EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS IN THE

             MARINE ENVIRONMENT


                 Compiled by

              Virginia L. Sharp


                  Edited by

               David R. Mlnard
       U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
FEDERAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL ADMINISTRATION
          PACIFIC SOUTHWEST REGION

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                           TABLE OF CONTENTS

                                                                       PAGE

  I.   INTRODUCTION                                                        1

       Background                                                         1
       Purpose  and  Scope                                                  2
       Authority                                                          3
       Acknowledgements                                                   3

 II.   ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS                                               4

       Temperature                                                        4
          Lethal Tolerance Levels                                         4
          Responses to Non-lethal Temperature  Changes                     8
       Dissolved Oxygen                                                   14
       Salinity                                                          18
       pH                                                                26
       Turbidity and Siltation                                           27
       General  Biological  Effects of Existing  Marine Outfalls             29

III.   TOXIC MATERIALS '                                                   36

       Pesticides                                                         36
          Acute toxicity                                                  36
          Chronic  toxicity                                               53
       Dissolved Gases                                                   64
          Ammonia                                                         64
          Carbon Dioxide                                                  68
       Heavy Metals                                                      69
          Copper                                                         69
          Chromium                                                       73
          Zinc                                                           75
          Iron                                                           77
       Phenolic Substances                                               77
       Petroleum Wastes                                                   80
       Sulfides                                                          84
       Cyanides                                                          87
       Halogens                                                          89
       Radioactive Substances                                            90
       Surface Active Agents                                            107

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I.  INTRODUCTION
Background
     In developing recommendations for disposal  of wastes  from  the  San
Francisco Bay and Delta area, the San Francisco  Bay-Delta  Water Quality
Control Program made an appraisal of the ocean as a possible receiving
area.  An .Important part of the appraisal included a search of  the  literature
on the effects of toxicants and other environmental factors on.-fctoe  marine
biota.
     The most cursory examination will reveal that until recently the number
of such studies has been few when compared with  similar work perfomed 1n
the fresh water environment.  Two reasons for this disparity have been 1) a
commonly held assumption that contamination of the marine environment and the
subsequent effects on biological populations would be unlikely because of
the dilution provided by the large volume of receiving water, and 2) the
difficulties and cost Involved 1n conceiving, executing and evaluating quanti-
tative studies In both the laboratory and field.  The problems Inherent
In a laboratory study stem primarily from the complex nature of sea water,
the presence of natural contaminants, the complexity of the ecosystems
occurring In various environmental situations, and the many environmental
factors which must be controlled; while  those encountered 1n evaluating
field  data are related mainly to the uncertain influences of uncontrollable
environmental factors.
     Fortunately the great Interest  1n  the marine environment  during the
last decade and the concern which developed  over the present and potential
damages  to It changed the traditional  views.   The world ocean 1s  no longer
regarded as an  Infinite sink and, despite the technical difficulties, '
                                    1

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efforts are being made to understand how toxic materials affect the complex
marine ecosystem.  As a result a considerable amount of Information has
emerged on the subject.
Purpose and Scope
     "On July 6, 1967,j)the Director of the Bay-Delta Program requested the
assistance of the Federal Mater Pollution Control Administration In searching
out and summarizing material on the effects of certain environmental factors
       •
and pollutants.  Included with the^request was a 11st of subjects arranged
1n priority of Importance with respect to 1) presence 1n a combined waste
stream and 2) potential effects on the biota.  The effects of productivity
stimulants was not Included since this subject had been assigned to a consulting
firm.  The request specified a deadline date of October 1, 1967,x,4n order
to conform with the Program timetable.
     The form of presentation agreed upon was a summarized'description of
the research conditions and results, similar to that found 1n Chapter VI
in the 2nd edition of Water Quality Criteria (McKee and Wolf, 1963).  This
report Includes only Information that has not'been presented 1n Water Quality
Cr1teriat and may therefore be regarded as a non-official supplement to 1t.
     Essentially all of the Information presented herein was forwarded to
the Bay-Delta Program in rough draft form shortly after the deadline date.
Since subsequent revisions have not supplemented the subject matter, this
report reflects work completed in the area of marine pollution only through
1967.-

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Authority
     Authority for the preparation of this report  Is  provided  1n  Section  5(b)
of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1965, as  amended.
Acknowledgements
     Acknowledgments should be made to all the primary  researchers  working  on
the many facets of marine pollution who were kind enough to supply  data
from their own projects and Information concerning the  work of others.   A
special acknowledgment and thanks should also be made to Patricia Powell,
California Department of Fish and Game Library, Terminal Island, California,
for her help  1n obtaining artlcJes not 1n general circulation.

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II.  ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
TEMPERATURE
     One of the most Important physical  factors  in  the marine environment
is ambient temperature.  Naylor (1965)  suggests  that  1n  artificially heated
areas several types of effects on local  organisms could  be  observed:
1)  Cold water stenothermal forms could be eliminated or made incapable
of breeding 1n a heated location and could survive, therefore,  only by
recruitment from    outside areas; 2) more eurythermal  species  might become
warm-adapted by acclimation and survive to breed, evolving  perhaps  Into
separate races; and 3) immigrant warm-water stenothermal species could be
encouraged to breed there.  In these ways, the entire biological complexion
of an area could be changed.
Lethal Tolerance Levels
      •
     Unacclimated adult western purple sea urchins, Strongylocentrotus
purpuratus (Farmanfama1-ah-an-d-Gtes*7~l-963), ^introduced into water of 25°C
(77°F) became Ump In  four hours and died within 24 hours I   Sea urchins
acclimated for 10 days in  running seawater at 20°C died in three days 1n
water of 25°C.  Specimens  kept at 23.5°C  (74.3°F), however, remained normal,
which Indicates a rather sharp upper lethal tolerance limit between 23.5°C
and  25°C.
     Evans (1948) observed behavioral changes in eleven species of littoral
mollusks at  temperatures increasing at  a  constant  rate  until the thermal
death temperature was  reached.   He recorded the  thermal death  points as follows:

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    Species

    Patella vulqata
    Patella depressa
    Patella athlotica
    L i t to r ina littorca
    Littorina littoral is
    Littonna rudis
Temp. (°C)
                                           Species
   42.0
   41.G
   40.2
   46.0
   44.3
   45.0
                                           Littornia  neritoides
                                           Gibbula  umbicalis
                                           Gihbula  cineraria
                                           Osilinus lincatus
                                           (iucella  lapillus
Temp. (°C)

   46.3
   42.1
   36.2
   45.0
   40.0
These same species, when exposed to given temperatures,  had  the  following

survival times:

Species
Littnrina neritoidos
Littorina littorea
Osilinus lincatus
Littorina rudis
LUtorina littoral is
PateTia denressa
Patella vulgata
'emp. Survival
°C) time (hrs)
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
35
14 - 15
VI. 5-1 2
6 - 6.5
9.5-10
4.25-4.5
3.5-3.75
2.75-3.0
10
                                              Species


                                              Gibbula trnibicalis  40
                                                                 35
                                              Patella anthletica  40
                                                                 35
                                              llucella lapillus    4C
                                                                 35
                                                                 30
                                              Gibbula cineraria  40
                                                                 35
                                                                 31
                                    Temn.  Survival
                                    (°C)  time  (hrs)
                                          0.75-1
                                          10
                                          0.75-1
                                          8.5-9
                                          0 - 0.25
                                          2.5-3
                                          8
                                          0
                                          1.25-1.5
                                          5 - 5.25
     These littoral mollusks show quite high resistance to high  temperatures,

probably because they are intertidal  in their habitat and are frequently

exposed for periods of time to the atmosphere.

     Other mollusks, which are not intertidal,  cannot tolerate such  extremes

of temperature.  Scallops (Placopecten magcllanicus)  taken from  a  depth of

40 fathoms (73 m) in southeastern Passamaquoddy Bay on the Atlantic  coast

of Canada, and acclimated at 5.2, 10.5, and 15.5°C, registered 50  per

cent kills at 22.1, 22.9, and 24°C, respectively (Dickie, 1958).   The

temperature to which these scallops v/ere most frequently exposed and at which

they g-rew most vigorously and spawned successfully was 10°C.   A  rise or

fall of 5°C in the acclimation temperature produced a corresponding  change in

the lethal temperature of 1.0°C; for any acclimation temperature  50 per cent

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of  a group of scallops could be killed in 120 hours (5 days) by temperatures
about 0.3°C lower than the 48-hr TLm.  Dickie (1963) used the above findings
plus knov/ledgo of the hydrography of the southwestern Gulf of St.  Lawrence
to  explain formerly unexplainable mass mortalities of scallops in  this area.
The mortalities occurred only in summer or in early autumn and were most
serious and sudden in waters where wind-induced oscillations in the level
of  the thermocline might suddenly expose scallops to water of lethally high
temperatures.
     Another instance of natural kills due to sudden warming of ambient
water temperature was studied by Colton (1959).  In May 1956 he discovered
decomposed larvae of ycllowtail flounder (Limanda forrugim'a), whiting
(Merluccius bilinearis), and blennies in plankton net hauls to the southern
edge of Georges Bank, where contrasting tongues  of Maine coastal  and Gulf
Stream water occur.   He postulated that these recently hatched larvae had
been exposed to a greater than 20°F increase in temperature (46 -C8°F) over
a period of less than 24 hours and that this sudden change not only occurred
at a faster rate'than the stenothemiic larvae were able to adapt to, but
also far exceeded their temperature tolerance limit.
     When the effect of temperature on the survival of the American lobster
(Homarus americanus) was studied (McLeese, 1956), it was found that lobsters
acclimated in 23.0°C water for  10 to 24 days died in     8 to 72  hours when
exposed to water of 30°C.  Lobsters acclimated at 9°C had a 48-hr.  TLm of
26.5°C.
     Leighton, Nusbaum, and Mulford (1967) found the upper le-thal  temperatures
for the following species:

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Species                             Upper lethal  Temp.      Time
Sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus     85°F (29.5°C)          1  hour
   franciscanus and S.  purpuratum   7b°F (24.5°C)         24  hour
Havy top snail  (Astrea  undosa)9b°F (35°C)             1  hour
Smooth brov/n turban snaTT
   (Horn si a norrisii)               94°F (34.5°C)          1  hour
Green ahalone (Haliotis fulgens)     95°F (35°C)             1  hour
Northern Kelp crab (Pugetlia
   producta)        ~"90.50F (32.5°C)         1  hour
Opal eye (Girella nigri cans)         95°F (35°C)             1  hour
Tidepool sculpin TClinocottus
   analis)                          88°F (31.0°C)          1  hour
     The resistance and acclimation of marine fishes to temperature changes
was studied by Doudoroff (1942, 1945).  He obtained  the following results:
                               Acclimation   Acclimation        Tin (°C)
Species                            Temp.         Time      24     48     72
Groenfish. Girella nigricans       20°C                                  31.4°C
  (Opal eye)              •          28                                    31.4
                                   12                                    28.7
Killifish. Fundulus parvipinnus    14        58-70 days    32.3
                                   20        30-51
                                   28        57-63                36.9
Topsmelt, Atherinops affinis       18.5                    30.5
                                   30        2 days                31
     McCauley (1962) found that the prolarvae of the sea lamprey (Pctromyzon
marinus) was deformed by being bent at right angles  when developed in water
of 25°C and that sea lamprey eggs generally hatch over a 10°C range from
15-25°C.  Brawn (1960)  found that unaccliniated herring (Clupoa harpngus)
from 8 - 11°C Passamaquoddy Bay water had a 48-hour TLm of 19.5°C.
     Adult striped bass (Roccus saxatilis) were tolerant to abrupt ch'anges
between salt and fresh water at temperatures ranging from 45 - 80°F (Tagatz,
1961).  Juvenile'striped bass survived abrupt changes between salt and fresh
water at temperatures ranging from 55 - 70°F, but could not tolerate transfer

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from fresh water at these temperatures to salt water at  45°F.  Mortal-i
occurred to juvenile bass when they were changed from water  of 55°  to  1^  F
to water of 45°F.  Adult American shad (Alossa sapidissima)  could tolerate
a change from fresh to salt water with a 16°F temperature difference,'but
could not tolerate a 25°F change.  Juvenile shad tolerated abrupt transfer
from salt to fresh water over a temperature range from 45 -  70°F, but  could
                                                                •
not tolerate fresh-to-salt water changes at the same temperatures.   In tests  for
temperature tolerance only, juvenile bass mortalities occurred in all  trials
having a water temperature change of at least 7°F.
Responses to Non-lethal Temperature Changes
     Primary productivity in the York River Estuary increased  significantly
when the ambient water temperature increased by 10°C because of the discharge
of thermal effluents into the Lstuary.  But when the temperature increased
by 10 - 15°C, productivity significantly declined (Warriner and Brehmer,
1964).  In winter, maximum diversity of the benthic fauna was  found to occur
where the warmed water had the greatest influence, while in  summer  the maximum
diversity of species and numbers was found at the station farthest  removed
from the warm water outfall.  In February, a total of 70 species were  identified
in the Estuary, but in August only 17 were present, with an  equal reduction in
the numbers of individuals.
     Larvae of the saft-shelled clam (Mya arenaria) from Chesapeake Bay grew
more slowly at 11°C than at 14° or 28°C, while larvae from Boothbay Harbor,
Maine,all died after 14 days at 38°C (Stickney, 1964).  However, the growth
rate of the latter larvae increased with temperature increases from 8.6°
                                8

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to 23°C.  The final mean size of postlarval  Ponacus aztecus was found to
increase with temperature between 15° and 32.5°C, but decreased markedly
at 35°C (Zein-Cldin and Griffith, 1966).  Survival  rate, however, while increasing
between 15° and 20°C, dropped above 25°C, and 100 per cent mortality occurred
after 15 days at 35°C.
     The barnacle Balanus balanoidcs, kept at 15°C for one month, required four
months at 6°C and total darkness to produce egg masses; animals held at 15°C
for two months required another two months at 6°C and darkness to produce
egg masses (Barnes, 1963).  There appeared to be a critical temperature
near 10°C above which the animals would not reproduce.  Herring (Clupea
harengus)  eggs had poor survival at 5°C and took 21 days to hatch, whereas
at 14°C only seven days were required for hatching (Holliday, Baxter, and
Lasker, 1964).  A comparison of the development of four southern California
fishes revealed the following:

                                  Temperature reqin.reir.ents for;
Species                      Egg gastrulation  Egg hatching     flax, tolerance
California killifish
   (Fundulus parvipinnus)    12.9 - 37.7°C     16.6 - 28.5         	
Topsmelt
   (Atherinops affinis)      31.0 and below    26.8 and below   27 - 28.5
                                                                     i
California grunion
   (Leurosthes tonuis)       12.0 - 32.5       14.8 - 26.8      25.9 -  26.8
Mussel blenny
   (Hypsohlennius sp.)       12.0-26.8       12.0-26.8      15-16
     Kinne (1963) demonstrated that in the euryhaline desert pupfish (Cyprinodon
macularius), differences in the growth rate of the young hatched at temperatures

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ranging from 15-35°C did not necessarily persist as  the  young matured.
Indeed, initially slow-growing young hatched and held at 15-20°C  finally
surpassed in length initially fast-growing individuals hold at  25°,  30°,
and 35°C, ultimately reaching a greater final  length and age.   Lasker  showed
that the northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax) was at  an advantage  over  the
Pacific sardine (Sardinops caerulea) in California waters because the  eggs
of the former hatch earlier at lower temperatures (11-12°C) and develop a
functional jaw at these some low temperatures.  Sardine  larvae  on the  other
hand, cannot see or feed until 65-75 hours after hatching at their higher
optimal growth temperature of 16-17°C (Lasker, 1964).  Hence, the anchovies
can food at lower temperatures and earlier in the year than can the  sardines.
     The standard metabolic rate of young sockeye salmon was measured  to be
41t3.2mg02/kg/hr at 5°C and 196ll3ng02/kg/hr at 24°C (Brett, 1964).  Active
metabolism rose from 514l31mg02/kg/hr at 5°C to a maximum of 895t49mg02/kg/hr
at 15°C with some decrease at higher temperatures.  At temperatures  up to
15°C the active metabolic rates were ten to twelve times the standard  level
and the combined action of temperature and activity  elevated respiratory
metabolism by a factor of 22, equal to the influence of activity on  the
metabolic rate of many mammals.  The brain cholinesterase activity of  a group
of six southern Atlantic fish—Nassau grouper, Epinophclus striatus;
Holbrook's porgy, Diplodus holbrooki; spot snapper,  Lutianus synagris;
fantail filefish, Monocanthus spilosoma; tomato clownfish, Amphiprion  fronatus;
and anemone clownfish, Amphiprion percula—acclimated to a temperature of
                                                                      i
25°C fell significantly when the group was exposed to temperatures below 10°C.
                                   10

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The enzyme activity, of a group of northern  Atlantic  fish—killifish, fundulus
hcti'roclitus; northern blackfish, Tautoga onitis; goldfish,  Carassius auratus;
and northern stargazer, Astroscopus  guttatus—acclimatcd  at  15°C remained fairly
constant down to a temperature of 2°C (Caslow  and Iligrelli,  1964).  Killifish
acclimated at 30°C had a 40 per cent lower  chlolinesterase activity at 2G°C
than ki Hi fish acclimated at 18°C.
     Scallops placed -in water 20°C warmer than water to which  they were acclimated
became sluggish and produced mucus (Dickie, 1958).   Mucus production stopped,
however, after 12 hours and after 38-48 hours  the animals were behaving
normally.  These high, but non-lethal, temperatures  may have a debilitating
effect on the scallops and may, therefore,  hasten their death  from other
causes, i.e. predation (Dickie, 1963).  Halcrow (1963) found that 20°C was
beyond the thermal limit to which the marine copepod, Calanus  finmarchicus,
could physiologically adjust.
     An increase of about 5°F in Southampton Water,  England  resulted in
extension of the breeding season of  the marine isopod Linmoria and an
increase in the incidence of the shiowonn Teredo (Pannell, Johnson, and Raymont,
1962).  Smaller species of diatoms in the Ouse Estuary, Sussex (Stauroneis
                                                                        /
salina, fiitzschia closterium, and Havicula  spp.) had a greater surfacing
velocity than larger species (Tropodoneis vitrae and Pleurosigma spp.)
when the ambient water temperature rose from 5 to 15°C, but  at 20°C the
velocity of three of the species decreased  (Hopkins, 1963).  Rhode Island
hard clains (Moreenaria mercenaria) doubled  in  size when transferred to
Florida waters from Rhode Island waters; Chesapeake  Bay oysters spawned

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after one year in Florida waters  at  temperatures 5°C higher than those in which
the parent stock spawned (Butler, 19G5).   The  spawning period of the latter
increased fron three and one-half months  to  five months.  Laboratory studies
indicated that oyster spawning could be  initiated  by a 5° temperature rise
over a 30-day period.  However, southern  oysters transferred to more northern
waters failed to spawn.
     U.S. Fish and V/i-ldlifc Servtce  ('1966) found a direct relationship between
temperature and salinity on the development of blue crabs,  Callinectes
sapidus.  More than 70 per cent of megalops survived  in salinities  from 10-40
parts per thousand at 68°, 77°, and  8G°F, but at 59°F  survival  was only
10-50 per cent in 20-40 parts per thousand salinity.   At 59°F  and  10 parts
per thousand and at 68° and 5 parts  per thousand,  no megalops  survived  to
metamorphosis.  The duration of the  megalops stage was five days  at  86°F
                                                                     :
and 67 days at 59°F.
     Groenfish  (Opaleye)  (Girella nigricans) had a tendency to select a
temperature of about 26°C in a laboratory temperature  gradient of 14-32°C,  even
though they had been living in waters off the southern California coast of
14-16°C  (Doudoroff 1938).  Squire (1967) examined warm water outfall areas
                                                                         /
off the  coast of southern California and found that the temperature  of cooling
water discharge  into these areas  ranged from  12.5-22°F above that of water
at the  intake areas.   He  surmised that these  large volume discharges
 (1,187,400 gpm  and  1,236,000 gpm) into offshore waters could impede the
migration of  such marine  game  species as  bonita (Sarda chi!iensis)and
 barracuda  (Sphyraena argentea).

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     From 1957 through 1959 there was  an  unusual warming of  Pacific Ocean
water off the coast of the United States  and  Canada  (Tully,  Dodimead,  and
Tabnta, 1961  and Radovich, 1961).  A progressive intrusion of water warmer
than 6.5°C to a depth of 125-225 m northward  off the Canadian coast caused
anomalous sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus ncrki)  migrations in  1957  and  1953.
(Tully, Dodimcad, and Tabata, 1961).  Normally the per cent  of  salmon  approaching
                                                                        /
the Fraser River system by way of the  northern passages is about  6 per cent.
In 1957 it was 12 per cent and in 1958 at least 23 per cent; 76 per cent of
the fish appearing in the commercial troll  fishery off Vancouver  Island were
taken at the northern end.  Because of this wanning  off the  California
coast a number of warm-water species moved north of  their  usual ranges and were
caught in large numbers (Radovich, 1961).  In 1958,  23 species  were taken north
of their usual ranges; ten represented northern records.   In 1959, 26  species
were recorded north of their usual ranges and eleven species were new  records.
These latter included:
     liobula japanica - spinetail mobula
     Trachinotus rhodopus - grafftopsail  pompano
     Traclnnotus paitensis - Paloma pompano
     fiemramphus saltator - longfin halfbeak
     ficmatistius pectoral is - roosterfish
     Vonier declivifrons - Pacific moonfish
     Parathunnus sibi ~ bigeye tuna
     Kathetostoma averruncus - smooth  stargazer
     Carcharhinys improvisus - slender requiem shark
     Dasyatis violacea - pelagic stingray
     Taractes asper - pomfret
     Based on a comparison of annual sea  surface  temperatures off the  coast
of California and striped bass catch-pcr-effort,  Radovich  (1963)  theorized
that a cold-water barrier off the Golden  Gate retards the  seaward run  of
striped bass.  Such barriers do not exist on  the Atlantic  coast,  hence the
fish are able to make extensive coastal migrations and are  known  as surf fish.
                                  13

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DISSOLVED OXYGEN
     Galtsoff and Whipple (1931)  found that  the  oxygen  consumption  of the
oyster varied between 6.45 and 15.04 cc/hr/10 gr dry  weight  and  was not
influenced by the amount of dissolved oxygen in  the water until  the concentration
of the latter fell below 2.5 nig/1.   The Passamaquoddy Cay scallops  studied by
Dickie (1953) (sec section on temperature) were  more  sensitive  to  increased
temperatures with decreased dissolved oxygen concentrations.   Respiration
rates of some planktonic copepods from the northeastern coast of the United
States were measured (Raymont, 1959), with  the following results:
Species                      Temperature (°C)     Mean  respiratory rate
                                                   (ulOo/copepod/hr)
Tortan us discaudatus              15                    0.275
Contronages hamatus               15   '                 0.137
	'                            20                    0.172
Pseudocalanus minutus             15                    0.104
	20                    0.139
Eurytcmora herdmani               15                    0.104
   "20                    0.100
   E. herdmani (female)           20                    0.125
   E. hcrdnani (male)             20                    0.073
To.'iorg longicnrnis                15                    0.1 M
Contropngos tynicus               15                    0.157
i'lotridin TUcnns                   15                    0.317
     Cook and Boyd (1965) found the Gammarus oceanicus, if allowed to choose
between an anoxic situation (water into which nitrogen  was bubbled) and an
aerated situation (water into which oxygen  was bubbled) in a laboratory pre-
ference chamber, not only spent most of the  time (p>0.001) in the  aerated
region,  but also either ceased its exploratory excursions at the  boundary
zone between the aerated and anoxic sides of the chamber or significantly
(p>0.001) increased its velocity in the anoxic region (escape response) in
attempting to return to the aerated water.
                                  14

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     Lethal  oxygen concentrations were determined by lloff (1967)  for

winter flounder, common silverside and northern swell fish.   The experiments

were conducted with sets of two fish in glass jars,  with and without water

circulation.  The lethal oxygen concentrations were  recorded when one fish in

each jar died.  The following table was compiled from the mean  values found

from 14 observations of. each species:
Temp
Specios (°C)
Winter flounder 12.0
( Psoudopl e uronoctes 18.5
amoricanus) 25.0
Common silverside 12.0
(l-'ienidia menidia) 18.5
25.0
Northern swell fish 12.0
(Snhcroides maculatus) 18.5
"" 25.0
Av. Test
length (min)
1866
759
455
1926
646
341
1977
1010
509
Lethal oxygen
cone, (mg/1)
0.66
0.87
1.03
0.77
0.93
0.70
0.92
1.3G
     McLcese (1956) established the minimum oxygen levels which produced a

50% mortality among American lobsters (Homarus americanus) over a 48 hour

period.  Each value in the following table is the average of three observed

lethal levels under the same acclimation conditions:

     Acclimation conditions               Minimum lower lethal  level

     Temperature  Salinity
        (°C)       (0/00)                            (nig/1)

        25           30                               1.24
        25           25                               1.32
        25           20                               1.52
        15           30                               0.77
        15      '     25                               0.90
        15           20                               0.95
         5           30                               0.27
         5           25                               0.44
         5           20                               0.74
                                   15

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     Kalinina (1961) suggested that the following  "safe"  levels of dissolved
oxygon be recognized for young Black Sea fishes:   4 mg/1  for whiting  (Gadus
mcrlangus);  for other pelagic and benthic species, 5  mg/1  and 2.5-3  mg/1,
respectively, at water temperatures nf 9-10QC.   Oxygen starvation of  fingerling
pelagic and coastal species of the Black Sea occurred  at  2.5-3 nig/1 and  concentr-
ations below 2 mg/1 were lethal.   For fingerlings  of benthic species, oxygen
starvation occurred at concentrations below 1.5-2  mg/1, but the lethal oxygen
concentration was very low.
     Holliday, Baxter, and Lasker (19G4) measured  the  oxygen uptake of the
eggs and larvae of the herring, Clupea harennus, asXi/mg dry weight/hr  (Qo2)-
They found that the oxygen uptake of eggs during the hatching period  was
directly related to the state of activity of the eggs—anesthetized and
inactive eggs had mean QG^'S of 0.94 and 1.10,  respectively, while eggs
measured during hatching had a mean OQ,, of 5.21.   Anesthetized larvae had  a
0.02 of 2.0, slightly active and active larvae,  2.90 and 3.37, respectively,
but actively swimming larvae measured Qo2's Greater tlian  19-
     Oxygen uptakes by developing eggs and larvae  of Clupea harengus
from two different areas were found to be unaffected by varying salinities:
Rearing Salinity                        5 o/oo    15 o/oo    35 o/oo    50  l/oo
Mean Qo? of prehatch eggs (Baltic)       1.07      1.01     0.93     0.99
                          (Norwegian)    2.00      1.99     1.87     1.97
     Saunders (1963), studying the respiration  of the  Atlantic  cod  (Gadus
morhua), determined that small cod consumed oxygon at  a greater rate  than
did large cod (153 mg/kg/hr versus 92 mg/kg/hr for starved fish  and
229 mg/kg/hr versus 136 mg/kg/hr for fed fish).  He also found  that  the
rate of oxygen consumption increased more in large fish than  in  small fish
                                   16

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with temperature increases from 3 to 10°C;  between  10°  and  15°C,  the  oxygen
consumption rate in"small  cod leveled off,  but continued to rise  in large
ones.  When the oxygen level  was reduced, there was little  change in  the  rate
of oxyqen consumption, but the respiratory volume  (amount of water pumped
over gills per unit time)  increased markedly as the ambient oxygen level was
reduced from 10 mg/1 to 3'mg/l.  The respiratory volume of  smaller fish  increased
from 7.1 to 27.1 1/hr and that of larger fish from 18 to 90 1/hr. He suggested
that cod may be under increased stress at all dissolved oxygen levels below air
saturation because the oxygen  consumption at reduced levels does not increase
to  keep pace vath the increased metabolic cost of irrigating the gills.
     Postlarval flounders, Paralichthys 1ethostigma, withdrew from water of
low  oxygen concentration  in the following times:
     Oxygon concentration           Temperature        Total withdrawal  time
           mg/1                         TO                   (minutes)       •
           1.09                           6.1                      23
           1.03                          25.3                        7
           0.68                          14.4                       13
There was  no withdrawal in any  test until the water oxygen  level  was  reduced
to  3.7  ml/1 or  lower  (Deubler  and Posncr, 1963).
     Sturgeon  (Acipenser  guldenstadti) egg development at varying oxygen
concentrations  was studied by  Yurovitskii (1964).  He found egg mortality
rates of  13 and 100 per cent at dissolved oxygen concentrations of 5.5 and 3.5
mg/1, respectively, and water  temperature of 17°C.  Control eggs kept at 1.5  mg/1
had a mortality rate  of 12 per cent.  At the lower oxygen concentrations the
larvae  developed more slowly and gained weight less rapidly than controls.
                                       17

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Anatomical characteristics of embryos developing  at  5.5 mg/1  flowing
water were similar to those of embryos developing at 9.5 mg/1  in  still
water.  Yurovitskii concluded that 5.5 mg/1  was the  minimal oxygen  con-
centration for the normal development of sturgeon eggs.
     Reduction of dissolved oxygen concentrations from air saturation to
levels of 7, 6, 5, 4, and 3 mg/1 resulted In the reduction of maximum
sustained swimming speed of coho.salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) by 5, 8,,
13, 20 and 30 per cent, respectively (Davis, Foster, Warren,  and  Doudoroff,
1963).  The dissolved oxygen concentrations causing  a 50 per  cent
mortality to American shad (Alosa sapidisslma) were  found to  be dependent
on the average rate of decrease  (Tagatz, 1961).  Starting at  7 mg/1,
the following results were obtained:
Oxygen reduction               Cone, producing        Elapsed
rate  (mg/l/hr)                 50% mortality (mg/1)    time (hrs)
      1/9.5                         0.9                   57.5
      1/11                          0.9                   68.0
      1/3                           1.4                   17.0
      When the dissolved oxygen concentration was slowly lowered, shad
remained  schooled  until  1t reached 1.4 mg/1; when lowered rapidly, they
left  schools at 2.4 mg/1.  Juvenile  American shad had no mortality for 42
and 54 hours when  exposed to dissolved oxygen  concentration of 1.8-2.9 mg/1
and 3.0-3.8 mg/1.  respectively.
SALINITY
      Three  species of salmon  fry (coho—Oncorhynchus  kisutch; sockeye—
0. nerka; and  chum—0.  keta) were fed the same diet,  kept at  10°C, and
 the salinity was  varied to determine its effect  on  growth  (Canageratnam,
 1959).   Percentage increases  on initial  average  weights were  as  follows:
                                  18

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Species     Time(weeks)     Salinity (o/oo)     Per cent increase in weight
Co ho
5


10


5

10

5
5
0
6
1?
0
6
12
0
6 (35% survival)
0
G
G
30
77.2
83.1
155.3
215.1
251.2
421.5
192
117
320
336
120
166
Sockeye

Chum

Preference of different species of salmon fry for salinities of given
concentrations was found to vary with season (Mclnerney,  1964).   Chum  salmon
(Oncnrhynchus keta),  which migrate to sea during their first year,  show a
preference for fresh water in Hay, for 3 o/oo chlorine in water in June,
6 o/oo in July, 8 o/oo in August, and 10 o/oo in October.  Pink salmon
(0. gorbuscha).  which also migrate during their first year, showed  the
same order of preference, but reverted back to a freshwater preference in
November; the following March, they again developed a preference for more
saline water. Coho salmon (0. kisutch) fry, however, which usually migrate
to the sea as smolt after a year in fresh water, never showed a preference
for water of salinity greater than 3 o/oo chlorine during their first  year.
Spring salmon (0. tshawytscha) resembled pink salmon in their preference
sequence.  Sockeye (0. nerka) fry, which usually remain in freshwater  lakes
during their first year, showed two distinct preference peaks in f!ay--one
at 3 o/oo chlorine (similar to coho) and one at 14 o/oo chlorine (unique to
sockeye).  Two peak preferences were also present in June, but from  September
to December, the preference remained at about 3 o/oo chlorine.  In January,
a single preference peak appeared and was followed by an  orderly progression
                                    19

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of preferences, terminated by a preference for 18 o/oo  chlorine  in  August.
These peaks  seemed to be indicative of the migratory habits  of  these  various
salmon species.
     Bagger-man (1960) demonstrated the same pattern of response  to  salinity
changes for four of the above salmon species (chum, pink, sockeye,  and coho)
and noted also the correlation with migratory habits.
     Radtke and Turner (1967) proposed that high total  dissolved solids
concentrations block the spawning migrations of striped bass  up  the San
Joaquin River. Sampling of striped bass during spawning migration throughout
the disolved solids gradient in San Francisco Bay and Delta indicated a direct
relationship between catch and "US concentration at the time of sampling:
52b.ass/hr caught at high tide  (275 ppm TUS) compared with 2 bass/hr at low
tide (475 ppm  TDS).  The highest average catch was 24.6 bass/hr at 251-300 ppm.
A TDS concentration of 350 ppm seems  to be critical, although striped bass
eggs seem to be even more sensitive;  only G8 eggs were taken in 44 tows,
51 of the eggs from water with TDS concentration of  less than 15U ppm.  It
would appear that  striped bass require a lower TDS for spawning than for
upstream migration.
     Herring (Clupea harengus) 10.2-24.2 cm in length were found by Brawn
(1960) to be very  resistant  to water  of lowered  salinity and could withstand
salinities  down to 5 o/oo for  four weeks with only low mortality (15-PO per cent)
when tested between  4  and 8°C.   He  concluded that  short-term exposures to
low  salinity would be  unlikely to  have any  directly  adverse effects on herring
unless the  salinity  were  to  fall  below 5 o/oo.   Salinities of 6-8 o/oo were
found  to  have  an  inhibiting  effect  on the  activity of  sturgeon  sperm
 (Orabkina,  1962).  Experiments showed them  to be most  active in water with
a  salinity  of  2 o/oo.
                                    20

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     Studies on the larvae of menhaden,  Brovoortia  typrarmus,  indicated
that survival time at various salinities was  dependent on  temperature;
as temperature increased, so did survival  time  (U.S.  Fish  and  Wildlife
Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries  Biological  Laboratory, Beaufort,
North Carolina, 19G6a).  Actual  results  were  as follows:
     Survival tine (hours) of fish larvae acclimated  at 10°C
Tost
Salinity
Tenineraturc (°C)
2
3
4
5
6

2
3
4
5
6
4
4
7
7
13
Survival
4
6
4
7
8
0
.2
.2
.0
.8
.0
time
.5
.0
.5
.2
is
5
14.
33.
>96
>96
>96
of fi
15.
44.
26.
50.
96

2
0



sh
8
5
2
2

10 ~
27.5
59.0
>9G
>96
^•%
larvae
46.0
53.0
^•96
^96
^96
Tb
34.0
77.6
^96
>9G
>9G
fo/no^
20
25.
53.
^96
>9G
^>96
acclimatrd
26.8
56.0
>96
>96
^96
16.
51.
*?CJ^j
^ JQ
>96

0
2



at
2
2



25
21.
40.
>96
^96
^96
15°C
14.
27.
39.
>9G
^96

5
0




0
0
5


30
15.2
26.5
35.0
^"96
>96

10.2
10.5
14.0
48.0
>96
     Evidence1 suggests that yearly fluctuations in the abundance of!white
shrimp (Penaeus setiferus) may be related to changes in the salinity of
the shallow coastal waters of the Gulf of Mexico.   (U.S.  Fish and Wildlife
Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Galvcston,
Texas, 1966).  There appears to bo a negative relationship between the  August
and December catch of white shrimp from Louisiana  and the velocity of spring
water flows in the Mississippi River.  Juvenile brown shrimp, Ponaeus
aztocus,  concentrated in water salinities less than 10 o/oo, but as -they
grew larger were found distributed uniformly throughout the salinity gradient,
and the largest shrimp were found only in salinities between 20 and 30  o/oo.
Combinations of various salinities and temperatures gave the following  percentage
survivals of summer postlarvae of brown and white  shrimp:
                                  21

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                               Temperature  °F
                     59      64.5      77      92.5
Salinity (o/oo)    B   H    B  "l-J    E   II    B  *l-l
    2             (1) -   49  79   	
    5             32  20   	   52  96
   25            100  80   ~  —  100  82.  100  90
   40            100  08   98  90	   86  98
     Salinity of 18.4 o/oo was postulated as being too low for the  completed
development of eggs of v/hite shrimp, Pcnacus setiferus (U.S.  Fish  and
Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, 1966).   Nauplii  could
be seen moving inside the egg, but they did not hatch.  Postlarval  brown
shrimp, Ponaeus 'aztocus, died four hours after being  transferred to water of
2 o/oo from water of 23 o/oo.  Brown shrimp appeared  to t  • no.e sensitive to
lowered salinity than to increased salinity.  This conclusion appeared to
be borne out by Zein-Eldin (1963), who studied the effects of salinity on
the growth of penaeid shrimp.  She observed 100$    survival  in waters of
25-40 o/oo salinity and good growth even at 40 o/oo.
     At low water temperatures (60°F), increased salinity  significantly
delayed the development of blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) megalops to the
first crab stage (U.S. Fish and VJildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Beaufort, North Carolina, 1966).   Costlow
and Bookhout (1965),studying five species of crabs, obtained the following
results:
                          Salinity        Matching        Salinity  for
Sprcics                   found in(o/oo)  salinity(o/oo)  complete  development
Rhithropanoneus harrisi
Panopeus herbsti
Sesarna cub ere urn
tiepatus opheliticus
Callinectes sapidus
ovioerous females
"low"
to 33
26.5-35.0
"high"
£0.1
22-35
2.5-40
12.5-31.1
12.1-31.1
20-40
20.1-31.1
30-35
20.1-31
.1
                                  22

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Survival at various salinities varied with species and with temperature:
larvae of R. harrisi did not survive at 1  o/oo beyond the second zoeal
stage; at 2.5 o/oo and 25-30°C  there was  some metamorphosis of mega!ops  to
the first crab stage.  The first zoeal stage of S. cinoroum v.'ithstood high
salinities   (26.7-31.1 o/od bettor than lower salinities (12.5-20.1  o/oo),
but there was 50-83 per cent mortality of the last zoeal  stage at 31.1  o/oo--
zosae died while molting to the megalops stage.
     McLcese (1956) obtained the following salinity TLm's for the Anon'can
lobster (Homarus amoricanas) at the temperature and oxygen conditions given:
                               Temperature (°C)
Oxygen (mg/1)       5      9      13     17     21     25     29
                                salinity  (o/oo)
 1.0               18.0   21.n   20.4   22.0   30.0   	
 2.0               13.3   12.6   12.0   11.2   12.0   15.0   	
 3.0               11.6   10.4    9.6    9.0    9.3   11.2   30.0
 4.0               11.4    9.7    9.4    9.0    9.3   11.2   20.4
 5.0               11.0    9.5    8.8    8.8    9.3   11.2   17.8
 6.0                9.8    8.8    8.4    8.4    9.3   11.2   16.4
     Baker (1963) suggests that because there is an apparent direct relationship
between the size of both fossil and recent ostracods and  the salinity of  the
water in which they exist, it might be possible that euryhaline ostracod
species make use of the increased salts in more saline waters to increase
the size of their carapaces.
     Clams (Hyj^ arenaria) from Chesapeake  Bay water of 10 to 15 o/oo
salinity were acclimated for two weeks to  Maine coastal water of 32 o/oo,
but would not spawn until the salinity of the water was reduced to 20 o/oo
(Stickney, 1964).  Growth of Chesapeake Bay clam larvae was best at 16  o/oo;
                                    23

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70 per cent survived and 23 per cent developed straight hinge larvae.
Survival and development of clam eggs from Coothbay Harbor,  Maine  and  Woods
Hole, Massachusetts v/ere best at salinities of 23-31  o/oo (49 per  cent
survival and 35 per cent straight hinge larvae) and 22-31 o/oo  (99 percent
survival and 82 per cent developing straight hinge larvae),  respectively.
Survival and development dropped off rapidly below 20 o/oo,  and below  16 o/oo
were zero for the Woods Hole samples.  Below lf> o/oo 4 percent  of  the  Boothbay
eggs survived and 1 per cent developed into straight hinge larvae.
     I'iattiessen (1960) studied a population of ilya arcnnria  living under
highly saline conditions in a salt pond.  He found that larger  members of
the group v/ere more tolerant to lowered salinities than were
juveniles:
                                 \
                   Survival of Hya jm;iTfirja_ in distilled water
Size (mm)                       Time (hrs)           Per cent survival
 15-25                            48                      100
  f>-10                            4JJ                       65
  2-4                             42                        0
Clams 5-10 mm in size could be exposed to 0 o/oo salinity for 2-3  days and
still return to normal behavior; exposure time could be increased  as the
salinity increased~5-6 days at 2 o/oo, and an indefinite length of time at
4 o/oo.  The pumping rate of Mya varied only slightly between 15.5 and 31  o/oo,
but dropped sharply when the salinity was reduced to 3 o/oo, and ceased
completely when the salinity dropped to 4 o/oo or lower.
     Oysters v/ere found able to adjust to wide fluctuations  in  salinity from
almost fresh v/ator to a 3.5 per cent salt concentration (Galtsoff, 1960).
Cy hermetically sealing their valves, they could survive without food  or water
for as long as three weeks.
                                    24

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     Activity of the shipworm Teredo naval is, a wormlike pclocypod, decreased
as the salinity decreased below 9 o/oo (Blum, 1922),and the lethal threshold
for this niollusk was found to be between 4 and 6 o/oo.  Tcredo nor vegjcus,
found in sea    v/ater of 35 o/oo salinity, was postulated to be much less
able to adapt to low salinities than T. navnlis. Distribution of phytoplankton
species off the coast of eastern United States, between southern :!ew England
and Bermuda, as related to salinity was studied by Hurlburt and Iterir.ian
(1963). Salinity varied between 31.60 o/oo (mouth of Hudson and Kan tan Rivers)
and 36.53 o/oo (near Bermuda).  The majority of species were found at the
lower salinities.  Rhizosolenia alata was found 16 times in salinities below
33 o/oo and twice at salinities above 35 o/oo.  Skeletonema  costatuin,
                                    i
Coscinosira oostrupti, and Prorocpntruni mi cans were found only in waters
with a salinity below 34.5 o/oo.  ilitschia closteriuin was found at all
observed salinities.  Three species- Syracosphaera nicditorranoa, Coccolithus
huxleyi, and Discosphaera tubifer-wore clearly associated with hirjl.er
salinities, the latter two being found only once below 34 o/oo.  At low salinities
diatoms were more numerous than dinoflagcllates or coccolithophores (these
were more numerous at higher salinities), but increases in salinity appeared
to be no barrier to the growth of meritic diatoms.  Several species found
more frequently between 31.68 and 34.5 o/oo than between 34.5 and 36.53 o/oo
wore found to have optimal growth at even lower salinities.  Prorocentruni
mi cans, Coratium fusus, and C. tripos grow best at 20 o/oo, but grew well
also between 15 and 40 o/oo.
                                    25

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pH
     The tolerance of embryos and larvae  of clams,  llerconaria merconaria,
and oystors, Crassostrea virninica, to p!l changes v/as  studied by  CalaiVrcsc  and
Davis (10CG).  The pH was adjusted to levels from 0.00 to 9.50, with  0.25 unit
increments.  Clam and oyster eggs developed normally between pH's  of  7.00-
8.75 and 6.75-8.75, respectively, but the number of eggs of both  species
developing normally at 9.00 was greatly reduced and there; v/as almost  no
development of either species at 9.25 and 9.50.  At pH 6.25 only  29.5 per
cent of the clam eggs developed, but 92.4 per cent  of the oyster  eggs did.
     At pH 6.00, 21.5 per cent of the oyster larvae survived,  but all clam
larvae died.  A sharp increase in both clam and oyster larvae  survival
was noted with an increase in pll from 6.00 to 6.25, or from 20  per cent
survival to 70 per cent survival.  A sharp decrease from more  than 70 per
cent survival to about 40 per cent survival was noted when the  pH was
increased from 8.75 to 9.00.  After a few days at pH 9.00, more than
50 per cent of surviving larvae died; no larvae of either species survived
at pH 9.25 and higher,  normal growth for clam and oyster larvae occurred
between pM levels of 6.75-8.50and 6.75-3.75, respectively.  Clam larvae
showed the most rapid growth between pH 7.50 and 0.00, while oyster larvae
grow best at pH 8.25-8.50.  Below 6.75 and above 8.00, growth rate decreased
rapidly.
     The tolerance of young chinock salmon to  low and high pH values  in sea
water was  determined  (Washington State Department of  Fisheries, 1964):
                                     26

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         Total Kills                       Total Kills
    Hours           pl-l                Hours           p!l
    3.5            3.18               8-24           9.b6
    3.7            3.28              72 (20%         9.24
   4.5-5.5         3.56                 kill)
     34            4.88              Control         8.23 and 7.77
     55            5.51              (no kill)
llelykochatko (1963) determined that the optimum pH conditions for stenion and
eurion fishes were between pH's of 7.2 and 7.6 and the limits within which
fish may function and live were Between 6.0 and 0.0.  Cut above or below
those limits, signs of depression appear as follows:
        £l]_                  Symptoms
6.0-5.0 and 8.0-9.0      Greater or lesser signs of depression
5.0-4.0 and 9.0-10.0     (larked depression; live for sonic months or days;
                         hyperemid nccrotic branchiae and soon die
4.0-3.0 and 10.0-11.0    Fish die in 8-22 minutes
3.0-0.0 and 11.0-14.0    Die with marked paralysis of respiratory
                         center and heart
He breaks down the typical death syndrome at pli 4.0-3.0 or 10.0-11.0 as
follows: 1) normal swimming; 2) after 3.5 minutes, become immobile; 3) sink
to bottom, then rise to surface and snatch air;  li)  dart erratically,
hitting sides of aquarium; 5) head up and down, swim sideways, belly up;
6) convulsive body contractions; 7) irregular respiratory rhythm; 8) skin
and branchiae anemic, later  becoming hyperemic with necrosis at margins;
9) convulsions increase; 10) lie on side at bottom with mouth open.
TURBIDITY AMD SILTATION
     Turbidity may adversely affect many game or commercial fish by irritating
the gills or making foraging difficult because of reduced visibility.
By inhibiting photosynthesis   it can also remove vegetation that provides
cover needed for survival by young fish and surfaces for egg attachment by
spawning fish (Mollis, Boonc, Derosc'and Murphy, 1964).
                                 27

-------
     Siltation can completely change the composition  of the  bottom  and  may
also cover the benthic organisms living  there.   In  the Burnt and  Po-./dcr Rivers
in Oregon, for example, silt from gold dredging operations  increased the
turbidity from 5 to 1700 parts per^million, and the density  of fish food
organisms dropped to almost zero.  Downstream the density increased to  more
than 2 gm/ft2 as the turbidity decreased to 17 parts  per million.
     Silting and turbidity caused by excavations along the  coast  of Rumania
resulted in suffocation and respiratory difficulties  for some fauna,
                              >
inhibition of photosynthesis ^migration of pelagic species  from turbid  areas
                            A
(Bacescu, 1965).  Quantitative studies of life on rocks showed that heavy
silting resulted in disappearance of stenobiotic species which were rapidly
replaced by more tolerant species.  The return of normal flora and  fauna
displaced by the excavations took two to five years.   Kobyakova (1962)
reported that the intensive silting of a number of partly enclosed  bays and
gulfs of the Gulf of Peter the Great in the Sea of Japan had led  to a change
in the biotic composition.  Sand.-loving speices had been replaced  by silt-
loving ones.  This condition, along with an increase of fresh-water to  the
area had led to the near extinction of oysters and large decreases  in stocks
of commercially important scallops and Mactra, while the stocks of  mussels
and sea cucumbers were considerable.  In one of the bays alone, at  4-G  meters,
the population density of sea cucumbers was 0.43 specimens  per square meter,
                           ?
with a biomass of 81.4 gm/m .
     Studies by Loosanoff (1961) indicated that 0.1 gni/1 of silt  produced
a 57 per cent average reduction in the pumping rate of adult oysters.  At
3.0-4.0 gm/1 silt, the average reduction was 90 per cent.  Shell  movements
                                   28

-------
in turbid waters were clearly associated with frequent ejection of large
quantities of silt and mucus accumulating on gills and palps.  Mortality
to oysters occurred only when they were kept in large quantities of water
(more than 25-50 gal/individual).  In smaller amounts of water, the oysters
could effectively remove silt from the water in the form of pseudo feces,
rendering the water clear, but could not do this in larger quantities of
water.  Silt proved to be much more harmful to oyster eggs than to clam
G99s:                                       Esg survival (%)
       Silt concentration (mq/1)          dam   Oyster
              0.25                         90      31
              0.5                          39       0
At 0.75 gin/1, growth of oyster larvae was seriously affected; at 1.5 mg/1
growth was negligible.
     Reduction in light intensity affected the vertical migration of a
diatom community in the Ouse Estuary, Sussex (Hopkins, 1963).  Although on
bright sunny days the community came to the surface with 25 cm of water still
covering the mud, on days with reduced light intensity it appeared only
after the fall of the tide.
GENERAL BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS  OF EXISTING MARINE OUTFALLS
     Hastewater discharged from the Orange County Treatment Plant f/2 off
Newport Beach, California, produces a boil of water of low transparency
(Allan Hancock Foundation, 1964).  At the surface the transparency of the water
is reduced to 10 percent or less the transparency of air; this increases to
70-75 per cent two hours downstream.  The productivity of the plankton in
the first three meters of water is disturbed for the first 10 hours by the
                                  29

-------
presence of the sewage.   The  sedimentation  of  the  sewage was dPtonm'nod  to
be of minor importance to pelagic organisms, but would  probably greatly  alter
the ecology of the bottom.
     Domestic sewage and industrial  wastes  containing substances which would
settle out in sea water would be quite harmful  to-oyster beds  (Gnltsoff,  1960).
Accumulation on the sea bottom of the soft  sticky  sludge would cover  and  smother
oysters, killing then or rendering them useless for consumption.  Unabated
pollution of this typo would eventually convert a  hard  or  semi hard bottom
into one of soft, l-^S-saturatcd mud, totally unsuitable for growing oysters.
     Results of studies (Pescheck, 1963) on the effects of mineral  solids,
settleable fibers from paper and textile wastes and organic solids from  domestic
sewage and food-processing wastes on fisheries indicated that  while they
did no  direct damage to fish, they did detrimentally affect the environment
and the productivity of the water, indirectly causing mortality, migration
from the area, lower water quality, and an increase in the  lower organisms.
     St. Joseph's Bay near Port St. Joe, Florida,  is the receiving water
for the waste effluents from a paper mill (45 mgd), a paper-mill  by-product
plant  (20 mgd), a chemical plant (22 mgd), and a municipal wastewater treatment
plant.  Species diversity studies by Copeland (1966) indicate that the number
of species in this  bay has been  reduced to almost two-thirds that  found in
the Gulf of Mexico  (9 species/1000 individuals).
     A similar instance of sewage effects involved the disappearance  of bottom-
dwelling  invertebrates, Dranchiostoma  caribaeum, a lancelct,  and Cilottidia
pyromidata,  a  lampshell, from  Hillsborough Bay in Tampa Bay.  This was attributec
by the U.S.  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service,  Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
                                     30

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Biolocjicnl Laboratory at St.  Petersburg,  Florida (1967)  to the  domestic  and
industrial pollution which exists there.   Since  these  two  species  were eaten
by demersal fishes and crabs  and since their planktonic  larvae  provided  food
for pelagic species, their disappearance  aided in the  decline of the  formerly
valuable fisheries which once existed in  the area.
     Injuries to marine species,which have been  attributed to sewage  effluent,
(Youna, 1964) include': 1) dull-colored, listless and soft  California  halibut;
2) small weight-length ratio   of turbots; 3) exopthalmia of spotfin  croakers
and white seabass; 4) large body lesions  on white seabass; 5) tumor-like sores
around mouths of white-croakers; 6) low weight-length  curve of  White  Point
(Calif.) black nbalones as compared with  Santa Catalina  black abalones.
     Copeland (1966) found that the respiration  rate of  the killifish
Cyprinodon varieqatus in 56 per cent effluent water from St. Joseph's
Bay was one and a half times  greater than in normal  seawater.   North  (1964)
observed that during a three  day noriod in water collected over the  San
Diego municipal outfall in San Diego Bay  the photosynthetic activity  of  the
young fronds of the kelp Macrocystis pyrifcra dropped  by 71-100 per  cent.
     Eutrophication, or the stimulation of phytoplankton growth by nutrient
enrichment, often produces severe oxygen  depression with associated  effects
on marine life.  This is found in the Kulti River estuary  in India (David, 1959),
which receives primary treated sewage effluent from Calcutta.   Ebb flow  first
carries the sewage downstream, but when the tide turns,  sewage  is  carried
back upstream, 18-20 miles above the outfall.  The dissolved oxygen  con-
centration of the estuary is  always depleted, plankton is  scarce,  diatoms and
                                  31

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blue-green algae predominate.  Fish can survive in the Kulti  for only about
four liours of each tidal cycle near the outfall and farther upstream  the
survival period is even less.  The catfish, Pangasius pangasiur., remains
because it has the ability to store air in its buccal cavity and can respire
subcutancously.  The fish larvae and prawns used for seeding Lracl:ish-water
fish farms upstream have almost entirely disappeared.
     The effects of pollution abatement on the benthic populations of the
Raritan River Estuary v/ere studied by Dean and Haskin (1964) in 1950 when a
major trunk sewer system began diverting waste discharges from the estuary
to the lower Raritan Valley.  Especially significant were changes in the dissolve'
oxygen concentration of the water.  In 1957, no dissolved oxygen was detected
in surface and bottom water samples 3.3 and 7.4 miles upstream from the mouth
of the river', but in summer 1958, bottom concentrations of 36 per cent sat-
uration v/ere measured, and 44-92 per cent saturation was detected in bottom
samples in November 1958.  Variation in the dissolved oxygen was probably
important for benthic fauna, since the concentrations found were probably
near the threshold level and could have an effect on the distribution of the
fauna.  The most obvious change in the henthic fauna in 1958 was the presence
of the barnacle Balanus improvisus on all previously uninhabited firm strata.
Dominant species of the 6 freshwater and 21 marine species present in 1958
and the 3 freshwater and 28 marine species in 1959 were oligochaetes,
Linnodriliis spp, the leech, Erpobdella punctata, and the bivalve,
Sphaerium sp.  In 1960 a density of 7,102 organistns/m'- was found at one station.
Recovery of the fauna in Raritan River Estuary by the end of the study was
such that both species distribution and population densities gave the classic
V-shaped curve for estuaries.

                                    32

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     The plankton population of water one rrilr offshore in Santa Monica Bay
in southern California, receiving effluent from the secondary treatment Hyperion
Plant, has changed considerably since the outfall  began discharging (Hume,
Gunnerson, and Imel, 1962).  Dinoflagcllates and copepods showed a 00 per cent
increase in 1957, while diatoms increased 15 per cent and tunicate oilo-
p]£ura, tintinnids, and annelid larvae also increased.  Reduction of suspended
solids discharged from 180 tons/day to 70 tons/day caused a decrease in the
distance from the outfall to the area of maximum fish crop—from 3 miles to
about one and a half miles.  The digested sludge from the Hyperion Plant is
diluted to less than one per cent_sludge and discharged seven miles offshore
in 320 feet of water.  On the surface of these deposits were seer, fish, sea
stars, sea urchins, and a few anemones.  At the time of the study there were
13 families of polychaetes present, with Cnpitolliriao and Dorvilleidae pre-
dominating—more than 5000 individuals per square meter.
     Faunal growth on cement slabs located near a cooling water outfall at
Cavendish Dock, Barrow-in-Furness, where the water temperature measured at
all times 10°C higher than the seasonal water temperatures, indicated the
following chronological succession (florkowski, 1960):
     November - December               Actinia
     January                           Cordylophora lacustris
     April                             Lnteromorpha intcstinalis
                                       u_ aiilncriana
     November - May                    iiytilus edulis
     February - July                   Coriopeus spiculatum
Nomatories and annelids were present at both the intake and the outfall;  the
crustaceans, Snhaoroma hookeri and Garanarus zaddachi salinus and the mollusk,
Hydrobia jenl-.ensi,  were also present in great numbers.  Organisms appeared
earlier in the year at the outfall than at the intake, indicating that this
area might be more beneficial to organisms in colder weather.
                                33

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     Cooling water discharged into docks at Swansea,  South  Hales  was  also
studied for effects on fauna (Naylor, 1956).   The surface water in Queen's
Dock, into which cooling water was discharged, was consistently 10°C  higher
than the outside sea temperatures.  The most interesting changes  occurred
after I960, when the power production of the steam-electric plant was reduced.
Native Critish species,1 not previously found in the warm-water docl; were
recorded for the first time; Balanus crenatus, Ganmarus lacustris. Aurelia
aurata, Cryptosula pallasiana, and Elnn'nus r.iodestus.   Kalanus amphitrite,
which previous to 1961 was the only barnacle present in Queen's Dock, began
settling later in the year because of the lowered dock temperature (U. anphitrite
needs a temperature of 17-in°C to breed). Interesting also was the appearance
in 1962 of small Brachynetus and  Carcinus, indicating a possible effect of
temperature on the breeding habits of these crabs.
     Cooling and brine waters discharged from San Diego's saline water
conversion plant on Point Loma were found to have deleterious effects on
intertidal life in the area over  which  the effluent flowed at low  tide
(Leighton, Nusbaum and Hulford, 1967).  This portion of the  intertidal zone
was  lacking in any of the typical algae and most"animals, except  for  a few
temperature and hypersaline tolerant shore crabs  (Pachygraosus)  and  the  anemones,
Cribrina  and Antliopleura  (Leighton,  Nusbaum,  and i-lulford, 1967).   Field
records taken at"the discharge site  indicated  that a discharge temperature
of  100°F  would have been  hot enough  to  kill the  following species, had they
been present:  Strongylocentrotus franciscanus.,  red sea urchin;  S.  purpuratus,
purple  sea urchin;  Astrea undosa. wavytop  snail;  Norrisia  norrisii,  smooth
                                    34

-------
brown turban snail; Haliotls fulgens,  green  abalone;  Pugettia  producta,


northern kelp crab; Girclla m'firicans, opa-leye;  and Clinocottus  anal is,


tidepool sculpin.   Bioassays conducted with  the  brine water, to  which


chlorine and scale and foaming inhibitors  had been  added,  showed that


sea urchins died in 12 hours in 75 and 100 per cent concentrations  of  the


effluent and in 24-40 hours in a 20 per cent concentration at  18°C; green


abalone died in 72 hours in a 50 per cent  effluent  solution and  in  17  hours
               i

at higher concentrations.
                                 35

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III.  TOXIC MATERIALS
PESTICIDES
     Perhaps no environmental  contaminant has  engendered  so much  contro-
versy as has the group of "economic poisons" commonly referred  to as
pesticides.  These chemicals,  because of their extreme toxiclty to the many
organisms with which they come In contact, must be regarded as  highly
dangerous additions to the environment.   Aside from the fact  that they are
acutely lethal when present in sufficient quantity, there is  evidence that
they act in other less direct and less recognizable ways  when present in
very low or sub-lethal quantities.  This can either enhance their lethality
or bring into their spheres of action completely , unexpected  (nontarget)  specfe$v
The effect of sub-lethal quantities of organic phosphate  pesticides on the
amount of acetyl cholinesterase in the brains  of fish and the phenonmenon
of biological magnification as manifested in the case of the  disappearance
of the western grebe from Clear Lake, California,may be cited as  examples
of these unexpected and unforeseen complications to their use.  To reflect
as accurately as possible the effects of these contaminants  on  the marine
environment, it is necessary to consider as many aspects of their appearance
there as possible.
Acute Toxicity
     The tolerance of marine phytoplankton to  several pesticides  was studied
by Ukeles  (1962).  Exposure of five species Monochrysis lutheri.  Dunallella
euchlora.  Chiore11 a sp., Protococcus sp., and Phaeodactylurn tricornutum  to
stock solutions produced the following results:
                                    36

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Pesticide.                  Conc.(msA)        Effects


Dipterax                        50            less than 50 per cent inhibition of
                                              each species
                               100            lethal  to one speciss
Dowacide A                      50            Reduction in rate of growth of
                                              3 chlorophytes; inhibition of
                                              P_. tricornutum and 11. lut!ieri_
                               100            Inhibition of growth" of 3
                                              chlorophytes; death of 2 spc-cies
Chloronitropropane               3            Chi ore 11a sp. sensitive at this
                                              concentration
Sevin                            1            Complete suppression of £_.
                                              tricornuturn and M. lutneri
                                10            Lethal  to 3 specTes
Nabam                           10            Lethal  to all species
Lindane                          7.5          Inhibitory to P. tricornutum
                                              and M.  lutheri
Toxaphene                        0.01         Tolerated by 4 species
                                 0.001        Lethal  to H. luthsri
                                 0.15         Toxic to all species
Lignasan                         0.06         Lethal  to all species
Fefiuron                          0.29         Tolerated
Neburon                          0.04         50 percent reduction in growth
                                              of 3 species
Monuron                          0.001        Little  effect
Diruon                           0.004        Lethal  to M. lutneri

Studies of the effects of pesticides on five kinds of phytoplankton utilized

by molluscan larvae as food yielded the following figures  (Butler, 1952):

     Pesticide                  Highest cone, tolerated  (ug/1)

Herbicide
     Monuron                          0.02
     Diuron                           0.04
     Lignasan                         0.0&
     steburon                          0.40
     Fenuron                        290.0
Insecticides
     Sevin                          100.0
     Lindane                        500.0
     DDT                            1000.0
     Dipterex                     10,000.0
     TEPP                       100,000.0

Later studies by Butler  (1963) added newen pesticides  to  this  list.

Studies were conducted on natural phytoplankton  communities  and  two  pure
                                     37

-------
stock cultures of DurialisTla euchlora and Platymonas sp. with four-near
exposures to 1.0 ing/1 of the following pesticides:
                             Percent  decrease  oC  productivity
Pesticide
Aldrin
Chlorrlane
DDT
Endrin
Heptachlor
Lindane
Ma tii oxy en lor
Thiodan
Toxaphene
Baytex
Diazinon
Dibrom
Di-syston
Dylox
Ethion
Guthlon
Ma lath ion
Methyl trithion
Systox.'
2.4-D acid
Diuron
Fenuron
Monuron
Mcburon
Tedion
Sevin
Other studies
the productivity of
Natural community
84.6
94.0
77.2
46.0
94.4
28.5
30.6
Co. 6
90.8
7.2
6.0
515.6
55.2
'0.0
59.0
0.0
7.0
85.9
7.1
10.0
37.4
40.9
94.1
89.9
39.0
lb.8
Dunaliella euchlora


0.0






59.8












97.6



by Butler (1964) concerning effects of pestici
natural phytoplankton
exposures to a concentration of 1.0 tng/1
Pesticide

DEF
Chemagro 4497
Polystroam
2,4-D butoxy
cthanol ester
2,4-D, 2 ethyl -
hernyl ester
2,4-D propylene
Percent
decrease
75.3
06.1
31.8
16.3
48.7
48.7

44.2
Platymonas


24.5






50.9












95.9



des on
communities during four-hour
gave the following results:
Pesticide

N-Serve
Paraquat
Tordon 22K
Zytron
BIIC (45',i1somcr)
Strobanc
Telodrin
Bayer 33156
Percent
decrease
15.0
53.2
8.4
53.8
1C.O
87.7
76.8
54.8
                                       38

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Pesticide

  glycol butyl
  ether ester
Dacth.il
Ualapnn
Kurosal (SL 60%
  s i1 vex)
Diquat
Shell SD 3448
Parathion
Nellitfl
  Killer
Sodium TCA
Venon 245
Ciodrin
Phosdrin
Per cent
decrease
   37.3
    0.0
    0.0

   45.1
   10.0
   • 9.9
    0.0

   ' 0.0
    0.0
    0.0
    0.0
                                          Pesticide
Uayor 372H'I
liayer 41831
CO-UAL
Ilctnyl parathion
Shell 4072
Shell SD 7433
Shell SD 3447
Phorate (Thinet)
IJDVP (Vapona)
I1CP Ami no Heed
Shell SD 7061
Tordon 101
Bidriri
Dimcthoate (Cygon)
Phosphamidon
Pur cent
decrease

  154.0
  K. 0
  P7.4
   fj.'J
  13.1
  44.0
   7.2
  41.5
   0.0
   0.0
   0.0
   0.0
   0.0
   0.0
   0.0
Studies on the acute toxicity of pesticides to mollusks are concerned mostly

with the effects of the pesticides on shell growth of oysters (Cutler, 1962,

1963, 1%4, 1965).  Over a period of years and a number of experiments,

Butler reported the following results:

Pesticide                 96-hr LCr.n*(mg/l)    Year reported
Aldrin
BMC'
Chlordane
DDT
Dieldrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
Kepone
Lindane
Methoxychlor
Hi rex"
Thiodan
Toxapheno
Bayer 37344
Bayer 39007
Bayer 44646
Sevin
Sulphenone
Ferbam
2,4-D acid
2,4-D butoxyethanol
  ester
      0.025                  1963
      0.36                   1963
      0.007                  1%3
      0.007                  1963
      0.034                  1963
      0.033                  1963
      0.027                  1963
      0.015                  1963
      0.45                   19G3
      0.097                  1963
      No decrease  at 2.0     1963
      0.065                  1?63
      0.057                  1963
      No decrease  at 1.0     1963
      flo decrease  at 1.0     1963
      flo decrease  at 1.0     1963
      192 decrease at 2.0    1963
      1.27                   1963
      0.075                  1963
      No decrease  at 2.0     1963
      3.75                   1963
         - Concentration of toxicant producing 50 per cent decrease in shell
    growth.
                                       39

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Pesticide
96-hr
(nig/1)
                  Year rfpnrtc-d
2,4-1) dimethyl ami ne
  salt
2,4,5-T acid
Eptam
ASP-51 (NPD)
Bayer 29/193 (Baytex)
Daycr 25141
DDVP
Diazinon
Dibrom
Di-syston
Guthion
Inii dan
Ma lath ion
Methyl trithion
Parathion
Systox
Ted ion
DEF
Baynr 47531
Chcmagro 2635
Chcmagro 4497
Dyrene
Pol vstrenm
2,4-D, 2 ethyl hexyl
  pster
Dacthal
Diuron
Fenuron
Kurosal SL(60% silvox)
Monuron
Hcl)uron
N-Serve
2,4,5-T polyglycol
  butyl ether ester
Til lam
Zectran
Strobane
Telodrin
Bayer 372 B9
Bayer 38156
Bayer 41831
Bidriri
Ciodrin
CO- PAL
Dihiethoate (Cygon)
Dylox
Ethion
    * ne - no effect
No decrease at 2.0     1963

llo decrease at 2.0     19C3
437, decrease at 5.0    1903
O.ObS                  1963
0.60                   1963
20% decrease at 1.0    1963
No decrease at 1.0     1963
No decrease at 1.0     1963
0.64                   1963
0.90                   1%3
No decrease at 1.0     1963
llo decrease at 1.0     1963
32% decrease at 1.0    1963
0.23                   1963
0.85                   1963
No decrease at 2.0     1963
0.39                   1964
0.38                   1964
0.059                  1964
0.01                   1964
0.24                   1961
0.046                  1964
0.57                   19C4
30% at 5.0             1964

0.25                   1964
1.3                    1964
ne*at 2.0              1964
nc at '1.0              19G4
12S at 2.0             1964
0.41                   1964
0.28                   1964
0.14                   1964

20% at 1.0             1964
ne at 1.0              1964
0.059                  1964
0.055                  1964
•0.07                   1964
0.034                  1964
0.69                   1964
21% at 1.0             1964
1.0                    1964
0.51                   1964
10% at 1.0             1964
12% at 1.0             1964
0.07                   1964
                                     40

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Pesticide               _. 96-hr ECr Jj^/l)         Year reported
       parathion             no  at  1.0                   1964
Phosdrin                     ne  at  1.0                   196-1
Phosphamidon                 no  at  1.0                   1964
Dexon                        ne  at  1.0                   19C5
Difolatan                    0.034                       1965
Acrolein                     0.055                       1065
Ametryne                     14% at 1.0                  1065
Atrazine                     no  at  1.0                   1965
Dalapon, sodium salt         no  at  1.0                   1%5
Dinuat                       ne  at  1.0                   1965
Hydram                       ne  at  1.0                   1965
Knoxwocd 42                  44% at. 1.0                  1965
Paraquat                     no  at  1.0                   1965
Prometon                     ne  at  1.0                   1965
Prnmetryne                   19% at 1.0                  1965
Shell SU 7961                 ne  at  1.0                   1965
Silvex, plyglycol            23% at 1.0                  1965
  butyl ether ester
Stauffer R-1910              ne  at  1.0                   1965
Stauffcr R-4461              0.45                       1965
2,4,5-T plyglycol            0.14                       1965
  butyl other ester
Tordon                       ne  at  1.0                   1965
Voon 245                     ne  at  1.0                   1965
Vernam                       no  at  1.0                   1965
Zytron                       0.33                       1965
DDC                          0.014                       1965
DDT - Strobane               0.022                       1965
DDT - Toxaphcne              0.030                       1965
Strobane - Methyl            0.026                       1965
  parathion
Anier. C van amid               0.20                       1965
  43,913
Amer. Cyanamid               35% at 1.0                  1965
  52,160
Meta-Systox R                nc  at  1.0                   1965
Thimet"                       0.64                       1965
Ronnol                       0.17                       1965
Shell 4072                   0.60                       1965
Shell SD743B                 0.10                       1965
Shell SD0447                 ne  at  1.0                   1965
Shell SDB448                 0.40                       1965
Shell SD9129                 ne  at  1.0                   1965
Stauffor N-2790              0.33                       1965
Stauffer R-5092              ne  at  1.0                   1965
Nell its                      ne  at  1.0                   1965
TFH                        '  ne  at  1.0                   1965
                                      41

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The mean 24- and 48- hour EC5Q values  for Sevin  for  three  species  of niollusks

(Bay mussel, Mytil us edulis;  Pacific oyster,  Crassostrea gigas;  and cockle

clam, Clinocardium nuttallii) were found to range  from 2.2 to  7.3  rcg/1.

(Stewart, Millemann, and Brcese, 19G7).   The  mud snail, Nassa  ohsnleta,  was
                                   •                                     i
found to have a 96-hour TLm of greater than 10 rng/1  for the chlorinated  hydro-

carbon pesticides aldrin,-DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, lindane,  and

methoxychlor and a 96-hr TLm greater than 25  mg/1  for the  organophosphatus

DDVP, delnav, malathion, methyl parathion, parathion, and  phosdrin (U.  S.

Fish and Wildlife Service, Sandy Hook Marine  Laboratory,  1504 and  1965).

     A great number of experiments concerning the toxicity of pesticides

to the commercial shrimp of the Gulf of Mexico and the southern Atlantic

have been performed (Cutler, 1963, 1964, and 1965),  with  the following

results:
Pesticide

Aldrin
Chlordane
DDT
Dieldrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
Kepone
Lindane
Mcthoxychlor
Mi rex
Thiodan
Toxnphone
Baytcx
Diazinon
Dibrom
Guthion
Ma lathion
Scvin
Esteron  99
Sulphenone
Tcdion
Dayer  47531
Chemanro 2635
Cheniagro 4497
Test species

Penaeus duorarum
Pcnaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus aztocus
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Penaous duorarum
Penaeus aztecus
Pcnaeus aztecus
Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus aztecus
Penaous duorarun
Penaeus aztecus
Ponacus aztecus
Penaous aztecus
Penaeus aztocus
Penaeus aztecus
Ponaous aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
40-hr ECM(rig/l)      Year

   O.OOG(24-hr)       10C3
   0.0044            1%3
   0.001              19G3
   p.0055            1963
   0.0003            1063
   0.0003            1963
   0.0Gb             1SG3
   0.0004            19C3
   O.OOG             19f,3
   1.2               1%3
   0.0004            1963
   0.0049            1963
   0.00006           19P3
   0.044 (24-hr)      1%3
   0.0055            19G3
   0.0044            1963
   0.50              19C3
   0.0025            1963
   0.55              1963
   40% at 1.0        1964
   O.Hb              1964
   1.0               1964
   0.44              1964
   0.055            1964
                                       42

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Pesticide
Test species
            48-hr FIG,,, (nig/1)
Dyrenn
Polvstrnam
2,4-1) dimethyl-
  amine salt
2,4-1) hutoxy-
  ethanol  ester
2,4-1) propylene
  glycol butyl
  ester
Dacthal
Eptam
Monurnn
Neburon
Shell 7961
Till am
Bayer 37344
Bayer 30007
Bayer 44646
CHC
Stroljane
Telodrin
Amer. Cyananid
  43,913
Amer. Cvanamid
  52,160
Aspon  (ASP-51)
Bayer 25141
Bayer 372B9
Bayer 33156
Bidrin
Ciodrin
CO-RAL
DDVP  (Vapona)
Dimcthoate
  (Cygon)
Di-syston
Dylox
Ethion
Imidan
Methyl  parathion
Parathion
Thimct
Phosdrin
Phosphamidon
Shell  4072
Systox
Methyl  trithion
Bayer 41331
DEF
Dexon
Difolatan
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus

Ponaeus duorarum

Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus
Ponaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Ponaeus

Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaeus
Penaous
Penaeus
Penaeus
aztecus
aztecus
duorarum
duorarum
aztecus
aztocus
duorarum
duorarum
aztecus

aztecus
duorarum
duorarum
aztocus
aztecus
aztecus
aztecus
aztecus
duorarum
aztecus
duorarum
aztecus
aztecus
aztecus
aztecus
aztecus
                10S at  1.0
                0.55
                10% at  2.0

                ne at 1.0

                ne at 1.0
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus setiferus
Penaeus setiferus
Penaeus setiferus
Penaeus setiferus
Penaeus setiferus
Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus duorarum'
Penaous aztecus
Penaeus aztocus
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
ne at 1 .0
0.63
ne at 1.0
0.55
ne at 1 .0
ne at 1.0
0.060
0.035
0.55
0.0036
0.0085
0.00007
0.63
0.0028

0.0048
0.01
0.0005
0.0006
0.25
0.025
0.0036
0.044
20% at 1.0

0.025
0.36
0.036
0.0045
O.OOG5
0.001
0.0007
0.25
0.44
0.25
0.063
0.0005
0.0025
0.023
ne  at 1.0
ne  at 1.0
1964
1%4
1964
1964
1964
19C4
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964

1964

1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1°64
1964
1964
1964

1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1965
1965
1965
                                      43

-------
Pesticide

Acrolein
Ametryne
Atrazine
Dalapon, sodium
  salt
Diquat
Diuron
Fenuron
Hy drain
Knoxwood 42
N-Scrvc
Paraquat
Promctono
Test species

Penaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Pcnaeus aztccus
Penacus azt.ocus

Pcnaeus setifcrus
Penaous aztecus
Pcnaous aztccus
Penaeus aztecus
Pcnaeus aztecus
Pcnaeus aztccus
Pcnaeus aztecus
Pcnaeus duorarum
Penacus duoraruri
45-hr r.C50(mg/l)     Year
Prometrync
Silvex/polyglycol Penaeus aztccus
  butyl ether ester
Sodium TCA         Pcnacus aztecus
Stauffer R-VJ10    Penaeus aztccus
Stauffcr R-4461    Penaeus aztccus
2,4,5-T, acid      Penaeus aztecus
2,4,5-T, polyglycol Pcnaeus aztecus
  byttl: etger ester
Tordon 101
Veon 245
Vernam
Zytron
Zcctran
DDE
Ronncl
Shell SD7433
Shell SD8447
Shell SD844B
Shell SD9129
Stauffcr N-2790
Stauffer  R-5092
Nellite
Penneus aztccus
Penacus aztecus
Penacus aztecus
Penaeus aztccus
Penaeus aztccus
Penaeus aztecus
Ponaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztccus
Penaeus duorarum
Penaeus duorarum
Pcnaeus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
Penacus aztecus
Penaeus aztecus
   0.10
   10% at 1.0
   20% at 1.0
   40% at 1.0

   nc at 1.0
   no at 1.0
   10% at 1.0
   30% at 1.0
   0.48
   ne at 1.0
   ne at 1.0
   ne at 1.0
   ne at 1.0
   0.24

   nc at 1.0
   nc at 1.0
   10% at 1.0
   nc at 1.0
   20% at 1.0

   no at 1.0
   ne at 1.0
   20% at 1.0
   0.0003
   0.0052
   0.0?8
   0.0052
   0.0024
   0.28
   0.032
   0.069
   0.0019
   0.0028
   ne  at  1.0
1965
1965
19G5
1965

1965
1965
1965
1965
1965
19G5
1965
1965
1965
1965

1965
1965
1965
1965
1965

19G5
1065
1965
1965
1P65
1965
1965
1965
1965
1965
1965

1965
1965
The  following acute toxicities of various pesticides to the grass shrimp,

Palaemonntos vulgaris. were established  (U. S. Fish and Hildlife Service,

Sandy  Hook  Marine  Laboratory, 1964 and 1965):
                                       44

-------
           Pesticide            9G-hr TLm (ug/1)

           tndrin                    l.H
           Aldrin.                   8.D
           Oicldrin                 10.0
           Hoptachlor              442.0
           Mcthoxychlor             l?.l
           DDT                       1.5
           Lindane                  10.0
           Methyl parathion          3.0
           UDVP        •             10.0
           Phosdrin                 69.0
           Malathion                83.0
           Delnay                  285.0

Various pesticides tested on juvenile blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus)

produced the following results (Butler, 1963):

           Pesticide             48-hr EC.,, (ing/1)
           ___________                     13U

           Aldrin                    0.042
           Chlordane                 0.48
           DDT                       0.01
           Dieldrin                  0.44
           Endrin                    0.025
           Heptachlor                0.063
           Kepone                    20% mortality at 1.0
           Mcthoxychlor              0.55
           Mi rex                     20',£ mortality at 2.0
           Thiodan                   0.035
           Baytex                    0.004
           Dibrom                    0.30
           Guthion                   0.55
           Malathion                 Irritated at 1.0
           Sevin                     0.55
           Pyania                    Irritated at 20.0
           Ferbam                    Irritated at 10.0
           Phaltan                   Irritated at 25.0

     In tests to control zooplankton (especially copepod) invasions of

phytoplankton cultures, the following pesticide concentrations produced

100« mortality among the microcrustaccans in the indicated times (Loosanoff,

Hanks and Ganaros, 1957):
                                    45

-------
        Pesticide        Cone, (mg/1)       100% mortality time (hrs)

        Gutliion            0.05                        2
        Diptorex           1.00                        3
        Parathion          1.00                       TO
        Lindane            1.00                       22
        Lindano            0.05                       53
        DDT                1.00                       46

     Copepods Qlicrocy clops) v;crc found to be exceedingly sensitive to DDT

concentrations lovrer than O.OU mg/1  (Ruber, 1962).  A 0.1 mg/1 concentration of DDT

 had a knockdown time of one hour for common  brine  shrimp (Artemia salina)

adults.   In five days 100 per cent of an adult population of Artemia was

killed Ly a DDT concentration 0.1 ug/1, and at 0.01 ug/1 the majority of

adults died in three weeks, before the maturation of the next generation

(Grosch, 1967).

     Two phosphate insecticides, Abate and Dursban, were found to be acutely

toxic to blue crabs, Callinectcs sapidus, at 10.0 ug/1 in flowing sea water.
                     "™"^™^™^"^"^*"^"™*™^™^"^          \

Pesticides tested on Cancer riagister larvae and Cancer productus larvae

taken from the ocean off San Francisco were found to have the following toxicities

(Poole,  1967):

     Pesticide      Time         LCmo*(ug/1)       Species

     DDT           ' 72 hrs           5.0            C. magister
     Baytcx         72 hrs          10.0            C. inagistcr
                    72 hrs          10.0            C. productus
     fialathion      72 hrs          50.0            C. magister
                    72 hrs          50.0            C. productus
     Endrin         72 hrs          10.0            C. nagister
     Sevin          48 hrs          50.0            C. magister
     Toxaphcne      48 hrs         100.0            C. niagistor
     Dieldrin       10 days         1.0.0            C. magister
     Phosdrin       72 "hrs          10.0            C. magistor
                    72 hrs          10.0            C. productus
     Aldrin         72 hrs         250.0(1007.       C. magister
                                         survival)
                    72 hrs         250.0(30%)       C. productus

           * concentrations producing 100% mortality
                                     46

-------
     Studies on the effects  of Sevin  and  its  hydrolytic  product,  1-naphthol,
indicated that the 24-hr ECt,Q of Sevin  for three  crustaceans  studied  (nnid shrimp,
Upogohla pugettonsis; shore  crab, Hnnigrapsus orcgononsis;  and  Dungcness
crah, Cancer r.iagistcr? ranged from O.Oh - 0.71 mg/1.  For the  ghost
shrimp CaYUanossa californiensis the 2h-hr EC^0  of Sevin
ranged from 0.17 - 5.60 mg/1, and of 1-naphthol  from 16.6  -  22.1 nig/1
(Stewart, Millpmann, and Brcese, 1067).
                       f
     A population of Palarmonotes shrimp  was  drastically reduced  by the
application of 0.2 Ib/acre active ingredient  of technical grade DDT to
a tidal marsh ditch on Santa Rosa Island, Florida (Croker and Wilson,
196b).  A 0.10 Ih/acre application of DDT had a drastic  effect on a population
of blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) in a  tidal salt marsh (Springer and
Webster, 1951), with the greatest effect  occurring after 18-24 hours.
Repopulation of the 'area was slow and not considered  complete for one year.
In the channels of the salt marsh, mortality ranged from 80 per cent  at
0.5 Ib/acre to 20-40 per cent at 0.25 Ib/acre for a mortality period  of
seven days.  Large numbers of bait shrimp (Palapmonetes  pugio) died within
12 hours, though mortality ceased after the third day.  The entire aquatic
crab population of a tidal marsh in Florida was apparently  destroyed  by
the application of dieVdrin pellets which were disseminated at the rate  of
one pound per acre.  The crabs which did survive  fed  the first day on
moribund fishes, but were themselves dead on the  second day (Harrington
and Bicllingmayer, 1967).
     The acute toxicity (96-hr TLm) of seven organochlorine and six organonhosphor
insecticides to the mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) and the Atlantic silvcr-
                                     47

-------
side ( I torn' ft i a mom' dig)  was determined at  20°C,  ?A  o/oo  salinity  and  pH  8.0

(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Sandy Hool.  Marine Laboratory  1964 and  1965)

                                       96-hr TLn (ug/1)

Pesticide               fundulus iiotoroclitus      tic- nidi a  mcnidia

Endrin                            0.6                    n.05
Aldrin                            0.4                   13.0
Dioldrin                         5.0                    4.9
Hnptachlor                      50.0                    3.2
Hcthnxychlor                    35.6                   33.1
DOT                              4.2                    0.4
Lindanr                         60.0                    9.3
Parnthion                     5200.0                2000.0
OnVP                          2975.0                12bO.O
Delnav                          20.7                    5.8
Malathion                      142.0 .-                112.0
Phosdrin                       332.0                  320.0
Methyl iparathion            14,100.0                5700.0

Threespine sticklebacks cxpnsnd at two different salinities to a variety

of pesticides had the following %-hr TLm's (Katz, 1961):

Pesticide                96-hr TLn at 5 o/oo      06-hr TLm at 25 o/oo
Toxaphene                        O.C                    7.8
Aldrin                          39.9                   27.4
Dieldrin                        15.3                   13.1
DOT                             10.0                   11.5
Lindane                         44.0                   50.0
Hethoxychlor                    Gf>.4                   69.1
Hentachlor                     111.9                  111.0  '
Chlordane                       90.0                  160.0
Endrin                           0.44                   0.50
Guthion                         12.1                    4.3
Malathion                       94.0                   76.9
CO-RAL                        18G2.0                 1470.0
Sevin                         3990.0                 3990.0

     Studies to determine the effect of tho herbicide, sodium pcntachloro

phenatn on  fish life  in coastal waters indicated the following results

(Tomiyania,  Kobayashi ,  and Kawabc, 1963):

-------
            Species
                       48-hr  Tl.m  (mg/1)
            Ni boa albi flora
            Ondontnmhlyopus  rubicundus
            Leandcr jnnonicus
            Annullla janonica
                            O.OP,
                            0.25
                            2.3
                            0.20  (24-hr)
     Butler (1963,  1964,  and  1965)  has  performed mnny  tests on the toxicity
of pesticides to fish,  with  these  results:
Pesticide

Alclrin
BHC
Chlordanc
DDT
DDT
Dieldrin
En drin
Endrin
llcptachlor
Kepone
Kepone
Lindane
Lindane
i'icthoxychlor
Mi rex
Thiodan
Toxaphene
Ferbam
Phaltan
Phaltan
2,4-D propylene
  glycol butyl
  ether ester
2,4-D acid
2,4-D butoxy-
  ethnnol ester
Di uron
Eptam
Eptam
Estornn 99
Esteron 99
MCP aniine weed
  killer
Monurnn
Radapon
Radapon
2,4,5-T acid
Ti 11 am
Till am
Test species

white mullet
white mullet
white mullet
white mullet
longnose killifish
white mullet
white mullet
longnose killifish
white mullet
white mullet
longnose killifish
white mullet
longnose killifish
white mullet
white mullet
white mullet
white mullet
longnose killvfish.
white mullet
longnose killifish
longnose killifish
white mullet
longnose killifish

white mullet
Uhite mullet
longnose killifish
white mullet
longnose killifish
Inngnose ki 11'ifish

white mullet
white mullet
longnose killifish
longnose killifish
white mullet
longnose killifish
                       48-hr ECcnQng/1)     Year
    0.0028
    0.8
    0.005S
    0.0004
    0.0055
    0.0071
    0.0026
    0.0003
    0.003
    0.055
    0.034
    0.03
    0.24
    0.055
10% at 2.0
    0.0006
    0.0055

    K56
    2.5
    4.5
No effect at 50.0
    5.0

    6.3
10% at 20.0
Irritated.at 20.0
    1.5
    3.0
No effect at 75.0

   16.3
No effect at 50.0
No effect at 50.0
No effect at 50.0
    6.25
    7.78
                                            ire 3
                                            19(33
                                            1%3
                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            19G3
                                            1963
                                            19G3
                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            19C3
                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            1963

                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            1963

                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            19C3
                                            1963
                                            1963
                                            1963
                                   -49

-------
Pesticide
Test species
                       48-hr CCKn(mg/1)      Year
Bayer 37344
Sevin
Sevin
Baytex
Bayer 25141
Uiazinon
Dihrom.
Guthion
Imidan
Inidan
llalathion
Methyl trithion
Sulphenono
Sulnhenone
Tedion
Dyrone
nyrene
Polystrean
Dncthal
Bayer 39007
Caver 44646
Aldrin
PDT
DOT
Dieldrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
Kepone
Lindano
Methoxychlor
I'M rex
Strobane
Telodrin
Tliioclan
Toxaphene
Asoon  (ASP-51)
Rnver 41831
Bayer 38156
Baytox
Bidrin
BicJrin
Ciodrin
DPVP  (Vapona)
Dihrom
Dunethoate  (Cygon)
Di-syston
Dylox
Cthion
Guthion
Malathion
longnose ki Hi fish
white mullet
longnose ki Hi fish
white mullet
lonqnose ki Hi fish
white mullet
white mullet
white mullet
white mullet
longnose killifish
white millet
longnose killifish
white mullet
longnose killifish
Cyprinodon variegatus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Mugil cephalus
Cyprinodon varicgatus
Cyprinodon varicgatus
Cyprinodon varicqatus
Cyprinodon vnricqatus
Leio">tomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xnntiiurus
Cyprinodon variegatus
           xanthurus
           xanthurus
           xanthurus
           xanthurus
           xanthurus
           xantliurus
           xanthurus
Leiostomus
Leiostomus
Leiostomus
Loiostomus
Leiostomus
Leiostomus
Loiostomus
Cyrpinodon variegatus
           xanthurus
           xanthurus
           xanthurus
 Leiostomus
 Leiostomus
 Leiostomus
 Cyprinodon  varieqatus
 Cyprinodon  variegatus
 ilugil  cephalus
 Leiostoi.ius  xanthurus
 Fundulus similis

 Cyprinodon  varicqatus
.Leiostomus  xanthurus
 Leiostomus  xanthurus
 Fundulus similis
 Cyprinodon  variegatus
 Cyprinodon  varieqatus
 Cyprinorion  variegatus
 Lpiostomus  xanthurus
 Leiostomus  xanthurus
0.55
2.5
1.75
1.59
0.055
0.25
0.55
0.0055
0.055
0.055
0.57
0.55
1.9
6.0
ne at 1 .0
0.0085
20% at 0.1
ne at. l.U
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
107, at 1.0
0.0055
0.002
0.005
0.0055
0.0006
0.025
0.17
O.C3
0.03
ne at 2.0
0.0005
0.0036
0.0006
0.001
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
0.0067
1063
1963
1963
1963
19f3
1963
1963
1963
1963
Ivjt3
1963
1963
lf-63
1%3
1%4
l°f.4
1964
19C*
inr>4
196'!
1 %4
19f4
1964
1 »M
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
                           ne at 1.0

                           ne at 1.0
                           0.55
                           0.44
                           ne at 1.0

                           ne at 1.0
                           0.069
                           0.050
                           0.55
1964

1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
1964
                                    50

-------
Pesticide
                    Test species
                     40-hr  ECi;n*-(fiig/1)      Yrar
            salt
         42
Methyl parathion
Parathion
Thimct
Phosdrin
Phosphamidon
Phosphamidon
Systox
Bayer 47531
DLT
Chemagro 2635
Chemagro 4497
Doxon
Difolatan
Acrolein
Anietryne
Atrazine
Dal anon,
Dinuat
Fenuron
Hydram
Knoxweed
Neburon
N-Serve
Paraquat
Promctone
Promotrvne
Shell SD7961
Si 1 vex, polyglycol
  butyl ether ester
Sodium TCA
Stauffer R-19190
Stauffer R-4461
2,4,5-T polyglycol
   butyl ether ester
Tordon 101
Voor.  245
Vernam
Zytron
7.0 ct ran
DDE
Amer. Cvanamid
  43,913
Amer. Cyan am id
  52,160
Bayer 37289
Bayer 41831
Cyprinodon varieqatus
Cyprinodon variegatus
Fundulus similis
Cyprinodon variegatus
Leiostomus xanthurus
riuqil cephalus
Lciostomus xanthurus
Loiostomus xanthurus
Lciostomus xanthurus
Lciostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Cyprinodon varieqatus
Fundulus similis
Fundulus similis
Loiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Fundulus similis
Fundulus similis
Lfiostomus xanthur.us
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Fundulus similis
Leiostonus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
ilugil cephalus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
r
ilugil cephalus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Cyprinodon variogatus
Leiostomus xanthurus
Leiostomus xanthurus
ir at 1.0
0.060
0.0004
0.83
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
0.55
0.032
0.24
0.032
0.032
ne at 1 .0
0.032
0.24
ne at 1 .0
nc at 1 .0
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
ir at 1.0
20% at 1.0
ne at 1.0
0.32
ne at 1 .0
ne at 1.0
ne at 1 .0
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
0.36
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
0.32
0.32
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
ne at 1.0
0.32
ne at 1.0
ne at 0.1
20% at 1.0
1 964
1 064
1 964
1964
1 964
1964
1964
1 965
19C5
1965
1 %5
1965
1965
1 965
1 965
1 965
1 965
1965
1955
1965
1P65
196b
1965
1 965
1965
1965
1 965
1965
1965
1 965
1965
1965
1 %5
196b
1965
1965
1 965
1965
1965
Leiostomus xanthurus       ir at 1.0

Leiostomus xanthurus       0.32
Cyprinodon variegatus      ir at 1.0
                                                                 1965

                                                                 1965
                                                                 1965
                                    51

-------
Pesticide           Tost species          48-hr  ECcn(mq/l)       Yoar
CO-RAL              Cyprinodon  variogatus      0.2R             1°65
Ronnel              Loiostomus  xanthurus        0.32             VJCb
Shell 1072          Lciostomus  xantSiurus        lo  at  1.0        19G5
Shell SD7/133        Leiostomus  xanthurus        0.32             19f.5
Shell SDH447        Leiostomus  xanthurus        ir  at  1.0        1965
Shell SD8448        Leiostomus  xanthurus        Ic  at  1.0        1965
Shell SD9129        Fundulus similis            no  at  1.0        1965
Stauffer fl-2790     Leiostomus  xanthurus        0.24             1965
Stauffer R-5092     Leiostomus  xanthurus        0.020,          1965
ne - no effect; ir - irriated;  le-lost equilibrium
     In preliminary screening tests,  spot (Loiostonus xanthurus)  exhibited
a TLm to endrin of 0.1 ug/1 in  five days  continuous exposure  (U.S.  Fish
and l-Jildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial  Fisheries  Biological Laboratory,
Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1966, and Butler, 1966).   At the same laboratory,
experiments on toxicity of endrin to  hluefish indicated a  9C-hr TLn of 0.29  ug/1
at 24 o/oo salinity and 20°C.
     Killifish (Fundulus ocnllaris)'from  tidal  marshes in  Delaware  were
exposed to 0.5 Ib/acre malathion delivered  by aerial  spraying (Darsle and
Corridcn, 1959).  After four hours 26.3 per cent had  died, 31.2 percent
i .-ere unaffected, and 42.4 per cent were sublethally poisoned.  Fish in
this last category were placed in recovery  tankst  where 66 per cent  recovered,
26 per cent died, and 8 per cent were exhibiting symptoms  at the  end  of
64 hours.  Studies on three species of fish from the  coast of Oregon  (Shiner
perch, Cymatogaster aggregate;  English sole, Paraphrys vetulus;  and
thrcespine stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus) indicated that the  hydrolytic
product of Sevin, 1-naphthol, was more toxic to these fish than was the
insecticide, Sevin, itself  (Stewart, flillemann, and Broese, 1967).   Croker
and  Wilson  (1965) found that a 0.2 Ib/acre application of OUT to a tidal
                                     52

-------
marsh ditch on Santa Rosa Island, Florida  killed  33  per  cent of  a  community
fish population of mullet, 8 species of cyprinodonts,  silversidcs,  spots,
and gobies in throe days.
     Early experiments by Springer and Ucbstcr (1951)  on the effects  of  DDT
on tidal salt marshes resulted in a 70 per cent loss of  Fundulus hotoroclitus
and Cynrinodon at 1.0 Ib/acre, 50 per cent loss at 0.5 and 0.25  Ib/acre.
The fish kill in a Florida salt marsh treated with 1.0 Ib/acre dioldrin
pellets was essentially complete; an estimated 20-30 tons, or  about l,17b,000
fish of at least 30 species were killed.
Chronic Toxicity
     Marine food chain studies indicated that the marine bacterium, Pseudomonas
                                            i
piscicida. was not grossly affected by pesticides (U.S.  Fish  and Wildlife
Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Gulf Breeze,
Florida, 1967).  Ho damage was done to its growth rate nr morphology when
cultured in 10 mg/1 chlorinated hydrocarbons and 100 mg/1 organophosphorus
insecticides.  In a culture medium of l.Ojjg/1, more than 90  per cent of
the DDT was taken up  in 24 hours, with a buildup of ODD  and DDE  in the interior
of the  cells.  It was postulated that this conversion may play a very important
part in the biological degradation and fixing of DDT in  marine food chains.
     The effects of the herbicide,  3-amino-l,2,4-triazole (3AT), on five
species of marine red algae  (Antithamrn'on plumula, Plumaria eleqans, Callithamnion
tetricum,  Nemalium multifidum, Krongniartella hyssoides) were studied
(Boney, 1963).   Immersion of Antithannion plumula in 10 mg/100 ml for 24 hours
and  in  1 mg/100 ml  for 48 hours  gave  similar significant  inhibition of cell
production.   Two days immersion  in  2.5 mg/100 ml  3AT resulted in 465J
                                      53

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inhibition of cell production and ,TI/'. inhibition nt 10 mcj/100 ml.  After

six days, inhibition of 100% was achieved at 10 rig/100 nil 3AT.  Immersion of

other algal species in 5 mg/100 nil 3AT resulted in C7% cell production inhibi-

tion in Plumaris elcnans,  75% in Callithamnion tetricum, 65'' in f:c:i::n1ion

multifidum and 20% in Brongnoartclla byssoides.

     Chronic toxicity to-oysters can be easily determined by studying

the deposition of new shell  (Butler, !%(">), a method which giver, statistically

significant data in three or four days of testing with as few-as 10 juvenile

oysters.  When oysters were exposed to 10-fold increases in the concentration

of DDT from 0.1 ug/1 to 100 ug/1 at 17°C, the suppression of shell growth

increased uniformly.  Growth at the highest concentration (100 ug/1)was nil
                                     i
and at the lowest concentration was 21) per cent of the normal.

     fiollusks wore also known to concentrate pesticides  present in tlieir

environment in their own tissues  ns much as 70,000 times in some cases.
       •
If placed in unpolluted waters, they will flush themselves of these residues.

Experiments on the accumulation and retention of !:DT by  mollur.ks exposed  for

7 days to 1.0 ug/1 in flowing sea water gave the following results:

                                     Residue (rig/1)

                            After 7 days   After 15 days   After 30  days
I loll us I;                        exposure       flushing         flushing

Brachidontes recurvus            24            —              —
    (Hooked mussel)
Crassostrca virginica            26            2.5              1.0
    (Eastern oyster)
Crassostrea gigas                20            16.0             —
    (Pacific oyster)
Ostroa edulis                     15            3.0              4.0
    (European oyster)
Qstroa enuestris                  23            !i.O              —
    (Crested oyster)
Mercenaria mercenaria             6            0.5               —
    (northern quahog)
                                      -54

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     The uptake of certain pesticides r>y oysters  after in days'  uxnosure,

v/ith rolntion to the biological  magnification in  their tissues,  '-/as  studied

with the following results (U.S. Fish and llildlifo Service, Bureau of

Commercial  Fisheries, Biological Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida, 19Ce):

Pesticide           Exposure          Residue           Ciolonical
                    cone, (nin/1)      cone,  (mg/1)      magnification

Toxaphene               0.05             146.0             2920X
Methoxychlor            0.05             289.0             5780X
Lindane             -    0.05               3.0               60X
Chlordane               0.01              73.0             7300X
Heptachlor              0.01             176.0           17.600X
Endrin                  0.001              1.0             1000X
Dieldrin                0.001              1.0             1000X
DDT and metabolites     0.001             15.0           15.000X

     Very small clams and oysters approaching their first cycle of reproductive

activity were exposed to aldrin, dieldrin, DOT, toxaphene, malathion and

acetone for six months at concentrations one-tenth of their median lethal

doses.  There was no decrease in growth.  Oysters sprawned spontaneously

at the same time as did the controls. (Butler. 1963).  A comparison of the

development and growth of oyster and clam eggs and larvae exposed to 1.0

mg/1 of various pesticides and control groups gave the following  results

(Butler, 1962):

                    Clam eggs         Oyster eggs       Growth of oyster
Pesticide           developing (%)    developing  (%)    larva (%)

DDT
Lindane
Guthion
Parathion
Toxaphene
Aldrin
Dieldrin
Endrin
Sevin
'
100
30

50
70
90

95

85
0



65
20
60
0

75
20


850
95

                                      55

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     Davis (1961) also studied
larvae of oysters (Crassostrea
with the following results:
Pesticide     Cone, (mg/1)
Fenuron       below 5.0
                 the effects  of some  pesticides on eggs and
                 vlrglm'ca) and clams (Venus mercenaria)
Monuron
Diuron
Dluron

Neburon

Undane
Aldrln
Aldrln
Toxaphene
Toxaphene

Toxaphene
Cushion
Guthlon
below 5.0

      1.0

      5.0

 .    2.4

below 10.0

      10.0
0.25 and 0.50
0.25 and 0.50
      0.25

      0.50

      0.50

      1.0
Guthlon
Sevin
5.0
1.0
           Effect
 no significant  decrease  in percent of clam
 eggs  reaching straight hinge  larval stage
 same  as  above;  some evidence of toxlclty to
 larvae at  1.0 and  5.0 mg/1
 significantly reduced.percentage of eggs
.developing normally
 no clam  eggs developed Into larvae; drastic
 reduction  1n larval growth rate; as much as
 90% larval mortality
 normal development of eggs prevented; 100%
 mortality  of larvae
 60% of clam eggs and 43% of oyster eggs
 developed  normally
 64% of clam eggs developed normally
 stopped  growth  of  clam larvae
 egg development normal
 growth rate of  clam larvae drastically
 reduced; 50% mortality
 some  survival of larvae  for 12 days; growth
 negligible
 reduced  percentage of oyster larvae reaching'
 straight hinge  stage
 30.5% of clam eggs developed normally;
 no marked  effect on clam larvae
 100%  mortality  of  clam  larvae
 no marked  effect on clam larvae; 40%
 reduction  1n oyster eggs reaching straight
 hinge stage
                                       56

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Pesticide     Cone,  (mg/1)                Effect
Sevln                  5.0       100% mortality of clam  larvae; no normal
                                oyster egg  development
DDT                    0.025    drastic reduction in  oyster larvae growth
                                rate; 20% mortality
DDT                    0.050    growth of oyster larvae stopped; mortality
                                in excess of 90% after  14 days
Dlpterex               0.025    significant reduction in growth of oyster
                                larvae
Dlpterex               1.0       50% mortality of oyster larvae
Parathion              1.0       drastically reduced oyster larvae growth
                                rate
     Butler and Springer (1963) found that  oyster fecal deposits contained
DDT in approximately 35 times the concentration  of DDT  originally present in
water in which oysters were living, and concluded this  could be a cause for
additional concern.  Non-selective bottom feeders, such as marine worms,
which are important links in many marine food chains, might accumulate
pesticides 1n concentrations lethal to their predators  which include fish,
crustaceans and birds eaten by man.
     Ghost shrimp, Neomysis sp.,  taken from San Francisco Bay contained
residues of DDT, DDE, and Dieldrin at concentrations  of 20, 12,  and 1 ug/1,
respecively (U.S. Public Health Service, Region  IX, 1965).  Grass  shrimp,
Crago sp., taken near Martinez, contained 130 ug/1 DDT and 80 ug/1  toxaphene.
     Exposure of reproducing Artemia salina to  concentrations of DDT
ranging from 10.0 to 0.001  mg/1 resulted in an  increasing proportion of young
developing from cysts rather than developing vlviparously from the adult
females.  This appeared to be a characteristic response on the part of the
treated adults to environmental stress.  At 0.1  ug/1  all of the adults had
                                      57

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died in 5 days and all  the larvae died before reaching maturity.   At  0.01
ug/1 the majority of adults died in three weeks  and the  first generation
following treatment was noticeably smaller (Grosch, 1967).
     A high acetyl cholinesterase activity exists in certain  tissues  of
several species of shrimp and crabs; this activity may be inhibited sometimes
by concentrations of organophosphorus insecticides as low as  1.0  ug/1
(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological
Laboratory, Gulf Breeze, Florida, 1967).  According to Butler (1962)
pesticide toxicity in crabs and shrimp is first manifested by increased
irritability and then by loss of equilibrium.  Mortalities of stone and
mud crabs are observed at pesticide concentrations of 1.0 mg/1, but mud
crabs seem to be particularly sensitive to the herbicide, 2,4-D and show
irritation at only 1.0 ug/1.  Data on the concentrations of pesticides
required to cause paralysis in small (25 mm) stone crabs within 24 hours
indicate that this will occur with endrin, dieldrin, and DDT at 10 ug/1 and
with Sevin at 1.0 mg/1.
     Blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) were exposed continuously for nine
months to sublethal concentrations of DDT (0.25-0.5ug/l) (Lowe, 1965), and
18 per cent survived the entire period.  There was no difference  in the
behavior of control crabs and those exposed to 0.25 ug/1 DDT.  Of the crabs
exposed to 0.5 ug/1 DDT, two became paralyzed and died after two  weeks
exposure.  These and other crabs kept at 0.5 ug/1 DDT exhibited typical
symptoms of insecticide poisoning: extreme irritability, increased sen-
sitivity to external stimuli, and paralysis.
                                     58

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      Juvenile blue crabs  (Callinectes sapldus) fed, molted, and grew for
 nine  months  1n 0.25  ug/1  DDT, but could survive for only a few days In
 concentrations In excess  of 0.5 ug/1.  A small per cent of juvenile brown
 shrimp,  Penaeus  aztecus.  could tolerate 0.025 ug/1 endrin for 60 days, but
 could survive for only  a  few days at concentrations of endrin greater than
 0.05  ug/1.
      Yearling striped bass and young-of-the-year taken from Suisun Bay in
 water containing a total chlorinated hydrocarbon concentration of 0.08 ug/1
 contained the following residual,concentrations of chlorinated hydrocarbons
 (whole fish, wet weight)  (U.S. Public Health Service, Region IX, 1965):
                                         Concentration (ug/1)
            Compound                 Young-of-year	Yearling
            Lindane                         10                  10
            Keptachlor epoxide              15                  30
            DDE   '                          64                 690
            ODD 7/or  DDT                 115                 360
            Toxaphene                      40                 —
            Dieldrin                        13                  24
            Unknown A                      15                  60
 Analyses of total  chlorinated hydrocarbon  insecticides retained by anchovy
 fry and adult are given in the same report and  indicate  a total of 300 ug/1
 in the fry and  1000  ug/1  in  the  anchovy  adult.
      Holden (1962)  studied the absorption  of  DDT  from water by fish  and
determined that  for three  fish, the  ratios  of DDT  concentration in the gills
 to that in water at the time of  the death  of  the  fish were 275, 277, and 287,
 respectively.
      In studying chronic  toxlcity  of  some  chlorinated  hydrocarbons to fish,
 Butler (1965)  determined  that  endrin  at  0.6 ug/1  would  kill  50 per  cent  of
 a population of fish (probably spot,  Leiostomus xanthurus)  in 24  hours,
                                    •59

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but a concentration of 0.025  ug/1 endrin  allowed 15 per cent of a population
to survive for two months.  Telodrln,  a highly toxic chlorinated hydrocarbon,"
killed fish 1n 10 days at a concentration of 0.025 ug/1, but allowed them
to survive for five months at 0.01  ug/1.   Spot exposed to endrin at 0.05 ug/1
for 8 months were twice as sensitive to lethal concentrations of the pesticide
as unexposed fish.  Spot exposed to sublethal concentrations of dleldrin
(0.1, 0.01, and 0.0001 ug/1)  for three months exhibited 30-37 per cent
mortality, not significantly  different from the mortality of control
populations.  (Butler, 1963).  Some experimental fish, however, had
axial skeleton distortions that were not  found in  the controls.  A population
of spot survived 16 weeks continuous exposure to 0.01 mg/1  malathion,
although a concentration of 0.05 mg/1  still affected the population after
14 days continuous exposure.   (U.S. Fish  and Wildlife Service, Bureau of
Commercial Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Gulf Breeze,  Florida, 1966).
     The effects of various pesticides on the hatching of eggs of the longnose
kilUfish, Fundulus similis.  were studyed and found to have little effect  on
hatching; the pesticide concentration, however, was sometimes  lethal to
the emerging fish larvae (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of  Commercial
Fisheries Biological Laboratory, Gulf Breeze,  Florida,  1966):

Pesticide
Control
DDT
DDT
Endrin
Endrin
Dibrom
Malathion
Cone.
(mg/1)
'
0.01
0.001
0.001
0.0001
0.01
0.01
Hatching
rate (%)
32.5
55.0
32.5
40.0
45.0
47.5
47.5
Mortality
(%)
0
0
0
6
6
11
100
     The effects of endrin on the embryonic development and hatching of
marine threespine sticklebacks in water of 10 o/oo salinity at 20°C were
                                     60

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as follows (Katz and Chadwick,  1961):
                                Number          Percent survival
Endrin  Number  % eyed  % eyed   of fish   Days  after start of hatching
(ug/1)  of eggs eggs*   fish**   hatched    3456      7      8
Control
0.75
1.35
1.8
2.4
3.2
4.2
38
32
21
27
22
24
36
M^»A«^B»
63
78
43
63
63
58
67
85
52
44
82
. 36
71
54
20 .
15
4
13
5
10
13
100
100
100
84
80
90
61
100
69
75
69
40
51
31
85
61
75
61
20
10
0
75
45
50
30
20
0
0
20
15
50 '
7
0
0
0
5
0
0
7
0
0
0
  * 4 days after fertilization
  ** hatching in 8 to 9 days
     Two groups of adult  sheepshead minnows (Cyprinodon  variegatus) were,
exposed to concentrations of DOT of 20 and 40 ug/1  for 24 hourse with a
third group acting as a control.  The survivors  of all  three groups were
allowed to reproduce and the young were then exposed to concentrations of
10, 13, and 15 ug/1 DDT and 2 ug/1 endrln.  Mortality of  the young of the
exposed groups was significantly greater in both cases(90% level) than the
control at both 13 ug/1 DDT and at 2 ug/1 endrin (Holland, Coppage, and
Butler, 1966).
     Groups of spot (Leiostomus xanthurus) were  exposed to sublethal concentration
(0.1 and 0.01 ug/1) of toxaphene in flowing seawater (Lowe, 1964).  It
was found that after five months exposure, there was no significant
mortality difference between control and experimental fish, although
experimental fish developed a distinct thickening of lamellae  with resultant
clubbing.  Control fish had slender, delicate lamellae with gossamer epithelial
coverings over Individual capillaries.  It was possible to identify control
and treated fish.on basis of gill changes alone.  Young-of-the-year spot
                                     61

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taken from a natural population In waters off Gulf Breeze, Florida,were

acclimated to laboratory conditions for three months, then exposed to a

concentration of malathlon of 0.01 mg/1 for 26 weeks.  An analysis of the

brains of some of the fish Indicated that the acetyl chollnesterase  activity

was significantly lowered and stabilized at about 70 per cent of normal.

This appeared to have had no adverse effects on the fish, since neither

experimental group exhibited any symptoms of distress during the 26  weeks,

and there was no difference in growth or mortality.  Immediately after,

and again one week  after the experiment had

• anted,  fish  f^ the experimental  and control groups were exposed to lethal

concentrations of malathlon.  There was no slgnfleant difference 1n the

mortalities  of any  group (Holland  and Lowe, 1966).  Juvenile spot tolerated

100 ug/1 Sevin In their environment for three months with no 111 effects

(Lowe,  1967).

      Exposure of some estuarine  fishes to sublethal concentrations of

pesticides reduced  the  acetyl chollnesterase activity as  follows:

                     Cone.                                   AChE
Pesticide             (mg/1)          Species                 Activity  (%)

Malathlon            0.1             Spot                       76
Malathlon            0.1             Sheepshead minnow          39
Dlbrom               0.05            Sp&t                      <10
Dibrom               0.05            Sheepshead minnow          79
Dlbrom               0.001           Striped mullet            76
 Parathion            0.01            Spot                      <10
 Parathion            0.01            Sheepshead minnow          26
Guthion              0.01            Spot                       79
 Guthion ~             0.01            Sheepshead minnow         <10
 Diazinon             0.001           Spot                       100
 Dfazlmm             0.001           Striped mullet            74
 Bayer 3815b           0.001           Spot                       76
 Bayer 38156           0.001           Sheepshead minnow          82
 Bayer 38156           0.001           Striped mullet            58
 Dursban              0.001           Spot                       38
 Thimet               0.0005         Spot                       84
 Thimet               0.0005         Sheepshead minnow          68
 Thimet               0.0005         Striped mullet            69


                                    62

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     Seventeen out of 93 samples of brains of spot (Lelostomus xanthurus)
and sheepshead minnow (Cyrpinodon  variegatus) from various places on the
southeastern coast of the U.S.  and the Gulf of Mexico were found to have
low cholInesterase activity (less  than 90 per cent activity), but 13 of the
17 low samples were found to come  from only two areas—the Ashley River
near Charleston, South Carolina and from the eastern edge of Trinity Bay
near Galveston, Texas.  The former site receives wastes  from plants producing
a variety of organophosphorus compounds (Holland,  Coppage and Butler,'1967).
     Exposure of adult northern puffers, Sphaeroides maculatus, to endrin
concentrations of 1.0     , 0.5, 0.1, and 0.05  ug/1 resulted in impaired
liver function which was evidenced by the transfer of major cations (Na+,
K+, Ca^, Mg**, and In"1"1") from the hepatic  tissue  into  the serum  (Eisler and
Edmunds, 1966).  Experiments with bluefish  demonstrated  that endrin disrupted
the normal metabolism of metals (U.S. Fish  and  Wildlife  Service,  Sandy
Hook Marine Laboratory, 1965).  Bluefish exposed  for 96  hours to  sublethal
concentrations of endrin exhibited comparatively  higher levels of sodium,
calcium, potassium, magnesium, zinc,  and  iron  in muscle, gills, and liver
than did the controls.  Liver damage  was  evident  among  fish surviving the
highest doses.
                                  63

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DISSOLVED GASES
Ammonia
     It has been established that the un-ionized  ammonia molecule  in solution
1s much more toxic than the ammonium Ion NH4+ (Herbert, 1982).  Tabata  (1962),
however, Indicated that 1n order to explain  the effect of  pH on the toxldty
of ammonia,, 1t was necessary to consider not only the toxicity of  un-ionized
                                  \
ammonia, but also the toxicity of a large quantity of ammonium ions and the
antagonistic action of carbon dioxide.  He used the ratio  Tm/Tj,  where
Tm was the 24-hour TLm and T^ was the apparent 24-hour toxicity due to  one
mole of un-ionized ammonia or ammonium Ion.   In his tests  with the water  flea,
Daphm'a pulex, Tm/T^ was found to be nearly constant (45/51) within the
pH range of 6.0 to 8.5.  He found that the Tm/T1  of test fishes (Leblstes or
Plotosus) was greater than for Daphnla or the brine shrimp Artemia.
     Studies by Woelke (1960) on the effects of sulflte waste liquor (ammonia
base blow pit liquor) on the development of larval hardshell clam,Venus
mercenaria, produced the following results:
     SWL cone.            Average number of          Per cent of normal
      (mg/1)              normal  larvae             larvae developed
        0                    12,813                       83.7
        2                    12,469                       81.1
        4                    13,719                       90.2
        9                     9,000                       58.8
       18                     8,563                       56.0
       39                       969                       6.3
       79                         0                       0.0
      150                         0                       0.0
      304                         0                       0.0
     Herbert and Shurben (1965) found that salmon were in  all cases more
susceptible than rainbow trout to ammonium compounds under varying salinity
                                    64

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conditions (salinity given as per cent of seawater with  a  salinity of 33.9 g/kg):
                                              24-hour TLm  (mg/1 N)
  Salinity              Alkalinity
(% seawater)    £H.      (mg/1 CaCOa)     Salmon smolt  Yearling Rainbow Trout
    0           7.81        248              15               37
   50           7.52        185              43               51
   75           7.51        150              42               50
     The critical level of 141-day old. 114 mm chlnook salmon  in aerated  sea
water containing amsnoniim hydroxide was found to be  between  3.5 and  10.0  mg/1
for a 3-day exposure.  Silver salmon in aerated fresh water  for a similar
period had a critical level to ammonium hydroxide of about 5 mg/1.   The pH
1n both instances was between 7.6 and 8.0 (Eldridge, 1967).
     Because of the lack of information concerning the toxicity of ammonia
under marine conditions, certain references concerning Its toxicity  under
fresh water conditions are given here.  The second edition of Hater  Quality
Criteria  (1963) reported that the literature shows the lowest  toxic  level
of NHa to rainbow trout to be 0.3 to 0.4 mg/1.  This figure  was established
by Wuhraian and Woker (reference number 1465), but because  of a data  error
It was later proved to be Inaccurate, and the actual threshold toxicity
of undissociated ammonia to rainbow trout was set at 1.1 mg/1. Reworking
of the data by FWPCA has confirmed the error and the new level of toxicity.
     Downing and Merkens (1955) showed that the toxicity of ammonia, as  N,
to rainbow trout, decreased with Increasing dissolved oxygen.   Un-ionized
ammonia concentrations of 0.6-1.29 mg/1 were used; 1t was found  that the
period of survivlal was shorter in the higher concentrations and  that Increasing
the dissolved oxygen concentration from 1.5 to 8.5 mg/1  prolonged the period
of survival in all  concentrations.  Further studies by Merkens and Downing
                                 65

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(1957) determined the toxidty  of  unionized ammonia to rainbow trout at
two different tensions of dissolved oxygen.  Results were reported as follows:
                                             Cone, of un-ionized ammonia (mg/1 N)
Dissolved oxygen
(% air saturation)
100.3
.



45.7




Time ,_
(hours)"
2
8
36
168
312
2
8
36
168
312
Complete survival
2J4
1.73
1.73
1.62
1.26
0.59
0.38
0.34
0.31
0.31
Complete mortality
3.98
2.19
1.91
1.76
1.73
1.05
0.79
0.79
0.63
0.63
     Herbert (1962) found that the toxic threshold  concentration of  un-
ionized ammonia for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii) 1s reduced by  an Increase
in the concentration of free carbon dioxide.   The pH value,  and hence the
concentration of un-1on1zed ammonia, 1s lower in water in  Immediate contact
with the gills than 1n the bulk of .the solution because of the C02  excreted
by the fish.  This excreted C02 will have less effect on the concentration
of un-1on1zed ammonia at the gills when there is a relatively high  concentration
of C02 in the bulk of the solution than when  there Is only a little in the
solution.  He found that the toxic threshold  concentration  (time not given)
of ammonia for 50 percent of a population of rainbow trout to be 0.6  mg/1
at pH 7.8 and at a water temperature of 10.2 to 11.3°C.
     His experiments with mixtures of toxic substances indicated that the
mixture of ammonia and phenols was at Its threshold concentration when
AS/AJ. + Ps/Pt -1. where A is ammonia, P is phenol, s in the. concent ration  in
solution and.t is the toxiclty of the substance when tested individually.
                                 66

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For the combination of ammonia and copper,  the  equation  given  above
became progressively less adequate as  lower percentage mortalities were
considered (Herbert and Vandyke, 1964).   He also  found that  for  the ammonium
salt, NH^' Cl, ,the.48-hour TLm for rainbow trout was  26.4 mg/1  as nitrogen
at pH 7.8 and 17°C, and the toxiclty of  copper  sulfate was 0.27  mg/1.
However, a copper-ammonia mixture had  a  48-hour TLm  of 0.92  mg/1.
     Lloyd (1961) also showed that the toxlclty of ammonia was directly
related to the concentration of free carbon dioxide  In water (bicarbonate
alkalinity as CaC03),the pH, temperature and dissolved oxygen. The higher
the pH and the temperature the lower the toxic  threshold,  and the lower  the
dissolved oxygen the lower the toxic threshold.  His experiments comparing
predicted ammonia toxlcity determined from laboratory studies and observed
ammonia toxiclty under the same conditions  indicated an  error between  the
two toxlcities of riot more than 10 per cent.
      In studies on the effects of ammonia (NH4OH) on young salmon and  trout,
symptoms of toxlcity were cited as:  1)  restless  swimming  in top half  of
aquarium; 2)  recurrent alternating periods of violent activity (10-20  seconds)
and quiescence (20-40 seconds); 3) subsidence to feeble swimming;  4)  loss
of equilibrium; 5) spasms in which jaws and gill  covers gaped widely as  fish
died  (Washington State Department of Fisheries, 1964).   It was found that  a
concentration of 10 mg/1 NH/jOH killed 24 of 25 fish in 21.33 hours.   Other
results on chlnook salmon  (Oncorhynchus tshawtyscha) in sea water were:
Initial cone. First equili-   First death Total kill 24-hr 1%   Initial Initial
NH^mq/1) *   brium loss(hrs)      (hrs)      (hrs)   cone.(mg/1)   pH      DO
0.30
1.00
1.50

s!50
5.20
>72
>72
^72
^72
^72
>20.92
^72
^72
^72
>72
-^72
^20.92
^72
^72
>72
^72
^•72
>-20.92
0.70
0.70
1.30
2.06
3.25
4.90
7.60
7.65
7.65
7.80
8.10
8.15
5.8
6.9
5.5
5.2
6.9
6.9
                                       67

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*  Corrected for 0.3 mg/1  NHs-nitrogen  released  by  urination of  fish In
   control  tank during declination  and  for 0.4 mg/1  released during first
   24 hours of exposure.
     Warren (1962) found  that ammonium  was 10 times  as  toxic to  rainbow
trout at pH 8 than at pH  7.   He suggested that this  was to  be  expected,
since at pH 7 only one per cent of  total  ammonia is  un-ionized while at  pH  8,
10 per cent is in freely  permeable  form.   He quoted Wuhrman, who found
that fish maintained in water at high pH  containing  10.1 mg/1  ammonia
sulfate showed toxic manifestations in  70 minutes,  whereas  those in a concentra-
 "tTon 16.5 times higher,  but with a lower pH, were  unaffected  for 170
minutes.  Herbert (1962)  confirmed that the toxicity of an  equivalent
mixture of ammonium chloride and phenol is nearly as great  as  that of spent
liquor from a gas works,  hence toxicity of the  latter may be due mostly  to
the two components, ammonia (free and fixed) and phenol (as CgHsOH).
     The growth of both green and blue-green algae  in the Potomac Estuary
was  stimulated.by the addition of secondary treatment  wastewater effluent,
                                  ^
proportionately to the amount of effluent added (Shapiro and Ribeiro, 1965).
Removal of Nt^vnHffogefr-controlled the growth of green  algae,  but did not
control blue-green algae.
Carbon Dioxide
     The Interesting hypothesis has been advanced that  large,  dense  schools
of many species of fish, such as herring and anchovies, change environmental
gas concentration of the water through which they pass  (McFarland and Moss,
1967)  and that disruption of school behavior of striped mullet  (t"ugil
cephalus) apparently  resulted from abrupt and severe metabolic reduction of
environmental  oxygen  and an  Increase in  the  amount of  carbon dioxide.
                                    68

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     Keeling (personal communication. 1967)  sees no threat to  marine
organisms from Increased carbon dioxide in water because of the great buffering
capacity of sea water.
HEAVY METALS
     An hypothesis on the toxicity of heavy  metals to fish states:      if
the rate at which heavy metals enter the gill epithelial cells is less than
the rate at which they are removed into the  blood stream, no build-up of
Ions will occur on the epithelial cells and  the fish will survive;   if,
however, the entrance rate is greater than the removal rate, then a build-up
will occur and the fish will die (Lloyd, 1962).  Toxicity of heavy metals
1s also dependent on many environmental factors - hardness of the water,
temperature, dissolved oxygen'concentration, and activity of the organism.
Studies by Malacca and Gruia (1964) supported these findings and also deter-
mined that poisoning by heavy metals 1s an additive process dependent on
the concentration of the metals and the period of exposure.
Copper
     Laboratory studies by Hassall (1962) determined that toxicity of copper
to the green alga Chiore!la vulgaris was dependent on environmental factors
during the experiment.  If suspensions, of Chlorella were shaken continuously,
                       /
0.1 M copper sulfate was not Inhibitory for 7-20 hours, but if the shaking
was stopped, concentration lower than 0.001  M rapidly became toxic.  Lack
of oxygen seemed to be the major factor leading to high copper toxicity.
     North (1964) found that copper (Cu**) concentrations of 0.1 mg/1 or
greater eliminated photosynthesis 1n the giant kelp. Macrocystis pyrifera.
                                     69

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The plants also exuded a brown substance,  developed  a  "coicnarin" odor, and
spines and bulbs on the plants developed a brown  discoloration.  The toxic
threshold for M. pyrlfera was found to be  between 0.01  and  0.1 mg/1,
although several days were required to produce  apparent Injury at  this concentra-
 tion.  After ninety hour's exposure, photosynthesis was eliminated by 0.5  mg/1  Cu+
inhibited 70 per cent by 0.25 mg/1, and reduced nearly 50 per cent by 0.1 mg/1.
Again, effects were greater with Increasing time.  Visible  Injury  to the
kelp was apparent In 10 days at 0.1 ing/1 Cu**  and 1n  six weeks  blades of
the plants were bleached white and fell to pieces when handled.
     Galtsoff (1960) stated that copper was extremely toxic to oyster larvae
(but gave no values) and that It 1s one of the  heavy metals absorbed by
blvalues.  When-stored 1n their tissues It renders them Inedible.   The 96-hour
TLm of copper to oysters from the Seto Inland Sea 1n Japan  was measured  to
be 1.9 mg/1 (Fujiya, 1960)pa concentration higher than normally  found  there
(0.05 - 0.3 mg/1 Cu).  However, oysters exposed to sublethal concentrations
of copper (0.13 - 0.50 mg/1) accumulated the metal 1n their tissues in
amounts of 200-1500 mg/1 (wet weight), making them unfit as food.   Studies
on three New Zealand bivalves - an oyster (Astrea simuate). a scallop
(Pecten novae zelandlae) and a mussel (MytHus  edulls aeteanus)  -  Indicated
that the concentration of copper In the tissues of these organisms was much
greater than In the water.  In the scallop and the mussel it was 300 times  as
much, and In the oyster It was 12,700 times as  much (Brooks and Runsby,  1965).
The average copper concentration 1n material dried at 110°C was 9 mg/1  for
both scallops and mussels and 41 mg/1 for oysters.
                                    70

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     Concentrations of 1.5 mg/1  copper were  found  to  be  lethal  1n 2 to  3 days
to the marine polychaete, Nereis vlrens;   0.5 mg/1  copper was lethal 1n
four days8 and 0.2 mg/1  was lethal  1n  one week  (Raymont  and Shields, 1963).
The worms had 100 per cent survival  for 3 weeks in concentrations below
0.1 mg/1.  After 12 days worms exposed to solutions of 0.66 - 0.06 mg/1 copper
had accumulated from 580 to 110 mg/1 copper  in  their  tissues while control
worms in sea water had concent rat ions of 43 mg/1 copper.
     Significant kills (50 and 91.7 per cent) of young pink salmon
              gopbugEliia)'wey@ receded with  cupric nitrate levels of 0.563
and 1.0 mg/1 for five days.  Loss of equilibrium and Initial mortality
occurred in less than 19 hours in the 0.563 mg/1 copper concentration and
in less than 66 hours in concentrations of 0.178 and 0.318 mg/1  Cu (N03)2-
     Sprague (1964) defined the incipient lethal level  as  that concentration
of an environmental Identity beyond which an organism  could no longer
survive for an indefinite period of time.  Experiments  on  juvenile salmon
in freshwater at 17°C and pH 7.0 - 7.4 on the toxlcity  of  copper and zinc
combinations indicated that the metals potentiated each other's lethal
action;  lethal concentrations of the copper-zinc mixtures acted two to three
times as fast as the lethal concentrations of the single metals (Sprague and
Ramsay, 1965).
    Sublethal pollution by copper and zinc of the Miramichi River, New
Brunswick, from a base-metal mine was the apparent reason  that 22 per cent of
adult salmon moving upstream returned downstream (Sprague, 1962).  Using the
incipient lethal level (ILL) as the toxic condition, Sprague found that the
maximum "safe" level of a combination of zinc and copper was 0.15 the
incipient lethal level of the combination of the two metals, calculated
by him to be 0.7 mg/1 zinc and 0.05 mg/1 copper.  This means that the maximum
                                    71

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"safe" level of zinc and copper combined would be 0.11 mg/1  zinc  and  0.008
mg/1 copper.
     A 48-hour toxlclty threshold level  of copper sulfate  for rainbow trout
(Salmo gairdnerii) of 0.27 mg/1 Cu++ was determined by Herbert and  Vandyke
(1964).  The Incipient lethal level (ILL) of copper in fresh water, with  a
total hardness of 18 mg/1 and pH of 7.5, to young salmon was 44 ug/1
(Sprague, 1964).  There was a random scattering of responses at the lowest
concentration of 0.01 ILL with Increasing avoidance of water containing higher
copper concentrations.  A uniform avoidance was shown of water containing
0.65 and 2.05 ILL.  The threshold concentration of avoidance, or  the  concentra-
 tion at which 50 per cent of the salmon avoided water containing CuSO/},
was 0.052 ILL.
     Malacca and Gruia (1964) concluded on the basis of  experiments on
toxlclty of heavy metals to the water flea Daphnia rcagna.  bltterling, carp
and minnows  that the maximum permissible concentration  of copper in the
Black Sea should be re-evaluated, since the accepted level of 0.1 mg/1
seemed to be too high.
     Experiments on shore crabs (Carcinus) indicated a  copper toxicity
threshold of 1-2 mg/1 for an 11-12 day exposure.and small  prawns  (Leander
squill a) had a copper toxlclty threshold below 0.5 mg/1  (Raymont  and
Shilds, 1963).
     The addition of 10 - 20 ug/1 copper to sea water retarded the body
growth of the pluteal larva of the sea urchin  (Paracentrotus lividus),
but  did not retard growth of the larval arms  (Bougls, 1965% A copper
concentration of  30 ug/1 affected growth of the arms and 50 ug/1  copper
                                      72

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was lethal to the larvae.  When the cuprlc 1on concentration  of sea water
was gradually Increased from 0.005 rcg/1 to 0.5 mg/1, the oxygen uptake
of the cyprld larvae of  the barnacle, Balanus amphltrite niveus,  was
elevated proportionately (Bernard and Lane, 1963).  However,  further
Increases 1n cuprlc 1on concentration resulted 1n a steady decline of  oxygen
uptake.
     Twenty tons of copper ore were added to a lagoon 1n an attempt to control
blooms of the alga Gymnodlnltsn splendens by permanent exposure to a large
amount of copper ore.  Phytoplankton blooms were reduced somswhat but
productivity of lagoon continued after the addition and seasonal occurrence
of 6.. splendens was not  altered by addition of the ore.  After another
60 tons were added  (20 and 40  tons at  two different times), a near lethal
concentration of 0.5  ug/1 copper was attained, but decreased during the following
five months to 0.01 ug/1 copper.  Thus the Immersion of the ore was not
helpful 1n controlling Gymnodinlum splendens  (Marvin, Lansford, and Wheeler,
1961).
Chromlurn
     Hexavalent  chromium was strongly  toxic to young ,kelp  (Hacrocystis
pyrifera) blades at 10.0 mg/1, but not at 1 mg/1  or lower.   A  9-day exposure
of the  blades  to 0.1  mg/1  had  no  effect,  1.0  mg/1 gradually  reduced the
photosynthetic capacity,  of the blades  (25 per cent  reduction in 9 days)
 and  10 mg/1  eliminated photosynthesis  in  5 days.  To produce the  equivalent
 Injury, 50  to  100  times  more chromium was needed than copper (North,  1964).
     The threshold  toxiclty of hexavalent chromium to the polvaaaete'Nerels
 ylrens was  about 1.0 mg/1.  At concentrations of 0.5 mg/1  there was 100  per cent
 survival  for three weeks, but at concentrations of 1.0 mg/1  some  mortality
                                     73

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occurred over the same period.   Concentrations  between  2  and  10 mg/1
caused 100 per cent mortality In two weeks.   For longer periods of exposure
the threshold toxicity level  for Nereis  virens  was 0.6-007.Eg/l of chromium.
The shore crab, Carcinus macnasB exhibited a toxicity threshold for chromium
of 50 mg/1 over a 12-day period, but the prawn, Leander squill a.  succumbed
to concentrations under 5 mg/1  chromium  over the same period.  Experiments
on the toxic action of chromium on fish  and on  the  water  flea Daphnia magna
Indicated that hexavalent chromium was more toxic than  the trivalent ion.
Daphnia magna. with a 48-hour TLm of 0.01 mg/1  chromium,  was  the  most sensitive
organism tested.  The bitterllng Rhodeus sericeus amarus  had  a 168-hour TLm
of 29 mg/1 (Malacca, 1962).
     Salmon exposed to lethal concentrations of chromium  salts swam  progress-
ively erratically at the water's surface, snapped their jaws, lost their
equilibrium, and then died.  Silver salmon (Qnchorhynchus kisutch) mortalities
of 100, 86.7, and 93.3 per cent were reported In hexavalent chromium concentra-
tions of 31.8, 56.3, and 100.0 mg/1, respectively (Washington State  Depart-
ment of Fisheries, 1964).  Concentrations of trivalent chromium  ranging from 5-50m
caused no mortalities or distress 1n silver salmon.  Chromiien in this  oxidation
state apparently converts to a nonlonic insoluble state by reaction  with
carbonates in the water.
     Scallops  (Pecten novae zelandiae) and mussels (Mytilus edulis  aeteanus)
accumulated more chromium from their environments than did oysters  (Ostrea
sinuata):  10  and 16 mg/1 in material dried at  110°C, as compared to 3 mg/1,
respectively (Brooks  and Runsby, 1965).  The corresponding enrichment
factors  (number of  times an element 1s concentrated 1n tissue of organism
over the  concentration  in its environment) were 200,000  for scallop, 320,000
for mussels and 60,000  for oysters.
                                   74

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 Zinc
      Oysters  (Ostrea  slnuata)  accumulated much higher levels of zinc from
 their environment than  did  scallops  (Pecten rcovae zelandlae) or mussels
(MytHus edulls  aeteanus). Oysters  accumulated 1108 mg/1 dry weight compared
 to 283 mg/1  for scallops and 91 mg/1  for mussels.  The enrichment factors
 for each of these were  110,300, 28,000  and 9,100 respectively (Brooks and
                                   \
 Rims by, 1965).
      A 50 per cent Inhibition  of  hatching in brine shrimp  (Artemia salina)
 eggs was brought about  by an addition of 0.0041 g/100 ml zinc sulfate
 (Caujolle, Pham-Huu Chanh,  and Moulas,  1965).  The effect  of high zinc
 concentrations in sea water and Injections on normal tissue concentrations
 of the lobster, Homarus vulgaris. indicated that a 20-fold increase in the
 zinc content of sea water from 5  ug/1 to 100 ug/1 had very little effect on
 zinc concentration in lobster  blood;and that 6 injections  of 110 ug/1
 zinc had no obviously toxic effects,even though days after the injections
 stopped  the blood zinc concentration was four times the normal, or" 20 ug/1
 (Bryan, 1964).
      The threshold  concentration for avoidance of water containing zinc
 sulfate was measured to be  0.092  times  the  incipient lethal level for young
 salmon (580 ug/1 zinc), or  53  ug/1 zinc (Sprazue, 1964).
        •
     In studying lethal  concentrations,  Sprague and  Ramsay  (1965) found that
 copper-zinc mixtures acted  two to three times as  fast  as the single metals
 (see Copper).  A similar effect was reported  by  Doudoroff  (1956)
                                                 i ,
  from      nixing zinc with cyanide.  The 48  hr  TL^ of sodium  cyanide on fat-
 nead   minnows (Pimephales  promelas) was 0.24 mg/1, but when zinc sulfate was
 mixed with the sodium cyanide it dropped to 0.19 mg/1.  'Results of experiments
 by Herbert and Vandyke (1964)  on  the effects  of phenols on rainbow  trout
                                      75

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(Salmo gairdnerf) were even more pronounced.  The  48  hr TL,,, of phenol was
9.78 ppm, and of zinc was 2.46 ppm.   A mixture  of  the two, however, produced
a Tl^ in 48 hrs «f -1*07 ppm.
     Sreenivasan and Raj (1963) measured the  following 48 hr Tlm's for zinc
sulfate:
 Tilapia               10-15 mg/1 (at 25.8 to 28.5°C, 5.8 to 8.2 mg/1 Og,
(Tilapla mossambica)         7.1 to  7.5 pH, 0.9 to 1.8 mg/1 C02)
Carp                   12-15 mg/1 (Bangkok strain); 10-12 mg/1  (Ooty  strain)
(Cyprinus carpio)      •••
They reduced the mortality of Tilapia mossambica 75 percent by  adding
200 mg/1 of calcium chloride, and 60 percent  by increasing the  dissolved
oxygen concentration from between 5.8 and 8.2 mg/1 to 12.3 mg/1.  The carp
mortality was reduced approximately 100 percent by the addition of 200 mg/1
of CaCl2, and 12-25 percent by the addition of  200 mg/1 of MgS04.
     Increases in salinity greatly increased  the resistance of  salmon smolts
and rainbow trout to zinc toxiclty.   In water with salinity between  10.2 and
13.6 parts per thousand salmon could stand 13 times the zinc they could
tolerate for two days in hard, fresh water.  Under the same conditions
rainbow trout could tolerate 15 times the amount (Herbert and Wakeford,  1964).
The 48 hr Tl^'s for salmon and trout for zinc at different salinities were:
      Salinity (o/oo)          .       48 hr TLm (mg/1)
      •
                                 Salmon             Trout
          5.01                     15                 25
         11.87                   35-40              60-90
         15.26                     30                 60
         23.41                     30                 35
     Malacca and Gruia  (1964) carried out studies on Daphnia magnaa
bltterllng, carp, and minnows and determined that a maximum  permissible
concentration of 5 mg/1 was too high and should be lowered to protect aquatic
life.
                                   76

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 Iron
      An  area  In the sea used to dump sulfurlc add and ferrous sulfate was
 surveyed to determine any effects on the a«fjatic life from dumping.  In
 the disposal  area worms and amphlpods Increased and clams and sea cucumbers
 decreased, but in seven months of dumping, there was no eradication of life
 in the area (Arnold and Royce, 1950).
      Bloassays of toxicity of a chemical waste effluent from United States
 Steel Corporation containing sulfuric acid and ferrous sulfate (with a pH of
 0.8)  on Cancer magister and Cancer productus gave the following results
 (Poole, 1967).
      Species              Cone, of effluent (o/oo)        % survival
   Cancer magister               0.1                         88
   	              0.01                        72
   Cancer productus              0.1                         86
   	 	             0.01                        71
                                 0.001                       68
      Oysters(0strea sinuata), scallops  (Pecten novae zelandiae), and mussels
(Mytil us edulis aeteanus) of New Zealand were found to accumulate iron from
 their environment  (Brooks and Rumsby, 1965).  The 682 mg/1 (dry weight)
 of Iron found 1n oysters, 2915 mg/1  in  scallops, and 1960 mg/1 in mussels
 represented concentration factors of 68,200, 291,500, and 196,000,  respectively.
 PHENOLIC SUBSTANCES
      Phenol at 300 mg/1  caused  reduction  in the  rate of growth of the
 marine phytoplankton  species Monochrysis  lutheri. Dunaliella euchlora.   and
 Chi ore!la sp. It was  lethal to  these species as  well as to the species
 Protococcus  sp.  and Phaeodactylurn  tricornutum  at 500 mg/1 in sterile  sea
 water (Ukeles, 1962).  A concentration  of phenol of 9.4 mg/1 caused
 complete inactiviation of photosynthesis  in  large blades of  the giant
 kelp. Macrocvstis  pvrifera.  1n  96  hours and  visible Injury In one  week
                                    77

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(North, 1964).  A much smaller concentration (0.47 mg/1)  caused  a  50  per
cent photosynthetic inactivatlon and visible Injuries  in  one  week.  Small
blades of Macrocystls proved much more sensitive to  o  - cresol.  At a
concentration of 10-^1* .photosynthesis-" was reduced 60  - 85  per cent and at
10-5M o - cresol visible damage was apparent in one  week.  The threshold
concentration for toxicity of o - cresol  was determined to  be under 1.0 mg/1.
Other results were:
      Compound
      concentration
m - cresol   10"^
    cresol '-
             5 X 10
              ' -4
               '
                    c
                   '5
% photosynthetic
inactivQtion
80-90
50
40
20
Time
(days)
4
4
4
, 4
     Chlorinated phenols also affected photosynthetic capacity of Macrocystis.
Four-day exposures to various chlorinated phenols gave the following results:
                             Cone, (tng/1)   Sample
  Photosynthesis
(% initial  value)
Compound
Control sea water
p -chlorothiophenol
Pentachlorobenzethiol
Sodium pentachlorophenate
    (Santobrite)
Pentachlorophenol
Pentachlorophenol
At all of the above concentrations, all treated blades were visibly injured
1n 5 days.  With Santobrite (Sodium pentachlorophenate) photosynthesis was
eliminated with a 2-day exposure to 0.58 mg/1.  The critical concentration


10

10

10

26.6

2.66

large blade
small blade
Large blade
small blade
large blade
small blade
large blade
small blade
large blade
small blade
large blade
small blade
106
114
24
23
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
                                     78

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range for Santobrite was between  0.1  and 0.5 mg/1.
     Larval  Baltic salmon exposed to  non-volatile phenols experienced the
following phasic physiological  disturbances  (Vernldub  1962):
     1st phase - mild stimulation of  motor activity  and  all physiological
                 processes; changes fully reversible with transfer of larvae
                 to clean water.
     2nd phase - confused movement, respiration rate decreased; arrhytffflia of
                 aur1cleB then venticle; larvae moved  toward  warm water, not
                 cold, reaction to temperature distorted;  normal  processes
                 slowly restored when transferred  to clean  water.
     3rd phase - tetanic convulsions  of muscles on  alternately the right
                 and left sides of body; capacity  for  normal  movement lost;
                 changes almost totally irreversible.
     4th phase - weak motor activity; loss of all  reaction  to stimuli;
                 changes Irreversible.
     5th phase - complete paralysis and death.
     The lethal concentration was measured to be about 1 mg/1.  Symptoms
of toxicity of phenol to goldfish were listed by Vishnevetskii (1962)  as
Inflammation and necrosis of the gills, dystrophy of the parenchyma  and
sedimentation of yellow haemogloblnogenlc pigment and crystals of haematoldin
in the  liver, kidneys and heart.  Herbert (1962) determined that the threshold
concentration for  rainbow trout  (Salmo galrdnerii) in a gas-liquor phenol
mixture was between 4.2 and 5.0 mg/1.  Toxicity was not affected appreciably
by the  pH, but  toxicity did increase  as the dissolved oxygen concentration
decreased.  Fish  (species not  given)  exposed to a concentration  of 3-5 mg/1
                                    79

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phenol exhibited behavioral  changes (jumping  and  other escape  reactions);
at 10 mg/1 gills became hyperemic and the skin produced a mucus, containing a
strongly foaming secretion; and at 16 mg/1  fish were  paralyzed  and sank
(Skrapek, 1963).  In oxygen - saturated water  containing 17 mg/1  phenol,
37 per cent of experimental fish died in 1-12  hours;  50 mg/1  phenol  killed
all fish within 15 minutes.  Experiments on carp in connection  with  a mass
mortality of Plecoglossus altivelis indicated  that the lethal concentrations5
for phenol and for formalin were 25-27 mg/1 (0.0063 and 0.0066  per cent),
and 0.93 - 1.02 mg/1 for a mixture of the two  compounds (Ikuta, 1964).
PETROLEUM WASTES
     Probably one of the biggest problems posed by the disposal of petroleum
wastes into the sea concerns the BOD requirements.  ZoBell  (1963) calculated
that the complete oxidation of one liter of heavy mineral  oil,  if dispersed in
a water mass contining 8 mg02/1, would deplete the oxygen  from  4008000  liters
of sea water.
                                  \
     A biological monitoring survey of an area of Puget Sound where  an  oil
refinery disposes of its wastes revealed that communities  of algae and  aquatic
plants, mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms, polychaetes,  coelenterates  and
fish in the different tidal zones were normal  in their relative abundance
and physiological states and that beach rocks were relatively free of oil
residues  (Oglesby and Sylvester, 1964).
    Blades from bottom kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) fronds  were  subjected both to
one per cent Navy diesel and boiler fuels blended with sea water for two
days  (North, 1964).  All controls showed increased photosymthetfle capacity
but in apical and small blades photosynthesis was eliminated by exposure to
both oils.  Large blades were inactivated by one per cent boiler fuel and
their capacity was reduced 85-90 per'cent by one per cent diesel fuel.
                                    80

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Young blades from surface canopies and bottom fronds  were exposed  to  surface

oil films (1 ml/527 on2) and to a range of concentrations of emulsified  dlesel

oil for different periods.  Changes in the photosynthetlc capacity were  measured

after one, three, and seven days exposure:

                                                 Per  cent photosynthetic
                                                     capacity after

   Sample             Exposed to                 1  day   3 days   7 days

Surface blades      Control sea water              -       134      157
                    Surface oil film                       33
                    Diesel oil in sea water:
                       1.00%                                0        0
                       0.10%                               20        0
                      .0.01%                       -        77.5      0

Bottom blades       Control sea water             135     142      236
                    Surface oil film              147       0
                    Diesel oil in sea water:
                       1.00%                       99       0       -
                       0.10%                      110       7       0
                       0.01%                      130      38       0

     Bottom blades were exposed to 0.1% dlesel oil  and boiler fuel emulsions

for periods ranging from 3 to 48 hours, after which they were washed and

maintained  in sea water.  The photosynthetlc changes after 4 and 7 days, are

shown below:

                                             Percent photosynthetic
                                                capacity after
Treatment                                 4 days            7 days

Control sea water                         105               104
  0.1% diesel oil:
      3 hrs                                75.5              75.5
      6 hrs                                68                61.5
      12 hrs                                0                 0
      24 hrs                               38                 0
      48 hrs                                6                 0
                                     81

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                                            Percent  photosynthetic
                                               capacity  after
Treatmsnt                                 °>  days             7  days
Control sea water                         137
  0.1% boiler fuel:
      3 hrs                                 00
      6 hrs                                 00
      12 hrs                               75                  0
      24 hrs                                0                  0
      48 hrs                                1.8               0
     An accidental release of crude oil  in Mil ford Haven was studied by George
(1961).  He found that even when the surface of the water was  covered by
a thick layer of oil, only a very thin film was deposited on littoral plants
and animals as the tide returned.  The intertidal  organisms most likely to
be affected were those occurring between lowest high water levels of neap tides
and highest high water levels of spring tides.   These included the acorn
barnacles Elminius modestus. Balanus balanojdes, and Chthamalus  stellatus;
the limpet, Patella vulgate; and the algae, Fucus spiral is and Pelvetia canaliculata.
In an area supporting limpets the amount of oil deposited was  much reduced
and residual patches exhibited characteristic  imprints of limpet radulae;
apparently the deposited oil did not prevent the limpets from  grazing over
the covered area inadvertently removing the oil.  There was no decrease in
the limpet population.  Six months after the accident, all oil was removed
from the area supporting limpets but not from the area above the uppermost
limpet population.  Barnacles suffered no unusual mortality, Pelvetia and
£-. spiral is grew at normal rates.
     Crude oil appeared to have no effect on the rate oysters  could clear
water of suspensions in it,  and  had no effect on the volume of suspended
matter taken in by oysters over a period of 11 days  (Lund,  1957).
                                    82

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     Crude oil solutions were toxic to 100 per cent of Daphnia  magna  1n
96 hours at 1 mg/1 (Dawden, 1962).  And even though there was  no visible
surface film, Daphnia were entrapped at the surface of the crude oil  solutions.
Tests gave the following results:
Material tested                  TLm (mg/1)
                           24-hr      48-hr    72-hr
Crude oil                  2110       1095     750
Emulsifier F                590        357     240
Crude oil + emulsifier F.    455.3      207.3   115
Emulsifier W                  5.5        3.0     1.7
Crude oil + emulsifier W      2.3        1.1     0.9
    These figures indicate that emulsifiers used to remove oil  fron an
area could do far more damage to aquatic biota than the oil itself.
Emulsifier W'was toxic to small bluegills  (Lepomis macrochirus) within
5 minutes at  10 mg/1.
     The toxicity of oils to fish  (Rhodeus'sericeos amarus, Phoxinus phoxinus
and Cyprinus  carpio) and to Daphnia magna  varied logarithmically with the
extent  of emusification by naphthenic acids (Malacca, Dure and Weiner,
1964).
                A waste effluent from Chevron of a confidential chemical
process (assumed  to be concerned with petroleum refining) was  tested for its
toxicity to.Cancer magister and  Cancer productus with the following results
 (Poole, 1967):
        Species                 Cone,  (o/oo)              % Survival
      Cancer magister              100                        0
     	B	              10                        70
                                    1                         97
                                    0.1                       86
                                    0.01                      68
      Cancer productus              0.1                       90
      	r	              Qj01                      92
                                    0.001                     60
                                      83

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     Bioassays on toxicity of gasoline,  diesel  fuel oil, and bunker oil to
American shad (Alosa sapidlssima)  indicated  that  the  lighter petroleum
products were more deadly than the heavier oils.  Gasoline was  the most
toxic, followed by fuel oil and then bunker  oil  (Tagatz, 1961).  The actual
values were:
     Petroleum product                       TLm (mg/1)
                                 24-hr          48-hr          96-hr
     Gasoline                     91             91
     Diesel fuel oil             204            167
     Bunker oil                   -            2417             1952
     Depressed dissolved oxygen concentrations increased toxicity  of  petroleum
products as follows:
Petroleum
product
Gasoline
Diesel fuel oil
Cone.
(rcg/1)
68
84
DO
(mg/1)
2.6-3.2
1.9-3.1
Mortality tiir,e i
50% 100:
50 60
270 300
SULFIDES
     Large amounts of organic matter deposited in the bottom sediments
of coastal and estuarine regions stimulate growth and activity of sulfate -
reducing bacteria, causing vigorous  sulfide production.  Sulfide concentration
1s often so high that animals and plants Inhabiting these regions are
severely injured (Hata, Mlyoshi, Kadota, and Klmata, 1964)
     Exploratory bioassays with volatile components of spent sulfite liquor
 (SSL)  - acetic and formic acids, methanol, ethanol, acetone, furfural,
 p-cymene,  formaldehyde  (as sodium formaldehyde bisulfide) and acetaldehyde
 in mixed  proportions as  to occurrence  in SSL - Indicated that as the concentra-
 tion (equivalent volatiles in SSL, in  mg/1) increased from 250 mg/1 to 4000 mg/1,
 the  percentage of normal mussel larvae produced  declined from 99 per cent
 to 1.6.8 per cent  (Dlnick and Breese,  1%5).  The-foil owing
                                    84

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comparison of 24-hour ECgo values for mussel  larvae  In aerated and unaerated

mixtures of kraft mill effluent (KME) and salt water shows that tha toxicity

of the KME declined both when mixed with saltwater and when aerated:
                          24-hour EC 50
                       Mean KME cone. (% vol)

                               1.7
                               2.7         ,

                               7.4
                                                 TO&rease  In
                                                 "toxicitv  1%)
Sample

Original KME sample
Unaerated salt
  water mixture
Aerated salt
  water mixture

     Studies on effects of sulflte waste. liquor (SWL)  on  egg  development
                                                t
of the oyster  Crassostrea vlrglnica  gave the following  results  (Hoelke,  1960):
                                                      37.1

                                                      76.3
SWL cone.
  (mg/1 )

    0
    2
    4
    9
   18
   39
   79
  150
  304
                   Average number
                     of larvae

                        8875
                        1375
                        1656
                        1875
                         500
                           0
                           0
                           0
                           0
                                           Percent of normal
                                            larvae developed

                                                 63.2
                                                •  9.7
                                                 11.8
                                                 13.3
                                                  3.6
                                                    0
                                                    0
                                                    0
                                                    0
      Larval  growth  studies on  Crassostrea indicated that growth rate declined

 with Increasing  SWL concentration, until on the 9th day, it was no longer

 evident.   Results of growth experiments on juvenile Venus mercenaria are as

 follows:
SWL cone.
(P8I mg/1)
\ * **_• _^zjj__^_f_
Control
4
9
18
39
79
Initial
Population
58.375
60,875
56,500
62,625
56,500
26,125
Terminal
Population
510750
57,500
20,500
24,000
53,800
2,500
Percent
survival
88.6
94.4
36.2
38.3
95.2
9.6
Initial
size (u)
188.4
185.8
186.1
189.1
183.2
161.6
Terminal
size (u)
307.3
269.4
232.9
237.6
248.2
206.0
Percent
Increase
63
45
25
25
35
21
                                    85

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     In areas where concentration  of sulfite waste liquor is high the dissolved
oxygen concentration may drop to levels  of  o.?5 to 0  mg/1, making an area
unsuitable for oysters (Gunter and McKee, 1961).  A  10 per cent PBI (Pearl-
Benson Index) sulfite waste liquor concentration of  25 mg/1 was found to
cause oxygen depression, and during low  flows  of the Chehalis River in
Washington oxygen depression occurred at 10 mg/1 of  10 per cent SWL.
Bioassays on Ostrea.lurida (Olympia oyster) indicated that the toxic threshold
concentration of 10 per cent SWL was between  8 and 16 mg/1, but for Crassostrea
gigas (Pacific oyster) it was between 50 and  100 mg/1 of 10  per cent  SWL  (Gunter
and McKee, 1962).  A SWL concentration of 16-25 mg/1 was inimical to  the
survival of larvae of 0. lurida and to the  setting of spat.  There was an
88 per cent survival of Crassostrea gigas larvae at  3-5  mg/1 SWL; 55  per cent
survival at 8-10 mg/1, 15 per cent survival at 10-12 mg/1, and complete
mortality of larvae at SWL concentrations over 13 mg/1.
     Low dissolved oxygen concentrations occurring at all depths  in
Porpoise Harbor (near Prince Rupert, B.C.)  in September, 1961, were
attributed to the decomposition of spent sulfite liquor. Bottom  samples
taken from 8 to 12 fathoms, however, revealed a large number of amphipods
crawling on branches, bark fragments and chips. Species included Anisogammarus
pugettensis, Synidotea sp (an isopod), and  Allorchestes  angustus.   A._
pugettensis is usually found in cold, slightly brackish  water  and A._
augustus in shallow, warmer brackish bays and estuaries. Neither species
had been previously reported as associated with polluted and/or low oxygen
waters'(Waidichuk and Bousfield, 1962).
                                    86

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     Waldichuk (1960) reported that spent sulfite  liquor and Kraft mill
effluent emptied Into the sea could have an  effect not  only on anadraious
fishes, but also on pelagic fishes, Pacific  herring smelt, and capalin,,
since   these fish come  Inshore to spawn and must enter the zone
of pollution created by these wastes.
     Tests by the Washington State Department of Fisheries  (1964) on  tha
toxic effects of sulfide compounds (sodlicn sulfide, Na2S)  in sea water on
salmon-indicated that fish in sulfide concentrations greater than 3.18 mg/1
were iirsnedlately distressed.  At 1.00 and 1.78 mg/1 sulfide, the mortalities
were 30 and 90 per cent, respecively, after 72 hours.  It  was  concluded that
a critical level below 1.0 mg/1 was indicated for sulfide.
     In Washington, migrant steelhead were seen in distress in a small
estuary where sulfides above  1 mg/1 have been detected.  Migrant sized steel-
head were  placed in  live cars in this area, and In 3 hours and 20 minutes
all fish were dead.   In laboratory tests, steelhead were exposed to a
effluent which is dumped into this estuary and which contain large amounts
of wood fiber.   In three minutes the fish lost their equilibrium and became
Immobile,  and in 15  minutes they were dead.
CYANIDES
     Proof is at hand that molecular HCN is the toxic  factor in water polluted
by  simple  alkali  cyanides  (Doudoroff, Leduc,  and  Schneider, 1966). It was
stated that the  cyanide  1on £er se cannot be  the  principal lethal factor
because of Its  relatively  low concentration  In  acid, neutral, or slightly
alkaline cyanide solutions,   but apparently small  variations  in pH can
greatly influence the toxicity of seme  complex  cyanides, and  hence the amount
of CO- present in a given  situation should  be of concern also.

                                     87

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     Exposure of the foraminlferan, HoMd-ii'm  cn'spmn.  to 4rr.M/l of  Na3CN
slowed down uptake of cesium-137 by-the  organism.   Removal of  the cyanide
after 48 hours resulted in partial recovery of uptake,  but after 95 hours
exposure the animals did not recover.  The exposure to  cyanide apparently
caused'a fall 1n the potassium content of the  organism  from  61 to 19 mM/kg  and
a rise in sodium from 55 to 94 mM/kg.  This suggested that cesium uptake
might be handled by the mechanism for potassium balance (Bryan, 1953).
     Based on studies ftfathe effects of cyanide on many freshwater  organisms
(Hydra attenuate; Planaria tigrina;  Limnodrilus sp.; Bithynia  tentaculata;
Daphnia magna; Cyclops sp.; Asellus  aguaticus; Rutilus  rutilus; Leucaspuis
delineatus; and Acerina cernua). Gillar (1962) suggested a maximum  permissible
concentration of cyanides 1n waste water of about 0.01  mg/1  free cyanide for
the least  resistant animals  such as planktonic crustacea in water of low
flow.and 0.1 mg/1 cyanide for other species in flowing water.
      Doudoroff, Leduc, and Schneider (1966) found that bluegills (Lepomis
macrochirus) could  tolerate indefinitely a free cyanide concentration near
                       f
or below 0.15 mg/1.  The 48-hour and 72-hour TLm's were both  found  to be
near  0.16  mg/1 as HCN.  At 0.155 mg/1 6 of 10 fish survived 72 hours; at
0.18  mg/1  HCN 7 of  10  fish died within 24 hours and 2 more died in she following
2 days.  There was  no  death or  distress at 0.14 mg/1.  Therefore,  the ultimate
TLm of molecular  HCN  for  bluegills was established at  0.14-0.15 mg/1.
      Experiments  on the toxiclty of cyanide and complex heavy metal cyanides
 to  fathead minnows  (Pimephales  promelas)  gave the following results
 (Doudoroff, 1956):

-------
                                            Tim (mg/1 CN)
     Compound                    24 hour      48 hour      % hour
     NaCN                        0.25         0.24         0.23
     NaCN+ZnS04                  0.20         0.19         0.18
     NaCN*dS04                  0.23         0.21         0.19
     NaCN+NiS04                  2.5          0.95         0.65
HALOGENS
     In the San Joaquin River estuary,  Aldrtch (1961) found an apparent
Increase 1n the incidence of the £mphipoda  Corophlim splnicotvis, with an
Increase 1n chloride content of the water.   The number dredged at Antioch,
Californiakwas 14.3*2.4 In May (chloride concentration 15-17 mg/1) and 41.5*9.7
          T
1n August(ch1oride concentration 980-1330 mg/1).
     When larvae of the oyster, Ostraa  edulls, ware exposed to chloride
concentrations of 6 and 20 mg/1 for 6 and 12 minutes, respectively, there was
an  Indication of mortality at the higher concentration.   There was little
difference 1n the mortalities of oyster  larvae exposed  to 3 mg/1  for 2, 4,
and 20 minutes and control larvae.  Of larvae exposed to chloride  concen-
trations greater than 200 mg/1 a few were still  swloing after 12  hours, but
very few survived 24 hours.  Exposure of larvae of the  barnacle,  Elcninus
modestus, to chloride concentrations of 5.0 and 50 mg/1  for 10 minutes
resulted in 100% mortality.  A concentration of 0.5'rag/l chloride had little
effect, but at 1.0 mg/1  chloride the per cent of surviving larvae dropped
considerably.  Four days after their exposure to chloride, very few larvae
were still alive In the  groups exposed to 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 mg/1 chloride,
and no  growth  sznong the  survivors was noted  (Uaugh, 1964).
     Mortalities of juvenile  dura salmon1 (Oncorhynchus keta) in live box
bioassays  occurred when  the  free chlorine concentration of the water In
Puget  Sound  was at 50 mg/1, with a pH below  6.5, a suifide concentration

                                     89

-------
of 0.5 mg/1, or a dissolved oxygen concentration  approaching  zero  (Bartsch,
Callaway. Wagner, and Woelke, 1964).
     A free chlorine concentration of 0.25 mg/1 and  greater had  a  direct
toxic effect on yearling chlnooic salmon•(Oncorhynchus'tshfivj.ytscha).
In 0.1 rcg/1 chlorine fish becraa distressed during the  first  hour  of exposure,
exhibiting jaw snapping and labored respiration.  Significant kills of  pink
salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) occurred at chloride concentrations of  0.119,
0.274, and 0.375 mg/1 during 9-day exposures,and  in  two days  in  concentrations
of 0.091 and 0.183.mg/1 residual chlorine (94 and 100 per cent kills)
(Washington State Department of Fisheries, 1964).  In chloraznlne,  total kills
of pink salmon'occurred 1n concentrations of 0.20 mg/1  residual  chlorine  and
1.17 mg/1 ammonia.  In a 72-hour exposure there was  a 13.3 per cent mortality
in 0.15 mg/1 residual chlorine.  Chinook salmon suffered total kills  in
residual chlorine concentrations of0.15 mg/1  and higher in 24 hours.
The critical level for a 72-hour exposure appeared to be less than 0.1  mg/1
residual chlorine, and the actual toxic limit approximated 0.05  mg/1,   for
periods of 23 days or longer.
RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
     According to Lowman (1963) there are nine principal factors controlling
the uptake and retention of radionuclides by marine  organisms.  They  Include:
1)  amount of radionucllde introduced into the sea
2)  the site of Introduction in relation to position and depth
3)  the degree of physical dispersion by currents and gravity
4)  the chemical and physical characteristics of  the radioelement
5)  the chemical and physical forms of non-radioactive  materials associated
    with the radionucllde.
                                 90

-------
6)  the degree of Isotope dilution of the radioelement by the  corresponding
     stable element (or chemically similar elements  in sea water)
7)  the degree to which the radionuclide is. adsorbed to organisms.
8)  the degree of selective uptake by organisms
9)  biological half-life of the element in the organism.
     Plankton in the sea at Eniwetok Proving Ground  showed a concentration
factor for induced radioactivity of 10,000 one week  after contamination,  and
30,000 after six weeks.  The percentage of total  radioactivity contributed
by fission products and by neutron-induced isotopes  (uranium 237,  cobalt-57, 59,
and 60; iron-55, 59; z1nc-65; and manganese-54)  in plankton from this area were:
   Isotope                             % Total Radioactivity
Ruthenium, zirconium and uranium               13.0
Barium-140; lanthanum-140                      23.0
Cesium-137; barium-137                          0.0
Cobalt-57, 58, 60                              43.0
Iron-'55, 59                                    16,0
Zinc-65                                         3.0
Manganese-54                                    0.0
Total radioactivity
(disintegrations/m1n/gm dry weight)             2.3  x 10°
Phosphorus-32 and zlnc-65 were traced through a salt marsh ecosystem where
it was found that the ordinary phytoplankton population did not retain
measurable amounts of phosphorus-32 or zlnc-65.   No  P-32 was found in
Soartina and only occasional traces of Zn-65.  But two weeks after the study began
a bloom of Kryptoperldinium appeared and contained significant amounts of
both (Pomeroy, Adum, Johannes, and Roffman, 1966).
     In marine food chains phytoplankton, on the first trophic level, acted
as membrane filters through which seawater passed.  Low levels of cerium-141,
potass'iion-40, ruthenium-103, zinc-75 were found; z1rconium-95 and nirob1um-95
were found with a total count of 250; chromium-51 with 350 total counts
(Osterberg, Pearcy, and Curl, 1964).
                                  91

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     Plant and animal  life along  the  Washington and Oregon coasts was sampled
for concentrations of z1nc-65,  a  nonfisslon  product contained 1n the Hanford
reactor effluents emptied Into  the Columbia  River (Watson, Davis, and Hanson,
1961 and 1963).  Algae (Fucus sp.) and plankton near  the mouth of the river
contained 80 uuc/gm wet weight, presumably due to their high surface area  -
body tfiight ratios  and ability to absorb.  In experiments on the accumulation
of nitrosyl ruthenium by the marine algae Porphyra lanceolate, Ulva  lactuca.,
and Laminaria dlgitata. the last species accumulated  more  ruthenium-106
per unit surface area than did the first two species: 18 muc/5  discs  (1.6  cm.
diameter) in 20 days as compared to 6 muc/5 discs and  <2  muc/5 discs
in 20 days  for Ulva lactuca and Porphyra  1 aciniata, respectively (Jones, 1960).
Gross beta  radioactivity of kelp, Laminaria agardhii, and sea lettuce,
Ulva lactuca, from Fishers Island Sound in Connecticut was studied and
yielded the following results  (in micromicrocurles per gram of ash) (Hat-
field, Skauen, and Rankin, 1963):
 Date  of
 collection
 1960
  April
  May
  July
  August
  Octooer
  November
  December
Laminaria aqardhil
Area H
284
325
294
338

230
200
236
438
Area In

345
317
291

265
163
258
253
Area Is

323
342
282
236
237
173

179
Ulva lactuca
Area In

169
157
153
218
103
43
92
100
Area Is

146
115
125
143
65
36


                                   92

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Date of
collection

1961
 January
 February
 March
 April
 May
 June
          Lami nan a agardhll


Area H       Area In      Area Is
                                                           Ulva  lactuca
375
313
288
280
343
281
316
356
325
224
247
322
380
347
260
334
280
255
326
320
325
                            Area In
103
 75
 91
107
147
168
131
                             Area Is
 74
108
 97
100
(65
     Sea lettuce, Ulva lactuca was kept 1n a zinc-65 concentration of 8 uc/1.

In the dark  there was little absorption of the Isotope, but 1n light the

z1nc-65 activity in water decreased rapidly, Indicating uptake by the algae.

Z1nc-65 at the above concentration did not affect the photosynthetic rate

of Ulva. Low temperature (2°C) also decreased the uptake of zinc by the

algae  (as opposed to 22°C).  The absorption of zinc-65 was twice as high at

pH8  .as at pH7; and 3 times as high at pH9 as at pH8 (Gutknecht, 1961).

The  uptake and retention of z1nc-65 and ceslun-137 by seawater was reported

by Gutknecht (1965), with uptake as the concentration factor  (CF) and

retention as the biological halflife (Tbl/2):
Cs'37 zn" Total zinc
(tag/kg)
Species
Ulva lactuca
Codiisn decorticatun
Fucus ygsiciilosiis
TJTcTyota dlchotcma
Porphyra unibl 1 1 cal 1 s
Chnnflrns crispus
Graci IftFi a fol 1 i fera
AaardhleUa tenera
Hypnea musciforffils
CF*
7
4
30
10
5'
,30
25
6
11
Tbl/2
(days)
5
15
8
3
2
12
21
CF
290
30
3,300
280
255
210
395
« 150
Tbl/2
(days)
4
7
100
14
7
60
70
Fresh wt
23.8
0.96
124
5.70
5.83
9.78
3.54
Dry wt
158
17.0
472
35.0
37.7
91.4
23.2
Growth**
15.0
7.9
3.0
8.2
7.5
1.8
5.3
5.2
5.5
    * concentration factor
    ** percent increase 1n fresh weight per day
                                     93

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     There appeared  to  be  no  significant correlation between net production
(growth rate)  and the concentration  factors or biological half-life.
Exposure to light increased the  uptake of  cesiusn-137 by Gracllarla by a factor
of 45; anoxia decreased uptake by a  factor of only 0.31.  Another study on
uptake of ceriura-144 by planktonic algae reported the  following concentration
factors (number of times concentrated in algae over the sea water concentration)
(Chipman, 1959):
                          Concentration Factor
Species                     after 0.5 hours            after 24 hours
Carteria                        314                        2422
Flatynonas                     1843                        2127
Nitzschk                       518                        1970
TalTassUDsina                  2610                        33*6
l^pOTfnTgnTlebsi             3001                         4498
Porphy indium802                        3344
      Brown  algae  (Fucus furcatus) and green algae  (Enterofr.orpha intestinalis)
collected  from  various points along the Washington and Oregon coasts showed
the  following concentrations of gszraa oltters (Watson, Davis, and Hanson, 1963):
                    Concentrations of gc-^ia emitters
                       (pc/gm standard dry v;3ight)
                    Ilwaco,           Millapa Bay,         Ilwaco,       Seaside,
                     Wash.              Wash.               Wash.         Ore.
 Isotope           1959    1960      1959     1960        1959     1960     1959
 Zn65               880     850      10       13          610     1600      11
                                                                            27
880
190
78
26
0
3.7
850
0
51
0
64
0
10
49
18
47
19
5.1
13
42
1.1
0
12
0
 Ru103&Ru106         78       51       18        1.1                           7.8
                                                                            17
 Cel41&Cel44          0       64      19       12                             9.8
                                                                             2.4
                                  94

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     The uptake of radioactive .cesium by marine invertebrates was  reported

by Bryan (1963) as follows:
   Species

Coelenterata
   Actinia equina

   Tealta felina

   Mgtridiien senile
   "CaTliactls parasitica
Annelida
   Nsreis divarsicolor
   Peri nereis cultrilfera
Tirne(hrs)    Whole animal COCK, factor for Cs
                                                                          137
  689
  672
  816
  383
  67?'
  672
  816
  212

 1406
  800
Echlnodeyroata
   Psc:.^achinusmiliaris        50 min
      Cbel cm i c fTui d
      Aristotle's lantern
         (muscle teeth)
      Gut
      Gonad
      Shell (including tube feet)
Tunicata
   dona intectinalis
473
      Test
      Gut
      Pharynx and body
        wall muscles
           9.0
           6.1
           7.1
           4.6
          1009
           4.2
           5.7
           5.8

           6.3
           7.5

Tissue cone, fsdor for

           1.01
           9.1
           1.9
          28.1
          17.7
           4.0
                        1.01
                        1.11
                        4.6
                        6.5
      In a salt marsh filter feeders and deposit feeders were the first to

 show  concentrations of phosphorus-32 and zinc-65.  The mussel Modiolus

 datnissus was a sensitive  indicator and the oyster Grassestrea virginica

 was the most sensitive indicator  for zinc-650  Apparently the bottom sediments

 served as a reversible sink,  so that detritus  feeders began to concentrate
                                      95

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amounts of phosphorus-32  and  z1nc-65 within hours of its introduction and

reached their peak activities within a  few days (Poneroy, Odra, Johannes.

and Roffinan, 1961).  The  amount  of zinc-65 found in oysters and wjssels

along the Washington and  Oregon  coasts  appeared to be directly related to

the amount available in the water in which they live.

     Mussels located 100  miles  from the mouth  of the Columbia River  (which

contains effluents -from the nuclear reactor at Hanford) contained one-tenth

of the amount of zinc-65  found  in mussels at the mouth of the river  (Watson,

Davis and Hanson, 1961).   Actual concentrations found in mussels and clams

at various locations were:

                                      Cone,  (uuc/gm wet wt)     Year
Species
Place

Coos Bay, Ore
  200 mi*
Boiler Bay, Ore
  100 mi
Seaside, Ore
  12 mi.

Ilwaco, Wash.
  0 mi.

Long Beach, Mash
  8 ml

Wlllapa, Wash.
  36 mi

Kelaloch, Wash
  95 mi.
Dungeness, Wash.
  250 mi
   * miles  from river mouth
mussels
mussels
oysters
razor clams
mussels
mussels
razor clams
razor clams -
mussels
mussels
mussels
razor clams
razor clams
razor clams
oysters
oysters
oysters
mussels
razor clams
mussels
oysters
3
2
3
1
8
36
22
15
29
100
148
11
19
26
42
33
34
10
5
2
4
1959
1950
1960
1950
1959
1959
1959
1960
1957
1959
1960
1959
1959
1960
1957
1959
1960
1959
1959
1959
1959
                                       96

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     Jones (1960) found that the shell  of the mussel  could accumulate.
much rutheniin       (about 160 muc/gm wet weight in  20 days);  in the same
time, the concentrations in the digestive gland, flesh, and foot were 30,
15, and 10 muc/gm wet weight, respectively.  When placed in fresh sea water,
the shell lost 50 per cent of Its ruthenium-106 concentration in 24 hours,
but the flesh lost less than 5 per cent.  In 7 days of fresh sea water, the
shell had lost 60 per cent and the flesh 20 per cent.
     The average gross beta activity for five species of mollusks from
Fisher's Island Sound, Connecticut were reported by Hatfield, Skauen, and
Rankin (1963) as follows:
                           Average gross beta activity (uuc/gm ash)
                                      Sampling Areas
Species                AB      CDEG      H      In    Is
Crassostrea virginica  62   74     90   50   61
Mercenaria mercenarla       82.5   93 •      87    95.5   85.4
My til us eduTTT87               106
ModTbTilslemissus      66   81               103
Laminaria"agardlvri -                                       303    289   277
     Bay scallops, Pecten  irradiensf, accumulated radioactivity on their  shells,
in  the liquor drained  from the meat when shucked, and  1n  the body mass.
In  3 days the adductor muscle concentrated  radioactivity  to about ten  times
the amount found 1n  surrounding water,  and  the  body mass  had accumulated
20  times that amount (Rice, Baptist, and Price,  1964).  Strontium-90
apparently does  not  concentrate  in the  soft tissues of oysters,  clams, and
scallops, but rather on  the  shell.  Cesium-137  was accumulated  to high levels
by  the  soft  tissues, with  the  highest  concentration  being reached 1n the muscles.
                                     97

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Clams concentrated cesium-137 to a greater extent than  oysters,  but  scallops
probably represent more of hazard to man,  since  we eat  only  their  adductor
muscle which is very high in radionuclide  concentration (Chipman,  1959).
These results are backed up by Price (1962).   Cesium fed to  clams  through
a culture of Nitzschia closterium was accumulated to a  maximum level after
20 days with 23 per cent of that made available  being accumulated.  Shellsf
contained the highest level of activity, then meats, then liquors.
     Radiation effects on oysters and clams were also studied by Price.
Animals were irradiated with a 350,000 r/hour cobalt-60 source.  The
LD50 for clams and oysters were:
     Organism                 Time  (days)       LD^o (r).
       Clams
        Oysters
5.5
4.5
fr.5-
25.5
38.5.
26
34
36.5
35
40
48
— uw 	
186,656
163,324
-tS9099?
H68600
930-238
186,656
93,328
46,664
23,332
11,666
5,833
      According to the U.S.  Fish  and  Wildlife  Service, Bureau of Counercial
 Fisheries, Radiobiological  Laboratory in  Beaufort,  North  Carolina  (1966),
 scallops are a much more sensitive Indicator  of radioactive fallout  than
 are oysters.  They are capable of concentrating 100 times as much  manganese-54
 as oysters are of concentrating zinc-65.   Concentrations  of manganese-54
 i
 in bay scallops collected near Beaufort,  N.C.,  were:
                                        98

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Samples                      M5^ (pc/gm)          Hn54  (pc/anlnal)
Kidneys                      20.8±5.3              13.1*3.6
Liquid                       0.28*0.22             1.81  0.98
Mantle                       0.25*0.15             0.82i'0.32
Gonads                       0.44!o.30             1.0:0.50
6111s                        0.4810.27             1.6±0.89
Muscle                       0.8310.36             5.513.0
Visceral mass                1.410.75              3.812.2
Kidneys                      197*40                49132
Kidneys                      128135                52121
     Clams 1n 50 uc of zlnc-65 per 200 liters of sea water concentrated zinc 179
times the water concentration in 272 days; clams in a concentration of 100 uc
zinc-65 in 200 liters of sea water concentrated the zinc 158 times that of
the water concentration.
     White shrimp Penaeus duorarum (sic) were found- to accumulate low levels
of radioactivity from a fission product mixture in sea water.  Highest
levels were found in the exoskeleton, then the head and viscera, and finally
in the muscle  (Rice, Baptist, and Price, 1964).  Euphausia pad f ice,
a filter-f ceding^ herbivorous,, pi anktonic crustacean situated on the second
trophic level  of the marine food web, was determined to contain less -chromium-Si
but more zinc-65 (400 total counts),  cerii*n-141fl ruthenium- 103, zirconium-
nirob1um-95 than phy topi ankton in the first trophic level,  indicating that
particulate radionuclides are plekedup both directly by euphausiids or by
adsorption to  particles which are eaten by the euphausiid (Osterberg, Pearcy,
and  Curl, 1964).  Osterberg  (1962) maintained that because  euphausiids are
effective concentrators of most  radionuclides, they would make good Indicators
 for  measuring  radioactive fallout.   He  also  used  them as  indicators for
measuring Columbia  River water off the  coast of Oregon  (Osterberg, Pattullo,
 and  Pearcy,  1964).   Because  of wastes from the Hanford  nuclear reactor,
                                      99

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water in the river 1s high 1n z1nc-65 and because  Euphausia  concentrates
z1nc-65, 1t made a good Indicator of the presence  of this water  -in the Pacific
Ocean.  Average values of z1nc-65 in euphausiids at  different  t'mss  of the
year at stations off the Oregon coast ware:
                       Concentration zinc-65 (ps/grn  dry v.*3ight)
Date                 Astoria     Newport     Coos  Bay    Breedings
July-August 1961       43          74              31
NovaTiber 1961          21          22              20
January 1962           13          16               8
March-April 1962       57          12               8
July-August 1962       16          34              23       10
     An iodine-131 solution containing 17.34 uc injected into the stomachs
of 28 blue crabs gave the following percentage distribution 1n various
tissues (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
Radioblological Laboratory, Beaufort, North Carolina, 1966):
Time(days)                              Radioactivity (%)
            Gills  Stomach  Shell  Gonads  Muscle  Hepato-pancreas  Blood
 2          53.4   20.8     13.3   1.7     1.2            5.7      '..3«9
 4          42.9   34.6     12.6   2.7     2.1            2.4        2.6
 6          46.7   30.8     11.3   5.7     2.8            2.4        1.6
 8          54.8   27.4     12.4   2.0     1.9            1.7        0.8
10          49.9   33.2     11.1   0.4     3.6            1.5        0.3
13          64.7   20.2      9.1   0.7     2.6            2.4        8.3
      It was noted  that the translocatlon of the iodine was about the same on
the 13th day  as on the second  day.
      A group  of Artesnia  salina nauplii ware irradiated with 10,000 r from
a cobalt-60 source.   Respiration  was  Increased, but  not significantly.
The  respiration of female adults  was  Increased significantly by a similar
dose, but  two other-doses of 4000 and 20,000  r had  negligible effects.
                                       100

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With males, respiration decreased as the radiation  dose  increased.   (U.S.
F1sh and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Ccraercial  Fisheries  Radiobiolcgical
Laboratory, Beaufort, N.C., 1966).
     Concentrations of various ganana emitters were  found 1n  Dungeness  crabs
(Cancer magister) off the Washington-Oregon Coast as follows (Watson,
Davis and Hanson, 1963):
                                      pc/gm std dry weight
Location           Year  Zn65  Cr*l   Ru103-Rul06  Zr95.Nb95  ce^l-Ce
Ilwaco, Wash.      1959  76     21       66          2.5         0       0.75
Willapa Bay Wash.  1960  36      5.4      2.6        0           6.9     0.20
     Bryan (1963) reported the accumulation and concentration factor of
radioactive cesium in the shrimp, Squill a desmaresti. as follows:
        Tissue                              Cone, factor; Cs137
        Plasma                               1.4
        Abdominal muscle                    19;4
        Raptorial lim muscle                19.8
        Gut and digestive gland             22.0
     Whole animal concentration factors of cesium-137 in the isopods Sphaeroma
serratum .and As ell us aguatus  averaged 7.7 and 64.5, respectively.  The one-
day and 7-day uptake of cesium-137  by lobsters could be found, according
to  Morgan  (1964), by the  following  equations:
             7 day uptake = 4.8  (wt of  lobster) 0.79 x  (water cone)
             1 day uptake * 0.90  (wt of lobster) 0.76 x (water cone)
      Fedorova  (1963) found that  the eggs and larvae of  Coregonus lavaretus
 1 udoga accumulated strontiisn-90  from water and  that the lower the-radioactivity
 of the water,  the greater the accumulation of strontium.
                                       101

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     Retention of cerlum-144 by the copepod Tigriopus  califcm-icus was  reported
by Chipmen (1959) as follows:
         Days          Activity (cpm/copspod)           Per cant  n.rnalrilng
          -0                 :7S03                           100
           1                   227                            3.2
           2                   123                            1.7
     Because the salt marsh fish  Fundulus. heteroclitus (mununichog)  and
Mugil cophalus (striped mullet) are detritus feeders, their uptake of
phosphorus-32 Introduced Into a salt marsh was very rapid (Pcrcaroy,  Odim,
Johannes, and Roffman, 1966).  Lantern fish (Lampanyctus leucopsarus)
occupy the third trophic level of the marine food web off the Oregon  coast
and feed on euphausiids, calanold copepodsB and amphipods.  Although they
accumulated only low levels of cerium-141, chromiisn-5Vrutheniwr!-103,
zirconlum-95, and potass1um-40; their concentrations of zinc-S5  ware very
high (35200 total counts).  Zinc-65 was the most conspicuous gcraa emitter
In both Lsmpanyctus leucopsarus and the carid prawn, Pasiphasa paclfica
O2300 total  counts), also accupying the third trophic level (Ostetfberg,
Pearcy, and Curl, 1964).
     Croaker  (Micropogon undulatus)  liransrsed in sea water containing a
fission-product mixture, acosnulated radioactivity rapidly at first,
concentrating large amounts  in their Internal organs.  Bones increased
gradually in  radioactivity,  and accounted  for much of the radioactivity which
was  retained  (Rich, Baptish  and Price, 1964).  Pinfish  (Lagodon rhoniboides)
were exposed  to  2000r. Following  Irradiation  the number of erythrocytes In
 irradiated  fish  decreased,  then returned to normal after  three  weeks.
 Seven  days  after exposure a  few cells showed  stained areas   in  the  cytoplasm,
                                       102

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resembling taature reticulated red blood cells.  On the  34th day after
exposures, all red cells showed' retlctrta.   It  was  postulated that this might
have been an over-compensation for radiation  Injury or death of all circulating
erythrocytes and 'their replacement by immature  cells.   Leucocytes showed an
teedtate reaction .to the irradiation.   Six hoars after exposureD tha number
of leucocytes peaked "at 179000/sroi30 then decreased to  a lev/ of 2000 /kmr
on the third day.  By the 21st dayc the number increased  to  14,,000/nun3  and
then decreased again to 2000/nsn3.  Thrombocytes decreased linearly  from the
first to the seventh days after exposure,, fluctuated wildlys then  increased
to control levels (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,, Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries Radiobiological Laboratory0 Beaufort, 'N.C. 1966).
     Studies at the same laboratory gave the following LD50  values  for  the
following marine fish:
                                                         LDgn (R)
Organism                     No. animals  Temp(°C)  Days  after irradiation
                                                    15     30     30     40     50
Juventle muumichog             280          21     1650   1220  1120    1075  1075
(Fyndulus heteroclitus)
juvenTte~s"triped mutTet        105          20     2750   2110   1450
^sfTa^al^mojarra            385          22     3750   3650   3500   2500  157£
(Eucinostomus sp.)
PosFlarvaTplnfish            410          17     4500   4075   3000   2375  225C
(Uqodon rhomboides)
tePFaFvaOFfanTTc           160          15     3625   1650   1050    925   -
  croaker
(Micropoqon undulatus)                                                        „ „.
PosFTarvaT Southern  "         105          14     8400   8000   5550   3075  192!
  flounder
(Parallcfchys. 1 ethos tigma)
                                        103

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     Mauchline and Taylor (1964)  found a good  correlation  between the amount
of beta activity In the effluent  from the Windscale  Works  of the United Kingdom
Atomic Energy Authority and resulting levels  in  the  guts of thornback rays,
Raia clavata.  A comparison of the concentration of  beta activity in different
organs of rays from the pipeline  area and areas  away from  the pipeline gave
the following results:
                 Gross B activity (uuc/gm wet weight)
               Pipeline  Off Duddon                 Two Feet Bank
Organ          end area    Estuary    Work'ingtOn      (Salway)
Cartilage
Flesh
Skin
Liver
Pancreas
Gonad
Stomach
Hindgut Wall
     The accumulation and retention of cesium-137 in four  species of marine
fishes - postlarval flounder, Paralichthys dentatus; at!antic croaker,
Micropogon undulatus; blue fish, Pomatomus saltatrix; and the little tuna,
Euthymmus alleratus -  was studied by Baptist and Price (1962).  In
flounder8 the rate of accumulation was uniform for the first 30 days,  then
leveled off at a concentration factor of 9 which increased to 11  when  weight
increase of fish slowed down.  Croaker accumulated low (0.005 uc/ml)  con-
centrations of ceslum-137 1n the muscle, liver, heart, and spleen after 29 days,
the radioactivity of menhaden after feeding on radioactive phytoplankton
cells was recorded as follows (Chipman, 1959):
7
47
91
18
27
..
26
..
3
2
11
5
3
3
2
2
4
1.3
1.5
2.5
2
-
3
3
3
4
3
4
4
9
3
2
                                       104

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                                 Per cent Dose
                        Digestive tract
              Gills      and  contents        Remainder of fish     Total
ftlliW \ 1 • • «* J
0 •
V
2
4
8
16
32
64
128
0*64- '
0.05
1.13
0.06
0.08
0.02
0.02
0.01
92.39
80.09
21.15
7.99
8.50
5.23
1.48
0.05
0.76
1.00
0.53
0.34
0.56
0.22
0.26
0.25
33.79
81.14
22.81
8.39
9.14
5.47
U76
0.31
     Repeated dally doses of mixed fission products  to  fish  resulted 1n
marked concentration of stront1um-90 in bones  and scales  and a gradual
accumulation of cesltm-137 1n body rayscles.  Ceriuni-144 concentrated rapidly
In the liver of croakers but Its ultimate greatest concentration was 1n  the
bone (Chipman, 1959).
     Artercila salina nauplii which had been kept In water  containing 0.001  uc/ml
z1nc-65 were fed to three species of flounder-Para!ichthys dantetus, P..
albigutta, and P. 1ethostigma. It was found that fish obtaining  z1nc-65
from food contained 1.6 times more zinc-65 than fish obtaining  1t fron water
only.  Fish exposed to z1nc-65 in both food and water had'concentrctions
approximately equal to the sum of the two sources individually.   Doubling the
amount of zinc in the water increased the rate of accumulation  so that fish
1n water of the high concentration reached the same level of activity  as fish
In the lower concentration in half the tirca (Moss, 1964).
    Teropleton (1966) reported the LD5Q for plaice, Pleuronoctes platessa.
as 1850.  Experiments on  the effect of radiation     'on  plaice eggs was
reported as follows:
                                    105

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Total dose
rads/iednys
10-3,
4 x 10-3
0.023
2.3
230.0

No. of eggs
933
1301
883
985
1297
Percent
hatcJisd
73.4
72.8
63.6
72.8
69.5
?
r
mm
0.12
20.G4*
o.n
4.32*
Abnormal
1 GFvae
6.2
6.4
2.3
3.9
1.5
Treatrcant

Control, 10"9 uc/ml
  10-7 uc/ml
  10-5 uc/ml
  TO"3 uc/ml
  10-« uc/ml

* highly significant

     Eggs were Irradiated at 0.5, 6.2 , 18.7, and 81 per cent of Incubation;

results Indicated that eggs in the early developmental stage (0.5 par cent)

were more resistant than eggs mow fully devsloped (Tempi eton9 1956).

     Uptake  of ruthenium-! 06 by various organs of plaice (Plem'or.actes

          indicated that the intestine and gut contents of fish taken
near an outfall for radioactive effluent from Sell afield, England contained

about 10 tiir.es as much radioactivity as other organs and flesh (Jones. 1960).

The uptake by fish of radioactivity fron fission products near Eniwetock

Provirvg Ground was reported by Lovraan (1963):

                          Per cent Radioactivity
                             Flying Fish
                        White muscle  Liver   'White muscle HLTverDark
                                               A    B     C    D      A      B
 Ruthenium  zlrconitsn         trace    trace    0.0  0.0   0.0  0.0    0.0    0.0

 Barium-140;  lanthanum-       0.0      0.0     0.0  0.0   0.0  0.0    0.0    0.0

 Cesiim-137;  bar1wn-l37m     0.0      0.0     1.1  0.0   0.0  0.0    0.0    0.0
 Cobalt-57,58,60             10.0      8.7     0.9  2.5   0.0  2.3    1.1    2.1
 Iron 55,59                 31.3     81.3     5.8  8.1  25.5 15.0   12.4    9.7
 Z1nc-65                    58.8      9.9    91.9 89.0  74.5 82U6   86.3   88.0
 Manganese-54                0.0      0.0     0.2  0.4   0.0  0.1    0.2    0.2
 Total radioactivity          2.2      1.1     3.3  1.2   3.6  2.0    5.3    9.2

                            10'      106      fc  ^   ,V
                                       106

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           Accumulation of gairzna  emitters by fish near the mouth of tha Columbia
      River yas reported by Watson,  Davis,  and Hanson (1963) as follows:
                       fiancna emitters  (pc/grn std. dry nalght)
Species          location ; Year  Zn^  CrU Ru^-Rn106  Zn»5-Nb95  Ce^l-
Starry flounder  Ilwaco,   1959  69     0       1.5          0.55        0        0.35
(Platichthys     Wash.
 stellatusT
Chinook salmon   Ilwaco,   1959  62     4.9     0           0           00
(Oncorhynchus    Wash.
 eshawytscha.
           The relationship of body weight and one-end seven-day uptakes  of
      ceslum-134 by plaice was determined by Morgan (1964) in the following equations:
              1-day uptake = 0.23 (wt. of plaice) °»76 x (water cone)
             14-day uptake = 2.8 (wt. of plaice) °'78 x (water cone)
      SURFACE ACTIVE AGENTS
           The effects of synthetic detergents on kelp, Macrocystis pryrifera,
      were studied by North (1964).  Both anionlc (SDS) and cationic (Zephiran
      chloride) detergents were used.  Their effects on the photosynthetic
      capacity of young  kelp blades ware reported as follows:
                                 Incubation Time     Percent initial
      Incubation fluid                (days)          photosvnthic capacity
      Control sea water                 1
                                        5
      SDS'llil9/1        '              I                   (high ntor temp.)
      SDS,  10 mg/1                      1               2*
                                        5                 9
       Zephiran  chloride, 1 rag/1         1               9^
       Zephiran  chloride, 10 mg/1        1               -12.5  (green and  flaccid)
         K                              5              blades  disintegrating
                                           107

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     Kelp blades and growing points  were  rapidly  injured  by 2 end 5 ra
ABS detergent, but not at 0.5 mg/1.   At concentrations  bctwsen 0.5 and 1.5 mg/1
a 50 per cent inactlvatlon of kelp  photosynthesis could be expected.
     Three stages in the larval  development of clems  (KigrcG'narla ir.jrca.iarla)
and    oysters  (Crassostrea vlrglnlcarfare tested in  concentrations of
synthetic surfactants of 0.25, 0.50, 1.00 ,2.50,  5.00, and 10.0 mg/1  for
10 to 12 days (Hidu, 1965).  Mean concentrations  affecting larval growth and
survival were as follows:
Type surfactant
Concentration (mg/1  active ingredient)

An ionic
Alkyl Aryl Sulfonata
Alkyl Sulfate
Cationic
Nonionic
Forall surfactants
Concentrations of
Clams

1.55
1.22
0.34
2.66
1.44
Oysters

0.76
1f\^
.07
0.25
2.00
1.02
synthetic surfactants affecting a 50 per cent reduction
in larval development were:
Test compound

Anionic
Alkyl Aryl Sulfonate
AAS-1
AAS-2
AAS-3
Alkyl sulfate
AS-1
Cationic
C-l
C-2
Nonionic
N-l
N-2
Active
Clams


5.83
0.94
1.03

0.47

1.27
0.0085

0.77
1.75
Ingredient (mg/1)
Oysters


1.63
0.27
0.39

0.37

0.49
0.09

0.86
1.60
                                   -108

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     Experiments with the synthetic detergent  Tida  (30.3  par cent A3S)
in seawater on eels (Anguilla rostrafia).  mtcrarichogs  (Fundulus  hate'.-oclltus).
winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes ansricanus).  mullet  (nmgil  cephalus)
and Atlantic silverside (Menidia menidia)  gave the following results  (Eisler,
1965):
                                               LC
                    Total No. Fish     24 hrs   24 hrs   96 hrs.
Mixnichog
Mullet
Flounder
Eel
Silverside
60
40
20
60
25
23.5
12.0
12.0
8.2
7.2
23.5
10.1
10.0
8.2
7.2
22.5
10.1
8.2
7.5
7.0
     A  concentration of 5.4 mg/1 was required to kill 25 per cent of a
 population of  silversides in 96 hours; 190 mg/1 synthetic detergent was
 required  for mionichogs.  Mtaranlchogs exposed for 150 days to 10 mg/1 synthetic
 detergent were not  significantly effected.  Three soaps, L,I  and D, purchased
 at a supermarket,were  tested on three of the above species with the following
 results (Eisler and Deuel, 1965):
                         Concentrations in tng/1
                                      24 hrs                  96 hrs
Soap
•^••••^•a
D
I
L
L
I
h*
L
Species
Total



i rv
i r%
i P>
No. Fish LDp£ LJkQ. LUjs. LUgg. uJga. "Lfr
miffiunichogs
misrjnichogs
micranichogs
mununichogs
mullet ;
silverside
42
42
150
70
30
70
1500
625
3000
1260
1520
1120
1780
750
3000
1530
2150
1420
2150
875
3000
1820
2620
1700
1080
625
875
1190
525
600
1360
750
1540
1450
750
810
1640
875
2340
1780
900
1120
      Concentrations of alkyl benzene sulfonate mixture containing  54.8 per
 cent ABS affected the feeding behavior of the flagfish Jordanella  floridae
                                      109

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in four days, even at the lov;ast concentration tested of 10 mg/1.  Fish in
solutions containing 65 mg/1  of the mixture  left worms  uneaten for 7 hours
after feeding, while fish in  solutions  containing  56 mg/1 had eaten all of
the worms by this time.
     The specific effect of ABS is to inhibit the  input of sensory •information
by which the fish distinguishes palatable (edible) and  unpalatable (inedible)
material.  When the olfactory epithelium is  damaged the inability to  taste
food makes the fish spit it out, take it in  again, and  spit  it out.
Fish subjected to ABS will eventually eat the worms, but  the time required
for consumption varied with the concentrations (Foster, Scheir and Calms,
                        /
1966).
                                     110

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