EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS IN THE
MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Compiled by
Virginia L. Sharp
Edited by
David R. Mlnard
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION
PACIFIC SOUTHWEST REGION
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Background 1
Purpose and Scope 2
Authority 3
Acknowledgements 3
II. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 4
Temperature 4
Lethal Tolerance Levels 4
Responses to Non-lethal Temperature Changes 8
Dissolved Oxygen 14
Salinity 18
pH 26
Turbidity and Siltation 27
General Biological Effects of Existing Marine Outfalls 29
III. TOXIC MATERIALS ' 36
Pesticides 36
Acute toxicity 36
Chronic toxicity 53
Dissolved Gases 64
Ammonia 64
Carbon Dioxide 68
Heavy Metals 69
Copper 69
Chromium 73
Zinc 75
Iron 77
Phenolic Substances 77
Petroleum Wastes 80
Sulfides 84
Cyanides 87
Halogens 89
Radioactive Substances 90
Surface Active Agents 107
-------
I. INTRODUCTION
Background
In developing recommendations for disposal of wastes from the San
Francisco Bay and Delta area, the San Francisco Bay-Delta Water Quality
Control Program made an appraisal of the ocean as a possible receiving
area. An .Important part of the appraisal included a search of the literature
on the effects of toxicants and other environmental factors on.-fctoe marine
biota.
The most cursory examination will reveal that until recently the number
of such studies has been few when compared with similar work perfomed 1n
the fresh water environment. Two reasons for this disparity have been 1) a
commonly held assumption that contamination of the marine environment and the
subsequent effects on biological populations would be unlikely because of
the dilution provided by the large volume of receiving water, and 2) the
difficulties and cost Involved 1n conceiving, executing and evaluating quanti-
tative studies In both the laboratory and field. The problems Inherent
In a laboratory study stem primarily from the complex nature of sea water,
the presence of natural contaminants, the complexity of the ecosystems
occurring In various environmental situations, and the many environmental
factors which must be controlled; while those encountered 1n evaluating
field data are related mainly to the uncertain influences of uncontrollable
environmental factors.
Fortunately the great Interest 1n the marine environment during the
last decade and the concern which developed over the present and potential
damages to It changed the traditional views. The world ocean 1s no longer
regarded as an Infinite sink and, despite the technical difficulties, '
1
-------
efforts are being made to understand how toxic materials affect the complex
marine ecosystem. As a result a considerable amount of Information has
emerged on the subject.
Purpose and Scope
"On July 6, 1967,j)the Director of the Bay-Delta Program requested the
assistance of the Federal Mater Pollution Control Administration In searching
out and summarizing material on the effects of certain environmental factors
•
and pollutants. Included with the^request was a 11st of subjects arranged
1n priority of Importance with respect to 1) presence 1n a combined waste
stream and 2) potential effects on the biota. The effects of productivity
stimulants was not Included since this subject had been assigned to a consulting
firm. The request specified a deadline date of October 1, 1967,x,4n order
to conform with the Program timetable.
The form of presentation agreed upon was a summarized'description of
the research conditions and results, similar to that found 1n Chapter VI
in the 2nd edition of Water Quality Criteria (McKee and Wolf, 1963). This
report Includes only Information that has not'been presented 1n Water Quality
Cr1teriat and may therefore be regarded as a non-official supplement to 1t.
Essentially all of the Information presented herein was forwarded to
the Bay-Delta Program in rough draft form shortly after the deadline date.
Since subsequent revisions have not supplemented the subject matter, this
report reflects work completed in the area of marine pollution only through
1967.-
-------
Authority
Authority for the preparation of this report Is provided 1n Section 5(b)
of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1965, as amended.
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgments should be made to all the primary researchers working on
the many facets of marine pollution who were kind enough to supply data
from their own projects and Information concerning the work of others. A
special acknowledgment and thanks should also be made to Patricia Powell,
California Department of Fish and Game Library, Terminal Island, California,
for her help 1n obtaining artlcJes not 1n general circulation.
-------
II. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
TEMPERATURE
One of the most Important physical factors in the marine environment
is ambient temperature. Naylor (1965) suggests that 1n artificially heated
areas several types of effects on local organisms could be observed:
1) Cold water stenothermal forms could be eliminated or made incapable
of breeding 1n a heated location and could survive, therefore, only by
recruitment from outside areas; 2) more eurythermal species might become
warm-adapted by acclimation and survive to breed, evolving perhaps Into
separate races; and 3) immigrant warm-water stenothermal species could be
encouraged to breed there. In these ways, the entire biological complexion
of an area could be changed.
Lethal Tolerance Levels
•
Unacclimated adult western purple sea urchins, Strongylocentrotus
purpuratus (Farmanfama1-ah-an-d-Gtes*7~l-963), ^introduced into water of 25°C
(77°F) became Ump In four hours and died within 24 hours I Sea urchins
acclimated for 10 days in running seawater at 20°C died in three days 1n
water of 25°C. Specimens kept at 23.5°C (74.3°F), however, remained normal,
which Indicates a rather sharp upper lethal tolerance limit between 23.5°C
and 25°C.
Evans (1948) observed behavioral changes in eleven species of littoral
mollusks at temperatures increasing at a constant rate until the thermal
death temperature was reached. He recorded the thermal death points as follows:
-------
Species
Patella vulqata
Patella depressa
Patella athlotica
L i t to r ina littorca
Littorina littoral is
Littonna rudis
Temp. (°C)
Species
42.0
41.G
40.2
46.0
44.3
45.0
Littornia neritoides
Gibbula umbicalis
Gihbula cineraria
Osilinus lincatus
(iucella lapillus
Temp. (°C)
46.3
42.1
36.2
45.0
40.0
These same species, when exposed to given temperatures, had the following
survival times:
Species
Littnrina neritoidos
Littorina littorea
Osilinus lincatus
Littorina rudis
LUtorina littoral is
PateTia denressa
Patella vulgata
'emp. Survival
°C) time (hrs)
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
35
14 - 15
VI. 5-1 2
6 - 6.5
9.5-10
4.25-4.5
3.5-3.75
2.75-3.0
10
Species
Gibbula trnibicalis 40
35
Patella anthletica 40
35
llucella lapillus 4C
35
30
Gibbula cineraria 40
35
31
Temn. Survival
(°C) time (hrs)
0.75-1
10
0.75-1
8.5-9
0 - 0.25
2.5-3
8
0
1.25-1.5
5 - 5.25
These littoral mollusks show quite high resistance to high temperatures,
probably because they are intertidal in their habitat and are frequently
exposed for periods of time to the atmosphere.
Other mollusks, which are not intertidal, cannot tolerate such extremes
of temperature. Scallops (Placopecten magcllanicus) taken from a depth of
40 fathoms (73 m) in southeastern Passamaquoddy Bay on the Atlantic coast
of Canada, and acclimated at 5.2, 10.5, and 15.5°C, registered 50 per
cent kills at 22.1, 22.9, and 24°C, respectively (Dickie, 1958). The
temperature to which these scallops v/ere most frequently exposed and at which
they g-rew most vigorously and spawned successfully was 10°C. A rise or
fall of 5°C in the acclimation temperature produced a corresponding change in
the lethal temperature of 1.0°C; for any acclimation temperature 50 per cent
-------
of a group of scallops could be killed in 120 hours (5 days) by temperatures
about 0.3°C lower than the 48-hr TLm. Dickie (1963) used the above findings
plus knov/ledgo of the hydrography of the southwestern Gulf of St. Lawrence
to explain formerly unexplainable mass mortalities of scallops in this area.
The mortalities occurred only in summer or in early autumn and were most
serious and sudden in waters where wind-induced oscillations in the level
of the thermocline might suddenly expose scallops to water of lethally high
temperatures.
Another instance of natural kills due to sudden warming of ambient
water temperature was studied by Colton (1959). In May 1956 he discovered
decomposed larvae of ycllowtail flounder (Limanda forrugim'a), whiting
(Merluccius bilinearis), and blennies in plankton net hauls to the southern
edge of Georges Bank, where contrasting tongues of Maine coastal and Gulf
Stream water occur. He postulated that these recently hatched larvae had
been exposed to a greater than 20°F increase in temperature (46 -C8°F) over
a period of less than 24 hours and that this sudden change not only occurred
at a faster rate'than the stenothemiic larvae were able to adapt to, but
also far exceeded their temperature tolerance limit.
When the effect of temperature on the survival of the American lobster
(Homarus americanus) was studied (McLeese, 1956), it was found that lobsters
acclimated in 23.0°C water for 10 to 24 days died in 8 to 72 hours when
exposed to water of 30°C. Lobsters acclimated at 9°C had a 48-hr. TLm of
26.5°C.
Leighton, Nusbaum, and Mulford (1967) found the upper le-thal temperatures
for the following species:
-------
Species Upper lethal Temp. Time
Sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus 85°F (29.5°C) 1 hour
franciscanus and S. purpuratum 7b°F (24.5°C) 24 hour
Havy top snail (Astrea undosa)9b°F (35°C) 1 hour
Smooth brov/n turban snaTT
(Horn si a norrisii) 94°F (34.5°C) 1 hour
Green ahalone (Haliotis fulgens) 95°F (35°C) 1 hour
Northern Kelp crab (Pugetlia
producta) ~"90.50F (32.5°C) 1 hour
Opal eye (Girella nigri cans) 95°F (35°C) 1 hour
Tidepool sculpin TClinocottus
analis) 88°F (31.0°C) 1 hour
The resistance and acclimation of marine fishes to temperature changes
was studied by Doudoroff (1942, 1945). He obtained the following results:
Acclimation Acclimation Tin (°C)
Species Temp. Time 24 48 72
Groenfish. Girella nigricans 20°C 31.4°C
(Opal eye) • 28 31.4
12 28.7
Killifish. Fundulus parvipinnus 14 58-70 days 32.3
20 30-51
28 57-63 36.9
Topsmelt, Atherinops affinis 18.5 30.5
30 2 days 31
McCauley (1962) found that the prolarvae of the sea lamprey (Pctromyzon
marinus) was deformed by being bent at right angles when developed in water
of 25°C and that sea lamprey eggs generally hatch over a 10°C range from
15-25°C. Brawn (1960) found that unaccliniated herring (Clupoa harpngus)
from 8 - 11°C Passamaquoddy Bay water had a 48-hour TLm of 19.5°C.
Adult striped bass (Roccus saxatilis) were tolerant to abrupt ch'anges
between salt and fresh water at temperatures ranging from 45 - 80°F (Tagatz,
1961). Juvenile'striped bass survived abrupt changes between salt and fresh
water at temperatures ranging from 55 - 70°F, but could not tolerate transfer
-------
from fresh water at these temperatures to salt water at 45°F. Mortal-i
occurred to juvenile bass when they were changed from water of 55° to 1^ F
to water of 45°F. Adult American shad (Alossa sapidissima) could tolerate
a change from fresh to salt water with a 16°F temperature difference,'but
could not tolerate a 25°F change. Juvenile shad tolerated abrupt transfer
from salt to fresh water over a temperature range from 45 - 70°F, but could
•
not tolerate fresh-to-salt water changes at the same temperatures. In tests for
temperature tolerance only, juvenile bass mortalities occurred in all trials
having a water temperature change of at least 7°F.
Responses to Non-lethal Temperature Changes
Primary productivity in the York River Estuary increased significantly
when the ambient water temperature increased by 10°C because of the discharge
of thermal effluents into the Lstuary. But when the temperature increased
by 10 - 15°C, productivity significantly declined (Warriner and Brehmer,
1964). In winter, maximum diversity of the benthic fauna was found to occur
where the warmed water had the greatest influence, while in summer the maximum
diversity of species and numbers was found at the station farthest removed
from the warm water outfall. In February, a total of 70 species were identified
in the Estuary, but in August only 17 were present, with an equal reduction in
the numbers of individuals.
Larvae of the saft-shelled clam (Mya arenaria) from Chesapeake Bay grew
more slowly at 11°C than at 14° or 28°C, while larvae from Boothbay Harbor,
Maine,all died after 14 days at 38°C (Stickney, 1964). However, the growth
rate of the latter larvae increased with temperature increases from 8.6°
8
-------
to 23°C. The final mean size of postlarval Ponacus aztecus was found to
increase with temperature between 15° and 32.5°C, but decreased markedly
at 35°C (Zein-Cldin and Griffith, 1966). Survival rate, however, while increasing
between 15° and 20°C, dropped above 25°C, and 100 per cent mortality occurred
after 15 days at 35°C.
The barnacle Balanus balanoidcs, kept at 15°C for one month, required four
months at 6°C and total darkness to produce egg masses; animals held at 15°C
for two months required another two months at 6°C and darkness to produce
egg masses (Barnes, 1963). There appeared to be a critical temperature
near 10°C above which the animals would not reproduce. Herring (Clupea
harengus) eggs had poor survival at 5°C and took 21 days to hatch, whereas
at 14°C only seven days were required for hatching (Holliday, Baxter, and
Lasker, 1964). A comparison of the development of four southern California
fishes revealed the following:
Temperature reqin.reir.ents for;
Species Egg gastrulation Egg hatching flax, tolerance
California killifish
(Fundulus parvipinnus) 12.9 - 37.7°C 16.6 - 28.5
Topsmelt
(Atherinops affinis) 31.0 and below 26.8 and below 27 - 28.5
i
California grunion
(Leurosthes tonuis) 12.0 - 32.5 14.8 - 26.8 25.9 - 26.8
Mussel blenny
(Hypsohlennius sp.) 12.0-26.8 12.0-26.8 15-16
Kinne (1963) demonstrated that in the euryhaline desert pupfish (Cyprinodon
macularius), differences in the growth rate of the young hatched at temperatures
-------
ranging from 15-35°C did not necessarily persist as the young matured.
Indeed, initially slow-growing young hatched and held at 15-20°C finally
surpassed in length initially fast-growing individuals hold at 25°, 30°,
and 35°C, ultimately reaching a greater final length and age. Lasker showed
that the northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax) was at an advantage over the
Pacific sardine (Sardinops caerulea) in California waters because the eggs
of the former hatch earlier at lower temperatures (11-12°C) and develop a
functional jaw at these some low temperatures. Sardine larvae on the other
hand, cannot see or feed until 65-75 hours after hatching at their higher
optimal growth temperature of 16-17°C (Lasker, 1964). Hence, the anchovies
can food at lower temperatures and earlier in the year than can the sardines.
The standard metabolic rate of young sockeye salmon was measured to be
41t3.2mg02/kg/hr at 5°C and 196ll3ng02/kg/hr at 24°C (Brett, 1964). Active
metabolism rose from 514l31mg02/kg/hr at 5°C to a maximum of 895t49mg02/kg/hr
at 15°C with some decrease at higher temperatures. At temperatures up to
15°C the active metabolic rates were ten to twelve times the standard level
and the combined action of temperature and activity elevated respiratory
metabolism by a factor of 22, equal to the influence of activity on the
metabolic rate of many mammals. The brain cholinesterase activity of a group
of six southern Atlantic fish—Nassau grouper, Epinophclus striatus;
Holbrook's porgy, Diplodus holbrooki; spot snapper, Lutianus synagris;
fantail filefish, Monocanthus spilosoma; tomato clownfish, Amphiprion fronatus;
and anemone clownfish, Amphiprion percula—acclimated to a temperature of
i
25°C fell significantly when the group was exposed to temperatures below 10°C.
10
-------
The enzyme activity, of a group of northern Atlantic fish—killifish, fundulus
hcti'roclitus; northern blackfish, Tautoga onitis; goldfish, Carassius auratus;
and northern stargazer, Astroscopus guttatus—acclimatcd at 15°C remained fairly
constant down to a temperature of 2°C (Caslow and Iligrelli, 1964). Killifish
acclimated at 30°C had a 40 per cent lower chlolinesterase activity at 2G°C
than ki Hi fish acclimated at 18°C.
Scallops placed -in water 20°C warmer than water to which they were acclimated
became sluggish and produced mucus (Dickie, 1958). Mucus production stopped,
however, after 12 hours and after 38-48 hours the animals were behaving
normally. These high, but non-lethal, temperatures may have a debilitating
effect on the scallops and may, therefore, hasten their death from other
causes, i.e. predation (Dickie, 1963). Halcrow (1963) found that 20°C was
beyond the thermal limit to which the marine copepod, Calanus finmarchicus,
could physiologically adjust.
An increase of about 5°F in Southampton Water, England resulted in
extension of the breeding season of the marine isopod Linmoria and an
increase in the incidence of the shiowonn Teredo (Pannell, Johnson, and Raymont,
1962). Smaller species of diatoms in the Ouse Estuary, Sussex (Stauroneis
/
salina, fiitzschia closterium, and Havicula spp.) had a greater surfacing
velocity than larger species (Tropodoneis vitrae and Pleurosigma spp.)
when the ambient water temperature rose from 5 to 15°C, but at 20°C the
velocity of three of the species decreased (Hopkins, 1963). Rhode Island
hard clains (Moreenaria mercenaria) doubled in size when transferred to
Florida waters from Rhode Island waters; Chesapeake Bay oysters spawned
-------
after one year in Florida waters at temperatures 5°C higher than those in which
the parent stock spawned (Butler, 19G5). The spawning period of the latter
increased fron three and one-half months to five months. Laboratory studies
indicated that oyster spawning could be initiated by a 5° temperature rise
over a 30-day period. However, southern oysters transferred to more northern
waters failed to spawn.
U.S. Fish and V/i-ldlifc Servtce ('1966) found a direct relationship between
temperature and salinity on the development of blue crabs, Callinectes
sapidus. More than 70 per cent of megalops survived in salinities from 10-40
parts per thousand at 68°, 77°, and 8G°F, but at 59°F survival was only
10-50 per cent in 20-40 parts per thousand salinity. At 59°F and 10 parts
per thousand and at 68° and 5 parts per thousand, no megalops survived to
metamorphosis. The duration of the megalops stage was five days at 86°F
:
and 67 days at 59°F.
Groenfish (Opaleye) (Girella nigricans) had a tendency to select a
temperature of about 26°C in a laboratory temperature gradient of 14-32°C, even
though they had been living in waters off the southern California coast of
14-16°C (Doudoroff 1938). Squire (1967) examined warm water outfall areas
/
off the coast of southern California and found that the temperature of cooling
water discharge into these areas ranged from 12.5-22°F above that of water
at the intake areas. He surmised that these large volume discharges
(1,187,400 gpm and 1,236,000 gpm) into offshore waters could impede the
migration of such marine game species as bonita (Sarda chi!iensis)and
barracuda (Sphyraena argentea).
-------
From 1957 through 1959 there was an unusual warming of Pacific Ocean
water off the coast of the United States and Canada (Tully, Dodimead, and
Tabnta, 1961 and Radovich, 1961). A progressive intrusion of water warmer
than 6.5°C to a depth of 125-225 m northward off the Canadian coast caused
anomalous sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus ncrki) migrations in 1957 and 1953.
(Tully, Dodimcad, and Tabata, 1961). Normally the per cent of salmon approaching
/
the Fraser River system by way of the northern passages is about 6 per cent.
In 1957 it was 12 per cent and in 1958 at least 23 per cent; 76 per cent of
the fish appearing in the commercial troll fishery off Vancouver Island were
taken at the northern end. Because of this wanning off the California
coast a number of warm-water species moved north of their usual ranges and were
caught in large numbers (Radovich, 1961). In 1958, 23 species were taken north
of their usual ranges; ten represented northern records. In 1959, 26 species
were recorded north of their usual ranges and eleven species were new records.
These latter included:
liobula japanica - spinetail mobula
Trachinotus rhodopus - grafftopsail pompano
Traclnnotus paitensis - Paloma pompano
fiemramphus saltator - longfin halfbeak
ficmatistius pectoral is - roosterfish
Vonier declivifrons - Pacific moonfish
Parathunnus sibi ~ bigeye tuna
Kathetostoma averruncus - smooth stargazer
Carcharhinys improvisus - slender requiem shark
Dasyatis violacea - pelagic stingray
Taractes asper - pomfret
Based on a comparison of annual sea surface temperatures off the coast
of California and striped bass catch-pcr-effort, Radovich (1963) theorized
that a cold-water barrier off the Golden Gate retards the seaward run of
striped bass. Such barriers do not exist on the Atlantic coast, hence the
fish are able to make extensive coastal migrations and are known as surf fish.
13
-------
DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Galtsoff and Whipple (1931) found that the oxygen consumption of the
oyster varied between 6.45 and 15.04 cc/hr/10 gr dry weight and was not
influenced by the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water until the concentration
of the latter fell below 2.5 nig/1. The Passamaquoddy Cay scallops studied by
Dickie (1953) (sec section on temperature) were more sensitive to increased
temperatures with decreased dissolved oxygen concentrations. Respiration
rates of some planktonic copepods from the northeastern coast of the United
States were measured (Raymont, 1959), with the following results:
Species Temperature (°C) Mean respiratory rate
(ulOo/copepod/hr)
Tortan us discaudatus 15 0.275
Contronages hamatus 15 ' 0.137
' 20 0.172
Pseudocalanus minutus 15 0.104
20 0.139
Eurytcmora herdmani 15 0.104
"20 0.100
E. herdmani (female) 20 0.125
E. hcrdnani (male) 20 0.073
To.'iorg longicnrnis 15 0.1 M
Contropngos tynicus 15 0.157
i'lotridin TUcnns 15 0.317
Cook and Boyd (1965) found the Gammarus oceanicus, if allowed to choose
between an anoxic situation (water into which nitrogen was bubbled) and an
aerated situation (water into which oxygen was bubbled) in a laboratory pre-
ference chamber, not only spent most of the time (p>0.001) in the aerated
region, but also either ceased its exploratory excursions at the boundary
zone between the aerated and anoxic sides of the chamber or significantly
(p>0.001) increased its velocity in the anoxic region (escape response) in
attempting to return to the aerated water.
14
-------
Lethal oxygen concentrations were determined by lloff (1967) for
winter flounder, common silverside and northern swell fish. The experiments
were conducted with sets of two fish in glass jars, with and without water
circulation. The lethal oxygen concentrations were recorded when one fish in
each jar died. The following table was compiled from the mean values found
from 14 observations of. each species:
Temp
Specios (°C)
Winter flounder 12.0
( Psoudopl e uronoctes 18.5
amoricanus) 25.0
Common silverside 12.0
(l-'ienidia menidia) 18.5
25.0
Northern swell fish 12.0
(Snhcroides maculatus) 18.5
"" 25.0
Av. Test
length (min)
1866
759
455
1926
646
341
1977
1010
509
Lethal oxygen
cone, (mg/1)
0.66
0.87
1.03
0.77
0.93
0.70
0.92
1.3G
McLcese (1956) established the minimum oxygen levels which produced a
50% mortality among American lobsters (Homarus americanus) over a 48 hour
period. Each value in the following table is the average of three observed
lethal levels under the same acclimation conditions:
Acclimation conditions Minimum lower lethal level
Temperature Salinity
(°C) (0/00) (nig/1)
25 30 1.24
25 25 1.32
25 20 1.52
15 30 0.77
15 ' 25 0.90
15 20 0.95
5 30 0.27
5 25 0.44
5 20 0.74
15
-------
Kalinina (1961) suggested that the following "safe" levels of dissolved
oxygon be recognized for young Black Sea fishes: 4 mg/1 for whiting (Gadus
mcrlangus); for other pelagic and benthic species, 5 mg/1 and 2.5-3 mg/1,
respectively, at water temperatures nf 9-10QC. Oxygen starvation of fingerling
pelagic and coastal species of the Black Sea occurred at 2.5-3 nig/1 and concentr-
ations below 2 mg/1 were lethal. For fingerlings of benthic species, oxygen
starvation occurred at concentrations below 1.5-2 mg/1, but the lethal oxygen
concentration was very low.
Holliday, Baxter, and Lasker (19G4) measured the oxygen uptake of the
eggs and larvae of the herring, Clupea harennus, asXi/mg dry weight/hr (Qo2)-
They found that the oxygen uptake of eggs during the hatching period was
directly related to the state of activity of the eggs—anesthetized and
inactive eggs had mean QG^'S of 0.94 and 1.10, respectively, while eggs
measured during hatching had a mean OQ,, of 5.21. Anesthetized larvae had a
0.02 of 2.0, slightly active and active larvae, 2.90 and 3.37, respectively,
but actively swimming larvae measured Qo2's Greater tlian 19-
Oxygen uptakes by developing eggs and larvae of Clupea harengus
from two different areas were found to be unaffected by varying salinities:
Rearing Salinity 5 o/oo 15 o/oo 35 o/oo 50 l/oo
Mean Qo? of prehatch eggs (Baltic) 1.07 1.01 0.93 0.99
(Norwegian) 2.00 1.99 1.87 1.97
Saunders (1963), studying the respiration of the Atlantic cod (Gadus
morhua), determined that small cod consumed oxygon at a greater rate than
did large cod (153 mg/kg/hr versus 92 mg/kg/hr for starved fish and
229 mg/kg/hr versus 136 mg/kg/hr for fed fish). He also found that the
rate of oxygen consumption increased more in large fish than in small fish
16
-------
with temperature increases from 3 to 10°C; between 10° and 15°C, the oxygen
consumption rate in"small cod leveled off, but continued to rise in large
ones. When the oxygen level was reduced, there was little change in the rate
of oxyqen consumption, but the respiratory volume (amount of water pumped
over gills per unit time) increased markedly as the ambient oxygen level was
reduced from 10 mg/1 to 3'mg/l. The respiratory volume of smaller fish increased
from 7.1 to 27.1 1/hr and that of larger fish from 18 to 90 1/hr. He suggested
that cod may be under increased stress at all dissolved oxygen levels below air
saturation because the oxygen consumption at reduced levels does not increase
to keep pace vath the increased metabolic cost of irrigating the gills.
Postlarval flounders, Paralichthys 1ethostigma, withdrew from water of
low oxygen concentration in the following times:
Oxygon concentration Temperature Total withdrawal time
mg/1 TO (minutes) •
1.09 6.1 23
1.03 25.3 7
0.68 14.4 13
There was no withdrawal in any test until the water oxygen level was reduced
to 3.7 ml/1 or lower (Deubler and Posncr, 1963).
Sturgeon (Acipenser guldenstadti) egg development at varying oxygen
concentrations was studied by Yurovitskii (1964). He found egg mortality
rates of 13 and 100 per cent at dissolved oxygen concentrations of 5.5 and 3.5
mg/1, respectively, and water temperature of 17°C. Control eggs kept at 1.5 mg/1
had a mortality rate of 12 per cent. At the lower oxygen concentrations the
larvae developed more slowly and gained weight less rapidly than controls.
17
-------
Anatomical characteristics of embryos developing at 5.5 mg/1 flowing
water were similar to those of embryos developing at 9.5 mg/1 in still
water. Yurovitskii concluded that 5.5 mg/1 was the minimal oxygen con-
centration for the normal development of sturgeon eggs.
Reduction of dissolved oxygen concentrations from air saturation to
levels of 7, 6, 5, 4, and 3 mg/1 resulted In the reduction of maximum
sustained swimming speed of coho.salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) by 5, 8,,
13, 20 and 30 per cent, respectively (Davis, Foster, Warren, and Doudoroff,
1963). The dissolved oxygen concentrations causing a 50 per cent
mortality to American shad (Alosa sapidisslma) were found to be dependent
on the average rate of decrease (Tagatz, 1961). Starting at 7 mg/1,
the following results were obtained:
Oxygen reduction Cone, producing Elapsed
rate (mg/l/hr) 50% mortality (mg/1) time (hrs)
1/9.5 0.9 57.5
1/11 0.9 68.0
1/3 1.4 17.0
When the dissolved oxygen concentration was slowly lowered, shad
remained schooled until 1t reached 1.4 mg/1; when lowered rapidly, they
left schools at 2.4 mg/1. Juvenile American shad had no mortality for 42
and 54 hours when exposed to dissolved oxygen concentration of 1.8-2.9 mg/1
and 3.0-3.8 mg/1. respectively.
SALINITY
Three species of salmon fry (coho—Oncorhynchus kisutch; sockeye—
0. nerka; and chum—0. keta) were fed the same diet, kept at 10°C, and
the salinity was varied to determine its effect on growth (Canageratnam,
1959). Percentage increases on initial average weights were as follows:
18
-------
Species Time(weeks) Salinity (o/oo) Per cent increase in weight
Co ho
5
10
5
10
5
5
0
6
1?
0
6
12
0
6 (35% survival)
0
G
G
30
77.2
83.1
155.3
215.1
251.2
421.5
192
117
320
336
120
166
Sockeye
Chum
Preference of different species of salmon fry for salinities of given
concentrations was found to vary with season (Mclnerney, 1964). Chum salmon
(Oncnrhynchus keta), which migrate to sea during their first year, show a
preference for fresh water in Hay, for 3 o/oo chlorine in water in June,
6 o/oo in July, 8 o/oo in August, and 10 o/oo in October. Pink salmon
(0. gorbuscha). which also migrate during their first year, showed the
same order of preference, but reverted back to a freshwater preference in
November; the following March, they again developed a preference for more
saline water. Coho salmon (0. kisutch) fry, however, which usually migrate
to the sea as smolt after a year in fresh water, never showed a preference
for water of salinity greater than 3 o/oo chlorine during their first year.
Spring salmon (0. tshawytscha) resembled pink salmon in their preference
sequence. Sockeye (0. nerka) fry, which usually remain in freshwater lakes
during their first year, showed two distinct preference peaks in f!ay--one
at 3 o/oo chlorine (similar to coho) and one at 14 o/oo chlorine (unique to
sockeye). Two peak preferences were also present in June, but from September
to December, the preference remained at about 3 o/oo chlorine. In January,
a single preference peak appeared and was followed by an orderly progression
19
-------
of preferences, terminated by a preference for 18 o/oo chlorine in August.
These peaks seemed to be indicative of the migratory habits of these various
salmon species.
Bagger-man (1960) demonstrated the same pattern of response to salinity
changes for four of the above salmon species (chum, pink, sockeye, and coho)
and noted also the correlation with migratory habits.
Radtke and Turner (1967) proposed that high total dissolved solids
concentrations block the spawning migrations of striped bass up the San
Joaquin River. Sampling of striped bass during spawning migration throughout
the disolved solids gradient in San Francisco Bay and Delta indicated a direct
relationship between catch and "US concentration at the time of sampling:
52b.ass/hr caught at high tide (275 ppm TUS) compared with 2 bass/hr at low
tide (475 ppm TDS). The highest average catch was 24.6 bass/hr at 251-300 ppm.
A TDS concentration of 350 ppm seems to be critical, although striped bass
eggs seem to be even more sensitive; only G8 eggs were taken in 44 tows,
51 of the eggs from water with TDS concentration of less than 15U ppm. It
would appear that striped bass require a lower TDS for spawning than for
upstream migration.
Herring (Clupea harengus) 10.2-24.2 cm in length were found by Brawn
(1960) to be very resistant to water of lowered salinity and could withstand
salinities down to 5 o/oo for four weeks with only low mortality (15-PO per cent)
when tested between 4 and 8°C. He concluded that short-term exposures to
low salinity would be unlikely to have any directly adverse effects on herring
unless the salinity were to fall below 5 o/oo. Salinities of 6-8 o/oo were
found to have an inhibiting effect on the activity of sturgeon sperm
(Orabkina, 1962). Experiments showed them to be most active in water with
a salinity of 2 o/oo.
20
-------
Studies on the larvae of menhaden, Brovoortia typrarmus, indicated
that survival time at various salinities was dependent on temperature;
as temperature increased, so did survival time (U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Beaufort,
North Carolina, 19G6a). Actual results were as follows:
Survival tine (hours) of fish larvae acclimated at 10°C
Tost
Salinity
Tenineraturc (°C)
2
3
4
5
6
2
3
4
5
6
4
4
7
7
13
Survival
4
6
4
7
8
0
.2
.2
.0
.8
.0
time
.5
.0
.5
.2
is
5
14.
33.
>96
>96
>96
of fi
15.
44.
26.
50.
96
2
0
sh
8
5
2
2
10 ~
27.5
59.0
>9G
>96
^•%
larvae
46.0
53.0
^•96
^96
^96
Tb
34.0
77.6
^96
>9G
>9G
fo/no^
20
25.
53.
^96
>9G
^>96
acclimatrd
26.8
56.0
>96
>96
^96
16.
51.
*?CJ^j
^ JQ
>96
0
2
at
2
2
25
21.
40.
>96
^96
^96
15°C
14.
27.
39.
>9G
^96
5
0
0
0
5
30
15.2
26.5
35.0
^"96
>96
10.2
10.5
14.0
48.0
>96
Evidence1 suggests that yearly fluctuations in the abundance of!white
shrimp (Penaeus setiferus) may be related to changes in the salinity of
the shallow coastal waters of the Gulf of Mexico. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Galvcston,
Texas, 1966). There appears to bo a negative relationship between the August
and December catch of white shrimp from Louisiana and the velocity of spring
water flows in the Mississippi River. Juvenile brown shrimp, Ponaeus
aztocus, concentrated in water salinities less than 10 o/oo, but as -they
grew larger were found distributed uniformly throughout the salinity gradient,
and the largest shrimp were found only in salinities between 20 and 30 o/oo.
Combinations of various salinities and temperatures gave the following percentage
survivals of summer postlarvae of brown and white shrimp:
21
-------
Temperature °F
59 64.5 77 92.5
Salinity (o/oo) B H B "l-J E II B *l-l
2 (1) - 49 79
5 32 20 52 96
25 100 80 ~ — 100 82. 100 90
40 100 08 98 90 86 98
Salinity of 18.4 o/oo was postulated as being too low for the completed
development of eggs of v/hite shrimp, Pcnacus setiferus (U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, 1966). Nauplii could
be seen moving inside the egg, but they did not hatch. Postlarval brown
shrimp, Ponaeus 'aztocus, died four hours after being transferred to water of
2 o/oo from water of 23 o/oo. Brown shrimp appeared to t • no.e sensitive to
lowered salinity than to increased salinity. This conclusion appeared to
be borne out by Zein-Eldin (1963), who studied the effects of salinity on
the growth of penaeid shrimp. She observed 100$ survival in waters of
25-40 o/oo salinity and good growth even at 40 o/oo.
At low water temperatures (60°F), increased salinity significantly
delayed the development of blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) megalops to the
first crab stage (U.S. Fish and VJildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Beaufort, North Carolina, 1966). Costlow
and Bookhout (1965),studying five species of crabs, obtained the following
results:
Salinity Matching Salinity for
Sprcics found in(o/oo) salinity(o/oo) complete development
Rhithropanoneus harrisi
Panopeus herbsti
Sesarna cub ere urn
tiepatus opheliticus
Callinectes sapidus
ovioerous females
"low"
to 33
26.5-35.0
"high"
£0.1
22-35
2.5-40
12.5-31.1
12.1-31.1
20-40
20.1-31.1
30-35
20.1-31
.1
22
-------
Survival at various salinities varied with species and with temperature:
larvae of R. harrisi did not survive at 1 o/oo beyond the second zoeal
stage; at 2.5 o/oo and 25-30°C there was some metamorphosis of mega!ops to
the first crab stage. The first zoeal stage of S. cinoroum v.'ithstood high
salinities (26.7-31.1 o/od bettor than lower salinities (12.5-20.1 o/oo),
but there was 50-83 per cent mortality of the last zoeal stage at 31.1 o/oo--
zosae died while molting to the megalops stage.
McLcese (1956) obtained the following salinity TLm's for the Anon'can
lobster (Homarus amoricanas) at the temperature and oxygen conditions given:
Temperature (°C)
Oxygen (mg/1) 5 9 13 17 21 25 29
salinity (o/oo)
1.0 18.0 21.n 20.4 22.0 30.0
2.0 13.3 12.6 12.0 11.2 12.0 15.0
3.0 11.6 10.4 9.6 9.0 9.3 11.2 30.0
4.0 11.4 9.7 9.4 9.0 9.3 11.2 20.4
5.0 11.0 9.5 8.8 8.8 9.3 11.2 17.8
6.0 9.8 8.8 8.4 8.4 9.3 11.2 16.4
Baker (1963) suggests that because there is an apparent direct relationship
between the size of both fossil and recent ostracods and the salinity of the
water in which they exist, it might be possible that euryhaline ostracod
species make use of the increased salts in more saline waters to increase
the size of their carapaces.
Clams (Hyj^ arenaria) from Chesapeake Bay water of 10 to 15 o/oo
salinity were acclimated for two weeks to Maine coastal water of 32 o/oo,
but would not spawn until the salinity of the water was reduced to 20 o/oo
(Stickney, 1964). Growth of Chesapeake Bay clam larvae was best at 16 o/oo;
23
-------
70 per cent survived and 23 per cent developed straight hinge larvae.
Survival and development of clam eggs from Coothbay Harbor, Maine and Woods
Hole, Massachusetts v/ere best at salinities of 23-31 o/oo (49 per cent
survival and 35 per cent straight hinge larvae) and 22-31 o/oo (99 percent
survival and 82 per cent developing straight hinge larvae), respectively.
Survival and development dropped off rapidly below 20 o/oo, and below 16 o/oo
were zero for the Woods Hole samples. Below lf> o/oo 4 percent of the Boothbay
eggs survived and 1 per cent developed into straight hinge larvae.
I'iattiessen (1960) studied a population of ilya arcnnria living under
highly saline conditions in a salt pond. He found that larger members of
the group v/ere more tolerant to lowered salinities than were
juveniles:
\
Survival of Hya jm;iTfirja_ in distilled water
Size (mm) Time (hrs) Per cent survival
15-25 48 100
f>-10 4JJ 65
2-4 42 0
Clams 5-10 mm in size could be exposed to 0 o/oo salinity for 2-3 days and
still return to normal behavior; exposure time could be increased as the
salinity increased~5-6 days at 2 o/oo, and an indefinite length of time at
4 o/oo. The pumping rate of Mya varied only slightly between 15.5 and 31 o/oo,
but dropped sharply when the salinity was reduced to 3 o/oo, and ceased
completely when the salinity dropped to 4 o/oo or lower.
Oysters v/ere found able to adjust to wide fluctuations in salinity from
almost fresh v/ator to a 3.5 per cent salt concentration (Galtsoff, 1960).
Cy hermetically sealing their valves, they could survive without food or water
for as long as three weeks.
24
-------
Activity of the shipworm Teredo naval is, a wormlike pclocypod, decreased
as the salinity decreased below 9 o/oo (Blum, 1922),and the lethal threshold
for this niollusk was found to be between 4 and 6 o/oo. Tcredo nor vegjcus,
found in sea v/ater of 35 o/oo salinity, was postulated to be much less
able to adapt to low salinities than T. navnlis. Distribution of phytoplankton
species off the coast of eastern United States, between southern :!ew England
and Bermuda, as related to salinity was studied by Hurlburt and Iterir.ian
(1963). Salinity varied between 31.60 o/oo (mouth of Hudson and Kan tan Rivers)
and 36.53 o/oo (near Bermuda). The majority of species were found at the
lower salinities. Rhizosolenia alata was found 16 times in salinities below
33 o/oo and twice at salinities above 35 o/oo. Skeletonema costatuin,
i
Coscinosira oostrupti, and Prorocpntruni mi cans were found only in waters
with a salinity below 34.5 o/oo. ilitschia closteriuin was found at all
observed salinities. Three species- Syracosphaera nicditorranoa, Coccolithus
huxleyi, and Discosphaera tubifer-wore clearly associated with hirjl.er
salinities, the latter two being found only once below 34 o/oo. At low salinities
diatoms were more numerous than dinoflagcllates or coccolithophores (these
were more numerous at higher salinities), but increases in salinity appeared
to be no barrier to the growth of meritic diatoms. Several species found
more frequently between 31.68 and 34.5 o/oo than between 34.5 and 36.53 o/oo
wore found to have optimal growth at even lower salinities. Prorocentruni
mi cans, Coratium fusus, and C. tripos grow best at 20 o/oo, but grew well
also between 15 and 40 o/oo.
25
-------
pH
The tolerance of embryos and larvae of clams, llerconaria merconaria,
and oystors, Crassostrea virninica, to p!l changes v/as studied by CalaiVrcsc and
Davis (10CG). The pH was adjusted to levels from 0.00 to 9.50, with 0.25 unit
increments. Clam and oyster eggs developed normally between pH's of 7.00-
8.75 and 6.75-8.75, respectively, but the number of eggs of both species
developing normally at 9.00 was greatly reduced and there; v/as almost no
development of either species at 9.25 and 9.50. At pH 6.25 only 29.5 per
cent of the clam eggs developed, but 92.4 per cent of the oyster eggs did.
At pH 6.00, 21.5 per cent of the oyster larvae survived, but all clam
larvae died. A sharp increase in both clam and oyster larvae survival
was noted with an increase in pll from 6.00 to 6.25, or from 20 per cent
survival to 70 per cent survival. A sharp decrease from more than 70 per
cent survival to about 40 per cent survival was noted when the pH was
increased from 8.75 to 9.00. After a few days at pH 9.00, more than
50 per cent of surviving larvae died; no larvae of either species survived
at pH 9.25 and higher, normal growth for clam and oyster larvae occurred
between pM levels of 6.75-8.50and 6.75-3.75, respectively. Clam larvae
showed the most rapid growth between pH 7.50 and 0.00, while oyster larvae
grow best at pH 8.25-8.50. Below 6.75 and above 8.00, growth rate decreased
rapidly.
The tolerance of young chinock salmon to low and high pH values in sea
water was determined (Washington State Department of Fisheries, 1964):
26
-------
Total Kills Total Kills
Hours pl-l Hours p!l
3.5 3.18 8-24 9.b6
3.7 3.28 72 (20% 9.24
4.5-5.5 3.56 kill)
34 4.88 Control 8.23 and 7.77
55 5.51 (no kill)
llelykochatko (1963) determined that the optimum pH conditions for stenion and
eurion fishes were between pH's of 7.2 and 7.6 and the limits within which
fish may function and live were Between 6.0 and 0.0. Cut above or below
those limits, signs of depression appear as follows:
£l]_ Symptoms
6.0-5.0 and 8.0-9.0 Greater or lesser signs of depression
5.0-4.0 and 9.0-10.0 (larked depression; live for sonic months or days;
hyperemid nccrotic branchiae and soon die
4.0-3.0 and 10.0-11.0 Fish die in 8-22 minutes
3.0-0.0 and 11.0-14.0 Die with marked paralysis of respiratory
center and heart
He breaks down the typical death syndrome at pli 4.0-3.0 or 10.0-11.0 as
follows: 1) normal swimming; 2) after 3.5 minutes, become immobile; 3) sink
to bottom, then rise to surface and snatch air; li) dart erratically,
hitting sides of aquarium; 5) head up and down, swim sideways, belly up;
6) convulsive body contractions; 7) irregular respiratory rhythm; 8) skin
and branchiae anemic, later becoming hyperemic with necrosis at margins;
9) convulsions increase; 10) lie on side at bottom with mouth open.
TURBIDITY AMD SILTATION
Turbidity may adversely affect many game or commercial fish by irritating
the gills or making foraging difficult because of reduced visibility.
By inhibiting photosynthesis it can also remove vegetation that provides
cover needed for survival by young fish and surfaces for egg attachment by
spawning fish (Mollis, Boonc, Derosc'and Murphy, 1964).
27
-------
Siltation can completely change the composition of the bottom and may
also cover the benthic organisms living there. In the Burnt and Po-./dcr Rivers
in Oregon, for example, silt from gold dredging operations increased the
turbidity from 5 to 1700 parts per^million, and the density of fish food
organisms dropped to almost zero. Downstream the density increased to more
than 2 gm/ft2 as the turbidity decreased to 17 parts per million.
Silting and turbidity caused by excavations along the coast of Rumania
resulted in suffocation and respiratory difficulties for some fauna,
>
inhibition of photosynthesis ^migration of pelagic species from turbid areas
A
(Bacescu, 1965). Quantitative studies of life on rocks showed that heavy
silting resulted in disappearance of stenobiotic species which were rapidly
replaced by more tolerant species. The return of normal flora and fauna
displaced by the excavations took two to five years. Kobyakova (1962)
reported that the intensive silting of a number of partly enclosed bays and
gulfs of the Gulf of Peter the Great in the Sea of Japan had led to a change
in the biotic composition. Sand.-loving speices had been replaced by silt-
loving ones. This condition, along with an increase of fresh-water to the
area had led to the near extinction of oysters and large decreases in stocks
of commercially important scallops and Mactra, while the stocks of mussels
and sea cucumbers were considerable. In one of the bays alone, at 4-G meters,
the population density of sea cucumbers was 0.43 specimens per square meter,
?
with a biomass of 81.4 gm/m .
Studies by Loosanoff (1961) indicated that 0.1 gni/1 of silt produced
a 57 per cent average reduction in the pumping rate of adult oysters. At
3.0-4.0 gm/1 silt, the average reduction was 90 per cent. Shell movements
28
-------
in turbid waters were clearly associated with frequent ejection of large
quantities of silt and mucus accumulating on gills and palps. Mortality
to oysters occurred only when they were kept in large quantities of water
(more than 25-50 gal/individual). In smaller amounts of water, the oysters
could effectively remove silt from the water in the form of pseudo feces,
rendering the water clear, but could not do this in larger quantities of
water. Silt proved to be much more harmful to oyster eggs than to clam
G99s: Esg survival (%)
Silt concentration (mq/1) dam Oyster
0.25 90 31
0.5 39 0
At 0.75 gin/1, growth of oyster larvae was seriously affected; at 1.5 mg/1
growth was negligible.
Reduction in light intensity affected the vertical migration of a
diatom community in the Ouse Estuary, Sussex (Hopkins, 1963). Although on
bright sunny days the community came to the surface with 25 cm of water still
covering the mud, on days with reduced light intensity it appeared only
after the fall of the tide.
GENERAL BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF EXISTING MARINE OUTFALLS
Hastewater discharged from the Orange County Treatment Plant f/2 off
Newport Beach, California, produces a boil of water of low transparency
(Allan Hancock Foundation, 1964). At the surface the transparency of the water
is reduced to 10 percent or less the transparency of air; this increases to
70-75 per cent two hours downstream. The productivity of the plankton in
the first three meters of water is disturbed for the first 10 hours by the
29
-------
presence of the sewage. The sedimentation of the sewage was dPtonm'nod to
be of minor importance to pelagic organisms, but would probably greatly alter
the ecology of the bottom.
Domestic sewage and industrial wastes containing substances which would
settle out in sea water would be quite harmful to-oyster beds (Gnltsoff, 1960).
Accumulation on the sea bottom of the soft sticky sludge would cover and smother
oysters, killing then or rendering them useless for consumption. Unabated
pollution of this typo would eventually convert a hard or semi hard bottom
into one of soft, l-^S-saturatcd mud, totally unsuitable for growing oysters.
Results of studies (Pescheck, 1963) on the effects of mineral solids,
settleable fibers from paper and textile wastes and organic solids from domestic
sewage and food-processing wastes on fisheries indicated that while they
did no direct damage to fish, they did detrimentally affect the environment
and the productivity of the water, indirectly causing mortality, migration
from the area, lower water quality, and an increase in the lower organisms.
St. Joseph's Bay near Port St. Joe, Florida, is the receiving water
for the waste effluents from a paper mill (45 mgd), a paper-mill by-product
plant (20 mgd), a chemical plant (22 mgd), and a municipal wastewater treatment
plant. Species diversity studies by Copeland (1966) indicate that the number
of species in this bay has been reduced to almost two-thirds that found in
the Gulf of Mexico (9 species/1000 individuals).
A similar instance of sewage effects involved the disappearance of bottom-
dwelling invertebrates, Dranchiostoma caribaeum, a lancelct, and Cilottidia
pyromidata, a lampshell, from Hillsborough Bay in Tampa Bay. This was attributec
by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
30
-------
Biolocjicnl Laboratory at St. Petersburg, Florida (1967) to the domestic and
industrial pollution which exists there. Since these two species were eaten
by demersal fishes and crabs and since their planktonic larvae provided food
for pelagic species, their disappearance aided in the decline of the formerly
valuable fisheries which once existed in the area.
Injuries to marine species,which have been attributed to sewage effluent,
(Youna, 1964) include': 1) dull-colored, listless and soft California halibut;
2) small weight-length ratio of turbots; 3) exopthalmia of spotfin croakers
and white seabass; 4) large body lesions on white seabass; 5) tumor-like sores
around mouths of white-croakers; 6) low weight-length curve of White Point
(Calif.) black nbalones as compared with Santa Catalina black abalones.
Copeland (1966) found that the respiration rate of the killifish
Cyprinodon varieqatus in 56 per cent effluent water from St. Joseph's
Bay was one and a half times greater than in normal seawater. North (1964)
observed that during a three day noriod in water collected over the San
Diego municipal outfall in San Diego Bay the photosynthetic activity of the
young fronds of the kelp Macrocystis pyrifcra dropped by 71-100 per cent.
Eutrophication, or the stimulation of phytoplankton growth by nutrient
enrichment, often produces severe oxygen depression with associated effects
on marine life. This is found in the Kulti River estuary in India (David, 1959),
which receives primary treated sewage effluent from Calcutta. Ebb flow first
carries the sewage downstream, but when the tide turns, sewage is carried
back upstream, 18-20 miles above the outfall. The dissolved oxygen con-
centration of the estuary is always depleted, plankton is scarce, diatoms and
31
-------
blue-green algae predominate. Fish can survive in the Kulti for only about
four liours of each tidal cycle near the outfall and farther upstream the
survival period is even less. The catfish, Pangasius pangasiur., remains
because it has the ability to store air in its buccal cavity and can respire
subcutancously. The fish larvae and prawns used for seeding Lracl:ish-water
fish farms upstream have almost entirely disappeared.
The effects of pollution abatement on the benthic populations of the
Raritan River Estuary v/ere studied by Dean and Haskin (1964) in 1950 when a
major trunk sewer system began diverting waste discharges from the estuary
to the lower Raritan Valley. Especially significant were changes in the dissolve'
oxygen concentration of the water. In 1957, no dissolved oxygen was detected
in surface and bottom water samples 3.3 and 7.4 miles upstream from the mouth
of the river', but in summer 1958, bottom concentrations of 36 per cent sat-
uration v/ere measured, and 44-92 per cent saturation was detected in bottom
samples in November 1958. Variation in the dissolved oxygen was probably
important for benthic fauna, since the concentrations found were probably
near the threshold level and could have an effect on the distribution of the
fauna. The most obvious change in the henthic fauna in 1958 was the presence
of the barnacle Balanus improvisus on all previously uninhabited firm strata.
Dominant species of the 6 freshwater and 21 marine species present in 1958
and the 3 freshwater and 28 marine species in 1959 were oligochaetes,
Linnodriliis spp, the leech, Erpobdella punctata, and the bivalve,
Sphaerium sp. In 1960 a density of 7,102 organistns/m'- was found at one station.
Recovery of the fauna in Raritan River Estuary by the end of the study was
such that both species distribution and population densities gave the classic
V-shaped curve for estuaries.
32
-------
The plankton population of water one rrilr offshore in Santa Monica Bay
in southern California, receiving effluent from the secondary treatment Hyperion
Plant, has changed considerably since the outfall began discharging (Hume,
Gunnerson, and Imel, 1962). Dinoflagcllates and copepods showed a 00 per cent
increase in 1957, while diatoms increased 15 per cent and tunicate oilo-
p]£ura, tintinnids, and annelid larvae also increased. Reduction of suspended
solids discharged from 180 tons/day to 70 tons/day caused a decrease in the
distance from the outfall to the area of maximum fish crop—from 3 miles to
about one and a half miles. The digested sludge from the Hyperion Plant is
diluted to less than one per cent_sludge and discharged seven miles offshore
in 320 feet of water. On the surface of these deposits were seer, fish, sea
stars, sea urchins, and a few anemones. At the time of the study there were
13 families of polychaetes present, with Cnpitolliriao and Dorvilleidae pre-
dominating—more than 5000 individuals per square meter.
Faunal growth on cement slabs located near a cooling water outfall at
Cavendish Dock, Barrow-in-Furness, where the water temperature measured at
all times 10°C higher than the seasonal water temperatures, indicated the
following chronological succession (florkowski, 1960):
November - December Actinia
January Cordylophora lacustris
April Lnteromorpha intcstinalis
u_ aiilncriana
November - May iiytilus edulis
February - July Coriopeus spiculatum
Nomatories and annelids were present at both the intake and the outfall; the
crustaceans, Snhaoroma hookeri and Garanarus zaddachi salinus and the mollusk,
Hydrobia jenl-.ensi, were also present in great numbers. Organisms appeared
earlier in the year at the outfall than at the intake, indicating that this
area might be more beneficial to organisms in colder weather.
33
-------
Cooling water discharged into docks at Swansea, South Hales was also
studied for effects on fauna (Naylor, 1956). The surface water in Queen's
Dock, into which cooling water was discharged, was consistently 10°C higher
than the outside sea temperatures. The most interesting changes occurred
after I960, when the power production of the steam-electric plant was reduced.
Native Critish species,1 not previously found in the warm-water docl; were
recorded for the first time; Balanus crenatus, Ganmarus lacustris. Aurelia
aurata, Cryptosula pallasiana, and Elnn'nus r.iodestus. Kalanus amphitrite,
which previous to 1961 was the only barnacle present in Queen's Dock, began
settling later in the year because of the lowered dock temperature (U. anphitrite
needs a temperature of 17-in°C to breed). Interesting also was the appearance
in 1962 of small Brachynetus and Carcinus, indicating a possible effect of
temperature on the breeding habits of these crabs.
Cooling and brine waters discharged from San Diego's saline water
conversion plant on Point Loma were found to have deleterious effects on
intertidal life in the area over which the effluent flowed at low tide
(Leighton, Nusbaum and Hulford, 1967). This portion of the intertidal zone
was lacking in any of the typical algae and most"animals, except for a few
temperature and hypersaline tolerant shore crabs (Pachygraosus) and the anemones,
Cribrina and Antliopleura (Leighton, Nusbaum, and i-lulford, 1967). Field
records taken at"the discharge site indicated that a discharge temperature
of 100°F would have been hot enough to kill the following species, had they
been present: Strongylocentrotus franciscanus., red sea urchin; S. purpuratus,
purple sea urchin; Astrea undosa. wavytop snail; Norrisia norrisii, smooth
34
-------
brown turban snail; Haliotls fulgens, green abalone; Pugettia producta,
northern kelp crab; Girclla m'firicans, opa-leye; and Clinocottus anal is,
tidepool sculpin. Bioassays conducted with the brine water, to which
chlorine and scale and foaming inhibitors had been added, showed that
sea urchins died in 12 hours in 75 and 100 per cent concentrations of the
effluent and in 24-40 hours in a 20 per cent concentration at 18°C; green
abalone died in 72 hours in a 50 per cent effluent solution and in 17 hours
i
at higher concentrations.
35
-------
III. TOXIC MATERIALS
PESTICIDES
Perhaps no environmental contaminant has engendered so much contro-
versy as has the group of "economic poisons" commonly referred to as
pesticides. These chemicals, because of their extreme toxiclty to the many
organisms with which they come In contact, must be regarded as highly
dangerous additions to the environment. Aside from the fact that they are
acutely lethal when present in sufficient quantity, there is evidence that
they act in other less direct and less recognizable ways when present in
very low or sub-lethal quantities. This can either enhance their lethality
or bring into their spheres of action completely , unexpected (nontarget) specfe$v
The effect of sub-lethal quantities of organic phosphate pesticides on the
amount of acetyl cholinesterase in the brains of fish and the phenonmenon
of biological magnification as manifested in the case of the disappearance
of the western grebe from Clear Lake, California,may be cited as examples
of these unexpected and unforeseen complications to their use. To reflect
as accurately as possible the effects of these contaminants on the marine
environment, it is necessary to consider as many aspects of their appearance
there as possible.
Acute Toxicity
The tolerance of marine phytoplankton to several pesticides was studied
by Ukeles (1962). Exposure of five species Monochrysis lutheri. Dunallella
euchlora. Chiore11 a sp., Protococcus sp., and Phaeodactylurn tricornutum to
stock solutions produced the following results:
36
-------
Pesticide. Conc.(msA) Effects
Dipterax 50 less than 50 per cent inhibition of
each species
100 lethal to one speciss
Dowacide A 50 Reduction in rate of growth of
3 chlorophytes; inhibition of
P_. tricornutum and 11. lut!ieri_
100 Inhibition of growth" of 3
chlorophytes; death of 2 spc-cies
Chloronitropropane 3 Chi ore 11a sp. sensitive at this
concentration
Sevin 1 Complete suppression of £_.
tricornuturn and M. lutneri
10 Lethal to 3 specTes
Nabam 10 Lethal to all species
Lindane 7.5 Inhibitory to P. tricornutum
and M. lutheri
Toxaphene 0.01 Tolerated by 4 species
0.001 Lethal to H. luthsri
0.15 Toxic to all species
Lignasan 0.06 Lethal to all species
Fefiuron 0.29 Tolerated
Neburon 0.04 50 percent reduction in growth
of 3 species
Monuron 0.001 Little effect
Diruon 0.004 Lethal to M. lutneri
Studies of the effects of pesticides on five kinds of phytoplankton utilized
by molluscan larvae as food yielded the following figures (Butler, 1952):
Pesticide Highest cone, tolerated (ug/1)
Herbicide
Monuron 0.02
Diuron 0.04
Lignasan 0.0&
steburon 0.40
Fenuron 290.0
Insecticides
Sevin 100.0
Lindane 500.0
DDT 1000.0
Dipterex 10,000.0
TEPP 100,000.0
Later studies by Butler (1963) added newen pesticides to this list.
Studies were conducted on natural phytoplankton communities and two pure
37
-------
stock cultures of DurialisTla euchlora and Platymonas sp. with four-near
exposures to 1.0 ing/1 of the following pesticides:
Percent decrease oC productivity
Pesticide
Aldrin
Chlorrlane
DDT
Endrin
Heptachlor
Lindane
Ma tii oxy en lor
Thiodan
Toxaphene
Baytex
Diazinon
Dibrom
Di-syston
Dylox
Ethion
Guthlon
Ma lath ion
Methyl trithion
Systox.'
2.4-D acid
Diuron
Fenuron
Monuron
Mcburon
Tedion
Sevin
Other studies
the productivity of
Natural community
84.6
94.0
77.2
46.0
94.4
28.5
30.6
Co. 6
90.8
7.2
6.0
515.6
55.2
'0.0
59.0
0.0
7.0
85.9
7.1
10.0
37.4
40.9
94.1
89.9
39.0
lb.8
Dunaliella euchlora
0.0
59.8
97.6
by Butler (1964) concerning effects of pestici
natural phytoplankton
exposures to a concentration of 1.0 tng/1
Pesticide
DEF
Chemagro 4497
Polystroam
2,4-D butoxy
cthanol ester
2,4-D, 2 ethyl -
hernyl ester
2,4-D propylene
Percent
decrease
75.3
06.1
31.8
16.3
48.7
48.7
44.2
Platymonas
24.5
50.9
95.9
des on
communities during four-hour
gave the following results:
Pesticide
N-Serve
Paraquat
Tordon 22K
Zytron
BIIC (45',i1somcr)
Strobanc
Telodrin
Bayer 33156
Percent
decrease
15.0
53.2
8.4
53.8
1C.O
87.7
76.8
54.8
38
-------
Pesticide
glycol butyl
ether ester
Dacth.il
Ualapnn
Kurosal (SL 60%
s i1 vex)
Diquat
Shell SD 3448
Parathion
Nellitfl
Killer
Sodium TCA
Venon 245
Ciodrin
Phosdrin
Per cent
decrease
37.3
0.0
0.0
45.1
10.0
• 9.9
0.0
' 0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Pesticide
Uayor 372H'I
liayer 41831
CO-UAL
Ilctnyl parathion
Shell 4072
Shell SD 7433
Shell SD 3447
Phorate (Thinet)
IJDVP (Vapona)
I1CP Ami no Heed
Shell SD 7061
Tordon 101
Bidriri
Dimcthoate (Cygon)
Phosphamidon
Pur cent
decrease
154.0
K. 0
P7.4
fj.'J
13.1
44.0
7.2
41.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Studies on the acute toxicity of pesticides to mollusks are concerned mostly
with the effects of the pesticides on shell growth of oysters (Cutler, 1962,
1963, 1%4, 1965). Over a period of years and a number of experiments,
Butler reported the following results:
Pesticide 96-hr LCr.n*(mg/l) Year reported
Aldrin
BMC'
Chlordane
DDT
Dieldrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
Kepone
Lindane
Methoxychlor
Hi rex"
Thiodan
Toxapheno
Bayer 37344
Bayer 39007
Bayer 44646
Sevin
Sulphenone
Ferbam
2,4-D acid
2,4-D butoxyethanol
ester
0.025 1963
0.36 1963
0.007 1%3
0.007 1963
0.034 1963
0.033 1963
0.027 1963
0.015 1963
0.45 19G3
0.097 1963
No decrease at 2.0 1963
0.065 1?63
0.057 1963
No decrease at 1.0 1963
flo decrease at 1.0 1963
flo decrease at 1.0 1963
192 decrease at 2.0 1963
1.27 1963
0.075 1963
No decrease at 2.0 1963
3.75 1963
- Concentration of toxicant producing 50 per cent decrease in shell
growth.
39
-------
Pesticide
96-hr
(nig/1)
Year rfpnrtc-d
2,4-1) dimethyl ami ne
salt
2,4,5-T acid
Eptam
ASP-51 (NPD)
Bayer 29/193 (Baytex)
Daycr 25141
DDVP
Diazinon
Dibrom
Di-syston
Guthion
Inii dan
Ma lath ion
Methyl trithion
Parathion
Systox
Ted ion
DEF
Baynr 47531
Chcmagro 2635
Chcmagro 4497
Dyrene
Pol vstrenm
2,4-D, 2 ethyl hexyl
pster
Dacthal
Diuron
Fenuron
Kurosal SL(60% silvox)
Monuron
Hcl)uron
N-Serve
2,4,5-T polyglycol
butyl ether ester
Til lam
Zectran
Strobane
Telodrin
Bayer 372 B9
Bayer 38156
Bayer 41831
Bidriri
Ciodrin
CO- PAL
Dihiethoate (Cygon)
Dylox
Ethion
* ne - no effect
No decrease at 2.0 1963
llo decrease at 2.0 19C3
437, decrease at 5.0 1903
O.ObS 1963
0.60 1963
20% decrease at 1.0 1963
No decrease at 1.0 1963
No decrease at 1.0 1963
0.64 1963
0.90 1%3
No decrease at 1.0 1963
llo decrease at 1.0 1963
32% decrease at 1.0 1963
0.23 1963
0.85 1963
No decrease at 2.0 1963
0.39 1964
0.38 1964
0.059 1964
0.01 1964
0.24 1961
0.046 1964
0.57 19C4
30% at 5.0 1964
0.25 1964
1.3 1964
ne*at 2.0 1964
nc at '1.0 19G4
12S at 2.0 1964
0.41 1964
0.28 1964
0.14 1964
20% at 1.0 1964
ne at 1.0 1964
0.059 1964
0.055 1964
•0.07 1964
0.034 1964
0.69 1964
21% at 1.0 1964
1.0 1964
0.51 1964
10% at 1.0 1964
12% at 1.0 1964
0.07 1964
40
-------
Pesticide _. 96-hr ECr Jj^/l) Year reported
parathion no at 1.0 1964
Phosdrin ne at 1.0 196-1
Phosphamidon no at 1.0 1964
Dexon ne at 1.0 19C5
Difolatan 0.034 1965
Acrolein 0.055 1065
Ametryne 14% at 1.0 1065
Atrazine no at 1.0 1965
Dalapon, sodium salt no at 1.0 1%5
Dinuat ne at 1.0 1965
Hydram ne at 1.0 1965
Knoxwocd 42 44% at. 1.0 1965
Paraquat no at 1.0 1965
Prometon ne at 1.0 1965
Prnmetryne 19% at 1.0 1965
Shell SU 7961 ne at 1.0 1965
Silvex, plyglycol 23% at 1.0 1965
butyl ether ester
Stauffer R-1910 ne at 1.0 1965
Stauffcr R-4461 0.45 1965
2,4,5-T plyglycol 0.14 1965
butyl other ester
Tordon ne at 1.0 1965
Voon 245 ne at 1.0 1965
Vernam no at 1.0 1965
Zytron 0.33 1965
DDC 0.014 1965
DDT - Strobane 0.022 1965
DDT - Toxaphcne 0.030 1965
Strobane - Methyl 0.026 1965
parathion
Anier. C van amid 0.20 1965
43,913
Amer. Cyanamid 35% at 1.0 1965
52,160
Meta-Systox R nc at 1.0 1965
Thimet" 0.64 1965
Ronnol 0.17 1965
Shell 4072 0.60 1965
Shell SD743B 0.10 1965
Shell SD0447 ne at 1.0 1965
Shell SDB448 0.40 1965
Shell SD9129 ne at 1.0 1965
Stauffor N-2790 0.33 1965
Stauffer R-5092 ne at 1.0 1965
Nell its ne at 1.0 1965
TFH ' ne at 1.0 1965
41
-------
The mean 24- and 48- hour EC5Q values for Sevin for three species of niollusks
(Bay mussel, Mytil us edulis; Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas; and cockle
clam, Clinocardium nuttallii) were found to range from 2.2 to 7.3 rcg/1.
(Stewart, Millemann, and Brcese, 19G7). The mud snail, Nassa ohsnleta, was
• i
found to have a 96-hour TLm of greater than 10 rng/1 for the chlorinated hydro-
carbon pesticides aldrin,-DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, lindane, and
methoxychlor and a 96-hr TLm greater than 25 mg/1 for the organophosphatus
DDVP, delnav, malathion, methyl parathion, parathion, and phosdrin (U. S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory, 1504 and 1965).
A great number of experiments concerning the toxicity of pesticides
to the commercial shrimp of the Gulf of Mexico and the southern Atlantic
have been performed (Cutler, 1963, 1964, and 1965), with the following
results:
Pesticide
Aldrin
Chlordane
DDT
Dieldrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
Kepone
Lindane
Mcthoxychlor
Mi rex
Thiodan
Toxnphone
Baytcx
Diazinon
Dibrom
Guthion
Ma lathion
Scvin
Esteron 99
Sulphenone
Tcdion
Dayer 47531
Chemanro 2635
Cheniagro 4497
Test species
Penaeus duorarum
Pcnaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus aztocus
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Penaous duorarum
Penaeus aztecus
Pcnaeus aztecus
Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus aztecus
Penaous duorarun
Penaeus aztecus
Ponacus aztecus
Penaous aztecus
Penaeus aztocus
Penaeus aztecus
Ponaous aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
40-hr ECM(rig/l) Year
O.OOG(24-hr) 10C3
0.0044 1%3
0.001 19G3
p.0055 1963
0.0003 1063
0.0003 1963
0.0Gb 1SG3
0.0004 19C3
O.OOG 19f,3
1.2 1%3
0.0004 1963
0.0049 1963
0.00006 19P3
0.044 (24-hr) 1%3
0.0055 19G3
0.0044 1963
0.50 19C3
0.0025 1963
0.55 1963
40% at 1.0 1964
O.Hb 1964
1.0 1964
0.44 1964
0.055 1964
42
-------
Pesticide
Test species
48-hr FIG,,, (nig/1)
Dyrenn
Polvstrnam
2,4-1) dimethyl-
amine salt
2,4-1) hutoxy-
ethanol ester
2,4-1) propylene
glycol butyl
ester
Dacthal
Eptam
Monurnn
Neburon
Shell 7961
Till am
Bayer 37344
Bayer 30007
Bayer 44646
CHC
Stroljane
Telodrin
Amer. Cyananid
43,913
Amer. Cvanamid
52,160
Aspon (ASP-51)
Bayer 25141
Bayer 372B9
Bayer 33156
Bidrin
Ciodrin
CO-RAL
DDVP (Vapona)
Dimcthoate
(Cygon)
Di-syston
Dylox
Ethion
Imidan
Methyl parathion
Parathion
Thimct
Phosdrin
Phosphamidon
Shell 4072
Systox
Methyl trithion
Bayer 41331
DEF
Dexon
Difolatan
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Ponaeus duorarum
Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus
Ponaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Ponaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaous
Penaeus
Penaeus
aztecus
aztecus
duorarum
duorarum
aztecus
aztocus
duorarum
duorarum
aztecus
aztecus
duorarum
duorarum
aztocus
aztecus
aztecus
aztecus
aztecus
duorarum
aztecus
duorarum
aztecus
aztecus
aztecus
aztecus
aztecus
10S at 1.0
0.55
10% at 2.0
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus setiferus
Penaeus setiferus
Penaeus setiferus
Penaeus setiferus
Penaeus setiferus
Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus duorarum'
Penaous aztecus
Penaeus aztocus
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
ne at 1 .0
0.63
ne at 1.0
0.55
ne at 1 .0
ne at 1.0
0.060
0.035
0.55
0.0036
0.0085
0.00007
0.63
0.0028
0.0048
0.01
0.0005
0.0006
0.25
0.025
0.0036
0.044
20% at 1.0
0.025
0.36
0.036
0.0045
O.OOG5
0.001
0.0007
0.25
0.44
0.25
0.063
0.0005
0.0025
0.023
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
1964
1%4
1964
1964
1964
19C4
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1°64
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1965
1965
1965
43
-------
Pesticide
Acrolein
Ametryne
Atrazine
Dalapon, sodium
salt
Diquat
Diuron
Fenuron
Hy drain
Knoxwood 42
N-Scrvc
Paraquat
Promctono
Test species
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Pcnaeus aztccus
Penacus azt.ocus
Pcnaeus setifcrus
Penaous aztecus
Pcnaous aztccus
Penaeus aztecus
Pcnaeus aztecus
Pcnaeus aztccus
Pcnaeus aztecus
Pcnaeus duorarum
Penacus duoraruri
45-hr r.C50(mg/l) Year
Prometrync
Silvex/polyglycol Penaeus aztccus
butyl ether ester
Sodium TCA Pcnacus aztecus
Stauffer R-VJ10 Penaeus aztccus
Stauffcr R-4461 Penaeus aztccus
2,4,5-T, acid Penaeus aztecus
2,4,5-T, polyglycol Pcnaeus aztecus
byttl: etger ester
Tordon 101
Veon 245
Vernam
Zytron
Zcctran
DDE
Ronncl
Shell SD7433
Shell SD8447
Shell SD844B
Shell SD9129
Stauffcr N-2790
Stauffer R-5092
Nellite
Penneus aztccus
Penacus aztecus
Penacus aztecus
Penaeus aztccus
Penaeus aztccus
Penaeus aztecus
Ponaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztccus
Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus duorarum
Pcnaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Penacus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
0.10
10% at 1.0
20% at 1.0
40% at 1.0
nc at 1.0
no at 1.0
10% at 1.0
30% at 1.0
0.48
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
0.24
nc at 1.0
nc at 1.0
10% at 1.0
nc at 1.0
20% at 1.0
no at 1.0
ne at 1.0
20% at 1.0
0.0003
0.0052
0.0?8
0.0052
0.0024
0.28
0.032
0.069
0.0019
0.0028
ne at 1.0
1965
1965
19G5
1965
1965
1965
1965
1965
1965
19G5
1965
1965
1965
1965
1965
1965
1965
1965
1965
19G5
1065
1965
1965
1P65
1965
1965
1965
1965
1965
1965
1965
1965
The following acute toxicities of various pesticides to the grass shrimp,
Palaemonntos vulgaris. were established (U. S. Fish and Hildlife Service,
Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory, 1964 and 1965):
44
-------
Pesticide 9G-hr TLm (ug/1)
tndrin l.H
Aldrin. 8.D
Oicldrin 10.0
Hoptachlor 442.0
Mcthoxychlor l?.l
DDT 1.5
Lindane 10.0
Methyl parathion 3.0
UDVP • 10.0
Phosdrin 69.0
Malathion 83.0
Delnay 285.0
Various pesticides tested on juvenile blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus)
produced the following results (Butler, 1963):
Pesticide 48-hr EC.,, (ing/1)
___________ 13U
Aldrin 0.042
Chlordane 0.48
DDT 0.01
Dieldrin 0.44
Endrin 0.025
Heptachlor 0.063
Kepone 20% mortality at 1.0
Mcthoxychlor 0.55
Mi rex 20',£ mortality at 2.0
Thiodan 0.035
Baytex 0.004
Dibrom 0.30
Guthion 0.55
Malathion Irritated at 1.0
Sevin 0.55
Pyania Irritated at 20.0
Ferbam Irritated at 10.0
Phaltan Irritated at 25.0
In tests to control zooplankton (especially copepod) invasions of
phytoplankton cultures, the following pesticide concentrations produced
100« mortality among the microcrustaccans in the indicated times (Loosanoff,
Hanks and Ganaros, 1957):
45
-------
Pesticide Cone, (mg/1) 100% mortality time (hrs)
Gutliion 0.05 2
Diptorex 1.00 3
Parathion 1.00 TO
Lindane 1.00 22
Lindano 0.05 53
DDT 1.00 46
Copepods Qlicrocy clops) v;crc found to be exceedingly sensitive to DDT
concentrations lovrer than O.OU mg/1 (Ruber, 1962). A 0.1 mg/1 concentration of DDT
had a knockdown time of one hour for common brine shrimp (Artemia salina)
adults. In five days 100 per cent of an adult population of Artemia was
killed Ly a DDT concentration 0.1 ug/1, and at 0.01 ug/1 the majority of
adults died in three weeks, before the maturation of the next generation
(Grosch, 1967).
Two phosphate insecticides, Abate and Dursban, were found to be acutely
toxic to blue crabs, Callinectcs sapidus, at 10.0 ug/1 in flowing sea water.
"™"^™^™^"^"^*"^"™*™^™^"^ \
Pesticides tested on Cancer riagister larvae and Cancer productus larvae
taken from the ocean off San Francisco were found to have the following toxicities
(Poole, 1967):
Pesticide Time LCmo*(ug/1) Species
DDT ' 72 hrs 5.0 C. magister
Baytcx 72 hrs 10.0 C. inagistcr
72 hrs 10.0 C. productus
fialathion 72 hrs 50.0 C. magister
72 hrs 50.0 C. productus
Endrin 72 hrs 10.0 C. nagister
Sevin 48 hrs 50.0 C. magister
Toxaphcne 48 hrs 100.0 C. niagistor
Dieldrin 10 days 1.0.0 C. magister
Phosdrin 72 "hrs 10.0 C. magistor
72 hrs 10.0 C. productus
Aldrin 72 hrs 250.0(1007. C. magister
survival)
72 hrs 250.0(30%) C. productus
* concentrations producing 100% mortality
46
-------
Studies on the effects of Sevin and its hydrolytic product, 1-naphthol,
indicated that the 24-hr ECt,Q of Sevin for three crustaceans studied (nnid shrimp,
Upogohla pugettonsis; shore crab, Hnnigrapsus orcgononsis; and Dungcness
crah, Cancer r.iagistcr? ranged from O.Oh - 0.71 mg/1. For the ghost
shrimp CaYUanossa californiensis the 2h-hr EC^0 of Sevin
ranged from 0.17 - 5.60 mg/1, and of 1-naphthol from 16.6 - 22.1 nig/1
(Stewart, Millpmann, and Brcese, 1067).
f
A population of Palarmonotes shrimp was drastically reduced by the
application of 0.2 Ib/acre active ingredient of technical grade DDT to
a tidal marsh ditch on Santa Rosa Island, Florida (Croker and Wilson,
196b). A 0.10 Ih/acre application of DDT had a drastic effect on a population
of blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) in a tidal salt marsh (Springer and
Webster, 1951), with the greatest effect occurring after 18-24 hours.
Repopulation of the 'area was slow and not considered complete for one year.
In the channels of the salt marsh, mortality ranged from 80 per cent at
0.5 Ib/acre to 20-40 per cent at 0.25 Ib/acre for a mortality period of
seven days. Large numbers of bait shrimp (Palapmonetes pugio) died within
12 hours, though mortality ceased after the third day. The entire aquatic
crab population of a tidal marsh in Florida was apparently destroyed by
the application of dieVdrin pellets which were disseminated at the rate of
one pound per acre. The crabs which did survive fed the first day on
moribund fishes, but were themselves dead on the second day (Harrington
and Bicllingmayer, 1967).
The acute toxicity (96-hr TLm) of seven organochlorine and six organonhosphor
insecticides to the mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) and the Atlantic silvcr-
47
-------
side ( I torn' ft i a mom' dig) was determined at 20°C, ?A o/oo salinity and pH 8.0
(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Sandy Hool. Marine Laboratory 1964 and 1965)
96-hr TLn (ug/1)
Pesticide fundulus iiotoroclitus tic- nidi a mcnidia
Endrin 0.6 n.05
Aldrin 0.4 13.0
Dioldrin 5.0 4.9
Hnptachlor 50.0 3.2
Hcthnxychlor 35.6 33.1
DOT 4.2 0.4
Lindanr 60.0 9.3
Parnthion 5200.0 2000.0
OnVP 2975.0 12bO.O
Delnav 20.7 5.8
Malathion 142.0 .- 112.0
Phosdrin 332.0 320.0
Methyl iparathion 14,100.0 5700.0
Threespine sticklebacks cxpnsnd at two different salinities to a variety
of pesticides had the following %-hr TLm's (Katz, 1961):
Pesticide 96-hr TLn at 5 o/oo 06-hr TLm at 25 o/oo
Toxaphene O.C 7.8
Aldrin 39.9 27.4
Dieldrin 15.3 13.1
DOT 10.0 11.5
Lindane 44.0 50.0
Hethoxychlor Gf>.4 69.1
Hentachlor 111.9 111.0 '
Chlordane 90.0 160.0
Endrin 0.44 0.50
Guthion 12.1 4.3
Malathion 94.0 76.9
CO-RAL 18G2.0 1470.0
Sevin 3990.0 3990.0
Studies to determine the effect of tho herbicide, sodium pcntachloro
phenatn on fish life in coastal waters indicated the following results
(Tomiyania, Kobayashi , and Kawabc, 1963):
-------
Species
48-hr Tl.m (mg/1)
Ni boa albi flora
Ondontnmhlyopus rubicundus
Leandcr jnnonicus
Annullla janonica
O.OP,
0.25
2.3
0.20 (24-hr)
Butler (1963, 1964, and 1965) has performed mnny tests on the toxicity
of pesticides to fish, with these results:
Pesticide
Alclrin
BHC
Chlordanc
DDT
DDT
Dieldrin
En drin
Endrin
llcptachlor
Kepone
Kepone
Lindane
Lindane
i'icthoxychlor
Mi rex
Thiodan
Toxaphene
Ferbam
Phaltan
Phaltan
2,4-D propylene
glycol butyl
ether ester
2,4-D acid
2,4-D butoxy-
ethnnol ester
Di uron
Eptam
Eptam
Estornn 99
Esteron 99
MCP aniine weed
killer
Monurnn
Radapon
Radapon
2,4,5-T acid
Ti 11 am
Till am
Test species
white mullet
white mullet
white mullet
white mullet
longnose killifish
white mullet
white mullet
longnose killifish
white mullet
white mullet
longnose killifish
white mullet
longnose killifish
white mullet
white mullet
white mullet
white mullet
longnose killvfish.
white mullet
longnose killifish
longnose killifish
white mullet
longnose killifish
white mullet
Uhite mullet
longnose killifish
white mullet
longnose killifish
Inngnose ki 11'ifish
white mullet
white mullet
longnose killifish
longnose killifish
white mullet
longnose killifish
48-hr ECcnQng/1) Year
0.0028
0.8
0.005S
0.0004
0.0055
0.0071
0.0026
0.0003
0.003
0.055
0.034
0.03
0.24
0.055
10% at 2.0
0.0006
0.0055
K56
2.5
4.5
No effect at 50.0
5.0
6.3
10% at 20.0
Irritated.at 20.0
1.5
3.0
No effect at 75.0
16.3
No effect at 50.0
No effect at 50.0
No effect at 50.0
6.25
7.78
ire 3
19(33
1%3
1963
1963
1963
1963
19G3
1963
19G3
1963
1963
19C3
1963
1963
1963
1963
1963
1963
1963
1963
1963
1963
1963
1963
1963
1963
1963
1963
1963
19C3
1963
1963
1963
-49
-------
Pesticide
Test species
48-hr CCKn(mg/1) Year
Bayer 37344
Sevin
Sevin
Baytex
Bayer 25141
Uiazinon
Dihrom.
Guthion
Imidan
Inidan
llalathion
Methyl trithion
Sulphenono
Sulnhenone
Tedion
Dyrone
nyrene
Polystrean
Dncthal
Bayer 39007
Caver 44646
Aldrin
PDT
DOT
Dieldrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
Kepone
Lindano
Methoxychlor
I'M rex
Strobane
Telodrin
Tliioclan
Toxaphene
Asoon (ASP-51)
Rnver 41831
Bayer 38156
Baytox
Bidrin
BicJrin
Ciodrin
DPVP (Vapona)
Dihrom
Dunethoate (Cygon)
Di-syston
Dylox
Cthion
Guthion
Malathion
longnose ki Hi fish
white mullet
longnose ki Hi fish
white mullet
lonqnose ki Hi fish
white mullet
white mullet
white mullet
white mullet
longnose killifish
white millet
longnose killifish
white mullet
longnose killifish
Cyprinodon variegatus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Mugil cephalus
Cyprinodon varicgatus
Cyprinodon varicgatus
Cyprinodon varicqatus
Cyprinodon vnricqatus
Leio">tomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xnntiiurus
Cyprinodon variegatus
xanthurus
xanthurus
xanthurus
xanthurus
xanthurus
xantliurus
xanthurus
Leiostomus
Leiostomus
Leiostomus
Loiostomus
Leiostomus
Leiostomus
Loiostomus
Cyrpinodon variegatus
xanthurus
xanthurus
xanthurus
Leiostomus
Leiostomus
Leiostomus
Cyprinodon varieqatus
Cyprinodon variegatus
ilugil cephalus
Leiostoi.ius xanthurus
Fundulus similis
Cyprinodon varicqatus
.Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Fundulus similis
Cyprinodon variegatus
Cyprinodon varieqatus
Cyprinorion variegatus
Lpiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
0.55
2.5
1.75
1.59
0.055
0.25
0.55
0.0055
0.055
0.055
0.57
0.55
1.9
6.0
ne at 1 .0
0.0085
20% at 0.1
ne at. l.U
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
107, at 1.0
0.0055
0.002
0.005
0.0055
0.0006
0.025
0.17
O.C3
0.03
ne at 2.0
0.0005
0.0036
0.0006
0.001
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
0.0067
1063
1963
1963
1963
19f3
1963
1963
1963
1963
Ivjt3
1963
1963
lf-63
1%3
1%4
l°f.4
1964
19C*
inr>4
196'!
1 %4
19f4
1964
1 »M
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
0.55
0.44
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
0.069
0.050
0.55
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
50
-------
Pesticide
Test species
40-hr ECi;n*-(fiig/1) Yrar
salt
42
Methyl parathion
Parathion
Thimct
Phosdrin
Phosphamidon
Phosphamidon
Systox
Bayer 47531
DLT
Chemagro 2635
Chemagro 4497
Doxon
Difolatan
Acrolein
Anietryne
Atrazine
Dal anon,
Dinuat
Fenuron
Hydram
Knoxweed
Neburon
N-Serve
Paraquat
Promctone
Promotrvne
Shell SD7961
Si 1 vex, polyglycol
butyl ether ester
Sodium TCA
Stauffer R-19190
Stauffer R-4461
2,4,5-T polyglycol
butyl ether ester
Tordon 101
Voor. 245
Vernam
Zytron
7.0 ct ran
DDE
Amer. Cvanamid
43,913
Amer. Cyan am id
52,160
Bayer 37289
Bayer 41831
Cyprinodon varieqatus
Cyprinodon variegatus
Fundulus similis
Cyprinodon variegatus
Leiostomus xanthurus
riuqil cephalus
Lciostomus xanthurus
Loiostomus xanthurus
Lciostomus xanthurus
Lciostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Cyprinodon varieqatus
Fundulus similis
Fundulus similis
Loiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Fundulus similis
Fundulus similis
Lfiostomus xanthur.us
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Fundulus similis
Leiostonus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
ilugil cephalus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
r
ilugil cephalus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Cyprinodon variogatus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
ir at 1.0
0.060
0.0004
0.83
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
0.55
0.032
0.24
0.032
0.032
ne at 1 .0
0.032
0.24
ne at 1 .0
nc at 1 .0
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
ir at 1.0
20% at 1.0
ne at 1.0
0.32
ne at 1 .0
ne at 1.0
ne at 1 .0
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
0.36
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
0.32
0.32
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
0.32
ne at 1.0
ne at 0.1
20% at 1.0
1 964
1 064
1 964
1964
1 964
1964
1964
1 965
19C5
1965
1 %5
1965
1965
1 965
1 965
1 965
1 965
1965
1955
1965
1P65
196b
1965
1 965
1965
1965
1 965
1965
1965
1 965
1965
1965
1 %5
196b
1965
1965
1 965
1965
1965
Leiostomus xanthurus ir at 1.0
Leiostomus xanthurus 0.32
Cyprinodon variegatus ir at 1.0
1965
1965
1965
51
-------
Pesticide Tost species 48-hr ECcn(mq/l) Yoar
CO-RAL Cyprinodon variogatus 0.2R 1°65
Ronnel Loiostomus xanthurus 0.32 VJCb
Shell 1072 Lciostomus xantSiurus lo at 1.0 19G5
Shell SD7/133 Leiostomus xanthurus 0.32 19f.5
Shell SDH447 Leiostomus xanthurus ir at 1.0 1965
Shell SD8448 Leiostomus xanthurus Ic at 1.0 1965
Shell SD9129 Fundulus similis no at 1.0 1965
Stauffer fl-2790 Leiostomus xanthurus 0.24 1965
Stauffer R-5092 Leiostomus xanthurus 0.020, 1965
ne - no effect; ir - irriated; le-lost equilibrium
In preliminary screening tests, spot (Loiostonus xanthurus) exhibited
a TLm to endrin of 0.1 ug/1 in five days continuous exposure (U.S. Fish
and l-Jildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory,
Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1966, and Butler, 1966). At the same laboratory,
experiments on toxicity of endrin to hluefish indicated a 9C-hr TLn of 0.29 ug/1
at 24 o/oo salinity and 20°C.
Killifish (Fundulus ocnllaris)'from tidal marshes in Delaware were
exposed to 0.5 Ib/acre malathion delivered by aerial spraying (Darsle and
Corridcn, 1959). After four hours 26.3 per cent had died, 31.2 percent
i .-ere unaffected, and 42.4 per cent were sublethally poisoned. Fish in
this last category were placed in recovery tankst where 66 per cent recovered,
26 per cent died, and 8 per cent were exhibiting symptoms at the end of
64 hours. Studies on three species of fish from the coast of Oregon (Shiner
perch, Cymatogaster aggregate; English sole, Paraphrys vetulus; and
thrcespine stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus) indicated that the hydrolytic
product of Sevin, 1-naphthol, was more toxic to these fish than was the
insecticide, Sevin, itself (Stewart, flillemann, and Broese, 1967). Croker
and Wilson (1965) found that a 0.2 Ib/acre application of OUT to a tidal
52
-------
marsh ditch on Santa Rosa Island, Florida killed 33 per cent of a community
fish population of mullet, 8 species of cyprinodonts, silversidcs, spots,
and gobies in throe days.
Early experiments by Springer and Ucbstcr (1951) on the effects of DDT
on tidal salt marshes resulted in a 70 per cent loss of Fundulus hotoroclitus
and Cynrinodon at 1.0 Ib/acre, 50 per cent loss at 0.5 and 0.25 Ib/acre.
The fish kill in a Florida salt marsh treated with 1.0 Ib/acre dioldrin
pellets was essentially complete; an estimated 20-30 tons, or about l,17b,000
fish of at least 30 species were killed.
Chronic Toxicity
Marine food chain studies indicated that the marine bacterium, Pseudomonas
i
piscicida. was not grossly affected by pesticides (U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Gulf Breeze,
Florida, 1967). Ho damage was done to its growth rate nr morphology when
cultured in 10 mg/1 chlorinated hydrocarbons and 100 mg/1 organophosphorus
insecticides. In a culture medium of l.Ojjg/1, more than 90 per cent of
the DDT was taken up in 24 hours, with a buildup of ODD and DDE in the interior
of the cells. It was postulated that this conversion may play a very important
part in the biological degradation and fixing of DDT in marine food chains.
The effects of the herbicide, 3-amino-l,2,4-triazole (3AT), on five
species of marine red algae (Antithamrn'on plumula, Plumaria eleqans, Callithamnion
tetricum, Nemalium multifidum, Krongniartella hyssoides) were studied
(Boney, 1963). Immersion of Antithannion plumula in 10 mg/100 ml for 24 hours
and in 1 mg/100 ml for 48 hours gave similar significant inhibition of cell
production. Two days immersion in 2.5 mg/100 ml 3AT resulted in 465J
53
-------
inhibition of cell production and ,TI/'. inhibition nt 10 mcj/100 ml. After
six days, inhibition of 100% was achieved at 10 rig/100 nil 3AT. Immersion of
other algal species in 5 mg/100 nil 3AT resulted in C7% cell production inhibi-
tion in Plumaris elcnans, 75% in Callithamnion tetricum, 65'' in f:c:i::n1ion
multifidum and 20% in Brongnoartclla byssoides.
Chronic toxicity to-oysters can be easily determined by studying
the deposition of new shell (Butler, !%(">), a method which giver, statistically
significant data in three or four days of testing with as few-as 10 juvenile
oysters. When oysters were exposed to 10-fold increases in the concentration
of DDT from 0.1 ug/1 to 100 ug/1 at 17°C, the suppression of shell growth
increased uniformly. Growth at the highest concentration (100 ug/1)was nil
i
and at the lowest concentration was 21) per cent of the normal.
fiollusks wore also known to concentrate pesticides present in tlieir
environment in their own tissues ns much as 70,000 times in some cases.
•
If placed in unpolluted waters, they will flush themselves of these residues.
Experiments on the accumulation and retention of !:DT by mollur.ks exposed for
7 days to 1.0 ug/1 in flowing sea water gave the following results:
Residue (rig/1)
After 7 days After 15 days After 30 days
I loll us I; exposure flushing flushing
Brachidontes recurvus 24 — —
(Hooked mussel)
Crassostrca virginica 26 2.5 1.0
(Eastern oyster)
Crassostrea gigas 20 16.0 —
(Pacific oyster)
Ostroa edulis 15 3.0 4.0
(European oyster)
Qstroa enuestris 23 !i.O —
(Crested oyster)
Mercenaria mercenaria 6 0.5 —
(northern quahog)
-54
-------
The uptake of certain pesticides r>y oysters after in days' uxnosure,
v/ith rolntion to the biological magnification in their tissues, '-/as studied
with the following results (U.S. Fish and llildlifo Service, Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries, Biological Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida, 19Ce):
Pesticide Exposure Residue Ciolonical
cone, (nin/1) cone, (mg/1) magnification
Toxaphene 0.05 146.0 2920X
Methoxychlor 0.05 289.0 5780X
Lindane - 0.05 3.0 60X
Chlordane 0.01 73.0 7300X
Heptachlor 0.01 176.0 17.600X
Endrin 0.001 1.0 1000X
Dieldrin 0.001 1.0 1000X
DDT and metabolites 0.001 15.0 15.000X
Very small clams and oysters approaching their first cycle of reproductive
activity were exposed to aldrin, dieldrin, DOT, toxaphene, malathion and
acetone for six months at concentrations one-tenth of their median lethal
doses. There was no decrease in growth. Oysters sprawned spontaneously
at the same time as did the controls. (Butler. 1963). A comparison of the
development and growth of oyster and clam eggs and larvae exposed to 1.0
mg/1 of various pesticides and control groups gave the following results
(Butler, 1962):
Clam eggs Oyster eggs Growth of oyster
Pesticide developing (%) developing (%) larva (%)
DDT
Lindane
Guthion
Parathion
Toxaphene
Aldrin
Dieldrin
Endrin
Sevin
'
100
30
50
70
90
95
85
0
65
20
60
0
75
20
850
95
55
-------
Davis (1961) also studied
larvae of oysters (Crassostrea
with the following results:
Pesticide Cone, (mg/1)
Fenuron below 5.0
the effects of some pesticides on eggs and
vlrglm'ca) and clams (Venus mercenaria)
Monuron
Diuron
Dluron
Neburon
Undane
Aldrln
Aldrln
Toxaphene
Toxaphene
Toxaphene
Cushion
Guthlon
below 5.0
1.0
5.0
. 2.4
below 10.0
10.0
0.25 and 0.50
0.25 and 0.50
0.25
0.50
0.50
1.0
Guthlon
Sevin
5.0
1.0
Effect
no significant decrease in percent of clam
eggs reaching straight hinge larval stage
same as above; some evidence of toxlclty to
larvae at 1.0 and 5.0 mg/1
significantly reduced.percentage of eggs
.developing normally
no clam eggs developed Into larvae; drastic
reduction 1n larval growth rate; as much as
90% larval mortality
normal development of eggs prevented; 100%
mortality of larvae
60% of clam eggs and 43% of oyster eggs
developed normally
64% of clam eggs developed normally
stopped growth of clam larvae
egg development normal
growth rate of clam larvae drastically
reduced; 50% mortality
some survival of larvae for 12 days; growth
negligible
reduced percentage of oyster larvae reaching'
straight hinge stage
30.5% of clam eggs developed normally;
no marked effect on clam larvae
100% mortality of clam larvae
no marked effect on clam larvae; 40%
reduction 1n oyster eggs reaching straight
hinge stage
56
-------
Pesticide Cone, (mg/1) Effect
Sevln 5.0 100% mortality of clam larvae; no normal
oyster egg development
DDT 0.025 drastic reduction in oyster larvae growth
rate; 20% mortality
DDT 0.050 growth of oyster larvae stopped; mortality
in excess of 90% after 14 days
Dlpterex 0.025 significant reduction in growth of oyster
larvae
Dlpterex 1.0 50% mortality of oyster larvae
Parathion 1.0 drastically reduced oyster larvae growth
rate
Butler and Springer (1963) found that oyster fecal deposits contained
DDT in approximately 35 times the concentration of DDT originally present in
water in which oysters were living, and concluded this could be a cause for
additional concern. Non-selective bottom feeders, such as marine worms,
which are important links in many marine food chains, might accumulate
pesticides 1n concentrations lethal to their predators which include fish,
crustaceans and birds eaten by man.
Ghost shrimp, Neomysis sp., taken from San Francisco Bay contained
residues of DDT, DDE, and Dieldrin at concentrations of 20, 12, and 1 ug/1,
respecively (U.S. Public Health Service, Region IX, 1965). Grass shrimp,
Crago sp., taken near Martinez, contained 130 ug/1 DDT and 80 ug/1 toxaphene.
Exposure of reproducing Artemia salina to concentrations of DDT
ranging from 10.0 to 0.001 mg/1 resulted in an increasing proportion of young
developing from cysts rather than developing vlviparously from the adult
females. This appeared to be a characteristic response on the part of the
treated adults to environmental stress. At 0.1 ug/1 all of the adults had
57
-------
died in 5 days and all the larvae died before reaching maturity. At 0.01
ug/1 the majority of adults died in three weeks and the first generation
following treatment was noticeably smaller (Grosch, 1967).
A high acetyl cholinesterase activity exists in certain tissues of
several species of shrimp and crabs; this activity may be inhibited sometimes
by concentrations of organophosphorus insecticides as low as 1.0 ug/1
(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological
Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1967). According to Butler (1962)
pesticide toxicity in crabs and shrimp is first manifested by increased
irritability and then by loss of equilibrium. Mortalities of stone and
mud crabs are observed at pesticide concentrations of 1.0 mg/1, but mud
crabs seem to be particularly sensitive to the herbicide, 2,4-D and show
irritation at only 1.0 ug/1. Data on the concentrations of pesticides
required to cause paralysis in small (25 mm) stone crabs within 24 hours
indicate that this will occur with endrin, dieldrin, and DDT at 10 ug/1 and
with Sevin at 1.0 mg/1.
Blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) were exposed continuously for nine
months to sublethal concentrations of DDT (0.25-0.5ug/l) (Lowe, 1965), and
18 per cent survived the entire period. There was no difference in the
behavior of control crabs and those exposed to 0.25 ug/1 DDT. Of the crabs
exposed to 0.5 ug/1 DDT, two became paralyzed and died after two weeks
exposure. These and other crabs kept at 0.5 ug/1 DDT exhibited typical
symptoms of insecticide poisoning: extreme irritability, increased sen-
sitivity to external stimuli, and paralysis.
58
-------
Juvenile blue crabs (Callinectes sapldus) fed, molted, and grew for
nine months 1n 0.25 ug/1 DDT, but could survive for only a few days In
concentrations In excess of 0.5 ug/1. A small per cent of juvenile brown
shrimp, Penaeus aztecus. could tolerate 0.025 ug/1 endrin for 60 days, but
could survive for only a few days at concentrations of endrin greater than
0.05 ug/1.
Yearling striped bass and young-of-the-year taken from Suisun Bay in
water containing a total chlorinated hydrocarbon concentration of 0.08 ug/1
contained the following residual,concentrations of chlorinated hydrocarbons
(whole fish, wet weight) (U.S. Public Health Service, Region IX, 1965):
Concentration (ug/1)
Compound Young-of-year Yearling
Lindane 10 10
Keptachlor epoxide 15 30
DDE ' 64 690
ODD 7/or DDT 115 360
Toxaphene 40 —
Dieldrin 13 24
Unknown A 15 60
Analyses of total chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides retained by anchovy
fry and adult are given in the same report and indicate a total of 300 ug/1
in the fry and 1000 ug/1 in the anchovy adult.
Holden (1962) studied the absorption of DDT from water by fish and
determined that for three fish, the ratios of DDT concentration in the gills
to that in water at the time of the death of the fish were 275, 277, and 287,
respectively.
In studying chronic toxlcity of some chlorinated hydrocarbons to fish,
Butler (1965) determined that endrin at 0.6 ug/1 would kill 50 per cent of
a population of fish (probably spot, Leiostomus xanthurus) in 24 hours,
•59
-------
but a concentration of 0.025 ug/1 endrin allowed 15 per cent of a population
to survive for two months. Telodrln, a highly toxic chlorinated hydrocarbon,"
killed fish 1n 10 days at a concentration of 0.025 ug/1, but allowed them
to survive for five months at 0.01 ug/1. Spot exposed to endrin at 0.05 ug/1
for 8 months were twice as sensitive to lethal concentrations of the pesticide
as unexposed fish. Spot exposed to sublethal concentrations of dleldrin
(0.1, 0.01, and 0.0001 ug/1) for three months exhibited 30-37 per cent
mortality, not significantly different from the mortality of control
populations. (Butler, 1963). Some experimental fish, however, had
axial skeleton distortions that were not found in the controls. A population
of spot survived 16 weeks continuous exposure to 0.01 mg/1 malathion,
although a concentration of 0.05 mg/1 still affected the population after
14 days continuous exposure. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1966).
The effects of various pesticides on the hatching of eggs of the longnose
kilUfish, Fundulus similis. were studyed and found to have little effect on
hatching; the pesticide concentration, however, was sometimes lethal to
the emerging fish larvae (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1966):
Pesticide
Control
DDT
DDT
Endrin
Endrin
Dibrom
Malathion
Cone.
(mg/1)
'
0.01
0.001
0.001
0.0001
0.01
0.01
Hatching
rate (%)
32.5
55.0
32.5
40.0
45.0
47.5
47.5
Mortality
(%)
0
0
0
6
6
11
100
The effects of endrin on the embryonic development and hatching of
marine threespine sticklebacks in water of 10 o/oo salinity at 20°C were
60
-------
as follows (Katz and Chadwick, 1961):
Number Percent survival
Endrin Number % eyed % eyed of fish Days after start of hatching
(ug/1) of eggs eggs* fish** hatched 3456 7 8
Control
0.75
1.35
1.8
2.4
3.2
4.2
38
32
21
27
22
24
36
M^»A«^B»
63
78
43
63
63
58
67
85
52
44
82
. 36
71
54
20 .
15
4
13
5
10
13
100
100
100
84
80
90
61
100
69
75
69
40
51
31
85
61
75
61
20
10
0
75
45
50
30
20
0
0
20
15
50 '
7
0
0
0
5
0
0
7
0
0
0
* 4 days after fertilization
** hatching in 8 to 9 days
Two groups of adult sheepshead minnows (Cyprinodon variegatus) were,
exposed to concentrations of DOT of 20 and 40 ug/1 for 24 hourse with a
third group acting as a control. The survivors of all three groups were
allowed to reproduce and the young were then exposed to concentrations of
10, 13, and 15 ug/1 DDT and 2 ug/1 endrln. Mortality of the young of the
exposed groups was significantly greater in both cases(90% level) than the
control at both 13 ug/1 DDT and at 2 ug/1 endrin (Holland, Coppage, and
Butler, 1966).
Groups of spot (Leiostomus xanthurus) were exposed to sublethal concentration
(0.1 and 0.01 ug/1) of toxaphene in flowing seawater (Lowe, 1964). It
was found that after five months exposure, there was no significant
mortality difference between control and experimental fish, although
experimental fish developed a distinct thickening of lamellae with resultant
clubbing. Control fish had slender, delicate lamellae with gossamer epithelial
coverings over Individual capillaries. It was possible to identify control
and treated fish.on basis of gill changes alone. Young-of-the-year spot
61
-------
taken from a natural population In waters off Gulf Breeze, Florida,were
acclimated to laboratory conditions for three months, then exposed to a
concentration of malathlon of 0.01 mg/1 for 26 weeks. An analysis of the
brains of some of the fish Indicated that the acetyl chollnesterase activity
was significantly lowered and stabilized at about 70 per cent of normal.
This appeared to have had no adverse effects on the fish, since neither
experimental group exhibited any symptoms of distress during the 26 weeks,
and there was no difference in growth or mortality. Immediately after,
and again one week after the experiment had
• anted, fish f^ the experimental and control groups were exposed to lethal
concentrations of malathlon. There was no slgnfleant difference 1n the
mortalities of any group (Holland and Lowe, 1966). Juvenile spot tolerated
100 ug/1 Sevin In their environment for three months with no 111 effects
(Lowe, 1967).
Exposure of some estuarine fishes to sublethal concentrations of
pesticides reduced the acetyl chollnesterase activity as follows:
Cone. AChE
Pesticide (mg/1) Species Activity (%)
Malathlon 0.1 Spot 76
Malathlon 0.1 Sheepshead minnow 39
Dlbrom 0.05 Sp&t <10
Dibrom 0.05 Sheepshead minnow 79
Dlbrom 0.001 Striped mullet 76
Parathion 0.01 Spot <10
Parathion 0.01 Sheepshead minnow 26
Guthion 0.01 Spot 79
Guthion ~ 0.01 Sheepshead minnow <10
Diazinon 0.001 Spot 100
Dfazlmm 0.001 Striped mullet 74
Bayer 3815b 0.001 Spot 76
Bayer 38156 0.001 Sheepshead minnow 82
Bayer 38156 0.001 Striped mullet 58
Dursban 0.001 Spot 38
Thimet 0.0005 Spot 84
Thimet 0.0005 Sheepshead minnow 68
Thimet 0.0005 Striped mullet 69
62
-------
Seventeen out of 93 samples of brains of spot (Lelostomus xanthurus)
and sheepshead minnow (Cyrpinodon variegatus) from various places on the
southeastern coast of the U.S. and the Gulf of Mexico were found to have
low cholInesterase activity (less than 90 per cent activity), but 13 of the
17 low samples were found to come from only two areas—the Ashley River
near Charleston, South Carolina and from the eastern edge of Trinity Bay
near Galveston, Texas. The former site receives wastes from plants producing
a variety of organophosphorus compounds (Holland, Coppage and Butler,'1967).
Exposure of adult northern puffers, Sphaeroides maculatus, to endrin
concentrations of 1.0 , 0.5, 0.1, and 0.05 ug/1 resulted in impaired
liver function which was evidenced by the transfer of major cations (Na+,
K+, Ca^, Mg**, and In"1"1") from the hepatic tissue into the serum (Eisler and
Edmunds, 1966). Experiments with bluefish demonstrated that endrin disrupted
the normal metabolism of metals (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Sandy
Hook Marine Laboratory, 1965). Bluefish exposed for 96 hours to sublethal
concentrations of endrin exhibited comparatively higher levels of sodium,
calcium, potassium, magnesium, zinc, and iron in muscle, gills, and liver
than did the controls. Liver damage was evident among fish surviving the
highest doses.
63
-------
DISSOLVED GASES
Ammonia
It has been established that the un-ionized ammonia molecule in solution
1s much more toxic than the ammonium Ion NH4+ (Herbert, 1982). Tabata (1962),
however, Indicated that 1n order to explain the effect of pH on the toxldty
of ammonia,, 1t was necessary to consider not only the toxicity of un-ionized
\
ammonia, but also the toxicity of a large quantity of ammonium ions and the
antagonistic action of carbon dioxide. He used the ratio Tm/Tj, where
Tm was the 24-hour TLm and T^ was the apparent 24-hour toxicity due to one
mole of un-ionized ammonia or ammonium Ion. In his tests with the water flea,
Daphm'a pulex, Tm/T^ was found to be nearly constant (45/51) within the
pH range of 6.0 to 8.5. He found that the Tm/T1 of test fishes (Leblstes or
Plotosus) was greater than for Daphnla or the brine shrimp Artemia.
Studies by Woelke (1960) on the effects of sulflte waste liquor (ammonia
base blow pit liquor) on the development of larval hardshell clam,Venus
mercenaria, produced the following results:
SWL cone. Average number of Per cent of normal
(mg/1) normal larvae larvae developed
0 12,813 83.7
2 12,469 81.1
4 13,719 90.2
9 9,000 58.8
18 8,563 56.0
39 969 6.3
79 0 0.0
150 0 0.0
304 0 0.0
Herbert and Shurben (1965) found that salmon were in all cases more
susceptible than rainbow trout to ammonium compounds under varying salinity
64
-------
conditions (salinity given as per cent of seawater with a salinity of 33.9 g/kg):
24-hour TLm (mg/1 N)
Salinity Alkalinity
(% seawater) £H. (mg/1 CaCOa) Salmon smolt Yearling Rainbow Trout
0 7.81 248 15 37
50 7.52 185 43 51
75 7.51 150 42 50
The critical level of 141-day old. 114 mm chlnook salmon in aerated sea
water containing amsnoniim hydroxide was found to be between 3.5 and 10.0 mg/1
for a 3-day exposure. Silver salmon in aerated fresh water for a similar
period had a critical level to ammonium hydroxide of about 5 mg/1. The pH
1n both instances was between 7.6 and 8.0 (Eldridge, 1967).
Because of the lack of information concerning the toxicity of ammonia
under marine conditions, certain references concerning Its toxicity under
fresh water conditions are given here. The second edition of Hater Quality
Criteria (1963) reported that the literature shows the lowest toxic level
of NHa to rainbow trout to be 0.3 to 0.4 mg/1. This figure was established
by Wuhraian and Woker (reference number 1465), but because of a data error
It was later proved to be Inaccurate, and the actual threshold toxicity
of undissociated ammonia to rainbow trout was set at 1.1 mg/1. Reworking
of the data by FWPCA has confirmed the error and the new level of toxicity.
Downing and Merkens (1955) showed that the toxicity of ammonia, as N,
to rainbow trout, decreased with Increasing dissolved oxygen. Un-ionized
ammonia concentrations of 0.6-1.29 mg/1 were used; 1t was found that the
period of survivlal was shorter in the higher concentrations and that Increasing
the dissolved oxygen concentration from 1.5 to 8.5 mg/1 prolonged the period
of survival in all concentrations. Further studies by Merkens and Downing
65
-------
(1957) determined the toxidty of unionized ammonia to rainbow trout at
two different tensions of dissolved oxygen. Results were reported as follows:
Cone, of un-ionized ammonia (mg/1 N)
Dissolved oxygen
(% air saturation)
100.3
.
45.7
Time ,_
(hours)"
2
8
36
168
312
2
8
36
168
312
Complete survival
2J4
1.73
1.73
1.62
1.26
0.59
0.38
0.34
0.31
0.31
Complete mortality
3.98
2.19
1.91
1.76
1.73
1.05
0.79
0.79
0.63
0.63
Herbert (1962) found that the toxic threshold concentration of un-
ionized ammonia for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii) 1s reduced by an Increase
in the concentration of free carbon dioxide. The pH value, and hence the
concentration of un-1on1zed ammonia, 1s lower in water in Immediate contact
with the gills than 1n the bulk of .the solution because of the C02 excreted
by the fish. This excreted C02 will have less effect on the concentration
of un-1on1zed ammonia at the gills when there is a relatively high concentration
of C02 in the bulk of the solution than when there Is only a little in the
solution. He found that the toxic threshold concentration (time not given)
of ammonia for 50 percent of a population of rainbow trout to be 0.6 mg/1
at pH 7.8 and at a water temperature of 10.2 to 11.3°C.
His experiments with mixtures of toxic substances indicated that the
mixture of ammonia and phenols was at Its threshold concentration when
AS/AJ. + Ps/Pt -1. where A is ammonia, P is phenol, s in the. concent ration in
solution and.t is the toxiclty of the substance when tested individually.
66
-------
For the combination of ammonia and copper, the equation given above
became progressively less adequate as lower percentage mortalities were
considered (Herbert and Vandyke, 1964). He also found that for the ammonium
salt, NH^' Cl, ,the.48-hour TLm for rainbow trout was 26.4 mg/1 as nitrogen
at pH 7.8 and 17°C, and the toxiclty of copper sulfate was 0.27 mg/1.
However, a copper-ammonia mixture had a 48-hour TLm of 0.92 mg/1.
Lloyd (1961) also showed that the toxlclty of ammonia was directly
related to the concentration of free carbon dioxide In water (bicarbonate
alkalinity as CaC03),the pH, temperature and dissolved oxygen. The higher
the pH and the temperature the lower the toxic threshold, and the lower the
dissolved oxygen the lower the toxic threshold. His experiments comparing
predicted ammonia toxlcity determined from laboratory studies and observed
ammonia toxiclty under the same conditions indicated an error between the
two toxlcities of riot more than 10 per cent.
In studies on the effects of ammonia (NH4OH) on young salmon and trout,
symptoms of toxlcity were cited as: 1) restless swimming in top half of
aquarium; 2) recurrent alternating periods of violent activity (10-20 seconds)
and quiescence (20-40 seconds); 3) subsidence to feeble swimming; 4) loss
of equilibrium; 5) spasms in which jaws and gill covers gaped widely as fish
died (Washington State Department of Fisheries, 1964). It was found that a
concentration of 10 mg/1 NH/jOH killed 24 of 25 fish in 21.33 hours. Other
results on chlnook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawtyscha) in sea water were:
Initial cone. First equili- First death Total kill 24-hr 1% Initial Initial
NH^mq/1) * brium loss(hrs) (hrs) (hrs) cone.(mg/1) pH DO
0.30
1.00
1.50
s!50
5.20
>72
>72
^72
^72
^72
>20.92
^72
^72
^72
>72
-^72
^20.92
^72
^72
>72
^72
^•72
>-20.92
0.70
0.70
1.30
2.06
3.25
4.90
7.60
7.65
7.65
7.80
8.10
8.15
5.8
6.9
5.5
5.2
6.9
6.9
67
-------
* Corrected for 0.3 mg/1 NHs-nitrogen released by urination of fish In
control tank during declination and for 0.4 mg/1 released during first
24 hours of exposure.
Warren (1962) found that ammonium was 10 times as toxic to rainbow
trout at pH 8 than at pH 7. He suggested that this was to be expected,
since at pH 7 only one per cent of total ammonia is un-ionized while at pH 8,
10 per cent is in freely permeable form. He quoted Wuhrman, who found
that fish maintained in water at high pH containing 10.1 mg/1 ammonia
sulfate showed toxic manifestations in 70 minutes, whereas those in a concentra-
"tTon 16.5 times higher, but with a lower pH, were unaffected for 170
minutes. Herbert (1962) confirmed that the toxicity of an equivalent
mixture of ammonium chloride and phenol is nearly as great as that of spent
liquor from a gas works, hence toxicity of the latter may be due mostly to
the two components, ammonia (free and fixed) and phenol (as CgHsOH).
The growth of both green and blue-green algae in the Potomac Estuary
was stimulated.by the addition of secondary treatment wastewater effluent,
^
proportionately to the amount of effluent added (Shapiro and Ribeiro, 1965).
Removal of Nt^vnHffogefr-controlled the growth of green algae, but did not
control blue-green algae.
Carbon Dioxide
The Interesting hypothesis has been advanced that large, dense schools
of many species of fish, such as herring and anchovies, change environmental
gas concentration of the water through which they pass (McFarland and Moss,
1967) and that disruption of school behavior of striped mullet (t"ugil
cephalus) apparently resulted from abrupt and severe metabolic reduction of
environmental oxygen and an Increase in the amount of carbon dioxide.
68
-------
Keeling (personal communication. 1967) sees no threat to marine
organisms from Increased carbon dioxide in water because of the great buffering
capacity of sea water.
HEAVY METALS
An hypothesis on the toxicity of heavy metals to fish states: if
the rate at which heavy metals enter the gill epithelial cells is less than
the rate at which they are removed into the blood stream, no build-up of
Ions will occur on the epithelial cells and the fish will survive; if,
however, the entrance rate is greater than the removal rate, then a build-up
will occur and the fish will die (Lloyd, 1962). Toxicity of heavy metals
1s also dependent on many environmental factors - hardness of the water,
temperature, dissolved oxygen'concentration, and activity of the organism.
Studies by Malacca and Gruia (1964) supported these findings and also deter-
mined that poisoning by heavy metals 1s an additive process dependent on
the concentration of the metals and the period of exposure.
Copper
Laboratory studies by Hassall (1962) determined that toxicity of copper
to the green alga Chiore!la vulgaris was dependent on environmental factors
during the experiment. If suspensions, of Chlorella were shaken continuously,
/
0.1 M copper sulfate was not Inhibitory for 7-20 hours, but if the shaking
was stopped, concentration lower than 0.001 M rapidly became toxic. Lack
of oxygen seemed to be the major factor leading to high copper toxicity.
North (1964) found that copper (Cu**) concentrations of 0.1 mg/1 or
greater eliminated photosynthesis 1n the giant kelp. Macrocystis pyrifera.
69
-------
The plants also exuded a brown substance, developed a "coicnarin" odor, and
spines and bulbs on the plants developed a brown discoloration. The toxic
threshold for M. pyrlfera was found to be between 0.01 and 0.1 mg/1,
although several days were required to produce apparent Injury at this concentra-
tion. After ninety hour's exposure, photosynthesis was eliminated by 0.5 mg/1 Cu+
inhibited 70 per cent by 0.25 mg/1, and reduced nearly 50 per cent by 0.1 mg/1.
Again, effects were greater with Increasing time. Visible Injury to the
kelp was apparent In 10 days at 0.1 ing/1 Cu** and 1n six weeks blades of
the plants were bleached white and fell to pieces when handled.
Galtsoff (1960) stated that copper was extremely toxic to oyster larvae
(but gave no values) and that It 1s one of the heavy metals absorbed by
blvalues. When-stored 1n their tissues It renders them Inedible. The 96-hour
TLm of copper to oysters from the Seto Inland Sea 1n Japan was measured to
be 1.9 mg/1 (Fujiya, 1960)pa concentration higher than normally found there
(0.05 - 0.3 mg/1 Cu). However, oysters exposed to sublethal concentrations
of copper (0.13 - 0.50 mg/1) accumulated the metal 1n their tissues in
amounts of 200-1500 mg/1 (wet weight), making them unfit as food. Studies
on three New Zealand bivalves - an oyster (Astrea simuate). a scallop
(Pecten novae zelandlae) and a mussel (MytHus edulls aeteanus) - Indicated
that the concentration of copper In the tissues of these organisms was much
greater than In the water. In the scallop and the mussel it was 300 times as
much, and In the oyster It was 12,700 times as much (Brooks and Runsby, 1965).
The average copper concentration 1n material dried at 110°C was 9 mg/1 for
both scallops and mussels and 41 mg/1 for oysters.
70
-------
Concentrations of 1.5 mg/1 copper were found to be lethal 1n 2 to 3 days
to the marine polychaete, Nereis vlrens; 0.5 mg/1 copper was lethal 1n
four days8 and 0.2 mg/1 was lethal 1n one week (Raymont and Shields, 1963).
The worms had 100 per cent survival for 3 weeks in concentrations below
0.1 mg/1. After 12 days worms exposed to solutions of 0.66 - 0.06 mg/1 copper
had accumulated from 580 to 110 mg/1 copper in their tissues while control
worms in sea water had concent rat ions of 43 mg/1 copper.
Significant kills (50 and 91.7 per cent) of young pink salmon
gopbugEliia)'wey@ receded with cupric nitrate levels of 0.563
and 1.0 mg/1 for five days. Loss of equilibrium and Initial mortality
occurred in less than 19 hours in the 0.563 mg/1 copper concentration and
in less than 66 hours in concentrations of 0.178 and 0.318 mg/1 Cu (N03)2-
Sprague (1964) defined the incipient lethal level as that concentration
of an environmental Identity beyond which an organism could no longer
survive for an indefinite period of time. Experiments on juvenile salmon
in freshwater at 17°C and pH 7.0 - 7.4 on the toxlcity of copper and zinc
combinations indicated that the metals potentiated each other's lethal
action; lethal concentrations of the copper-zinc mixtures acted two to three
times as fast as the lethal concentrations of the single metals (Sprague and
Ramsay, 1965).
Sublethal pollution by copper and zinc of the Miramichi River, New
Brunswick, from a base-metal mine was the apparent reason that 22 per cent of
adult salmon moving upstream returned downstream (Sprague, 1962). Using the
incipient lethal level (ILL) as the toxic condition, Sprague found that the
maximum "safe" level of a combination of zinc and copper was 0.15 the
incipient lethal level of the combination of the two metals, calculated
by him to be 0.7 mg/1 zinc and 0.05 mg/1 copper. This means that the maximum
71
-------
"safe" level of zinc and copper combined would be 0.11 mg/1 zinc and 0.008
mg/1 copper.
A 48-hour toxlclty threshold level of copper sulfate for rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdnerii) of 0.27 mg/1 Cu++ was determined by Herbert and Vandyke
(1964). The Incipient lethal level (ILL) of copper in fresh water, with a
total hardness of 18 mg/1 and pH of 7.5, to young salmon was 44 ug/1
(Sprague, 1964). There was a random scattering of responses at the lowest
concentration of 0.01 ILL with Increasing avoidance of water containing higher
copper concentrations. A uniform avoidance was shown of water containing
0.65 and 2.05 ILL. The threshold concentration of avoidance, or the concentra-
tion at which 50 per cent of the salmon avoided water containing CuSO/},
was 0.052 ILL.
Malacca and Gruia (1964) concluded on the basis of experiments on
toxlclty of heavy metals to the water flea Daphnia rcagna. bltterling, carp
and minnows that the maximum permissible concentration of copper in the
Black Sea should be re-evaluated, since the accepted level of 0.1 mg/1
seemed to be too high.
Experiments on shore crabs (Carcinus) indicated a copper toxicity
threshold of 1-2 mg/1 for an 11-12 day exposure.and small prawns (Leander
squill a) had a copper toxlclty threshold below 0.5 mg/1 (Raymont and
Shilds, 1963).
The addition of 10 - 20 ug/1 copper to sea water retarded the body
growth of the pluteal larva of the sea urchin (Paracentrotus lividus),
but did not retard growth of the larval arms (Bougls, 1965% A copper
concentration of 30 ug/1 affected growth of the arms and 50 ug/1 copper
72
-------
was lethal to the larvae. When the cuprlc 1on concentration of sea water
was gradually Increased from 0.005 rcg/1 to 0.5 mg/1, the oxygen uptake
of the cyprld larvae of the barnacle, Balanus amphltrite niveus, was
elevated proportionately (Bernard and Lane, 1963). However, further
Increases 1n cuprlc 1on concentration resulted 1n a steady decline of oxygen
uptake.
Twenty tons of copper ore were added to a lagoon 1n an attempt to control
blooms of the alga Gymnodlnltsn splendens by permanent exposure to a large
amount of copper ore. Phytoplankton blooms were reduced somswhat but
productivity of lagoon continued after the addition and seasonal occurrence
of 6.. splendens was not altered by addition of the ore. After another
60 tons were added (20 and 40 tons at two different times), a near lethal
concentration of 0.5 ug/1 copper was attained, but decreased during the following
five months to 0.01 ug/1 copper. Thus the Immersion of the ore was not
helpful 1n controlling Gymnodinlum splendens (Marvin, Lansford, and Wheeler,
1961).
Chromlurn
Hexavalent chromium was strongly toxic to young ,kelp (Hacrocystis
pyrifera) blades at 10.0 mg/1, but not at 1 mg/1 or lower. A 9-day exposure
of the blades to 0.1 mg/1 had no effect, 1.0 mg/1 gradually reduced the
photosynthetic capacity, of the blades (25 per cent reduction in 9 days)
and 10 mg/1 eliminated photosynthesis in 5 days. To produce the equivalent
Injury, 50 to 100 times more chromium was needed than copper (North, 1964).
The threshold toxiclty of hexavalent chromium to the polvaaaete'Nerels
ylrens was about 1.0 mg/1. At concentrations of 0.5 mg/1 there was 100 per cent
survival for three weeks, but at concentrations of 1.0 mg/1 some mortality
73
-------
occurred over the same period. Concentrations between 2 and 10 mg/1
caused 100 per cent mortality In two weeks. For longer periods of exposure
the threshold toxicity level for Nereis virens was 0.6-007.Eg/l of chromium.
The shore crab, Carcinus macnasB exhibited a toxicity threshold for chromium
of 50 mg/1 over a 12-day period, but the prawn, Leander squill a. succumbed
to concentrations under 5 mg/1 chromium over the same period. Experiments
on the toxic action of chromium on fish and on the water flea Daphnia magna
Indicated that hexavalent chromium was more toxic than the trivalent ion.
Daphnia magna. with a 48-hour TLm of 0.01 mg/1 chromium, was the most sensitive
organism tested. The bitterllng Rhodeus sericeus amarus had a 168-hour TLm
of 29 mg/1 (Malacca, 1962).
Salmon exposed to lethal concentrations of chromium salts swam progress-
ively erratically at the water's surface, snapped their jaws, lost their
equilibrium, and then died. Silver salmon (Qnchorhynchus kisutch) mortalities
of 100, 86.7, and 93.3 per cent were reported In hexavalent chromium concentra-
tions of 31.8, 56.3, and 100.0 mg/1, respectively (Washington State Depart-
ment of Fisheries, 1964). Concentrations of trivalent chromium ranging from 5-50m
caused no mortalities or distress 1n silver salmon. Chromiien in this oxidation
state apparently converts to a nonlonic insoluble state by reaction with
carbonates in the water.
Scallops (Pecten novae zelandiae) and mussels (Mytilus edulis aeteanus)
accumulated more chromium from their environments than did oysters (Ostrea
sinuata): 10 and 16 mg/1 in material dried at 110°C, as compared to 3 mg/1,
respectively (Brooks and Runsby, 1965). The corresponding enrichment
factors (number of times an element 1s concentrated 1n tissue of organism
over the concentration in its environment) were 200,000 for scallop, 320,000
for mussels and 60,000 for oysters.
74
-------
Zinc
Oysters (Ostrea slnuata) accumulated much higher levels of zinc from
their environment than did scallops (Pecten rcovae zelandlae) or mussels
(MytHus edulls aeteanus). Oysters accumulated 1108 mg/1 dry weight compared
to 283 mg/1 for scallops and 91 mg/1 for mussels. The enrichment factors
for each of these were 110,300, 28,000 and 9,100 respectively (Brooks and
\
Rims by, 1965).
A 50 per cent Inhibition of hatching in brine shrimp (Artemia salina)
eggs was brought about by an addition of 0.0041 g/100 ml zinc sulfate
(Caujolle, Pham-Huu Chanh, and Moulas, 1965). The effect of high zinc
concentrations in sea water and Injections on normal tissue concentrations
of the lobster, Homarus vulgaris. indicated that a 20-fold increase in the
zinc content of sea water from 5 ug/1 to 100 ug/1 had very little effect on
zinc concentration in lobster blood;and that 6 injections of 110 ug/1
zinc had no obviously toxic effects,even though days after the injections
stopped the blood zinc concentration was four times the normal, or" 20 ug/1
(Bryan, 1964).
The threshold concentration for avoidance of water containing zinc
sulfate was measured to be 0.092 times the incipient lethal level for young
salmon (580 ug/1 zinc), or 53 ug/1 zinc (Sprazue, 1964).
•
In studying lethal concentrations, Sprague and Ramsay (1965) found that
copper-zinc mixtures acted two to three times as fast as the single metals
(see Copper). A similar effect was reported by Doudoroff (1956)
i ,
from nixing zinc with cyanide. The 48 hr TL^ of sodium cyanide on fat-
nead minnows (Pimephales promelas) was 0.24 mg/1, but when zinc sulfate was
mixed with the sodium cyanide it dropped to 0.19 mg/1. 'Results of experiments
by Herbert and Vandyke (1964) on the effects of phenols on rainbow trout
75
-------
(Salmo gairdnerf) were even more pronounced. The 48 hr TL,,, of phenol was
9.78 ppm, and of zinc was 2.46 ppm. A mixture of the two, however, produced
a Tl^ in 48 hrs «f -1*07 ppm.
Sreenivasan and Raj (1963) measured the following 48 hr Tlm's for zinc
sulfate:
Tilapia 10-15 mg/1 (at 25.8 to 28.5°C, 5.8 to 8.2 mg/1 Og,
(Tilapla mossambica) 7.1 to 7.5 pH, 0.9 to 1.8 mg/1 C02)
Carp 12-15 mg/1 (Bangkok strain); 10-12 mg/1 (Ooty strain)
(Cyprinus carpio) •••
They reduced the mortality of Tilapia mossambica 75 percent by adding
200 mg/1 of calcium chloride, and 60 percent by increasing the dissolved
oxygen concentration from between 5.8 and 8.2 mg/1 to 12.3 mg/1. The carp
mortality was reduced approximately 100 percent by the addition of 200 mg/1
of CaCl2, and 12-25 percent by the addition of 200 mg/1 of MgS04.
Increases in salinity greatly increased the resistance of salmon smolts
and rainbow trout to zinc toxiclty. In water with salinity between 10.2 and
13.6 parts per thousand salmon could stand 13 times the zinc they could
tolerate for two days in hard, fresh water. Under the same conditions
rainbow trout could tolerate 15 times the amount (Herbert and Wakeford, 1964).
The 48 hr Tl^'s for salmon and trout for zinc at different salinities were:
Salinity (o/oo) . 48 hr TLm (mg/1)
•
Salmon Trout
5.01 15 25
11.87 35-40 60-90
15.26 30 60
23.41 30 35
Malacca and Gruia (1964) carried out studies on Daphnia magnaa
bltterllng, carp, and minnows and determined that a maximum permissible
concentration of 5 mg/1 was too high and should be lowered to protect aquatic
life.
76
-------
Iron
An area In the sea used to dump sulfurlc add and ferrous sulfate was
surveyed to determine any effects on the a«fjatic life from dumping. In
the disposal area worms and amphlpods Increased and clams and sea cucumbers
decreased, but in seven months of dumping, there was no eradication of life
in the area (Arnold and Royce, 1950).
Bloassays of toxicity of a chemical waste effluent from United States
Steel Corporation containing sulfuric acid and ferrous sulfate (with a pH of
0.8) on Cancer magister and Cancer productus gave the following results
(Poole, 1967).
Species Cone, of effluent (o/oo) % survival
Cancer magister 0.1 88
0.01 72
Cancer productus 0.1 86
0.01 71
0.001 68
Oysters(0strea sinuata), scallops (Pecten novae zelandiae), and mussels
(Mytil us edulis aeteanus) of New Zealand were found to accumulate iron from
their environment (Brooks and Rumsby, 1965). The 682 mg/1 (dry weight)
of Iron found 1n oysters, 2915 mg/1 in scallops, and 1960 mg/1 in mussels
represented concentration factors of 68,200, 291,500, and 196,000, respectively.
PHENOLIC SUBSTANCES
Phenol at 300 mg/1 caused reduction in the rate of growth of the
marine phytoplankton species Monochrysis lutheri. Dunaliella euchlora. and
Chi ore!la sp. It was lethal to these species as well as to the species
Protococcus sp. and Phaeodactylurn tricornutum at 500 mg/1 in sterile sea
water (Ukeles, 1962). A concentration of phenol of 9.4 mg/1 caused
complete inactiviation of photosynthesis in large blades of the giant
kelp. Macrocvstis pvrifera. 1n 96 hours and visible Injury In one week
77
-------
(North, 1964). A much smaller concentration (0.47 mg/1) caused a 50 per
cent photosynthetic inactivatlon and visible Injuries in one week. Small
blades of Macrocystls proved much more sensitive to o - cresol. At a
concentration of 10-^1* .photosynthesis-" was reduced 60 - 85 per cent and at
10-5M o - cresol visible damage was apparent in one week. The threshold
concentration for toxicity of o - cresol was determined to be under 1.0 mg/1.
Other results were:
Compound
concentration
m - cresol 10"^
cresol '-
5 X 10
' -4
'
c
'5
% photosynthetic
inactivQtion
80-90
50
40
20
Time
(days)
4
4
4
, 4
Chlorinated phenols also affected photosynthetic capacity of Macrocystis.
Four-day exposures to various chlorinated phenols gave the following results:
Cone, (tng/1) Sample
Photosynthesis
(% initial value)
Compound
Control sea water
p -chlorothiophenol
Pentachlorobenzethiol
Sodium pentachlorophenate
(Santobrite)
Pentachlorophenol
Pentachlorophenol
At all of the above concentrations, all treated blades were visibly injured
1n 5 days. With Santobrite (Sodium pentachlorophenate) photosynthesis was
eliminated with a 2-day exposure to 0.58 mg/1. The critical concentration
10
10
10
26.6
2.66
large blade
small blade
Large blade
small blade
large blade
small blade
large blade
small blade
large blade
small blade
large blade
small blade
106
114
24
23
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
78
-------
range for Santobrite was between 0.1 and 0.5 mg/1.
Larval Baltic salmon exposed to non-volatile phenols experienced the
following phasic physiological disturbances (Vernldub 1962):
1st phase - mild stimulation of motor activity and all physiological
processes; changes fully reversible with transfer of larvae
to clean water.
2nd phase - confused movement, respiration rate decreased; arrhytffflia of
aur1cleB then venticle; larvae moved toward warm water, not
cold, reaction to temperature distorted; normal processes
slowly restored when transferred to clean water.
3rd phase - tetanic convulsions of muscles on alternately the right
and left sides of body; capacity for normal movement lost;
changes almost totally irreversible.
4th phase - weak motor activity; loss of all reaction to stimuli;
changes Irreversible.
5th phase - complete paralysis and death.
The lethal concentration was measured to be about 1 mg/1. Symptoms
of toxicity of phenol to goldfish were listed by Vishnevetskii (1962) as
Inflammation and necrosis of the gills, dystrophy of the parenchyma and
sedimentation of yellow haemogloblnogenlc pigment and crystals of haematoldin
in the liver, kidneys and heart. Herbert (1962) determined that the threshold
concentration for rainbow trout (Salmo galrdnerii) in a gas-liquor phenol
mixture was between 4.2 and 5.0 mg/1. Toxicity was not affected appreciably
by the pH, but toxicity did increase as the dissolved oxygen concentration
decreased. Fish (species not given) exposed to a concentration of 3-5 mg/1
79
-------
phenol exhibited behavioral changes (jumping and other escape reactions);
at 10 mg/1 gills became hyperemic and the skin produced a mucus, containing a
strongly foaming secretion; and at 16 mg/1 fish were paralyzed and sank
(Skrapek, 1963). In oxygen - saturated water containing 17 mg/1 phenol,
37 per cent of experimental fish died in 1-12 hours; 50 mg/1 phenol killed
all fish within 15 minutes. Experiments on carp in connection with a mass
mortality of Plecoglossus altivelis indicated that the lethal concentrations5
for phenol and for formalin were 25-27 mg/1 (0.0063 and 0.0066 per cent),
and 0.93 - 1.02 mg/1 for a mixture of the two compounds (Ikuta, 1964).
PETROLEUM WASTES
Probably one of the biggest problems posed by the disposal of petroleum
wastes into the sea concerns the BOD requirements. ZoBell (1963) calculated
that the complete oxidation of one liter of heavy mineral oil, if dispersed in
a water mass contining 8 mg02/1, would deplete the oxygen from 4008000 liters
of sea water.
\
A biological monitoring survey of an area of Puget Sound where an oil
refinery disposes of its wastes revealed that communities of algae and aquatic
plants, mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms, polychaetes, coelenterates and
fish in the different tidal zones were normal in their relative abundance
and physiological states and that beach rocks were relatively free of oil
residues (Oglesby and Sylvester, 1964).
Blades from bottom kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) fronds were subjected both to
one per cent Navy diesel and boiler fuels blended with sea water for two
days (North, 1964). All controls showed increased photosymthetfle capacity
but in apical and small blades photosynthesis was eliminated by exposure to
both oils. Large blades were inactivated by one per cent boiler fuel and
their capacity was reduced 85-90 per'cent by one per cent diesel fuel.
80
-------
Young blades from surface canopies and bottom fronds were exposed to surface
oil films (1 ml/527 on2) and to a range of concentrations of emulsified dlesel
oil for different periods. Changes in the photosynthetlc capacity were measured
after one, three, and seven days exposure:
Per cent photosynthetic
capacity after
Sample Exposed to 1 day 3 days 7 days
Surface blades Control sea water - 134 157
Surface oil film 33
Diesel oil in sea water:
1.00% 0 0
0.10% 20 0
.0.01% - 77.5 0
Bottom blades Control sea water 135 142 236
Surface oil film 147 0
Diesel oil in sea water:
1.00% 99 0 -
0.10% 110 7 0
0.01% 130 38 0
Bottom blades were exposed to 0.1% dlesel oil and boiler fuel emulsions
for periods ranging from 3 to 48 hours, after which they were washed and
maintained in sea water. The photosynthetlc changes after 4 and 7 days, are
shown below:
Percent photosynthetic
capacity after
Treatment 4 days 7 days
Control sea water 105 104
0.1% diesel oil:
3 hrs 75.5 75.5
6 hrs 68 61.5
12 hrs 0 0
24 hrs 38 0
48 hrs 6 0
81
-------
Percent photosynthetic
capacity after
Treatmsnt °> days 7 days
Control sea water 137
0.1% boiler fuel:
3 hrs 00
6 hrs 00
12 hrs 75 0
24 hrs 0 0
48 hrs 1.8 0
An accidental release of crude oil in Mil ford Haven was studied by George
(1961). He found that even when the surface of the water was covered by
a thick layer of oil, only a very thin film was deposited on littoral plants
and animals as the tide returned. The intertidal organisms most likely to
be affected were those occurring between lowest high water levels of neap tides
and highest high water levels of spring tides. These included the acorn
barnacles Elminius modestus. Balanus balanojdes, and Chthamalus stellatus;
the limpet, Patella vulgate; and the algae, Fucus spiral is and Pelvetia canaliculata.
In an area supporting limpets the amount of oil deposited was much reduced
and residual patches exhibited characteristic imprints of limpet radulae;
apparently the deposited oil did not prevent the limpets from grazing over
the covered area inadvertently removing the oil. There was no decrease in
the limpet population. Six months after the accident, all oil was removed
from the area supporting limpets but not from the area above the uppermost
limpet population. Barnacles suffered no unusual mortality, Pelvetia and
£-. spiral is grew at normal rates.
Crude oil appeared to have no effect on the rate oysters could clear
water of suspensions in it, and had no effect on the volume of suspended
matter taken in by oysters over a period of 11 days (Lund, 1957).
82
-------
Crude oil solutions were toxic to 100 per cent of Daphnia magna 1n
96 hours at 1 mg/1 (Dawden, 1962). And even though there was no visible
surface film, Daphnia were entrapped at the surface of the crude oil solutions.
Tests gave the following results:
Material tested TLm (mg/1)
24-hr 48-hr 72-hr
Crude oil 2110 1095 750
Emulsifier F 590 357 240
Crude oil + emulsifier F. 455.3 207.3 115
Emulsifier W 5.5 3.0 1.7
Crude oil + emulsifier W 2.3 1.1 0.9
These figures indicate that emulsifiers used to remove oil fron an
area could do far more damage to aquatic biota than the oil itself.
Emulsifier W'was toxic to small bluegills (Lepomis macrochirus) within
5 minutes at 10 mg/1.
The toxicity of oils to fish (Rhodeus'sericeos amarus, Phoxinus phoxinus
and Cyprinus carpio) and to Daphnia magna varied logarithmically with the
extent of emusification by naphthenic acids (Malacca, Dure and Weiner,
1964).
A waste effluent from Chevron of a confidential chemical
process (assumed to be concerned with petroleum refining) was tested for its
toxicity to.Cancer magister and Cancer productus with the following results
(Poole, 1967):
Species Cone, (o/oo) % Survival
Cancer magister 100 0
B 10 70
1 97
0.1 86
0.01 68
Cancer productus 0.1 90
r Qj01 92
0.001 60
83
-------
Bioassays on toxicity of gasoline, diesel fuel oil, and bunker oil to
American shad (Alosa sapidlssima) indicated that the lighter petroleum
products were more deadly than the heavier oils. Gasoline was the most
toxic, followed by fuel oil and then bunker oil (Tagatz, 1961). The actual
values were:
Petroleum product TLm (mg/1)
24-hr 48-hr 96-hr
Gasoline 91 91
Diesel fuel oil 204 167
Bunker oil - 2417 1952
Depressed dissolved oxygen concentrations increased toxicity of petroleum
products as follows:
Petroleum
product
Gasoline
Diesel fuel oil
Cone.
(rcg/1)
68
84
DO
(mg/1)
2.6-3.2
1.9-3.1
Mortality tiir,e i
50% 100:
50 60
270 300
SULFIDES
Large amounts of organic matter deposited in the bottom sediments
of coastal and estuarine regions stimulate growth and activity of sulfate -
reducing bacteria, causing vigorous sulfide production. Sulfide concentration
1s often so high that animals and plants Inhabiting these regions are
severely injured (Hata, Mlyoshi, Kadota, and Klmata, 1964)
Exploratory bioassays with volatile components of spent sulfite liquor
(SSL) - acetic and formic acids, methanol, ethanol, acetone, furfural,
p-cymene, formaldehyde (as sodium formaldehyde bisulfide) and acetaldehyde
in mixed proportions as to occurrence in SSL - Indicated that as the concentra-
tion (equivalent volatiles in SSL, in mg/1) increased from 250 mg/1 to 4000 mg/1,
the percentage of normal mussel larvae produced declined from 99 per cent
to 1.6.8 per cent (Dlnick and Breese, 1%5). The-foil owing
84
-------
comparison of 24-hour ECgo values for mussel larvae In aerated and unaerated
mixtures of kraft mill effluent (KME) and salt water shows that tha toxicity
of the KME declined both when mixed with saltwater and when aerated:
24-hour EC 50
Mean KME cone. (% vol)
1.7
2.7 ,
7.4
TO&rease In
"toxicitv 1%)
Sample
Original KME sample
Unaerated salt
water mixture
Aerated salt
water mixture
Studies on effects of sulflte waste. liquor (SWL) on egg development
t
of the oyster Crassostrea vlrglnica gave the following results (Hoelke, 1960):
37.1
76.3
SWL cone.
(mg/1 )
0
2
4
9
18
39
79
150
304
Average number
of larvae
8875
1375
1656
1875
500
0
0
0
0
Percent of normal
larvae developed
63.2
• 9.7
11.8
13.3
3.6
0
0
0
0
Larval growth studies on Crassostrea indicated that growth rate declined
with Increasing SWL concentration, until on the 9th day, it was no longer
evident. Results of growth experiments on juvenile Venus mercenaria are as
follows:
SWL cone.
(P8I mg/1)
\ * **_• _^zjj__^_f_
Control
4
9
18
39
79
Initial
Population
58.375
60,875
56,500
62,625
56,500
26,125
Terminal
Population
510750
57,500
20,500
24,000
53,800
2,500
Percent
survival
88.6
94.4
36.2
38.3
95.2
9.6
Initial
size (u)
188.4
185.8
186.1
189.1
183.2
161.6
Terminal
size (u)
307.3
269.4
232.9
237.6
248.2
206.0
Percent
Increase
63
45
25
25
35
21
85
-------
In areas where concentration of sulfite waste liquor is high the dissolved
oxygen concentration may drop to levels of o.?5 to 0 mg/1, making an area
unsuitable for oysters (Gunter and McKee, 1961). A 10 per cent PBI (Pearl-
Benson Index) sulfite waste liquor concentration of 25 mg/1 was found to
cause oxygen depression, and during low flows of the Chehalis River in
Washington oxygen depression occurred at 10 mg/1 of 10 per cent SWL.
Bioassays on Ostrea.lurida (Olympia oyster) indicated that the toxic threshold
concentration of 10 per cent SWL was between 8 and 16 mg/1, but for Crassostrea
gigas (Pacific oyster) it was between 50 and 100 mg/1 of 10 per cent SWL (Gunter
and McKee, 1962). A SWL concentration of 16-25 mg/1 was inimical to the
survival of larvae of 0. lurida and to the setting of spat. There was an
88 per cent survival of Crassostrea gigas larvae at 3-5 mg/1 SWL; 55 per cent
survival at 8-10 mg/1, 15 per cent survival at 10-12 mg/1, and complete
mortality of larvae at SWL concentrations over 13 mg/1.
Low dissolved oxygen concentrations occurring at all depths in
Porpoise Harbor (near Prince Rupert, B.C.) in September, 1961, were
attributed to the decomposition of spent sulfite liquor. Bottom samples
taken from 8 to 12 fathoms, however, revealed a large number of amphipods
crawling on branches, bark fragments and chips. Species included Anisogammarus
pugettensis, Synidotea sp (an isopod), and Allorchestes angustus. A._
pugettensis is usually found in cold, slightly brackish water and A._
augustus in shallow, warmer brackish bays and estuaries. Neither species
had been previously reported as associated with polluted and/or low oxygen
waters'(Waidichuk and Bousfield, 1962).
86
-------
Waldichuk (1960) reported that spent sulfite liquor and Kraft mill
effluent emptied Into the sea could have an effect not only on anadraious
fishes, but also on pelagic fishes, Pacific herring smelt, and capalin,,
since these fish come Inshore to spawn and must enter the zone
of pollution created by these wastes.
Tests by the Washington State Department of Fisheries (1964) on tha
toxic effects of sulfide compounds (sodlicn sulfide, Na2S) in sea water on
salmon-indicated that fish in sulfide concentrations greater than 3.18 mg/1
were iirsnedlately distressed. At 1.00 and 1.78 mg/1 sulfide, the mortalities
were 30 and 90 per cent, respecively, after 72 hours. It was concluded that
a critical level below 1.0 mg/1 was indicated for sulfide.
In Washington, migrant steelhead were seen in distress in a small
estuary where sulfides above 1 mg/1 have been detected. Migrant sized steel-
head were placed in live cars in this area, and In 3 hours and 20 minutes
all fish were dead. In laboratory tests, steelhead were exposed to a
effluent which is dumped into this estuary and which contain large amounts
of wood fiber. In three minutes the fish lost their equilibrium and became
Immobile, and in 15 minutes they were dead.
CYANIDES
Proof is at hand that molecular HCN is the toxic factor in water polluted
by simple alkali cyanides (Doudoroff, Leduc, and Schneider, 1966). It was
stated that the cyanide 1on £er se cannot be the principal lethal factor
because of Its relatively low concentration In acid, neutral, or slightly
alkaline cyanide solutions, but apparently small variations in pH can
greatly influence the toxicity of seme complex cyanides, and hence the amount
of CO- present in a given situation should be of concern also.
87
-------
Exposure of the foraminlferan, HoMd-ii'm cn'spmn. to 4rr.M/l of Na3CN
slowed down uptake of cesium-137 by-the organism. Removal of the cyanide
after 48 hours resulted in partial recovery of uptake, but after 95 hours
exposure the animals did not recover. The exposure to cyanide apparently
caused'a fall 1n the potassium content of the organism from 61 to 19 mM/kg and
a rise in sodium from 55 to 94 mM/kg. This suggested that cesium uptake
might be handled by the mechanism for potassium balance (Bryan, 1953).
Based on studies ftfathe effects of cyanide on many freshwater organisms
(Hydra attenuate; Planaria tigrina; Limnodrilus sp.; Bithynia tentaculata;
Daphnia magna; Cyclops sp.; Asellus aguaticus; Rutilus rutilus; Leucaspuis
delineatus; and Acerina cernua). Gillar (1962) suggested a maximum permissible
concentration of cyanides 1n waste water of about 0.01 mg/1 free cyanide for
the least resistant animals such as planktonic crustacea in water of low
flow.and 0.1 mg/1 cyanide for other species in flowing water.
Doudoroff, Leduc, and Schneider (1966) found that bluegills (Lepomis
macrochirus) could tolerate indefinitely a free cyanide concentration near
f
or below 0.15 mg/1. The 48-hour and 72-hour TLm's were both found to be
near 0.16 mg/1 as HCN. At 0.155 mg/1 6 of 10 fish survived 72 hours; at
0.18 mg/1 HCN 7 of 10 fish died within 24 hours and 2 more died in she following
2 days. There was no death or distress at 0.14 mg/1. Therefore, the ultimate
TLm of molecular HCN for bluegills was established at 0.14-0.15 mg/1.
Experiments on the toxiclty of cyanide and complex heavy metal cyanides
to fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas) gave the following results
(Doudoroff, 1956):
-------
Tim (mg/1 CN)
Compound 24 hour 48 hour % hour
NaCN 0.25 0.24 0.23
NaCN+ZnS04 0.20 0.19 0.18
NaCN*dS04 0.23 0.21 0.19
NaCN+NiS04 2.5 0.95 0.65
HALOGENS
In the San Joaquin River estuary, Aldrtch (1961) found an apparent
Increase 1n the incidence of the £mphipoda Corophlim splnicotvis, with an
Increase 1n chloride content of the water. The number dredged at Antioch,
Californiakwas 14.3*2.4 In May (chloride concentration 15-17 mg/1) and 41.5*9.7
T
1n August(ch1oride concentration 980-1330 mg/1).
When larvae of the oyster, Ostraa edulls, ware exposed to chloride
concentrations of 6 and 20 mg/1 for 6 and 12 minutes, respectively, there was
an Indication of mortality at the higher concentration. There was little
difference 1n the mortalities of oyster larvae exposed to 3 mg/1 for 2, 4,
and 20 minutes and control larvae. Of larvae exposed to chloride concen-
trations greater than 200 mg/1 a few were still swloing after 12 hours, but
very few survived 24 hours. Exposure of larvae of the barnacle, Elcninus
modestus, to chloride concentrations of 5.0 and 50 mg/1 for 10 minutes
resulted in 100% mortality. A concentration of 0.5'rag/l chloride had little
effect, but at 1.0 mg/1 chloride the per cent of surviving larvae dropped
considerably. Four days after their exposure to chloride, very few larvae
were still alive In the groups exposed to 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 mg/1 chloride,
and no growth sznong the survivors was noted (Uaugh, 1964).
Mortalities of juvenile dura salmon1 (Oncorhynchus keta) in live box
bioassays occurred when the free chlorine concentration of the water In
Puget Sound was at 50 mg/1, with a pH below 6.5, a suifide concentration
89
-------
of 0.5 mg/1, or a dissolved oxygen concentration approaching zero (Bartsch,
Callaway. Wagner, and Woelke, 1964).
A free chlorine concentration of 0.25 mg/1 and greater had a direct
toxic effect on yearling chlnooic salmon•(Oncorhynchus'tshfivj.ytscha).
In 0.1 rcg/1 chlorine fish becraa distressed during the first hour of exposure,
exhibiting jaw snapping and labored respiration. Significant kills of pink
salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) occurred at chloride concentrations of 0.119,
0.274, and 0.375 mg/1 during 9-day exposures,and in two days in concentrations
of 0.091 and 0.183.mg/1 residual chlorine (94 and 100 per cent kills)
(Washington State Department of Fisheries, 1964). In chloraznlne, total kills
of pink salmon'occurred 1n concentrations of 0.20 mg/1 residual chlorine and
1.17 mg/1 ammonia. In a 72-hour exposure there was a 13.3 per cent mortality
in 0.15 mg/1 residual chlorine. Chinook salmon suffered total kills in
residual chlorine concentrations of0.15 mg/1 and higher in 24 hours.
The critical level for a 72-hour exposure appeared to be less than 0.1 mg/1
residual chlorine, and the actual toxic limit approximated 0.05 mg/1, for
periods of 23 days or longer.
RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
According to Lowman (1963) there are nine principal factors controlling
the uptake and retention of radionuclides by marine organisms. They Include:
1) amount of radionucllde introduced into the sea
2) the site of Introduction in relation to position and depth
3) the degree of physical dispersion by currents and gravity
4) the chemical and physical characteristics of the radioelement
5) the chemical and physical forms of non-radioactive materials associated
with the radionucllde.
90
-------
6) the degree of Isotope dilution of the radioelement by the corresponding
stable element (or chemically similar elements in sea water)
7) the degree to which the radionuclide is. adsorbed to organisms.
8) the degree of selective uptake by organisms
9) biological half-life of the element in the organism.
Plankton in the sea at Eniwetok Proving Ground showed a concentration
factor for induced radioactivity of 10,000 one week after contamination, and
30,000 after six weeks. The percentage of total radioactivity contributed
by fission products and by neutron-induced isotopes (uranium 237, cobalt-57, 59,
and 60; iron-55, 59; z1nc-65; and manganese-54) in plankton from this area were:
Isotope % Total Radioactivity
Ruthenium, zirconium and uranium 13.0
Barium-140; lanthanum-140 23.0
Cesium-137; barium-137 0.0
Cobalt-57, 58, 60 43.0
Iron-'55, 59 16,0
Zinc-65 3.0
Manganese-54 0.0
Total radioactivity
(disintegrations/m1n/gm dry weight) 2.3 x 10°
Phosphorus-32 and zlnc-65 were traced through a salt marsh ecosystem where
it was found that the ordinary phytoplankton population did not retain
measurable amounts of phosphorus-32 or zlnc-65. No P-32 was found in
Soartina and only occasional traces of Zn-65. But two weeks after the study began
a bloom of Kryptoperldinium appeared and contained significant amounts of
both (Pomeroy, Adum, Johannes, and Roffman, 1966).
In marine food chains phytoplankton, on the first trophic level, acted
as membrane filters through which seawater passed. Low levels of cerium-141,
potass'iion-40, ruthenium-103, zinc-75 were found; z1rconium-95 and nirob1um-95
were found with a total count of 250; chromium-51 with 350 total counts
(Osterberg, Pearcy, and Curl, 1964).
91
-------
Plant and animal life along the Washington and Oregon coasts was sampled
for concentrations of z1nc-65, a nonfisslon product contained 1n the Hanford
reactor effluents emptied Into the Columbia River (Watson, Davis, and Hanson,
1961 and 1963). Algae (Fucus sp.) and plankton near the mouth of the river
contained 80 uuc/gm wet weight, presumably due to their high surface area -
body tfiight ratios and ability to absorb. In experiments on the accumulation
of nitrosyl ruthenium by the marine algae Porphyra lanceolate, Ulva lactuca.,
and Laminaria dlgitata. the last species accumulated more ruthenium-106
per unit surface area than did the first two species: 18 muc/5 discs (1.6 cm.
diameter) in 20 days as compared to 6 muc/5 discs and <2 muc/5 discs
in 20 days for Ulva lactuca and Porphyra 1 aciniata, respectively (Jones, 1960).
Gross beta radioactivity of kelp, Laminaria agardhii, and sea lettuce,
Ulva lactuca, from Fishers Island Sound in Connecticut was studied and
yielded the following results (in micromicrocurles per gram of ash) (Hat-
field, Skauen, and Rankin, 1963):
Date of
collection
1960
April
May
July
August
Octooer
November
December
Laminaria aqardhil
Area H
284
325
294
338
230
200
236
438
Area In
345
317
291
265
163
258
253
Area Is
323
342
282
236
237
173
179
Ulva lactuca
Area In
169
157
153
218
103
43
92
100
Area Is
146
115
125
143
65
36
92
-------
Date of
collection
1961
January
February
March
April
May
June
Lami nan a agardhll
Area H Area In Area Is
Ulva lactuca
375
313
288
280
343
281
316
356
325
224
247
322
380
347
260
334
280
255
326
320
325
Area In
103
75
91
107
147
168
131
Area Is
74
108
97
100
(65
Sea lettuce, Ulva lactuca was kept 1n a zinc-65 concentration of 8 uc/1.
In the dark there was little absorption of the Isotope, but 1n light the
z1nc-65 activity in water decreased rapidly, Indicating uptake by the algae.
Z1nc-65 at the above concentration did not affect the photosynthetic rate
of Ulva. Low temperature (2°C) also decreased the uptake of zinc by the
algae (as opposed to 22°C). The absorption of zinc-65 was twice as high at
pH8 .as at pH7; and 3 times as high at pH9 as at pH8 (Gutknecht, 1961).
The uptake and retention of z1nc-65 and ceslun-137 by seawater was reported
by Gutknecht (1965), with uptake as the concentration factor (CF) and
retention as the biological halflife (Tbl/2):
Cs'37 zn" Total zinc
(tag/kg)
Species
Ulva lactuca
Codiisn decorticatun
Fucus ygsiciilosiis
TJTcTyota dlchotcma
Porphyra unibl 1 1 cal 1 s
Chnnflrns crispus
Graci IftFi a fol 1 i fera
AaardhleUa tenera
Hypnea musciforffils
CF*
7
4
30
10
5'
,30
25
6
11
Tbl/2
(days)
5
15
8
3
2
12
21
CF
290
30
3,300
280
255
210
395
« 150
Tbl/2
(days)
4
7
100
14
7
60
70
Fresh wt
23.8
0.96
124
5.70
5.83
9.78
3.54
Dry wt
158
17.0
472
35.0
37.7
91.4
23.2
Growth**
15.0
7.9
3.0
8.2
7.5
1.8
5.3
5.2
5.5
* concentration factor
** percent increase 1n fresh weight per day
93
-------
There appeared to be no significant correlation between net production
(growth rate) and the concentration factors or biological half-life.
Exposure to light increased the uptake of cesiusn-137 by Gracllarla by a factor
of 45; anoxia decreased uptake by a factor of only 0.31. Another study on
uptake of ceriura-144 by planktonic algae reported the following concentration
factors (number of times concentrated in algae over the sea water concentration)
(Chipman, 1959):
Concentration Factor
Species after 0.5 hours after 24 hours
Carteria 314 2422
Flatynonas 1843 2127
Nitzschk 518 1970
TalTassUDsina 2610 33*6
l^pOTfnTgnTlebsi 3001 4498
Porphy indium802 3344
Brown algae (Fucus furcatus) and green algae (Enterofr.orpha intestinalis)
collected from various points along the Washington and Oregon coasts showed
the following concentrations of gszraa oltters (Watson, Davis, and Hanson, 1963):
Concentrations of gc-^ia emitters
(pc/gm standard dry v;3ight)
Ilwaco, Millapa Bay, Ilwaco, Seaside,
Wash. Wash. Wash. Ore.
Isotope 1959 1960 1959 1960 1959 1960 1959
Zn65 880 850 10 13 610 1600 11
27
880
190
78
26
0
3.7
850
0
51
0
64
0
10
49
18
47
19
5.1
13
42
1.1
0
12
0
Ru103&Ru106 78 51 18 1.1 7.8
17
Cel41&Cel44 0 64 19 12 9.8
2.4
94
-------
The uptake of radioactive .cesium by marine invertebrates was reported
by Bryan (1963) as follows:
Species
Coelenterata
Actinia equina
Tealta felina
Mgtridiien senile
"CaTliactls parasitica
Annelida
Nsreis divarsicolor
Peri nereis cultrilfera
Tirne(hrs) Whole animal COCK, factor for Cs
137
689
672
816
383
67?'
672
816
212
1406
800
Echlnodeyroata
Psc:.^achinusmiliaris 50 min
Cbel cm i c fTui d
Aristotle's lantern
(muscle teeth)
Gut
Gonad
Shell (including tube feet)
Tunicata
dona intectinalis
473
Test
Gut
Pharynx and body
wall muscles
9.0
6.1
7.1
4.6
1009
4.2
5.7
5.8
6.3
7.5
Tissue cone, fsdor for
1.01
9.1
1.9
28.1
17.7
4.0
1.01
1.11
4.6
6.5
In a salt marsh filter feeders and deposit feeders were the first to
show concentrations of phosphorus-32 and zinc-65. The mussel Modiolus
datnissus was a sensitive indicator and the oyster Grassestrea virginica
was the most sensitive indicator for zinc-650 Apparently the bottom sediments
served as a reversible sink, so that detritus feeders began to concentrate
95
-------
amounts of phosphorus-32 and z1nc-65 within hours of its introduction and
reached their peak activities within a few days (Poneroy, Odra, Johannes.
and Roffinan, 1961). The amount of zinc-65 found in oysters and wjssels
along the Washington and Oregon coasts appeared to be directly related to
the amount available in the water in which they live.
Mussels located 100 miles from the mouth of the Columbia River (which
contains effluents -from the nuclear reactor at Hanford) contained one-tenth
of the amount of zinc-65 found in mussels at the mouth of the river (Watson,
Davis and Hanson, 1961). Actual concentrations found in mussels and clams
at various locations were:
Cone, (uuc/gm wet wt) Year
Species
Place
Coos Bay, Ore
200 mi*
Boiler Bay, Ore
100 mi
Seaside, Ore
12 mi.
Ilwaco, Wash.
0 mi.
Long Beach, Mash
8 ml
Wlllapa, Wash.
36 mi
Kelaloch, Wash
95 mi.
Dungeness, Wash.
250 mi
* miles from river mouth
mussels
mussels
oysters
razor clams
mussels
mussels
razor clams
razor clams -
mussels
mussels
mussels
razor clams
razor clams
razor clams
oysters
oysters
oysters
mussels
razor clams
mussels
oysters
3
2
3
1
8
36
22
15
29
100
148
11
19
26
42
33
34
10
5
2
4
1959
1950
1960
1950
1959
1959
1959
1960
1957
1959
1960
1959
1959
1960
1957
1959
1960
1959
1959
1959
1959
96
-------
Jones (1960) found that the shell of the mussel could accumulate.
much rutheniin (about 160 muc/gm wet weight in 20 days); in the same
time, the concentrations in the digestive gland, flesh, and foot were 30,
15, and 10 muc/gm wet weight, respectively. When placed in fresh sea water,
the shell lost 50 per cent of Its ruthenium-106 concentration in 24 hours,
but the flesh lost less than 5 per cent. In 7 days of fresh sea water, the
shell had lost 60 per cent and the flesh 20 per cent.
The average gross beta activity for five species of mollusks from
Fisher's Island Sound, Connecticut were reported by Hatfield, Skauen, and
Rankin (1963) as follows:
Average gross beta activity (uuc/gm ash)
Sampling Areas
Species AB CDEG H In Is
Crassostrea virginica 62 74 90 50 61
Mercenaria mercenarla 82.5 93 • 87 95.5 85.4
My til us eduTTT87 106
ModTbTilslemissus 66 81 103
Laminaria"agardlvri - 303 289 277
Bay scallops, Pecten irradiensf, accumulated radioactivity on their shells,
in the liquor drained from the meat when shucked, and 1n the body mass.
In 3 days the adductor muscle concentrated radioactivity to about ten times
the amount found 1n surrounding water, and the body mass had accumulated
20 times that amount (Rice, Baptist, and Price, 1964). Strontium-90
apparently does not concentrate in the soft tissues of oysters, clams, and
scallops, but rather on the shell. Cesium-137 was accumulated to high levels
by the soft tissues, with the highest concentration being reached 1n the muscles.
97
-------
Clams concentrated cesium-137 to a greater extent than oysters, but scallops
probably represent more of hazard to man, since we eat only their adductor
muscle which is very high in radionuclide concentration (Chipman, 1959).
These results are backed up by Price (1962). Cesium fed to clams through
a culture of Nitzschia closterium was accumulated to a maximum level after
20 days with 23 per cent of that made available being accumulated. Shellsf
contained the highest level of activity, then meats, then liquors.
Radiation effects on oysters and clams were also studied by Price.
Animals were irradiated with a 350,000 r/hour cobalt-60 source. The
LD50 for clams and oysters were:
Organism Time (days) LD^o (r).
Clams
Oysters
5.5
4.5
fr.5-
25.5
38.5.
26
34
36.5
35
40
48
— uw
186,656
163,324
-tS9099?
H68600
930-238
186,656
93,328
46,664
23,332
11,666
5,833
According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Counercial
Fisheries, Radiobiological Laboratory in Beaufort, North Carolina (1966),
scallops are a much more sensitive Indicator of radioactive fallout than
are oysters. They are capable of concentrating 100 times as much manganese-54
as oysters are of concentrating zinc-65. Concentrations of manganese-54
i
in bay scallops collected near Beaufort, N.C., were:
98
-------
Samples M5^ (pc/gm) Hn54 (pc/anlnal)
Kidneys 20.8±5.3 13.1*3.6
Liquid 0.28*0.22 1.81 0.98
Mantle 0.25*0.15 0.82i'0.32
Gonads 0.44!o.30 1.0:0.50
6111s 0.4810.27 1.6±0.89
Muscle 0.8310.36 5.513.0
Visceral mass 1.410.75 3.812.2
Kidneys 197*40 49132
Kidneys 128135 52121
Clams 1n 50 uc of zlnc-65 per 200 liters of sea water concentrated zinc 179
times the water concentration in 272 days; clams in a concentration of 100 uc
zinc-65 in 200 liters of sea water concentrated the zinc 158 times that of
the water concentration.
White shrimp Penaeus duorarum (sic) were found- to accumulate low levels
of radioactivity from a fission product mixture in sea water. Highest
levels were found in the exoskeleton, then the head and viscera, and finally
in the muscle (Rice, Baptist, and Price, 1964). Euphausia pad f ice,
a filter-f ceding^ herbivorous,, pi anktonic crustacean situated on the second
trophic level of the marine food web, was determined to contain less -chromium-Si
but more zinc-65 (400 total counts), cerii*n-141fl ruthenium- 103, zirconium-
nirob1um-95 than phy topi ankton in the first trophic level, indicating that
particulate radionuclides are plekedup both directly by euphausiids or by
adsorption to particles which are eaten by the euphausiid (Osterberg, Pearcy,
and Curl, 1964). Osterberg (1962) maintained that because euphausiids are
effective concentrators of most radionuclides, they would make good Indicators
for measuring radioactive fallout. He also used them as indicators for
measuring Columbia River water off the coast of Oregon (Osterberg, Pattullo,
and Pearcy, 1964). Because of wastes from the Hanford nuclear reactor,
99
-------
water in the river 1s high 1n z1nc-65 and because Euphausia concentrates
z1nc-65, 1t made a good Indicator of the presence of this water -in the Pacific
Ocean. Average values of z1nc-65 in euphausiids at different t'mss of the
year at stations off the Oregon coast ware:
Concentration zinc-65 (ps/grn dry v.*3ight)
Date Astoria Newport Coos Bay Breedings
July-August 1961 43 74 31
NovaTiber 1961 21 22 20
January 1962 13 16 8
March-April 1962 57 12 8
July-August 1962 16 34 23 10
An iodine-131 solution containing 17.34 uc injected into the stomachs
of 28 blue crabs gave the following percentage distribution 1n various
tissues (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
Radioblological Laboratory, Beaufort, North Carolina, 1966):
Time(days) Radioactivity (%)
Gills Stomach Shell Gonads Muscle Hepato-pancreas Blood
2 53.4 20.8 13.3 1.7 1.2 5.7 '..3«9
4 42.9 34.6 12.6 2.7 2.1 2.4 2.6
6 46.7 30.8 11.3 5.7 2.8 2.4 1.6
8 54.8 27.4 12.4 2.0 1.9 1.7 0.8
10 49.9 33.2 11.1 0.4 3.6 1.5 0.3
13 64.7 20.2 9.1 0.7 2.6 2.4 8.3
It was noted that the translocatlon of the iodine was about the same on
the 13th day as on the second day.
A group of Artesnia salina nauplii ware irradiated with 10,000 r from
a cobalt-60 source. Respiration was Increased, but not significantly.
The respiration of female adults was Increased significantly by a similar
dose, but two other-doses of 4000 and 20,000 r had negligible effects.
100
-------
With males, respiration decreased as the radiation dose increased. (U.S.
F1sh and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Ccraercial Fisheries Radiobiolcgical
Laboratory, Beaufort, N.C., 1966).
Concentrations of various ganana emitters were found 1n Dungeness crabs
(Cancer magister) off the Washington-Oregon Coast as follows (Watson,
Davis and Hanson, 1963):
pc/gm std dry weight
Location Year Zn65 Cr*l Ru103-Rul06 Zr95.Nb95 ce^l-Ce
Ilwaco, Wash. 1959 76 21 66 2.5 0 0.75
Willapa Bay Wash. 1960 36 5.4 2.6 0 6.9 0.20
Bryan (1963) reported the accumulation and concentration factor of
radioactive cesium in the shrimp, Squill a desmaresti. as follows:
Tissue Cone, factor; Cs137
Plasma 1.4
Abdominal muscle 19;4
Raptorial lim muscle 19.8
Gut and digestive gland 22.0
Whole animal concentration factors of cesium-137 in the isopods Sphaeroma
serratum .and As ell us aguatus averaged 7.7 and 64.5, respectively. The one-
day and 7-day uptake of cesium-137 by lobsters could be found, according
to Morgan (1964), by the following equations:
7 day uptake = 4.8 (wt of lobster) 0.79 x (water cone)
1 day uptake * 0.90 (wt of lobster) 0.76 x (water cone)
Fedorova (1963) found that the eggs and larvae of Coregonus lavaretus
1 udoga accumulated strontiisn-90 from water and that the lower the-radioactivity
of the water, the greater the accumulation of strontium.
101
-------
Retention of cerlum-144 by the copepod Tigriopus califcm-icus was reported
by Chipmen (1959) as follows:
Days Activity (cpm/copspod) Per cant n.rnalrilng
-0 :7S03 100
1 227 3.2
2 123 1.7
Because the salt marsh fish Fundulus. heteroclitus (mununichog) and
Mugil cophalus (striped mullet) are detritus feeders, their uptake of
phosphorus-32 Introduced Into a salt marsh was very rapid (Pcrcaroy, Odim,
Johannes, and Roffman, 1966). Lantern fish (Lampanyctus leucopsarus)
occupy the third trophic level of the marine food web off the Oregon coast
and feed on euphausiids, calanold copepodsB and amphipods. Although they
accumulated only low levels of cerium-141, chromiisn-5Vrutheniwr!-103,
zirconlum-95, and potass1um-40; their concentrations of zinc-S5 ware very
high (35200 total counts). Zinc-65 was the most conspicuous gcraa emitter
In both Lsmpanyctus leucopsarus and the carid prawn, Pasiphasa paclfica
O2300 total counts), also accupying the third trophic level (Ostetfberg,
Pearcy, and Curl, 1964).
Croaker (Micropogon undulatus) liransrsed in sea water containing a
fission-product mixture, acosnulated radioactivity rapidly at first,
concentrating large amounts in their Internal organs. Bones increased
gradually in radioactivity, and accounted for much of the radioactivity which
was retained (Rich, Baptish and Price, 1964). Pinfish (Lagodon rhoniboides)
were exposed to 2000r. Following Irradiation the number of erythrocytes In
irradiated fish decreased, then returned to normal after three weeks.
Seven days after exposure a few cells showed stained areas in the cytoplasm,
102
-------
resembling taature reticulated red blood cells. On the 34th day after
exposures, all red cells showed' retlctrta. It was postulated that this might
have been an over-compensation for radiation Injury or death of all circulating
erythrocytes and 'their replacement by immature cells. Leucocytes showed an
teedtate reaction .to the irradiation. Six hoars after exposureD tha number
of leucocytes peaked "at 179000/sroi30 then decreased to a lev/ of 2000 /kmr
on the third day. By the 21st dayc the number increased to 14,,000/nun3 and
then decreased again to 2000/nsn3. Thrombocytes decreased linearly from the
first to the seventh days after exposure,, fluctuated wildlys then increased
to control levels (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,, Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries Radiobiological Laboratory0 Beaufort, 'N.C. 1966).
Studies at the same laboratory gave the following LD50 values for the
following marine fish:
LDgn (R)
Organism No. animals Temp(°C) Days after irradiation
15 30 30 40 50
Juventle muumichog 280 21 1650 1220 1120 1075 1075
(Fyndulus heteroclitus)
juvenTte~s"triped mutTet 105 20 2750 2110 1450
^sfTa^al^mojarra 385 22 3750 3650 3500 2500 157£
(Eucinostomus sp.)
PosFlarvaTplnfish 410 17 4500 4075 3000 2375 225C
(Uqodon rhomboides)
tePFaFvaOFfanTTc 160 15 3625 1650 1050 925 -
croaker
(Micropoqon undulatus) „ „.
PosFTarvaT Southern " 105 14 8400 8000 5550 3075 192!
flounder
(Parallcfchys. 1 ethos tigma)
103
-------
Mauchline and Taylor (1964) found a good correlation between the amount
of beta activity In the effluent from the Windscale Works of the United Kingdom
Atomic Energy Authority and resulting levels in the guts of thornback rays,
Raia clavata. A comparison of the concentration of beta activity in different
organs of rays from the pipeline area and areas away from the pipeline gave
the following results:
Gross B activity (uuc/gm wet weight)
Pipeline Off Duddon Two Feet Bank
Organ end area Estuary Work'ingtOn (Salway)
Cartilage
Flesh
Skin
Liver
Pancreas
Gonad
Stomach
Hindgut Wall
The accumulation and retention of cesium-137 in four species of marine
fishes - postlarval flounder, Paralichthys dentatus; at!antic croaker,
Micropogon undulatus; blue fish, Pomatomus saltatrix; and the little tuna,
Euthymmus alleratus - was studied by Baptist and Price (1962). In
flounder8 the rate of accumulation was uniform for the first 30 days, then
leveled off at a concentration factor of 9 which increased to 11 when weight
increase of fish slowed down. Croaker accumulated low (0.005 uc/ml) con-
centrations of ceslum-137 1n the muscle, liver, heart, and spleen after 29 days,
the radioactivity of menhaden after feeding on radioactive phytoplankton
cells was recorded as follows (Chipman, 1959):
7
47
91
18
27
..
26
..
3
2
11
5
3
3
2
2
4
1.3
1.5
2.5
2
-
3
3
3
4
3
4
4
9
3
2
104
-------
Per cent Dose
Digestive tract
Gills and contents Remainder of fish Total
ftlliW \ 1 • • «* J
0 •
V
2
4
8
16
32
64
128
0*64- '
0.05
1.13
0.06
0.08
0.02
0.02
0.01
92.39
80.09
21.15
7.99
8.50
5.23
1.48
0.05
0.76
1.00
0.53
0.34
0.56
0.22
0.26
0.25
33.79
81.14
22.81
8.39
9.14
5.47
U76
0.31
Repeated dally doses of mixed fission products to fish resulted 1n
marked concentration of stront1um-90 in bones and scales and a gradual
accumulation of cesltm-137 1n body rayscles. Ceriuni-144 concentrated rapidly
In the liver of croakers but Its ultimate greatest concentration was 1n the
bone (Chipman, 1959).
Artercila salina nauplii which had been kept In water containing 0.001 uc/ml
z1nc-65 were fed to three species of flounder-Para!ichthys dantetus, P..
albigutta, and P. 1ethostigma. It was found that fish obtaining z1nc-65
from food contained 1.6 times more zinc-65 than fish obtaining 1t fron water
only. Fish exposed to z1nc-65 in both food and water had'concentrctions
approximately equal to the sum of the two sources individually. Doubling the
amount of zinc in the water increased the rate of accumulation so that fish
1n water of the high concentration reached the same level of activity as fish
In the lower concentration in half the tirca (Moss, 1964).
Teropleton (1966) reported the LD5Q for plaice, Pleuronoctes platessa.
as 1850. Experiments on the effect of radiation 'on plaice eggs was
reported as follows:
105
-------
Total dose
rads/iednys
10-3,
4 x 10-3
0.023
2.3
230.0
No. of eggs
933
1301
883
985
1297
Percent
hatcJisd
73.4
72.8
63.6
72.8
69.5
?
r
mm
0.12
20.G4*
o.n
4.32*
Abnormal
1 GFvae
6.2
6.4
2.3
3.9
1.5
Treatrcant
Control, 10"9 uc/ml
10-7 uc/ml
10-5 uc/ml
TO"3 uc/ml
10-« uc/ml
* highly significant
Eggs were Irradiated at 0.5, 6.2 , 18.7, and 81 per cent of Incubation;
results Indicated that eggs in the early developmental stage (0.5 par cent)
were more resistant than eggs mow fully devsloped (Tempi eton9 1956).
Uptake of ruthenium-! 06 by various organs of plaice (Plem'or.actes
indicated that the intestine and gut contents of fish taken
near an outfall for radioactive effluent from Sell afield, England contained
about 10 tiir.es as much radioactivity as other organs and flesh (Jones. 1960).
The uptake by fish of radioactivity fron fission products near Eniwetock
Provirvg Ground was reported by Lovraan (1963):
Per cent Radioactivity
Flying Fish
White muscle Liver 'White muscle HLTverDark
A B C D A B
Ruthenium zlrconitsn trace trace 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Barium-140; lanthanum- 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cesiim-137; bar1wn-l37m 0.0 0.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cobalt-57,58,60 10.0 8.7 0.9 2.5 0.0 2.3 1.1 2.1
Iron 55,59 31.3 81.3 5.8 8.1 25.5 15.0 12.4 9.7
Z1nc-65 58.8 9.9 91.9 89.0 74.5 82U6 86.3 88.0
Manganese-54 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.2
Total radioactivity 2.2 1.1 3.3 1.2 3.6 2.0 5.3 9.2
10' 106 fc ^ ,V
106
-------
Accumulation of gairzna emitters by fish near the mouth of tha Columbia
River yas reported by Watson, Davis, and Hanson (1963) as follows:
fiancna emitters (pc/grn std. dry nalght)
Species location ; Year Zn^ CrU Ru^-Rn106 Zn»5-Nb95 Ce^l-
Starry flounder Ilwaco, 1959 69 0 1.5 0.55 0 0.35
(Platichthys Wash.
stellatusT
Chinook salmon Ilwaco, 1959 62 4.9 0 0 00
(Oncorhynchus Wash.
eshawytscha.
The relationship of body weight and one-end seven-day uptakes of
ceslum-134 by plaice was determined by Morgan (1964) in the following equations:
1-day uptake = 0.23 (wt. of plaice) °»76 x (water cone)
14-day uptake = 2.8 (wt. of plaice) °'78 x (water cone)
SURFACE ACTIVE AGENTS
The effects of synthetic detergents on kelp, Macrocystis pryrifera,
were studied by North (1964). Both anionlc (SDS) and cationic (Zephiran
chloride) detergents were used. Their effects on the photosynthetic
capacity of young kelp blades ware reported as follows:
Incubation Time Percent initial
Incubation fluid (days) photosvnthic capacity
Control sea water 1
5
SDS'llil9/1 ' I (high ntor temp.)
SDS, 10 mg/1 1 2*
5 9
Zephiran chloride, 1 rag/1 1 9^
Zephiran chloride, 10 mg/1 1 -12.5 (green and flaccid)
K 5 blades disintegrating
107
-------
Kelp blades and growing points were rapidly injured by 2 end 5 ra
ABS detergent, but not at 0.5 mg/1. At concentrations bctwsen 0.5 and 1.5 mg/1
a 50 per cent inactlvatlon of kelp photosynthesis could be expected.
Three stages in the larval development of clems (KigrcG'narla ir.jrca.iarla)
and oysters (Crassostrea vlrglnlcarfare tested in concentrations of
synthetic surfactants of 0.25, 0.50, 1.00 ,2.50, 5.00, and 10.0 mg/1 for
10 to 12 days (Hidu, 1965). Mean concentrations affecting larval growth and
survival were as follows:
Type surfactant
Concentration (mg/1 active ingredient)
An ionic
Alkyl Aryl Sulfonata
Alkyl Sulfate
Cationic
Nonionic
Forall surfactants
Concentrations of
Clams
1.55
1.22
0.34
2.66
1.44
Oysters
0.76
1f\^
.07
0.25
2.00
1.02
synthetic surfactants affecting a 50 per cent reduction
in larval development were:
Test compound
Anionic
Alkyl Aryl Sulfonate
AAS-1
AAS-2
AAS-3
Alkyl sulfate
AS-1
Cationic
C-l
C-2
Nonionic
N-l
N-2
Active
Clams
5.83
0.94
1.03
0.47
1.27
0.0085
0.77
1.75
Ingredient (mg/1)
Oysters
1.63
0.27
0.39
0.37
0.49
0.09
0.86
1.60
-108
-------
Experiments with the synthetic detergent Tida (30.3 par cent A3S)
in seawater on eels (Anguilla rostrafia). mtcrarichogs (Fundulus hate'.-oclltus).
winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes ansricanus). mullet (nmgil cephalus)
and Atlantic silverside (Menidia menidia) gave the following results (Eisler,
1965):
LC
Total No. Fish 24 hrs 24 hrs 96 hrs.
Mixnichog
Mullet
Flounder
Eel
Silverside
60
40
20
60
25
23.5
12.0
12.0
8.2
7.2
23.5
10.1
10.0
8.2
7.2
22.5
10.1
8.2
7.5
7.0
A concentration of 5.4 mg/1 was required to kill 25 per cent of a
population of silversides in 96 hours; 190 mg/1 synthetic detergent was
required for mionichogs. Mtaranlchogs exposed for 150 days to 10 mg/1 synthetic
detergent were not significantly effected. Three soaps, L,I and D, purchased
at a supermarket,were tested on three of the above species with the following
results (Eisler and Deuel, 1965):
Concentrations in tng/1
24 hrs 96 hrs
Soap
•^••••^•a
D
I
L
L
I
h*
L
Species
Total
i rv
i r%
i P>
No. Fish LDp£ LJkQ. LUjs. LUgg. uJga. "Lfr
miffiunichogs
misrjnichogs
micranichogs
mununichogs
mullet ;
silverside
42
42
150
70
30
70
1500
625
3000
1260
1520
1120
1780
750
3000
1530
2150
1420
2150
875
3000
1820
2620
1700
1080
625
875
1190
525
600
1360
750
1540
1450
750
810
1640
875
2340
1780
900
1120
Concentrations of alkyl benzene sulfonate mixture containing 54.8 per
cent ABS affected the feeding behavior of the flagfish Jordanella floridae
109
-------
in four days, even at the lov;ast concentration tested of 10 mg/1. Fish in
solutions containing 65 mg/1 of the mixture left worms uneaten for 7 hours
after feeding, while fish in solutions containing 56 mg/1 had eaten all of
the worms by this time.
The specific effect of ABS is to inhibit the input of sensory •information
by which the fish distinguishes palatable (edible) and unpalatable (inedible)
material. When the olfactory epithelium is damaged the inability to taste
food makes the fish spit it out, take it in again, and spit it out.
Fish subjected to ABS will eventually eat the worms, but the time required
for consumption varied with the concentrations (Foster, Scheir and Calms,
/
1966).
110
------- |