WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES • 18040 DAZ 04/72
Water Quality Criteria Data Book
Volume 4
An Investigation into
Recreational Water Quality
US ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES
The Water Pollution Control Research Series describes the
results and progress in the control and abatement of pollution
in our Nation's vjaters. They provide a central source of
information on the research, development, and demonstration
activities in the water research program of the Environmental
Protection Agency, through inhouse research and grants and
contracts with Federal, State, and local agencies, research
institutions, and industrial organizations.
Inquiries pertaining to Water Pollution Control Research
Reports should be directed to the Chief, Publications Branch
(Water)', Research Information Division, R&M, Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC 20460.
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Water Quality Criteria Data Book, Vol.
AN INVESTIGATION INTO RECREATIONAL
WATER QUALITY
Byron J. Mechalas
Kenneth K. Hekimian
Lewis A. Schinazi
Ralph H. Dudley
Prepared for
Office of Research and Monitoring
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
Project #180^0 DAZ
Contract # 1^-12-539
April 19T2
For sale by the Superintendent of Docfuta^'ttflC Government Printing Office, Washington, B.C., 20402 - Price $3.
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EPA Review Notice
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection
Agency and approved for publication. Approval does not signify
that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of
the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade
names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recom-
mendation for use.
11
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ABSTRACT
The Envirogenics Co., under sponsorship of the EPA, has developed
a new technique for establishing firm criteria for health risks associ-
ated with recreational water bodies. Initial analysis of data required
in this methodology has demonstrated that scientifically valid stan-
dards for recreational water quality can be formulated that should
replace the present rather arbitrary standards.
The basis of the method is a mathematical treatment of medical dose-
response data in conjunction with the probability of exposure over a
period of time to a given level of the potentially harmful "factor" such
that a quantitative risk can be assigned to the recreational activity.
Once a public health jurisdiction has established an acceptable level of
risk (perhaps in association with Federal quality guidelines), curves
produced by electronic data processing equipment can be used to ascer-
tain whether a particular water should be open to the public.
While sufficient data have been found on both the health effects and the
distribution of key factors to verify the effectiveness of the recommend-
ed procedure, informational gaps prevent the immediate adoption of the
system. The gathering of information to establish realistic standards
for key health-oriented factors would be an undertaking that could be
accomplished in a relatively modest program. Once the essential
information is obtained, it will be possible to put into practice the new
Envirogenics-developed criteria procedure with the most critical
factors. This advancement would be of great significance to the entire
field of water quality standards.
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CONTENTS
Section Page
I Conclusions 1
II Recommendations 3
III Introduction and Summary 5
IV Data Base 13
V The Factor to Criteria Conversion Methodology 31
VI Viruses as a Factor of Recreational Water Quality 39
VII Salmonella as a Factor of Recreational Water Quality 67
VIII Total and Fecal Coliforms as Indicators of
Recreational Water Quality 95
IX Pesticides as a Factor of Recreational Water Quality 1 09
X Temperature as a Factor of Recreational Water Quality 133
XI Oils as Factors of Recreational Water Quality 139
XII Chemical and Physical Factors of Recreational
Water Quality 143
XIII Acknowledgments 153
XIV Appendices 155
XV Bibliography 185
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FIGURES
JNo.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Parameters of the Health/Hazard Relationship
in Recreational Water
Potential Recreational Water/Health Hazard
Relationships
General Investigation Plan
The Factor to Criteria Conversion
The Truncated and Enhanced Convolution Series
Schematic of the Methodology
Factors that May Affect Virus Survival in Water
Virus Capabilities Vector (C )
Virus Requirements Vector (R )
Criteria for the Presence of Virus in a
Recreational Water
Coliforms and Fecal Coliforms as Indicators
of Virus Risk
Some Epidemiological Parameters of Salmonellosis
in Man
§± typhosa Capabilities Vector (Cp)
Salmonella - Other Capabilities Vector (C )
P
Criteria for the Presence of Salmonella in a
Recreational Water
Coliforms and Fecal Coliforms as Indicators of
Salmonella Risk
E. typhosa per Million Coliforms for
Varying Typhoid Fever Morbidity Rates
Relationship of Number of Salmonella to Coliform
in an Estuary
Expanded Portion of Figure 18 Curve
Various Parameters of the Pesticide-Water-Health
Page
8
9
15
33
35
36
41
57
61
65
66
68
83
85
91
94
98
104
106
Hazard Relationship 110
vi
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FIGURES (Continued)
No.
H^^^M^
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29-
30.
31.
32.
Distribution of Pesticide Residues by Chemical
Class, 1967-68
Pollutants in Ohio River Water - Total Chloroform
Extractables
Pollutants in Ohio River Water - Aromatic -Soluble
Fraction (Chlorinated Hydrocarbons)
Pollutants in Ohio River Water - Oxygenated
Compounds (Phosphates, Esters)
Relationship Between the Concentration of DDT in the
Bodyfat of Man and the Daily Dose
Increase in the Concentration of DDT in the Bodyfat
of Men with Continuing Intake
Temperature Distribution for the Ohio River
pH Distribution for the Ohio River
Relationship Between Secchi Disc Visibility and
Water Turbidity in the Illinois River
Turbidity Distribution for the Ohio River
Histogram Constructed from Raw Data for S. typhosa
S. typhosa Cp as Selected by BSTFIT
Page
117
122
125
127
129
131
138
146
149
152
179
182
vii
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TABLES
No.
1. Rationale for State Standards 18
2. Summary of Total Coliform Standards for
Bathing Waters 21
3. Summary of Fecal Coliform Standards for
Bathing Waters 23
4. Summary of pH Standards 24
5. Summary of Maximum Temperature Standards 26
6. Summary of Temperature Fluctuation Standards 27
7. Summary of Pesticide and Oil Standards 28
8. Summary of Clarity Standards 29
9. Human Enteric Viruses and Diseases 40
10. Frequency and Types of Enteric Virus Isolated from
Sewage of the City of Albany 43
11. Time in Days for 99.9 Per Cent Reduction of
Indicated Organism in Raw Sewage 46
12. Infection of Human Volunteers with Attenuated
Poliovirus 1 49
13. Infectivity of Enteroviruses for Man by the Oral Route 49
14. Viral Dose-Response of Humans 51
15. Virus Capability Vector (Cp) Using 25 Random Samples 58
16. Virus Requirement Vector (Rq) Formulated from
Melnick Data 60
17. Limitation of Virus Exposure and the Resultant Risk
to a Population 63
18. Derivation of Equation to Describe Recreationist Risk
as a Function of Virus Criteria 64
19. Ten Most Frequently Reported Salmonella Serotypes
from Humans 69
20. Number of S_. typhi and_S_i paratyphi B in a Gram of
Feces of Carriers 71
vlii
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TABLES (Continued)
No. Page
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29-
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
Survival Data for Salmonella
S. typhosa Capabilities Vector (Cn)
S. - Other Capabilities Vector (Cp) for 69 Challenge
Cases
Salmonella Factor Requirements Data
Salmonella Total Requirements Vector (Rq) Using 25
Random Numbers
Truncated Convolution of Dose Effect and Factor Con-
centration Based on McCoy's Data (X1000)
Derivation of Equation to Describe Recreationist Risk
as a Function of Salmonella Criteria
Summary of Data from Studies of Bathing Water Quality
Occurrence of Salmonella and E. coli in a Estuary
Organic Phosphorus Pesticides
Toxicity to Humans of Chlorinated Pesticides
Average Incidence and Daily Intake of 15 Pesticide
Chemicals
Dietary Intake of Pesticide Chemicals
Pollutants in Ohio River Water - Total Chloroform
Extractables
Pollutants in Ohio River Water - Aromatics (Chlorinated
Hydrocarbons )
Pollutants in Ohio River Water - Oxygenated Compounds
(Organophosphorus Compounds, Esters, etc. )
Limits of Temperature Tolerance for Unclothed Humans
Temperature Distribution - Ohio River Water
pH Concentration Distribution - Ohio River Water
Turbidity Distribution - Ohio River Water
Summary of State Recreational Water Quality Criteria
77
82
84
87
89
90
92
101
103
112
114
118
119
123
124
128
136
137
145
150
156
IX
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TABLES (Continued)
No. Page
42. jS. typhosa Raw Dose Response Data 178
43. Salmonella typhosa Capabilities Vector (Cp) Using 181
25 Random. Numbers
44. Summary of Salmonella - Other Dose - Response Data
Input to BSTFIT 183
45. Salmonella Total Requirements Vector (Rq) Using
25 Random Numbers 184
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
1. The factor to criteria conversion methodology developed permits
the assessment of risk to recreationists entering waters with
various hazard distributions.
2. The methodology of utilizing medical dose response data and
factor concentration in the water as inputs into a mathematical
model objectively develops risk curves.
3. The mathematical model developed for computer programming
greatly facilities the handling of the collected data.
4. Water quality standards should be based on acceptable levels
of risks to the user population. These can then be translated
into specific factor concentration requirements for each water
under an agency's jurisdiction.
5. Most State standards have no specific experimental foundation
for their requirements. Most refer to other standards to the
experience of others, or to one or two classical publications
in the literature.
6. Contrary to several published views, Salmonella typhosa is
not a significantly more infective pathogen than are the other
Salmonella species.
7. The total coliform or fecal coliform concentration in a water
must be exceptionally high (~8 x 10^ MPN/100 ml water)
before a significant level of risk (1 case/ 1CP) is faced by a
recreationist.
8. In a given polluted water, the virus-coliform ratio, rather
than the Salmonella-coliform ratio, will probably be the
determining parameter in the setting of coliform standards.
9. In general, pesticides cannot be considered significant recre-
ational water hazards. In most cases, and especially for the
chlorinated hydrocarbons, the concentrations constituting risks
are far in excess of water solubility.
10. Temperatures between 60°F and 93°F can be considered as
the range for ordinary recreational usage. The recreationist's
over-estimation of his own capabilities at water temperatures
outside this range poses a real hazard.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
The present study has been able to arrive at several specific con-
clusions based on the available data. The methodology can be con-
siderably strengthened by deriving additional data that can serve
either as basic inputs into the methodology, or to increase the
level of significance of the available information.
Basic to this analysis of recreational water criteria is the assump-
tion that the average recreationist imbibes 10 ml of water during
his contact with the water. This figure is critical in deriving the
level of exposure and should be confirmed experimentally.
Data quantifying the concentrations of Salmonella organisms in
waters were difficult to find. Because the assumption that one
Salmonella organism in water constitutes a health risk is not a
valid one, more definitive studies of Salmonella distribution are
needed.
Very little is known about the Salmonella and total coliform or
fecal coliform ratios in polluted water. Studies to determine
the relative distributions of these organisms in different types
of waters are recommended.
The methodology should be refined to consider factor interactions.
Specific recreational areas should be analyzed using the methodol-
ogy and long term epidemological studies. Comparisons of actual
and predicted risks can then be made, thus establishing a basis
for quantifying factor interactions.
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SECTION in
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
The assessment of the risk of ill effect faced by a population
using various waters for recreational purposes has long been a
problem for regulatory agencies. On the one hand, it was recog-
nized that several serious diseases were associated with contamin-
ated waters, and on the other hand, there was only the most tenuous
of epidemiological evidence linking the use of such waters with
disease. Agencies charged with safeguarding the public health
have had to set standards for recreational waters, restricting
their use when a dangerous level of a disease factor was considered
to be exceeded. These standards were quite often based on infer-
ences drawn from, drinking water standards. The Envirogenics
Company has undertaken an EPA-sponsored program to develop a
methodology for establishing more rational criteria for health
risks associated with recreational water quality (RWQ).
In order to meet RWQ standards, it may be necessary that pollu-
tion sources be controlled. In many cases, this will involve
treatment of influents being discharged into recreational waters.
Because the costs associated with treatment are often high, it is
important that the RWQ standards be carefully defined so that
treatment requirements do not become unachievable. The RWQ
standards must also be based on criteria that permit regulatory
agencies to estimate the level of user risk associated with recre-
ational water bodies covered by such standards.
Water quality criteria should be based on objective data that relate
concentration of organisms or chemicals to degree of risk. Unfor-
tunately, this approach has not been followed in the past. Most
RWQ standards are based on evidence of past fecal contamination
and are derived from drinking water quality standards. Such RWQ
standards have, however, withstood the test of time (60 years) and
have contributed to the dramatic decline in water-borne bacterial
diseases. Thus such standards cannot easily be abandoned by those
responsible for safeguarding the public health.
The demonstration that coliform organisms were indicators of
fecal contamination and the development of relatively simple
techniques for their detection resulted in the development of
microbiological water quality standards. However, as the more
dramatic and explosive type of epidemics that had come to charac-
terize water-borne infections decreased in occurrence, other
problems began to increase. These new problems are due in
part to (1) the development of huge population centers that over-
stress existing sanitation systems; (2) the introduction of an
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ever-widening spectrum of new chemicals that eventually end up
in water; (3) the continual reuse of water as it travels down a
stream course, resulting in a build-up of refractory materials;
and, (4) the development of sophisticated instrumentation and
epidemiological techniques that have identified previously unsus-
pected disease sources as being water-borne.
Epidemiologists have begun to question their previous thinking
on what constitutes evidence of a water-borne incident. Many
infections and toxicities are sub clinical in nature, producing only
relatively mild and brief illness. Such incidents usually go unre-
ported, even though absenteeism from work and school results.
There is also evidence that water-borne agents may cause a few
direct disease cases among water users who in turn act as
secondary sources of infection among the population at large.
The distribution patterns of such transmitted outbreaks are often
typical of water-borne epidemics and the true origin of the disease
is thus often not identified.
As a consequence of the overall situation described above, the
protection of large populations can no longer be assured by relying
on past methods of standards setting. More direct cause and
effect relationships between factor concentrations and adverse
reactions must be established. This will permit the assessment
of the degree of risk incurred by water users and will provide a basis
for rational action by regulatory agencies. By setting RWQ standards
on the basis of acceptable risk levels, rather than arbitrary factor
concentrations, the water recreationist will be better protected.
The development of the cause-effect relationship into a concen-
tration versus risk formulation is referred to in this report as
the factor-to-criteria conversion. The first step required in
the development of the conversion methodology was a detailed
description and consideration of the known parameters of each
factor involved in the study. The pertinent parameters were
identified during the initial review of the available literature,
but quantification of parameters could not be completed in the
first phase of the program, in that much of the useful information
is found in analogous studies throughout the literature or has to
be reworked before being used as input for the mathematical analysis.
Health risks associated with primary contact use of recreational
water include infections transmitted by pathogenic microorganisms;
irritating, allergic, and debilitating responses to chemical and
physical factors; and injuries sustained as a consequence of im-
paired visibility in turbid waters. Such risks are dependent on
human, factorial, and aquatic parameters, interacting with the
degree and type of exposure of the recreationist, as indicated in
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Figure 1. A more detailed diagram (Figure 2) illustrates some of the
potential recreational water/health hazard relationships, and portrays
a complete view of the overall problem. The list of diseases included
in the figure is based on literature citations for both drinking and re-
creation waters. Note that Figure 2 distinguishes the sources of
contamination of the water as endogenous or exogenous. In the case
of recreational water endogenous contamination, one assumes the
water to have been safe prior to the entrance of recreationists.
Exogenous pollutants include human, animal, industrial, and agricul-
tural wastes, which enter the water as sewage or surface run-off.
Although Figure 2 presents an array of diseases potentially trans-
mitted by the water route, relatively few of them are known to pose
a serious threat to the aquatic recreationist. In general, the types of
diseases whose transmission has been associated with primary body
contact are (1) eye, ear, nose, and throat infections; (2) skin diseases;
and (3) gastrointestinal disorders. Because most persons swallow
only small amounts of water during swimming, and even less during
other water-associated activities, enteric infection by recreational
water is of much less significance than with drinking water. Never-
theless, cases of typhoid and other intestinal diseases, contracted
from polluted water, have been reported in^the literature, and there
is growing concern that viral infections, particularly infectious
hepatitis, may be contracted by bathing in sewage-polluted water
(Camp, 1963).
This study represents an attempt to quantify the risks to the recrea-
tionist on the basis of data already available in the literature.
Ideally, the needed criteria would be developed by exposing a user
population to various concentrations of the factors of interest in a
body of water. The incidence of adverse reactions would then be
measured and the level of risk simply calculated. Such studies of
course cannot be carried out. An approximation of a controlled ex-
posure is a broad epidemiological study wherein the factor concen-
tration in a water is measured and an accurate assessment is made
of the disease incidence in the affected population over an extended
period of time. Studies of this type have been attempted in the past,
but they are of limited value for the purposes of this program. In
the main, they have been designed with other than direct cause-effect
relationships in mind, have been too limited in scope, or have not
collected the type of information required for assessing risk versus
factor concentration function.
Faced with this lack of directly pertinent data, the Envirogenics Co.
undertook to develop a factor to criteria conversion methodology
that could utilize and build upon the available data base. This study
undertook to evaluate the data available on nine selected factors that,
in each case, represented a varying spectrum of expected quantitative
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information. Data on these factors were collected from a variety of
sources, all of it was reviewed, and much of it was abstracted. This
gleaning process resulted in sufficient material to permit the develop-
ment of a model that would use current dose response data for
estimating risk in waters containing various amounts of the factors
of interest.
Throughout the study, tentative models of the conversion methodology
were designed, modified, and discarded in the attempt to accommodate
the available information. This resulted in a shifting of emphasis to
what was considered as a suitable data base; thus additional searching
was sometimes required. This evolutionary type development cycle
resulted in the selection of a methodology that could accept raw dose
response data for a given factor, along with information on factor
distribution, and output an assessment of risk.
A problem faced early in the program was the lack of sufficient data
directly linking recreational use of water to disease. Thus a system
had to be developed that utilized information generated in non-water
related health programs. Experiments were available from such
studies that related the dosage of a given factor to disease incidence
in humans. This then determined how many people could be expected
to become ill if they somehow acquired a stated dose of the factor,
whether from water, food, or other transmission modes. There were
also available a limited number of reports from several pollution
monitoring agencies that presented the distribution of various factors
in a water.
By considering these two inputs - one derived from medical research,
the other from pollution monitoring - an estimate of risk to a re-
creationist using a given body of water could be made. This risk was
based on calculating the frequency with which the recreationist would
encounter a concentration of the factor sufficient to cause an adverse
reaction. Once the basic risk is derived, the effects of selectively
limiting access to the water can be determined. This series of trun-
cations of the factor concentration results in a curve that relates
factor concentration in a given water to probability of disease.
This model has been used to calculate the risks to a user population
using waters containing Salmonella, viruses, and coliforms. The
model is ready for testing in an epidemiological situation to determine
whether the predicted incidence of ill effect coincides with observed
effects.
It is suggested that regulatory agencies base their water quality
standards for a given factor on a "level of acceptable risk" rather
than on a specific concentration limitation. In that risk is dependent
on both population susceptibility and concentration distribution, no
10
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single number could be universally applicable to all recreational
waters. An agency responsible for meeting the RWQ standards that
were set to protect a population would meet the requirements by
determining the factor concentration in waters under their charge and,
by application of the conversion methodology, construct a risk curve
to set the appropriate numerical values to be monitored in each of
their waters.
The factor-to-criteria conversion methodology incorporates several
important features:
The methodology requires relatively simple and under-
standable inputs: dose-response data and factor concen-
tration data.
Data processing is greatly simplified and rapid through
the use of computer programming.
Research needs and priorities can be established. The
data requirements point out research deficiencies when
information is collated.
The conversion is completely objective.
The model is amenable to revision and the acceptance of
new inputs. Qualifying circumstances can be incorporated
and evaluated.
The model can be used as a predictive tool.
A meaningful output is obtained. The factor-risk curve
is immediately useful for setting RWQ standards.
With the successful completion of the initial program, the project
should now be extended to exploit the features just discussed. The aim
should be to make the methodology a dynamic instrument for pro-
tecting water quality and public health. The availability of the factor
to criteria conversion methodology permits an objective estimate of
risk for given hazard concentrations. As will be demonstrated in the
following sections, merely carrying out the analysis on any given
factor produces new insights into the significance of some of the
published research. For the first time a working tool has been
developed that has the potential of establishing water quality criteria
on an objective and rational basis. Its acceptance by public health
officials requires that confidence in the methodology be established
by expanding its analytical capabilities and verifying its predictions.
11
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SECTION IV
DATA BASE
LITERATURE COMPILATION
Meaningful mathematical analyses could not be initiated until certain
conditions had been met. These conditions included the following:
Identification of the relevant parameters of the factors
Assembly of bibliographical references
Acquisition of the pertinent literature
Extraction of the relevant information contained therein
The parameters of importance for each of the nine selected factors
were derived from a study of basic reference books, recent review
articles, the periodical literature, and an overview of related subjects
in abstract journals.
As a necessary pre-requisite to the incorporation of information into
a mathematical model, a thorough literature search was conducted
to retrieve relevant data for analysis. The emphasis was largely on
the recent literature with a view toward ultimately retaining only data
of informational value.
One of the major difficulties encountered in establishing direct cause-
effect relationships between RWQ factors and human reaction (parti-
cularly disease) is the fact that many of the pathogenic agents of
concern have alternate routes of transmission, and that most of the
definitive studies on these pathogens are concerned with disease
engendered by a route other than accidental water ingestion, inhala-
tion, or absorption. Studies on waterborne disease and drinking
water have limited application of the problem of the risk faced by the
recreationist who imbibes relatively small amounts of water during
water contact activities.
Nevertheless, such information may be quite useful (after extra-
polation) in areas where minimal direct data is available with respect
to disease transmission and recreational water quality. Certainly,
many of the current RWQ standards and regulations have their origin
in studies on drinking water quality, and these bases had to be con-
sidered carefully to determine their applicability to the present
investigation.
13
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In order to attack the problem of a discriminating and systematic
literature search early in the program, a tentative work plan was
constructed as shown in the accompanying diagram (Figure 3).
The standard procedures of selecting descriptions, searching
literature indexes and abstract journals, as well as re-examining
the references cited in reviews, were followed in the initial phases
of this study. From the diagram it can be seen that the process is a
cyclical one, one that was intended to include gradually most, if not
all, of the literature pertinent to the investigation.
It is estimated that approximately 20, 000 relevant titles were scanned
for selection of appropriate articles. When possible, initially selected
titles were further screened by examination of abstracts before final
selection for acquisition was made. The indexes and abstract journals
used were Index Medicus, Chemical Abstracts, International
Abstracts of Biological Science, Bibliography of Agriculture, and
Readers Guide to Periodical Literature. As the bibliography was
compiled, it was expanded by including the references appearing in
articles as they were read and/or acquired.
From an original list of approximately 1000 selected titles, about
750 were read and abstracted. From, the 750 articles, books,
reports, proceedings, and other sources, approximately 350 abstracts
were chosen for reference and inclusion in the annotated bibliography.
It is believed that most of the pertinent and key literature retrievable
by feasible search methods and descriptor usage has been identified,
either in the reference material, or secondarily through its references,
as far as the basic purpose of the investigation is concerned. Con-
siderable useful material may still be retrievable from the analogous
literature.
In addition to the manual methods of literature retrieval used in this
study, the National Library of Medicine was asked to use its
MEDLARS system to retrieve titles relative to the present task. It
should be noted that the MEDLARS file gives access to titles indexed
only after 1963. With the use of the descriptors supplied, a computer
run was made on all available literature (estimated to be about
750,000 titles). From this run, 87 references were received, of which
only 20 proved useful. However, in the specific area of toxicity of
pesticides to man, some 300 titles were retrieved.
HISTORICAL BASIS OF STATE RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY
CRITERIA AND STANDARDS
The Federal and State Role in Water Pollution Control
The present survey was conducted to review the water criteria and
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WATER-
ASSOCIATED
HEALTH RISKS
SOURCES OF
REC WATER
POLLUTION
RCC WATER
USES/ACTIVITY
BASIC
INFORMATION
RWQ
FACTORS
FACTOR
HAZARD
MAN
PROBABILITY
THEORY
RISK FUNCTIONS
DATA
EVALUATION
FACTOR
HAZARD
COMMUNITY
INFORMATION
INITIAL
DESCRIPTOR
LIST
O
DESCRIPTOR
LIST
INDEXES
LITERATURE
DATA
INDEX
«. FILE
DATA
EVALUATION
MATHEMATICAL
MODEL
FINAL
DESCRIPTOR
LIST
GLOSSARY
INDEX
FINAL
REPORT
PERIODIC
SUMMARY
It REPORT
FINAL CONCLUSION
RECOMMENDATION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANNOTATED
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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standards set by the various states and territories for primary con-
tact situations in recreational waters. The objective of the analysis
was'to investigate the parameters of total coliforms, fecal coliforms,
pH, temperature, clarity, pesticides, and oils, and, most importantly,
to determine the rationale for the standards adopted. This aspect
of the investigation was conducted by Montgomery Research, Inc.! ,
Pasadena, California, acting as subcontractor on the program.
In 1948, the first Federal Water Pollution Control Act was passed as
Public Law 845, 80th Congress, although the Federal role in water
pollution control had been defined earlier in three acts - the Rivers
and Harbors Act of 1899, the Public Health Service Act of 1912, and
the Oil Pollution Act of 1924. The 1948 Act provided for water
pollution control in the Public Health Service, as follows: "In the
development of such comprehensive programs due regard shall be
given to the improvements which are necessary to conserve such
waters for public water supply, propagation of fish and aquatic life,
recreational purposes, and agriculture, industrial and other legiti-
mate uses. "
Comprehensive water pollution control legislation was enacted by the
84th Congress, and was signed into law on July 9, 1956, as the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Public Law 660. This Act
extended and strengthened its 1948 precursor, which expired on
June 30, 1956. Further amendments to the Act in 1961 improved
and strengthened it by extending Federal authority to enforce abate-
ment of pollution in intrastate as well as interstate or navigable
waters.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (PL 660) was further
amended by the Water Quality Act of 1965 (PL 89-234), which declared
that it is "the policy of Congress to recognize, preserve and protect
the primary resppnsibilities and rights of the States in preventing
and controlling water pollution, to support and aid technical research
relating to the prevention and control of water pollution, and to
provide Federal technical services and financial aid. . . in connection
with these activities. "
The 1965 Act requires that "comprehensive programs shall be deve-
loped for eliminating or reducing the pollution of interstate waters
and tributaries thereof, " and retains the same wording as quoted
above from the Act of 1948 in connection with comprehensive pro-
gramming. Research, investigations, experiments, demonstrations,
and studies relating to the causes, control, and prevention of water
pollution of interstate or navigable waters in or adjacent to any state
or states.which endangers the health and welfare of any persons, are
provided for in the Act.
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To attain these ends by appropriate state legislation, the 1965 Act
specified that each state file a letter of intent and, after public
hearings and before June 30, 1967, adopt water quality criteria and
a plan for applying them to interstate waters within the state. Such
criteria and plan, if consistent with the Act, thereafter would be the
applicable interstate water quality standards. In establishing such
standards, consideration was required to be given to their use and
value for public water supplies, propagation of fish and wildlife,
recreational purposes, and agriculture, industrial, and other legiti-
mate uses (Mackenthun and Ingram, 1967).
The following account describes the results of state compliance with
the provisions of the Act with respect to waters intended for recre-
ational use, and compares the criteria and standards developed by
the various jurisdictions.
Method of Conducting Survey
To investigate current state standards for recreational waters, a
letter of inquiry was sent to fifty states and eight territories and dis-
tricts on July 10, 1969. This letter is reproduced in Appendix A.
A second letter was sent October 14, 1969, to those states not
responding; telephone calls were also made in'some instances. At
the completion of the study, replies had been received from fifty
states and six districts or territories. The various jurisdictions
forwarded copies of their published water quality documents for
review. The information developed from these documents is pre-
sented in Table 40 of Appendix A.
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF CURRENT STATE STANDARDS
The rationale for the various state standards is compiled in Table 1.
Twenty-six states and territories gave no information regarding the
basis for their standards. However, it is assumed that all states
conducted public hearings in accordance with the State Administrative
Procedure Act. Nine states base their criteria wholly or in part on
testimony and reports received at the public hearings. Eleven states
followed recommendations by the FWPCA in establishing standards.
South Dakota's water quality criteria were developed by contract
between the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology and the
South Dakota Department of Health. Five factors formed the frame-
work within which the standards were constructed: important pollu-
tants, natural water quality, existing and potential beneficial uses,
enforcement problems, and Federal requirements (Barker, 1969).
Extensive studies were conducted before South Dakota's standards
were adopted.
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TABLE 1
Rationale for state standards
Basis
Review of testimony and reports
given at public hearings
Recommendations of FWPCA
Consideration of present condi-
tions, contributing factors, and
quality requirements for speci-
fied uses
Specialized study conducted by
state in conjunction with FWPCA
Literature review, present
scientific knowledge, experience
and judgment
Consultation with neighboring
states
Recognition of criteria of other
states or agencies
Good sanitary engineering
practice and consultation with
the affected parties
Past experience
Present and potential uses, and
existing water quality as
indicated by monitoring programs
State or Territory
Alaska, Idaho, Iowa, Missouri,
Nebraska, North Carolina,
North Dakota, Ohio River Valley,
Oklahoma
Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware,
District of Columbia, Nevada,
North Dakota, Pennsylvania,
South Carolina, Texas
Arizona, Oklahoma
Georgia, South Dakota
Alabama, Hawaii, Michigan,
South Carolina, South Dakota,
Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin
Colorado, Ohio River Valley,
South Dakota
Kentucky (ORSANCO criteria),
Massachusetts (New England
State Water Pollution Control
Commission)
Mississippi
Nebraska, Texas, Washington
Louisiana, Wyoming
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TABLE 1
Rationale for state standards
(Continued)
Basis
Professional knowledge of the
board's staff and judgment of
the board
Not given
State or Territory
Texas, Wisconsin
Arkansas, California, Delaware
River Basin, Florida, Guam,
Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Maine,
Maryland, Minnesota, Montana,
New Hampshire, New Jersey,
New Mexico, New York, Ohio,
Oregon, Puerto Rico, Rhode
Island, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont,
Virgin Islands, West Virginia
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Two states adopted the criteria of another agency for their own state
use. Kentucky accepted the Ohio River Sanitary Commission criteria,
and Massachusetts adopted the criteria of the New England State
Water Pollution Control Commission.
The Table 1 summary illustrates the very general character of the
bases used in developing the state RWQ criteria. The survey did not
elicit any epidemiological data, direct cause and effect relationships,
or statistical studies to support the proposed limits'. In some cases,
bibliographies were contained in the documents, but specific reference
to their use in formulating the criteria was not indicated.
Examination of the data on primary contact recreational total coliform
standards shows that the most commonly accepted standard is 1000/
100 ml, with one state being as restrictive as 50/100 ml, and others
as liberal as 5000/100 ml. These standards imply that an acceptable
risk for recreational waters has been assumed by the regulatory
agencies. The rationale for the 1000/100 ml figure is apparently
based on field epidemiological analysis and studies along the Ohio
River, Lake Michigan, and Long Island Sound as reported by Stevenson
(1953), and comparisons of die off rates for coliforms and enteric
pathogens made by Kehr and Butterfield (1943). Of particular interest
here is the analysis of Streeter (1951), in which he used the data of
Kehr and Butterfield to develop a procedure for calculating the risk
of typhoid infection for bathers in the Ohio River. Assuming a total
coliform count of 1000 coliforms per 100 ml, he determined the
chance of contracting typhoid from swimming daily for 90 days would
be 1 in 950. Turning to the extremes represented by current state
standards, namely, 50/100 ml to 5000/100 ml, application of the
same methodology and conditions reveals a typhoid risk range of
1/19, 000 to 1/150, which expresses more clearly the implication
of the coliform standards. However, the studies of Moore (1959) on
the health risks in sewage-contaminated seawater indicated that the
incidence of illness among swimmers was much less than predicted
from Streeter's work. This discrepancy needs to be resolved. It
may be that the use of the fecal coliform as an indicator would be
more predictive of risk than the total coliforms used by Streeter and
earlier workers.
Total Coliforms
Total coliform standards have been adopted by 35 states and territories,
The standards range from 5000/100 ml in Illinois and Virginia
(secondary contact), to 50/100 ml for Utah (see Table 2). Between
the levels of 50/100 ml and 5000/100 ml lies an intermediate zone,
with the majority of states adopting a standard of 1000/100 ml.
Eight of the states with a total coliform standard also have a fecal
coliform standard. These states are Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa,
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TABLE 2
Summary of total coliform standards
for bathing waters
Total Coliforms
(Not to Exceed)
5000/100 ml
2400/100 ml
1600/100 ml
1000/100 ml
500/100 ml
240/100 ml
200/100 ml
50/100 ml
State or Territory
Illinois, Virginia (secondary
contact)
New York (boundary waters),
Virginia (primary contact)
Louisiana
Alaska, California, Colorado,
Connecticut, Delaware,
Florida, Hawaii, Indiana,
Massachusetts, Michigan,
Minnesota, Montana, Nevada
(for Colorado River), North
Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma,
Oregon, Pennsylvania, Puerto
Rico, Rhode Island, South
Dakota, West Virginia,
Wisconsin
Ve rmont
Idaho, New Hampshire
Arkansas
Utah
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Michigan, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Oklahoma.
Fecal Coliforms
Fecal coliform standards have been adopted by twenty-five states and
territories. The range is from 1000/100 ml for Mississippi, Ten-
nessee, Alabama, Michigan (partial body contact), and Georgia to
70/100 ml for the Virgin Islands (see Table 3). The Virgin Islands'
standard is for coastal waters and is the standard for shellfish areas.
The Wyoming fecal coliform standard specifies organisms not to
exceed a 95-percent confidence limit of the historical data. The
intermediate zone for the fecal coliform range is 200/100 ml.
There appears to be a trend toward the adoption of fecal conforms
as the preferred method in determining safety of bathing waters.
Delaware measures fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci; in
addition to total coliforms. The Water and Air Resources Commission
of Delaware "feels that fecal coliforms are a better indicator of
pollution than total coliforms" (Vasuki, 1969). The state of Georgia
has recently completed a study for FWQA concerning fecal coliform
standards and will probably amend its standards as a result of the
study. Kentucky, which recognized the ORSANCO criteria as the
basis for their standards, has recently accepted the adoption of a
fecal coliform standard. This action was encouraged by the FWQA
(Martin, 1969). The ORSANCO water quality criteria were revised
on May 15, 1969, to include a fecal coliform standard. Pennsylvania
is the process of changing to a fecal coliform criterion for bathing
waters. The standard being considered is similar to that recommended
by the FWQA (Bordman, I960).
The range of pH standards is illustrated in Table 4. There are eleven
states with a minimum pH of 6. 0 for bathing waters. Those states
are Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware River Basin, District of Columbia,
Georgia, North Carolina, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina,
Tennessee, and West Virginia. Three states have a lower pH stan-
dard specifically set for swamp waters. Georgia has a pH limit of
4. 5 for swamp waters, North Carolina 4. 3, and South Carolina 5. 0.
There are two states (Louisiana and Montana) with a maximum pH
standard of 9. 5. Within this range of values, the majority of states
are generally not set with recreational water usage as the prime con-
sideration, but rather in consideration of the other uses such as
propagation of fish life and domestic water supply.
Temperature
Waters are classified for multiple uses. The temperature of a
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TABLE 3
Summary of fecal coliform standards
for bathing waters
Fecal Coliforms
(Not to Exceed)
1000/100 ml
240/100 ml
200/100 ml
100/100 ml
70/100 ml
State or Territory
Alabama, Georgia, Michigan
(partial body contact), Missi-
ssippi, Tennessee
District of Columbia, Maryland
Arizona, Delaware River Basin,
Guam, Hawaii, Illinois,
Missouri, Nebraska, New
Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio
River Valley, Oklahoma,
Pennsylvania, South Carolina,
Tennessee (organized camps),
Texas
Colorado, Michigan
Virgin Islands
Fecal coliform standard for
Wyoming not to exceed a 95%
confidence limit of the historical
data.
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TABLE 4
Summary of pH standards
pH Range
6. 0 - 8.0
6.0-8.5
6. 0 - 9.0
6.0-9.5
6.5-8.0
6.5-8.5
6.5-8.6
6.5-9.0
6.5-9.5
6.8-9.0
7.0 - £.3
7.0-8.5
No reduction - 8. 0
Number of States
1
7
2
1
4
14
1
2
1
1
1
3
1
Number of states with minimum pH of 6. 0 11
Number of states with minimum pH of 6. 5 , 23
Number of states with minimum pH of 6. 8 1
Number of states with minimum pH of 7. 0 4
Number of states with maximum pH of 8. 0 6
Number of states with maximum pH of 8. 5 25
Number of states with maximum pH of 9. 0 5
Number of states with maximum. pH of 9. 5 2
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water is considered more critical to domestic, industrial, and com-
mercial supply and to fish life than to primary contact recreational
use. Temperature standards are, therefore, often set on the basis
of suitability for fish, with the same standards applied to recreational
waters. The temperature standards that have been set are quite
varied as is shown in Tables 5 and 6. The top of the scale for maxi-
mum temperature permitted due to effluents is 96. 8°F (Louisiana)
and 57.2 F as the lowest (Hawaii). Fluctuations permitted above
ambient but below maximum are shown in Table 6 and range from
10. 0 F (Mississippi, Nebraska (summer maximum) and Georgia), to
1.5 F (Hawaii).
Pesticides and Other Toxic Substances
Forty-eight state and territory standards contain the phrase "Sub-
stances in concentrations or combinations which are harmful to
human, animal, plant, or aquatic life are not permitted, " or its
equivalent. Pesticides are covered by this non-quantitative statement.
This phrase relieves water quality administrators of the problem of
dealing with a multiplicity of parameters. The lack of sufficient data
on adverse effects of materials raises questions about threshold
effect levels and makes establishment of standards difficult. Table 7
summarize these standards. Two states do have quantitative stan-
dards for toxic materials. Arkansas states the level of toxic subs-
tances shall not exceed 0. 1 of the 48-hour median tolerance level
(Anon, 1967, Arkansas). South Dakota's standard reads "no con-
centrations greater than 0. 1 times the acute (96 hr) median lethal
dose for short residual compounds, or 0. 01 times the acute median
lethal dose for accumulative substances" ( Anon, 1967, South Dakota).
Six states have no standard set at the time of this survey (Rhode
Island, Florida, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming).
Wyoming states in their criteria literature that specific limits will
not be established for toxic materials because all possible compounds,
combinations, and effects are not known (Anon, 1968, Wyoming).
The future will very likely see the formalization of standards in this
area for many states as knowledge of toxic substances increases.
Clarity
Thirty-eight states have non-quantitative statements concerning
clarity such as permitting no increase in turbidity that would impair
any usages specifically adopted for the water in question (see Table 8).
The standards that have been adopted range from a high of 50 Jackson
Units (JU) - Arizona warm water streams - to 5 JU - Idaho and
Oregon. Some states specify Secchi disc clarity in their standards
(Hawaii, Nebraska, Guam, and Tennessee). Arizona, Delaware
River Basin, Missouri, Montana, Idaho, and Oregon use a Jackson
turbidity unit standard. Minnesota specifies a limit of 10, but does
not indicate whether reference is to JU or Secchi disc clarity.
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TABLE 5
Summary of Maximum Temperature Standards
Maximum Temperature, F
(due to effluents)
96.8
95.0
93.2
93.0
90.0
87.0
86.0
85.0
73.0
70.0
64.4
57.2
Non-quantitative statements such
as: waters shall be so protected
against controllable pollution,
including heat, as to be suitable
at all times for usage under the
waters classification.
No standard set solely for
recreational water protection.
State or Territory
Louisiana
North Carolina
South Carolina, Georgia
Arizona, Iowa (summer maximum),
Kentucky (summer maximum),
Mississippi, Tennessee
Alabama, District of Columbia,
Michigan, Missouri, New York
$ion-trout waters), North Dakota,
Virgin Islands
West Virginia (summer maximum)
Delaware River Basin
Connecticut, Guam
Iowa (winter maximum), Kentucky
(winter maximum). West Virginia
(winter maximum)
New York (trout waters)
Nevada (summer maximum, Colorado
River above Davis Dam)
Nevada (winter maximum, Colorado
River above Davis Dam)
Alaska, Maryland, Massachusetts,
New Hampshire, New Jersey, Utah,
Vermont, Washington
Arkansas, California, Colorado,
Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas,
Maine, Minnesota, Montana, New
Mexico, New York, Ohio, Ohio
River Valley, Pennsylvania, Puerto
Rico, Rhode Island, South Dakota,
Texas, Virginia, Wisconsin, and
Wyoming
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TABLE 6
Summary of Temperature Fluctuation Standards
Fluctuations Permitted Above
A-mbient but Below Maximum, °F Jgtate or Territory
10.0 Georgia, Mississippi, Nebraska
(summer maximum)
7. 0 North Carolina
5.4 Louisiana
5. 0 Delaware, Delaware River Basin,
District of Columbia, Missouri,
Nebraska (winter maximum),
New York, Oklahoma
4. 0 Connecticut
/
2. 0 Idaho (when stream temperatures
are 64 F and below), New York
(summer in trout waters), Oregon
1. 5 Hawaii
Alabama standard specified no
more than 10% increase in temper-
ature due to addition of waste
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TABLE 7
Summary of Pesticide and Oil Standards
Standard
No standard set
Non-quantitative - statements such
as no toxic materials in concentra-
tions harmful to human or wildlife.
Level of toxic substances shall not
exceed 0. 1 of 48 hour median tol-
erance level.
No concentrations greater than 0. 1 '
times the acute (96 hr) median lethal
dose for short residual compounds,
or 0. 01 times the acute median lethal
dose for accumulative substances.
Number of States
6
48
1 (Arkansas)
1 (South Dakota)
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TABLE 8
Summary of Clarity Standards
Standard
50 JU, warm water streams
10 JU, cold water streams
25 JU, warm water lakes
10 JU, cold water lakes
Maximum monthly mean 40 units;
Maximum 150 units.
Secchi disc determination shall not
be altered from natural condition
more than 10%.
Shall not exceed ZO turbidity units
due to effluents.
Shall not exceed 10 turbidity units
due to effluents.
Shall not exceed 5 turbidity units
above natural value.
Secchi disc clarity of 5 feet at all
times.
No standard given.
Non-quantitative statements such
as no allowable increase in such
concentrations that would impair
any usages specifically assigned
to the waters classification.
State or Territory
Arizona
Delaware River Basin
Guam, Hawaii, Nebraska
Missouri
Minnesota, Montana
Idaho and Oregon
Tennessee
Virginia
38 States or Jurisdictions
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SUMMARY
It is apparent that considerable variability still exists among the
standards promulgated for the various states, despite Federal efforts
to achieve uniformity. However, differing local conditions (physical,
political, and economic) also play a role in setting standards. The con-
cern here, however, is to discover the specific data that has served as
the scientific basis for the standards. In general, it is apparent that
additional source information is needed if the basis of the standards are
to be analyzed in depth. Further investigation along these lines should
be pursued in future work, as an adjunct to the search for current epi-
demiological data in selected areas. Although intensive pursuit of the
data base may not produce significantly useful results in most of the
areas of concern from the standpoint of cause-effect analyses, additional
efforts to accumulate background information from the various health
departments would permit a more detailed interpretation of criteria
rationale than the general information now in hand.
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SECTION V
THE FACTOR TO CRITERIA CONVERSION METHODOLOGY
The central objective of this program has been the development
of a procedure by which information on a given water quality factor
can be converted into criteria. Once this conversion is carried out
for various concentrations of the factor of interest in a water, the
degree of danger to a recreationist entering that water can be stated
as the likelihood of infection or harm. A regulatory agency could
then use the criteria to set standards based on the concentration of
the factor in the water that produces a level of risk deemed acceptable
by the agency.
RATIONALE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODEL
As indicated in Section IV, water quality criteria have been
established based upon, among other things, the past experience of an
investigator, epidemological information, and even logical assump-
tions or carryovers from other types of work. As can be recognized,
these methods are rather subjective and depend upon the expertise of
various individuals.
A more desirable approach is to develop a method of establish-
ing criteria by which the risk to an individual or population can be
assessed on a purely objective basis. This can be done by determi-
ning the response of individuals to different quantities of the factor in
question. By exposing a large number of individuals to the factor, a
dose response curve can be prepared, based upon the probability that
a given dose of the factor will produce an adverse effect. This in fact
represents a statement of the "capability" of the recreationist to
withstand a given challenge dose, and represents the first of the two
inputs necessary to determine the risk to the recreationist.
In order to fully assess the risk an individual faces when enter-
ing a given water, it is also necessary to know the likelihood that he
will encounter a given dose of the factor in the water. By knowing
how the factor is distributed through the water and the frequency of
occurrence of various concentrations of that factor, the probability
distribution for the factor in the water can be estimated. The risk
faced by the recreationist is determined by computing the probability
that the recreationist will encounter a concentration of the factor that
will likely result in a given adverse response.
DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL
A mathematical model was developed that incorporates, on a
quantitative basis, the features discussed above. The dose-response
data, which represents the relationship between the amount of the
factor ingested and the number of people subsequently infected, are
31
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converted into a probability density function. This requires that the
type of distribution of the sampled population be determined. This
probability distribution has been designated as the capabilities vector ,
C .
P
A second probability distribution is determined that describes
the likelihood that a recreationist would encounter a given concentra-
tion of the factor when he enters a given body of water. This represents
the requirement placed on the recreationist and has been designated
as the requirements vector, R . These two probability distributions
are represented in Figure 4a. ^They make up the'fundamental informa-
tion that is required as input into the model.
The risk faced by the recreationist can be expressed as the in-
teraction of the two distributions. This risk can be defined as the
probability that the water's requirement on the recreationist exceeds
that individual's capability to withstand that challenge dose. The pro-
bability of risk for a given concentration of the factor is obtained by
computing the probability that R (factor concentration in the water)
is greater than C (concentration of factor producing adverse re-
sponse). This is"obtained by deriving the probability density function
of the difference (C - R ) and then computing the probability that
(C - R ) is negative or mat the requirement exceeds the capability.
Thre risR that the concentration of the factor in this water (R ) will
exceed the harmful dose (C ) and hence cause an adverse eflfect is the
area under that portion of tKe probability density function that is to
the left of zero (Figure 4b). This convolution (subtraction) results in
the basic risk probability function describing the likelihood of infec-
tion faced by an individual entering a given water. This risk can be
lessened by making certain decisions on limiting expose of the popu-
lation by various alternatives.
ANALYTICAL IMPLEMENTATION
It is apparent that the form of the distribution of the dose-response
data and the factor-concentration data together determine the probab-
ility distribution of the convolution. As a consequence, it is critical
that the frequency distribution of the sampled population be closely
approximated. There are several commonly used methods for
fitting a particular density function to a sample (Korn & Korn, 1968).
The "Method of Maximum Likelihood, " which often involves complicated
computations, is the more accurate of those readily adaptable to this
program. This method has been chosen to fit the data available on
the factors of interest to this program to five possible statistical
distributions: (1) normal, (Z) exponential, (3) gamma, (4) Weibull,
and (5) lognormal.
Once these distributions have been developed for the data at hand,
it is necessary to test whether the assumptions made about each distri-
bution are reasonable. That is, which .sample distribution most closely
approximates the true population distribution? The Kolmogorov-
Smirnov or "d-test" for goodness of fit is one of many tests designed
for this purpose (von Alven, 1964). By applying this test, the most
probable distribution for the data at hand is selected from among the
five choices.
32
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OP
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CONCENTRATION OF FACTOR
C^
CONCENTRATION OF FACTOR
R_
(a) THE TWO INDEPENDENT DENSITY FUNCTIONS
- 0 + (Cp"V
(Cp-Rq) DENSITY FUNCTION
(b) THE RESULTING CONVOLUTION
o
3
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An existing computer program, entitled BSTFIT by the author, is
available that can perform a combination of fitting the input data into
all five possible distributions, and then performing the Kolmogorov-
Smirnov analysis to select the most likely fit (Dudley, 1970).
RISK AS A FUNCTION OF CHANGING REQUIREMENTS
Once a convolution has been carried out, the probability of infection
or adverse reaction of a population entering that water can be stated.
However, it is important to know how much this risk to the population
would be reduced if entry to the water was banned whenever the factor
concentration exceeded a given level. By closing a water at these
times, the maximum exposure of a population is reduced and as
a consequence the risk should also be reduced. The setting of such
maximum limits truncates the factor concentration probability func-
tion (R distribution) and results in a modified or enchanced convolu-
tion (Frgure 5).
Regardless of where the factor concentration curve is truncated,
the area under the curve has to remain constant. The total area under
the curve after the convolution is carried out also remains constant,
but the shape of this latter curve changes. This results in a tendency
of the curves to shift to the right of zero, resulting in a smaller area
to the left or risk portion of the curve. By selectively truncating the
factor concentration distribution - by the setting of stricter and stricter
limits - a series of convolutions is obtained, each with a smaller risk
area. The area of each risk curve can then be plotted as risk versus
factor concentration and the confidence limits determined. The factor
to criteria conversion is now complete. The equation for the resultant
curve is then derived. The resultant polynomial of best fit is subjected
to an analysis of variance and the confidence limits at the desired level
of significance determined. This can then be presented as a plot of
risk vs factor concentration and used for selecting appropriate standards.
This process is illustrated in Figure 5 where the basic Rq curve
is truncated at the mean plus 2 standard deviations (fJ.+ 2 a~ ) and at the
mean plus 1 standard deviation (p- + la). A truncation at the mean
would require that the water be denied to users 50% of the time, a highly
undesirable situation. The resultant series of convolutions results in
successively decreasing the risk portion of each convolution.
In the determination of risk, a computer program, RADOP, was
available for performing these calculations. This program simul-
taneously carried out the series of successive truncations and the
corresponding convolutions, along with the confidence limits. A third
program was developed to fit the data to various polynomials and this
was used to determine the type of equation that best describes the cri-
teria, along with the confidence limits. A schematic of the computer
implementation of the entire methodology just discussed is presented
in Figure 6.
34
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f-
OQ
n
Crt
O
g"
tr
o
P-
o
i—'
o
OQ
VOLUME INGESTED
FACTOR 1
CAP ABILITIES Cp
I DATA _.
REQUIREMENTS Rn
RAW DATA
VOLUME INGESTED
CAP ABILITIES Cp
RAWC
ATA
REQUIREMENTS R,
USE "MAXIMUM
LIKELIHOOD"
METHOD TO FIT
RAW DATA TO:
NORMAL
LOGNORMAL
EXPONENTIAL
WE (BULL
SELECT BEST
DENSITY
FUNCTION 8¥
KOLMOCOROV
SMIftNOV
GOODNESS
Of-f n TEST
PERFORM ITERATIVE CONVOLUTION
SEQUENTIALLY VARYING R
STANDARDS q
IMPLCMENTATIOM UTEMATURE SURVEY
MANUAL INTERVIEWS
cm VISIT*
BSTFIT • DIGITAL
COMPUTER PROGRAM
STANDARD
USE OF BODY OF WATER)
DENYING USE OF BODY
OF WATER)
RADOP • DIGITAL
COMPUTER PROGRAM
FEDEBAUSTATE/LOCAL OFFICIALS
TO USE THESE CURVES TO SELECT
STANDARDS FOR EACH FACTOR
INDEPENDENTLY
-------
APPLICATION TO STANDARDS SETTING
The end result is a graph or equation that presents the probability
of infection or adverse effect faced by a population entering a water con-
taining various concentrations of the factor of interest. The responsible
regulatory agency must then decide on what it considers to be an accept-
able risk to the population for that particular factor and set the appropriate
standards (the maximum acceptable R ) to limit that risk.
37
-------
SECTION VI
VIRUSES AS A FACTOR OF RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY
During the past 15 years more than 100 new enteric viruses
have been discovered, largely through the use of tissue cultures. All
of these "new" viruses are excreted in the feces of infected individuals
and can be readily demonstrated in urban sewage, particularly in the
late summer or early fall (see Table 9). Since these agents are pre-
sent in sewage, they presumably can find their way into water supplies
or surface waters used for recreation and present a hazard of initiating
epidemics of water-borne diseases. The relationship between the occur-
rence of viruses in recreational waters and the real or potential hazard
of viral transmission as a consequence of aquatic activity is a multi-
faceted problem, and one which requires consideration of a variety of
interacting factors, some of which are indicated in Figure 7 (after
Prier & Riley, 1967).
Several extensive reviews of the general subject of viruses and
water transmission have appeared in recent years, notably those of
Berg, etal(1967), Chang, (1968), Clarke, et al (1964), and Grabow
(1968).
THE VIRUSES OF INTEREST
With the exception of the arboviruses (arthroped-borne), virtually
all of the known viruses affecting man cause respiratory tract infections,
but only a proportion of them are able to pass through the acid barrier
of the stomach and multiply in the intestinal tract. This is the main
site of multiplication of the small enteroviruses, adenoviruses, and
reoviruses, infection with which may be brought about by the ingestion
of virus-contaminated food or water, or by downward spread from the
respiratory tract. The prolonged excretion of the virus in the feces
following infection causes fecal contamination to be a major factor in
their spread (Chang, 1968; Poynter, 1968).
The human enteroviruses are a homogeneous group comprising
the polioviruses, the coxsackie-viruses (groups A and BO, and the
echoviruses. Most of these viruses produce disease only in a small
percentage of the individuals they infect. Low-level, asymptomatic
infections are difficult to detect, but may constitue an important source
of many enterovirus epidemics not readily ascribable to water trans-
mission (Chang, 1968). When associated with an illness, an enterovirus
may be capable of producing any of several clinical entities. This is
true also for many of the adenoviruses, some of which are associated
with a variety of respiratory diseases (e. g. , colds, influenza-like ill-
nesses, bronchitis, etc. ), and probably for members of the reovirus
(respiratory-enteric-orphan) group as well. The adenoviruses, although
usually associated with respiratory ailments, are more readily isolated
from the stools than from the throat secretions of infected individuals
(Berg, 1964).
The other virus (or, possibly, viruses) of concern is that causing
39
-------
TABLE 9
Human Enteric Viruses and Diseases
(after Clarke, et al. 1964)
Major subgroup
No. of Types
Disease
Poliovirus
Coxsackie
Group A
Group B
Infectious Hepatitis
ECHO
Adenovirus
2B
6
1 (?)
28
25
Paralytic poliomyelitis,
aseptic meningitis
Herpangina, aseptic meningitis
Pleurodynia, aseptic meningitis
Infectious hepatitis
Aseptic meningitis, "summer"
rash, diarrheal disease
Respiratory and eye infection
40
-------
REQUIRED EVENTS FOR TRANSMISSION
OF VIRUSES TO MAN BY WATER
CONTAMINATION OF WATER
BY VIRUS
SURVIVAL OF VIRUS IN
WATER
USE OF WATER FOR DRINKING
OR BATHING
INFECTION OF ANIMALS
PRESENCE OF IMMUNITY/
SUSCEPTIBILITY'
FACTORS INFLUENCING VIRUS CYCLE
AND SURVIVAL
ELIMINATION OF VIRUS IN URINE,
FECES, RESPIRATORY EXUDATE
PROXIMITY OF ANIMALS TO WATER
PRESENCE OF SECONDARY AGENTS SUCH
AS INSECTS. AND INTERMEDIATE HOSTS
WATER RUN-OFF FROM PASTURES
TIME VIRUS IS IN WATER
NATURE OF WATER (LAKE.
STREAM. WELL)
RATE OF WATER FLOW
TEMPERATURE OF WATER
CHEMICAL CONTENT OF WATER
ORGANIC CONTENT OF WATER
FILTRATION
-| CHEMICAL TREATMENT
DURATION OF WATER STORAGE
VIRUS CONCENTRATION
METHOD OF VIRUS INFECTION
Figure 7. Factors That May Affect Virus Survival in Water
(After Prier & Riley, 1967)
41
-------
infectious hepatitis (IH). This is the only known fecally-excreted virus for
which definite epidemiological evidence of water-borne transmission
has been found (Neefe and Stokes, 1945; Mosley, 1967). It is also ex-
ceptional in that, so far, no tissue cell-culture system has been estab-
lished enabling the IH virus to be isolated in vitro (Kissling, 1967).
CONTAMINATION OF WATER BY VIRUSES
Gelfand (1961) has summarized data that clearly show the sea-
sonal variation in incidence of enteric viruses in fecal samples and
sewage. The peak incidence of isolations occurs from July through
October, with August usually yielding the highest number of positive
samples. Routine sampling yielded as high as 41. 5 per cent positive
sewage samples in one study (Clarke and Kabler, 1964). Recovery
rates as high as 75 per cent have been reported, however, from sewage
samples tested during a poliomyelitis epidemic (Wiley, et al 1962).
Fluctuations in the predominant type of enteric virus detected in
sewage frequently occurs (Kelly, et al, 1955, 1956, I960). These
changes are said to reflect the epidemic infection in the community,
whether recognized or not, at any given time. Continuing surveillance
of virus in sewage has been suggested as an important means of moni-
toring the enterovirus infections of large populations (Clarke and Kabler,
1964 and see Table 10).
Viruses occur at very low densities compared to indicator bacteria,
such as the coliform group. It has been calculated (Clarke, et al, 1964)
that in the United States the expected density of virus in sewage would
average about 500 virus units per 100 ml, and in polluted surface water,
not more than 1 virus unit per 100 ml. These authors determined that
the relative enteric virus density to coliform density in human feces i s
about 15 virus units for every million coliforms (a 1 to 65,000 ratio).
Foliquet and Schwarzbrod (1965) collected 560 samples from vari-
ous water sources in Meurthe-et-Moselle, France, with 83 enterovirus
strains being recovered as follows:
42
-------
TABLE 10
Frequency and Types of Enteric Virus*
Isolated from Sewage of the City of Albany
1957
1958
1959
1960
Poll omy e liti s
Type 1
Type 2
Type 3
Coxsackie Group B
Type 3
Type 4
Type 5
ECHO
Type 1
Type 3
Type 4
Type 6
Type 7
Type 8
Type 9
Type 11
Type 12
Type 13
Type 19
1/35
11/35
13/36
12/36
3/16
7/16
3/12
5/12
8/35
10/35
7/35
9/36
3/36
6/36
10/16
3/35
2/35
2/35
9/35
1/36
3/36
7/36
5/36
1/36
1/36
1/16
2/16
1/16
1/12
1/12
The fractions indicate the number isolated (numerator) from the total
number of samples examined (denominator).
*
Exclusive of Group A Coxsackie viruses, which are not listed.
43
-------
Drains: 64 positives of 245 samples (26.1%)
Rivers: 11 positives of 214 samples (5. 14%)
Tap Water: 8 positives of 101 samples (7.9%)
The initial concentration of enteroviru'ses in sewage has been estimated
to vary between 20 and 700 Plague-forming units (PFU) per 100 ml, with
considerable seasonal variations (Kelly and Sanderson, I960; Clarke
et al, 1962).- The concentration of viruses in polluted rivers and streams
might be one to two orders of magnitude lower. Thus a monitoring
technique for enteroviruses in surface waters should be capable of
detecting as few as 1 to. 10 PFU/liter.
Paul and Trask (1941) isolated poliovirus from a heavily polluted
New England River. These investigators suggested that poliomyelitis
occurring down river probably resulted from this water pollution.-
Toomey et al (1945) recovered polioviruses from an Ohio creek by
direct inoculation of water samples into cotton rats.
Rhodes et al (1950) demonstrated that poliovirus persisted in river
water for prolonged periods following its addition in a fecal suspension.
Coxsackievirus A5 survived in spring water from extended periods;
viral concentration was found to be a function of temperature (Gilcreas
and Kelly, 1955).
Clarke et al (1956) and Chang et al (1958) maintained coxsackievirus
A2 in water from different rivers under various conditions for long
periods.
Metcalf and Stiles (1956) isolated coxsackievirus B4 and echovirus
9 from the eastern oyster in estuary waters as far as 4 miles from the
nearest sewage outlet.
At Bathurst, Australia, (Wallace, 1958) clinically typical hepatitis
occurred in 6 of 19 students who drank raw water from the Macquarie
River. The river was polluted by effluent from the city sewage works
located upstream. During the 4 months preceding the outbreak among
the students, 10 cases of hepatitis were reported from this community
of about 30, 000 and all these patients were served by city sewers that
emptied into the river. Unfortunately, the quantitative virus content of
the water could not be determined, since no laboratory method exists
for the propagation of IH virus.
Enteroviruses were isolated from Hudson River water 400 feet down river
from the Alaby sewage plant outfall by Kelly and Sanderson (1959).
The problem of isolating and enumerating enterovirus in surface waters
is a difficult one, but improved methods now permit the sampling of
44
-------
large volumes of water having low densities of virus contamination
(Shuval et al, 1967).
Survival of Virus in Water
Owing to the existence of many unknown factors affecting virus
survival in water, the differences in the survival times of different
enteroviruses observed in storage are not sufficient to indicate that
some enteroviruses survive significantly longer than others. Virus
survival in general is longer in treated or"clean" water or in grossly
polluted water than in moderately polluted water (Clarke, et al, 1964).
Coxsackie A2 virus survived 61 days in sewage held at 8°C, and
41 days in sewage held at 2j3 C. The virus survived more than 272 days
in distilled water held at 8 C and 41 days at 20 C. However, in the
moderately polluted Ohio River water, it survived only 16 days at 8 C
and only 6 days at 20 C. Autoclaving the Ohio River water increased
the survival time to longer than 171 days at 8 C and more than 102 days
at 20 C (Clarke, et al, 1956).
Rhodes, et al, (1950) showed that poliovirus could still be demon-
strated in experimentally contaminated river water after 188 days
storage at 4 C, but could not be detected after storage at 216 and 315
days. . ,. • .
Using well water known to have been responsible for a water-borne
outbreak of infectious hepatitis, Neefe and co-workers (1945) were able
to infect human volunteers after the water had been stored for 10 weeks,
although there was a considerable prolongation in incubation time with
storage time. It appears that only long storage is effective in reducing
virus concentrations significantly (Chang, 1968), in the absence of direct
measures qf viral destruction.
Weber (1958) reported that IH virus remains virulent in ground water at
least a month. The virus is quite heat-resistant, especially when suspended
in protein. Exposure to 56 C forSO minutes failed to render the virus
noninfective, since 3 of 4 men who ingested it contracted the illness
(Havens, 1945).
Studies were made by Gilcreas and Kelly (1945) on the relative rates
of kill,and die-off of coliform bacteria and intestinal viruses by storage
in both fresh and salt water, by chlorination, by sewage treatment,
and by ultra-violet irradiation. The intestinal viruses used in the tests
were Bact. coli B bacteriophage, coxsackie virus, and Theiler virus.
Their studies indicated that:
(1) The relative survival of coliform bacteria and viruses
in fresh water was almost the same except that viruses survived for
much longer periods at low temperature.
45
-------
(2) In salt water, coliform bacteria died much more rapidly
than the viruses.
(3) Chlorination was found to be effective on both coliform
bacteria and viruses, but subsequent studies by Kelly and Sanderson (1958)
indicated that stronger doses andlonger contact periods are required for
viruses. In their investigation of five strains of polio and two strains of
Coxsackie virus, they found that 0. 3 mg/1 of free residual chlorine for at
least 30 minutes of contact is required for 99. 9% inactivation, and that
about 10 m.g/1 of combined residual chlorine for about 60 minutes is
required for 99. 7% inactivation.
(4) Ultraviolet light was found to be more effective on
viruses than on coliform bacteria.
(5) Sewage treatment by primary settling and trickling
filters at one plant showed about 90% reduction of coliforms, and about
80% reduction of phage and nearly 100% reduction of Coxsackie viruses.
Clarke and Kabler (1964) determined the relative survival times
in raw sewage of 4 enteric viruses and 3 bacterial indicators of pollution
(Table 11). The test viruses, with the exception of Coxsackie A9,
survived longer than did the 3 test bacteria. All survival times were
markedly longer at 4 C than at 28 C.
TABLE 11
Time in Days for 99. 9 Per Cent Reduction
of Indicated Organism in Raw Sewage
Temperature
Organism
28°C
4°C
Poliovirus 1
ECHO 7
ECHO 12
Coxsackie A9
Aerobacter Aerogenes
Escherichia coli
Streptococcus foecalis
17
28
20
6
10
12
14
110
130
60
12
56
48
48
46
-------
Clarke, et al. (1964), in an extensive study of enteric viruses in
water, concluded that the survival times of enteric viruses and indicator
bacteria in water depend to a great extent on the nature of the water.
Viruses appear to survive longer in water that is relatively unpolluted or
grossly polluted. Indicator bacteria (E, coli) survival times in surface
waters appear to be directly related to the pollution of the water; longest
survivals occur in water with the greatest pollution. Metcalf and Stiles
(1967) found that survival of viruses in estuary waters is dependent on
temperature, pollution levels, and virus identity. In their studies, enteric
viruses survived in estuary water for 56 days in winter, and 32 days in
the summer.
Waterborne Transmission of Viruses
Opportunities for the spread of waterborne infections may be provided
either by recreational bathing facilities or by public or private drink-
ing water supplies. The presence of many bathers in a body of water
may provide suitable conditions for the spread of viruses. Outbreaks
of sore throats and "pink eye, " accompanied by fever and caused
by adenovirus-3 in Washington, D. C. , in 1954 (Bell, J. A. , et al. , 1955),
and by adenovirus-7 in Toronto, Canada, in 1955 (Ormsby and Aitchison,
1955), were attributed to the use of swimming pools. The spread of
vesicular exanthema, caused by Coxsackie A16 virus, was correlated
with swimming by Robinson, et al, (1958).
Swimmers at two fresh-water beaches along Lake Michigan showed
approximately twice the incidence of gastrointestinal and ear and throat
infections as did non-swimmers. A significantly higher incidence of
illnesses was reported one week after persons had bathed in water con-
taining 2,300 coliform organisms per 100 ml, in contrast to that observed
when the coliform-organism index was 43 (Stevenson, 1953). The risk
of contracting infections, however, was not appreciably greater for
bathers who swam in salt water contaminated with sewage than it was
for those who swam in unpolluted water (Moore, I960).
When studying water as a possible route of transmission in out-
breaks of viral diseases, Mosley (1967) could gather from the literature
only 8 episodes of poliomyelitis in which the water route could be pre-
sumed, and 50 episodes of infectious hepatitis in which the disease was
stated to be waterborne. Only one of the polio outbreaks was considered
to be potentially waterborne by Mosley, however. The massive 1955-56
waterborne epidemic of infectious hepatitis in Delhi, India (Viswanathan,
1957), in which more than 28,000 cases were reported, is one of the
most often cited of the infectious hepatitis outbreaks. The plant that
treated the water at Delhi apparently turned out a safe supply when the
water was prechlorinated to a free residual of 0. 7 mg/1. When sewage
backed up to the waterworks intake, however, sufficient ammonia was
present to destroy the free chlorine and to produce a low, combined
chlorine residual (Dennis, 1959). The latter treatment nevertheless
rendered the water safe according to coliform testing results, but it
apparently did not destroy the IH viruses. The data on coliform organ-
47
-------
isms reported by the new water treatment plant at Delhi would indicate
that under unusual circumstances the coliform index may be unreliable
for judging the adequacy of modern water treatment processes for destroy-
ing or removing the IH virus, and perhaps other enteric viruses (Clarke,
et al. , 1964). Representative source data for poliovirus and infectious
hepatitis outbreaks attributed to contaminated drinking water are con-
tained in the Appendix.
THE MINIMAL INFECTIVE DOSE
Malherbe and Strickland-Cholmley (1967) stated that experimental
transmission to human volunteers of the enteric viruses that have been
studied usually involves 10 TCID^- or more. It is generally recognized,
however, that infection regularly follows the oral administration of
10 TCIDj-rt of attenuated poliovirus strains, and there is some
evidence Qiat as little as 10 TCID5Q of attenuated poliovirus may cause
infection.
Plotkin and Katz (1967) reviewed the information available concerning
the relationship between infectivity for tissue cultures and infectivity
for man and animals of viruses administered by the oral, respira-
tory, or conjuncival routes. These authors contend that one infective
tissue culture dose is sufficient to infect man if it is placed in contact
with susceptible cells. The relationship between one virus and one cell
is complicated in the intact host, however, by a variety of host defense
factors, which accounts for the variations observed in the amounts of
virus actually required to produce discernible infection in man (Beard,
1967). . .
Since extracellular virus cannot reproduce itself, it seems unlikely
that the amount of virus of human origin in water sources can ever
be large, except at times of major epidemics, but if small amounts
are capable of infecting, then their presence in food or water, however
dilute, assumes importance (Poynter, 1968).
The available data is consistent with the view that the human subject
is not less susceptible than the tissue-culture. Koprowski (Table 12)
has shown that 2 PFU's of attenuated poliovirus 1 produced infection
in 2 out of 3 subjects, while Plotkin and Katz (Table 13) infected two out
of three infants with 10 TCD5Q of attenuated poliovirus 3, and obtained
evidence that even 1 TCD,-n of this strain may be infective for infants.
48
-------
TABLE 12
Infection of Human Volunteers with Attenuated Poliovirus 1
(after Koprowski, 1955'; 1956)
Dose (PFU)
0.2
2.0
20.0
200. 0
No. Infected/
No. Fed
0/2
2/3
4/4
4/4
Per cent
Infected
0.0
66.7
100.0
100.0
TABLE 13
Infectivity of Enteroviruses for Man by the Oral Route
(after Plotkin & Katz, 1967)
Virus
Dose
Result
Reference
Poliovirus 1 (SM) 2 PFU
Poliovirus 1 (SM) 20 PFU
Poliovirus 2 (P712) 100 TCD5Q
Poliovirus 3 (Fox 13) 10 TCD5Q
2/3 infected
1/2 infected
Infection (no
details)
2/3 infected
Koprowski
(1955, 1956)
Koprowski
et al(1956),
Sabin (1956)
Plotkin & Katz
(1967)
49
-------
Sabin found 10 TCD,.^ of poliovirus per gram of feces in human
stools. Neefe, et al (1945) estimated that there were 10 to 10
infectious doses of IH viruses per gram of feces from human cases.
Other estimations of viral content in feces have been of the same
order of magnitude or less.
Exceedingly minute amounts of infective excreta can cause infectious
hepatitis when taken xxrally. Human volunteers have developed it
from as little as 10 dilution of infected feces (Stinger, 1955).
According to Clarke and Chang (1959), a 30-minute chlorine contact
period protected all of 12 volunteers, when the IH virus was suspended
in distilled water at room temperature, pH range 6. 7-6. 8, and with initial
and final free chlorine residuals of 3. 25 and 0. 4 mg/1.
DEVELOPMENT OF CRITERIA
Virus Factor to Criteria Conversion
A considerable amount of information has been reviewed dealing with
experimental virus infections using human volunteers. Although many
of the reported studies were carried out for purposes other than to
determine infective dose (most were centered around vaccine develop-
ment), there were sufficient base line experiments to provide inputs for
developing a dose effect curve.
Various ways of measuring the inoculum dose given to volunteers were
reported. These included particle counts, : infective serum dilutions,
plaque forming units, tissue culture units, and human infective doses.
The TCID,-_ dose was most frequently reported or in some cases the
data reported could be used to calculate this dosage. The TCID,.-
represents the tissue culture infective dose that effects 50 percent of the
roll tubes of the specified tissue cells when the usual 10 fold dilution
series is carried out. Effects may be reported as cytopathic effects
(CPE), or, more usually, as the results of the hemadsorption test.
If one assumes that the cultured tissue cell responds in much the same
way as normal cells do in vivo (and there is no reason to assume other-
wise) to an infection by a given virus, certain simplifications are possible.
By utilizing TCID,.- to measure inoculum dosage, the data are normalized
to a common base irrespective of differences in infectivity of the various
viruses. For example, 10 parti cles.jmay be required to infect 50 percent
of the cultures with one strain and 10 with another. By reporting both
sets as 1 TCIDrrt dose however, this difference is canceled out and the
viruses can be grouped together for statistical purposes. This was done
in the present study. Data on volunteers, where the inoculum dose was
reported in units of TCID^Q, were all grouped together in order to pre-
pare a dose effect curve for virus exposures, egg infective doses were
assumed equal to tissue culture infective doses. In this manner a/ table
was prepared listing 812 volunteer exposures ranging from 2 x 10 to
1 x 10"1 TCID50 does (Table 14).
50
-------
TABLE 14
Yiral Dose-Response of Humans
Virus
Parainfluenza 2
Rhino virus
Parainfluenza 2
Rhino virus
Adenovirus
Hemadsorption 3
Influenza
Equine influenza
Rhinovirus
Inclusion conjunctivitis
Inclusion blennorhea
Parainfluenza 2
Parainfluenza 3
Adenovirus
JH virus
2060 virus
Influenza
4 x 10'
4 x 10'
Dose,
TCID5()
2.0 x 106
6.3 x 105
3.2 x 105
2.0 x 105
1.6 x 105
1. 5 x 105
1.5 x 105
1.0 x 105
8.0 x 104
7.9 x 104
6. 3 x 104
6.0 x 104
4.0 x 104
2.0 x 104
1.5 x 104
1. 5 x 104
1.4 x 104
1.4 x 104
4
1. 0 x 10
Number
Infected
6/6
2/2
4/5
9/9
2/3
2/2
3/4
12/17
10/10
4/5
. 4/5
2/2
1/1
5/6
2/4
2/3
23/69
25/90
5/5
Route
Nasal
Nasal
Nasal
Nasal
Nasal
Nasal
Nasal
Investigator
Taylor-Robinson
Gate
Taylor-Robinson
Taylor-Robinson
Gate
Hitchcock
Tyrrel
Kapikian
Knight
Knight
Gate
Jawetz
Jones
Taylor-Robinson
Tyrrel
Hitchcock
Jackson
Jackson
Knight
-------
TABLE 14 (continued)
Ul
Virus
Inclusion conjunctivitis
Rhinovirus
Adenovirus
Parainfluenza 2
Influenza
Influenza
Adenovirus
Parainfluenza 3
Coxsackie A,
Coxsackie A
21
21
Influenza
Coxsackie A,
Rhinovirus
Inclusion conjunctivitis
Coxsackie A_.
Adenovirus
Parainfluenza 2
Coxsackie A_
C* J.
Influenza
Parainfluenza 1
21
Dose.
TCID
6.0 x
3.2 x
2.5 x
2.0 x
1.9 x
1. 6 x
1. 5 x
1.2 x
1.0 x
832
790
676
630
600
500
250
200
160
158
150
— 7
50
IO3
103
103
IO3
103
io3
103
io3
IO3
Number
Infected
3/3
4/4
2/2
0/3
3/3
0/3
1/2
3/6
2/3
1/1
7/7
5/6
17/32
2/2
8/9
0/2
0/2
2/2
0/1
3/5
Route
Nasal
Nasal
Nasal
Nasal
Nasal
Inhalation
Nasal
Investigator
Jawetz
Gate
Hitchcock
Taylor-Robinson
Knight
Knight
Hitchcock
Tyrrel
Knight
Tyrrel
Knight
Couch
Gate
Jawetz
Knight
Hitchcock
Taylor-Robinson
Knight
Knight
Tyrrel
-------
TABLE 14 (continued)
Ui
u>
Virus
Adenovirus
Inclusion conjunctivitis
Poliovirus 3
Poliovirus
Coxsackie A?1
Hemadsorption 2
Coxsackie A_..
Rhinovirus
Rhinovirus
Inclusion conjunctivitis
Coxsackie A,
Coxsackie A
Coxsackie A
Coxsackie A
Coxsackie A
Rhinovirus
Measles
Coxsackie A
Coxsackie A
Rhinovirus
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
Dose,
TCID5()
150
125
100
30-100
83
80
71
66
60
60
54
50
49
47
28
20
20
18
16
16
Number
Infected
1/4
4/4
4/4
7/9
2/2
25/32
4/4
1/1
1/1
5/6
2/2
2/2
2/3
3/4
2/3
1/1
28/31
2/4
1/3
5/5
Route
Inhaled
Inhaled
Inhaled
Inhaled
Inhaled
Inhaled
Inhaled
Inhaled
Inhaled
Inhaled
Inhaled
Investigator
Hitchcock
Jawetz
Plotkin & Katz
Gate
Reichelderfer
Reichelderfer
Couch
Gate
Gate
Jawetz
Couch
Knight
Couch
Couch
Couch
Gate
Okuno
Couch
Couch
Gate
-------
TABLE 14 (continued)
Virus
Adenovirus
Parainfluenza 1 (HA 1)
Parainfluenza 3
Inclusion conjunctivitis
Poliovirus 3
Measles
Measles
Measles
Measles
Coxsackie A_,
Inclusion conjunctivitis
Measles
Parainfluenza 1 (HA 1)
Inclusion conjunctivitis
Measles
Measles
Measles
Measles
Inclusion conjunctivitis
Measles
J— * \J O \Z f
15
15
15
12.5
10
10
10
6. 0
6.0
6. 0
6.0
2.0
1.5
1.25
1.0
1.0
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.2
Number
Infected Route
0/2 Nasal
4/11
0/6
2/3
2/3
18/21 Inhalation
21/43
18/38
18/26
2/6
0/3
14/29
2/2
1/3
8/35
1/8
15/27
1/8
0/3
1/13
Investigator
Hitchcock
Tyrrel
Tyrrel
Jawetz
Plotkin & Katz
Plotkin & Katz
Okuno
Okuno
Plotkin & Katz
Jawetz
Jawetz
Plotkin & Katz
Tyrrel
Jawetz
Plotkin & Katz
Okuno
Okuno
Plotkin Sc Katz
Jawetz
Okuno
-------
TABLE 14 (continued)
Dose, ,.,. ,
TCID Number
Virus 50_ Infected Route Investigator
Measles 0.2 1/7 Plotkin & Katz
Measles 0. 1 0/21 Plotkin & Katz
Measles 0. 1 0/23 Okuno
-------
Development of the Dose Response Curve
The data from the infectivity studies with 812 volunteers resulted in
413 data points which were used to construct a dose response curve for
viruses. When all 413 data points were used in the program, the data
scatter was such that a fit was not possible.
The fact that the dosages measured by tissue culture titration are
estimates of the dose fed rather than exact measures, a histogram was
constructed to order this data. From the histogram, 25 points relating
dose fed to number of individuals infected were randomly selected
(Figure 8). This represented the test sample that was to be used to
develop the capabilities vector (C ) or the ability of the population to
withstand a given challenge dose of virus.
In line with the methodology previously discussed, the probability
distribution of the sampled population was estimated. The collected
information was analyzed using the BSTFIT computer program and the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test indicated that the lognormal distribution was
the most appropriate (Table 15).
It is conceded that this method of sampling from a histogram does
not take full advantage of the potential of the available data. It is
possible that the data could be grouped according to different regions of
the world reflecting varying susceptibility to different viruses in popula-
tion groups. There may also be a varying regional susceptibility due to
the effectiveness of recent immunization programs. An attempt should
be made to see if such variances appear in the data. It may also be
argued that a population is in general susceptible to the viruses that
appear in its waters or else how could the viruses be maintained with-
out infections occuring? Thus it can be proposed that only the viruses
to which the population is susceptible occur in the area's waters. The
use of the TCD-p. as the measure of dosage would compensate for region-
al differences by implying that each population responds to its indiginous
viruses and that infective doses measured as TCD--. will not vary from
population to population.
Based on this best-fit analysis, the data were plotted as the lognormal
distribution using the 50% tissue culture infective dose (TCIDj-,.) vs
the percent cumulative probability of infection, along with the 95%
upper and lower confidence limits. This represents the C vector,
as presented in Figure 8. "
Development of Virus Distribution Vector for a Given Water Body
The virus requirements or distribution to be expected in a given polluted
water were developed from a study of a stream carried out by S. Grinstein,
J. Melnick, and C. Wallis, (1970). The stream (Brays Bayou) passes
through a Houston, Texas, residential area and a 10 mile stretch, receiv-
ing various treatment plant effluents, was selected for study. A map is
56
-------
CUMULATIVE PROBABILITY (GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO,%)
99.99 99.9 99.8 99 96 95 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 1 0.5 0.1 0.01
3
ee
> 105
ui
C
•ft*
t 103
u
10°
10'1
26 RANDOM NUMBERS
SAMPLED FROM EMPIRICAL
DOSE-RESPONSE SURVEY
II I /I I I I I I I I I I II
0.01 0.1 0.5 1.0 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99 99.8 99.9 99.99
CUMULATIVE PROBABILITY (LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO,%)
Figure 8. Virus Capabilities Vector (C )
57
-------
TABLE 15
Virus Capability Vector (C )
Using 25 Random Samples
NAME OF
DISTRIBUTION
"d"
STATISTIC
PROBABILITY
DATA CAME
FROM CITED
DISTRIBUTION
Normal
0.411
0.000
Lognormal
0. 116
0.888
Exponential
Gamma
0.735
0.234
0.000
0. 129
58
-------
presented in the original article. The data from collection points 10
and 11 were omitted because the stream broadens into a river at that
point. The samples from the sewage treatment plants were also
omitted because the samples were taken at the beginning of the treat-
ment process and were not representative of effluent discharge. In
all, 39 data points were used to develop the probability distribution of
viruses along the stream's course.
As in the previous analysis, a histogram of the data was prepared,
this time relating number of viral PFU per gallon to the frequency
of isolations of the various viral concentrations. Twenty-five points
were selected at random from the histogram and a BSTFIT analysis
carried out. For this particular data, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov
"d" test determined that a 3-parameter Weibull was the most appropri-
ate representation of the sampled universe (Table 16). This 3-para-
meter Weibull is a recent advancement in the computer program (re-
placing a less exact, 2-parameter fit) and provides the potential for
more accurate fitting of data.
The 3-parameter Weibull virus distribution is presented in Figure 9
along with the upper and lower 95% confidence limits and the cumula-
tive histogram of the 39 data points. This plot indicates that 80 or
more PFU/gal. were present 50% of the time. An estimate of the
virus risk in a given water can be made by carrying out a convolution.
The Convolution and Development of Risk versus Concentration
Criteria
The two elements, host susceptibility (C ) and factor concentration
distribution (R ), essential as inputs into the methodology for assess-
ing risk, are now available. The two probability functions are operated
upon within the computer program and the probability density function of
the difference, (C - R ), determined. The negative area of this convolu-
tion (to the left of ahe zero point-see Figure 4) thus represents the risk
to the recreationist. At the same time, the requirements vector (con-
centration distribution in the water) is truncated at points from 1 through
7 standard deviations (see Figure 5) from the mean to provide an evalua-
tion of how much the risk is decreased as the entry to the water is limited
whenever these levels are exceeded. The results of this analysis are
presented in Table 17. The term "basic" for the C vector implies that
the dose response distribution was used as originally derived in the analysis
for each truncation of R .
q
In carrying out the convolution it was assumed that a recreationist would
imbibe 10 ml of water in the time he is exposed (Streeter, 1951). From
the analysis, the polynomial equation describing the risk versus concen-
tration relationship was derived. The analysis of variance for the various
polynomial fits selected the quadratic regression as the most applicable.
59
-------
TABLE 16
Virus Requirement Vector (Rq> Formulated from
Melnick Data (Measurement Stations 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 9)
NAME OF
DISTRIBUTION
Normal
Lognormal
Exponential
Gamma
Weibull
"d"
STATISTIC
0. 1632
0. 1012
0. 1038
0.0915
0.0764
PROBABILITY
DATA CAME
FROM CITED
DISTRIBUTION
0.250
0.819
0.794
0.900
0.977
60
-------
CUMULATIVE PROBABILITY VIRUS MAY BE PRESENT
(GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO, %)
0.3 0.2 0.1
CUMULATIVE HISTOGRAM USING
MELNICK'SDATA
99 99.9
CUMULATIVE PROBABILITY VIRUS MAY BE PRESENT
(LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO.%)
Figure 9. Virus Requirements Vector (R )
61 .
-------
This equation, presented in Table 18, was then used to prepare
the graph in Figure 10 displaying the risk to population using Brays
Bayou as a function of the virus concentration. The very narrow 95%
upper and lower confidence limits indicate that a true physical re-
lationship exists and that the mathematical model is a good repre-
sentation of this relationship.
It will be noted that the virus data is in the form of PFU's, while
the original dose response curve was reported in terms of TCID,--.
The TCID-0 units were converted over to PFU's according to the
method ofTJavis, et al (1968), where'PFU = 0.7 TCD5Q. This con-
version was carried out to put the dose effect data into the same units
as reported for the water concentration distribution. The PFU-assay
is finding favor with pollution control authorities, who consider that
it is a direct count of infectious units and thus comparable to a bac-
terial plate count.
Examination of the information presented shows that a linear extension
of the dose-response cuxve predicts a 0. 01% (1/10, 000) probability
of infection if 4. 7 x 10" PFU (1 x 10 TCD5Q) are ingested. For
a recreationist, this dosage would have to be contained in the 10 ml he
imbibes.
Using the distribution pattern evident in Brays Bayou in Houston as an
example, the convolution of the dose response data and of the varying
virus concentrations has been presented. This reveals that in Brays
Bayou the 0. 01% risk level is at 6. 5 PFU/I (Figure 11). In other words,
whenever 6. 5 PFU/1 are detected at any of the sampling points on
Brays Bayou a disease incidence of 1 case out of 10, 000 recreationists can
be expected.
This analysis is further extended by utilizing the coliform-virus relation-
ship for polluted waters presented by Clarke et al (1964) and Sanderson
and Kelly (1961). Although the information is based on a limited amount
of sampling and a probability distribution has not been carried out, this
data is the best available at the present time. These workers estimate
a ratio of approximately 50, 000 coliform bacteria per PFU. This virus -
coliform ratio is plotted below the virus concentration in Figure 11 and
reveals that for a 1/10, 000 risk level of disease, 35,000 MPN coliform/100
ml can be tolerated in Brays Bayou.
The risk based on fecal coliforms can be similarly estimated if the fecal
coliform-total coliform relationships developed by Strobel (1968) for
Shellfish waters in New York is assumed to hold true in Brays Bayou.
By plotting this relationship in Figure 11, a fecal coliform count of about
18,000 MPN/100 ml presents a 1/10,000 risk of iUness due to virus.
This analysis is presented as an orientation to existing standards. At
present the maximum amount of coliform organisms permitted by any
state for recreational waters is 5000 MPN coliform/100 ml. However
it must be emphasized that for determining the actual risk involved in
Brays Bayou, the virus-coliform and coliform-fecal coliform relationships
will actually have to be determined for that particular water. Once this
is done, a chart similar to Figure 11 can be constructed for that water.
62
-------
TABLE 17
Limitation of Virus Exposure and the
Resultant Risk to a Population
CONVOLUTION
C - R
p q
Virus (PFU)
Basic
i
i
Basic
Virus (PFU)
x + 7 o-
x + 6 cr
x + 5 cr
X + 4
-------
TABLE 18
Derivation of Equation to Describe Recreationist Risk
as a Function of Virus Criteria
Equation of Polynomial Best Fit
Analysis of Variance
Y = -2. 7453- 10"3 + 1. 84965- 10"1 X -4. 3744- 10"2 X2
F*
Calculated
13,171
Minimum allowable
from table**
Level of significance
5%
5. 12
1%
10. 56
>:<#
F distribution, which is the distribution of the ratio of two variances.
From tables of critical values of F at 5% and 1% levels. When the calculated value for F exceeds the
critical value, the answer is significant.
-------
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
VIRUS CONCENTRATION. PFU/LITER
Figure 10. Criteria for the Presence of Virus
in a Recreational Water
65
-------
0.014
0.012
0.010
0.008
0.006
o
tn
0.004
0.002
10
4 6 8 10
VIRUS, PFU/LITER
i I I
20 30 40 50 60
COLIFORM, 103 MPN/100 ml
12 14
70
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
FECAL COLIFORM, 103 MPN/100 ml
Figure 11. Coliforms and Fecal Coliforms as Indicators
of Virus Risk
66
-------
SECTION VII
SALMONELLA AS A FACTOR OF
RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY
DISEASE AND ETIOLOGICAL AGENTS
Salmonella infections result from the direct or indirect transmission
by a suitable vehicle of an infecting dose of species of the genus
Salmonella from an existing reservoir of infection to a susceptible
individual. These infections are of two types, namely, salmonellosis
proper and the enteric fevers.
Salmonellosis is characterized by a sudden, usually transient,
stormy gastrointestinal disturbance, following a short incubation
period. The enteric fevers, which include typhoid and paratyphoid fevers,
are evidenced by a gastroenteritis similar to that produced by other
salmonella species, as well as a generalized infection of the small
intestine, involving invasion of the blood stream, with all of the symp-
toms occasioned by septicemia. The incubation period is usually long
(8-15 days).
Figure 12 is a diagrammatic representation of some of the parameters
to be considered in the case of Salmonella as a factor in recreational
water quality.
SOURCES OF INFECTION
Salmonellae fall into three groups with respect to their distribution
and their relationship to human disease:
(1) The first group contains those that are primarily human
pathogens and includes _S. typhosa, (synonyms: Bacterium typhosum,
Bacillis typhosus, Bacillus typhi abdominalis; Bacterium typhi, Eber-
thella typhi, and Salmonella typhi), _S. paratyphi, _S. schottmuelleri, and
S_. hirschfeldii. Of these_S. typosa is the most important, because of the
severity of the disease it produces. S_. s chottmuelleri is the most com-
mon in the United States, S_. paratyphi is occasionally isolated, and S_.
hirschfeldii is very rare.
(2) The second group is made up of organisms that are pri-
marily pathogenic for animals, including birds, but which may occasionally
cause disease in man. It contains the maj ority of the Salmonellae. The
relative incidence of these species in human infections varies in different
geographical areas, and depends in large part on the number of person
involved in the particular outbreaks studied.
The U.S. Public Health Service maintains routine surveillance of isola-
tions of Salmonellae reported by the various state health agencies. Dur-
ing the period January to June, 1969, the total number of Salmonella
isolations reported from humans was 8, 645. The ten most frequently
isolated serotypes are listed in Table 19, with total numbers reported
for the period.
67
-------
OQ
H
(0
oo
to
o
3
(0
(D
g.
O
OQ
••*
P
3
-------
TABLE 19
Ten Most Frequently Reported Salmonella
Serotypes from Humans, January to June, 1969
typhimurium 2,453
enteriditis 819
infant! s 559
heidelberg 556
newport 546
thprnpson 489
saint Paul 383
typhi 227
blockley 215
derby 142
(Source: U. S. Public Health Service Morbidity & Mortality
Report, 18:224,329).
69
-------
(3) In the third group are found those Salmonellae that are
known to be pathogenic only for animals or birds. This group has rapid-
ly diminished as more and more of these species have been found to cause
disease in man. S_. gallinarum, S. abortivoequina, and S_. abortusovis
are the important organisms in this group.
That Salmonellae are widely dispersed and occur frequently among the
various species of lower animals is evident from the numerous reports
in the literature. This statement applies not only to the host-adapted
types (the so-called "primary salmonellosis " of many species) but to
the nonhost-adapted types as well. Not only do some types occur both
in animals and man, but there is a distinct correlation between the
presence of the organisms in lower animals and in the human popula-
tion in any given locality, although the methods whereby the organisms
are transmitted from animals to man and vice versa may vary from
one region to another depending on environmental sanitation and habits
of the population (Edwards, 1956; 1958).
Thus, in order to appreciate fully the ramifications of the epidemiology
of infections due to nonhost-adapted types of Salmonellae, it is nec-
essary to consider animal reservoirs of infection; excretion of the bac-
teria by human cases, convalescents, and carriers; the occurrence and
survival of the organism in the environment; and the methods whereby
they are transmitted among and between man and the lower animals.
The Salmonelloses and enteric fevers (including typhoid) are outstanding
examples of diseases that may be transmitted by individuals who, to all
appearances, are normal and healthy, but are dangerous because they
harbor infectious agents. In the case of typhoid fever, many epidemics
have been traced to persons who excrete typhoid bacilli in their feces,
although they show no outward manifestations of the disease. About
one-third of the acute cases discharge typhoid bacilli for 3 weeks after
onset, and about 10% for 8-10 weeks. The latter group are classed as
convalescent carriers. Some typhoid cases may continue to excrete
the organisms for several months, years, or their lifetime, to become
chronic asymptomatic carriers. Similar conditions exist in the case of
the salmonelloses proper, as evidenced by the frequency with which
asymptomatic persons are revealed to excrete the organisms in their
feces. The experiments of McCullough and Eisele (1951, series of 4
papers) demonstrated that symptomless Salmonella infections could be
induced in human volunteers, as evidenced both by fecal excretion and
rise in agglutinin titer.
The significance of the carrier state to our studies lies in the fact that
the occurrence of Salmoniella in recreational waters that have been
polluted by human or animal fecal matters is not always directly related
to frank (symptomatic) disease in the human or animal populations con-
tributing that factor, and that epidemiological studies that do not take
into account the symptomless, carriers may fail to reveal the source of
.infection (endogenous or exogenous) derived from aquatic activity. The
carrier, however, continuously excretes very large numbers of pathogens
in his feces and thus poses a threat to the population at large (Table 20).
70
-------
TABLE 20
Number of S_. typhosa and S_. paratyphi B
in a Gram of Feces of Carriers
Carrier
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Typhoid
Known
Duration of
Carrier State
(Years)
3
3
3
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
Carriers
Number of organisms /g feces
S. typhosa
4, 500,000
4,000,000
550,000
45,000,000
2, 500,000
1,000,000
600,000
500,000
500
500
500
500
Bact. coli, etc.
7,000,000,000
7,000, 000, 000
1,400,000,000
5,000,000
20, 000, 000
100,000,000
700, 000, 000
300,000,000
300,000,000
450, 000, 000
120,000,000
650, 000, 000
Paratyphoid Carriers
Carrier
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Known
Tin i*z* ^"i rtn f\f
J-SU-L CvvAvil *J-i,
Carrier State
(Years)
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
12
18
18
20
Number of organisms /g feces
S. oaratvohi B.
12,000, 000, 000
2,000,000,000
500,000, 000
300,000, 000
200,000,000
90,000,000
20,000,000
100,000
25,000, 000
50,000, 000
10,000,000
500,000
Bact. coli, etc.
1, 550,000,000
150,000,000
10, 000,000
8, 500,000
2,450,000
40,000,000
300,000,000
10,000,000
2,500,000,000
250,000,000
20,000, 000
110, 000, 000
71
-------
MODES OF TRANSMISSION
Outbreaks of typhoid fever have been traced most often to drinking water
and milk supplies contaminated with S_. typhosa. Other means of trans-
mission are flies, infected shellfish, infected food, fomites, and carriers,
although S_. typhosa is sharply distinguished from all other Salmonellae
by its long-recognized association with water. As human excremental
organisms do not multiply in water but merely survive in ever-diminish-
ing numbers (see below) for periods varying with the condition of the
water, this association of S_. typhosa infection with water is another in-
dication that the infecting dose of this serotype is smaller than that of
other serotypes (McCoy, 19&4).
In 1961, an outbreak of typhoid fever was reported from Australia (Anon
(typhoid), 1961) that was traceable to swimming at a contaminated beach.
A nearby sewage plant effluent was implicated as the source of infection
in a group of ten persons. In a five-year study of sea bathing water and
illness of bathers, the British Committee on Bathing Beach Contamination
encountered small numbers of Salmonella in the high proportion of samples.
Although the most frequently isolated Salmonella was S_. paratyphi B, a
total of 33 different species was encountered (Moore, 1959; Khait, I960).
In Argentina, Palazzolo, et al (1954) isolated S_. newport, S_. typhimurium,
S_. muenster, S_. bredeney, S_. monte video, and S_. ana turn from children
suffering from enteric disorders. In a canal epidemiologically related to
the homes of the children, they recovered 11 serotypes of Salmonella in
83% of the samples taken, six of which were identical with those recovered
from the children. Similarly, Steinigh (1953) recovered S_. panama from
a harbor water in the neighborhood of a patient infected with the same or-
ganism.
The reported instances of frank salmonellosis acquired from swimming
in polluted water are minimal, but the question that remains unanswered
is the amount of simple gastrointestinal upsets occurring, that might be
traceable to Salmonellae.
OCCURRENCE AND SURVIVAL OF SALMONELLA
Assembled below in semi-tabular form are reported findings relative
to the occurrence and survival of Salmonella in water.
SOURCE FINDINGS
London Metro Board In England, Salmonella typhosa has been
(1931; 1957-8) isolated frequently from sewage and polluted
waters since 1927. Following an outbreak of
paratyphoid fever in Epping in 1931, S_. schott-
muelleri was present in large numbers in the
sewage and river water. In 1958, S_. schott-
muelleri identical with the strain isolated in
1931 was still present in Epping sewage and
sewage effluent. Salmonella were isolated
72
-------
SOURCE
FINDINGS
Wilson
(1928; 1933; 1938)
Green and Beard
(1938)
Ruchhoft
(1934)
Steward and Ghosal
(1938)
Mom and Schaeffer
(1940)
Rudolfs, Falk and
Ragatzkie (1950)
Messerschmidt and
Wedemeyer (1951)
from 19 to 53 raw river water samples and
were identified as : s chottmuelleri,
typhimurium, enteritidis var, jena, anatum
braenderup, and thompson.
Reported numerous isolations of S_. typhosa
from polluted waters and sewage.
Recovered S_. typhosa from 9 to 55 samples
of Palo Alto sewage.
Isolated S_. typhosa from two samples of
Chicago activated sludge.
Isolated S_. typhosa from the river Hooghly
in India.
Reported an extensive series of isolations
from sewage, sludge, and river water at
Bandoeng, Dutch East Indies.
In their literature review on the occurrence
and survival of enteric pathogens and re-
lated organisms in water, sewage, etc. ,
these authors reported that:
(1) E. typhosa survived in distilled or
sterilized waters a few weeks to a few
months, and in polluted waters and
sewage only a few days, usually a week
or less. That is, the survival times
was in inverse relation to the degree of
contamination.
(2) The survival time was shorter in the
summer than in the winter.: Survival
time varied inversely with the tempera-
ture.
(3) The zone of greatest tolerance was pH 5. 0
to 6.4 and increase of acid resulted in
rapid mortality.
(4) E. typhosa and other Salmonella survived
for varying times in sewage and sludge,
depending on conditions, and, in general,
some of the organisms survived sewage
treatment and were demonstrated in the
effluent.
Reported that, at a point of discharge into
the Line River, processed sewage effluent
73
-------
SOURCE
FINDINGS
Kapsenberg
(1958)
McKinney, Langley
& Tomlinson (1958)
Lendon and MacKenzie
(1951)
Ferrarnola, et al
(1954)
Palazzolo, et al
(1954)
Broek and Mom
(1953)
Richter
(1956)
contained Salmonella in 21 of 45 samples
examined. Of 25 samples taken from the
river up to 3 miles below the outfall, 5
contained Salmonella.
Sampled the effluent of an activated sludge
treatment plant in Amsterdam from August
1956 to March 1957, using the Moore gauze-
swab technique. From 3 to 9 of Salmonella
were isolated from each swab. A total of
23 types was found. S_. typhimurium and
S_. bareilly were always present, S_. schott-
muelleri was recovered less frequently, and
S_. typhosa was isolated twice.
Studied the digested sludge from a 20-day
anaerobic digester and showed a 92.4 per-
cent decrease in S_. typhosa, and a 84 per-
cent decrease after 6 days retention.
Isolated S_. typhosa from water of the
Wallington River, Hants, England.
Identified 15 species of Salmonella from the
Mendoza River in Argentina. Of 481 water
samples examined, 31.3 percent yielded
Salmonella. The predominent species were
S_. newport, meleagridis, oranienburg, and
typhimur ium.
Isolated 11 species of Salmonella from canal
waters in the City of Mendoza, Argentina. Some
83% of the water samples taken were positive
for Salmonella. The most commonly occur-
ing species were S_. newport (58 . 3% of
samples), typhimur ium, muenster, bredeney,
montevideo and ajiatum. These six species
were also isolated from children suffering
from enteric disorders with tiie same re-
spective frequency.
Repeatedly demonstrated S_. paratyphi and
S_. schottmuelleri from polluted ditch waters
in the community of Waalwijk, Netherlands.
Recovered S_. newington, heidelberg, anatum.
urbana, hull, infantio, senftenberg, and
schottmuelleri from sewage-polluted channel
waters in Buxtehude, Germany.
74
-------
SOURCE
FINDINGS
Kraus and Weber
(1958)
Popp
(1957)
Shrewsbury and
Barson (1952)
Dunlop et al
(1952)
Dunlop
(1952)
Norman and Kabler
(1953)
Denecke
(1957)
Collet et al
(1953)
Found that S_. typhosa survived in impounded
surface water up to 26 days and S_. s chott-
muelleri was still present after 70 days.
Mortalities of bacteria were irregular and
were affected by water composition and
temperature.
Found that Salmonella persisted in the River
Ober, Germany, for 15 to 21 miles below the
point of sewage discharge.
Reported that, when stored under laboratory
conditions, S_. typhosa could be detected in
tap water and in distilled water for 211 days
and in normal saline 153 days when the initial
inoculum was one billion organisms per ml.
Isolated Salmonella from 8 of 11 sewage con-
taminated irrigation water samples.
From a series of 113 samples, recovered
Salmonella from 23, representing 13 species,
including one S_. typhosa.
Identified Salmonella from each of 4 South
Platte River water samples, from 11 of 16
polluted irrigation waters, and from 4 of 6
sewage samples. Seven different types were
isolated from one sample of raw sewage,
6 types from a sample of treated sewage,
and 8 types from one sample of irrigation
water. The identified isolates comprised
16 types, the most prevalent being S_. monte-
video, typhimurium, bareilly, and newport.
Reported the presence of S_. typhosa and
other Salmonellae in polluted irrigation
water in Germany.
Were able to isolate S_. typhosa from the
water of a plant in Amsterdam, from August
1956 to March 1957, using the Moore gauze-
swab technique. From 3 to 9 Salmonella
were isolated from each swab. A total of 23
types were found. S_. typhimurium and S_.
bareilly were always present, S. schott-
muelleri was recovered less frequently,
and S. typhosa was isolated twice.
75
-------
SOURCE FINDINGS
Darasse, et al Recovered 5 serotypes (S_. fann, ouakam,
(1959) rubislaw, urbana, and salford) from tap water
in Dakar. A cistern reservoir at the begin-
ning of the distribution system was contamin-
ated by lizard droppings.
McKee and Wolf (1963) assembled the early data on the survival of
Salmonella pertinent to water pollution (Table 21). Data such as that pre-
sented above reflect the persistent occurence in sewage-polluted sur-
face waters of Salmonella species that are potentially capable of pro-
ducing enteric infection in man. These organisms have been demon-
strated to persist in the water for a few weeks to a few months, de-
pending on the pH, temperature, and general condition of the water.
In some cases, they have even been shown to survive sewage treatment.
SALMONELLA AND FECAL COLIFORMS
The relationship between fecal coliforms and various Salmonella species
has been alluded to in the previous section. Although quantitative
methods for estimating pathogenic bacteria in water are still in the
development stage, improved analytical techniques permit isolation of
Salmonella from waters of relatively low fecal contamination.
Data obtained by Spino (1966) indicate that Salmonella were consistly
recovered in the Red River of the North when the fecal coliform
levels were 1, 000 or more. Studies on other river surveys indicate
Salmonella could be detected occasionally for values as low as ZO fecal
coliforms per 100 ml (West, 1966), and in one instance, when only four
fecal coliforms per 100 ml were detected (Gallagher, 1967). The
uncertain recovery of Salmonella below about 1,000 fecal coliforms is
in part due to unpredictable Salmonella discharges, and in part to the
sensitivity limits for the best qualitative procedures available.
APPLICATION OF METHODOLOGY TO SALMONELLA FACTOR
Capability (C_) Vector
p-i
The capability of humans to resist the pathogen Salmonella was de-
rived from published human dose-response test data. These tests
were particularly relevant to the case of the water recreationist
because the pathogens in the challenge dose were ingested orally
arid subjected to the action of the stomach acids. S_. typhosa tends
to produce much more severe symptoms than the other Salmonella
and is generally credited with greater virulence. For this reason
the Salmonella factor was divided into two groups, S_. typhosa and
other Salmonella - (S. - other), for this study.
76
-------
TABLE 21
Survival Data for Salmonella
Type Organisms
Reported
S. typhosa
(from McKee and Wolf, 1963)
Media and
Conditions
Spring water
Synthetic well water,
PH 5.9, 5 -25°C
Synthetic well water
pH 7, 9. 5° & 21°C
Synthetic well water,
pH 8, 5° & 21°C
Tap and distilled
wate r, qinno culum
1 X 10 /ml
Distilled water, ,
innoculvm 5 X 10 /ml
Distilled water .,
innoculum 1 X 10 /ml
Water with humus
added
Water without humus
Water or sewage,
warm weather
Water or sewage,
cold weather
Fresh water
Sea water
Sea water
Sea water
Autoclaved sea
water
Survival
Time
10% survived
44 hours
7 days
77+ days
196+ days
211 days
59 days
494 days
85-104 days
58-69 days
several days
months
4 days
50-60% sur-
vived 44 hours
>30 days
>32 days
several days
77
-------
TABLE 21 (continued)
Type Organisms
Reported
S_. typhosa
(cont. )
E. typhosa
S. paratyphi
S. paratyphi A
S. paratyphi B
Media and
Conditions
Iblluted water
Shell oysters
Within gut of Nema-
todes of Rhabditidae
family
Sea water, heat
sterilized
Sea water, raw
San Francisco Bay
10°C
San Francisco Bay
filtered, 10°C
Tidal water
Sea water
Imhoff tank
sludge
Spring water
Sea water
Tap water, aged
24 hours
Surface water
Autoclaved sea
water
Sea water, innoculum
1 X 10 7 /ml
Tap water, aged
24 hours
Survival
Time
>4 days
14-60 days
3-4 days
25 days
9 days
12-28 days
14-34 days
>2-3 weeks
14 days
11 days
10% sur-
vived 44 hours
50-60% sur-
vived 44 hours
29 days
3 months
several days
2 months
25% remain-
ing in 29 days
78
-------
TABLE 21 (continued)
Type Organisms
Reported
S. schottmuelleri
S. enterifides
S. typhiabdominalis
S. typhimurium
Salmonella
Typhoid bacteria
Media and
Conditions
Sludge banks and
ditch water
Oysters 5 C
Spring water
Sea water
Tap water, aged 24
hours, + 0. Zgrri/l
sterilized feces,
16°-18°C
Sea water
Soil and potato
(surface)
Carrot (surface)
Cabbage and Goose-
berries (surface)
Muddy waste water
Water, 0°C
Water, 5°C
Water, 10°C
Water, 18°C
Tap, well and distilled
•water
Sea water
Septic sewage
Excreta
Septic tanks
Survival
Time
1. 5 years
49 days
10% sur-
vived 44 hours
50-60% sur-
vived 44 hours
multiplication
few died in
24 hours
40+ days
10+ days
5+ days
180 days
9 weeks
7 weeks
5 weeks
4 weeks
2 weeks to
80 days
12-16 hours
5 weeks
10-84 days
>27 days
79
-------
Type Organisms
Reported
Typhoid bacteria
(cont. )
Paratyphoid
bacteria
TABLE 21 (continued)
Media and
Conditions
In gut of fish
Carp
Oysters
Sea water
Survival
Time
7-9 weeks
4-6 weeks
9-42 days
21 days
80
-------
Salmonella Typhosa C
u: p
The dose response test data on human volunteers published by Hornick,
et al, is the most complete and quantitatively reliable body of data
dealing with this subfactor. In these studies, human volunteers were
inoculated with graded doses of S_. typhosa and the frequency of in-
fection (illness) noted.
Based on these studies, a histogram was constructed in which each step
of the histogram represented an average of the data points of volunteers
ill at each concentration of challenge dose (the details of this analysis
and a discussion of some of the essential assumptions is presented in
Appendix B).
Twenty-five pseudo-random numbers were generated, and samples
were obtained from the histogram. These samples were input to the
BSTFIT program. The results of this analysis are shown in Table
22. This table represents the maximum likelihood estimates of the
parameters describing the normal, lognormal, exponential, Weibull,
and Gamma distributions. Based on the Kolmogorov-Smirnov goodness
"or" fit (or "d")test, itcanbe established that the lognormal probability
density function is the best description of the universe from which the
dose response sample was drawn.
Figure 13 shows the lognormal distribution selected by BSTFIT, along
with the upper and lower 95% confidence intervals.
Salmonella - other, C
The S_. -other C density function is based upon work published by
McCullough ana Eisele in 1951 dealing with strains of S_. bareilly, S. new-
port, S. anaturn I, II, and III, S. meleagridis I, II, and III, S. derby,
and S.~puilorum I, II, III, and TV. Thus groups of the Kaufrrian-^Wnlfe
Scheme B, C,, D, and E, the majority of the groups significant to
humans, were covered. As in the case of S_. typhqsa^ the pathogens
were fed to the volunteers and thus the results are directly applicable
to the case of recreation water quality. These tests were performed
in a way to emphasize the detection of a "minimum effective dose. "
They were conducted in a manner quite similar to "step stress testing
to malfunction. " Thus the dose response data could be input to BSTFIT
directly without recourse to sampling from a histogram.
The results of the analysis are shown in Table 23. Once again the log-
normal probability density function has been selected at the 5% level of
significance. This probability density function is shown graphically in
Figure 14, along with its upper and lower 95% confidence limits.
Appendix B presents the complete analysis.
The BSTFIT analysis of the available Salmonella data challenge some
commonly held concepts on Salmonella infectivity. The idea that S_.
typhosa is much more infectious than the other Salmonella species is
seriously challenged. The percent of population becoming ill can be
compared for the two groups of Salmonella.
81
-------
TABLE 22
typhosa Capabilities Vector (C )
Using 25 Random Numbers
(Input Data)
Name of
distribution
Normal
Lognormal
Exponential
Gamma
Weibull
"ti"
Statistic
0.538
0.191
0.936
0.2981
-
Probability
that data came
from cited
distribution
0 +
0.317
0 +
0.0235
-
82
-------
99.99 99.999.8 99 98 95 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 2 1 0.5 0.20.10.05 0.01
oo
OJ
TO
I 01
cr
o
tn
PS
O
O
H
o
10
DOSE RESPONSE
HISTOGRAM
LOWER 95% CONFIDENCE
LIMIT
UPPER 95% CONFIDENCE
LIMIT
0.01 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2
5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99
CUMULATIVE PROBABILITY (LESSTHAN OR EQUAL TO.%)
99.8 99.9 99.99
-------
TABLE 23
-other Capabilities Vector (C )
P
for 69 Challenge Cases
Name of
distribution
Normal
Lognormal
Exponential
Gamma
Weibull
ii £11
Statistic
0.3926
0.1636
0.6589
0.2818
0.5578
Probability
that data came
from cited
distribution
0 +
0.0497
0 +
0.0000348
0 4-
84
-------
00
(Jl
OQ
£
H
O
CO
f"
i — -
3
o
P
i
O
rt
tr
(B
H
O
CUMULATIVE PROBABILITY {GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO,%)
0)
en
(D
O
pt-
O
i-i
P 99.99 99.999.8 99 98 95 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 21 0.5 0.20.10.05 0.01
0.01 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 98 99
CUMULATIVE PROBABILITY (LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO, %)
99.8 99.9 99.99
-------
Population
Becoming 111 _ Organ! sms Ingested
S. typhosa
8 x 106
1 x 105
1 x 103
S. -other
5 x 107
5 x 105
1 x 104
50
10
1
It is obvious from the comparison that reports stating that one to ten
S_. typhosa organisms constitute an infective dose are unrealistic
(Kehr, 1943).
A more important result of this study is the similarity of dosages for
the two Salmonella groups, indicating that, in general, infectivity for
the various Salmonella is rather similar. This will permit handling the
entire Salmonella factor as a single group in future analysis.
Requirements (R_) Vector
q-<
The formulation of the Requirements (R ) Vector for the Salmonella
requires quantitative measurements on me distribution of the pathogens
in the waters of interest. The probability distribution of Salmonella in a
water would be evaluated for the likelihood that a recreationist would
encounter a given number of Salmonella while in the water.
It is remarkable that nowhere in this country are the number of
Salmonella per volume of water routinely counted and indeed it is
almost impossible to uncover any estimate of Salmonella numbers
in natural waters of any type. In almost all cases where this factor
is measured, the results are determined in binary form (presence or
absence of Salmonella), and sometimes additional studies are performed
to identify the strain(s) present.
A study representing estimates of Salmonella concentration in an estuary
was conducted by McCoy (1964) in England. His findings are reproduced
here as Table 24. It will be noted that these results are categorized
in terms of MPN (most probably number) per liter, a form sometimes
used to report the presence of coliform bacteria. The use of binary
tests to predict the number of coliform bacteria in a sample has been
discussed in the literature for many years. The validity of the method-
ology rests on the favorable comparison of test results using known
or true mean densities inoculated into appropriate fermentation tubes
and the MPN predictions calculated from the number of tubes showing
positive growth.
The numbers shown in Table 24 may be very low. Bucyowska (McCoy,
1964) indicates that quantitive measurements in Polish coastal waters
86
-------
TABLE 24
Salmonella Factor Requirements Data
(from McCoy, 1964)
MPN
org /liter
0
1-9
10
20
35
50
70
90
120
161
230
No. of
Samples
152
85
66
35
13
9
8
6
4
5
3
Percent
Positive
38.8
21.6
16.8
8.9
3.3
2.3
2.0
1.5
1.0
1.3
0.8
Cum.
Percentage
38.8
60.4
77.2
86.1
89.4
91.7
93.7
95.2
96.2
97.5
98.3
87
-------
showed that "... a large number of these samples contained 1, 000
Salmonella per litre. " In the 392 samples examined by McCoy, 240
or 61. 2% had at least 1 MPN Alter Salmonella.
Consideration should also be given the fact that saline water Salmonella
recoveries are consistently lower than in fresh water and that the percent
recovery using various enrichment media that depend on a selective
toxicant (e. g., tetrathionate) has not been worked out. However, it is
quite likely that the relative distribution of sample count versus percent
positives reported by McCoy is an accurate estimate and that on this
basis a probability distribution can be carried out. Accordingly, the
numbers in the table were scaled up by factors of 10 and 10 to bring
the MPN count up to a range that could be expected to be present
during an actual outbreak.
Next, it was assumed that a recreationist will ingest 10 ml of water
(Streeter, 1951), although there is really no statistical basis for this
assumption; because it does seem to be a conservative estimate, the
MPN numbers were again adjusted upward by an order of magnitude.
However, as discussed earlier, the C fits had inherent in their histo-
grams the assumption that the cited challenge doses was actually the lower
end of the class interval (see Appendix B). Since this assumption could
be considered unconservative, the R data were increased by two orders
of magnitude. ^
In summary, then:
j>._ - total (R ) = MPN (Salmonella)/liter x 10 ml ingested
1 liter
1000 ml
(for compatibility with C data)
When more information is made available on the requirements vector,
some of these assumptions may prove to be unnecessary.
Just as in the C analysis, a histogram was sampled using 25 random
numbers and the sample input to BSTFIT. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov
goodness of fit test selected (Table 25) a Weibull as the preferred dis-
tribution. It should be noted that all four maximum likelihood best fits
were very poor, reflecting a significant lack of confidence in the data.
The improvement in the accuracy of measurement of the requirements
vector is an area in which fruitful research can and should be performed.
The BSTFIT density function for the Salmonella factor was converted
to S. typhosa and S. -other by ratioing the Salmonella R density function
by 5% and 95% respectively, based on the frequency of isolation of the
various species (Moore, 1900). The results of the convolution analysis,
as discussed in the next section, showed that the subdivision of the
factor Salmonella into S. typhosa and S. -other was a needless refinement.
88
-------
TABLE 25
Salmonella Total Requirements Vector (R )
Using 25 Random Numbers
Name of
distribution
Lognormal
Exponential
Gamma
Weibull
"d"
Statistic
0.364
0.360
0.359
0.359
Probability
that data came
from cited
distribution
0,00265
0.00307
0.00317
0.00319
The two probability distributions, dose effect and factor concentration,
were used to develop the basic risk curve by determining their interaction.
The basic convolution was then truncated to develop the risk versus
factor concentration criteria.
Truncation of the basic curve - equivalent to criteria - reduces the
risk as the R cut-off point approaches the mean. In Table 26 the basic
untruncated convolution can be seen to yield a probability (risk) of illness
of 0.000423 (4/10,000) for S. tvohosa and 0.001208 (1/1.000) for S.-other.
This indicates that there is only a small difference, if any, in the infect-
ivity of the two Salmonella groups.
The results of the convolutions carried out on the two groups of
Salmonella using the two different R sets (McCoy x 1,000 and McCoy x
100, 000) were examined to determine the relationships between the two
Salmonella sub-factors. This is illustrated in Figure 15.
The equation of the risk-concentration relationship was next developed.
Attempts were made to fit both decimal and logarithmic functions to
the risk-concentration data and from the analysis of variance to select
the most probable fit. The linear regression was selected as the most
descriptive polynomial and this form, presented in Table 27, was used
in preparing the dose vs risk curve in Figure 15, along with the 50% confi-
dence limits.
The wide spread in the data as compared to the virus analysis indicates
that more work is required on this factor. The most probable area
of uncertainty is in the frequency distribution of the Salmonella concen-
tration in the water (R vector).
The analysis was based on only one
89
-------
TABLE 26
Truncated Convolution of Dose Effect and Factor
Concentration Based on McCoy's Data (x 1000)
S. typhosa
CONVOLUTION
(C R )
v p q
Basic
I
Basic
Basic
x. + So-
x -f 4o-
x -f 3-l/2o-
x -fr 3ff
x -f 2-l/2cr
x + 2cr
x + l-l/2o-
x 4- Icr
x * l/2o-
x
CRITERIA
(Truncation
point of Rq
organism/1
None
6,079
4,982
4,437
3,891
3,346
2,801
2,255
1,710
1,165
619
P
(Illne s s )
0.000423
0.000233
0.000192
0.000172
0.000151
0.000131
0.000110
0.000089
0.000068
0.000046
0.000025
CONVOLUTION
(C - R )
v p q
Basic
i
Ba
r
sic
Basic
5E -i- So-
x 4 4o-
x + 3-1/20-
X + 3(T
x + 2-l/2o-
x + 2cr
x + 1-1/20-
x + la-
x -t- l/2o-
X
S.- other
CRITERIA
(Truncation
point of Rq
organism/1
None
115,391
94,665
84,303
73,940
63,578
53,215
42,852
32,490
22,127
11,764
P
(Illness)
0.001208
0.000809
0.000691
0.000628
0.000561
0.000492
0.000419
0.000343
0.000265
0.000183
0.000099
vC
o
-------
10
OQ
H
(D
n
?a
P. S
ft
i-i
O
MI
Cfl
w
E
1.0
0.1
0.01
0.001
10°
10y
SALMONELLA CONCENTRATION, ORGANISMS/LITER
-------
TABLE 27
Derivation of Equation to Describe Recreationist Risk
as a Function of Salmonella Criteria
Equation of polynomial best fit
Analysis of/variance
N>
F*
Calculated
Log Y= -14.1365 + 0.61049 Log X
1,037
Minimum allowable
from table**
Level of significance
5%
1%
4.12
7.42
*.
F distribution, which is the distribution of the ratio of two variances.
[<
From tables of critical values of F at 5% and 1% levels. When the calculated value for F
exceeds the critical value, the answer is significant.
-------
study of Salmonella distribution (McCoy, 1964) and several assumptions
had to be made oeiore this data could be used. The need for additonal
surveys is strongly emphasized. The lumping of the S_. typhosa dose-
response data with the other Salmonella may also contribute to the lower
confidence levels. However, until more distribution data is available,
this view can only be regarded as being speculative.
The analysis is nonetheless important in that it does quantify the risk to
a population using a given water contaminated with Salmonella. The risk
of ill effect of 2 cases/10, 000 population at a count of 10, 000 Salmonella
organisms per liter does not appear unreasonable. There is now suffi-
cient information on hand to justify considering criteria based on esti-
mating the actual number of Salmonella in a recreational water.
An analysis of the Salmonella data similar to that carried out for the
viruses can be prepared. This would demonstrate the application of the
methodology to control risk in a population. If one case of illness per
100, 000 population is selected as the standard, the concentration require-
ments for Salmonella, coliform', and fecal coliform can be determined.
In this case, the estuary studied by McCoy will be used as the example.
From the convolution ot the dose-response data and the factor distribution
it is determined that a concentration of 80 MPN Salmonella /liter constitutes
a 1/100, 000 risk of illness. In this case, the Salmonella-coliform ratio is
derived from actual studies carried out in the estuary by McCoy (1964).
This relationship is presented in Figure 16 below the Salmonella concen-
trations and below this the fecal coliform-coliform relationships developed
by Strobel (1968) are also presented. From the figure we can conclude that a
risk 1/100, 000 for developing illness due to Salmonejla is probable when
counts of 8 x 10 MPN coliforms/100 ml or 6. 9 x 10 MPN fecal coliforms/
100 ml are present at the various sampling points.
The State standards of 5000 MPN coliform/100 ml presents less than
1/1 x 10 risk of illness, which is clearly negligible. This could explain
the almost complete lack of epidemiological evidence for Salmonella in-
fections even when recreationists use heavily polluted waters (Moore, 1954;
McCoy, 1964; Flynn, 1965). In the two analyses presented it is obvious
that the virus criteria will dominate and serve as the basis for standards
setting.
93
-------
0.100
vO
CTQ
c
l-i
n
o
I — »
K
o
0 h
° 3
Cn en
^
(D
O
co O
5^ P
o1
H
0.010
o
M 0.001
E
0.0001
10
,-1
10"
1 102
SALMONELLA/LITER
103
104
CL
i-"
n
P>
rr
O
N
cn
103
4.9 x 102
10*
5.8 x 103
105 106
COLIFORM. MPN/100 ml
6.5 xlO4 7.0 xlO5
FECAL COLIFORM, MPN/100 ml
107
7.2 x 106
108
7.1 x 107
-------
SECTION VIII
TOTAL, AND FECAL COLIFORM AS INDICATORS OF RECREATIONAL
WATER QUALITY
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The fecal coliform test to detect pollution by warm-blooded animals has
been proposed as a better bacteriological measurement of public health
hazards in stream pollution investigations, in sewage treatment systems,
and in bathing water than the traditional total coliform bacterial procedure.
The fecal coliform is gradually gaining acceptance as a routine supple-
mentary determination (Geldreich, 1967).
THE BACTERIA OF INTEREST
Most bacteria in water are derived from contact with air, soil, living
and decaying plants or animals, and the fecal excrement from warm
and cold-blooded animals. Present interest is in those species or
groups that can be considered a hazard to public health.
The pollution of water with fecal matter may add a variety of intestinal
pathogens having the potential of causing human or zoonotic disease.
While it is recognized that harmful contamination of outdoor bathing
beaches may be caused by sewage, by the dumping of refuse , or by
the individual bathers themselves, the transmission of disease by bathing
waters has not been established as a major public health hazard (Stevenson,
1953; Moore, 1959). The condition of bathing waters varies from day to
day and season to season, and it may be altered by:
(1) Fixed sources of pollution
(2) Incidence of disease among the local population
(3) The bathing load
(4) Physical factors , such as wind, weather, and temperature
(5) Composition of the water
Other important questions must be answered, including:
(1) How important is the small amount of water swallowed while
bathing as an etiological factor?
(2) Which diseases are transmissible by bathing water?
(3) To what degree are diseases contracted at beaches through
exposure to infected water, infected people, and infected
appurtenances ?
95
-------
Pathogens
The most common genera of pathogenic organisms found in .water are
Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio, Mycobacterium, Pasteurella, and
Leptospira, as well as certain enteric and respiratory viruses. Although
these pathogens have been found, a wide variety of media and methods are
necessary to detect them. Recent studies of Salmonella detection in
sewage (Dunlop, 1957), irrigation water (Dunlop, et al, 1951; 1952),
river water (Spino, 1966) and tidal waters (Brezenski, et al, 1965) pro-
duced promising techniques that permit the isolation of these pathogens
from waters with relatively low coliform densities. For example,
Salmonella were isolated from the Red River of the North when the
coliform density was 2, 200/100 ml and the fecal coliform level was 220/
100 ml. According to Geldreich (1966), the use of these organisms
as pollution indicators may not be desirable. The intervals between
sampling, pathogen detection, and condemnation of a water supply
would result in an exposure risk to the consumer or recreationists;
moreover, failure to demonstrate pathogenic organisms does not
always ensure a safe water.
Indicator Organisms
Studies on the origins of fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci have
generated renewed interest in these groups as better indicators of
pollution by warm-blooded animals than the traditional coliform proce-
dure used.in water pollution studies.
To be of value, a biological indicator of contamination or pollution must
satisfy the following criteria (Fair and Geyer, 1956; McCarthy, 1961):
(1) It must be a reliable measure of the potential presence of
specific contaminating organisms, both in natural waters
and in waters that have been subjected to treatment.
To meet this requirement, the indicator organism or
organisms must react to the natural aquatic environment
and to treatment processes, including disinfection, in
the same way, relatively, as do the contaminating organ-
isms.
(2) It must be present in numbers that are relatively much
larger than those of the contaminating organism whose
potential presence it is to indicate. Otherwise, detection
of the contaminating organism itself would serve a more
useful purpose.
(3) It must be readily identified by relatively simple analyti-
cal procedures.
(4) It must lend itself to numerical evaluation as well as qualita-
tive identification.
96
-------
The Total Coliform Group
Coliform bacteria have traditionally been the bacteriological tool used
to measure the occurrence and intensity of fecal contamination in water
pollution investigations for nearly 60 years, largely because they meet
the criteria outlined above. During this time, a mass of data has been
accumulated to permit a full evaluation of the sensitivity and the specifi-
city of this bacterial pollution indicator.
As defined in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste-
water (APHA, 1965), "the coliform group includes all of the aerobic and
facultative anaerobic, Gram-negative, non-spore-forming, rod-shaped
bacteria which ferment lactose with gas production within 48 hours at
35 C. " From this definition, it becomes immediately apparent that this
bacterial grouping is somewhat artificial in that it embodies a hetero-
geneous collection of bacterial species, having only a few broad charac-
teristics in common. Yet for practical applications to surface water
pollution studies, this grouping of selected bacterial species, termed
the total coliform group, has proved to be a workable arrangement;.
The total coliform group merits consideration as an indicator of pollution
because these bacteria are always present in the normal intestinal tract
of humans and other warm-blooded animals and are eliminated in large
numbers in fecal wastes. Thus the absence of total coliform bacteria is
evidence of a bacteriologically safe water.
The relationship between the bacterial quality of bathing water and the
incidence of illnesses in swimmers, as compared with non-swimmers,
was studied by Streeter (1951). His analysis is based on:
(1) The incidence of typhoid and paratyphoid in a region
(2) The morbidity - mortality ratio
(3) The relationship between these diseases and other
enteric infections
(4) The ratio of coliforms to pathogens
(5) The frequency of swimming
(6) The assumption that 10 ml of water will be swallowed
by each bather each day.
(7) The probability that this ingestion will cause illness
Streeter (1951) used the findings of Kehr and Butterfield (1943) as a
basis for an analysis of the rationality of various proposed bathing water
standards, as viewed from the standpoint of water-borne disease hazards.
Kehr and Butterfield (1943) reviewed a number of studies in England, Indonesia,
and California, where the successful enumeration of both coliforms and
typhoid and para-typhoid organisms was carried out in sewage and sewage-
polluted waters at the time of outbreaks of these enteric diseases. They
derived a correlation between the morbidity rates from typhoid fever in
different areas and the ratios of E. coli to E. typhosa in the sewage and
sewage-polluted waters of the areas (see Figure 17).
97
-------
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173
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The following account is an extract of Streeter's study on bacterial
objectives for the Ohio River, and is quoted because the reasoning con-
tained therein has indirectly formed the basis for most, if not all, of
the state total coliform standards.
"According to U.S. Census mortality reports for various diseases, the
average typhoid mortality rate for seven Ohio River states in the years
1945-47 was 0. 4 per 100, 000 (as compared with a rate of 0. 2 per 100, 000
in the U.S. Registration Area). Assuming a morbidityrmortality ratio
of 10 to 1, this would indicate a morbidity rate of 4 per 100, 000, or
0.04 per 1000." From Kehr and Butterfield's curve, the corresponding
ratio of E. typhosaiE. coli in the sewage and sewage-polluted waters of
such an area would be about 170, 000 coliforms for each E_. typhosa
organism. This, of course, is an extremely low infection ratio for
typhoid fever, but nonetheless measurable according to the Kehr-
Butterfield results. ,
In order to apply these data to an evaluation of the typhoid hazard in the
bathing waters of an area, it is necessary to assume the average volume
of water ingested per bather per day. For the purposes of estimate,
let this volume be assumed as 10 ml, which probably would be high for
trained swimmers, and low for children.
Now let:
R = The number of coliforms per single E. tvphosa in the bathing
water
B = The number of bathers per day
V = The volume of water, in ml ingested per bather per day
C = The average coliform content of the bathing water per ml
Then, the chance of exposure (P ) of (B) bathers to a single E. typhosa
on any day is:
P = BVC/R
e
and the exposure interval, in days, between successive ingestions of a
single organism is:
I = 1/P = R/BVC
e e
For illustration, let us assume R = 170, 000; V = 10 ml, and C = 10 per
ml or 100 per 10 ml. Then the chance that a single bather would be
exposed to ingestion of one E. typhosa organism would be:
p = 1/1,700
e
During a 90-day bathing season, if he bathes every day, his risk of
exposure will be 90/1700, or 1/19.
99
-------
Kehr and Butterfield estimated that about two percent of persons exposed
to ingestion of a single 1C. typhosa organism actually contract the disease.
On this basis, it may be estimated that the bather's risk of contracting typhoid
fever during a 90-day season would be 1/19 x 1/50, or 1/950.
A fundamental assumption here is the estimate that one E. typhosa ingested
will infect two percent of the exposed subjects. Based on the dose response
curve (Figure 13) developed from actual S.. typhosa ingestions by human
volunteers it is apparent that more than 1000 S_. typhosa must be ingested
to give a two percent probability of illness. Because the two types of typhosa
are of roughly the same virulence, the early work of Kehr and Butterfield,
probably overestimates the infectivity of E. typhosa.
EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES ON HEALTH/WATER QUALITY RELATIONSHIPS
Epidemiological and statistical studies of populations that have been
bathing or swimming in contaminated waters provide a direct approach
to assessing recreational water quality. The number of such investiga-
tions has been limited to only three in the United States. A study of this
type was made for the U.S. Public Health Service by Stevenson et al
(1953). These workers undertook a series of field studies of selected
population groups swimming in waters of different bacterial quality to
determine the relationship between incidence of illness among swimmers
and the coliform density of the water. Table 28 summarizes some of the
basic data collected.
The results indicate that illness occurrs more frequently among swimmers
than non-swimmers. This observation is not surprising in view of the fact
that water is an abnormal habitat for man, regardless of its quality. The
results also showed that when total illnesses among swimmers and non-
swimmers were compared, except as noted below, there appeared to be
no significant correlation between illness Incidence and quality of the
water in the areas studied.
It might also be of interest to note that among swimmers, eye, ear, nose,
and throat ailments represented more than half of all the illnesses re-
corded, gastrointestinal disturbances about 20%, and skin irritations
the remainder. Eye, ear,nose, and throat ailments represented an even
higher percentage, 68 percent, of pool-swimmer illnesses.
Stevenson et al (1953) actually found a specific correlation between illness
incidence and quality of water in two instances. In the first case, rates
were measured for several days following three-day periods of high and
low bacterial concentrations at one beach on Lake Michigan. It was ob-
served that illness frequency was significantly higher among swimmers
when the water had an average coliform density of 2300 per 100 ml than
when the average density was 43 per 100 ml.
In the second instance, swimming in the Ohio River when the "median
coliform density" was 2700 per 100 ml appeared to have caused a signi-
ficant increase in gastrointestinal illness, although the total number of
illnesses was small (Smith and Woolsey, 1951).
100
-------
TABLE 28
Summary of Data from Studies of Bathing Water Quality
(after Stevenson, 1953)
Coliform Concentration,
MPN per 100 ML
No. of Illnesses per 1000
Person-Days
Water Body
Lake
Lake
Ohio
Pool
Tidal
Tidal
Michigan
Michigan
River
Water
Water
Location Median
Chicago I
Chicago II
Kentucky
Kentucky
New Rochelle ,
N. Y.
Ma mar one ck ,
91
190
2700
<3
610
253
Minimum
9. 1
23
230
-
<30
<30
Maximum
3
24
160
460
' 460
,500
, 000
, 000
-
,000
, 000
Among
Swimmers
7.
8.
8.
13.
5.
6.
1
3
8
8
3
2
Among
Non- Swimmers
3
5
7
3
3
. 7
. 6
.4
-
. 3
. 3
N.Y.
-------
Stevenson et al (1953) point out that these two cases do not constitute
conclusive evidence of correlation between illness and bathing water quality,
because the numbers of individuals and days involved were so few.
A subsequent study was conducted by USPHS personnel on Long Island
Sound to determine the relationship between illness and bodily exposure
to contaminated salt water.
This investigation gave no evidence that variation in water quality of the
sort encountered is capable of producing marked differences in the amount
of illness experienced by swimmers. The data from this study were of
sufficient internal consistency to indicate that significant effects would
have shown up had they existed.
An intensive epidemiological investigation was conducted by Moore, and
his committee on bathing beach contamination, in England and Wales
(1954; 1959). Extensive bacteriological and epidemiological studies were
made over a period of five years in relation to more than 40 popular
bathing beaches, the waters of the great majority of which were subject
to contamination with sewage. The median presumptive coliform
counts varied from 40 to 25, 000 per 100 ml; as many as 40 percent of
the samples contained over 10,000 coliforms per 100 ml. In addition
to coliform bacteria, determinations were made for members of the
Salmonella group, of which 33 different species were isolated.
The general conclusions of the Moore committee were that bathing in
sewage-polluted water carries only a negligible risk to health, and,
where the risk is present, it is probably associated with chance
contact with intact aggregates of infected fecal material. In the
entire study, there were only four cases of paratyphoid fever that
could possibly have been attributed to bathing in infected sea water.
In each case, however, the bathing area was contaminated with visible
fecal material. The committee indicated that unless the water is so
fouled as to render the bathing beach esthetically revolting, it would
seem that public health requirements are reasonably well met by the
present British policy of improving grossly unsanitary beaches and
preventing as far as possible the pollution of the waters with undisinte-
grated fecal matter. The extreme view of the British workers is not
shared by American public health authorities.
In order for the coliform test to continue as a useful criterian of health
risk from polluted waters, it must be quantitatively related to the
presence of pathogens. This requires that the relative distribution of
pathogens and coliforms in a given water be determined and a correlation
calculated. The basic data required to carry out this analysis was
fortunately available from the studies of McCoy (personal communication).
He simultaneously estimated that numbers of coliforms and numbers of
Salmonella, present in an estuary over a given period of time. This
information is presented in Table 29, The data and the calculated
regression line are presented in Figure 18. The equation for the line,, in
this case a quadratic regression, was determined to be:
102
-------
TABLE 29
Occurrence of Salmonella and E. coli in
an Estuary
(MPN Salmonella and E. coli I (xlO~ ) Normalized for Flow of 1 MGD)
Date
Aug 1/2 Sal.
E. coli I
8/9 Sal.
E. coli I
15/16 Sal.
E. coli I
22/23 SaJ.
E. coli I
29/30 N. G.
Sept 5/6N. G.
^J2/13 Sal.
E. coli I
19/20 Sal.
E, coli I
26/27 Sal.
_E. coli I
Oct 3/4 Sal.
E. coli I
Time
1000-
9.
1.
1.
1.
1.
0.
14.
2.
>164.
29.
25.
1.
1.
1.
<1.
< 0.
1500 1600-2100
96
83
58
10
96
176
7
65
5
6
15
78
96
66
30
6.
1.
2.
22.
0.
14.
1.
>164.
11.
38.
7.
3.
1.
1.
0.
66
299
58
85
5
176
7
62
35
5
05
57
96
66
666
MGD
Corre
tion
2200-0300 0400-0900
0.
>28.
9.
8.
1.
98.
2.
6.
0.
3.
1.
1.
0.
66
299
58
5
8
6
82
02
3
93
41
256
57
23
66
666
0.
0.
9.
0.
1.
0.
37.
11.
38.
4.
1.
1.
<1.
0.
66
299
58
634
8
176
47
59
7
35
5
44
78
23
66
30
(
(
1
(
/
\
/
<
/
\
1
0
0
r
i
ID
f
f>
f
0
f
~Q
i
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I1
f
1°
f-
1°
1 \
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i \
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1 \
. 02J
rss)
1
.68
1
762"
1 <
.61
1 \
•56/
1 \
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.60;
103
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00
CD
o sr
o 5.
H-" H-
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31
(-"
P o
l-h
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I I
(U H
en
P
i—
3
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0)
rl-
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456
106E.coli/100ml
10
11
-------
Y = -4. 1 x 10'2 + 1. 07 x 10'5 X - 6. 55 x 10~3 X 2
This equation was used to calculate the relationship at low levels of
coliform number and the expanded lower portion of the curve is present-
ed in Figure 19. The scatter of the data at the low end of the curve
prevented a more accurate estimate of the slope and it was not possible
to bring the cuve through the origin.
The curve in Figure 19 predicts a/concentration of 10 Salmonella organ-
isms/100 ml for an MPN of 1 x 10 coliform/100 ml, a figure that is^not
too different from Kehr and Butterfield's estimate of 6 S_. typhosa/10
coliforms. This information was then superimposed on the risk curve
for Salmonella shown in Figure 16.
Based on the above analysis, it is concluded that the criteria for total
coliform, as an indicator of health risk, have in the past been very
conservatively estimated. It is of little wonder that the value and reliability
of the coliform test, as an indicator and predictor of disease hazards in
recreational, has been seriously questioned. Past epidemiological evidence
did not very often fit the facts.
As noted above, the very recent literature seriously challenges the value
of the coliform test as an indicator of hazard to water recreationists.
The studies of Moore (1959) and of McCoy (1964) indicate that there is
very little hazard from Salmonella when heavily polluted water (by present
standards) is used for recreation. Flynn (1965) in Australia flatly states
that there is no relationship between coliform count and disease resulting
from swimming and feels that the coliform criteria, as presently consti-
tuted, do not in any way reflect actual health risks in recreational waters.
The application of the methodology to the health risk associated with coli-
form concentration reveals the weakness of present methods of criteria
setting and at the same time offers a way of establishing a meaningful
coliform index. By basing the correlation of the Salmonella and coliform
factors as their frequency distribution in a given water, a true picture
of the indicator role of E. coli can be derived. This could then be super-
imposed on the risk curve of the factors of interest, virus and Salmonella,
and realistic coliform criteria that are directly related to the level of risk
then derived.
It is interesting to note from the examples given that it is the risk of
virus infection that will pertain in the establishment of "safe" coliform
levels. In contradiction to traditionally held views, the probability of
a virus infection increases more rapidly than does the risk from
Salmonella.
Fecal Coliforms
Unfortunately, some strains included in the total coliform group have a
wide distribution in the environment but are not common in fecal
material. To further complicate the problem, some coliforms surviving
sewage chlorination may increase, exponentially within one or two days'
travel downstream (Evans, et al, 1968). This phenomenon, known as
105
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n
0)
I?
13
Pu
n
o
n
rt-
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l-h
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i-<
rt
00
O
E
§
I
a.
10 —
5 x 104 105
E.coli/100ml
-------
aftergrowth, is associated with the Aerobacter aerogenes portion of the
total coliform group. This organism can grow with very minimal
nutrients and does not require the complex amino acids or other additives
that are necessary for E. coli and other fecal coliform strains. Thus,
A. aerogenes is the most responsive coliform bacteria to the stimulation
by available nutrients and the associated factors of favorable tempera-
ture, pH, and chelation of toxic metal ions by various colloids present
in the polluted water.
Other indicator systems have been proposed from time to time, including
certain pathogenic bacteria, anaerobic spore-formers, and total bacteria
population. For a variety of reasons, these indicator systems have not
been found to be satisfactory. However, recent investigation into the
fecal coliform sub-group of the total coliform bacteria has shown promise
for improving the bacteriological tools used to detect evidence of fecal
pollution (Geldreich, 1966).
By definition, the fecal coliform group is composed of organisms that
ferment lactose and produce gas within 24 hours at 44. 5 C and is more
inclusive than the ++--IMViC strain, E_. coli, type I. The detection of
fecal coliform bacteria by confirmation of all positive presumptive tubes
in EC medium at 44. 5 C, or by the membrane filter procedure with
M-FC (Geldreich, etal, 1966) at 44. 5°C is known as the elevated
temperature test. In the evaluation of results, all coliforms from the
feces of warm-blooded animals are considered fecal coliform strains.
In studies on the occurrence of fecal coliform in the environment,
the elevated temperature procedure was shown to have had a 96. 3%
correlation with coliforms from such fecal sources as humans, cows,
pigs, sheep, chickens, turkeys, and ducks by Geldreich and collabora -
tors (1962). Research on the occurrence in the environment of fecal
coliform bacteria from dogs, cats, and various rodents, including
rabbits, chipmunks, and mice, indicated a 94. 5% correlation of the
test with fecal origin of these coliform organisms (Geldreich, 1965).
This type of pollution could be a major source of the fecal organisms
found in residential storm-water runoff and in bathing beach water.
If one assumes that fecal coliforms make up about 15% of the total
coliform count (Spino, 1968), then an analysis similar to that of Streeter
can be made for the fecal coliforms. In Streeter's work he proposed
a Salmonella /coliform ratio of 1/170,000; 15% of this figure would give
a Salmonella/fecal coliform ratio of 1/25,000. Using this ratio as a
basis, and calculating the risk associated with typical state standards
of 1000/100 ml for fecal coliform, a risk of infection of If 150 is
predicted. Obviously this high level of risk would be intolerable;
it is,however, incompatible with epidemiological evidence as to disease
incidence.
This type of evidence sheds doubt on the validity of fecal coliform
standards with respect to assessing the risk of infection with enteric
disease. From a review of the published literature, it is apparent
107
-------
that fecal coliform standards are correlated with total coliform inci-
dence, and not to Salmonella or disease incidence. By assuming a
constant ratio of TC/FC in water, and setting standards accordingly,
the usefulness of fecal coliforrns as an indicator is jeopardized. What
is urgently needed are more quantitative studies on Salmonella /fecal
coliform ratios before realistic risk situations can be established.
Strobel (1968) examined the relationship between fecal coliforrns and
coliforms for several embayments located on Long Island, New York.
The data demonstrated that this relationship varies with the source of
pollution, level of treatment provided, characteristics of the receiving
waters, and precipitation on the watershed. He concluded that the
correlations should be specific for each given water of interest. This
fits in with one of the main tenets of the methodology developed in this
program in that the factor distributions should be established for each
water of interest as part of the monitoring program.
As an example of this type of analysis, the data developed by Strobel
for Hempstead Bay was used in Figure 11 and Figure 16 to demonstrate
the use of fecal coliforms for establishing risk criteria. The super-
imposing of the various factor concentrations on the abscissa of the risk
curve permits the correlation of new or complementary standards with
traditional criteria.
SUMMARY
The traditional concept of using levels of total coliform densities to des-
cribe bacteriological acceptability of water bodies has been questioned
by many because the presence of coliforms may result from causes other
than fecal pollution. Because fecal coliform densities result from pollu-
tion by man and other warm-blooded animals, they are more directly
indicative of the probable presence of the associated enteric pathogens.
However, summarized data from several stream surveys reported
over the past few years show little apparent correlation between
quantities of total or fecal coliform and the probable isolation of such
pathogens as Salmonella and viruses. Salmonellae were isolated by
Spino (1966) at total coliform densities of less than 1000/100 ml and
fecal coliform densities of less than 150/100 ml. The total coliform
density of 1000/100 ml has traditionally been acceptable for recreation-
al waters in many states.
The analysis of available data on Salmonella and virus infectivity along
with their relationship to the indicator organisms strongly suggests that
present coliform criteria are very conservative. The setting of unnecess
arily stringent standards makes the chance of acquiring a disease so
small that when an infection does occur it is merely a chance event.
This would account for the wide data scatter and apparent unreliability
of disease-organism concentration relationships. Once the proper
criteria are established, the coliform analysis will in all probability
develop into a reasonable predictor of health risk.
108
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SECTION IX
PESTICIDES AS A FACTOR OF RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY
In presenting the following account of representative information on
pesticide/health/environment relationships, the objective has been to
develop the thesis that the recreationist enters contaminated water with
an acknowledged body burden of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides, and
that the principal risk he faces may be the raising of his tissue and blood
levels to a degree that ultimately results in a clinical expression of a
toxic effect. Human contact with the environment represents a spectrum of
both intensity and duration of exposure to pesticides, with the general
public on the lower end of the scale. People ingest and absorb small
amounts of pesticides as residues in foods, and receive further exposure
to pesticides applied in their homes and gardens for pest control
purposes.
The degree of additional health hazard that is posed by the ingestion
of minimal amounts of pesticide-contaminated water by the aquatic
recreationist is a matter that awaits resolution. Although no direct
evidence in the literature of acute poisoning or chronic-ill effect
attributable to primary contact recreation could be found, consider-
able data are available concerning the relationships between human
health and pesticides in the general environment.
Figure 20 illustrates various parameters that should be considered when
assessing the hazard faced by the aquatic recreationist as a consequence
of exposure to pesticide-polluted water. These parameters include:
(1) The concentration of pesticides in the general environment,
which serves as the potential source of contamination of
water.
(2) Routes of entry into the water environment.
(3) Known or suspected concentrations of pesticides in water.
(4) Persistence and/or degradation of the pesticide in the
water environment.
(5) Potential physiological hazards to man.
The following account represents a sampling of available information on
,;(!) the acute and chronic toxicity of pesticides to man, (2) the amount of
pesticides in the diet, (3) the pesticide concentration in surface water,
and (4) the epidemiology of pesticide exposure.
109
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I
PESTICIDE CONCENTRATION
IN AIR AND SOIL
DIRECT
APPLICATION
\
RUN-OFF
INDUSTRIAL WASTE
GROUNDWATER
PESTICIDE CONCENTRATION
IN WATER
INGESTION
INHALATION
DERMAL CONTACT
EFFECT OF pH. TEMP.,
DISPERSING AGENTS
NATURAL DEGRADATION
AQUATIC BIOTA
CHRONIC ACCUMULATION
ACUTE EFFECTS
TOXIC EFFECT ON MAN
CHRONIC
ACUTE
OCCUPATIONAL HAZARD
OBSERVATIONAL DATA
(BODY BURDEN)
EXPERIMENTAL DATA
(MAN AND ANIMALS)
HOMOLOGOUS OR
ANALOGOUS TO
TOXIC EFFECT ON MAN
CHRONIC
ACUTE
-------
ORGANIC PHOSPHORUS INSECTICIDES
The organic phosphorus insecticides (parathion, Chlorthion, demeton,
diazinon, Dipterex, malathion, tetraethylpyrophosphate (TEPP)) are
among the most toxic to man of the commonly used agricultural chemicals.
The organic phosphorus insecticides are all cholinesterase inhibitors.
Parathion is one of the most dangerous to humans. Between 1947, when
parathion was first introduced, and 1959, there were 100 parathion deaths
in the United States. Japan has averaged 336 parathion deaths annually
for several years and 100 deaths due to this insecticide occurred in
India in 1958. In the same year, there were 67 deaths in Syria and
20 in Jordan (Hayes, I960). It should be pointed out that malathion is
the least toxic of the organic phosphorus group.
Ordinarily there is little, if any, risk from residual concentrations of
the organic phosphorus insecticides if they are used properly. Quinby
and Lemon (1958) have reported mild parathion poisoning in over 70
workers, however, who handled recently sprayed fruit or other crops.
Absorption in these cases was dermal, which probably accounted for
the mildness of the reaction.
The toxicity of the organic phosphorus insecticides is directly related
to the amount the normal cholinesterase level is lowered in the body.
Generally, outward symptoms do not appear until the serum cholin-
esterase level is lowered by about 30% of normal. This, of course,
varies with individuals. Persons chronically exposed to organic
phosphorus compounds may reach an equilibrium situation wherein
their cholinesterase level remains at some lower level. An accidental
added exposure may then result in much more severe effects than
a normal individual would experience at the same dose level.
Although numerous human volunteer studies have been carried out with
the various pesticides, most such work has been conducted at con-
servatively low exposure levels to avoid permanent damage to the
subjects. This type of testing is suitable for establishing safe levels,
but does not provide information on dangerous limits. Dependence
for this latter type of information is thus placed on cases of accidental
poisonings or suicides. In both cases, it is rarely possible to compute
the ingested doses with any accuracy.
Several cases of poisoning have occurred that did allow estimation of
the dosages ingested. These reports, along with reported exposures
of volunteers, are summarized in Table 30. A plus-minus system is
used to record effects since in many cases different types of clinical
evaluations were used (serum cholinesterase, urine, or the clinicians
description of the symptoms). In many cases, only the dosage ingested
was reported and the weights of the subjects were not reported. This
data was divided by 70 to derive a mg/kg dosage for an "average" man.
Ill
-------
TABLE 30
Organic Phosphorus - Pesticides
Dosage % Effect on
mg/kg Decrease Humans * Material
1.6
0.73-1.
1.3
0.84
0. 34
0.34
0.32
0.21
0. 16
0. 15
0. 12
0. 10
0. 10
0. 10
0. 10
0.097
0.081
0. 081
0.075
0. 065
0.061
0. 060
0.056
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.04
0. 032
0.025
0.016
0.014
0. 0034
0.0020
M
4
_
-
l — I parathion
fl parathion
a TEPP
malathion
+++ TEPP
25
-
" -
_'
_
_
-
33
_
15
33
_
10-15
_
-
-
77
77 -
- *
15
-
-
-
_ . :
• -
25
25
-
++ malathion
+ malathion
malathion
malathion
+ Delnav
+ EPN
r~l parathion
+++ parathion
+ -dioxathion
+ methyl parathion
++ parathion
EPN
+ parathion
Delnav
+ parathion
parathion
+++ schraden
+++ schraden
parathion
+ demeton
dioxathion
parathion
parathion
parathion
parathion
+ schraden
+ dime fox
dimefox
* Legend:
+
+
++ =
+++. -
a =
baseline change
1-25%
25-50%
over 50%
death
% reduction in
cholinesterase
, Reference
Goldblatt 1950
Seifert 1954
Grob & Harvey 1949
Mattson & Sedlar 1962
Grob & Harvey 1949
Moeller & Rider 1962
Moeller & Rider 1962
Moeller & Rider 1962
Mattson & Sedlar I960
Weir &c Kelber 1962
Moeller & Rider 1962
Kagaratnam et al I960
Eds on et al 1964
Trawley et al 1963
Moeller & Rider 1962
Edson 1957
Moeller & Rider 1962
Moeller & Rider 1962
Weir &: Keller 1962
Edson 1957
Moeller & Rider 1961
Edson et al 1964
Edson et al 1964
Rider 1958
Moeller & Rider 1962
Trawley et al 1963
Moeller & Rider 1961
Edson 1957
Rider 1958
Edson 1957
Edson et al 1964
Edson et al 1964
Edson et al 1964
112
-------
In spite of these drawbacks, Table 30 serves a useful purpose by show-
ing a graded response from the high dosages of approximately 1 mg/kg',
which is always fatal, down to relatively safe dosages below 0. 05 mg/kg.
Malathion shows up as one of the safer organic phosphorus insecticides
while schraden is seen to be extremely toxic. The other interesting feat-
ures of this table is the rather narrow range between no effects and extreme
toxicity (e. g. , 0. 03 mg/kg (safe) - 0.1 mg/kg (death) for parathion) for
these compounds. This may require a more liberal than usual safety
factor since any appearance of symptoms is a dangerous situation.
Although the organic phosphorus insecticides exhibit their toxic effects
over a rather narrow range, there is a wide difference in the toxicity
between different compounds. This is further complicated, from the
viewpoint of RWQ criteria, by the broad spectrum of solubilities - from
the fully water miscible systemics, schraden and dimefox., to the almost
insoluble parathion, TEPP, etc. Fortunately, however, most organic
phosphorus insecticides have a relatively short life time in a water en-
vironment, being quickly hydrolyzed to innocuous materials. As will be
pointed out later, these pesticides would cause mass fish kills in a water
long before human toxic levels can occur. This would serve as a strong
warning to humans to stay out of such water.
CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON INSECTICIDES
Insecticides in the chlorinated hydrocarbon group include DDT, BHC (and
lindane), chlordane, chlorobenzilate, TDE (DDD), Dilan, aldrin, dieldrin,
endrin, heptachlor, and its epoxide, toxaphene, and methoxychlor. Two
notable members of this group are DDT and BHC. Fortunately, these two
insecticides have produced no authenic cases of poisonings (Barnes, 1958;
Hayes, I960) from ingestion of treated foods. However, there have
occurred several cases of accidental poisonings and attempted suicides.
The problem of accurately assessing the dosage ingested is very difficult
in most of these cases.
Hsieh (1954) reported an incidence of accidental poisoning from DDT,
involving eleven persons who had eaten contaminated pork dumplings.
This study is noteworthy in that the author went into an, elaborate process
to determine the amount of DDT ingested by each individual. This was
reported along with the severity of clinical symptoms.
Studies with volunteers have generally been carried out at relatively
low dosages. The effect of exposure has shown considerable individual
variation with a graded response increasing in severity as dosage is
increased. The volunteer studies and cases of accidental poisonings
or suicides where the dosage ingested can be calculated are presented
in Table 31. Three deaths were reported but in each case there appears
to be confusion as to whether the death was pesticide induced or caused
by pulmonary edema resulting from the solvent used to dissolve the pesti-
cide. A plus-minus scale is used to rank severity of intoxication since the
113
-------
TABLE 31
Toxicity to Humans of Chlorinated Pesticides
Pesticide Concentration
Pesticide
DDT
DDT
BHC
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
DDT
methoxychlor
methoxychlor
methoxychlor
methoxychlor
methoxychlor
methoxy chlo r
dieldrin
dieldrin
dieldrin
Legend: H
*#**
mg/kg Severity
500.0 B
285.0 *#*#
180.0 B
120. 5 **#*
105.0 EL
41.9 ***
37.2 ***
28.9 ***
20. 0 ***
20. 0 ***
18.4 **
17.5 **
16.3 *
16.0 ***
13.5 *
11.1 0
10.3 0
10.0 *
9.5 **
7.1 0
6.7 0
6.7 0
6.0 *
6.0 *
5.1 0
3.38 *
3.37 0
2.0 0
1.0 0
0.5 0
0.5 0
0.21 0
0.05 0
0.01 0
= death
cysnosis
vomiting
Baden-Steel - see Stammers (1947)
Hayes - 1954
Kwocjek 1950 - in Durham
Hsieh 1954
Hill & Robinson - Stammers (1947)
Hsieh 1954
Hsieh 1954
Hsieh 1954
Velbinger
Hayes 1955
Hsieh 1954
Hsieh 1954
Hsieh 1954
Hayes 1959
Velbinger
Neal, Sweeney, etc. 1946
Neal, Sweeney, etc. 1946
Hayes 1955
Velbinger
Neal 1946
Hsieh 1954
Velbinger
Hsieh 1954
Hayes 1959
Hsieh 1954
Hayes
Domenjers
Stein 1965
Stein 1965
Stein 1965
Hayes 1956
Hunter 1967
Hayes
Hunter 1967
***
*
0
heart convulsions
tremor, convulsions, malaise
headache
no reaction
114
-------
description of symptoms is in part a subjective judgment of the attend-
ing physician.
Although DDT is stored in body fat and the effects are therefore cumula-
tive, no case of chronic poisoning analogous to that produced by arsenic,
lead, or mercury have been described for DDT or related insecticides
(Hayes, I960). However, there have been a few cases reported in the
literature of agricultural poisonings with dieldrin, aldrin, and endrin.
Dermal exposure to dieldrin has led to epileptoid convulsions in man,
although the effects have generally been transitory.
Because of the low water solubility of most of the chlorinated hydrocarbon
they cannot be considered an important source of hazard to water recrea-
tionists. It would be almost impossible for a recreationist to ingest
the smallest dose (6. 0 mg DDT/kg) shown on Table 31 as producing an
effect. If an individual is to ingest 6. 0 mg DDT/kg, a 70 kg man would
require a total intake of 420 mg. This in turn would have to be contained
in the 10 ml assumed to be normally ingested during recreational activi-
ties. The required concentration in the water would have to be 42 g/1.
This if far above the solubility limit of about 1-10 p.g/1 for DDT.
These levels are, of course, far above any concentrations monitored
in natural waters. Because this factor was not considered of importance
to recreational waters, a convolution was not carried out.
CHRONIC TOXICITY OF PESTICIDES
Two types of injury must be considered in assessing the health hazards
of pesticide residues. The first is the possibility of an acute illness
resulting from residues ingested on a single day or in a few days. The
second is the long-term effects that may accrue after ingesting small
quantities of residues daily for many years. On the basis of documented
knowledge of the effect of various pesticides on experimental animals
and on man, and of the levels of the chemicals present as residues on
food products, illness from short-term, exposure would not be expected
to occur. This conclusion is supported by epidemiologic evidence.
There have been no known cases of illness in the United States from
insecticide residues on foods when formulations have been used according
to directions (Hayes I960). However, there have been several instances
in which insecticides used improperly on foods have led to acute poisoning
soon after ingestion. Improper use may include excess application of
the insecticides, and/or inadequate treatment of the produce to remove
the insecticides prior to marketing (Durham, 1963).
PESTICIDES IN THE DIET
Of great importance for public health is a knowledge of the amount of
pesticide residues on foods and how much is actually consumed by the
general population. Indeed, pesticides ingested with food provides
115
-------
a background level of intake that may mask the added exposure to the
population from water related recreational activities.
The DDT and DDE content of a group of complete, prepared meals from
restaurants and institutions were determined by Walker and his co-
workers (1954). A total of 179 individual portions of food, representing
86 different items, was included in the 18 restaurant and 7 institu-
tional meals tested. Fifty food portions contained no detectable DDT.
However, DDT was found to be present in detectable but very small
quantities in all meals tested. Generally, those foodstuffs cooked in
fat, and those containing meat or butter were found to have a higher
DDT content than other foodstuffs. The DDE content of the various
foods tested was roughly proportional to the DDT content. If, in one
day, an individual had consumed the three meals that contained the
largest amounts of DDT, his total DDT intake would have been 0. 388
mg. The average DDT intake, based on all meals tested, was 0. 184
mg/day. This amount is equivalent to a DDT dosage of about 0. 002
mg/kg - day for a man of average size (70 kg) or to a DDT concentra-
tion of about 0. 31 mg/kg in the total dry diet. It was felt that no meal
tested contained enough DDT to be considered a toxicological hazard on
the basis of the estimated chronic oral toxicity of the compound.
Hayes, et al (1956) determined the DDT and DDE content of 16 meals
and found the average DDT intake to be 0. 202 mg, as compared with an
average daily DDE intake of 0. 050 mg. Other studies by Hayes (1958)
and Durham (1961) revealed similar results.
Figure 21 and Table 32 (extracted from Duggan and Lips comb, 1969)
are presented to illustrate the average incidence of pesticide residues
in representative food samples and to indicate the calculated daily
intake of a 70 kg man. Table 33 was prepared by the above authors to
compare these values with the acceptable daily intake proposed for some
significant pesticide chemicals by the Food and Agricultural Organization
of the United Nations and the World Health Organization Export Committee
on Pesticide Residues. Acceptable daily intake is defined as "the daily
dosage of a chemical which, during an entire lifetime, appears to be with-
out appreciable risk on the basis of all the facts known at the time. 'With-
out appreciable risk1 is taken to mean the practical certainty that injury
will not result even after a lifetime of exposure. "
Examination of the tables reveals that no acceptable daily intake value
was exceeded during the four years of the referenced study, and the
calculated daily dietary intake for practically all pesticide chemicals is
one order of magnitude or more below that considered safe by the
FAO/WHO Expert Committee. The average daily intake of all chlorin-
ated organic pesticide residues was 0. 0013 mg/kg of body weight. The
average dietary intake for all organic phosphorus compounds was
0. 0001 mg/kg of body weight.
116
-------
0.12
0.11
0.10
0.09
0.08
4 °-07
uT
§ 0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
n m
I
—
—
—
^^— ^^
11.2%
3.4%
15.5%
69.8%
I
\
\
\
\\
"^ *%\
^^
-------
TABLE 32
Average Incidence and Daily Intake of 15 Pesticide Chemicals
(After Duggan and Lips comb, 1969)
DDT
DDE
TDE
Dieldrin
Lindane
Heptachlor
epoxide
BHC
Malathion
Carbaryl
Aldrin
2, 4-D
Diazinon
Kelthane
PCB
Endrin
1965
Percent
Positive
Composites*
17.5
31.5
19.4
18.5
15.8
13.4
6.5
-
7.4
5.6
4.2
-
0.5
1.4
2.8
Daily
Intake,
mg
0. 031
0.018
0. 013
0. 005
0.004
0. 002
0. 002
-
0. 15
0.001
0. 005
-
0.003
0. 001
0. 001
1966
Percent
Positive
Composites**
37.3
33.0
25.7
21.3
12.3
12.0
6.0
5.3
2.7
3.7
3.0
3.0
3.7
3.3
2.0
Daily
Intake ,
mg
0.041
0. 028
0.018
0.007
0.004
0.003
0. 004
0.009
0. 026
0. 002
0.002
0.001
0.002
0.006
0.001
1967
Percent
Positive
Composites***
38.6
31. 1
28.9
15.3
10.6
8.9
8.9
3.6
1. 1
3.3
1.7
0.3
5.6
2.2
1.7
Daily
Intake ,
mg
0.026
0.017
0.013
0.004
0.005
0.001
0. 002
0.010
0.007
0.001
0. 001
0.001
0.012
0.001
0. 001
1968
Percent
Positive
Composites***
49.2
37.5
31. 1
15.6
15.3
13. 1
9.7
1.9
3.9
0.6
0.3
4.7
1.9
1. 1
Daily
Intake,
mg
0. 019
0.015
0. Oil
0. 004
0. 003
0. 002
0.003
0. 003
0. 001
0.001
0. 001
0. 010
0. 001
0. 001
00
* 216 composites examined
** 312 composites examined
*** 360 composites examined
NOTE; Sampling was done bimonthly beginning in June and ended in April of the years shown.
-------
TABLE 33
Dietary Intake of Pesticide Chemicals
(After Duggan and Lips comb, 1969)
Compound
Aldrin
Dieldrin
Total
Carbaryl
DDT
DDE
TDE
Total
Gamma BHC (Lindane)
Bromide *
Heptachlor
Heptachlor epoxide
Total
Malathion
Parathion
Diazinon
BHC
Kelthane
Endrin
All chlorinated organics
All organophosphates
All herbicides
FAO-WHO
Acceptable
Daily Intake
^
-
0. 0001
0. 02
-
-
-
0.01
0. 0125
1. 0
-
-
0. 0005
0.02
0. 005
0. 002
-
-
-
-
-
•»
Daily Intake, mg/kg Body Weight
1965
0. 00001
0. 00008
0. 00009
0. 0021
0. 0004
0. 0003
0.0002
0. 0009
0. 00007
0.39
0. 000003
0. 00003
0. 000033
_
-
_
0. 00003
0.00004
0. 000009
0. 0012
-
0. 00012
1966
0. 00004
0. 00009
0. 00013
0. 0005
0.0005
0. 0003
0. 0002
0. 0010
.0. 00006
0. 22
-
0. 00005
0. 00005
0.0001
0. 00001
0. 00002
0. 00004
0. 00015
0. 000004
0. 0016
0. 00014
0. 00022
1967
0. 00001
0. 00005
0. 00006
0. 0001
0. 0004
0. 0002
0. 0002
0.0008
0. 00007
0.29
0. 000001
0. 00002
0. 000021
0. 0002
0. 00001
0. 000001
0. 00003
0. 00018
0. 000004
0. 0012
0. 00025
0. 00005
1968
0.00001
0. 00005
0. 00006
_
0. 0003
0. 0002
0. 0002
0. 0007
0. 00004
0.41
0. 000001
0. 00003
0. 000031
0. 00004
0. 000001
0. 000001
0. 00004
0. 0001
0. 00001
0. 0011
0. 00007
0. 00006
f.
Total bromides present include naturally occurring bromides.
NOTE: Sampling -was done bimonthly beginning in June and ended in April of the years shown.
-------
PESTICIDES IN WATER
Pesticides may enter the water supply by direct, intentional applica-
tion; by inadvertent drift into water from adjacent spraying operation;
or, perhaps more commonly, by leaching of pesticide-treated areas
within a watershed (Durham, 1963).
Fortunately, the great susceptibility of fish to many of these insecticides
gives an easy clue to significant contamination of streams. For example,
endrin is toxic to certain species of fish at concentrations of less than 1
ppb. The toxicity of toxaphene to fish is of the same order of magnitude
as that of endrin. The presence of many other chlorinated hydrocarbon
pesticides at concentrations as low as a few parts per billion may be
detected by their effect on fish. The carbamate insecticide, Sevin,
and the organic phosphorus compound, Guthion, also fall within this
range of toxicity to fish. The latter group of insecticides is not very
important as water pollutants, however, due to their relatively rapid
hydrolysis rates (Johnson, 1968).
The U. S. Public Health Service instituted a nation-wide survey of
fish kills as a means of detecting water pollution, utilizing the high
toxicity of the newer synthetic pesticides to fish as the indicator of
insecticide content. In the first four months of the survey (June - Sept-
ember I960), more than 200 individual reports of fish kills were
received. In 76 cases (38 percent), agricultural chemicals were im-
plicated as the etiological agent (Cottam, I960).
Nicholson (I960) made a very thorough study of the pesticide content of
a river system that drains a 400 square-mile cotton-farming area of
Alabama in which pesticides, particularly toxaphene, DDT, and lindane,
were intensively used. Toxaphene (maximum level 0. 0004 mg/1) and
lindane (maximum level 0. 00075 mg/1) were detected in the stream.
DDT was not detected. The level of pesticides in the water was not de-
creased by the municipal water-treatment process. Toxaphene was
found in the water all year long, but heaviest concentrations coincided
with application to fields. The contamination was general throughout
the watershed. The insecticides apparently ran off the land surface
and dissolved in the water. No effects of these pesticides on the aquatic
life of the stream were noted.
The U. S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the EPA, is currently
operating a pesticides monitoring network, which is part of a program
for continuous surveillance of pesticides in surface waters at selected
sites throughout the U.S. Manigold and Schultz (1969) reported on the
most recent findings in certain selected western streams. They pre-
sented data from a network of 20 sampling stations. Compounds deter-
mined included the chlorinated insecticides aldrin, DDD, DDE, DDT,
dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, and lindane. Also
studied were the chlorinated herbicides, 2, 4-D, 2, 4, 5-T and silvex.
120
-------
All of these were detected at one time or another. DDT was the most
frequently occurring insecticide, and 2, 4-D was the most commonly
found herbicide. The amounts observed were small; the maximum con-
centrations of DDT and 2, 4-D were 0. 12 and 0. 35/^g/liter, respectively.
Concentrations were highest in the water samples that contained appreci-
able amounts of sediment.
Other evidence presently available would indicate that pesticide residues
may be present, although at extremely low levels (in the range of 0. 001
mg/1) in streams draining watersheds that have been treated with chlorina-
ted hydrocarbon pesticides. At a concentration level of 0. 001 mg/1, an
individual's average daily intake of two liters of water would represent
only about 0. 002 mg of residual insecticide. According to present
knowledge, the amount of even the most toxic pesticide would be signi-
ficantly below the level that is hazardous on an acute or subacute basis
(Durham, 1963).
The carbon filter-chloroform extract technique has often been used to
monitor selected waters for various organic chemical groups. Although
the method does not identify specific pesticides, it does quantify various
classes of compounds that include most of the pesticides. This method
gives an analysis of the total contamination of the water by different
chemical groups and permits the establishment of general criteria
instead of a series of individual pesticide values.
An example of such a program is the National Water Quality Network
of the Public Health Service. The Ohio River from Huntington, West
Virginia, to Cairo, Illinois, was selected for analysis, with October
1957 to September 1958 being the time span covered. Most of the
pesticides of concern would appear in the chloroform extracts from the
carbon columns, the chlorinated hydrocarbons in the aromatic fraction
and the organic phosphorus compounds in the oxygenated-compounds
fraction.
Figure 22 presents the distribution of total chloroform extractables in
the river. A histogram of the data was prepared, and points selected
randomly from the histogram were used as inputs into the BSTFT pro-
gram. The Gamma distribution was selected as the most likely repre-
sentation of the sampled universe (Table 34), although the probabilities
are also high that Weibull or lognormal distributions would also be
acceptable.
A similar analysis was carried out for the aromatic fraction. Here the
3-parameter Weibull distribution was selected from the data in Table
35 as presented in Figure 23. The highest level of 48/ig/l is about 70%
of water saturation and occurs at the asymptotic portion of the curve.
The cumulative frequency distribution for oxygenated compounds is
121
-------
fO
«
(B
H
I
H
o
1.00
0.90
OQ
Cs)
o?
jr a
t~~' d
i ST
O R
i^n -^
O M
>1
3 3'
H O
& g £
100
150
200 250 300
CHLOROFORM EXTRACTABLES.^g/LITER
350
400
-------
TABLE 34
Pollutants in Ohio River Water -
Total Chloroform Extractables
Name of
Distribution
Normal
Lognormal
Exponential
Gamma
Weibull
"d"
Statistic
0.224
0. 155
0.343
0. 127
0. 134
Probability
Data Came
From Cited
Distribution
0. 755
0. 982
0.240
0.999
0.997
Conclusion: It is not unreasonable to assume that the
Gamma distribution (c = 90. 167, $ = 67. 630,
a = 1. 9510) best represents the universe from
which the data were sampled
123
-------
TABLE 35
Pollutants in Ohio River Water -
Aromatics (Chlorinated Hydrocarbons)
Name of
Distribution
Normal
Lognormal
Exponential
Gamma
Weibull
"d"
Statistic
0.327
0. 173
0.248
0.227
0. 165
Probability
Data came
from Cited
Distribution
0.291
0.951
0.637
0.740
0.967
Conclusion:
It is not unreasonable to assume that
the Weibull distribution /c = 4. 000, e =
8.7775, K = 8.077 x 10 ) best represents
the universe from which the data were
sampled.
-------
IV
Ul
(TQ
c
pj
n
o
H
H-
3
ffi
O
n
ft>
cr
c
H-.
o
JO
a
>i
o
3
n
i
HI
o
z
111
oc
tr
o
o
o
u.
o
u
D
D
O
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70 —
0.60
0.50
£ 0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
12 16 20 24 28 32 36
AROMATIC FRACTION SOLUBLES. ^g/LITER
40
44
48
-------
presented as a log normal distribution in Figure 24 based on the analysis
in Table 36.
EPIDEMIOLOGY OF PESTICIDE EXPOSURE
A review of the literature indicates that the problem of chronic effects
in man of continued ingestion or absorption of minute amounts of chlor-
inated hydrocarbon pesticides has not been satisfactorily resolved. It
is true that for each commerically available pesticide, long-term experi-
ments have been performed in rats, dogs, and other animals. Such
experiments in rats have included study of the progeny for three gener-
ations. Similar feeding experiments have been carried out in dogs
for periods as long as two years. Zapp (1965), however, points out
that in spite of the fact that no effects have been seen in the dogs and
in three generations of rats with daily doses many times that to which
humans are constantly subjected, there is still doubt that the results
can be projected to man or be extrapolated to a whole lifetime of exposure
in man.
There exists significant data that imply the innocuousness in man
of prolonged small doses of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides.
Hayes, et al (1956) measured the effect of known repeated oral doses
of DDT in man, where human volunteers were fed either 3. 5 or 35
mg of DDT per day. This was about 20 and 200 times, respectively, as
much as Walker, et al (1954) found in the normal diet. No complaints,
symptoms, or laboratory findings suggestive of toxic effects of retained
pesticides were found in these subjects after 18 months of continuous
intake. In another approach, Stein and Hayes (1964) investigated by
questionnaire over 2, 000 employees who worked in direct contact with
pesticides for many years. They found no greater incidence or degree
of illness among those involved, than in relatives or other employees
who had no special exposure to pesticides. Additional studies of this
nature are reviewed by Durham (1963), and more recently by Yeary
(1966) (see Figure 25).
Hoffman, et al (1967) engaged in a different attempt at evaluating the
potential chronic toxicity of chlorinated pesticides. They determined
the extent of storage of these pesticides in the fatty tissues of 994
men and women who died of a variety of diseases, for 688 of whom
complete autopsy records were available. An attempt was made to
find the degree of correlation between the fat-pesticide levels and
the presence or absence of pathological changes in the various organ
and tissues. The principal pesticide found was DDT, 72. 2% of which was
in the form of its more innocuous derivative, DDE. The sum of DDT
and DDE averaged 9. 6 mg/kg with a standard deviation (SD) of 7 mg/kg.
Hexachlorcyclohexane (BHC, HHC), in the form of its X-isomer, lindane,
or one or more of the other isomers, showed an average concentration
in human tissue of 0. 48 mg/kg with a standard deviation of 0. 54 mg/kg.
There were 35 inordinately high values for DDE plus DDT and 11 for
hexachlorcyclohexane. These probably represented intakes from sources
other than foods. If they were omitted, the mean for DDE plus DDT
126
-------
N
I-1-
era
CD
ro
O o
o £
3 &
•O P
o p
^5 °
u- £
o o
01 ._
'O PO
I i'
CD H
01
M ft
01 CD
^ O
OQ
rt
0
ft
CL
1.00
0.90 —
3.5 4.0
OXYGENATED COMPOUNDS./jg/LITER
4.5
-------
TABLE 36
Pollutants in Ohio River Water -
Oxygenated Compounds (Organophosphorus Compounds, Esters, etc. )
00
Name of
Distribution
Normal
Lognormal
'Exponential
Gamma
Weibull
t'd"
Statistic
0.260
0. 178
0.312
0.218
0. 186
Probability
Data came
from Cited
Distribution
0.577
0.937
0.344
0.784
0.914
Conclusion: It is not unreasonable to assume that ^
the Lognormal distribution (y - 3. 8431, cry =
5.0716 x 10" ) best represents the universe
from which the data were sampled.
-------
10,000
I
2
O
O
u.
o-
DC
Z
UJ
U
1000
100
OMEAN
I STANDARD ERROR
OF MEAN
0.1 1.0 10.0 36.0
DAILY DOSE OF DDT, mg/day
Figure 25. Relationship Between the Concentration of DDT
in the Bodyfat of Man and the Daily Dose
-------
would be 8. 8+; 5. 5 mg/kg, and for hexachlorcyclohexane 0. 44 _+ 0. 26 mg/kg.
Dieldrin was not present in 103 samples of 221 analyzed for this pesti-
cide. The remaining values ranged from 0. 01 to 1. 39 mg/kg. The mean
for the 221 samples was 0. 14 jf 0.20 mg/kg. Heptachlor epoxide was
found in 472 of 505 specimens, the mean being 0. 16 _+ 0. 11 mg/kg.
There did not appear to be any evidence of increased body burden of
DDT products in the general population since 1951, as compared with
previous studies (Quimby, 1965; Dale & Quinby, 1963: Hoffman, et al
1964). The levels for-specimens in the above study obtained in 1964
through 1966 were lower than those obtained from persons who died in
1962 and 1963. A statistical survey of the pathological changes in the
tissues examined in the 688 autopsies showed that there was no ;i.~:-,meant
correlation between the levels of DDE plus DDT and hexachlorcyclo-
hexane in the fat and presence or absence of abnormalities in these tis-
sues. The authors concluded that their findings were in accord with
other evidence that the amounts of DDT products and hexachlorcyclo-
hexane stored in the fat of the general population had not proved harmful.
The effect on animals, including man, of the various pesticides studied.
seems to follow a normal dosage response curve, meaning that small
amounts are probably harmless while larger doses may produce poison-
ing. Although a number of the common pesticides, including DDT, are
stored in the body, this storage is not indefinitely cumulative (Figure 26).
With tolerated doses of DDT, man approaches storage equilibrium in
about one year, and does not store any more of the compound regardless
of how long the dosage is continued.
As already stated, the chronic effects of exposure to chlorinated hydro-
carbons are ill-defined. It is doubtful that the very low concentrations
found in waters would significantly raise the body burdens. However,
instances can occur wherein large amounts of pesticides are released
into a water and although below the acute level could bring about transi-
tory increases in body burdens.
There is no information available to indicate how great a body burden
an individual can withstand before toxic effects become evident,
although doses 7,500 times greater than that to which the general popula-
tion are exposed have been used. This data would be useful since a series
of curves relating dietary intake to equilibrium levels could then be con-
structed and used to establish the chronic intake level.
130
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1000
500 —
i
8
DOSAGE RATE
35 mg DDT/MAN-DAY
3.5 mg DDT/MAN-DAY
100 200 300 400
TIME OF TREATMENT. DAYS
500
600
Figure 26. Increase of the Concentration of DDT in the Bodyfat
of Men with Continuing Intake
131
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SECTION X
TEMPERATURE AS A FACTOR OF RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY
Temperature is another factor that is important to the recreationist.
Man's survival is endangered at both extremes of the temperature scale.
Within a given temperature range, 60 - 85°F, man can function rather
comfortable over long periods of time. As the temperature diverges
from each end of this range, certain effects are frequently observed.
These initially range from purely subjective discomfort to subtle changes
in the efficiency of performing simple tasks. As the temperature stress
increases, a higher order of psycho-physiological disturbances occur
with an increased frequency of errors and further reduced efficiency
in task performance. At the furthest temperature extremes, there is a
definite loss in work capacity with a physiological strain on the heart
and circulatory system and other effects on water and salt balance
regulation in the body. These disturbances may culminate in shock and
even death.
HIGH TEMPERATURES
Body heat balance is a physiological requirement for comfort and
health. Under normal conditions, the rate of heat production (metabolism)
is just balanced by the heat loss to the environment. An increase in
heat production brought on by exercise must be compensated for by an
equal increase in heat loss. In water, this excess heat would normally
by carried off by conduction. If the water temperature is above skin tempera-
ture, heat that is generated through activity will cause the body tempera-
ture to increase. This rise in body temperature can be accommodated
by reestablishing a heat balance at the elevated temperature. Although
a moderate body temperature rise is acceptable, any substantial increase
is accompanied by severe strain (Belding and Hatch, 1956).
Haldane (1905) defined the limit of endurance as the most extreme heat
exposure that can be withstood without an abnormal rise in body temp-
erature. Later work demonstrated that the effective temperature for
heat tolerance is related to ambient temperature, humidity, and air motion
for different levels of activity. By analogy to an unclothed worker in a
moisture saturated environment, a swimmer expending about 1200 Btu/hr
would have a safe maximum water temperature limit of 85 F.
Eichna, et al (1945) carried out an extensive study to determine the
upper heat limits for acclimatized working men. In applying this study
to water recreations, one can assume that the information developed
for a completely water saturated air environment would be applicable to a
sswimmer. On this basis, men are capable of prolonged hard work at
temperatures between 91 F and 94 F. However, the work is inefficient,
the men lose alertness and vigor and may become mild heat casualties.
Moderately hard work (1ZOO Btu/hr) at temperatures of 94 F and above
leads rapidly to total disability in most men, with excessive, and often
disturbing physiologic changes. Temperatures below 91 F were consi-
dered relatively compatible environments for most men. Experience with
133
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military personnel exposed to warm water continuously over several hours
indicates that 85°F is a safe maximum limit (NTAC, 1968).
LOW TEMPERATURE
A similar set of tolerances is observed for cold water temperatures.
Here the critical problem is to maintain body temperature. In cold water,
body heat is lost primarily by conduction from the inner organs through the
trunk. Exposure of the limbs plays a relatively minor role in overall heat
loss. A lowering of the body temperature to 74-77 F is considered
lethal.
Keatinge (1969) carried out several extensive studies on human survival
in cold water. He carried out controlled experiments and also investi-
gated the cause of death and history of the victims (124) deaths) of the
cruiseship Lakonia.
In several instances where drowning was reported as the cause of death,
it was obvious that exposure to cold was more probably responsible.
Keatinge reports finding victims of ship sinkings in 59 F water wearing
adequate life preservers, their faces held above water, who were dead
in the 11/2 hours it took a rescue ship to reach them. He concludes
that many of the victims of ship sinkings Titanic, Lakonia, Andrea
Doria, etc — actually succumb to cold exposure.
Many factors exert significant influences on the length of time individuals
can survive exposure to cold water. Among some of the most important
is the amount of clothing worn, obesity of the victims, and the amount of
exercise. The amount of clothing worn in the water, far from hindering
survival, aids considerably in preserving body heat. An unclothed man
of average build is rendered helpless after 20 - 30 minutes in water at
41°F and after 1 1/2-2 hours at 59°F. With thick conventional clothing
the corresponding times are 40 - 60 minutes at 41 F and 4 to 5 hours at
59°F.
o
Shipwreck victims have been found dead after 6 hours exposure at 64 F
and one hour at 32°F. An individual can survive indefinitely in water
at 68 F. The amount of fatan individual has increases the tolerance
to cold temperatures. There are reports of well-clothed, obese men
surviving many hours at 32 F. Keatinge has developed a formula based
on estimating the amounts of fat an individual has in selecting candidates
to become skin divers.
A surprising finding of Keatinge's studies was that, contrary to earlier
opinion, exercise in the water increases the loss of body heat and corres-
pondingly decreases survival time. This is reflected in frequent reports
of drownings of expert swimmers who tried to reach shore after a sinking,
while those v/ho remained in the water near the lost ship survived until
rescued.
134
-------
A careful study of reported drowning cases carried out by Press, et al
(1969) seems to bear out much of the above as regards survival in cold
waters. They report 299 cases out of 874 drownings, or 34% occurred
in waters that were listed as very cold (assumed to be below 68°F).
In addition, a much higher percent of those succumbing in cold water
were considered to be good swimmers.
In summary, it may be stated that man will survive in water only over
a rather limited temperature range, having very little tolerance above
and below this range (Table 37). Individual differences may mitigate
the effects somewhat but not to the extent that is reported for some of
the other factors. It is obvious from this study that the "safe" tempera-
ture range for normal recreational activites—swimming, diving, water
skiing—is between 68 F and 85 F.
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION FOR TEMPERATURE (RQ VECTOR)
The temperature distribution for the Ohio river, using data obtained
from the same sampling stations that acquired the pesticide data,
was determined. The temperatures for the time period tested ranged
from 33 F to 78 F. As expected, the low points occurred in January
through March. The exponential distribution was the best fit for the
available data (Table 38). This distribution is presented in Figure
27. If 68 F is selected as the safe limit for swimming, the river
would be available for such use only about 30% of the time. This avail-
ability probably fits in rather well with actual practice, in that it
essentially encompasses only the summer months.
135
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TABLE 37
Limits of Temperature Tolerance for Unclothed Humans
in Saturated Environments (high temperatures) or
Submerged in Water (low temperatures)
Temperature
Effects
95 +
35
Leads to total disability of most men after
one hour of moderate effort. Excessive
physiological changes.
94
34
Incapable of sustained work effort. High
incidence of heat casualties.
91
33
Carry out moderate work with difficulty,
inefficiently, and ineffectively.
85
68
64
30
20
18
rt
CO
Carry out moderate work for prolonged
periods of time.
Can survive almost indefinitely in water.
Reports of death after six hours in the
water
59
15
Most men rendered helpless after 1 1/2-2
hours exposure.
41
32
0
Helpless after 20 - 30 minutes exposure.
Death in less than one hour for clothed
individuals.
136
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TABLE 38
Temperature Distribution - Ohio River Water
OO
Name of
Distribution
Normal
Lognormal
Exponential
Gamma
Weibull
I'd"
Statistic
0. 190
0. 194
0.185
0. 212
0. Z15
Probability
Data came
from Cited
Distribution
0.461
0.442
0.498
0.331
0.316
Conclusion: It is not unreasonable to assume
that the exponential distribution
(8 = 6. 5158 x 10" ) best repre-
sents the universe from which
the data were sampled.
-------
oo
00
TO
0>
-j
H
|
(t
H
O
H"
to
rt-
>t
i-"
cr
O
3
0)
O
UJ
O
UJ
(L
tc.
§
O
I
UJ
3
UJ
DC
U.
Ul
5
o
0.10
10 15
TEMPERATURE, °C
25
-------
SECTION XI
OILS AS FACTORS OF RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY
Oily substances that might be found in surface waters are derived from
three sources: petroleum and its refined or waste products; animal and
vegetable fats, usually discharged with sewage effluents; and essential
oils, consisting of terpenes, aliphatic alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and
lactones.
In general, there is a lack of toxicological data in the literature on the
effects of ingestion or dermal sensitivity of such substances for humans
exposed to them during primary contact recreation. The following sum-
mary presents the results of analogous studies, demonstrating the po-
tential hazards that may exist, provided the required conditions of
factor concentration and persistence are present.
GENERAL TOXICOLOGY
Crude petroleum is a complex mixture of saturated aliphatic and alicyclic,
aromatic mono-and polycyclic, and heterocyclic compounds. The various
types are classified according to the predominant component or distilla-
tion residue as paraffinic, naphthenic, aromatic, or asphaltic.
Toxicity of industrial solvents, particularly benzene, has been reviewed
by Candura (1968), and of mineral oils to the skin by Lajhancova (1968).
Organic solvents are capable of dissolving sebum and of penetrating the
skin. Solvent dermatitis is a common industrial hazard. Solvents can
enter the dermal lymphatics through fissures and lacerations and cause
chemical lymphangiitis. Benzene, toluene, and xylene may cause severe
toxic systemic effects when absorbed through the skin or inhaled (Fisher,
1967). Older people with dry skin are particularly prone to the effects
of solvents. It is not uncommon to observe people who work with solvents
to have been engaged in their particular occupation for two or more decades
and then sustain cutaneous injury. The insoluble oils that are used to lubri-
cate cutting tools and that contain petroleum oil, small amounts of vege-
table oil, chlorine compounds, sulfur, and inhibitors are responsible
for most cases (Pillsbury, 1957).
If ingested, gasoline may cause inebriation, vomiting, vertigo, fever,
drowsiness, confusion, and cyanosis. On inhalation it can cause intense
burning in the throat and lungs and possibly bronchopneumonia (Stavinoha,
1966).
The acute oral LDen for rabbits fed kerosene is 28 g/kg. In humans, defatt
ing of the skin canT.ead to irritation and infection. Inhalation of high concen
trations of kerosene will cause headache, drowsiness, and even coma.
Mineral oil or liquid paraffin is a colorless, oily liquid that is practi-
cally tasteless and odorless even when warmed, and is insoluble in water.
139
-------
Aspiration may cause lipoid pneumonia (Stavinoha, 1966).
Cyclohexane, a naphthene, is insoluble in water and has a pungent
solvent odor, especially when impure. The lethal atmospheric concen-
tration in air for mice is about 2 percent (vol. /vol. ). In humans, high
concentrations may act as a narcotic and skin irritant (Stavinoha, 1966).
The acute oral LOrn of benzene in rats is 5. 7 g/kg. It has been used
medicinally in treating leukemia, polycythemia vera, and malignant
lymphoma. Acute toxicity symptoms in humans are irritation of mucous
membranes, restlessness, convulsions, excitement, and depression.
Death may follow from respiratory failure. Chronic symptoms are bone
marrow depression, aplasia, and (rarely) leukemia. It may be absorbed
in harmful amounts through the skin (Stavinoha, 1966). The alkyl-
benzenes such as toluene, xylene, and mesitylene are less toxic than
benzene.
Biphenyl is used on oranges as a fungistat. The acute oral LE> in rats
is 2.2 g/kg. In experimental animals, CNS depression, paralysis, and
convulsions have been observed on administration of biphenyl (Stavinoha,
1966).
Naphthalene occurs in the higher boiling fractions of aromatic petroleums
(Dunstan, 1958). It is ordinarily obtained from coal tar, in which it is
the most abundant constituent. Poisoning may occur by ingestion of
large doses. Symptoms are nausea, vomiting, headache, diaphoresis,
hematuria, hemolytic anemia, fever, hepatic necrosis, convulsions,
and coma. No LD is given (Stavinoha, 1966) for mammals.
Anthracene and phenanthrene are 3-ring condensed aromatic hydrocarbons
found in coal tar and combusion products. Phenanthrene can cause photo-
sensitization of skin and is considered a potential carcinogen (Stavinoha,
1966). Compounds with four or more highly condensed rings such as
pyrene, benzopyrene, perylene, and dibenzanthracene are carcinogenic.
No data were found on the acute toxicity of these compounds.
Skin absorption rates for toluene, toluene-water mixtures (200-600 mg/1),
styrene, styrene-water mixtures (66. 5-269 mg/1), and xylene have been
found to be, respectively, 14-23, 0.175-0.6, 9-15, 0.04-018, and
4.5-9.6 mg/cm - hr (Dutkiewicz, 1968). The same author dosed rats
under anesthesia orally with 0. 2 ml of n-hexane or n-octane. Convulsion and
death from asphyxiation occurred within a few seconds after hydrocarbon
entered the lungs following volatilization in the stomach. Cardiac arrest,
respiratory paralysis, and asphyxia rather than pulmonary edema or
hemorrhage were found to be the causes of death. The hydrocarbons
are sufficiently volatile to evaporate at body temperature and displace
air in the lungs. With higher (Cj^-C,,) hydrocarbons, death is due to
progressive pulmonary edema ana hemorrhage and occurrs after sever-
al hours. There is a sharp break in mortality between C, . and C, , com-
pounds. The difference in response may be due to differences in the rate
of spread in deeper lung structures, since the viscosities are similar and
140
-------
all are readily aspirated. Olefinic and acetylenic hydrocarbons give simi-
lar results.
Lengthening of the alkyl chain in alkylbenzenes decreases their toxicity to the
endothelium. With petroleum distillates, mortality decreases sharply
with an increase in viscosity from 39 to 59 SSU at 100°C. Hydrocarbon
aerosols sprayed directly into the mouth do not present the same aspiration
hazard as the liquid because the droplets do not coalesce to form a pool.
It is generally held that if a child lives 24 hours after aspirating a hydro-
carbon substance, he is then out of danger (Gerarde, 1963).
In South Africa, the most common cause of chemical reaction in the lungs
of infants and children is paraffin, which is widely used for cooking,
lighting, and heating. In a series of 61 patients ranging in age from 9
months to 19 years of age, 20 underwent X-ray examination of the chest
when first seen and of these 12 showed lesions, mostly in the lower lobes.
Of 10 patients admitted to the hospital, all improved rapidly and were discharg-
ed within three to seven days. There were no deaths. There was no evi-
dence of lasting changes in the lungs in thirty of these patients a year after
the paraffin ingestion occurred (Kossick, 1961).
3
Inhalation of air containing 50-200 mg/m of xylene by mice over a
period of 12 months increased erythrocytes, hemoglobin, total plasma
protein, urinary excretion of 17-ketosteroids, and activity of the acetyl-
choline-mediating system. Decompensation occurred during the final four
months. Xylene is apparently highly toxic and present permissible concen-
trations should be decreased (Kashin, 1968).
Median atmospheric lethal concentrations in mg/1 of various hydrocarbons
to mice were found to be isoprene, 157; butadiene, 270; isobutylene, 415;
butane, 680; 2-methyl-1-pentene, 127; 2-methyl-2-pentene, 130; and styrene,
21. 0; for rats, isoprene, 180; butadiene, 285; isobutylene, 620; butane, 658;
2-methyl-l-pentene, 115; 2-methyl-2-pentene, 114; and styrene, 118. Ex-
posure periods were two hours for mice and four hours for rats. There was
a distinct correlation between brain concentrations and toxicity for all sub-
stances studied. In cats, concentrations of hydrocarbon were highest in
nervous tissue containing white matter, and in perinephric and hypodermic
fat. Presence of hydrocarbon in the medulla oblongata results in respira-
tory arrest and death in acute intoxication (Shugaev, 1969).
CARCINOGENIC EFFECTS
Although fractions of catalytically cracked petroleum boiling above
371°C have been shown to be carcinogenic to mice by skin application,
a study of paired groups of 1077 exposed and unexposed employees of
three refineries showed no relation of degree of exposure to occurrence
of skin tumors. Skin tumors occurred in four "potentially exposed"
subjects. It is questionable whether data on skin cancer in mice can be
extrapolated to humans. During the 12-year observation period, 45 neo-
plasms occurred in the control group and 46 in the exposed group (Wade,
1963). In a similar study of 462 asphalt workers in petroleum refineries
141
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and 379 controls, one case of lung cancer occurred in the control group
and skin cancer in two workers and four controls. Carcinoma of the
stomach occurred in one worker and carcinoma of the colon in a control.
No cases of lung disease were classed as advanced, severe, or incapaci-
tating. Dermatitis that occurred was localized and transient. In surveys
of highway construction, roofing, trucking, and insurance industries,
State Boards of Health, and Highway Commissions, only five cases of
illness were attributed to asphalt contact, and none involved tumors
(Baylor, 1968).
The carcinogen!city of benzo (a) pyrene and benzo (a) anthracene applied
to the skin of mice was enhanced by a factor of 1000 when n-dodecane was
used as solvent in comparison to carcinogenicity of the same substances
in decalin. The carcinogenicity was also increased when n-dodecanol or
1-phenyldodecane was used as solvent. These results indicate that cer-
tain long-chain hydrocarbons may play the decisive role in determinging
the carcinogenic potency of a mixture. The importance of the concentra-
tion of the initiator may be relatively minor although its presence in
minute amounts is apparently necessary (Bingham, 1969).
SUMMARY
Contamination of recreational waters with oily substances may occur
as a result of oil drilling operations in coastal waters, seepage from natural
underwater oil deposits, discharge of fuel tank contents of ships, either
accidentally or deliberately, and discharge of industrial wastes. Al-
though the presence of oily substances would make the water esthetically
unattractive because of odor and fouling of equipment and bodies of bathers,
and the possibility exists that recreationists might still use the water. Toxi-
city of oily substances by ingestion or skin absorption or by inhalation
of vapors is relatively low except in the case of aromatics. The possibility
of lung injury following ingestion of a gross amount of floating crude petro-
leum followed by vomiting and aspiration into the lungs must be considered.
Skin irritation, either caused directly by contact with the oil or by the use
of petroleum solvents to remove it, is also a factor. Skin irritation by oil
is increased in mixtures with brine (Gage, 1963). Light monolayer films
which may not be visually detectable could coat the entire body of a swimmer
entering the water. These could magnify toxicity effects.
142
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SECTION XII
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL FACTORS OF RECREATIONAL WATER
QUALITY
The amount of information available relating the factors of pH, tempera-
ture, and clarity to ill-effect in recreation water was found to be more
limited than for the other factors of interest. Consequently, these
items have been combined in a single section. In general, it may be
stated that the criteria recommended by the National Technical Advisory
Committee (NTAC) on Water Quality Criteria represent the most likely
conclusions to be drawn from available data, and the views represented
by the group have been largely used as the basis for this section.
E. W. Mood {NTAC, 1968) has reviewed the literature on the relation
between pH and aquatic activity, and explored the bases for the establish-
ment of criteria for those properties of water that may cause eye irrita-
tion to bathers and swimmers. Since his review contains a concise and use-
ful account of the relation of pH to recreation water, and little supplemental
information was encountered in our survey, its major points are brought
out below.
Knowledge about the characteristics of water that may cause irritation
to the eyes of swimmers has been developed through research efforts
of ophthalmologists and others in connection with investigations on the
preparation of ophthalmic solutions. Since the ideal non-irritating solu-
tion should have physico-chemical properties similar to tears, studies
were undertaken initially to determine the chemical composition of lacri-
mal fluid, particularly of its hydrogen-ion concentration, or pH, its buffer
capacity, and its toxicity. Although early studies of the hydrogen-ion con-
centration of tears revealed values ranging from 6. 3 to 8. 6, Hind and
Goyan (1947; 1949) found that lacrimal fluid has a pH of approximately
7.4.
Lacrimal fluid is only weakly buffered and has the capacity to bring the
pH of an unbuffered solution from as low as 3.5 or as high as 10. 5 to within
tolerable limits in a very short time. However, if the pH of a solution
in direct contact with the eyes is lower than 7. 3 or higher than 7. 5, pain
may be elicited.
Since the most sensitive part of the body that may come in contact with a
given water is the eye, the toxicity or salt concentration is another import-
ant aspect. Early studies by Hind and Goyan (1947) showed that a sodium
chloride equivalent range of 0. 5 to 2. 0 percent concentration was well toler-
ted. Later, Riegelmann, et al (1955) and Riegelmann and Vaughan (1958)
suggested that the range be narrowed to the equivalence of between 0. 7
to 1. 5 percent sodium chloride.
Seawater has a sodium chloride equivalent tonicity of 3. 5 percent. It is
143
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mildly irritating to most swimmers but in normal recreational activity,
exposure is limited. Concentrations higher than 3. 5 percent NaCl are
rarely encountered. Thus, Mood (1968) concludes that tonicity of recreation
waters is of much less importance than the hydrogen-ion concentration
and the buffer capacity in preventing or reducing eye irritation to
bathers and swimmers.
"In summary, when water quality standards are proposed for swimming,
bathing, and other similar uses, consideration should be given to those
physico-chemical properties that may cause or contribute to eye irrita-
tion, if principal importance is the hydrogen-ion concentration with
codependence upon the buffer capacity of the water. Ideally, the pH
of the water should be approximately the same as lacrimal fluid, which
is about 7. 4 for most people; a range of pH values from 6. 5 to 8. 3 can
be tolerated under average conditions. If the recreation water is rela-
tively free of dissolved solids and has a very low buffer capacity, pH
values from 5. 0 to 9. 0 should be acceptable. However, for recreation
water having pH less than 6. 5 or greater than 8. 3, waste discharge
standards should include prohibition against releases that will increase
the buffer capacity of the receiving waters and yet maintain the pH
below 6. 5 or greater than 8. 3. Tonicity standards do not seem to have
any practical value " (NTAC, 1968).
The distribution of pH values for the Ohio River, using data from the
same sampling stations and over the same time periods as for the pesti-
cide and temperature studies, was analyzed. The Weibull distribution
most closely approximated the sampled universe (Table 39); this is repre-
sented in Figure 28. The pH values ranged from 6. 8 to 7. 7. These are
well within the values that can be safely tolerated by recreationists.
CLARITY (TURBIDITY)
Clarity in recreational waters is highly desirable from the stand-
point of visual appeal, recreational enjoyment, and safety. Variation in
natural conditions make it difficult to set absolute criteria for this
factor. However, natural conditions taken into account, turbidity attri-
butable to human activity should nonetheles s be controlled in recreation
waters where feasible.
For primary contact recreation waters, clarity has been recommended
to be such that a Secchi disc is visible at a minimum depth of four feet.
In "learn to swim" areas, the clarity should be such that a Secchi disc
on the bottom is visible. In diving areas, the clarity shall equal the
minimum required by safety standards, depending on the height of the
diving platform or board (NTAC, 1968).
The Secchi disc is a device used to measure visibility depths in water.
The upper surface of a circular metal plate, 20 centimeters in diameter,
is divided into four quadrants and so painted that two quadrants directly
opposite each other are black and the intervening ones white. When
suspended to various depths of water by means of a graduated line,
144
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TABLE 39
pH Concentration Distribution - Ohio River Water
Ul
Name of
Distribution
Normal
Lognormal
Exponential
Gamma
Weibull
"d"
Statistic
0. 1256
0. 118
0.595
0. 164
0. 107
Probability
Data came
from Cited
Distribution
0.910
0.942
0. 000
0.656
0.976
Conclusion:
It is not unreasonable to assume
that the Weibull distribution ,
"c = 6.7135, 8 = 4.9604 x 10" ,
= 1. 7902) best represents the
universe from which the data
were sampled.
&
-------
00
(2
H
a
M
00
ffi
2
0)
rt-
i-l
cr
o
0
cr
a
O
tr
(t
i-i
77
-------
its point of disappearance indicates the limit of visibility. If it is then
raised until it reappears and the average of the two depths is taken as
the Secchi disc transparency.
Light penetration into waters is extremely variable in different water
bodies. Clarke (1939) pointed out that the diminution of the intensity
of light in its passage through water follows a definite mathematical
formula. The relationship between the depth of water and the amount of
light penetrating to that depth is semilogarithmic. Even the clearest
waters impede the passage of light to some extent; light passed through
100 meters of distilled water is reduced in intensity to one to two percent
of its incident value.
The principal factors affecting the depth of light penetration in natural
waters include suspended microscopic plants and animals, suspended
mineral particles, stains that impart a color, detergent foams, dense
mats of floating and suspended debris, or a combination of these factors.
Beeton (1958) made 57 paired photometer and Secchi disc measurements
at 18 stations in Saginaw Bay in Lake Huron. He found that the average
percentage transmission of surface light introduced, at the Secchi
disc depth, was 14. 7 percent. Verduin (1956) made simultaneous deter-
minations with the Secchi disc and submarine photometer during August
1955, on Lake Erie. The Secchi disc readings in meters were plotted
against the depth associated with one percent of the surface light. A
line drawn by inspection through the scatter diagram suggests that an
approximate estimation of the euphotic zone can be obtained by multiply-
ing the Secchi disc readings by five. Riley (1941) used a factor of three.
Verduin (1956) computed a factor of 2. 5 using the data of Bursch (1955).
Rawson (1950) lists a factor of 4. 3 when the Secchi disc reading is about
one meter.
The maximum Secchi disc reading reported for Lake Tahoe, California-
Nevada, was 136 feet at one station on April 4, 1962 (McGauhey, et al
1963). A minimum Secchi disc reading of 49 feet was recorded in Emerald
Bay of Lake Tahoe on May 21, 1962. In contrast, the Secchi disc disa-
ppeared in three feet in Lake Sebasticooke, Maine, during a July 1965
study. In areas with less dense algal growths, the readings were increased
to eight feet. Beetan (1965) recorded the average Secchi disc depth for
Lake Superior as 32. 5 feet; Lake Michigan, 19. 6 feet; and Lake Erie,
14.6 feet (Mackenthun and Ingram, 1967).
The Jackson candle turbidimeter (Standard Methods for the Examination
of Water and Wastewater, 12th Edition, 1965) is the standard instrument
for making measurements of turbidity. Field determinations are made
with direct reading colorimeters calibrated for this test and results are
expressed as Jackson Turbidity Units (JTU).
Buck (1955), investigating various fishery waters, observed that maxi-
mum production occurred in farm ponds where the average turbidity was
less than 25 JTU. Between 25 and 100 JTU, fish yield dropped and in
147
-------
muddy ponds of over 100 JTU, the yield was only 18 percent of clear ponds.
Walton (1961) analyzed data from three waterworks treating water by
chlorination only. Coliform organisms were detected in one water that
averaged 10 JTU with an occasional reading of 100 JTU. No coliforms
were detected in the chlorinated waters with 0 to 5 JTU.
Wang and Brabec (1969) reported on the "Nature of Turbidity in the
Illinois River". They presented a graph tht related Secchi disc visi-
bility to water turbidity in JTU. This is presented in Figure 29.
An analysis of the turbidity readings along the sampling points of the
Ohio River, as previously discussed, is presented in Table 40. The
lognormal distribution presented in Figure 30 shows the very wide range
of turbidities (15 to 750 scale units) within these data.
148
-------
0.08
0.07
u
00
OT
0.06
U
U
UJ
0.05
0.04
0.03
50 100 150
WATER TURBIDITY. JTU
200
Figure 29.
Relationship Between Secchi Disc Visibility and
Water Turbidity in the Illinois River
149
-------
TABLE 40
Turbidity Distribution - Ohio River Water
Name of
Distribution
Normal
Lognormal
Exponential
Gamma
Weibull
"d"
Statistic
0.260
0. 104
0. 178
0. 125
0.223
Probability
Date came
from Cited
Distribution
0. 134
0.981
0.548
0.913
0.271
Conclusion: It is not unreasonable to assume that
the Lognormal distribution (y = 4.4566,
ay- 1. 0928) best represents the universe
from which the data were sampled.
-------
TO
UJ
o
cr
M»
O-
I-1-
f^
d
H*
CA
o
3
O
o'
»
1.00
0.90 —
0.10
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
LOGe TURBIDITY. SCALE UNITS
-------
152
-------
SECTION XIII
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This program was carried out under the direction .of Dr. Byron J.
Mechalas as program manager. Dr. K. K. Hekimian was respon-
sible for the development of the conversion methodology and was ably
assisted by Envirogenics Consultant Dr. R. H. Dudley, who developed
the mathematical model and the computer techniques used in the program.
Dr. Lewis A. Schinazi carried out the search of the literature, and
preparation of abstracts for documenting the data base. Dr. Carl Rambow
(now deceased) of Montgomery Research was a subcontractor for the
survey of pesticides and state standards.
Mr. E. M. Wilson was of considerable assistance in editing and organiz-
ing the final report.
The support of the program by the Environmental Protection Agency
was the encouragement and interest of Dr. J. Frances Allen and Mr.
Walter H. Preston is gratefully acknowledged.
153
-------
SECTION XIV
APPENDIX A
INTRODUCTION
To investigate current criteria and promulgated standards for recreational
waters, a letter of inquiry was sent to fifty states and eight territories and
districts. This survey -was conducted by Montgomery Research, Inc. ,
Pasadena, California, subcontractor to The Envirogenics Co. on this program.
The text of the letter used is as follows:
"Our firm, together with Aerojet-General Corporation of El Monte, has
contracted with the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration to
evaluate the relationships between (a) certain water quality parameters,
and (b) recreational uses of water. Part of this study involves review
of state standards for recreational water quality for those parameters
listed below:
Total coliforms pH
Fecal coliforms Temperature
Viruses Clarity
Salmonella Pesticides
Oils
I would appreciate receiving copies of any documents giving limiting values
of these parameters as adopted by your state, the date of adoption, and
any pertinent remarks you may wish to make. Particularly desired are
the bases on which the limitations were established, or their sources.
I realize that some of this information is contained in the water quality
standards submitted to the United States Government in compliance with
the Clean Water Act. However, in most cases it is impossible to derive
the needed information from these Standards because they apply to many
different bodies of water of which few, if any, are used for recreation
and no other purpose. It, therefore, becomes necessary to request this
information directly.
Your cooperation in providing this information will be greatly appreciated.
It will enable us to complete our study and derive conclusions that will be
meaningful and useful in the future in establishing or modifying criteria. "
Replies were received from the fifty states and six of the districts in the form
of published water quality documents. After a thorough review of the documents,
the data relevant to the factors of interest were tabulated and are compared in
Table 41. Summaries of data on the various factors have been presented as
Tables 1-8 in the main body of the text.
The various documents from which the data were derived have been listed in
Bibliography C of Section XV.
155
-------
TABLE 41
Summary State Recreational Water Quality Criteria
State
Alabama
Alaska
Ul
Agency Date Current
Responding Standards
Adopted
Water May 5, 1967
Improvement
Commission
Department of June 20,1967
Health and Revised No-
Welfare vember 10,
1967
State Depart' July, 1968
ment of Health,
Division of
Water Pollution
Control
Bacterial pH
Total Col i forms Fecal Co li forms
Not to Exceed Not to Exceed
No standard set J 0007 100 ml as a 6.0-8.5
during May
through Septem-
ber, nor exceed
this value in an)
two consecutive
•ample* col-
lected during
these months.
1000/100 ml No standard 6.5-8.5
average, with set
20% of samples
not to exceed
this number.
No sample
shall exceed
2400/100 ml.
mean of 200/ 100
more than 10°'pof
the tot al s ample 8
during any 30-day
period exceed
400/100 ml. For
waters other than
primary contact
value shall not
exceed a geomet-
ric mean of IOOO/
100 minor shall
more than 10% of
the samples during
any JO-day period
exceed 20OO/ 100ml.
Temperature
Shall Not Be
Increased
More than 10%
wastes nor shall
these wastes
cauae the tem-
perature to
exceed 90*F.
Numerical
standard not
set.
93*F
Pesticides Clarity Rationale and
and Oils Remarks
Non-quantitative"1 Non-quantitative- Criteria based on
fie knowledge.
experience and
judgement
Non-quantitative* Non-quantitative Public hearings
were he Id and
all reports.
written and
verbal were
reviewed be-
fore standards
adopted.
streams: 10 .TV cnt criteria is
25 TU ^ * considL rations
lakes-. 10 Jt" cold ditiona. con-
water lakes. tributing factors
and quality re-
quirements for
specified uses.
'The term non-quantitative refers to area* where standards are specified in phrases such as required for safety, essentially free from, and shall not be present in
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
-------
TABLE 41
State
Arkansas
Agency
Responding
Pollution Con-
trol Commission
Date Current
Standards
Adopted
July23, 1964
Bacterial
Total Coliforms Fecal Coliforms
Nqt to Exceed Not to Exceed
200/lOOrnlin No standard set
more than 20%
of the samples
tested, nor shall
plea contain
more than 5007
JOO ml.
pH T ernpe r ature
Shall Not Be
6. 0-9. 0 No standard set
Pesticides
and Oils
The levelof toxic
substances shall
not exceed 0, 1
of 48-hr median
Clarity
Non-quantitative *
Ul
Department of
Public Health,
Bureau ofSani-
tary Eng Sneering
1958
1000/100 ml. pro- No standard set
videdthat not more
than 2 Wo of the
samples at any
sampling station
in any 30-day
period, may
exceed 1000/
100ml, and pro-
vided further that
no single sample
when verified by
a repeat sample
taken within48
hrs shall exceed
10.000/100 ml.
No stan-
dard set
No standard set Non-quantitative*
Non- quantitative';:
Dcparment of March 1,
Public Health, 1967
Water Pol-
lution Control
Division
1000/100 ml as
a monthly average
nor exceed this
number in more
than 20% of the
samples exa-
mined during
any month nor
exceed Z400/
100 ml in a
single sample.
100/100 ml and
fecal strepto-
coccus count
shall not ex-
ceed 20/100
ml. Both of
these limits
to be an average
of 5 consecutive
samples within
a month.
6. 5-8,
No standard set Non-quantitative-' Non-quantitative-
Rationale and
Remarks
Waters covered
by criteria are
Interstate streams
any bathing place
at a lake, pond
or stream,
Waters covered
by criteria are
public beaches
and public water
contact sports
areas ofIhe
ocean waters
and bays.
Basic standards
were prepared
after a number of
conferences with
the 7 States lo-
cated within the
Colorado River
Basin. Standards
for body contact
sports based on
recommendations
of Fcdc r al Au-
thorities. All
Colorado surface
waters are classi-
fied for body
contact sports.
*The term non-quantitative refers to areas where standards are specified in phrases.such as required for safety, essentially free from, and shall not be present in
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
-------
TABLE 41
Slate
Connecticut
Dela
Ul
00
Delaware
River Basin
District of
Columbia
Agency
Responding
Date Current
Standards
Adopted
Bacterial
State Department Not given
ol Health, En-
vironmental
Health Services
Division
State Board of
Health, Bureau
of Environ-
mental Health
March, 1968
Delaware River
Basin Commis-
sion, Water
Quality Branch
March, 1968
Department of
Public Health.
Water Quality
Control Division
January 17,
Total Conforms
Not to Exceed
Fecal Coliforms
Not to Exceed
A median of IODO/ No standard set
100 ml nor more
than 2400 in more
than 20% of the
• ample • collected.
1000/lOOml during No standard set
any month of the
recreation season;
nor exceed thU
number in more
than Z0% of the
samples examined
during any such
month; nor exceed
2400/JOOmt on any
day in areas desig-
nated by the Com-
mission for water
contact recreation.
pH
6.5-8,0
6. 5-8.
No standard set
No standard set
Effluent standard 6. 0-8. S
effective disinfec-
tion means the
treatment of wastes
such that the num-
ber of organism* re-
maining after treat-
ment does not exceed
200/JOOmlasa
geometric average,
nor 1000/100 ml in
mo re than 10% of the
• ample • taken over
a pe riod of 30 con-
secutive days.
240/100 ml in 90% 6.0-8.5
of the sample* col-
lected each month.
(not applicable during
or immediately fol-
lowing periods of
rainfall)
Temperature
Shall Not Be
Increased
Not to exceed
85-F or raise
the normal
temperature of
the receiving
water more
than 4*F.
Not to exceed
5 -F above
normal for
the locality,
with maxi-
mums speci-
fied for given
waters.
Shall pot exceed
5 *F above the
average daily
temperature
gradient dis-
played during
1961-66 period.
or a maximum
of 86'F.
Pesticides
and Oils
Clarity
Non-quantitative * Non-quantitative *
Non-quantitative* Non-quantitative^
Non-quantitative*
Maximum monthly
mean 40 units,
maximum 150
units
Not to exceed Non-quantitative* Non-quantitative"
90T. No increase
in natural water
temperature caused
by artificial heat in-
puts shall exceed
5*F after reasonable
mixing.
Rationale and
Remarks
Standards were
guided by recom-
mendations which
appear in "Report
of the Committee
on Water Quality
Criteria".
Standards recom-
mended by the
FWPCA for
recreational
waters were
adopted, All
vvatc r* of the
state covered
by criteria.
Not given.
Numerical values
of the criteria
were principally
derived fromthe
report of the
National Technical
Advisory Commit -
tee on Water
Quality Criteria.
''The term non-quantUative refers to areas where standards are specified in phrases such as required for safety, essentially free from, and shall not be present in
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
-------
TABLE 41
State
Florida
Georgia
cn
Agency Date Current
Responding Standards
Adopted
Department of None given
Health and
Rehabilitative
tier vice 5
State Water Currently
Quality unde r
Control review
Board
Bacterial
Total Coliforms
Not to Exceed
1000/100 ml
Survey of natural
bathing area* shall
consist of a mini-
mum of three
bacteriological
•ample* collected
from the proposed
bathing area daily
for the first three
day* of each week
for three consecu-
tive weeks.
No standard
set
Fecal ColUorms
Not to Exceed
No standard set
Not to exceed a
mean of 1 , 000
per 100 ml based
on at least four
samples taken
over a 30-day
period and- not
to exceed 4,000
per 100 ml in
more than 5
percent of the
samples taken in
any 90-day
period*
pH Temperature Pesticides Clarity
Shall Not Be and Oils
Increased
No stan- No standard set No standard set No standard set
dard set
6.0-8.5 Presently being Non- Non-
( swamp studied. Current quantitative* quantitative*
waters standard is a
may max. of93.2*F
have with a max. of
pH of 10 *F rise above
4.5) natural but
below 93.2'F
allowable.
Rationale and
Remarks
Not given
The State of
Georgia has corn-
plated a study
with the FWPCA
on fecal coliform
standards. This
study will prob-
ably result in
the following fecal
coliform stand-
ards being
adopted:
Marine waters:
100/100 ml MPN
Reservoirs:
300/100 ml
Streams:
500/100 ml
Guam
Water
Pollution
Control
Commission
April, 1968
No standard
set
Shall not exceed
an arithmetic
mean of 200/100
ml nor exceed
400/100 ml in
more than 1 01V of
samples during
any 30-day
period.
7.0-8.3
Shall not exceed
8S*F due to in-
fluence of other
than natural
conditions.
Non-
quantitative*
Visibility shall
not be reduced
by more than
I 0% of normal
values as
measured by
secchi disc
Not given
"The term non-quantitative refers to arras where standards are specified in phrases such as required for safety, essentially free from, and shall not he present in
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
-------
TABLE 41
State
Hawaii
laho
Agency Date Current
Responding Standard!
Adopted
Department of January 26,
Health 1968
State Board of September.
Health 1968
Bacterial
Total Coliform«
Not to Exceed
Median not to ex-
ceed 1000/100 ml
nor shall more
than m of the
Z400/100 ml.
E40/IOO ml
with 20% of the
exceed 1000/
100 ml.
Fecal Coliforma
Not to Exceed
Arithmetric
average of ZOO/
1 00 ml during
any 30-day period
than 10% of the
samples exceed
400/lOOmlinthe
same imeperio
50/100 ml with
t e sam-
200/100 ml.
pK Temperature Pesticides
Shall Not Be and Oils
Inc reased
Should not Temperature of Non- quantitative*
vary more receiving waters
unit from more than 1. 5" F
conditions condition s .
but not
lower than
higher
than 8. S
from other
than nat-
ural causes.
6. 5-9. 0 No measurable in- Non-quantitative*
tion not 66 *F or above or
to be more than 2 *F
more when streamtcm-
than 0. 5 peratures are
unit. 64 *F or less.
Clarity
Secchi disc or
secchi disc equi-
tinction coef-
ficient" deter -
minators shall
not be altered
from natural
than 10%.
Not to exceed
5 JU,
Rationale and
Remarks
Criteria baaed
upon the best
curre'Mty''4ivail- •
able data.
Public hearings
were held with
testimony re-
ceived on the pro-
posed water
quality standards.
Testimony given
at these hearings
was considered
and utilized,
where possible ,in
the development
of the final
standards.
*The term non-quantitative refers to areas where standards are specified in phrases such as required for safety, essentially free from, and shall not be
present in quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
-------
.TABLE 41
State
Indiana
Agency
Responding
Sanitary
Water Board
Stream Pol-
lution Control
Board
Date Current Bacterial pH Temperature Pesticides
Standards
Adopted Total Coliforms
Not to Exceed
March 7, 1967 5000/ 100 ml as a
monthly average,
nor rxcced this
than 20% of the
samples exa-
mincdduring
any month, nor
exceed 20. OOO/
1 00 ml in more
than 5% of such
samples.
June 13, 1000/100mla»a
1 967 monthly average
during any month
of the recreational
season, nor ex-
ceed this number
in more than 20 To
of the samples
examined during
any month of the
recreational
season, nor
cxcced240n/10f)
ml on any day.
Shall Not Be and Oils
Fecal Coliforms • Increased
Not to Exceed
For primary con- Notspeci- Not specifically Non- Quantitative*
shall not exceed a given for tionat waters.
200/1 00 ml, nor tional
shall more than waters.
100% of the total
samples during
any 30-day period
exceed 400/1 00 ml.
For secondarycon-
shall not exceed a
geometric mean
of 1000/100 ml
nor shall the y equal
100 ml in more
than 10% of the
samples.
No standard set No stan- No standard set Non-quantitative-
dard act
Clarity
Rationale and
Remarks
Non-quantitative* Not given.
Non- quantitat ive :
All reservoirs and
lakes shall he
maintained for
whole body contact
recreation.
Streams to be pro-
tected are the
Ohio River. Wa-
bash Hiver where
it forms a boun-
dary with Illinois,
the St. Joseph
River inElkart &
St. Joseph
Counties fr St.
Joseph River in
Allen County.
-The term non-quantitative refers to areas where standards are specified in phrases such as required for safety, essentially free from, and shall not be present in
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
-------
TABLE 41
State
Iowa
Agency
Responding
Water
Pollution
Control
Commission
State Dept.
of Health
Date Current
Standards
Adopted
1968
to
Total Colt forms
Not to Exceed
Fecal Coliforma
Not to Exceed
1,000/100 ml as
a monthly aver-
age nor exceed
this value in more
than 20% of the
samples in any
one month nor
exceed Z.400/
100 ml in any
one sample.
These figures are
used as guides
until suitable
indices are
developed.
No standard
set
pH
6.8-9.0
Temperature
Shall Not Be
Increased
Not to exceed
93*F during
May through
Nov., and not
to exceed 73*F
during Dec.
through
April.
Pesticides
and Oils
Non-
quantitative
Clarity
Non-
quantitative
Rationale and
Remarks
Information re-
ceived by other
state age/icies
presentations at
public hearing*
was used by the
Commission for
establishing
recreational
standards. Coli-
form standards
are used as
guides only, AB
studies have
shown high bac-
tions associated
with land runoff,
and public health
studies to date
have shown little
direct correla-
tion between
coliform concen-
trations and
water-borne
diseases.
*The term non-quantitative refers to areas where standard* are specified in phrases such as required for
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
afety, essentially free from, and shall not be prevent in
-------
TABLE 41
Kansas
Kentucky
OO
Agency
Responding
Department of
Health, Environ-
mental Health
Water Pollu-
tion Control
Department of
Health, Bureau
Health
Date Current Bacterial
Standards
Adopted Total Coliforms Fecal Coliforms
Not to Exceed Not to Exceed
January 1,1968 1000/1 00 ml - No standard set
survey work and
professional
used to the great-
possible.
June 9, 1969 1000/100 ml aa No standard set
a monthly arith-
nor exceed this
number in more
than ZO^c of the
samples exa-
mined during
any month, nor
exceed 2400/
100 ml on any
day.
1968 There is a vary- No standard set
ing range for rec-
Range is from 70/
1 00 ml for some
waters, 230/100
ml for some
waters, 542/100
ml for some
waters, and JbOO/
1 00 ml for major-
ity of waters.
pH
6. 5-8.5
No values
below 5.0
9. 0 and
preferably
between
6. 5 and
8.5 (ex-
cepted
from
Dept. of
Interior
approval
to be re-
vised).
Value s
vary for
differ-
ent wa-
ters
range -
6.0-
9.5
Temperature
Shall Not Be
Increased
No standard set
Not to exceed
93° F at any
the months
of May through
November it
not to exceed
73'F at any
time December
through April
(to be revised)
Not to be raised
more than 3" C
ambient water
temperature,
nor to exceed
36* C,
Pesticides
and Oils
Non - q uantitati ve *
Non- quantitative4
Non -quantitative*
Clarity
Rationale and
Remarks
Non-quantitative^ Not given.
Non-quantitative*
When these stan-
dards were ini-
tiated the
Kentucky Water
Pollution Con-
trol Commis-
the ORSANCO
criteria with
slight modifi-
cations as the
basis of their
proposed criteria
Non-quantitative* Criteria based on
present and po-
tential uses of
Louisiana waters
and the existing
water quality
indicated in data
accumulated
through moni-
toring programs
of various
agencie s.
*The term non-quantitative refers to areas where standards are specified in phrases such as required for safety, essentially free front, and shall not be present in
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
-------
TABLE 41
State
Maine
Agency
Responding
Water and Air
Environmental
Improvement
Commission
Date Current
Standard*
Adopted
Total Coliforms
Not to Exceed
Fecal Coliforms
Not to Exceed
October 7, 196? No single «»n- No standard set
dard sample col-
lected from a
public bathing
beach shall show
a maximum of
over 10 confirm-
ed B. Coli per
ml. When a
•ingle sample
•how* over 10,
but less than 30
per ml, a repeat
sample shall be
immediately
taken. If any
•ingle sample
shows 30 or more
B. Coli per ml,
the beach shall be
closed until water
quality is shown to
be satisfactory.
Maryland
Department of
Health, Division
of Water and
Sewerage
April, 1969
PH
No stand-
ard set
Tcmpe rature
Shall Not Be
Increased
Pesticides
and Oils
Clarity
Rationale and
Remarks
No standard set Non-quantitative* Non-quantitative* Not given
No standard set
Z40/100 ml.
When the fecal
coliform organ-
ism density ex-
ceeds this value
the bacterial qua-
lity shall be con-
sidered acceptable
only If a second
detailed sanitary
survey and eval-
uation discloses
no significant
public health risk.
6.5-8.5
Maximum* vary
for different wat-
ers. No speci-
fic standard for
recreational use.
Non-quantitative* Non-quantitative* Not given
*::The term non-quantitative refers to areas where standards are specified in phrases such as required for safety, essentially free from, and shall not be present in
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
-------
TABLE 41
State
Massachusetts
Michigan
in
Agency Date Current Bacterial
Responding Standards
Adopted Total Coliforms Fecal Coliforms
Water Resources February 17,1967
Commission
Department of Interstate stan-
Natural Resources dards adopted
June 28, 1967
Intrastate stan-
dards adopted
January 4, 1968
Not to Exceed Not to Exceed
1000/100 ml
during any mon-
thly sampling
period, nor 2400/
1 00 ml in more
than 20% of sam-
ples examined
duriag such
period.
Total body con-
tact- 1000/100 ml
nor shall 20% of
the samples ex-
amined exceed
5000.
Partial body_ con-
tact- 5000/100 ml
nor shall 20 ft of
the samples ex-
amined exceed
10rOOO.
Mo stanoara sec
Total body con-
average for the
same ten conse-
cutive samples
exceed 100/100
ml.
Partial body con-
tact- geometric
average for the
same ten conse-
cutive samples
shall not exceed
1000/100 ml.
pH Temperature Pesticides
Shall Not Be and Oils
Increased
cept where the
increase will not
ex eed the recom-
m nded limit on
th most sensitive
re eiving water
us . In no case
ra se the normal
w er temperature
m re than 4° F.
Maintain- 90' F maximum Non- quantitative *
a range of
6.5-8,5
with maxi -
muni in-
duced var-
ation of 0, 5
unit within
this range.
Clarity
Rationale and
Remarks
Minnesota Pol-
lution Control
Agency
August 3, 1967 1000/100 ml
No standard set 6.5-8.0 No standard act Non-quantitative*
Non-quantitative* Limits are
based on New
England Inter-
state Water
Pollution Con-
trol Commis-
sion standards
Non-quantitative* Standards based
on information
gained from re-
view of current
literature, ex-
isting standards
and present wa-
ter quality data,
and testimony
given at public
hearings.
Not given.
«=The term non-quantitative refers to areas where standards are specified in phrases such as required for safety, essentially free from, and shall not be present in
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
-------
TABLE 41
State
Mississippi
Agency
Responding
Mr and Water
Pollution Con-
trol Commia-
Date Current Bacterial
Standards
Adopted Total Conforms Fecal Coliforms
Not to Exceed Not to Exceed
PH
March 1968
No standard set
Missouri
Water Pollution
Board
June, 1968
No standard set
1000/100 ml as 6.0-8.5
a monthly aver-
age value, nor
exceed this num-
ber in more than
20% of the samples
examined during
any month nor ex-
ceed 2400/100 ml
on any day.
A geometric mean 6.5-8.5
of 200/100 ml nor
• hall more than 10%
of total samples
during any 30 day
period exceed
400/100 ml.
Temperature
Sh»ll Not Be
Increased
Pesticides
and Oils
Clarity
Shall not be in* Non-quantitative*
creased more than
10* F above the
natural prevailing
background temp-
erature, nor exceed
a maximum of 93"
F after reasonable
mixing.
Effluents shall
not elevate or
depress aver-
age temperature
more than 5°F.
Maximum tem-
perature due to
effluent 90' F.
Non-quantitative*
Rationale and
Remarks
Non-quantitative* Standards based
on good sanitary
engineering
practice and
consultation with
the affected
pa rtie s.
Shall not exceed
20 turbidity
units due to
effluents.
Public hearings
were held to
establish the
uses of the wa-
ters of the
state and to
gather infor-
mation to be
used in the de-
velopment of
water quality
standards to
protect these
uses.
Department of
Health, Division
of Environmental
Sanitation
Department of
Health, Water
Pollution Con-
trol Agency
October 5. 1967 1000/100 ml
with not more
than 20% of the
samples ex-
ceeding this
value.
January, 1969 No standard set
No standard set 6. &-9. 5 No standard set Non-quantitative*
A geometric
mean of 200/
100 ml based
on at least
five samples
per 30 day
period and shall
not exceed 400/
1 00 ml in more
than 10% of the
samples.
6.5-9.0
Shall not ex-
ceed 5*F over
normal tem-
perature of
water from May
to October and
not more than
1 0"F from Nov-
ember to April.
Maximum rate
of change lim-
ited to Z'F
per hour.
Non-quantitative*
Increase in
naturally oc-
curing turbi-
dity shall not
exceed 10JCU.
In no case shall
turbidity caused
by waste water
impart more
than a 10% in-
crease in tur-
bidity to the re-
ceiving water.
Not given
Standards based
on testimony
received at
public hearings
ind on reflec-
tion of past
experience.
*The term non-quantitative refers to areas where standards are specified in phrases such aa required for safety, essentially free from, and shall not be present in
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
-------
TABLE 41
Nevada
Agency
Responding
Division of
Health, Bureau
of Environmen-
tal Health
New Jersey
New Mexico
Date Current Bacterial
Standards
Adopted Total Coliforms Fecal Coliforms
Not to Exceed Not to Exceed
PH
New Hampshire;
Water Supply
and Pollution
Control Com-
mission
July, 1967 1000/100 ml if
Fecal Strepto-
cocci are less
than 100 or 5000/
100 ml if Fecal
Streptococci are
less than ZO.
(Criteria for
Colorado River
only, other stan-
dards set for
Lake Tahoe.)
January, 1969 340/100 ml
May 1, 1967
No standard set
Department of
Health, Water
Pollution Con-
trol
Health and Social March, 1968 No standard set
Services Depart-
ment* Environmen-
tal Services Div-
sion
No standard set 7.0-8.5
Temperature
Shall Not Be
Increased
Not more than
18"C summer or
I4°C in winter,
ZO'C below
Davis Dam.
Pesticides
and Oils
Non-quant itative*
Clarity
Rationale and
R e ma rk s
No standard set 6.5-8.0 Any stream tern- Non-quantitative*
perature increase
associated with
the discharge of
treated sewage,
waste, or cooling
water shall not be
such as to appre-
ciably interfere
with the uses as-
signed to this
class.
No standard Set 6.5-8.5 Noil-quantitative* Nt>n-quantitative*
Non-quantitative" "Guidelines for
formulating water
quality standards
for the waters of
the Colorado
River System"
are incorporated
as a supplement
to the standards.
Non-quantitative- Not given
The geometric
average of five
consecutive
daily samples
collected under
similar condi-
tions should not
exceed 200/100
ml.
Not spe-
cific for
waters
used for
body con-
tact
sports.
Not specific for
recreational use
of waters.
N on -quantitative*
Non-quantitative* It is anticipated
that the water
quality criteria
may be amend-
ed the end of
1969.
Non-quantitative'- Not given
*The term non-quantitative refers to areas where standards are specified in phrases such as required for safety, essentially free from, and shall not be present in
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
-------
TABLE 41
State
Agency
Responding
Department of
Health
Date Current Ba
Standards
Adopted Total Coliforms
Not to Exceed
November, 1968 For Boundary
waters - 2400/
100 ml MPN
median value.
00
North Carolina
Department of
Water and Air
Resources
January 30, 1968 No standard set
North Dakota
Department of May, 1967
Health, Division
of Water Supply
and Pollution
Control
1000/100 ml
rial
Fecal Coliforms
Not to Exceed
No standard let
An average of
200/100 ml on
at least 5 con-
secutive sam-
ples examined
during any 30
day period and
not to exce*d
400/100 ml in
more than 20T<
of the samples
examined during
any 30 day per-
iod. (Applica-
ble only May -
September. )
No standard set
PH
6.5-8.5
Shall be
normal
for the
waterf
of the
area.
which
range
between
6.0-8. 5.
except
swamp
watnrs
may have
a low of
4.3.
6. 5-9.0
Temperature Pesticides
Shall Not Be and Oil!
Increased
Streams -Non- Non-quantitative*
Trout Waters
Maximum 90 'F
with temperature'
change not to ex-
ceed 5'F above
natural in 50% of
area to a maxi-
mum of 85 *F.
Trout Waters
No discharge at
a temperature
over 70'F. Maxi-
mum increase
June through
Sept. 2'F, Oct.
through May
5*F over normal.
Not to exceed Non-quantitative*
7*F above the
ambient stream
or water tem-
perature, and
in no case
exceed 95' F.
Not to fxc.i'od Non-quantitative;^
90' F.
Clarity
Rationale anc
Remarks
Non-quantitative* Not given
Non-quantitative*
Standards esta-
blished follow-
ing public hear-
ings.
Non-quantitative:''
Adopted stan-
dards arc based
on the results of
public hca rings
and following,
"Guidclinc-a for
KsUblU.iing Wa-
ter Quality Stan-
dards for Inter-
state Waters."
sTIiu term non-quantitative refer* to areas where standards arc specified in phrases such as required for safety, essentially tree from, and shall not be present in
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
-------
TABLE 41
Ohio Hiver
Valley
Agency
Responding
Ohio River
Valley Water
Sanitation
Commission
Date Current Bacterial
Standards
Adopted Total Coliforms
Not to Exceed
1967
1967
Department of 1968
Health, Environ-
mental Health
Services
No standard set
Fecal Coliforms
Not to Exceed
200/100 ml as
a monthly geo-
metric mean
based on not
less than five
sample s pe r
month, nor ex-
ceed 400/100 ml
in more than
107t of all sam-
ples taken dur-
ing a month.
PH
No stan-
dard set.
Temperature
Shall Not Be
Increased
Pesticides
and Oils
Clarity
Rationale and
Remarks
No standard Set Non-quantitative*
1000/1 00 ml as a
monthly average
nor exceed thia in
more than 20% of
the samples exa-
minedduring any
month nor exceed
2400 per 100ml on
any day.
1000/100 ml as a
monthly average
during the recre-
ational season,
nor exceed this
number in more
than 20% of the
samples examined
during any one
month, nor exceed
2400/100 ml on
No standard set. No stan-
dard set.
A geometric 6., 5-8, 5
mean of 200/
1 00 ml nor
shall more
than 1 0% of
the total sam-
ples during
any 30 day
period exceed
400/100 ml.
No standard set
Changes in tem-
perature from
other than natur-
al sources shall
be limited to a
maximum of 5"F
with specific
maximums set
for various fish
propagation
areas.
Non-quantitative* Member states
are; Illinois,
Indiana, Ken-
tucky, New York,
Pennsylvania,
Virginia, West
Virginia and
Ohio. The sig-
natory States
conducted public
hearings and re-
ceived testimony.
Committees were
established and
recommendations
for standards
made. All me ru-
be r states sub-
mitted quality
standards and
plans for their
implementation.
Non-quantitative - Non-quantitative* Not Riven.
Non- quantitative
Non-quantitative-
Public hearings
held in accord-
ance with State
statute s. Cur-
rent water qual-
ity anrt history
of State waters
re-viewed before*
standards adopted
'-The- term non-quantitative refers to areas
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life
any day except dur -
ing periods of
storm run off.
here standards are specified in phrases such as required for safety, essentially free from, and shall not be present
-------
TABLE 41
Oregon
Agency
Responding
Oregon State
Sanitary
Authority
Date Current
Standards
Adopted
June 1, 1967
Pennsylvania
Department of
Health, Divi-
sion of Water
Quality
Not given
Bacterial pH
Total Coliforrns
Not to Exceed
Average concen-
tration 1000/100
ml with IQ% of
the samples not
to exceed 2400/
1 00 ml.
1000/100 ml as
an arithmetic
value, not to ex-
ceed 1000/100 ml
in more than two
pies nor exceed
2400/100 ml in
more than one
sample. (For the
period 9/16 to
5/14 of any year
not to exceed
5000/100 ml as a
monthly average
value, nor exceed
this number in
more than 20fc of
the samples col-
lected during any
month; nor exceed
20,000/100 ml in
more than 5% of
the samples.)
Fecal Coliforrns
Not to Exceed
No standard set 6. 5-6. 5
A log mean of No stan-
200/100 ml in dard set
any five or solely
for a 30 day creation-
shall more than protec-
10% of the total tion.
samples during
any 30 day per-
iod show a den-
sity of more than
400/100 ml.
Temperature Pesticides
Shall Not Be and Oils
Increased
Maximum in- Non- quantitative*
crease per-
mitted 2"F
with specific
temperature
maximums
stated £or in-
dividual waters.
No standard set No standard act
solely for re-
creational water
Clarity Rationale and
Remarks
Not to exceed Caters covered by
5 JTU above criteria are Goose
natural back- Lake, Grande Ronde
ground values. River, Walla Walla
River, Columbia Ri-
ver, Snake River,
Klamath River, and
Willamette River.
No standard set Pennsylvania is
currently in the
process of chang-
water quality cri-
from total coli-
forms to fecal
coliforms stand-
ard shown on
table. The fecal
coliform stand-
ard is similar to
that recommend-
ed by the Federal
Water Pollution
Control Admini-
stration.
"'The term non-quantitative refers to areas where standards are specified in phrases such as required for safety, essentially free from, and shall not be present in
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
-------
TABLE 41
Puerto Rico
Agency
Responding
Department of
Health
Date Current Bacterial
Standards
Adopted Total Coliforms Fecal Coliforms
Not to Exceed Not to Exceed
pH
June. 1967
Rhode Island
South Carolina
Department of
Health
Board of Health
Pollution Con-
trol Authority
Not given
Temperature
Shall Not Be
Increased
Pesticides
and Oils
Clarity
Rationale and
Remarks
1000/100 ml as a
monthly median
value. Counts in
excess of this
shall not be pre-
sent in more than
20°/( of the sam-
ples examined in
any one month,
nor exceed 2400/
1 00 ml on any day.
ing value for bath-
ing waters.
March, 1967 No standard set
No standard set
No stan-
dard set
No standard set N on -quantitative*
Non-quantitative* Because of the
scarcity of sur-
face water re-
sources, and the
high population
density all sur-
fa
classified as
sources of pub-
lic water supply
systems. Only
coastal waters
have a specific
classification for
recreational
usage.
No standard set
A geometric
mean of 200 /
I 00 ml nor
shall more than
1 O^c of the total
samples during
any 30 day per-
iod exceed 400/
100 ml.
No stan-
dard set
Range be-
tween 6.0-
8.0, ex-
cept that
swamp
wate r s
may
range
from
5.0-8.0.
No standard s<
Not to exceed
93.2'F as a
result of heat-
ed liquids.
No standard set
No standard set Not given
Non-quantitative* Non -quantitative*
Standards de-
rived from pre-
vious standards
and Federal Wa-
ter Pollution
Control Admini-
stration guide-
lines. Also
puided by cur-
rent pertinent
technical publi-
cations.
-The term non-quantitative refers to areas where standards are specified in phrases such as required for safety, essentially free from, and shall not be present in
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
-------
TABLE 41
State Agency Date Current Bac
Responding Standards
Adopted Total Coliforms
Not to Exceed
South Dakota Department of February 16, 1967 1000/100 ml as a
Health. Water monthly average;
Pollution Con- nor exceed this
trol Section value in more
than 20% of the
sample* ex-
amined in any
one month nor
exceed 2400/100
ml on any one
day during the
recreation sea-
son.
ro
Department of
Public Health.
Stream Pollution
Control Hoard
May 26, 1967 No standard set
irial
Fecal Coliform*
Not to Exceed
No standard set
Standard for
recreation, not
to exceed 1000/
100 ml in any
two consvcutivc
samples May -
September.
Standard for
waters used for
recreation by
pH Temperature
Shall Not Be
Increased
No stan- No standard set
dard set
Within a shall not exceed
range of 93" j\
6.0-9.0
and shall
nut fluc-
tuate more
than 1.0
unit in
this ranjzc
OVIT a
pnriod of
Pesticides
and Oils
No concentrations
greater than 0. 1
times the acute
(96 hr) median le -
thai dose for
short residual
compounds, or
0.01 times the
acute median
lethal dose for
accumulative sub-
stances or Sub-
stances with resi-
dual life exceed-
ing 30 days.
No n- quantitative*
Clarity
Non-quantitati\
Natural swim-
any or^ani/.ecl
camp shall
have- 4 Secchi
diac clarity of
5 feet at all
tinu-s.
organised camps 24 hours.
specify - F.C.
not to exceed goo-
metric (Log) aver-
age of 200/100 nil
for any five con-
secutive samples
collected on sep-
arate days, nor
shall more than 2
of any :> consecu-
tive samples col-
lected on separate
days exceed 1000/
100 ml.
Rationale and
Remarks
based on liter-
ature studies
including McKee
and Wolf, "Water
Quality Criteria,"
2nd edition and
U.S. Geological
Survey, "Water
Quality efforts
for South Dakota.'
The criteria
proposed by
neighboring
States were also
considered.
Mol given
-!The term non-quantitative refers to areas where standards are specified in phrases such as required for safety, *sst>ntially free from, and shall not be present in
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
-------
TABLE 41
Utah
Agency
Responding
Texas Water
Quality Board
State Division
of Health
Department of
Water Resource:
Date Current Bacterial pH
Standard*
Adopted Tulal Coli£ormi
Not to Exceed
June, 1967 No stands nl yet
November, 1968 SO/1 00 ml arith-
metical mean
except that 207r
of all samples
collected in any
month may ex-
ceed this stan-
dard if no more
than 5°; of all
samples collect-
ed in the same
month exceed a
density of 100/
1 00 ml.
May 29, 1*?67 A median value of
i 500/100 ml for a
minimum of five
samples collected
during any 30 day
pc riod, individual
daily value shall
not exceed 2500/
100 nil.
Fecal Collforms
Not to Exceed
A geometric No &tan-
mean of less dard set
than ZOO/100 solely for
ml and not recrea-
more than I07r tional wa-
of the samples te r pro-
duri.ig Any JO tcction.
tlay p.;ri jJ should
exceed 400/1 )0
ml. This policy
is advisory onl/
and does not
limit the respon-
sibilities of
local health
agencies.
No standard set 6. 5-8. 5
No standard set No reduc-
tion but
allowable
inc rease
to 8. 0
units.
Tumperaturi: Pesticide a
Shall Not Re ami Oils
Increased
No standard set Non-quantitative*
solely for recrea-
tional water pro-
tection.
Waters shall IK- Non-quantitative''
so proli'ftod
against cunfrol-
lable pollution
including heal,
as to be suit. A bio
at all times lor
usapo under the
watc r B classifi-
cation.
No allowable in- Non-qiuintitativr*
c r*'a s^' (.-Ntcpt a s
may be consistent
%vitli fish am! wild
life liabktai.
Clarity
Rationale and
Remarks
Non-quantitative* Values of the
various para-
meters in the
Texas water
quality require-
ments are based
on historical
data, knowledge
gleaned from
testimony pre-
sented at 30
public hearings,
professional
knowledge of the
Hoards staff and
judgement of the
Board,
Non-quantitative* Nut yivcn
No change other This criteria
than tlmt caused covers class IS
by natural con- i,,l rastale walor*.
(fitiorts. t."oliform critc ria
for interstate
waU'rsi used for
bfilhinn sets a
limit of 1000/100
ml lotal cohforin
el on sit y .
;1'Tlie term non-quantitative n-fc-rs (o areas where standards are specified in phrases such as required for safety,
quantities which cause the water to In1 toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
md shall not bv present in
-------
TABLE 41
Slat* Agency Date Current
Responding Standard!
Adopted ToUl Collform.
Not to Exceed
Bacterial
PH
F«cal Coliforms
Not to Exceed
Temperature
Shall Not Be
Increased
Pesticides
and Oils
Clarity
Rationale and
Remarks
Virginia
State Water
Control Board
1969
For Primary
Contact
Not to exceed
2,400/100 ml ma
a monthly Average
value; nor to ex-
ceed this number
In more than 20%
of the samples
examined during
any month not ap-
plicable during or
immediately fol-
lowing periods of
rainfall.
For Secondary
Contact
Not to exceed
5.000/100 ml.
Primary Contact
No standard set
No
standard
given
Secondary
Contact^i_raj
1.000/100 ml
No standard
given
No standard
given
No standard
given
Based on informa-
tion available in the
literature with the
further philosophy
that all waters
would not be satis-
factory for primary
contact recreation
and on this basis^
specified areas
were designated
for recreational
use.
Virgin Islands Office of the January 16,1969
Commissioner
of Health
No standard set
70/100 ml as a
monthly median
value.
7.0-8.5
Not to exceed
90" F at any time
nor as a result
of waste dis-
charge to be
more than 4* F
above natural
during fall, win-
ter or spring
nor 1* 5* F above
natural during
summer.
Non-quantitative*
Non-quantitative* Criteria covers
coastal waters.
*Thc term non-quantitative refers to areas where standards arc specified in phrases such as required for safety, essentially free from, and shall not be present in
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
-------
TABLE 41
State
Washington
-J
Ul
West Virginia
Agency Date Current
Responding Standards
Adopted
Water Pollution Proposed cri-
misflion adopted.
Department of May, 1 9&8
Health
Bacterial
Total Coliforms Fecal Coliforms
Not to Exceed Not to Exceed
240/100 ml with No standard set
the samples ex-
ceed inc 1000/1 00
ml when asso-
ciated with any
fecal source,
The State Health
Department is
advocating that
these figures be
changed to a me-
dian value of 50
with less than 10%
of the samples ex-
ceeding Z30/IOO ml
when associated
with any fecal source.
1000/1 00ml an a No standard set
monthly average
this number in 20%
of the sample* ex-
amined during any
month, nor exceed
2400/100 ml on any
day.
pH Temperatu re Pesticide s
Shall Not Be and Oils
Increased
No me a- No measurable Non-quantitative1''
change natural condi-
tural con-
ditions.
6. 0-8. 5 Not to exceed Non-quantitative*
87* F at any time
May - November,
and not to exceed
73' F at any time
during months of
December - April.
Clarity Rationale and
Remarks
Turbidity shall The State of
over natural con- not have a single
State Health De- of recreation for
partmcnt suggests either the intra
that this be chang- or inter state wa-
ed to no turbidity tcrs* The criteria
over natural con- listed is proposed
ditions. criteria for lakes.
Basic water qual-
ity data collected
over a period of
years and avail-
able research per-
tinent to Washing-
ton State waters
was used as a
basis for standards
Non-quantitative* Criteria covers
intra state waters
classified cate-
gory A for water
contact recreation.
"The term non-quantitative refers to areas where standards are specified in phrases such as required for safety, essentially frco fron
quantities which cause the water to be toxic to human, plant or aquatic life.
and shall not be present in
-------
TABLE 41
State
Agency
Responding
Date Current
Standard*
Adopted
Department of June, 1967
Natural Resource*
Wyoming
Department of June 27, 1967
Health and Social
Services, San-
itary Engineering
Services
Bacterial pH
Total Conforms
Not to Exceed
Arithmetic aver-
age of 1000/1QQ
ml and a maxi-
mum not exceed-
ing 2500/100 ml
during the re-
creational season,
For partial body
contact - arith-
metic average
5000/100 ml with
no more than I of
the samples ex-
ceeding 20, OOOf
100 ml.
No standard set
Fecal Coliforma
Not to Exceed
No standard set No stan-
dard let
While sample 6. 5-8. 5
ulatcd no indi-
vidual cample
•hall exceed
95% confidence
limit of the his-
torical average;
provided that in.
no case will the
geometric moan
of the last five
consecutive sarti-
1000 ml which
ever is the le'ast.
Temperature Pesticides Clarity Rationale and
Shall Not Be and Oils Remark!
Increased
No standard set No standard set No standard set Criteria based on
available scien-
tific knowledge
and have been re-
ferred for com-
ment to health
authorities, fish
and wildlife biol-
ogists and other
interested pro-
fessional persons.
As knowledge in-
dards will be mod-
ified to reflect
such increased
knowledge.
No standard set Non-quantitative* Non- quantitative':' Bacteriological
will not be cat a- to all interstate
blished for toxic waters, however.
material as all as a general
possible com- policy, the Board
pounds, combina- of Health condi-
tion* and effects dcrs only rcscr-
are not known. voirs and lakes
suitable for full
body contact
sports, Stan-
dards based on
existing quality
and existing
sources of pol-
lutants.
;;'The term non-quantitative refers to areas where standards are specified in phrases such as required for safety, essentially free from, and shall not bp present in
quantities which cause the water to be toxic tu human, plant vr aquatic life.
-------
APPENDIX B
ASSUMPTIONS AND DETAILED EXAMPLES OF THE METHODOLOGY
Salmonella typhosa C
p
The summary of the raw dose response test data on human volunteers
published by Hornick, et al (1966, 1970) is shown on Table 42.
To identify the probability density function which best described the universe
of human capabilities from which these test subjects were drawn, it was
necessary to make certain assumptions:
1. The "exact" number of S_. ..ty_p_hos_a was not measured but rather
"estimated" (Hornick, 1966). For this analysis it was assumed
that the number identified was the minimum of the class inter-
val; e. g. , no less than 10, S_. typhosa were fed as the challenge
dose. Just how accurate this assumption is probably will not
be known until further tests are performed. This point will
be discussed further in the section dealing with the R vector.
2. There is reasonably good and sufficient data to permit at-
tempts to identify the universe from which the published data
were sampled. Thus, the nine data points associated with
the 10 challenge dose was given even weight with the 220
data points associated with the 10 challenge dose, etc.
3. It was further assumed that the universe from which the pub-
lished data were sampled can be described by one of five well
known probability density functions, as has already been dis-
cussed: normal, lognormal, Weibull, Gamma, or exponential.
This is particularly important, because there is a paucity of
data at the lower end of the dose-response capability. Thus,
this low end will be obtained by extrapolation using the equa-
tion for the probability density function selected.
4. An upper limit at which certain illness would occur was as-
sumed to be 10 S_. typhosa or three orders of magnitude
greater than the test data for the amount of S_. typhosa requir-
ed to cause 98% illness.
Based on the foregoing assumptions, a histogram was constructed for the
sample consisting of the published data as shown by the solid line in Figure
32. It can be seen that each step of the histogram represents an average
of the data points of volunteers ill at each concentration of challenge dose.
The construction of the histogram also involves the first of the previous
assumptions, that each class interval starts at the cited challange dose. This
assumption is unconservative because it increased each class interval on
the concentration of factor axis. An "unconservative" assumption might be
to distribute the class interval equally on either side of the class mark. This
177
-------
TABLE 42
S_. typhosa Raw Dose Response Data*
(After Hornick, et al, 1966, 1970)
Test
(a)
(b)
(c)
i
S. typhosa
Strain
Quailes
Quailes
Zermatt
TY2V
Quaile s
Challenge
Dose
Concentration
103
105
107
108
109
107
107
107
JO5
107
109
Number of
Volunteers Sick
@ Concentration
0
32
16
8
40
16
6
2
28
15
4
I
Total Number
of Volunteers
Challenged
@ Concentration
14
116
32
9
42
30
11 ;
6
104
30
4
178
-------
100
90
80
ui
1 70
o
iu
CO
O
I
£ 60
O
UJ
I 50
cc
z
D
40
O
a*
30
20
10
(c)4/4
O
ASSUMED
UPPER
LIMIT
X
(a) 8/9
J
(a) 40/42
DATE SOURCE: SEE TABLE 42
(b) 16/30
(a) 16/32
i
(b)
6/11
(c) 15/30
Kb) 2/6
(c) 28/104,
{a} 0/14
I I I—I
(a) 32/116
10° 101 102 103 10* 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011 1012
NUMBER OF S. typhosa CAUSING SICKNESS
Figure 31. Histogram Constructed From Raw Data for S. typhosa
179
-------
might also be an over-conservative assumption. Be cause of the ambiquity
of the "estimation process, " the entire class interval above the class mark
is the same as stating that a larger concentration of challenge dose is re-
quired to make the same percent of volunteers ill. As, however, this
unconservatism is removed by the definition of the requirements R for
the Salmonella factor, it is discussed in that section of the report.
Twenty-five pseudo-random, numbers were generated, and samples were
obtained from the histogram of Figure 32. These samples were input to
the BSTFIT program. The results of this analysis are shown in Table
43. This table presents the maximum likelihood estimates of the para-
meters describing the normal, lognormal, exponential, Weibull, and Gamma
distributions. Based on the Kolmogorov-Smirnov goodness of fit (or "d")
test, it can be established that the lognormal probability density function
(ff = 3. 894, y = 16. 39) is the best description of the universe from which
the dose response samples was drawn. The relationship between the histo-
gram (dash-dot line), the 25 samples drawn from it ( (T) (1) ), and
the lognormal distribution selected by BSTFIT is shown in Figure 33.
The curves in Figures 32 and 33 were plotted on rectilinear cartesian
coordinate paper. Figure 13 in the text shows the lognormal distribution
selected by BSTFIT plotted on "lognormal probability" paper. On this
type plot, the density function appears as a straight line. The upper and
lower 95% confidence intervals are also shown on this figure.
Salmonella - other, C_
1 p
The S_. - other C density function is based upon work published by McCullough
and Sisele in 195*1 dealing with strains of S_. bareilly, S. -newport, _S. ana turn
I, II and III, S_. meleagridis I. II and III, _S. Derby. and_S. pullorum I, H, in
and IV. Thus groups of the Kaufman-White Scheme B, C., C~, D, and E,
the majority of the groups significant to humans, were covered. As in the case
of.£L typhosar the pathogens were fed to the volunteers; thus the results are
directly applicable to the case of recreation water quality. These tests were
performed in a way to emphasize the detection of a "minimum effective dose. "
They were conducted in a manner quite similar to "step stress testing to mal-
function. " Thus the dose response data could be input to BSTFIT directly
without recourse to sampling from a histogram.
The input to BSTFIT is shown in Table 44. The results are shown in Table
45. once again the lognormal probability density function has been selected
(y = 17. 86, oy= 3. 698) at the 5% level of significance. This probability density
function is shown graphically in Figure 14 in the text, along with its upper and
lower 95% confidence limits.
180
-------
TABLE 43
Salmonella typhosa Capabilities Vector (Cp) Using 25 Random Numbers
Name of
Distribution
Normal
Lognormal
Exponential
Weibull
Density Function
a \- 1 o X/x-5?>i2
0X/2TT e 2~\ ° /
— 2
f / x i * l (log x-y)
Cy^TT 2 \ Ty /
where y = log x
f(x) = 9e ~6x
i ,Q-1 r / M
1 ~v«-r*1 1 •• i ^v •> r* 1 1
f(^;)~ x-c c;j i-j[x-cj
£(x,= 8le2XMeXp[-e2^j
Maximum
Likelihood
Estimation of
Parameters
•3T= 4. Oil x 1010
ir O rvrtn „ i nil
" - £.. UUU x 1(J
y=16. 39
»y - 3. 894
(best distribution)
0= 2.393 x lO'11
,^= 6.066 x 1011
6=0. 06613
c= 1. 0 x 105
No reasonable
fit possible
Iteration
29
"d"
Statistic
0. 538
01 01
• JL 7l
0.936
0. 2981
Probability
that data came
from Cited
Distribution
0 +
051 7
. J-L 1
0 +
0. 0235
00
-------
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
X
VI
O 0.5
CO
00
O 0.4
oc
a.
0.3
0.2
0.1
HISTOGRAM OF 25
RANDOM NUMBERS
SAMPLED FROM
EMPIRICAL DOSE-
RESPONSE EXPERIMENTS
LOGNORMAL
DISTRIBUTION
SELECTED BY
BSTFIT
HISTOGRAM OF
EMPIRICAL
DOSE-RESPONSE
EXPERIMENT
1C2 104 106 108
NUMBER Oh S. typhosa CAUSING SICKNESS
10
,10
10
,12
Figure 32. S. typhosa C As Selected By BSTFIT
182
-------
TABLE 44
Summary of Salmonella-other Dose
Response Data Input to BSTFIT
(After McCullough and Eisele, 1951)
Concentration
of Challenge
Dose
0.125 x 106
0.152 x "
0. 385 x "
0. 587 x "
0. 695 x "
0. 860 x "
1. 275 x "
1. 350 x "
1. 70 x "
4.675 x "
7. 675 x "
10. 0 x "
10.0 x "
15. 0 x "
20.0 x "
24. 0 x "
41. 0 x "
44. 5 x "
50. 0 x "
67.25 x "
1.280 x 109
3. 975 x "
6. 750 x "
7. 640 x "
10. 0 x "
16. 0 x "
Strain
S. bareilly
S. newport
S. newport
S. anatum I
S. bareilly
S. anatum. I
S. anatum III
S. newport
S. bareilly
S. anatum III
S. meleagridis III
S. meleagridis II
S. meleagridis III
_§._ derby
S. meleagridis II
S. meleagridis I
S. meleagridis^ II
S. anatum II
S. meleagridis I
S. anatum II
S. pullorum IV
S. pullorum IV
S. pullorum II
S. pullorum III
S. pullorum I
S. pullorum I
No. of
Volunteers
Ill/group of 6
1
1
1
2
2
3
2
3
4
4
1
1
2
3
2
1
5
1
4
4
3
2
4
1
6
6
183
-------
TABLE 45
Salmonella Total Requirements Vector (Rg) Using 25 Random Numbers
Name of
Distribution
Normal
Lognormal
Exponential
Gamma
Weibull
Density Function
See TABLE 43
See TABLE 43
See TABLE 43
See TABLE 43
See TABLE 43
Maximum
Likelihood
Estimation of
Parameters
Not a reasonable fit
y = -2. 076
ffy = 6. 198
8 = . 0774
§ = 22. 90
a = 0. 568
& = 0
^1 = 0. 599
#2 = 0.283
(preferred distr. )
Iteration
27
"d"
Statistic
0.364
0.360
0.359
0. 359
Probability
that data came
from Cited
Distribution
0. 00265
0. 00307
0. 00317
0. 00319
00
-------
SECTION XV
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185
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222
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223
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B. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PESTICIDES AND OILS
224
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C. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF STATE
RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY DOCUMENTS
248
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114. Shea, W. J. Rhode Island Department of Health. Personal
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115. Speiser, Arnold. Water Quality Control Division. District of
Columbia. Personal Communication. (1969).
116. Trygg, John E. Louisiana State Department of Health. Personal
Communication. (1969).
117. Vasuki, N. C. State of Delaware Water and Air Resources
Commission. Personal Communication. (1969).
118. von Frank, A. J. Where Are Water Quality Standards Heading?
Water and Wastes Engineering/Industrial. 16-18. (1969).
119. Williamson, Arthur E. Sanitary Engineering Services. Wyoming
State Department of Health. Personal Communication. (1969).
120. Woodhull, Richard S. Environmental Health Services Division.
State of Connecticut. Personal Communication. (1969).
256
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1
5
Accession Number
n Subject Field & Group
05C
SELECTED WATER RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
Organization
Envirogenics Co. , Division of Aerojet-General Corp. , El Monte, California
Title
Water Quality Criteria Data Book, Vol. k
AN INVESTIGATION INTO RECREATIONAL WATER QUALITY,
10
Authors)
Mechalas,
Hekimian,
S china zi,
Dudley, R
B. J.
K. K.
L.A.
. H.
16
21
Project Designation
iQokO DAZ
Note
22
Citation
23
Descriptors (Starred First)
* Recreation, * Public Health, # Standards, Salmonella, Viruses, Pesticides,
Beaches, Mathematical Models, Risks, Temperature, Hydrogen Ion
Concentration
25
Identifiers (Starred First)
* Quality Criteria
27
Abstract
A new technique has been developed for establishing firm criteria for health
risks associated with recreational water bodies. The basis of the method is a
mathematical treatment of medical dose-response data in conjunction with the
probability of exposure over a period of time to a given level of the potentially
harmful factor, such that a quantitative risk can be assigned to the recreational
activity. Once a public health jurisdiction has established an acceptable level
of risk, curves produced by electronic data processing equipment can be used
to ascertain whether a particular water should be open to the public. (Wilson-
Envirogenics)
Abstractor
E. Milton Wilson
nstitutton
Envirogenics Co. , Division of Aerojet-General Corp.
(REV. JULY 1969)
SEND TO: WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
WASHINGTON. D. C. 20240
* GPO: 1969-359-339
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