The Robert A. Taft
litary Engineering Centei
TECHNICAL REPORT
W61-5
PROCEEDINGS OF 1961 SYMPOSIUM
GROUND WATER
CONTAMINATION
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,
EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Pub I i c Hea I th Service
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GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Proceedings of the 1961 Symposium
April 5-7, 1961
Cincinnati, Ohio
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE
Public Health Service
Bureau of State Services
Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center
Cincinnati, Ohio
1961
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EDITORIAL NOTE
The papers in this volume were prepared for oral delivery in the Sym-
posium and necessarily have been edited to meet publication standards of the
Public Health Service. Every effort has been made to present accurately the
full data and the original, views and meaning intended by the authors. Records
of informal discussions .have been summarized by technical reviewers so that
' " "
the key points of those could .also be included in these proceedings.
\ : *
The Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center is a national laboratory of
the Public Health Service for research, training, and technical consultation in
problems of water and waste treatment, milk and food safety, air pollution con-
trol, and radiological health. Its technical reports and papers are available
without charge to professional users in government, education, and industry.
Lists of publications in selected fields may be obtained on request to the Di-
rector, Robert A. Taft, Sanitary Engineering Center, Public Health Service,
Cincinnati 26, Ohio.
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CONTENTS
Page
Symposium Objectives 1
Session 1: Hydrogeological Aspects of Ground Water
Contamination 3
Session 2: Types of Contaminants 35
Session 3: Specific Incidents of Contaminants in
Ground Water 65
Session 4: Regulations and Their Administration 129
Session 5: Research on Ground Water Contamination 165
Appendix Program Participants 216
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SYMPOSIUM COMMITTEE
General Chairman
Richard L. Woodward
Chief of Engineering, Research Branch
Division of Water Supply & Pollution Control
Public Health Service
Sanitary Engineering Center
Graham Walton
In Charge, Water Conservation Studies
Engineering Section, Research Branch
Alfred F. Bartsch
Assistant Chief, Research Branch
Thomas W. Bendixen
Soil Scientist, Suburban Sanitation Studies
Engineering Section, Research Branch
W. G. Hamlin
Sanitary Engineer
Water Supply & Pollution Control Training
Training Program
Francis M. Middleton
In Charge, Organic Contaminants Unit
Chemistry and Physics Section, Research Branch
Chandler C. Waggoner
Administrative Assistant, Research Branch
Leo Weaver
Chief, Water Quality Section
Basic Data Branch
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GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
SYMPOSIUM OBJECTIVES
H. Hanson, Director,
Sanitary Engineering Center, PHS
This is a period of history characterized
more by questions than by answers, and we
fully expect that this Symposium will be no
exception to this situation. From an ele-
mentary standpoint, we are gathered here
because the ground water resource is im-
portant as a source of water for home, for
municipility, for industry, and for agricul-
ture. Many of our public supplies in this
country come from underground sources;
wherever possible, individual homes not
served by public systems use this resource.
In some places the underground is the only
satisfactory storage site for water,and its
value, of course, can be reduced by pollu-
tion.
The pollution of ground water is in-
sidious. It appears belatedly and often is not
recognized until a considerable areahas been
affected. Once an aquifer is polluted, a very
long time may be required to clean it up,
even after the source of pollution is removed.
We know that the soil and aquifer materials
have remarkable capacity for removing some
contaminants, and we also know something
of the limitations in this regard. It is im-
portant that we develop knowledge that will
permit continued use of ground water with-
out avoidable damage to its quality, but at
the same time we must permit proper use
of soil as a waste disposal medium. Fur-
ther, we need to develop the necessary
legal and administrative mechanisms to
accomplish this joint usage.
The Public Health Service has for a long
time been interested in solving problems of
ground water pollution. Some of you may be
familiar with the early work of Stiles and
Grohurst, one of the pioneer studies on
bacterial travel underground. Public health
agencies in the past were concerned pri-
marily with biological contamination of
ground water, but in recent years we have
been forced to turn our attention also to
problems of chemical contamination.
Several recent developments have
brought about an increased interest in the
presentation of good ground water quality.
Among these are developments that I am sure
are familiar to most of you the rapid sub-
urban growth with the accompanying in-
creased use of soil disposal systems for
households; the increased use of lagoons,
oxidation ponds, spray irrigation, and other
methods involving applications of wastes to
soil; the increased production and use of in-
secticides and ovicides in the control of
pests; the increased production and use of
other relatively stable synthetic organic
compounds that find their way into water
supplied to the soil; the increased saltwater
intrusion into coastal aquifers; and the
growth of the atomic energy industry with
its special waste disposal problems.
In recent years the number of incidents
of ground water pollution has increased
markedly, and as a result the amount of re-
search activity related to ground water
quality problems has increased, although I
would not begin to venture that the research
and study are yet nearly in proportion to the
size of the problem. Through past studies a
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GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
great deal has been learned, but at the same
time the vastness of our ignorance has be-
come even more apparent. Not only tech-
nical but administrative problems are in
need of solution.
About a year ago it seemed to us that
there was a sufficiently large group of
people interested in the problems of ground
water quality and ground water contamination
to warrant aget.-together to discuss problems
of mutual interest. Expectations at that time
were for perhaps 50 or 60 people; indeed,
we did not expect that 300 or more would
convene for 3 days of discussion. We did
believe the group would want to discuss ex-
periences with ground water contamination,
review the methods available for coping with
some of these problems, explore our present
knowledge concerning the travel of con-
taminants in underground waters, and deter-
mine what should be done to provide the
knowledge and ability to control problems
that have arisen. These activities are set
forth as the objectives of our Symposium.
It is most gratifying to see the size of
the group that has come together here, and
it is particularly gratifying to see the num-
ber and variety of professional and scientific
interests represented. We hope you will find
the meeting instructive and profitable, and
that the discussions, formal and informal,
will be of value in increasing our national
ability to deal with ground water contam-
ination problems.
In a meeting of this sort it is obviously
not possible to cover all aspects of the sub-
ject. You will notice that our program con-
tains no papers on salt water intrusion and
radioactive waste disposal. This is not be-
cause these matters are not of importance
but because they recently have been the sub-
jects of other meetings.
It occurs to me that as you proceed with
your deliberations you may wish to give some
thought to this Symposium as the beginning
of an activity parallel to that in the field of
oceanography. I am sure that most of you
are aware of the tremendous surge of em-
phasis on oceanography in the last year or
two, the work of the "National Academy of
Sciences Committee and the 10-year national
program on all phases of oceanography
(TENOC) that has been developed by this
committee. This program has been reviewed
by thePresident's Science Advisory Council,
and great impetus has been given to ocean-
ography through this special effort by tech-
nical people interested in the field. It may
be that as we probe beneath the surface of
the ground we will decide that a similarly
organized national effort is warranted in our
research also, and we may wind up having
our own small "TENOC" in the field of the
underground, and indeed we may someday
have our own "Mohole."
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SESSION 1
HYDROGEOLOGICAL ASPECTS
OF GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Chairman; H. A. Swenson
Geologic Controls Related to Ground
Water Contamination, P.E. LaMoreaux and G.D. DeBuchananne . . . Page 3
Hydrologic Factors
Pertinent to Ground Water Contamination, R. H. Brown Page 7
Ground Water Recharge,
Natural and Artificial, R. T. Sniegocki Page 16
Some Aspects of Chemical Equilibrium
in Ground Water, J. O. Hem Page 20
Aspects of Ground Water Investigations
as Related to Contamination, W. J. Drescher Page 26
Discussion . Page 32
GEOLOGIC CONTROLS RELATED TO
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
G. D. DeBuchananne and
P. E. LaMoreaux, U.S. Geological Survey
Ground water, one of the Nation's most uration lies in the rocks and other earth
valuable natural resources, is defined as materials below the land surface, the geology
thatpart of the subsurface water in the zone of a particular area has a tremendous in-
of saturation. Inasmuch as the zone of sat- fluence on the occurrence of water and its
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GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
movement through the area. Obviously then,
the geology determines to a considerable ex-
tent, what happens to any contaminant that
may be introduced into the habitat of the
ground water.
Ground water is one phase of the hydro-
logic cycle. The hydrologic cycle consists
basically of precipitation, runoff (both direct
and ground water), and evapotranspiration;
and then the cycle starts again with pre-
cipitation. Each of the three basic parts of
the cycle can be subdivided, so that we get
such things as snow, base flow, soil mois-
ture, and transpiration. Ground water is a
phase of runoff that results from the absorp-
tion of moisture at the earth's surface, down-
ward movement of the moisture through the
zone of aeration to the zone of saturation,
and then lateral movement under the in-
fluence of gravity to a point of natural or
artificial discharge.
Contaminated ground water or a liquid
contaminant generally could be expected to
travel through the zone of aeration and the
zone of saturation to a point of discharge
along the same path as uncontaminated
ground water. The same geologic factors
that control the movement of uncontamin-
ated ground water also control the move-
ment of contaminated ground water. Ex-
ceptions to such a generalization occur
when the contaminant changes the density
and/or the viscosity of the ground water or
when chemical factors, such as the ion-ex-
change phenomenon, become involved.
Contamination of ground water can occur
from a point or line source in a recharge
area such as a contaminated surface pond or
stream, accidentally spilled contaminating
material, or planned surface-storage facil-
ities for leachable contaminated solids.
Such contamination will, like uncontamin-
ated moisture, move downward through the
zone of aeration to the zone of saturation
and then laterally toward points of dis-
charge. The natural direction and rate of
such movement are largely dependent upon
the geology of the aquifier, but in some
cases artificial controls can be used to alter
both the rate and direction of movement.
Because of the dispersion and slow rate of
ground water movement, the artificial con-
trols have to affect a quantity of fluid many
times that of the contamination.
In addition to contamination of ground
water at a point of recharge, it is possible
for a contaminant, by intent or accident, to
be injected into the zone of saturation through
a disposal well or to be induced to enter a
heavily pumped aquifer that has hydraulic
connection with nonpotable waters. In such
cases also, the contaminated water follows
the same paths as uncontaminated water.
In this discussion of ground water con-
tamination, we are primarily interested in
the geologic controls that affect ground water
movements, from the recharge areas,
through the zone of saturation, where the
water is temporarily stored, and finally in
the discharge areas, where the water reaches
surface streams or the atmosphere. Geology
affords the framework for ground water; it
includes the stratigraphy and structure of
the rock formations, which together makeup
the intricate ground water system.
Geologic factors relate chiefly to geo-
logic formations and their water-bearing
properties, and hydrologic factors relate to
the movement of water in the formations.
The permeability of the formations, which
affects the movement of the water, is the re-
sult of the geologic agencies that through
long ages have altered and formed the rocks,
developing their water-bearing properties.
The interstices in rocks are the open
spaces in which the water occurs and through
which it moves. They differ widely in size,
shape, arrangement, and aggregate volume.
The openings through which water moves
range in size from huge limestone caverns
and lava tubes, through all gradations, to the
minute pores in clay. Even smaller openings
of molecular dimensions are of significance
in relation to adsorption phenomena. The
interstices are generally irregular in shape,
but different types of irregularities are
characteristic of rocks of different kinds.
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Hydrogeological Aspects of Contamination
Interstices of the rocks can be grouped
into two major classes: primary, or orig-
inal, interstices that date back to the forma-
tion of the rock and the secondary interstices,
such as joints, fissures, and solution pas-
sages, that developed later. Generally, the
primary interstices have been altered by
solution, cementation, recrystallization, or
other processes.
Water and any attendant contaminant in
unconsolidated materials move through the
interstices. Accordingly, a clean, coarse
gravel is the mostproductive unconsolidated
water-bearing material. It may not be as ef-
fective, however, as clayey sand in absorbing
and adsorbing a contaminant in the water.
Next to gravel as a water-bearing material
comes clean, coarse sand, then progressively
poorer materials ranging downward to very
fine sand and silt and heterogeneous mixtures
of fine and coarse particles such as those
found in glacial till.
The consolidated rocks, those formed by
solidification of molten igneous rock and
those developed from unconsolidated sed-
imentary deposits through pressure, cemen-
tation, and recrystallization, are commonly
broken into blocks and contain most of their
water in joint cracks. Less thoroughly ce-
mented sandstones yield most of their water
from pores and are among the most pro-
ductive of the consolidated rocks. Also,
among the most productive formations are
cavernous limestones, as found in Florida
and southeastern Georgia. Other highly pro-
ductive rocks include limestone with joints
and fractures and basaltic lava with joint
cracks that resulted from the rapid cooling
of the molten lava. The basaltic lava also
has cavernous zones that resulted from the
crusting over of broken rock.
Rocks that do not yield water freely, but
will furnish water where better aquifers are
lacking, include fine-grained and poorly as-
sorted unconsolidated deposits and jointed
crystalline rocks such as granite.
The earth's crust consists of layers, or
strata, of rocks of various kinds one upon
another and underlain by massive or foliated
bodies of rocks. Sedimentary rocks and
some igneous and metamorphic rocks are
usually stratified, whereas rocks that repre-
sent solidified magma that was intruded into
the stratified rocks generally are massive.
A geologic formation is a body of rock
that is large enough in size and consistent
enough in type to be mapped. Formations
of stratified rocks range from a few feet to
hundreds of feet in thickness and may cover
hundreds of thousands of square miles, at
the land surface or beneath other forma-
tions. Geologic formations differ from one
another in their water-bearing character-
istics, and there are also likely to be im-
portant differences in the same formation at
different depth horizons and locations.
Most sedimentary formations consist of
sheets or layers of rocks that are very thin
in comparison with their area! extent. For
example, the well-known St. Peter sandstone
in the central part of the country has an
average thickness of about 100 feet but
covers an area of at least 300,000 square
miles, extending from Minnesota and Mich-
igan southward to Tennessee.
Stratification of a formation is of great
importance in the occurrence and movement
of ground water. Aquifers interbedded with
less permeable formations constitute the
classical artesian system, but the minute
stratification within a formation itself also
controls ground water movement. Such
stratification can be helpful or harmful in
problems of ground water contamination.
Sedimentary formations commonly ex-
hibit gradational changes, both horizontal
and vertical, in the size and character of
the material deposited. Of the material de-
posited in bodies of water, the coarser,
cleaner fragments are deposited close to
shore, whereas the fine, silty material is
carried outward and deposited in deeper
water. Such gradations, or facies changes,
in water-bearing formations determine
permeability, which affects the occurrence
and movement of water through the material.
Most geologic formations have some de-
gree of inclination. Slight dips may be the
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GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
result of deposition in a sloping position or
of deformation after deposition. Steep dips,
however, are nearly always the result of de-
formation. Diastrophic movements of the
earth's crust may be so slight that the tilting
of the strata maybe only afewfeet per mile,
or it may be so great that the strata are
tilted into a vertical position or even over-
turned. The amount of tilting, folding, and
warping may have a marked influence on the
movement of contaminated ground water
within the affected formations. Only by sur-
face and subsurface geological correlations
can the configuration of a formation and its
control of ground water movement be as-
certained.
In most regions there are two or more
series of rocks separated from one another
by unconformities. An unconformity is a
surface of erosion or nondeposition that
separates younger rocks from older rocks.
The erosional surface can be developed on
horizontal, tilted, or folded strata and may
be smoother quite irregular. In some cases
the unconformity its elf has been deformed by
later folding that complicates the interpreta-
tion of the subsurface geology. Extensive
unconformities are very common structural
features and have very important effects on
the occurrence of ground water. Aquifers in
the upper or the lower series may be con-
trolled by intervening unconformities.
A joint is a natural rock fracture that has
developed without movement of the adjacent
blocks. Joints are characteristic of hard,
brittle rocks, such as granite, limestone,
and sandstone, but not of plastic and uncon-
solldated materials, such as clay and soft
shale. Joints result chiefly from compres-
sion during earth movement and from rock
shrinkage caused by drying of sediments or
cooling of igneous rocks. These joints may
be tight cracks or wide fissures, less than
an inch apart or several feet apart. They
differ in their lateral persistence and in the
depth to which they extend. Joints are among
the most important water-bearing openings
and, as such, are another geologic control
in the occurrence and movement of ground
water.
If movement or slippage has occurred on
opposite sides of a fracture so that the blocks
of rock are displaced with reference to each
other, the fracture is called a fault. A nor-
mal fault results where one block simply
drops down alongside another, and a reverse,
or thrust, fault where one block or sheet of
rock is pushed over another. Large faults
that extend long distances and have sub-
stantial displacement may have great in-
fluence on the occurrence and circulation
of ground water.
In some places, instead of a single sharp
fault or fracture, there is a fault zone of
shattered rock called fault breccia. Such
zones commonly represent a large total
displacement of the rocks on either side of
the zone and afford a good water passage.
Perhaps the most important function of
faults in relation to ground water is that of
conduits leading from deep sources of water
to the surface or to a permeable overlying
zone. Oftentimes, however, faults are filled
with gouge, i.e., powdered rock, that was
formed as the blocks rubbed against each
other. Also, the fault may be filled with
cemented material deposited by ground
water, and this material is generally im-
permeable, making the fault a barrier in-
stead of a conduit for water movement.
Some well fields are divided so effectively
by fault barriers that pumping a well on one
side of the fault will not affect wells only a
few feet away on the other side of the fault.
Also, the many oil pools that have accumu-
lated against such faults indicate the effec-
tiveness of such barriers.
Of the massive igneous rocks, the ex-
trusive and intrusive rocks differ markedly
in their water-bearing character. They dif-
fer not only in porosity and water-yielding
capacities but also in those structural fea-
tures that control the occurrence and be-
havior of ground water.
Intrusive rocks generally consist of mas-
sive bodies that extend downward to their
source, whereas most extrusive rocks were
laid in layers that range in thickness from a
few feet to several hundred feet. In some
places the total thickness of the layers of
extrusive rocks may reach thousands of
feet, e.g., the basalt flows in the Snake
Plain of Idaho and the Columbia Basin in
Washington. Generally, only little water oc-
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Hydrogeological Aspects of Contamination
curs at depth in the massive intrusive rocks;
however, small supplies can be found in de-
composed parts or in joints. In an extrusive
rock formation a solid layer may lie over a
permeable zone that contains water. The
extrusive lave rocks frequently have dif-
ferent water horizons that resemble those
of sedimentary sequences. Very commonly,
a permeable zone is found in besalt where
the clinkery top of one flow was covered,
but not filled in completely, by an overlying
flow.
The topography of the land surface also
has a very important influence on ground
water conditions. In flat-lying land, not
bordered by high land and not having an out-
let in the form of a stream cut deeply into the
plain, the lowlands tend to become filled with
water and circulation is slow. Under these
conditions, the dissolved materials tend to
accumulate as water is lost and highly
mineralized water results. In hilly country,
on the other hand, the water percolates
rapidly downward and is discharged at a
lower elevation where the aquifer is exposed
at the surface. The active flow of ground
water tends to remove the soluble material
from the aquifer, thereby providing an en-
vironment for ground water of good quality.
Obviously, contamination introduced into the
poorly drained flat-lying land may remain
for a long time, whereas in the hilly country
it would be flushed out rapidly. Rapid flush-
ing is not always desirable, however, since
contaminants may be moved to a stream
where they can travel fast and far.
Geology exercises a dominant control
over the occurrence and movement of ground
water. If a contaminant is released to the
natural environment, the extent of its effect
on ground water depends on the geologic
factors that affect the movement of the water
and the capacity of rock materials to ab-
sorb and adsorb the contaminant. Con-
taminated ground water is subject to the
same physical controls as pure water, and
therefore geology is a dominant factor in
ground water contamination.
HYDROLOGIC FACTORS PERTINENT TO
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION *
R. H. Brown, U. S. Geological Survey
In 1960 Graham Walton (5) presented
data concerning contamination, by sewage
or other man-made wastes, of surface and
underground waters. The circumstances
attending the reported incidents of contam-
ination, especially those involving ground-
water supplies, have aided materially in
flie choice of a few principles and ideas that
will identify the role of some significant
hydrologic factors in the underground move-
ment of fluid wastes.
Walton's discussion of ground water
contamination refers often to physical set-
tings into which fluid wastes are discharged
at or near the land surface into cesspools,
tile-drain fields, and holding ponds. Fur-
thermore, most reported instances of
ground water contaminationhave taken place
in relatively hum id environments east of the
Mississippi River, where the depth to
ground water is not great, frequently less
than 50 feet, and where unconsolidated ma-
terials, such as sands, gravels, and clays,
are the principal porous media through which
the fluids must move. Thus it is convenient
to imagine, for this discussion, a field en-
vironment somewhat like that idealized in
Figure 1, which is a hypothetical cross sec-
tion through one side of a river valley.
In Figure 1 are: the perennial stream,
receiving surface drainage or runoff from
the valley slopes; the water table,
ranging in depth below the land surface
from zero near the stream to about 50 feet
and representing the positions at which
water would stand in wells; the unsaturated
zone, above the water table, where the pore
spaces are only partly filled with water;
the saturated zone, below the water table,
where the pore spaces are filled with water
properly called ground water; and a waste-
disposal site, near the land surface. Ground
water movement, as suggested by the ar-
rows and the slope of the water table, is
* Publication authorized by the Director, U.S. Geological Survey.
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GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
- Fluid waste
".'.UNSATURATED ZONE-'" . ^
.(Pore spaces portly filled with water)'. ° \*>^
Perennial stream
'- .SATURATED'ZONE'- '.'-: "Ir^-:-.-I-.'^s>x / /r----
; (Pore spaces filled with water)- '.-*/.~ ' »^ '-~2_V /'" .'
.'.".'.'.''-:' ' :?r°<"id'water flow''-\jl j ' ' ;
/_''. AQUIFER; SAND'S'-'~^r*'-^";*i'.'^T^-.'-.'.< ' ' '.'..':
^^^mm^^^
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Hydrogeological Aspects of Contamination
9
KT
- e.
- e0
(i)
where
Kr
» irreducible fraction of pore space
that will retain liquid against force
of gravity
= fraction of pore space filled with
liquid for any given regime of un-
saturated flow
= relative permeability, i.e., the ratio
of the permeability for the given
regime of unsatu rated flow to the
permeability for saturated flow.
In this example the rate of fluid movement
in the unsaturated zone has been assumed
to be 1/2 inch per day, or 0.042 foot per
day. Thus
Kr . 0.042 - 0<0006
70
In equation 1, if 00 is neglected because of
its small value for the assumed medium
sand and if the preceding value for Kr is
substituted, it follows that
Qjf (0.0006>4
0.16
This means that the liquid content in the un-
saturated zone need only be 16 percent of the
pore space to permit fluid movement at a
rate of 1/2 inch per day. Experiments with
columns of unsaturated material show that,
for the slow steady rate of fluid flow as-
sumed here, this percentage can be expected
to change very little throughout most of the
unsaturated zone. In equation (1), if higher
steady rates of waste disposal and seepage
through the pit bottom are assumed (i.e.,
Kr is increased), the corresponding values
of e.fwill increase, but because Qj varies
as the fourth root of Kr, it will not increase
rapidly. The following tabulation gives re-
sults computed for several higher seepage
rates:
Seepage,
in./day
1
3
Kr
0.0012
0.0036
0.0071
0.19
0.24
0.29
Instead of the continuous waste disposal
assumed for the preceding examples, it might
be assumed that the same total amounts of
waste are discharged intermittently. This
might mean, for example, that in lieu of a
continuous and steady discharge rate equiv-
alent to a ponded depth of 4 inches per day
there would be a single dumping, every other
day, of fluid waste to a ponded depth of 1-1/2
feet in the seepage pit. With the data(p. 228)
displayed by Baver (1), used as a guide for
fluid movement through an unsaturated soil
column with ponding at the surface, it seems
reasonable to estimate a value of 0.7 for Qo.
If this is substituted in equation(l) itfollows
that
Kr - (0.7)4 * 0.24
From the definition of Kr, it then follows that
the rate of fluid movement through at least
part of the unsaturated zone is the product
of (0.24) and (70) or about 17 feet per day.
This rate for intermittent disposal is to be
compared with rates of a few inches or per-
haps a few feet per day for the equivalent
continuous disposal.
The preceding computations are neither
rigorous nor complete; to make them so is
beyond the scope of this paper. They may
be regarded, however, as approximations
pertinent to significant parts of the flow
system in the unsaturated zone, indicating
the importance of choice of disposal tech-
nique in predicting the time required for the
fluid waste to traverse the distance to the
water table.
Tacit in the discussion thus far are
highly idealized physical settings involving
unimpeded seepage through the bottom of a
disposal pit and a uniform clean medium
sand. In practice these idealizations may
be greatly modified by factors tending to
render the disposal operations more safe.
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10
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
These factors may include reduction in per-
meability of the pit bottom by deposition of
sediment in or precipitation from the fluid
waste and by removal of contaminants by
processes of absorption and adsorption as
the fluid moves through the porous material.
Evaporation and withdrawal of moisture by
vegetation from the upper 8 or 10 feet of
the unsaturated zone tends to lessen the
amount of waste-carrying fluid that trav-
erses the distance to the water table. In
the process, however, some wastes or con-
taminants may be concentrated in this near-
land-surface region to be picked up later
and carried deeper into the unsaturated
zone when natural or artificially induced
infiltration of fluids increases and when ad-
sorption sites on the previous materials at
shallow depths are all occupied.
Not all disposals will occupy sites, as
assumed here, with uniform medium sand
having a permeability with respect to satu-
rated flow of 70 feet per day. Corresponding
permeability values for site materials vary-
ing, from very fine sand or silt to coarse
gravel might range from 1 to more than
1000 per day; the implications of the corol-
lary range in rates of fluid movement under
unsaturated flow conditions are obvious.
Perhaps more significant than any of the
preceding departures from an idealized
physical setting, however, is the non-uni-
form nature of the porous materials at the
many places where disposal operations
might be practiced. The effect of this fac-
tor can be most readily demonstrated by a
slight modification of the cross section
shown in Figure 2. Such a revised section,
in which clay lenses are present in the
unsaturated zone, is shown in Figure 3.
The permeability of the clay obviously is
drastically less than that of the surround-
ing medium-grained sand. Thus, as fluid
moves downward from the disposal pit, as
shown by the arrows, its advance is unim-
peded until it reaches the first clay lens,
which represents a zone of greatly differ-
ing permeability. Subsequent events can be
read as follows from the details of the
sketch: the fluid collects on the upper sur-
face of the clay lens, formingasmall perched
zone of saturation, and then spreads laterally
until it finds a way around the lens; the fluid
Disposal pit
Land surface-~» / fluid waste
J ' UNSATURATED
'' ' '''
-' ' Layer of ' ' '.' ' / . ~-~^.T /""^ "-*-'' ' '.'.' ?9NF '' '''
.'. .'-- saturation
-------
Hydrogeological Aspects of Contamination
11
IT-HT' ^.^--
^ - -^^*
~ * iir*-~-o^
' "*_"^~_ - ~~ ^ ^-^*"
Direction of oreol flow
^ "
^fc
\~-T-~
js- Discharging well
, \ .
)' ' -
'^
^ ^-~~
FIGURE 4. WATER TABLE MAP OF AN AQUIFER
DISCHARGING INTO A PERENNIAL STREAM
ultimately must focus on the nature of fluid
movement in that zone, hi the preceding sec-
tion the manner in which fluid waste might
reach the water table was examined, and of
interest now are some possible travel routes
of the fluid once it has entered the ground
water reservoir or aquifer.
Apian view of the idealized homogeneous
ground water system shown in Figure 1
might be represented as shown in Figure 4.
The contours indicate elevations of the water
table in feet above some reference datum;
the arrows generalize directions of ground
water movement toward the stream. If a
contaminant reaches the water table any-
where in the mapped region, it will move
with the ground water in a fairly straight or
definable path toward the stream. This
would be the nature of the movement in ideal
homogeneous systems under natural con-
ditions, and therefore it would not be dif-
ficult to predict the path the contaminant
might follow as well as its positions along
the path after successively longer time in-
tervals.
Usually, however, the natural flow sys-
tem in an aquifer is modified at least locally
by domestic, industrial, or municipal wells.
hi most of the region tributary to the stream
(Figure 4), the arrows are essentially paral-
lel to each other. If a well were constructed
in this region and pumped at a steady rate,
some of the parallel lines representing di-
rections of ground water flow would bend
FIGURE 5. FLOW LINES NEAR A DISCHARGING
WELL CONSTRUCTED IN A REGION OF PARALLEL
GROUND WATER FLOW
toward the well and the resulting pattern
of flow would be as shown in Figure 5,
Skibitzke (3) has given a simple relation for
expressing the width of the area in a region
of parallel flow within which the flow lines
will converge upon the well. The relation,
for a unit thickness of the aquifer, may be
given in the form
Q
w - FT
(2)
where
w =
maximum width of the area of par-
allel flow within which the ground
water will ultimately move to the
well
discharge rate per unit length of
well bore
permeability of the saturated ma-
terial comprising the aquifer
regional hydraulic gradient (head
loss per unit length of flow path)
under natural flow conditions be-
fore wells are introduced.
The dash-dot flow line in Figure 5 encloses
the area of diversion of the regional ground
water flow to the well. If it is assumed that
the natural hydraulic gradient in the direc-
tion of ground water flow is 10 feet per mile,
that the well discharge per unit length of
p
i
-------
12
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
bore is 1 gallon per minute (or 1440 gallons
per day), and that the porous material of the
aquifer is a uniform medium sand having a
permeability, under unit hydraulic gradient,
of 70 feet per day, then, by substitution in
equation (2), it follows that
w - (1440/7.48) = 1450 feet
70(10/5280)
This means that upgradient from the well a
contaminant that reaches the water table
anywhere in the region whose maximum
width is 1450 feet and whose general shape
is as shown in Figure 5 ultimately will e-
merge in the well discharge. The converse
of this example is also true, i.e., if the well
were being used to dispose of liquid waste
at the rate of 1 gallon per minute, and the
same regional flow data were assumed, the
contaminants would enter the aquifer and
move away from the well ultimately spread-
ing to a band width of 1450 feet. In either
of the preceding examples, if the rate of well
discharge or recharge were doubled or
tripled, the width w would also be doubled
or tripled. Similarly, if changes are postu-
lated in either the permeability of the water-
bearing material or in the natural regional
hydraulic gradient, the effect on w can be
determined by reference to equation (2).
Although the unsaturated zone is an im-
portant access route traveled by fluid wastes
from various types of disposal operations,
ground water reservoirs or aquifers are
commonly in direct contact with surface
water bodies such as ponds, lakes, and
streams that may contain contaminants.
The aquifer shown in Figures 1 and 4 is ob-
viously in direct contact with a stream. As
drawn, the ground water system discharges
into the stream and cannot be contaminated
by any wastes carried in the stream; how-
ever, situations occur in which a stream
feeds or recharges part of an aquifer. A
fairly common situation is pictured in Fig-
ure 6, which shows a supply well near a
stream. As the well is pumped, the water
level will decline in the surrounding area,
and the ultimate steady state patterns of
water table contours and ground water flow
lines in the vicinity of the well will be as
shown in Figure 6. The patterns as drawn
FIGURE 6. FLOW LINES AND WATER TABLE
CONTOURS NEAR A DISCHARGING WELL CON-
STRUCTED NEAR A STREAM
represent an idealized homogeneous aquifer.
If the stream shown in Figure 6 is polluted,
the water could readily move toward the
pumped well and sooner or later appear in
the well discharge. Theis (4) developed
equations for approximating the percentage
of well discharge derived from the'stream
at different elapsed times after pumping
begins. Again, the converse of the preced-
ing example is true, i.e., if the well were
used to dispose of liquid waste, the con-
tours in Figure 6 would represent the built-
up or mounded configuration of the water
table and the arrows denoting directions of
ground water flow would be reversed.
Brief mention has been made heretofore
of wells being used for the disposal of liquid
wastes. At a number of places in the east,
wells have been used to dispose of industrial
wastes and storm runoff from city streets.
This introduction of contaminants via a well,
directly into the saturated zone, prompts im-
mediate concern for the continued safe use
of any nearby supply wells. Two examples
from a recent paper by daCosta and Bennett
(2) afford some appreciation of the factors
controlling the possible interflow between
a recharging well and a nearby discharging
well, in a region where parallel flow of
ground water pre-existed.
The first example concerns a pair of
discharging and recharging wells oriented
so that a line joining them is parallel to the
direction of regional ground water flow, and
-------
Hydrogeological Aspects of Contamination
13
FIGURE 7. FLOW LINES AND WATER TABLE
CONTOURS NEAR A PAIR OF RECHARGING AND
DISCHARGING WELLS ALIGNED WITH THE
REGIONAL FLOW
the recharging well is downgradient from
the discharging well. The ultimate steady
state configurations of the water table con-
tours and the flow lines around such a pair of
wells are shown in Figure 7. Within the
shaded area, flow lines that diverge from
the recharging or disposal well subsequently
converge upon the discharging or supply
well. The illustration was drawn under the
assumptions that the two wells have oper-
ated at the same rates over the same period
and that the following critical relation exists.
where
Q =
= 1.27
(3)
a =
rate of well discharge, or recharge,
per unit length of well bore
half the distance between the two
wells
Vo = rate of regional parallel ground
water flow.
In determingthe relation expressed as equa-
tion (3), daCosta and Bennett found that, for
all values of the ratio Q/n aV0 larger than
1.27, there would be some degree of inter-
flow from the recharge to the discharge well,
regardless of their orientation with respect
to the natural regional flow. At the critical
or limiting value of 1.27, interflow would be
zero for only one orientation of a line join-
Direction of areal flow
Discharging well
(AFTER DACOSTA a BEHNETT, I960
FIGURE 8. FLOW LINES AND WATER TABLE
CONTOURS NEAR A PAIR OF RECHARGING
AND DISCHARGING WELLS ALIGNED AT RIGHT
ANGLES TO THE REGIONAL FLOW
ing the pair of wells, with respect to the di-
rection of regional flow. For all other
orientations, some degree of interflow would
occur. For the situation shown in Figure 7,
the amount of interflow is about 4 percent
of the recharged fluid. The orientation for
zero interflow (not illustrated) lies between
the orientations shown in Figures 7 and 8.
For values less than 1.27, some orientations
of the wells will result in interflow and
other orientations will ensure no interflow
but will overly restrict the allowable rate
of well discharge or recharge or the mini-
mum distance between the wells. For the
setting illustrated in Figure 7, if it is as-
sumed that the aquifer material is again a
uniform medium sand having a permeability
of 70 feet per day, under unit hydraulic
gradient, and that the regional hydraulic
gradient or slope of the water table in the
direction of flow is 10 feet per mile, the
regional velocity of flow, V0, is the product
of 70 and (10/5280), or 0.13 foot per day.
With this value substituted in equation (3),
it follows that
-Q_ = 0.52
a
-------
14
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Therefore, if the wells were 400 feet apart
(a=200 ft), the rate of discharge or recharge
would be slightly greater than 1/2 gall on per
minute per foot of well bore to develop the
flow pattern shown in Figure 7. Other com-
binations of Q, a, and V0 that would satisfy
equation (3) are readily made.
The second example is of a pair of dis-
charging and recharging wells oriented so
that a line joining them is at right angles to
the direction of regional ground water flow.
The ultimate steady state configurations of
water table contours and flow lines around
the wells are shown in Figure 8. The shaded
area again encompasses the flow lines that
diverge from the disposal well and subse-
quently converge upon the supply well. About
9 percent of the recharged (waste) fluid
makes up this interflow. The illustration is
drawn for the same conditions that were as-
sumed for Figure 7; thus, the relations
among Q, a, and Vo may be hypothesized
and explored as before.
The preceding discussion of fluid move-
ment in the saturated zone contains many
idealizations and assumptions. Neverthe-
less with appropriate data on the location,
extent, and physical properties of water-
bearing materials and on the boundaries of
the ground water flow system, it is possible
to analyze the relative merits of a variety
of waste disposal techniques and to describe
the probable consequences of each. Thus the
hydrologist can contribute effectively to the
design of disposal systems that will minimize
or eliminate the danger of contaminating
those parts of the ground water resource
that are already being or may later be de-
veloped for beneficial use.
One important factor should be con-
sidered briefly. Many aquifers are com-
posed of non-uniform kinds of material, such
as sand or gravel. Thus, fine, medium, and
coarse sands and gravels, as well as silts
and clays, are often present in what may ap-
pear to be a meaningless arrangement of
lenses and beds. To map the location and
extent of each kind of material and to com-
pute how fluid might move through it would
be an endless task.
Fortunately, knowledge of erosional and de-
positional processes aids materially in fill-
FIGURE 9. PLAN VIEW OF A NON-UNIFORM
AQUIFER, SHOWING THE SPREAD OF FLUID
WASTES RELEASED INTO THE REGIONAL
GROUND WATER FLOW
ing in details between points where obser-
vations can feasibly be made. Further-
more, flow experiments with artificial
aquifer models (Skibitzke, 1960, oral com-
munication), simulating some of the non-
uniform conditions found in nature, reveal
that the flow regime is not chaotic. Figure
9 was drawn from aphotograph of an aquifer-
model experiment. The view simulates a
broad expanse of aquifer with steady regional
ground water flow from left to right, as
shown. Medium sand comprises most of
the aquifer, but trending through it are
three continuous stringers of much coarser
sand in somewhat sinusoidal paths. Where
one stringer seems to disappear, it simply
dips below the aquifer-model surface to
pass beneath the stringers that remain
visible. Two different colored dyes, which
could represent fluid wastes, are available
at wells A and B, to be picked up and carried
along by the flowing ground water. Different
degrees of shading distinguish the courses
taken by the fluids originating at A and B.
Although the stringers of higher permeability
afford some local preferential paths for flow,
the regional movement of ground water
sometimes crosses these stringers. Par-
ticularly significant, however, is the spread-
ing of dyes or wastes as they traverse the
region. The maximum spread appears to be
about twice the amplitude of the sinusoidal,
highly permeable stringers.
Only two dimensions of the flow system
in the model aquifer appear in the illustra-
tion, but spreading similar to that shown
occurs also in the third dimension. If repre-
sentative flow paths could be sketched in
perspective, characteristic all three dimen-
-------
Hydrogeological Aspects of Contamination
15
sions of the flow regime, it would be seen
that considerable intertwining of the flow
lines occurs. The implications are obvious
with respect to predictions of travel paths
for wastes originating at A and B. The
hydrologist, therefore, must be able to
recognize and describe those features of
the local and regional geology that will
most significantly affect the flow of ground
water.
HYDROLOGIC FACTORS
Up to this point in the discussion, a num-
ber of hydrologic factors have been covered
inobtrusively. Their brief review, and men-
tion of a few others, will serve as a sum-
mary. The discussion has also been limited
arbitrarily to environments of unconsolidated
or granular porous media. Environments of
consolidated rocks, such as granites, sand-
stones, and limestones, pose additional prob-
lems in defining the fluid-flow regimes that
involve joint patterns, fracture patterns,
solutional openings, and the rock structure.
Infiltration Rate
No attempt has been made to detail the
mechanism of infiltration, i.e., the process
by which fluids penetrate below the land sur-
face. Common sense argues, however, that
the finer the grain of the porous material,
the slower the infiltration rate. A slow
steady infiltration rate through the bottom
of a disposal pit or through the porous ma-
terial in which a tile drain field is laid could
be the most significant insurance for de-
laying the arrival time of a fluid waste at
some unwanted location.
Evaporation and Transpiration
The amount of fluid that might ulti-
mately traverse the unsaturated zone is
lessened by the processes of evaporation
and transpiration. These processes, often
combined into the single term evapotrans-
piration, account for the discharge to the
atmosphere of large proportions of the fluid
temporarily retained in the upper 8 or 10
of the unsaturated zone.
Unsaturated Flow
Rigorous mathematical description of
fluid movement through the unsaturated zone,
where the pore spaces are only partly filled
with fluid, is difficult. The movement ob-
viously is strongly related to the rate and
manner in which the fluid is first introduced
to the zone. Other factors include the amount
and geometry of pore space in the porous
material, the magnitude and direction of
temperature and chemical gradients, and
such fluid properties as density, viscosity,
and surface tension.
Saturated Flow
Fluid movement in the saturated zone,
where the pore spaces are filled with fluid,
has been described in many scientific papers
and reports. Analysis of the flow regime
requires knowledge of the geometry of the
ground water system and how it is connected
with surface water bodies or sources of re-
charge, the nature of the porous material
with respect to fluid movement through it,
and the head distribution.
Permeability
Different kinds of rocks and earth ma-
terials resist, to differing degrees, the
movement of fluids through them. The range
in permeabilities from the tightest clays to
the coarsest gravels, in terms of the kind of
velocity units used in this paper, exceeds
nine orders of magnitude. In many earth
materials there are significant variations
in permeability with distance and direction.
Especially important is the fact that per-
meability in the vertical direction is com -
monly much less than in the horizontal di-
rection. This is to be compared with pre-
dominantly vertical movement of fluid in the
unsaturated zone and horizontal movement
in the saturated zone.
Non-Uniformity of Porous Media
Flow in both the unsaturated and the
saturated zones can be greatly affected not
only by changes in texture within a given
-------
16
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
kind of porous material but also by the
presence in that material of lenses or beds
Of other kinds of porous material. In
alluvial valleys and in areas that were once
glaciated, the distribution of different kinds
of porous media is random. The analysis
of problems of ground water contamination
in such environments requires the exercise
of the best hydrologic skills.
CONCLUSION
Only a few principles of fluid movement
in porous media and a few ground water flow
systems of simple geometry have been
covered in this brief paper. Many ramifica-
tions and extensions can be found in the
voluminous literature on the occurrence and
movement of ground water. The cited refer-
ences in particular define segments of the
science of ground water hydrology that war-
rant careful study prior to analysis of situ-
ations of actual or potential ground water
contamination.
The consequences of ground water con-
tamination can be just as damaging to water
users as the pollution of surface streams.
In fact it can be argued that the consequences
are far more damaging because they persist
over much longer periods of time after the
contaminating source has been eliminated.
It would appear prudent, therefore, to guard
against contamination of the ground water
resource in the first instance, rather than
to engage in long expensive rehabilitation
measures after the damage has been done.
REFERENCES
1. Baver, L. D. Soil Physics. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York. 1948. Ch. VI.
2. daCosta, J.A., and Bennett, R.R. The Pat-
tern of Flow in the Vicinity of a Re-
charging and Discharging Pair of Wells
in an Aquifer Having Area! Parallel
Flow. Internal. Union Geodesy and
Geophysics, Internat. Assoc. Sci. Hy-
drology, General Assembly at Helsinki,
1960, pub. no. 52, Commission of Sub-
terranean Waters, p. 524-536, 1961.
3. Skibitzke, H. E. The Use of Radioactive
Tracers in Hydrologic Field Studies
of Ground-Water Motion. Internat. Un-
ion Geodesy and Geophysics, Internat.
Assoc. Sci. Hydrology, General Assemb-
ly at Toronto, 1957, v.2: p. 243-252.1958.
4. Theis, C. V. The Effect of a Well on the
Flow of a Nearby Stream. Trans. Amer.
Geophysical Union, part 3: p. 734-738.
Aug. 1941.
5. Walton, G. ABS Contamination. Jour.
Amer. Water Works Assoc. v. 52, no.
11: p. 1354-1362. 1960.
6. Wyllie, M. R. J., and Gardner, G.H.F.
The Generalized Kozeny-Carman Equa-
tion: Its Application to Problems of
Multiphase Flow in Porous Media, Part
2. World Oil, Production Sect., v. 146:
p. 210-228. 1958.
GROUND WATER RECHARGE--NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL*
By R. T. Sniegocki, U. S. Geological Survey
In the science of ground water hydrology,
two general methods of recharge--the proc-
ess by which water enters a ground water
reservoir--are recognized. The first is
natural recharge, a phenomenon that occurs
as a natural process uninfluenced by man.
The second is artificial recharge, which is
defined as any procedure that artificially
increases the amount of water entering a
ground water reservoir.
In general terms, contamination of
ground water reservoirs is the result of
natural or artificial recharge. Consequently,
a knowledge of the processes involved in
recharge is necessary if a solution to the
*Publication authorized by the Director, U.S. Geological Survey
-------
Hydrogeological Aspects of Contamination
17
problem of ground water contamination is to
be reached.
NATURAL RECHARGE
Precipitation is the ultimate source of
water for replenishment of ground water
supplies. When precipitation strikes the
ground, part of it sinks into the soil - a
process termed infiltration. Downward
movement of water in soil takes place by
two methods. The first is a gradual wetting
of small particles as the moisture is drawn
by capillary forces from wet to dry grains.
The second is saturated flow through the
openings between particles under the in-
fluence of gravity. The addition of pre-
cipitation to a ground water reservoir by
these processes is considered to be natural
recharge. In addition to this, water from
streams or lakes may enter the ground
water reservoir. This also is natural re-
charge--the source of the recharged water
is precipitation and water moves into the
ground water reservoir under the influence
of gravity.
Where water table conditions exist, i.e.,
where the surface of the saturated zone is
not confined by a relatively impermeable
layer, recharge from precipitation is direct
and the time of travel from the land surface
to the ground water body is relatively short,
usually a matter of hours or days. Con-
tamination from surface wastes usually can
be attributed to conditions where such re-
charge is possible.
Where artesian conditions exist, i.e.,
where the surface of the saturated zone is
confined by a relatively impermeable layer,
recharge is indirect and the time of travel
may be a matter of years or centuries.
Generally recharge to artesian aquifers oc-
curs in the outcrop areas where water table
conditions exist, but in some of the deeper
and more extensive aquifers, some of which
do not crop out at the surface, recharge
must occur through the relatively im-
permeable layers. Artesian aquifers gen-
erally are much less likely to be contam-
inated than water table aquifers.
ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE
Artificial recharge may be classified
in a number of ways, such as planned and
unplanned, or direct and indirect. For the
purposes of this paper the classifications
direct and indirect will be used. Direct
artificial recharge maybe accomplished by:
1. Water spreading.
a. Flooding areas.
b. Admitting water into shallow
basins, ditches, or furrows.
c. Extending the time during which
water is recharged naturally
from a stream or lake.
d. Applying excess irrigation
water.
2. Recharge through pits or other exca-
vations of moderate depth.
3. Recharge through wells and shafts.
Indirect artificial recharge may be accom-
plished by:
1. Inducing movement of water from a
lake or stream into the ground by
lowering the ground water level near
the source of surface water.
2. Inducing movement of additional water
into the ground water reservoir by
lowering the water level in areas of
rejected natural recharge (1).
3. Inducing movement of water from one
aquifer into another aquifer.
Direct Methods
Water spreading is the release of water
on the ground surface to increase the quan-
tity of water available for infiltration into a
ground water reservoir. Recharge takes
place as it does under natural conditions.
Field studies have shown that many factors
control the rate at which water will enter
the soil - the most important quantitative
-------
18
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
aspects are the character of the soil, area
of recharge, and length of time water is in
contact with the soil.
With the exception of extending the time
of natural recharge from a lake or stream,
the listed methods of water spreading are
variations of the manner in which water is
applied to the soil. Obviously, water-
spreading methods of recharge can be used
only where the surface materials are per-
meable.
Weirs, dams, levees, and other similar
structures are used to retain water in
streams and lakes, thus extending the period
of natural recharge. In this specialized
method of water spreading, the streambed
or lakebed must be permeable.
In areas where spreading methods are
not effective because subsurface strata re-
strict the downward passage of water, arti-
ficial recharge can be accomplished only
through pits, shafts, or wells. These types
of recharge facilities cost more to construct
and generally recharge smaller volumes of
water than water-spreading areas. Their
advantage lies in compactness of recharge
facilities and adaptability to the geological
environment. Recharge through wells also
may be used advantageously for purposes
other than increasing the ground water sup-
ply. At Manhattan Beach, Calif., water is
injected into a line of recharge wells to
create a fresh water barrier that prevents
further contamination by intrusion of sea
water into a confined aquifer. In several
parts of Florida, wells that penetrate lime-
stone are used for disposal of storm drain-
age. Industrial applications of artificial
recharge for purposes other than increas-
ing the ground water supply include industrial
waste disposal and water flooding through
wells for secondary oil recovery.
Rates of artificial recharge by direct
methods vary widely. Much of the current
research on the subject is directed toward
determining what factors control rates and
how these factors operate. Factors such as
time, soil, temperature, sunlight, bacteria,
vegetation, chemicals, subsurface geology,
head of water, water quality, and permeability
have been investigated. Because of the diver-
sity of factors that affect recharge by direct
methods, caution is necessary in designing
recharge systems and designs must be based
on the geologic and hydrologic conditions in
a given locality rather than on specific
features observed in other localities.
Indirect Methods
Artificial recharge can be accomplished
by withdrawing ground water at a location
adjacent to a lake, stream, or an area of re-
jected natural recharge so that lowering of
the ground water level will induce water to
enter the ground from the surface source.
Where supplied by a perennial stream,
induced recharge assures a continuing water
supply even though overdraft conditions may
exist in nearby areas supplied only by natural
recharge. The method is effective in certain
geological environments and is accomplished
more easily than most direct methods of
artificial recharge. The factors that most
affect operation are distance of the well
from the surface source, transmissibility of
the aquifer, and the degree of hydraulic con-
nection existing between the surface source
and aquifer. Where artesian aquifers under-
lie surface water bodies, the degree of hy-
draulic connection depends upon the per-
meability of the confining bed between the
aquifer and the surface water body. The
degree of connection between surface water
sources and an artesian aquifer generally is
poor, and recharge of significant magni-
tude cannot be induced.
WATER QUALITY AND CONTAMINATION
The subject of water quality and contam-
ination deserves critical study in all phases
of man's development and use of water,
particularly when artificial recharge is con-
sidered. Water quality, chemical and bac-
terial, not only determines the suitability of
recharged water for future use but also may
determine the feasibility of recharging
artificially. Todd(2) lists more than 30
studies on artificial recharge of ground
water, in which the principal objectives of
the- investigations were to determine (1) the
effects of microorganism activity on in-
-------
Hydrogeological Aspects of Contamination
19
filtration rates, (2) distance of travel of
bacterial or chemical contamination, and
(3) changes in temparature and chemical
quality of water in the aquifer.
Chemical contamination may move
farther through an aquifer than bacterial
contamination and generally is more dif-
ficult and expensive to remove from the
water when it is reclaimed. For example,
studies of water spreading made in the Los
Angeles area by Hedger(3) have shown that
infiltrated water was bacterially safe within
7 feet of the ground surface. Studies of re-
charge in seepage ponds near Hamburg,
Germany, by Holthusen(4) have .shown that
chemical tracers were detected 280 feet
away from the point of recharge and, al-
though river water was used as the re-
charge source, the bacteria count of re-
claimed water never exceeded 2 bacteria
per cubic centimeter.
An extensive investigation by the Cali-
fornia State Water Pollution Control Board
(5) of pollution travel where ground water is
recharged by use of wells, showed that con-
tamination was greatest in the direction of
ground water movement-and that the maxi-
mum distance of travel of bacteria was about
100 feet; chemical changes, on the other
hand, were noted more than 225 feet from
the point of injection.
In areas where induced recharge oc-
curs, water in the aquifer will be modified
by mixing with the recharged water. Ex-
amples of this may be found in the lower
Arkansas River valley in Arkansas near
the southern end of the Grand Prairie re-
gion. The piezometric surface has been
lowered enough to reverse the natural
gradient, and water from the Arkansas
River moves into the aquifer. The chemical
composition of the mixture of induced water
and ground water is intermediate between
the two native waters.
Rorabaugh(6) reports that, for ground
water supplies near the Ohio River, "Appar-
ently, objectionable odors and tastes, which
have been a major problem in treating of
surface water, are removed or diluted by an
induced percolation system. Data are lacking
to prove this point definitely."
Studies of recharge of industrial wastes
in Nassau County, N. Y., (7, 8) have demon-
strated that contamination caused by arti-
ficial recharge can be serious. Chromium
was detected in the ground water body in
1942, and continued study of the pollution
revealed the presence of cadmium. These
reports indicate that if additional contam-
inants are not added to the aquifer the
quality of the ground water in the con-
taminated area should improve in time be-
cause of dilution.
A study of literature on artificial re-
charge points out that recharge rates are
a function of many variables and are in-
fluenced strongly by factors such as absorp-
tion, saturated and unsaturated flow, me-
chanical filtration, biochemical changes,
and other processes not fully understood.
Each of these has its effect on recharge and
consequently may change greatly the pos-
sibility of contamination in different local-
ities where artificial recharge may be at-
tempted.
REFERENCES
1. Meinzer, O. E., 1946, General principles
of artificial ground-water recharge:
Econ. Geology, v. 49, no. 3, p. 191-201,
May.
2. Todd, D. K., 1959, Annotated bibliography
on artificial recharge of ground water
through 1954: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-
Supply Paper 1477, 115 p.
3. Hedger, H. E., 1950, Los Angeles con-
siders reclaiming sewage water to re-
charge underground basins: Civil Eng.,
v. 20, no. 5, p. 323-324.
4. Holthusen, W., 1933a, Funf Jahre Grund-
wasseranreicherung in Curslack (Five
years of supplementing ground water at
Curslack): Gas- u. Wasserfach, v. 76,
no. 27, p. 525-528, no. 28, p. 545-552.
5. California State Water Pollution Control
Board, Sacramento, Calif., 1954, Report
on the investigation of travel of pollution:
Sanitary Engineering Research Labora-
tory, Pub. 11, 218 p.
-------
20
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
6. Rorabaugh, M. I., 1951, Stream-bed per-
colation In development of water sup-
plies: Trans. Internal. Assoc. Sci.
Hydrology, Gen. Assembly at Brussels,
p. 165-174.
7. Davids, Herbert W., 1951, Underground
water contamination by chromium
wastes: Water and Sewage Works, v.
98, no. 12, p.528-529.
8. Lieber, Maxim, 1954, Contamination of
ground water by cadmium: Am. Water
Works Assoc. Jour., v. 46, no. 6, p.
541-547.
SOME ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
IN GROUND WATER
J. D. Hem, U. S. Geological Survey
FACTORS THAT AFFECT
GROUND WATER COMPOSITION
Liquid water moving in the hydrologic
cycle is in contact with various rock min-
erals, organic and inorganic constituents of
soils, and gases present in the atmosphere
or produced by biologic or other processes
at or below the land surface. As a result of
these contacts, solution or chemical reaction
followed by solution takes place and the water
accumulates numerous dissolved impurities.
The actions of man also contribute dis-
solved impurities.
The amount and kinds of dissolved ma-
terial that a ground water contains reflect
in a general way a good many features of the
prior environment of the water. The in-
fluence of individual factors such as the geo-
logic character of that environment, biologic
activity in soil or impounded water, or the
pollutants that might be present may some-
times be strongly evident. Unless supple-
mentary information on geology, hydrology,
and other factors has also been obtained,
the chemical character of the water often
cannot be fully explained.
The chemical composition of ground
water is certainly strongly influenced by
things that happened to the water before it
entered the ground water reservoir. Once
it has arrived in an aquifer, however, the
water is subject to a fairly stable set of con-
ditions. Ground water moves slowly and is
therefore in contact with a large surface
area of solid-phase rock minerals for con-
siderable periods of time. Temperature or
pressure changes may occur in ground
water reservoirs, and organic matter and
bacterial activity may influence ground
water composition. On the whole, however,
the conditions within a ground water reser-
voir favor the establishment of chemical
equilibria in the reversible chemical re-
actions that may occur among the solutes
contained in the water and the solids in the
aquifer.
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA
IN GROUND WATER
The principles of dilute solution chem-
istry have been extensively described over
the past half century or so. Chemical
equilibria that may exist in ground water
systems can therefore be examined by the
use of these established principles. Effects
on natural equilibrium of injection of re-
charge water through wells, effects of pol-
lutants, and effects of pumping such as the
accumulation of clogging deposits on and
around well screens, all can be better under-
stood if the chemical factors involved are
considered.
Types of chemical reactions that are
reversible and rapid enough to make it
likely they will reach equilibrium in most
ground water systems include:
1. Adsorption or desorption of cations
and anions held on surfaces of solids.
-------
Hydrogeological Aspects of Contamination
21
2. Solution and deposition of carbonate
minerals.
3. Oxidation or reduction, and hydrolysis
reactions of certain metals, such as
iron.
Sorption Reactions
The capacity to adsorb cations from solu-
tion is strongly developed particularly in the
clay minerals, but many other common rock
minerals have at least a small capacity for
adsorption. Productive aquifers generally
contain little clay, although enough may be
present as a thin coating over sand grains
and larger rock particles to give a con-
siderable adsorptive capacity. The strength
of the forces holding the adsorbed ions is
greater for divalent ions than for mono-
valent ones. Also the ions having small
radii are held more tightly'than those with
large radii. The amounts and kinds of ex-
changeable ions held by solids in an aquifer
are in equilibrium with the supply of solutes
in the water that is present. Adsorbed ions
may be removed and replaced by others, if
the nature of solutes changes.
A commonly observed effect is the nat-
ural softening of ground water that occurs in
some aquifers. This effect is brought about
by replacement of exchangeable sodium from
the solid material with calcium and mag-
nesium from the water. As the exchange-
able sodium is depleted by circulation of
water through the aquifer, the capacity of
parts of the aquifer to soften the water
decreases.
Research on the ion-exchange properties
of natural materials is currently being car-
ried on by the Geological Survey and by
other agencies, but much remains to be
learned about the relationships of the ex-
change reactions to ground water quality.
Carbonate Equilibria
Carbonate minerals are very common in
granular aquifers, as individual grains or as
coatings on the grains. Massive carbonate
rocks, such as limestone, may themselves
act as aquifers. Water moving along fis-
sures in such rocks enlarges the channels
by solution, and ultimately the rock may
contain large openings.
A large amount of work has been done on
the chemical behavior of calcium carbonate.
Some of the conclusions indicated by the
literature are:
1. Reactions by whichcalcite is dissolved
or precipitated are rapid enough to
require consideration and control in
distribution of water supplies (1).
2. Comparison of the actual pH of a solu-
tion with the calculated pH of that solu-
tion in chemical equilibrium with re-
spect to calcite can provide a useful
index of the future behavior of the
solution when brought into contact with
solid-phase calcite (10).
3. Water in the pores of limestone is nor-
mally saturated with respect to calcite
(12).
Probably this last conclusion can be extended
to any rock in which calcite is present in
important quantities.
In the simplest terms, with a tempera-
ture of 25° C and a pressure of 1 atmos-
phere assumed, the equilibrium for calcite
in water is:
CaCO3 c. + H
HC03
Ca+2
This system does not contain a gas phase
and is likely to be the usual condition be-
low the water table. The equilibrium con-
stant Keq can be computed from the relation
A F° = - RT In
where, /\ F° is the net change in standard
free energy when the re action goes from left
to right, R is the gas constant, T is the tem-
perature in degrees Kelvin, and In Keq is
the Napierian (or natural) logarithm of the
equilibrium constant. Standard free energy
values for calcite and the ions involved are
available in texts such as that of Latimer
«_/ «-/
The symbol "c." represents the crystalline solid state of the substance. Posi-
itive and negative superscripts represent ionic forms.
-------
22
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
(11). At 25° C, the equilibrium pH for a
water may be computed from the mass-
action law, with the activity of calcite as-
sured to be unity.
pH eq = -iog
[ca+2]
The quantities in square brackets are ther-
modynamic concentrations, or activities
of dissolved ions, and are computed from
the concentrations reported in chemical
analyses by means of the Debye - Hiickel
limiting law. Procedures for making these
computations are given by Klotz (9), and
an adaptation of these procedures with
graphical aids developed by the writer (5)
is particularly adapted for use with data
from standard water analyses.
HCO,, ppm
-
IX
1000.
100
CL
a.
O
10
1.0
)
±S|
N
\
-
^ >>
j^^T
V
>
10
S
\
- S
\
N
:
V
-
~J T
5
-
\
s
S
v
100
s
^
\
^
'' K
\
%
V
X
\
\
s,
\
V
5- i
~\
!
s
x
-
N
N
N
ooo
...
., ^
x
y
-
^
\
\
\
N
\
s
s
N
\
^
\ \
FIGURE 1. EQUILIBRIUM PH IN RELATION TO
CALCIUM AND BICARBONATE ACTIVITIES IN
SOLUTIONS IN CONTACT WITH CALCITE-TOTAL
PRESSURE 1 ATMOSPHERE AT 25°C
Figure 1 is a graph showing the equil-
ibrium pH computed from the above equa-
tion for a solution in contact with calcite in
relation to dissolved calcium and bicarbonate
activities. The differences between the con-
centrations of calcium and bicarbonate re-
ported in analyses and the effective con-
centrations, or activities, may be substan-
tial. In general, the activity of calcium in a
solution whose total dissolved solids con-
centration is near 400 ppm is about 70 per-
cent of the measured concentration of cal-
cium. The bicarbonate activity in such a
solution would be about 90 percent of the
measured concentration. In a water whose
total dissolved solids is about 4000 ppm, the
calcium actiyity is about 40 percent of the
measured calcium concentration and bi-
carbonate activity is about 75 percent of
the measured bicarbonate concentration.
For waters that contain more than 5000 ppm
dissolved solids, the relationships of meas-
ured concentrations to activities are less
well defined.
Figure 1 represents conditions at 25 C.
The solubility of calcite decreases somewhat
at increased temperature (13), and tempera-
ture deviations from 25° C also affect the
activity corrections and the pH measure-
ments. Temperature corrections probably
are not needed in the practical application
of the diagram to waters that are within
15° or so of 25° C. It should be remem-
bered, however, that the results obtained
in this way are approximations and that
rigorous application of the principles re-
quires the use of more exacting methods.
Because the pH of solutions may change in
stored samples, measurements of this
property should be made in the field when
water samples are collected.
Chemistry of Iron
The chemical behavior of a consider-
able number of metals, which maybe present
naturally in very small quantities in ground
water or which may be added in waste dis-
posal, is similar in certain respects to the
behavior of iron. Theoretical data for iron
are readily available.
Laboratory and theoretical studies(3, 4,
6, 8), as well as practical experience with
the behavior of natural water, have shown
that equilibrium with respect to some of the
commonly found sedimentary iron minerals
is to be expected in ground water.
The kinds of equilibria that are most
important in iron chemistry include:
1. hydrolysis, with or without oxidation or
reduction, for example
-^ FeOH+2 +H +
-------
Hydrogeological Aspects of Contamination
23
2. solution and precipitation reactions in-
volving anions other than OH", such as
pH
8 10 12 14
FeCOa c. + H+ ^-^ Fe+2
3. redox equilibria, such as
Fe(OH)3 c + 3H
HCO3
Fe+2 +3H2O
The symbol "e" represents the unit nega-
tive electrical charge gained by each ion of
iron reduced. Conditions at equilibrium in
a system involving water, dissolved ions,
and iron-bearing minerals such as ferric
hydroxide (or hydrated ferric oxide),
siderite, or the sulfide minerals such as
pyrite can be evaluated by means of equi-
librium constants along with relationships
involving the redox potential.
The redox potential of a solution, repre-
sented by the symbol Eh, is a measure of
the relative intensity of oxidizing or reduc-
ing conditions in a system. It is expressed
in volts and at equilibrium is related to the
proportion of oxidized and reduced forms
present. The relationships can be expressed
by standard equations of chemical thermo-
dynamics.
The standard potential, E°, of a redox
system- is the potential under standard con-
ditions, when unit activities of participating
substances are present. It is related to
standard free energy change in a reaction by
the equation
A F°= - nfEO
where n is the number of unit negative
charges shown in the redox reaction and f
is the Faraday constant in units that give a
potential in volts. The redox potential in
systems not under standard conditions is
given by the Nernst equation
Eh = E° + RT
nf
[oxidized species 3
[^reduced species 3
The algebraic signs of Eh and E° are ar-
bitrarily assigned. In geochemical litera-
ture (2), increasingly oxidizing conditions
are represented by increasingly positive
potential values.
-0.8
FIGURE 2. STABILITY FIELDS FOR AQUEOUS
SYSTEM IN WHICH MAXIMUM DISSOLVED ACTIV-
ITIES ARE: IRON AS Fe, 0.01 ppm; CARBONATE
SPECIES AS HCO^, 100 ppm; SULFUR SPECIES
AS S04~, 10 ppm TOTAL PRESSURE 1
ATMOSPHERE AT
Figure 2 is a stability-field or Eh-pH
diagram of a hypothetical system containing
dissolved iron and a constant activity of ions
derived from dissolved carbon dioxide, such
as bicarbonate, and of ions derived from
sulfur, such as sulfate. The boundaries
were computed by equilibrium calculations
and show the conditions of Eh and pH at which
the common ionic species of iron would be
stable. Stability fields for solids show those
areas where activity of iron in solution
would be less than 0.01 ppm. The nature of
the solid formed depends on the form and
amount of anions present, as well as on Eh
and pH.
The field of stability shown for pyrite en-
tails oxidation and reduction of sulfur, and
-------
24
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
because these reactions are slow, they may
not be at equilibrium in natural water sys-
tems. Otherwise, however, the diagram
probably represents the factors controlling
iron solubility, with reasonable accuracy.
8 9 10
-0.40
FIGURE 3. DISSOLVED IRON IN RELATION TO
PH AND Eh CARBONATE SPECIES AS HCO^,
. 100 ppm; SULFUR SPECIES AS SO^T, 10 ppm
Figure 3 is an enlargement of the area
of Figure 2 between pH4 and 10 and between
Eh 0.55 and - 0.40 volts. This covers the
usual range of ground water systems. On
the diagram are shown the corresponding
positions of the solid-phase boundaries for
the indicated iron activities from 0.01 to
100 ppm. In effect, these lines represent
iron solubility contours for the system in
consideration and can be used to explain
and predict the behavior of iron dissolved
in ground water.
In that part of the field where iron sol-
ubility lines are parallel to the Fe(OH)3 c.
boundary, the system would be in equilibrium
with this solid and dissolved iron is a func-
tion of Eh and pH. Where the lines are
vertical, the dissolved iron would be in
equilibrium with siderite(ferrous carbonate)
and dissolved iron is a function of pH and
total available dissolved carbonate species.
If pyrite is present, oxidation of the sulfur
to SO4"2 may occur, releasing ferrous iron
in the process, although the equilibrium may
not be strictly applicable here. At a very
low pH and Eh the pyrite may be reduced
to give H2S and ferrous iron.
Measurement of Eh in natural waters is
subject to difficulties. Generally, the
amounts of the dissolved ions present,
which set the Eh of a ground water system,
are small, and even a short contact of the
solution with air introduces enough oxygen
so that the measurement is indicative of the
effect of dissolved oxygen and not that of
the system that controlled the Eh while
underground and out of contact with air.
Care in sampling or placement of electrodes
is therefore necessary, and in some wells
no measurement can be made before aeration
of the pumped water has taken place. The
measuring equipment may sometimes be
affected by stray electrical currents and
may require electrical shielding. In some
instances, e.g., where measuring electrodes
can be inserted in the discharge pipe of a
flowing well, a measurement of Eh that is
meaningful may be obtained but there is
reason to doubt the practicability of obtain-
ing extensive Eh data by direct measurement
in the field.
If complicating factors such as the for-
mation of chemical complexes are ignored,
it is evident from Figure 3 that any water
containing 1.0 ppm or more of iron is going
to retain that amount of iron in solution only
at low pH, intermediate Eh, or both. Gener-
ally pH can be measured more easily than
Eh, but the Eh of ground water can be esti-
mated from Figure 3 on the basis of ob-
served iron content and pH, provided one
knows which solid form is involved in the
equilibrium.
Over the entire area of Figure 3, iron
in solution is controlled by four somewhat
interrelated variables, Eh, pH, HCO3~, and
SO4 ~*" If a water contains 1 ppm of iron
at Ph 7 and the Eh is+0.10 volt, the dom-
-------
Hydrogeological Aspects of Contamination
25
inant solid phase form of iron present is
ferric hydroxide, when bicarbonate activity
does not exceed 100 ppm and sulfate activity
does not exceed 10 ppm. Siderite could not
be the dominant solid phase at this level of
bicarbonate activity at pH 7 unless the Eh
were lower. If the dominant solid is pyrite,
the equilibrium Eh would be about -0.16
volt, but this condition is less likely than
the other possiblities.
If the activity of bicarbonate species is
decreased by a factor of 10, the vertical iron
concentration lines are shifted to the right by
1 pH unit and the stability field for siderite
at 0.01 ppm activity of iron disappears. At
low levels of bicarbonate, therefore, the in-
fluence of carbonate equilibria on iron con-
tent is not very important at pH 7. If the
bicarbonate activity were increased to 1000
ppm, the presence of 1 ppm Fe++ at pH 7
would not be possible at equilibrium. The
pH would have to be lower (< 6.2) to permit
1 ppm of iron to be retained in solution.
Changes in sulfur activity have only a
minor effect on the position of the pyrite
boundary. Changes of a factor of 10 in total
sulfur species move the boundary of the
pyrite field less than 0.01 volt.
Huber (7) has discussed some aspects
of iron equilibria in systems containing
carbonate and sulfur.
Factors That Alter Equilibria
The effects of adding solutes from ex-
ternal sources to a ground water system
that is at chemical equilibrium can be pre-
dicted. Disposal of wastes or injection of
artificial recharge through wells are in-
stances in which considerable amounts of
solutes foreign to the equilibrium may be
added to ground waters.
Some dissolved metals are very strongly
adsorbed by solids with cation exchange
capacity. Such metals may disappear from
solution when introduced into ground water,
displacing previously adsorbed cations as
the metal ions take up exchange positions
on the solid. The adsorbed metals however
can be displaced themselves at a later time.
The processes of adsorption and desorption
in aquifers require considerably more re-
search before they can be fully evaluated.
Where equilibrium has been established
with respect to calcite, changes in pH or
calcium or bicarbonate activity will bring
about renewed chemical reaction. For ex-
ample, lowering the pH will cause more
calcium carbonate to dissolve, whereas
raising the pH would cause calcite to pre-
cipitate. In most ground water the pH is
controlled in part by effects of dissolved
carbon dioxide. The amounts of the gas
dissolved are affected by temperature and
pressure. A reduction in head, such as may
be induced at a pumping well, decreases the
availability of dissolved carbon dioxide and
may raise the pH of the water enough to
bring about calcium carbonate precipitation.
Although the effects brought about by dis-
turbing chemical equilibrium have not yet
been closely studied in ground water hydrol-
ogy, they may often be important and should
be more thoroughly investigated.
If a ground water is iron bearing or if
other metals that may precipitate on oxida-
tion are present, the system at equilibrium
will be more precariously balanced than the
one involving calcite. Raising the redox
potential by introducing air or solutions of
chlorine may cause the metals to precipi-
tate. A similar effect also can be brought
about by increases in pH, whether or not
redox potentials are changed. Polluted water
may also contain materials that lower the
redox potential of a ground water system. A
decrease in redox potential may bring in-
creased amounts of previously precipitated
metals into solution in the aquifer.
Precipitation within a ground water
aquifer tends to plug the channels through
which water may move. Solution of solid
material from the aquifer adds to the dis-
solved-solids content of ground water, which
may or may not be excessively undesirable,
depending on the nature and amount of ma-
terial that is involved. Both effects however
need consideration in the development and
use of ground water.
-------
26
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
REFERENCES
1. Fair,G.M., and Geyer, J.C. Water Sup-
ply and Waste Disposal. John Wiley
and Sons, New York. 1954. 973 p.
2. Garrels, R. M. Mineral Equilibria at
Low Temperature and Pressure. Har-
per and Bro., Boston. 1960. 254 p.
3. Hem,J.D. Chemistry of Iron in Natural
Water Restraints on Ferrous Iron
Content Imposed by Bicarbonate, Redox
Potential and pH. U. S. Geol. Survey
Water-Supply Paper. 1459 B. 1960.
4. Hem, J.D. Chemistry of Iron in Natural
Water -- Some Chemical Relationships
Among Sulfur Specjes and Dissolved
Ferrous Iron. U. S. Geol. Survey
Water-Supply Paper 1459 C. 1960.
5. Hem, J.D. Calculation and Use of Iron
Activities in Natural Water Chemistry.
U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper
1535 C. 1961.
6. Hem, J.D., and Cropper, W.H. Chem-
istry of Iron in Natural Water -- A
Survey of Ferrous-Ferric Chemical
Equilibria and Redox Potentials. U.S.
Geol. Survey Water - Supply Paper
1459 A. 1959.
7. Huber, N. K. The Environmental Con-
trol of Sedimentary Iron Minerals.
Economic Geology, 53:123-140. 1958.
8. Huber, N. K., and Garrels, R.M. Re-
lation of pH and Oxidation Potential to
Sedimentary Iron Mineral Formation.
Economic Geology, 48:337. 1953.
9. Klotz, I.M. Chemical Thermodynamics.
Prentice-Hall, New York. 1950. 329-
332.
10. Langelier.W. F. The Analytical Control
of Anti-Corrosion Water Treatment.
Journal of the American Water Works
Association, 28:1500. 1936.
11. Latimer, W. M. Oxidation Potentials,
2d ed. Prentice - Hall, New York.
,1952. 392 p.
12. Weyl,P.K. The Solution Kinetics of Cal-
cite. Journal of Geology, 66:163-176.
1958.
13. Weyl, P.K. The Change in Solubility of
Calcium Carbonate with Temperature
and Carbon Dioxide Content. Geo-
chimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 17:
214-225. 1959.
ASPECTS OF GROUND WATER INVESTIGATIONS
AS RELATED TO CONTAMINATION
W.J. Drescher, U.S. Geological Survey
The Ground Water Branch of the U.S.
Geological Survey is charged with the re-
sponsibility of investigating the quantity,
distribution, availability, and utilization of
the underground water supplies of the
country. In conjunction -with the Surface
Water and Quality of Water Branches, de-
termination also is made of the relation of
ground water resources to surface water
resources and the variations, causes, and
effects of the quality of the ground water.
Contamination, therefore, is a factor that
must be considered in any ground water
investigation.
Grouna water investigations are de-
signed to study the ground water resources
of a specified area and to determine cause
and effect relationships for such phenomena
as deterioration in quality. The boundaries
of the areas may be determined arbitrarily
to coincide with county or State boundaries,
or they may be based on hydrologic criteria
and enclose entire drainage basins or geo-
hydrologic units. Most area! studies are
undertaken in cooperation with state or local
agencies; some are done at the request of
and are supported by other Federal agencies.
In addition to area! investigations in the field
-------
Hydrogeological Aspects of Contamination
27
of ground water, the Survey does basic re-
search, studies principles and techniques of
hydrology, studies occurrence of ground
water by types of terrane, and maintains a
system for the collection of basic records.
Contamination of ground water is not al-
ways suspected. In many instances its ex-
istence becomes known as the result of areal
investigations whose prime purpose was an
evaluation of the resource. Where con-
tamination is known or suspected, however,
a special areal Investigation may be made
with the objective of determining the geologic
factors required for a full understanding of
the problem.
Previously, Mr. R. H. Brown discussed
the hydrologic factors and Mr. P. E. La-
Moreaux the geologic controls that govern
contamination of ground water. Areal re-
ports describe the geology and hydrology of
the area under investigation so that the
hazards of existing or potential contamina-
tion may be understood in relation to the
entire geohydrologic environment. Some
knowledge of the areal geohydrology is
prerequisite to the correction or prevention
of contamination.
The discussion of investigations in this
papier will be confined to studies of areas.
The detailed procedures involved in areal
ground water studies differ, depending on
such factors as geographic location, geology,
climate, kinds of water problems, and size
of area, but the general procedures are
similar, irrespective of local details. Any
ground water investigation maybe separated
into thre steps--planning, execution, and
reporting. Although this paper is concerned
primarily with execution, some discussion
of planning and reporting is necessary. The
importance of financing, acquiring and train-
ing personnel, and details of preparing the
report is recognized, but discussion of these
is beyond the scope of this paper.
PLANNING
The scope of an investigation may be
classified, on the basis of intensity of ef-
fort, as reconnaissance, detailed recon-
naissance, or comprehensive. These terms
are used merely to indicate in a general way
the variation in the scope of investigations.
Generally, a reconnaissance investigation
is made of an area where little or nothing is
known of the ground water resources. The
objectives of ten are to determine the general
occurrence and quality of water, both areally
and within the geologic column, the impor-
tance and types of use of ground water in
the area, and the kinds and locations of
existing and potential problems, including
contamination. A rapid reconnaissance may
be necessary to determine the need for a
more thorough or particular type of investi-
gation. The area covered by a reconnaissance
investigation may contain only a few square
miles, but often includes several hundreds
or thousands of square miles.
The detailed reconnaissance investiga-
tion usually covers a smaller area than the
reconnaissance. The objectives may be much
more specific and might include, in addition
to those of the reconnaissance, a quantitative
study of apart of the area or of one or more
parts of the geologic section, or a study of
the occurrence of water of a certain quality.
Such a study is made in an area where there
are known local or potential problems and
where basic information is required for their
solution.
The comprehensive investigation com-
monly covers an area not larger than a few
hundred, square miles. The objective of the
comprehensive investigation is to describe
the ground water resources of the area,
quantitatively and qualitatively. The in-
vestigation includes sufficient analysis of
recognizable problems that the necessary
data can be collected andpresented in usuable
form to those who are responsible for the
actual solution of the problems. Ideally,
the relation of ground water to surf ace water
and the quality of ground water, including
changes owing to development, are deter-
mined and described so that the entire water
resources of the area may be developed
fully and efficiently. Rarely is it practical
to meet all the above objectives. The in-
vestigation, therefore, generally is tailored
to meet the objectives within the limits
prescribed by time and funds.
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28
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
The length of time and amount of effort
required for an area! investigation depend
upon the size of the area, the complexity of
the geologic and hydrologic environment,
the amount of data readily available, and
the scope of the investigation. Typical
studies may last only a few months or as
long as 10 years, and the effort required
may range from a few man-months to tens
of man-years.
Eventually the entire country will be
covered by reconnaissance or compre-
hensive investigations. The increasing use
of water makes it mandatory that informa-
tion necessary for full and orderly develop-
ment of all sources of water be obtained.
On the other hand, the immensity of the task
precludes its completion in the foreseeable
future. As the country becomes more fully
developed and as the demand for water ex-
pands and water problems such as con-
tamination come to the forefront, areas now
adequately covered by reconnaissance in-
vestigations may need more comprehensive
re-evaluation. Water is a dynamic resource,
and for no area can it be said that knowledge
of its occurrence is adequate for all needs.
Obviously then, those areas that are the most
important - where problems exist or soon
will exist and where water is in great de-
mand - must be investigated first.
Ground water problems may be classi-
fied as problems of quantity, quality, distri-
bution, development, and conflict of interest;
contamination may be the principal or a con-
tributing factor in either classification.
Rarely can the problems in an area be
relegated to a single classification, but the
terms are useful, nonetheless, for indicating
the type of information and investigation that
will be needed for full utilization of the re-
source.
Conditions under which each kind of
problem may occur include the following.
These examples are hypothetical, but they
summarize the conditions in many areas
where studies have been or are being made.
An industrial area may be situated where
only a certain amount of water can be with-
drawn from the underlying aquifers (water-
bearing units). As the demand for water ex-
ceeds this limit, there is a problem of
quantity. Water from an aquifer may be or
may become too saline to use for irrigating
crops or for an industrial process and thus
present a quality problem. If undeveloped
water is available from an aquifer present in
only some parts of an area, there is the
problem of distribution. If an aquifer will
yield large quantities of water only with a
continual decline of water levels, there is
the problem of development. Ground water
needed for irrigation during periods of low
rainfall may be the source of low flow for a
trout stream; thus, there is a conflict of
interest between agriculture and recreation.
Conducting The Investigation
Any investigation consists of developing
the background and objectives of the study,
collecting data, compiling the data, inter-
preting the data, making conclusions, and
presenting the results to those who need
them. Much of the sort of information that
makes up the background already has been
discussed. Not all the details of a procedure
for a specific ground water investigation
necessarily apply to all investigations.
The objectives of a comprehensive in-
vestigation have been said to include a
quantitative description of the ground water
resources, their quality, and their relation
to surface water. The objectives may be
stated more specifically: (1) to determine
the hydrologic properties and the dimen-
sions of each unit in the geologic section,
at least down to the deepest source of water
usable for any practical purpose, (2) to de-
termine the source and amount of recharge
to each aquifer, (3) to determine the amount
and location of discharge from each aquifer,
(4) to determine the quality of the water from
each aquifer, (5) to determine the effects of
withdrawal of water from each aquifer, (6)
to determine the effects on surface water of
changes in recharge and discharge of ground
water, (7) to determine the movement of
water, and (8) to determine the effects on
ground water of the changes in the regimen
of surface water. Within a given area the
objectives may be detailed even further, and
some of those listed may not apply. Modi-
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Hydrogeological Aspects of Contamination
29
fications of the initial objectives may be-
come necessary as the investigation pro-
gresses and previously unknown factors are
recognized.
The collection of data is the first work
to be done in the field, but it must be pre-
ceded by a thorough search of the literature
and other sources of information. For ex-
ample, much information may be stored in
the files of public agencies. A search of the
literature commonly will yield considerable
geologic information and may give informa-
tion on the history of well drilling and water
development in the area. In addition to
scientific reports, newspaper files and
historical articles or books may yield
significant information. An examination of
surface water records may reveal areas
and magnitudes of recharge or discharge of
ground water.
Thehydrologist, following the literature
search, will have prepared an outline for the
work and a first outline of his final report.
These outlines will be similar and, in a
sense, will complement each other. For
example, as a phase of the work is com-
pleted, it becomes an inactive part of the
work outline and may be ready for writing
into the report. The outlines are based on
the background data, the information ob-
tained from the literature, and the objectives
of the investigation.
The fieldwork may be divided into phases
--geologic mapping, inventorying of wells,
logging of wells, observations of water levels,
collecting water samples for chemical anal-
ysis, collecting data on amount of pumpage
and use of water, test drilling, and pumping
tests and inflow studies. Some of these
phases may be undertaken simultaneously,
for example, inventorying of wells, measure-
ment of water levels, and collection of water
samples. Some phases may be interde-
pendent; the amount of test drilling needed
will depend on number and locations of ex-
isting wells and the adequacy of information
on them.
Geology is the key to any ground water
investigation. It follows, therefore, that
geologic mapping, both of the surface and
the subsurface, is one of the first field phases
of an investigation. In most areas some
geologic mapping has been done and serves
as a basis for that required in aground water
study. Surface mapping is done in the field
and is supplemented by areal photographs
and drilling records. Particular attention is
given the geohydrologic units and contacts
that will most affect the occurrence, move-
ment, and quality of ground water.
With few exceptions subsurface geologic
mapping of such phenomena as thickness and
configuration of aquifers is lacking. The
subsurface is mapped from logs of wells
and, in some places, with the aid of geo-
physical techniques. The logs are collected
from well drillers, well owners, public-
agency files, and oil and gas exploration
companies. If possible, wells for which no
logs are available are logged by electrical-
resistivity and gamma-ray equipment and
correlated with known geology.
While the geology is being mapped, the
existing wells and springs in the area are
scheduled, i.e., the area is visited and all
information is recorded relative to elevation,
depth, diameter, location, age, water level,
pumping rate and drawdown, use, and for-
mations penetrated. Water samples are
collected from wells and springs repre-
sentative of various aquifers at various lo-
cations. These smaples are sent to a
laboratory for analysis.' If it is known or
suspected that a quality problem exists of if
the early analyses show that one exists,
partial analyses may be made in the field to
determine the best locations for more ex-
tensive and detailed sampling.
In addition to the water level measure-
ments made at the time wells are inventoried,
water levels in selected wells are measured
periodically and automatic recorders are
installed on« some to determine rates and
magnitudes of fluctuations. Also, owners of
production wells are canvassed todetermine
the amount and rate of withdrawal of water
from the entire area.
Test drilling is necessary where the data
from existing wells are so incomplete that
interpolation and interpretation cannot fill
the gaps. It may be necessary to determine
the lateral extent of or change informations,
-------
30
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
to obtain samples of rocks and of water
otherwise unobtainable, or to provide wells
for conducting pumping tests.
Pumping tests are made by use of exist-
ing wells or wells drilled for that purpose.
These are tests of the aquifers--not merely
of the wells. Simply stated, a test consists
of observing the effects of changing the dis-
charge rate from an aquifer for a measured
length of time. The effect on other aquifers
also is observed; if appropriate, samples of
water are obtained to determine changes in
chemical content during withdrawal. Pump-
ing tests may last for only a few hours, or
they may last for several days or even weeks.
The data collected during pumping tests are
analyzed to determine the hydrologic prop-
erties of the aquifers. These properties in
turn are used to determine the behavior of
the system in response to natural and arti-
ficial changes in recharge and discharge.
The uses of tests are limited in that they
sample only a portion of the system, but in
combination with other information they
form a basis for interpretation of the hydrol-
ogy of more extensive areas.
If streams in the area are hydraulically
connected to the aquifers, detailed inflow
studies are made to determine the amount
of recharge or discharge along all sections
of the streams in the area. Samples of
water from streams are collected and an-
alyzed, if there is any indication that water
from the streams is a source of recharge to
the aquifers.
Ground water contamination may become
evident during any one of the phases of the
fieldwork. The geologic mapping may show
the presence of sinkholes that permit the
entrance of surface wastes to the aquifers.
The inventory of wells may reveal that wells
in one part of the area had to be abandoned
because the "water became unfit to drink."
The observation-well program may show
anomalous water levels that can be ex-
plained only by corrosion of the casings.
Collection of water samples often suggests
possible contamination, and further sampling
confirms it. Logging of wells often brings
up direct evidence of contamination in the
samples themselves. Although complete de-
tails on contamination problems may re-
quire considerable investigation in a con-
centrated area, the problems may be rec-
ognized first by the relatively broad in-
vestigative techniques described above.
COMPILATION AND ANALYSIS
The compiling of data serves the three-
fold purpose of assembling similar kinds of
data, preparing data for analysis and inter-
pretation, and checking the adequacy or com-
pleteness of data. Compilations of the data
are begun to some extent during the field-
work. Well records, water level measure-
ments, and quality-of-water data are tabu-
lated. Maps and charts are used extensively
for compilation because they give a picture
of the coverage and the degree of correla-
tion of data. The subsurface geology is
shown by sections and on maps by lines that
show thicknesses of units or elevations of
tops of units. Water level, pumpage, and
precipitation data are shown on hydrographs,
sometimes with other related climatological
data. Maps showing contours that represent
the piezometric surface are prepared for
each aquifer. Such maps, together with
pumpage and geologic information, indicate
the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifers,
areas of recharge and discharge, and the
general directions of movement of water.
Quality of water data are shown on various
types of graphs and on maps on which isb-
pleths indicate lateral changes in concentra-
tions of certain ions.
Just as compilation goes on during the
field stages of the investigation, so do ana-
lysis and interpretation during the fieldwork
and during compilation. The three activities
are interdependent. For example, during
the well inventory it may be learned that
water from a domestic well has become too
salty to drink. The source of the salt may
be an underlying saline aquifer, salt water
disposal pits from a nearby oil field, or a
stream that contains highly mineralized
water. Additional sampling of surrounding
wells may show that the source of the salt
water is not the oil-field brines. Detailed
geologic mapping may show that conforma-
tion of the strata in such that the well could
not draw water from the stream. A test
-------
Hydrogeological Aspects of Contamination
31
hole in the vicinity may show that the shale
layer between fresh and saline aquifers is
absent and that the saline water is free to
move up into the fresh water aquifer when
the head in the freshwater aquifer is lowered.
The interpretation of the data is both ex-
citing and tedious. All data must be ex-
amined individually and collectively. Some
data can be put together somewhat accord-
ing to rule or formula. More often one in-
terpretation depends on several other in-
terpretations, and only by careful examina-
tion and re-examination of the various parts
is it possible to arrive at the best possible
interpretation. The degree to which the ob-
jectives are met depends upon the amount
and reliability of the data, the accuracy of
necessary assumptions, and the skill and
experience of the hydrologist.
Certain objectives of the investigation
may not be met because physical evidence
to prove a hypothesis or theory may be lack-
ing and unobtainable, for example, a fresh
water aquifer may be separated from a
saline aquifer by a nearly impermeable bed.
It may be suspected that if the hydrostatic
head in the fresh water aquifer is reduced a
certain amount saline water will gradually
move through the separating bed and con-
taminate the aquifer. Such a process might
take years to prove, but the hydrologist
must interpret the situation in terms of po-
tential, as well as present, conditions and
arrive at a conclusion. Conclusions are
based on reliable data, principles of hydrol-
ogy' and geology, and experience.
THE REPORT
It is sometimes said that the report is
the most important part of any investigation.
It would be better to say that an investiga-
tion is not complete without the release of a
well-written, timely report. Only through
the medium of published reports can the re-
sults of investigations be made available in
permanent form to all the potential users of
the information.
The report may be brief or several
hundred pages in length. Much of the infor-
mation, including the interpretation, may be
presented in the form of graphs, tables, or
maps.
Ground water reports may be published
by many different agencies-- state, federal,
local, quasi-public, or private. The Geol-
ogical Survey has its own series of reports,
but many of its reports are published by the
cooperating agencies or are contributed to
technical journals. "Open-file" release of
Survey reports is not an independent means
of "publication" but merely an expedient to
make needed information available to the
public prior to publication and in the shortest
possible time.
SUMMARY
An investigation of the ground water re-
sources of an area is undertaken by the Sur-
vey, usually in cooperation with a state or
another agency, as a part of the long-range
program of evaluating the water resources
of the country. The need for the investiga-
tion is based on the demand for water and on
the problems, present or potential, in the
area. Many of the problems are the result
of or are influenced by contamination. The
investigation is carried out by the collection
and interpretation of the data necessary to
meet the objectives. The objectives are to
describe the environment and the principles
governing the occurrence of ground water.
The report presents the results of the in-
vestigation so that those responsible for
water development and management may
provide their own solutions to problems that
involve not only hydrology but also eco-
nomics. A knowledge of the areal geo-
hydrology is essential for the solution of
problems related to contamination of ground
water; a knowledge of the problems of con-
tamination is an integral part of any areal
investigation.
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32
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Chai
Discussion was initiated by Mr. John E.
Vogt, who asked Mr. R. H. Brown whether a
contaminant that reaches the water table
spreads on or near the water surface or
penetrates downward into the water-saturated
stratum and whether chemical and bacterio-
logical contaminants behave in a similar
manner. Mr. Brown replied that the prop-
erties - density, surface tension, etc. - of
both the waste and the ground water would
influence the course traveled by the con-
taminant.
Mr. Vogt then asked that the case of sep-
tic tank effluent that has leached downward
through the unsaturated soil to the water
table be considered. In reply Mr. Brown re-
ferred to his discussion of flow through non-
uniform aquifers (Brown's paper, Figure 9)
and noted that if the densities of the effluent
and the ground water were of the same order
the contamination probably would move far-
ther than one would predict. Natural aquifers
are not uniform in character, and con-
taminants tend to channel through the more
permeable formations and thus move faster
and farther than they would in a homogeneous
aquifer.
Mr.George B.Maxey of the Illinois State
Geological Survey noted that current water
use amounts to 300 to 400 billion gallons per
day (bgd) and that various agencies forecast
that the 1980 requirements will be around
600 bgd, or about half the total runoff from
this country. Ground water resources supply
approximately one-sixth or one-seventh of
the water now used. Mr. Maxey asked Mr.
George D. DeBuchananne whether, with the
increasing reuse of water, he believes the
greater share of the additional 200 to 300
bgd needed by 1980 will be secured from
ground water. Mr. Debuchananne expressed
the opinion that the use of ground water is
going to increase tremendously and that
since readily obtainable stream flows are
already nearly 95 percent utilized ground
water affords the only water resource avail-
able for supplying much of the anticipated
threefold increase in the amount of water
that will be required 30 years from now.
DISCUSSION 1
airman: H. A. Swenson
Mr. DeBuchananne also commented on
Mr. Brown's illustration (Figure 9) of the
mixing of waste streams from two injection
wells. He noted that one or two observation
wells maybe completely insufficient to mon-
itor waste travel underground. The move-
ment of ground water and of waste streams
injected into ground water is dependent on
the geology of the region and the heterogeneity
of the underground strata.
Noting the extensive use in New England
of seismic surveys in ground water investi-
gations, Mr. Ralph M. Soule of the Massa-
chusetts Department of Public Health queried
Mr. William J. Drescher about the use of
such surveys in other parts of the country.
Agreeing that seismic surveys are a very
important means of data collection and
analysis, Mr .Drescher observed that he had
included them under the term geophysical.
Also in this category are electrical re-
sistivity tests on the surface and certain
down-the-hole tests.
If the rainfall that replenishes ground
water supply is exceeded by usage, in-
quired Dr. Joseph Vogel of Mahopac, New
York, will it be necessary to reclaim waste
water or seek our water supplies from the
oceans? Mr. Drescher, noting that water
usage data include reused water, called on
Mr. John E. Richards of the Ohio Depart-
ment of Health to comment on the reuse of
water in some Ohio streams. Mr. Richards,
in turn, observed that at times of low flow
Mahoning River water is used something like
14 times. This prompted the observation
that it is impossible at present to compare
directly precipitation and water use data.
Two questions on adsorption and ion-
exchange phenomena were asked by Barry
D.Andres of C.W. Lauman and Company,
Inc., Bethpage, New York. Noting that Mr.
John D. Hem had mentioned cationic ex-
change, Mr. Andres asked whether there is
any information on anionic exchange and
whether there is a difference between in-
organic exchange. In reply Mr. Hem noted
that he had spoken of cation exchange pri-
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Hydrogeological Aspects of Contamination
33
marily because most of the natural miner-
als, particularly the clays, have negative
surficial charges. This makes them much
more readily amenable to cation adsorption.
There is, however, some adsorption of
anions.
Mr. Hem further observed that it is
known, as work at the Denver Federal Cen-
ter has indicated, that under certain con-
ditions some of the oxides, such as ferric
oxide, have capacity to adsorb anions. It is
his belief that things like arsenic and phos-
phorus, which are found in many iron ores,
are there because at the time the ores were
deposited the pH conditions were such that
the oxide particles had a positive charge and
could adsorb these anionic materials on their
surfaces. He observed that the adsorption
of organic material by inorganic particles
does occur. This is a type of adsorption
that differs a little, he thinks, from the
strongly bound cation-exchange reaction that
is usually thought of in connection with cal-
cium, magnesium, and sodium. He and his
co-workers have found that some stream
sediments when treated in certain ways will
yield extracts of organic materials. When
treated in other ways, the organic material
apparently is retained and cannot be readily
removed. These phenomena are poorly
understood, and further research is neces-
sary before much will be known about them.
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34 GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
-------
SESSION 2
TYPES OF CONTAMINANTS
Chairman: W. E. Gilbertson
Biological Contamination of
Ground Water, W. L. Mailman and W. N. Mack Page 35
Inorganic Chemical Contamination of Ground Water, W.J. Kaufman . . Page 43
Organic Chemical Contamination of
Ground Water, F. M. Middleton and G. Walton Page 50
Experiences in the Netherlands on
Contamination of Ground Waters, J. K. Baars Page 56
Discussion Page 62
BIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATION OF GROUND WATER
W. L. Mallmann and W. N. Mack, Michigan State University
Any review pertaining to biological con-
tamination of ground water should be pref-
aced with the statement that the accrued in-
formation on this subject is excellent back-
ground but may not answer problems on
present or future ground water contamina-
tion. The chemical nature of the waste
waters has changed, and there are no ex-
perimental tests on the migration of viruses
in ground water.
A review of the literature will reveal in
part the distance pollution travels, as indi-
cated by bacterial contaminants in laboratory
demonstrations, planned field tests, and
epidemiological surveys of water-borne
diseases. Without question a health problem
exists, particularly in suburbia where com-
mon water supplies and sewerage systems
have not been installed. Unless recognition
is given to the problem and proper specifi-
cations based on research are formulated
for the recharging of the ground aquifers,
health hazards may result. These specifi-
cations should cover the introduction of
sewage effluents by seepage from a septic
35
-------
36
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
tank drainage field, flooding of the soil, or
pumping of water directly into aquifers for
storage purposes. The behavior of biol-
ogical contaminants in discharges entering
agricultural soil may be different from that
of those entering deep aquifers that con-
tain small numbers of microorganisms and
relatively small amounts of organic matter.
Biological, chemical, and physical behavior
may be totally different during both initial
and prolonged discharges.
No attempt is made here to review all
reports of bacterial contamination of potable
water supplies through ground water pollu-
tion, but pertinent papers are reviewed to
establish the fact that health hazards exist
in ground waters as a result of travel of
microorganisms from points of contamina-
tion and to show the need for protection of
ground waters to be used for domestic and
municipal purposes.
The need for restoring ground water
tables by flooding the surface of the ground,
by irrigation, and by recharge of aquifers is
well established. What kinds of used waters
may be reused, the degree and kinds of con-
taminants that may be tolerated, and the lo-
cation of such operations in relation to wells
for potable water must be determined. This
paper is concerned only with microbial con-
taminants .
The danger of contamination of wells by
seepage from earth privy vaults was recog-
nized before the discovery of the micro-
organisms responsible for disease. In the
famous cholera epidemic of 1854 in London,
Dr. John Snow (1), in a carefully conducted
epidemiological survey, established that the
victims had used water from the Broad Street
well for drinking water. In the house nearest
the well, there had been four fatal cases of
cholera at the time of the epidemic, in ad-
dition to earlier obscure cases that might
have been cholera. Sewage from this house
emptied into a cesspool near the well. Mr.
J. York (1), surveyor of the inquiry commit-
tee, studied the well structure and its sur-
roundings. He found a broken sewer line
2-3/4 feet from the wall of the well a foot
above water table and, at a short distance
from the well, a small cesspool fully charged
with sewage. Without question, it was
demonstrated that seepage from the drain
and the cesspool entered the well.
An investigation of an epidemic of ty-
phoid fever that occurred in Lausen, Switzer-
land (1), in 1872 was conducted in a novel
manner. A brook was contaminated by
wastes from a typhoid patient in a neighboring
valley that was separated from the village by
a high hill. Tests with sodium chloride
(1800 Ib) demonstrated that the water from
the brook fed springs in the village. Later
5000 pounds of finely ground flour was
added to the brook; none was detected later
in the village springs, indicating that par-
ticles as large as starch granules were re-
moved by filtration.
In 1909, Ditthorn and Luerssen (2) re-
ported on the passage of bacteria through
soil in 'Germany. A test well was drilled to
a depth of 62 feet below water table at a
spot 69 feet from a 177-foot well in which
water collection started at 121 feet. Serratia
marcescens was introduced into the test
well, along with enough water to raise the
ground water table 3 to 4-1/2 feet. At the
same time the second well was pumped
heavily. Samples of water were collected
daily and examined for S. marcescens. Or-
ganisms were detected on the ninth day and
for 10 successive days thereafter. No or-
ganisms were detected 19 days after the last
injection.
In the early twenties, the senior author
(3) made a study of a contaminated well lo-
cated approximately 30 feet from a septic
tank tile field. To determine the role of the
septic tank in the pollution, the well and the
septic tank effluents were checked for the
presence of S.marcescens but none was de-
tected. A gallon of S. marcescens culture
was added to the siphon chamber of the sep-
tic tank. Two small test wells were drilled
at 10-foot intervals between the well and
the septic tank. After the seeding, daily
samples of water from the test wells and
the study well were collected and tested.
The S. marcescens was detected in the test
well adjacent to the tile field in 2 days, in
the second test well in 3 days, and in the
study well in 10 days. The source of pollu-
tion was well established.
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Types of Contaminants
37
A very excellent study of the migration
of bacterial pollutants from sewage-flooded
trenches was made in 1923 by Stiles and
Crohurst (4). They demonstrated that bac-
terial pollution was largely at the interface
between the ground water surface and the
capillary water zone. The bacteria traveled
232 feet, whereas a fluorescent dye, uranin,
traveled 450 feet. The pollution traveled
primarily in the direction of the ground
water flow.
In Alabama in 1937, Caldwell and Parr
(5) investigated the migration of bacteria,
as measured by coliform organisms, from
a bored-hole latrine that penetrated below
the water table. Initially coliform organ-
isms traveled 15 feet in 3 days. After 3
months of continued use of the latrine, 90
percent recovery was made at 15 feet, 40
percent at 25 feet, and only an occasional
positive sample at 35 feet. Chemical pollu-
tion traveled farther than the bacteria. The
travel of pollution was only in the stream
flow. The width of flow of bacterial pollution
was 3 feet at a distance of 15 feet, whereas
the spread of chemical pollution was 5 feet
at 25 feet. The significant finding in this
study was the demonstration of a barrier to
the spread of microbial contamination; this
barrier, formed by the deposition of particu-
late material at the periphery of the latrine,
functioned as a filtering mechanism.
Caldwell (6) in 1938 made a study of a
pit latrine located in an area where an im-
' pervious stratum closely underlies the
ground water. Under these conditions the
coliform organisms traveled 40 feet in less
than 3.5 days. Organisms were detected in
the ground water at a distance 80 feet down-
stream. In 1938 Caldwell (7) also investi-
gated oollutant migration from a pit latrine
located in an area where permeable soil ex-
isted for a considerable distance below the
pit. In 3 to 4 months the coliform organisms
had migrated only 10 feet; at the termina-
tion of the study, the migration distance had
regressed to5 feet. On the other hand, gross
chemical pollution progressed 80 feet in the
flow stream and some chemicals were de-
tected as far away as 325 to 350 feet.
McGauhey and Krone (8) in 1954 made a
very extensive study of aquifer contamina-
tion by introducing sewage-degraded water
and following bacterial contamination through
a series of test wells spaced along the water
flow in the aquifer. Tests were made for
both coliform organisms and enterococci.
Daily observations were made for 41 days.
The coliform counts from Table 14 of their
report follow:
Well Coliform count. MPN per 100 ml
location
Average Maximum Minimum
Initial 2.4 x 106 2.4 x 108 2.4 x 10
10ft 2.4 xlO5 2.4xl06 95
25ft 2.4 xlO5 2.4x10
50 ft
100 ft
5 2.4 xlO6 2.4 xlO4
2.4 xlO3 2.4 xlO4 0
23-38 38 2
It was observed that both enterococci
and coliform organisms migrated equally
well in the aquifer. Coliform organisms
were the better indicators only because they
occurred in larger numbers in the original
degraded water. After continued recharging,
a regression of indicator bacteria occurred.
This was believed to have been caused by
death of the bacteria in the aquifer with ex-
posure time and by the increased filtering
action of particulate material deposited in
the aquifer at the point of entry.
This study indicates that recharging can
be done without grossly polluting the aquifer
with disease-producing bacteria. The find-
ings are, of course, limited to situations
comparable to those in the experiments re-
ported. The results are encouraging in that
bacteria occurred only in the test wells :ii
the immediate vicinity of the recharging
well.
In 1957, Fournelle, Day, and Page (9)
reported on a study somewhat comparable,
except that the ground water table was be-
tween 5 and 6 feet below the surface of the
ground. The dosing well was sunk into the
ground water, and the test wells were 8 to 10
feet deep. Uranin was used in measuring
chemical travel and was found up to distances
of 100 feet. The path of the dye initially was
only 1-1/2 to 4 feet wide, but after several
-------
38
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
years the wedge widened to 40 feet at the
most distant point. Bacterial contamination,
as measured by enterococci, migrated only
50 feet in a path of travel 1-1/2 to 4 feet
wide. In this study, the water contained only
the test organisms. If organic matter had
been present, the travel might have been
shorter.
A study was made byBaar(lO) in 1957 in
the Netherlands of travel of microorganisms
in sandy soils with a particle size of 0.17
mm and a uniformity coefficient of 1.65 mm.
With heavy pollution from pit latrines in dry
soil, coliform organisms penetrated to
depths of 120 inches. A nitrogen measure-
ment showed that when pollution ceased, the
nitrogen content decreased rap idly and self-
purification occurred. When ground waters
were recharged with relatively clean water,
vigorous adsorption of organic matter and
bacteria occurred in the upper 10 feet of
soil. When free oxygen was introduced with
the water, rapid mineralization occurred. It
was reported that if the oxygen supply was
not sufficient, anaerobic conditions devel-
oped. To avoid anaerobic conditions, the
BOD content of the water must be reduced or
intermittent infiltration must be used. When
pollution was introduced into soils with high
ground water levels, contamination remaind
for long periods of time. Numerous articles
in the literature reaffirm the results of the
studies cited. A recitation of these refer-
ences would serve only to document further
the facts that bacteria migrate particularly
in the direction of ground water flow, that
because of adsorption on soil particles and
the straining action of the substratum travel
is limited in distance, that this distance is
determined in part by the rate of ground
water flow and the particle size of the sub-
strate, and that the amount and kind of sus-
pended material in the recharge water will
determine the travel distance by forming a
filtering barrier at the point of entry.
In contrast to these very excellent re-
search projects under experimental con-
ditions, outbreaks of disease have occurred
where migration distances have been much
greater than those reported in the experi-
mental studies.
Warrick and Tully (11) report an epi-
demic in 1930 of 1100 cases of dysentery
and typhoid caused by polluted river water
entering an abandoned well. The pollution
traveled to city wells located 800 feet away.
To prove that the abandoned well was re-
sponsible, salt was introduced into the aban-
doned well. Seventeen hours later the salt
was detected in the city wells.
Weber (12) reported in 1958 an out-
break of hepatitis resulting from well waters
polluted by sewage effluent disposed of by
seepage. Prior to this disposal by seepage,
the wells in the area had been examined.
Some were faulty in construction and some
were unsatisfactory, as measured by bac-
terial tests; however, chemical examina-
tion had revealed no evidence of pollution.
Six months after seepage began definite de-
terioration of the well waters was detected
chemically - color tests showed contamina-
tion in one well 1 day, in another 3 days
later, and in a third after another month.
The first well was not used' after seepage
disposal was started. Hepatitis occurred
in families using the well waters that chem-
ical tests showed were polluted.
In Russia in 1955 Yanovich et al. (13) re-
ported 73 cases of leptospirosis. The epi-
demic was caused by water from a faulty
water tower contaminated by underground
water that had been contaminated from the
surface by heavy rains.
Clark and Chang (14) in 1959 listed the
following epidemics of infectious hepatitis
caused by contaminated ground water:
1944 - 350 cases - driven well polluted
by a cesspool 75 feet away.
1952 - 22 cases - drilled well polluted
by cesspool 50 feet away.
1952 - 102 cases - spring polluted from
a broken sewer; contamina-
tion traced by dye.
1956 - 18 cases-well polluted by septic
tank effluent.
1956 - 46 cases-well polluted by a
river 50 feet away.
-------
Types of Contaminants
39
Again a citation of epidemics caused by
viruses carried in sewage - contaminated
ground water would only document further
the fact that viruses can be carried through
ground waters for considerable distances
from points of contamination. It is not in-
tended that this paper present a complete
literature review; the citation of epidemics
of bacterial and viral origin is presented to
show that sewage contamination of ground
waters can and does occur, making water
supplies health hazards.
Although no documented rural epidemics
other than hepatitis have been reported, it
has been amply demonstrated (14,15, 16,17,
18, 19, 20, 21, 22) that viruses are carried
in sewage. Bloom et al. (23) in an examina-
tion of 1018 sewage samples over a 29-
month period isolated a total of 150 viruses.
Thirty-one were identified as enteric cyto-
pathogenic human orphan (Echo) viruses, 4
as polio viruses, 76 as Coxsackie viruses;
17 were not identified, and 22 were lost on
tissue culture passage or storage. It is im-
possible at this writing to show, either by
records of epidemics or case reports, proved
spread of these viruses by sewage contami-
nation of water, even where gross pollution
has occurred. This does not mean that
transmission has not occurred. Until the
relationship of many of these viruses to
disease in man has been established, epi-
demiological surveys cannot be made. In the
meantime, good public health practices re-
duce contamination of water supplies by
sewage or sewage effluents. This has been
demonstrated by the use of bacterial indi-
cators such as coliform organisms as yard-
sticks of pollution.
The use of chlorinated sewage effluents
as reuse water, either surface or under-
ground, is still questionable. During a severe
water shortage in Chanute, Kansas (24), re-
claimed water was used as a municipal
supply. Complete treatment of the sewage
effluent was made, including chlorination.
Two positive isolations of virus were made
from unchlorinated sewage plant effluent;
however, the techniques available for virus
detection are far from dependable even for
qualitative determinations. At Chanute there
was no unusual incidence of disease that
might be attributed to the water supply. In
epidemiological evaluations of this expe-
rience it must be remembered that the popu-
lation was not disposed to enjoying a "head"
on a glass of drinking water, caused by the
presence therein of synthetic detergents
(syndets). The reminder that the water was
reused deterred many people from con-
suming the "beverage." The sale of bottled
water was high.
Viruses are not easily destroyed by
chemical agents. Weidenkopf (25) studied
quantitatively the destruction of purified
poliomyelitis virus (Mahoney type 1) by free
chlorine at pH 6, 7, and 8.5. To attain de-
struction of 1000 plaque-forming units (pfu)
in 2.5 minutes, 1.65 ppm free chlorine at
pH 6 was necessary; at pH 7 in 10 minutes,
0.53 ppm; and at pH 8.5 in 10 minutes, 5.0
ppm.
Neefe et al. (26) in 1945 reported a
series of experiments in which infectious
hepatitis fecal samples were diluted to 55-
ppm fecal material. This solution was
treated with hypochlorite to yield a residue
of 1 ppm free chlorine in one series of ex-
periments and a free chlorine residual of
15.23 ppm in a second experiment. In each
series, the contact time was 30 minutes and
10 volunteers were used, 5 received the un-
treated water and 5 the chlorinated water.
In the first series, two of each group became
infected, indicating that the chlorination was
ineffective. With the higher chlorination
treatment, those using chlorinated water did
not become infected whereas four of the five
receiving the untreated water were infected.
Other research workers (27.,. 28, 29, 30,
31, 32, 33) have presented results that show
viruses, with some exceptions, are more re-
sistant to chlorination than bacteria such as
Escherichia coli.
Mack and Frey (34) in 1961 found that
enteric viruses survived chlorination of
sewage effluent from an activated-sludge
plant. Although a diminution of virus par-
ticles occurred, as measured by the incidence
in the secondary settling tank effluent and
the chlorinated effluent, the surviving num-
bers are significant.
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40
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Many reports have been presented on the
survival of coliform organisms in the soil
(35, 36, 37, 38, 39). Although the times of
survival depended largely upon the plan of
the experiments, in general it was found
thatcoliforms, both E.coli and A. aerogenes,
survived for periods up to 4 years, the
duration of the longest experiment (40). It
was also demonstrated that coliforms re-
tained their cultural, morphological, and
physiological characteristics throughout the
experiments.
Survival of Salmonella typhosa innocu-
lated into soil, however, was of short dura-
tion. In 1905 Mair (41) found that this sur-
vival was dependent on the source and strain
of the organism. He reported survival
periods in soil of 29 to 58 days. Creel (42)
in 1912 found that under ideal conditions the
typhoid bacillus survived only 31 days in
soil. In 1951 Mallmann and Litsky (43) in a
comparative study of different type soils
found that S. typhosa died out in less than 48
days. Survival was longest in soils with high
organic content. Survival in Oshtemo sand
was less than 5 days and in muck less than
19 days. In contrast, coliform organism
diminished in all soils in 11 weeks but were
still present in large numbers, whereas en-
terococci in the same experiments disap-
peared from Oshtemo sand in 6 weeks (short-
est period) and from Brookston clay loam in
11 weeks (longest period). Wade (44) in
1950 found that S_. typhosa did not survive
more than 2 weeks in Oshtemos sand and 6
weeks in muck without loss of VI antigen,
which indicates retention of virulence by the
organism.
Measuring the health hazard of con-
taminated ground waters by means of coli-
form organisms is unreliable except when
negative results are obtained. The presence
of coliform organisms is not necessarily an
indicator of pathogenic bacteria such as S.
typhosa. This method would not be depend-
able for measuring Mycobacterium tuber-
culosis, which persists for extremely long
periods. Enterococci would be better indi-
cators of health hazards in ground waters,
since their persistence in soils is not much
greater than that of pathogenic bacteria.
The viability of viruses in soil and
ground water is not known. Experiments
should be made to determine their per-
sistence and the extent of their migration in
ground water.
In all the studies, no consideration was
given to the presence of syndets in present
day sewage. There is no need here to re-
view the literature as it pertains to the
amounts and kinds of syndets, but they are
present in all sewage, including household
and municipal wastes.
Syndets lower the surface tension of the
sewage, thus allowing a more rapid move-
ment of water through the soil, particularly
through dry soil. Since they are also good
suspending agents, small particles such as
bacteria and viruses are suspended and car-
ried through porous soil with little deposi-
tion; the degree of deposition is dependent
upon the concentration of the syndet and the
amount of suspendable solids.
Wells in many suburban areas where
septic tanks with tile fields are used are be-
coming contaminated with syndets, as demon-
strated by foam on water drawn from the
tap. Such situations exist in Michigan,
particularly where the soil is sandy and the
water tables are high. Steps are being taken
to eliminate the health hazard in these areas
by provision of muncipal water supplies and
installation of sewers to replace the septic
tanks.
No dependable epidemiological surveys
have been made to measure disease in-
cidence in these areas; however, it is cer-
tain that sewage is entering the well waters.
If hepatitis has not occurred already, the
situation certainly has been prepared for the
introduction of the hepatitis virus or any
other pathogen transmissible through fecal
discharges. Syndets in the sewage are not
only good indicators of sewage pollution but
are probably good virophores and perhaps
bacteriophores.
If sewage effluents are to be used for
recharging aquifers, either by percolation
or deep well recharge, the recharge water
-------
Types of Contaminants
41
should have low biochemical oxygen demand
and high dissolved oxygen content if intro-
duced directly into aquifers. This would
avoid the development of anaerobic con-
ditions, which cause a rapid blocking of the
voids in the porous soil, formation of ob-
jectionable biochemical by products, and
little digestion of the syndets. If the dis-
solved oxygen is in excess of the biochemical
oxygen demand, mineralization will result,
the straight chain arylsulfates will be de-
strbyed, and the porous aquifer will not be
blocked by undigested organic matter.
SUMMARY.
Field studies in which test wells sur-
round a recharging well that receives dilut-
ed sewage effluent have indicated that;
1. Polution spreads from the recharg-
ing well in the direction of water
flow in the aquifer.
2. Bacteria seldom migrate more than
100 feet from the recharging well,
and then only during the early phase
of aquifer recharge.
3. Particulate material in the recharge
water deposits at the point it enters
the aquifer, forming a filtering sub-
stratum that tends to retain bacteria.
As a result bacteria migrate only a
few feet from the filtering substrat -
um forms.
4. In porous soils with low water tables,
bacteria disappear from the aquifer
soon after recharging ceases.
5. Soluble substances in the recharge
water travel farther than the bacteria.
6. Bacteria are removed from the re-
charge water in the aquifer by ad-
sorption on soil particles and by
filtration (straining action) of the
particle mass.
Surveys of sources of epidemics due to
ground water contamination indicate that in
many cases bacteria have traveled much
greater distances than those recorded in
experimental tests.
Pollution of groundwater that has caused
epidemics has been the result of sudden
gross contamination, a situation comparable
to the first rush of bacteria through an
aquifer before a filtering substratum has
developed at the point of entry.
Syndets in sewage lower the surface ten-
sion of the water, causing it to wet the sub-
strate so that passage may be more rapid.
Syndets are good suspending agents with the
result that bacteria may be carried farther
in the soil without deposition. No studies in
which syndets had been tested to prove this
statement were found in the literature.
Virus diseases have been caused by con-
taminated ground water. No field tests have
been made to determine the travel of viruses
in ground water. Laboratory tests demon-
strate that viruses are generally more re-
sistant to chlorine treatment than bacteria.
Field tests demonstrate that viruses pass
through complete sewage treatment proc-
esses and survive sewage effluent chlorina-
tion, as routinely practiced in sewage treat-
ment plants.
The duration of survival in the soil of
pathogens such as salmonellae is dependent
upon the nature of the soil, the pH, the tem-
perature, and the moisture and salt content.
Most pathogens die out rapidly in ground
water.
There is no information available on the
period of survival of viruses in ground
waters, although the writers believe this
time period is relatively short.
Endemic pollution of ground water may
occur in heavily populated suburban areas
where numerous septic tank fields are
flooding the ground water table.
REFERENCES
1. Prescott, S. C. and Horwood, M. P.
Sedgwick's Principles of Sanitary Sci-
ience and Public Health. The MacMillan
Company, New York, pp. 652, 1935.
-------
42
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
2. Ditthorn, F.and Luerssen,A. Experi-»
meats on the passage of bacteria
through soil. Eng. Rec. 60, 642, 1909.
3. Mallmann, W. L. Unpublished data.
4. Stiles, C. W. and Crohurst, H. R. Prin-
ciples underlying the movement of B.
coli in ground water with the resultant
pollution of wells. Pub. Health Rep.
38: 1350, 1923
5. Caldwell.E. L. and Parr.L. W. Ground
water pollution and the borehole latrine.
Jour, inf Dis. 61: 148. 1937.
6. Caldwell.E. L. Pollution flow from pit
latrines when an impervious stratum
closely underlies the flow. Jour, inf
Dis. 01: 270, 1937.
7. Caldwell, E. L. Pollution flow from a
pit latrine when permeable soils of
considerable depth exists below the
pit. Jour. inf. Dis. 62:225, 1938.
8. McGauhey, P. H. and Krone, R. B. Re-
port of investigation of travel of pol-
lution. Calif. State Water Poll. Bd.
Publ. 11, pp. 218, 1954.
9. Fournelle, H. J., Day, E. K. and Page,
W.B. Experimental ground water pol-
lution at Anchorage, Alaska. Pub.
Health Rep. 72: 203, 1957.
10. Baars, J. K. Travel of pollution and
purification enroute in sandy soils.
Bull. World Health Organ. 16: 4, 727,
1957.
11. Warrick, L. F. and Tully, E. J. Pollu-
tion of abandoned well causes Fond du
Lac epidemic. Eng. N. R. 104: March
6, 1930.
12. Weber,G. Chemical and bacteriological
investigation of ground water during
an epidemic of hepatitis. Osterr, Was-
ser (Austria) 10: 110, 1958. Pub.
Health Eng. Abst. 39: 11, 27, 1959.
13. Yanovich, T.O. et al. Leptospiroses of
the canicola type in one of the regions
of Restor on Don. Zhur. Mikrobiol. 2:
100,1957. Sewage and Ind. Waste, 31:
763, 1959.
14. Clarke, N. A.and Chang, Shih L. Enteric
viruses in water. Jour. A. W. W. A.
51: 1299, 1959.
15. Paul, J. R., Trask, J. D. and Calatta,
C.S. Poliomyelitis virus in sewage.
Science 90: 258, 1939.
16. Paul, J. R. Trask, J. D., and Card, S.
Poliomyelitis in urban\sewage. Jour.
Exp. Med. 71: 765, 1940.
17. Trask, J. D., Paul, J. R., and Vignec, A.
J. Poliomyelitis virus in human stools.
Jour. Exp. Med. 71: 751, 1940.
18. Levaditi, C. On the presence of polio-
myelitis virus in sewage. Bui. Acad.
Med. 123: 355, 1940.
19. Clarke, E.M. et al. Coxsackie virus in
urban sewage. Can. J. Pub. Health 42:
103, 1951.
20. Kelly, S. M. Detection and occurrence
of coxsackie viruses in sewage. Am.
J. Pub. Health, 43: 1532, 1953.
21. Clarke, N. A., Stevenson, R. E. and
Kahler, P. W. Survival of coxsackie
virus in water and sewage. Jour.
A. W. W.A.48: 677, 1956.
22. Mack, W. N., Mallmann, W. L., Bloom,
H. H. and Krueger, B.J. Isolation of
enteric viruses and salmonellae from
sewage. Sew. & Ind. Wastes 30: 957,
1958
23. Bloom, H. H., Mack, W. N., Krueger,
B. J., and Mallmann, W. L.- Identifica-
tion of enteroviruses in sewage. Jour.
Inf. Dis. 105: 61, 1959.
24. Metzler, D.F. et al. Emergency use of
reclaimed water for potable supply at
Chanute, Kansas. Jour. A. W.W.A.,
50: 1021, 1958.
25. Weidenkopf, S.J. Inactivation of type 1
poliomyelitis virus with chlorine,
Virology 5: 56, 1958.
26. Neefe, J. R., Stokes, Joseph, Baty, J. R.,
and Reinhold, J. G. Disinfection of
water containing causative agent of in-
fectious (epidemic) hepatitis. Jour.
A.M.A. 128, 15, 1076, 1945.
27. Trask, J. D.,MeInick, J. L. and Wenner,
H. H. Chlorination of human, monkey
adapted, and mouse strains of polio-
myelitis virus. Am. Jour. Hyg. 41:
30, 1945.
-------
Types of Contaminants
43
28. Ridenour, G. M., and Ingols, R.S. In-
activation of poliomyelitis virus by
free chlorine. Am. Jour. Pub. Health.
36: 639. 1946.
29. Lensen, S. G., Rhian, M. and Stebbins,
M. R. The inactivation of partially
purified poliomyelitis virus in water
by chlorination. Jour. A. W. W. A. 38:
1069, 1946.
30. Lensen, S. G., Rhian, M. and Stebbins,
M. R. The inactivation of partially
purified poliomyelitis virus in water
by chlorination. Am. Jour. Pub.Health
37: 869, 1947.
31. Lensen, S.G. et al. Inactivation of puri-
fied poliomyelitis virus in water by
chlorination. Am.Jour.Pub. Health 39:
1120, 1949.
32. Clarke, N.A. and KabIer,P. W. The In-
activation of purified coxsackie virus
in water by chlorine. Am. Jour. Hyg.
'59: 119, 1954.
33. Kelly,S. and Sanderson, W. W. The ef-
fect of chlorine in water on enteric
viruses. Am Jour. Pub. Health, 48:
1323, 1958.
34. Mack, W. N., and Frey, James. Un-
published data, 1961.
35. Sarage, W. C. Bacterial examination of
tidal mud as an index of pollution of
river. Jour. Hyg. 5: 146,1905.
36. Revis, Cecil. The stability of physiol-
ogical properties of coliform organ-
isms. Cen. f. Bakt. 11 ABT. 26, 161,
1910,
37. Young,C.C. and Greenfield, H. Obser-
vations on the viability of the Bact.
Coli group under natural and artificial
conditions. Am. Jour. Pub. Health.
13: 270, 1923.
38. Skinner, C. E. and Murray T. J. The
viability of B. coli and B_. aerogenes in
soils. J.Inf.Dis. 38: 37,1926.
39. Tonney, F. O. and Noble, R. E. The
relative persistence of Bact. coli and
Bact. aerogenes in nature. J. Bact. 22:
433,1931.
40. Kulp, W. C. A note concerning the effect
of a specific environment on the char-
acteristics and viability of several
strains of A. aerogenes and E. coli.
J.Bact. 24: 317, 1932.
41. Mair, W. Experiments on the survival
of B. typhosus in sterilized and un-
sterilized soil. J. Hyg. 8:37, 1908.
42. Creel, R.H. Vegetables as a possible
factor in the dissemination of typhoid
fever. Pub. Health Rep. 27: 187, 1912.
43. Mallmann, W. L. and Litsky, Warren.
Survival of selected enteric organisms
in various types of soil. Am. Jour.
Pub. Health. 41: 38, 1951.
44. Wade, Sarah T. The persistence of the
VI Antigen of Salmonella typhosa. M .S.
thesis Michigan State University, E.
Lansing, Mich. 1950.
INORGANIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION OF GROUND WATER
W. J. Kaufman, University of California
The inorganic chemical contaminants of
ground water differ from organic and biol-
ogical contaminants in many ways, the most
important differences being their indestruct-
ibility, the persistence of pollution resulting
from their presence, and the great difficulty
and cost of their abatement. It is possible
to cite numerous instances of small concen-
trations of toxic inorganics that appeared in
ground water and impaired its acceptability
for domestic use. It is probable that the
major impact of inorganic contamination is
not on man's health but rather on his agri-
cultural and industrial enterprises, i.e., his
pocketbook, and frequently stems from the
excessive mineralization associated with in-
tensive beneficial use. Thus, the problem of
deteriorating ground water quality is merely
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44
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
the price, often delayed, thatwe must pay for
the use and reuse -of this essential natural
resource.
This review deals in a general way with
the effects, origins, and modes of transport
of inorganic pollutants, omitting detailed
enumeration of specific cause and effect
situations. Numerous authors, particularly
McKee (1) in 1952 and 1954, have presented
collations of water quality information that
are available to the practitioner and cannot
be improved upon by summarization or frag-
mentation in this short presentation. A
brief discussion of inorganic water quality
criteria as they relate to the three major
user categories - - domestic, agricultural,
and industrial--may provide a perspective
of our objectives however and help avoid an
overly simplified treatment of this very com-
plex problem.
INORGANIC QUALITY REQUIREMENTS
The Domestic Consumer
The Public Health Service Drinking Water
Standards of 1946 specify limits for certain
inorganic chemicals in water, distinguishing
between mandatory and recommended limits.
A noteworthy addition to the mandatory drink-
ing water requirements is the UJS. Atomic
Energy Commission's Standards for Pro-
tection Against Radiation (2) as made effec-
tive January 1, 1961. A majority of the
states have adopted the 1946 Standards as
requirements for public water supplies with-
in their jurisdictions, and these standards
are, of course, applicable to interstate com-
mon carriers in accordance with federal
law. The 1961 federal radiation standards
establish mandatory limits for radioisotopes
in water; however since these standards im-
plement the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, they
are intended only for protection against
hazards arising from uses of radioisotopes
under licenses issued by the Atomic Energy
Commission. Undoubtedly, these standards
or modifications thereof will in time be in-
corporated into the Public Health Service
Standards and will apply to radionuclides
from all sources.
Since the mandatory chemical standards
are intended to protect the domestic con-
sumer's health, they deal with the relatively
toxic constituents of water. For the most
part, these standards are supported by only
the most tenuous epidemiological data, but
since the toxic substances are rarely en-
countered in ground waters, there are only
a few instances where the standards have
not been met. The situation is further
ameliorated by the safety factors employed
in fixing specific values. It should be recog-
nized, however, that often great variance
exists in population sensitivity to toxicants,
and threshold effects difficult to identify
may influence many persons to a small de-
gree before the causal agent has been identi-
fied. It might be interesting to inquire into
the frequency of routine analysis for heavy
metals performed by a typical community
served by a ground water supply.
In many respects, radioactivity contam-
ination poses health problems analogous to
those that evolve from chemical contamina-
tion. As the sensitivity of detection of ra-
diation effects advances, the biophysicist is
able to perceive subtle changes in human
physiology brought about by ever-decreasing
amounts of radiation exposure. One school
of thought frequently expressed by Jones (3)
contends that no threshold exists in the re-
lationship of radiation dose to radiation ef-
fect, even in somatic effects, and that life-
span shortening may bear a linear relation
to dose, with about 10 days per roentgen
being the constant of proportionality. Al-
though absolute epidemiological proof of such
a relationship may never be demonstrated,
those responsible for establishing standards
of water quality must certainly take cog-
nizance of these small but potentially very
significant consequences of nuclear energy
developments. In addition, as other par-
ticipants in this Symposium will doubtless
observe, subtle and hardly detectable
stresses on the human body are very likely
to result from the many other activities of
man in our complex industrial society.
Thus, safety and health are relative and
the establishment of domestic water stan-
dards in many particular instances must
ultimately take into full account the realis-
tic but unpopular risk-benefit equation if we
are to regulate our water resources with
some modicum of rationality.
-------
Types of Contaminants
45
Irrigated Agriculture
In the 17 western states, concern for
inorganic chemical contamination is most
closely related to agricultural water quality
needs. Here again, it is not possible to
establish absolute levels of quality; rather,
we must recognize the complex cost-benefit
relationship between specific agricultural
uses and the water qualities available.
Dr. L. V. Wilcox of the U.S. Salinity
Laboratory (4) has cited four quality cri-
teria that ordinarily cover a majority of the
irrigation-applications: Total salt concen-
tration, sodium, boron and other toxic sub-
stances, and bicarbonate. Although it is de-
sirable to irrigate with waters that have dis-
solved solids in the range of 150 to 500 ppm,
it is possible, though not nearly as econom-
ical, to use water with up to 3000 or 4000
ppm. An increasing number of irrigators
are finding the latter practice necessary for
continued agriculture. Crop yields are often
less with such waters, and annual water
needs are greatly increased if salt buildup
in the plant root zone is to be avoided.
Sodium, though itself not especially toxic,
may adversely affect the physical properties
of a soil, indirectly reducing crop yields and
increasing the requirements for water and
special soil amendments. Excessive con-
centrations of bicarbonate may lead to cal-
cium carbonate precipitation and further ag-
gravate the sodium and over-all salinity
problem by increasingthe sodium adsorption
ratio (SAR) with accompanying tightening of
the irrigated soil.
Boron is the most commonly encountered
toxic inorganic chemical, and its presence in
an aquifer may restrict severely the range
of agricultural development possible. Al-
though a trace is required for all plants,
many plants (e.g., the citrus group) will not
tolerate more than 1 ppm and few crops are
produced economically with concentrations
in excess of 3 or 4 ppm.
Table 1 shows the qualitative classifi-
cation of irrigation waters used by the Calif-
ornia Department of Water Resources (5) and
indicates the broad range of compositions
from "excellent" to "unsatisfactory." Class
I water is suitable for nearly all plants under
Table 1. QUALITATIVE CLASSIFICATION
OF IRRIGATION WATERS
Class
I. Excellent
to good
II. Good to
injurious
III. Injurious
to un-
satis-
factory
Chemical constituents
Total
dissolved
solids, ppm
>700
700-2000
>2000
Chloride,
ppm
>175
175-350
>350
Sodium,
% a
>60
60-75
>75
Boron,
ppm
>0.5
0.5-2.0
>2.0
- Sodium, "]o
100, where bases are
^Na'+Cat+ Mg,+
expressed'in milliequivalents per liter.
any soil and climatic circumstance, whereas
Class III water is harmful to most crops and
unsatisfactory for all but the most tolerant.
Other factors being equal, the volume re-
quirements of Class III water would be ap-
preciably greater than those of Class I, if
salt balance is to be maintained.
Industry
Industry as a whole has such varied
water quality requirements that it is virtually
impossible to establish generally applicable
criteria. Even in particular industries at-
tempts to analyze needs are often of limited
value because of variation in the types of
processes, the raw materials used, and the
final products. Process waters often have
the highest and most specific quality re-
quirements , since product quality may depend
on close control of certain constituents, e.g.,
iron and manganese in the pulp and paper
industry. Water quality may also influence
the deterioration of process equipment, lead-
ing to incrustation or corrosion and increased
maintenance and replacement costs, with
concomitant reduction in efficiency. Boiler
water has relatively well-established quality
requirements, which for high pressure sys-
tems are so restrictive that the water re-
quires conditioning in almost all instances.
Cooling water, on the other hand, has rela-
tively limited quality restrictions, other than
temperature, and generally poses no special
problems.
-------
46
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Pearson (4, pp. 126-135) concluded that
no single set of water quality criteria is ap-
plicable to both municipal and industrial uses
and that it is impractical to consider uni-
form quality standards for industry as a
whole or even for a specific type of industry.
Individual situations must be appraised
individually to ascertain their particular re-
quirements.
ORIGIN OF INORGANIC
GROUND WATER CONTAMINANTS
For purposes of this discussion, the
terms contaminant and pollutant will be used
synonymously to designate any substance in
water that has been altered directly or in-
directly by man and that might detract from
the value of the water in some subsequent
use by man.
There are numerous ways in which mu-
nicipal sewage and industrial wastes directly
impair the mineral quality of ground water.
A survey completed in 1960 by Task Group
2450R of the American Water Works Associ-
ation (6) listed waste disposal wells and
lagoons, leaking chemical storage tanks, and
cesspools as the most often reported sources
of contamination. The most commonly re-
ported inorganic contaminants were salt
water, oil-field brines, and sodium chloride,
with an occasional report, of specific toxic
agents such as fluoride, chromium, and ni-
trate. In most instances, little difficulty
was encountered in establishing the particu-
lar origin of the more toxic contaminants.
In many states the two most important
causes of extensive inorganic contamination
are sea water intrusion and deep percolation
from irrigated agriculture. In each instance
of sea water intrusion, the cause was over-
pumping for which the only long-term solu-
tion is importation of additional water from
other basins. In certain situations, e.g., in
the Manhattan Beach - Hermosa Beach area
of Southern California, it has been possible
to retard sea water intrusion by creation of
fresh water barriers through the operation
of injection wells. Unless the overdraft on
aquifers discharging beneath the sea is re-
duced or redeemed by the recharged waters,
such barriers must ultimately fail.
Ground Water Quality and
Irrigation Practices
The influence of irrigation practices on
ground water quality is far more serious
than sea water intrusion and is creating
problems in a majority of the important
river basins in the western states. Gen-
erally, about two-thirds of the irrigation
is used consumptively, being returned to the
atmosphere by evaporation and trans-
piration. The remainder, enriched in salts
by the evapotranspiration process, by leach-
ing of fertilizer, and by accretions of car-
bon dioxide, percolates down to the ground
water table. To avoid salt buildup, the ir-
rigator must apply sufficient water to trans-
port these salts from the root zone of his
crop. Generally, these salts are moved to
a nearby stream or appear in the wells of
neighbors. Subsequent users of the water
are faced with an even greater salinity prob-
lem and must apply increasing quantities of
water to their lands to maintain the essential
salt balance.
F, M.Eaton's (7) report on salinity con-
ditions in a portion of the Rio Grande Valley
is an excellent example of the close relation
of surface and ground water quality to ir-
rigation practice. Wells drilled in the valley
floor generally have been too saline to sup-
port agriculture, but upon completion of the
Elephant Butte Dam, a flourishing irrigated
agriculture developed. The buildup of
salinity in the Rio Grande River, largely
from irrigation return water and base flow
and perhaps augmented by displaced deep
local ground waters, is seriously threaten-
ing agriculture in this region however. This
is illustrated by the data in Table 2, which
indicate the salt balance between the Ele-
phant Butte Reservoir and Fort Quitman, a
200-mile reach of the Rio Grande Valley.
In 1945, releases from Elephant Butte
amounted to 830,000 acre-feet of water, of
which only 16 percent reached Fort Quitman.
In 1951 reservoir releases amounted to only
429,000 acre-feet, and less than 6 per cent
reached Fort Quitman. Whereas in 1946 only
16 percent of the input salts were retained,
by 1951 over 7,500 ton-equivalents, or 72
percent, remained in the valley. Further-
more, although Elephant Butte discharges had
-------
Types of Contaminants
47
Table 2. SALT BALANCE BETWEEN ELEPHANT BUTTE
RESERVOIR AND FORT QUITMAN. RIO GRANDE RIVER3
Table 3. ION-EXCHANGE SOFTENING IN THE
LOS ANGELES SOUTH COASTAL BASIN
Cations
Calcium
Magne-
sium
Sodium
Anions
Bicar-
bonate
Sulfate
.Chloride
Salt releases
1946
Ele-
phant
Butte,
T.E.b
3263
1140
3241
3071
3534
1208
15457
Fort
Quit-
man.
T.E.b
1669
741
4037
706
2039
3744
12936
Salt
re-
tained,
°1°
48
35
-25
77
42
-210
16
1951
Ele-
phant
Butte,
T.E.b
2006
763
2436
1726
2327
1242
10500
Fort
Quit-
man,
T.E.b
368
179
936
101
433
957
2975
Salt
re-
tained,
°lo
82
77
62
94
81
23
72
3 Source; Reference (7). Ton F.auivalents.
a fayorable sodium percentage (42 percent),
on reaching Fort Quitman the sodium per-
centage had reached a yearly average of 62
percent in 1946 and 64 percent in 1951. In
1951,82 percent of the calcium was being re-
tained in the valley fill and in large part had
probably precipitated as the carbonate. It is
evident that if agricultural enterprises are
to, be sustained in this region additional sur-
face waters must be introduced to maintain
or reduce salt buildup.
Ion-Exchange and Ground Water Quality
When water containing calcium, mag-
nesium, and sodium is brought in contact with
a jsoil, equilibrium is established between
the cations in solution and those occupying
ion-exchange sites in the soil clay fraction.
If sodium is the predominant cation and if
successive portions of high sodium water
are passed down through a soil column, soil
calcium is displaced and a sodium soil re-
sults. Such soils are often tight and have
poordrainage qualities, necessitating liming
to restore a fovorable sodium percentage.
The result is a percolating water containing
at least one equivalent of calcium for each
Constituent
Sodium
potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Sulfate
Chloride
Bicarbonate
- carbon-
ate
Nitrate
TDS, rng/1
TDSa composition, % by weight
San Gabriel
River
recharge
10.2
29.2
10.6
7.3
2.5
39.9
0.3
246
North-Central
portion b
12.2
28.6
9.2
5.1
3.1
41.6
0.2
247
South-West
portion c
41.2
7.7
1.2
7.3
4.1
38.3
0.2
211
a Total dissolved solids.
b Depths; 680 to 900 feet.
c Depths; 558 to 1026 feet.
s
equivalent of sodium retained. A hard water
of lower quality has resulted.
Ionexchange may also serve to soften
waters naturally, thus reversingthe process
described above. This phenomenon was il-
lustrated by Morse (8) in a study of the Los
Angeles South Coastal Basin in 1943. Waters
of the San Gabriel River recharge the con-
fined aquifers of this basin in the vicinity of
the Montebello Forebay below the Whittier
Narrows. The general direction of under-
ground travel is toward the southwest, with
ultimate discharge into the Pacific Ocean.
Ion-exchange changes in mineral distribution
during underground travel are clearly evi-
denced in Table 3.
The San Gabriel River water travels
through nearly 10 miles of sedimentary for-
mations, from the Montebello recharge area
to the North-Central portion of the Los
Angeles Basin, without significant change
in composition. As the water reaches the
south-west rim of the basin, however,
samples taken from depths up to 1026 feet
show a remarkably constant composition
but with sodium rather than calcium as the
predominant cation. Although the total
-------
48
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
equivalent concentration has not changed,
the passing of the calcium bicarbonate
water through formations containing sodium
clays has resulted in a sodium bicarbonate
water. Thus, the confined aquifers under-
lying the South Coastal Basin may be con-
sidered as enormous ion-exchange columns
that are gradually being exhausted with the
seaward migration of the calcium-magnes-
ium water.
Radionuclides
Radioactivity is found to some extent in
all ground waters, most often originating in
the decay products of uranium-238 and, to a
lesser extent, thorium-232, which are widely
distributed in nature. Natural potassium in-
cludes 0.012 percent of the long-lived ra-
dioisotope potassium-40, which is readily
detectable in waters high in alkali metals.
Because of concern for water contamination
by fission products of weapons-test origin
or by wastes of the nuclear energy industry,
numerous studies have been made to deter-
mine the natural background count of ground
waters. Love(9) in 1951 and,more recently,
Smith et al. (10) in 1960 reported the wide-
spread occurrence of appreciable concentra-
tions of radium-226 and its daughter products
and presented extensive bibliographies per-
taining to natural radioactivity. In an-
alysis of 33 drilled wells in Maine, Smith
found an average radon- 222 concentration at
the time of sampling of 17,000 MM.c/1; the
equilibrium value corresponding to the
radium-226 concentration was 66 (U|uc/l.
The maximum permissible concentration
(MFC) of radium-226 from releases of radio-
active liquid wastes to the environment, on
a yearly average basis, is 10 uiuc/l(2). It
is evident that knowledge of the natural oc-
currence of radioactivity is important in
exercising control over ground water quality,
even though it may raise a rather difficult
question when standards are set for protec-
tion of the consumer.
Except in the vicinity of nuclear energy
installations, there is no evidence that man-
made radioisotopes other than tritium, are
contaminating ground water. At several of
the sites operated under the jurisdiction of
the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, no-
tably Hanford, Washington, and Oak Ridge,
Tennessee, appreciable volumes of low- and
intermediate-level radioactive wastes have
been discharged to the earth, resulting in
some contamination of aquifers within these
government reservations. Straub et al. (11)
have shown that a major fraction of the
strontium-90 in the Tennessee River at
Chattanooga had its origin at the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory; over a major portion
of the United States, however, the greatest
source of this isotope is undoubtedly fallout
from weapons testing.
To what extent are the nation's ground
waters being contaminated by such fission
products as strontium-90, and is this likely
to become a serious matter? Straub et al.
(11) have compared the strontium-90 in
precipitation to that in runoff in the Ohio
River Valley and have found an over-all re-
tention of about 90 percent. This is equiv-
alent to an annual retention (in 1959) of about
10,000 p|uc/m2. Since it is reasonable to as-
sume that all of the deposited strontium will
pass into solution, it is necessary to con-
clude that while currently accumulating at
the soil surface, it also is being transported
downward by infiltration of precipitation.
Yet, samples of infiltrated rain water taken
a few inches below the soil surface are al-
most completely free of strontium-90 if the
surface layers have any significant ion-
exchange capacity. It is thus evident that
natural transport processes through the soil
are extremely inefficient and that extended
retention in surficial soils may be antic-
ipated, at least if the course of events is
left solely to nature.
There is ample evidence that little or no
strontium-90 from fallout has reached ground
water supplies that are adequately protected
against direct surface water contamination.
High radionuclide concentrations in surface
streams are associated with intense precipi-
tation and peak runoff, strongly suggesting
that scrubbing of the atmosphere and trans-
port of contaminated topsoil are the major
contributors. At low stream flows, when the
salt concentrations are generally highest be-
cause of ground water inflow, radionuclide
concentrations attributable to fallout are at a
minimum. Even wells in the vicinity of the
-------
Types of Contaminants
49
Nevada Test Site have shown no increase in
radioactivity that could be attributed to deep
percolation of fallout.
A specifichypothetical question may re-
veal whether we can expect all ground waters
to remain essentially free of strontium-90.
If it is assumed that over a 10-year period
a total strontium-90 deposition of 50 mc/sq
mi has occurred and that this strontium is
held within a 5-cm layer of virgin soilwith
an exchange capacity of 5 meq/100 grams
and further that the land is irrigated with
water containing 2.5 meq/1 calcium and ap-
plied at a rate of 4 feet per year, but with an
evapotranspiration loss of 50 percent, what
is the maximum concentration of strontium-
90 ion that may be found in the percolating
irrigation water? The strontium - calcium
mass action constant describing the ex-
change equilibrium may be reasonably esti-
mated at 1.5 (12). Under these conditions,
the percolating irrigation water in equilib-
rium with the 5-cm soil layer would con-
tain about 0.015 uuc/ml of strontium-90.
This is a maximum value, since it was as-
sumed that solution took place in only 1.75 cm
of water whereas dilution would undoubtedly
occur in a very much larger volume of ap-
plied water. The average strontium-90 per-
colation velocity would be about 1 inch per
year.
The assumptions in the above calcula-
tions were conservative, and consequently
the calculated value represents an over-
estimate. It may be concluded, therefore,
that this particularly hazardous radioisotope
is unlikely to become a significant ground
water contaminant, at least insofar as its
introduction into the environment as fallout
from past weapons testing is concerned.
SUMMARY
Inorganic contamination of ground water,
like organic chemical and biological con-
tamination, is the price society is paying for
exploiting this essential natural resource.
In many instances, an isolated toxic effluent
of industrial origin can be treated to re-
move a specific contaminant so that neither
surface nor ground water pollution results.
When the problem involves a large single
source of highly saline water, there appear
to be only two economically feasible alter-
natives: surface discharge with adequate
dilution or subsurface disposal into deep
formations well below the level of fresh
water aquifers. In a particular river basin,
if the volumes of dilution water are not ade-
quate to ameliorate the salinity problems
created by industry, deep injection is the
only solution. A seaboard community or in-
dustry has the ocean of course, where in-
organics should pose no problem.
Irrigated agriculture creates a much
more difficult problem, since the many
sources of inorganic contamination are dis-
persed and generally have natural access to
gravity aquifers and surface streams. Here
the solution must evolve from basin - wide
optimization of water utilization so that the
greatest benefit is derived per unit of con-
sumption. In certain locales (e.g., the west
side of the San Joaquin Valley) agricultural
sewers may prove feasible and allow separa-
tion of highly saline return waters from still
usable ground and surface waters. In other
situations, if agriculture is to continue at its
current level, interbasin solutioijs must be
sought that may require the transportation of
dilution waters over great distances.
REFERENCES
1. McKee, Jack E. Water Quality Criteria.
California Water Pollution Control
Board Publication 3. 1952. Also: Ad-
dendum No. 1, Water Quality Criteria.
1954.
2. U. S. Atomic Energy Commission.
Standards for protection against radi-
ation. Title 10, Part 20. Federal
Register, November 17, 1960.
3. Jones, H.B. The Nature of Radioactive
Fallout and Its Effects on Man. Hear-
ings, Special Subcommittee on Radia-
tion, Joint Committee on Atomic
Energy, 85th Congress, 1st Session,
Washington, D.C. 1957. Pp. 1100-1137.
4. Wilcox, L. V. Water quality require-
ments for irrigation. Proceedings,
Conference on the California Ground
Water Situation, Univ. of California,
Berkeley, December 3-4, 1956.
-------
50
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
5. Quality of Ground Waters in California,
1955-56. Bulletin 66. Department of
Water Resources, State of California.
1958.
6. Survey of ground water contamination
and waste disposal practices. Task
Group Report. Jour. AWWA,J52:1211-
1219. Sept. 1960.
7. Eaton, F. M. Factors to consider in
salt balance studies. Proceedings,
Conference on.Quality of Water for
Irrigation, Univ. of California, Davis,
January 21-22, 1958.
8. Morse, R. R. The nature and sig-
nificance of certain variations in com-
position of Los Angeles Basin ground
water. Economic Geology, 38:475-511.
9. Love, S. K. Natural radioactivity of
water. Ind. and Eng. Chem., 12:1541-
1544. 1951.
10. Smith, B. M., Grune, W. N., Higgins,
F.B.,and Terrill.J.G. Natural radio-
activity in ground water supplies in
Maine and New Hampshire. Jour.
AWWA, 53:75-88. 1961.
11. Straub.C.P., Setter, L.R.,Goldin, A. S.,
and Hallbach, P. F. Strontium-90 in
surface water in the United States.
Jour. AWWA, 52:756-768. 1960.
12. Orcutt.R.G., Kaufman, W.J., and Klein,
G. The Movement of Radiostrontium
Through Natural Porous Media. Pro-
gress Report 2. Sanitary Engineering
Research Laboratory, Univ. of Calif.,
Berkeley. November 1, 1956.
ORGANIC CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION OF GROUND WATER
M. Middleton and G. Walton, Sanitary Engineering Center
Approximately 12 million wells are in
use in the United States. In Ohio, bounded
by Lake Erie on the north and the Ohio River
on the south and traversed by several rivers,
more than 2 million of the 10 million people
depend upon ground water for their water
supply. These numbers are cited to em-
phasize the extensive use of ground water and
the consequences of polluting our ground
water resource.
A limited documentation of incidents of
ground water contamination and of the de-
velopment of interest in such problems is
presented in the reports of the AWWA Task
Group on Underground Waste Disposal and
Control (1,2, 3, 4). These are compilations
of information supplied by State and Terri-
torial Departments of Health, supplemented
by that from other sources.
The 1952 report was an analysis of data
received from 38 states and 2 territories.
Only.a few states recognized any problem
due to contamination of ground water. Most
of the reported incidents involved bacterial
contamination by sewage, or chlorides from
oil- or gas-field brines. Apparently only
one state, Michigan, provided detailed infor-
mation on such problems. That state re-
ported four cases in which a specific organic
contaminant was involved. In two of these,
the contaminant was a phenolic compound;
in the other two, gasoline.
The 1953 report was largely a policy
statement. It noted that "although ground
water pollution by industrial-waste disposal
is reported as relatively minor in many
states, and even non-existent in some, it is,
nevertheless, nationwide in distribution/'
Specific organic chemical contaminants, not
noted in the previous report, were picric
acid and cleaning fluid.
The 1957 report is a compilation of in-
formation from the 1952, 1955, and 1957
questionnaires sent to the states, supple-
mented by data from a U.S. Geological
Survey study made/during 1955. Forty-two
-------
Types of Contaminants
51
of the 47 states that reported are shown to
have experienced problems with contamina-
tion of ground water.
The 1960 report summarizes information
from a questionnaire specifically requesting
data on incidents observed during 1957,1958,
and 1959, plus some supplemental informa-
tion coming to the attention of the Task
Group. During that 3-year period, 39 states
reported one or more problems involving
contamination of ground water.
Information presented in these two re-
ports indicates that only three (Hawaii, Mis-
sissippi, and New Hampshire) of the 50
states have escaped problems resulting from
the contamination of ground water. Table 1
summarizes the data by type of organic
contaminant and shows the number of states
that reported one or more incidents due to
such contaminants. Incidents in which
sewage, industrial wastes, or other non-
specific organic contaminants were detected
are not included in this table. During the
last 3 years, organic contaminants reported
included detergents, gasoline, oil, other
petroleum products, and petrochemicals (in
order of number of states that reported con-
tamination, see Table 1). The types of or-
ganic chemical contaminants reported to
have been responsible for one or more in-
cidents of ground water contamination are:
ABS
Creosols
2,4-Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid
Dichlorophenol
Gasoline
Hexachlorocyclohexane
Hydrocarbons
Kerosene
Methane
Oil
Pentachlorophenol
Phenol
Phosphonates
Picoline
Picric acid
Pyridine
Trichloroethylene
The increasing number of states report-
ing experiences with detergent contamina-
Table 1. NUMBER OF STATES THAT
REPORTED SPECIFIC TYPE OF ORGANIC
CONTAMINATION OF GROUND WATER
Organic
contaminants
To
1957(3) 1957-1959(4)
Gasoline
Oil and fuel oil
Other petroleum
9
6
2
7
6
4
products
Detergents
Other petro
chemicals
Phenolic compounds
All ,types
3
2a
19
8
3
1
20
a Includes one case where picric acid was
involved.
tion ofgroundwater provides evidence of the
growing interest and concern in organic
chemical contaminants. Problems with de-
tergent contamination were reported for
three and eight states, respectively, in the
1947 and 1960 AWWA Task Group reports,
but for 18 states in a more recent publica-
tion (5). Additional information now indi-
cates that such problems have been en-
countered in at least 20 states.
The European literature contains num-
erous reports on contamination of ground
water. A recent German publication (6)
cites 60 cases in which ground waters had
become contaminated with petroleum or
petroleum products. Forty-five of these
incidents were first detected within the last
10 years. Hettche ( 7,8).has described an
interesting incident in which a village near
Hamburg, Germany, had a high morbidity of
goiter associated with urochrome contami-
nation of the ground water supply. Other
articles report organic chemical contamina-
tion of ground waters from such sources as
graveyards, sanitary land fills, and agri-
cultural use of fertilizers and economic
poisons.
-------
52
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Information from Europe indicates that
the United States will probably experience an
increasing number of such incidents, as
density of both population and industry in-
crease.
SANITARY ENGINEERING
CENTER STUDIES
Interest in the removal of organic chem-
ical contaminants from water percolating
through pervious soils led to the installation
of carbon adsorption units on several wells
near contaminated surface waters. At Peoria
the Illinois State Water Survey cooperated
with the Center in a study of the effect that
artificial recharge of Illinois River water
has on the quality of the ground water. Car-
bon adsorption units were installed to sample
waters from the river and from two wells,
one 100 feet and the other 1300 feet from the
recharge pit. The concentrations of chloro-
form and alcohol extractable materials and
those of certain broad chemical groupings
were measured. Table 2 presents the
principal results. These data show that
filtration through 100 feet of this aquifer did
not appreciably reduce the organic sub-
stances present in the river water. The or-
ganic substances in the water from the well
1300 feet from the recharge pit were similar
in character to those in the water from the
river but substantially lower in concentra-
tion. It is not known whether the concentra-
tions of these organic contaminants were
reduced by passage through the aquifer or
were diluted by water from other sources.
The water from a Clermont County well
was also examined. This well was located
approximately 150 feet from the bank of the
Ohio River, some 20 miles upstream from
Cincinnati. Analyses of samples obtained by
the carbon adsorption method showed the or-
ganic content of this water was not character-
istic of Ohio River water. The concentra-
tion of contaminants recovered from the well
water was only one-sixth that obtained from
the-river water.
Also included in Table 2 are analyses
of waters from an uncontaminated well in
Texas and from a grossly contaminated well
in Colorado. Water from a well at Gallipolis,
Ohio, contained one-third the concentration
of contaminants found in water from the Ohio
River at Huntington, West Virginia. Hunt-
ington is 40 miles downstream from Galli-
polis.
Data for water from a well some 300 feet
from the Merrimack River, near Lowell,
Massachusetts, are not shown. The gross
contamination - 240 ppb carbon chloroform
extract and 320 ppb carbon alcohol extract,
plus the presence of oil - exceeded that in
the river water. These data are mentioned
only to emphasize the possibility of picking
up such organics as lubricants for pumps,
and cutting oils and jointing compounds from
pipe connections.
How does one detect organic contamina-
tion of ground waters, and what are the best
procedures for determining their composi-
tion and source? Synthetic detergents pro-
vide a builtin indicator; these compounds
are reported to foam at concentrations as
low as 0.5 ppm. The first evidence of the
contaminant may be a housewife's obser-
vation of foam on water drawn from the tap.
Taste and odor, however, are the most com-
mon indicators of contamination of ground
waters by organic contaminants. Crop dam-
age by ground water used for irrigation has,
in at least one case, been the first indica-
tion of contamination; however, taste and
odor also were reported. Lack of taste and
odor is no assurance that water is not con-
taminated.
A few examples of the procedures used
to identify the objectionable components,
once contamination was recognized, will be
related. When taste and odor occurred in
water from a community well in Colorado,
samples of the water were collected for ABS
analysis and a carbon adsorption unit was
installed on the system. The ABS analysis
showed 0.65 ppm; the carbon adsorption unit
yielded 433 and 892 ppb of chloroform and
alcohol extractable materials, respectively.
Clean well waters show less than 100 ppb
of such extractables. Analyses of the chloro-
form extractable materials showed consider-
able concentrations of hydrocarbon ma-
terials and the presence of solvent - like
compounds. In addition, an unidentified
-------
Types of Contaminants
53
Table 2. ORGANICS IN WELL AND SURFACE WATERS,
AS MEASURED BY THE CARBON ADSORPTION METHOD
Source of
sample
Clermont County
well
Ohio River at
Cincinnati
Gallipolis,
Ohio, well
Ohio River at
Huntington,
W.Va.
Peoria, Illinois
Illinois Water
Survey (Well
No. 19)
Sampling
period
3/3-3/21/58
2/12-2/27/58
3/12-3/24/58
7/21-8/26/58
7/2-7/16/58
8/1-8/18/58
3/18-4/23/59
1/19/59
Approximate
distance
from river, ft
150
--
500
100
Chloroform
extract ,ppb
25
387
207
45
151
92
178
Alcohol
extract,ppb
25
425
250
174
188
177
483
Total ABS,ppma
104
812
457
219
339
268
661
0.70
Company A
Well No. 3
Well No. 5
3/18-4/24/59
1/19/59
1300
1800
Illinois River 3/19-4/23/59
1/18-19/59
Canutillo Well
Field, El
Paso, Texas
1/18-2/3/61
Town and Coun-
try Well,
Commerce
Town, Colo.
7/17-7/26/57
85
148
17
433
183
356
36
892
268
504
53
1325
0.17
0.70
0.65
aMeasured on liquid samples.
b24-hour composite.
plastic-like substance was obtained. This
material dri'ed to a tough film. Investigation
showed that a waste lagoon receiving wash-
ings from a road tractor cleaning plant was
a likely source of the contaminant. Another
possibility was infiltration from a small
stream receivingwastes from an airport and
effluent from a sewage treatment plant. The
strongest evidence for tracing contamination
is the identification of a unique substance
'both in the ground water and in the suspected
source of contamination. If the contaminating
substances are not unique, the levels of con-
taminants inpolluted wells can be compared
with those of other wells in the area.
In another incident, taste and odor was
the complaint; suspicion was strong that
leakage of crude oil from storage tanks was
the cause of the contamination. An investi-
gation by use of the carbon adsorption tech-
nique showed that the well water was con-
taminated but that the materials were most
likely from a surface or river source, since
no evidence of oil contamination could be
found. An alternative possibility is that
ancient pollution from a nearby source
finally became evident. In a third case,
contaminants in several wells were traced
directly to an industrial waste lagoon and
the materials present could be obtained by
-------
54
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
direct distillation. A series of chemical
examinations of these substances provided
unequivocal evidence of the similarity of the
compounds present.
OTHER EXPERIENCES
Numerous cases of taste and odor in
water have been attributable to gasoline; a
few ppbof gasoline will cause odor in water.
Some unusual assays for gasoline have come
to our attention. A story, reportedly true,
is told of a man who lighted his morning
cigarette after drawing a basin of water in
preparation for shaving. Flame that oc-
curred on the wash basin was traced to
gasoline contamination. In another instance,
a floating layer of liquid was removed from
a water well. The investigators, suspecting
gasoline, poured the liquid into a car; the
car ran. Techniques for identification of
minute concentrations of gasoline in water
are somewhat weak; however, gas chro-
matographic methods that are expected to
make possible, with reasonable effort, the
detection of gasoline in water in low ppb
concentrations are now available. A good
chemist is the prime requisite for the suc-
cessful measurement of minute amounts of
organics.
Although our present information on the
persistence of organic contaminants in
ground waters is limited, indications are
that once such materials reach the water
table they may persist for long periods of
time. ABS is difficult to degrade biolog-
ically and is expected to persist, in ground
waters. Evidence indicates also that com-
pounds easily destroyed in surface waters
may persist in ground waters.
A widely known case of persistent water
contaminant occurred at Montebello, Calif-
ornia (9, 10, 11). A chemical corporation in
Alhambra, California, manufactured 2-4, D
weed killer from 2,4-dichlorophenol, mono-
chloroacetic acid, caustic soda, hydro-
chloric acid, diethanolamine, and acetone. A
batch of the raw material was inadvertently
discharged to the sewer. It passed through
an activated-sludge sewage treatment plant
and thence to the San Gabriel River. These
materials traveled 3 miles above ground in
the river and then seeped into the under-
ground stream from which Montebello drew
its supply. Although the industry operated
for less than 1 month, the taste- and odor-
producing substance, apparently unreacted
2,4-dichlorophenol, required special treat-
ment of the waters for a period reported to
have been from 4 to 5 years.
Another case showing long-time persist-
ence of phenolic compounds in ground water
has been reported by Flynn(12). An industry
that commenced operation in 1946 discharged
phenol-bearing wastes from cleanup opera-
tions into open pits excavated to a depth of
about 4 feet into dry sand. Complaints of
phenolic tastes in water from a 100 - foot-
deep well 1500 feet from the disposal pits
were received in 1951. Analyses of the
waste and well waters revealed the presence
of 80 ppm and 20 to 40 ppb phenol, re-
spectively. Apparently, in 5 years the phen-
olic compounds had seeped downward ap-
proximately 35 feet to the water table and
then moved 1500 feet in the saturated aquifer
to contaminate the well water.
Although the responsible industry ceased
discharge of phenolic wastes to the ground
in 1951, it was not until 1957, after more
than a year of continuous pumping of the well
water to waste, that phenols were no longer
detectable. Table 3 shows the distances
traveled by some organic contaminants in
ground water.
A very unusual incident (13), in which the
contaminants found in the water were not dis-
charged as such but were, apparently, the
reaction products of two or more wastes,
deserves mention. Alkali and chlorine
wastes were discharged to a pond, the re-
action product, chlorates, appeared in the
ground water, apparently alter traveling
severalmiles, causing crop damage and loss
of use of the water. In the same incident,
chlorine, phenolic compounds, and acetic
acid in wastes discharged to a holding pond
evidently reacted to form 2,4-D.
This emphasizes the need to consider
the possibility that substances separately
discharged into waste ponds may react to
form products more toxic than those orig-
inally discharged.
-------
Types of Contaminants
55
Table 3. DISTANCES AND TIMES OF TRAVEL OF
SOME ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS THROUGH
VARIOUS GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS
Contaminant
ABS
Gasoline
Oil
Phenol
Picric acid
Geological
formation
9
Sand and
gravel
9
Fractured
limestone
Sand and
gravel
?
9
Fractured
stone
?
Sand and
gravel
?
Distance of
underground
travel, ft
4.000
1,800
700
6,500 to
10,000
2,300
500
900
650
330
1,500
15,800
Apparent
time of
travel
14 mo
?
6-7 mo
5 yr
7yr
?
?
?
9
4-5 yr
4-6 yr
Ref
14
15,16
17
18
19
20
21
22
12
3
SUMMARY
A wide variety of organic contaminants
are reaching ground waters from leaky tanks,
lagoons, and septic tanks, or by accidental
means. The problem is nationwide, and the
reported incidents probably represent a
small fraction of actual occurrences. The
presence of contaminants has been evidenced
by taste and odor, foaming, and crop dam-
age. Once the contaminants have entered the
Aground water, they may travel for long dis-
tances and persist for years. Materials,
such as phenol in compounds, that are ordin-
arily degraded easily in surface waters are
not readily degraded in ground waters. The
determination of the contaminants in ground
water and the location of their source may
be difficult. The detection of unique ma-
"terials, if present and demonstrable, in the
ground water and in the pollution source
offers the best evidence of the source of con-
tamination.
Knowledge of time of travel and geology,
of biological and other effects, of saturated
and unsaturated aquifers, and of soil types,
as related to organic contamination of ground
waters, is limited. Concerted effort is
needed to extend this knowledge.
REFERENCES
1. Control of Ground Water Waste Dis-
posal, Progress Report of AWWA Task
Group E 4-C, JAWWA, 44: 635-689
(1952).
2.
on
Findings and Recommendations
Underground Waste Disposal, Report
of AWWA Task Group E 4-C, JAWWA,
45: 1295-1297(1953).
3. Underground Waste Disposal and Con-
trol, Report of AWWA Task Group
2450R, JAWWA ,49: 1334-1342(1957).
4. Survey of Ground Water Contamination
and Waste Disposal Practices, Report
of AWWA Task Group 2450R, JAWWA,
52: 1211-1219 (1960).
5. Walton, Graham. "Effects of Pollutants
in Water Supplies - ABS Contamina-
tion," JAWWA 52: 1354-1362 (1960).
6. Michels, Nabert, Udluft, and Zimmer-
man, Gutachten Zur Frage des
Schutzes des Grundwassers gegen
Verunreinigung durch Lagerflussig-
keiten (Expert opinion on Questions of
the Protection by Aquifers against
Contamination of Ground Water),
Bundesministerium fur Atomkernener-
gie and Wasserwirtschaft, Bad Godes-
berg(June, 1959).
7. Hettche, H. O. Urochromes in Water as
the Cause of Endemic Goiter, Gas-und-
Wasserbach 96, No. 20, 661-64 (Octo-
ber 15, 1955).
8. Hettche, H. 0. Fundaments of a New
Goiter Prophylaxis. Monatskurse fur
die Arzliche FortbildungNo. 5 (May 15,
1955).
9. Derby, Ray. Symposium on Industrial
Waste and Industrial Waste Water.
ASTM Special Technical Publication
207 (1956).
10. Sayre, A., and Stringfield, V. Artificial
Recharge of Ground Waste Reservoirs.
Jour. AWWA 40: 1153(1948).
-------
56
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
11. Water Quality Criteria. Publication
No. 3. State Water Pollution Control
Board, Sacramento, Calif. (1953).
12. Flynn.John M. Private Communication.
13. Weintraub, Robert L. Rocky Mountain
Arsenal Waste Status Report 25, (May,
1959).
14. Neel, J., and Hopkins, G. Experimental
Lagooning of Raw Sewage. J.WTR Poln.
Control Fed., 28: 1326 (1956).
15. Newell, I., and Almquist, F. Contam-
ination of Ground Water by Synthetic
Detergents. J. NEWWA, 74: 61 (1960).
16. Almquist, F .O. Private Communication.
17. Muller, J. Bedeutsame Feststellungen
bei Grundwasserverunreinigungen
durch Benzin. 93, 1952, 205-209;
Abstr. JAWWA 45:(3):66PSR.
18. Fricke, K., and Krause-Wichmann.
Starkere Grundwasserverunreinigun-
gen durch Benzin bei Wesel. Gesund-
heitsing74, 1953, 394-396; Abstr.
JAWWA 48: (4) 64P&R.
19. Cederstrom, D. J. The Arlington Gaso-
line-Contamination Problem. U.S.
Dupl. Kept. 5 pp. (1947: Abstr: USGS
Water Supply Paper 1492, p. 28.
20. Hogg, C. Pette, A. E. J., and Collett,
W.F. Prevention of Pollution by Oil
"from Engineering Factories - Dis-
cussion by J. H. Spencer, Surveyor,
London, 107:6 (1948); Abstr. WPA 24,
No.910.
21. Grober, Diskussionsbemerkung Gas. u.
Wasserfach 96, 1955, 468.
22. Meinck, F. Beobachtungen und Betrach-
tungen zu einer Olverunreinigung des
Untergrundes. Geoundkeiksing, 18-20
(1958): Abstr. WPA 31, No. 443.
EXPERIENCES IN THE NETHERLANDS WITH
CONTAMINATION OF GROUND WATERS
J. K. Baars, The Netherlands
In the Netherlands, ground water is one
of the main sources of potable water. Not
less than 94 percent of all the waterworks
use ground water, and they supply 77 per-
cent of the total water consumed; therefore,
the problem of ground water pollution is of
extreme importance in the "low lands,"
particularly in the Western part of Holland
where the waterworks are situated in dunes
areas. The water is collected from aeolian
deposits of very fine sand, 90 percent between
0.30 and 0.15 mm in diameter. In other
parts of the country the sand is coarser
(85% between 0.42 and 0.15 mm) but still of
good filtering quality.
Population growth in the last decade has
resulted in greater water consumption, and
several large waterworks have increased
their capacity by artificial production of
ground water. The transformation of surface
water of average quality into ground water
of high quality has been studied extensively
in the last 10 years, including the purifying
capacity of these sandy soils. This may be
illustrated by consideration of artificial
ground water infiltration for the town of
Leyden.
The catchment area of the Leyden water-
works is situated just south of Katwijk. Here
the ground water is collected partly by drains
located above an impervious clay layer 5
meters below surface level, and partly from
wells that penetrate much deeper layers.
There is a limit to this source, however,
since underneath the dunes the brackish
water seeps into the polders, thus limiting
the fresh water reservoir formed by rain
water.
-------
Types of Contaminants
57
5.70m
8.60m
Bacterial number per ml water
3000
t
Bacterial number per g soil
68,500 32,800
t |
Presence of E.coli in Iml water
+ + ±
t I
Presence of E.coli in Ig soil
4000
760
180
FIGURE 1. INFILTRATION THROUGH BODY OF SAND (GRAIN SIZE 0.15mm) 6 MONTHS IN OPERATION
Since 1940 in this dune area surface
water has been brought into infiltration ponds
where its quality improves markedly dur-
ing percolation. The IS. coli content of the
water as it penetrates from the ponds into
the soil is about 100 to 200 per ml, whereas
the total number of bacteria varies between
1000 and 5000 per ml (counted on nutrient
agar after 48 hours incubation at 37° C),
After the water has filtered through the dune
sand, E. coli is absent in 100 ml and the
total number of bacteria is less than 100
per ml.
Bacteriological analysis of the sand
around such infiltration ponds gives good
insight into the filtering capacity of the soil
(Figure 1). The water content of 1 gram of
sand is approximately 0.2 ml. The bacterial
count in the sand-water mixture is about
70,000 per gram, much more than can be
present in the water alone. Most probably
the bacteria are adsorbed on the sand grains
(which may be an electrophysical process),
or even are simply filtered off; it is known
thatparticles may be kept back in capillaries
with a diameter many times greater than the
particles considered. The same decrease
in bacteria is found in a vertical direction
from the bottom of these infiltration ponds
(Figure 2).
In this decrease in the bacterial number
may be seen the struggle for life of the bac-
terial flora of the subsurface layers. With
increasing depth, too, the ratio of spore-
forming to nonspore-forming bacteria in-
creases from 1.3 to 10 to 15 percent. J5.
500,000
400,000
1.5 12.0 2.5 3.0
DEPTH IN METERS
FIGURE 2. BACTERIAL COUNT PER GRAM OF
SOIL AT INCREASING DEPTH UNDER BOTTOM OF
INFILTRATION BASIN
-------
58
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
subtilis, B. mesentericus, and B. mycoides
are predominant. During the travel of the
water in the soil, oxygen is used by the bac-
teria in their metabolism. After the free
oxygen is no longer present to function as a
hydrogen acceptor, the nitrates take over
this function. Results of an investigation of
test wells at different distances from an in-
filtration pond are given in Table 1.
In a relatively dry soil where ample
oxygen is present, the purifying effect in the
soil may be much greater (Figure 3) than
that shown in Table 1. In a tourist camp
near Hilversum, where the inhabitants live
from April to September in temporary
shacks provided with pit privies, the puri-
fication results are quite noticeable. The
essential factor in this situation is an abun-
dant supply of free oxygen in the soil.
If there is a lack of oxidizing capacity,
the bacteria may stay alive much longer and
the nitrogen compounds will be only partly
transformed into nitrates. The presence of
nitrates is an indication that mineralization
has been only partly achieved.
THE KATWIJK CASE
Near the Katwijk catchment area a camp-
ing site with some sanitation facilities was
established by the local authorities. Since
the facilities were quite insufficient, the
Table 1. PURIFICATION IN DUNE SOIL
c
O.4m
B A v.
| 04m O.4
r "r
5,400 262,000 79,000
0.4m
^ A A
0.3m 0.4m
431,000 56,000 6,840 0.5m
900 4,200 _8,_IOO 57,500 JS.IOO 9+l+,50O 460 LOm
IOO
zoo
300 300 690 2,120 650 OOO 15 m
100 7OO
JjSSS
100 <
1 1 5 _< JOO 120
<|OO
-------
Types of Contaminants
59
sewage that should have been pumped away
into the Katwijk sewer system undoubtedly
must have passed the emergency overflow
weir and penetrated into the subsoil.
In August 1960 the water of the wells had
a slightly greater bacterial count, so the
frequency of chemical and bacteriological
analyses was increased. The bacteriological
quality of the water was not significantly
worse, but the chemical analysis showed
serious pollution (Table 2). The presence
of nitrites is considered proof that strong
pollution with ammonia or proteid ammonia
has occurred and oxidation has only partly
transformed these components into nitrates.
It is known that, in contrast with the am-
monia salts that are adsorbed on the sand
particles, the nitrates and nitrites can pass
freely, so detection of nitrates at a few
hundred meters is not surprising.
To obtain a further insight into this case
of ground water pollution, two additional
wells were constructed, 32A at half the dis-
tance from well 32, and 32B adjacent to the
borderline of the camp. In these waters
again nitrites were found (Figure 4).
The fluctuations in the nitrogen content
are considered proof of the transportation
of the more or less mineralized polluting
substances. This point is mentioned because
it is known that, for instance, water from
peaty soil may contain more nitrogen com-
ponents than other natural water, but then
the peat water shows the same composition
over a long period of time.
The expectation that, in this fine-grained
sand, bacterial pollution would not be detected
in wells 31,32, and 33 was confirmed. Des-
pite a nitrate content of 14.6 mg/1, the bac-
terial count per ml of water was no more
than 4.
THE VELUWE CASE
The sudden and simultaneous occurrence
of three cases of tuberculosis in one family
living in the neighborhood of a sanatorium
led to a thorough examination of the individ-
ual water supply of two bungalows and a
cottage in a rural district in the central
part (Veluwe) of the Netherlands. At the
start of the investigation, each of the houses
was equipped with an individual water sup-
ply from a'drilled well 10 meters deep. The
subsurface of the region consists mainly of
coarse sands and gravels dating from Middle
Pleistocene times.
During the penultimate glacial period
(the Saale period) some of these deposits
were thrust up by the ice front into the "push
Table 2. POLLUTION OF GROUND WATER AT KATWIJK (LEIJDEN WATERWORKS)
Chemical analysis, mg/la
Well
Number
SI
32
32 A
326
33
7/27/60
N03
23.5
11/5/60
NOs
34
11/29/60
N03
< 2
42
< 2
12/19/60
N03
10.6
Trace
8.9
Trace
12/27/60
NOs
^2
13.0
<2
7.0
NO2
0
0
0
0
1/19/61
N03
6.2
5.0
13.5
NO2
0
4.3
8.9
1/31/61
N03
14.2
5.3
16.8
N02
0
3.7
9.2
2/7/61
N03
24.6
6.2
17.7
N02
0
3.0
8.0
2/20/61
N03
<2
14.6
4.4
16.8
<:2
N02
0.5
0
3.3
5.6
0
2/20/61
McConkey test
(10-ml samples)
Negative
Negative
Negative
Bacteria
. per ml
10
4
6
All samples contained about 0.3 mg NHg and 0.3 mg proteid NH3 per liter
-------
60
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
moraines" of the Eastern Veluwe. Loam
lenses have been found locally, possibly
dating from the Neede period, the warm
interglacial period proceeding the Saale
glacial period.
The greater part of the region is covered
by a thin layer of so-called cover sand, and
aeolian sand deposited during the last glacial
period.
In general it may be said that imper-
meable layers are absent. Figure 5 gives a
schematic view of the situation. The waste
water from the sanatorium was sterilized
only by abundant use of phenolic disinfectants
and then allowed to settle in a septic tank,
the overflow water being disposed of to a
small open canal serving as a feeder for an
underground drainage system in cultivated
fields.
An inspection of the waste disposal sys-
tem of the sanatorium revealed that surface
seepage of blackphenolic waste had occurred
in a pine forest outside the fields. The
gradients of the fields are about 1 : 100. It
seems reasonable to expect clogging of the
drainage system to develop nearest to the
sanatorium and the inlet in the feeder canal.
Table 3. QUALITY OF SURFACE WATER AND GROUND WATER
IN THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF SANATORIUM (VELUWE)
CHEMICAL
ANALYSIS
Permanganate
number (KMnO4), ppm
Chloride, mg/1
Nitrite, mg/1
Nitrate, mg/1
Sulphate, mg/1
Bicarbonate, mg/1
Carbon dioxide, mg/1
Ammonia, mg/1
Total hardness
(CaCOa), ppm
Phenols, mg/1
BACTERIOLOGICAL
ANALYSIS
Eykman Fermentation
Test
25ml
10ml
1ml
Completed Coli Test
50ml
10ml
Colony Counts at 37°C
24-hr incubation
at 22°C (2 tests)
Spring
of rivulet
17
30
26
300
Rivulet 200 m
from spring
3
15
Trace
Trace
11
36
1.0
30
50
WellW 1
(depth 10 m)
5
70
1.1
110
12
21
20
7.0
89
50
WellW 2
(depth 10 m)
3.5
10
0
Trace
11
37
7
0.1
32
100
Well W 3
(depth 10 m)
1.3
11
0
Trace
5
36
7
Trace
26
35
(Number of samples)
neg DOS
2 0
1 1
2 0
neg DOS
1 1
5 0
'0
0
neg EOS
1 1
0 2
2 0
neg DOS
0 2
3 2
5
3
neg pos
2 0
2 0
2 0
neg pos
5 0
2 0
0
0
neg pos
2 0
2 0
2 0
neg pos
5 0
2 0
0
0
neg pos
2 0
2 0
2 0
neg pos
5 0
2 0
0
0
-------
Types .of Con tain inants
61
Q & £>v Q
J
COUNTRY ROAD
L
E'
2i
BUNGALOW[~1
NEW DEEP ^IZ
WELL "*3
|:
1=
TI'I'ilT \
!
/
3
=
1 (DOWN) rJ~!
GRADIENT 1:100
E
Si 8
n j BUNGALOW ^
W2 §
tr
^ .;.|,|.|, u
. . ..M,.^. I !
1 ^-V I
I
FIGURE 5. POLLUTION OF GROUND WATER FROM
A SANATORIUM (VELUWE AREA, NETHERLANDS)
The clogging of drains and subsoil caused
an underground short-circuit with the spring
of a rivulet between the bungalows (12 and 14),
through the formation of an. underground
channel finally ending in the sandy banks of
the rivulet. This caused a direct contamina-
tion of the rivulet with the barely filtered
waste water of the sanatorium. The waters
of the three individual wells (W 1, W 2, and
W 3) and of the rivulet were examined.
The chemical and bacteriological re-
sults are summarized in Table 3. Although
the search for pathogenic organisms yielded
negative results, chemical analysis of the
well water of W 3 showed a strong bio-
chemical transformation of organic sub-
stances into ammonia and nitrates; all the
samples contained various amounts of phen-
olic substances.
The waters of wells W 1 and W 2, near
the bungalow (14) where the outbreak of
tuberculosis occurred, were still found to be
almost pure chemically, except for the phe-
nolic components already mentioned.
Owing to the inhibitory effect of the
phenolic substances, the bacteriological
examinations showed a complete absence of
normal pure water bacteria. In the water of
the rivulet near the spring, and even more
at a distance of some hundred meters from
the spring, fecal contamination easily could
be detected by the presence of E_. coli, in
spite of the phenolic substances.
The viability of pathogenic organisms en-
feebled by toxic substances is an unknown
and unsafe factor.
Sanitation of the water supplies of the
houses was effected by elimination of the
underground infiltration of the waste water
from the sanatorium in the neighboring field,
together with an improvement in the purifi-
cation of the waste water and the establish-
ment of a water supply for the houses from
a deep communal well. At a depth of 50
meters the ground water proved to be com-
pletely free from any traces of chemical or
bacterological contamination.
OTHER CASES
At another camping site (Oostvoorne) the
ground water level is only 1 meter below the
surface. Until 6 years ago contamination of
the subsoil was frequent, and 8 out of 12
samples of ground water taken from private
wells showed the presence of E. coli. These
wells were only 5 to 8 meters deep. The
results of chemical and bacteriological
analyses are given in Table 4.
The sanitary condition at Oostvoorne
camp has since been improved considerably;
measure shave been taken todispose of-fecal
matter in a proper way, and drinking water
is obtained from a central distribution sys-
tem (which is true of 90% of all Dutch com-
munities).
At a small town in Gelderland, which had
no central water supply, the ground water
very often was polluted locally by fecal mat-
ter to such an extent that the content of nitro-
gen components was considerable. This may
-------
62
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Table 4. CHEMICAL AND BACTERIOLOGICAL
ANALYSES a OF WATER IN WELLS AT
OOSTVOORNE CAMP
Well
number
2
3
6
7
8
9
11
14
19
20
21
NO2,mg/l
0.12
0.50
Trace
0.24
0.10
0.05
0.04
0
0.12
0.03
Trace
0.22
N03, mg/1
6.0
7.3
0
21
6.8
50
20
23
22
31
4.3
35
NH4.mg/l E. coli
0.24 +
0.11
0.45 +
1.8 +
0.57
0.36 +
0.19 +
0.07
2.7 +
0.03
0.07 +
1.4 +
The preliminary isolation was made in glutamic
acid medium; the Imvic test was vsed for final
confirmation.
have consequences with regard to methemo-
globinemia. The results of analyses of the
ground water at 10 farms (A, B, C, D, E, F, G,
H, K, L) in the Gelderland area are given in
Table 5.
At the time of sampling, reasonably good
water was available only at farms F and K.
The safety of even those water supplies,
however, is to be considered very doubtful!
In the last 10 years oil drilling has be-
gun in the Netherlands, and now about one-
third of the national consumption is supplied
from its own resources. Even in the dunes
area, drilling towers may be seen, but per-
mission for drilling was granted only with
rather severe restrictions. Among other
measures that had to be taken, it was corn-
Table 5. ANALYSES OF GROUND WATER
IN GELDERLAND AREA
Farm
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
K
L
NH4, mg/1
13.05
Trace
Trace
Trace
8.4
0
0
Trace
2
Trace
NO 3, mg/1
228.1
16.5
148.4
19.5
157.2
Trace
132.9
88.6
,. Trace
69.9
pulsoryto outfit the drilling plant completely
with a concrete floor with curbing to prevent
any leakage of waste, either oil or brine, in-
to the underground.
SUMMARY
Although the purifying capacity of the soil
may be considerable under favorable con-
ditions, the load of polluting substances may
sometimes surpass this capacity. The first
signs of serious pollution of ground water
are detected by chemical analysis, whereas
in a later phase bacterial pollution of the
ground water may be found. In the latter
event the water is generally oxygen free,
and it is to be expected that bacterial pol-
lution may remain present for a very long
period.
DISCUSSION 2
Chairman: W. E. Gilbertson
Dr. Jack McKee asked Dr. W. M. Mail-
man whether he has any information on the
travel of enzymes through soil. Dr. Mailman
answered that he has no information on this
subject but he would anticipate that enzymes
might travel in the same manner as viruses;
he added that information on the travel of
viruses in the soil is very limited.
-------
Types of Contaminants
63
Mr. George F. Hanson of the University
of Wisconsin asked whether there is any
limit to the distance water-borne organisms
may travel in fractured limestone forma-
tions. Dr. Mailman replied that there is no
practical limit on the distance these organ-
isms might travel through the solution chan-
nels that commonly occur in limestone for-
mations.
Mr. Ralph Baker of the Florida State
Board of Health asked Dr.Mailman's opinion
on the need for differential testing of coli-
form bacteria on samples taken for sanitary
analysis. Dr. Mailman stated that time did
not permit the long discussion that such a
question might require but that in general he
would not recommend such differentiation
(the IMViC test, which is used to differentiate
between fecal and nonf ecal coliform bacteria).
Mr. Norman Tuckett of the Broward
County Health Department(FortLauderdale,
Florida) asked Mr. F. M. Middleton for
elaboration on the effects that drainage from
sanitary landfills has on contamination of
ground water. The question was referred to
Dr. G. Walton, who stated that considerable
evidence has been cited in connection with
sanitary landfills but that he did not have
specific instances at his fingertips. He
added thatperhaps this subject could be ex-
plored further following Mr. Leo Weaver's
presentation on refuse disposal.
Mr. Herbert Swensen of the Geological
Survey asked Mr. Middleton whether phenolic
materials were likely to be discharged by
sugar beet processing plants; he believed
this had been reported. Mr. Middleton said
he knew of no phenolic problems connected
with sugar beet processing.
Mr. George Maxey of the Illinois State
Geological Survey asked Mr. Middleton how
organic contaminants disseminate in ground
water. It was stated that little information
is available on travel of organic polluntants.
Mr. Barry Andres of C. W. Lauman & Co.,
Inc., was asked to relate some of his ex-
periences in tracing detergent pollution on
Long Island. Mr.Andres said he and his co-
workers had followed ABS for 1000 feet and
that a path 100 to 300 feet wide was detected.
The ABS was found at depths as great as
100 feet below the top of the aquifers (see
paper by John M. Flynn).
Mr.Ralph M.Soule of the Massachusetts
Department of Public Health then related an
experience with contamination of wells by
phenols and manganese and gave an account
of the extreme difficulties encountered when
an attempt was made to alleviate the pollu-
tion by a variety of methods. Interceptor
wells were installed between the pollution
source and the contaminated well. Pumping
these wells reduced the contamination only
slightly. The contaminated well water then
was pumped and spray aerated to oxidize the
contaminants. Although the phenolics and
manganeses were reduced, this treatment did
not produce satisfactory water.
Mr. Martin Dretel of Brewster, New
York, asked Dr. J. K. Baars what he believes
is a safe nitrate concentration in water. Dr.
Baars indicated he did not wish to make a
firm statement but that he thought up to 100
ppm would not cause trouble, although the
World Health Organization standards are
only 50 ppm NO3 (12 ppm NO3-N). In con-
nection with the nitrate problem, Norman
Biegler of the Kansas State Board of Health
stated that a study in Kansas indicated that
nitrates were concentrated near the water
table and that simply extending the casing of
a low-capacity well frequently resulted in a
water with a much lower nitrate content.
-------
64 GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
-------
SESSION 3
SPECIFIC INCIDENTS OF
CONTAMINANTS IN GROUND WATER
Chairman: R. E. Fuhrman
Ground Water Contamination in the
Minneapolis and St. Paul Suburbs, F. L. Woodward Page 66
Impact of Suburban Growth on Ground Water
Quality in Suffolk County, New York, J. M. Flynn, Jr Page 71
Problems Arising From Ground Water Contamination
by Sewage Lagoons at Tieton, Washington, R.H. Bogan Page 83
Infectious Hepatitis Outbreak in Posen, Michigan, J. E. Vogt Page 87
Ground Water Contamination in the Greensburg Oil Field,
Kentucky, R. A. Krieger Page 91
Incidents of Chromium Contamination of Ground
Water in Michigan, Morris Deutsch Page 98
Refuse Disposal -- Its Significance, L. Weaver Page 104
Underground Natural Gas Storage (Herscher Dome), O.S. Hallden . . Page 110
Two Cases of Organic Pollution of Ground Waters,
R. H.Burttschell, A. A. Rosen, and F. M. Middleton Page 115
Contamination by Processed Petroleum Products, L. M. Miller . . . Page 117
The Movement of Saline Ground Water in the
Vicinity of Derby, Colorado, L.R.Petri Page 119
Public Health Aspects of the Contamination of
Ground Water in the Vicinity of Derby, Colorado, G. Walton . . . Page 121
Discussion Page 125
65
-------
66
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION IN THE
MINNEAPOLIS AND ST. PAUL SUBURBS
L. Woodward, Minnesota Department of Health
During the last 2 years a great deal of
publicity has been given to the disclosure
that the ground water in the suburbs of
Minneapolis and St. Paul has been extensively
contaminated by sewage, affecting the in-
dividual household wells serving a relatively
large population in the area. Much of the
publicity has been critical of the interpreta-
tion of the findings and of the fact that some
alarm has resulted. Significantly, this
criticismhas come largely from per sons and
organizations with an economic interest in
the continued development of on-site water
supplies, i.e., home builders, well drillers,
and persons furnishing well equipment and
water-conditioning equipment.
Several factors, which in combination
may be unique to this area, have contributed
to the situation. By the end of 1959, some
400,000persons in the suburbs were depend-
ent upon individual water supplies or individ-
ual sewage disposal systems or both. Per-
haps the most important single factor was
the lack of control of platting. In the suburbs
there were no local health services other
than those provided by a part-time health
officer, and there was no authority for a
State agency to exercise control over de-
velopment of subdivisions. Ground water is
readily available throughout most of the
area, at depths of 20 to 70 feet, so that a
developer could justify individual wells in-
stead of community water systems that would
involve him in operation of a utility. Also,
soil conditions are generally favorable for
the absorption of liquids. In the early post-
war years most of the developers were small
operators who did not have the resources to
install community sewer systems, partic-
ularly in view of a lack of convenient and
suitable outlets. Minneapolis and St.Paul,
although willing to contract with adjoining
suburbs within the limits of the capacity of
their respective sewage collection systems,
were unable, in general, to furnish relief be-
yond the first ring of suburbs, and many of
these applied for service only after a high
population density had demonstrated the
failure of on-site facilities.
Another factor that solved some prob-
lems but did little to provide regulation of
housing development was a rash of municipal
incorporations (see Figure 1), which totaled
35 in the Twin City area between 1950 and
1960. Fifteen of these made villages of en-
tire townships or of the parts of townships
remaining after smaller villages had been
created. The purpose of the latter type
of incorporation was to prevent further
erosion of territory by development of vil-
lages within the township or selective an-
nexation to other municipalities, which
eventually destroy the tax base for main-
tenance of township services. Most of
these new communities came into being
without ordinances and without experience
in municipal government.
How the Situation Developed
Soon after the rather slow start of post-
war building the Minnesota Department of
Health issued several warnings, by direct
communication and through the press, call-
ing attention to the inevitable result of using
the same soil formation for sewage disposal
and for water supply in areas of substantial
housing developments. These warnings were
largely disregarded. The developers did not
care to assume the legal responsibilities of
arranging for maintenance and operation of
central facilities, and local governments,
except well-established municipalities, were
reluctant to embark in the utility field to
provide service to many scattered develop-
ments in a large semirural area. Further-
more, the State Department of Health and the
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
67
IYTON 'v?Sftv:f*;.-::-/.;.':.'''.':v ,: :'{/:- ..'v ''
eN*Bi^ll«V.-.-.',7^k-.l.-1.vi1.'.-:-' ..::..;. !;};-' .'..'.'. /,'.' '
:-'. iiioiiJiiiiSe-.'-.::'.'..':']
HENNEPiN CO.
iRAMSEY CO.
"(THASKA ^ __.
DAKOTA CO.
FIGURE 1. MINNEAPOLIS-ST.PAULANDSUBURBS-SHADEDAREASARE INCORPORATED MUNICIPALITIES
Water Pollution Control Commission could
not look favorably upon any proposal to dis-
charge sewage into any of the very small or
intermittent streams that would be the only
economical outlet for sewage in many of the
isolated developments. For the latter reason
the construction of central water supplies
was urged, with individual septic tank sys-
tems to be accepted for sewage disposal
until proper central collection and disposal
could be economically justified.
The first privately owned water system
installed after World War II was constructed
in another state in 1946 by a developer of a
half dozen custom built homes. This devel-
oper incorporated his water supply to meet
the FHA requirement of guaranteed per-
petuity of service. Since that time many
large developers have installed central water
systems where their immediate building
plan has made such systems economically
attractive. FHA later adopted a policy re-
quiring central water systems in develop-
ments coming under their approval, if the
feasibility factor did not exceed approxi-
mately 1.5.
In 1956 a serious occurrence of ground
water contamination in an unincorporated
-------
68
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
area north of St. Paul was caused by the dis-
charge of surface water and septic tank
effluents from a housing development of
several hundred homes into the underlying
limestone formation.! In the area studied,
the surface of the limestone varied ftom 18
to 36 feet below the ground surface and most
of the septic tanks discharged into leaching
pits up to 18 feet in depth. The use of drain-
age wells for disposal of surface water had
been common in die township. Sampling of
about 150 wells showed that a significant
number of these were contaminated bacte-
riologically. The only chemical examination
made was for hardness, and this test showed
extensive effects of the softer surface water
on the hardness of the well water. (Like
most other public health agencies the Minne-
sota Department of Health long ago abandoned
the sanitary chemical examination of drink-
ing water in favor of the more easily inter-
preted bacteriological tests.) The inclusion
of nitrate and surfactant tests in this study
probably would have yielded information that
would have been more convincing than the
bacteriological findings, especially since the
residents were not aware of any illness that
they believed had been caused by water. An
election to authorize a township water supply
was defeated, but the developer installed a
| central water system for a part of the area
and the City of White Bear Lake annexed
other parts and furnished water to them
from the municipal system.
In April 1959 a housewife in a sewerless
suburb north of Minneapolis telephoned to
report unexplained illness in her family,
coupled with a peculiar taste and appear-
ance of her well water. She was especially
concerned with the persistent foamy film
on the surface of the water after it was
drawn from a tap. Remembering reports of
the finding of synthetic detergents in ground
water in other parts of the country, and es-
pecially on Long Island.j the State Health
Department decided that this situation should
be studied. Accordingly, samples of the well
water were examined quantitatively for sur-
factant, nitrate nitrogen, and coliforms.
The surfactant level was found to be 1.1 ppm
and the nitrate nitrogen level, 11 ppm. No
coliforms were found. The water from a
neighbor's well contained 0.91 ppm sur-
factant, 7.6 ppm nitrate nitrogen, and no
coliforms. Since both wells were about 30
feet deep and were located and constructed
in general accordance with accepted stand-
ards, it was decided to attempt additional
studies in the area. The village council was
receptive to the proposal and assisted in a
survey of the entire community of 10,000
people.
Survey Procedure and Findings
Samples were collected at random from
a statistically representative number of
wells and analyzed for nitrate, surfactant,
and chloride. Chloride was included in^this
survey because it was believed that 'the
rather general use of exchange-type water
softeners might make this a valuable tracer
of sewage movement; however, because of the
lack of correlation with the other chemical
findings;, this analysis was not made in sub-
sequent surveys. Nitrate nitrogen in signifi-
cant concentrations from 1 to 21 ppm was
found in 62.2 percent of the supplies ex-
amined; 10.2 percent contained 10 ppm or
more. Surfactants were found in 23.6 per-
cent of the samples, and there was good cor-
relation between the concentrations of sur-
factants and the concentration of nitrates.
Coliform tests of water from the 10 percent
of the wells showing the highest chemical
evidence of contamination were negative.
The publicity given to these findings, by
the community involved, resulted in im-
mediate requests for similar surveys
throughout the area. By the end of January
1961, 40 such surveys were completed and
comprehensive1 reports furnished to the com-
munity officials. Generally, these 'surveys
covered an entire village or township; how-
ever, a few were carried out in a single
housing development. In five communities
all wells tested were affected, and in one
small annex of about 100 homes all results
were negative. The composite results,
representing over 63,000 wells serving more
than250,000people, showed that about 46-1/2
percent of the wells were contaminated, as
evidenced by the presence of nitrate or sur-
factants of sewage origin. Nitrate nitrogen
in excess of 10 ppm was found in 10.6 per-
cent of the wells tested, and measurable
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
69
quantities of surfactant were found in 21.8
percent of the wells. The concentration of
sewage chemicals in the water has varied in
individual cases from a trace to an amount
sufficient to indicate complete or multiple
recirculation of sewage.
Factors Affecting Contamination
In younger (postwar) communities 10 to
20 percent of the wells most seriously af-
fected by sewage chemicals are also con-
taminated bactefiologically, as evidenced by
coliform organisms in the water, whereas
in older communities as many as 50 percent
of all wells are so affected. Other than age
of a community factors that have been found
to affect the occurrence of ground water con-
tamination are: well depth, character of
soil, population, and rate and direction of
ground water movement. Tables 1 and 2
show the relationship of well depth and age
of community to concentration of nitrate in
areas with similar soil characteristics.
The influence of soil characteristics on
contamination travel varies considerably. In
some communities wells that penetrate
several layers of clay have been affected.
In others, including one with no affected
wells, clay soil has appeared to be the fac-
tor that has furnished protection. Various
conclusions may be drawn from this. Most
logical, perhaps, is the conclusion contam-
ination is less likely to occur in areas where
the clay layers are continuous and undis-
rupted over extensive areas than in areas
where only islands of clay exist or where the
clay has failed to settle around some of the
well casings. In areas where limestone
aquifers are near the surface of the ground,
all wells generally are affected with sewage
chemicals ggft bacterial contamination is
common.
Geology of Area
In the Twin City area the earth forma-
tion consists of alternate layers of shales,
limestones, and sandstones of varying thick-
ness, showing the various effects of glaciation
and erosion. The overlying drift varies in
depth from zero to over 200 feet, and its
Table 1. RESULTS OF STUDY OF WELLS
IN TYPICAL POSTWAR COMMUNITY
Well depth, ft
0 -
26 -
51 -
76 -
101 -
126 -
151 -
176 -
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
Number
of wells
8
18
8
13
0
1
1
2
% of waters
with i>l ppm
NOs-N
50
28
37
8
0
0
0
Table 2. ^RESULTS OF STUDY OF WELLS
IN TY.PICAL OLDER COMMUNITY
Well depth, ft
0 -
51 -
76 -
101 -
126 -
151 -
50
75
100
125
150
175
Number
of wells
6
10
21
5
3
1
% of waters
with j>l ppm
67
50
71
100
67
0
character ranges from tight clay to sand,
gravel and, in some cases, boulders result-
ing from the breaking and erosion of the
rock formations. About half of the wells in-
cluded in the current studies terminate in
the drift, and the remainder in limestone or
sandstone.
Most of the wells affected in the 1956
episode were developed in the shallow
Platteville limestone that underlies that
particular area. The five communities in
the current studies, where all wells tested
-------
70
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
were contaminated, are underlain by the
Shakopee-Oneota dolomite. In both instances
sewage from individual systems can move
readily into and through the rock formation.
The development of safe wells in such situa-
tions requires grouted construction through
the faulty limestone and into the St. Peter
sandstone in the area of the 1956 episode,
and into the Jordan sandstone in the area of
the wells currently being studied.
Municipal and commercial wells in the
area generally terminate in the Jordan sand-
stone, which is the principal high-yield
aquifer, or in deeper formations. Often the
Shakeopee-Oneota dolomite has been used
where it is protected by sufficient cover and
sufficient distance from an outcrop. Con-
tinued draft has brought about a deteriora-
tion of quality in some of these wells, and
more rigid construction and operation re-
quirements have been imposed.
Basis for Determining Contamination
The use of 1 or more ppm nitrate nitro-
gen as evidence of sewage contamination is
based on the fact that nitrate does not com-
monly occur in more than trace amounts in
ground water in the Twin City area. This is
supported by the findings of the surveys -
over half of the well waters tested contain
less than 1 ppm nitrate nitrogen. Critics
have pointed out that other states and the
Public Health Service have suggested limits
of 10 to 20 ppm for assessing the safety
hazard of nitrate nitrogen in drinking water
and that for this reason the standard of 1
ppm is unrealistic. These-people choose to
disregard the fact that this standard is not
used as a measure of toxicitybut as an indi-
cator of sewage contamination. They state
that a limit of 10 ppm or even 5 ppnvwould
be more realistic and acceptable. They ap-
parently do not question the use of surfactant
as a criterion, although they have suggested
that in low concentrations it has no health
significance. For several years the Minne-
sota Department of Health has recommended
against the use of water that contains more
than 10 ppm of nitrate nitrogen for infant
feeding, and in each of the surveys in this
study the owners of wells showing this level
of nitrate have been given individual warnings.
In Table 3 the overall survey results
are arranged to show the percentage of wells
that would be considered as showing evidence
of contamination with various combinations
of nitrate and surfactant.
Table 3. PERCENT OF WELLS CONTAIN-
ING NITRATE NITROGEN AND/OR
SURFACTANT
Contamination criterion
% of wells
Over 1 ppm NOs-N
5 ppm NOs-N
10 ppm NOs-N
Surfactant
Over 1 ppm NO3-N or
surfactant
Over 5 ppm NOs-N or
surfactant
Over 10 ppm NOs~N or
surfactant
41.2
25.1
10.6
21.8
46.5
33.6
24.0
Policy of Federal Housing Administration
Although the FHA is concerned with
much less than half of the home loans in
the area, its policies are adopted directly
by the Veterans Administration and, in ad-
dition, they influence the policies of con-
ventional lending agencies. Consequently,
FHA interest in the quality of ground water
has economic impact on the entire home
building industry. On February 3, 1960, the
Director of the Minneapolis office of the FHA
issued a circular letter establishing limits
of 1 ppm nitrate nitrogen and 0.2 ppm sur-
factant for individual water supplies of
homes to be considered for FHA mortgage
insurance. The policy is not retroactive but
does apply to all new .guarantees and to the
refinancing of existing properties. It can be
modified in individual instances where there
is assurance that a safe supply of water will
be available within a limited and definite
time. The issuance of this policy evoked
loud criticism from the building industry,
but it has remained in effect, with the full
support of higher echelons of FHA. The
pattern of home building has changed, with
more builders installing central water sup-
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
71
plies and with deeper, more expensive, in-
dividual wells being needed where central
systems are not feasible. Builders who are
able to advertise that their development has
city water have taken full advantage of the
opportunity.
Results
Since the summer of 1959, ten communi-
ties have completed, or started construction
of, municipal water supplies that will serve
150,000 people, based on the 1960 census.
In addition, other communities have extended
their systems to areas not previously served
and eight private water companies have been
established to serve particular housing de-
velopments in areas not served by municipal
systems. Elections to provide public supplies
have failed in eight villages, but new elec-
tions have been successful in two of these.
In April 1959 St. Louis Park, with a 1960
population of 43,310, established its first
full-time health service. Later,Bloomington
50,500, Richfield, 42,523, andEdina,28,500,
established similar services. The full-time
services provided are principally those of
a sanitarian, and the latter three communi-
ties established their services as a direct
result of the water supply situation.
In addition to the great interest in public
water supplies, much concern has been ex-
pressed about the conservation of the quality
of both the shallow ground water and the
water in the deeper formations by the in-
stallation of sewers in areas now served by
septic tanks and soil absorption systems.
The Legislature is considering several bills
that would permit the creation of sanitary
districts wherever necessary for the solu-
tion of problems involving multiple juris-
dictions. The most important and necessary
proposed legislation in this field would pro-
vide an expanded metropolitan sanitary
authority that would include most of the sub-
urbs in a joint district with the Twin Cities
at a cost of about $100 million. Other bills
related to the solution of this problem would
require licensing of well drillers, installers
of septic tank systems, and scavengers.
Serious thought is also being given to the
ultimate needs for water in the area. The
limit of productivity of the Jordan sandstone
may soon be reached, and the likelihood that
more reliance must be placed on the Miss-
issippi River as a source is recognized. The
capacity of the river is also limited, with
the peak demands of Minneapolis and St. Paul
approaching half of the minimum flow. Con-
sideration is being given to various methods
of augmenting low water flows, to supply the
needs for domestic and industrial use and
for dilution of sewage effluents. The most
likely possibility appears to be regulation
of the navigation reservoirs on the head-
waters of the Mississippi River; however,
diversion of water from the St. Croix River
and a 150-mile conduit from Lake Superior
also are being considered.
IMPACT OF SUBURBAN GROWTH ON GROUND WATER
QUALITY IN SUFFOLK COUNTY, NEW YORK
J. M. Flynn, Suffolk County Health Department
Suffolk County, the east end of Long
Island, is bounded on the north by the Long
Island Sound and on the south by bays created
by parallel barrier beaches between the
bays and the Atlantic Ocean. The 10 town-
ships of the County comprise 922 square
miles and had a population in 1960 of 665,550,
or 723 per sons per square mile. From 1*950
to 1960 the population increased approxi-
mately 390,000 persons, or 60 percent. The
most startling growth was in the urban popu-
lation, which increased 295 percent. The
four western townships, about one-third of
the total area, contain approximately 71 per-
cent of the population, or nearly 1600 persons
per square mile. In addition, the growth of
-------
72.
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
the western towns still exceeds that of the
eastern towns. The water resources of suf-
folk County are estimated to be sufficient to
support a population of 3.5 million.
Planning and regulation to insure orderly
development of Suffolk County, as they affect
water supply and waste disposal, are largely
the responsibilities of town building depart-
ments and planning boards and the Suffolk
County Health Department. In those areas
under realty subdivision regulations, there
has been an opportunity to review plans for
water supply and sewage disposal for each
subdivision. The development of public
water supplies for most of these subdivisions
has proceeded in an orderly fashion; how-
ever, sewage disposal has been almost ex-
clusively by individual subsurface leaching
systems.
The greatest difficulty has been en-
countered with water supply and waste dis-
posal in areas where development by various
builders was carried out piecemeal on sites
selected from old filed maps. These areas
unfortunately are not subjected to planning
and health regulations as realty subdivisions
are.
GEOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY
The topography of Suffolk, like that of
most of Long Island, slopes gently from the
north to the south shore. The only abrupt
topography is along the north shore where
elevations may change several hundred feet
over distances of 500 feet. The terrain of
the County was created largely by glacial
action; two glacial moraines transverse the
Island from northwest to southeast. Natural
drainage is by streams and lakes, most of
which are small and run off to either Sound
or Bay. Long Island is underlain by bed
rock, which dips at a rate of about 80 feet
per mile from northwest to southeast and
from north to south. This rock is en-
countered at depths of about 400 feet on the
north shore and 2000 feet on the barrier
beaches.
The Island was formed during several
geological periods. In the first period
Appiachian runoff deposited a coarse sand
that forms the basis of the Lloyd stratum
directly above the bed rock. The nature and
velocity of the runoff varied, resulting in the
deposition of Raritan clays upon the Lloyd
sands. Further changes in the runoff re suited
in the formation of the Magothy, the thickest
stratum, which is a mixture of sands, clays,
and gravels. As indicated by occasional
lignite and other coal formations, the Magothy
stratum was originally near sea level and
was swampy.
Erosion appears to have been the pre-
dominant force later, with Long Island Sound
having been formed by a stream flowing
eastward. During the Pleistocene era, which
followed, glaciers covered portions of Long
Island. These glaciers deposited large
quantities of sands, gravels, and clays on the
north portion of the Island at the termination
of the moraine.
The final era, marked by the end of the
Ice Age, carried large quantities of sands
and gravels to the south of the glacial mor-
aine. The finer materials were deposited
off shore where they formed the muds and
clays in the bay bottoms. A period of ero-
sion resulted in the formation of the barrier
beaches that parallel the south shore. The
glacial outwash covers most of central and
south Suffolk and is characterized by medium
to coarse sands and gravels extending to
depths of 100 feet.
At a rate of approximately 500,000,000
gallons per day, ground water is recharged
naturally by rain, snow, and sleet, and arti-
ficially by storm drainage, cooling water,
and domestic sewage. Rainfall alone ac-
counts for approximately 800,000 gallons
per square mile per day. The annual rainfall
is 42 inches, of which about 50 percent finds
its way into the ground water. In the central
portion of the Island the water table is ap-
proximately 70 to 80 feet above sea level.
Because of this elevation differential, the
fresh water, moving at 0.5 to 2.0 feet per
day, discharges naturally at the north and
south shores. An artificial discharge is
created by withdrawals of water for public
water supply and for industrial or agri-
cultural use. Portions of this water are dis-
charged to the sea as treated or untreated
sewage and as storm drainage.
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
73
A safe yield from the ground waters is
that at which the present water table is main-
tained; withdrawal exceeding that amount
would lower the water table below sea level
and result in salt water intrusion. Such in-
trusion of salt water has occurred where
withdrawals have exceeded the safe yield.
Temporary salt intrusion also has occurred
in wells close to shores where the sealing
muds and clays in bay and harbor bottoms
have been removed by dredging.
The three most important water-bearing
strata in Suffolk County are the Glacial,
Magothy, and Lloyd. The Glacial is the up-
per and most productive stratum. The
Magothy is the thickest formation and con-
tains many good water-bearing strata. The
Lloyd stratum is productive but extremely
deep, and since recharge is slow, it is gen-
erally reserved for use when the Glacial or
Magothy fail to produce water or are un-
available.
PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY
Approximately 59 percent of the popula-
tion of Suffolk County obtain water from 90
communal or public supply systems. The
largest supplier is the Suffolk County Water
Authority, which serves various locations
throughout the length of the County. Other
suppliers include town districts, incor-
porated villages, private companies, and
community or civic associations.
In Table 1 the estimated numbers of
people served by public water supply and
private wells as of January 1960 are listed
for each town.
The present trend is toward the construc-
tion and extension of public water supply
systems to serve the vast areas of the
County that still employ individual wells.
This problem is especially crucial in the
four we stern townships where plot densities,
as many as seven per acre, and population
densities are extremely high. The trend to-
ward installation of public water supply
facilities in the east end also is growing. In
many rural areas, however, private wells on
large plots still may be used with some
safety.
Table 1. SUMMARY OF WATER SUPPLY AND
POPULATION FOR 1960
Public Water Supply Private Wells
Estimated Estimated
Total Number popu- Number popu-
popu- of lation of lation
Town lation services .served wells served
Babylon
Islip
Huntington
Smithtown
Brookhaven
Riverhead
Southold
Southampton
East Hampton
Shelter Island
Totals
142,309
172.959
126,221
50,347
108,900
14,519
13,295
26,861
8,827
1,312
665.550
22,067
28 ,726
29,901
7,778
13,000
1,870
1,635
5,400
2,000
125
112,502
77,500
101,000
104,000
27,200
45,500
6,545
5,723
18,900
7,000
440
393,808
18,200
21,000
6,350
6,600
18,200
2,270
2,150
2,265.
523
250
77,808
64,809
71,959
22,221
23,146
63,400
7,974
7,572
7,961
1.827
872
271,742
More than 85 percent of the Suffolk
County water supplies is obtained from the
Glacial stratum. Most of the remainder of
these supplies is obtained from the Magothy
stratum; a 'relatively small percentage is
taken from the Lloyd stratum. The practice
of obtaining most of the supply from the
Glacial stratum has resulted in increased
use of polluted water.
The Glacial stratum consists primarily
of coarse sands and gravels, and it is into
this upper stratum that wastes are dis-
charged. The coarseness of the sands per-
mits ready percolation and travel of wastes
through this stratum. It is attractive as a
source of water supply because productive
wells can be obtained at depths of 50 to 100
feet and large quantities of water can be
pumped from any single well. Although the
Magothy stratum is deeper, requiring wells
of depths from 300 to 700 feet, its yields
often are equivalent to those of the Glacial
stratum. The Magothy sands are overlain
by lenses of clay and other impervious ma-
terials. Consequently, water reaching this
stratum has had the advantages of long
periods of storage and farther travel through
finer filtering media, which are presumed to
have certain ion-exchange or adsorption
properties. The Lloyd stratum, the deepest
source, is relatively untapped in Suffolk
County. The policy of the Water Resources
-------
74
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Commission is to grant permission to use
this supply only when all other sources are
relatively unattainable in the specific area.
No evidence to date indicates that the
Magothy stratum has been contaminated by
wastes introduced into the ground waters;
however,'no evidence indicates that pollu-
tion of the Magothy is not possible. The
determination of which stratum is used for
water supply requires long-range planning,
utilizing the knowledge of the geologist, well
driller, and sanitary engineer.
The hazards of using water that is sub-
jected to contamination are affected to a
large degree by the amount of treatment
given the supply before it is pumped into the
distribution system. Where the quality of the
raw source is unknown or variable, treat-
ment substantially reduces the risk to the
user. Treatment by the various water sup-
pliers of Suffolk County is relatively limited;
only about 10 percent of the water receives
some chlorination. The amount of chlorina-
tion varies from 0.1 ppm to an occasional
use of 0.5 ppm to offset seasonal complaints
relative to iron and sulphur bacteria. In ad-
dition to chlorination some 30 percent of the
suppliers adjust pH for corrosion control.
Thus, the over-all treatment of water in
Suffolk County is limited and the amount of
disinfection provided is practically negli-
gible. Much of the reason for this is the
good bacteriological quality of the raw water
and the general acceptance of the Long Is-
land sand and gravel strata as infallible
filtration barriers.
PRIVATE WATER SUPPLY
Approximately 41 percent of the present
population in Suffolk County obtain water
from some 77,800 individual domestic wells,
as indicated in Table 1. The source of these
well waters is almost entirely in the Glacial
stratum. Many of these wells, particularly
those in the western portion of the County,
are located on small plots of 4000 to 7500
square feet, and the sewage disposal systems
for the'se homes are located on these same
plots. Contamination is inevitable, and the
fact that it has occurred and is continuing to
occur is constantly indicated by the unsatis-
factory bacteriological and chemical anal-
yses of such waters.
The degree of treatment accorded to
these private well waters is practically
negligible. A few home owners employ de-
vices to feed phosphates into the water to
control red-water problems. No practical,
economically feasible devices are available
for disinfection of individual well waters.
Even if such were available, the program
required to determine the effectiveness of
77,000 individual miniature treatment facili-
ities would be enormous.
The questionable quality of the waters
from these individual wells has been demon-
strated. A limited knowledge of this situa-
tion is provided by those analyses that are
performed by private laboratories for indi-
vidual home owners at their own cost. The
Health^ Department does sample private wells
when requested by the family physician and
also has made spot surveys of water quality
in several areas where' private wells are
used.
SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION
To evaluate the extent of contamination
from the various sources.it is necessary to
rely upon over rail assumptions based on
spot check investigations. More than 600
industrial plants are located in Suffolk
County. Engineers from the Suffolk County
Health Department have visited approxi-
mately 400 of these industrial plants. The
studies show that at the time of survey 30
of the plants were discharging treated or
untreated wastes.
In an intensive survey of the Town of
Babylon, 350 industrial establishments in 26
separate areas were investigated. Industrial
wastes were being discharged by 11 of the
industries. Two additional industries were
producing wastes in amounts of no sig-
nificance, but they require continued obser-
vation for any change that may result in an
increase in the wastes. Of the 11 industries,
only two of the larger ones were treating
their wastes. The combined wastes from 11
industries amounted to a total waste dis-
charge of 17,200 gallons per day. The ma-
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
75
terials discharged included the following
contaminants: nitric acid, hexavalent chro-
mium, cadmium, nickle, cyanide, and syn-
thetic detergents.
To evaluate the pollution potential of
laundry wastes, the Suffolk County Health
Department instituted a survey of all laundry
installations. Every known launderette and
laundry was visited, and data relative to
their operation were recorded. In general,
data were sought on the number and capacity
of machines, type and amount of washing
compound used, amount of water used, and
the type of sewage disposal system. A sum-
mary of the data is given in Table 2.
Table 2. SUMMARY OF LAUNDRY SURVEY DATA
Towmhlp
Synthetic
Number of Number of detergents. Soap. Water uied, gal/mo
laundries machines Ib/mo Ib/mo Private Public
Babylon
Btookhaven
E. Hampton
HuMiogton
Isllp
Rrverbead
Sodlniown
SOnthold
Southampton
24
24
1
5
24
2
8
6
9
354
414
20
123
346
136
84
80
95
3.930
4.575
--
960
4,810
1.000
1,855
2,390
3,475
2,190
1,620
--
--
1,500
400
300
--
255
854,500
969,750
110.000
--
1,037,000
--
75.000
150,000
557,335
527,750
898,968
..
394,500
512,000
140,750
127,500
182,143
570,187
Totals
103
1.552
24,095 6.265 3,753,585 3,353,798
Estimates based on the survey of laun-
drettes indicate that 1552 machines use
109,575,856 gallons of water and 436,578
pounds of detergent per year. The latter
sum, however, does not include any deter-
gent supplied by the launderette customer.
The survey showed 78 launderettes disposed
of wastes through subsurface leaching sys-
tems; seven, by collection in watertight
tanks and hauling of the wastes to a disposal
site; eleven, by discharge to public sewers;
and two, by discharge to streams.
Approximately 95 percent of the comes-
tic and sanitary sewage in Suffolk County is
discharged through subsurface leaching sys-
tems into the ground waters. Only about 5
percent of the County's population use public
sewers; consequently, substantial ground
water contamination occurs. The daily dis-
charges from the three principal sources of
sanitary sewage are estimated to be (1)
more than 2,000,000 gallons from large
institutions and industrial plants, (2)
25,000,000 gallons from 150,000 private
homes - this does not include the substantial
increase in summer discharges that result
from summer residents, and (3) 20,000 to
40,000 gallons from each of an unknown
number of shopping centers and business
areas.
Scavenger disposal sites are another
source of ground water contamination. There
are approximately 18 such sites to which the
contents of cesspool cleaning trucks and
other liquid wastes from business and com-
mercial establishments are hauled.
A detailed survey of the cesspool clean-
ings from Babylon and Islip indicates that
these towns produce 9,500,000 and 14,400,000
gallons per year, respectively. The volume
of scavenger wastes is not recorded for the
remaining eight townships; however, esti-
mates place it at 16,000,000 gallons per
year. The total for the County would exceed
100,000 gallons per day, and with the con-
tinued construction and subsequent failures
of private sewage disposal systems, this
amount is increasing constantly.
Unevaluated sources of ground water
contamination are the 19 garbage disposal
sites throughout the County. An estimate
based on the County's present population
places the quantity of garbage accumulated
each year at 450,000 tons. A small part of
this is incinerated; the remainder is incor-
porated in raw form into landfill. Un-
doubtedly, the decomposition of vast quan-
tities of organic material is affecting the
ground water in each vicinity.
The storm water recharge basins now in
use or proposed for construction number
over 400. These basins receive the portion
of the rainfall that travels over the land sur-
face and a large portion of the rainfall that
accumulates on impervious areas such as
roads, sidewalks, and parking lots. The
daily discharge from the existing basins is
estimated to be 10,000,000 gallons. The
value of the recharge basins from the stand-
points of both water conservation and dis-
posal of storm water is unquestioned. The
water discharged into these basins carries
from the drainage area accumulative quan-
tities of herbicides, insecticides, and road
surfacing materials. No intimation is in-
-------
76
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
tended for adoption of controls or proposals
to treat the contents of these recharge
basins; however, the advisability of locating
public water supply wells downstream from
such basins must be considered. No serious
attempt to evaluate the quality of the ground
water downstream from recently constructed
recharge basins has ever been made.
The large quantities of fertilizers and
sprays used in the agricultural areas in
eastern Suffolk County are an obvious but
unevaluated source of pollution.
EVIDENCES OF CONTAMINATION
By the time the Department becomes
aware of ground water contamination in any
particular area, it usually is gross enough
to result in complaints by users, relative to
taste, odor, and other physical qualities. The
investigation of such contamination usually
results from complaints and in most in-
stances is confined to the area of such com-
plaints. Sixteen domestic wells and seven
industrial wells in Islip and Babylon are
known to have been contaminated by plating
wastes consisting of hexavalent chromium,
cadmium, zinc, or synthetic detergents, in
varying amounts. The contamination of
these 23 wells was determined by spot
sampling downstream from known industrial
waste discharges. This number does not
represent all wells that may have been con-
taminated. The details of this survey are
contained in a report by the Suffolk County
Department of Health entitled "Survey of
Industrial Wastes Town of Babylon," dated
February 1958.
Contamination by laundry and launder-
ette wastes of 25 domestic and 3 industrial
wells has been evidenced by complaints and
spot sampling throughout the County. A de-
tailed study of the effect of launderette
waste on the ground waters downstream
from disposal facilities for such wastes was
completed under a New York State Water
Pollution Control Board research grant and
is published as Research Report No. 6.
Contamination of over 1000 domestic
and 5 municipal well fields by synthetic de-
tergents has been substantiated by spot
sampling initiated as a result of complaints
by home owners. A Suffolk County Health
Department report entitled "Study of Syn-
thetic Detergents in Ground Water" contains
the details of an intensive survey in one area.
Numerous chemical analyses of ground
waters from domestic water wells have
shown the presence of chemical constituents
associated with decomposing organic sub-
stances. The amounts present sometimes
have been consistent with those normally
associated with ground water. More often
such analyses have indicated the presence
of these constituents in gross amounts,
clearly indicating a close association with
sewage discharges. Bacteriological examin-
ations of waters from domestic wells have
shown the presence ofcoliform organisms in
amounts from an MPN of 2.2 to more than
2400 per one hundred milliliters. The coli-
forms found in these domestic wells are as-
sumed to be the direct result of domestic
sewage discharge into the ground waters from
cesspools and seepage fields.
ABS PROBLEM
An ionic surfactant is the contaminant
that appears with greatest frequency in
Suffolk County.This surfactant, usually akhyl
benzene sulfonate (ABS), is introduced as
part of common products used in household
laundrying and cleaning. Sampling, as a re-
sult of complaints, has indicated that ABS
is present in more than 1000 of the domestic
well waters that have been tested. Surveys
in 13 area have shown the presence of ABS in
as few as 8 percent of the wells in some
areas and in as many as 95 percent in other
areas. Because of limitations of manpower
and laboratory facilities, not all wells in the
areas studied were sampled; spot sampling
has been necessary in all of the surveys
conducted. The results of some of these
surveys are presented in Table 3.
The ABS bccurrence in private wells in
Suffolk County is given in Table 4.
Contamination by ABS most frequently
occurs in the densely populated and fast-
growing southwest area of the County -
-------
Ground Water Contamination
77
Table 3. SUMMARY OF PORTION OF ABS
SURVEY IN SUFFOLK COUNTY
Table 4. ABS OCCURRENCE BY TOWNSHIP IN SUFFOLK COUNTY
Amityville
Harbor
Copiague
Lindenhurst
No. Lindenhurst
Babylon
West blip
West Islip
West Islip
Islip
Fire Island a
Center Moriches
Mastic
Shirley
Area
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Number of
wells
sampled
31
186
45
54
20
16
100
45
47
24
65
18
61
Wells
with
ABS
17
60
5
41
19
12
29
11
8
2
19
7
20
fyof
wells
with ABS
55
32
11
76
95
75
29
24
17
8
29
39
32.8
aNot a typical area, since it includes Cherry Grove,
a summer colony; however, of 44 wells sampled,
26 showed coliform organisms (MPN ranged from
2.2 to 2,400).
Babylon, Islip, and Brookhaven. The ease of
obtaining water from the Glacial outwash
with its pervious sands and high water table
has made installation of private wells in the
southwest area inexpensive and easy. Al-
though Huntington and Smithtown are also
heavily populated and growing fast, the more
impervious soils and greater depths to water
have discouraged installation of private
wells and public water supplies predominate.
The synthetic detergent problem be-
comes more severe with the passage of
time. The ABS apparently is slow in pollut-
ing a well, but once a breakthrough is ac-
complished, the ABS content of the water
increases rapidly.
In the North Lindenhurst area a survey
carried out by the Department in October
1958 showed that 41 of 54 wells sampled con-
tained ABS. In November 1959, samples
October 19S9
Number Wells with ABS
March 1961 of wells
Babylon
blip
Huntington
Smithtown
Btookhaven
Rivethead
Southold
Southampton
East Hampton
Shelter Island
Totals
603
139
7
34
190
9
4
19
3
3
1,011
Number
347
90
1
8
76
2
1
10
0
2
537
ABS concentration, ppm
% 0.02-0.4
58.0
65.0
14.3
23.5
40.0
22.2
25.0
52.5
0
66.6
53.0
132
52
1
8
49
1
1
9
0
2
255
0.4-0.9
92
13
0
0
11
0
0
0
0
0
116
0.9-1.4
72
7
0
0
4
1
0
1
0
0
85
>1.4
51
18
0
0
12
0
0
0
0
0
81
were collected from 34 of the 41 wells that
had contained ABS in 1958. Two had the
same ABS content as before, and two had de-
creased in content; however, 30 had in-
creased in ABS content, and of the 30, the
contents of 10 had doubled and that of 6 had
tripled. The 1958 survey showed general
ABS concentrations from 0.5 to 1.5 ppm,
with two samples containing more than 1.5
ppm. The range for the 1959 survey was
0.5 to 4.5 ppm, with 13 containing more than
1.5 ppm and 7 more than 2 ppm.
ABS has been detected in waters from at
least five well fields serving. Suffolk County
public water supply systems. All of the wells
are shallow Glacial wells. The amounts of
ABS in these wells have varied from 0.3 to
1.2 ppm, but to date no complaints have been
received from consumers, probably because
these amounts are below taste or foaming
levels.
Those public supplies in which syndets
have appeared are located principally in the
heavily populated southwestern portion of
the County. The well fields and methods of
obtaining water in each of those areas are
similar. Three of the fields each contain
from five to eight wells spaced 75 to 100 feet
apart and 50 to 80 feet in depth; all are
pumped through common suction lines.
Static ground water levels are high, varying
from only 2 to 8 feet below grade.
ABS has appeared in each of these wells.
In one group of six wells in line, the ABS
-------
78
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
concentration varied from 0.1 to 0.9ppm in
the well water, with one having 3 times the
concentration of an adjacent well. Increased
pumpage of a well field has resulted in an
increase in ABS content; and decreased
pumpage, in a decrease in ABS content. All
three well fields are large plots, varying
from 4 to 8 acres, with ample protective
distances around each well. Although all
the wells have at least a 200-foot radius of
protective area, all the fields are surround-
ed by heavily populated residential areas.
Sewage is disposed of in all of these areas
by individual subsurface leaching facilities.
The other two well fields in which ABS
has been observed each contain a single well
pumped by a deep-well turbine pump. Their
depths are approximately 80 feet, and each
well has a protective radius of 200 feet. The
static water levels are relatively shallow,
varying from 4 to 10 feet below the ground
surface. The ABS contents in these wells
have varied from 0.2 to 0.6 ppm. In one of
these well fields the nearest sources of pol-
lution are cesspools in a residential area
approximately 1000 feet north of the well
field. The intervening distance is occupied
by a recreational area with no sewage dis-
charges.
The presence of ABS in the shallow
Glacial wells in southwestern Suffolk is
readily predictable. Tens of thousands of
homes in this area use subsurface leaching
systems that discharge directly into the
pervious Glacial stratum. It is believed
that continued use of individual subsurface
disposal systems will steadily increase the
syndet content of water from the Glacial
stratum until it is no longer acceptable.
Pertinent information on the behavior of
ABS in ground water was contributed by the
New York State Water Pollution Control
Board Research Report No. 6, "Effect of
Launderette Wastes on Ground Water." The
hamlet of Mastic in which the water sup-
plies for a number of residential homes
have been polluted by ABS from a launder-
ette was selected as a study area. Test
wells were drilled in a southeasterly line
from the launderette and also in east-west
directions and to different depths. The hor-
izontal spread of the syndet band was found
to be at least 100 feet but less than 300 feet.
The over-all length of the pollution slug was
approximately 110 feet. This does not
necessarily mean that the slug stopped at
this point; a geological situation had pro-
duced conditions that made it inadvisable to
attempt to follow the slug farther.
The vertical distribution of the pollution
was limited by an impervious layer of clay
approximately 100 feet below the surface.
If this clay layer had not been present, the
material undoubtedly would have continued
downward. The downward travel was caused
by additions of percolating rainfall and the
greater specif ic gravity of the polluted water
compared with that of less-mineralized
natural ground water. The concentration of
the material pumped from the test wells was
reduced by biochemical degradation, dilution
by ground and meteoric waters, and disper-
sion by travel through materials of varying
transmissibility. Some of the ABS material
pumped from test wells had been in the
ground water 1 to 3 years with little or no
degradation of the material. The age of this
material has been based primarily on two
factors: (1) the launderette had been closed
for 1 year prior to the survey, and (2) for
the 2 years prior to closing, the launderette
had been using a detergent containing only
nonionic surfactants.
The immediate effects of the discharge
of launderette wastes into ground water was
determined from test wells drilled at the
site of a newly opened launderette in Deer
Park. The disposal system for the launder-
ette consisted of a septic tank, a distributing
pool, and four subsurface leaching pools. To
localize the point of entry of the waste, the
four leaching wells were sealed off, with
the result that the distributing pool received
and dispersed all wastes. Test wells were
located in groups along the anticipated path
of ground water travel. Wells extending to
various depths were included in each group
so that vertical distribution and concentra-
tion of the effluent could be determined. The
wells were pumped at various1 intervals, and
their waters were analyzed for ABS. To
more clearly indicate the travel of the waste,
the distributing pool was shock-loaded with
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
79
ABS and a tracer, common table salt. The
ABS pollution from the launderette followed
the general direction of the ground water
flow, and the downward gradient of the pol-
lution was similar to that observed in the
Mastic study. Comparison of introduced and
recovered chloride and ABS concentrations
indicates no degradation of ABS under test
conditions. The average chloride recovery
was 14.2 percent, and that for ABS 16.1 per-
cent. This is significant in that chlorides
are not reduced by biochemical degradation.
Since there was a comparable recovery of
both chloride and ABS, little biochemical de-
gradation of the surfactant can be assumed.
Its reduction must be considered in terms of
other factors, such as dilution by either dis-
persion or simple mixing and adsorption of
the materials on the surfaces of clay and
sand.
In August 1958 it became evident to the
Suffolk County Health Department that the
quality of the waters from private wells was
poor and rapidly deteriorating. The need for
corrective measures was obvious, and steps
were taken. Townships and municipal sup-
pliers were asked to cooperate in programs
leading to the extension of public water sup-
plies to serve existing residential areas. As
abasis for approval, new subdivisions were
required to provide public water supplies.
Private wells were permitted only on plots
with a minimum area of 20,000 square feet
and where test wells demonstrated that
waters of good quality were available on the
realty subdivision site. When public water
supply was demonstrated as economically
impractical, private wells were permitted
if they met new construction standards and
if bacteriological and chemical analyses of
each well were satisfactory. New standards
required 100-foot separation between well
and sewage disposal facilities. A minimum
well depth of 50 feet, with the well drilled at
least 40 feet below the water table, also was
required. When the 100-foot distance was
unattainable, however, the distance could be
reduced to a minimum of 65 feet, provided
that for every 5 feet of horizontal decrease
there was a 2-foot increase in the vertical
depth below the water table.
The first group of wells meeting these
requirements were constructed in August
and September 1958. Sampling of these wells
indicated that each was satisfactory at the
time of approval. In February and March
1961, approximately 2-1/2 years later,
samples were collected from 47 of these
wells to determine the quality of the water.
The results are given in Tables 5 and 6.
Table 5 shows the relationship of well
depth to concentrations of ABS, nitrate-nitro-
gen, and free ammonia-nitrogen. Table 6
shows the relationship of the distance be-
tween well and sewage disposal facilities to
concentrations of ABS, nitrate-nitrogen, and
free ammonia-nitrogen. Fifty-one percent
of the wells sampled showed the presence of
ABS. None of these well waters contained
ABS at the time of their approval in the fall
of 1958. The concentrations of ABS are low
with a tendency for larger amounts to appear
in shallower wells. Once the surfactant be-
Table 5. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WELL DEPTH AND CONTAMINATION
Number
Well
depth ft
50-55
55-60
60-65
65-70
70-75
75-80
of
wells
4
1
11
7
23
1
Wells
with ABS
3
1
5
3
11
1
ABS, ppm
0 02-0 4
3
1
2
2
11
1
0 4-0 9
0
0
2
1
0
0
0 9-1 4
0
0
1
0
0
0
<1 0
1
1
8
3
10
0
NOg-N, ppm
1.0-5.0
2
0
2
2
5
1
5.0-10.0 :
1
0
0
2
4
0
> 10
0
0
1
0
4
0
0<0.5
4
1
8
6
22
1
Free ammonia-
nitrogen, ppm
0.5-1.0
0
0
3
0
1
0
5.0-10 0
0
0
0
1
0
0
Totals 47
24
20
23 12
42
-------
80
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Table 6. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WELL DISTANCE FROM CESSPOOL AND CONTAMINATION
Cesspool
Number
of
distance, ft wells
65-75
75-85
100
16
1
30
Wells
with ABS
9
0
15
ABS. ppm NO;
0.02-0.4
5
0
15
0.4-0>
3
0
0
0.9-1.4
1
0
£
*1.0 1.0-5.0
9
0
14_
6
0
6
j-N, ppm
5.0-10.0 >10.0
1 0
1 0
I I
Free ammonia-
nitrogen, ppm
<0.5 0.5-1.0
12
1
29
3
0
I
5.0-10.0
1
0
0
Totals 47
24
20
23 12
42
comes established in the formation in which
the well is located a rapid increase in its
content is expected to occur. Fifty percent
of the nitrate-nitrogen values are in excess
of the amount normally assumed to indicate
satisfactory sanitary quality. Five of the
nitrate-nitrogen values were in excess of
that recommended for preparation of infant
formula.
Fifty-six percent of the wells between 65
and 75 feet from cesspools and 50 percent of
those in the 100-foot range showed the pres-
ence of ABS. It is our belief that protective
distances, unless extreme, are no assurance
of the freedom of a well from ABS, and this
is supported by the sampling data shown in
the tables. It should be noted, however, that
the greater concentration occurred at the
shorter protective distance; thus, greater
plot density results in increased pollution.
The depths to static water levels of the
47 wells were reviewed in relationship to the
intensity and frequency of occurrence of
ABS, nitrates, and free ammonia. The re-
view indicated the frequency of occurrence
of ABS is the same for depths ranging from
2 to 12 feet, from 14 to 23 feet, and from 30
to 35 feet. The concentrations of ABS and
free ammonia were greatest in the 2- to 12-
foot range and lowest in the 30- to 35-foot
range. The greater concentrations of ni-
trates, however, were in the 30- to 35-foot
range. These results are borne out by ob-
servations that in an area where the depth
to the static water level is great complaints
relative to syndets are infrequent. This is
supported also by a study made by Mr. B.D.
Andres of C. W. Lauman & Co., Inc., on the
appearance of ABS in the central portions of
Suffolk County.
Accumulated data indicate that any biol-
ogical degradation in the subsurface dis-
charge occurs principally in the unsaturated
sand medium above the ground water table.
Water from wells in areas where this sand
layer is thin shows consistently greater
amounts of the initial components of the
nitrogen cycle, such as free ammonia and
nitrites, than water from wells where there
is a substantial layer of unsaturated sands
above the ground water. It is also probable
that a bacteriological survey would show a
more frequent occurrence of coliform in
areas with high water tables.
CORRECTIVE MEASURES
The need for public water supply facili-
ties in the most intensely polluted areas has
led to increased activities in the installation
of public water supply facilities. Tens of
thousands of homes in Suffolk County still
use potentially hazardous individual well
supplies; programs for extension of public
water supply facilities are far behind the
need.
Control of industrial wastes has been
brought about by cooperation between the
local building departments and the Suffolk
County Health Department. New industries
are denied building permits until plans for
waste disposal have been approved.
The wastes from existing industrial
plants have been detected through extensive
Health Department surveys, and treatment
facilities are under way for all known dis-
charges. The 103 launderettes discharging
wastes were ordered to provide treatment
as of June 1961; however, this date undoubt-
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
81
edly will be extended, since we are still in
the process of determining an acceptable
method for treatment of laundry wastes.
Three types of packaged units have been
specifically developed for treatment of
launderette wastes, and one of each will be
installed on a trial basis in the near future.
The three basic systems thus far presented
are a reactor-type unit, a flotation process,
and a foaming process.
The reactor-type unit incorporates the
use of activated carbon, alum, and a floe-
aid. Waste is passed via a reactor-type de-
vice through a sludge blanket with a portion
of the sludge continually removed to a de-
watering tank containing leaf-type filters.
The dewatered sludge has a solid content of
approximately 10 to 15 percent. The ac-
cumulated sludge is reported to be less than
1 percent of the total waste volume. The
: system operates automatically and requires
only a few minutes daily maintenance.
The flotation unit utilizes pH reduction,
followed by flocculation in the presence of
continually rising air bubbles. The pH re-
duction is obtained by use of sulphuric acid.
Alum and a soap solution are used as co-
agulating agents. The alum, soap solution,
and acid are injected by reagent feeders as
the wastes enter the flotation unit. Aeration
is accomplished by an aspirator on a high-
speed centrifugal pump that circulates
clarified effluent to the lower portion of the
unit. Sludge is floated to the top of the unit
and compacted as it rises through a conical
upper section. The sludge overflowing the
top of the tank is discharged downward into
a sludge dewatering tank. The volume of
sludge is less than 1 percent of the initial
Volume of the waste.
The foaming process is under develop-
ment. The waste is foamed by aeration de-
vices, and the foam overflows into adefoam-
ing tank. The defearning is to be accom-
plished by a low-speed paddle mechanism or
by burning. The spent foam would contain
the undesirable substances found in the
initial waste. The spent foam or sludge is
reported to have a volume of 10 percent of
that of the waste. This presents a sludge
removal problem for the operator, and ef-
, forts therefore are being made to reduce
this volume. The foaming system does not
require the use of chemicals in the first por-
tion of the operation. The Health Department
will, however, require effluent polishing by
activated carbon filtration to preclude dis-
charge of taste producing substances.
All three systems substantially reduce
the amount of ABS and BOD, by some 80 to
95 percent. The foaming system has an
added advantage in that it also reduces the
total dissolved solids by 30 to 50 percent.
Costs of these three systems vary from
$8,000 to $10,000 for a 20-unit launderette.
Operating costs are said to vary from 1-1/2
to 3 cents per wash.
In addition to the measures already re-
ported, a program has been started that
should lead to a comprehensive sewerage
plan for Suffolk County. Only through the
medium of public sewers can ground water
be effectively protected against contamina-
tion. Unfortunately, many years will pass
before this plan is completed.
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Ground water is extremely vulnerable
to contamination by the introduction of in-
dustrial and domestic wastes into subsur-
face leaching systems. This is evidenced by
the numerous incidents of contamination that
are constantly be ing brought to light by com-
plaints and spot check water quality sur-
veys. The recuperative powers of the ground
water are weak. A limited amount of biol-
ogical degradation of organic wastes takes
place in the unsaturated sands above the
water table; however, available evidence
indicates the level of biological activity in
the saturated sands is low. None of the
waters from contaminated strata in Suffolk
County is known to have improved in quality
following treatment or cessation of a con-
taminating waste discharge. Reuse of water
is not a new problem to users of surface
supplies, and methods of supply and treat-
ment may be attuned to water reuse. In
Suffolk County, treatment of individual well
waters is nonexistent and of public waters
negligible; thus, the hazards involved in the
-------
82
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
use of water of deteriorating or suspect
quality is increasing. If it becomes our
philosphyto continue to contaminate and then
reuse our ground waters, our concepts of
treatment and quality control must be com-
pletely revised.
The growth rates in the suburbs of Suf-
folk County have had a devastating effect on
ground water quality. In the past when plot
densities were lower, contamination was
slight and area was available to relocate
sources of supply where underground con-
taminants could be evaded. In the heavily
populated areas of today, space to dodge our
neighbors' underground sewage discharges
is not available.
The nature of the waste introduced into
our ground water changes as rapidly as new
products are produced by our chemical in-
dustries. These wastes become firmly in-
trenched in our ground water long before we
have an opportunity to evaluate their effect.
The Glacial stratum, .the first recipient
of our waste, is the only one thus far to ex-
hibit the effects of contaminants. There ap-
pears to be a willingness to abandon this
Glacial stratum to pollution under the un-
founded opinion that the Magothy and Lloyd
strata are safe from .contamination and will
provide sufficient water for future needs.
Experiences thus far indicates that these
deeper strata are unaffected; however, the
volumes of waste are too enormous, the na-
ture too complex, and our knowledge of the
problem too meager to safely conclude that
these strata will remain unaffected. In addi-
tion, unrestricted and continual pollution of
the most readily available and most prolific
source of water is scarcely consistent with
good planning for disposition of vital natural
resources.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Public water supplies must be extended
to furnish water of known satisfactory
quality to areas where water of unknown or
hazardous quality from individual supply
systems is being used.
2. Public sewage collection and disposal
systems must be installed to end pollution
of our ground water.
3. The treatment and disposal of all in-
dustrial wastes must be adquately controlled.
4. The quality of the ground water must be
continually monitored through effective
sample collection and laboratory tests.
5. Research programs on all phases of
ground water pollution must be instituted
and continued.
REFERENCES
1. New York State Water Pollution Control
Board. Research Report No. 6. Andres,
B. and Flynn, J.
2. Study on Ground Water Contamination -
Town of Brookhaven. By Suffolk County
Health Department - Villa, R. and
Flynn, J.
3. Report on Status of Ground Water Quality
and Related Factors in Suffolk County.
Flynn, J. and Davids, H.
4. Study of Synthetic Detergents in Ground
Water. Flynn, J., Andreoli, A., and
Guerrera, A.
5. Survey of Industrial Wastes - Town of
Babylon. By Suffolk County Health De-
partment - Flynn, J. and Andreoli, A.
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Specific Incidents of Contamination
83
PROBLEMS ARISING FROM GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
BY SEWAGE LAGOONS AT TIETON, WASHINGTON
R. H. Bogan,
University of Washington
This paper describes the unwitting con-
tamination of several private water supplies
near Tieton, Washington, a small farming
community approximately 15 miles north-
west of Yakima. The situation began with
the conception, design, and construction of
the town's sewage treatment facilities, and
subsequently has lead to a court of law and
an acrimonious debate between local citizens
and the community. The dispute involves
alleged contamination of nearby ground
waters by Tieton as a result of its sewage
disposal operation.
The writer first became acquainted with
the problem after it had become a matter of
litigation. Factual data and information are
limited. The early history of the situation,
particularly that relating to design consider-
ations and engineering study of the area, is
vague and uncertain. Even under the most
favorable circumstances it is often difficult
todefine accurately the character and extent
of ground water contamination. Conse-
quently, much of the discussion that follows
is based on interpretation of local conditions
in light of well-established general prin-
ciples.
Sewage Disposal Operation
Tieton disposes of its sewage by means
of a nonoverflow lagoon located approxi-
mately 0.6 miles south of town. The lagoon
was first placed in operation in April 1957.
It was designed to dispose of the domestic,
commercial, and industrial wastes of the
community through the combined effects of
evaporation and percolation. Prior to 1957
the community disposed of its wastes by
means of septic tanks. Thus domestic wastes
have been admitted to local ground waters
over a diffuse area for several years, but at
a location 3000 to 4000 feet northwest of the
lagoon. The lagoon actually serves, in effect,
to concentrate the community's wastes at a
new location.
Although the lagoon was intended to func-
tion as a nonoverflow operation, the remain-
ing design criteria employed are for the most
part unknown. Neither the owner nor the
engineer has described any material basis
for design other than the as sumption that the
maximum percolation rate would be 0.25 inch
per day (1). Similarly, it is not known what
allowances, if any, were made for future
service area expansion. Initially 124 house-
holds and 17 public, commercial, and in-
dustrial establishments were connected to
the system. The present service area popu-
lation is approximately 650. A typical rural
community of this size might reasonably be
expected to produce an average sewage flow
of 50,000 to 60,000 gallons per day.
The lagoon as constructed consists of
two cells having areas of 1.96 and 2.86
acres. One cell was intended to operate at
depths ranging from 4 to 8 feet; the other
was to operate at depths from 3 to 5 feet.
Net evaporation in this area of Washington
equals approximately 3.5 feet per year; this
is equivalent to an annual average evapora-
tion loss of about 3200 gallons per acre per
day. Clearly, much of the original sewage
volume, together with soluble and colloidal
constituents, must exit by infiltration into
the surrounding ground. The Tieton sewage
disposal operation is in reality a spreading
basin or seepage pit and not a lagoon or
stabilization pond in the ordinarily accepted
sense.
On May 20, 1958, the average daily
sewage flow was reported to be 130,000
gallons of which 50,000 gallons was des-
cribed as domestic sewage and the balance
as infiltration and industrialwas waters (1).
With evaporative losses considered, an in-
filtration rate of about 0.9 inch per day over
the entire 4.82 acres would be required to
accommodate a flow of 130,000 gallons per
day. The infiltration rate required to handle
only the sewage flow component would be
-------
84
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
approximately 0.27 inch per day; this is very
near the maximum infiltration, rate of 0.25
inch per day reportedly employed as a basis
for design. Evidently, sewage flows were in
excess of those anticipated, and instead of
the lagoon contents accumulating to the point
of overflow, just the opposite occurred!
Initial infiltration rates as high as 15
inches per day were observed (1)1 It was im-
possible to maintain water in either cell.
Part of the difficulty was attributed to aleak
in the lower dike. Even after the dike was
repaired, however, it still was not possible
to maintain water in both cells. Subsequently,
sewage was admitted only to the cell into
which the interceptor first empties. On
May 20,1958, more than 1 year after opera-
tion began, the infiltration rate was found to
be approximately 3 inches per day (1). It
was hoped that sewage solids would gradually
seal the lagoon bottom, thereby decreasing
the Infiltration to a rate approaching the
originally anticipated 0.25 inch per day.
Apparently, the infiltration rate has de-
creased, for the water level after nearly
4 years of use has risen to approximately 3
feet.
Litigation
Two law suits were brought against
Tieton for damages claimed as a result of
invasion of ground water supplies by sewage
in the vicinity of the Tieton lagoon. Both
cases were tried before juries in the Supe-
rior Court of Yakima County. The first
case, Pugsley vs. Tieton, came to trial in
February 1959 and was concerned with pol-
lution of a well approximately 250 feet south
of and on property immediately adjacent to
the Tieton lagoon. The second case, Cun-
ningham et al. vs Tieton, was based on the
joint claims of 6 additional owners of prop-
erty located for the most part within 1500
feet of the lagoon; it was tried during Octo-
ber 1960.
In both cases the juries returned ver-
dicts in favor of the plaintiff. For all ex-
cept two of the parties in the Cunningham
action, the jury found that the Tieton lagoon
had adversely affected the ground water sup-
plies of these people, at least to the extent
that there was an element of doubt as to the
potability of these waters. It was concluded
that in their present condition and without
some treatment these ground waters were
no longer safe for human consumption.
The amount of damages awarded appeared
to be based largely upon the influence ground
water impairment had on the fair market
value of the properties involved. In Pugsley
vs Tieton, the plaintiff held that if the
lagoon, by reason of odors or underground
invasion of surrounding properties, de-
teriorated the value of adjacent properties
there would be a taking or damaging within
the meaning of the State of Washington Con-
stitution (2). Both cases have been appealed
and are pending before the Supreme Court
of the State of Washington.
A second aspect of damage in the Pugsley
case is that of a continuing nuisance, caus-
ing personal annoyance and inconvenience.
In this regard, the plaintiff holds that a per-
son can, as an item of damages wholly un-
connected with the matter of depreciation in
real estate value, recover for personal an-
noyance and inconvenience caused by the
continuing nuisance re suiting from the opera-
tion. The statute of limitations for nuisance
is 2 years; hence, the plaintiff must initiate
claims for damages every 2 years. Thus, it
appears that Pugsley will continue to sue
Tieton for nuisance damages at 2-year in-
tervals or until the nuisance is abated or the
operation ceases.
DISCUSSION
Biological Considerations
Failure on the part of sanitary engineers
and public health officials to accept diluted
treated sewage as a legitimate comestic
water supply is merely a reflection of the
doubts and uncertainties currently held re-
garding the potability of such waters. This
position may seem a trifle naive in light of
the situation now prevalent in many inland
drainage basins where today's sewage
literally serves as tomorrow's water supply
downstream. It must be recognized, how-
ever, that where such conditions exist, these
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
85
waters are subject to extensive treatment
before consumption.
Perhaps the most serious and widely
recognized hazard associated with domestic
sewage is the possible presence of a number
of pathogenic microorganisms. Recent evi-
dence regarding the occurrence and persist-
ence of viruses in comestic sewage adds
still another element of doubt or reserva-
tion regarding the biological acceptability of
treated and reclaimed sewages for human
consumption (3).
Available evidence confirms what is in-
tuitively obvious, namely that bacteria are
quickly and effectively removed from sewage
inpassage through soil (4,5). Unfortunately,
a commonly held opinion that microorgan-
isms rarely if ever penetrate more than 100
feet through continuous underground forma-
tions has assumed almost sacrosanct pro-
portions. Obviously, the nature of the under-
ground media through which ground water
and sewage are free to move will determine
the extent of bacterial penetrations. Circum-
stantial evidence was obtained by the Yakima
County Health District (see Table 1) that
indicates that E. coli traveled approximately
250 feet from the Tieton lagoon during the
initial months of operation and entered a
160-foot-deep well.
Table 1. PRESUMPTIVE COLIFORM
DATA - PUGSLEY WELL a
Date Result
I/ 4/54
1/18/57
3/15/57 -
6/21/57 b +
7/ 2/57 +
Date
8/14/57
10/ 2/57
12/ 5/57
2/17/58
4/ 1/58
5/21/58
Result
+
+
a Results of bacterial examination con-
ducted by the Yakima County Health
District.
Lagoonplaced in operation in April 1957.
Topography, location, and subsequent detec-
tion of anionic surfactants further confirm
the conclusion that seepage from the lagoon
was entering the Pugsley well.
Enteric viruses by their very nature
should be free to travel considerable dis-
tances underground. It appears that many
species of virus can remain viable outside
the human body for several days and in
some cases for months (3). At the present
time, there is absolutely no evidence that
the coliform bacteriological test can be re-
lied upon to describe the persistence of
enteric viruses in ground water. It is
simply unrealistic to employ the coliform
test as the sole criterion for judging the
biological quality of ground waters known to
contain sewage. Other things being equal,
travel time and dilution appear to be the
principal factors affecting virus penetra-
tion; however, in the absence of specific in-
formation, it is not possible to interpret the
quantitative significance of either of these
factors. Obviously, the greater the travel
time and the greater the dilution, the less the
chance of virus contamination. Other fac-
tors-, such as adsorption and deactivation by
constituents within the aquifer, may serve to
remove viruses from sewage-contaminated
ground waters; unfortunately, data are not
available at this time that permit evaluation
of such phenomena.
Geological Characteristics
Tieton is located in a long narrow valley
that terminates in a mountainous area some
25 miles northwest of Yakima. The valley
is formed by a series of nearly parallel
basalt anticlines. A series of permeable
sands and gravels of fluviatile and glacio-
fluviatile origin overlie much of the basalt
bedrock. The exact thickness of the per-
meable surface formations is unknown, but,
judged from wells in the area and from the
general geological characteristics of the
region, it ranges from 20 to 200 feet through-
out the valley.
The valley floor is broken occasionally
by basalt outcroppings. Thin clay lenses
have been found throughout the surface for-
mation. Prior to construction, three 5-foot-
deep test holes were dug at the lagoon site;
the top 3 feet were described as sandy loam
and the next 2 feet as sandy loam and gravel
(1).
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86
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Ground Water Movement
and Zone of Influence
In the vicinity of Tieton, the valley is
drained by the North Fork of Cowiche Creek.
The Cowiche Creek drains into the Naches
River about 2 miles west of its confluence
with the Yakima River. Groundwater move-
ment in the valley tends to be in the same
general direction as surface drainage, more
or less straight down the valley. The general
direction of flow may be altered in some
areas by waters entering from neighboring
hillsides and by discontinuities such as
basalt outcroppings, etc.
Two attempts were made to determine
the rate and direction of ground water move-
ment below the Tieton lagoon. During May
1958, state and local health officials, to-
gether with a commercial laboratory, in-
vestigated ground water movement by means
of chloride (Cl~) measurements (6). In
January 1959, the writer analysed samples
of well water collected throughout the area
for anionic synthetic detergent content. Even
though the data obtained during these field
studies cannot be viewed as incontrovertible
Anionic Syndet Cone
© Omj/|
< 0.05 mg/1
0.05 mg/1
SC4LE IN FEET
FIGURE 1. ANIONIC SYNTHETIC DETERGENTS
IN DOWN-VALLEY WELL WATERS DEFINE
GROUND WATER MOVEMENT AND PROBABLE
EXTENT OF SEWAGE-INDUCED GROUND WATER
MOUND
evidence of sewage contamination, they are
nonetheless indicative of general ground
water flow patterns in the vicinity of the
Tieton lagoon. Results of the detergent
survey are shown in Figure 1. Travel times
calculated from the Cl" tracer study and
the approximate zone of influence indicated
by the detergent survey are shown in Figure
2.
Sewage leaving the lagoon apparently
tends to form a shallow elongated mound of
water resting on top of the normal ground
water table. Results of the Cl" tracer study
indicate that velocities immediately below
the lagoon are in excess of 300feet per day!
About 1000 feet farther down the valley the
velocity decreases to approximately 200 feet
per day.
Infiltration rates encountered during the
first year's operation, 3 to 15 inches per
day. Indicate that the ground in this area is
exceedingly porous. If preconstruction soil
test data are typical for the general area,
than it seems reasonable to expect relatively
rapid ground water movement, near that
indicated by the Cl" tracer study.
The zone of influence shown in Figure 2
is essentially a tentative evaluation of the
^^ Approximate influence boundary
Travel time, days
SCALE IN FEET
FIGURE 2. TIETON GROUND WATER ZONE OF
INFLUENCE AND TRAVEL TIMES
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Specific Incidents of Contamination
87
extent and shape of the sewage mound in the
vicinity of the lagoon. Some mixing and
dilution of the sewage with ground water
doubtlessly occurs down valley. Ultimately.
a point will be reached where the residual
effects or influence of the sewage are no
longer significant. Just where the lower
limits of ground water contamination lie in
this case is unknown. Available information
indicates that water originating in theTieton
sewage lagoon has reached rural ground
water supplies as far as 1500 to 2000 feet
down the valley in approximately 6 days.
In retrospect, it appears that little if
any consideration was given to the influence
of sewage infiltration on ground water quality.
Indeed, it seems that even the infiltration
characteristics of porous surface formations
at the lagoon site were poorly understood.
Inprinciple, there is little difference between
the conventional or more common practice
of discharging wastes to surface waters and
that of ground disposal. In either case, the
waste disposal operation must be based on a
thorough understanding of the self-purifica-
tion characteristics of the receiving water
mass and the effect of such action on subse-
quent water users.
REFERENCES
1. Answers to Interrogatories to the De-
fendant, No. 42005, Pugsley vs. Tieton,
Superior Court of the State of Washing-
ton in and for Yakima County.
2. Private communication from Elaine Hopp
Jr.,Tonkoff, Hoist & Hopp, Attorneys at
Law.
3. Clarke, N. A. and Chang, S. L., "Enteric
Viruses in Sewage," Journal American
Water Works Association, 51, 1299
(1959).
4. Butler, R.G., Orlob.G.T., and McGauhey,
P. H., "Underground Movement of Bac-
terial and Chemical Pollutants," Journal
American Water Works Association, 46,
97 (1954).
5. Krone, R. B., McGauhey, P. H., and
Gotaas, H. B., "Direct Recharge of
Ground Water with Sewage Effluents,"
Proceedings ASCE, Paper 1335, 83,
August 1957.
6. Unpublished report G.H.Hanson, District
Engineer Washington State Pollution
Control Commission.
INFECTIOUS HEPATITIS OUTBREAK
IN POSEN, MICHIGAN
J.E.Vogt,
Michigan Department of Health
During the spring and early summer of
1959, an outbreak of infectious hepatitis oc-
.curred in the village of Posen, Michigan.
Posen is a Polish Catholic community with
an estimated population of 400. It is located
in Presque Isle County in the northeast part
of Michigan's lower peninsula.
The people in Posen as a whole form a
very close community. An occasional trip
to Rogers City or Alpena, the nearest com-
munities of any size, is the extent of their
normal travel. Community life centers
around the church, the parochial and public
schools, the Chamber of Commerce building,
where wedding receptions, showers, and
other social activities are held almost every
weekend, and the local theater.
GEOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY
Geologically the area is very interesting.
In the immediate area around Posen there is
a thin veneer of glacial till, with a maximum
thickness of 3 feet, overlying the bedrock.
Outcroppings of rock are numerous through-
out the area. The bedrock formations belong
to the Traverse Group of the Devonian Age
and consist mainly of limestones with some
shale beds. These formations dip toward
the center of the state at about 40 feet per
mile.
-------
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
No topographic maps of the Posen area
are available, and without them, interpreta-
tion of the hydrology of the area is difficult.
By use of the information available, however,
the following general conclusions can be
drawn regarding the hydrology.
A topographic high apparently extends
through the Posen area in a northwest-south-
east direction. This could be caused by
some resistant limestone beds, within the
Traverse Group, forming a low ridge paral-
leling the strike of the rock formations. The
relief is not very great, but it is enough to
be a controlling factor in the surface drain-
age. South of a northwest-southeast line
through Posen, the streams drain southward,
and north of this line they drain northward.
Water level measurements in wells in-
dicate that Posen is situated on a ground
water divide that trends in a northwest-
southeast direction. This ground water
divide conforms to the surface drainage
pattern, and parallels the strike of the rock
formations in the area. South of Posen, the
ground water gradient is toward the south-
west, and north of Posen, it is toward the
north and northeast.
WATER SUPPLY
Posen has no public water supply and all
the individual wells are drilled into the bed-
rock, where water is obtained from joints,
fractures, and partings along the bedding
planes of the limestone formations. The
wells range in depth from 11 to 180 feet.
The most usual depth ranges apparently are
30 to 40 feet, 60 to 70 feet, and 90 to 100
feet. Part of this wide range in the depth of
wells is due to differences in elevation of
the ground surface, and some of the deeper
wells were probably attempts to obtain a
"safe" water supply.
No relationship was apparent between the
depth of wells and the quality of water. The
observation, at one point in the investiga-
tions, was advanced that the majority of the
contaminated wells were from 50 to 65 feet
deep. When the data were compiled later,
it was found that there was no correlation
between depth of well and water safety.
Well Construction
A rather unique method of we 11 construc-
tion is used in the area. All wells are 6
inches in diameter with casing that terminate
at the ground surface. Most of the wells are
cased to only a shallow depth, generally just
through the glacial till and into the rock a
short distance. The lengths of the casings
range from 10 to 30 feet; and one well has
no casing at all. Water was entering one
well, for which the casing terminated at a
shallow depth, from a shallow formation
above the static water level and below the
casing.
In many installations the casings were
cut off at the ground sruface. Hand pumps
were then installed on top of the casings, to
be used duringpower outages. In practically
all wells, however, no seal was installed be-
tween the hand pump drop pipe and the well
casing, leaving the casing open for surface
drainage. Where there was no hand pump,
the well might be covered with some loose
boards. Furthermore, no attempt was made
to seal the bottom of the casing in the rock.
The power pumps were generally lo-
cated in the basements of the homes with
a suction line running out to the well casing.
The portions of the construction features
that were visible and conversations with the
residents left little doubt that often the con-
nection between the suction line and the well
casing was not watertight. Accordingly,
numerous opportunities for contamination
resulted from the poor construction fea-
tures - open top casings, unprotected suc-
tion lines, unsealed connections between
suction lines and casings, and no seal be-
tween the bottom of the casings and the rock.
Location
As for location, most of the wells were
too near septic tanks, tile fields, or seepage
pits. This is particularly true when the thin
veneer of soil on top of the limestone is
considered. The excavation for the septic
tank sometimes had been blasted out of the
rock and the tile field laid in filled ground
above the rock. Little doubt existed that
septic tank effluent percolated vertically
through the thin mantle of drift into the rock
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
89
and then moved laterally for great distances,
with little change in the characteristics of
the effluent.
Water Quality
Laboratory tests of water samples from
the wells substantiated the field observa-
tions. Thirty percent of the samples col-
lected over the previous 3 or 4 years by the
local health department had shown evidence
of contamination. When the hepatitis cases
began to appear, the well waters in the com-
munity were suspicioned as agents in the
spread of the disease. During the investi-
gation of the village wells a rather complete
survey was made of all wells north of the
corners. The survey was concentrated on
thenorth side of the village, since practically
no cases had appeared south of the main
square of the village. As much information
as possible was obtained about the construc-
tion of the wells and their location with re-
spect to sources of contamination. Bac-
teriological analyses were made on all
samples, and nitrates, nitrites, and deter-
gents were checked on many. Within the
village 47 percent of the samples showed
the presence of coliform organisms. Forty-
four percent of the wells were inadequately
located with respect to sources of sewage
pollution, and 70 percent had buried unpro-
tected suction lines. Of the 10 wells checked
for detergents, four were positive. One of
these wells served the Chamber of Com-
merce building, which was frequently used
for community affairs such as wedding re-
ceptions. A second well served the resi-
dence of the local durggist, and all the mem-
bers of that family had suffered severe cases
of hepatitis. The other two wells will be
discussed in more detail later.
Weather Effects
The area had experienced subfreezing
weather since Thanksgiving. For 3 con-
secutive days near the middle of March,
;however, temperatures rose to well above
freezing and substantial melting of snow re-
sulted. April 3 the village was blanketed by
a 10-inch snowfall, followed by light rain.
By April 15, all the snow was gone and run-
off was complete. Wells in the village were
producing a highly turbid water, which might
be expected in view of the geology, the con-
struction of the wells, and the heavy runoff.
The local health department advised all resi-
dents to boil their water. Conditions were
aggravated further during the first week in
May by heavy rains;practically every base-
ment in the community was flooded.
SPREAD OF THE DISEASE
Infectious hepatitis was reported first in
the nearby community of Hillman in January
1959. The first cases appeared in Posen in
the middle of April, apparently unrelated to
those in Hillman. The "explosion" occurred
in three families living in "Upper Posen,"
the north side of the community. About the
middle of March one of the families was
visited by a relative who, during his stay,
became ill. The illness was diagnosed as
infectious hepatitis. This visit coincided with
the above-freezing temperatures that pro-
duced considerable run-off, later com-
pounded by heavy snow and light rain.
The septic tank serving the home with
the first hepatitis case was only 6 feet from
the well. This well, like most of those in
the community, had a 6-inch casing, driven
to the shallow rock formation and cut off
flush at the ground surface. A power pump
was located in the basement and was con-
nected to the well by a buried suction line.
A hand pump was set over the casing, but
was not sealed to provide a watertight joint.
It was easy to understand how this well, so
near the septic tank and so poorly con-
structed, had become contaminated.
The two houses immediately south of
the one in which the first hepatitis case de-
veloped were served by one well, which was
located only 10 feet from the septic tank on
the first property. This well also was
pumped through a suction line from the base-
ment of the house. The top of the casing was
"protected" by a couple of loose-fitting
boards.
Within a 3-day period about 4 weeks
after discovery of the first case of infectious
hepatitis, 16 cases appeared in the three
-------
90
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
families. From this nucleus hepatitis spread
rapidly; through the community at epidemic
proportions. Eighty-nine cases were re-
ported; an epidemiologies! study showed
later, however, that many cases were not
reported. When one person in a household
was diagnosed as having hepatitis, others in
the household with similar symptoms were
merely put to bed and no report made. Fur-
thermore, it is very likely that many sub-
clinical cases were not reported.
HYDROLOGY A FACTOR
Superimposed upon the ground water
divide that runs through Posen is what ap-
pears to be a drawdown cone that reverses
the natural flow of ground water. This re-
sults in ground water flowing into Posen from
all directions, toward the low point of the
cone of depression near the north central
part of town. The existence of this drawdown
cone is supported by the fact that numerous
wells around the perimeter of the town
yielded bacteriologically safe samples,
whereas the wells within the village yielded
a large percentage of unsafe samples.
As the ground water moves down the
drawdown cone toward the center of the
village, the fringe area wells intercept un-
contaminated water. As the ground water
continues down the cone, contamination from
septic tanks, privies, sink drains, etc. is
added. Since the ground water moves through
fractures, partings along the bedding planes,
and other openings in the limestone, little
or no straining or filtration takes place and
wells within the village intercept contam-
inated water.
The drawdown cone near the center of
the village could be caused by either of two
things. If the permeability of the aquifer
in the Posen area is low, the combined
pumpage from the concentration of domestic
wells in the town may have deprived water
levels locally and created the drawdown
cone. The low permeability of the aquifer
has since been verified by an automatic re-
cording device that has been recording
.ground water elevations in a well near the
.center of town. The recorder showed daily
fluctuations of 1 to 1.5 feet and seasonal
changes from 6.5 to 10 feet. This is signifi-
cant, since only low - capacity domestic
pumps are used in this area.
The second possible explanation for the
drawdown cone is that in the town there is a
deep uncased well that penetrates a water-
bearing formation in the limestone that has
an artesian pressure surface lower than the
water level in the upper formations. Ground
water, under these conditions, would migrate
from the upper water-bearing formations
down the well bore into the lower water-
bearing formation. This would create a
drawdown cone in the upper formation from
which the wells in the town extract their
supply.
A well more than 300 feet deep is re-
ported to exist in the village; however, this
well was never located. A 300-foot well in
Posen would probably penetrate the Rogers
City limestone. The 80-foot thickness of Bell
shale overlying the Rogers City limestone
would constitute an effective aquiclude, and
the artesian pressure surface in the Rogers
City limestone could be lower than the water
level in the Traverse formations. An un-
cased well that passes through the Traverse
limestone and the Bell shale and penetrates
the Rogers City limestone might account for
the drawdown cone that apparently exists in
the water table of the shallower Traverse
limestones.
CORRECTIVE MEASURES
This discussion certainly has indicated
that Posen has a water supply problem. Cor-
rection of the problem on an individual basis
would be nearly impossible. The small size
of the lots and the innumerable sources of
contamination make adequate isolation of
wells virtually impossible. Also, isolation
is impractical because of the lack of natural
purification of water in the area as it travels
through the limestone.
The best solution to the water problem
in Posen probably is the construction of a
municipal water supply. Great care would
be needed in the selection of the proper site
for any municipal wells. First consideration
probably would be given to the area on the
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
91
south side of the village. Posen officials have
had an engineering study made and a report
prepared on the construction of a municipal
water system; however, little further prog-
ress has been made, since any projectwould
be costly because of the rock excavation
necessary in the construction of a distribution
system.
A bill introduced in the current session
of the Michigan Legislature is designed to
prevent situations like that in Posen. The
bill provides for the licensing of well drill-
ers by the State Health Commissioner and
issuance of permits before wells are drilled.
SUMMARY
An outbreak of infectious hepatitis oc-
curred in the northern part of Posen, Michi-
gan, in 1959. Epidemiological studies indi-
cated rather clearly that the first 16 cases
were water-borne. The outbreakprogressed
rapidly south of the initial "explosion" and
continued toward the center of the village
where the progress of the disease was sharply
curtailed.
The pattern of the disease conformed to
a developed theory of the hydrology of the
area. The virus apparently was introduced
into the ground water through septic tank
effluent on the north side of the community.
According to the theory, melting snow and
spring rains than flushed the virus through
fractures in the limestone to the water table
where it spread laterally. The virus moved
southward down an inverted cone to the north
centralpart of the town, infectingwells along
the way; After reaching the low point in the
drawdown cone, the virus could travel no
further, probably accounting in part for the
rather sudden decrease in the number of
cases south of the center of the village.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wishes to express his appre-
ciation to Norman Papsdorf, Sanitary En-
gineer, Michigan Department of Health, for
his field study and to L. David Johnson,
Hydrogeologist, Geological Survey Division,
Michigan Department of Conservation, for
his assistance in evaluating the hydrology of
the area.
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
IN THE GREENSBURG OIL FIELD, KENTUCKY
R. A. Krieger,
U.S. Geological Survey
The Greensburg oil field is unusual
among the newly developed oil fields in the
United States. Its discovery and early de-
velopment had all the flavor and excitement
of some of the early discoveries in Texas
'and Oklahoma. The epic at Greensburg has
been interesting as a spectacle to watch and
as scientific phenomena to observe.
V' The Greensburg oil field occupies parts
of Green and Taylor Counties, Kentucky (see
Figure 1). The area is in the upper Green
River basin about 140 miles south-southwest
of Cincinnati and about 70 miles south of
Louisville. Before the discovery of oil, it
was a typically rural area of central Ken-
tucky: sleepy, slow-moving, and much con-
cerned with the price of tobacco, corn, and
hogs. After nearly 40 years of unsuccess-
ful drilling, very few men believed that oil
could be obtained from the limestones under-
lying the area. In 1958 methods ofbringingin
this oil were discovered and used with suc-
cess. Many of the early wells were only
about 450 feet deep. Because only a simple
water well driller's rig was needed, a well
-------
92
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
FIGURE 1. MAP OF KENTUCKY, SHOWING
GREENSBURG OIL FIELD
could be put infor about $6000. The Greens-
burg oil field was, at the start, a poor man's
oil field. By February 1960 over 2300 wells
had been drilled. Some estimates place the
number of wells at over 3000. The disposal
of the brine pumped to the surface with the
oil has been a difficult problem because of
its volume and the methods of disposal.
Oil is obtained from the Laurel dolomite
of Silurian age on the west flank of the
Cincinnati arch. The oil pool that was out-
lined during the frantic drilling period dur-
ing 1958 and 1959 covered an area about 25
miles long and 5 miles wide in Green and
Taylor Counties. Since that time, the field
has been slowly expanding, mostly in Taylor
County.
A progress report on the effects of oil-
field brines on surface and ground waters in
the upper Green River basin was published
by the Kentucky Geological Survey (Krieger
and Hendrickson, 1960) in November 1960.
This report also describes the geology of the
upper Green River basin, the effects on the
ground waters of Mammoth Cave, and the
effects of various methods or procedures of
brine disposal. The effect of the oil-field
brines on the Green River was striking.
The chemical character of the river water
changed rapidly from a calcium magnesium
bicarbonate water to a sodium chloride
water. At Munfordville, about 50 miles
downstream from Greensburg, chloride con-
centrations exceeded the 250-ppm limit of
the U.S. Public Health Service drinking
water standards 50 percent of the time. This
affected the public water supplies of several
towns and plans for an improved water sup-
ply at Mammoth Cave National Park. Drastic
changes had to be made in water treatment
methods at the gas-stripping plant of the
Tennessee Gas Transmission Company at
Gabe.
CAUSE OF THE POLLUTION PROBLEM
Kentucky is one of the oldest oil-pro-
ducing states. Oil was discovered in Ken-
tucky in 1819, but an organized search for it
was delayed until about 1865. In 1959, Ken-
tucky had its best year of oil production in
the history of the Commonwealth. A total
of 27,271,956 barrels of oil were produced.
This was a 52 percent increase in produc-
tion over 1958 and 7-1/2percent of the total
oil produced in Kentucky since 1918. The
new Greensburg field produced 38-1/2 per-
cent of all the oil produced in Kentucky in
1959. This surge in oil production, in com-
bination with several other factors, pro-
duced the contamination problem.
First, the method of bringing in the oil
was unusual. Drilling had produced a show
of oil in the area for some time, but there
was always the problem of disposal of the
large quantities of brine brought in with the
oil. It did not seem economically possible
to develop such a field. In 1958 drillers
learned that if a high capacity pump was in-
stalled and pumped hard, oil could eventually
be brought into the well in prof itiable amounts.
To achieve oil production by this method,
brine had to be pumped from the well con-
tinuously at a high rate for several weeks or
even several months before oil appeared.
Even then the brine-to-oil ratio was un-
usually high. According to estimates, 3 to
20 barrels of brine are produced for each
barrel of oil. The effect of this type of well
development and oil production made it nec-
essary to dispose of large quantities of
brine.
Second, the well operators had the prob-
lem of disposing of large quantities of brine.
At first, the easiest method of disposal was
used. Brine was simply turned into the near-
est ditch, creek, or drainage way. This pol-
luted the creeks and the Green River. Many
operators piped the brine into sink holes in
the limestone. When forced to abandon these
methods, so-called evaporation ponds were
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
93
bulldozed out of the hillsides; however, most
of the brine did not evaporate but ran freely
out of the bottom of the ponds through frac-
tures in the underlying limestone. Even
disposal wells below the fresh water zone
did not achieve their purpose because the
brine could migrate upward into the zone of
fresh water. The net result was a very
rapid contamination of many water wells and
springs with brine.
Third, the shallow depth of the oil-bear-
ing strata made drilling relatively easy. Oil
could be reached between about 400 and 700
feet. This meant that an oil well could be
put in for only a few thousand dollars. All
that was needed at many sites was the simple
truck-mounted cable-tool rig of the water
well driller. The Greensburg field became
crowded with well drillers from Kentucky,
Tennessee, and other states. Wildcatters
were everywhere drilling in parking lots of
drive-ins, front and back yards of homes,
and in pastures and woods.
Fourth, Kentucky had never experienced
an oil boom like this before and had no well
{pacing law, as it does now. Two or three
wells on a half-acre became a common sight.
Wells on adjacent leases were often so close
together that, as someone said, "The drillers
could shake hands." As a result, many more
wells were put down than were needed to de-
velop the field properly.
When the Governor called the Water
Pollution Control Commission into the area,
over 200 wells already had been drilled.
Law enforcement became a real problem.
Kentucky had an adequate, but relatively new,
anti-pollution law in the statute books.
Brine pollution, however, had not been tested
or defined in the courts. Enforcement
through trial and conviction in the local
court was slow and difficult. The Kentucky
Water Pollution Control Commission was
literally swamped by the numbers of opera-
tors violating the pollution laws. Although
the Commission established a field office at
Greensburg and added men to the staff, full
enforcement of the law was impossible be-
cause of the immense problem at hand.
Time, appeals to higher courts, elimination
of the small inexperienced operator, enact-
ment of spacing laws by the 1960 Legislature,
better means of disposal of brine all have
contributed to a rapid decrease in the num-
ber of violations of pollution laws. The de-
cline in oil production also helped reduce
pollution; however, as a well declined in oil
production, many operators pumped brine at
higher rates in an effort to increase the flow
of oil. Many of the early wildcatter wells
are now out of production. In Taylor County,
particularly, successful brine disposal
through wells was hampered by leakage
through old unplugged wells.
And fifth, since it was a poor man's oil
field, mostly inexperienced or amateur
Table 1. OIL PRODUCTION - GREENSBURG OIL FIELD, KENTUCKY
Barrels of oil. 1959
Barrels of oil. 1960
Month
Green Co.
Taylor Co. Green Co.
Taylor Co.
Green Co.
Taylor Co.
January
February
Match
April
May
June
My
August
September
October
November
December
Total
5.454
5.674
8,009
8.450
18.216
21.054
30.270
63,107
162,244
308,860
468,529
556,181
1,646,048
613.627
586,707
799,257
1,158,804
1,386,904
1,143,464
939,331
733,321
653,966
555,772
465,111
381,194
a 9.417,460
88
414
7,534
19,777
34,704
91,493
105,015
148,723
140,714
150,635
190,835
206,062
1,095,995
513,705
261,318
215,057
266,460
272,389
222,425
209,026
183,093
166,841
143,909
115,032
108.428
2,677,683
200,082
203,830
206,834
212,115
209,989
179,199
136.821
124,085
101,647
92.025
75,264
48,593
1.790,484
a Negligible.
-------
94
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
operators were working the field. The sudden
development of the field surprised the larger
and more established oil companies. Con-
servation by spacing and controlled pumping
were not practiced. The inexperienced oper-
ators were more interested in immediate
high production than in long-term yields. It
was a matter, in many places, of pumping put
your oil before your neighbor did. All-out
pumping rapidly brought the field to peak
production, as shown in Table 1.
This combination of circumstances is
unlikely to occur again in Kentucky. The
omission of any one or more of the factors
would have greatly reduced the pollution
problem.
WATER QUALITY
BEFORE CONTAMINATION
Before development of the Greensburg oil
field, fresh water was Obtained from rela-
tively shallow wells and springs. Wells were
usually less than 100 feet deep, with bailers
to supply water for domestic use in town,
village, and on the farm. Many springs in
the area had been dependable water supplies
for home and farm for generations. The
larger towns, Greensburg and Campbells-
ville, use surface waters as sources of
public supply.
Shallow ground water in Green and
Taylor Counties that has not been contamin-
ated by brine is hard and low in Chloride.
Analyses of a few wells and springs in Green
and Taylor Counties are given in Table 2.
These analyses show a range in hardness
from 185 to 485 ppm and in chloride from
1.2 to 36 ppm. Almost half the samples con-
tained sulfate in amounts from 125 to 197
ppm. Except for hardness, the water has
been suitable for most domestic and farm
uses. Most water wells are equipped with
bailers rather than pumps because of the
cost of a pump, the low yield of the wells,
and the widespread use of cisterns to sup-
plement ground water supplies. If pumps had
been used, it is probable that the chloride
concentrations in some wells would have
been higher.
WATER QUALITY
AFTER CONTAMINATION
Chemical Character of the Brines
To determine the chemical character
and strength of the contaminating material,
chemical analyses were made of brines from
a few oil wells. Analyses of six samples
from wells in Green and Taylor Counties
are given in Table 3. These samples average
Table 2. CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF UNCONTAMINATED GROUND WATER
GREEN AND TAYLOR COUNTIES, KENTUCKY
Chemical analysis, ppm
Well No.
8535-3705-1
S-2037.7-367.8
S-2044.0-342.2
S -2044.5 -341.6
S-2055.1-339.3
S-2057.2-342.6
S-2075.7-376.1
S-2078.6-326.3
S -2080.0-360.3
S-2084.9-293.7
S-2106.5-341.0
S-2126.5-357.6
S -2128.3 -398.6
County
Gieen
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Taylor
Taylor
Taylor
Source
Spring
Spring
Spring
Well
Well
Well
Well
Well
Well
Well
Well
Well
Well
Depth, ft
__
65.5
92.3
58
40.4
72
49.9
33.8
62.8
49.4
30
Bicar-
Date bonate
sampled (HCOs)
11/17/55
11/18/55
10/26/58
10/26/58
11/18/55
10/23/58
5/13/60
11/18/55
11/18/55
11/17/55
ll/ 4/55
ll/ 4/55
ll/ 4/55
222
204
248
267
344
355
286
344
396
420
312
164
255
Sulfate
(S04)
9.9
6.2
16
14
156
125
8.0
196
217
58
1463
5.3
79
Chlo-
ride
(Cl)
1.2
1.5
10
4.5
5.0
25
7.0
32
36
8.0
23
4.5
6.9
Hardness
as CaCOs
(Ca. Mg)
206
185
228
240
450
416
252
485
461
426
1760
154
291
Specific
conductance,
|i mhos
at 25° C
381
345
463
444
791
757
484
979
1060
742
2550
290
556
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
95
Table 3. CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF OIL WELL BRINES -
GREEN AND TAYLOR COUNTIES, KENTUCKY
Chemical analysis, ppm
Well No.
12 K-49
11 1-46
7 1-48
S-2063.9-344.8
S-2077.4-347.0
S-2083.2-374.3
Depth, ft
551
--
327
380
Date
Sampled
10/18/57
5/ 7/55
10/18/57
2/16/60
10/25/58
4/ 6/59
Bicar-
bonate
(HCOs)
48
31
107
63
Sul-
fate
(S04)
211
1,210
588
Chlo-
ride
(Cl)
63,300
80,300
75,900
67,000
85,000
68,300
Hardness
as CaCOa
(Ca. Mg)
19,200
24,700
21,800
25,800
Dissolved
solids a
105,000
134,000
126,000
105,000
Specific
conductance,
U mhos
at 25°C
119,000
152,000
132,000
118,000
120,000
130,000
Specific
gravity
1.074
1.101
1.090
1.083
..
1.072
a Residue after evaporation at 180°C.
about 73,300 ppm in chloride concentration
and 1.09 in specific gravity. Although no
samples from Green or Taylor Counties were
reported by McGrain and Thomas (1951) and
McGrain (1953), the brine samples reported
by them generally contained less chloride
than those from the Greensburg field. In
addition, most of the brines reported by
McGrain were from deeper formations.
Brine, in the range of 60,000 to 85,000 ppm
chloride, is the contaminating material in
the fresh waters of the Greensburg oil field.
Chemical Character of Springs and Wells
Very soon after intensive drilling started
in Green County, water wells and springs
became contaminated with brine. The salty
taste of brine and the appearance and musty
odor of oil were the first signs of contamin-
ation reported by local residents. The con-
centration of brine increased so rapidly in
some wells and springs that some farmers
had little chance to cope with the problem
before their water supplies were made com-
pletely unpotable for man and livestock.
Table 4 contains the results of analyses
of water from a few selected wells and
springs made over a period of about 2 years.
All of the wells were originally used to sup-
ply water for the home or for livestock.
Some springs had been reliable sources of
"good water for several generations.
The rapidity and range of the change in
chloride concentration stands out in com-
paring chloride concentrations for some
springs or wells. When waste brines entered
a well or spring, contamination often reached
a peak concentration in a very short time.
Natural flushing out or decontamination is
noticeable, but it proceeds more slowly.
For example, well S-2058.3-341.5 was a
satisfactory source for domestic and farm
use. By October 23, 1958, the chloride con-
centration had reached 41,000 ppm, but in a
year had declined to 1,490 ppm. In 1960 the
chloride concentration had increased again
to 18,700 ppm, due, possibly, to contamin-
ation from new oil wells or changes in meth-
ods of brine disposal. The chloride con-
centration has since declined again to 705
ppm.
Well S-2077.8-379.5 was potable domes-
tic water well equipped with a bailer. Water
from the well reached at least 49,400 ppm
chloride. Such a chloride value represents
a dilution of about one-half to less than one-
third. Spring No.S-2080.8-380.9 not only
showed brine contamination but also showed
evidence of oil pollution.
Contamination of ground water supplies
extended to Brownsville, about 100 miles
downstream from Greensburg. In October
1959, the city well at Brownsville yielded a
sample containing 405 ppm chloride, com-
pared with 2.5 ppm in September 1957. In
June 1960, the chloride concentration of the
water was diluted to 130 ppm by the in-
creased flow of the river.
-------
96
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Table 4. CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF CONTAMINATED WELLS AND SPRINGS -
GREENSBURG OIL FIELD, KENTUCKY
Well data
S2057 .2-342.6; WBF: Miss. Is.;
Drilled well; 58 feet deep.
5 inches in diameter.
S2058.3-341.5; WBF:
Meramec Is.; Spring.
S2064.2-339.4; WBF:
Meramec (?); Drilled
well; 25 feet deep, 6
inches in diameter.
S 2064.2-340.4; WBF:
Meramec (?); Drilled
well; 58 feet deep, 6
inches in diameter.
S2076.7-347.8; WBF: - ;
Drilled well; 347 feet
deep, 6-1/4 inches in
diameter.
S2077 .8-379.5; WBF: Miss.
Is.; Drilled well; 49 feet
deep.
S2079.6-382.1; WBF:
Miss. Is.; Spring
S2080.8-380.9; WBF:
Miss. Is.; Spring
Date
sampled
10/23/58
3/30/59
6/25/59
10/ 7/59
6/16/60
2/ 9/61
10/23/58
6/25/59
10/ 7/59
4/24/60
6/16/60
2/ 9/61
10/23/58
6/26/59
10/ 7/59
6/16/60
10/23/58
4/28/59
6/27/59
10/ 7/59
10/24/58
10/ 8/60
4/24/60
10/ 9/59
12/21/59
7/21/60
9/ 8/60
6/ 8/60
8/ 5/60
9/ 8/60
2/ 9/60
4/19/60
7/21/60
9/15/60
Water level,
ft below LSD
49.27
--
51.65
50.69
51.16
45.99
--
--
--
--
18.09
18.00
18.25
18.40
58.0
51.0
51.13
Flowing
Flowing
Flowing
Flowing
Flowing
3.56
_.
--
..
--
Chloride,
ppm
25
7,960
1,180
875
448
70
41,000
4,390
1,490
7,840
18,700
705
1,000
8,350
9.530
5,400
14
10,500
7,990
6,770
1,800
161
130
10,900
49,400
980
1,950
21,100
13,600
25,400
9,370
6,130
10,900
6,770
Remarks
Original use : domestic
Abandoned because of high
chloride content.
Original use : domestic stock.
Not used. Chickens appeared to be
drinking this water on 2/9/61.
Original use: domestic.
Original use: domestic.
Not used, polluted.
Original use : stock.
Original use: domestic.
Original use: stock.
Original use; domestic stock.
Slight oil slick on surf ace.
Abandoned.
The contamination problem wrought
various degrees of hardship on the local
residents. Many farmers had to develop
another water supply, where possible, or haul
water for domestic or stock use. More de-
pendence was put on cisterns for domestic
water supplies. In any case, fresh potable
waterbecarne scarce. In an area more suit-
able for df'iry and beef cattle than cultiva-
tion of field crops, the short supply of water
often meant getting rid of the livestock.
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
97
Total Amount of Brine Contamination
It is difficult to make a reliable estimate
of the amount of brine pumped in the Greens -
burg oil field since oil production started in
early 1958. Very few records were kept by
the wildcatters, and brine disposal was too
often a dark-of-the-moon operation. For-
tunately, it was fairly easy to measure the
quantity of salt draining from the Greensburg
oil field.
The Greensburg oil field is entirely
within the upper Green River drainage basin.
Water discharge from this area is measured
by a recording gage at Munfordville, about
20 miles downstream from Greensburg. The
0. S. Geological Survey and the Kentucky
Geological Survey, fortunately had main-
tained a daily sampling station at Munford-
ville since October 1949. Reliable measure-
ments could be made of the load of brine
being discharged out of the oil field. In the
1959 water year, 296,000 tons of chloride
were discharged from the Greensburg field.
This is equivalent to about 23,300,000 barrels
of brine, compared to 10,600,000 barrels of
oil produced in 1959. Brine production in
die field is undoubtedly greater because
drainage values do not allow for evaporation,
detention in the rocks, and the lag between
pumpage and drainage. In 1960, brine, as
measured by drainage at Munfordville, was
about the same as in 1959, but oil produc-
tion had declined to 4,470,000 barrels.
WATER QUALITY
NOW AND IN THE FUTURE
Enforcement of the pollution control law,
enactment of a well spacing law, and de-
cline of production has produced some im-
provement in quality of the shallow ground
waters in the Greensburg oil field. At least
some springs and wells are below their peak
chloride concentrations. A few wells and
springs are being used again, but some of
this may be partly a matter of adaptation to
a new set of conditions.
What of the future - say 5, 10, or 20
years from now? One thing seems certain -
chloride concentrations in some wells and
springs will be above the normal maximum
of 30 to 35 ppm for some time to come.
Personally, I feel a bit optimistic about the
future quality of the ground water. The sink
holes, solution channels, and fractures in the
rock, which made pollution of wells and
springs so easy, should also help in flushing
out the bulk of the contaminating brines. As
production declines to a level that will be
more nearly the long-term average for the
field, the source of contamination will be
largely removed. Optimism, however,should
be tempered by realization that corroding
well casings will allow brine to seep into
fresh water aquifers. The history of other
oil fields indicates that complete recovery
is many, many years away. Yet, I believe
that in a few years water quality in some
areas will reach a level acceptable for live-
stock and possibly for domestic use.
REFERENCES
1. Krieger, R. A. and Hendrickson, G. E.
Effects of Greensburg oil field brines
on the streams, wells and springs of the
upper Green River basin, Kentucky. Ky.
Geol. Survey, Report of Investigations
No. 2, series X, 1960, Lexington.
2. McGrain, Preston. Miscellaneous anal-
yses of Kentucky brines. Ky. Geol.
Survey, Report of Investigations, No. 7,
series IX, 1953, Lexington.
3. McGrain, Preston and Thomas, G. R.
Preliminary report on the natural brines
of eastern Kentucky. Ky. Geol. Survey,
Report of Investigations, No. 3, series
IX, 1951, Lexington.
-------
98
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
INCIDENTS OF CHROMIUM CONTAMINATION
OF GROUND WATER IN MICHIGAN*
M. Deutsch, U.S. Geological Survey
Our ground water resources in some
areas have been contaminated in many dif-
ferent ways and by many different con-
taminants. A review of numerous incidents
of ground water contamination in Michigan
by the author (1) revealed how easily aqui-
fers can become contaminated, how wide-
spread and costly such contamination al-
ready is, and how difficult it is to remove
contamination once introduced. The review
also outlined principles controlling the entry
and movement of wastes in aquifers. Among
the most serious (and interesting) cases re-
viewed were those involving entry of chro-
mium compounds, expecially hexavalent
chromium, into aquifers used as sources of
public supply.
The chromium - contamination incidents
demonstrate a few of the ways wastes may
enter an aquifer. These incidents serve as
examples of the seriousness of ground water
contamination. They provide us with an op-
portunity to examine the hydrogeologic con-
trols that govern the underground movement
of the contaminants and also give us some
insight concerning the extent and duration of
the effects of contamination of our ground
water resources.
Electroplating, especially chrome plat-
ing, is a relatively small but important in-
dustry in Michigan. The industry has the
problem of disposing of plating wastes, which
are variable in character and usually include
hexavalent chromium, cyanide, and caustic
soda in the rinse waters. Of particular con-
cern with respect to plating wastes is the
fact thatminute concentrations of hexavalent
chromium and cyanide render water unfit for
human consumption. According to the U. S.
Public Health Service (2), "hexavalent chro-
mium in excess of 0.05 ppm (1 part to 20
million) shall constitute grounds for reject-
tion of the (public-water) supply." The toxi-
cology laboratory of the Michigan Depart-
ment of Health reported that chromium in
the amount of Ippm may have a detrimental
effect on the human nervous system and
kidney tissues and that chronic illnesses
may result. The chromate imparts a yellow
tinge to the water in which it is dissolved.
Cyanide in any amount whatsoever is in-
tolerable in water used for public supply.
In the past, disposal of electroplating
wastes to streams has created serious haz-
ards to the public health. As an alternative
to surface disposal of electroplating wastes,
some concerns have attempted to dispose of
the wastes in infiltration pits. This prac-
tice has some merit in that the hazard from
cyanide reportedly is largely eliminated.
The Michigan Water Resources Commission
observed that although they "have encoun-
tered a number of ground - water-pollution
problems involving electroplating wastes,
no instance has occurred. . . where cyanide
could be traced in wells any distance from
the point of disposal. This is accounted for
by the various reactions to which cyanide is
subjected by subsurface formations."
PERCOLATION FROM PONDS
Disposal of the waste to the ground has
not solved the chromium - contamination
problem, however, since chromium is not
completely removed from the water by the
rock materials through which it percolates.
Almost all the suspended solid material is
filtered out by the first few inches of soil,
but the water containing dissolved chromium
moves through the permeable materials and
reaches the aquifers. In general, the move-
ment is downward, although some water is
dispersed laterally by capillarity or deflected
by lenses or zones of low permeability.
Eventually, the contaminated water enters
the upper part of the underlying aquifer
(Figure 1). (All the figures included in this
paper are schematic and are not based on
field data.) The liquid waste tends to form
a mound on the water surface and moves
radially from the mound. The direction and
* Approved for publication by the Director, U.S. Geological Survey.
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
99
Source of
contominonts
Unsoturoted zone
cf percolation
Zone of aeration
Recharge mound
"^- Zone of
cc ntominotion
FIGURE 1. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM SHOWING PERCOLATION OF CONTAMINANTS THROUGH ZONE OF
AERATION AND INTO ISOTROPIC AQUIFERS
velocity of underflow of the waste is con-
trolled principally by the gradient and the
permeability of the aquifer materials. Once
the chromium is introduced, the aquifer is
unfit as a source of potable water for a pro-
longed period of time because of the gen-
erally slow movement of ground water. It is
not known whether natural flushing action or
dewatering by pumping will in time remove
the chromium from the aquifer.
Douglas Incident
Several instances of chromium contamin-
ation have occurred in the State. In 1947
the Michigan Department of Health (3) was
notified that water from wells tapping the
glacial drift in the western part of the village
of Douglas in Allegan County had turned
yellow. The wells were removed from ser-
vice, pending analysis of a water sample.
The analysis revealed a chromate content of
10.8 ppm or more than 200 times the con-
centration of hexavalent chromium recom-
mended by the Public Health Service as the
maximum safe limit in public supply systems.
The source of contamination was quickly
located. About 3 years before the contamin-
ation appeared, a metal-plating concern be-
gan discharging chrome-plating wastes into
an infiltration pit and the surrounding over-
flow area about 1000 feet south of the western
wells and 2500 feet southwest of the eastern
well at Douglas. Discharge of the plating
wastes had resulted in contamination of the
glacial-drift aquifer for at least 1000 feet
in one direction from the pit and to a depth
of at least 37 feet. It had taken about 3
years for the waste to migrate 1000 feet at
a rate of about 1 foot per day along the
gradient created by pumping of the western
wells. Health Department personnel esti-
mated at the time that if disposal to the pit
were stopped immediately it would be at
least 6 years before the aquifer in the vicin-
ity of the west wells would be free of chro-
mate. Although the 1947 analyses of water
from the eastern well showed no chromate
content, water from the well was analyzed
periodically as a safeguard. However, the
wells of a local dairy were found to be con-
taminated. The Health Department requested
that the Village Council condemn all private
-------
100
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
wells in the village, since there was no
practical way of observing"'the quality of the
water from each well.
Table 1. RESULTS OF ANALYSES OF
WATER FROM ELECTROPLATING PLANT
DISPOSAL POND AND TWO NEARBY WELLS
Bronson Incident
Since 1939 electroplating industries at
Bronson, in southern Michigan, have ex-
perienced difficulty in disposing of electro-
plating wastes (4). Originally, the wastes
were discharged into the city's sewer sys-
tem, which emptied into a county drain and
a creek. Contamination of these water-
courses resulted in the death of fish and
cattle below Bronson as a result of ingestion
of cyanide. The city subsequently issued an
ordinance to prohibit discharge of toxic
wastes to the city's sewer systems. All the
plating wastes of the principal company in-
volved subsequently were discharged to two
ponds. In 1942 it was found that the dikes
around the ponds were unsafe, and inspection
of the flow from the sewer system revealed
a faint yellow color, characteristic of chro-
mium-waste contamination. The chromium
probably resulted from leakage of water
from the ponds,.both above and below ground,
or use of the sewer system for waste dis-
posal. Subsequent cases of surface water
contamination were reported.
In 1949 ground water contamination at
Bronson was revealed when the owner of a
domestic well observed a "greenish tinge"
in his well water. The well was 75 feet from
the sewer that carried plating wastes to the
disposal ponds. In December of 1949 the
Water Resources Commission collected
samples of water from one of the ponds from
the domestic well, and from a well at the
County Highway Garage between the pond
and the domestic well. The domestic well
was 14 feet deep, and the water level was 8
feet 6 inches below the land surface. The
well at the garage was 33 feet deep, and the
water level was 8 feet 2 inches below the
land surface. Both wells tapped the same
shallow glacial-drift aquifer. Results of the
analyses made by the Michigan Department
of Health are given in Table 1.
Garage Domestic
Pond Well Well
Cyanide, ppm
Chromium, ppm
Nickel, ppm
Copper, ppm
pH
15.6
6.0
49.0
12.0
6.65
0
0
0
0
7.5
Trace
2.0
Trace
0
7.5
It was evident that the part of the aquifer
tapped by the domestic well was contamin-
ated at the time of sampling but that the
deeper part, which was tapped by the High-
way Garage well, was not. A check of the
sewer lines revealed that they were in good
condition and were not contributing contam-
ination to the aquifer. Evidently, the plating
wastes were moving directly from the dis-
posal ponds. By December 29, 1949, the
chromium content of the domestic well had
risen to 3.5 ppm.
Several interesting hydrologic observa-
tions can be made, based on the instance of
chromium contamination at Bronson. The
chemical analyses revealed that the 33-foot
well at the County Garage was not contamin-
ated at the time the sample was collected,
although the well is between the contaminated
shallow domestic well and the disposal pond.
This shows that the chromium contamination
was not uniformly distributed throughout the
aquifer. The contaminant may have been
confined to the upper part of the ground
water body and only slightly dispersed in
traveling through the aquifer. Movement to
the deeper well could have been impeded in
part by lenses of low permeability within
the aquifer.
The natural gradient of the water table in
the shallow-drift aquifer was reported to be
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
101
northwestward, hut the contaminated well
was southwest of the disposal pond. This in-
dicates that a ground water mound was built
up that moved the wastes in a direction op-
posite to the natural gradient. Underground
movement of contaminated water would tend
to be radial from beneath the pond(Figure 2).
FIGURE 2. DIAGRAMS SHOWING LINES OF FLOW
FROM MOUND ON SLOPING WATER TABLE
The degree of buildup of the mound and
hence the distance the water moves opposite
to the natural gradient is controlled by the
slope of the natural gradient, the physical
character of the aquifer, and the quantity of
contaminated water introduced. (Pumping of
wells also would result in local gradients
opposite to the natural gradient. Thus, areas
upgradient from sources of contamination
are not necessarily protected from pollution.)
After more than a decade, there is con-
cern that new wells proposed to be drilled
to a deeper aquifer by the city also might be
subject to chromium contamination. The
lower aquifer is reported to be separated
from the contaminated upper aquifer by a
"thick impervious clay stratum." The con-
cern that deeper wells may be contaminated
may be warranted, however. Aquifer tests
made in numerous areas of the State by the
Federal and State Geological Surveys seldom
reveal artesian conditions perfect enough to
completely shut off all interaquifer move-
ment of water. Study of the well logs or
even visual inspection of a clay layer is in-
adequate to determine the impermeability of
clayey materials. Laboratory analysis of
permeability or extensive aquifer testing
would be necessary to determine the hy-
draulic characteristics of the "impervious
clay stratum." Further, it would have to be
determined whether the confining layer is
penetrated by wells witli rusted or broken
casings that would permit leakage of con-
taminants to the lower aquifer (Figure 3).
FIGURE 3. GENERALIZED DIAGRAM SHOWING
INTERFORMATIONAL LEAKAGE BY VERTICAL
MOVEMENT OF WATER THROUGH WELLS
LEACHING FROM THE LAND SURFACE
Kent County Incident
Several incidents of ground water con-
tamination have resulted from uncontrolled
spilling or spreading of chromium-bearing
substances on the land surface. Disposal of
chrome-bearing liquids or soluble solids that
can percolate to an underlying aquifer are a
-------
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
:M3< S e epage ;V|'-': /1<
FIGURE 4. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM SHOWING LEACHING OF SOLUBLE CONTAMINANTS INTO AQUIFER FROM
PRECIPITATION AND FLOOD WATERS
potential hazard, as illustrated by Figure 4.
An incident in Kent County (5) indicates how
chromium contaminants can be spread on
the surface through "normal" activities.
During the winter of 1955-56, some of the
snow along a roadside in the area turned
yellow. Investigation by a township engineer
revealed that the Kent County Road Com-
mission was using salt to melt ice and snow
on the county roads. The salt was treated
with a chromium-base rust inhibitor to allay
county residents' complaints concerning
rapid corrosion of automobile bodies.
Samples of snow had a chromium content of
10 ppm. Fortunately, the township engineer
recognized the potential hazard to the water
supplies of the area and notified the County
Road Commission; the use of chromium-
treated salt was promptly discontinued.
A unique case of ground water contam-
ination by chromium occurred in the city of
Grandville west of Grand Rapids (6). In this
incident the city drilled a public supply well
in the glacial-drift deposits along the Grand
River. To protect the well from flooding
during periods of high water, the casing was
extended several feet into the air and the
land surface was raised by filling with sand
and gravel. In time, chromium was detected
in the water. This resulted in considerable
consternation, since there was no apparent
source of chromium contamination in the
vicinity. Investigation by the Grandville
Superintendent of Water revealed that the
sand and gravel fill used to raise the land
surface at the well was taken from a former
dumping grounds for electroplating wastes!
The river was in flood stage shortly before
the contamination appeared. Water from the
river obviously had leached the chromium
from the fill and carried it into the aquifer.
DISCHARGE OF CHROME-LADEN DUST
Wyoming Township Incident
For several years Wyoming Township in
Kent County had difficulty obtaining from one
of its well fields water that was free from
chromium. An electroplating firm on adja-
cent property was the apparent source of the
chromium contamination. Accordingly, the
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
103
Airborn« chrome-laden dust
Plating company
. .
^
' z-ec : fatten
' -
:^.- .'-.
\Q.-.:.-. :
.'...»«.*»..'» (
To municipal
supply ,
FIGURE 5. DIAGRAM SHOWING POSSIBLE MODE OF ENTRY OF AIRBORNE WASTES TO AQUIFER
firm retained a consulting engineer to study
the problem and report on the possibility of
further contamination and of means of abate-
ment (7).
The engineer concluded in his study that
airborne chromium could have been intro-
duced to the aquifer in several ways.
Chrome-laden dust was discharged through
ventilators on the roof. Some of the dust
settled to the ground, where it accumulated
until rainfall washed it down to the water
table, as depicted in Figure 5. A general
relationship was shown between precipita-
tion and chromium contamination in the town-
ship wells.
A dry well at the site, into which water
from the roof on the plant drained, was
another likely source of intermittent con-
tamination. Some of the dust probably was
washed out of the air and onto the roof by
precipitation. The dust may have flowed
down a rainspout into the dry well and then
infiltrated to the aquifer, through which it
subsequently migrated to the well field in
response to pumping.
In addition, the Michigan Geological
Survey reported that chrome-powder residue
was present in or on containers left in the
yard. Some of this hazardous powder may
have been spilled on the ground from where
it readily could have been leached and car-
ried into the underlying aquifer by subse-
quent rainfall.
SUMMARY
Several incidents of chromium contam-
ination of ground water have occurred in
Michigan. The most serious of these re-
sulted from disposal of electroplating wastes
to ponds or settling basins. Other incidents
of ground water contamination were caused
by spreading of chromium-treated salt to
melt snow, by use of chromium-contaminated
land fill, and possibly even by settling of
chromium-laden dust from the air. For-
tunately, chromium contamination of ground
water has been of small areal extent, and no
human fatalities or serious illnesses are
known to have occurred.
-------
104
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
The modes of entry of chromium-bearing
wastes to aquifers are well recognized by
Michigan public agencies concerned with
water resources and public health. Through
their efforts, contamination by electroplat-
ing industries virtually has been eliminated.
In addition, very few incidents of contamin-
ation by chromium from other sources have
been reported. Because minute concentra-
tions of hexavalent chromium in water are
highly toxic, aquifers must be constantly pro-
tected from future contamination. To help
protect our ground water resources, the
public generally must be made aware of the
hazards involved in the disposal of toxic
wastes.
REFERENCES
1. Deutsch, Morris, Ground-water con-
tamination and legal controls in Mich-
igan. U. S. Geological Survey open-file
report. 1960.
2. Public Health Service Drinking Water
Standards. Public Health Reports, v. o,
no. 11, p. 371-384. 1946.
3. Michigan Department of Health. Douglas,
Michigan. Mich. Water Works News,
v. 7, no. 3. 1947.
4. L. A. Darling, v. Water Resources Com-
mission (341 Mich. 654).
5. Michigan Department of Health. Inhibi-
tors used in snow removal. Mich.
Water Works News, v. 23, no. 2. 1958.
6. Michigan Department of Health. Unique
pollution of a well by chromium. Mich.
Water Works News, v. 21, no. 3. 1956.
7. Report to the Grand Rapids Brass Com-
pany on industrial wastes and water sup-
ply. Williams and Works mimeo. rept.,
Grand Rapids, 1956.
REFUSE DISPOSAL, ITS SIGNIFICANCE
L. Weaver, Sanitary Engineering Center
Approximately 4 pounds of refuse per
capita per day are produced in the United
States. The term refuse, as used here, re-
fers to the useless, unused, unwanted, or
discarded solid waste materials resulting
from normal community activities; refuse
includes such materials as garbage, rubbish,
ashes, street refuse, dead animals, and solid
industrial wastes (1). Thus, every day our
urban population produces over 400,000,000
pounds of refuse that must be disposed of by
dumping on land, grinding and disposal with
FENCE
TOSTOf
KC I HC -..
COVER OBTAINED BY
FURTHER EXCAVATION
IN SAME TRENCH OR
FROM NEXT TRENCH
sewage, incineration or that must be made
reusable by one or more reclamation pro-
cesses. Over 1400 communities dispose of
their refuse by sanitary landfill techniques,
i.e., compaction and covering with compacted
FIGURE 1. SANITARY LANDFILL IN FLAT AREA
FIGURE 2. BURNING OPEN DUMP
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
105
earth on suitable land by use of mechanical
Equipment such as crawler type tractors
(Figure 1). Many thousands more dispose
of this material in open dumps on land with-
out the degree of sanitary control recom-
mended by health agencies (Figure 2).
Wherever refuse is deposited on land,
the potential impact on surface waters or
subterranean aquifers may be significant.
This can be better appreciated when one
.considers, for example, that ordinary com-
munity refuse may have a 5-day BOD of
14,000 to 180,000 ppm and an alkalinity (to
MO as CaCOa) of 2600 to more than 23,000
ppm, as shown in Table 1(2). hi one study
bacteriological examination of landfill ma-
terial showed an average of 740,000 coliforms
per gram of refuse. The leachate from a
landfill has been found to have a 5-day BOD
from 6 to more than 7000 ppm(3,4).
The question is, of course, what does
this mean translated into terms of potential
ground water pollution? And further, when
this potential is known, what theii are the
practicalities involved in present disposal
practices and their implications with respect
to the development of existing and future
ground water pollution problems?
THE POTENTIAL PROBLEM
For pollution of ground water by refuse
leaching, three basic conditions must exist:
(1) the refuse fill must be located over, ad-
jacent to, or in an aquifer; (2) a state of
supersaturation must occur within the fill -
this may occur because of the movement of
ground water into the fill from percolation
of precipitation and surface water runoff,
from water of decomposition, or from an
artificial source; (3) leached fluids must be
produced and this leachate must be capable
of entering an aquifer (10).
Table 1. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS RESULTS a
Analysis
Date sample
collected
Total solids, %
Volatile solids, %
fixed solids. %
PH
Acidity to PP as
CaCOs, ppm
Alkalinity to MO
as CaCOa, ppm
Ammonia as N,
N. ppm
Total nitrogen as
N, ppm
Oxygen consumed,
ppm
5-day BOD. ppm
Refuse ready for burial
2/6/50
53.32
31.69
21.63
5.9
756
14.650
252
6,945
394,023
95,900
3/6/50
51.41
20.18
31.23
7.77
158
8.352
144
3.749
209.000
63,000
4/13/50
44.08
17.26
26.82
8.8
128
12,700
46
2.646
170.000
39,000
5/10/50
51.44
15.28
36.16
6.4
540
7,740
120
1.980
168.800
14,200
6/6/50
60.35
39.53
20.82
5.0
3,540
10,625
340
10,115
501,500
178,500
7/15/50
43.35
16.98
26.37
6.3
923
2.667
862
5,460
238,000
41,000
8/23/50
46.26
27.44
18.82
6.3
3,000
21,000
408
6,138
356,000
106,000
9/10/5
31.53
13.71
17.82
7.4
2,064
13,300
500
3,970
187,000
39,000
1V17/5
37.81
20.07
17.74
6.0
5.375
23.100
73
5,623
227,000
70,900
12AO/5
29.36
23.12
6.24
5.5
5,910
17,190
154
6,950
58.400
23,000
Average
44.89
22.52
22.36
6.5
2,239
13,132
289
5,357
70,972
77,050
Sample buried
1 year
7/15/50
37.37
11.95
25.42
6.0
1,853
727
320
3.118
208,000
30.000
2 years
7/14/51
66.1
21.5
44.6
6.6
146
2,300
163
* 2,000
230,000
23,500
a Public Health Service and North Dakota State Department of Health Study,
"Sanitary Landfill Study at Mandan, N. D.";
analyses made at Robt. A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center.
-------
106
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Sound engineering practice in site selec-
tion can prevent the coexistence of conditions
(1) and (2). Condition (3) could be brought
about by a combination of water externally
applied for compaction of refuse, water of
decomposition, rainfall, and surface runoff.
It is highly improbable that any of these ex-
cept the water used for compaction would
provide sufficient water to produce a state
of supersaturation in a sanitary landfill. An
open dump, however, is another matter.
After the capacity of a fill site is exhausted
and the area is reclaimed, surface sources
of water for potential leaching are rainfall,
runoff, and irrigation and subsurface sources
are high ground water levels due to artificial
or natural recharge of aquifers and possible
breaks in water mains or sewers that might
have been laid in the refuse fill. If leaching
of a landfill does occur, it has been shown
that ground water in the immediate vicinity
can become grossly polluted and unfit for
human or animal consumption or for in-
dustrial and irrigational use. Where es-
sentially anaerobic conditions exist in a
landfill, the decomposition of organic matter
results in the formation of gases, principally
methane, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and
hydrogen sulfide. Methane, due to its slight
solubility and low density (specific gravity
0.55; air a 1.0), diffuses vertically. Hydro-
gen sulfide, although present in relatively
small amount, gives the leach - polluted
waters an offensive taste and odor; however,
subsequent dilution by oxygen-containing
ground water and atmospheric oxygen dif-
fusing into the landfill oxidize the sulfides
to tasteless and odorless sulfur andsulfates.
Carbon dioxide, due to its high solubility,
combines with water to form carbonic acid
andwill dissolve ironfrom tin cans and lime
from calcareous materials and deposits.
Chemically, the effects of carbon dioxide
and ammonia are the most significant prod-
ucts of decomposition of organic matter in a
landfill operation. Carbon dioxide increases
the hardness of the water, and ammonia, on
oxidation, increases its nipcate content.
A discuss ion of the implications of refuse
and ground water pollution in the United
States would be grossly incomplete if at-
tention was not given to the classic investi-
gations that have been accomplished during
the past decade and are continuing under the
direction of Professor Robert C. Merz of the
University of Southern California. Professor
Merz's workwas carried out under contract
with the California State Water Pollution
Control Board and included investigations of
leaching from ash dumps as well as from a
sanitary landfill. The investigation of ash
dumps established that percolation of natural
precipitation, or the movement of ground
water through an incinerator ash dump, will
leach soluble salts and alkalies from the
dump (5). This study also showed that over
a 5-year period the maximum amount of any
cation that may be reasonably expected to be
leached from an incinerator ash dump will
be 2.9 pounds per cubic yard (sodium) and
the maximum amount of any anion5.3 pounds
per cubic yard (chloride). In addition, much
interesting information has been collected in
an investigation of leaching from a sanitary
landfill in Riverside, California (6). It was
found, for example, that a sanitary landfill
in intermittent or continuous contact with
ground water will cause the ground water in
the immediate vicinity to become grossly
polluted and unfit for domestic or irrigation
use:
"Concentration of mineral elements
varying from 20 times those commonly
found in unpolluted ground water - up to
10,000 times in the case of ammonia
nitrogen - are poss ible. Further it m ay
be expected that continuous leaching of
an acre-foot of a sanitary landfill will
result in a minimum extraction of ap-
proximately 1.5 tons of sodium plus
potassium, 1.0 tons of calcium plus
magnesium, 0.91 tons of chloride, 0.23
tons of sulfate and 3.9 tons of bicar-
bonate. Leaching of these quantities
take place in less than one year. Re-
movals would continue with subsequent
years, but at a very slow rate."
Table 2 lists the results of certain anal-
yses of the aquifer located immediately be-
low the Riverside Sanitary Landfill. Well
No. 1 was the control well located "upstream "
from the fill. Well No. 2 was one of a num-
ber dug within the fill area, and Well No. 3
was located some 900 feet below the 1952-53
fill area. The immediate and substantial
effect on the aquifer below the fill itself is
quite evident, e.g., the fourfold increase in
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
107
Table 2. ANALYSES OF SHALLOW GROUND WATER AQUIFER AFFECTED BY A SANITARY LANDFILL3
(All results except pH in ppm)
pH
Carbon dioxide
Total hardness as CaCC>3
Alkalinity as CaCOa
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Potassium
Total iron
Ferrous iron
Chloride
Sulfate
Phosphate, inorganic
Organic nitrogen
Ammonia nitrogen
BOD
Well No. 1 (control)
52-53 59-60
7.10 7.20
16
325 385
285 335
99 120
18 22
76 85
5.2 5.0
0.03 0.04
0.02
76 98
78 110
0.06 0.04
0.54 0.17
0.15 00
2.3
Well No. 2
52-53 59-60
6.86 6.99
210
1070 515
1125 600
250 155
100 31
505 125
35 13
6.2 4.0
1.2
575 145
195 19
0.11 1.9
2.3 0.38
0.83 1.9
38
Well No. 3
52-53 59-60
7.23 7.28
33
610 330
390 305
180 97
36 17
165 87
8.8 13
0.20 0.85
0.02
285 120
160 64
0.29 1.6
0.33 0.47
0.81 1.4
0.97
1 Univ. of Southern California studies at Riverside, California. Average analyses of ground water samples
from wells for period shown. Aquifer tested was located just below bottom of refuse fill. Well No. 1
(USC #0) was located about 1000 feet upstream from the fill area, Well No. 2 (USC #4) in the fill it-
self, and Well No. 3 (USC #15) about 900 feet below the 1952-53 fill area.
hardness in Well No. 2 and the almost two-
fold increase at Well No. 3 - all at the end of
one year. That the qaulity of the aquifer is
affected even after 7 years is also evident
(6,7).
Experience in other countries sub-
stantiates these results. At Krefield, Ger-
many, for example, wet-tipping begun in
1913 was studied for its effect on ground
water (8). Deterioration of the aquifer
quality was observed at 5/8 mile in 1923
and at 4-3/4 miles 4 years later. Total
hardness varied from 600 to 900 ppm CaCOs
in the-polluted wells, compared with 225 ppm
In the original water. Sulfate (SO4) and
chloride (Cl) reached 595 and 263 ppm, re-
spectively, but iron manganese and ammonia
were found only in traces. Coliform bacteria
were not found in any of the wells.
On consideration of this potential pol-
lution, it must be reemphasized that so far
we have discussed the impact of leachings
from refuse to a shallow aquifer that inter-
mittently comes in contact with the refuse
itself. What of deeper aquifers? The an-
swer to this is not necessarily clear cut.
Certainly an adequate impervious layer can
prevent pollutants from a contaminated area
above from reaching the deep aquifer. Re-
sults of studies a.t Riverside, California,
demonstrate the importance of geological
formations. A test well downstream from
the fill area revealed water of roughly com-
parable deteriorated quality at the 12- and
30-foot depths, but of better quality at the
62-foot depth than that from the control well
upstream from the fill. The explanation for
the deteriorated quality of the aquifer at the
30-foot level was that the impervious layer
immediately below the shallow aquifer in the
fill area is "probably a non - continuous
one" (6).
Two aspects of pollution travel are
pertinent here: the downward movement
of bacteria and chemicals with percolating
water and the lateral movement of such pol-
lutants once they have entered the ground
-------
108
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
water. Butler, Orlob, and McGauhey con-
cluded the following from their studies con-
ducted at the University of California Sanitary
Engineering Research Project at Berkeley(9):
"Observers are generally in agreement
that pollution is not appreciably extended
laterally by percolating waters moving
downward through soil above the ground
water. The extent of vertical travel,
therefore, becomes the more important
factor in determining the public health
danger involved in applying wastes of
any given intensity of pollution to the
soil and in defining the minimum safe
distance between the ground surface
and the water table."
Available information indicates that
coliform organisms are effectively removed
from percolating waste water. The move-
ment of dissolved chemicals with percolating
water is a different matter. It has been
shown that chemical contaminants can travel
many times farther in water than bacterial
organisms. There are, of course, many as-
pects involved, including velocity of water
movement and type of soil.
For purposes of this discussion, the
data cited have necessarily been brief.
Much additional interesting and pertinent
information has been obtained from these
and other studies. It cannot be denied, how-
ever, that the potential of refuse as a ground
water pollutant is real. What then is the
significance of this potential?
The Existing Problem
Recently the Solid Wastes Engineering
Section of the American Society of Civil
Engineers Committee on Sanitary Engineer-
ing Research undertook an extensive survey
of sanitary landfill practices in the United
States (11). Some 700 cities that have Class
"A" Sanitary Landfill Operations * were
queried, and more than 200 replied. Of the
latter, 6% reported "water pollution" prob-
lems (Figure 3). Follow up contact with
those who reported problems resulted in 5
replies. One described a temporary surface
BLOWING PAPER gjt
FLIES t.v"
FIRES P
RODENTS t
ODORS (;.;.
1 1 1
Sf« r. "_., *, . " > ->>- ' . .- . r 1
.'...'. .. .1
r':" . ..' -i
t = - ' j
: :'.. '.... ..' - 1
DUST ["V"' «. '<< '-1
POLLUTION 01£
TRAFFIC El
1
SOURCE: isse SURVEY OF SOLID WASTES BY
ENGINEERING SECTION OF COM -
TiHTI MITTEE ON SANITARY ENGINEER-
*" ING RESEARCH
m
i i i i
O 10 20 30
PERCENT OF LANDFILLS
40
50
FIGURE 3. PROBLEMS WITH SANITARY
LANDFILLS
water pollution problem, since remedied, and
two respondents denied any knowledge of ever
having reported a problem. Two reports of
shallow well pollution were verified; one of
these reported that it was never really es-
tablished that the landfill operation rather
than a neighboring fruit-process ing plant
actually was the source of the contamination.
Of the five replies to follow-up contacts,
the one of real interest concerned a large
city in the Southwest. The Public Health
Engineer involved reported
"We have had two cases of ground water
pollution caused by sanitary landfills in
the city. Each of these cases occurred
at the same time and happened in the
spring of 1957.
"The one case involved two private
shallow wells and was caused by the
ground water level rising up into the
garbage in an abandoned gravel pit which
was being used for a sanitary landfill.'
This pit was about twenty-feet deep and
excavation was being made to ground
water level to obtain cover dirt. These
two forty-foot shallow wells were being
used for domestic supply and became
unusable when excessive rain caused
the water table to rise into the sanitary
fill. The city paid for the cost of ex-
tending the city water main to serve
these houses and the wells were
abandoned.
*A Class "A" Sanitary Landfill is one operated without public nuisance or public health
hazard; it is covered daily and adequately, and no deliberate burning practiced (12).
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
109
"The other case involved only one
thirty-foot city owned well which served
a picnic area. This well had to be
abandoned for the same reasons as the
two in the previously cited area.
"There were no other wells reported as
being unusable in the vicinity of either
of these two sanitary landfills except
those previously mentioned.
"It should be noted that we do not ap-
prove of any well beingused for domes-
tic water supply which is less than one
hundred feet in depth. Our experience
has shown all the shallow wells which
have been tested in the past have shown
to be contaminated either intermittently
or continually.
; "The city obtains all of its water from
deep artesian wells from the Edwards
Limestone Formation which meets all
U. S. Public Health Service Drinking
Water Standards. The water from this
formation has always been free of con-
tamination from properly constructed
wells."
It is of interest to note that this same
survey included data showing that, of the
cities that replied, 27 percent operated fills
wherein the depth to ground water was from
0 to 5 feet (Figure 4).
1 1
1 1 1 1
OTO 5 LlS^^'^'^**-*1'' * '" '"'- " '1"*""^& rri% '**;' ~-V' *->*--, -1 |
5 TO 10 l; ; -. .
IOTOI5 1 -:1
I5T02O 1
20TO25 1. -'*' -i':i
25 TO 50 1
OVER 50 1 >«.
I |
-. > ' .' 1
1
1
'«,; 1 SOURCE! 1958 SURVEY OF SOLID WASTES
SY ENGINEERING SECTION OF
COMMITTEE ON SANITARY
^ ENGINEERING RESEARCH
1 1 1 1
5 10 15 2O
PERCENT OF LANDFILLS
25
FIGURE 4. DEPTHS TO GROUND WATER FROM
SOTTOMS OF SANITARY LANDFILLS
Conclusions
It is evident that refuse may be a source
of organic, mineral, and bacteriological pol-
lution. It has been demonstrated that, if a
-Sanitary landfill or dump is so located that
it will be in intermittent or continuous con-
tact with ground water, it will cause that
water in the immediate vicinity of the land-
fill to become grossly polluted and unfit for
domestic or irrigation use. Bacterial and
organic contamination may be very limited
in range, but chemical pollution, i.e., min-
eral salts (chloride and hardness), may travel
some distance before the effects of dilution
are evident. Passage of landfill leachate
through sand or gravel may be expected to
improve conditions so far as bacterial and
organic pollution is concerned, but chemical
pollution can be expected to reach the ground
water along with percolating water. Proper
location and operating practices to prevent
supersaturation of a fill are essential.
Data now available indicate that the pol-
lution of ground water from a refuse source
has been essentially limited to shallow
aquifers but that deeper aquifers can be
affected.
It is indeed encouraging to note that there
are apparently hundreds of well-planned and
properly operated sanitary fills where com-
munity refuse is being disposed of without
public health hazard or nuisance. One can-
not help wondering, however, about those that
are not Class "A" operations and also about
the unfortunately large number of commun-
ities that still resort to uncontrolled dump-
ing. The impact of these practices on ground
water and the other public health implica-
tions involved are cause for concern. We
need to know much more about both geological
and climatic characteristics that, along with
operational techniques, are so important to
short- and long-term effects of degradation
and possible leaching of refuse disposed of
on land. We also need to have a much clearer
picture of conditions as they now exist in
areas where refuse presently is being dis-
posed of by landfilling.
Acknowledgments
Grateful acknowledgment is made for the
assistance and data provided for inclusion
in this paper by Professor R. C. Merz,
University of Southern California Engineer-
ing Center and Ralph Stone, and E. R.
-------
110
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Williams, Head and member, respectively,
of the Solid Wastes Engineering Section of
the Sanitary Engineering Research Com-
mittee of the American Society of Civil
Engineers.
REFERENCES
1. Refuse Collection Practice. 1958.
American Public Works Assoc. 561 pp
Public Administration Service,
Chicago, 111.
2. The sanitary landfill in northern States.
Public Health Service Publication No.
226, Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 1952. 31 pp.
3. Carpenter, Lewis V. and Setter, Lloyd
R. Some notes on sanitary landfills.
American Journal of Public Health 30,
1940. 385 pp. ~~
4. McDermott, G.N. Pollutions! character-
istics of landfill drainage. Report No.
3, January - March, 1950. Robert A.
Taft Sanitary Engineering Center,
Public Health Service.
5. Report on the investigation of leaching
of ash dumps. State of California Water
Pollution Control Board Publication
No. 2, 1952.
6. Report on the investigation of leaching
of a sanitary landfill. State of Cali-
fornia Water Pollution Control Board
Publication No. 10. 1954.
7. Report on continuation of an investiga-
tion of leaching from dumps. Uni-
versity of Southern California Engi-
neering Center Report 72-3. June
1960.
8. Roessler, B. Translated by Zehnpfennig,
R. Influence of garbage and rubbish
dumps on ground water. Vom Yasser
18:43. 1950.
9. Butler, R. G., Orlob, G. T., and Mc-
Gauhey, P. H. Underground movement
of bacterial and chemical pollutants.
American Water Works Association
Journal. 46. 1954. p. 97.
10. Municipal Refuse Disposal. American
Public Works Association. Public Ad-
ministration Service, Chicago, 111. In
press.
11. Survey of Sanitary Landfill Practices in
the United States. Solid Wastes Section,
Committee on Sanitary Engineering
Research, American Society of Civil
Engineers. In press.
12. Weaver, Leo. Progress in refuse dis-
posal. Public Works Engineers News-
letter 23:9, March 1957. p. 1.
UNDERGROUND NATURAL GAS STORAGE
(HERSCHER DOME)
O. S. Hallden,
Illinois Department of Public Health
The Herscher underground natural gas
storage field is located about 1 mile south
of the Village of Herscher in Kankakee
County, Illinois, approximately 45 miles
southwest of Chicago. This facility is of
great importance to the integrated natural
gas system that supplies the great Chicago
region. The development work for the stor-
age project was performed by the Natural
Gas Storage Company of Illinois, which owns
and operates the field and its facilities. The
storage company is owned by Natural Gas
Pipeline Company of America, which is a
subsidiary of the Peoples Gas Light and Coke
Company of Chicago. The company also
owns and operates three major long-distance
transmission pipelines that deliver gas from
natural gas fields in the Southwest to serve
Chicago and other places in a six-state area
of the Middle West. The large-scale terminal
storage of gas is needed to meet the peak de-
mands imposed during the winter heating
season and to use more efficiently the
capacities of the transmission system. The
structure has a potential storage capacity of
90 billion cubic feet of gas, and at present
there are approximately 50 billion cubic feet
in storage.
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
111
In post World War II years, consumer
demands for space heating increased tre-
mendously. Customers waiting for permits
for gas numbered in the hundreds of thou-
sands, and the Gas Transmission and Dis-
tributing Companies began investigations of
means for storing the large quantities of gas
that were available during the off-peak
seasons. Preferably, storage should be in
die immediate vicinity of Chicago, which was
the area of greatest demand. Three possible
choices of storage were studied: above-
ground storage, below-ground storage in
dense limestones mined to form cavernous
rooms into which gas could be injected and
withdrawn, and below-ground storage in a
porous, permeable strata, permitting the in-
jection and withdrawal of gas and overlain by
a dense, impermeable dome-shaped rock
formation. From a cost standpoint the last
choice appeared prefer able, and the Herscher
field was explored by the Natural Gas Stor-
age Company, which had been formed by the
transmission pipeline companies and cus-
tomer gas companies.
Since the Gas Storage Company formed
did not qualify as a utility under the Public
Utilities Act and could not exercise power of
eminent domain, a new Act, entitled "Trans-
portation, Distribution or Storage of Gas,"
was presented to and passed by the State
Legislature. This Act provided for exer-
cising the power of eminent domain under
certain conditions and upon approval of the
project by the Illinois Commerce Commis-
sion. For the Herscher project, approval
of the State Sanitary Water Board was also
required since that agency has jurisdiction
over pollution of underground waters.
A petition was presented by the Natural
Gas Storage Company to the Illinois Com-
merce Commission, requesting an order ap-
proving the Herscher proposal. The Com-
merce Commission called a public hearing,
as required by law. The State Sanitary Water
Board, State Water Survey Division, and
State Geological Survey Division were all
represented, as were property owners and
others interested in the project. Since this
was the first project of its type in Illinois,
it stimulated considerable interest and re-
sulted in much discussion on the technical
aspects of the project, such as well con-
struction, water movement in the aquifer,
and geology of the reservoir and caprock.
After a number of hearings and presentation
of all arguments, the Commerce Commission
rendered a decision favorable to the storage
project. The Sanitary Water Board also gave
its approval.
DESCRIPTION OF FIELD
The Herscher storage field is an aquifer
that underlies some 15,000 acres of rural
land. Geologically, the structure of the
Herscher Dome (Figure 1) is a closed
anticline, or dome, shaped like an inverted
saucer that provides a geologic trap neces-
sary for large scale storage of natural gas.
The anticline is about 8-1/4 miles long and
4 miles wide at its broadest point. Deep
within the geologic trap, 1750 feet below the
ground surface, is the apex of a very porous
and permeable bed of sandstone, known as
the Galesville sand, which is the reservoir
for the storage field. The Galesville stratum
is approximately 100 feet thick and has the
characteristics of a natural oil and gas field.
The stratum is void of petroleum deposits
however and contains only nonpotable water
with approximately the following chemical
constituents; chlorides, 500 ppm; hardness,
600 ppm; sulfates, 800 ppm; and residue,
1900 ppm.
Overlying the Galesville sand is the
Ironton stratum of dense and impermeable
dolomitic sandstone, which forms the cap-
rock approximately 125 feet thick. This
dome-shaped caprock covers some 8000
acres and has a vertical height of 200 feet
beneath its apex. Above the dome are alter-
nate formations of clastic rock units: shales,
sandstones, limestones, and dolomites.
Figure 1 illustrates the formations and the
storage reservoir.
The existence of the structure has been
known for many years. Following the turn
of the century, some 18 shallow oil wells had
been drilled to an average depth of 200 feet
where oil and a small amount of gas were
encountered. The yields were not of com-
mercial importance, and after a short period
of pumping, the wells were abandoned. No
attempt was made to plug these wells, and
farming was continued after the casings had
-------
112
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
140'
5291
748'
DESULFURIZATION
STATION
DEHYDRATION STATION
' 4 COMPRESSOR
PIPELINE BRINGING GAS FRO* TEXAS -» A STATION
NEW 36 PIPBJNE TO MARKET AREA
GROUND SURFACE
aAV,SANDSTO«,B^l
LIMESTONES SHALE
DOLOMITE
(GALENA}
TYPICAL
VENT WELLS
SANDSTONE
AND
DOLOMITE
TYPICAL INPUT-WITHDRAWAL WELLS
(IKOHTON)
SANDSHmMUMllTE
GALESVILLE SANDSTONE CONTAINING
GALESVILLE SANDSTONE
-2440'
FIGURE 1. HERSCHER DOME, 45 MILES SOUTHWEST OF CHICAGO, UNDERGROUND STORAGE FIELD
USED BY NATURAL GAS STORAGE COMPANY
been cut off below the ground surface. Rec-
ords of the old oil wells and shallow water
wells, however, gave some indication of a
geological trap that could be investigated in
the search for a storage reservoir. The
structure of the Galena limes tone formation,
a readily recognizable marker encountered
from 150 to 350 feet below the surface, was
further established by 104 shallow test holes.
The subsurface positions of the Galena were
contoured by use of datafrofn the 104 holes,
and a structural map of the top of the Galena
was obtained. Four deep test holes were
drilled and cored through the Galesville
sandstone, and the cores tested to provide
information on the porosity and permeability
of the formations penetrated. The cores
indicated that the structure of the shallow
Galena formation reflected the structure of
the Galesville and that the Galesville sand-
stone would provide a favorable reservoir
zone overlain with impermeable caprock.
Twenty-one injection-withdrawal wells,
spaced 660 feet apart, were completed in the
Galesville sandstone on the crest of the
structure. Thirteen observation wells were
drilled into the structure to the top of the
reservoir at down-dip positions on the
flanks so that water levels could be ob-
served and the movement and effect of the
gas bubble that was to be created could be
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Specific Incidents of Contamination
113
followed. These wells were all cased and
cement-grouted from bottom to ground level.
Gas injection was started April 1, 1953.
Twol50-hp compressors, witha total capac-
ity of 15 million cubic feet per day, were
used to overcome friction and the hydrostatic
pressure in the formation.
On July 1, 1953, the main plant, with a
10,000-hp compressor station and a de-
hydration plant of 300 million cubic feet per
day capacity, was put in service. Injection
rates were stepped up to 200 million cubic
feet per day.
MIGRATION OF GAS
During the last week of July 1953, after
gas had been injected for 4 months and the
gas bubble in storage was under all injection-
withdrawal wells at a thickness relative to
their positions on the structure, one of the
shallow water wells in the town of Herscher
began to bubble gas. Since this area some
30 years or more before had contained a
small shallow accumulation of gas in the
Divine limestone of the Maquoketa forma-
tion and the Galena dolomite formation and
since various water wells in these forma-
tions had at frequent intervals through the
years given up gas, it was not immediately
a certainty that the gas was from the storage
reservoir. During the following week, how-
ever, a total of 33 village water wells be-
came active with gas and at the same time
the only old oil well open to the surface also
vented gas. The volume of gas from this
well increased steadily, to an estimated vol-
ume of 1.5 million cubic feet per day in a
period of 1 week. Then it began to flow
water under sufficient pressure to support
a water column approximately 80 feet in
height.
As might be expected with the proximity
of the Village tg the crest of the structure
and with the Village well penetrating the
Galena formation, gas began to enter the well
and in such quantity that the pump became
continually gas-locked, cutting off the source
of water supply.
EMERGENCY ACTION
One of the first steps taken was to stop
gas injection into the reservoir. Crews of
men were dispatched to examine each known
well in the area for gas and to provide each
well with a seal on the casing top with a vent
extending high into the atmosphere. The
old oil wells also were located, cleaned to
their original bottom, and provided with
seals and adequate vents.
To serve the Village with a temporary
source of water until a new well could be
drilled at another location, the Gas Storage
Company laid a water line from its water
supply at the compressor station to the
Village water treatment plant. A tank truck
was placed in service to haul water to farm
homes where the water supply wells were
showing gas. Engineers of the State Depart-
ment of Public Health surveyed the com-
pressor station water supply to insure that
it met requirements as a safe water supply
and also advised on procedures that should
be followed to insure that the water hauled
and delivered to the farm homes was handled
in a sanitary manner. The Gas Storage
Company also arranged for the drilling of a
new well for the Village in the north part of
the Village, an area where no migration of
gas had been found in the upper formations.
Pending opportunity to make a thorough
study of possible causes of the gas leakage,
it was believed that, if enough vent wells
were drilled, the activity of the migrating
gas in the upper formations could be de-
creased or perhaps even stopped. On this
theory, vent wells into the Galena were
drilled adjacent to each injection-withdrawal
well and allowed to vent to the atmosphere.
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
The first analyses of the escaping gas
identified it as native to the formation.
These tests showed hydrogen sulphide,
nitrogen, methane, etc.; however, a short
time later, traces of ethane, which is not
present in the native gas but comprises
about 4 percent of the stored gas, were
-------
114
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
found. Water samples collected from various
wells gave no evidence of leakage of waters
from other formations up into the Galena.
Certain undesirable characteristics of the
water (such as presence of hydrogen sul-
phide and traces of oil)from that formation,
however, did become more pronounced. Un-
doubtedly, the pressures created in the for-
mation by the gas moved the water, oil, and
native gas to the water wells in vary ing mix-
tures, causing more undesirable character-
istics than normally existed.
THEORIES ADVANCED
Several theories were advanced as pos-
sible explanations for the migration of gas
from the 1750-foot-deep reservoir up to the
150-foot level. They may be summarized as
follows:
1. Faulty well cementing. The cement
could have channeled between the casing and
the bore hole, providing several small
avenues of escape at one or more locations.
2. Lack of adequate cap rock. The hard
dense dolomite immediately overlying the
sandstone reservoir could be porous in
some areas: this would permit the upward
migration of storage gas.
3. Faulting. The upwarping of the strata
necessary to produce such a structure could
possibly have exceeded the elastic limit of
the overlying formations, causing fractures
or faulting.
4. Old Well. Approximately 20 old oil
test holes have been located. One or more
of these test holes could have been drilled
to the deeper horizons, possibly into the gas
storage reservoir.
SEARCH FOR SOURCE OF LEAKAGE
All the theories were thoroughly ex-
plored. Each well was surveyed with gamma
ray and neutron logging equipment; five
wells were drilled and completed to each
formation between the Galena and the Gales-
ville reservoir to sample for leakage gas;
21 shallow structure test holes were drilled
to the Galena in areas of steep dip to check
the possibility of faulting. None of these
tests gave results that indicated the source
of gas leakage. Additional tests were made.
Sensitive thermistors were used to check
each well from top to bottom for temperature
variations; down-the-hole microphones were
run in each well to ascertain whether there
were any extraneous noise levels; and
Do well's Spinner Survey was run on each
well to determine any flow variations after
the wells were shut in. The latter tests also
gave negative results.
The use of a radioactive tracer to lo-
cate gas movement behind the well casing
was first attempted at Herscher. Argon-
41, a radioisotope of argon gas with a half-
life of 109 minutes, was used. Cylinders of
argon gas were irradiated at Argonne
Laboratories and after removal from the
reactor were transported immediately to
Herscher by car. The irradiated gas was
transferred to a cylinder, under 2000-psi
pressure, equipped with a time release
mechanism. Each well to be tested was
plugged back to the casing shoe with road-
mix limestone. The cylinder of argon-4l
was lowered into the casing until the end of
the cylinder was set directly opposite the
shoe. The gamma ray instrument was posi-
tioned approximately 20 feet above the cyl-
inder to detect the movement of radioactive
gas behind the casing. It was discovered
that injection and withdrawal of a few linear
feet of pipeline gas into and out of the well
during testing made it possible to control
the radioactive cloud in the casing and main-
tain it at shoe level. The injection-with-
drawal wells were tested twice: at 100 milli-
curies "of intensity and then at 200 milli-
curies. No evidence of migrating gas was
detected.
By December of 1954, observations on
the gas collecting in the Galena formation
indicated that the vent wells were preventing
pressure buildup. Since the gas lost through
the vents ranged from 6 to 14 million cubic
feet per day, a gathering system was con-
structed to collect the gas for recycling into
the Galesville reservoir.
CONCLUSIONS
Many additional tests have been made
during the years since the leakage first oc-
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
115
curred in 1953. No conclusive evidence has
been developed to prove how gas from the
Galesville travels to the Galena; however,
the leakage is controlled and the storage
project is fulfilling its objective. The zone
of contamination appears to be confined
above the structure on leased property of
the Company. To recompense owners of
water wells affected by the leakage gas, the
Storage Company has made improvements to
the Herscher water system and laid water
main extensions to serve many farm homes.
Where water mains could not be extended to
affected farm homes, new wells were drilled
in areas not affected by the gas.
AC KNOWLEDGMENTS
Appreciation is expressed to Mr. O. C.
Davis, General Superintendent of Storage for
Natural Gas Storage Company of Illinois, and
to Mr. C. W. Klassen, Chief Sanitary Engi-
neer of the Illinois Department of Public
Health, for their assistance in the prepara-
tion of this paper.
TWO CASES OF ORGANIC POLLUTION
OF GROUND WATERS
R. H. Burttschell, A. A. Rosen, and F. M. Middleton,
Sanitary Engineering Center
It is well known that ground waters are
subject to pollution by organic materials. It
may not be so well known that the investi-
gation of such pollution in ground water is
much more difficult than in surface waters.
The two cases reported here illustrate these
difficulties.
The first incident concerned pollution by
pyridine bases, which many people consider
to be among the most unpleasantly odorous
substances known. The laboratories of the
Sanitary Engineering Center were asked to
confirm the findings of a State Board of
Health, which supplied the samples.
The samples were obtained from shallow
wells within a radius of about 300 yards of a
plant producing pyridine compounds syn-
thetically as well as from coal tar. The
inhabitants of the houses found the water un-
usable, because of the odor, and this was
fully understandable when the carboys were
opened. A very strong odor of ammonia
partially masked thepyridines but on stand-
ing faded sufficiently so that the character-
istic pyridine odor became unmistakable.
Since the plant had a lagoon on a porous
gravel soil and since no other source of py-
ridines in the vicinity was known, the case
seemed rather obvious.
But in pollution cases that may involve
court action and in any event call for ex-
penditures of large sums of money, some
more tangible evidence than odor recog-
nition is desirable. Colorimetric tests
showed pyridine contents of less than 1 ppm
in one well, 1 ppm in a second, and 7 ppm in
a third, while the plant lagoon showed 5 ppm.
Ultraviolet spectra confirmed these results
and gave tentative identification of the com-
pounds, pyridine and its monomethyl deriv-
atives, the picolines. Although the colori-
metric test is not reliable on mixtures, it
was sufficient to show the order of magni-
tude of the pollution.
Infrared spectroscopy gave positive
identification of the isomers present; and a
further confirmation was obtained by X-ray
diffraction studies of the chloroplatinate
derivatives, although a great deal of diffi-
culty was encountered in removing the am-
monia, which also gives a chloroplatinate.
Another analytical difficulty was the heavy
loss incurred in evaporating down the car-
bon disulfide solution obtained on extracting
the pyridines from the aqueous sample for
infrared examination. Although it would ap-
pear easy to evaporate off a solvent boiling
at 46° from pyridines boiling upward from
115°C, it was not and heavy losses were in-
curred in the final concentration steps. Such
-------
116
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
conditions are ideal for gas chromatography;
unfortunately, a suitable instrument was not
available at the time.
The most interesting point about the re-
sults of the analytical work was that the
most heavily contaminated well showed
largely gamma-picolinewitha much smaller
amount of the alpha isomer. The lagoon, on
the other hand, contained principally alpha-
and beta-picolines in roughly equal pro-
portions.
Several possibilities presented them-
selves. In the time required for leakage
from the lagoon to reach the wells, there
might have been large changes in the com-
position of the lagoon. That is, if it was the
leakage from the lagoon that actually reached
the wells, it might have taken months and no
information on routes of ground water or
rates of travel was available. The com-
position of the contaminants found in the
wells, therefore, would have to be compared
with the lagoon as it was estimated to have
been at some time in the past, and a num-
ber of assumptions would have to be made
about relative stabilities of the isomers and
relative rates of travel.
This point was of great interest because
the reasoning behind the investigation was
that a good case would be obtained if it could
be shown that the same components were
present in the well as in the most suspect
source of contamination, and even better if
it could be shown that these components were
present in similar concentrations.
In the absence of a positive connection
between the lagoon and the wells, there was
left only a strong probability. Other pos-
sibilities, of course, would be leakage or
discharge from another point in the plant or
conceivably even from some quite distant
source.
The weight of evidence was undoubted,
but it was by no means as clear cut as in an
investigation of pollution of surface water;
and, if there had been an alternative source
for the pyridines, there would have been no
case at all. In a similar case involving sur-
face waters, it would have been fairly easy
to sample above and below the plant and in
the vicinity of the intake for the house and
get definitive evidence concerning the source
and travel of the pollutant.
The second case had to do with suspected
pollution by hydrocarbons and was of par-
ticular interest because the obvious ex-
planation turned out to be the wrong one.
A farmer claimed that fuel oil had leaked
out of nearby storage tanks into the ground
water and had contaminated his well. The
contaminated well was in an isolated rural
location, miles from any visible source of
pollution, yet the storage tanks had been in-
spected and pronounced tight.
Activated carbon from a filter at the
site was extracted with chloroform. The
extract was separated into acidic, basic,
and neutral fractions by solvent separation,
and the neutral fraction was chromatographed
on silica gel.
It was found that most of the odor, which
was described as "paint like," appeared in
the neutral fraction. The fraction from
chromatography containing the oxygenated
compounds was found to be responsible for
most of this odor, whereas the fraction con-
taining almost pure aliphatic hydrocarbons
was quite similar to a white mineral oil and
had practically no odor, hi addition the
"aliphatic" fraction constituted less than
30 percent of the neutral fraction, which it-
self constituted only 45 percent of the whole
raw chloroform extract. Thus the aliphatic
hydrocarbons constituted less than 14 per-
cent of die total extract obtained from the
carbon filter by use of a solvent that ex-
perience had shown removes such substances
almost quantitatively.
These results were not at all what would
be expected for fuel oil pollution. Fuel oil
would give a substantial yield of aliphatic
compounds of the kerosene type in addition
to die mineral oil. Experience has shown
that oxidized hydrocarbons are more fragile
biologically than the parent material, so
that only very small amounts of oxygenated
substances would be expected.
The infrared spectra of the fractions
that had considerable odor all indicated
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
117
large amounts of highly oxygenated sub-
stances, very similar to corresponding
fractions from rivers carrying mixed dom-
estic and industrial pollution in varying
stages of oxidation. It was impossible to
draw really firm conclusions, but the most
likely explanation was that the ground water
had not been contaminated by the nearby oil
tank, but by some distant source, such as a
large river, or by a local source not related
to the stored oil.
Our knowledge of what goes on in the way
of bacterial action in these underground
streams, and of adsorption processes on
clay soils, etc, is very meager. The travel
of pollution through underground strata is
clearly not to be defined unequivocally with-
out relatively large expense. The examples
cited illustrate the difficulty of reaching
firm conclusions concerning the nature and
source of ground water pollution on the basis
of a few "grab" samples.
CONTAMINATION BY PROCESSED
PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
Lynn M. Miller, Consulting Engineer
Ground water contamination resulting
from poor disposal practices, leaking stor-
age tanks or pipelines, and accidental spills
of petroleum products have been experienced
throughout the country. Until rather recent
years little attention was given to disposal
practices that have resulted in some of the
most critical contamination cases of record.
Worthy of note is the paradox in attitudes
between the times when an interest is ac-
cused of contributing to petrochemical con-
tamination and when the cost of the losses is
evaluated. This is not to infer that all cases
represent malicious acts. Many instances
are related to true accidents, and just as
many, or more, can be related to negligence.
SPECIFIC CASES
A brief resume of a few reports re-
ceived from throughout the country will
serve to illustrate the average type of prob-
lem.
Tanks and Pipelines
Reports of private and public water sup-
ply wells contaminated by gasoline and oil
that has escaped from buried pipelines and
above- or below-surface storage tanks are
very numerous. Among those states re-
porting the greatest frequency of such inci-
dents are Colorado, Georgia, Maryland,
Michigan Nebraska, New York, North
Carolina, and Ohio.
Some of the incidents are amusing even
if pathetic. One case in northwestern Ohio
will serve to illustrate this point. The
owner of a home under construction ordered
a fuel oil delivery to permit furnace opera-
tion for plaster and paint drying. The oil
delivery was made but the furnace would not
operate. Of course some controversy devel-
oped when -it was determined that the tank
was still empty; however, that difference of
opinion was minor when compared to the
furor that developed when it was determined
that over 200 gallons of fuel oil had been
dumped into the new water well in the front
yard. A similar case was reported for an
area in central Michigan.
Gasoline has been reported to have
traveled nearly 2 miles from a leaking
tank. Many filling stations and bulk stations
have discovered, or have had discovered for
them, that leaking tanks mean reduced
profits. Odd odors not generally related to
refined petroleum make the detection of
some contaminants somewhat more difficult.
Skunk-like odors lead one far astray in a
preliminary investigation.
True Accidents
In the realm of true accidents are such
incidents as overturned tank trucks and
broken containers. The common procedure
in cleanup is to flush the area with water to
avert fire hazards. Several private and
some public wells have eventually shown the
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118
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
consequences of such action. In one case a
municipal storm sewer conducted the water-
borne gasoline to an abandoned gravel pit
from which the fluid migrated to private
wells.
Of more widespread consequence are
the accidental spills, or other losses, in
areas where fractured rock materials close
to the surface are the major aquifer. Travel
is rapid and for great distances in most
such areas. Georgia, Kentucky and Min-
nesota, among other states, have expe-
rienced such problems.
Negligent Acts
Little or no thought seems to have been
given to disposal practices in some instances.
During the course of a preliminary ground
water investigation, in a small Michigan
city, an abandoned city well was uncapped to
determine its usefulness as an observation
well. The apparently high static level would
permit pumping with a gasoline-engine-
driven ditch pump. When this was attempted,
the pump operator, who is the water works
superintendent, was severly burned about
the head and arms in an explosion and fire.
Investigation revealed that at one time
several wells in the area had been pumped
through a common suction manifold that
terminated in a building. When new larger
wells and a new pumping station had been
constructed, the old building had been con-
verted to a garage and maintenance center
with a floor drain that discharged into the
old suction manifold. Several feet of in-
flammable fluid mixture was removed from
the water surface in three of the five wells
in the group. Fortunately, neither drawdown
interference nor the volume of volatile fluid
had been great enough to allow migration
into the aquifer and cause actual contamin-
ation of the city water supply. If such con-
tamination had occurred, location of its
source would have been very difficult. Even
with the evidence at hand, the municipal ad-
ministrators were difficult to convince.
Improper Disposal
Many incidents of contamination resulting
from waste dumping into pits or upon the
surface in highly permeable sands or gravels
have been reported. Some of these have re-
quired the abandonment of private wells and
great personal hardship when deeper aqui-
fers could not be located.
Some municipal water works adminis-
trators appear either reluctant or negligent
in matters of policing activities that may
affect their ground water supplies. In a
Massachusetts community waste liquor
from the manufacture of insecticides was
disposed of into a sump only 500 feet from
a gravel well of moderate depth. The re-
sulting phenolic con lamination brought about
only a relocation of the. dumping site, and
continual policing to prevent a reoccurrence
of the problem was required.
Spent diatomite from filters used to re-
claim dry-cleaning fluids was dumped onto
the ground surface behind a dry-cleaning
establishment in one community of another
state. The practice probably was observed
but not condemned until contamination of the
municipal wells located only 250 to 300 fc: :
away and about 40 feet deep was detected,
In this instance, the ground materials were
known to be sand and gravel and the wells
were located to take advantage of infiltration
from a surface water source. The natural
ground water flow was toward the wells and
a lake.
Those cases where an industry has been
shown to be the likely source of contamina-
tion are usually the most publicized. One
case in Michigan involved the appearance of
phenols in two city wells that were widely
separated. In the search for the source,
considerable thought was given to oil re-
finery operations located within the town,
but remote from the well sites. It was shown,
however, after collection of many well logs,
construction of geologic cross sections, and
analysis of extensive pumping test data, that
a refinery waste disposal area was the source
area. The specific source was a combina-
tion burning and infiltration pit. The pit was
replaced with a brick-lined steel tank; how-
ever, collection and interpretation of the
necessary data required a considerable ex-
penditure of municipal and governmental
agency funds. Fortunately, some of the data
were applicable to other studies.
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Specific Incidents of Contamination
119
Where materials are dumped onto the
ground, normal observation should detect
the potential danger to ground waters. It
is when, under the guise of "good citizen-
ship," fluids are injected into the ground
that detection may be delayed until actual
damage has occurred. When a well is drilled
for the specific purpose of waste disposal,
many people are usually aware of its pur-
pose and statutes can be used to regulate
the drilling activity. Too many old wells, no
longer fit for supply uses, have been and
are available for indiscriminate use as dis-
posal wells.
SUMMARY
Ground water contamination by petroleum
products is notunique to any type of locality
or geographic region; cases have been re-
ported from Alaska to Florida and from
most points in between. The frequency of
reports appears to be related to the density
of population and to activities, as is most
any type of contamination.
There is a definite need for increased
vigilance, and in many areas statutory con-
trol, to detect the mishandling or improper
disposal of petroleum products. The tech-
nological advances made in producing more
usable products from petroleum provide an
ever-increasing variety of opportunities for
this type of contamination to occur.
THE MOVEMENT OF SALINE GROUND WATER
IN THE VICINITY OF DERBY, COLORADO*
L. R. Petri, U. S. Geological Survey
Derby is about 3 miles north of the city
limits of Denver and borders on the western
edge of the Rocky Mountain Arsenal, an Army
Chemical Corps installation. In the spring
of 1954 some farmers living near Derby, be-
tween the arsenal and the South Platte River,
complained that use of ground water re-
sulted in severe damage to crops. In the fall
of 1954 the U. S. Geological Survey, at the
request of the Chemical Corps, studied
briefly water quality conditions on the ar-
senal property and in a few wells in the
neighboring farmland. Results of this study
indicated the presence of a body of highly
saline ground water on the arsenal property.
In 1955 and 1956 a detailed hydrologic in-
vestigation in an area of about 70 square
miles in the vicinity of Derby, including the
nearly 28 square miles of arsenal property,
was made by the author and Mr. Rex O.
. Smith, a geologist of the Survey. One of the
objectives of this investigation was to deter-
mine the manner in which water from die
highly saline body moved through the area.
In the faU of 1955 the body of highly
saline ground water underlay about 4-1/2
square miles, of which all but about 1/4
square mile was within the confines of the
arsenal. (See Figure 1, area in which
chloride content exceeded 1,000 ppm.) The
arsenal disposal ponds, into which liquid
wastes had been discharged since 1943,
directly overlay the body of highly saline
ground water. Because the ponds had highly
permeable beds, the liquid wastes percolated
readily to the ground water reservoir. The
liquid wastes and the water from the shallow
wells within the 4-1/2 square miles had
similar composition; in October 1955 both
had about 9,000 ppm of dissolved solids,
which consisted mostly of sodium and chlor-
ide ions. Water from one well had 10,600
ppm of dissolved solids of which 5,730 ppm
were chloride.
The chloride content of the water under-
lying the farmland from the arsenal to the
river probably was less than 100 ppm prior
* Publication authorized by the Director, U. S. Geological Survey.
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120
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
1 ARSENAL
SeptsmtK-r ond October 1955
Areo of signif icant
changes, June 1956
FIGURE 1. AREAL DISTRIBUTION OF CHLORIDE
IN GROUND WATER IN DERBY, COLORADO, AREA
IN SEPTEMBER AND OCTOBER 1955
to intrusion by the saline water. The move-
ment of the saline water, therefore, could
be determined by the amount of increase in
the chloride content of the water underlying
the farmland.
After percolating to the ground water
reservoir, the saline water, following the
general direction of ground water movement
across .the arsenal, moved northwestward
to the South Platte River Valley. The con-
figuration of the bedrock channeled most of
the flow, from the highly saline body, into
the valley through a narrow gap near the
northwest corner of the arsenal. After
entering the valley, the saline water, influ-
enced by the main' flow of ground water
moving down the valley, changed to a more
northerly course and flowed in a fairly nar-
row zone to the river.
During the investigation the chemical
quality of the ground water was determined
several times, and each time the chloride
content of the water from most wells in the
narrow zone increased significantly. From
1955 to 1956 the chloride content of the water
in much of the zone nearly doubled. Where
the chloride content had been 500 to 1000
ppm in 1955, it was 1000 to 2000 in 1956.
(See small map on Figure 1.) Unusual
fluctuations in chloride content, some more
than 200 percent, were detected in water
from some wells along the edge of the zone,
and the fluctuations seemed to be closely re-
lated to the rate and frequency of pumping.
When pumping was heavy, the chloride con-
tent increased; and when pumping was light,
the chloride content decreased.
Moving downgradient through the zone,
the saline water changed from a sodium
chloride type to a calcium chloride type.
On either side of the zone, water unaffected
by the saline intrusion contained pre-
dominantly calcium and bicarbonate ions.
The approximate rate of ground water
movement in the valley fill northwest of the
arsenal, as indicated by field and laboratory
tests, was about 13 feet per day, or about
4800 feet per year. Although the hydraulic
gradient in the uplands on the arsenal
grounds is greater than that in the valley
fill northwest of the arsenal, the rate of
movement in the uplands probably is less
because the permeability of the water-bear-
ing material is less.
Although percolation of the liquid wastes
to the ground water reservoir began in 1943,
several years undoubtedly elapsed before
any of the saline water reached the farm-
land in the valley. The amount that reached
the farmland during the next several years
probably was small enough that dilution with
better quality ground water in the valley
allowed the intrusion of the saline water to
go unnoticed. It is understandable why the
intrusion was especially apparent in 1954,
because during 1954 the annual precipitation
was only 7-1/2 inches, which is about half
the normal amount. Irrigation wells were
pumped heavily, some almost continuously,
during the growing season.
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
121
Shortly after this investigation was made,
the disposal ponds were lined to prevent
further percolation of the liquid wastes to the
ground water reservoi". The amount of
wastes that had already entered the reser-
voir was so great and the movement of the
ground water so slow that the effects of the
saline water on the quality of the water in the
farmland was likely to continue for many
years.
PUBLIC HEALTH ASPECTS OF THE CONTAMINATION OF
GROUND WATER IN THE VICINITY OF DERBY, COLORADO
G. Walton, Sanitary Engineering Center
FIGURE 1. DERBY, COLORADO, AREA INVEST!-
GATED IN CONNECTION WITH CONTAMINATION
OF SHALLOW GROUND WATER
The Rocky Mountain Arsenal is located
just northeast of Denver, Colorado (Figure
1). Started in 1943, the arsenal was oper-
ated by the Chemical Corps for several
years for the production of chemical war-
fare agents. More recently, the industrial
facilities have been leased to the Shell Oil
Company, which has utilized them to manu-
facture insecticides.
From 1943 through September 1955
wastes from various chemical processes
were discharged to Reservoir A (the lo-
cations of the reservoirs are shown in Fig-
ures 1 and 2). During part of that period
wastes from the chlorine-processisg plant
were discharged to Reservoir C. Since
early October 1955, all industrial wastes
have been discharged into the 96-acre, as-
phalt-membrane-lined, evaporation Reser-
voir F.
Wastes from the unlined holding ponds
have seeped into the ground and contaminated
the shallow ground water throughout ap-
proximately 5 square miles of the South
Platte River valley immediately northwest
of the arsenal property. This is an area of
farms and some suburban housing. The
region is semi-arid, and water for crop ir-
rigation has been obtained largely from
shallow wells. A second source of water
is a deep artesian aquifer, which yields only
limited quantities. Most of the domestic
wells tap the latter source, since the water
from the shallow aquifer has always been
highly mineralized.
HISTORY OF CONTAMINATION
The first indication that the ground water
had become contaminated was damage to
crops irrigated with water from shallow
wells. Such crop damage was observed at
-------
122
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
R 67 W
ROCKY MOUNTAIN ARSENAL
( O'LOCATIONS OF WELLS SAMPLED)
of contaminated area as indicated by 200mg/l isochloride concentration, 1956, USGS Report
Boundary of contaminated area as indicated by Phytotoxin characteristics, 1957, Univ.of Colorado Studies
PIGURE 2. SOUTH PLATTE RIVER BASIN, COLORADO - SUSPECTED AREAS OF SHALLOW GROUND
WATER CONTAMINATION SHOWN AS OF 1956 AND 1957
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Specific Incidents of Contamination
123
the Newson farm in 1951, at the Powers and
Munson farms in 1952, and at the Yamamoto
and Miller farms in 1953.
Complaints and subsequent claims for
damages led to the Chemical Corps' engag-
ing a firm of consulting engineers to investi-
gate the problem. Their report recommended
and resulted in a substantial reduction in the
volume of wastes and, starting in October
1955, the retention of all wastes in Reser-
voir F. Another result was a contract with
the University of Colorado to undertake
plant bioassay, chemical, and geological
studies to determine the identity and source
of any contaminants causing crop damage.
These and other studies emphasized the ef-
fect of the contaminated water on agri-
cultural uses. It was not until 1959, when .
the State of Colorado requested that the
Public Health Service make a reconnaissance
survey, that serious concern developed over
the use of such waters for domestic purposes.
PUBLIC HEALTH STUDY
At the time of the Public Health Service
survey, contaminants known to have been
present in certain shallow well waters taken
from within the area included chlorides and
chlorates. The weedicide 2,4-D was known
to have been isolated from wastes in the
holding pond, and plant bioassay studies had
indicated that it or other phytotoxic organic
substances had been present in some Of the
shallow well waters. Still other contaminants
known to have been in wastes discharged
from the arsenal's operations were salts of
phosphonic acid, fluorides, and arsenic.
During August 1959, visits to 50 of some
150 homes in the area provided data on 23
domestic water supplies. Eighteen were
deep well supplies, which were reported
satisfactory wherever a member of the
household could be interviewed. Five dwell-
ings were served by shallow wells. Waters
from such wells were used for drinking and
for culinary purposes at three residences,
at two of which the water was reported to
have bad taste and odor.
Previous studies by the U. S. Geological
Survey (1) and theUniversity of Colorado(2)
had established the general area of shallow
ground water contamination. Theisochloride
line for the 200-mg/l concentration as of
June 1956 is shown in Figure 2. Since shallow
ground waters from this area normally con-
tain not more than 100 mg/1 of chloride, the
200-mg/l concentration is evidence that at
least 3 to 5 percent of the water within the
area originated from the highly contaminated
ground water underlying the arsenal prop-
erty. Also shown in Figure 2 are boundaries
of the area throughout which the shallow
well waters had exhibited phytotoxic charac-
teristics, as determined by the University of
Colorado studies through 1957.
Among the recommendations made in the
report on this study (3) were that steps be
taken immediately to determine present
boundaries of the area in which the shallow
ground water had become contaminated, to
analyze all domestic water supplies from
wells within that area, and to provide written
notice to the owners of contaminated wells
that the water is "unsafe for drinking or
culinary uses." Chloride concentrations in
excess of 200 mg/1 were to be considered as
evidence of contamination until more ade-
quate information could be developed con-
cerning the contaminants present and their
concentrations. Other recommendations
provided for a monitoring program, toxicol-
ogical studies to better establish safe per-
missible limits of certain contaminants in
potable water, and an investigation of the
sludge accumulation in Reservoir A.
Subsequent activities of the Public Health
Service have been limited to analyses of five
well water samples collected between Octo-
ber 29 and November 3, 1959 (4), a study of
the toxicity of chlorates, and consultation
services to the Colorado State Department
of Health.
Table 1 summarizes the results of the
analyses of the well waters. Figure 2 shows
that Well No. 3 is adjacent to, but outside,
the area influenced by seepage from the
ponds receiving wastes from operations at
the Rocky Mountain Arsenal. All other wells
are within the area contaminated. Although
such contaminants as chlorates, phos-
phonates, and 2,4-D were, if present, well
within the tentative permissible limits rec-
ommended for drinking water, other sub-
-------
124
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Table 1. COMPARISON OF ANALYTICAL RESULTS FOR WATERS FROM WELLS IN OR ADJACENT TO
CONTAMINATED AREA NEAR DERBY. COLORADO, WITH 1946 PHS DRINKING WATER STANDARDS
(All results except pH in milligrams per liter)
Analysis
Solids
Total
Volatile
Hardness (total as CaCOs)
Calcium
Magnesium
Alkalinity
Total (as CaCOs)
Hydroxide (as CaCOa)
Sulfate (as 504)
Fluoride
Chloride
Sodium
Potassium
Phosphate
Ortho (as PO4>
Poly (as PO4)
Phosphonate (as PO4>
Chlorates (as ClO3)
2.4-D
ABS
pH
1946 PHS
Standards
l.OOOa
125b
250b
1.5
250b
Well number and sampling date
No. 3, in
uncontamin-
ated area
(11/2/59)
492
86
212
85
0
227
0
104
0.6
40
51
3.4
0.12
0.04
0.0
< 1
<0.2
0.1
8.3
No. 4, in bed
of reservoir
(11/3/59)
10,000
965
1.990
369
258
700
13
3.000
4.0
1,410~
2,200
12
4.5
0.24
0.0
< 1
< 0.2
0.7
8.4
No. 5, on
Rocky Mtn.
Arsenal
(11/3/59)
2,800
446
280
77
21
827
23
249
2.8
864~
880
7.9
3.4
0.16
0.1
< 1
< 0.2
0.6
8.6
No. 2, irri-
gation well
(10/29/59)
3,760
980
924
369
0
372
0
435
1.2
1,320
580
6.9
0.08
0.22
2.1
< 1
< 0.2
0.6
8.0
No. 1, in Hazel-
tine area
(10/29/59)
2,620
808
928
122
152
262
0
455
1.2
764
300
5.0
0.16
0.34
0.0
<1
< 0.2
0.4
8.0
aRecommended maximum limit 500 mg/1, permitted 1,000 mg/1.
bRecommended maximum limit.
stances - solids, hardness, alkalinity,
fluorides, and chlorides - showed that these
waters have abnormal characteristics that
could only be associated with wastes from
the operations at the Arsenal. Exploratory
spectrographic analyses also showed the
presence of abnormal concentrations of iron,
manganese, and molybdenum, which indi-
cated the corrosive characteristics of these
waters.
Waters from the four wells were con-
sidered unsuitable for domestic water sup-
plies on the basis of the analytical results
for the samples submitted. Further con-
sideration of the source of the contamination,
the possible nature of the contaminants that
might be present, and the history of damage
to crops when such water had been used for
irrigation required that these waters be re-
jected as domestic water supplies.
SUBSEQUENT DEVELOPMENTS
Since 1959, the Chemical Corps has
hauled water for domestic use of those
householders formerly using contaminated
well water. It is understood also that pro-
vision has been made to facilitate processing
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
125
of limited claims for damages, such as the
expense incurred in drilling a well into the
deeper, uncon laminated aquifer.
Both the State Department of Health and
the Chemical Corps are monitoring selected
wells. Available information reveals no in-
crease in the area with contaminated shallow
ground water.
A survey of the industrial waste system
has been made and a contract awarded for
the construction of a plant to pretreat the
wastes prior to their injection into a deep
well. All wastes will be discharged to Reser-
voir F, where chemical nutrients will be
added to induce "a complete biological cycle."
Subsequent treatment will consist of floccu-
lation, settling, pressure filtration, and dis-
infection. The clarified liquid will be de-
oxygenated before injection into the ground.
A contract was let February 2,1961, for
construction of a deep injection well, the
plans for which have been approved by the
Colorado State Department of Health. This
well will be tripled-cased throughout the
upper strata and double-cased to a depth of
2,000feet. The 8-3/8-inch-OD inner casing
will extend to a depth of approximately 10,000
feet. Each casing will be cemented in place.
Wastes will be injected through a 5-1/2-inch
tube extending to the stratum in which they
will be discharged. The annular opening be-
tween this tube and the casing will be filled
with clean water. Since the injection pres-
sure at the well head will be high - up to
2,000 psi, leakage of waste into the annular
opening will be detectable by an increase in
the reading of a recording pressure gage in-
stalled for that purpose.
Consideration also is being given to
pumping ground water from wells in the
more contaminated areas to waste into the
South Platte River. This would be done only
at times when the flow of the river provides
sufficient dilution to maintain the concen-
trations of the contaminants within permis-
sible limits.
REFERENCES
1. Petri, Lester R. and Smith, Rex. O., In-
vestigation of the Quality of Ground
Water in the Vicinity of Derby, Color-
ado. Water Quality Division, U. S.
Geological Survey, Department of In-
terior (1956).
2. Bonde, Erick K., Research on Phytotoxic
Materials, Contract No. DA-05-021-
401-CHL 10,092. Department of Bi-
ology, University of Colorado, (May,
1958).
3.
Walton, Graham, "Public Health Aspects
of the Contamination of Ground Water
the South Platte River Basin in the
in
Vicinity of Henderson, Colorado, Au-
gust, 1959." Robert A. Taft Sanitary
Engineering Center, Public Health Ser-
vice, DHEW (November 2, 1959).
4. Walton, Graham, "Report on Analyses of
Water Samples from Rocky Mountain
Arsenal Area, Denver, Colorado."
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering
Center, Public Health Service, DHEW
(April 5, 1960).
DISCUSSION 3
Chairman: R. E. Fuhrman
Mr. Chester Wilson asked Mr. Robert A.
Krieger whether there had been any damage
suits, successful or unsuccessful, in con-
nection with brine pollution problems in the
Kentucky oil fields. In an unsuccessful case
cited, a brine-polluted well developed chlor-
ide concentrations as high as 29,000 ppm.
The chloride concentration subsequently de-
creased to about 1800ppm. A brine injection
well was constructed some 300 or 400 feet
away, and even though the chloride concen-
tration in the brine-polluted well increased,
the suit for damages was lost. Mr. Wilson
called attention to the obvious contrast here
-------
126
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
with cases in the State of Washington where
the pollution source could be pinpointed and
damage suits prosecuted successfully.
At the invitation of Chairman Fuhrman,
Mr. W. W. Hagan of the U. S. Geological
Survey, commenting on experience in Ken-
tucky, described the difficulties of proving
violation to the satisfaction of the court. He
referred to one successful case, however, in
which an oil producer who discharged salt
water to the ground was fined $500. Al-
though the courts sometimes seem unco-
operative, a new oil and gas law, coupled
with the work of the water quality personnel
of the State, is bringing about continual im-
provement.
Professor Richard H. Bogan asked Mr.
John M. Flynn, Jr., whether he had found any
correlation between syndet concentrations
and the bacteriological characteristics of
well waters. Mr. Flynn stated that his in-
vestigations were limited primarily to
chemical analyses for ABS and nitrogen
cycle constituents. Nevertheless, he did re-
port that ground water close to the surface
shows greater amounts of ABS and free am-
monia, and is likely to show the presence of
coliforms. Toward central portions of the
county (Suffolk County, New York), where
depth to ground water is greater, ABS and
ammonia occur in lesser amounts and nit-
rates in greater amounts, but coliform or-
ganisms are found rarely. These observa-
tions were suggestive of work done by Dr.
M. Starr Nichols and Elaine Koepp, reported
in the March issue of the AWWA Journal.
They found in Wisconsin that the percentage
of coliform positive samples in water con-
taining 3 to 10 mg/1 ABS was about five
times that in water containing no ABS.
Professor Bogan then referred to a sit-
uation at Tieton, Washington, where ground
water travel rates were apparently un-
usually high. He asked for comments from
Mr. John F.Honsteadof the General Electric
Company on rapid ground water travel in the
same general area. Mr. Honstead reported
rates of ground water movement, as indicated
by a fluorecein dye tracer, on the order of
hundreds of feet per day in extremely per-
meable formations similar to those reported
by Professor Bogan in his paper.
Mr. John E. Vogt was asked by Dr.
Graham Walton whether conditions that
caused the hepatitis outbreak at Posen were
of long standing. Belief was expressed that
the conditions had existed for several years
before the right combination of circum-
stances produced the outbreak. Medical
persons believe that an unrecognized out-
break of infectious hepatitis had occurred
previously at Posen. This is indicated by
the apparent immunity of the elderly people
in the community, since practically all cases
in the recent outbreak involved the younger
people.
In response to a question about the
source of contamination, Mr. Vogt em-
phasized that this hepatitis outbreak ex-
ploded in three homes served by two wells,
both located very close to a septic tank serv-
ing a home with a case definitely diagnosed
as hepatitis. It is his belief that the home
with the infectious hepatitis case discharged
the virus, which found its way through the
sewage disposal system and soil to the two
wells, one 6 feet from the tile disposal field
and the other 10 feet from the field. He con-
cluded that the source of virus in the 16
cases was pretty well identified with the
initial case of diagnosed hepatitis and further
that the virus traced a path through the septic
tank, the tile fields, and the thin mantle of
drift overlying the rock, and percolated down
to the limestone below.
Mr. George Maxey of the Illinois State
Geological Survey, a past hepatitis victim,
called attention to the incubation period on
the order ^of 20-60 days and asked if the tim-
ing between the first case and the subsequent
cases agreed with this. Mr. Vogt noted that
the incubation period mentioned by Mr.
Maxey is the same as that advised by
physicians associated with the Posen out-
break. He also indicated that the 15 addi-
tional cases of hepatitis followed the first
one within 30 days. The virus of hepatitis
was not isolated from any of the water
samples. (At present the use of human vol-
unteers offers the only means of detecting
the presence of infectious hepatitis virus in
water.)
Mr. Norman Tuckett of the Broward
County Health Department, Florida, ad-
-------
Specific Incidents of Contamination
127
dressed a question to Mr. L. Weaver con-
cerning contamination resulting from leach-
ing from sanitary landfills. After indicating
that the Broward County Health Department
(Florida) proposes to make periodic analyses
of public well waters, he asked what particu-
lar chemical analyses would be most ad-
vantageous for the detection of leaching from
garbage, ash pits, and landfills. In reply,
Mr. Weaver recommended adherence to al-
ready established routine water analyses
rather than concentration on specific factors,
such as hardness, ammonia content, etc. In
emphasizing that the Florida wells of concern
have great monthly changes in hardness and
alkalinity, caused by variations in rainfall,
Mr. Tuckett asked whether metals therefore
would be a better indicator. Mr. Weaver, al-
though still favoring the normal water qual-
ity analyses, answered that perhaps, as a
result of specific study, additional analyses
might be advisable.
In reference to Mr. Weaver's suggestion
that precipitation in itself is not sufficient
to provide the supersaturation requisite to
ground water contamination by leaching, Mr.
James E. Hackett, Illinois State Geological
Survey, asked if sanitary landfills can be
operated safely in abandoned quarries or
gravel pits. Mr. Weaver stated that if a
sanitary landfill were operated in an area
of extremely heavy rainfall and the fill were
not constructed to provide proper drainage,
difficulties would arise.
Referring to the Rocky Mountain Arsenal
problem, Mr. Meyer Kramsky, California
Department of Water Resources, asked
whether Dr. Walton had any data on the cost
or capacity of the 10,000-foot-deep injection
well. Although stating that he had no specific
data, Dr. Walton said he understood that the
well may cost more than $1,000,000 and that
it is hoped up to 400 gpm can be injected.
Mr. Wallace de Laguna, Oak Ridge Na-
tional Laboratory, referred to a recent
magazine article, which stated that when the
question of water contamination at the Rocky
Mountain Arsenal first came up the Army
stated that its activities were classified and
refused to discuss the matter.
He asked either Mr. Lester R. Petri or
Dr. Walton whether this uncooperative atti-
tude was reported correctly. Dr. Walton
stated that in 1959 when he conducted a sur-
vey in the area the Chemical Corps co-
operated fully and that the information pro-
vided was cleared in a meeting with the
Corps in Washington and later presented at
a public meeting in Denver.
Referring to the presentation by Mr.
Frank L. Woodward, Mr. Ralph H. Baker,
Jr., indicated his astonishment at the number
of private individual wells associated with
septic tank disposal of sewage and asked
whether the mass housing program involved
was financed primarily by FHA. Mr. Wood-
ward then read parts of his paper, "Ground
Water Contamination in the Minneapolis and
St. Paul Suburbs, "for which reading time had
not been available earlier. Mr. Martin G.
Dretel, D & S Pump & Supply Company, Brew-
ster, New York, asked Mr. Woodward
whether it is true that in the Minneapolis -
St. Paul area many of the central water sup-
plies would fail to meet the nitrate-nitrogen
concentration requirement imposed on in-
dividual water supplies. He noted that trade
publications have indicated that several cities
in Minnesota use water supplies that contain
more than 1 ppm nitrate-nitrogen, where-
as such nitrate-nitrogen concentrations were
not permitted in the waters from privately
owned wells. The drilling industry believes
that there is undue stress on this point and
that individual well supplies are controlled
more rigidly than central water supplies.
Mr. Woodward acknowledged that in Min-
nesota there are many public water supplies
that contain more than 1 ppm nitrate-nitro-
gen. In such cases, however, no association
of the nitrate with sewage contamination has
been demonstrated. It is not believed that 2
or 3 ppm will cause illness. In the late 40's
when 138 cases, of which 14 were fatal, were
investigated, the lowest concentration that
caused illness, diagnosed as methemoglobin-
emia, was about 35 ppm. People who pre-
pared infant's formula were advised that
water could be used safely if the nitrate-
nitrogen concentration did not exceed 10 ppm.
In the suburban area under consideration the
natural water has a nitrate-nitrogen content
of less than 1 ppm. Moreover, it doesn't
matter much whether 1, 5, or 10 ppm nitrate-
nitrogen is used as an indicator, since any
of these amounts combined with other pollu-
tion indicators will show that some 25 per-
cent of the wells with these amounts of ni-
trate-nitrogen are contaminated.
-------
128 GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
-------
SESSION 4
REGULATIONS AND THEIR ADMINISTRATION
Chairman: Murray Stein
Legal Problems of Ground Water Contamination, C.S. Wilson Page 129
Regulations for Protection of
Ground Water Quality in Minnesota, F. L. Woodward Page 139
Florida Regulations Pertaining to
Ground Water Contamination, R. H. Baker, Jr Page 141
The Ground Water Control
Program of Wisconsin, O. J. Muegge Page 149
Control of Ground Water Contamination
by a County Health Department, H. W. Davids Page 154
Contaminated Ground Water and
Housing, J. A. McCullough Page 157
The Way We Do It, R. V. Stone, Jr. Page 159
Discussion Page 163
LEGAL PROBLEMS OF GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
S. Wilson, Conservation Consultant
The dedicated and hard-working people
in the United States Public Health Service
and all the state and local agencies con-
cerned are well aware of the need for study
of the legal as well as the practical aspects
of the ground water contamination problem.
As public administrators and technicians
they know that wherever any job is to be
done or authority exercised by public agen-
cies it must be provided for by law. They
have learned that whenever an administrator
or technician runs into a problem and starts
planning action one of his first moves should
be to consult his legal adviser, look into the
applicable statutes, and if they are inade-
quate in any respect, seek the enactment of
new measures. Unless that is done promptly,
important programs or projects may be de-
layed. So we are now taking a little time in
the midst of this Symposium to consider
where we stand in the way of legal authority
for dealing with ground water contamination
and what new legislation is needed for the
advancement of an effective program.
129
-------
130
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
This gathering of especially concerned
people from all parts of the country testifies
to the fact that ground water contamination
presents many difficult and urgent problems
quite different from those of surface water.
Solutions for these problems must be found
if the major objective of conserving enough
water to meet future population needs is to
be attained. The whole pollution control
program for both surface water and ground
water must move forward, or there simply
will not be enough water to go around.
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
SITUATION
One thing stands out in all the reports
on the subject--we are up against another
crisis resulting from man's perversity in
breaking the laws of nature. We should
know from experience that this cannot be
done with impunity.
The breach of nature's regulations with
which we are concerned consists of the age-
old practice of civilized man of disposing of
the excreta and remains of his own species
and other animals by deposit orburial under-
ground. In a state of nature, such things
were left on the surface to be consumed by
other forms of life or to disintegrate rapidly
under the impact of air, sunshine, and other
forces. The processes of consumption and
disintegration are much slower underground,
with the result that the progressive accumu-
lation of pollution substances below the sur-
face will continue as long as the practice of
the underground disposal of waste matter
continues.
Effects of Contamination
Nature is more or less tolerant, but she
has her limits. There are unmistakable
signs that these limits have been passed and
that she is already cracking down on the of-
fenders. Among the most ominous instances
are those disclosed by recent reports of the
painful consequences of ground water con-
tamination from laundry waste in Long Is-
land, New York, the pollution of domestic
wells from septic tanks in the suburbs of St.
Paul,and Minneapolis, Minnesota, contraction
of infectious hepatitis from contaminated
well water in Posen, Michigan, and wide-
spread crop damage in the South Platte
River Basin inColorado from chemicals that
got into irrigation water through careless
disposal of industrial waste. Many other
cases of disease and other damage from con-
taminated ground water are recorded in the
published task group reports of the Amer-
ican Water Works Association, and still
more are being reported at this Symposium.
All this evidence demonstrates beyond
question that many people in different parts
of the country are already paying severe
penalties for their own or someone else's
misdeeds that resulted in ground water con-
tamination, and many more will suffer like-
wise for a long time to come until adequate
counteracting measures can be applied. The
situation is bound to get worse before it can
get better.
A great many people, including some
public officials, seem to be blissfully un-
aware of the menace of ground water con-
tamination and are doing little or nothing
about it. The practice of sweeping the dirt
under the rug continues unabated in many
parts of the country. Once people get the
stuff underground, they think they can safely
forget it.
It is true that in sparsely populated
areas cases of serious trouble from ground
water contamination are not yet numerous
or acute. The reports show, however, that
the discharge into the ground of sewage,
detergents, or other chemical Compounds
with large quantities of water can build up
an actual or potential contamination hazard
in a large area in a comparatively short
time. It is safe to say that there is no state
in the Union where such hazards do not al-
ready exist to some extent. These danger
spots will inevitably increase in number
and spread in extent with the growth of popu-
lation and the expansion of residential and
industrial developments. The handwriting on
the wall behooves the responsible agencies
at all levels of government throughout the
country to heed it.
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Regulations and Their Administration
131
LEGAL ACTION PROGRAM
Some special factors that affect ground
water contamination and must be reckoned
with in the development of a legal program
are:
1. The sources and accumulations of
ground water contamination are
myriad and widely scattered. Con-
tamination will spread from these
sources for a long time through per-
colation from natural or artificial
sources.
2. In many cases it is difficult or im-
possible to trace the source or the
spread of underground contamination.
3. Protected from air, sunlight, and
other forces, underground contamin-
ation, both chemical and biological,
persists in dangerous form much
longer than surface pollution.
4. Surface pollution is usually open and
notorious, whereas underground con-
tamination is hidden, insidious, and
difficult to get at.
Of course wells and springs fed by con-
taminated water are the chief means of in-
jury of human beings, livestock, industry,
agriculture, and other interests. The com-
mon belief in the purity of well water and
spring water has been rudely shattered by
recent revelations. Except in areas known
to be free from underground contamination,
it is no longer safe to drink such water with-
out testing or treatment.
Legal measures relating to ground water
contamination must be geared to a program
of action to:
1. Prevent disease and other harmful
effects from the use of contaminated
ground water.
2. Prevent further contamination of
ground water.
3. Remedy or control existing under-
ground contamination.
In consequence of the multiplicity of
sources and the complexity of the affecting
factors outlined, ground water contamination
is beset by unusual and difficult problems
for which conventional measures used on
surface water pollution would be largely in-
effective. In order to attain the declared ob-
jectives, measures especially designed to
cope with the peculiar problems of the under-
ground must be employed and special legal
provisions adequate to authorize the execu-
tion of such measures must be devised, if
not already on the statute books.
The laws required for operation of the
general water pollution control program were
discussed fully at the Washington conver-
ence(l). These discussions should be noted
so far as they may be applicable to ground
water problems. Further discussion here
will be addressed to the specific measures
needed for dealing with ground water con-
tamination.
Prevention of Harm from
Existing Contamination
Clearly the most urgent need for action
is in preventing harm from existing under-
ground contamination. Regulations are nec-
essary that will stop the use of water from
any source found to be contaminated or in
imminent danger of contamination. Action
would include publication and posting of
warnings, the promulgation of restrictive
regulations, and the sealing of wells, or
other necessary safe guards. Control of the
location and drilling of wells, to insure
freedom from contamination, also is neces-
sary.
A legal action program would require
extensive and intensive surveys to locate
sources of contamination and affected wells
and springs. Appropriate regulations would
have to be framed and adopted to provide for
sampling and testing water and for submis-
sion of plans and issuance of permits for the
location and drilling of wells under specifi-
cations to prevent contamination. The pro-
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132
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
gram also would include provisions for con-
tinuous inspection to insure compliance with
all requirements.
Prevention of Further Contamination
The saying that an ounce of prevention is
worth a pound of cure goes double for under-
ground contamination, because it is so diffi-
cult to remedy. A polluted surface stream
recovers quickly after the source of pollu-
tion is abated or controlled. On the other
hand, underground contamination works its
way into inaccessible places and its harm-
ful properties persist for a long time. In
most cases it is extremely difficult if not
impossible to remedy or neutralize once
established. Hence, it is of the utmost im-
portance to exercise strict control over the
location, construction, and use of septic
tanks, cesspools, disposal wells, and all
other means for disposing of sewage or
waste into the ground, as well as over the
placing on the surf ace and use of all accumu-
lations of liquid or solid mate rials containing
contaminating substances that may permeate
the ground. These measures must extend,
of course, to existing installations or situa-
tions as well as to new ones.
Similar control must be exercised over
operations for recharge of underground
aquifers, underground storage of gas or
other 'substances, blasting or excavation in
permeable underground formations, and
other operations that may be the means of
introducing or facilitating the spread of
underground contamination.
For these purposes legal and adminis-
trative machinery similar to that for exist-
ing contamination will be required along with
provisions for the issuance of orders and the
application of other enforcement measures
customarily employed in water pollution.
Action Against Existing Contamination
The introduction into the ground of
further contamination from existing sources
as well as from new sources can and should
be stopped by the measures already out-
lined. Steps also should be taken for the
elimination or neutralization of existing ac-
cumulations of underground contamination,
as far as possible.
Where responsibility can be fixed upon
municipalities, industries, or private indi-
viduals, these groups or individuals should
be required to undertake the necessary
remedial operations, wherever feasible, or
to pay appropriate compensation in lieu
thereof so far as liability can be legally en-
forced.
This procedure would be in the nature
of legal action to compel abatement of a
public nuisance or payment of damages.
This remedy might not be workable on past
cases because of statutes of limitations or
other legal obstacles emept so far as ex-
isting provisions of the pollution control
laws authorize procedures that may be ap-
plicable to underground contamination. It
would be desirable to augment the present
statutes, as far as necessary, by special
provisions dealing with underground con-
tamination.
For cases where it is not possible to
compel remedial action by a municipality or
a private corporation or individual and where
the accumulation of underground contamina-
tion is serious enough to warrant action in
the public interest, pro vis ion should be made
for public agencies to undertake measures
to remove or counteract the contamination,
as far as feasible. This will require the
enactment of statutory provisions authorizing
such action and also authorizing entry upon
private lands for this purpose where neces-
sary, including authority to condemn the
right of entry, if the right of entry is not
yielded voluntarily by the landowner.
SUPPLEMENTARY SPECIAL MEASURES
In addition to the measures outlined,
certain supplementary measures may be
useful for control of ground water con-
tamination.
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Regulations and Their Administration
133
Prohibition of
Pernicious Substances or Practices
It may be necessary in some cases to
restrict or prohibit the use of underground
disposal for particular contaminants that
cannot be successfully treated or controlled
or that interfere with treatment processes.
It may also be necessary to restrict or pro-
hibit the operation of particular types of
establishments or devices that in under-
ground disposal operations discharge ex-
cessive amounts of water or other liquids,
overloading treatment facilities or acceler-
ating or extending the spread of underground
contamination beyond safe limits. Such
measures can be applied by appropriate
regulations under enabling statutes.
Proof of Safety of New Products
In connection with the preceding sug-
gestions, underground disposal by users of
new chemicals or other products capable of
permeating the ground but with unknown ef-
fects may be restricted or prohibited unless
and until the manufacturer or distributor
produces satisfactory evidence that the use
of the product will not cause underground
contamination or interfere with treatment
processes. The burden should be on the
manufacturers of the new products to have
them tested before putting them on the mar-
ket. This requirement might have a salutary
effect in promoting research in furtherance
of production of types of detergents, in-
secticides, and other compounds that would
be free from contaminating properties.
Provisions of this kind, of general appli-
cation and somewhat drastic effect, should
preferably be instituted by statute rather
than by regulation.
Zoning or Building Regulations
One of the most important long-range
activities in the entire program for con-
trolling ground water contamination is the
inclusion of adequate provisions, in zoning
and building regulations governing the de-
velopment of real estate for residential, in-
dustrial, or other purposes in unsewered
areas, for the location, spacing, and con-
struction of all septic tanks and other under-
ground sewage or waste disposal facilities
and wells. Installation of such facilities
should be prohibited in areas where they
cannot be used without causing contamina-
tion of ground water or entailing danger
of harm.
Cities and villages generally have power
to adopt such regulations. Similar authority
should be conferred bylaw on counties, rural
towns, sanitary districts, or other govern-
mental units in order to extend control over
real estate and industrial developments out-
side of municipal limits. City or village
councils and other local governing bodies
are often reluctant to adopt adequate pollu-
tion control regulations for fear of inter-
fering with real estate or industrial develop-
ments. Hence express statutory provisions
should be enacted, empowering a state agency
to prescribe effective regulations for any
area where local agencies lack or fail to
exercise authority.
CONSIDERATIONS OF
GENERAL APPLICATION
Certain considerations affecting all
measures dealing with underground con-
tamination should be noted.
Basis of Public Authority -
The Police Power
Effective control of ground water con-
tamination will require the exercise of public
authority in regulating the use of private
property to afar greater extent than control
of surface water pollution. Hence moves to
that end will undoubtedly be resisted and
questions will be raised as to the underlying
authority for such measures, especially in
states that adhere to antiquated common law
rules of absolute private ownership of ground
water.
There is much diversity among the
states, both in statutes and in the rules laid
down by the courts, as to the nature of
private rights in ground water.
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134
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
From the few legal decisions involving
public authority overground water and from
many decisions involving public authority
over other kinds of private property, it is
safe to assume that the courts generally will
uphold the power of the state in cases in-
volving ground water contamination so far
as may be necessary for protection of the
public health and welfare, despite the fact
that the ground water may be private prop-
erty.
No doubt it will be contended that con-
tamination of ground water by an individual
within the boundaries of his own domain is
nobody else's business. If the dangerous ef-
fects of the contamination spread beyond
those boundaries or if there is a reasonable
probability of such spreading, it is practically
certain that the courts will hold that the
public health and welfare are involved and
that the situation is amenable to the police
power of the state.
Substantiating Evidence
All that has been said points to the fact
that the investigators and technicians in
this field have a prodigious job of education.
They must collect and spread information
about the facts of the situation in order to
arouse the public and the legislators to the
need for action, providing the basis for laws
and regulations. They will have the never-
ending task of securing, preserving, and
presenting evidence for enforcement of laws
and regulations. They must be prepared to
support their reports with factual evidence
that will stand up under attack. They must
establish sound standards based on reliable
factors, not on speculation or guesswork.
They must be ready to explain technical
terms, such as pH and BOD, and interpret
their findings in language that legislators,
judges, jurors, and laymen generally can
understand.
All this emphasizes the need for training
of personnel for these purposes and for
great expansion of the present inadequate
staffs and means for research, investigation,
and inspection in the field of ground water
contamination.
LEVEL OF CONTROL
Federal Control
Although, as will be further discussed,
the states are primarily responsible for
direct action for control of ground water
contamination, as with surface water pollu-
tion, the federal government also has a large
stake in the program. It is not likely that
there will be much need.for the direct exer-
cise of federal authority in ground water
contamination cases, as there may be in
pollution of interstate surface waters. The.
effects of a given source of ground water
contamination do not usually spread as far
or as fast as surface water pollution, the
few cases of ground water contamination
that extend across state lines can probably
be handled by joint action of the state or
local authorities, or perhaps under an inter-
state compact, without federal intervention.
The federal government has a clear call
to promote a general ground water con-
tamination control program because of the
national interest in protection and conser-
vation of water resources, which are essen-
tial to the health, strength, prosperty, and
survival of the entire country.
On the whole, the role of the federal
government in the field of ground water con-
tamination will involve the same objectives
as with surface water pollution, with less
emphasis on direct action and greater em-
phasis on promotional activities such as:
1. Alerting state and local agencies and
others concerned to the problems
involved.
2. Assisting state-and local agencies in
development of adequate laws and
regulations.
3. Conducting research and field inves-
tigations of national interest, and as -
sisting states with their research and
investigation programs.
4. Providing technical assistance to the
states, when desired, on special prob-
lems that they are not equipped to
handle.
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Regulations and Their Administration
135
State Control
The primary responsibility for enacting
and enforcing laws concerning ground water
contamination rests upon the states, the
same as in other fields requiring the exer-
cise of die police power to control the con-
duct of individuals or public or private cor-
porations in local matters. Hence, so far as
direct action in prevention, abatement, or
control of ground water contamination is
concerned, the laboring oar must be pulled
by the states and their subordinate agencies -
counties, cities, villages, rural towns,
sanitary districts, or other governmental
units.
It must be remembered that in opera-
tions of this kind a city, county, or other
local governmental unit, although it has
considerable freedom of action, is serving
as an arm of the state government, subject
to state law, and exercising the power of the
state by virtue of authority delegated.
The ground water contamination situation
obviously presents organizational and ad-
ministrative problems and related legal
problems, of great complexity and difficulty,
that each state will have to solve for itself.
All we can do here is point out some of the
requirements that must be met and indicate
possible solutions.
The first question confronting state
authorities in planning the development of
effective programs for control of ground
water contamination and the enactment of
necessary related legislation is whether the
program should be headed up by the State
Board or Department of Health or the State
Water Pollution Control Agency or some
other state agency. This is a matter of
policy that must be determined by the legis-
lature in relation to the existing structure of
the particular state government. For further
observations on that phase of the problem,
reference may be made to the discussion on
Legal Aspects of Water Pollution Control at
the National Conference on Water Pollution( 1).
It should be noted that public health fac-
tors are much more important, relatively, in
ground water contamination than in surface
water contamination, because of the wide-
spread use of ground water for domestic
purposes as well as for municipal water
supplies and because of the equally wide-
spread use of septic tanks and cesspools in
unsewered areas. In the past these facilities
usually have been the concern of state health
authorities, so far as the state has paid any
attention to them.
Ground water also is used extensively
for industrial processes, air cooling of
buildings, irrigation, and other purposes not
connected with public health, and many
municipalities and industries dispose of
sewage and waste underground. State super-
vision or control over such matters has
usually been exercised by state water con-
servation or water pollution control agen-
cies wherever such agencies have been
created.
Without attempting here to go any further
into the details of the problem, which will be
discussed by others on this program, we may
say that it is important to work out an ef-
fective arrangement for division of labor and
coordination of functions in the ground water
contamination control program among the
different agencies concerned in each state,
as has already been done in a number of
states in general water pollution control
programs. This is a problem to which the
state legislatures, with the advice of ad-
ministrative experts and legal counsel,
should address themselves without delay if
they are interested in promoting effective
control of ground water contamination.
Incidentally, a recent check of state
statutes by the staff of the Public Health
Service at Washington showed that in about
half the states the water pollution control
agencies have jurisdiction over both surface
water and ground water, whereas in the re-
mainder such jurisdiction extends only to
surface water. There is no sound reason
for such a limitation. Because of the in-
separable interrelationship between surface
water and ground water in many situations
involving pollution, the water pollution con-
trol agency should have jurisdiction over
both. The same is true of the state health
agencies. Any division of responsibility be-
tween the two types of agencies or any limi-
tation on the authority of either should be
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136
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
based on functional considerations, not on
the variable line between surface water and
ground water.
Local Agency Operations
The most staggering aspect of the situa-
tion is the vastnumber of scattered installa-
tions (septic tanks, wells, etc.) that will have
to be brought under supervision and control.
To that end the manpower and means for the
job will have to be multiplied far beyond the
present forces of the state and local agencies
concerned.
Conceivably the forces of the state
agencies (State Board of Health, State Water
Pollution Control Board, etc.) could be ex-
tended to handle the task. State-wide sys-
tems for inspection of local establishments,
such as hotels and restaurants, are already
in operation in many states.
It is obvious that a state-wide system
for control of ground water contamination
would require a much larger force of per-
sonnel and would involve the handling by
state authorities of a much larger volume
of local cases than any other operation yet
undertaken directly by state administrations.
The probability is that as a matter of prac-
tical expediency a combination system will
have to be developed under which state
agencies will exercise general supervision,
whereas the bulk of the work of making in-
vestigations, issuing permits or licenses,
and enforcing regulations will be done by
local agencies under the general direction of
state authorities.
In addition to general supervision and
control, it would no doubt be desirable if not
necessary for the state also to provide
financial aid to local agencies to assure the
effective operation of such a system. Under
a system of that kind the forces of local
agencies already engaged in similar opera-
tions would have to be expanded and
strengthened. Furthermore, new local
agencies, such as sanitary districts, with
adequate authority would have to be created
for areas not within the jurisdiction of exist-
ing local agencies.
State legal authority and machinery
would have to be extended and strengthened
in order to secure uniformity in regulations
(with due allowance for differences in con-
ditions) as well as in administration and en-
forcement, hi so far as local governmental
units maybe authorized to adopt regulations,
they should be required to meet certain m ini -
mum standards set by state law. Appropriate
state laws and regulations should be made
applicable to all areas outside the jurisdic-
tion of local governmental units.
PROGRAM FINDING
Obviously important to a successful
program is the provision of sufficient funds
to support effective research, investigation,
administration, and enforcement operations
all along theline. Without such implementa-
tion the most comprehensive laws are nothing
but a set of empty gestures. This is another
task to which the administrative and legal
experts had better address themselves' at
once if they expect to get going with.any kind
of a successful ground water contamination
control program.
The general water pollution control pro-
gram has already imposed heavy financial
burdens, with more to come, on the federal,
state, and local governments throughout the
country. The prospect of shouldering a
larger load to cope with ground water con-
tamination will not be greeted with en-
thusiasm by the taxpayers. Neither will the
supporters of the general water pollution
control program look with favor on diverting
any revenue now earmarked for other uses
to the ground water program except so far
as the interests affected by the general pro-
gram may benefit.
Within the time allotted here we cannot
go into finances in detail. We may suggest
however that in all fairness the major part
of the financial load entailed by control of
ground water contamination should be car-
ried by those who are responsible for the
problem, i. e., the great host of users of
septic tanks, wells, and all other facilities
for underground disposal of sewage or was tes
from which ground water must be protected.
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Regulations and Their Administration
137
The value of their property is greatly en-
hanced by such facilities, and they can well
afford to pay for whatever public service
may be required to safeguard the public
health and welfare.
Provision for raising funds from those
responsible for the problem can be made
through fees charged for permits for in-
stallation of facilities, with annual fees for
continued maintenance, and also fees for the
licensing of persons engaged in installation
or servicing of facilities. The charging of
fees for such purposes is common in other
lines and certainly would be justified in
principle in the field of ground water con-
tamination control. It might not be possible
to meet the entire cost in this way, but it
would certainly go far to reduce the draft on
general tax revenue.
LEGISLATION
Federal Water Pollution Control Act
The present Federal Water Pollution
Control Act as amended, public law 660,
84th Congress, is broad enough to cover
most if not all of the operations that the
federal government would need to undertake
in furtherance of an effective nationwide
ground water contamination control program.
Under the provisions of Section 2 and others,
underground waters are already included in
the purview of the Act for the purposes of
all the general promotional functions for
which federal action is authorized.
It is true that under Section 8 of the Act
the exercise of federal enforcement author-
ity is limited to interstate waters, which
are defined in Section 11 (e) as "All rivers,
lakes, and other waters that flow across,
or form a part of, boundaries between two
or more states." Conceivably this definition
might include underground streams or bodies
of water intersected by state boundary lines.
Obviously it would not include percolating
ground water in the interstices of the soil;
however, as pointed out before, it is not
likely that there will be much if any need for
the exercise of federal authority in cases
involving that type of ground water, even
where the effects extend across state lines.
Extension of the federal Act to cover
such cases might involve some constitutional
questions, but we need not bother to con-
sider them here in the absence of any pres-
sing need for action in this connection.
State Legislation
It is clear from the foregoing observa-
tions that much new state legislation will be
needed to meet the challenge of ground water
contamination. Strangely enough, the re-
plies to the American Water Works Associa-
tion Task Force Questionnaire indicated
that a large majority of the state agencies
believed that their present laws were ade-
quate. No doubt this resulted from the fact
that the statements were made chiefly by
state health agencies concerned with the
safety of water supplies. Most if not all of
those agencies probably do have authority to
take some kind of action to prevent the
spread of disease from contaminated ground
water.
Whether that authority is adequate or not
in itself, it is certain that the laws in most
states are inadequate to provide for all the
regulatory and constructive measures that
will be required for a fully effective program
for control of ground water contamination.
If the authorities of any state, after review-
ing the essentials for such .a program, still
think that their laws are adequate, they are
indeed in a fortunate situation. We have an
idea that most state agencies will concede
that much remains to be done to bring their
laws on the subject to, the point of adequacy.
It is true that a number of states already
have laws dealing with various particular
ground water contamination problems, i.e.,
permits for drilling wells, licensing of well
drillers and scavengers, etc. are required.
State and local regulations relating to wells,
septic tanks, and other facilities affecting
ground water are in force in many places.
New measures in this field are under con-
sideration in several state legislatures, as
indicated by the Public Health Service Bul-
letins. Such measures will be fully reviewed
and digested for future use. At any rate, it
is safe to say that no state has all the laws
it needs for a thorough job of controlling
ground water contamination.
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138
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Suggested State Water
Pollution Control Act
As announced at the Washington con-
ference, the Public Health Service staff are
engaged in revising the original Suggested
State Water Pollution Control Act of 1950; a
new edition is to be issued sometime this
year. We welcome the cooperation in that
effort of all concerned throughout the country,
including those present at this Symposium.
The original suggested act of 1950 in-
cluded both ground water and surface water
within the scope of its [provisions; however,
it did not deal directly with special prob-
lems of ground water contamination. The
extent of the need for action on those prob-
lems was not apprehended at that time. It
is certainly recognized now. In the forth-
coming revision, ground water problems will
get a full share of attention,.along with sur-
face water problems.
To that end all state health agencies,
water pollution control agencies, and others
concerned are invited to submit suggestions
for desirable provisions for the purposes of
ground water contamination control. Such
suggestions, together with the information
and ideas presented at this Symposium and
other available material, will be fully con-
sidered in connection with the preparation
of a preliminary draft for the revised sug-
gested act. That draft will then be circu-
lated among all agencies concerned for
further comments, criticisms, and sugges-
tions. With these benefits the final text of
the revised act will be written and published.
This may be accompanied or followed by
supplementary bulletins on special legal
problems of ground water contamination, if
that appears desirable.
CONCLUSION
Although this discussion was supposed to
deal with legal problems, it has branched out
at some points into other fields, and one
more digression may be permitted at the
windup. It is important from any stand point
to remember that this is a free country in
which all legislation, all provision of public
funds, and all progress in public affairs de-
pends on public support. All who are con-
cerned with promoting an effective program
for control of ground water contamination
therefore should move with all possible
speed and with every means available to in-
form the public about the facts of the situa-
tion and arouse them to the need for action.
To that end it will be necessary to en-
list the cooperation of all the great con-
servation and public welfare organizations
(including both men and women) whose ag-
gressive actionhas beenlargely responsible
for the advancement of the general water
pollution control program. They will have
to marshal their forces all the way from
Washington to every state capitol and down
to the cities, villages, and rural towns
throughout the country to get public backing
to meet the needs of this problem. They will
have to carry on the fight against ground
water contamination with the same zeal that
they have exhibited in combating water pol-
lution in general.
Some of them may ask why they should
get steamed up about underground contam-
ination. Aside from the general interest in
public health, the main impetus for the
nationwide drive against water pollution has
been the demand for cleaning up lakes and
streams for recreational use -- boating,
swimming, fishing, hunting, and all the other
aquatic pursuits to which people are flock-
ing in ever-increasing numbers throughout
the country. Admittedly, outdoor recreation
is essential to the future vitality of the na-
tion, and water sports are a major factor in
that field.
Those who have their minds on surface
water for recreation or any other use must
remember that surface water and ground
water are inseparably interrelated in the
natural order of things. They represent dif-
ferent stages in the same hydrologic cycle.
What is surface water today may be ground
water tomorrow and vice versa. Both types
are part of the same total world supply of
H20.
Furdiermore, the ground is nature's
reservoir for storing water with minimum
loss from evaporation. When surface water
is abundant, the surplus can be stored under-
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Regulations and Their Administration
139
ground to be drawn upon when the supply of
surface water is short. Ground water is
used not only for domestic, industrial, and
agricultural purposes but is pumped out in
large quantities to maintain lake and stream
levels for public recreational use and for
maintenance of shoreline property values in
many places. Contaminated ground water
cannot be used for that purpose. Moreover,
if the supply of ground water available for
any use is curtailed by contamination, it will
mean heavier drafts on lakes and streams
and perhaps exclusion of the public, thereby
reducing their value for recreation and other
nonconsumptive uses. In short, reduction of
total available ground water ultimately
means a corresponding reduction in total
available surface water.
All in all, the conservationists, recrea-
tionists, and all others concerned with
maintaining lakes and streams have as big a
stake in combating ground water contamina-
tion as they have in fighting surface water
pollution. Besides that, everyone is vitally
concerned with protecting the public health.
On all counts, there is no cause that de-
serves or demands more widespread public
support than the program for control of
ground water contamination.
REFERENCE
1. Wilson, Chester S. Legal Aspects of
Water Pollution Control, Proceedings.
The National Conference on Water Pol-
lution, pp. 354-384, Supt. of Documents,
U. S. Gov. Printing Office (1961).
REGULATIONS FOR PROTECTION OF
GROUND WATER QUALITY IN MINNESOTA
L. Woodward, Minnesota Department of Health
Considering the recent occurrence of
widespread ground water contamination in
the Twin City suburbs, one might assume
that the text of this paper could be much
shorter than the title. It is true that little
has been done toward prevention of the use
of on-site sewage disposal systems for in-
dividual homes in the area and that in many
instances soil absorption has been used as
the means of final disposal for larger instal-
lations such as schools, apartments, and
commercial establishments. In the latter
installations, however, the need for large
volumes of water has necessitated develop-
ment of wells in the deeper, more productive
formations. These formations have not
shown the effects of sewage discharged near
the surface, although some of the older
wells that terminate in the deeper forma-
tions and do not have protective construction
through the contaminated strata have shown
evidence of increasing concentrations of
chemicals attributed to sewage.
Prevention of the contamination of the
shallow ground water in such an area re-
quires more than the prohibition of the use
of soil absorption as a means of sewage dis-
posal. The only other means available at
points beyond the reach of established sewer-
age systems would have been discharge of
effluent into the small lakes or streams,
some times dry, or the use of ponds or
lagoons. The former could not be permitted,
and the latter would probably feed the ground
water in much the same manner as the tile
fields or overflow into the same lakes and
streams. The only feasible prevention
would be rigid control of subdivision de-
velopment to permit building only in areas
where suitable sewage outlets could be made
available. There is no State law to provide
this control, but local governments are in
no position to apply such a law until their
over-all sewage disposal problem can be
solved. It is likely that, if ground water
were not so easily obtained on an individual
basis, the pattern of suburban development
would have been quite different, with orderly
growth outward from the existing facilities
instead of by the leapfrog system common
in the area.
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140
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Local Control
Several villages have attempted to avoid
becoming involved in municipal water and
sewer systems by providing adequate sep-
aration between on-site wells and sewage
disposal systems through requirement of
larger and larger lots. In several villages
nothing less than 2 acres is accepted, and
at least one village has placed the require-
ment at 10 acres. This would appear to be
a short-sighted principle, since the cost of
supplying community services, when they do
become necessary, will be prohibitively high.
State Water Supply Standards
Adherence to the standards of the State
Board of Health is not mandatory except where
made so by official action. Some communi-
ties have adopted the standards by ordinance,
and the Commissioner of Agriculture has
adopted them for pasteurization plants,
cheese plants, creameries, and other food
processing plants. They are applied by the
State Board of Health in examination of plans
for water supplies that will serve the public
or any considerable number of persons. The
submission of such plans is required by a
regulation adopted in 1917. As applied to
small individual wells, the standards do not
make provision for wholesale use of indi-
vidual systems of water supply and sewage
disposal in builtup areas. In other words,
such systems can be expected to operate
satisfactorily in isolated situations but can-
not be considered suitable as a substitute for
properly designed community systems in
areas of high population density.
The standards as applied to public in-
stallations are amended from time to time
as new knowledge becomes available, and
they are modified as necessary to meet the
requirements of specific localities. The
Minnesota Department of Health did not have
experience with the hazards of limestone
until long after some other states had be-
come well acquainted with this problem.
Only a relatively small part of the State has
this problem, but that area contains about
half of the State population. Following an
incident in 1956 the standards were revised
to require new wells to be cased with cement
grout through unsafe rock formation. Figure
1 shows the manner in which this construc-
tion provides increased safety in conditions
typical of the geology of the Twin City area.
DRIFT
Casing-
SANDSTONE
II
-2
FIGURE 1. WELL CONSTRUCTIONS IN ROCK
FORMATIONS
Department of Conservation
State law gives the Commissioner of
Conservation considerable statutory author-
ity over ground water. One section of the
law requires that permits be obtained for
appropriation of either surface or ground
water. This section does not apply to domes-
tic wells serving fewer than 25 persons.
There are also limitations on application
outside of certain muncipalities. The Com -
missioner may require the owners of artesian
wells to control them to prevent waste.
Well drillers are required by law to
furnish to the Department of Conservation
a statement containing the log of material
and water encountered in drilling a well and
the results of all water pumping tests. This
provides valuable information for various
kinds of studies of water geology, including
determination of the ultimate capacity of the
aquifers, rates and direction of water move-
ment, the effects of multiple pumping, and
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Regulations and Their Administration
141
the possibility
recharge.
and feasibility of artificial
Water Pollution Control Agency
The State Water Pollution Control Com-
mission has authority to control pollution
of the waters of the State. Although some
persons question the inclusion of ground
water in the definition of "waters of the
State" and an amendment to the Water Pol-
lution Control Act to clarify this matter is
being considered, the Commission has been
effective in preventing the discharge of in-
dustrial wastes into the ground in many
situations. This control is exercised through
refusal to grant a permit for such disposal.
Some proposals to establish industrial
plants have been abandoned, or a proposed
plant has been relocated at a point where
surf ace disposal could be safely carried out.
Among the wastes for which a permit for
underground disposal has been denied or the
method of disposal changed are: ammonia
products wastes, sulfite liquor, vegetable
canning wastes, wastes from corn silage
stacks, wastes from pilot studies of deter-
gents and other cleaning compounds, laundry
wastes, creamery wastes, and plating wastes.
Regulation Through Control
of WeU Drilling
For a number of years the State Board
of Health had a regulation that prohibited the
use of a deep well or an abandoned well as a
receptacle for sewage or household waste.
In a recodification, this regulation was found
to be inadequate for the intended purpose
and it was rescinded. Nevertheless, the
Board has been successful in accomplishing
satisfactory closure of many abandoned
wells where a public water supply has been
involved. Such closure consists of filling
the well with concrete through the rock for-
mations to prevent the travel of water di-
rectly from an unsafe formation to the one
used as the source of a neighboring well.
One problem with this procedure, however,
is that the municipality sometimes prefers
to maintain the old well for emergency
standby service.
For the past several legislative sessions
the local and state associations of well
drillers have endeavored to secure the
enactment of a State licensing law for well
drillers. Such a law would igive the State
Board of Health more definite authority to
regulate drilling. These efforts have been
unsuccessful largely because the industry
was not fully organized in support of the
measure. Such support has apparently been
achieved for a bill under consideration in
the present legislative session. This bill
was prepared as a joint enterprise of the
drillers, equipment companies, State De-
partment of Conservation, State Board of
Health, and the legislative interim com-
mission on municipal laws. In addition to
licensing of "well drillers and pump install-
ers, the bill authorizes the Board to develop
a State well code in the form of regulations.
Such regulations would con tain provisions for
proper control of abandoned wells and also
of drainage wells constructed for the pur-
pose of removing surface water. If this
legislation is not enacted, the State Board of
Health probably will enact regulations on
this subject under existing authority.
FLORIDA REGULATIONS PERTAINING TO
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
H. Baker, Jr., Florida State Board of Health
Nearly the entire State of Florida is
underlain by porous and permeable lime-
stone, which provides large supplies of
ground water.
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142
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
At present, approximately 90 per cent of
the state's population depends on ground
water for domestic use. In addition, large
amounts are used for industry and for irri-
gation of vegetables and fruit crops.
We have had a review of types of con-
tamination, with reports on specific inci-
dents, so I would like to call to your atten-
tion one such case in Florida. The following
letter is self-explanatory. (Remember this
was 56 years ago.)
"Key West, Fla., May 13, 1904
"To His Excellency, W.S. Jennings,
Governor of Florida,
Tallahassee, Florida.
(Through Hon. E.M. Hendry, president State
Board of Health).
"Dear Sir:
"I beg respectfully to invite your atten-
tion to the great apparent necessity for so-
liciting the cooperation of the United States
Geological Bureau in determining the course
of the underground water streams of the
state. The State Board of Health is con-
fronted with a most serious problem in con-
nection with the potable water supply of
many towns, associated as it is with the dis-
posal of domestic waste. Where towns are
located on river banks, sounds, or on the
ocean, the disposal of sewage is not a diffi-
cult question to adjust, but many of the in-
land towns whose population has grown quite
rapidly during the past ten years, seek how
to adopt a more convenient and satisfactory
method of disposing of sewage and have
placed in operation a sewer system at the
same time that a water works plant was
established.
"to-nojt.a very few of these inland towns
the sewage is run into a 'sinkhole', of which
there are a number in the central and west-
ern part of the state, and the sewage passes
to where no one knows.
"In one instance, at Live Oak, there is
this disposal of sewage, and I have lately
caused the public water supply of that place
to be examined bacteriologically, and the
Bacteriologist of the Board reports that he
found the sample of water sent him to be
contaminated with the colon bacillus, the
bacillus which infects the intestinal tract of
the human.
"It is therefore conclusive evidence to
my mind that there is some connection be-
tween the stream of water at the bottom of
the 'sink hole' at Live Oak and the well of
the water plant at that place. This present
contamination produces intestinal disorders,
and many of the physicians lately in attend-
ance on the State Medical Association at
Live Oak were affected by diarrhea and
other intestinal discomforts."
Over the years, ground water contamination
has been identified in the following cities
and counties in Florida:
Live Oak
Gainesville
High Springs -
Orlando
Lake City
Sanford
Ft. Myers
Ocala
Suwannee
Alachua
Alachua
Orange
Columbia
Seminole
Lee
Marion
A survey made in 1948, entitled "The
Pollution of Artificial Ground Waters in
Suwannee and Orange Counties, Florida by
Artificial Recharge Through Drainage Well"
covers two of the incidents (see annex).
Florida is not without its problems per-
taining to ground water contamination.
Waters of varying degrees of pollution have
been discharged into underground waters for
many years. Even today considerable quan-
tities of treated municipal sewage, as well
as highly organic industrial wastes, are
being disposed of in this manner.
The State Board of Health is sues perm its
for drainage wells (Chapter XXI Florida
State Sanitary Code - see annex), and it has
been the policy to prevent any increase in
the amount of highly polluted waste being
discharged into the ground. Heat, however,
has not been considered a pollutant, and the
use of drainage wells that terminate in fresh
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Regulations and Their Administration
143
water strata is permitted for disposal of
heated water if it is passed through closed
cooling systems without contact with the
atmosphere.
Enforcement of pollution control legis-
lation in Florida has been vested largely in
the State Board of Health. Its most impor-
tant weapon is the Pollution of Waters Act of
1913. This act forbids any deposit of de-
leterious substances in the state, if such
substances are "liable to affect the health of
persons, fish or livestock." The statute
covers pollution of lakes and ground waters
as well as streams. Enforcement of this
law is placed under the supervision of the
State Board of Health. On its face the statute
seems broad enough to prevent all undesir-
able pollution of Florida's streams, but the
act had no provisions for injunctive enforce-
ment - criminal penalties were provided
only for its violation. The number of com-
plaints concerning industrial pollution in the
early Fifties indicated that this law, as it
existed, was largely ineffective. Effort by
the State Board of Health resulted in amend-
ment in 1955 of the chapter enumerating the
general powers of the board. This amend-
ment gives the board the power "to enjoin
and abate nuisances dangerous to the health
of persons, fish and livestock." This amend-
ment has proved helpful to the board in its
pollution control work.
Two other general laws, an act dealing
with waste from mines and the new County
Water System and Sanitary Financing Act,
authorize boards of county commissioners
to seek injunctions against certain types of
pollution.
Related to pollution control by state
authorities are two Florida special acts that
should be discussed. These acts declare
Nassau and Taylor counties to be industrial
counties; the acts further state that it is in
the interest of the public that industry be
empowered to discharge sewage and in-
dustrial and chemical wastes into the tidal
waters of Nassau County and into the Fen-
holloway River and the waters of the Gulf of
Mexico, into which the Fenholloway River
flows. Some authorities believe that this
legislation, if attacked, might well be held
unconstitutional on the ground that it de-
prives the riparian owners on these waters
of property rights, without compensation, in
violation of the state and federal constitu-
tions. If the industry owns the land on both
sides of the river, the point in question is
debatable. The Florida Statutes, as written
appear in the annex (Statutes 387 and 381).
With reference to the administration of
these Statutes, it is necessary that I refer
you also to Chapter XXXV of the Florida
State Sanitary Code, entitled "Administrative
Regulations and Enforcement of Code" (see
annex). In this Chapter the local health of-
ficers are deputized by the State Health Of-
ficer for the purpose of carrying out the pro-
visions of the Sanitary Code of the State of
Florida and are designated as agents of the
State Board of Health and deputies to the
State Health Officer, within the geographical
jurisdiction of their organization.
At the present time, the State Board of
Health has one general counsel and one full-
time counsel, who is available for work both
in county health departments and within the
State Board of Health. The over-all policy
of the State Board of Health has been and is
one of persuasion, conciliation, and "be a
good neighbor, "with attempts to educate and
work with the various offenders, rather than
pursue the legal phase. A large portion of
the work is accomplished through good pro-
fessional relationships.
Much progress has been made within the
State of Florida, and although the population
has doubled approximately every decade, we
hope that additional progress can be made
without too much use of so-called "police"
powers.
REFERENCES
1. Florida Statutes
2. Florida Sanitary Code
3. Florida Water Resources
Report, 1957
4. John S. Telfair, Jr.,
Report, 1948
5. Florida State Board of Health
Annual Report, 1904
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144
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
FLORIDA STATE SANITARY CODE
CHAPTER XXI
Drainage Wells
(Reference is made to Chapter 381 and
Chapter 387 of the Florida Statutes.)
These statutes place the sanitary control
of all waters of the State of Florida under
the jurisdiction of the State Board of Health.
Section (1) Drainage well defined. A
drainage well referred to in these regula-
tions is any cavity drilled or natural which
taps the underground water and into which
surface waters, waste waters, industrial
wastes, or sewage is placed.
Section (2) Application for approval.
Before entering into a contract for the use
of a drainage well it shall be the responsi-
bility of the well drilling con tractor to make
application to the State Board of Health.
Drilling shall not be begun until the proposed
construction is approved by written permit
signed by the Director of the Bureau of Sani-
tary Engineering of the State Board of Health.
Section (3) Data to be submitted with
application. The application shall be ac-
companied by the following data:
(a) Location, depth, depth of casing of
all wells used for water supply within a
one mile radius of the proposed well.
(b) Nature of wastes to be placed in the
proposed well with analysis if deemed
necessary.
(c) Additional data as may be required
by the State Board of Health.
Applications shall be signed by:
(1) The well drilling contractor, and
(2) The owner or the duly authorized
representative of the owner.
Section (4) Submission of logs. A log
showing the various strata pierced by the
well shall be forwarded to the State Board of
Health within 2 days after completion of the
drilling operation. Samples of the various
formations pierced in the drilling operation
shall be forwarded to the State Geologist
when the drilling operation has been com-
pleted.
Section (5) Wastes prohibited from dis-
posal to drainage wells. Drainage wells
shall not be used for the disposal of human
wastes, or any waste deemed by the State
Board of Health to be injurious to the public
health.
Section (6) Casing. First quality lap-
welded pipe only shall be used as a casing
material. The use of butt welded pipe is
prohibited.
The practice of dynamiting wells which
have become clogged shall not be resorted to
except with permission of the State Board of
Health.
Section (7) Rights of Municipality. No
government agency, municipality, county, or
organization shall have the right to require
the placing of any wastes in a drainage well.
This is the function of the State Board of
Health only.
The sections of this Chapter were adopted by the State Board of Health in execu-
tive session on February 16, 1946, to be effective from that date.
POLLUTION OF WATERS
Chapter 387, Florida Statutes
387.01 "Underground Waters of the
State" Defined. The term "underground
waters of the state", when used in this chap-
ter, shall include all underground streams
and springs and underground waters within
the borders of the state, whether flowing in
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Regulations and Their Administration
145
underground channels or passing through
the pores of the rocks.
387.02 Permit Required for Draining
Surface Water or Sewage into Underground
Waters of State. No municipal corporation,
private corporation, person or persons with-
in the state shall use any cavity, sink, driven
or drilled well now in existence, or sink any
new well within the corporate limits, or
within five miles of the corporate limits, of
any incorporated city or town, or within any
unincorporated city, town or village, or with-
in five miles thereof, for the purpose of
draining any surface water or discharging
any sewage into the underground waters of
the state, without first obtaining a written
permit from the state board of health.
387.03 Permits Revocable and Subject to
Change; Notice by Publication; Filed witE
Clerk. Every permit for die discharge of
sewage of surface water, shall be revocable
or subject to modification or change by the
state board of health, on due notice, after an
investigation and hearing, and an opportunity
for all interests and persons interested
therein to be heard thereon; said notice or
notices being served on the person or per-
sons owning, maintaining or using the well,
cavity or sink, and by publication for two
weeks in a newspaper published in the county
in which said well, cavity or sink is located.
The length of time after the receipt of the
notice within which it shall be discontinued
may be stated in the permit. All such per-
mits, before becoming operative, shall be
filed in the office of the clerk of the circuit
court of the county in which such permit has
been granted.
387.04 Sewage Defined. For the pur-
pose of this chapter, sewage shall be defined
as any substance that contains any of the
waste products, excrement or other dis-
charge from the bodies of human beings or
animals.
387.05 Sewage or Surface Drainage into
Underground Waters of State to be Discon-
tinued within Ten Days after Order by State
board of Health. Every individual, municipal
corporation, private corporation or company
shall discontinue the discharge within the
corporate limits or within five miles of the
corporate limits of any incorporated city or
town, or within any unincorporated city,
town or village or within five miles thereof,
of sewage or surface drainage into any of the
underground waters of the state within ten
days after having been so ordered by the
state board of health.
387.06 Penalty for Violation of Provi-
sions of this Chapter. Any municipal cor-
poration, private corporation, person or per-
sons that shall discharge sewage or surface
drainage, or perm it the same to flow into the
undergroundwaters of the state, contrary to
the provisions of this chapter, shall be
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and shall,
upon conviction, be punished by a fine of
twenty-five dollars for each offense or by
imprisonment not exceeding one month. The
doing of the prohibited act for each day shall
constitute a separate offense.
387.07 Penalty for Interference with
Water Supply. Whoever willfully or mali-
ciously defiles, corrupts or makes impure
any spring or other source of water reser-
voir, or destroys or injures any pipe, con-
ductor of water or other property pertain-
ing to an aqueduct, or aids or abets in any
such trespass, shall be punished by im-
prisonment not exceeding one year, or by
fine not exceeding one thousand dollars.
387.08 Penalty for Deposit of Deleterious
Substance in Lakes, Rivers, Streams,
Ditches, etc. Any person, firm, company,
corporation, or association in this state, or
the managing agent of any person, firm,
company, corporation or association in this
state, or any duly elected, appointed or law-
fully created state officer of this state, or
any duly elected appointed or lawfully created
officer of any county, city, town, munici-
pality, or municipal government in this state,
who shall deposit or who shall permit or
allow any person or persons in their employ
or under their control, management or di-
rection to deposit in any of the waters of the
lakes, rivers, streams, and ditches in this
state, any rubbish, filth or poisonous or
deleterious substance, or substances, liable
to affect the health of persons, fish, or live-
stock, or place or deposit any such deleteri-
ous substance or substances in any place
where the same maybe washed or infiltrated
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146
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
into any of the waters herein named, shall be
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and, upon
conviction thereof in any court of competent
jurisdiction, shall be fined in a sum not more
than five hundred dollars; provided, further,
that the carry ing into effect of the provisions
of this section shall be under the supervision
of the state board of health.
387.10 Proceedings for Injunction.
(1) In addition to the remedies provided
in this chapter and notwithstanding the ex-
istence of any adequate remedy at law, the
state health officer or other appropriate
officer of the state board of health is author-
ized to make application for injunction to a
circuit judge, and such circuit judge shall
have jurisdiction upon a hearing and for
cause shown to grant a temporary or per-
manent injunction or both restraining any
person from violating or continuing to vio-
late any of the provisions of this chapter or
from failing or refusing to comply with the
requirements of this chapter, such injunction
to be issued without bond provided, however,
no temporary injunction without bond shall
be issued except after a hearing of which the
respondent or respondents has or have been
given not less than seven days prior notice,
and no temporary injunction without bond,
which shall limit or prevent operations of an
industrial, manufacturing or processingplant
shall be issued, unless at the hearing it shall
be made to appear by clear, certain and con-
vincing evidence that irreparable injury will
result to the public from the failure to issue
the same.
(2) In event of the issue of a temporary
injunction or restraining order hereunder
without bond, then the state, in event said
injunction or restraining order was im-
properly, erroneously or improvidently
granted, shall be liable in damages and to
the same extent as if said injunction or re-
straining order had been issued upon appli-
cation of a private litigant instead of a public
litigant, and the state hereby waives its
sovereign immunity and consents to be sued
in any such case.
LAWS PERTAINING
TO THE SANITARY CODE
Excerpts of Chapter 381, Florida Statutes
381.031 Duties and Powers of the Board.
It shall be the duty of the board to **adopt7
promulgate, repeal and amend rules and
regulations consistent with law regulating***
prevention and control of public health
nuisances; sanitary practices relating to
drinking water made accessible to the public;
watersheds used for public water supplies;
disposal of excreta, sewage or other wastes;
the disposal of garbage and refuse; plumbing;
rodent control; pollution of lakes, streams
and other waters; drainage and filling in con-
nection with the control of arthropods of
public health importance; production, handl-
ing processing, and sale of food products and
drinks including milk, dairies and milk
plants; canning plants, shellfish dealing and
handling establishments, restaurants and all
other places serving food and drink to the
public; toilets and washrooms in all public
places and places of employment; factories,
trailer, tourist, recreation and other camps
offering accommodations to the public;
swimming pools and bathing places; state,
county, municipal and private institutions
serving the public; jointly with the state
board of education, public and privately
owned schools; vehicles offering transporta-
tion to the public; all places used for the
incarceration of prisoners and inmates of
state institutions for the mentally ill; and
any other condition, place or establishment
necessary for the control of communicable
diseases or the protection and safety (light
and ventilation) of the public health; control
of arthropods of public health importance;
prescribe qualifications of operators of milk
plants, water purification plants, sewage
treatment plants and swimming pools; *the
pollution of the air where created on private
property, in public places, by industrial
waste disposal or sewage disposal or in any
place or manner whatsoever; ***andbedding
inspection.
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Regulations and Their Administration
147
The board may commence and maintain
all proper and necessary actions and pro-
ceedings for any or all of the following pur-
poses: (a) To enforce its rules and regula-
tions; (b) to enjoin .and abate nuisances
dangerous to the health of persons, fish and
livestock; (c) to compel the performance of
any act specifically required of any person,
officer or board by any law of this state re-
lating to public health; (d) to protect and
preserve the public health; and (e) it may
defend all actions and proceedings involving
its powers and duties.
381.071 Regulations and Ordinances
Superseded. The provisions of the rules and
regulations adopted and promulgated by the
board under the provisions of this chapter
shall, as to matters of public health, super-
sede all regulations enacted by other state
departments, boards or commissions, or
^ordinances and regulations enacted by
^municipalities; provided no provision of this
chapter shall be construed as altering or
superseding any of the provisions set forth
5 in chapters 502 and 503, or any rule or regu-
lation adopted under the authority of said
chapters.
381.081 Presumptions. The authority,
action and proceedings of the board and the
>state health officer and other agents of the
board in enforcing the rules and regulations
adopted by the board under the provisions of
this chapter shall be regarded as judicial in
nature and treated as prima facie just and
legal.
381.091 Construction, Rules and Regu-
lations: Nothing contained in the rules and
regulations adopted by the board under the
provisions of this chapter shall be construed
as limiting any duty or power of the board
provided by the statute laws of Florida.
381.101 Municipal Regulations and
Ordinances: "Any municipality may enact, in
manner described by law, health regulations
and ordinances not inconsistent with state
public health laws and rules and regulations
adopted by the board.
381.111 Power to Enforce: Any member
of the board or any officer or agent of the
board designated for the purpose may en-
force any of the provisions of this chapter
or any rule and regulations promulgated by
the board under the provisions of this chap-
ter. If necessary he may appear before any
magistrate empowered to issue warrant in
criminal cases and request the issuance of a
warrant and said magistrate shall issue a
warrant directed to any sheriff, deputy, con-
stable or police officer to assist in any way
to carry out the purpose and intent of this
chapter.
381.121 Enforcement; City and County
Officers to Assist: It shall be the duty of
every state and county attorney, sheriff,
constable, police officer and other appro-
priate city and county officials upon request
to assist the state health officer or any other
agent of the board in the enforcement of the
state health laws and the rules and regula-
tions promulgated by the board under the
provisions of this chapter.
381.251 Pollution Control: Underground
Water. Lakes, etc.: The board and its agents
shall have general control and supervision
over underground water, lakes, rivers,
streams, canals, ditches and coastal waters
under the jurisdiction of the state insofar as
their pollution may affect the public health
or impair the interest of the public or per-
sons lawfully using them.
381.261 Supervision; Water Supply and
Sewage Disposal: The board and its agent
shall have general supervision and control
over all systems of water supply sewerage
refuse and sewage treatment in the state
insofar as their adequacy, sanitary and
physical conditions affect the public health.
381.271 Approval of Water: No county,
municipality, person, persons, firm, cor-
poration, company, public or private institu-
tion or community of more than twenty-five
inhabitants shall install a system of water
supply sewerage, refuse or sewage dis-
posal, or materially alter or extend any
existing system until complete plans and
specifications for the installation, altera-
tions, or extensions, together with such
other information as the board may require
have been submitted and approved by the
board. The board may further make and en-
force such specific rules and regulations
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148
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
regarding the submission of plans for ap-
proval and record as it deems reasonable
and proper to carry out the provisions of this
section.
381.281 Water Supply and Disposal Sys-
tem; Advisory Duty: The board shall con-
sult with and advise any county or municipal
authority or any other person as to the
source of water supply, methods of water
purification, and disposal of drainage, sew-
age or refuse. It shall also advise and con-
sult with any manufacturer or other person
conducting a business or intending to con-
duct a business whose sewage, waste or
waste products may tend to pollute the
waters of this state. The board may conduct
experiments relating to purification of water
and treatment of sewage, waste or refuse.
381.291 Corrective Orders; Water and
Disposal Systems: When the board or its
agents, through investigation, find that any
system of water supply, sewerage, refuse or
sewage disposal constitutes a nuisance or
menace to the public health, it may issue an
order requiring the owner to correct the im-
proper condition.
381.311 Regulations for Municipal and
County Sanitation: The board shall super-
vise and regulate municipal and county sani-
tation and shall exercise general supervision
over the work of local health authorities.
Local health officials and other appropriate
local officials concurrently with the board
shall enforce the provisions of the state
sanitary code and other public health rules
and regulations and of such local ordinances
and sanitary regulations as may be con-
sistent with it.
381.411 Penalties: Any person who vio-
lates any of the provisions of mis chapter,
any quarantine or any rule or regulation
promulgated by the board under the pro-
visions of this chapter is guilty of a mis-
demeanor and subject to be punished by im-
prisonment not exceeding six months or by
fine not exceeding $1,000.00. Any person
who interferes with, hinders or opposes any
agent, officer, or member of the board in
the discharge of his duties is guilty of a
misdemeanor and subject to be punished by
imprisonment not exceeding six months or
by fine not exceeding $1,000.00.
FLORIDA STATE SANITARY CODE
CHAPTER XXXV
Administrative Regulations and
Enforcement of Code
Section (1) State Health Officer Execu-
tive Officer of Board. The State Health Of-
ficer, as the executive officer of the State
Board of Health, is designated to act for the
Board in the enforcement of the State Sani-
tary Code and to carry out the administrative
duties connected therewith.
Section (2) Staff of the State Health Of-
ficer. The staff of the State Health Officer,
consisting of the directors of the Bureaus
or other authorized divisions, are desig-
nated as agents of the Board, and, under
supervision of the State Health Officer, will
assume responsibility for carrying out the
provisions of the Sanitary Code in their re-
spective authority.
Section (3) Local Health Officers Dep-
utized. Local Health Officers in health units
organized under provisions of Chapter 154,
Florida Statutes 1941, and such other local
health officers as may be named and approved
by the State Health Officer, are, for the pur-
pose of carrying out the provisions of the
Sanitary Code of the State of Florida, desig-
nated as agents of the State Board of Health,
and deputies to the State Health Officer,
within the geographical jurisdiction of their
organization. Provided, however, that where
approval of plans for sanitary work is re-
quired of the State Board of Health covering
waterworks and sewerage and other sanitary
structures, or where operating permits are
required of the State Board of Health, their
authority will be confined to recommenda-
tions to the State Health Officer or the cen-
tral organization division concerned.
Section (4) Upon the discovery of a vio-
lation of any of the laws of the State of
Florida under the general supervision of the
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Regulations and Their Administration
149
State Board of Health or of any rule or regu-
lation made by the State Board of Health,
where protection of the public health so re-
quires or justifies, it shall be the duty of the
State Health Officer or one of his deputies
to post a notice of such violation on the
premises where such violation exists and at
or near the public entrance to suchpremises.
Section (5) Any person who shall violate,
disobey, refuse, omit or neglect to comply
with any of the rules and regulations of the
Sanitary Code shall be guilty of a misde-
meanor and upon conviction, shall be punished
by imprisonment, not exceeding six months,
or by fine not exceeding one thousand($1,000)
dollars.
Section (6) Any person who shall inter-
fere with, or hinder, or oppose, any officer,
agent or member of the State Board of Health
in the performance of his duty as such,
under the Sanitary Code, or shall violate a
quarantine regulation, or shall tear down,
mutilate, deface, or alter any placard, or
notice, affixed to premises in the enforce-
ment of the Sanitary Code, shall be guilty of
a misdemeanor and punishable upon con-
viction, by imprisonment for not exceeding
six months or by a fine not exceeding one
thousand ($1,000) dollars.
The Sections of this Chapter were adopted by the State Board of Health in execu-
tive session on August 22, 1953, to be effective from that date.
THE GROUND WATER CONTROL PROGRAM OF WISCONSIN
O. J. Muegge, Wisconsin Board of Health
"Water, water, everywhere, but not a
drop to drink." The condition cited in this
widely known quotation could well become
an actuality in some land areas if publicly
supported, rigid controls are not maintained
over our water resources. This could be as
true in Wisconsin, a water-rich state lying
in the Great Lakes and Mississippi River
drainage basins, as in many other states not
as well endowed with water resources.
In Wisconsin, the need for controls over
water resources has long been recognized
and acted upon. Thus, during the course of
years, various state agencies have been
vested with the responsibility of supervising
specific phases of water resource manage-
ment as the need arose. As part of such
management, the State Board of Health is
charged with the responsibility of protecting
all waters "insofar as their sanitary and
physical condition affects health or com-
fort." The Board also controls installation
of high capacity wells, to prevent reduction
in the availability of water to utilities dis-
tributing water to the public or other ad-
verse effects.
WISCONSIN LAWS AFFECTING
GROUND WATERS
The laws under which ground water
quality, and to some extent quantity, has been
controlled follow.
Early Laws
The early laws of Wisconsin that imposed
some control over ground water sources
were repealed upon enactment of more de-
tailed acts. The early laws included one in
1876, which required that the Board advise
local officials in regard to water supply
systems serving public buildings and institu-
tions, a second in 1879, which included
plumbing regulations for municipalities with
public water supply systems, and a third in
1905, which required municipalities to sub-
mit plans for public water works to the
Board for approval.
Plumbing Law
The plumbing law enacted in 1913, which,
although amended, is still in effect, pro-
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150
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
vides for the licensing of plumbers working
in communities that have water or sewerage
systems and for the enactment of regula-
tions, statewide in scope. This law initially
gave control of private water systems to the
Board (Chapter 145, Wisconsin Statutes).
Water, Ice, Sewage, and Refuse Law
The law pertaining to control over water,
sewerage, and refuse disposal systems and
over ice supplies was enacted in 1919. This
act gave the Board general supervision over
the waters of the state and required that any
owner, upon request, submit plans and speci-
fications of water works systems, new or
modified, for approval. This law was a-
mended in 1927 and again in 1949 to create
and establish the responsibility of the Com-
mittee on Water Pollution for control of sur-
face water pollution and treatment of in-
dustrial wastes. It was amended in 1945 also
to require that owners obtain a permit from
the Board for the construction or reconstruc-
tion of wells with a rated capacity of 100,000
gallons per day or more (Chapter 144, Wis-
consin Statutes).
Pure Drinking Water Law
The pure drinking water law of 1935
provided for the registration of well drillers
and the enactment of regulations covering
well construction. This law was amended in
1953 to require registration of pump in-
stallers. The act does not provide for the
registration of persons who install driven
wells and is not applicable to wells not used
as a potable water supply source; however,
driven-point well construction must con-
form to regulations of the Board (Chapter
162, Wisconsin Statutes).
REGULATIONS
As far as is known, no regulations were
enacted to govern water supply installations
under the early laws. Later statutes did
provide authority, however, for enforcement
of regulations that had been adopted to con-
trol ground water quality.
Plumbing
The initial plumbing regulations were
enacted in 1914. They have since been a-
mended nine times and a tentfi revision is
underway. These regulations presently con-
trol the location of soil absorption sewage
disposal systems and drainage piping with
respect to wells and also the construction
of sewers, septic tanks, and soil absorp-
tion systems. The minimum separation per-.
mitted between a private well and a soil ab-
sorption system is 50 feet, whereas the
minimum permitted between a well and
septic tank or sewer of other than cast iron
pipe is 25 feet. Cast iron sewers with leaded
joints may be installed to within 8 feet of a
well. Soil absorption systems must be shal-
low tile fields or shallow leaching pits, and
such pits may not extend into creviced rock.
These minimum distances are tempered
with practicality and, as will be indicated,
are not the basic safety precaution against
contamination.
Controls also are provided to prevent
back-siphoning from fixtures and cross-
connecting of dual sources of water supply.
Until 1936 the plumbing regulations also
included very general specifications for
water supply sources and pumping equip-
ment installations (Chapter H 62, Wisconsin
Administrative Code).
Public and Institutional Water Supplies
Following enactment of Chapter 144,
regulations were adopted that required sub-
mission of water works plan to insure cer-
tain standards of construction. These stand-
ards are minimal and are primarily appli-
cable to water purification plants. These
broad regulations generally assure, through
plan approval of public water supply sources,
well construction in accord with established
policy based on commonly accepted practice.
Regulations governing the location of public
wells with respect to pollution sources are
more restrictive than those applicable
to private wells. The location may vary with
type of well construction, geologic forma-
tions, and pollution source. Maximum separ-
ating distances, up to 200 feet, are required
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Regulations and Their Administration
151
between sewers and shallow wells that ob-
tain water from unconsolidated deposits.
Minimum separation of 100 feet is required
between ordinary sewers and wells in which
the casings extend into sandstone. Lesser
distances are permitted if the sewers are
cast iron with leaded joints, and greater
distances are required if soil absorption
systems are used. Where feasible, wells
are to be cased and grouted to a depth of at
least 40 feet; however, casing depths to 500
feet are required in some wells. The
termination of a casing in limestone, when
such aquifer is used as the source of supply,
is generally at a depth of 100 feet or more
for public utility wells but may be at a depth
as great as 300 feet. In areas where ade-
quate casing depths cannot be attained, sup-
plemental treatment or greater separation
;from pollution sources is required (Chapters
H 51 and H 54, Wisconsin Administrative
Code).
PRIVATE WATER SUPPLIES
Regulations applicable to well construc-
tion were authorized by pure drinking water
legislation adopted in 1936. This legisla-
tion was amended five times; the regulations
now in effect were adopted in 1951 and sup-
plemented in 1953. These regulations set
forth the requirements pertaining to private
well location and construction and to pump
installation. They also cover finishing, dis-
infection, and sampling of new or recon-
structed wells, and the method of sealing
abandoned wells. They provide less restric-
tive requirements for existing water supply
systems; thereby, use of facilities installed
in conformity with prior codes may be con-
tinued. Minor modifications of older facili-
ties that will make these installations con-
form with provisions of former regulations
are permitted.
The private well construction regula-
tions, as well as those for public well con-
struction, are designed with the intention of
providing vertical protection of the wells
rather than reliance upon distance of sep-
aration and the removal of contamination
during horizontal travel of the ground water.
The latter, however, is by no means over-
looked, and the regulations specifically state
that the well shall be located as far from
sources of pollution as possible. Regula-
tions with respect to minimum thickness of
casing and the sealing of annular construc-
tion spaces with suitable material, and
specifically with cement grout under certain
conditions, contribute to initial vertical pro-
tection of the supply and to permanency of
the well.
Since the casing or curbing of a well is
the factor that provides vertical protection,
its depth is most important. Requirements
vary from a minimum depth of about 20 feet
for drilled or driven wells located in un-
consolidated deposits with high ground water
pumping levels to depths of over 100 feet in
consolidated creviced formations where such
formations are initially encountered at rela-
tively shallow depths. When creviced rock
is encountered at depths of less than 40 feet,
the casing must be grouted to at least 40
feet.
The 1951 regulations favored the dis-
charge of water from the well at a point
above the ground surface or at subsurface
levels through pipes operating under pres-
sure or enclosed in conduits. New well pits
could be installed only with the approval of
the Board. Reasons for this provision are
well known to public health personnel.
Minimum distance requirements are the
same as those specified in the plumbing
code except that provision is made for
greater separation between wells and sources
of pollution where the vertical protection to
be provided is not equal to the minimum re-
quired depth of casing. This variation from
specified minimum depths is applied only in
cases where the geologic formation makes
water unattainable other than at shallow
depths. This would be typical of seme areas
in northern Wisconsin where granite lies
near the ground surface. In these areas,
proper well location with respect to eleva-
tion and direction of pollution sources and
greater separation requirements prevail.
All wells deviating in the manner indicated
or in other construction details from the
regulations must be individually approved.
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152
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Action to locate and seal abandoned wells
is essential if maximum protection for an
aquifer is to be provided. The regulations
therefore specify that wells temporarily re-
moved from service be capped or filled with
clay. Permanently inactivated wells are to
be permanently sealed, filled with clay or
concrete when in unconsolidated formations
or plugged with concrete when the well
penetrates one or more' consolidated for-
mations. The regulations further require
that wells not be used to dispose of sewage
or waste waters. Help in accomplishing the
sealing of abandoned wells is provided by
local officials, by well drillers, and by state
agencies.
DISCUSSION OF REGULATIONS
The regulations for well construction in
Wisconsin are based on the knowledge and
theory that water penetrates vertically from
the surface to the water table and then travels
at or near the ground water table in the di-
rection of underground flow, with maximum
removal of contaminants during vertical
rather than horizontal travel. This theory
of horizontal travel of contamination would
not hold with fluid ntaterial that has a specif-
ic gravity greater than that of water. In
heavier materials the contaminant could be
ejected to penetrate to appreciably greater
depths. This has been demonstrated in
studies on soil disposal of sulfite liquor from
paper mills. The theory of horizontal travel
also will not hold if the aquifer does not have
uniform porosity.
The more stringent requirements adopted
in the later regulations for pump installa-
tions were enacted with the belief that de-
signers or installers of pumping equipment
would create acceptable sanitary devices for
conveying water from wells to points of use.
Since 1951 when the regulations favored
elimination of well pits, considerable prog-
ress has been made in pump design and in
adapter construction to provide for discharge
of water under pressure from wells below
the surface of the ground. When the regula-
tions were enacted, only two devices for
underground pressure discharge were avail-
able. Since that time, more than 20 addi-
tional devices have been developed for dis-
charge of water under pressure without a
pump enclosure at a subsurface or above-
grade level. Use of pumphouses for protec-
tion of pumping equipment on private prop-
erty generally has not proved too acceptable
because of aesthetic reasons and the fear of
freezing, should the power supply fail during
cold weather. This objection to pumphouses
has added initiative to the development of
the improved well discharge equipment.
It should be noted that the regulations on
well construction were developed to exclude
bacterial contamination. Since enactment
of the regulations, considerable information
has been obtained on contamination of wells
by detergents. To exclude detergents,
greater attention probably needs to be given
to increasing the depth of vertical protection
and possibly also to increasing horizontal
separation for greater dilution of the con-
taminant. The development of detergents
that are subject to destruction or removal
through natural purification processes seem s
however to offer a much better approach to
this problem.
EDUCATION PROCEDURES
VERSUS REGULATORY PROCEDURES
Much has been said about the need for
educating the public on proper sanitary
facilities of all kinds. Such educational ap-
proaches would necessarily cover the basic
principles underlying good well construction
and the consequence of contamination that
might occur if a well installation is im-
properly made. If reliance is to be placed
solely upon the educational approach, much
time should be spent advising persons con-
cerned of desirable well locations and types
of construction, with the greatest emphasis
placed on distribution of information to those
that may be called upon for advice or those
engaged in the construction of wells and in-
stallation of pumping equipment.
The adoption of regulations does not com -
pletely obviate the need for education but
does tend to accentuate the interest of per-
sons who may be involved in the design,
construction, supervision, or ownership of
wells and pumping devices. An educational
approach in support of regulations has been
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Regulations and Their Administration
153
utilized extensively in Wisconsin. Public
hearings prior to enactment of regulations
were supplemented with dissemination of in-
formation by way of manuals to persons en-
gaged in construction. In addition, training
on reasons for and objectives of specific re-
quirements was given to persons with super-
visory responsibilities, such as public
health personnel, dairy plant fieldmen, ana
agricultural agents. Also, training programs
were initiated for well constructors and
pump installers on the interpretation of the
regulations, preparation of construction re-
ports, sampling methods, and other criteria.
Distribution of leaflets calling attention to
basic factors in good well construction
through schools, 4-H clubs, and similar or-
ganizations also has helped bring about a
receptive attitude on the part of all persons
involved with well construction. Reliance is
placed on other programs, such as the pro-
duction of Grade A milk, hotel and restaurant
sanitation, migrant labor camp certification,
and high capacity well permits, to assist in
bringing about satisfactory well construc-
tion.
ENFORCEMENT OF LAWS
AND REGULATIONS
To provide through the law and regula-
tions maximum benefits toward the procure-
ment of ground water of high quality, it is
necessary that laws and regulations be
properly enforced. Enforcement consists of
four procedures.
Investigation of Unregistered Persons
A constant watch is kept by Board per-
sonnel for the purpose of discovering un-
registered persons who are performing well
construction or pump installation work.
Persons found through such surveillance
initially are asked to become registered, if
qualified. Should they fail to become regis-
tered, court action is initiated to collect
penalties and also to require registration,
if they prefer to continue in the business.
Known wells constructed or pumping equip-
ment installed by such persons are checked
to determine compliance with the regula-
tions. Improper installations are subject to
correction by the installer or property owner.
Correction of Defective Work
When unsatisfactory well construction or
pump installation is found to have been per-
formed by a registered person, he receives
notification in writing that correction is nec-
essary to comply with the regulations or
reasonably meet the purpose of the regula-
tion. Such unsatisfactory work is uncovered
through inspection and through review of well
construction reports and water analyses that
must be submitted by the well constructor
following construction. Samples of water for
analysis are also to be submitted to an ac-
credited laboratory by the pump installers
upon completion of their work. Enforce-
ment by this method is facilitated by com-
plaints from competitors, health officials,
and fieldmen and through comparison of
construction reports on adjacent wells. Con-
siderable remedial work has been accomp-
lished through this type of action.
Reporting of Work in Progress
Where the Board has reason to believe
that wells are not being constructed in con-
formity with the regulations by a registered
person, it may order the person to inform
the Board of the location of wells under
construction and the date of completion of
such wells. Follow-up inspections are made
on some but not all such wells. The fact
that the Board has knowledge of the con-
struction project tends to result in work that
will meet construction requirements.
Registration Suspension or Revocation
Should it be found that a registered per-
son failed to submit well construction re-
ports or water samples or should it be dis-
covered that such person is willfully violat-
ing the regulations, the Board may suspend
his registration by filing a complaint and
issuing a suspension order. This may be
followed by revocation of the registration
if the registrant fails to bring his records up
to date or fails to correct improper installa-
tions . Registration can be suspended for a
selected short period and can be revoked by
order. Revocation of registration must be
effective for at least 1 year.
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154
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Generally, suspension of the registration
effectively brings about compliance with the
regulations and submission of required re-
ports and samples. This has been the most
effective procedure for obtaining compliance
with the regulations.
ACCOMPLISHMENTS
In general, when wells are constructed
andpumps installed in accord with the regu-
lations, a bacteriologically safe water is
produced. In only a few cases has it been
found that installations apparently made
in accord with regulations have proved
unsafe. In most good well constructions,
problems associated with detergents have
not occurred.
In conclusion, it might be said that laws
providing for the registering or licensing of
well constructors and pump installers,
coupled with reasonable minimum regula-
tions and with educational procedures, are
effective in the procurement of uncontam-
inated drinking water supplies.
CONTROL OF GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
BY A COUNTY HEALTH DEPARTMENT
H. W. Davids, Suffolk County Department of Health
Suffolk County, with a population of over
700,000, comprises the eastern two-thirds of
Long Island, New York, an area of approxi-
mately 920 square miles.
The county is blessed with an abundance
of ground water, generally of excellent
quality, derived entirely from rainfall. All
water supply in Suffolk County is obtained
from ground water sources. Approximately
60 percent of the county's population is
served by over 90 public water supplies;
however, some 77,000 homes are dependent
upon individual wells for their sole source
of water. Since there are only seven limited
public sewer districts in the county, over
95 percent of the population depends upon
individual or private sewage disposal.
Pervious natural sand and gravel formations
underlie several feet of top soil and loam
throughout most of the county, and private
sewage disposal is readily accomplished
through leaching cesspools.
The main sources of ground water con-
tamination are domestic sewage and in-
dustrial waste effluents returned to the
ground water through individual leaching
systems. Other sources include cesspool
scavenger waste and refuse disposal sites,
and storm water recharge sumps.
Domestic and industrial sanitary sewage
systems discharge large quantities of raw
sewage into the ground waters. Over 150,000
private residences discharge an estimated
total of 30 million gallons per day. This
does not include substantial discharges re-
sulting from summer residents, or an esti-
mated 2 million gallons per day that is dis-
charged by large institutions and industrial
plants. In addition, hundreds of business
areas and shopping centers discharge large
volumes of domestic sewage to the ground
waters and cesspool scavenger sites receive
approximately 100,000 gallons of wastes
per day.
The problems, encountered in Suffolk
County, that have resulted from contamina-
tion of ground water by sewage have been
primarily restricted to the soluble chemi-
cals. Anionic surfactants, such as alkyl
benzene sulfonate (ABS), and nitrogen com-
pounds have appeared in high concentrations
in the ground water of the densely populated
areas of the county. Over 1000 domestic
wells have been found to contain these sol-
uble chemicals in appreciable amounts.
Slow filtration through the natural sand and
gravel formations has minimized the prob-
lem of bacterial pollution associated with
private wells when sewage disposal is on
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Regulations and Their Administration
155
individual bu ilding plots. C oliform-contam -
inated water has been found in some such
domestic well supplies. The role of viruses
in our ground water contamination problem
has not been determined.
Mr. Flynn's paper, presented earlier at
this Symposium, has aptly detailed our
ground water pollution problems in Suffolk
County. Comprehensive studies on this sub-
ject are available in the literature (1, 2, 3).
The obvious corrective measures for
sewage contamination of ground water are
the extension of public water supplies to
serve private well users in the affected
areas and the installation of public sewers
and modern treatment plants with outfalls
to salt water. The extension of public water
supplies to these areas presents a problem.
Through concerted efforts by our department,
working with the Suffolk County Water
Authority and local civic groups, a few of
these affected areas have received public
water. The procedure for obtaining per-
mission to extend public water supplies is
cumbersome and is complicated further by
the multiplicity of ownership of the 90 odd
public water supplies in the county.
Although Suffolk County has no definite
plans for the installation of public sewers,
the County Executive has proposed an en-
gineering study for a comprehensive public
sewerage plan. Meanwhile, our department
has taken legal steps to prevent gross con-
tamination of new private well supplies.
Our County Sanitary Code requires that all
new wells be at least 100 feet from the
nearest sewage disposal system and pene-
trate at least 40 feet into the water-bearing
stratum. In sub-divisions involving five or
more building plots, each plot must have a
minimum area of 20,000 square feet if
private wells are proposed. In every case,
private wells are approved only after it has
been determined that public water supply
cannot be extended or that it is not feasible
to form a new public water supply to serve
the area. Over 90 percent of all lots ap-
proved during 1960 will be served with public
water. The few sub-divisions for which
private wells are proposed are scattered
over the less-populated eastern portion of
the county.
The discharge of liquid industrial wastes
into the ground waters of the county has re-
ceived considerable study, resulting in the
abatement of pollution and the control of new
outlets. Liquid wastes, in particular chromic
acid and chromates, from various metal
finishing processes we re involved in numer-
ous ground water pollution cases in Suffolk
County and in neighboring Nassau County.
Abatement of ground water pollution from
existing untreated liquid industrial waste
discharges in Suffolk County was accom-
plished through field inspections and surveys,
including sampling of outlets, by our en-
gineering staff. More than 600 industrial
plants were inspected, and all discharges of
untreated industrial wastes were eliminated.
Plant officials were called into our of-
fice for informal hearing at which the New
York State Public Health Law and the Suffolk
County Sanitary Code for the treatment of
industrial waste effluents were reviewed.
The required application and plans for treat-
ment facilities were to be submitted to our
department within 90 days. Further, upon
receipt of the approved plans, the treatment
facilities were, required to be constructed
and placed in operation within 90 days.
We have been fortunate in obtaining
voluntary corrections in almost all cases.
Some delays resulted from complicated
plant plumbing arrangements or difficul-
ties in determining the type of treatment for
the particular wastes involved. In all cases,
metallic wastes such as hexavalent chro-
mium must be treated so that the concen-
trations in the effluents are as close as pos-
sible to the U. S. Public Health Service
Drinking Water Standards. Follow-up in-
spections and routine sampling are carried
out to assure proper operation of treatment
units. Reports of daily operation must be
submitted monthly to our office, as an ad-
ditional control measure.
We have found from bitter experience
that it is unwise to depend on any dilution
factor in our ground waters. Hexavalent
chromium was found to have traveled over
a mile from the source of contamination and
with concentrations as high as 40 ppm off
the plant site (4).
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156
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
A continuing enforcement problem
exists in relation to change of ownership or
a change in the operations of an existing in-
dustry that results in industrial waste dis-
charges. There is no uniform control pro-
cedure except constant vigilance on the part
of our district engineers and sanitary in-
spectors.
New industrial waste discharges are con-
trolled through the N. Y. State Water Pol-
lution Control Law (Article 12 of the Public
Health Law) and the Suffolk County Sanitary
Code. When daily flows are more than
20,000 gallons, a state permit is required
for each discharge. Smaller flows require
only County Health Department approval. In
all cases, complete treatment of industrial
wastes is required. When state approval is
necessary, our department acts as the re-
viewing agency for the State Health Depart-
ment and Water Pollution Control Board.
Launderette waste disposal has caused a
unique problem in Suffolk County. Mr. Flynn
presented earlier the details of the ground
water contamination problem caused by
launderette wastes.
In 1954, following complaints of con-
taminated private wells in the vicinity of two
launderettes in the county, legal action was
taken by this department in the form of for-
mal hearings before the Commissioner of
Health. These hearings resulted in the clos-
ing of the two launderettes (3).
In the county several other launderettes
involved in contamination of private water
supplies installed water-tight waste collec-
tion systems. The liquid wastes were then
carted to a town scavenger dump.
In 1956, our efforts to control launder-
ette wastes were expanded. Through the co-
operation of most of our Town Boards, the
construction and operation of launderettes
without prior approval from the County
Health Department were prohibited by town
ordinances. To obtain approval, it was nec-
essary that the owner of the proposed laun-
derette present plans, by a licensed profes-
sional engineer, for a disposal system based
on a flow of 400 gallons per machine per
day, along with an engineer's report on the
status of the water supply in the area of the
proposed launderette.
In the areas south of the ground water
divide of Suffolk County, the ground water
flow is generally in the south-easterly di-
rection; therefore, in these areas, it was re-
quired that the study include a strip 500 feet
wide and* 5000 feet long, extending from the
proposed site in the direction of the ground
water flow. In areas where the ground water
flow was uncertain, it was necessary to in-
clude all that area within a 1/2-mile radius
of the proposed site.
The survey was required to depict on a
map the location of all private wells and
public water supply mains within the area.
If the area included private or public water
supply wells, approval of a leaching disposal
system was denied. Only water-tight sys-
tems, designed to hold a 2-day flow, were
approved in such cases. The wastes had to
be transferred by scavenger truck to an ap-
proved town dumping site. This is a costly
operation (10 to20 cents per wash load), and
very few prospective launderette owners
elected to install such systems.
Since completion of the Water Pollution
Control Board's research project on the ef-
fect of synthetic detergents on our ground
waters, which was conducted by C. W.
Lauman Company in cooperation with the
Suffolk County Health Department in June
1960 (3), no approvals have been granted
for waste disposal systems for launderettes.
This restriction on launderettes was neces-
sary because of the obvious ground water
pollution resulting from their wastes, partic-
ularly the ABS content. We are now awaiting
a satisfactory plan for the treatment of
launderette wastes. The criteria for such
treatment are the removal of a substantial
portion of dissolved solids (including ABS),
suspended solids, and any other substances
that contribute to water taste problems.
There has been considerable activity be-
tween launderette manufacturers and water
and waste disposal equipment manufacturers,
which should result in the submission of
treatment units in the near future. We will
accept one installation of each promising
type of treatment unit on an experimental
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Regulations and Their Administration
157
basis. After several months of evaluation,
we will accept or reject the treatment unit.
If acceptable, then any new launderettes pro-
posing the same type of treatment would be
approved. Also, in June 1960, operation of
the existing 102 launderettes in the county
were notified that they must have installed
approved waste treatment facilities by June
1, 1961, or legal action will be initiated
against them by this department. This dead-
line will have to be extended to await develop-
ment of one or more acceptable treatment
processes for launderette wastes.
The ground water contamination prob-
lems resulting from cesspool scavenger
waste and refuse disposal sites have never
been thoroughly evaluated. The scavenger
waste problem would be solved by a county
sewerage system. In the absence of such a
sewerage system, these wastes are largely
disposed of at sites used for garbage and
refuse disposal. The ground waters in these
immediate vicinities undoubtedly are grossly
contaminated; however, such sites are few
and are generally located on large parcels
of town-owned land.
The 400 odd storm water recharge basins
in the county receive a daily discharge
averaging 10 million gallons. The role of
these recharge basins in both water conser-
vation and disposal of storm water is un-
questioned. Water entering these basins
contains cumulative quantities of che'micals
used as insecticides and herbicides on lawns
and gardens, and road surfacing materials.
No thorough evaluation has been made of the
quality of ground water downstream from
these basins. We however, advise, that
public water supply sources be located as
far as possible, at least 500 feet, from such
basins.
Our future control measures depend
primarily upon the establishment of a com-
prehensive public sewerage plan. When such
a plan becomes a reality, we will then be
able to completely re-evaluate our sub-
division requirements for sewage disposal.
New sub-divisions can be required to install
either "dry sewers" or complete sewerage
systems with compact treatment plants.
"Dry" lateral sewers would be designed to
tie in with the truck sewer system of a
comprehensive plan; the small compact
treatment plants could be converted to pump-
ing stations for eventual discharge to these
truck sewers.
REFERENCES
1. Flynn, J. M., et al. Study of Synthetic
Detergents in Ground Water. Journal
American Water Works Association,
50:12, 1551-1562. 1958.
2. Davids, H. W. and Flynn, J. M. A Study
of Ground Water Quality and Con-
tamination Sources. Public Works,
6:115-117. 1960.
3. Effect of Synthetic Detergents on Ground
Water of Long Island, New York. Re-
search Report No. 6, New York State
Water Pollution Control Board. 1960.
4. Davids, H. W. and Lieber, M. Under-
ground Water Contamination by Chro-
mium Wastes. Water & Sewage Works,
12:528-534. 1951.
CONTAMINATED GROUND WATER AND HOUSING
J. A. McCullough, Federal Housing Administration
The chief purposes for which FHA was
created are to encourage improvement in
housing standards and conditions, to facili-
tate sound home financing on reasonable
terms, and to exert a stabilizing influence in
the mortgage market. Policy, rules, regu-
lations, standards, etc., have been developed
to assure that these purposes will be ac-
complished.
Each living unit that is to serve as secu-
rity for mortgage insurance must be pro-
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158
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
vided with a continuing and sufficient supply
of safe and palatable water under adequate
pressure. Whenever feasible, connection to
a satisfactory public water system is re-
quired. Even though an adequate public
water supply line is not adjacent to the tract,
connection will be required wherever it is
feasible to have the service extended to
serve the tract. If it is not feasible to ob-
tain service from a public water supply
system, then consideration is to be given to
the feasibility of obtaining service from a
properly designed, constructed, organized,
and operated community system. Only after
it has been determined that service from an
acceptable public or community water sys-
tem is not available or feasible and that
ground water and subsurface conditions are
found to be satisfactory may service from
individual systems be considered.
Careful architectural, engineering, and
valuation analyses are made of all pro-
posals - either proposals for new construc-
tion or existing construction. In the proposed
construction category, there are three
definite stages in the erection of a house
where" a trained construction inspector ob-
serves the work to determine whether it is
in compliance with the previously approved
plans. Where existing construction is in-
volved, a Valuator examines the property
from all viewpoints for the purpose of de-
termining its value. The type of water supply
system and the quality of water available
are always taken into consideration. All of
this is done to determine that the risk in-
volved with insuring a property is at an ac-
ceptable level.
It is our belief that if a house is well
planned, properly located, and constructed
of sound materials, it will give long satis-
factory service to the owner and have a con-
tinuing strong appeal in the market, pro-
vided it is given reasonable maintenance.
We are constantly watching for things that
may result in abnormal expenses to an
owner because we know this is a contributing
factor to dissatisfaction with a property, to
loss of value, and reduced desirability.
For this meeting, a few of the effects
contaminated ground water can have on a
property using it as a source of domestic
water supply will be considered. Ground
water so heavily contaminated that bacte-
riological examinations of samples give
positive readings presents no problem in
reaching a conclusion. Such water is not
safe for use and no prudent prospective
home buyer who is aware of the situation
would consider purchasing a house served
by it. Acceptance of such a property by FHA
would not be in keeping with "improvement
in housing standards and conditions."
What about property served by a water
source that is exhibiting indications of con-
tamination but the level of concentration has
not yet reached the point where it can be
classified as "danagerous" or "unsafe, "etc.,
in accordance with public health practice?
FHA puts forth a great amount of effort to
try to foresee what the conditions might be
in the future insofar as such a source of
water supply is concerned. We have sani-
tary engineers stationed across the country
to assist and guide our field offices in mak-^
ing determinations under such conditions.
They work closely with Federal, State, and
local health authorities and with State and
Federal geolpgical personnel in gathering
data that bear on this problem.
ABS, or detergent, is one chemical com-
pound that when detected in ground water is
evidence of contamination. At the moment
none of us know what effect this material has
or will have on the consumer. We don't
know whether it is detrimental or beneficial,
whether it will affect old persons and not the
young, or vice versa. We do know, however,
that as the concentration approaches 1 ppm,
the water becomes undesirable because of
taste and odor. Through the experiences of
our field sanitary engineers we have ac-
cumulated a considerable amount of knowl-
edge of the problems home owners face
when they are receiving water from con-
taminated ground water strata. The time
between completion of the house and oc-
cupancy and the first detectable signs of
taste or the appearance of frothy wafer at
the taps varies from a few months to several
years. There are many contributing factors.
We believe however that once even a trace
of detergent is detected in the water, even
though it is only detectable by laboratory
analysis, it is just a matter of time until the
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Regulations and Their Administration
159
concentration increases to a level at which
the water is nolonger acceptable. The home
owner's only recourse is to spend money to
obtain acceptable water. In one instance the
only satisfactory water available was that sold
by the gallon by the local milk delivery man.
Permanent correction requires money and
time. The amounts of both vary with the
circumstances.
We must consider the plight of the
homeowner who wants to sell his home under
these conditions. If the available water is
contaminated and a permanent solution has
not materialized, he probably cannot sell his
home; or if he does, he may suffer a loss be-
cause of reduced desirability and market
appeal.
Determining whether ground water and
subsurface conditions are satisfactory and
that safe and palatable water will continue
tcr be available under conditions of dense
development, immediately under as well as
in the general vicinity of a proposed sub-
division, is one of our most important and
difficult tasks. The new products of present
day technology and the never-ending search
for new and better ways to do things is com-
plicating our task. Many new chemical prod-
ucts are being used on the ground for a
variety of purposes. Some are finding their
way into the ground water strata. Those
products for which toxicity limits have not
been established further complicate our task.
Every effort is made to avoid getting a
prospective home owner involved, through
the medium of mortgage insurance, with a
property that after a few years of occupancy
might develop a major defect, such as con-
taminated drinking water, and then not be
eligible for re-insurance. FHA and its pro-
cedures operate for the protection of the
home owner and the lender.
THE WAY WE DO IT?
R. V. Stone, Jr., Santa Ana Regional
Water Pollution Control Board, California
Water pollution control in California is
the responsibility of a State Board and nine
regional boards. Each regional board'serves
one of the nine main watersheds of the State.
To understand the regional concept of the
California Water Pollution Control Act, one
must first have some knowledge of the State,
particularly its population, water supply,
and geography.
Along its coast California extends ap-
proximately 1000 miles from north latitude
32°27'56" at the Mexican border to north
latitude 42°00'00" at the Oregon state line.
Its nearly 16,000,000 population is distributed
30 percent in the north and 70 percent in the
"south. The water resources of the State,
however, are distributed 70 percent in the
north and only 30 percent in the south. It is
this imbalance that makes necessary the
importation of water into southern California
.from Owens Valley, the Colorado River, and
the now planned Feather River Project of the
California Water Plan. Furthermore, the
climate and rainfall vary greatly. The north
is generally colder than the south and re-
ceives considerably more rain and snow.
Water supplies in the north are derived from
surface streams, whereas local water sup-
plies in the south come from ground water
basins.
Seven of the nine regions drain into the
Pacific Ocean. The ocean ultimately re-
ceives land drainage, including wastes, from
these regions. Although the ocean is big and
generally has the same physical and chem-
ical properties along the coast, its uses dif-
fer greatly. In the Humbolt Bay area of the
north, the weather is cold and recreation
involving body and water contact in the bay
and ocean may be measured in days during
any year. At the other extreme, water-con-
tact uses in Santa Monica Bay, with but few
exceptions, occur daily.
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160
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
In summary, the State may be divided
through its middle into the northern and
southern halves. The north is colder,
wetter, and less populated than the south.
Except for the San Francisco Bay area,
which imports the major portion of its
water, the north takes its water supply from
local surface sources. The south takes its
local supply from ground water basins and
also imports water to meet its needs. As
previously shown, regional uses of the ocean
differ greatly.
Water quality is another variable some-
what dependent on locale. Northern surface
supplies generally are low in total dissolved
minerals and are soft. Because of the more
arid climate, southern water supplies are
generally more mineralized. The imported
surface supply from the Colorado River at
present contains more than a ton of dissolved
minerals per acre foot (700 - 800 mg/1).
The water is being put to beneficial uses,
and its users are pleased to have the water.
In the north, however, water with this same
quality would be considered a waste water
rather than a water supply.
Because of the many variables between
the watersheds of the State, uniform State
standards would be most difficult or even
impossible to adopt and enforce. The water
pollution' control board within each respec-
tive region provides the protection needed
for the water users. In each region the dis-
charger receives water pollution control
requirements from the regional board.
These requirements may be for discharge
water or for receiving waters or for a com-
bination of the two. The manner in which
the discharger meets the requirements is
his decision, since the law prohibits the
boards from specifying the design or proc-
ess to be used. Discharges may be pro-
hibited, however, at specific locations.
Technology
In our present day civilization, the sani-
tary engineer and his allied workers have
studied, designed, built, and operated water
purification and waste disposal facilities.
The theory involved and the processes em-
ployed have resulted from the needs of im-
proving the public health and eliminating
nuisances and unsightliness. Today water-
borne gastrointestinal deseases are con-
trolled, lead water pipes that caused lead
poisoning have been eliminated, and nui-
sances have been abated to protect the
aesthetic pleasures.
Waste disposal and water purification
techniques are em ployed to reduce and elim-
inate pathogenic bacteria, taste and odors,
turbidity and particulates, to restore and
maintain oxygen balances in the receiving
stream, to reduce and stabilize organic sub-
stances that would create sludge deposits, to
demineralize and soften water, and to elim-
inate or remove poisonous and radioactive
materials. In the arid part of California and
elsewhere in the. State where wastes are
treated by conventional methods, the total
dissolved minerals in ground water supplies
are increasing. Factors that influence ground
water quality are consumptive water uses,
rainfall, and waters returned from irrigation
and from municipal and industrial wastes.
The increases in mineral concentrations in
the underground basins are the result of in-
creased losses of water through evaporation
and transpiration and salt additions to water
used agriculturally, municipally, or in-
dustrially, and partially the result of reduced
transport of water through the basin as a
consequence of less than normal rainfall
during the past 10 to 15 years. These phe-
nomena cause an adverse salt balance with-
in a ground water basin. Such adverse salt
balance threatens and eventually will cause
pollution of the ground water supply. It is
the treatment or handling, or both treatment
and handling, of dissolved substances in
wastes that falls within what I term the
technological vacuum. In the past, except
for poisonous, radioactive, phenolic, and
alkyl benzene sulfonate compounds, very
little emphasis has been placed on the
chemical quality control of wastes or re-
ceiving waters. Technologically, the proc-
esses that will economically bring about
these controls have not been developed or
are unknown. This conference is the first
indication that there is a national interest in
water quality control techniques. With con-
centrated interest and work in this field, we
can, figuratively, look forward to a cornu-
copia of knowledge rather than retention of
the present vacuum.
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Regulations and Their Administration
161
Enforcement
The Water Pollution Control Act estab-
lished legal procedures for enforcing re-
quirements set by the Boards. Contingent
upon the severity and nature of the pollu-
tion, the law provides for summary abate-
ment or injunction against the discharger.
Although the legal enforcement procedures
apply uniformly throughout the State, the
type of requirements set by the different
boards and the methods for checking for
compliance differ from region to region.
So that enforcement, "the way we do it," in
California can be described, the various
regions have been canvassed for their pro-
cedures and policies. The discussion of the
procedures and policies will not make refer-
ence to the individual regions, since the in-
formation is a compilation of all the ways
we do it.
Within most watersheds with ground
water basins there is a network system of
water-connected subsurface streams and
reservoirs. Generally, the forebay or re-
charge area for a network is near the mount
tains or foothills. As water moves down-
stream through the network, its mineral
load increases and its quality is considered
to decrease. The farthest downstream user
therefore is the captive recipient of all that
goes before. Regulation of the rate of
quality degradation, as the ground water
stream flows from sub-basin to sub-basin,
requires the formulation and adoption of
water quality objectives. Objectives are a
declaration of policy setting goals or ideals
that will permit the orderly use and reuse of
the ground waters and at the same time af-
ford protection to the lowest man on the
totem pole, the downstream user.
The limits adopted in ground water ob-
jectives are checked by collection and ana-
lysis of ground water samples from wells
specifically selected to give representative
data on the underground stream as it leaves
a particular zone or sub-basin. These wells
are called monitoring wells, for checking
water quality objectives. By use of a system
of monitoring wells and routine chemical
analyses of samples collected on a regular
schedule, the water quality for any period
may be compared with that from other
periods. Through a program of such data
collection, chemical changes with respect to
time will be available from the records.
The maintenance of water quality objec-
tives within the limits set is dependent upon
waste discharge requirements or receiving
water requirements. When wastes are dis-
charged onto the ground or into seepage pits,
they percolate down to the ground water
table and become part of the ground water
stream. The physiochemical phenomena
exerted on and reacting with these wastes
are variable and for the most part indeter-
minate. For instance, the soil above the
ground water table has a holding or storage
capacity and it is in this zone that capillary
action, evapotranspiration, ion exchange,
chemical reaction, and precipitation, in-
dividually or in combination, may alter the
percolating wastes or even remove them
from the system.
The path taken by percolating wastes
after they reach the ground water table has
been the subject of considerable speculation
and debate. Some argue that the percolate
virtually remains on the free water surface
with some slight vertical diffusion or mixing
as it moves downstream with the main ground
water body. Others believe that gravity and
turbulence cause the heavier percolate to
mix rapidly with the moving ground water
stream.
All of these variables make difficult a
rational analysis of what a particular waste
will do to a particular ground water system.
Unless there has been experience with wastes
that have affected the ground water within a
specific area, requirements for waste dis-
charges must be based on judgment rather
than on facts. Such arbitrary limits have
been set on some of the discharges in the
State.
Another approach to pollution control is
the setting of limits on the receiving waters.
Absolute maxima may be adopted for the
ground water downstream form a discharge.
This appears to be a straightforward ap-
proach; however, a single upstream dis-
charge of waste can so change the ground
water quality that the water would have no
capacity to dilute wastes added by a down-
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162
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
stream discharger. Rationing of the as-
similative capacity of the ground water
stream is possible by the establishing of
stepwise accumulative limits of degradation
in the downstream direction. The success
of this procedure, like that of the first, would
depend heavily upon judgment.
An incremental increase concept has
been employed to regulate wastes. Accord-
ing to this concept, based on a domestic
use of water, the mineral content of water
through use by a municipality will increase
by certain increments. Studies have been
made, and average increments for the
several chemical constituents have been
determined. These incremental increases
are not reduced by waste treatment proc-
esses presently employed. Comparatively,
an industrial use of water is considered
equivalent to a domestic use when the in-
cremental increase in the chemical con-
stituents are equivalent. If a domestic use
of water is considered a reasonable use, the
equivalent industrial use also would be con-
sidered reasonable use.
downstream well are needed, and more are
preferred. Here again compliance may be
based on individual results or averages, or
both.
Our enforcement program employs both
the setting of requirements for water pol-
lution control and compliance checking to
see that the requirements are met. The re-
quirements include one or more of the fol-
lowing restrictions: maximum - minimum
limits on the waste discharge, incremental
increases between the water supply and
waste discharge, maximum - minimum limits
on the ground water, or incremental in-
creases between upstream and downstream
sampling points in the ground water basin.
Compliance with requirements is based
on individual techniques or on a combination
of techniques including waste analyses,
or ground water analyses. Individual results
or average conditions, or both may be speci-
fied for compliance with the limiting values.
When requirements, based on one or a
combination of several of the above prin-
ciples, are set for pollution control, the
basis for satisfactory compliance also must
be described. Compliance within fixed
limits set by requirements may be deter-
mined from each waste analysis or from an
average of several analyses, perhaps weight-
ed in accordance with flow, or from a com-
bination of average values and specific ex-
tremes.
When requirements are set on the re-
ceiving waters, monitoring wells must be
employed. For absolute limits in the ground
water quality downstream from a discharge,
only downstream monitoring wells need.be
used. Compliance can be based on individual
samples from individual wells or average
values from several wells during any stated
sampling period.
Compliance checking for incremental
chemical increases in the ground water re-
quires that several monitoring wells be
used. At least one upstream well and one
Technical Reports
In addition to the enforcement techniques
now employed, many of the dischargers are
required to sample and analyze their wastes
on a prescribed schedule. These data and
records of flow are submitted to the boards
as technical reports. The Water Pollution
Control Act gives the boards the authority
to require such technical reports.
The information from these technical
reports and the data obtained from monitor-
ing wells, studied one in the light of the or-
der, give a cause and effect analysis of
changes in water quality.
Critique
A critical review of the way we control
ground water pollution reveals loopholes and
shortcomings. Arbitrary limits based on
our present inadequate knowledge of the
underground phenomena can have a serious
and adverse effect on a community. Very
strict limits would so restrain a community
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Regulations and Their Administration
163
that its normal growth would be materially
altered, or operating costs of an industry
might be so increased that its product could
not compete with those from another area.
On the other hand, liberal limits would not
afford protection to the ground water basin.
It is the middle ground, somewhere between
liberal and strict limits, that will allow
community growth and fair industrial com-
petition, without creating the threat of pol-
lution, a threat difficult to determine.
The use of incremental increases,
arbitrary or based on a domestic use of
water, is subject to the argument of how
much if any pollutant a discharger is en-
titled to discharge.
As we gain experience and obtain knowl-
edge through research, I envision that the
ideal requirements for waste discharges will
be based on the following: absolute maxi-
mum - minimum limits on the waste, abso-
lute maximum - minimum limits on the
downstream ground waters, and average con-
ditions limited by increments between up-
stream and downstream ground water qual-
ity. Data collection for compliance checking
will include water analyses, flow measure-
ments, and analyses of ground water sampled
from monitoring wells.
THE QUESTION
The title of this paper "The Way We Do
It?" is posed as a question. I have presented
the how and why we do it in California, but I
question that ours is the only or best way to
do it. By comparison of other work with the
way we do it, I am convinced that better ways
to manage and enforce ground water quality
will evolve. Until we learn of these better
ways, ourpresent policies will be continued.
Furthermore, these policies have been suc-
cessful, since nowhere in the State is there a
major problem of ground water pollution
from sewage or industrial wastes.
We have experienced sporadic local
problems such as the chlorinated phenols
involved in the "Montebello incident,"
hexavalent chromium at Murrietta Hot
Springs, and alkyl benzene sulfonate at
Barstow and San Bernardino. All of these
conditions have been or are being corrected.
It certainly has been my pleasure to at-
tend this conference and to share expe-
riences. When I return home, I expect to
take with me your suggestions and recom-
mendations from which we may amend our
way.
DISCUSSION 4
Chairman: Murray Stein
Mr. C. S. Wilson asked Mr. O. J. Muegge
whether the spacing between wells and septic
tanks required by Wisconsin regulations de-
pends entirely on distance or may the regu-
latory agency refuse a permit on some other
basis. Mr. Muegge answered that in the
first place the State does not issue permits;
however, he stated further that the spacing
distance quoted(50 feet) is the absolute mini-
mum and that the distance must be as great
as possible.
Professor R. H. Bogan addressed the
following general question to the group.
Since the Federal Housing Administration
uses a maximum allowable concentration of
ABSto determine the safety of domes tic well
water, is ABS considered an indicator of
general pollution and, if not, would they wel-
come an indicator of general pollution? Mr.
R. H. Baker of Florida said that their posi-
tion, which also had been indicated to the
FHA, was that they would prefer not having
mortgages insured unless the property had
community water and sewerage available.
Mr. F. L. Woodward pointed out that the
limits used by FHA applied only to the Min-
neapolis-St. Paul area. Mr.J. A. McCullough
of the FHA stated that the standard applied
only to the Twin City area. He also stated
that they used 0.2ppm ABS and that he would
discuss this in his paper (seeMcCullough's
paper). The requirements were set with the
assistance of Mr. Woodward and the Minne-
sota State Department of Health. They are
based on background information on die
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164
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
basic ground water quality in the area. Mr.
McCuUough further stated that this is in
line with the general FHA requirements - a
property eligible for mortgage insurance
must have a continuing and satisfactory sup-
ply of safe and palatable water. They de-
pend on the Health Departments in deter-
mining this factor. If the State or local
authority indicates the water is not safe, the
FHA accepts their decision.
Mr. Muegge indicated that he is not sure
about the validity of using 1 ppm NOs-N as
an indicator, because he has seen concen-
trations greater than this in uncontaminated
artesian wells. He said, however, he thinks
35 to 50 ppm is too high; he recalled one case
of methemoglobinemia that had occurred
after use of water with 11 ppm NO3~N.
Dr. Richard L. Woodward asked Mr.
Davids whether, in connection with the laun-
derette problem, any consideration had been
given to asking the launderettes to shift to
use of zero hardness water and use of soap
instead of fletergents. Mr. Davids answered
that this had been proposed but the owners
believed they could not control the type of
washing compound used in the laundries.
These laundries are coin-operated, andsince
often no attendant is on duty, control of the
individual user would seem next to impos-
sible. The water in the area is already of a
low hardness, approximately 20 to 30 ppm.
Dr. Woodward then asked Mr. R. V." Stone,
Jr., whether the Santa Ana Regional Water
Pollution Control Board can predict the direc-
tion of ground water flow accurately enough
that they can locate one or a few wells to
monitor successfully ground water quality
changes. Mr. Stone gave a qualified "yes"
answer. He pointed out that the Department
of Water Resources personnel have detailed
information on ground water conditions with-
in the region and that they are confident that
monitoring wells will detect ground water
quality changes. He indicated that occasion-
ally there are aggregate effects of ground
water contamination arising from several
sources, making it difficult to pinpoint a
single source. In such cases the technical
reports, required of each discharger, show
the quantity and characteristics of each
waste and thus prove helpful.
Mr. Baker of Florida asked Mr. McCul-
lough whether he could explain further how
FHA determines whether community water
and sewage systems are "feasible." He al-
so asked whether consideration has been
given to insuring loans for financing sub-
division water and sewerage systems. Mr.
McCullough answered the latter question
first, indicating that FHA has been attempt-
ing to secure legislation that would allow
them to insure loans for such community
systems. In answering the first question,
Mr. McCullough indicated that the FHA pre-
fers types of sewage disposal systems in the
following order: existing municipal sewer-
age systems, other publicly controlled
sewerage systems, and last of all on-lot
sewage disposal systems. The feasibility
of obtaining one of the first two methods is
primarily an economic problem, depending
on the amount of land under control of the
developer, the cost of septic tanks versus
that of other types of sewage disposal, the
amount of revenue available for operation of
the sewerage system, the possibility of stage
construction, etc. Mr. Baker again com-
mented that if we concede that utilities can
produce revenue and can be profitable why
not require community water and sewerage;
however, he recognized that the big problem
is obtaining the money to build plants. Mr.
McCullough agreed and again indicated that
the FHA would like to have the power to in-
sure such financing.
Mr. W. K. Hess asked why, since it has
been indicated during the Symposium that
reuse of water may be a necessity, there is
this tendency to condemn the use of ground
water and private wells. He suggested that
rather than condemn the use of ground
water regulation might be directed toward
greater protection of the ground water
through increased use of municipal sewerage
systems. Referring to the Minnesota mini-
mum of 1 ppm of nitrate-nitrogen and the
opposition to this regulationby economic in-
terests, Mr. Hess pointed out that opposition
is bound to come from groups whose liveli-
hood is deeply involved and that they also
know something about these problems. He
pointed out the need for better understand-
ing of the magnitude of these economic
interests.
-------
SESSION 5
RESEARCH ON GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Chairman: B. B. Berger
Retention of ABS on Soils and Biological Slimes,
B. B. Ewing, L. W. Lefke, and S. K. Banerji Page 166
U. S. Geological Survey Research Studies, S. K. Love Page 178
Ground Water Contamination Research
and Research Needs, P. H. McGauhey Page 181
Sewage Reclamation by Pressurized Recharge
of Aquifers, J. E. McKee and W. R. Samples Page 186
ABS in Ground Water, R.H . Harmeson Page 190
Ground Water Contamination Studies
at the Sanitary Engineering Center, G. G. Robeck Page 193
Research in Ground Water Hydrology
and Its Relation to Nuclear Energy Studies,
A. E. Peckham and J. A. Lieberman Page 198
Ground Water Contamination Research and Research
Needs of the Los Angeles County Flood Control
District, A. E. Bruington Page 202
Research Needs in Ground Water Pollution, J. E. McKee Page 205
Summary of Symposium, W. C. Ackerman Page 212
Discussion Page 215
165
-------
166
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
RETENTION OF ABS ON SOILS
AND BIOLOGICAL SLIMES
B. B. Ewing, L. W. Lefke, and S. K. Banerji,
University of Illinois
The purpose of a research project con-
ducted over the past year at the Sanitary
Engineering Laboratory of the University of
Illinois has been to determine what me-
chanisms may be important in retarding the
movement of alkyl benzene sulfonate in
ground waters. A satisfactory method of
studying retention of ABS on soils and biol-
ogical slimes has been developed by modi-
fication of existing procedures using a
radioisotope of sulfur. The physical adsorp-
tion of ABS on a coarse sand is very low, but
does follow the Freundlich isotherm reason-
ably well. Adsorption is time dependent, and
column conditions yield lower adsorption
than batch studies at the same ABS concen-
tration. At an ABS concentration of 50 mg/1,
Ottawa sand in a column was found to retain
only 3.30 ug of ABS per gram of sand. Even
so, the relative velocity of the ABS front
with respect to the water front under these
conditions would be 0.77. When a biological
slime was developed on the sand in a similar
column, seven times as much ABS was re-
tained in the solid phase. Under these con-
ditions, the relative velocity of the ABS front
would be 0.31. It has not been determined
to what extent this increased retention is due
to the large surface area provided by the
microbial cells. The biological slime grown
on sewage in the first few feet of soil under
a septic tank drain field, under a sewage
oxidation pond, or under a polluted stream
might retard the movement of ABS for a time.
Beyond the first few feet, where slime
growth would be negligible, retention of ABS
would be due principally to physical adsorp-
tion on the soil, and this effect would not be
great for coarse clean sand.
INTRODUCTION
The use of synthetic detergents for both
domestic and industrial purposes has in-
creased greatly since they became generally
available on the market soon after the second
World War. At the present time, it is esti-
mated that each householder uses and dis-
charges to the environment about 100 pounds
of synthetic detergent annually (1).
The first reports of syndets in waste
having any detrimental effects came from
sewage treatment plants, where they were
suspected of causing foaming. Later they
were reported to affect surface waters and
to interfere with some water treatm ent proc-
esses and to cause consumer complaints of
foaming and an off-taste of drinking water.
Ground Water Pollution
Although their use has been general in
the United States since 1948 and synthetic
detergents have been discharged to the
aqueous environment in increasing amounts
since that time, there were no published re-
ports of major ground water contamination
until 1958 (1). The first reported incident
involved housing developments on long Is-
land, N. Y., in which each lot was provided a
shallow well for water supply and a cesspool
for sewage disposal. Since then, there have
been reports of similar ground water pollu-
tion in metropolitan fringe areas in 13 states
(2). Serious problem shave been encountered
in the Minneapolis-St. Paul area (2), Suffolk
County, Long Island (1), and Portsmouth,
Rhode Island (3). There have also been in-
cidents of pollution of ground water from
polluted streams, sewage oxidation ponds,
and holding ponds for industrial waste. It is
obvious that, whereas the adverse effect
synthetic detergents have on ground waters
was not recognized as early as in the case
of surface waters and waste waters, the
problem is real. What makes it even more
serious is diat ground water pollution is of
-------
Research Studies
167
long duration even though the source of the
pollution is removed.
Synthetic detergents being marketed to-
day contain a variety of ingredients, in-
cluding surface active agents, phosphate
builders, and miscellaneous builders (4).
The surface active agents most commonly
used are anionic compounds and are usually
of the class of compounds called alkyl ben-
zene sulfonate (ABS). These surfactants in
concentrations greater than 0.5 mg/1 cause
foaming in water (3). Flynn et al.(l) showed
that "off-taste" complaints are encountered
when water contains more than 1.5 mg/1
surfactant (as ABS), although it is possible
that the taste is caused instead by the builder
compounds associated with this amount of
ABS in the packaged product. Toxicity studies
on humans and other animals indicate the
toxicity of ABS is so low as to cause no ef-
fect in man at concentrations likely to be
encountered in drinking water (5). Although
present Public Health Service Drinking
Water Standards (6) impose no limit on the
concentration of ABS in drinking water, it
has been proposed that the standards be re-
vised to incorporate a recommended limit
of ABS concentration of 0.5 mg/1 in drink-
ing water (7). This recommendation is
based on the aesthetic effect.
Underground Movement of Syndets
A review of the technical literature indi-
cates that the distance traveled by ABS in
ground water, although generally short, in
some instances may be fairly great. Flynn
et al. (1) reported no ABS found in wells more
than 65 feet from the source of pollution.
They also showed that the probability of
finding syndets in water from wells de-
creased as the depth of the well increased.
The ground water in the area travels 1 to 3
feet per day. Chromium wastes from a plat-
ing plant that had been in operation for 2-1/2
years were found to have traveled about
1200 feet, which corresponds to 1.3 feet per
day. Inasmuch as the detergents, which
must have been used in increasing amounts
over the past 10 years, had only traveled 65
feet, it appears there is some mechanism by
which the movement of ABS is retarded.
A recent study of pollution of ground
water on Long Island by launderette waste
(8) showed that at Mastic, New York, ABS
has traveled an over-all distance of 1100
feet downstream from a launderette. If the
ground water traveled 1 to 3 feet per day,
this distance would be traversed in 1 to 3
years. The launderette had been in operation
for 12 years, however.
Walton (2) showed that in almost every
instance wells contaminated widi ABS by
household sewage disposal systems were
less than 100 feet from the source of pollu-
tion. On the other hand, he cited reports that
in five instances ABS had been found more
than 1000 feet from the source of pollution,
where the source was a municipal or in-
dustrial waste pond or recharge pit.
It is concluded that the distance traveled
by ABS depends upon many factors, one of
which appears to be the amount of ABS intro-
duced into the soil at the source. Greater
area would be contaminated by municipal and
industrial waste disposal facilities than by
individual household facilities. This fact,
together with the comparison between dis-
tance traveled by the ground water and
distance traveled by the ABS on Long Island,
leads to the conclusion that die porous
medium through which ground water flows
has some capacity to retain ABS and to re-
tard the movement of ABS in the water phase.
Mechanism of Retardation
Movement of a pollute through a ground
water formation is a displacement process.
The vehicle of transportation of synthetic
detergents is waste-contaminated ground
water. The pollute moves into a zone of
earth, and until the zone has retained an
amount of pollute equal to its capacity, the
pollute is retained. When the zone has re-
trained its capacity, pollute in the pore fluid
is displaced by continued flow of waste water
into a new zone. There is always, then, a
fringe of earth material that is being foaded
with the pollute. The pollute moves as a
diffuse front through the formation. The
width of the front depends upon the kinetics
involved in the mechanism representing die
capacity of the soil to retain pollute and the
-------
168
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
hydraulic dispersion phenomena in ground
water flow.
The mean velocity of movement of a pol-
lute front may be expressed as:
Cvf
(1)
where S is the velocity of the pollute front
in feet (or meters) per day, R is the reten-
tion capacity per unit gross volume of earth
for the pollute in micrograms per cubic
centimeter, C is the concentration of the
pollute in the feed solution" or waste water at
the source in milligrams per liter, and v is
the average velocity of the transporting
water at the same point in the earth in feet
(or meters) per day, and f is the porosity.
Also, vf is the discharge per unit cross-
sectional area at this point. Hence, the
velocity of the pollute front is inversely
proportional to the capacity of the formation
to re tain the pollute and directly proportional
to the concentration of pollute in waste water
and the percolation rate.
The retentive capacity would never be
less than the amount of pollute contained in
the amount of waste water required to dis-
place the pore volume. This would be the
product of the concentration of pollute in the
waste water and the porosity of the earth,
Cf. Substituting this value for R in equation
(1) yields S = v. Under these conditions the
pollute moves with the percolating water and
it is not retarded. Such a pollute would be
an ideal tracer of ground water, if it met
other conditions of detectability and stability.
Actually, the number of substances that fit
in this category are not so great as one might
suppose. It is more likely that some me-
chanism would increase the retentive capac-
ity of the formation.
It would appear that the mechanism most
probably responsible for retention ofanionic
surfactants is physical adsorption on the
soil. Whereas soils, particularly the clay
fraction, exhibit some cation-exchange ca-
pacits, their anion-exchange capacity is
practically nonexistent. Furrner, the ABS is
soluble in the low concentrations found in
waste water, particularly when diluted by
ground water. Adsorption, however, might
account for considerably more retentive
capacity than the pore volume of the forma-
tion, in view of the very low concentration
of these substances in the transporting
water.
Renn and Barada (9) investigated the use
of various common adsorbents for removal
of ABS from water supplies. Whereas miner-
al adsorbents were less effective than
hydrocarbon-adsorbing surfaces, they did
adsorb measureable amounts of ABS. These
studies showed suspended silt could adsorb
20 to 50 mg of ABS per gram of silt. For
clay, talc, diatomite, silica, and calcium
carbonate, the adsorption was in the order
of magnitude of 1 mg of ABS per gram of
material.
The retentive capacity of the solid phase
for adsorption of a pollute is generally ex-
pressed as the weight of adsorbate, X, per
unit weight of adsorbent, M. The solid
phase retentive capacity would be X/M
times p, the bulk density of the earth ma-
terial. The total retention would be the sum
of the pollute stored on the solid phase and
that stored in the liquid phase:
R = Cf + X.
M
(2)
Substitution in equation(1) yields an expres-
sion for the relative velocity of the pollute
front:
S/v =
or
(3)
(3a)
where D is a distribution factor equal to the
ratio of pollute on the solid phase to that in
the liquid phase. Thus, the rate of move-
ment of a pollute is dependent on the distri-
bution factor and the percolation rate of the
transporting water.
The amount of pollute adsorbed on the
solid phase will increase until it equals the
specific adsorption capacity in equilibrium
-------
Research Studies
169
with the concentration of the pollute in the
liquid phase. According to the Freundlich
isotherm, the equilibrium is expressed as:
X/M -
(4)
where k and n are constants. Accordingly, a
study of the characteristics of the adsorp-
tion isotherm for ABS on some typical earth
materials seems to be worthwhile in making
predictions regarding the movement of ABS
in ground water.
Undoubtedly absorption on the surface
of soil particles is an important mechanism
in retarding the movement of ABS, but under
some conditions the development of a zoo-
gleal slime on the soil particles may cause
further loss of ABS. The large surface area
provided by microbial cells may well offer
considerable adsorptive capacity for ABS.
In addition, it is known that there is some
Bacterial decomposition of ABS. Many in-
;vestigators have studied the biological de-
gradation of ABS in order to determine its
fate in biological waste treatment plants (10,
11, 12). They have shown that the decom-
position of ABS is slow; even in the inten-
sively active biological systems encountered
in trickling filters and activated sludge
plants only about half the ABS is decomposed.
Nevertheless, the time available for decom-
position is much greater in the soil, and in
the first few feet of a soil percolation sys-
tem, it may be that a significant fraction of
the ABS is actually decomposed. This phe-
nomena might be important in septic tank
percolation fields, sewage oxidation ponds,
holding ponds for industrial waste, and
ground water recharge operations where the
water medium contains sufficient organic
matter to support the growth of biological
slime. It is important, therefore, that the
relative magnitude of ABS decomposition,
adsorption on the surface of microbial cells,
and adsorption on the soil matrix, and pos-
sibly other phenomena be evaluated.
Objectives of Present Study
The objectives of this study are twofold:
(1) to determine the relative importance of
biological slime activity and physical ad-
sorption in retarding the movement of ABS
through a soil system and (2) to evaluate the
effect of various parameters on the physical
adsorption of ABS on typical water-bearing
earth materials.
LABORATORY TECHNIQUES
Retention of ABS on soils and on biological
slimes has been determined in the laboratory
by deduction of the quantity of ABS in the
liquid after contact with the solid phase from
the amount originally present. This has been
done by both batch and continuous-flow col-
umn techniques.
ABS Determination
For the most part determination of the
ABS concentration has been by radioassay of
ABS labeled with sulfur-35 (ABS35). The
specific activity of the labeled ABS was de-
termined initially by the methylene blue
method in accordance with Standard Methods,
llth Edition (13). Thereafter, the ABS con-
tent of liquid samples was determined by
counting the beta activity in an internal
proportional counter. Where biological de-
gradation was not considered to be sig-
nificant, the sulfur-35 was assumed to be
associated entirely with the ABS and the total
beta activity was used as a measure of the
ABS. A 2-ml aliquot of the sample was evap-
orated in a planchet and counted in the pro-
portional counter. The count was corrected
for background, self-absorption, and decay.
Since the fraction of ABS adsorbed was
sought, relative counting was employed by
the same technique used for feed solution of
known ABS concentration and for unknown
samples. The counting efficiency was there-
fore the same in both instances.
For special studies, the radioassay
technique used by McGauhey et al. (14) has
been modified. This procedure permits
separate determination of the ABS, the in-
organic sulfur produced by degradation of
ABS, and the intermediate degradation prod-
ucts. The ABS is separated from the water
sample by liquid-liquid extraction with ether.
It is then adsorbed on activated carbon. The
ether is evaporated; the carbon is resus-
-------
170
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
pended in acetone and water. The carbon is
then transferred to a planchet, dried, and
counted for radioactivity. The inorganic
sulfur remaining in the aqueous portion is
oxidized by bromine water, and the sulfate is
recovered by barium chloride precipitation
and filtration for counting in the proportional
counter. The remaining intermediate prod-
ucts, which are not ether-soluble or pre-
cipitated as the sulfate, were determined by
drying an aliquot of the filtrate in a planchet
and counting. The principal modification in
the procedure developed by this study has
been in the method of transferring the acti-
vated carbon to the planchets. Transfer by
pipette before evaporation of the acetone-
water medium has proved easier than the
method used by McGauhey et al. (14) and
gave more reproducible results.
Batch Studies
The adsorption of ABSon earth materials
has been studied by batch methods in which
a small amount of earth is added to 50 or 100
ml of ABS solution in a 150 ml bottle. The
mixture is shaken for a measured interval.
The earth and solution are separated by
settling or, in case of fine soils, by centri-
fuging and/or filtering. An aliquot of the
supernatant liquid is assayed for radio-
activity and compared with the original ABS
solution. The difference in ABS concentration
between supernatant liquid and the original
solution is attributed to adsorption on the
earth
FIGURE 1. PHOTOGRAPH OF COLUMNS A AND
B, SHOWING BIOLOGICAL GROWTH IN COLUMN A
FIGURE 2. PHOTOGRAPH OF COLUMNS C
THROUGH F, SHOWING COLUMNS BEFORE SEE DING
Column Preparation
Six earth columns have been prepared
for laboratory study of ABS adsorption and
biological degradation. The columns consist
of sand packed in Pyrex glass pipe 2 inches
in diameter. Each column consists of two
18-inch sections so that the column is 36
inches long. This feature permits separa-
tion into two lengths that will fit into an auto-
clave for sterilization. Figures 1 and 2 are
photographs of the columns.
The material in the columns is a silica
sand of very uniform grain size, a geometric
mean of 0.838 mm. The sand was packed in
the column dry and then the pore volume
was filled with distilled water by the admit-
tance of water at one end while a vacuum
was applied to the other end. This prevented
air-binding. The pore volume was deter-
mined by displacement of the pore fluid with
a chloride solution. The chloride break-
-------
Research Studies
171
100
80
o|o°
z
o
1-
cc
i-
z
LU
O
Z
0
o
z
LU
D
U.
1 ,
U_
LU
Z
0
H
tr
H
Z
LU
<_>
z
0
u
(-
z
LU
1
_J
U.
z
60
40
20
200
400
COLUMN EFFLUENT, ml
600
800
FIGURE 3. CHLORIDE BREAKTHROUGH CURVES FOR COLUMNS A THROUGH F
through curves are presented in Figure 3.
The pore volumes, represented by the area
to the left of the breakthrough curves, varied
from 535 to 595 ml. The porosity of the col-
umns varied from 30.8 to 34.3 percent. The
permeability of the columns varied from 534
to 1850 gallons per day per square foot,
which is fairly uniform when the high sensi-
tivity of the permeability to the packing of
the column is considered. It is concluded
that the columns are similar in hydraulic
and surface characteristics.
PHYSICAL ADSORPTION
In the first laboratory studies to deter-
mine the amount of ABS that would be ad-
sorbed on earth materials, Ottawa sand
identical to that used in the biological phase
of these investigations was used. This sand
was chosen so that .information could be
gained about the physical adsorption that
would undoubtedly accompany any biological
uptake.
The physical adsorption was studied both
by batch operations in a flask and by con-
tinuous flow of ABS solution through col-
umns of sand.
Batch Studies
An experiment was conducted to deter-
mine the effect of time on uptake - 25 grams
of sand and 50 inl of ABS^S solution (10 mg of
ABS per 1) were placed in each of five flasks.
The supernatant was sampled for counting
at 5 minutes, 10 minutes, 15 minutes, 1 hour,
2 hours, and 5 hours. The results showed
an initial 5-minute adsorption of 3.8 [ig of
ABS35 per gram of sand, and the 5-hour
terminal adsorption was 4.2 ug/g. The trend
of all the samples was to show the gfeatest
adsorption at 1 hour. The variation of these
results are best shown graphically. Figure
4 is a plot of the physical adsorption of the
ABS35 for the 5 samples. It is concluded
that at least 1 hour is required for equilib-
-------
172
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
60
120 ISO
TIME,MINUTES
240
300
FIGURE 4. ABS ADSORPTION ON OTTAWA SAND
rium to be attained with Ottawa sand. Other
finer soils may require much longer.
The next portion of the research was
concerned with an isotherm determination
to establish the effect of ABS concentration
on uptake. Again, 25-gram samples of
Ottawa sand were used to measure the AB$35
uptake by physical adsorption. Fifty-mi
ABS-^J solutions of various concentrations
were added to triplicate sand portions. Con-
stant temperature was maintained in the sand
and ABS35 solution through the use of a water
bath. The supernatants of the mixtures were
sampled at the end of 2 hours. The isotherm
is shown in Figure 5. Over the range of
concentration used in this study, 45 mg/1,
the uptake increased almost linearly with
concentration. These concentrations cover
a wider range than would be expected in
ground water. It is to be noted that the up-
take at the end of 2 hours for the 8.23 mg/1
concentration was 3.5 ug of ABS35 per gram
of sand. This is 20 percent less uptake than
was determined for the above batch study.
FIGURE 5. ABS ADSORPTION ISOTHERM FOR
OTTAWA SAND
This corresponds to a Freundlich isotherm
in which the value of n is 1.0.
Column Studies
For correlation of the batch study work,
a continuous-flow sand adsorption determin-
ation was made by use of a column designated
Column B, as described above. The feed
solution to Column B contained 10 mg/1
ABS35e The flow through the coiumn was
approximately 6.5 ml per minute. The
Ottawa sand in the column became saturated
after approximately 1600 ml of influent had
passed through. The saturation curve for
this adsorption is shown in Figure 6. The
adsorption of the ABS35on the sand amounted
to 1.01 ug of ABS35 per gram of sand. This
was obtained by converting the area between
the chloride breakthrough and the ABS
breakthrough curve to volume and multiply-
ing by the concentration of the feed solution.
As explained below, Column A was fed
with sewage so that a biological slime
growth developed on the sand grains and then
with ABS35 solution so that the physical and
biological uptake of ABS could be measured.
The solution fed to Column A had an ABS,35
concentration of 50 mg/1. This higher con-
centration was used to reach saturation be-
cause of the low total amount of flow that
could be put through Column A before clog-
ging, occurred. To measure the uptake at-
tributable to the biological slime, the physi-
cal adsorption on Column A was evaluated by
comparison with a strictly physical adsorp--
tion on Column B. This experiment differed
-------
Research Studies
173
100
80
o|o
LLl
o
o
z
Ul
^
u.
u.
UJ
60
40
20
CHLORIDE
BREAKTHROUGH
BREAKTHROUGH
50 mg/l
I ,.
BREAKTHROUGH
:0=IOmg/l
0
200 400 600 800 1000
COLUMN EFFLUENT, ml
1200
1400
1600
FIGURE 6. BREAKTHROUGH CURVES FOR COLUMN B
from the previous run on Column B in that
the concentration of ABS in the feed solution
was 50 mg/l instead of 10 mg/l. Before
this experiment was made, the dilute (10
mg/l) feed solution was thoroughly flushed
from the column. The column became satu-
rated after 1500 ml of the concentrated ABS
solution was applied as shown in Figure 6.
The uptake for this more concentrated solu-
tion amounted to 3.30 ug of ABS35 per gram
of sand. The average flow through the col-
umn duringthe saturation period was 16.6 ml
per minute.
The results of these two continuous-flow
column tests are shown on Figure 5 as black
circles. It can be seen that under column
conditions the sand was not completely
saturated with ABS and much less than the
equilibrium amount of ABS was adsorbed.
This is probably due to the fact that much of
the surface of the sand is in contact zones
where the space between sand surfaces is so
small that there is no movement of water.
Saturation of these zones depends upon
molecular diffusion to transport the ABS
molecules to the sand surface. Molecular
diffusion is a very slow process, and in this
test, probably did not occur to any great
extent.
BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS
Purpose of Experiment
The uptake of ABS on a biological slime
was determined by comparison of the ABS
removed from solution while passing through
a column of Ottawa sand on which a slime
growth had developed with the ABS removed
while passing through the clean column re-
ported above. It was thought that the com-
parison of the two columns, one with an ac-
tive biological slime growth over the sand
grains and the other with no growth, would
give an indication of the adsorption or deg-
radation phenomenon when the quantity of
labeled ABS retained by these two columns
was determined. The comparison would be
effective, since the two columns were other-
-------
174
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
wise identical. It was also intended to learn
whether the ABS is degraded while passing
through the column.
Seeding of Column
To seed Column A with microorganisms
and develop a, growth on the sand, 115 liters
of settled sewage was applied to Column A
in 15 days. The slime that developed was
black, as shown in Figure 1. So much growth
accumulated that the column clogged almost
completely. The column was then washed
with 175 liters of tap water until the per-
meability increased. Because the amount of
bacterial seed that remained in the column
was questionable, additional seeding was
attempted; 46 liters of dilute sewage (1 liter
of settled sewage and 8 liters of tap water)
was applied to the column. The sewage was
filtered through glass wool and also settled.
The column then was assumed to contain
sufficient seed to develop a growth. To avoid
increased clogging as a result of further ap-
plication of suspended solids, the feeding of
the column thereafter was continued with a
synthetic waste containing only dissolved
substrate and minerals. The synthetic waste
consisted of 300 mg/1 anhydrous dextrose,
50 mg/1 ammonium chloride, and 1 ml/1
buffer solution containing 8.5 g/1 KH2PO4,
21.75 g/1 K2HPO4, 33.4 g/1 Na^HPO^ 7H2O,
and 1.7 g/1 NF^Cl. All this was made up in
tap water to pH 7.2.
Standard Operation
The growth of slime proceeded so rapidly
that in a short time the column had clogged
so much the flow was practically stopped.
The only method found effective in restoring
the permeability was to drain the column
fluid and then apply a partial vacuum from
a water aspirator to the effluent end to draw
air through the column. The flow of air over
the slime was believed to shrink the slime
largely by dehydration. After the per-
meability was restored, the feeding of the
column of synthetic substrate could be con-
tinued. No schedule was established initially,
but the column was rested and aerated when-
ever it clogged. Under these conditions the
performance of the column, as measured by
permeability, reduction in biochemical oxy-
gen demand (BOD), etc., was very erratic.
To stabilize the performance and estab-
lish as nearly steady state conditions as
possible, a standard operational procedure
was adopted. At the same time each day,
the application of feed solution to the column
was stopped and the column was drained by
application of a partial vacuum on the ef-
fluent end. This vacuum was allowed to con-
tinue drawing air through the column for 1
hour. The air inlet then was closed, and the
column evacuated. After the pore atmos-
phere was exhausted, new feed solution was
admitted to saturate the porous medium.
Then the aspirator was removed from the
effluent of the column, and the feed solution
was allowed to flow by gravity at varying
rates under fixed head until the same time
next day. Samples of the feed solution and
column effluent were taken daily for deter-
mination of dissolved oxygen, biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD), and chemical oxygen
demand (COD).
Performance of Column
The BOD of the feed solution for Column
A averaged about 200 mg/1, and the BOD load
applied varied from 870 to 2710 pounds of
BOD per acre per day. The variation was
largely due to differences in the amount of
feed solution that could be put through the
column each day under fixed head conditions.
The average BOD loading was about 1200
pounds per acre per day, which is much
higher than commonly is applied to sand
filters in sewage treatment. Steel (15) re-
ports that the loading on intermittent sand
filters should not exceed 150,000 gallons per
acre per day. The 200 mg/1 BOD would be
equivalent to 250 pounds per acre per day.
The removal of BOD by this column var-
ied from 18.4 to 84.6 percent. In view of the
very high loading, these figures indicate a
high degree of biological activity in the col-
umn. The lowest percent removal occurred
on the day ABS was applied to the column in
a concentration of 50 mg/1. This fact raised
the question of the toxicity of the ABS to the
biological growth on that day.
-------
Rese.'irch Studies
175
The COD removal effected by the column
varied from 16.9 to 68.8 percent. These
wide variations in percent removal of BOD
and COD were not expected and indicate that
even with a standardized operatingprocedure
steady state conditions were not attained.
The absence of dissolved oxygen in the
column effluent at all times and the appear-
ance of the slime in the column indicated
anaerobic conditions. To further evaluate
the performance, volatile acids determin-
ations were made on the column. These
were found to vary from 58 to 1190 mg/1 as
acetic acid. The average volatile acids con-
centration in the effluent of the column was
about 100 mg/1, which is not significant in
view of the accuracy of the distillation method
used in the determination.
ABS Adsorption
After it was established that an active
biological slime had developed in the col-
umn, the retention of ABS was determined by
application of a solution of identical synthetic
waste to which had been added 50 mg/1
ABS35. Samples of effluent were analyzed by
the direct plating technique described above
for ABS. The column became completely
clogged after 2.3 liters of solution had been
used. The breakthrough curve showing ar-
rival of ABS in the column effluent is shown
in Figure 7. Unfortunately, the column con-
FIGURE 7. COMPARISON OF ABS BREAK-
THROUGH CURVES FOR COLUMNS A AND B
tents were not completely saturated when the
flow ceased, as indicated by the fact that the
last effluent sample contained only 50 per-
cent of the ABS in the influent. The ABS that
was retained in the column is represented
by the area to the left of the ABS break-
through curve. The ABS retained in the pore
fluid is represented by the area to the left
of the chloride breakthrough curve multi-
plied by the average ABS concentration in the
pore fluid. The concentration of the pore
fluid at the influent end was that of the feed
solution, 50 mg/1; that of the pore fluid at
the effluent end of the column was 50 per-
cent of that of the feed solution, 25 mg/1. If
the average ABS concentration throughout the
column is assumed to be 37.5 mg/1, the re-
tention in the pore fluid was 21.3 ing or 7.16
ug per gram of sand. The total retention in
the column was computed from the area to
the left of the ABS breakthrough curve multi-
plied by the feed solution concentration. It
was found that 89.1 mg of ABS had been re-
tained. The retention on the solid phase,
consisting of sand plug slime, was 67.8 mg
ABS or 22.80 tfg per gram of clean sand.
Even though it was not completely saturated,
the column that contained slime on the sand
retained 7 times as much ABS as the column
that contained clean sand. It is concluded
that the presence of biological growth sig-
nificantly increases the ABS retentive ca-
pacity of the column.
In addition to the question of how much
ABS was retained in the column, the ques-
tion was raised as to the possibility that the
sulfur-35 counted in the effluent might no
longer represent ABS, but rather some
degradation product. To determine the fate
of the ABS in the column, an effort was made
to determine the relative amounts of the sul-
fur in the column effluent that was still as-
sociated with ether-soluble ABS, the amount
that was degraded to inorganic sulfur, and
the amount that could be classed as inter-
mediate products of degradation. This was
accomplished by the ether-extraction, bar-
ium-precipitation, filtrate-evaporation pro-
cedure described above. The relative ac-
tivities of sulfur-3 5 in the three fractions
of column effluent taken at the beginning,
middle, and end of the run are presented in
Table 1.
-------
176
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Table 1. RELATIVE ACTIVITY OF SULFUR-35 IN
VARIOUS FRACTIONS OF COLUMN EFFLUENT
Sample
number
11
32
60
Average
volume
, throughout,
ml
375
1475
2275
ABS 353
cpm/ml
13
110
199
Inorganic
sulfur-35, b
cpm/ml
0.12
0.05
0.76
Total
sulfur-35. c
cpm/ml
187
1009
1813
Counted on activated carbon.
Counted on BaSO4 precipitate.
c Counted after the original sample was dried in
planchet.
It was concluded from these data that
the breakdown of ABS into inorganic com-
pounds of sulfur was not evident. Further
study is necessary to ascertain the fate of
ABS in passing through a biologically active
column.
Evaluation of Slime
The amount and nature of the slime
growth on the sand in Column A was studied
to provide a frame of reference for evalu-
ation of the ABS retention and for comparison
with future columns. An indication of the
amount and activity of the slime growth was
provided by the column performance, as
measured by BOD and COD removal and dis-
cussed above.
The physical appearance of the slime
growth was quite striking. After the initial
black slime that developed on the sewage
feed was washed out with tap water, the
growth of slime on synthetic substrate pro-
ceeded. A very characteristic pink color
developed on the portions of the column ex-
posed to light. This was thought to be a
growth of chromobacteria, light sensitive
anaerobes. The rest of the column was
covered with a greyish slime except at the
top4 or 5 inches where the growth was black.
To evaluate the slime further, samples
were removed from the column at six dif-
ferent depths. The amount of organic mat-
ter on the sand was determined by loss on
ignition. Unfortunately, the results were not
very satisfactory. The number of bacteria
in the slime was determined by agitating the
sand sample in sterile water. The slime
that was thus scrubbed off the sand was de-
canted with the water, diluted, plated on
nutrient agar, incubated at room tempera-
ture for 48 hours, and counted. The results
are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. CHARACTERIZATION OF SLIME
Sample
number
1
2
3
4
5
6
Depth,
in.
3.75
10.25
16.25
21.12
26.37
34.12
Volatile solids.
mg/g of sand
1.48
38.9
0.30
12.1
...
Total plate
count,
organisms/g
of sand+ slime
2.94 x 10 ~U
1.00 x 10"11
0.88 x 10"11
0.84 x 10"11
0.81 x 10'11
0.59 x 10"11
The total plate count shows remarkably
uniform growth of bacteria at all depths.
The number of organisms has been expressed
in terms of the total solids in the column on
a dry weight basis. The total solids included
both the slime and the sand.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are supported
by the work reported:
1. The use of radioisotope - labeled ABS
provides a satisfactory and convenient
determination. The original pro-
cedure has been modified principally
by transference of the carbon to a
planchet by pipette before drying.
2. The physical adsorption of ABS on
Ottawa sand is very much lower than
on finer earth materials.
3. The adsorption of ABS on Ottawa sand
is time dependent. In batch studies,
-------
Research Studies
177
where intimate contact between sand
and water is afforded, at least 1 hour
is required to obtain equilibrium. The
low adsorption obtained in columns
may be in part due to failure to sat-
urate all the surface area of the sand.
4. From the comparison of the retention
of ABS on two columns, one with and
one without biological growth, it is
concluded that the biological growth on
earth material enhances the adsorp-
tion. With 50 mg/1 ABS in the feed
solution, 7 times as much ABS was re-
tained on the solid phase of a column
hi which a biological slime had been
developed.
5. It has not been fully determined to
what extent the retention was due to
adsorption of the large surface area
afforded by these bacterial cells, but
it appears that this is an important
phenomenon.
6. It is concluded that the adsorption on
biological slime is one mechanism that
retards the movement of ABS in a
septic tank drain field.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This investigation was supported by a
Public Health Service research grant (RG-
6560) from the Division of General Medical
Sciences, Public Health Service.
REFERENCES
1. Flynn, J. M., Andreoli, A., and Guerreva,
A. A., Study of Synthetic Detergents in
Ground Water, Jr. AWWA, 50, 1551
(Dec. 1958).
2. Walton, Graham, ABS Contamination,
Jr. AWWA, 52,^ 1354 (Nov. I960).
3. Deluty, Jerome, Synthetic Detergents in
Well Water, Public Health Reports, 75,
75 (Jan. 19607!
4. Weaver, P. J., Review of Detergent Re-
search Program, Jour. Water Pollution
Control Fed., 32, 288 (Mar. 19oU).
5. AASGP Committee, ABS and the Safety
of Water Supplies, Jr. AWWA, 52, 786
(June 1960).
6. Public Health Service Drinking Water
Standards, 1946, Public Healdi Reports,
61, 371 (1946).
7. Hopkins, O. C. and Gullans, O., New
USPHS Standards, Jr. AWWA, 52, 1161
(Sept. 1960).
8. Lauman, C. W., Co., Effect of Synthetic
Detergents on the Ground Waters of
Long Island, N. Y., New York State
Water Pollution Control Board Re-
search Report No. 6 (1960).
9. Renn, C. E. and Barada, M. F., Adsorp-
tion of ABS on Particulate Materials in
Water, Sewage and Industrial Wastes,
31, 850 (July 1959).
10. McGauhey, P. H. and Klein, S. A., Re-
moval of ABS by Sewage Treatment,
Sewage and Ind. Wastes, 31, 877 (Aug.
1959).
11. Sawyer, C. N., Effect of Synthetic Deter-
gents on Sewage Treatment Processes,
Sewage and Ind. Wastes, 30, 757 0une
1958).
12. McKinney, R. E. and Symons, J. E.,
Bacterial Degradation of ABS. I. Funda-
mental Biochemistry, Sewage and
Industrial Wastes, 31, 549 (May 1959).
13. APHA, Standard Methods for Examina-
tion of Water Sewage and Industrial
Wastes, llth Ed. (1960).
14. Final Report on the Fate of Alkylben-
zenEsulfonate in Sewage Treatment,
Sanitary Engineering Research Lab-
oratory, University of California,
Berkeley (July 1957).
15. Steel, E. W., Water Supply and Sewerage,
Fourth Edition, page 519, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York (1960).
-------
178
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH STUDIES
S. K. Love, U. S. Geological Survey
The detrimental effects of man-made
wastes on water resources are increasing at
a rapid rate. Water in all states of natural
occurrence--on the land, in the air, and in
the oceansis subject to contamination. Re-
searchers on how water is contaminated and
what happens to the contaminated water in
the hydrologic cycle must consider water in
all of its aspects. Because ground water is
a transitory phase of the hydrologic cycle,
studies directed to the contamination of
ground water cannot overlook both antecedent
influences and future uses of the water.
The Geological Survey is engaged in
many categories or phases of fundamental
and applied research on water problems.
One category deals with research on river
hydraulics, stream-channel development and
morphology, and sediment transport. A
second category includes research in limnol-
ogy* evapotranspiration, evaporation sup-
pression, and heat energy budgets. A third
category includes quantitative studies of the
flow of water in the saturated and unsaturated
zones of the ground, the mechanics of ground
water reservoirs, and properties of porous
media. A fourth category includes research
on the geochemistry of water, the physical
and chemical interrelations of precipitation,
surface flows, and ground water, and the ef-
fects of man-made environmental changes on
water and water supplies. Our attention to-
day is directed to this last area of study with
special reference to ground water con-
tamination.
As early as 1906, the Geological Survey
published reports on the prevention of ground
water contamination dirough careful con-
struction and maintenance of wells(l). A
few years later, reports were published on
pollution of underground waters in limestone
and on the protection of shallow wells in
sandy soils(2). hi a study of limestone
aquifers, tests were made on the connection
between sink holes and springs by the intro-
duction of common salt into limestone sinks
and measurement of the amount of chloride
at the spring outlet. These tests indicated
that water flowing through limestone chan-
nels receives no filtration and very little
purification. Recommendations were made
that the practice of dumping garbage and f ilth
into sink holes be abandoned. Early investi-
gation of shallow wells in sandy soils showed
that the distance pollution is carried de-
pends on the amount of rainfall, the number
of sources of contamination, the amount of
pollution entering the aquifer, the porosity
and grain size of the formation, the slope of
the surface and elevation of the outlet, and
the temperature of the water.
Today we face many ground water prob-
lems that were unknown 50 years ago.
Synthetic detergents and radioactive wastes
are two examples, hi 1959, over 525 million
pounds of the sulfonateddodecylbenzenetype
of synthetic detergents were produced in the
United States. This figure represents a 75
percent increase over the 1954 production.
Because this type of detergent is not easily
decomposed, it persists even after passing
through sewage treatment plants and is find-
ing its way not only into surface waters but
also, to an increasing extent, into ground
waters.
Radioactive wastes threaten to become
an increasing hazard. Although permissible
limits for discharge of radioactive wastes
are very low, the sheer number of useful
applications of radioactive materials auto-
matically increases the potential for harmful
contamination of all sources of water supply.
According to estimates now current,
there may be about 700 reactors in opera-
tion by 1980. Eliassen(3) estimated that by
1980 we may be producing fission products
having a total radioactivity of 100 billion
(100 x 109) curies per year. The estimated
accumulated volume of stored waste may be
200 million (200 x 106) gallons by 1980, 600
million by 1990, and 2,400 million by 2000.
In 1965, waste fission products may be pro-
duced at a rate of about 10 kg per day(4).
-------
Research Studies
179
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES OF USGS
Many of the research investigations by
the Geological Survey bear directly or in-
directly on problems of contamination of
ground water. Some examples of current
research activities are given in the para-
graphs that follow.
composition of synthetic detergents? Is the
race of movement of pathogenic organisms
in ground water increased or decreased by
the presence of detergents?
Laboratory experiments that we hope
will provide answers to these and related
questions are being set up.
Organic Substances in Water
Although considerable research has
been done by other agencies on organic
wastes in water, not much is known about
the sources and the chemical composition
of naturally occurring organic materials in
surface and ground waters. The Survey is
working on the development of suitable me-
thods for the separation, identification, and
measurement of these naturally occurring
organics. Such methodology, if successful,
should also be applicable to organic wastes
found in water.
The development of methodology is a
formidable task. Techniques of sampling,
extraction, concentration, handling of mi-
nute samples, and the application of such
tools as chromatography and infrared'spec-
troscopy all present special problems.
Behavior of Detergents and Other Pollutants
in Soil-Water Environments
The Geological Survey, in cooperation
with the Federal Housing Administration,
recently began studies to determine the fate
of waste materials during the course of
travel of water underground. The initial
emphasis is on synthetic detergents because
they are showing up in ground water used
for human consumption. Significant factors
are the horizontal and vertical rates of per-
colation of detergents through the ground.
Do they move at the same velocity as the
water? Are detergents present in large
enough concentrations to alter significantly
the surface tension and viscosity of ground
water? To what extent are detergents sorbed
on soil materials? After sorption, under
what conditions are they released? Do cer-
tain types of soil materials catalyze the de-
Radioactive Wastes
The activities of the Geological Survey
in problems of radioactive waste disposal
have been summarized by Nace (5, 6).
The-Survey is studying several problems
involving radionuclides. A prerequisite to
research on radioactive wastes in water is
a knowledge of natural levels of radioactiv-
ity. These natural levels for radium and
uranium have been established in terms of
median concentrations for the geotectonic
regions of the United States. Some areas
have been partially delineated both geo-
graphically and geologically where bene-
ficially used water contains more radium
than the maximum permissible concentration
for human consumption. Although median
values for radium for geotectonic regions
generally are less than 0.5 micromicrocur-
ies per liter, individual concentrations
ranging up to 22 micromicrocuries per liter
have been observed.
Concentrations of naturally occurring
strontium-89have been determined on sam-
ples from more than 80 sites on major
rivers of the United States. Concentrations
range from 0.01 to 9.5 ppm. Analyses of
selected ground water sources show con-
centrations as high as 50 ppm in a few areas.
Although the significance is not yet clear,
the distribution and concentration of stron-
tium-89 may be important in relation to
radioactive' strontium - 90 resulting from
fallout from the atmosphere.
Studies are in progress to determine the
mode and rate of mixing of radioactive
wastes discharged to natural water courses.
Observations are being made to learn how
fast these waste materials travel downstream
-------
180
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
and how they react on contact with stream
sediments. We need to know under what
conditions the radioactive substances are
sorbed on sediments, especially on the clay
fractions, and also under what conditions
they may be re-released to the streams.
We also want to know how radioactive sub-
stances are extracted by aquatic organisms
and how they are - subsequently released to
the environment. Some of our limnological
research will be pointed in this direction.
Ground water research bearing on the
radioactive waste disposal problems in-
cludes studies of (1) the vertical movement
of water through unsaturated earth above
the water table and in the zone of saturation
and (2) the heat potential of waste material
injected or stored at depth underground.
Research is being conducted on the
sorption of certain radionuclides on clays
and other minerals. An improved method
has been developed for determining cation-
exchange capacity of clay minerals by the
use of radiocesium. It has been found that
cesium sorbed on illite becomes irrevers-
ibly "fixed" upon drying of the clay.
Movement of Liquids in Clays
Laboratory facilities are being set up
to study liquid-movement phenomena in clay
and clayey soils. Movement in these ma-
terials is highly complex and defies analysis
in terms of conventional factors such as
hydraulic gradients, porosity, and liquid
viscosity. The phenomena of liquid move-
ment in clays are related to the less clearly
understood factors such as induced and ap-
plied gradients of electrical potential, ionic
concentration, temperature, and mineralog-
ical and chemical compositions of the clay
and pore liquid. Initially, we plan to study
separately the effects of these factors on
the rates of liquid movement and then to
analyze the manner in which they are inter-
related.
Spatial Distribution of Chemical
Constituents in Ground Water
This research seeks to identify the re-
lationships between hydrologic and min-
eralogic factors and the chemical character
of the ground water. The project area is
the Atlantic Costal Plant where the geology
provides a diverse framework suitable for
a regional approach to the study. Clay
samples and their associated waters are
being analyzed to determine what effects
clays have on the chemical character of the
water. Thermodynamic principles will be
applied in developing reactions and in cal-
culating equilibrium constants to determine
if water and clays are in equilibrium. Also
in progress is the comparison of equilib-
rium conditions between ground water and
calcium carbonate in limestone. We want
to relate to natural field environments the
theoretical equations or "models" that de-
scribe the limits of pressure, temperature,
pH, and oxidation potentials, under which
particular species of ions exist.
Laboratory model studies in which
artificial sandstone is used as an aquifer
are in progress. These studies show the
magnitude and effects of cyclic types of
flow. These flows simulate the effects pro-
duced by dispersion in a costal aquifer.
Mathematical analysis is made of the flow
of fluids of variable density in the zone of
diffusion. Boundary conditions are selected
to approximate actual flow systems observ-
ed in the field.
Other Research
Other research investigations by the
Survey that relate to the contamination of
ground water are (I) chemistry of hydroso-
lic metals, (2) geochemistry of minor ele-
ments, (3) mineralogy of fluvial sediments,
and (4) isotopic hydrology.
ULTIMATE GOALS
The Geological Survey shares the con-
cern of other scientific agencies on de-
ficiencies in knowledge about ground water
contamination. Our ultimate goal is a better
understanding of:
1. The controls on water quality under
conditions of natural environment.
-------
Research Studies
181
2. Chemical and physical changes in
quality resulting from the introduc-
tion of man-made wastes.
3. The fate of cultural waste when re-
leased to water and its environment.
To accomplish these goals, we must en-
talents represented by many disciplines,
including organic and analytical chemistry,
geochemistry, and radiochemistry; geology
^d geohydrology; engineering, physics, and
jnathematics; and limnology, biology, and
bacteriology. Nearly all of these disciplines
are represented on the Geological Survey
staff of research scientists. We feel both a
responsibility and an opportunity to advance
^owledge on a broad front that should con-
tribute significantly toward a better under-
Banding of the complex problems resulting
from contamination of water in its total en-
Vironment. We are aware that we must in-
Crease our efforts to provide answers to
Jhese problems that must be resolved in or-
der to provide the quantity and quality of
water needed for a rapidly expanding econ-
REFERENCES
l- Fuller, M. L. Underground-water papers,
1906. U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply
Paper 106, 1906.
2. Fuller, M. L. Underground-water papers,
1910. U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply
Paper 258, 1910.
3. Eliassen, Rolf. Outlook for waste dis-
posal. Nucleonics, v. 15, no. 11, 157-
158, 1957.
4. National Academy of Sciences - National
Research Council. The biological ef-
fects of atomic radiation. Summary re-
ports, Report of the Committee on Dis-
posal and Dispersal of Atomic Wastes,
101-108, 1956.
5. Nace, R. L. Activities of the United
States Geological Survey in problems
of radioactive-waste disposal. Hear-
ings before the Special Subcommittee on
Atomic Energy, Congress of the United
States, Eighty-Sixth Congress, First
Session, on Industrial Radioactive waste
Disposal, Jan. 28-Feb. 3, 1959, v. 4, p.
2580-2645.
6. Nace, R. L. Contributions of geology to
the problem of radioactive waste dis-
posal. Conference on Disposal of Radio-
active Wastes, sponsored by Interna-
tional Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna,
1960.
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION RESEARCH
AND RESEARCH NEEDS
P. H. McGauhey, University of California
.During the past 2 day's discussion of
yarogeological aspects, types, specific in-
ances, and regulation of ground water con-
v Ration, the nature of what has been re-
to hd tbroufih research and what yet needs
d be explored has become almost self-evi-
ignt. Essentially all that can now be added
a resume of that fraction of the needed
research that is already in progress, and a
summary of the needs noted or implied dur-
ing the previous sessions of this Symposium.
A brief recounting of the more important
recent research might also be useful in case
the results may have been distributed in-
adequately, and thus a great deal of "fra-
grance" wasted "on the desert air."
-------
182
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
From its inception in 1950 the Sanitary
Engineering Research Laboratory of the
University of California at Berkeley (SERL)
has been concerned with ground water qual-
ity. Two types of projects pertinent to this
subject have been, or are now being, con-
ducted: (1) those that deal directly with
underground water, and (2) those concerned
with changing the quality of water before it
is allowed to enter the soil or the ground
water itself.
PREVIOUS RESEARCH
Major projects that have been completed
in the last 7 or 8 years include the following
studies.
A 4-year field study of the underground
travel of pollution during ground water re-
charge by direct injection of sewage efflu-
ents (1). In this study, bacteria were found
to travel less than 100 feet in a fairly coarse
aquifer, as contrasted with the free move-
ment of most dissolved solids.
A 28-month field study of water recla-
mation by surface spreading at Lodi, Calif-
ornia^). The investigators found no bacte-
rial penetration below 2 feet, a quick ad-
sorption of ammonia on soil particles, and
ready movement of most dissolved solids to
the 13-foot maximum depth of observation.
aquifers in coastal areas and of the behavior
of afresh water mound injected as a barrier
to intrusion (5, 6). A lapse-time color mo-
tion picture of the behavior of intruding sea
water and injected fresh water was produced
and is still in demand by technical groups.
RECENT AND CURRENT RESEARCH
More recent re search projects that are
currently in progress, although the results
of various experiments may have already
been released in reports to sponsoring
agencies, include the following.
Detergent Studies
A series of studies on the behavior and
fate of alky benzene sulfonate (A6S) have
been undertaken by the SERL under sponsor-
ship of the Association of American Soap and
Glycerin Producers, the Public Health Ser-
vice, and the University of California. One
of these (7), completed in 1957, shows that
normal activated sludge treatment may be
expected to remove from 50 to 70 percent
of the normal concentration (5-10 mg/l) of
ABS presently in domestic sewage. In the
second study (8), a technique of surface
stripping of induced froth was developed by
which ABS may be reduced to 1 mg/l before
a sewage effluent is released to receiving
waters or introduced underground.
An intensive study of the Lodi results on
five California agricultural soils in pilot-
scale lysimeters (3). This study related
pollution travel to soil characteristics and
established an empirical method for pre-
dicting the behavior of a soil under sewage
spreading.
A detailed study of the depth of penetra-
tion, as a function of soil characteristics, of
organic matte rand bacteria into soils spread
with sewage effluents (4). Results showed
clogging to be a surface phenomenon with
little penetration of organisms.
A model study of the phenomenon of sea
intrusion into over-developed fresh water
A third study, now in its early months,
is directed to methods of further reducing
ABS, should detergent removal become an
objective of sewage treatment, and to the
behavior of ABS underground in a variety of
environmental conditions. This study is soon
to be expanded to include a determination of
the pqtential of foam fractionationto upgrade
the quality of waste waters.
Percolation Studies
Under the sponsorship of the Federal
Housing Administration, studies of the
phenomenon of clogging of septic tank per-
colation fields have been in progress for
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Research Studies
183
more than 2 years. Both the phenomenon
involved in introducing sewage effluent
underground and the nature of the percolate
are under investigation. In a completed
phase of the study (9) it was found that fer-
rous sulfide formed under anaerobic con-
ditions is an important factor in soil clog-
ging and is responsible for the black color
previously widely assumed to be organic
matter accumulated in the soil. Other fac-
tors, too involved to introduce on this oc-
casion, led to a second study, now in prog-
ress, intended to explore means of improv-
ing both the rates of infiltration and percola-
tion of sewage effluents in a soil and the
quality of the percolate reaching the ground
water.
Ground Water Tracing
A variety of studies concerned with
methods of tracing and studying the move-
ment of ground water have been initiated by
SERL and Hydraulic Engineering Laboratory
staff members at the University of Califor-
nia under sponsorship of such agencies as
the Atomic Energy Commission, the Bureau
of Reclamation, and the University's own
Water Resources Center. These groups are
developing not only a much needed hydro-
logical tool but also a means for predicting
die safety of ground disposal of refuse, in-
dustrial wastes, radioactive wastes, etc. in
any particular circumstance and a means
for tracing the source of observed ground
water contamination.
A field installation of 23 wells previously
constructed (1) for the investigation of pol-
lution travel during direct injection of sew-
age effluents into a confined aquifer is being
used in comparison studies of the character-
istic breakthrough curves for various chem-
ical tracers such as chlorides, fluorescent
dyes, sugar, etc. The applicability of helium
to ground water tracing in a confined aquifer
also was determined (10) by controlled ex-
periments.
Development of techniques and their ap-
plication in the use of tritium as a water
tracer began in 1957 and is being continued
in laboratory and field-scale experiments.
First, work was directed to methods of
measuring low concentrations of tritium with
the ease, economy, and reproducibility req-
uisite for practical ground water tracing.
A statistical sensitivity criterion for tritium
measurements was established. With this as
a basis, procedures were developed for
measuring in a matter of some 30 minutes
tritium in a liquid scintillation apparatus in
concentrations as low as 3 x 10~6 g.c/ml.
Current studies in low-level tritium meas-
urement are concerned with methods of re-
ducing background, which atpresent appears
to result from internal contamination and
hard gamma radiation of cosmic origin.
Application of the tritium measure-
ments to a study of the loss of water from
unlined irrigation canals and its effect on
local ground water quality was begun in 1959
and is still in progress. On November 3,
1959 (11), ten 1-curie sources of irradiated
water were added to an 800-foot ponded
reach of the Madera Canal, located on the
east side of the San Joaquin Valley in Calif-
ornia. Sampling wells along the canal were
soon found to contain tritium. In January
1961, samples of the ground water near the
canal continued to show the presence of
tritium, although the peak of the tritium wave
had progressed over 350 feet from the cen-
ter line of the canal. Concentrations at that
distance were 9.4 x 10~5 uc/ml, or about
6.5 percent of the initial concentration in the
canal. Characteristics of the tracer wave,
as determined by ground water samples
drawn from wells perforated over their en-
tire 10- to 16-foot depths, showed enormous
longitudinal dispersion or mixing in the
pertinent geologic formation. Although
ground water in the region has an average
velocity of 20 to 40 feet per day, measurable
concentrations of the tritium tracer are ex-
pected to persist for many years.
These results suggest a need for re-
search into the long-term effects of pollu-
tants before Water containing some of the
newer micropollutants is introduced under-
ground either purposefully or during the
ordinary use of the pollutants.
A study of methods of determining the
velocity and direction of ground water flow
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184
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
from observations at a single well is in
progress. An apparatus has been developed
that permits isolation of a section of a cased
deep well, provides for circulating the con-
tents of the section together with the inflow
of ground water through the casing, and al-
lows continuous monitoring of the well con-
tents. Study of the decay characteristics of
a tracer as a result of dilution perm its esti-
mates of fluctuation and of the coefficient
of eddy diffusion in homogenous turbulence,
leading to the establishment of relation-
ships that may yield estimates of flow
velocity and duration.
Results of a model study of seepage
from leveed rivers into low-lying agri-
cultural land have recently been reported
(12, 13). From well logs and other data,
pertinent to the lower Sacramento Valley
and the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta,
geologic cross sections perpendicular to
channels were plotted. An electric analog
was then designed to yield quantitative see-
page data. In the analog layered soils of dif-
fering permeabilities are represented by
electrolytes of differing conductivities.
Directional permeability characteristics of
soils are included by transforming model
scales. Sloping water tables are represented
by variable potentials obtained from a bat-
tery of electrical resistances that furnish
potential differences as small as 2.5 per-
cent. Flow on equipotential lines is traced
by a pantograph for given voltage drops by
visual inspection of an oscilloscope. More
than 60 representative geologic sections
have been, analyzed with this device. The
results demonstrate a practical method that
can be used to predict the seepage of im-
ported surface waters into local ground
waters and hence of their effects on ground
water quality. In combination with other
techniques and considerations the method
offers possibilities for study of the con-
tamination of adjacent ground waters by
surface flows dedicated to the transport of
urban-industrial or agricultural waste
waters.
Experimental work on the dynamics of
fresh-salt water movement on either side
of an interface has included analytical and
experimental studies of the mixing of fresh
and saline waters near the interface under
field conditions and is now being reported
(14,15,16,17, 18, 19). In a current investi-
gation a parallel plate model is used to study
the distribution of these two types of water
in irrigated areas subject to upward seepage
of saline waters.
For the past 10 years studies of the dis-
posal of radioactive wastes have been in
progress in the SERLunder the sponsorship
of the Atomic Energy Commission, the Of-
fice of Civilian Defense Mobilization, and
the Public Health Service. Some of these
deal with the ground disposal of such wastes,
whereas others concern the problem of
radioactivity in contaminated surface waters
that may be used directly or ultimately be-
come mingled with the ground water through
natural or artificial recharge.
Studies (20, 21) of various systems for
the injection of radioactive wastes into deep
connate water-bearing formations are in
progress in both the laboratory and field.
Both tracer tests and laboratory ion-ex-
change studies have been conducted, the ob-
jective being a knowledge of the degree to
which various isotopes may be tied up by
various underground formations as a basis
for the design of underground disposal sys-
tems of predictable capacity. On a field
scale an inverted 5-spot pattern of wells
penetrating a 5-foot confined aquifer 100
feet below the ground surface has been in-
stalled at the Richmond Field Station of the
University. With it a simulated waste water
will be injected at a central well and treated
water removed from four corner wells. Ex-
plorations with tritium were started &
March 1961.
Studies pertinent to the problem of dis-
posal of wastes from increasing scientific*
medical, and industrial use of radioisotopes
are in progress. A current project seeks
to identify the parameters and to formulate
the relationships that describe the leakage
of radionuclides through ion-exchange col-
umns intended to decontaminate wastes. The
project also includes work on the develop-
ment of a rational bases for the design of
such ion-exchange systems.
A current study sponsored by the Office
of Civil Defense Mobilization on the decon-
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Research Studies
185
lamination of drinking water by ion exchange
is centered on radioyttrium, which because
of its tendency to form colloids presents
special problems. Column experiments in-
volving four different waters are in progress.
Two of the waters are natural, and two are
synthetic. The only cations present in the
latter are either sodium or calcium, to
facilitate correlation of the results with
theory.
SUMMARY
Despite the present impressive volume
of research, the need for research has been
growing faster than results are being pro-
duced. A summary of specific research
needs is the subject of another author so I
shall note only some areas of need. One of
these areas is the nature, significance, and
underground behavior of a growing list of
organic and inorganic microcontaminants.
In this connection I may cite an analogy with
air pollution where, after a long history of
study of the macroconstituentsof the atmos-
phere, the microcontaminants, about which
We know next to nothing, suddenly brought
us to both tears and disaster. In water con-
tamination again we have standard methods of
rnacroanalysis, but none at all for the com-
ing microproblems. The second major area
includes this whole matter of both the short-
term and long-term effects of liquid and
solid waste disposal practices, and indeed
the matter of all beneficial uses of a fixed
supply of water by an exploding urban-in-
dustrial population on the quality of our
Waters.' Both the mechanisms by which con-
tamination comes about and methods of con-
trol are in need of investigative work.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Appreciation is hereby expressed to my
fellow members of the staffs of the Sanitary
Hydraulic Engineering Laboratory of the
University of California, especially to Pro-
fessors Warren J. Kaufman, David K. Todd,
and Gerald T. Orlob, on whose writings I
have drawn freely in describing the experi-
mental work in progress. I have abridged
these writings in the interest of brevity,
perhaps at the expense of their original
clarity. Omission of any reference to the
work of other researchers in the field of
ground water contamination with which I am
familiar results from my interpretation of
the time limits and the scope of my assign-
ment on the program.
REFERENCES
1. Gotaas, H. B. et al. Investigation of
Travel of Pollution. Publication 11.
Calif. State Water Pollution Control
Board, Sacramento. 1954.
2. Greenberg, A. E., McGauhey, P. H., and
Gotaas, H. B. Field Investigation of
Waste Water Reclamation in Relation
to Ground Water Pollution. Publication
6. Calif. State Water Pollution Con-
trol Board, Sacramento. 1953.
3. Greenberg, A.E. and McGauhey, P. H.
An Investigation of Sewage Spreading
on Five California Soils. Tech. Bull.
12, I. E. R. Series 37, Issue 12. San.
Engr. Res. Lab., Univ. of Calif.,
Berkeley. 1955.
4. Orlob, G. T. and Krone, R. B. Move-
ment of Coliform Bacteria Through
Porous Media. Final Report. San.
Engr. Res. Lab., Univ. of Calif.,
Berkeley. 1956.
5. Todd, D. K., McGauhey, P. H., and Simp-
son, T. R. An Abstract of Literature
Pertaining to Sea Water Intrusion and
Its Control. Tech. Bull. 10, I.E.R.
Series 37, Issue 10. San. Engr. Res.
Lab., Univ. of Calif., Berkeley. 1953.
6. Harder, J. A. et al. Report on Labora-
tory and Model Studies of Sea Water
Intrusion. Tech. Bull. 11, I.E.R. Set-
ies 37, Issue 11. San. Engr. Res. Lab.,
Univ. of Calif., Berkeley. 1955.
7. McGauhey, P. H., Crosby, E. S., and
Klein, S. A. The Fate of Alkylben-
zenesulfonate in Sewage Treatment.
Final Report. San. Engr. Res. Lab.,
Univ. of Calif., Berkeley. 1957.
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186
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
8. McGauhey, P. H. and Klein, S. A. A
Study of Operating Variables as They
Affect ABS Removal by Sewage Treat-
ment Plants. Final Report. San. Engr.
Res. Lab., Univ. of Calif., Berkeley.
1960.
9. Winneber,ger, J. H., Francis, L., Klein,
S. A., and McGauhey, P. H. Biological
Aspects of Failure of Septic-Tank
Percolation Systems. Final Report.
San. Engr. Res. Lab., Univ. of Calif.,
Berkeley. 1960.
10. Carter, R. C., Todd, D. K., Orlob, G.T.,
and Kaufman, W. J. Measurement of
Helium in Ground Water Tracing.
Water Resources Center Contribution
21. San. Engr. Res. Lab., Univ. of
Calif., Berkeley. 1959.
11. Sanitary Engineering Research Labora-
tory, Univ. of Calif., Berkeley. News
Quarterly, 11(1): 5. January, 1961.
12. Todd, D. K. and Bear, J. River Seepage
Investigation. Water Resources Cen-
ter Contribution 20. Hydraulic Engr.
Lab., Univ. of Calif., Berkeley. 1959.
13. de Jong, G. de J., Todd, D. K., andHagen,
G. W. Permeability Tests of a Delta
Peat. Water Resources Center Con-
tribution 31. Hydraulic Engr. Lab.,
Univ. of Calif., Berkeley. In prepara-
tion.
14. de Jon, G. de J. Vortex Theory for
Multiple Phase Flow Through Porous
Media. Water Resources Center Con-
tribution 23. Hydraulic Engr. Lab.i
Univ. of Calif., Berkeley. 1959.
15. de Jong, G. de J. Singularity distribu-
tions for the analysis ofmultiple-fluid
flow through porous media. J. Geophys.
Research, 65:3739-3758. 1960.
16. Bear, J. and Todd, D. K. The Transition
Zone between Fresh and Salt Waters in
Coastal Aquifers. Water Resources
Center Contribution 29. Hydraulic
Engr. Lab., Univ. of Calif., Berkeley.
1960.
17. Bear, J. On the tensor form of disper-
sion in porous media. J. Geophys.
Research. In press.
18. Bear J. and Todd. D. K. Transition zone
of the interface in coastal aquifers.
Proc. Hydraulics Div., Amer. Soc.
Civil Engrs. In preparation.
19. Bear J. Some experiments in dispersion
J. Geophys. Research. In preparation.
20. Kaufman, W. J., Ewing, B. B., Kerrigan*
J. V., and Inoue, Y. Disposal of radio-
active wastes into deep geologic for-
mation. J. Water Poll. Control Fed.
33(1): 73-84. January, 1961.
21. Ray. A. D., and Kaufman, W. J. An In-
vestigation of Ion Exchange Treatment
of Strontium-90Contaminated Organic
Wastes. Preliminary Report. San.
Engr. Res. Lab., Univ. of Calif"
Berkeley. 1961.
SEWAGE RECLAMATION BY
PRESSURIZED RECHARGE OF AQUIFERS
J. E. McKee and W. R. Samples
California Institute of Technology
Sewage reclamation by pressurized re-
charge of aquifers is a research project in
its initial stages at the California Institute
of Technology under the direction of the
junior author and Dr. G. J. Mohanrao. The
research is being financed in part by'a
(RG-8084) from the National Institutes 01
Health. Inasmuch as no data are yet avail*
able, this paper will be limited to adescrip*
tion of what we hope to accomplish and
we intend to go about it.
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Research Studies
187
BACKGROUND
In arid areas, and especially in southern
California, the need for reclamation and re-
utilization of nonsaline waste waters is ap-
parent and urgent. Reutilization may be di-
rect, especially for agriculture and certain
industries, or it may be indirect, i. e. after
recharge to ground water basins where the
waste water loses its identity and blends
with natural waters. Most ground water,
however, occurs in deep confined aquifers
where it is not susceptible of recharge from
spreading basins at the surface. For such
recharging, it is possible to employ deep
wells perforated at the proper aquifers and
subjected to pressures.
The oil industry has had considerable
experience in the flooding and pressurizing
of oil-bearing sands with waste brines, but
not much of the information so developed is
applicable to the problems encountered in
sewage reclamation. In many instances,
however, brines have had to be treated
chemically and filtered through sand or
diatomite before they could be recharged.
With sewage, there are two major prob-
lems: (1) What degree of treatment is nec-
essary before sewage can be recharged
Without clogging the interstices of sand near
the well and what parameters are best able
to describe rechargeability, and (2) what is
the effect of travel through soil on the
chemical and biological contaminants in the
treated sewage.
The Los Angeles County Flood Control
District (LACFCD) presently is engaged in
a project to stop salt water intrusion of
fresh water aquifers by a line of recharge
Wells. Filtered and softened municipal water
now is being used for this purpose, but the
Wells are near the Hyperion sewage treat-
ment plant and possibly might be able to use
a high-grade effluent from that plant. The
LACFCD has conducted a few field tests to
determine the suitability of sewage for re-
charging, but the results were inconclusive
owing to limited time and budgets and the lack
°f proper controls and scientific testing.
The District is planning now to renew field
testing under the guidance of Caltech en-
gineers, with concurrent laboratory experi-
ments under controlled conditions in the
W. M. Keck Engineering Laboratories at
C. I. T. -
PROCEDURES
The field experiments, conducted and
supported financially by LACFCD, involve
the construction of a demonstration-type
rapid sand filter with automatic backwash
facilities to polish the highly oxidized ef-
fluent of the conventional activated-sludge
process at the renovated Hyperion plant.
This polished effluent will be recharged
through a 24-inch well, and the ground water
will be sampled at several observation wells
at varying distances. Samples also will be
taken of the Hyperion effluent before and
after sand filtration.
Samples will be taken routinely from the
final effluent of the Hyperion activated-
sludge plant, the same water after filtra-
tion through sand under controlled operating
conditions and different chemical treat-
ments and the water that is sampled from
observation wells at varying distances from
the injection well. Analyses of these sam-
ples will include BOD, suspended solids,
total solids, pH, turbidity, color, chlorides,
hardness, alkalinity, total bacteria, coliform
organisms, nitrogen components, syndets
(ABS), and the MF "clogging ratio." In ad-
dition, occasional tests will be run for heavy
metals, phenol, boron, fluoride, and other
constituents of possible interest. Personnel
of the LACFCD will measure hydraulic
parameters such as discharge, head losses
in filtration, backwashing characteristics,
injection heads, and the slope of thephreatic
line between observation wells.
It is recognized that the field tests pro-
vide little opportunity for controlled ex-
perimentation. For this reason, Caltech
personnel are constructing laboratory
models to simulate the flow of treated waste
waters through various types of porous media
under controlled conditions. The procedure
will involve passing an artificial sewage
plant effluent through soil columns and de-
termining the effects of such percolation on
the physical, chemical and biological quali-
ties of the sewage.
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188
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
The types of soils to be used in this study
will be limited to those that may be expected
in areas where recharge of waste water into
the ground is contemplated or proposed.
Soils similar to those found near the City
of Los Angeles' Hyperion activated-sludge
plant definitely will be used. Variables such
as permeability, exchange capacity, and
structure appear to be significant in the pro-
posed research.
The soil columns will be enclosed in sec-
tions of 8-inch asbestos-cement pipe with a
basic length of 2 feet. The short length will
simplify the packing process and result in a
more uniform permeability. The short seg-
ments are easily connected into any desired
length by use of the normal asbestos-cement
connectors and rubber rings. Multiplicity in
length will allow detention times to be varied.
One further advantage of small segments
is that they may be easily sterilized so that
tests free from any biological effects maybe
conducted to determine the ion-exchange
properties of the soil, to investigate physical
removal by filtration, and to determine any
solubility effects.
Material for the casings of the columns
presents a problem because of the wide
variety of conditions it must withstand. As-
bestos cement is believed to give the de-
sired inertness and is much more econom-
ical than other available materials that
would withstand the rigors of the tests.
Waste water will be artificially prepared
to duplicate as closely as possible a filtered
effluent from a secondary-type sewage treat-
ment plant. The use of artificial effluent
will allow reproducibility of test conditions
and control of single variables. Large por-
tions of this artificial waste water or "stock"
may be sterilized and stored for extended
periods, thus eliminating the necessity for
continually obtaining actual plant effluent.
The use of a "stock" also permits the ad-
dition of any desired biological flora to the
soil column.
The variability of biological flora will
permit the addition of specific organisms in
order that particular substances may be de-
graded. One aim of the proposed research
is to determine whether accelerated re-
movals of certain biologically decomposable
constituents can be obtained by increasing
the populations of certain species of or-
ganisms.
Flow through the column will be sampled
through ports located in each 2-foot section
of the pipe. Samples of influent and final ef-
fluent also will be taken. Routine analyses
will be conducted for suspended solids,
turbidity, color, chlorides, hardness, pH,
and alkalinity. Special considerations will
be given to the CaCOs saturation index,
biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen
demand, the components of the nitrogen
cycle, detergents, dissolved oxygen, bio-
logical flora, phenol, boron, and heavy
metals. Hydraulic losses through the col-
umn also will be recorded.
Proposed test variables, some of which
have been mentioned previously, are as
follows:
1. Soil column variability, both in chem-
ical and physical constitution and also
in permeability.
2. Rate of waste water flow through soil.
3. Detention times of waste in column.
4. Biological flora, which may be varied
from sterile to that typical of sewag6
plant effluents. Seeding with specific
organisms also will be attempted.
5. Concentrations of ammonia, nitrite*
and nitrate.
6. Variations in synthetic detergent con-
centrations.
7. Changes in anaerobic and aerobic con-
ditions.
It is intended that biological data v^1
include viruses as well as bacteria. Durin»
the initial stages of the project, biologic3^
information will be restricted to total bac-
terial count and coliform concentration
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Research Studies
189
After the project is under way and operating
routinely, an effort will be made to include
analyses of viruses. This phase of the proj-
ect will be under the supervision of Dr. K.R.
Johansson.
DISCUSSION
Sewage reclamation at the present time
is becoming a reality and certainly will be
continued and expanded in the future. Ex-
tensive research conducted by both univer-
sities and public agencies has demonstrated
that sewage reclamation is feasible on a
large scale if certain criteria can be met
economically. The most feasible methods
that have been proposed to the present time
appear to be surface spreading or injection
to the underground. Both methods use flow
through the underground and depend upon
subsequent pumping to make the waste water
available for reuse.
The major problems encountered, or
those that may be expected in a project
wherein sewage plant effluent is charged to
the underground, are (1) clogging of pores,
thus decreasing the flow rate and/or in-
creasing the head loss, (2) high concentra-
tions of nitrate, and (3) excessive amounts of
syndets. Additional problem constituents
such as boron, phenols, heavy metals,
Viruses, etc., also may occur in certain in-
stances. In this project attempts will be
ttiade to uncover basic information concern-
ing the three major problems by analysis of
the concentrations of the various con-
stituents.
The clogging problem, which may be
caused by several distinct processes in-
cluding removal of suspended particles,
Precipitation of CaCOs resulting from a
Positive saturation index, biological growths,
^d changes in soil characteristics, will be
studied in relation to the improvement noted
to water quality. These data for various
types of soil will aid in determining the de-
gree and type of polishing treatment that
should be applied to an effluent before it is
allowed to pass to the underground.
Since biological degradation plays an
important role in sewage reclamation, the
possibility of maximizing the benefits of this
degradation and minimizing the clogging re-
sulting from the growths is a very practical
problem that will be investigated.
The removal of syndets has been shown
to occur in activated-sludge plants and is
viewed as a biological phenomenon. If a
mechanism is active in decomposing syndets
in an aeration tank, the same mechanism
also may operate in the underground. The
proposed method of procedure will allow
for the differentiation between adsorptive and
biological removals.
Nitrates, which cause methemoglobin-
emia, present a problem in sewage recla-
mation. Denitrification is possible, and
attempts will be made to determine the
feasibility of using such a process in the
underground.
SUMMARY
The research described in this paper is
intended to provide further information about
two important aspects of sewage reclama-
tion by the pressurized recharge of aquifers:
(1) the physical, chemical, and biological
parameters of treated sewage that militate
against recharge by clogging, the interstices
of soil near the well and (2) the changes in
quality that occur as recharged sewage
passes through soil of various types. It is
an ambitious project that will probably un-
cover many more problems than it will
solve, but at least it should shed some light
on an aspect of waste water reclamation that
is greatly in need of quantitative evaluation.
-------
190
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
ABS IN GROUND WATER
R. H. Harmeson, Illinois State Water Survey
Surveys have been made in several areas
of the nation to establish the concentrations
of ABS in both surface and ground waters.
Duringthe summer of 1959, the Metropolitan
Sanitary District of Greater Chicago made a
study (1) of the Illinois Waterway from
Chicago to Pekin, Illinois. The results of
this study indicated that within the upper-
most 50 miles of the waterway the concen-
tration of ABS increased because of addi-
tions from the many communities located
near the waterway. Downstream from this
point, the processes of biological degrada-
tion, adsorption, and settling were such that
concentrations of ABS in the river gradually
declined despite additions by downstream
communities. At the Franklin Street Bridge
in Peoria samples showed that concentra-
tions of ABS in the Illinois River ranged
from 0.22 to 0.96 mg/1, with the mean con-
centration in all samples collected during
June, July, and August, 1959, equalling about
0.52 mg/1.
The presence of ABS in the river at
Peoria is of interest because, late in 1959,
the local water company started withdrawal
of part of its supply directly from the river.
On an average, between 5 and 6 'million
gallons per day (mgd) of water are taken
from the river into the newly erected sur-
face water treatment plant. Of more inter-
est in this discussion are the opportunities
for the contaminant ABS to be transmitted
from the river to the ground water supply.
Ground water pumpage at Peoria in 1959
averaged 41.5. Ground water is withdrawn
from three well fields, all of which are lo-
cated near the river. ABS may be trans-
mitted by natural infiltration methods to all
three fields and by means of artificial re-
charge, which is used extensively in the
North and Central Well Fields.
DESCRIPTION OF AREA
In the North Well Field, the water com-.
pany operates a recharge pit near their main
treatment and pumping station, which is lo-
cated at the Narrows between the two lakes
of the Illinois River. This pit is operated
throughout the year. Within the same well
field, a short distance downstream, a paper
bag manufacturer intermittently operates
another recharge pit. In 1959 the average
daily recharge of these two pits was 42 per-
cent of the average daily ground water pump-
age (7.7 mgd) from the well field.
Farther downstream, in the Central Well
Field, there are on State Water Survey prop-
erty two recharge pits that are operated by
the city only during the cooler months of the
year. The Central Well Field is the largest
and from it the greatest ground water with-
drawals are made. Here, the average daily
artificial recharge in 1959 was about 8 per-
cent of the average daily ground water
pumpage (28.5 mgd). Ground water gradients
in this well field are norm ally southwesterly
in direction from the recharge pits, roughly
parallel to the river, and toward two pump-
age centers: one at the Hiram Walker's
distillery and the other near Commercial
Solvents Corporation or the water company's
Dodge Street Wells.
SURVEY METHODS AND ANALYSES
The concentrations of ABS found in the
Illinois River at Peoria indicated that in-
formation should be sought on the amounts
of ABS being transmitted to ground water by
artificial recharge methods.
From September 1959 to September
1960, samples of river water were collected
weekly near the Peoria Water Works Com-
pany treatment plant and at the intake to the
Water Survey's recharge pits. Ground water
samples were collected in the Central Well
Field from the Survey's Test Well No. 19,
from several of Hiram Walker's wells, from
the water company's Dodge Street wells,
and from Commercial Solvents Corporation
Well No. 7.
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Research Studies
191
Test Well No. 19 is located within 90
feet of the Survey's recharge pits and about
400 feet from the river. Hiram Walker's
Well No. 2 is 1000 icet from the pits and
within 250 feet of the river. Hiram Walker's
FRANKLIN ST BRIDGE 16.7,8/601
STATE WATER SURVEY .:
(9/39 TO 9/601-v /
50 90 99 99,9 99 99
OF SAMPLES
FIGURE 1. INDICATED ABS CONCENTRATION IN'
SAMPLES FROM ILLINOIS RIVER AT PEORIA
Well No. 5 is 1800 feet from the pits and 750
feet from the river. Commercial Solvent's
Well No. 7 is 9600 feet from the pits and
2000 feet from the river. Because of varia-
tions in pumping schedules, it was impos-
sible to collect more than 35 samples from
either of the two Hiram Walker wells
sampled.
The concentration of AUS in samples was
determined by the direct methylene blue ex-
traction procedure. Reference standards
were prepared from material containing
62.4 percent ABS.
RESULTS OF SURVEY
The determined ABS concentrations have
been plotted on a logarithmic probability
scale in Figures 1, 2, and 3. Table 1 shows
the range and mean concentration of ABS
found at the different sampling locations.
a.
a
u>
10
S.W.S. RECHARGE PITS
HIRAM WALKER NO. 5
0 1000 3000 5000
^SZ=^^=i
SCALE IN FEET
COMMERCIAL
SOLVENTS N0.7
STATE WATER SURVEY NO. 19
HIRAM WALKER NO. 2
NOTE '. ABS CONCENTRATION EQUAL TO
OR LESS THAN THAT INDICATED.
fh I rtil llfcitk aicuda
01
I / 10 50 90 99 99.9 99.99
PERCENT OF SAMPLES
FIGURE 2. INDICATED ABS CONCENTRATION IN SAMPLES FROM GROUND WATER AT PEORIA
-------
192
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
PERCENT OF SAMPLES
FIGURE 3. INDICATED ASS CONCENTRATION IN
SAMPLES OF PEORIA TAP WATER
Table 1. ABS CONCHNTRATIONS AT SAMPLING
LOCATIONS, PEORIA, ILLINOIS
Sampling Location
Mini- Maxi-
mum mum ' Mean
Illinois River-Franklin St. Bridge 0.22 0.96 0.51
(June -August 1959)
Illinois River-SWS Laboratory 0.1
(Sept., 1959 - Sept., 1960)
SWS Test Well No. 19
(Sept.,1959-Sept.,1960)
Iliram Walker Well No. 2
(Sept., 1959 - Sept., 1960)
Hiram Walker Well No. 5
(Sept., 1959 - Sept., 1960)
Commercial Solvents Well No. 7 0
(Sept., 1959 - Sept., 1960)
Tap Water - Pcoria Laboratory 0
(Sept., 1959 - Sept., 1960)
0.72 0.31
0.09 0.51 0.24
0.03 0.33 0.07
0
0.14 0.05
0.11 0.02
0.40 0.07
ABS in Surface Water
The levels of ABS found in the Illinois
River at Peoria during this survey were
somewhat lower than those found by the
Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater
Chicago in the summer of 1959. These dif-
ferences were caused by the lower flows in
the river during the summer of 1959. A
rough correlation exists between discharge
measurements and ABS concentrations, with
ABS levels generally less at higher flow
rates.
ABS in Ground Water
At sampling points more distant from
the pits the ABS content may be lower as the
result of adsorption on the soils of the
aquifer, biologic action, and dilution by
ground water. The samples collected during
this survey showed that ABS concentrations
in ground water are lower at greater dis-
tances from the recharge pits, but the rela-
tive controlling factors are not defined
clearly.
Indications are that during artificial re-
charge periods the ground water near the
pits in Well No. 19 is almost completely of
river origin. During ground water movement
from the pits to Well No. 19, about 25 to 30
percent of the ABS is removed from the re-
charged water. Crude experiments in the
laboratory on the ability of native soils to
remove ABS from recharged water have in-
dicated that soils from the pit area may be
expected to remove between 15 and 25 per-
cent of the ABS transmitted through them.
Because the concentration ofsulfate remains
practically unchanged from the river to the
ground water in Well No. 19, it is assumed
that ABS removal is primarily mechanical in
nature.
The Public Health Service made a car-
bon filter study of river water and water
from Well No. 19, which provided further
evidence of the similarity between the two.
Carbon filters were operated for a month
during March of 1959. The organic con-
taminants recovered from those filters indi-
cated that the amount and character of the
materials in the two samples were essen-
tially similar.
Figure 2 shows that further reductions
in ABS concentrations are associated with
movement farther away from the recharge
pits. At the greater distances, die processes
by which reductions in ABS concentration
are effected are almost impossible to identify
because they are complexed by variations in
pumpage, by changes in ground water move-
ment, and by natural infiltration from the
river. The variability in the concentrations
of ABS found in the wells at a distance from
the recharge pits is shown by the nature of
the curves in Figure 2. Of ground water
-------
Research Studies
193
samples collected from locations more than
1000 feet from the pits, 60 percent showed
relatively insignificant ABS concentrations.
Because the Peoria water supply has be-
come a mixture of treated surface water,
artificially recharged water, and naturally
infiltered ground water, samples of tap
water at the Peoria Laboratory were ana-
lyzed to determine the concentrations of ABS
that might be expected in the distributed
supply. Figure 3 shows rather extreme
variability in the ABS concentrations found
and indicates that as much as 60 percent of
them could be classified as insignificant.
SUMMARY
The Illinois River, which is the direct
source of part of Peoria's water supply and
which furnishes water for artificial recharge
in two well fields, contains ABS.
ABS enters the water supply distribution
system through the water treatment plant
and from wells that obtain water from
aquifers recharged from the river by either
natural or artificial means, or both.
The concentrations of ABS found in
samples of artificially recharged ground
water have not been critical insofar as the
requirements of the new Public Health Ser-
vice Drinking Water Standards are con-
cerned. As would be expected, the highest
concentrations of ABS in ground water have
been found near the recharge pits, and even
here 94 percent of the samples analyzed
were found to contain less than the recom-
mended upper limit of 0.5 mg/1 ABS. At
distances of 1000 feet from die pits and be-
yond, no ground water samples were found
to contain more than 0.35 mg/1 ABS. And,
in the Dodge Street wells, which supplied 5
of the total 23.4 mgd municipal supply for
Peoria in 1959, die highest ABS concentra-
tion found in 26 samples was 0.03 mg/1.
Of more concern than the ABS concentra-
tions found in these ground water samples
is the probable presence of other undis-
covered organic contaminants and the pos-
sibility that these other contaminants may
increase in concentration as artificial re-
charge is continued. For instance, the
chloroform solube carbon filter extract
(CCE) (2) from the one carbon filter run
made by Public Health Service personnel
showed 0.178 mg/1 in the sample taken from
Test Well No. 19. We don't know whether
this has decreased or increased.
Additional studies of the organic con-
taminants transmitted to ground water are
indicated. Most pressing are the needs for
suitable methods for detecting and analysing
ground water for organic contaminants.
REFERENCES
1. Hurwitz, E., et al. "Assimilation of ABS
by an Activated Sludge Treatment
Plant-Waterway System," Journal
WPCF, 32:10:1111-1119, 1960.
2. Private communication with personnel of
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering
Center, 1959.
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION STUDIES
AT THE SANITARY ENGINEERING CENTER
G. G. Robeck, Sanitary Engineering Center
Well water contamination by synthetic
detergents has been reported many times in
the literature within the last few years (1,
2, 3). Because of diis development, the fate
of these biologically resistant materials and
their influence upon other contaminants have
been of concern to many health officials. To
determine the interrelationship of contam-
inants, soil types, dosing rates, and inter-
vals, small-scale soil-column studies have
-------
194
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
been conducted at the Center since the spring
of 1959. This paper will touch on the high-
lights of the work as it has been developed
both in the laboratory and in the Pilot Plant
Wing.
MOVEMENT OF COLIFORMS
AND ABS IN GROUND WATER
The first experiment was confined to ob-
serving the influence of alkyl benzene sul-
fonate (ABS) on the movement of coliforms
through a 10-foot water-saturated sand col-
umn. This seemed to be one of the most
pressing problems and perhaps the easiest
to tackle from an apparatus and operation
standpoint. To further ease the complexity
of the first experiment, an effort was made
to use synthetic and thus reproducible solu-
tions or suspensions, plus a soil (Chilli-
cothe, Ohio, sand) that was essentially a
clean silica sand normally sold for rapid
sand filters. The characteristics of the feed
water and disinfected sands used are pre-
sented in Tables 1,2, and 3. The concentra-
tions of pure ABS in the sand were usually
at or below 10 mg/1, and the number of fresh
coliforms introduced daily with the 1 liter of
de - ionized water ranged from 10,000 to
20,000 per ml. Chlorides, 100 mg/1, also
were introduced to check the water flow-
through time. Since it was thought that total
time of contact as well as flow rate (0.3 fpd)
within the soil might have influence on the
survival or persistence of ABS or coliforms,
a 10-foot column length was selected, and
thus there was a 35-day holdup time within
the Chillicothe sand column.
Two of the three 6-inch-diameter col-
umns of sand were used as controls to indi-
cate the movement of ABS or coliforms with-
out the other contaminant present, and the
third column was for tests with the mixed
contaminants.
Samples were collected at 1- to 2-foot
intervals, first to check the chloride front,
and later ABS and coliform levels.
ABS traveled through both columns of
clean Chillicothe sand about half as fast as
chlorides but arrived at any depth much
Table 1. DAILY FEED WATER CHARACTERISTICS a
Newtown sand (7/59 to 9/60)
Characteristics
PH
Alkalinity, mg/1
Peptone, mg/1
COD, mg/lb
ABS, mg/1
(avg with std deviation)
Chlorides
Coliform per ml (avg)
Flow rate, fpd
(1 Ipd or 0.67 ml/min)
Temperature,°F
Column
1
6.7-7.3
2-8
0
0
9.65+1.2
c
0
0.4
From
Column
2
6.7-7.3
2-8
50
50
9.45^1.2
c
17,000
0.4
Column
3
6.7-7.3
2-8
50
50
0
c
12,500
0.4
Free chlorine residual
68-90, Room Temperature
Trace I 0 I 0
Newtown sand (7/60 to 10/60)
PH
Alkalinity, mg/1
Peptone, mg/1
COD, mg/1
ABS35§ mg/! b (avg)
Chlorides
Coliform per ml (avg)
Flow rate, fpd
Temperature, °F
Chlorine residual
Column
4
6.7-7.3
2-8
0
0
10.9
c
0
0.8
Trace
Column
5
6.7-7.3
2-8
50
50
10.6
c
13,300
0.8
68-90
0
Column
6
6.7-7.3
2-8
50
50
0
c
12,600
0.8
0
a Similar water fed to columns with Chillicothe sand
(3/59 to 6/59).
b Sampled daily.
c 100 mgA chlorides fed to all columns first 4 weeks.
sooner than coliforms. The organisms did
not penetrate beyond 2 to 4 feet in the 67
days of the first test, and 10 mg/1 ABS did
not influence significantly the arrival time
or concentration of coliforms.
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Research Studies
195
Table 2. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
CHILLICOTHE AND NEWTOWN. OHIO. SANDS
Characteristics
Effective size, mm
Uniformity coefficient
Specific surface area
(estimated), cm^/g
Sieve analysis
Stearic acid
adsorption analysis
Porosity as placed, °/o
Chillicothe
0.38
1.37
49
268
52
Newtown
0.18
1.8
110
2048
43
Table 3. SUMMARY OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF
OF SANDS
Percent of air-dry weight
Since some ABS seemed to be retained
on the sand, the second experiment was con-
ducted with a much finer sand so that the
influence of surface area on the removal of
both ABS and colifcrms could be checked.
This sand, obtained at Newtown, Ohio, was
remarkably different in another way. It had
a 17.6 percent loss on ignition at 700°C, due
almost entirely to calcium and magnesium
carbonates, and thus was quite soluble in
the low-buffered feed water.
After 417 days the ABS level in the ef-
fluent of the Newton sand filter was still not
up to 10 mg/1. Indications were that nega-
tive chemical interferences were causing
this depression at all depths so the ex-
periment was stopped. A material balance
for ABS was then sought by extraction of the
material from small representative portions
of sand at 2-foot intervals. Initially, re-
covery was poor; however, radioactive sul-
fur-35 was used subsequently in the ABS
(ABS^S), and thus some of the interferences
experienced with the methylene blue analyt-
ical procedure were eliminated. The ABS
was extracted off the sand in three 8-hour
periods (instead of one) and recovery was
good. It was then apparent that this Newtown
sand had a much higher capacity (10-20
Hg/g) for retention of ABS than the Chilli -
cothe sand, which retained only about 3 ug
per gram.
Constituent
Chillicothe
Newtown
Moisture at 110°C
Loss on ignition at 700°C
Carbon
Organic matter
Nitrogen (N)
Phosphorus (P2O5)
Potassium (K2O)
Sodium (Na2O)
Silica (Si02)
Iron (Fe2Os)
Aluminum (A IgOs)
Titanium (TiOg)
Calcium (CaO)
Mignesium (MgO)
Sulfate (SO4)
Chloride (Cl)
Carbonates (COs)
Summation a
Acid solubility
(AWWA Std Method)
0.021
0.144
0.033
0.057
-
0.0041
nil
nil
97.39
9.155
1.99
0.038
0.127
0.040
0.155
0.003
0.007
99.908
0.03
a Major elements expressed as oxide
moisture and loss on ignition.
0.115
17.57
0.20
0.34
0.004
0.013
0.47
0.34
50.72
1.85
6.27
0.17
14.8
6.20
0.422
0.010
16.0
98.518
40.4
plus percentage
Static tests conducted in beakers and
intermittently operated flow-through col-
umn studies both indicated that the retention
o'f ABS on Newtown sand was also very time
dependent. Equilibrium, for instance, was
not reached in 28 days of static tests. There-
fore, hydraulic rate will influence greatly
the arrival time of 1 mg/1 ABS in this sand.
To illustrate this point, other runs were
made at 6, 3, 1.5, and 0.8 feet per day in-
stead of 0.4 foot per day, and the arrival
times did decrease.
-------
196
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
During the 417-day run with Newtown
sand at 0.4 foot per day, the coliform or-
ganisms did not penetrate much beyond 6
feet. Flows of 008 foot per day did decrease
the arrival time at 4 feet from 114 days to
82 days, but in both runs the presence of
ABS caused no significant difference in the
arrival time or in the concentration of coli-
form s (see Table 4).
Conversely, the coliforms and a few
protozoa did not alter significantly the con-
did retain about 100 times more ABS than
clean sand. This soil has a specific sur-
face area about 100 to 200 times that of the
sands.
These results suggest that perhaps the
place and frequency of dosing these con-
taminants into the ground may have a lot to
do with buildup of organic solids, and thus
retention of ABS. This prompted work on the
unsaturated regions of the ground and on the
influence of rate and frequency of dosing.
Table 4. ARRIVAL TIME IN DAYS FOR COLIFORM a AT VARIOUS LEVELS IN SAND
IN AN UPFLOW COLUMN WITH OR WITHOUT ABS PRESENT
Distance, ft
0.5
1
2
4
6
8
10
Chillicothe sand
(Flow rate, 0.3 fpd)
ABS No ABS
-
6 11
68 62
69 69
(Flow
ABS
-
16
63
114
196
417
Newtown
rate, 0.4 fpd)
No ABS
-
15
70
114
231
417
sand
(Flow rate, 0.8 fpd)
ABS No ABS
9
41
60
82
119
9
41
60
82
119
(Flow rate, 0)
ABS
0
0
a When at least 2 coliform per nil showed up in a liquid sample and feed
water contained 10,000 to 20,000 coliform per nil.
centration of ABS. At one point, when all the
ABS could not be accounted for, there was
some thought that this deficit was partially
due to biological degradation; however, the
parallel control column with its sterile solu-
tion of ABS35 showed the same level of ABS
as the seeded column. Furthermore, the
fate of the S^5 used in making up the ABS was
followed throughout the run and it was pos-
sible to demonstrate that no significant
splitting off or formation of byproducts con-
taining S35 occurred.
To further check the adsorption variation
of ABS with different soils, static tests were
conducted with two reference clays, two
Long Island sands, calcium carbonate, and
one highly organic soil. Preliminary results
indicate that the clays did not take on ABS
in proportion to their surface area; however,
the soil with 20 to 24 percent organic matter
FATE OF ORGANICS AND
COLIFORMS IN SEEPAGE BEDS
A 3-foot-diameter column with 4 feet of
Newtown sand and gravel was arranged to
simulate a subsurface disposal system that
normally is used to handle a septic tank ef-
fluent. This column was dosed each day with
5 gallons, all within 25 minutes, of septic
tank effluent containing about 10 mg/1 ABS.
After 9 months of operation, no ABS was
present in the effluent and only 1 to 10 coli-
forms per ml had appeared during the eighth
month. During passage through the bed, am-
monia was converted to nitrates, practically
all suspended solids and BOD were removed,
some color persisted, and the COD was re-
duced 90 percent. Within this time 60
grams of ABS was put into the bed; this
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Research Studies
197
means that approximately 60 ug of ABS was
retained on each gram of soil-slime mix-
ture, or 4 to 5 times more than on Newtown
sand alone.
Ponding in the subsurface gravel bed indi-
cated that clogging was progressive but not
rapid. The ponding during dosing reached a
point of temporary failure in about 300 days.
Dosing has been accelerated to speed up the
passage of ABS and coliforms and to achieve
a complete clogging of die bed. Indications
from these results are that the dosing cycle
or a rest period to provide aeration may be
important if the soil is to be used to the ut-
most. In further tests, therefore, other
similar 3-foot columns will be used and the
dosing rate and pattern varied, even to the
use of spray irrigation. Various types of
soils, bed depths, and radioactive-tagged
organic contaminants will be used in future
studies so that the usefulness or limitations
of soil as a means of disposal of new as well
as old pollutants can be predicted.
VIRUS MOVEMENT IN GROUND WATER
It would have been desirable to have in-
cluded virus in all the experiments dis-
cussed, but unfortunately this was not pos-
sible, since the normal die-off in a week or
month is too high to make an experiment
lasting 25 to 35 days meaningful.
A separate apparatus, therefore, was
set up to determine the fate of Type I polio
virus in ground water that is moving slowly
through sand. Since about 10 percent of
these 10,000 to 30,000 virus units per ml
die in 24 hours, a flow rate of 3 to 4 feet
per day was selected so that the water
would pass completely through a 2-foot bed
of sand in less dian a day. Parallel columns
of Newtown and Chillicothe sand were used
for these studies also.
Initial runs indicated very little passage
of polio virus in 50 hours. It then seemed
necessary to see if there was a saturation
point where the capacity of the sand to hold
virus would be exceeded. For this part of
the study the virus suspension was mixed
with the seepage bed effluent described in
the previous section. After survival studies
indicated the Type I polio virus count would
remain reasonably high for 1 day in this
waste water at room temperature, a con-
tinuous feeding of 10,000 to 30,000 virus
units was started upflow through both sand
columns. A fresh virus suspension was
made up each day. The first appearance of
1 to 12 virus units in the effluent did not oc-
cur until flow had continued for 6 weeks in
the Chillicothe sand and for 15 weeks in the
Newtown sand; in fact, the virus count has
not changed significantly in 6 months of con-
tinuous feeding.
Future plans are to check the influence
of ABS, hydraulic rates, and soil types on
movement of viruses through unsaturated
and saturated zones. These studies may
give some indication of removalmechanisms.
SUMMARY
Studies of small flow-through sand col-
umns indicated that 10 mg/1 ABS has no
significant influence on the survival or
movement of coliforms through homo-
geneously packed sand that is water sat-
urated.
The retention or movement of ABS in
some soils was shown to be related to speci-
fic surface area, time of exposure, and per-
haps to organic content.
The survival or movement of 10 mg/1
ABS in a water-saturated sand is not altered
significantly by the presence of coliforms.
The point and manner of discharging
waste waters into the ground appear to be
important in the disposal of biologically
resistant materials; therefore, much more
laboratory and field research is needed in
this area.
REFERENCES
1. Flynn, J., Andreoli, A, and Guerrera, A.
"Study of Synthetic Detergents in
Ground Water." Journal AWWA 50:
1551 (Dec. 1958) ~~
2. Deluty, Jerome, "Synthetic Detergents in
Well Water," Public Health Reports,
75:75(1960)
3. Walton, Graham, "Effects of Pollutants
in Water Supplies - ABS Contamin-
ation." Journal AWWA 52:1354 (Nov.
1960)
-------
198
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
RESEARCH IN GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY
AND ITS RELATION TO NUCLEAR ENERGY WASTES
A. E. Peckham, U. S. Geological Survey
J. A. Lieberman, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission
Present research in ground water geology
and hydrology, sponsored by the Atomic
Energy Commission, is largely concerned
with the movement of radionuclides into the
subsurface where they constitute a potential
source of ground water contamination. A
substantial part of the research to date has
been composed of laboratory model studies,
analog models, and other theoretical and
mathematical studies. Many of these studies
have provided us with improved under-
standing of the microhydrogeologic aspects
of ground water movement, both above and
below the. water table. These include (1)
mechanisms of dispersion below the water
table, (2) range of rates of movement of
ground water through a heterogeneous
aquifer, and (3) factors affecting spreading
and downward percolation of water in the
zone of aeration. Although our understand-
ing of these problems is far from complete,
it is possible to apply our present knowledge
to actual field situations. When more ac-
curate and complete field information is ob-
tained, we can further evaluate the adequacy
of the analytical tools, such as models,
computers, and equations, in our ultimate
aim to predict what happens under various
hydrogeologic situations. If our laboratory
and theoretical studies do not enable us to
predict adequately hydrologic and geo-
chemical processes and phenomena, we are
not likely to remedy these deficiencies until
we take a closer look at a number of differ-
ent specific mesohydrogeologic settings in
the field. Our inabilities stem as much from
our lack of understanding and inadequate def-
inition of these natural settings as from our
present knowledge of man-made models and
formulae.
Local Studies
Recent workbyBierschenkis sufficiently
descriptive of the subsurface mesohydro-
geologic framework at Hanford that his
analysis of the data begins to give a good
local picture of the directions and rates of
ground water movement at that site. At
least, in a general way, we can predict what
effect certain external influences such as in-
creased water inflow may have on ground
water movement and on the movement of
radioactive waste constituents that have been
disposed of at Hanford.
Dr. W. J. Kaufman at the University of
California has tested the behavior of differ-
ent labels that may be used in hydrogeologic
investigations where the effects of density,
temperature, and exchange or sorption
phenomena are important. His work has
included the injection of several different
tracers, into a well-described, thin, con-
fined aquifer in conjunction with a skillfully
planned and engineered well field. These
studies are directly indicative of behavior
only under the specific mineralogic, sedi-
mentational, and hydrodynamic, conditions,
including porosity, permeability, and head
distribution, where the tests were conducted.
Their application elsewhere is limited to the
extent that other areas may resemble the
hydrogeologic regimen where these tests
have been made. This qualification does not
diminish the value of these studies. Recog-
nition of the limitations of this or other work
is necessary to derive maximum transfer
value when other environments are con-
sidered.
At the National Reactor Testing Station
in Idaho, the U. S. Geological Survey is
studying the movement of wastes in the
zone of saturation downgradient from adis-
posal well at the Idaho Chemical Processing
Plant. The movement of wastes below the
MTR-ETR(testing reactors) effluent seepage
basin also is being studied. This second
phase involves the downward percolation
through joints and other fractures in the
basalt to the regional water table, which is
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Research Studies
199
more than 450 feet below land surface. Here
are some of the questions:
1. How much opportunity do dissolved
constituents moving through a highly
fractured basalt, such as that in the
Snake River Plain, have to come in
close enough contact with the forma-
tion material for exchange reactions
to take place?
2. What kind of exchange sites are avail-
able on or near the surf ace of the frac-
tured basalt blocks, and how effective
will they be in removing radionuclides
from circulation or in delaying the
movement of these radionuclides?
3. What fracture pattern or randomness
exists in the basalt, and what is the
distribution, extent, and nature of the
joints and other fractures?
Tritium
One of the most promising labels for use
in hydrologic research is tritium. As an
isotope of hydrogen, it combines with oxygen
and can move anywhere water or water
vapor will move. Because of its density,
however, it tends to be subject to isotopic
fractionation. Thus it is difficult to deter-
mine how frequently or how many times it
might pass from liquid to vapor phase while
moving through a given portion of the zone
of aeration. The possibility of repeated
transition between the liquid and vapor phases
may limit the usefulness of tritium in soil
moisture studies, at least until the behavior
of tritium under natural conditions can be
defined more fully than it has been to date.
The use of tritium in environmental studies
involving ground water in the zone of satura-
tion appears to be quite advantageous, and
further research and development along such
lines seems warranted.
Chromatography
The investigations atHanford, Oak Ridge,
and the Savannah River Plant have shown
that particular nuclides move more freely
than others in one environment, but in some
other geologic and hydrologic setting a
particular nuclide may be the more or less
mobile. Some generalizations are possible,
and the more fundamental ones are well
known.
Information has been developed, on the
behavior of strontium, cesium, ruthenium,
iodine, and some other elements that occur
as radionuclides in nuclear wastes. Prout's
work at the Savannah River Plant and that of
Tamura and Jacobs at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory are notable. Also work by
Naeser, May, Carroll, Schnepfe, and Barker,
of the Geological Survey, has contributed to
the knowledge ofsorption of radionuclides on
different minerals, including kaolinite,
vermiculite, glauconite, montmorillonite
"illite," ORNL soils, etc.
The Chemical Effluents Technology group
of Hanford Laboratories, the University of
North Carolina, the U. S. Geological Survey
at Washington, D. C., and Denver, the Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, the University
of California, and groups at the Savannah
River Plant and at Los Alamos, are engaged
in investigations related to ion exchange and
fixation of radionuclides in mineral sub-
stances and in studies of chromatographic
segregation of radionuclides by sorption
processes. Some of this work is an effort
to establish decontamination processes to be
used before discharge of wastes to natural
environments. Much more understanding is
needed of the chromatographic processes in
natural formations and aquifers, both above
and below the water table. This understand-
ing would enable a better assessment of the
burden that can be borne safely by different
natural environments, to assure against the
spread of hazardous concentrations of radio-
nuclides from waste disposal operations.
This area presents an exceedingly complex
series of problems and a wide variety of
factors, including changing pH, temperature,
mineralogy, and rates of flow. Professor
Henry Thomas, at the University of North
Carolina, has outlined a long series of ex-
periments that need to be made in this field
and that should be a challenge to any re-
search-minded chemist or geochemist.
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200
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Hydrodynamics
"Work by E.S. Simpson on the mechanics
of dispersion will be helpful in furthering
our quantitative understanding of the dis-
persal process, which has been a contro-
versial problem. Most theories, formulae,
and early quantitative studies did not recog-
nize fully the multiple dividing and redivid-
ing of flow lines during the movement of
ground water through granular porous ma-
terial. H. E. Skibitzke has also worked on
this problem and has determined an angle of
dispersion of about 6 degrees in homo-
geneous sand models cemented with epoxy
resin. Skibitzke used phosphorous-32 as a
tracer, introduced at the point source. In
actual field situations, Bierschenk's work at
Hanford in glacio-fluviatile deposits indi-
cates a dispersion angle of as much as 30
degrees in this heterogeneous material. It
is likely that die included angle might be as
much as 60 degrees from the point source
"injection" well. Work at the National Re-
actor Testing Station may show even wider
dispersion in the highly fractured Snake River
basalt. The spread may be so great in some
situations that a question might be asked as
to whether it should be called dispersion or
simply spreading - especially if it is pos-
sible that some turbulent flow is taking place
in these aquifers where previously all flow
was assumed to be laminar. Other possible
semantic solutions could class wide dis-
persion as "channeled permeability" or
"divergent paths of preferred permeability."
The result is wide dispersal through pos-
sibly much larger volumes of earth material
than had earlier been recognized. This,
of course, leads to the consideration of
selective sorption and desorption phenomena.
It must be recognized immediately that the
involvement of large volumes of earth ma-
terial does not necessarily yield corres-
pondingly large decontamination factors due
to sorption. The reason is that the surface
areas available for such reactions are much
less in a permeable material than in tighter
and finer-grained materials. It is estab-
lished that sorption decreases exponentially
as flow rate through the exchange media in-
creases. To better understand these chem-
ical relationships and to arrive at an inte-
grated picture of the field implications of
ion-exchange - sorption - Kd relationships
in natural heterogeneous terrains, we must
develop a more comprehensive classifica-
tion of permeable earth environments. A
step in this direction was made at the Amer-
ican Association of Petroleum Geologists
symposium on classification of sandstone
bodies at the April 1960 meeting in Atlantic
City. This symposium consisted of a series
of papers describing the shape, size, distri-
bution, and mineralogic and permeability
characteristics of several types of sand-
stone occurrences. More work of this sort
is needed, and it should be extended to other
types of formation materials.
Heterogeneity
Skibitzke of the U.S. Geological Survey in
Phoenix has recognized many of the hydro-
logic implications of the heterogeneous
nature of earth materials. Recent patterned
models of heterogeneity made by Skibitzke
show in a graphic qualitative way what pro-
found influences bars or stringers of more
or less permeable material in a sand model
can have on the movement of fluids through
the model.
Other model studies by Paul Rowe at
HanfordandPalmquistof the U.S. Geological
Survey at Denver will shed some light on
problems associated with the movement of
water in die zone of aeration. The field
implications of much of this work cannot be
evaluated fully, until natural materials are
used and quantitative studies are made on
real wastes in the field. Thus the studies
at Los Alamos, Hanford, the National Reactor
Testing Station, Oak Ridge, and the Savannah
River Plant are essential to the evaluation
and finally to the prediction of how certain
waste liquids will behave in these various
hydrogeologic terrains. Through such
studies it should be possible to assess the
potential of ground water contamination in
a given setting, but this can only be done
when enough different settings have been
studied that they can be classified. The
greater the integrity of the classification,
the more accurate the predictions can be.
The efforts of the involved disciplines must
be guided toward an understanding of die re-
lationships between die geochemicalphenom-
ena and the physical environmental factors
of permeability and particle size distribution.
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Research Studies
201
A general approach to a study that would
ultimately lead to the classification of an
environment into a well-defined category
must include the following:
1. A geologic study to delimit the poros-
ity,'permeability, mineral and fracture
pattern distribution, and the structural
stratigraphic influences. This estab-
lishes the textural and mineral frame-
work on which changing parameters
may be based.
2. Hydrologic determination of head dis-
tribution and its relationship to the
porosity, permeability, and mineral-
ogy described previously.
3. Chemical determinations of (1) ion-
exchange sites and their availability
in terms of the porosity or permeabil-
ity framework, (2) the effects of chang-
ing pH on die exchanged or sorbed
ions, (3) sorption of ionized and union-
ized substances in suspension, (4) ca-
tions versus anions in competition for
available exchange sites, and (5) the
ultimate hazard.
These various reactions and processes
must be considered in terms of dilute radio-
metric quantities, in contrast to earlier
thinking in terms of chemical quantities.
The degree of cleanup and decontamination
efficiencies generally desired are several
orders of magnitude greater than with other
conventional industrial wastes.
This same philosophy applies to the
geologic and hydrologic studies in a some-
vvhat different way. In most standard
mineral and hydrologic investigations in the
past, averages of porosity, permeability, and
mineralogy have been sufficient, but for
specific ground water contamination prob-
lems, averages may no longer be adequate.
They constitute an essential step, however,
in reaching the more quantitative values now
needed. Actual distributions of minerals,
pore space, and permeabilities and their
preferred orientations, if developed, are
necessary to an understanding of the hydro-
dynamics and chemical processes that take
place in the framework. Determination of
maximum as well as average rates of move-
ment of ground waters has become much
more important, particularly in consider-
ation of the decay times of nuclides that are
common constituents in nuclear wastes.
Thorough description of the geologic,
hydrologic, and chemical parameters men-
tioned above is the first step in the process
to describe, classify, predict, and verify the
movement of ground water contaminants.
Tools for description are good forpast needs
but marginal to inadquate for present and
future needs.
New "tracer" techniques may be ex-
tremely valuable in some areas after tried
and true descriptive tools such as well log
analysis, subsurface geologic exploration
(including bore-hole geophysics), standard
pumping tests, and water table or piezo-
metric map preparation and evaluation have
been undertaken. Tracers will hot yield
magic answers to ground water problems,
which too often are a result of a lack of
understanding of the geologic framework in
which the water moves, until we do some-
thing through more or less conventional
means to improve the fundamental knowl-
edge.
Field studies are needed to better des-
cribe the hydrogeologic fabrics. Improved
field instruments and techniques are needed.
A bo re-hole pulse height analyzer would be
helpful in measurements of the movement of
radionuclides in the ground and in ground
water in the field. Such an instrument would
have value as a geochemical research tool
for field applications as well as for obvious
and important routine monitoring applica-
tions. Instrument development is not a
specific job for the hydrogeologist or the
geochemist; however, they can state the
needs, requirements, and perhaps even the
specifications for new instruments and
techniques. Then the instrument companies
can pursue the development and furnishing
of these new tools.
CONCLUSION
Some environments are described well
enough that some steps can be taken toward
their classification. Rarely is the degree of
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202
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
the classification sufficient to predict very
precisely the hydrologic and geochemical
processes. Little more than empirical veri-
fication has been achieved along the lines
of the combined and refined approach that is
needed in environmental and sanitary engi-
neering studies to assure long-term en-
vironmental safety in the development of
nuclear energy. The nuclear wastes are
unique, since they have allowable concentra-
tions much lower than those dealt with in the
past; thus, much sharper methods of en-
vironmental analysis are needed. This
should not imply however that ground dis-
posal of certain types of radioactive wastes
cannot be continued safely under proper en-
vironmental conditions and adequate opera-
tional and control procedures.
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION RESEARCH AND RESEARCH NEEDS
OF THE LOS ANGELES COUNTY FLOOD CONTROL DISTRICT
A. E. Bruington, Los Angeles County Flood Control District
The Los Angeles County Flood Control
District has a dual responsibility, flood con-
trol and water conservation. Inasmuch as
Los Angeles County is located in a semiarid
region with a mushrooming population, water
conservation is of prime importance and, as
water demands grow, numerous problems are
encountered. Many of these problems are
associated with the overdraft of the ground
water supply and are combated through the
following menas: (1) replenishment of the
ground water basins with local water (storm
runoff originating on tributary streams),
(2) replenishment of the ground water basins
with imported water (water originating out-
side of the local a re a), and (3) replenishment
of the ground water basins with reclaimed
waste water. To provide the basis for plan-
ning such programs, data are collected on
ground water quality and ground water levels.
Thus, ground water contamination problems
with which the District concerns itself are
those associated mainly with water con-
servation.
SEA WATER INTRUSION
Pumping overdrafts in past years, to
supply increasing agricultural, domestic,
and industrial demands, coupled with a 17-
year period of dry years have lowered ground
water elevations far below sea level in
coastal areas of Los Angeles County. This
has reversed the historical seaward hy-
draulic gradient, causing extensive damage
from sea water intrusion into the coastal
ground water basins, with resultant large
economic losses.
In the Santa Monica Bay area of the
County, sea water intrusion caused the
abandonment of wells as early as 1920.
Through the years, fresh water wells con-
tinued to be abandoned, and by 1952 sea water
had completely contaminated one of the main
aquifers some 2,000 feet inland from the
ocean. More recently sea water intrusion
has been detected in other coastal aquifers
in the San Pedro Bay area of the County.
Research
In 1952, Manhattan Beach, in the Santa
Monica Bay area, was chosen as the site for
a cooperative test between the State of Cali-
fornia and the Flood Control District to de-
termine the effectiveness of preventing
further sea water intrusion by creation of
an artificial fresh water mound that would
be sufficient to halt the landward movement
of sea water. Briefly, the test consisted of
nine recharge wells, spaced about 500 feet
apart, paralleling the coast and located about
1/2-mile inland, through which a total of
about4.5cfs of treated Colorado River water
was injected continuously during the initial
stages.
The barrier effect of the fresh water
mound was attained, as expected from theo-
retical considerations. This prompted the
District to continue operation of the project.
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Research Studies
203
The project has now been operating for 8
years and has injected over 27,250 acre-
feet of treated Colorado River water. With
the present total of 12 operating wells, the
project protects about 1-1/2 miles of coast
line from further sea water intrusion. It is
planned to expand the facilities so that by
1966 the entire 11-mile reach along the
southern Santa Monica Bay coast line will
be protected from further sea water in-
trusion.
Studies also are under way to determine
requirements for affording similar protec-
tion to the affected areas in the vicinity of
San Pedro Bay.
IMPORTED COLORADO RIVER WATER
About one-half of all water used in Los
Angeles County is derived from wells; the
remainder is imported from the Owens
Valley of California by the City of Los
Angeles and from the Colorado River by the
Metropolitan Water District of Southern
California.
Since 1954, the Los Angeles County Flood
Control District has been purchasing un-
treated Colorado River water for spreading
in stream beds and off-channel spreading
grounds (shallow basins located in per-
meable areas) to replenish ground water
storage shortages resultingfrom an accumu-
lated overdraft currently estimated at about
1,000,000 acre-feet. Since July 1960, the
rate of replenishment has been approximately
doubled by the initiation of more intensive
replenishment efforts by the Central and
West Basin Water Replenishment District.
To date, approximately 475,000 acre-feet
of Colorado River water has been pur-
chased and used to replenish the ground
Water basins in this program. During the
7-year period the imported water stored
Underground represented from one-fourth
to one-half of the supply to the ground water
basin.
Research
At the time the program of replenishment
Was begun, the question of the effect on the
quality of the native water arose, since the
native water is of higher quality than un-
treated Colorado River water. This is ex-
emplified by the total dissolved solids, 350
ppm versus 725 ppm. A program of well
sampling was started, designed to aid in
determining the extent of degradation that
might occur from using untreated Colorado
River water for replenishing ground water
storage.
After 7 years of operation, no significant
change in water quality has been noted out-
side the immediate vicinity of the spreading
grounds. (For the purpose of this study,
"immediate vicinity" is defined as being
within one mile of the spreading areas.)
Three possible explanations for this are
suggested: (1) insufficient time for the im-
ported water to have traveled to and affected
the water quality in areas an appreciable
distance from the spreading areas, (2)
diluting effect due to additional spreading of
local storm waters that contain an average
of 150 ppm total dissolved solids, and (3)
removal, by pumping, of a large portion of
the imported water before it has had an op-
portunity to, diffuse and mix with local waters.
A combination of these factors seems to have
prevented any significant degradation of the
ground water quality; however, more definite
conclusions maybe reached as the testing is
continued.
WASTE WATER RECLAMATION
The District has conducted several tests
related to waste water reclamation. Two
tests, conducted in 1948 and 1949, were con-
cerned with the surface spreading of second-
ary effluent from sewage treatment plants.
It was found that alternate wetting and drying
of spreading areas wouldprovide an econom-
ical means of handling a fairly well-stabil-
ized effluent and that percolation through 7
feet of unsaturated sand and gravel was suf-
ficient to remove bacterial contamination.
Hyperion Studies
A large-scale test was conducted at the
City of Los Angeles'Hyperion Sewage Treat-
ment Plant over a 37-month period ending
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204
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
in January 1958. It included studies of
tertiary treatment of sewage and of injection
of treated sewage.
A method of percolating high-rate acti-
vated-sludge effluent through the uniform
dune sand at the site was tried and found to
be satisfactory,, Briefly, the method con-
sisted of percolating the effluent in spread-
ing basins at rates averaging 0.5 to 1.0 cfs
per wetted acre on a cycle of 1 hour of flood-
ing to 5 hours of drying (or 0.25 to 0.5 foot
of depth during each flooding) in order to
properly provide aeration to the soil. A
limiting factor in this method is mat suf-
ficient area must be available.
The best high-rate treatment method
found was one using standard-rate activated-
sludge effluent in a conventional rapid-sand
filter. The effluent averaged 6.5 ppm sus-
pended solids and 2.4 ppm BOD during one
7-week run, representing reductions within
the filter of about 60 percent. The capacity
of this process was upwards of 200 acre-
feet per acre per day, and the estimated cost
for tertiary treatment, including pumping to
a 300-foot level and chlorination, was ap-
proximately $20 per acre-foot.
Another part of the test consisted of the
investigation of the suitability of injecting,
through recharge wells, reclaimed waste
waters into aquifers of gravelly sand that
were completely degraded from sea water
intrusion. From this portion of the test it
was concluded "that: (1) Tertiary treatment
of sewage treatment plant effluent is essen-
tial for successful well injection, (2) re-
claimed waste water with a maximum limit
of approximately 10 ppm suspended solids
content (primarily organic) is believed to be
acceptable for well injection, (3) injection of
reclaimed waste water and its percolation
through short reaches of aquifer further re-
duced concentrations of volatile acids, or-
ganic nitrogen, ammonia, nitrate, nitrite,
chemical oxygen demand, and bacteria.
Whether the rate of reduction would continue
over iong periods or for longer percolation
paths is not known.
Supplemental Hyperion Tests
Supplemental tests at the Hyperion site
\\ill be commenced about June 1, 1961. In
the previous test it was not practical to in-
ject the rapid-sand filter effluent into the
test recharge well. The goal of the supple-
mental tests is to determine more con-
clusively that large-scale rapid-sand fil-
tration of standard-rate activated-sludge ef-
fluent will be satisfactc '" tertiary treatment
of sewage for injection through recharge
wells. In addition, it is planned to obtain
additional information on the underground
movement of such constituents as deter-
gents, bacteria, nitrates, toxic metals, and
perhaps viruses.
Water Quality Requirements for
Injection of Reclaimed Waste Water
At the present time "sewer wells" are
prohibited by law in California, but the
State Health Department has agreed to sup-
port amendments to incorporate regulations
that would permit ground water replenish-
ment through injection wells by requiring
that: (1) the chemical quality of water with-
drawn from the underground formation
meet current Public Health Service "Drink-
ing Water Standards" and be free from other
harmful and undesirable trace elements, (2)
a positive control be maintained over the
raw sewage chemical quality, (3) geological
and hydrological data are available that sup*
port calculations to demonstrate a definite
time of travel and definite degree of dilution
of recharged wastes in natural occurring
waters within the zone under the political of
legal control of therecharger(as a corollary
there must be positive control of withdrawal
of domestic water supply from within the
zone), and (4) the anticipated chemical qual-
ity of the water to be recharged is acceptable-
Whittier Narrows Demonstration
Waste Water Reclamation Project
In about 1 year's time deliveries will be
commenced from a 10-million-gallons-per-
day waste water reclamation plant to be lo-
cated in the Whittier Narrows area of L°s
Angeles County. This project is possible
through the joint efforts of the Los Angeles
County Sanitation Districts, the County °*
Los Angeles, the Central and West Basin
Water Replenishment District, and the
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Research Studies
205
Angeles County Flood Control District. The
County of Los Angeles will pay the cost of
constructing the plant, estimated at
$1,700,000, and will be reimbursed, without
interest, from the sale of reclaimed waste
Water; the Los Angeles County Sanitation
Districts will construct and operate the plant;
the Central and West Basin Water Replenish-
ment District will purchase the reclaimed
Waste water; and the Los Angeles County
Flood Control District will spread the re-
claimed waste water in its nearby spreading
areas for ground water replenishment. An
important feature of the project is the avail-
ability of capacity in downstream sewers for
solids extracted in the treatment process
and for the flow capacity of the plant if the
treatment process should become upset.
Project Goals
The goals of the project are: (1) to
demonstrate the feasibility of such a project
and(2) to encourage the construction of other
plants to recover larger amounts of water
for reuse at Whittier Narrows as well as at
other locations in the County of Los Angeles.
CONTAMINATION BY REPLENISHMENT
FROM STORM WATERS
The sporadic nature of storms bringing
significant rainfall to Los Angeles County
presents the danger that contaminating ma-
terials may be washed into streams at the
same time that large quantities of runoff are
available for conservation.
The problem may be accentuated by the
modern day use of numerous insecticides
and fungicides in agriculture and by exotic
chemicals in industrial processes, where
rainfall and runoff act as a vehicle to carry
contaminants to the ground water basins.
Research
The District has conducted two studies of
storm runoff, die first covering the storm
seasons of 1931-32 and 1932-33 and the
second the storm season of 1957-58. Both
studies gave essentially the same results,
indicating that valley runoff carried a slightly
higher amount of unstabilized organic matter
than water from the mountain watersheds but
that both carried a high amount of dissolved
oxygen.
Future Plans
It is planned to continue surveillance of
storm waters through a program of sampling
and analysis every 5 years.
SUMMARY OF RESEARCH NEEDS
As noted, many of the research needs of
the District are for projects unique to Los
Angeles County or, perhaps where interest
has not yet been aroused, to other parts of
the country. In the field of underground
travel and fate of contaminants, the need to
initiate projects to inject reclaimed sewage
will require that considerably more infor-
mation be obtained on long-time and long-
distance effects of percolation in saturated
aquifers of such contaminants as those con-
tained in reclaimed sewage as viruses, de-
tergents, nitrates, and toxic metals.
Of importance in planning replenish-
ment programs is detailed information on
the rate and direction of travel of ground
water flow. Continued efforts are needed to
develop acceptable economical ground water
tracers that will endure for long periods and
over long distances.
RESEARCH NEEDS IN GROUND WATER POLLUTION
J. E. McKee, California Institute of Technology
Coming as it does near the and of the
Symposium, this paper might well be ex-
pected to sift all the reports of research
and progress that have been presented by
previous speakers to determine what is al-
ready known about ground water pollution
-------
206
and what needs to be known. Perhaps some-
one may perform that task when the papers
are finally printed, but this writer has not
had a chance to read the foregoing papers
and he has just heard them as presented
orally in the past 2 days hours. Conse-
quently, this review of research needs will
indicate areas that should be investigated,
some of which, as you have just heard, are
similar to projects already under way. In-
deed, you may recall that certain projects
have been terminated or concluded. That
does not mean, however, that the work has
been completed. As pointed out by Professor
McGauhey, true research is never completed,
for it always opens up many new vistas and
avenues of approach for subsequent projects
--Pandora's box, as he called it.
This paper, then, is not a review of all
research that has been performed or cur-
rently is being undertaken in relation to
ground water pollution. Instead, it is an at-
tempt to categorize the major areas of re-
search that should be pursued, to increase
our knowledge of this relatively untouched
field. Some of the research ideas listed
may have been tackled already, but more
research along parallel or corollary lines is
needed. We never can learn all there is to
know about any subject.
In presenting the Symposium objectives,
Mr. Hanson noted wisely that this meeting
would be characterized more by its ques-
tions than by its answers. His prediction
was substantiated as speaker after speaker
raised questions and pointed to areas where
much more research is needed. Indeed,
there are few fields in which our ignorance
is so profound. Dr. Lieberman observed
that it is easier to ask the questions than to
find the answers.
CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH NEEDS
Insofar as scientific disciplines are in-
volved, the research needs in ground water
pollution may be classified in the following
major groups: chemical, physical, biolog-
ical, geological, and mathematical. There
are, to be sure, many problems that involve
more than one scientific discipline, or a
combination of them, such as biochemistry,
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
geochemistry, physical chemistry, and radio-
chemistry. Mathematical techniques may be
used in each category. Geohydrology, a study
of the occurrence and behavior of water in
the ground, embraces all of these areas.
Supplementing the problems related to
scientific disciplines are those that involve
administrative considerations and judicial
expression. Previous speakers have des-
cribed some of the administrative hazards
and legal pitfalls. Beyond any doubt there is
need for a clearer understanding of the con-
trol of ground water. Furthermore, engi-
neers, scientists, water works officials, in-
dustrial representatives, and many others
will welcome a definitive pattern of legal
opinion relative to ground water pollution.
It is not within the purview of this paper,
however, to describe the ground water re-
search needs in the fields of administration
and law, other than to recognize that they
exist and that they are important. Instead,
the following discussion will be limited to
the five scientific categories listed above,
their combinations, and their subcategories.
Finally, there will be a brief comment about
the greatest need of all in ground water re-
search today.
CHEMICAL PROBLEMS
By far the most numerous and complex
problems of ground water pollution, in the
opinion of this writer, are those involving
chemical phenomena. There is a need to
know more about the chemistry of various
types of soil, for this medium is seldom
inert. Indeed, the chemical content of water
flowing through an aquifer is dependent to ?
large extent on the adsorptive, desorptive,
and exchange capacity of the soil. Soil
chemistry is an advanced science, but most
of the effort to date has been in the realm of
agriculture. Notable have been the research
and publications of the staff of the USDA
Salinity Laboratory at Riverside, California*
Geohydrologif ts need to "bone up" on the
work of the soil chemists and use the knowl-
edge of this discipline to predict the effects
of soil on the quality of water passing through
it. Most of the work to date has been con-
cerned with soil chemistry and water qual-
ity in the plant root zone, but many of the
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Research Studies
207
principles can be transposed to deeper per-
colating waters and confined aquifers.
Geologists classify soil in terms of its
mineral analysis, e.g., percentage of mica,
silica, dolomite, clay, etc. It would be use-
ful if we readily could transpose these
mineral analyses into chemical data from
which the reactive characteristics of the soil
could be utilized quantitatively.
Corollary to the area of soil chemistry
is the need for improved and standardized
methods for analyzing the adsorptive, de-
sorptive, ion-exchange capacities, and redox
potentials of various soils and the kinetics
associated therewith. A field kit in a little
black box would be ideal for such analyses,
but until it is available these phenomena can
only be measured approximately by in situ
observations with field wells or by percola-
tion through soil columns in the laboratory.
To be more specific, we need to know
the rates of adsorption, desorption, and ion
exchange for each chemical substance and
for combinations of chemicals in aqueous
solution passing through specific types of
soil. To what extent, for example, will iron
and/or manganese be leached from a certain
aquifer by distilled water or by waters of
various mineral composition? What will be
the effect of dissolved oxygen, carbon di-
oxide, methane, hydrogen sulfide, and other
gases? What is the relation of the redox
potential to these reactions?
Can4 we predict the extent to which cal-
cium and/or magnesium will be exchanged
with sodium and/or potassium as water of a
known chemical composition passes through
an aquifer of known permeability and min-
eral analysis, but of unknown chemical
properties? Dr. Kaufman presented some
data on ion-exchange softening in the South
Coastal Basin at Los Angeles. We need
more of this type of data. What will happen
to hexavalent chromates, boratee, fluorides,
phosphates, cesium, strontium, and other
Mineral ions in relation to various soils?
Which ions are likely to be permanently ad-
sorbed, and which are likely to be eluted by
subsequent flow? Indeed, the entire subject
of chromatographic effects in ground water
behavior is a relatively unexplored field.
Without a doubt many soils act as a chrom-
atographic column with respect to the sub-
stances in certain waters, but we know very
little about this phenomenon.
Nitrogen and Sulfur Compounds
Two groups of mineral ions conspicuous
by their omission from the foregoing para-
graph are the inorganic nitrogen compounds,
namely ammonia, nitrites, nitrates, and
nitrogen gas, and the sulfur compounds,
specifically sulfates, elemental sulfur, and
sulfides. They deserve special consider-
ation, for they are subject readily to oxida-
tion or reduction. What happens to nitrates
that leach downward from heavily fertilized
agricultural land or from cesspools? Under
aerobic conditions, especially in the percol-
ating waters of the zone" of aeration, they
may be expected to remain as nitrates; but
in the absence of dissolved oxygen and in a
reducing atmosphere, will they change to
nitrites and perhaps even to nitrogen gas?
Dr. Baars presented data from The Nether-
lands showing that nitrates were decreased
in concentration after the dissolved oxygen
was diminished. What happened to the nitro-
gen ions? Will these nitrogen reactions oc-
cur in the absence of specific organisms,
and if not, are the necessary organisms
likely to, be present in deep aquifers?
Similarly, under what conditions in the
soil will sulfates be reduced to sulfur or to
sulfides? In what types of waters are the
microorganisms commonly associated with
such reactions likely to be present? Can the
reactions occur in the absence of organisms,
i.e., can they be strictly chemical and not
biochemical?
These questions about nitrogen and sul-
fur'compounds are especially relevant to the
percolation and recharge of ground waters
by organic industrial wastes and sewage.
Such waters are not likely to be sterile, al-
though the travel of microorganisms maybe
limited to a short distance. This brings us
to the subject of biochemistry.
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GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Biochemical Degradation
Chemical reactions brought about by bi-
logical processes have long been subject
to quantitative evaluation in surface waters.
In the ground, however, they are more dif-
ficult to assess, and as a result, relatively
little is kno-wn about reactions rates, mechan-
isms, pathways, intermediate steps, and end
products.
Ground water differs from surface water,
insofar as biochemical degradation is con-
cerned, in serveral important ways. First,
the ratio of surface area of the soil to the
quantity of flow is tremendous in ground
water. This area - volume ratio will in-
fluence the rate of biochemical phenomena,
for many of these reactions are accelerated
by the presence of large surface areas. Sec-
ond, detention periods are long, so that even
the slower reactions may go far toward com-
pletion. Third, ground waters are often
anaerobic and frequently under high pres-
sure. Fourth, higher organisms are re-
moved readily by filtration through soil, and
consequently biochemical action may be
limited to the lower forms or perhaps even
to enzyme effects. Little, if anything, is
known about the role and travel of enzymes
in ground water. There is a need for quan-
titative evaluation of all of these factors,
and perhaps others, in relation to various
organic compounds and to specific types of
soils.
A most urgent problem in relation to
biochemical degradation involves the per-
sistence of alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS) and
other components of synthetic detergents.
As several speakers have indicated, ABS has
been observed to travel through soil for con-
sider able distances; yet 50 to 90 percent of
it can be removed by the activated-sludge
process. Furthermore, its half-life in sur-
face streams has been estimated at 16 days,
and along the Illinois River, the total ABS
in the flowing water was diminished by 33
percent in 6.6 days of travel. With the slow
velocity through ground water, ABS should be
stabilized in short distances if experience
from surface streams can be transposed to
underground aquifers. But can it?
Is the observed persistence of ABS in
ground water related to the fact that bacte-
ria are filtered out in the first few feet of
flow? What is the effect of anaerobic or re-
ducing conditions on the stability of ABS?
Can a soil be "seeded" or "acclimatized" to
hasten the degradation of ABS or any other
organic compound? To what extent will ABS
be adsorbed and desorbed from various
types of soils? Can chemical substances
be added to alter these reactions? These
are all questions that deserve detailed
investigation.
Two-phase Systems
Thus far, this paper has been limited
for the most part to dissolved substances in
water. There are many problems, however,
that involve the atmosphere in the inter-
stices of soil above the ground water table
or phreatic line. In accordance with the gas
laws, this atmosphere is in dynamic equilib-
rium with the dissolved gases and certain
ions in the underlying water, especially if
the water table fluctuates in elevation or
if it is being fed from water percolating
through the overlying soil atmosphere.
The problem is brought into sharp focus
by the decomposition and stabilization of
sanitary landfills, as described to you by
Mr. Weaver. If this organic material is
below the ground water table, or if it is
leached by heavy rainfall or irrigation, or-
ganic and inorganic substances will enter
the ground water. Many sanitary landfills
in the arid Southwest, however, are sup-
posedly "high and dry," perhaps 20 to 100
feet above the water table, and seldom sub-
ject to leaching by rainfall or irrigation.
How can such fills possibly affect ground
water quality?
First of all, they undergo biochemical
stabilization, although it may be very slow.
We need to know a lot more about the rates
of stabilization and how tfiey are affected
by moisture, temperature, composition of
waste, mixing with soil, and other factors.
In any event, gases of anerobic decomposi-
tion, such as methane, carbon dioxide, and
hydrogen sulfide, are produced. These
gases diffuse through the soil and are sub-
ject to the laws of fluid dynamics. Per-
meating the atmosphere of soil interstices,
they eventually come in contact with the
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Research Studies
209
phreaticline or at least its capillary fringe.
There, they go into solution in the ground
water, to strive for the equilibria of Hen-
ry's Law, Although these general mech-
anisms can be postulated, little quantitative
information is available on the actual occur-
rence and movement of gases through soil
and their relation to the quality of water in
the upper fringe of the ground water table.
Furthermore, additional data are needed
on the rates of diffusion of these dissolved
gases downward, laterally, and longitudi-
nally through the ground water.
Another group of problems involving the
gas phase is related to the low-molecular-
weight hydrocarbons, whether of natural
origin or resulting from underground stor-
age. Many fresh ground waters, especially
from oil-producing areas or from regions
where peaty deposits abound, have been ob-
served to contain dissolved methane. Other
hydrocarbons have reached ground waters
by man-made pollution or by escape from
storage.
The foregoing discussion of chemical
effects in relation to ground water pollution
is far from exhaustive, but perhaps it will
serve to indicate the magnitude and com-
plexity of the problems. The list of re-
search needs could be enlarged manyfold by
inclusion of the problems related to specific
industries, such as metal-finishing, regen-
eration of ion-exchange resins, oil-field
brine disposal, petroleum products, food
processing, and many others. Perhaps it is
well at this time, however, to consider
another major scientific category.
PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL
PROBLEMS
The physical and mathematical aspects
of geohydrology are related primarily to
fluid mechanics and especially to hydrody-
namics. These subjects have been inves-
tigated more thoroughly in ground water
than have the chemical aspects. Fortunately,
moreover, they can be adapted to math-
ematical analysis, within certain boundary
conditions and assumptions. Yet, there are
many areas of physical and mathematical
research in ground water that need further
exploration.
Thanks to Darcy, Boussinesq, Dupuit,
Forchheimer, Thiem, Kozeny, Bakhameteff,
Casagrande, Muskat, and many others, the
classical hydrodynamic and mathematical
aspects of ground water flow have been well
developed. The work to date, however, has
dealt largely with an inert liquid, a homo-
geneous soil, and steady state conditions.
There are still many gaps in our knowledge
of hydrodynamics in soil. Just a few min-
utes ago, Dr. Lieberman described to you
many of these problems.
We need to know more about the disper-
sion of a pollutant as water travels through
various types of aquifers. What is the extent
and rate of vertical and lateral diffusion
under various conditions of permeability and
soil characteristics? What are the yard-
sticks of diffusivity in soil, and what are
their approximate magnitudes? How can the
parameters of longitudinal mixing of un-
steady concentrations of waste be evaluated?
What will be the effects and mixing of fluids
of different densities? Soils are seldom
homogeneous and indeed they are frequently
interspersed with laminar lenses. How does
such nonhomogeneity influence the classical
analyses, and how does it alter the para-
meters of vertical lateral, and longitudinal
diffusion?
It is recognized that much research along
these lines has already been performed by
the oil industry in connection with its water-
flooding operations and by ground water
hydrologists concerned with salt water in-
trusion. There are still many aspects,
however, that deserve more detailed study,
especially with respect to recharging oper-
ations by means of spreading basins or
pressurized wells.
Much of the work in analysing flow
through porous media involves complicated
differential equations, conformal mapping,
complex variables, and other mathematical
procedures. It would seem appropriate,
therefore, to utilize computer technology to
a large extent in such work. The feasibility
of automatic numerical analysis in many
problems of ground water hydraulics is
being investigated, but such research is still
in its infancy.
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210
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
Radioactivity
Three major areas of ground water re-
search involve radioactivity. First, we
need to know more about the travel of radio-
active substances through soil; their adsorp-
tion, desorption, and ion exchange; their dif-
fusion and dispersion; and their effects on
the other substances in soil and water. You
already have heard several references to
such research at this Symposium.
Second, we need to explore further the
use of radioactive substances as tracers to
assist in geohydrological investigations.
Which substances can be employed with
minimum adsorption or chemical change and
with minimum hazard to the subsequent users
of the ground water? Can we take a calculated
risk in the use of radionuclides in ground
water that may be consumed by humans?
Third, can deep aquifers be used for the
disposal of radioactive material of long
half-life without danger to water supplies?
What are the possibilities of cross-contami-
nation among aquifers at various depths, es-
pecially if they are perforated by abandoned
or poorly constructed wells?
Infiltration and the Mechanics
of Clogging
To those of us who are interested in
waste water reclamation by the recharging
of ground water basins and aquifers, the
problems at the interface between free water
and the soil are paramount. We need to know
more about the mechanics of clogging,
whether it be by physical means, chemical
action, or biological growth. To what ex-
tent must waste water be purified before it
can be recharged through spreading basins,
and to what extent for pressurized wells?
What are the best parameters for measur-
ing clogging potentials? When the interface
has been clogged, what are the best methods
for restoring infiltration capacity? What
chemicals can be added to prolong the
periods between redevelopment or back-
washing of wells? Will the use of certain
crops in spreading basins increase infiltra-
tion capacity, or will concomitant problems
such as mosquito breeding and transpiration
losses rule out such practices? What is the
role of sprinkler irrigation in ground water
recharge? Does it have advantages over
spreading basins operated intermittently?
Soil physicists, like soil chemists, have
developed their specialty to an advanced
stage. Ground water hydrologists and en-
gineers should draw heavily on the experi-
ence and literature of this discipline. Special
attention needs to be given to methods by
which permeability pf soil may be increased,
or in certain instances how it may be de-
creased. What chemical agents can be used
to change permeability without harm to sub-
sequent beneficial uses of the water? If
these changes in permeability are produced
by wetting agents or surfactants, what will
be the' effect on travel of other chemical
substances and biological organisms? How
can certain aquifers best be sealed to pre-
vent the travel of pollution? One example of
this problem is salt water intrusion along
coastal regions. In other instances, por-
tions of polluted aquifers might be sealed off
to prevent the further encroachment upon
unpolluted portions. How best can this be
accomplished?
There are many more physical and
mathematical problems related to ground
water pollution. Without a doubt, each of you
could enumerate several of them. Time re-
quires, however, that we pass on to another
major scientific category.
BIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
Dr. Mailman has given us an excellent
review of the state of knowledge about bio-
logical contamination of ground water, and
indeed he has pointed out many areas where
information is sparse or totally lacking.
Empirical data have been obtained in many
situations for the travel of bacteria through
soils of various characteristics, but there
are no experimental results on the migra-
tion of viruses in ground water. There is
qualitative proof that viruses can travel
considerable distances through aquifers, and
several outbreaks of hepatitis have been
traced to ground water. No virus epidemics
other than hepatitis have been so traced.
It would appear, therefore, that con-
siderable research is needed on viruses and
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Research Studies
211
bacteriophages. Dononpathogenic forms oc-
cur in natural ground waters unaffected by
human contamination? How is the travel of
viruses in ground water related to the phy-
sical and chemical characteristics of the
soil? Will they survive in the absence of
bacteria, or are the two forms synergistic?
In a given soil, will viruses and phages
travel farther and/or faster than bacteria?
What are the effects of syndets and other
chemical pollutants on the presence, sur-
vival, and travel of viruses in ground water?
How can the transmission of viruses through
aquifers be prevented or minimized?
Related to the presence and behavior of
bacteria and viruses in ground water are
the biochemical problems dependent on en-
zyme action. If bacteria in contaminated
water are adsorbed in the first 100 feet or
so of travel through an aquifer, do the exo-
enzymes from these organisms move freely
with the percolating water and exert their
influence in biochemical degradation far
beyond the limit of bacterial penetration?
If so, can recharge wells or spreading
basins be inoculated with beneficial bacteria
that will aid in the degradation of specific
organic substances during ground water
travel? Can extracts of enzymes be used
directly? It would appear that the whole
field of enzyme chemistry in relation to the
organic pollution, of ground water is virgin
territory for research.
GEOLOGY
It would not be prudent to terminate this
discussion of research needs without men-
tioning the geological problems. Indeed,
ground water has long been considered the
realm of the hydrogeologist or geohydrol-
ogist. It was not until pollution and contam-
ination of ground water became serious that
chemists, biologists, and sanitary engineers
took proper notice of this important phase
of water resources. This Symposium may
well serve to integrate the efforts of many
disciplines in this important problem.
Before any field studies of ground water
pollution can be made, a thorough geological
investigation is necessary. The thickness,
extent, degree of homogeneity, mineral
character, permeability, and other para-
meters of each aquifer should be known.
Such data are tedious and expensive to ob-
tain. Methods are needed to facilitate the
gathering and processing of geological in-
formation. Perhaps geophysical techniques
can be perfected that will yield much of this
information without penetration of the aqui-
fers and confining strata, i.e., penetration by
numerous test wells that might later cause
interpolation of aquifers. As mentioned
herein before, there is a need for conver-
sion of mineral analyses to chemical char-
acteristics that can be used for predicting
the interaction of soil and water.
NEED FOR TRAINED
RESEARCH PERSONNEL
In the list of scientific categories earlier
in this presentation, it was noted that the
paper will conclude with a brief comment
about the greatestneed of all in ground water
research today. In a nutshell, we need
trained scientists and engineers who under-
stand the fundamental concepts of ground
water and want to perform research in this
field.
It is easy to enumerate scores of poten-
tial research problems, as this paper has
done. It is not too difficult to outline the
methodology for accomplishing many of these
projects. It is probable that financial sup-
port for research projects in ground water
pollution can be obtained readily from one or
more sources. Physical facilities for con-
ducting such projects are available at many
universities and private institutes. The real
bottleneck lies in personnel properly trained
and inspired to do the work.
There is a great need for publicity to em-
phasize the importance of ground water in
our national economy and the opportunities
for stimulating careers in this field. Per-
haps this Symposium will set the stage for a
resurgence of interest in ground water prob-
lems.
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212
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
SUMMARY OF SYMPOSIUM
W. C. Ackerman, Illinois State Water Survey
I would like to preface my attempt at a
summary of this Symposium by stating that
these veiws are my own - those of an indivi-
dual who stayed awake, kept his ears open,
and his mouth closed. I am uninstructed by
our hosts and am the agent of no one. This
Symposium definitely was staged with bril-
liant speakers, making apreconceived set of
conclusions impossible.
In one regard, at least, I know that I
speak for all who have come in thanking the
Taft Center and the Division of Water Sup-
ply and Pollution Control of the Public Health
Service for calling us together. It has been
a beautifully planned and executed Confer-
ence. It has been an act of real leadership.
Director Hanson set the stage and, it
seems to me, correctly anticipated the
course of the Symposium when he stated that
our "age is characterized more by questions
than by answers." He touched on various
aspects of ground water contamination that
were later to be developed in greater detail.
He called for facts and suggested that
present research is not commensurate with
the complexity of technical and administra-
tive problems.- He ventured the thought that
now, 2-1/2 days later, seems a certainty:
This meeting has summarized existing
knowledge, has focused attention on a grow-
ing problem, and will add great impetus
toward solving problems of ground water
contamination.
The logic with which this Symposium had
been planned became clear as we were lead
deeper into our subject by Messrs. De
Buchananne, Brown, and Sniegocki, who ex-
plained the geological framework and the
hydrologic vehicle within which and by which
contamination moves. We were reminded of
the importance of geologic stratigraphy and
structure and their effects on water tables,
artesian conditions, and even streamflow.
Sands and gravels m ay have excellent water-
yielding qualities, but they are not efficient
in taking contamination through ion exchange.
Limestone is always under suspicion be-
cause of its solution channels, and although
crystaline rocks may be a barrier to flow,
they too can contain routes for contamina-
tion through fractures and faults.
Hydrologic factors include infiltration,
percolation, saturated and unsaturated flow,
and permeability. We found that contamina-
tion can result from natural recharge or,
more likely, from recharge by man through
irrigation, water spreading, recharge pits,
and wells or from the lowering of the water
table.
Mr. Hem tied geology and hyrdology to-
gether hi the effects of water chemistry.
Because of the slow movement of the ground
water and its long contact with soild and
rock, chemical equilibrium often is reached.
By examples we were told about adsorption,
solution and deposition, oxidation, and re-
duction.
Mr. Frescher gave us a direct and or-
derly presentation of the procedures for con-
ducting areal ground water investigations,
and by the time we went to lunch that first
day, there was no doubt that geologists had
made their point - that geology is the frame-
work and the control. Beyond that it had
become clear that ground water contamina-
tion requires an interdisciplinary approach
and that the solution of problems will re-
quire a team effort.
In the session on types of contaminants,
this Symposium reached new stature with
Professor Mailman's comprehensive and
scholarly review of biological contamination.
He traced its history from 1854, years be-
fore the birth of the science of bacteriology,
in London where contamination of the Broad
Street well correctly was correlated with
pollution from fecal matter. Fortunately,
processes of self-purification and filtering
normally limit the movement of bacteria to
less than 100 feet in soil.
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Research Studies
213
Dr. Mailman sounded a warning on
viruses, since they seem to be more resist-
ant and more persistent than bacteria. Our
techniques are poor, and we are almost
lacking in virus research data related to
soils.
Professor Mailman concurred with Dr.
Hanson of Wisconsin, speaking from the
floor, when he pointed out that bacterial
pollution can extend for great distances in
limestone formations because of the lack of
filtering action.
I had the feeling that Dr. Kaufman's paper
on inorganic chemical contamination was all
substance and was outstanding, even on this
excellent program. He gave us three frames
of reference: domestic drinking water, ir-
rigation, and industrial. For drinking water
we universally apply the well-known drinking
water standards, even though the support for
some of these is rather tenuous. In agri-
culture reasonable well-defined limits are
established, and for industry the limits are
highly variable, depending upon the use.
For radioactive substances some contend
there is no threshold value. Dr. Kaufman's
statement was convincing, though, that there
is no evidence of radioactive pollution of
ground waters from man-made sources
other than in limited areas of AEG reserva-
tions where the sources are monitored by
vigilant professionals.
Dr. Kaufman offered two solutions to in-
organic pollution: dilution in surface streams
or deep injection. He also offered a novel
solution that just might become a practice in
years to come - abandon our water courses
and permit them to become agricultural
sewers and then transport fresh water over
great distances.
Mr. Middleton, speaking for himself and
Graham Walton, described the newcomer in
the field of contaminants, organics. Most
common offenders are gasoline, oil, deter-
gents, and phenols. As recently as 1952,
only a few states recognized organics as a
problem. Now this problem is full blown,
but knowledge is scarce. This is surely an
area that will require concerted research
and action.
A feature of organic pollution is its per-
sistence; it has been known to travel 15,000
feet over a period of 7 years. Although it
may first be detected as foam or by taste
and odor, the strongest evidence is identifi-
cation of specific substances in the ground
water - traced back to the source.
In the closing paper on the first day we
focused on Dr. Baars the admiration that we
all hold for the people of the Netherlands.
These people, who live on the brink of
disaster, with the sea at their door and the
contaminated Rhine at their back, are the
master managers of water. Dr. Baars made
an important contribution to the Symposium
and demonstrated by his well-documented
paper how these people can develop 77 per-
cent of their water needs from underground
sources, despite large odds, by research,
careful planning, and vigilant operations.
On Thursday morning this Conference
documented its own case, that the problems
of ground water contamination deserve
greater attention. This was done by 12 fas-
cinating case histories. I cannot attempt a
summary of these individual incidents, but
I would like to record some personal im-
pressions that stand out as I reflect on these
happenings.
Most of these case histories were known
in a general way to all of us, but it seems to
me now that the incidents were actually more
severe than had previously been realized.
I am thinking of Minneapolis-St. Paul and
Long Island, particularly.
I was reminded by the apparently bot-
tomless pits at Tieton, Washington, of how
easily we fall into the pattern of the old
adage, "out of sight - out of mind." The
story of infectious hepatitis in Posen, Michi-
gan, with its private wells and septic tanks
in shallow soil on limestone prompts me t;o
say, "How can we be surprised when the ob-
vious happens?"
From the story of the oil field at Greens-
burg, Kentucky, we had an example of that
for which we in America have been famous
-- wanton exploitation of our natural re-
sources with a profit motive. We also
learned that 600 guilty people can be right
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214
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATION
because it is not possible to prove any one
of them wrong.
The vast quantities of our solid wastes,
as described by Leo Weaver, took on new
meaning last night when Dr. Nelson Glueck
described how ancient cities were buried by
their own rubble. Of more immediate con-
cern is the organic, inorganic, and bacterial
pollution of ground water that can result
from improperly located dumps and land
fills.
I was struck by the fact that we profes-
sionals have generally not been the ones
who initially uncovered ground water con-
tamination. More likely the revelation
stemmed from citizens' complaints of taste
and odor, or foam, or crop damage, or sick-
ness.
Strong feeling was certainly present at
the Symposium that now is the time to stand
up and count the worth of our underground
resource - not as a burial ground for our
unwanted and untreated wastes, but as all
water resource that this country must man-
age for use and reuse into the indefinite
future.
Our research tools and research infor-
mation are weak in the areas of organic
chemicals, viruses, and radioactivity. We
country boys may feel that the Taft Center
has all the answers, but the people who are
that Center don't share this easy view.
It seems to me that lagoons and septic
tanks got black eyes at this Symposium. Un-
less carefully designed and well spaced,
these devices are probably passing practices
in urban and metropolitan societies.
Contamination of ground water by radio-
active waste is limited to a few sites on
government reservations, where it is con-
tinuously monitored by competent profes-
sionals and therefore does not represent a
public hazard.
We have found that there is no substitute
for good chemists, good geologists, good
bacteriologists, and good engineers - and
this means more education.
We have learned that there is no substi-
tute for public support for what we know is
right - and this takes a lot of education.
Whether we can sustain a permanent
irrigation agriculture seems to be an open
question. As with the ancients, will accu-
mulated soil chemicals finally engulf us?
The question of whether synthetic deter-
gents are a curse or a blessing, or a mixed
curse, or a mixed blessing, in ground water
contamination was evident. Perhaps the
answer depends on one's point of view, but
the presence of these organics has aroused
public action; this much surely can be said.
One would judge that the actions of FHA
are controversial in this area of ground
water contamination. Far be it from me to
attempt expressions of a consensus of this
Symposium on the matter. But this much
can surely be said: The FHA has acted with
courage in what it believes is right. We
might note, also, the impact, both and direct
and indirect, that the actions of such an
agency have on our urban and suburban de-
velopments.
I wonder if Mr. Muegge of Wisconsin
didn't hit the nail on the head when he said
that we need "publicly supported regulation."
Implicit in those three words is much of what
we have been speaking. It means research
and facts, it means education, it means cri-
teria and standards, it means enforcement,
and it means management of natural re-
sources for consistent, multipurpose and
beneficial use.
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Research Studies
215
DISCUSSION
Chairman: B. B. Berger
Mr. Lester M. Klashman of the Public
Health Service asked Mr. Arthur E.
Bruington two questions, both concerned with
the artificial recharge of ground water by the
Los Angeles County Flood Control District.
On what basis are consumers charged for
the water? How much recharged water is
lost through evaporation and in other ways?
Mr. Bruington replied that at present
there are two methods of collecting money
for financing the recharge operations. When
the need for spreading imported water be-
came urgent during the early 1950* s, por-
tions of the District that were directly af-
fected were formed into zones and the
property owners were taxed on an ad
valorem basis at a rate not to exceed 50 per
$100 assessed valuation for purchase of
water. The second method, which was be-
gun this season, involved the formation of a
district with power to levy a pumping
assessment against each water user. For
this year the rate is $3.19 per acre-foot
(10/1000 gal), and for next year it is ex-
pected to be $5.75 per acre-foot (1-3/40/
1000 gal).
In answer to the second question, Mr.
Bruington noted the rates of delivery of the
water are so great that no accurate deter-
mination has been made of the evaporation
loss but that it probably does not exceed
1 or 2 percent.
Professor Jack McKee commented on
costs of water in southern California. The
operating costs for pumping water to Los
Angeles County from the Colorado River
are about $12 per acre-foot. If this water
is softened and filtered, it costs the pur-
chasing agency about $25 per acre-foot. If
all costs, such as amortization of the aque-
ducts and pumping stations are included, the
true total cost is about $45 per acre-foot
(140/1000 gal).
Colorado River water has a total dis-
solved solids content of about 700 ppm.
Sewage water in the San Gabriel Valley, which
originates from Colorado River water plus
some natural waters, contains around 800 to
900 ppm total dissolved solids. This sewage
is be ing discharged to the ocean, even though
it is still fresh water. It can be treated
rather thoroughly in an activated-sludge
plant at a cost, including plant amortization,
of about $9 per acre-foot, much less than
the $45 acre-foot it costs to import water
into the Los Angeles area. To recharge this
reclaimed water into the ground and then re-
pump it will cost an additional $5 per acre-
foot. (The implied total cost of such re-
claimed water becomes $14 per acre-foot or
4.30/1000 gal.) From recent literature one
can see that people who are promoting the
desalination of sea water have great hopes
for producing fresh water at a cost of $1.00
per 1000 gal. In Los Angeles County we are
hoping to recharge the ground water with
treated sewage and reclaim is as ground
water at a cost of less than 50 per 1000 gal.
Reclamation of sewage appears to be far
more practical and economical than de-
salination of sea water.
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216
APPENDIX
PROGRAM PARTICIPANTS
ACKERMANN, WILLIAM C.
Chief, Illinois State Water Survey
Urbana, Illinois
BAARS, J. K.
Head, Water, Soil, and Air Division
Instituut voor Gezondheidstechniek
T.N.O.
J. P. Coenstraat 13, 's - Gravenhage
The Hague, Netherlands
BAKER, RALPH H., JR.
Director, Division of Waste Water
Florida Board of Health
Jacksonville 1, Florida
BERGER, BERNARD B.
Chief, Research Branch
Div. Water Supply & Pollution Control,
PHS
Sanitary Engineering Center
Cincinnati 26, Ohio
BOGAN, RICHARD H.
Associate Professor Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Washington
Seattle 5, Washington
BROWN, RUSSELL H.
Chief, Research Section
Ground Water Branch
Water Resources Division, USGS
Washington 25, D. C.
BRUINGTON, ARTHUR E.
Div. Engineer, Water Conservation
Division
Los Angeles County Floor Control Dist.
2250 Alcazar Street
Los Angeles 54, California
BURTTSHCELL, RICE H.
Chemist, Organic Contamination Unit
Chemistry & Physics Sect., Research
Branch
Div. Water Supply & Pollution Control,
PHS
Sanitary Engineering Center
Cincinnati 26, Ohio
DAVIDS, HERBERT W.
Director, Div. of Environmental
Sanitation
Suffolk County Department of Health
Suffolk County Center, Riverhead,
New York
DEUTSCH, MORRIS
District Geologist
Ground Water Branch
Water Resources Division, USGS
407 Capitol Savings & Loan Building
Lansing, Michigan
DRESCHER, WILLIAM J.
Area Chief, Midcontinent Area
Ground Water Branch
Water Resources Division, USGS
175 Science Hall, Madison, Wisconsin
E WING, .BEN B.
Assoc. Professor, Sanitary Engineering
University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois
FLANAGAN, JOSEPH E., JR.
Assistant Director
Sanitary Engineering Center, PHS
Cincinnati 26, Ohio
FLYNN, JOHN M., JR.
Associate Public Health Engineer
Div. of Environmental Sanitation
Suffolk County Department of Health
Suffolk County Center, Riverhead,
New York
FUHRMAN, RALPH E.
Executive Secretary
Water Pollution Control Federation
Washington 16, D. C.
GILBERTSON, WESLEY E.
Chief, Division of Engineering Services,
PHS
Washington 25, D. C.
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Appendix
217
HALLDEN, OTTO S.
San. Engineer, Bureau of Public Water
Supply
Division of Sanitary Engineering
Illinois Department of Public Health
State Office Building, Springfield, Illinois
HANSON, HARRY G.
Director
Sanitary Engineering Center, PHS
Cincinnati 26, Ohio
HARMESON, ROBERT H.
Head, Peoria Laboratory Section
Illinois State Water Survey
Peoria, Illinois
HEM, JOHN D.
Research Chemist, Quality of Water
Branch
Water Resources Division, USGS
Denver Federal Center, Denver, Colorado
KAUFMAN, WARREN J.
Assoc. Professor, Sanitary Engineering
Dept. Engineering & School of Public
Heal tli
University of California, Berkeley,
California
KRIEGER, ROBERT A.
Chemist, Quality of Water Branch
Water Resources Division, USGS
2822 E. Main Street, Columbis 9, Ohio
LA MOREAUX, PHILIP E.
Chief, Ground Water Branch
Water Resources Division, USGS
Washington 25, D. C.
LIEBERMAN, J. A.
Chief, Environmental & Sanitary
Engineering Branch
Division of Reactor Development, AEG
Washington 25, D. C.
LOVE, S. KENNETH
Chief, Quality of Water Branch
Water Resources Division, USGS
Washington 25, D. C.
MALLMAN, W. M.
Professor of Bacteriology
Department of Microbiology
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
McCULLOUGH, JAMES A.
Chief, Sanitary Engineering Section
Architectural Standards Division, FHA
Washington 25, D. C.
McGAUHEY, P. H.
Director, San. Eng. Research Laboratory
Richmond Field Station
University of California
1301 South 46th Street, Richmond,
California
McKEE, JACK E.
Prof., Engineering in Environmental
Health
California Institute of Technology
1201 E. California, Pasadena, California
MIDDLETON, FRANCIS M.
In Charge, Organic Contaminants Unit
Chemistry and Physics Sect., Research
Branch
Div. Water Supply & Pollution Control,
PHS
Sanitary Engineering Center
Cincinnati 26, Ohio
MILLER, LYNN M.
Hydr oge ol ogis t
Jones, Henry & Williams
200 W. Central Avenue
Toledo 6, Ohio
MUEGGE, O. J.
State Sanitary Engineer
Wisconsin Board of Health
453 State Office Building
Madison 2, Wisconsin
PETRI, LESTER R.
Chemist, Quality of Water Branch
Water Resources Division
124 Nebraska Hall
901 North 17th Street, Lincoln 8,
Nebraska
ROBECK, GORDON G.
Senior Sanitary Engineer
Engineering Sect., Research Branch
Div. Water Supply & Pollution Control,
PHS
Sanitary Engineering Center
Cincinnati 26, Ohio
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218
GROUND WATER CONTAMINATIONS
SNIEGOCKI, RICHARD T.
District Geologist, Ground Water Branch
Water Resources Division, USGS
217 Main Street, Little Rock, Arkansas
STEIN, MURRAY
Assistant Chief
Div. Water Supply & Pollution Control,
PHS
Washington 25, D. C.
STONE, RAYMOND V., JR.
Executive Officer
Santa Ana Regional Water Pollution
Control Board
3691- Main Street
Riverside, California
SWENSEN, HERBERT A.
Chief, Planning Section
Quality of Water Branch
Water Resources Division, USGS
Washington 25, D. C.
VOGT, JOHN E.
Director, Division of Engineering
Michigan Department of Health
Lansing 4, Michigan
WALTON, GRAHAM
In Charge, Water Conservation Studies
Engineering Sect., Research Branch
Div. Water Supply & Pollution Control,
PHS
Sanitary Engineering Center
Cincinnati 26, Ohio
WEAVER, LEO
Chief, Water Quality Sect., Basic Data
Branch
Div. Water Supply & Pollution Control,
PHS
Sanitary Engineering Center
Cincinnati 26, Ohio
WILSON, CHESTER S.
Attorney at Law & Conservation
Consultant
1318 South First Street
Stillwater, Minnesota
WOODWARD, FRANK L.
Director, Div. of Environmental
Sanitation
Minnesota Department of Health
University Campus
Minneapolis 14, Minnesota
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