species 0.001 Lethal to H. luthsri 0.15 Toxic to all species Lignasan 0.06 Lethal to all species Fefiuron 0.29 Tolerated Neburon 0.04 50 percent reduction in growth of 3 species Monuron 0.001 Little effect Diruon 0.004 Lethal to M. lutneri Studies of the effects of pesticides on five kinds of phytoplankton utilized by molluscan larvae as food yielded the following figures (Butler, 1952): Pesticide Highest cone, tolerated (ug/1) Herbicide Monuron 0.02 Diuron 0.04 Lignasan 0.0& steburon 0.40 Fenuron 290.0 Insecticides Sevin 100.0 Lindane 500.0 DDT 1000.0 Dipterex 10,000.0 TEPP 100,000.0 Later studies by Butler (1963) added newen pesticides to this list. Studies were conducted on natural phytoplankton communities and two pure 37 ------- stock cultures of DurialisTla euchlora and Platymonas sp. with four-near exposures to 1.0 ing/1 of the following pesticides: Percent decrease oC productivity Pesticide Aldrin Chlorrlane DDT Endrin Heptachlor Lindane Ma tii oxy en lor Thiodan Toxaphene Baytex Diazinon Dibrom Di-syston Dylox Ethion Guthlon Ma lath ion Methyl trithion Systox.' 2.4-D acid Diuron Fenuron Monuron Mcburon Tedion Sevin Other studies the productivity of Natural community 84.6 94.0 77.2 46.0 94.4 28.5 30.6 Co. 6 90.8 7.2 6.0 515.6 55.2 '0.0 59.0 0.0 7.0 85.9 7.1 10.0 37.4 40.9 94.1 89.9 39.0 lb.8 Dunaliella euchlora 0.0 59.8 97.6 by Butler (1964) concerning effects of pestici natural phytoplankton exposures to a concentration of 1.0 tng/1 Pesticide DEF Chemagro 4497 Polystroam 2,4-D butoxy cthanol ester 2,4-D, 2 ethyl - hernyl ester 2,4-D propylene Percent decrease 75.3 06.1 31.8 16.3 48.7 48.7 44.2 Platymonas 24.5 50.9 95.9 des on communities during four-hour gave the following results: Pesticide N-Serve Paraquat Tordon 22K Zytron BIIC (45',i1somcr) Strobanc Telodrin Bayer 33156 Percent decrease 15.0 53.2 8.4 53.8 1C.O 87.7 76.8 54.8 38 ------- Pesticide glycol butyl ether ester Dacth.il Ualapnn Kurosal (SL 60% s i1 vex) Diquat Shell SD 3448 Parathion Nellitfl Killer Sodium TCA Venon 245 Ciodrin Phosdrin Per cent decrease 37.3 0.0 0.0 45.1 10.0 • 9.9 0.0 ' 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Pesticide Uayor 372H'I liayer 41831 CO-UAL Ilctnyl parathion Shell 4072 Shell SD 7433 Shell SD 3447 Phorate (Thinet) IJDVP (Vapona) I1CP Ami no Heed Shell SD 7061 Tordon 101 Bidriri Dimcthoate (Cygon) Phosphamidon Pur cent decrease 154.0 K. 0 P7.4 fj.'J 13.1 44.0 7.2 41.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Studies on the acute toxicity of pesticides to mollusks are concerned mostly with the effects of the pesticides on shell growth of oysters (Cutler, 1962, 1963, 1%4, 1965). Over a period of years and a number of experiments, Butler reported the following results: Pesticide 96-hr LCr.n*(mg/l) Year reported Aldrin BMC' Chlordane DDT Dieldrin Endrin Heptachlor Kepone Lindane Methoxychlor Hi rex" Thiodan Toxapheno Bayer 37344 Bayer 39007 Bayer 44646 Sevin Sulphenone Ferbam 2,4-D acid 2,4-D butoxyethanol ester 0.025 1963 0.36 1963 0.007 1%3 0.007 1963 0.034 1963 0.033 1963 0.027 1963 0.015 1963 0.45 19G3 0.097 1963 No decrease at 2.0 1963 0.065 1?63 0.057 1963 No decrease at 1.0 1963 flo decrease at 1.0 1963 flo decrease at 1.0 1963 192 decrease at 2.0 1963 1.27 1963 0.075 1963 No decrease at 2.0 1963 3.75 1963 - Concentration of toxicant producing 50 per cent decrease in shell growth. 39 ------- Pesticide 96-hr (nig/1) Year rfpnrtc-d 2,4-1) dimethyl ami ne salt 2,4,5-T acid Eptam ASP-51 (NPD) Bayer 29/193 (Baytex) Daycr 25141 DDVP Diazinon Dibrom Di-syston Guthion Inii dan Ma lath ion Methyl trithion Parathion Systox Ted ion DEF Baynr 47531 Chcmagro 2635 Chcmagro 4497 Dyrene Pol vstrenm 2,4-D, 2 ethyl hexyl pster Dacthal Diuron Fenuron Kurosal SL(60% silvox) Monuron Hcl)uron N-Serve 2,4,5-T polyglycol butyl ether ester Til lam Zectran Strobane Telodrin Bayer 372 B9 Bayer 38156 Bayer 41831 Bidriri Ciodrin CO- PAL Dihiethoate (Cygon) Dylox Ethion * ne - no effect No decrease at 2.0 1963 llo decrease at 2.0 19C3 437, decrease at 5.0 1903 O.ObS 1963 0.60 1963 20% decrease at 1.0 1963 No decrease at 1.0 1963 No decrease at 1.0 1963 0.64 1963 0.90 1%3 No decrease at 1.0 1963 llo decrease at 1.0 1963 32% decrease at 1.0 1963 0.23 1963 0.85 1963 No decrease at 2.0 1963 0.39 1964 0.38 1964 0.059 1964 0.01 1964 0.24 1961 0.046 1964 0.57 19C4 30% at 5.0 1964 0.25 1964 1.3 1964 ne*at 2.0 1964 nc at '1.0 19G4 12S at 2.0 1964 0.41 1964 0.28 1964 0.14 1964 20% at 1.0 1964 ne at 1.0 1964 0.059 1964 0.055 1964 •0.07 1964 0.034 1964 0.69 1964 21% at 1.0 1964 1.0 1964 0.51 1964 10% at 1.0 1964 12% at 1.0 1964 0.07 1964 40 ------- Pesticide _. 96-hr ECr Jj^/l) Year reported parathion no at 1.0 1964 Phosdrin ne at 1.0 196-1 Phosphamidon no at 1.0 1964 Dexon ne at 1.0 19C5 Difolatan 0.034 1965 Acrolein 0.055 1065 Ametryne 14% at 1.0 1065 Atrazine no at 1.0 1965 Dalapon, sodium salt no at 1.0 1%5 Dinuat ne at 1.0 1965 Hydram ne at 1.0 1965 Knoxwocd 42 44% at. 1.0 1965 Paraquat no at 1.0 1965 Prometon ne at 1.0 1965 Prnmetryne 19% at 1.0 1965 Shell SU 7961 ne at 1.0 1965 Silvex, plyglycol 23% at 1.0 1965 butyl ether ester Stauffer R-1910 ne at 1.0 1965 Stauffcr R-4461 0.45 1965 2,4,5-T plyglycol 0.14 1965 butyl other ester Tordon ne at 1.0 1965 Voon 245 ne at 1.0 1965 Vernam no at 1.0 1965 Zytron 0.33 1965 DDC 0.014 1965 DDT - Strobane 0.022 1965 DDT - Toxaphcne 0.030 1965 Strobane - Methyl 0.026 1965 parathion Anier. C van amid 0.20 1965 43,913 Amer. Cyanamid 35% at 1.0 1965 52,160 Meta-Systox R nc at 1.0 1965 Thimet" 0.64 1965 Ronnol 0.17 1965 Shell 4072 0.60 1965 Shell SD743B 0.10 1965 Shell SD0447 ne at 1.0 1965 Shell SDB448 0.40 1965 Shell SD9129 ne at 1.0 1965 Stauffor N-2790 0.33 1965 Stauffer R-5092 ne at 1.0 1965 Nell its ne at 1.0 1965 TFH ' ne at 1.0 1965 41 ------- The mean 24- and 48- hour EC5Q values for Sevin for three species of niollusks (Bay mussel, Mytil us edulis; Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas; and cockle clam, Clinocardium nuttallii) were found to range from 2.2 to 7.3 rcg/1. (Stewart, Millemann, and Brcese, 19G7). The mud snail, Nassa ohsnleta, was • i found to have a 96-hour TLm of greater than 10 rng/1 for the chlorinated hydro- carbon pesticides aldrin,-DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, lindane, and methoxychlor and a 96-hr TLm greater than 25 mg/1 for the organophosphatus DDVP, delnav, malathion, methyl parathion, parathion, and phosdrin (U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory, 1504 and 1965). A great number of experiments concerning the toxicity of pesticides to the commercial shrimp of the Gulf of Mexico and the southern Atlantic have been performed (Cutler, 1963, 1964, and 1965), with the following results: Pesticide Aldrin Chlordane DDT Dieldrin Endrin Heptachlor Kepone Lindane Mcthoxychlor Mi rex Thiodan Toxnphone Baytcx Diazinon Dibrom Guthion Ma lathion Scvin Esteron 99 Sulphenone Tcdion Dayer 47531 Chemanro 2635 Cheniagro 4497 Test species Penaeus duorarum Pcnaeus aztecus Penaeus aztecus Penaeus aztecus Penaeus aztecus Penaeus duorarum Penaeus aztocus Penaeus aztecus Penaeus aztecus Penaous duorarum Penaeus aztecus Pcnaeus aztecus Penaeus duorarum Penaeus aztecus Penaeus duorarum Penaeus aztecus Penaous duorarun Penaeus aztecus Ponacus aztecus Penaous aztecus Penaeus aztocus Penaeus aztecus Ponaous aztecus Penaeus aztecus 40-hr ECM(rig/l) Year O.OOG(24-hr) 10C3 0.0044 1%3 0.001 19G3 p.0055 1963 0.0003 1063 0.0003 1963 0.0Gb 1SG3 0.0004 19C3 O.OOG 19f,3 1.2 1%3 0.0004 1963 0.0049 1963 0.00006 19P3 0.044 (24-hr) 1%3 0.0055 19G3 0.0044 1963 0.50 19C3 0.0025 1963 0.55 1963 40% at 1.0 1964 O.Hb 1964 1.0 1964 0.44 1964 0.055 1964 42 ------- Pesticide Test species 48-hr FIG,,, (nig/1) Dyrenn Polvstrnam 2,4-1) dimethyl- amine salt 2,4-1) hutoxy- ethanol ester 2,4-1) propylene glycol butyl ester Dacthal Eptam Monurnn Neburon Shell 7961 Till am Bayer 37344 Bayer 30007 Bayer 44646 CHC Stroljane Telodrin Amer. Cyananid 43,913 Amer. Cvanamid 52,160 Aspon (ASP-51) Bayer 25141 Bayer 372B9 Bayer 33156 Bidrin Ciodrin CO-RAL DDVP (Vapona) Dimcthoate (Cygon) Di-syston Dylox Ethion Imidan Methyl parathion Parathion Thimct Phosdrin Phosphamidon Shell 4072 Systox Methyl trithion Bayer 41331 DEF Dexon Difolatan Penaeus aztecus Penaeus aztecus Penaeus aztecus Ponaeus duorarum Penaeus duorarum Penaeus aztecus Penaeus Ponaeus Penaeus Penaeus Penaeus Penaeus Penaeus Penaeus Ponaeus Penaeus Penaeus Penaeus Penaeus Penaeus Penaeus Penaeus Penaeus Penaeus Penaeus Penaeus Penaeus Penaeus Penaous Penaeus Penaeus aztecus aztecus duorarum duorarum aztecus aztocus duorarum duorarum aztecus aztecus duorarum duorarum aztocus aztecus aztecus aztecus aztecus duorarum aztecus duorarum aztecus aztecus aztecus aztecus aztecus 10S at 1.0 0.55 10% at 2.0 ne at 1.0 ne at 1.0 Penaeus aztecus Penaeus setiferus Penaeus setiferus Penaeus setiferus Penaeus setiferus Penaeus setiferus Penaeus duorarum Penaeus duorarum' Penaous aztecus Penaeus aztocus Penaeus aztecus Penaeus aztecus Penaeus aztecus ne at 1 .0 0.63 ne at 1.0 0.55 ne at 1 .0 ne at 1.0 0.060 0.035 0.55 0.0036 0.0085 0.00007 0.63 0.0028 0.0048 0.01 0.0005 0.0006 0.25 0.025 0.0036 0.044 20% at 1.0 0.025 0.36 0.036 0.0045 O.OOG5 0.001 0.0007 0.25 0.44 0.25 0.063 0.0005 0.0025 0.023 ne at 1.0 ne at 1.0 1964 1%4 1964 1964 1964 19C4 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1°64 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1965 1965 1965 43 ------- Pesticide Acrolein Ametryne Atrazine Dalapon, sodium salt Diquat Diuron Fenuron Hy drain Knoxwood 42 N-Scrvc Paraquat Promctono Test species Penaeus aztecus Penaeus aztecus Pcnaeus aztccus Penacus azt.ocus Pcnaeus setifcrus Penaous aztecus Pcnaous aztccus Penaeus aztecus Pcnaeus aztecus Pcnaeus aztccus Pcnaeus aztecus Pcnaeus duorarum Penacus duoraruri 45-hr r.C50(mg/l) Year Prometrync Silvex/polyglycol Penaeus aztccus butyl ether ester Sodium TCA Pcnacus aztecus Stauffer R-VJ10 Penaeus aztccus Stauffcr R-4461 Penaeus aztccus 2,4,5-T, acid Penaeus aztecus 2,4,5-T, polyglycol Pcnaeus aztecus byttl: etger ester Tordon 101 Veon 245 Vernam Zytron Zcctran DDE Ronncl Shell SD7433 Shell SD8447 Shell SD844B Shell SD9129 Stauffcr N-2790 Stauffer R-5092 Nellite Penneus aztccus Penacus aztecus Penacus aztecus Penaeus aztccus Penaeus aztccus Penaeus aztecus Ponaeus aztecus Penaeus aztccus Penaeus duorarum Penaeus duorarum Pcnaeus aztecus Penaeus aztecus Penacus aztecus Penaeus aztecus 0.10 10% at 1.0 20% at 1.0 40% at 1.0 nc at 1.0 no at 1.0 10% at 1.0 30% at 1.0 0.48 ne at 1.0 ne at 1.0 ne at 1.0 ne at 1.0 0.24 nc at 1.0 nc at 1.0 10% at 1.0 nc at 1.0 20% at 1.0 no at 1.0 ne at 1.0 20% at 1.0 0.0003 0.0052 0.0?8 0.0052 0.0024 0.28 0.032 0.069 0.0019 0.0028 ne at 1.0 1965 1965 19G5 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 19G5 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 19G5 1065 1965 1965 1P65 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 The following acute toxicities of various pesticides to the grass shrimp, Palaemonntos vulgaris. were established (U. S. Fish and Hildlife Service, Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory, 1964 and 1965): 44 ------- Pesticide 9G-hr TLm (ug/1) tndrin l.H Aldrin. 8.D Oicldrin 10.0 Hoptachlor 442.0 Mcthoxychlor l?.l DDT 1.5 Lindane 10.0 Methyl parathion 3.0 UDVP • 10.0 Phosdrin 69.0 Malathion 83.0 Delnay 285.0 Various pesticides tested on juvenile blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) produced the following results (Butler, 1963): Pesticide 48-hr EC.,, (ing/1) ___________ 13U Aldrin 0.042 Chlordane 0.48 DDT 0.01 Dieldrin 0.44 Endrin 0.025 Heptachlor 0.063 Kepone 20% mortality at 1.0 Mcthoxychlor 0.55 Mi rex 20',£ mortality at 2.0 Thiodan 0.035 Baytex 0.004 Dibrom 0.30 Guthion 0.55 Malathion Irritated at 1.0 Sevin 0.55 Pyania Irritated at 20.0 Ferbam Irritated at 10.0 Phaltan Irritated at 25.0 In tests to control zooplankton (especially copepod) invasions of phytoplankton cultures, the following pesticide concentrations produced 100« mortality among the microcrustaccans in the indicated times (Loosanoff, Hanks and Ganaros, 1957): 45 ------- Pesticide Cone, (mg/1) 100% mortality time (hrs) Gutliion 0.05 2 Diptorex 1.00 3 Parathion 1.00 TO Lindane 1.00 22 Lindano 0.05 53 DDT 1.00 46 Copepods Qlicrocy clops) v;crc found to be exceedingly sensitive to DDT concentrations lovrer than O.OU mg/1 (Ruber, 1962). A 0.1 mg/1 concentration of DDT had a knockdown time of one hour for common brine shrimp (Artemia salina) adults. In five days 100 per cent of an adult population of Artemia was killed Ly a DDT concentration 0.1 ug/1, and at 0.01 ug/1 the majority of adults died in three weeks, before the maturation of the next generation (Grosch, 1967). Two phosphate insecticides, Abate and Dursban, were found to be acutely toxic to blue crabs, Callinectcs sapidus, at 10.0 ug/1 in flowing sea water. "™"^™^™^"^"^*"^"™*™^™^"^ \ Pesticides tested on Cancer riagister larvae and Cancer productus larvae taken from the ocean off San Francisco were found to have the following toxicities (Poole, 1967): Pesticide Time LCmo*(ug/1) Species DDT ' 72 hrs 5.0 C. magister Baytcx 72 hrs 10.0 C. inagistcr 72 hrs 10.0 C. productus fialathion 72 hrs 50.0 C. magister 72 hrs 50.0 C. productus Endrin 72 hrs 10.0 C. nagister Sevin 48 hrs 50.0 C. magister Toxaphcne 48 hrs 100.0 C. niagistor Dieldrin 10 days 1.0.0 C. magister Phosdrin 72 "hrs 10.0 C. magistor 72 hrs 10.0 C. productus Aldrin 72 hrs 250.0(1007. C. magister survival) 72 hrs 250.0(30%) C. productus * concentrations producing 100% mortality 46 ------- Studies on the effects of Sevin and its hydrolytic product, 1-naphthol, indicated that the 24-hr ECt,Q of Sevin for three crustaceans studied (nnid shrimp, Upogohla pugettonsis; shore crab, Hnnigrapsus orcgononsis; and Dungcness crah, Cancer r.iagistcr? ranged from O.Oh - 0.71 mg/1. For the ghost shrimp CaYUanossa californiensis the 2h-hr EC^0 of Sevin ranged from 0.17 - 5.60 mg/1, and of 1-naphthol from 16.6 - 22.1 nig/1 (Stewart, Millpmann, and Brcese, 1067). f A population of Palarmonotes shrimp was drastically reduced by the application of 0.2 Ib/acre active ingredient of technical grade DDT to a tidal marsh ditch on Santa Rosa Island, Florida (Croker and Wilson, 196b). A 0.10 Ih/acre application of DDT had a drastic effect on a population of blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) in a tidal salt marsh (Springer and Webster, 1951), with the greatest effect occurring after 18-24 hours. Repopulation of the 'area was slow and not considered complete for one year. In the channels of the salt marsh, mortality ranged from 80 per cent at 0.5 Ib/acre to 20-40 per cent at 0.25 Ib/acre for a mortality period of seven days. Large numbers of bait shrimp (Palapmonetes pugio) died within 12 hours, though mortality ceased after the third day. The entire aquatic crab population of a tidal marsh in Florida was apparently destroyed by the application of dieVdrin pellets which were disseminated at the rate of one pound per acre. The crabs which did survive fed the first day on moribund fishes, but were themselves dead on the second day (Harrington and Bicllingmayer, 1967). The acute toxicity (96-hr TLm) of seven organochlorine and six organonhosphor insecticides to the mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) and the Atlantic silvcr- 47 ------- side ( I torn' ft i a mom' dig) was determined at 20°C, ?A o/oo salinity and pH 8.0 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Sandy Hool. Marine Laboratory 1964 and 1965) 96-hr TLn (ug/1) Pesticide fundulus iiotoroclitus tic- nidi a mcnidia Endrin 0.6 n.05 Aldrin 0.4 13.0 Dioldrin 5.0 4.9 Hnptachlor 50.0 3.2 Hcthnxychlor 35.6 33.1 DOT 4.2 0.4 Lindanr 60.0 9.3 Parnthion 5200.0 2000.0 OnVP 2975.0 12bO.O Delnav 20.7 5.8 Malathion 142.0 .- 112.0 Phosdrin 332.0 320.0 Methyl iparathion 14,100.0 5700.0 Threespine sticklebacks cxpnsnd at two different salinities to a variety of pesticides had the following %-hr TLm's (Katz, 1961): Pesticide 96-hr TLn at 5 o/oo 06-hr TLm at 25 o/oo Toxaphene O.C 7.8 Aldrin 39.9 27.4 Dieldrin 15.3 13.1 DOT 10.0 11.5 Lindane 44.0 50.0 Hethoxychlor Gf>.4 69.1 Hentachlor 111.9 111.0 ' Chlordane 90.0 160.0 Endrin 0.44 0.50 Guthion 12.1 4.3 Malathion 94.0 76.9 CO-RAL 18G2.0 1470.0 Sevin 3990.0 3990.0 Studies to determine the effect of tho herbicide, sodium pcntachloro phenatn on fish life in coastal waters indicated the following results (Tomiyania, Kobayashi , and Kawabc, 1963): ------- Species 48-hr Tl.m (mg/1) Ni boa albi flora Ondontnmhlyopus rubicundus Leandcr jnnonicus Annullla janonica O.OP, 0.25 2.3 0.20 (24-hr) Butler (1963, 1964, and 1965) has performed mnny tests on the toxicity of pesticides to fish, with these results: Pesticide Alclrin BHC Chlordanc DDT DDT Dieldrin En drin Endrin llcptachlor Kepone Kepone Lindane Lindane i'icthoxychlor Mi rex Thiodan Toxaphene Ferbam Phaltan Phaltan 2,4-D propylene glycol butyl ether ester 2,4-D acid 2,4-D butoxy- ethnnol ester Di uron Eptam Eptam Estornn 99 Esteron 99 MCP aniine weed killer Monurnn Radapon Radapon 2,4,5-T acid Ti 11 am Till am Test species white mullet white mullet white mullet white mullet longnose killifish white mullet white mullet longnose killifish white mullet white mullet longnose killifish white mullet longnose killifish white mullet white mullet white mullet white mullet longnose killvfish. white mullet longnose killifish longnose killifish white mullet longnose killifish white mullet Uhite mullet longnose killifish white mullet longnose killifish Inngnose ki 11'ifish white mullet white mullet longnose killifish longnose killifish white mullet longnose killifish 48-hr ECcnQng/1) Year 0.0028 0.8 0.005S 0.0004 0.0055 0.0071 0.0026 0.0003 0.003 0.055 0.034 0.03 0.24 0.055 10% at 2.0 0.0006 0.0055 K56 2.5 4.5 No effect at 50.0 5.0 6.3 10% at 20.0 Irritated.at 20.0 1.5 3.0 No effect at 75.0 16.3 No effect at 50.0 No effect at 50.0 No effect at 50.0 6.25 7.78 ire 3 19(33 1%3 1963 1963 1963 1963 19G3 1963 19G3 1963 1963 19C3 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 1963 19C3 1963 1963 1963 -49 ------- Pesticide Test species 48-hr CCKn(mg/1) Year Bayer 37344 Sevin Sevin Baytex Bayer 25141 Uiazinon Dihrom. Guthion Imidan Inidan llalathion Methyl trithion Sulphenono Sulnhenone Tedion Dyrone nyrene Polystrean Dncthal Bayer 39007 Caver 44646 Aldrin PDT DOT Dieldrin Endrin Heptachlor Kepone Lindano Methoxychlor I'M rex Strobane Telodrin Tliioclan Toxaphene Asoon (ASP-51) Rnver 41831 Bayer 38156 Baytox Bidrin BicJrin Ciodrin DPVP (Vapona) Dihrom Dunethoate (Cygon) Di-syston Dylox Cthion Guthion Malathion longnose ki Hi fish white mullet longnose ki Hi fish white mullet lonqnose ki Hi fish white mullet white mullet white mullet white mullet longnose killifish white millet longnose killifish white mullet longnose killifish Cyprinodon variegatus Leiostomus xanthurus Mugil cephalus Cyprinodon varicgatus Cyprinodon varicgatus Cyprinodon varicqatus Cyprinodon vnricqatus Leio">tomus xanthurus Leiostomus xnntiiurus Cyprinodon variegatus xanthurus xanthurus xanthurus xanthurus xanthurus xantliurus xanthurus Leiostomus Leiostomus Leiostomus Loiostomus Leiostomus Leiostomus Loiostomus Cyrpinodon variegatus xanthurus xanthurus xanthurus Leiostomus Leiostomus Leiostomus Cyprinodon varieqatus Cyprinodon variegatus ilugil cephalus Leiostoi.ius xanthurus Fundulus similis Cyprinodon varicqatus .Leiostomus xanthurus Leiostomus xanthurus Fundulus similis Cyprinodon variegatus Cyprinodon varieqatus Cyprinorion variegatus Lpiostomus xanthurus Leiostomus xanthurus 0.55 2.5 1.75 1.59 0.055 0.25 0.55 0.0055 0.055 0.055 0.57 0.55 1.9 6.0 ne at 1 .0 0.0085 20% at 0.1 ne at. l.U ne at 1.0 ne at 1.0 107, at 1.0 0.0055 0.002 0.005 0.0055 0.0006 0.025 0.17 O.C3 0.03 ne at 2.0 0.0005 0.0036 0.0006 0.001 ne at 1.0 ne at 1.0 0.0067 1063 1963 1963 1963 19f3 1963 1963 1963 1963 Ivjt3 1963 1963 lf-63 1%3 1%4 l°f.4 1964 19C* inr>4 196'! 1 %4 19f4 1964 1 »M 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 ne at 1.0 ne at 1.0 0.55 0.44 ne at 1.0 ne at 1.0 0.069 0.050 0.55 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 50 ------- Pesticide Test species 40-hr ECi;n*-(fiig/1) Yrar salt 42 Methyl parathion Parathion Thimct Phosdrin Phosphamidon Phosphamidon Systox Bayer 47531 DLT Chemagro 2635 Chemagro 4497 Doxon Difolatan Acrolein Anietryne Atrazine Dal anon, Dinuat Fenuron Hydram Knoxweed Neburon N-Serve Paraquat Promctone Promotrvne Shell SD7961 Si 1 vex, polyglycol butyl ether ester Sodium TCA Stauffer R-19190 Stauffer R-4461 2,4,5-T polyglycol butyl ether ester Tordon 101 Voor. 245 Vernam Zytron 7.0 ct ran DDE Amer. Cvanamid 43,913 Amer. Cyan am id 52,160 Bayer 37289 Bayer 41831 Cyprinodon varieqatus Cyprinodon variegatus Fundulus similis Cyprinodon variegatus Leiostomus xanthurus riuqil cephalus Lciostomus xanthurus Loiostomus xanthurus Lciostomus xanthurus Lciostomus xanthurus Leiostomus xanthurus Cyprinodon varieqatus Fundulus similis Fundulus similis Loiostomus xanthurus Leiostomus xanthurus Fundulus similis Fundulus similis Lfiostomus xanthur.us Leiostomus xanthurus Leiostomus xanthurus Leiostomus xanthurus Leiostomus xanthurus Fundulus similis Leiostonus xanthurus Leiostomus xanthurus Leiostomus xanthurus Leiostomus xanthurus ilugil cephalus Leiostomus xanthurus Leiostomus xanthurus Leiostomus xanthurus r ilugil cephalus Leiostomus xanthurus Leiostomus xanthurus Leiostomus xanthurus Cyprinodon variogatus Leiostomus xanthurus Leiostomus xanthurus ir at 1.0 0.060 0.0004 0.83 ne at 1.0 ne at 1.0 0.55 0.032 0.24 0.032 0.032 ne at 1 .0 0.032 0.24 ne at 1 .0 nc at 1 .0 ne at 1.0 ne at 1.0 ir at 1.0 20% at 1.0 ne at 1.0 0.32 ne at 1 .0 ne at 1.0 ne at 1 .0 ne at 1.0 ne at 1.0 0.36 ne at 1.0 ne at 1.0 0.32 0.32 ne at 1.0 ne at 1.0 ne at 1.0 0.32 ne at 1.0 ne at 0.1 20% at 1.0 1 964 1 064 1 964 1964 1 964 1964 1964 1 965 19C5 1965 1 %5 1965 1965 1 965 1 965 1 965 1 965 1965 1955 1965 1P65 196b 1965 1 965 1965 1965 1 965 1965 1965 1 965 1965 1965 1 %5 196b 1965 1965 1 965 1965 1965 Leiostomus xanthurus ir at 1.0 Leiostomus xanthurus 0.32 Cyprinodon variegatus ir at 1.0 1965 1965 1965 51 ------- Pesticide Tost species 48-hr ECcn(mq/l) Yoar CO-RAL Cyprinodon variogatus 0.2R 1°65 Ronnel Loiostomus xanthurus 0.32 VJCb Shell 1072 Lciostomus xantSiurus lo at 1.0 19G5 Shell SD7/133 Leiostomus xanthurus 0.32 19f.5 Shell SDH447 Leiostomus xanthurus ir at 1.0 1965 Shell SD8448 Leiostomus xanthurus Ic at 1.0 1965 Shell SD9129 Fundulus similis no at 1.0 1965 Stauffer fl-2790 Leiostomus xanthurus 0.24 1965 Stauffer R-5092 Leiostomus xanthurus 0.020, 1965 ne - no effect; ir - irriated; le-lost equilibrium In preliminary screening tests, spot (Loiostonus xanthurus) exhibited a TLm to endrin of 0.1 ug/1 in five days continuous exposure (U.S. Fish and l-Jildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1966, and Butler, 1966). At the same laboratory, experiments on toxicity of endrin to hluefish indicated a 9C-hr TLn of 0.29 ug/1 at 24 o/oo salinity and 20°C. Killifish (Fundulus ocnllaris)'from tidal marshes in Delaware were exposed to 0.5 Ib/acre malathion delivered by aerial spraying (Darsle and Corridcn, 1959). After four hours 26.3 per cent had died, 31.2 percent i .-ere unaffected, and 42.4 per cent were sublethally poisoned. Fish in this last category were placed in recovery tankst where 66 per cent recovered, 26 per cent died, and 8 per cent were exhibiting symptoms at the end of 64 hours. Studies on three species of fish from the coast of Oregon (Shiner perch, Cymatogaster aggregate; English sole, Paraphrys vetulus; and thrcespine stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus) indicated that the hydrolytic product of Sevin, 1-naphthol, was more toxic to these fish than was the insecticide, Sevin, itself (Stewart, flillemann, and Broese, 1967). Croker and Wilson (1965) found that a 0.2 Ib/acre application of OUT to a tidal 52 ------- marsh ditch on Santa Rosa Island, Florida killed 33 per cent of a community fish population of mullet, 8 species of cyprinodonts, silversidcs, spots, and gobies in throe days. Early experiments by Springer and Ucbstcr (1951) on the effects of DDT on tidal salt marshes resulted in a 70 per cent loss of Fundulus hotoroclitus and Cynrinodon at 1.0 Ib/acre, 50 per cent loss at 0.5 and 0.25 Ib/acre. The fish kill in a Florida salt marsh treated with 1.0 Ib/acre dioldrin pellets was essentially complete; an estimated 20-30 tons, or about l,17b,000 fish of at least 30 species were killed. Chronic Toxicity Marine food chain studies indicated that the marine bacterium, Pseudomonas i piscicida. was not grossly affected by pesticides (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1967). Ho damage was done to its growth rate nr morphology when cultured in 10 mg/1 chlorinated hydrocarbons and 100 mg/1 organophosphorus insecticides. In a culture medium of l.Ojjg/1, more than 90 per cent of the DDT was taken up in 24 hours, with a buildup of ODD and DDE in the interior of the cells. It was postulated that this conversion may play a very important part in the biological degradation and fixing of DDT in marine food chains. The effects of the herbicide, 3-amino-l,2,4-triazole (3AT), on five species of marine red algae (Antithamrn'on plumula, Plumaria eleqans, Callithamnion tetricum, Nemalium multifidum, Krongniartella hyssoides) were studied (Boney, 1963). Immersion of Antithannion plumula in 10 mg/100 ml for 24 hours and in 1 mg/100 ml for 48 hours gave similar significant inhibition of cell production. Two days immersion in 2.5 mg/100 ml 3AT resulted in 465J 53 ------- inhibition of cell production and ,TI/'. inhibition nt 10 mcj/100 ml. After six days, inhibition of 100% was achieved at 10 rig/100 nil 3AT. Immersion of other algal species in 5 mg/100 nil 3AT resulted in C7% cell production inhibi- tion in Plumaris elcnans, 75% in Callithamnion tetricum, 65'' in f:c:i::n1ion multifidum and 20% in Brongnoartclla byssoides. Chronic toxicity to-oysters can be easily determined by studying the deposition of new shell (Butler, !%(">), a method which giver, statistically significant data in three or four days of testing with as few-as 10 juvenile oysters. When oysters were exposed to 10-fold increases in the concentration of DDT from 0.1 ug/1 to 100 ug/1 at 17°C, the suppression of shell growth increased uniformly. Growth at the highest concentration (100 ug/1)was nil i and at the lowest concentration was 21) per cent of the normal. fiollusks wore also known to concentrate pesticides present in tlieir environment in their own tissues ns much as 70,000 times in some cases. • If placed in unpolluted waters, they will flush themselves of these residues. Experiments on the accumulation and retention of !:DT by mollur.ks exposed for 7 days to 1.0 ug/1 in flowing sea water gave the following results: Residue (rig/1) After 7 days After 15 days After 30 days I loll us I; exposure flushing flushing Brachidontes recurvus 24 — — (Hooked mussel) Crassostrca virginica 26 2.5 1.0 (Eastern oyster) Crassostrea gigas 20 16.0 — (Pacific oyster) Ostroa edulis 15 3.0 4.0 (European oyster) Qstroa enuestris 23 !i.O — (Crested oyster) Mercenaria mercenaria 6 0.5 — (northern quahog) -54 ------- The uptake of certain pesticides r>y oysters after in days' uxnosure, v/ith rolntion to the biological magnification in their tissues, '-/as studied with the following results (U.S. Fish and llildlifo Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Biological Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida, 19Ce): Pesticide Exposure Residue Ciolonical cone, (nin/1) cone, (mg/1) magnification Toxaphene 0.05 146.0 2920X Methoxychlor 0.05 289.0 5780X Lindane - 0.05 3.0 60X Chlordane 0.01 73.0 7300X Heptachlor 0.01 176.0 17.600X Endrin 0.001 1.0 1000X Dieldrin 0.001 1.0 1000X DDT and metabolites 0.001 15.0 15.000X Very small clams and oysters approaching their first cycle of reproductive activity were exposed to aldrin, dieldrin, DOT, toxaphene, malathion and acetone for six months at concentrations one-tenth of their median lethal doses. There was no decrease in growth. Oysters sprawned spontaneously at the same time as did the controls. (Butler. 1963). A comparison of the development and growth of oyster and clam eggs and larvae exposed to 1.0 mg/1 of various pesticides and control groups gave the following results (Butler, 1962): Clam eggs Oyster eggs Growth of oyster Pesticide developing (%) developing (%) larva (%) DDT Lindane Guthion Parathion Toxaphene Aldrin Dieldrin Endrin Sevin ' 100 30 50 70 90 95 85 0 65 20 60 0 75 20 850 95 55 ------- Davis (1961) also studied larvae of oysters (Crassostrea with the following results: Pesticide Cone, (mg/1) Fenuron below 5.0 the effects of some pesticides on eggs and vlrglm'ca) and clams (Venus mercenaria) Monuron Diuron Dluron Neburon Undane Aldrln Aldrln Toxaphene Toxaphene Toxaphene Cushion Guthlon below 5.0 1.0 5.0 . 2.4 below 10.0 10.0 0.25 and 0.50 0.25 and 0.50 0.25 0.50 0.50 1.0 Guthlon Sevin 5.0 1.0 Effect no significant decrease in percent of clam eggs reaching straight hinge larval stage same as above; some evidence of toxlclty to larvae at 1.0 and 5.0 mg/1 significantly reduced.percentage of eggs .developing normally no clam eggs developed Into larvae; drastic reduction 1n larval growth rate; as much as 90% larval mortality normal development of eggs prevented; 100% mortality of larvae 60% of clam eggs and 43% of oyster eggs developed normally 64% of clam eggs developed normally stopped growth of clam larvae egg development normal growth rate of clam larvae drastically reduced; 50% mortality some survival of larvae for 12 days; growth negligible reduced percentage of oyster larvae reaching' straight hinge stage 30.5% of clam eggs developed normally; no marked effect on clam larvae 100% mortality of clam larvae no marked effect on clam larvae; 40% reduction 1n oyster eggs reaching straight hinge stage 56 ------- Pesticide Cone, (mg/1) Effect Sevln 5.0 100% mortality of clam larvae; no normal oyster egg development DDT 0.025 drastic reduction in oyster larvae growth rate; 20% mortality DDT 0.050 growth of oyster larvae stopped; mortality in excess of 90% after 14 days Dlpterex 0.025 significant reduction in growth of oyster larvae Dlpterex 1.0 50% mortality of oyster larvae Parathion 1.0 drastically reduced oyster larvae growth rate Butler and Springer (1963) found that oyster fecal deposits contained DDT in approximately 35 times the concentration of DDT originally present in water in which oysters were living, and concluded this could be a cause for additional concern. Non-selective bottom feeders, such as marine worms, which are important links in many marine food chains, might accumulate pesticides 1n concentrations lethal to their predators which include fish, crustaceans and birds eaten by man. Ghost shrimp, Neomysis sp., taken from San Francisco Bay contained residues of DDT, DDE, and Dieldrin at concentrations of 20, 12, and 1 ug/1, respecively (U.S. Public Health Service, Region IX, 1965). Grass shrimp, Crago sp., taken near Martinez, contained 130 ug/1 DDT and 80 ug/1 toxaphene. Exposure of reproducing Artemia salina to concentrations of DDT ranging from 10.0 to 0.001 mg/1 resulted in an increasing proportion of young developing from cysts rather than developing vlviparously from the adult females. This appeared to be a characteristic response on the part of the treated adults to environmental stress. At 0.1 ug/1 all of the adults had 57 ------- died in 5 days and all the larvae died before reaching maturity. At 0.01 ug/1 the majority of adults died in three weeks and the first generation following treatment was noticeably smaller (Grosch, 1967). A high acetyl cholinesterase activity exists in certain tissues of several species of shrimp and crabs; this activity may be inhibited sometimes by concentrations of organophosphorus insecticides as low as 1.0 ug/1 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1967). According to Butler (1962) pesticide toxicity in crabs and shrimp is first manifested by increased irritability and then by loss of equilibrium. Mortalities of stone and mud crabs are observed at pesticide concentrations of 1.0 mg/1, but mud crabs seem to be particularly sensitive to the herbicide, 2,4-D and show irritation at only 1.0 ug/1. Data on the concentrations of pesticides required to cause paralysis in small (25 mm) stone crabs within 24 hours indicate that this will occur with endrin, dieldrin, and DDT at 10 ug/1 and with Sevin at 1.0 mg/1. Blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) were exposed continuously for nine months to sublethal concentrations of DDT (0.25-0.5ug/l) (Lowe, 1965), and 18 per cent survived the entire period. There was no difference in the behavior of control crabs and those exposed to 0.25 ug/1 DDT. Of the crabs exposed to 0.5 ug/1 DDT, two became paralyzed and died after two weeks exposure. These and other crabs kept at 0.5 ug/1 DDT exhibited typical symptoms of insecticide poisoning: extreme irritability, increased sen- sitivity to external stimuli, and paralysis. 58 ------- Juvenile blue crabs (Callinectes sapldus) fed, molted, and grew for nine months 1n 0.25 ug/1 DDT, but could survive for only a few days In concentrations In excess of 0.5 ug/1. A small per cent of juvenile brown shrimp, Penaeus aztecus. could tolerate 0.025 ug/1 endrin for 60 days, but could survive for only a few days at concentrations of endrin greater than 0.05 ug/1. Yearling striped bass and young-of-the-year taken from Suisun Bay in water containing a total chlorinated hydrocarbon concentration of 0.08 ug/1 contained the following residual,concentrations of chlorinated hydrocarbons (whole fish, wet weight) (U.S. Public Health Service, Region IX, 1965): Concentration (ug/1) Compound Young-of-year Yearling Lindane 10 10 Keptachlor epoxide 15 30 DDE ' 64 690 ODD 7/or DDT 115 360 Toxaphene 40 — Dieldrin 13 24 Unknown A 15 60 Analyses of total chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides retained by anchovy fry and adult are given in the same report and indicate a total of 300 ug/1 in the fry and 1000 ug/1 in the anchovy adult. Holden (1962) studied the absorption of DDT from water by fish and determined that for three fish, the ratios of DDT concentration in the gills to that in water at the time of the death of the fish were 275, 277, and 287, respectively. In studying chronic toxlcity of some chlorinated hydrocarbons to fish, Butler (1965) determined that endrin at 0.6 ug/1 would kill 50 per cent of a population of fish (probably spot, Leiostomus xanthurus) in 24 hours, •59 ------- but a concentration of 0.025 ug/1 endrin allowed 15 per cent of a population to survive for two months. Telodrln, a highly toxic chlorinated hydrocarbon," killed fish 1n 10 days at a concentration of 0.025 ug/1, but allowed them to survive for five months at 0.01 ug/1. Spot exposed to endrin at 0.05 ug/1 for 8 months were twice as sensitive to lethal concentrations of the pesticide as unexposed fish. Spot exposed to sublethal concentrations of dleldrin (0.1, 0.01, and 0.0001 ug/1) for three months exhibited 30-37 per cent mortality, not significantly different from the mortality of control populations. (Butler, 1963). Some experimental fish, however, had axial skeleton distortions that were not found in the controls. A population of spot survived 16 weeks continuous exposure to 0.01 mg/1 malathion, although a concentration of 0.05 mg/1 still affected the population after 14 days continuous exposure. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1966). The effects of various pesticides on the hatching of eggs of the longnose kilUfish, Fundulus similis. were studyed and found to have little effect on hatching; the pesticide concentration, however, was sometimes lethal to the emerging fish larvae (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1966): Pesticide Control DDT DDT Endrin Endrin Dibrom Malathion Cone. (mg/1) ' 0.01 0.001 0.001 0.0001 0.01 0.01 Hatching rate (%) 32.5 55.0 32.5 40.0 45.0 47.5 47.5 Mortality (%) 0 0 0 6 6 11 100 The effects of endrin on the embryonic development and hatching of marine threespine sticklebacks in water of 10 o/oo salinity at 20°C were 60 ------- as follows (Katz and Chadwick, 1961): Number Percent survival Endrin Number % eyed % eyed of fish Days after start of hatching (ug/1) of eggs eggs* fish** hatched 3456 7 8 Control 0.75 1.35 1.8 2.4 3.2 4.2 38 32 21 27 22 24 36 M^»A«^B» 63 78 43 63 63 58 67 85 52 44 82 . 36 71 54 20 . 15 4 13 5 10 13 100 100 100 84 80 90 61 100 69 75 69 40 51 31 85 61 75 61 20 10 0 75 45 50 30 20 0 0 20 15 50 ' 7 0 0 0 5 0 0 7 0 0 0 * 4 days after fertilization ** hatching in 8 to 9 days Two groups of adult sheepshead minnows (Cyprinodon variegatus) were, exposed to concentrations of DOT of 20 and 40 ug/1 for 24 hourse with a third group acting as a control. The survivors of all three groups were allowed to reproduce and the young were then exposed to concentrations of 10, 13, and 15 ug/1 DDT and 2 ug/1 endrln. Mortality of the young of the exposed groups was significantly greater in both cases(90% level) than the control at both 13 ug/1 DDT and at 2 ug/1 endrin (Holland, Coppage, and Butler, 1966). Groups of spot (Leiostomus xanthurus) were exposed to sublethal concentration (0.1 and 0.01 ug/1) of toxaphene in flowing seawater (Lowe, 1964). It was found that after five months exposure, there was no significant mortality difference between control and experimental fish, although experimental fish developed a distinct thickening of lamellae with resultant clubbing. Control fish had slender, delicate lamellae with gossamer epithelial coverings over Individual capillaries. It was possible to identify control and treated fish.on basis of gill changes alone. Young-of-the-year spot 61 ------- taken from a natural population In waters off Gulf Breeze, Florida,were acclimated to laboratory conditions for three months, then exposed to a concentration of malathlon of 0.01 mg/1 for 26 weeks. An analysis of the brains of some of the fish Indicated that the acetyl chollnesterase activity was significantly lowered and stabilized at about 70 per cent of normal. This appeared to have had no adverse effects on the fish, since neither experimental group exhibited any symptoms of distress during the 26 weeks, and there was no difference in growth or mortality. Immediately after, and again one week after the experiment had • anted, fish f^ the experimental and control groups were exposed to lethal concentrations of malathlon. There was no slgnfleant difference 1n the mortalities of any group (Holland and Lowe, 1966). Juvenile spot tolerated 100 ug/1 Sevin In their environment for three months with no 111 effects (Lowe, 1967). Exposure of some estuarine fishes to sublethal concentrations of pesticides reduced the acetyl chollnesterase activity as follows: Cone. AChE Pesticide (mg/1) Species Activity (%) Malathlon 0.1 Spot 76 Malathlon 0.1 Sheepshead minnow 39 Dlbrom 0.05 Sp&t <10 Dibrom 0.05 Sheepshead minnow 79 Dlbrom 0.001 Striped mullet 76 Parathion 0.01 Spot <10 Parathion 0.01 Sheepshead minnow 26 Guthion 0.01 Spot 79 Guthion ~ 0.01 Sheepshead minnow <10 Diazinon 0.001 Spot 100 Dfazlmm 0.001 Striped mullet 74 Bayer 3815b 0.001 Spot 76 Bayer 38156 0.001 Sheepshead minnow 82 Bayer 38156 0.001 Striped mullet 58 Dursban 0.001 Spot 38 Thimet 0.0005 Spot 84 Thimet 0.0005 Sheepshead minnow 68 Thimet 0.0005 Striped mullet 69 62 ------- Seventeen out of 93 samples of brains of spot (Lelostomus xanthurus) and sheepshead minnow (Cyrpinodon variegatus) from various places on the southeastern coast of the U.S. and the Gulf of Mexico were found to have low cholInesterase activity (less than 90 per cent activity), but 13 of the 17 low samples were found to come from only two areas—the Ashley River near Charleston, South Carolina and from the eastern edge of Trinity Bay near Galveston, Texas. The former site receives wastes from plants producing a variety of organophosphorus compounds (Holland, Coppage and Butler,'1967). Exposure of adult northern puffers, Sphaeroides maculatus, to endrin concentrations of 1.0 , 0.5, 0.1, and 0.05 ug/1 resulted in impaired liver function which was evidenced by the transfer of major cations (Na+, K+, Ca^, Mg**, and In"1"1") from the hepatic tissue into the serum (Eisler and Edmunds, 1966). Experiments with bluefish demonstrated that endrin disrupted the normal metabolism of metals (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory, 1965). Bluefish exposed for 96 hours to sublethal concentrations of endrin exhibited comparatively higher levels of sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, zinc, and iron in muscle, gills, and liver than did the controls. Liver damage was evident among fish surviving the highest doses. 63 ------- DISSOLVED GASES Ammonia It has been established that the un-ionized ammonia molecule in solution 1s much more toxic than the ammonium Ion NH4+ (Herbert, 1982). Tabata (1962), however, Indicated that 1n order to explain the effect of pH on the toxldty of ammonia,, 1t was necessary to consider not only the toxicity of un-ionized \ ammonia, but also the toxicity of a large quantity of ammonium ions and the antagonistic action of carbon dioxide. He used the ratio Tm/Tj, where Tm was the 24-hour TLm and T^ was the apparent 24-hour toxicity due to one mole of un-ionized ammonia or ammonium Ion. In his tests with the water flea, Daphm'a pulex, Tm/T^ was found to be nearly constant (45/51) within the pH range of 6.0 to 8.5. He found that the Tm/T1 of test fishes (Leblstes or Plotosus) was greater than for Daphnla or the brine shrimp Artemia. Studies by Woelke (1960) on the effects of sulflte waste liquor (ammonia base blow pit liquor) on the development of larval hardshell clam,Venus mercenaria, produced the following results: SWL cone. Average number of Per cent of normal (mg/1) normal larvae larvae developed 0 12,813 83.7 2 12,469 81.1 4 13,719 90.2 9 9,000 58.8 18 8,563 56.0 39 969 6.3 79 0 0.0 150 0 0.0 304 0 0.0 Herbert and Shurben (1965) found that salmon were in all cases more susceptible than rainbow trout to ammonium compounds under varying salinity 64 ------- conditions (salinity given as per cent of seawater with a salinity of 33.9 g/kg): 24-hour TLm (mg/1 N) Salinity Alkalinity (% seawater) £H. (mg/1 CaCOa) Salmon smolt Yearling Rainbow Trout 0 7.81 248 15 37 50 7.52 185 43 51 75 7.51 150 42 50 The critical level of 141-day old. 114 mm chlnook salmon in aerated sea water containing amsnoniim hydroxide was found to be between 3.5 and 10.0 mg/1 for a 3-day exposure. Silver salmon in aerated fresh water for a similar period had a critical level to ammonium hydroxide of about 5 mg/1. The pH 1n both instances was between 7.6 and 8.0 (Eldridge, 1967). Because of the lack of information concerning the toxicity of ammonia under marine conditions, certain references concerning Its toxicity under fresh water conditions are given here. The second edition of Hater Quality Criteria (1963) reported that the literature shows the lowest toxic level of NHa to rainbow trout to be 0.3 to 0.4 mg/1. This figure was established by Wuhraian and Woker (reference number 1465), but because of a data error It was later proved to be Inaccurate, and the actual threshold toxicity of undissociated ammonia to rainbow trout was set at 1.1 mg/1. Reworking of the data by FWPCA has confirmed the error and the new level of toxicity. Downing and Merkens (1955) showed that the toxicity of ammonia, as N, to rainbow trout, decreased with Increasing dissolved oxygen. Un-ionized ammonia concentrations of 0.6-1.29 mg/1 were used; 1t was found that the period of survivlal was shorter in the higher concentrations and that Increasing the dissolved oxygen concentration from 1.5 to 8.5 mg/1 prolonged the period of survival in all concentrations. Further studies by Merkens and Downing 65 ------- (1957) determined the toxidty of unionized ammonia to rainbow trout at two different tensions of dissolved oxygen. Results were reported as follows: Cone, of un-ionized ammonia (mg/1 N) Dissolved oxygen (% air saturation) 100.3 . 45.7 Time ,_ (hours)" 2 8 36 168 312 2 8 36 168 312 Complete survival 2J4 1.73 1.73 1.62 1.26 0.59 0.38 0.34 0.31 0.31 Complete mortality 3.98 2.19 1.91 1.76 1.73 1.05 0.79 0.79 0.63 0.63 Herbert (1962) found that the toxic threshold concentration of un- ionized ammonia for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii) 1s reduced by an Increase in the concentration of free carbon dioxide. The pH value, and hence the concentration of un-1on1zed ammonia, 1s lower in water in Immediate contact with the gills than 1n the bulk of .the solution because of the C02 excreted by the fish. This excreted C02 will have less effect on the concentration of un-1on1zed ammonia at the gills when there is a relatively high concentration of C02 in the bulk of the solution than when there Is only a little in the solution. He found that the toxic threshold concentration (time not given) of ammonia for 50 percent of a population of rainbow trout to be 0.6 mg/1 at pH 7.8 and at a water temperature of 10.2 to 11.3°C. His experiments with mixtures of toxic substances indicated that the mixture of ammonia and phenols was at Its threshold concentration when AS/AJ. + Ps/Pt -1. where A is ammonia, P is phenol, s in the. concent ration in solution and.t is the toxiclty of the substance when tested individually. 66 ------- For the combination of ammonia and copper, the equation given above became progressively less adequate as lower percentage mortalities were considered (Herbert and Vandyke, 1964). He also found that for the ammonium salt, NH^' Cl, ,the.48-hour TLm for rainbow trout was 26.4 mg/1 as nitrogen at pH 7.8 and 17°C, and the toxiclty of copper sulfate was 0.27 mg/1. However, a copper-ammonia mixture had a 48-hour TLm of 0.92 mg/1. Lloyd (1961) also showed that the toxlclty of ammonia was directly related to the concentration of free carbon dioxide In water (bicarbonate alkalinity as CaC03),the pH, temperature and dissolved oxygen. The higher the pH and the temperature the lower the toxic threshold, and the lower the dissolved oxygen the lower the toxic threshold. His experiments comparing predicted ammonia toxlcity determined from laboratory studies and observed ammonia toxiclty under the same conditions indicated an error between the two toxlcities of riot more than 10 per cent. In studies on the effects of ammonia (NH4OH) on young salmon and trout, symptoms of toxlcity were cited as: 1) restless swimming in top half of aquarium; 2) recurrent alternating periods of violent activity (10-20 seconds) and quiescence (20-40 seconds); 3) subsidence to feeble swimming; 4) loss of equilibrium; 5) spasms in which jaws and gill covers gaped widely as fish died (Washington State Department of Fisheries, 1964). It was found that a concentration of 10 mg/1 NH/jOH killed 24 of 25 fish in 21.33 hours. Other results on chlnook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawtyscha) in sea water were: Initial cone. First equili- First death Total kill 24-hr 1% Initial Initial NH^mq/1) * brium loss(hrs) (hrs) (hrs) cone.(mg/1) pH DO 0.30 1.00 1.50 s!50 5.20 >72 >72 ^72 ^72 ^72 >20.92 ^72 ^72 ^72 >72 -^72 ^20.92 ^72 ^72 >72 ^72 ^•72 >-20.92 0.70 0.70 1.30 2.06 3.25 4.90 7.60 7.65 7.65 7.80 8.10 8.15 5.8 6.9 5.5 5.2 6.9 6.9 67 ------- * Corrected for 0.3 mg/1 NHs-nitrogen released by urination of fish In control tank during declination and for 0.4 mg/1 released during first 24 hours of exposure. Warren (1962) found that ammonium was 10 times as toxic to rainbow trout at pH 8 than at pH 7. He suggested that this was to be expected, since at pH 7 only one per cent of total ammonia is un-ionized while at pH 8, 10 per cent is in freely permeable form. He quoted Wuhrman, who found that fish maintained in water at high pH containing 10.1 mg/1 ammonia sulfate showed toxic manifestations in 70 minutes, whereas those in a concentra- "tTon 16.5 times higher, but with a lower pH, were unaffected for 170 minutes. Herbert (1962) confirmed that the toxicity of an equivalent mixture of ammonium chloride and phenol is nearly as great as that of spent liquor from a gas works, hence toxicity of the latter may be due mostly to the two components, ammonia (free and fixed) and phenol (as CgHsOH). The growth of both green and blue-green algae in the Potomac Estuary was stimulated.by the addition of secondary treatment wastewater effluent, ^ proportionately to the amount of effluent added (Shapiro and Ribeiro, 1965). Removal of Nt^vnHffogefr-controlled the growth of green algae, but did not control blue-green algae. Carbon Dioxide The Interesting hypothesis has been advanced that large, dense schools of many species of fish, such as herring and anchovies, change environmental gas concentration of the water through which they pass (McFarland and Moss, 1967) and that disruption of school behavior of striped mullet (t"ugil cephalus) apparently resulted from abrupt and severe metabolic reduction of environmental oxygen and an Increase in the amount of carbon dioxide. 68 ------- Keeling (personal communication. 1967) sees no threat to marine organisms from Increased carbon dioxide in water because of the great buffering capacity of sea water. HEAVY METALS An hypothesis on the toxicity of heavy metals to fish states: if the rate at which heavy metals enter the gill epithelial cells is less than the rate at which they are removed into the blood stream, no build-up of Ions will occur on the epithelial cells and the fish will survive; if, however, the entrance rate is greater than the removal rate, then a build-up will occur and the fish will die (Lloyd, 1962). Toxicity of heavy metals 1s also dependent on many environmental factors - hardness of the water, temperature, dissolved oxygen'concentration, and activity of the organism. Studies by Malacca and Gruia (1964) supported these findings and also deter- mined that poisoning by heavy metals 1s an additive process dependent on the concentration of the metals and the period of exposure. Copper Laboratory studies by Hassall (1962) determined that toxicity of copper to the green alga Chiore!la vulgaris was dependent on environmental factors during the experiment. If suspensions, of Chlorella were shaken continuously, / 0.1 M copper sulfate was not Inhibitory for 7-20 hours, but if the shaking was stopped, concentration lower than 0.001 M rapidly became toxic. Lack of oxygen seemed to be the major factor leading to high copper toxicity. North (1964) found that copper (Cu**) concentrations of 0.1 mg/1 or greater eliminated photosynthesis 1n the giant kelp. Macrocystis pyrifera. 69 ------- The plants also exuded a brown substance, developed a "coicnarin" odor, and spines and bulbs on the plants developed a brown discoloration. The toxic threshold for M. pyrlfera was found to be between 0.01 and 0.1 mg/1, although several days were required to produce apparent Injury at this concentra- tion. After ninety hour's exposure, photosynthesis was eliminated by 0.5 mg/1 Cu+ inhibited 70 per cent by 0.25 mg/1, and reduced nearly 50 per cent by 0.1 mg/1. Again, effects were greater with Increasing time. Visible Injury to the kelp was apparent In 10 days at 0.1 ing/1 Cu** and 1n six weeks blades of the plants were bleached white and fell to pieces when handled. Galtsoff (1960) stated that copper was extremely toxic to oyster larvae (but gave no values) and that It 1s one of the heavy metals absorbed by blvalues. When-stored 1n their tissues It renders them Inedible. The 96-hour TLm of copper to oysters from the Seto Inland Sea 1n Japan was measured to be 1.9 mg/1 (Fujiya, 1960)pa concentration higher than normally found there (0.05 - 0.3 mg/1 Cu). However, oysters exposed to sublethal concentrations of copper (0.13 - 0.50 mg/1) accumulated the metal 1n their tissues in amounts of 200-1500 mg/1 (wet weight), making them unfit as food. Studies on three New Zealand bivalves - an oyster (Astrea simuate). a scallop (Pecten novae zelandlae) and a mussel (MytHus edulls aeteanus) - Indicated that the concentration of copper In the tissues of these organisms was much greater than In the water. In the scallop and the mussel it was 300 times as much, and In the oyster It was 12,700 times as much (Brooks and Runsby, 1965). The average copper concentration 1n material dried at 110°C was 9 mg/1 for both scallops and mussels and 41 mg/1 for oysters. 70 ------- Concentrations of 1.5 mg/1 copper were found to be lethal 1n 2 to 3 days to the marine polychaete, Nereis vlrens; 0.5 mg/1 copper was lethal 1n four days8 and 0.2 mg/1 was lethal 1n one week (Raymont and Shields, 1963). The worms had 100 per cent survival for 3 weeks in concentrations below 0.1 mg/1. After 12 days worms exposed to solutions of 0.66 - 0.06 mg/1 copper had accumulated from 580 to 110 mg/1 copper in their tissues while control worms in sea water had concent rat ions of 43 mg/1 copper. Significant kills (50 and 91.7 per cent) of young pink salmon gopbugEliia)'wey@ receded with cupric nitrate levels of 0.563 and 1.0 mg/1 for five days. Loss of equilibrium and Initial mortality occurred in less than 19 hours in the 0.563 mg/1 copper concentration and in less than 66 hours in concentrations of 0.178 and 0.318 mg/1 Cu (N03)2- Sprague (1964) defined the incipient lethal level as that concentration of an environmental Identity beyond which an organism could no longer survive for an indefinite period of time. Experiments on juvenile salmon in freshwater at 17°C and pH 7.0 - 7.4 on the toxlcity of copper and zinc combinations indicated that the metals potentiated each other's lethal action; lethal concentrations of the copper-zinc mixtures acted two to three times as fast as the lethal concentrations of the single metals (Sprague and Ramsay, 1965). Sublethal pollution by copper and zinc of the Miramichi River, New Brunswick, from a base-metal mine was the apparent reason that 22 per cent of adult salmon moving upstream returned downstream (Sprague, 1962). Using the incipient lethal level (ILL) as the toxic condition, Sprague found that the maximum "safe" level of a combination of zinc and copper was 0.15 the incipient lethal level of the combination of the two metals, calculated by him to be 0.7 mg/1 zinc and 0.05 mg/1 copper. This means that the maximum 71 ------- "safe" level of zinc and copper combined would be 0.11 mg/1 zinc and 0.008 mg/1 copper. A 48-hour toxlclty threshold level of copper sulfate for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii) of 0.27 mg/1 Cu++ was determined by Herbert and Vandyke (1964). The Incipient lethal level (ILL) of copper in fresh water, with a total hardness of 18 mg/1 and pH of 7.5, to young salmon was 44 ug/1 (Sprague, 1964). There was a random scattering of responses at the lowest concentration of 0.01 ILL with Increasing avoidance of water containing higher copper concentrations. A uniform avoidance was shown of water containing 0.65 and 2.05 ILL. The threshold concentration of avoidance, or the concentra- tion at which 50 per cent of the salmon avoided water containing CuSO/}, was 0.052 ILL. Malacca and Gruia (1964) concluded on the basis of experiments on toxlclty of heavy metals to the water flea Daphnia rcagna. bltterling, carp and minnows that the maximum permissible concentration of copper in the Black Sea should be re-evaluated, since the accepted level of 0.1 mg/1 seemed to be too high. Experiments on shore crabs (Carcinus) indicated a copper toxicity threshold of 1-2 mg/1 for an 11-12 day exposure.and small prawns (Leander squill a) had a copper toxlclty threshold below 0.5 mg/1 (Raymont and Shilds, 1963). The addition of 10 - 20 ug/1 copper to sea water retarded the body growth of the pluteal larva of the sea urchin (Paracentrotus lividus), but did not retard growth of the larval arms (Bougls, 1965% A copper concentration of 30 ug/1 affected growth of the arms and 50 ug/1 copper 72 ------- was lethal to the larvae. When the cuprlc 1on concentration of sea water was gradually Increased from 0.005 rcg/1 to 0.5 mg/1, the oxygen uptake of the cyprld larvae of the barnacle, Balanus amphltrite niveus, was elevated proportionately (Bernard and Lane, 1963). However, further Increases 1n cuprlc 1on concentration resulted 1n a steady decline of oxygen uptake. Twenty tons of copper ore were added to a lagoon 1n an attempt to control blooms of the alga Gymnodlnltsn splendens by permanent exposure to a large amount of copper ore. Phytoplankton blooms were reduced somswhat but productivity of lagoon continued after the addition and seasonal occurrence of 6.. splendens was not altered by addition of the ore. After another 60 tons were added (20 and 40 tons at two different times), a near lethal concentration of 0.5 ug/1 copper was attained, but decreased during the following five months to 0.01 ug/1 copper. Thus the Immersion of the ore was not helpful 1n controlling Gymnodinlum splendens (Marvin, Lansford, and Wheeler, 1961). Chromlurn Hexavalent chromium was strongly toxic to young ,kelp (Hacrocystis pyrifera) blades at 10.0 mg/1, but not at 1 mg/1 or lower. A 9-day exposure of the blades to 0.1 mg/1 had no effect, 1.0 mg/1 gradually reduced the photosynthetic capacity, of the blades (25 per cent reduction in 9 days) and 10 mg/1 eliminated photosynthesis in 5 days. To produce the equivalent Injury, 50 to 100 times more chromium was needed than copper (North, 1964). The threshold toxiclty of hexavalent chromium to the polvaaaete'Nerels ylrens was about 1.0 mg/1. At concentrations of 0.5 mg/1 there was 100 per cent survival for three weeks, but at concentrations of 1.0 mg/1 some mortality 73 ------- occurred over the same period. Concentrations between 2 and 10 mg/1 caused 100 per cent mortality In two weeks. For longer periods of exposure the threshold toxicity level for Nereis virens was 0.6-007.Eg/l of chromium. The shore crab, Carcinus macnasB exhibited a toxicity threshold for chromium of 50 mg/1 over a 12-day period, but the prawn, Leander squill a. succumbed to concentrations under 5 mg/1 chromium over the same period. Experiments on the toxic action of chromium on fish and on the water flea Daphnia magna Indicated that hexavalent chromium was more toxic than the trivalent ion. Daphnia magna. with a 48-hour TLm of 0.01 mg/1 chromium, was the most sensitive organism tested. The bitterllng Rhodeus sericeus amarus had a 168-hour TLm of 29 mg/1 (Malacca, 1962). Salmon exposed to lethal concentrations of chromium salts swam progress- ively erratically at the water's surface, snapped their jaws, lost their equilibrium, and then died. Silver salmon (Qnchorhynchus kisutch) mortalities of 100, 86.7, and 93.3 per cent were reported In hexavalent chromium concentra- tions of 31.8, 56.3, and 100.0 mg/1, respectively (Washington State Depart- ment of Fisheries, 1964). Concentrations of trivalent chromium ranging from 5-50m caused no mortalities or distress 1n silver salmon. Chromiien in this oxidation state apparently converts to a nonlonic insoluble state by reaction with carbonates in the water. Scallops (Pecten novae zelandiae) and mussels (Mytilus edulis aeteanus) accumulated more chromium from their environments than did oysters (Ostrea sinuata): 10 and 16 mg/1 in material dried at 110°C, as compared to 3 mg/1, respectively (Brooks and Runsby, 1965). The corresponding enrichment factors (number of times an element 1s concentrated 1n tissue of organism over the concentration in its environment) were 200,000 for scallop, 320,000 for mussels and 60,000 for oysters. 74 ------- Zinc Oysters (Ostrea slnuata) accumulated much higher levels of zinc from their environment than did scallops (Pecten rcovae zelandlae) or mussels (MytHus edulls aeteanus). Oysters accumulated 1108 mg/1 dry weight compared to 283 mg/1 for scallops and 91 mg/1 for mussels. The enrichment factors for each of these were 110,300, 28,000 and 9,100 respectively (Brooks and \ Rims by, 1965). A 50 per cent Inhibition of hatching in brine shrimp (Artemia salina) eggs was brought about by an addition of 0.0041 g/100 ml zinc sulfate (Caujolle, Pham-Huu Chanh, and Moulas, 1965). The effect of high zinc concentrations in sea water and Injections on normal tissue concentrations of the lobster, Homarus vulgaris. indicated that a 20-fold increase in the zinc content of sea water from 5 ug/1 to 100 ug/1 had very little effect on zinc concentration in lobster blood;and that 6 injections of 110 ug/1 zinc had no obviously toxic effects,even though days after the injections stopped the blood zinc concentration was four times the normal, or" 20 ug/1 (Bryan, 1964). The threshold concentration for avoidance of water containing zinc sulfate was measured to be 0.092 times the incipient lethal level for young salmon (580 ug/1 zinc), or 53 ug/1 zinc (Sprazue, 1964). • In studying lethal concentrations, Sprague and Ramsay (1965) found that copper-zinc mixtures acted two to three times as fast as the single metals (see Copper). A similar effect was reported by Doudoroff (1956) i , from nixing zinc with cyanide. The 48 hr TL^ of sodium cyanide on fat- nead minnows (Pimephales promelas) was 0.24 mg/1, but when zinc sulfate was mixed with the sodium cyanide it dropped to 0.19 mg/1. 'Results of experiments by Herbert and Vandyke (1964) on the effects of phenols on rainbow trout 75 ------- (Salmo gairdnerf) were even more pronounced. The 48 hr TL,,, of phenol was 9.78 ppm, and of zinc was 2.46 ppm. A mixture of the two, however, produced a Tl^ in 48 hrs «f -1*07 ppm. Sreenivasan and Raj (1963) measured the following 48 hr Tlm's for zinc sulfate: Tilapia 10-15 mg/1 (at 25.8 to 28.5°C, 5.8 to 8.2 mg/1 Og, (Tilapla mossambica) 7.1 to 7.5 pH, 0.9 to 1.8 mg/1 C02) Carp 12-15 mg/1 (Bangkok strain); 10-12 mg/1 (Ooty strain) (Cyprinus carpio) ••• They reduced the mortality of Tilapia mossambica 75 percent by adding 200 mg/1 of calcium chloride, and 60 percent by increasing the dissolved oxygen concentration from between 5.8 and 8.2 mg/1 to 12.3 mg/1. The carp mortality was reduced approximately 100 percent by the addition of 200 mg/1 of CaCl2, and 12-25 percent by the addition of 200 mg/1 of MgS04. Increases in salinity greatly increased the resistance of salmon smolts and rainbow trout to zinc toxiclty. In water with salinity between 10.2 and 13.6 parts per thousand salmon could stand 13 times the zinc they could tolerate for two days in hard, fresh water. Under the same conditions rainbow trout could tolerate 15 times the amount (Herbert and Wakeford, 1964). The 48 hr Tl^'s for salmon and trout for zinc at different salinities were: Salinity (o/oo) . 48 hr TLm (mg/1) • Salmon Trout 5.01 15 25 11.87 35-40 60-90 15.26 30 60 23.41 30 35 Malacca and Gruia (1964) carried out studies on Daphnia magnaa bltterllng, carp, and minnows and determined that a maximum permissible concentration of 5 mg/1 was too high and should be lowered to protect aquatic life. 76 ------- Iron An area In the sea used to dump sulfurlc add and ferrous sulfate was surveyed to determine any effects on the a«fjatic life from dumping. In the disposal area worms and amphlpods Increased and clams and sea cucumbers decreased, but in seven months of dumping, there was no eradication of life in the area (Arnold and Royce, 1950). Bloassays of toxicity of a chemical waste effluent from United States Steel Corporation containing sulfuric acid and ferrous sulfate (with a pH of 0.8) on Cancer magister and Cancer productus gave the following results (Poole, 1967). Species Cone, of effluent (o/oo) % survival Cancer magister 0.1 88 0.01 72 Cancer productus 0.1 86 0.01 71 0.001 68 Oysters(0strea sinuata), scallops (Pecten novae zelandiae), and mussels (Mytil us edulis aeteanus) of New Zealand were found to accumulate iron from their environment (Brooks and Rumsby, 1965). The 682 mg/1 (dry weight) of Iron found 1n oysters, 2915 mg/1 in scallops, and 1960 mg/1 in mussels represented concentration factors of 68,200, 291,500, and 196,000, respectively. PHENOLIC SUBSTANCES Phenol at 300 mg/1 caused reduction in the rate of growth of the marine phytoplankton species Monochrysis lutheri. Dunaliella euchlora. and Chi ore!la sp. It was lethal to these species as well as to the species Protococcus sp. and Phaeodactylurn tricornutum at 500 mg/1 in sterile sea water (Ukeles, 1962). A concentration of phenol of 9.4 mg/1 caused complete inactiviation of photosynthesis in large blades of the giant kelp. Macrocvstis pvrifera. 1n 96 hours and visible Injury In one week 77 ------- (North, 1964). A much smaller concentration (0.47 mg/1) caused a 50 per cent photosynthetic inactivatlon and visible Injuries in one week. Small blades of Macrocystls proved much more sensitive to o - cresol. At a concentration of 10-^1* .photosynthesis-" was reduced 60 - 85 per cent and at 10-5M o - cresol visible damage was apparent in one week. The threshold concentration for toxicity of o - cresol was determined to be under 1.0 mg/1. Other results were: Compound concentration m - cresol 10"^ cresol '- 5 X 10 ' -4 ' c '5 % photosynthetic inactivQtion 80-90 50 40 20 Time (days) 4 4 4 , 4 Chlorinated phenols also affected photosynthetic capacity of Macrocystis. Four-day exposures to various chlorinated phenols gave the following results: Cone, (tng/1) Sample Photosynthesis (% initial value) Compound Control sea water p -chlorothiophenol Pentachlorobenzethiol Sodium pentachlorophenate (Santobrite) Pentachlorophenol Pentachlorophenol At all of the above concentrations, all treated blades were visibly injured 1n 5 days. With Santobrite (Sodium pentachlorophenate) photosynthesis was eliminated with a 2-day exposure to 0.58 mg/1. The critical concentration 10 10 10 26.6 2.66 large blade small blade Large blade small blade large blade small blade large blade small blade large blade small blade large blade small blade 106 114 24 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 78 ------- range for Santobrite was between 0.1 and 0.5 mg/1. Larval Baltic salmon exposed to non-volatile phenols experienced the following phasic physiological disturbances (Vernldub 1962): 1st phase - mild stimulation of motor activity and all physiological processes; changes fully reversible with transfer of larvae to clean water. 2nd phase - confused movement, respiration rate decreased; arrhytffflia of aur1cleB then venticle; larvae moved toward warm water, not cold, reaction to temperature distorted; normal processes slowly restored when transferred to clean water. 3rd phase - tetanic convulsions of muscles on alternately the right and left sides of body; capacity for normal movement lost; changes almost totally irreversible. 4th phase - weak motor activity; loss of all reaction to stimuli; changes Irreversible. 5th phase - complete paralysis and death. The lethal concentration was measured to be about 1 mg/1. Symptoms of toxicity of phenol to goldfish were listed by Vishnevetskii (1962) as Inflammation and necrosis of the gills, dystrophy of the parenchyma and sedimentation of yellow haemogloblnogenlc pigment and crystals of haematoldin in the liver, kidneys and heart. Herbert (1962) determined that the threshold concentration for rainbow trout (Salmo galrdnerii) in a gas-liquor phenol mixture was between 4.2 and 5.0 mg/1. Toxicity was not affected appreciably by the pH, but toxicity did increase as the dissolved oxygen concentration decreased. Fish (species not given) exposed to a concentration of 3-5 mg/1 79 ------- phenol exhibited behavioral changes (jumping and other escape reactions); at 10 mg/1 gills became hyperemic and the skin produced a mucus, containing a strongly foaming secretion; and at 16 mg/1 fish were paralyzed and sank (Skrapek, 1963). In oxygen - saturated water containing 17 mg/1 phenol, 37 per cent of experimental fish died in 1-12 hours; 50 mg/1 phenol killed all fish within 15 minutes. Experiments on carp in connection with a mass mortality of Plecoglossus altivelis indicated that the lethal concentrations5 for phenol and for formalin were 25-27 mg/1 (0.0063 and 0.0066 per cent), and 0.93 - 1.02 mg/1 for a mixture of the two compounds (Ikuta, 1964). PETROLEUM WASTES Probably one of the biggest problems posed by the disposal of petroleum wastes into the sea concerns the BOD requirements. ZoBell (1963) calculated that the complete oxidation of one liter of heavy mineral oil, if dispersed in a water mass contining 8 mg02/1, would deplete the oxygen from 4008000 liters of sea water. \ A biological monitoring survey of an area of Puget Sound where an oil refinery disposes of its wastes revealed that communities of algae and aquatic plants, mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms, polychaetes, coelenterates and fish in the different tidal zones were normal in their relative abundance and physiological states and that beach rocks were relatively free of oil residues (Oglesby and Sylvester, 1964). Blades from bottom kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) fronds were subjected both to one per cent Navy diesel and boiler fuels blended with sea water for two days (North, 1964). All controls showed increased photosymthetfle capacity but in apical and small blades photosynthesis was eliminated by exposure to both oils. Large blades were inactivated by one per cent boiler fuel and their capacity was reduced 85-90 per'cent by one per cent diesel fuel. 80 ------- Young blades from surface canopies and bottom fronds were exposed to surface oil films (1 ml/527 on2) and to a range of concentrations of emulsified dlesel oil for different periods. Changes in the photosynthetlc capacity were measured after one, three, and seven days exposure: Per cent photosynthetic capacity after Sample Exposed to 1 day 3 days 7 days Surface blades Control sea water - 134 157 Surface oil film 33 Diesel oil in sea water: 1.00% 0 0 0.10% 20 0 .0.01% - 77.5 0 Bottom blades Control sea water 135 142 236 Surface oil film 147 0 Diesel oil in sea water: 1.00% 99 0 - 0.10% 110 7 0 0.01% 130 38 0 Bottom blades were exposed to 0.1% dlesel oil and boiler fuel emulsions for periods ranging from 3 to 48 hours, after which they were washed and maintained in sea water. The photosynthetlc changes after 4 and 7 days, are shown below: Percent photosynthetic capacity after Treatment 4 days 7 days Control sea water 105 104 0.1% diesel oil: 3 hrs 75.5 75.5 6 hrs 68 61.5 12 hrs 0 0 24 hrs 38 0 48 hrs 6 0 81 ------- Percent photosynthetic capacity after Treatmsnt °> days 7 days Control sea water 137 0.1% boiler fuel: 3 hrs 00 6 hrs 00 12 hrs 75 0 24 hrs 0 0 48 hrs 1.8 0 An accidental release of crude oil in Mil ford Haven was studied by George (1961). He found that even when the surface of the water was covered by a thick layer of oil, only a very thin film was deposited on littoral plants and animals as the tide returned. The intertidal organisms most likely to be affected were those occurring between lowest high water levels of neap tides and highest high water levels of spring tides. These included the acorn barnacles Elminius modestus. Balanus balanojdes, and Chthamalus stellatus; the limpet, Patella vulgate; and the algae, Fucus spiral is and Pelvetia canaliculata. In an area supporting limpets the amount of oil deposited was much reduced and residual patches exhibited characteristic imprints of limpet radulae; apparently the deposited oil did not prevent the limpets from grazing over the covered area inadvertently removing the oil. There was no decrease in the limpet population. Six months after the accident, all oil was removed from the area supporting limpets but not from the area above the uppermost limpet population. Barnacles suffered no unusual mortality, Pelvetia and £-. spiral is grew at normal rates. Crude oil appeared to have no effect on the rate oysters could clear water of suspensions in it, and had no effect on the volume of suspended matter taken in by oysters over a period of 11 days (Lund, 1957). 82 ------- Crude oil solutions were toxic to 100 per cent of Daphnia magna 1n 96 hours at 1 mg/1 (Dawden, 1962). And even though there was no visible surface film, Daphnia were entrapped at the surface of the crude oil solutions. Tests gave the following results: Material tested TLm (mg/1) 24-hr 48-hr 72-hr Crude oil 2110 1095 750 Emulsifier F 590 357 240 Crude oil + emulsifier F. 455.3 207.3 115 Emulsifier W 5.5 3.0 1.7 Crude oil + emulsifier W 2.3 1.1 0.9 These figures indicate that emulsifiers used to remove oil fron an area could do far more damage to aquatic biota than the oil itself. Emulsifier W'was toxic to small bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus) within 5 minutes at 10 mg/1. The toxicity of oils to fish (Rhodeus'sericeos amarus, Phoxinus phoxinus and Cyprinus carpio) and to Daphnia magna varied logarithmically with the extent of emusification by naphthenic acids (Malacca, Dure and Weiner, 1964). A waste effluent from Chevron of a confidential chemical process (assumed to be concerned with petroleum refining) was tested for its toxicity to.Cancer magister and Cancer productus with the following results (Poole, 1967): Species Cone, (o/oo) % Survival Cancer magister 100 0 B 10 70 1 97 0.1 86 0.01 68 Cancer productus 0.1 90 r Qj01 92 0.001 60 83 ------- Bioassays on toxicity of gasoline, diesel fuel oil, and bunker oil to American shad (Alosa sapidlssima) indicated that the lighter petroleum products were more deadly than the heavier oils. Gasoline was the most toxic, followed by fuel oil and then bunker oil (Tagatz, 1961). The actual values were: Petroleum product TLm (mg/1) 24-hr 48-hr 96-hr Gasoline 91 91 Diesel fuel oil 204 167 Bunker oil - 2417 1952 Depressed dissolved oxygen concentrations increased toxicity of petroleum products as follows: Petroleum product Gasoline Diesel fuel oil Cone. (rcg/1) 68 84 DO (mg/1) 2.6-3.2 1.9-3.1 Mortality tiir,e i 50% 100: 50 60 270 300 SULFIDES Large amounts of organic matter deposited in the bottom sediments of coastal and estuarine regions stimulate growth and activity of sulfate - reducing bacteria, causing vigorous sulfide production. Sulfide concentration 1s often so high that animals and plants Inhabiting these regions are severely injured (Hata, Mlyoshi, Kadota, and Klmata, 1964) Exploratory bioassays with volatile components of spent sulfite liquor (SSL) - acetic and formic acids, methanol, ethanol, acetone, furfural, p-cymene, formaldehyde (as sodium formaldehyde bisulfide) and acetaldehyde in mixed proportions as to occurrence in SSL - Indicated that as the concentra- tion (equivalent volatiles in SSL, in mg/1) increased from 250 mg/1 to 4000 mg/1, the percentage of normal mussel larvae produced declined from 99 per cent to 1.6.8 per cent (Dlnick and Breese, 1%5). The-foil owing 84 ------- comparison of 24-hour ECgo values for mussel larvae In aerated and unaerated mixtures of kraft mill effluent (KME) and salt water shows that tha toxicity of the KME declined both when mixed with saltwater and when aerated: 24-hour EC 50 Mean KME cone. (% vol) 1.7 2.7 , 7.4 TO&rease In "toxicitv 1%) Sample Original KME sample Unaerated salt water mixture Aerated salt water mixture Studies on effects of sulflte waste. liquor (SWL) on egg development t of the oyster Crassostrea vlrglnica gave the following results (Hoelke, 1960): 37.1 76.3 SWL cone. (mg/1 ) 0 2 4 9 18 39 79 150 304 Average number of larvae 8875 1375 1656 1875 500 0 0 0 0 Percent of normal larvae developed 63.2 • 9.7 11.8 13.3 3.6 0 0 0 0 Larval growth studies on Crassostrea indicated that growth rate declined with Increasing SWL concentration, until on the 9th day, it was no longer evident. Results of growth experiments on juvenile Venus mercenaria are as follows: SWL cone. (P8I mg/1) \ * **_• _^zjj__^_f_ Control 4 9 18 39 79 Initial Population 58.375 60,875 56,500 62,625 56,500 26,125 Terminal Population 510750 57,500 20,500 24,000 53,800 2,500 Percent survival 88.6 94.4 36.2 38.3 95.2 9.6 Initial size (u) 188.4 185.8 186.1 189.1 183.2 161.6 Terminal size (u) 307.3 269.4 232.9 237.6 248.2 206.0 Percent Increase 63 45 25 25 35 21 85 ------- In areas where concentration of sulfite waste liquor is high the dissolved oxygen concentration may drop to levels of o.?5 to 0 mg/1, making an area unsuitable for oysters (Gunter and McKee, 1961). A 10 per cent PBI (Pearl- Benson Index) sulfite waste liquor concentration of 25 mg/1 was found to cause oxygen depression, and during low flows of the Chehalis River in Washington oxygen depression occurred at 10 mg/1 of 10 per cent SWL. Bioassays on Ostrea.lurida (Olympia oyster) indicated that the toxic threshold concentration of 10 per cent SWL was between 8 and 16 mg/1, but for Crassostrea gigas (Pacific oyster) it was between 50 and 100 mg/1 of 10 per cent SWL (Gunter and McKee, 1962). A SWL concentration of 16-25 mg/1 was inimical to the survival of larvae of 0. lurida and to the setting of spat. There was an 88 per cent survival of Crassostrea gigas larvae at 3-5 mg/1 SWL; 55 per cent survival at 8-10 mg/1, 15 per cent survival at 10-12 mg/1, and complete mortality of larvae at SWL concentrations over 13 mg/1. Low dissolved oxygen concentrations occurring at all depths in Porpoise Harbor (near Prince Rupert, B.C.) in September, 1961, were attributed to the decomposition of spent sulfite liquor. Bottom samples taken from 8 to 12 fathoms, however, revealed a large number of amphipods crawling on branches, bark fragments and chips. Species included Anisogammarus pugettensis, Synidotea sp (an isopod), and Allorchestes angustus. A._ pugettensis is usually found in cold, slightly brackish water and A._ augustus in shallow, warmer brackish bays and estuaries. Neither species had been previously reported as associated with polluted and/or low oxygen waters'(Waidichuk and Bousfield, 1962). 86 ------- Waldichuk (1960) reported that spent sulfite liquor and Kraft mill effluent emptied Into the sea could have an effect not only on anadraious fishes, but also on pelagic fishes, Pacific herring smelt, and capalin,, since these fish come Inshore to spawn and must enter the zone of pollution created by these wastes. Tests by the Washington State Department of Fisheries (1964) on tha toxic effects of sulfide compounds (sodlicn sulfide, Na2S) in sea water on salmon-indicated that fish in sulfide concentrations greater than 3.18 mg/1 were iirsnedlately distressed. At 1.00 and 1.78 mg/1 sulfide, the mortalities were 30 and 90 per cent, respecively, after 72 hours. It was concluded that a critical level below 1.0 mg/1 was indicated for sulfide. In Washington, migrant steelhead were seen in distress in a small estuary where sulfides above 1 mg/1 have been detected. Migrant sized steel- head were placed in live cars in this area, and In 3 hours and 20 minutes all fish were dead. In laboratory tests, steelhead were exposed to a effluent which is dumped into this estuary and which contain large amounts of wood fiber. In three minutes the fish lost their equilibrium and became Immobile, and in 15 minutes they were dead. CYANIDES Proof is at hand that molecular HCN is the toxic factor in water polluted by simple alkali cyanides (Doudoroff, Leduc, and Schneider, 1966). It was stated that the cyanide 1on £er se cannot be the principal lethal factor because of Its relatively low concentration In acid, neutral, or slightly alkaline cyanide solutions, but apparently small variations in pH can greatly influence the toxicity of seme complex cyanides, and hence the amount of CO- present in a given situation should be of concern also. 87 ------- Exposure of the foraminlferan, HoMd-ii'm cn'spmn. to 4rr.M/l of Na3CN slowed down uptake of cesium-137 by-the organism. Removal of the cyanide after 48 hours resulted in partial recovery of uptake, but after 95 hours exposure the animals did not recover. The exposure to cyanide apparently caused'a fall 1n the potassium content of the organism from 61 to 19 mM/kg and a rise in sodium from 55 to 94 mM/kg. This suggested that cesium uptake might be handled by the mechanism for potassium balance (Bryan, 1953). Based on studies ftfathe effects of cyanide on many freshwater organisms (Hydra attenuate; Planaria tigrina; Limnodrilus sp.; Bithynia tentaculata; Daphnia magna; Cyclops sp.; Asellus aguaticus; Rutilus rutilus; Leucaspuis delineatus; and Acerina cernua). Gillar (1962) suggested a maximum permissible concentration of cyanides 1n waste water of about 0.01 mg/1 free cyanide for the least resistant animals such as planktonic crustacea in water of low flow.and 0.1 mg/1 cyanide for other species in flowing water. Doudoroff, Leduc, and Schneider (1966) found that bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus) could tolerate indefinitely a free cyanide concentration near f or below 0.15 mg/1. The 48-hour and 72-hour TLm's were both found to be near 0.16 mg/1 as HCN. At 0.155 mg/1 6 of 10 fish survived 72 hours; at 0.18 mg/1 HCN 7 of 10 fish died within 24 hours and 2 more died in she following 2 days. There was no death or distress at 0.14 mg/1. Therefore, the ultimate TLm of molecular HCN for bluegills was established at 0.14-0.15 mg/1. Experiments on the toxiclty of cyanide and complex heavy metal cyanides to fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) gave the following results (Doudoroff, 1956): ------- Tim (mg/1 CN) Compound 24 hour 48 hour % hour NaCN 0.25 0.24 0.23 NaCN+ZnS04 0.20 0.19 0.18 NaCN*dS04 0.23 0.21 0.19 NaCN+NiS04 2.5 0.95 0.65 HALOGENS In the San Joaquin River estuary, Aldrtch (1961) found an apparent Increase 1n the incidence of the £mphipoda Corophlim splnicotvis, with an Increase 1n chloride content of the water. The number dredged at Antioch, Californiakwas 14.3*2.4 In May (chloride concentration 15-17 mg/1) and 41.5*9.7 T 1n August(ch1oride concentration 980-1330 mg/1). When larvae of the oyster, Ostraa edulls, ware exposed to chloride concentrations of 6 and 20 mg/1 for 6 and 12 minutes, respectively, there was an Indication of mortality at the higher concentration. There was little difference 1n the mortalities of oyster larvae exposed to 3 mg/1 for 2, 4, and 20 minutes and control larvae. Of larvae exposed to chloride concen- trations greater than 200 mg/1 a few were still swloing after 12 hours, but very few survived 24 hours. Exposure of larvae of the barnacle, Elcninus modestus, to chloride concentrations of 5.0 and 50 mg/1 for 10 minutes resulted in 100% mortality. A concentration of 0.5'rag/l chloride had little effect, but at 1.0 mg/1 chloride the per cent of surviving larvae dropped considerably. Four days after their exposure to chloride, very few larvae were still alive In the groups exposed to 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 mg/1 chloride, and no growth sznong the survivors was noted (Uaugh, 1964). Mortalities of juvenile dura salmon1 (Oncorhynchus keta) in live box bioassays occurred when the free chlorine concentration of the water In Puget Sound was at 50 mg/1, with a pH below 6.5, a suifide concentration 89 ------- of 0.5 mg/1, or a dissolved oxygen concentration approaching zero (Bartsch, Callaway. Wagner, and Woelke, 1964). A free chlorine concentration of 0.25 mg/1 and greater had a direct toxic effect on yearling chlnooic salmon•(Oncorhynchus'tshfivj.ytscha). In 0.1 rcg/1 chlorine fish becraa distressed during the first hour of exposure, exhibiting jaw snapping and labored respiration. Significant kills of pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) occurred at chloride concentrations of 0.119, 0.274, and 0.375 mg/1 during 9-day exposures,and in two days in concentrations of 0.091 and 0.183.mg/1 residual chlorine (94 and 100 per cent kills) (Washington State Department of Fisheries, 1964). In chloraznlne, total kills of pink salmon'occurred 1n concentrations of 0.20 mg/1 residual chlorine and 1.17 mg/1 ammonia. In a 72-hour exposure there was a 13.3 per cent mortality in 0.15 mg/1 residual chlorine. Chinook salmon suffered total kills in residual chlorine concentrations of0.15 mg/1 and higher in 24 hours. The critical level for a 72-hour exposure appeared to be less than 0.1 mg/1 residual chlorine, and the actual toxic limit approximated 0.05 mg/1, for periods of 23 days or longer. RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES According to Lowman (1963) there are nine principal factors controlling the uptake and retention of radionuclides by marine organisms. They Include: 1) amount of radionucllde introduced into the sea 2) the site of Introduction in relation to position and depth 3) the degree of physical dispersion by currents and gravity 4) the chemical and physical characteristics of the radioelement 5) the chemical and physical forms of non-radioactive materials associated with the radionucllde. 90 ------- 6) the degree of Isotope dilution of the radioelement by the corresponding stable element (or chemically similar elements in sea water) 7) the degree to which the radionuclide is. adsorbed to organisms. 8) the degree of selective uptake by organisms 9) biological half-life of the element in the organism. Plankton in the sea at Eniwetok Proving Ground showed a concentration factor for induced radioactivity of 10,000 one week after contamination, and 30,000 after six weeks. The percentage of total radioactivity contributed by fission products and by neutron-induced isotopes (uranium 237, cobalt-57, 59, and 60; iron-55, 59; z1nc-65; and manganese-54) in plankton from this area were: Isotope % Total Radioactivity Ruthenium, zirconium and uranium 13.0 Barium-140; lanthanum-140 23.0 Cesium-137; barium-137 0.0 Cobalt-57, 58, 60 43.0 Iron-'55, 59 16,0 Zinc-65 3.0 Manganese-54 0.0 Total radioactivity (disintegrations/m1n/gm dry weight) 2.3 x 10° Phosphorus-32 and zlnc-65 were traced through a salt marsh ecosystem where it was found that the ordinary phytoplankton population did not retain measurable amounts of phosphorus-32 or zlnc-65. No P-32 was found in Soartina and only occasional traces of Zn-65. But two weeks after the study began a bloom of Kryptoperldinium appeared and contained significant amounts of both (Pomeroy, Adum, Johannes, and Roffman, 1966). In marine food chains phytoplankton, on the first trophic level, acted as membrane filters through which seawater passed. Low levels of cerium-141, potass'iion-40, ruthenium-103, zinc-75 were found; z1rconium-95 and nirob1um-95 were found with a total count of 250; chromium-51 with 350 total counts (Osterberg, Pearcy, and Curl, 1964). 91 ------- Plant and animal life along the Washington and Oregon coasts was sampled for concentrations of z1nc-65, a nonfisslon product contained 1n the Hanford reactor effluents emptied Into the Columbia River (Watson, Davis, and Hanson, 1961 and 1963). Algae (Fucus sp.) and plankton near the mouth of the river contained 80 uuc/gm wet weight, presumably due to their high surface area - body tfiight ratios and ability to absorb. In experiments on the accumulation of nitrosyl ruthenium by the marine algae Porphyra lanceolate, Ulva lactuca., and Laminaria dlgitata. the last species accumulated more ruthenium-106 per unit surface area than did the first two species: 18 muc/5 discs (1.6 cm. diameter) in 20 days as compared to 6 muc/5 discs and <2 muc/5 discs in 20 days for Ulva lactuca and Porphyra 1 aciniata, respectively (Jones, 1960). Gross beta radioactivity of kelp, Laminaria agardhii, and sea lettuce, Ulva lactuca, from Fishers Island Sound in Connecticut was studied and yielded the following results (in micromicrocurles per gram of ash) (Hat- field, Skauen, and Rankin, 1963): Date of collection 1960 April May July August Octooer November December Laminaria aqardhil Area H 284 325 294 338 230 200 236 438 Area In 345 317 291 265 163 258 253 Area Is 323 342 282 236 237 173 179 Ulva lactuca Area In 169 157 153 218 103 43 92 100 Area Is 146 115 125 143 65 36 92 ------- Date of collection 1961 January February March April May June Lami nan a agardhll Area H Area In Area Is Ulva lactuca 375 313 288 280 343 281 316 356 325 224 247 322 380 347 260 334 280 255 326 320 325 Area In 103 75 91 107 147 168 131 Area Is 74 108 97 100 (65 Sea lettuce, Ulva lactuca was kept 1n a zinc-65 concentration of 8 uc/1. In the dark there was little absorption of the Isotope, but 1n light the z1nc-65 activity in water decreased rapidly, Indicating uptake by the algae. Z1nc-65 at the above concentration did not affect the photosynthetic rate of Ulva. Low temperature (2°C) also decreased the uptake of zinc by the algae (as opposed to 22°C). The absorption of zinc-65 was twice as high at pH8 .as at pH7; and 3 times as high at pH9 as at pH8 (Gutknecht, 1961). The uptake and retention of z1nc-65 and ceslun-137 by seawater was reported by Gutknecht (1965), with uptake as the concentration factor (CF) and retention as the biological halflife (Tbl/2): Cs'37 zn" Total zinc (tag/kg) Species Ulva lactuca Codiisn decorticatun Fucus ygsiciilosiis TJTcTyota dlchotcma Porphyra unibl 1 1 cal 1 s Chnnflrns crispus Graci IftFi a fol 1 i fera AaardhleUa tenera Hypnea musciforffils CF* 7 4 30 10 5' ,30 25 6 11 Tbl/2 (days) 5 15 8 3 2 12 21 CF 290 30 3,300 280 255 210 395 « 150 Tbl/2 (days) 4 7 100 14 7 60 70 Fresh wt 23.8 0.96 124 5.70 5.83 9.78 3.54 Dry wt 158 17.0 472 35.0 37.7 91.4 23.2 Growth** 15.0 7.9 3.0 8.2 7.5 1.8 5.3 5.2 5.5 * concentration factor ** percent increase 1n fresh weight per day 93 ------- There appeared to be no significant correlation between net production (growth rate) and the concentration factors or biological half-life. Exposure to light increased the uptake of cesiusn-137 by Gracllarla by a factor of 45; anoxia decreased uptake by a factor of only 0.31. Another study on uptake of ceriura-144 by planktonic algae reported the following concentration factors (number of times concentrated in algae over the sea water concentration) (Chipman, 1959): Concentration Factor Species after 0.5 hours after 24 hours Carteria 314 2422 Flatynonas 1843 2127 Nitzschk 518 1970 TalTassUDsina 2610 33*6 l^pOTfnTgnTlebsi 3001 4498 Porphy indium802 3344 Brown algae (Fucus furcatus) and green algae (Enterofr.orpha intestinalis) collected from various points along the Washington and Oregon coasts showed the following concentrations of gszraa oltters (Watson, Davis, and Hanson, 1963): Concentrations of gc-^ia emitters (pc/gm standard dry v;3ight) Ilwaco, Millapa Bay, Ilwaco, Seaside, Wash. Wash. Wash. Ore. Isotope 1959 1960 1959 1960 1959 1960 1959 Zn65 880 850 10 13 610 1600 11 27 880 190 78 26 0 3.7 850 0 51 0 64 0 10 49 18 47 19 5.1 13 42 1.1 0 12 0 Ru103&Ru106 78 51 18 1.1 7.8 17 Cel41&Cel44 0 64 19 12 9.8 2.4 94 ------- The uptake of radioactive .cesium by marine invertebrates was reported by Bryan (1963) as follows: Species Coelenterata Actinia equina Tealta felina Mgtridiien senile "CaTliactls parasitica Annelida Nsreis divarsicolor Peri nereis cultrilfera Tirne(hrs) Whole animal COCK, factor for Cs 137 689 672 816 383 67?' 672 816 212 1406 800 Echlnodeyroata Psc:.^achinusmiliaris 50 min Cbel cm i c fTui d Aristotle's lantern (muscle teeth) Gut Gonad Shell (including tube feet) Tunicata dona intectinalis 473 Test Gut Pharynx and body wall muscles 9.0 6.1 7.1 4.6 1009 4.2 5.7 5.8 6.3 7.5 Tissue cone, fsdor for 1.01 9.1 1.9 28.1 17.7 4.0 1.01 1.11 4.6 6.5 In a salt marsh filter feeders and deposit feeders were the first to show concentrations of phosphorus-32 and zinc-65. The mussel Modiolus datnissus was a sensitive indicator and the oyster Grassestrea virginica was the most sensitive indicator for zinc-650 Apparently the bottom sediments served as a reversible sink, so that detritus feeders began to concentrate 95 ------- amounts of phosphorus-32 and z1nc-65 within hours of its introduction and reached their peak activities within a few days (Poneroy, Odra, Johannes. and Roffinan, 1961). The amount of zinc-65 found in oysters and wjssels along the Washington and Oregon coasts appeared to be directly related to the amount available in the water in which they live. Mussels located 100 miles from the mouth of the Columbia River (which contains effluents -from the nuclear reactor at Hanford) contained one-tenth of the amount of zinc-65 found in mussels at the mouth of the river (Watson, Davis and Hanson, 1961). Actual concentrations found in mussels and clams at various locations were: Cone, (uuc/gm wet wt) Year Species Place Coos Bay, Ore 200 mi* Boiler Bay, Ore 100 mi Seaside, Ore 12 mi. Ilwaco, Wash. 0 mi. Long Beach, Mash 8 ml Wlllapa, Wash. 36 mi Kelaloch, Wash 95 mi. Dungeness, Wash. 250 mi * miles from river mouth mussels mussels oysters razor clams mussels mussels razor clams razor clams - mussels mussels mussels razor clams razor clams razor clams oysters oysters oysters mussels razor clams mussels oysters 3 2 3 1 8 36 22 15 29 100 148 11 19 26 42 33 34 10 5 2 4 1959 1950 1960 1950 1959 1959 1959 1960 1957 1959 1960 1959 1959 1960 1957 1959 1960 1959 1959 1959 1959 96 ------- Jones (1960) found that the shell of the mussel could accumulate. much rutheniin (about 160 muc/gm wet weight in 20 days); in the same time, the concentrations in the digestive gland, flesh, and foot were 30, 15, and 10 muc/gm wet weight, respectively. When placed in fresh sea water, the shell lost 50 per cent of Its ruthenium-106 concentration in 24 hours, but the flesh lost less than 5 per cent. In 7 days of fresh sea water, the shell had lost 60 per cent and the flesh 20 per cent. The average gross beta activity for five species of mollusks from Fisher's Island Sound, Connecticut were reported by Hatfield, Skauen, and Rankin (1963) as follows: Average gross beta activity (uuc/gm ash) Sampling Areas Species AB CDEG H In Is Crassostrea virginica 62 74 90 50 61 Mercenaria mercenarla 82.5 93 • 87 95.5 85.4 My til us eduTTT87 106 ModTbTilslemissus 66 81 103 Laminaria"agardlvri - 303 289 277 Bay scallops, Pecten irradiensf, accumulated radioactivity on their shells, in the liquor drained from the meat when shucked, and 1n the body mass. In 3 days the adductor muscle concentrated radioactivity to about ten times the amount found 1n surrounding water, and the body mass had accumulated 20 times that amount (Rice, Baptist, and Price, 1964). Strontium-90 apparently does not concentrate in the soft tissues of oysters, clams, and scallops, but rather on the shell. Cesium-137 was accumulated to high levels by the soft tissues, with the highest concentration being reached 1n the muscles. 97 ------- Clams concentrated cesium-137 to a greater extent than oysters, but scallops probably represent more of hazard to man, since we eat only their adductor muscle which is very high in radionuclide concentration (Chipman, 1959). These results are backed up by Price (1962). Cesium fed to clams through a culture of Nitzschia closterium was accumulated to a maximum level after 20 days with 23 per cent of that made available being accumulated. Shellsf contained the highest level of activity, then meats, then liquors. Radiation effects on oysters and clams were also studied by Price. Animals were irradiated with a 350,000 r/hour cobalt-60 source. The LD50 for clams and oysters were: Organism Time (days) LD^o (r). Clams Oysters 5.5 4.5 fr.5- 25.5 38.5. 26 34 36.5 35 40 48 — uw 186,656 163,324 -tS9099? H68600 930-238 186,656 93,328 46,664 23,332 11,666 5,833 According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Counercial Fisheries, Radiobiological Laboratory in Beaufort, North Carolina (1966), scallops are a much more sensitive Indicator of radioactive fallout than are oysters. They are capable of concentrating 100 times as much manganese-54 as oysters are of concentrating zinc-65. Concentrations of manganese-54 i in bay scallops collected near Beaufort, N.C., were: 98 ------- Samples M5^ (pc/gm) Hn54 (pc/anlnal) Kidneys 20.8±5.3 13.1*3.6 Liquid 0.28*0.22 1.81 0.98 Mantle 0.25*0.15 0.82i'0.32 Gonads 0.44!o.30 1.0:0.50 6111s 0.4810.27 1.6±0.89 Muscle 0.8310.36 5.513.0 Visceral mass 1.410.75 3.812.2 Kidneys 197*40 49132 Kidneys 128135 52121 Clams 1n 50 uc of zlnc-65 per 200 liters of sea water concentrated zinc 179 times the water concentration in 272 days; clams in a concentration of 100 uc zinc-65 in 200 liters of sea water concentrated the zinc 158 times that of the water concentration. White shrimp Penaeus duorarum (sic) were found- to accumulate low levels of radioactivity from a fission product mixture in sea water. Highest levels were found in the exoskeleton, then the head and viscera, and finally in the muscle (Rice, Baptist, and Price, 1964). Euphausia pad f ice, a filter-f ceding^ herbivorous,, pi anktonic crustacean situated on the second trophic level of the marine food web, was determined to contain less -chromium-Si but more zinc-65 (400 total counts), cerii*n-141fl ruthenium- 103, zirconium- nirob1um-95 than phy topi ankton in the first trophic level, indicating that particulate radionuclides are plekedup both directly by euphausiids or by adsorption to particles which are eaten by the euphausiid (Osterberg, Pearcy, and Curl, 1964). Osterberg (1962) maintained that because euphausiids are effective concentrators of most radionuclides, they would make good Indicators for measuring radioactive fallout. He also used them as indicators for measuring Columbia River water off the coast of Oregon (Osterberg, Pattullo, and Pearcy, 1964). Because of wastes from the Hanford nuclear reactor, 99 ------- water in the river 1s high 1n z1nc-65 and because Euphausia concentrates z1nc-65, 1t made a good Indicator of the presence of this water -in the Pacific Ocean. Average values of z1nc-65 in euphausiids at different t'mss of the year at stations off the Oregon coast ware: Concentration zinc-65 (ps/grn dry v.*3ight) Date Astoria Newport Coos Bay Breedings July-August 1961 43 74 31 NovaTiber 1961 21 22 20 January 1962 13 16 8 March-April 1962 57 12 8 July-August 1962 16 34 23 10 An iodine-131 solution containing 17.34 uc injected into the stomachs of 28 blue crabs gave the following percentage distribution 1n various tissues (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Radioblological Laboratory, Beaufort, North Carolina, 1966): Time(days) Radioactivity (%) Gills Stomach Shell Gonads Muscle Hepato-pancreas Blood 2 53.4 20.8 13.3 1.7 1.2 5.7 '..3«9 4 42.9 34.6 12.6 2.7 2.1 2.4 2.6 6 46.7 30.8 11.3 5.7 2.8 2.4 1.6 8 54.8 27.4 12.4 2.0 1.9 1.7 0.8 10 49.9 33.2 11.1 0.4 3.6 1.5 0.3 13 64.7 20.2 9.1 0.7 2.6 2.4 8.3 It was noted that the translocatlon of the iodine was about the same on the 13th day as on the second day. A group of Artesnia salina nauplii ware irradiated with 10,000 r from a cobalt-60 source. Respiration was Increased, but not significantly. The respiration of female adults was Increased significantly by a similar dose, but two other-doses of 4000 and 20,000 r had negligible effects. 100 ------- With males, respiration decreased as the radiation dose increased. (U.S. F1sh and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Ccraercial Fisheries Radiobiolcgical Laboratory, Beaufort, N.C., 1966). Concentrations of various ganana emitters were found 1n Dungeness crabs (Cancer magister) off the Washington-Oregon Coast as follows (Watson, Davis and Hanson, 1963): pc/gm std dry weight Location Year Zn65 Cr*l Ru103-Rul06 Zr95.Nb95 ce^l-Ce Ilwaco, Wash. 1959 76 21 66 2.5 0 0.75 Willapa Bay Wash. 1960 36 5.4 2.6 0 6.9 0.20 Bryan (1963) reported the accumulation and concentration factor of radioactive cesium in the shrimp, Squill a desmaresti. as follows: Tissue Cone, factor; Cs137 Plasma 1.4 Abdominal muscle 19;4 Raptorial lim muscle 19.8 Gut and digestive gland 22.0 Whole animal concentration factors of cesium-137 in the isopods Sphaeroma serratum .and As ell us aguatus averaged 7.7 and 64.5, respectively. The one- day and 7-day uptake of cesium-137 by lobsters could be found, according to Morgan (1964), by the following equations: 7 day uptake = 4.8 (wt of lobster) 0.79 x (water cone) 1 day uptake * 0.90 (wt of lobster) 0.76 x (water cone) Fedorova (1963) found that the eggs and larvae of Coregonus lavaretus 1 udoga accumulated strontiisn-90 from water and that the lower the-radioactivity of the water, the greater the accumulation of strontium. 101 ------- Retention of cerlum-144 by the copepod Tigriopus califcm-icus was reported by Chipmen (1959) as follows: Days Activity (cpm/copspod) Per cant n.rnalrilng -0 :7S03 100 1 227 3.2 2 123 1.7 Because the salt marsh fish Fundulus. heteroclitus (mununichog) and Mugil cophalus (striped mullet) are detritus feeders, their uptake of phosphorus-32 Introduced Into a salt marsh was very rapid (Pcrcaroy, Odim, Johannes, and Roffman, 1966). Lantern fish (Lampanyctus leucopsarus) occupy the third trophic level of the marine food web off the Oregon coast and feed on euphausiids, calanold copepodsB and amphipods. Although they accumulated only low levels of cerium-141, chromiisn-5Vrutheniwr!-103, zirconlum-95, and potass1um-40; their concentrations of zinc-S5 ware very high (35200 total counts). Zinc-65 was the most conspicuous gcraa emitter In both Lsmpanyctus leucopsarus and the carid prawn, Pasiphasa paclfica O2300 total counts), also accupying the third trophic level (Ostetfberg, Pearcy, and Curl, 1964). Croaker (Micropogon undulatus) liransrsed in sea water containing a fission-product mixture, acosnulated radioactivity rapidly at first, concentrating large amounts in their Internal organs. Bones increased gradually in radioactivity, and accounted for much of the radioactivity which was retained (Rich, Baptish and Price, 1964). Pinfish (Lagodon rhoniboides) were exposed to 2000r. Following Irradiation the number of erythrocytes In irradiated fish decreased, then returned to normal after three weeks. Seven days after exposure a few cells showed stained areas in the cytoplasm, 102 ------- resembling taature reticulated red blood cells. On the 34th day after exposures, all red cells showed' retlctrta. It was postulated that this might have been an over-compensation for radiation Injury or death of all circulating erythrocytes and 'their replacement by immature cells. Leucocytes showed an teedtate reaction .to the irradiation. Six hoars after exposureD tha number of leucocytes peaked "at 179000/sroi30 then decreased to a lev/ of 2000 /kmr on the third day. By the 21st dayc the number increased to 14,,000/nun3 and then decreased again to 2000/nsn3. Thrombocytes decreased linearly from the first to the seventh days after exposure,, fluctuated wildlys then increased to control levels (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Radiobiological Laboratory0 Beaufort, 'N.C. 1966). Studies at the same laboratory gave the following LD50 values for the following marine fish: LDgn (R) Organism No. animals Temp(°C) Days after irradiation 15 30 30 40 50 Juventle muumichog 280 21 1650 1220 1120 1075 1075 (Fyndulus heteroclitus) juvenTte~s"triped mutTet 105 20 2750 2110 1450 ^sfTa^al^mojarra 385 22 3750 3650 3500 2500 157£ (Eucinostomus sp.) PosFlarvaTplnfish 410 17 4500 4075 3000 2375 225C (Uqodon rhomboides) tePFaFvaOFfanTTc 160 15 3625 1650 1050 925 - croaker (Micropoqon undulatus) „ „. PosFTarvaT Southern " 105 14 8400 8000 5550 3075 192! flounder (Parallcfchys. 1 ethos tigma) 103 ------- Mauchline and Taylor (1964) found a good correlation between the amount of beta activity In the effluent from the Windscale Works of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority and resulting levels in the guts of thornback rays, Raia clavata. A comparison of the concentration of beta activity in different organs of rays from the pipeline area and areas away from the pipeline gave the following results: Gross B activity (uuc/gm wet weight) Pipeline Off Duddon Two Feet Bank Organ end area Estuary Work'ingtOn (Salway) Cartilage Flesh Skin Liver Pancreas Gonad Stomach Hindgut Wall The accumulation and retention of cesium-137 in four species of marine fishes - postlarval flounder, Paralichthys dentatus; at!antic croaker, Micropogon undulatus; blue fish, Pomatomus saltatrix; and the little tuna, Euthymmus alleratus - was studied by Baptist and Price (1962). In flounder8 the rate of accumulation was uniform for the first 30 days, then leveled off at a concentration factor of 9 which increased to 11 when weight increase of fish slowed down. Croaker accumulated low (0.005 uc/ml) con- centrations of ceslum-137 1n the muscle, liver, heart, and spleen after 29 days, the radioactivity of menhaden after feeding on radioactive phytoplankton cells was recorded as follows (Chipman, 1959): 7 47 91 18 27 .. 26 .. 3 2 11 5 3 3 2 2 4 1.3 1.5 2.5 2 - 3 3 3 4 3 4 4 9 3 2 104 ------- Per cent Dose Digestive tract Gills and contents Remainder of fish Total ftlliW \ 1 • • «* J 0 • V 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 0*64- ' 0.05 1.13 0.06 0.08 0.02 0.02 0.01 92.39 80.09 21.15 7.99 8.50 5.23 1.48 0.05 0.76 1.00 0.53 0.34 0.56 0.22 0.26 0.25 33.79 81.14 22.81 8.39 9.14 5.47 U76 0.31 Repeated dally doses of mixed fission products to fish resulted 1n marked concentration of stront1um-90 in bones and scales and a gradual accumulation of cesltm-137 1n body rayscles. Ceriuni-144 concentrated rapidly In the liver of croakers but Its ultimate greatest concentration was 1n the bone (Chipman, 1959). Artercila salina nauplii which had been kept In water containing 0.001 uc/ml z1nc-65 were fed to three species of flounder-Para!ichthys dantetus, P.. albigutta, and P. 1ethostigma. It was found that fish obtaining z1nc-65 from food contained 1.6 times more zinc-65 than fish obtaining 1t fron water only. Fish exposed to z1nc-65 in both food and water had'concentrctions approximately equal to the sum of the two sources individually. Doubling the amount of zinc in the water increased the rate of accumulation so that fish 1n water of the high concentration reached the same level of activity as fish In the lower concentration in half the tirca (Moss, 1964). Teropleton (1966) reported the LD5Q for plaice, Pleuronoctes platessa. as 1850. Experiments on the effect of radiation 'on plaice eggs was reported as follows: 105 ------- Total dose rads/iednys 10-3, 4 x 10-3 0.023 2.3 230.0 No. of eggs 933 1301 883 985 1297 Percent hatcJisd 73.4 72.8 63.6 72.8 69.5 ? r mm 0.12 20.G4* o.n 4.32* Abnormal 1 GFvae 6.2 6.4 2.3 3.9 1.5 Treatrcant Control, 10"9 uc/ml 10-7 uc/ml 10-5 uc/ml TO"3 uc/ml 10-« uc/ml * highly significant Eggs were Irradiated at 0.5, 6.2 , 18.7, and 81 per cent of Incubation; results Indicated that eggs in the early developmental stage (0.5 par cent) were more resistant than eggs mow fully devsloped (Tempi eton9 1956). Uptake of ruthenium-! 06 by various organs of plaice (Plem'or.actes indicated that the intestine and gut contents of fish taken near an outfall for radioactive effluent from Sell afield, England contained about 10 tiir.es as much radioactivity as other organs and flesh (Jones. 1960). The uptake by fish of radioactivity fron fission products near Eniwetock Provirvg Ground was reported by Lovraan (1963): Per cent Radioactivity Flying Fish White muscle Liver 'White muscle HLTverDark A B C D A B Ruthenium zlrconitsn trace trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Barium-140; lanthanum- 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Cesiim-137; bar1wn-l37m 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Cobalt-57,58,60 10.0 8.7 0.9 2.5 0.0 2.3 1.1 2.1 Iron 55,59 31.3 81.3 5.8 8.1 25.5 15.0 12.4 9.7 Z1nc-65 58.8 9.9 91.9 89.0 74.5 82U6 86.3 88.0 Manganese-54 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.2 Total radioactivity 2.2 1.1 3.3 1.2 3.6 2.0 5.3 9.2 10' 106 fc ^ ,V 106 ------- Accumulation of gairzna emitters by fish near the mouth of tha Columbia River yas reported by Watson, Davis, and Hanson (1963) as follows: fiancna emitters (pc/grn std. dry nalght) Species location ; Year Zn^ CrU Ru^-Rn106 Zn»5-Nb95 Ce^l- Starry flounder Ilwaco, 1959 69 0 1.5 0.55 0 0.35 (Platichthys Wash. stellatusT Chinook salmon Ilwaco, 1959 62 4.9 0 0 00 (Oncorhynchus Wash. eshawytscha. The relationship of body weight and one-end seven-day uptakes of ceslum-134 by plaice was determined by Morgan (1964) in the following equations: 1-day uptake = 0.23 (wt. of plaice) °»76 x (water cone) 14-day uptake = 2.8 (wt. of plaice) °'78 x (water cone) SURFACE ACTIVE AGENTS The effects of synthetic detergents on kelp, Macrocystis pryrifera, were studied by North (1964). Both anionlc (SDS) and cationic (Zephiran chloride) detergents were used. Their effects on the photosynthetic capacity of young kelp blades ware reported as follows: Incubation Time Percent initial Incubation fluid (days) photosvnthic capacity Control sea water 1 5 SDS'llil9/1 ' I (high ntor temp.) SDS, 10 mg/1 1 2* 5 9 Zephiran chloride, 1 rag/1 1 9^ Zephiran chloride, 10 mg/1 1 -12.5 (green and flaccid) K 5 blades disintegrating 107 ------- Kelp blades and growing points were rapidly injured by 2 end 5 ra ABS detergent, but not at 0.5 mg/1. At concentrations bctwsen 0.5 and 1.5 mg/1 a 50 per cent inactlvatlon of kelp photosynthesis could be expected. Three stages in the larval development of clems (KigrcG'narla ir.jrca.iarla) and oysters (Crassostrea vlrglnlcarfare tested in concentrations of synthetic surfactants of 0.25, 0.50, 1.00 ,2.50, 5.00, and 10.0 mg/1 for 10 to 12 days (Hidu, 1965). Mean concentrations affecting larval growth and survival were as follows: Type surfactant Concentration (mg/1 active ingredient) An ionic Alkyl Aryl Sulfonata Alkyl Sulfate Cationic Nonionic Forall surfactants Concentrations of Clams 1.55 1.22 0.34 2.66 1.44 Oysters 0.76 1f\^ .07 0.25 2.00 1.02 synthetic surfactants affecting a 50 per cent reduction in larval development were: Test compound Anionic Alkyl Aryl Sulfonate AAS-1 AAS-2 AAS-3 Alkyl sulfate AS-1 Cationic C-l C-2 Nonionic N-l N-2 Active Clams 5.83 0.94 1.03 0.47 1.27 0.0085 0.77 1.75 Ingredient (mg/1) Oysters 1.63 0.27 0.39 0.37 0.49 0.09 0.86 1.60 -108 ------- Experiments with the synthetic detergent Tida (30.3 par cent A3S) in seawater on eels (Anguilla rostrafia). mtcrarichogs (Fundulus hate'.-oclltus). winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes ansricanus). mullet (nmgil cephalus) and Atlantic silverside (Menidia menidia) gave the following results (Eisler, 1965): LC Total No. Fish 24 hrs 24 hrs 96 hrs. Mixnichog Mullet Flounder Eel Silverside 60 40 20 60 25 23.5 12.0 12.0 8.2 7.2 23.5 10.1 10.0 8.2 7.2 22.5 10.1 8.2 7.5 7.0 A concentration of 5.4 mg/1 was required to kill 25 per cent of a population of silversides in 96 hours; 190 mg/1 synthetic detergent was required for mionichogs. Mtaranlchogs exposed for 150 days to 10 mg/1 synthetic detergent were not significantly effected. Three soaps, L,I and D, purchased at a supermarket,were tested on three of the above species with the following results (Eisler and Deuel, 1965): Concentrations in tng/1 24 hrs 96 hrs Soap •^••••^•a D I L L I h* L Species Total i rv i r% i P> No. Fish LDp£ LJkQ. LUjs. LUgg. uJga. "Lfr miffiunichogs misrjnichogs micranichogs mununichogs mullet ; silverside 42 42 150 70 30 70 1500 625 3000 1260 1520 1120 1780 750 3000 1530 2150 1420 2150 875 3000 1820 2620 1700 1080 625 875 1190 525 600 1360 750 1540 1450 750 810 1640 875 2340 1780 900 1120 Concentrations of alkyl benzene sulfonate mixture containing 54.8 per cent ABS affected the feeding behavior of the flagfish Jordanella floridae 109 ------- in four days, even at the lov;ast concentration tested of 10 mg/1. Fish in solutions containing 65 mg/1 of the mixture left worms uneaten for 7 hours after feeding, while fish in solutions containing 56 mg/1 had eaten all of the worms by this time. The specific effect of ABS is to inhibit the input of sensory •information by which the fish distinguishes palatable (edible) and unpalatable (inedible) material. When the olfactory epithelium is damaged the inability to taste food makes the fish spit it out, take it in again, and spit it out. Fish subjected to ABS will eventually eat the worms, but the time required for consumption varied with the concentrations (Foster, Scheir and Calms, / 1966). 110 ------- |