Air Pollution
Training Institute
Air Pollution
Meteorology
September, 1975
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Air Pollution
Meteorology
AIR POLLUTION TRAINING INSTITUTE COURSE 411
Conducted by
Air Pollution Training Institute MD 17
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
Office of Air and Waste Management
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards
Control Programs Development Division
Air Pollution Training Institute
September, 1975
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US EPA
This is not an official policy and standards document.
The opinions, findings, and conclusions are those of the authors
and not necessarily those of the Environmental Protection Agency.
Every attempt has been made to represent the present state of the art
as well as subject areas still under evaluation.
Any mention of products or organizations does not constitute endorsement
by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
Air Pollution Meteorology
This course is designed f«jr engineers and professional
personnel responsible forjmeasuring air pollution levels
or for measuring and evaluating meteorological para-
meters which affect the diffusion and concentration of
pollutants in the atmosphere. Instruction provides the
trainee with a knowledge of the effects of meteorology
on air pollution. He learns the role of meteorology in
the transport and diffusion of 'air pollution, calculates
estimates of pollutant concentrations for continuous re-
leases, and studies meteorological instrumentation and
correct instrument exposure., The instruction also en-
ables him to discuss the important factors related to site
selection, control programs, ^ndi the planning and inter-
preting of surveys. Discussipns Iconcern sources of
meteorological information and the availability of addi-
tional professional assistance. This training manual
has been specially prepared for the trainees attending
this course and should not be included in reading lists
or periodicals as generally available.
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AIR POLLUTION TRAINING INSTITUTE
MANPOWER AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION BRANCH
CONTROL PROGRAMS DEVELOPMENT DIVISION
OFFICE OF AIR QUALITY PLANNING AND STANDARDS
The Air Pollution Training Institute (1) conducts training for personnel working on
the development and improvement of state, and local governmental, and EPA air
pollution control programs, as well as for personnel in industry and academic insti-
tutions; (2) provides consultation and other training assistance to governmental
agencies, educational institutions, industrial organizations, and others engaged in
air pollution training activities; and (3) promotes the development and improve-
ment of air pollution training programs in educational institutions and state, regional,
and local governmental air pollution control agencies. Much of the program is now
conducted by an on-site contractor, Northrop Services, Inc.
One of the principal mechanisms utilized to meet the Institute's goals is the intensive
short term technical training course. A full-time professional staff is responsible for
the design, development, and presentation of these courses. In addition the services
of scientists, engineers, and specialists from other EPA programs, governmental
agencies, industries, and universities are used to augment and reinforce the Institute
staff in the development and presentation of technical material.
Individual course objectives and desired learning outcomes are delineated to meet
specific program needs through training. Subject matter areas covered include air
pollution source studies, atmospheric dispersion, and air quality management. These
courses are presented in the Institute's resident classrooms and laboratories and at
various field locations.
Robert G. Wilder /I ^fean J. Schueneman
Program Manager K Chief. Manpower & Technical
Northrop Services, Inc. Information Branch
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CONTENTS
SECTION ONE
METEOROLOGICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Meteorological Fundamentals
Adiabatic Diagram
SECTION TWO
AIR POLLUTION METEOROLOGY
Effects of Meteorological Parameters on
Transport and Diffusion
Pollutant Concentration Variation
Influence of Topography on Transport
and Diffusion
Equation of State and Conversion of
Concentrations
Meteorological Roses
SECTION THREE
ATMOSPHERIC DIFFUSION
Principles of Turbulence and Diffusion
Introduction to Turbulence and Diffusion
Theory
The Generalized Gaussian Diffusion Equation
Atmospheric Diffusion Computations
Effective Stack Height
SECTION FOUR
AIR POLLUTION CLIMATOLOGY
SECTION FIVE
INTERRELATIONSHIPS - METEOROLOGY
AND AIR POLLUTION
Urban Effect Upon Meteorologic Parameters
Atmospheric Turbidity
Atmospheric Chemistry of Air Pollution
Natural Removal Processes in the Atmosphere
Analysis of Air Quality Cycles
SECTION SIX
METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
General Instrumentation Requirements
Meteorological Instruments
Exposure of Instruments
SECTION SEVEN
FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF METEOROLOGY
TO AIR POLLUTION
Air Pollution Weather Forecasts
Air Pollution Surveys
Site Selection for a Pollutant Source
Atmospheric Tracers and Urban Diffusion
Experiments
Meteorological Models for Urban Areas
Sources of Meteorological Data
SECTION EIGHT
ASSISTANCE IN AIR POLLUTION
METEOROLOGY
Assistance in Meteorologic Problems
Sources of Air Pollution Literature
APPENDIX
Glossary
Elementary Statistical
Description of Data
Index
Units of Measure for Dimensional Systems
Values and Logarithms of Exponential
Functions
Logarithms to Base 10
Conversion Factors
Temperature, Pressure
Length, Area
Volume, Flow
Weight, Concentration
Velocity, Emission Rates
International Atomic Weights
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Course Objectives
At the conclusion of this course the trainee should:
1 Know the primary effects of meteorology on air pollution
and the effects of air pollution on meteorology, emphasizing
the former.
2 Know the role of meteorology in the transport and diffusion
of air pollutants.
3 Know the Pasquill-Gifford method for estimating pollutant
concentrations from continuous releases and the limitations
of the method.
4 Know what the primary meteorological instruments used in
air pollution work are, their operating characteristics, and
correct exposure of them.
5 Know the important meteorological factors that should be
considered in site selection, control programs, and in
planning and interpreting surveys.
6 Be familiar with the current research activities in air
pollution meteorology.
7 Know the important sources of meteorological information
and how assistance on meteorological problems in air
pollution may be obtained.
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SECTION ONE
METEOROLOGICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Meteorological Fundamentals
Adiabatic Diagram
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METEOROLOGIC FUNDAMENTALS
D. B. Turner*
RADIATION
The energy expended in the atmospheric
processes originally was derived from the
sun. This transfer of energy from the sun
to the earth and its atmosphere is by radi-
ation of heat by electromagnetic waves.
The-radiation from the sun has its peak of
energy transmission in the visible range
(0. 4 to 0. 7 microns) of the electromagnetic
spectrum but releases considerable energy
in the ultraviolet and infrared regions as
well. The greatest part of the sun's energy
is emitted at wave lengths between 0. 1
and 30 microns. Some of this radiation is
reflected from the tops of clouds and from
the land and water surfaces of the earth.
The general reflectivity is the_alb_ejiQ and
for the earth and atmosphere as a whole is
jg ppT- G^nJ^, for mean conditions of cloud-
iness over the earth. This reflectivity is
greatest in the visible range of wavelengths.
When light (or radiation) passes through a
volume containing particles whose diameter
is smaller than the wavelength of the light,
scattering of a pprtion of this light takes
j? 1 1, , -~fl~~- "^ p U&*^eSf
place. ghort§t> wavelengths scatter most
easily which is the reason the scattered
light from the sky appears blue. Sunlight,
near sunrise and sunset, when passing
through a greater path-length of the atmos-
phere appears more red due to the in-
creased scattering of shorter wave lengths.
Absorption of solar radiation by some of
the gases in the atmosphere (notably water
vapor) also takes place. Water vapor, al-
though comprising only 3 per cent of the
atmosphere, on the average absorbs about
six times as much solar radiation as all
other gases combined. The amount of
radiation received at the earth's surface is
considerably less than that received outside
the atmosphere.
Thr earth rnrnrUatni? engr
. la
to its temperature according to Planck's
law. Because of the eartlr's temperature,
the maximum emission is4about 10 microns,
which is in the infrared region of the spectrum.
The gases of the atmosphere absorb some
wave length regions of this radiation. Water
*Supervisory Research Meteorologist, SQAi
Meteorology & Assessment Division, EPA
Besearch Triangle Park, NC 27711
PA. ME. el. Sa. 12. 62
vapor absorbs strongly between 5. 5 and 7
microns and at greater than 27 microns but
is essentially transparent from 8 to 13
microns. Carbon dioxide absorbs strongly
between 13 and 17.3 microns. Because of
the absorption of much more of the terres-
trial radiation by the atmosphere than of
the solar radiation, some of the heat energy
of the earth is conserved. This is the
"greenhouse " effect.
Figure 1 shows as a function of latitude the
amount of solar radiation absorbed by the
earth and atmosphere compared to the long
wave radiation leaving the atmosphere. The
sine of the latitude is used as abscissa to
represent area. It can be seen that if there
were no transfer of heat poleward, the
equitorial regions would continue to heat
up and the polar regions continue to cool.
Since the temperatures remain nearly the
same for various areas of the earth, such
a transfer does take place. The required
transfer of heat across various latitudes is
given in Table 1.
RADIATION 300
\
t> 10 » 30 « » « 70 90
Of LATITUDE
A SOLA* IAOIATION AISOIIED IY £A«TH AND ATMOSPHEIE
I LONO WAVI HADIAIION LEAVING THE ATMOSFHC«f
FIGURE 1
1-1
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\feteorologic Fundamentals
Table 1. Required Flux of Heat
Toward the Poles Across Latitudes
(1019 calories per day)
From Houghton
Latitude
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Flux
0
4.05
7.68
10.46
11.12
9.61
6.68
3.41
0.94
0
(along meridions i. e. between poles and
equator) circulation is broken into three
cells shown in Figure 2 according to
Palmen's model. Of considerable impor-
_ ptance is the fact that the jet stream does
\ [jiot remain long in one position but meanders
and is constantly changing position. This
causes changes in the location of the polar
front and perturbations along the front. The
migrating cyclones and anticyclones re-
sulting, play an important part in the heat
exchange, transferring heat northward both
as a sensible heat and also latent heat. Also
a small amount of heat is transferred pole-
ward by the ocean currents.
THE GENERAL CIRCULATION
The previous section has indicated the
necessity of transfer of heat from the
warm equatorial regions to the cold polar
regions in order to maintain the heat
balance of the atmosphere. This thermal
driving force is the main cause of atmos-
pheric motion on the earth. The rotation
of the earth modifies this motion but does
not cause it since the atmosphere essen-
tially rotates with the earth. The portion
of the earth near the equator acts as a
heat source and the polar regions as a
heat sink. The atmosphere functions as
a heat engine transforming the potential
energy of heat difference between tropics
and poles to kinetic energy of motion which
transports heat poleward from source to
sink.
If the earth did not rotate, rising air above
the equator would move poleward aloft
where in giving up some of its heat would
sink and return toward the equator as a
surface current. Since the earth does
rotate, the Coriolis force (to be discussed
in the section on wind) deflects winds in
the northern hemisphere to the right.
Therefore flow from the tropics toward
the poles become more westerly and flow
from the poles toward the equator tends to
become easterly. The result is that most
of the motion is around the earth (zonal)
with less than one-tenth of the motion be-
tween poles and equator. The meridional
POLAR TROPOPAUSE
POLAR FRONT JET
TROPICAL
TROPOPAUSE
GENERAL CIUCUIATION MODEL
(AFTER PALME Ni
FIGURE 2
TEMPERATURE
Variation with Height
In-the lower region of the atmosphere ex-
tending from the surface to about 2 km.,
the temperature distribution varies consid-
erably depending upon the character of the
underlying surface and upon the radiation
at the surface. The temperature may de-
crease with height or it may actually in-
crease with height (inversion). This region
is the lower troposphere and is the region
of most interest in air pollution meteorology.
The remainder of the troposphere has a
decrease of temperature with height on the
1-2
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Meteorologic Fundamentals
order of 4 to 8°C per km. The stratosphere
is a region with isothermal or slight inver-
sion lapse rates. The layer of transition
between the troposphere and stratosphere
is called the tropopause. The tropopause
varies in height from about 8 to 20 km. and
is highest near the equator, lowest near the
poles. Figures 3 and 4 indicate typical
temperature variations with height for two
latitudes for summer and winter in the
troposphere and lower stratosphere.
WINTER xx^v. SUMMER
-BO -60 -40 -20
TEMPERATURE l°C)
VARIATION OF TEMPCflATURE WITH HEIGHT AT 30° NOtTH LATITUDE
FIGURE 3
(KM.)
WINTEH '*-.-
-60 -40 -40 -20 0 20
TEMPERATURE (°C)
VARIATION OF TEMPCRATUtE WITH HCIGHT AT 60° NCSTM LATITUDE
FIGURE 4
Above the stratosphere, the high atmosphere
has several layers of differing characteris-
tics. A rough indication of the variation of
temperature with height including the high
atmosphere is shown in Figure 5.
220 340
TEMPERATURE
FIG UK E 5
Horizontal Variation
Temperature also varies horizontally
particularly with latitude, being colder near
the poles and warmer near the equator. How-
ever the influence of continents and oceans
have considerable effects on modifying
temperatures. The continents have more
extreme temperatures becoming warmer in
summer and colder in winter, whereas the
oceans maintain a more moderate temper-
ature year-round.
STABILITY AND INSTABILITY
Whether the atmosphere has a tendency to en-
hance vertical motions or to damp out ver-
tical motions is important to atmospheric
processes which produce weather as well as
to the effects upon air pollutants. The
stability of the atmosphere is highly dependent
upon the vertical distribution of temperature
with height.
1-3
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Meteorologic Fundamentals
Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Due to the decrease of pressure with height,
a parcel of air lifted to a higher altitude will
encounter decreased pressure and will
expand and in undergoing this expansion will
cool. If this expansion takes place without
loss or gain of heat to the parcel, the change
is adiabatic. Similarly a parcel of air forced
downward in the atmosphere will encounter
higher pressures, will contract and will be-
come warmer. This rate of cooling with
lifting or heating with descent is the dry
adiabatic process lapse rate and is 5.4°F
per 1000 feet or approximately 1° C per 100
meters. This process lapse rate is the rate
of heating or cooling of any descending or
rising parcel of air in the atmosphere and
should not be confused with the existing
temperature variation with height at any one
time, the environmental lapse rate.
Environmental or Prevailing Lapse Rate
The manner in which temperature changes
with height at any one time is the prevailing
lapse rate. This is principally a function of
the temperature of the air and of the surface
over which it is moving and the rate of exchange
of heat between the two. For example, dur-
ing clear days in midsummer the ground
will be rapidly heated by solar radiation
resulting in rapid heating of the layers of
the atmosphere nearest the surface, but
further aloft the atmosphere will remain
relatively unchanged. At night radiation
from the earth's surface cools the ground
and the air adjacent to it, resulting in only
slight decrease of temperature with height or
if surface cooling is great enough, temper-
ature will increase with height.
If the temperature decreases more rapidly
wit h height than the dry adiabatic lapse
rate, the air has a super-adiabatic or strong
lapse rate and the air is unstable. If a
parcel of air is forced upwards it will cool
at the adiabatic lapse rate, but will still
be warmer than the environmental air. Thus
it will continue to rise. Similarly, a parcel
which is forced downward will heat dry
adiabatically but will remain cooler than the
environment and will continue to sink.
For environmental lapse rates that decrease
with height at a rate less than the dry adia-
batic lapse rate (sub-adiabatic or weak lapse)
a lifted parcel will be cooler than the envir-
onment and will sink; a descending parcel
will be warmer than the environment and
will rise. Figure 6 shows the relative
relation between the environmental lapse
rates of super-adiabatic (strong lapse), sub-
adiabatic (weak lapse), isothermal, and
inversion with the dry adiabatic process
lapse rate as dashed lines.
\
SUPER-AM A BAT 1C
\
\\ \
\\SUB-ADIABATIC
X
(3
U
X
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
ISOTHERMAL
\
\
\
\
TEMPERATURE —••
Typos of Temperature Structure with Height
Related to the Dry Adiabatic Process Lapse Rate
FIGURE 6
Lifting motions which will cause cooling at
dry adiabatic lapse rates may be due to up-
slope motion over mountains or rising over
a colder air mass. Descending motion
(subsidence) may occur to compensate for
the lateral spreading of air in high pressure
areas.
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE
In the section on radiation the importance of
water vapor on the balance of incoming and
1-4
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Meteorologic Fundamentals
outgoing radiation was shown. The temper-
ature of the atmosphere is below the boiling
point of water, yet water is volatile enough
to evaporate (change from liquid to gas) or
sublimate (change from solid to gas) at
atmospheric temperatures and pressures.
Condensation or crystallization of water
vapor in the atmosphere as clouds and on
the ground as dew or frost is common-
place. Certainly, water in the form of
clouds, fog, and precipitation are familiar
elements of weather and the latter one
necessary for agriculture and supplies
of ground water.
One measure of the amount of moisture in
the air is the dew poin^ which is the
temperature at which saturation is reached
if the air is cooled at a constant pressure
without addition or loss of moisture. In
the atmosphere, saturation frequently
occurs due to the adiabatic cooling of
lifted air parcels until the dew point for
the lower pressure is reached. Further
cooling will condense water vapor, releas-
ing the heat of condensation/and because
of this release of heat, cooling 6T~aio««ding
saTurated air does not occur at the drj
le~but^t the pseudo-
adiabatic lapse rate which is a smaller
temperature decreasejwith height.
WINDS
Wind is nothing more than air in motion and
although it is a motion in three dimensions,
usually only the horizontal component is
considered in terms of direction and speed.
In the free atmosphere (above the effects
of the earth's friction) two forces are
important, the first, the Cpjdiilis.^rce^ is
dency for the air tojnove in_
a straight path while th
underneath. The Coriolis force is at right
angles to the wind velocity, to the right
in the northern hemisphere and to the left
in the southern hemisphere, is proportional
to the wind velocity, and decreases with
latitude. The other force is the pressure
gradient force, with direction from high
to low pressure. Above the friction layer,
in regions where the lines of constant
pressure (isobars) are straight and the
latitude is greater than 20°, the two forces
are in balance (See Figure 7) and the wind
blows parallel to the isobars with low
pressure to the left. For curved isobars
the forces are not in balance, their resul-
tant producing a centripetal acceleration.
In the lowest portion of the atmosphere _
frictional drag (not due to molecular fric-
tion but to eddy viscosity) slows down the
wind speed.and since the Coriolis force is
proportional to the wind speed, reduces the
Coriolis force. The balance of forces
under Frictional flow is shown in Figure 8.
It will be noted that under frictional flow
the wind has a component across the isobars
toward lower pressure.
PRESSURE
GRADIENT FORCE
GEOSTROPHIC
CORIOLIS
FORCE
FIGURE 7
PRESSURE
GRADIENT FORCE
FRICTION * •« FORCE
COUOUS FORCE
FIGURE 8
ANTICYCLONES AND CYCLONES
Migrating areas of high pressure (anticyclones)
and low pressure (cyclones) and the fronts
associated with the latter are responsible
for the day to day changes in weather that
occur over most of the mid-latitude regions
of the earth. The low pressure systems
in the atmospheric circulation are related
to perturbations along the jet stream (the
region of strongest horizontal temperature
gradient in the upper troposphere and con-
1-5
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IVfeteorologic Fundamentals
sequently the region of strongest winds)
and form along frontal surfaces separating
masses of air having different temperature
and moisture characteristics. The forma-
tion of a low pressure system is accompan-
ied by the formation of a wave on the front
consisting of a warm front and a cold
front both moving around the low in a
counterclockwise sense. The life cycle
of a typical cyclone is shown in Figure 9.
The cold front is a transition zone between
warm and cold air where the cold air is
moving in over the area previously occupied
by warm air. Cold fronts gengJaUj^have_^
slopes from_L/jjQ to lLl^a>~^Warm fronts
separate advancing warm air from retreating
cold air and have slopes on the order of I/ 100
to 1/300 due to the effects of friction on the
trailing edge of the front. Figure 10
illustrates a vertical cross section though
both a warm and a cold front.
^
CIOSS SECTION THIOUGH A COLD
AND A WAIM FIONT
FIGURE 10
AIR MASSES
Air masses are frequently divided by frontal
systems and are usually classified according
to the source region of their recent history.
Air masses are classified as maritime or
continental according to origin over the
ocean or land, and arctic, polar, or tropical
depending principally on the latitude of
origin. Air masses are modified by vertical
motions and by the effects of radiation upon
the surfaces over which they move.
CONDENSATION, CLOUDS, AND PRECIPI-
TATION
Condensation of water vapor upon suitable
condensation nuclei in the atmosphere causes
clouds. Large hygroscopic nuclei will con-
dense water vapor upon them even before
saturation is reached. Table 2 indicates
the relative sizes of different particles. At
below freezing temperatures supercooled
water frequently exists for few nuclei act
as crystallization nuclei. Of course, only
a small proportion of all clouds produce rain.
It is necessary that the droplets increase in
1-6
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Meteorologic Fundamentals
size both so that they will have appreciable
fall velocity and also so that complete evap-
oration of the drop will not occur before it
reaches the ground. Table 3 indicates the
distance of fall for different size drops
before evaporation occurs. Growth of con-
densation drops into drops large enough to
fall is thought to originate with the large
condensation nuclei which grow larger as
they drop through the cloud. The presence
of an electric field in clouds generally helps
the growth into raindrops.
TABLE 2
Sizes of Particles
Particles
Small ions
Medium ions
Large ions
Aitken nuclei
Smoke, haze, dust
Size (microns)
_ o
less than 10
10~3 to 5 X 10~2
5 X ID'2 to 2 X 10"1
5 X 10-2 to 2 X 10-1
10'1 to 2
Large condensation nuclei 2 X 10"' to 10
Giant condensation nuclei 10 to 30
Cloud or fog droplets 1 to 100
Drizzle drops
ixuiuciropu
100 to 500
500 to 4000
TABLE 3
Distance of Fall Before Evaporation (from
Findeisen)
REFERENCES
1 Blair, T.A. and Fite, R. C. Weather
Elements. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, N. J. 5th ed., 1965.
2 Byers, H. R. General Meteorology, Mc-
Graw-Hill, New York, Srdcd.,
1959.
3 Findeisen, W., Meteorol. Z., 56, 453,
1D39.
4 Hewson, E. W. ; and Longley, R. W.
Meteorology, Theoretical^ and Applied.
Wiley, New York, 1944.
5 Houghton, H. G. "On the Annual Heat
Balance of the Northern Hemisphere, "
J. Meteorol.-, 11, 1, 1-0. Feb. 1954.
6 Palme'n, E., Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol.
Soc., 77, 337. 1951.
7 Petterssen, S. Introduction to Meteoro-
logy. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2nd
ed. , 1958.
8 Shulman, M. D. Climates of the United
States. Seminar on Human Biometeo-
rology. Public Health Service Pub. No.
999-AP-25. 1967.
Radius (microns)
1
10
100
1000
2500
Distance of Fall
3.3 10'4 cm.
3. 3 cm.
150 m.
42 km.
280 km.
1-7
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ADIABATIC DIAGRAM
D. B. Turner*
The adiabatic diagram can be used to plot
the distribution of temperature, and moisture
with height in the atmosphere. This is of
considerable use to the meteorologist in
determining freezing levels, condensation
levels of moisture in lifted air parcels,
forecasting cloud bases and tops, deter-
mining stability for cloud formation and
thunderstorm forecasting. To the air
pollution meteorologist a sounding plotted
on an adiabatic chart is principally useful
to determine the large scale stability of
the atmosphere over a given location. The
principal source of atmospheric measure-
ments that may be plotted on the adiabatic
chart are the radiosonde measurements
taken twice daily: 0000 GCT (1900 EST)
and 1200 GCT (0700 EST) at about 66 sta-
tions in the contiguous United States. The
method of obtaining these soundings is to
release into the atmosphere a balloon
borne instrument package having sensors
for temperature, pressure, and humidity
and a radio transmitter for relaying this
information to the ground station. This
information on the upper air is collected
primarily to serve the purpose of forecast-
ing and aviation briefing. Consequently,
the information is not as detailed in the
lowest 5000 feet as an air pollution mete-
orologist desires. Also, in air pollution
meteorology, it is desirable to have infor-
mation more frequently than 12 hours apart.
In spite of these deficiencies for air pol-
lution purposes, the soundings from the
radiosonde network will give indications
of the stability of the atmosphere.
The adiabatic chart used by the Weather
Service (WEA D-ll) is shown at the
end of this section. Temperature on a
linear scale is plotted against pressure on
a logarithmic scale. The different lines are
explained in the legend in the upper right.
The important lines for air pollution pur-
poses in addition to the pressure and tempera-
ture lines are the dry adiabats, the solid
green lines running diagonally from lower
right to upper left.
"Supervisory Research Meteorologist, f/GAA
Meteoroloiry § Assessment Division. FPA
Research Triangle Park, N. C. 27711
PA. ME. mm. I6b. 5. 64
A temperature sounding may be plotted by
locating each significant level reported by
the temperature and pressure given for
that level. The plotted points may then be
connected by straight lines. This gives the
temperature sounding. The dew point curve
may also be plotted giving a measure of
humidity.
The stability of a portion of the sounding
may be compared with the dry adiabatic
lapse rate and with the isotherms. If the
temperature decreases more rapidly than
the dry adiabats through a layer, this layer
is super adiabatic and quite unstable. If the
temperature decre^es, but at a rate less
than the dry adiabatic lapse rate, the layer
is sub-adiabatic and is more stable than
super adiabatic. A sub-adiabatic layer may
be relatively unstable or stable depending
upon the humidity structure in the layer.
If the temperature increases with height,
the layer is an inversion. Inversions are
stable layers.
Inversions that form based at ground level
are generally radiation inversions caused
by the cooling of the earth's surface and the
adjacent air. However, there may also be
advection inversions formed by the air's
passage over a relatively cold surface.
These two types of surface based inversion
generally cannot be distinguished by inspec-
tion of the sounding plotted on an adiabatic
diagram. A surface based inversion on an
afternoon sounding is more apt to be an
advection inversion.
There are two general classifications of
inversions with bases above the ground:
frontal inversions and subsidence inversions.
Both of these can be ground based inversions
as well as found aloft.
Frontal inversions are discontinuities in the
temperature profile due to the transition be-
tween the cold air below and the warm air
aloft. Frontal inversions usually are ac-
companied by increase in moisture through
1-9
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Adiabatic Diagram
the inversion. Subsidence inversions are
caused by the sinking motion above high
pressure areas and generally have rapidly
decreasing humidities above the base of
the inversion.
Surveys of the meteorological aspects of
air pollution are often concerned with the
extent of horizontal and vertical mixing.
A quantity referred to as the mixing depth
is quite useful when considering dilution
of pollutants in the vertical. The usual
method of estimating mixing depths is to
consider the stability as portrayed on a
temperature sounding remembering that
unstable lapse rates favor vertical mixing
and stable lapse rates restrict vertical
motion, ^hp rr"vi"Q depth in ponnjralljuthe
height ahoy** -ttlp ground to which ^anp«»r
TKusT"the maximum mixing depth is fre-
quently determined where the dry adiabat
drawn through the maximum temperature
for the day intersects the sounding on an
adiabatic diagram.
v
In the figures are some soundings represen-
tative of different types of conditions in the
atmosphere. Figure 1 is the temperature
sounding for 12 GCT (0700 EST) for Dayton,
Ohio on a clear day in summer. There is
a radiation inversion based at the surface.
The sounding 12 hours later (Figure 2)
shows that the surface inversion has been
eliminated and that nearly dry adiabatic
conditions exist from the surface to 800 mb
(2068 meters).
Figure 3 (5 days later than Figure 1) is
representative of a cloudy summer period.
Sub- adiabatic conditions occur on the morn
ing sounding and dry adiabatic (through 187
meters) conditions occur on the evening
sounding (Figure 4).
Figures 5 and 6 are for Los Angeles for a
day with no smog. On the morning sound-
ing (12 GCT, 0400 PST) sub- adiabatic
conditions occur from the surface to about
1000 meters with the marine inversion
layer about 200 meters thick above this.
On the afternoon sounding (Figure 6) strong
lapse (super adiabatic) conditions occur
through a shallow surface layer with sub-
ad iabatic conditions extending to almost
1500 meters. The winds beneath the in-
version range from 5 to 15 knots.
Figures 7 and 8 for Los Angeles arc for a
smog day just 4 days before Figures 5 and
6. The morning sounding (0400 PST) indi-
cates sub-adiabatic conditions through less
than 300 meters with a strong inversion
above. The afternoon sounding (Figure 8)
shows super adiabatic conditions from
the surface to the inversion base about 300
meters above the surface. Winds beneath
the inversion are less than 5 knots during
the morning and are about 15 knots during
the afternoon.
Figures 9 and 10 arc for Dayton, Ohio
during an air pollution potential alert
for the Northeast U. S. and Ohio Valley.
On the morning sounding (0700 EST) Figure 9
an inversion extends from the surface to
940 millibars (about 400 meters). In spite
of clear skies causing temperatures to reach
about GO°F, this was insufficient to break
the inversion. The surface based radiation
inversion is reforming by 1900 EST
(Figure 10).
It is estimated that the maximum mixing
height achieved during this day was about
350-400 meters, (the height where the dry
adiabat through 15. 5°C (60°F) intersects
the 00 GCT sounding).
Note that the terms "mixing height" and "mixing
depth" are synonymous and are used interchange-
ably in practice. Further information is con-
tained in Section Four, Air Pollution Clioatolog
and Section Seven, Air Pollution Weather Fore-
casts. For further discussions on meteorologies
charts and diagrams, consult most meteorological
texts.
REFERENCES
1. Saucier, W. J. Principles of Meteorological
Analysis. The University of Chicago Press,
1955.
2. Hess, S. L. Introduction to Theoretical Mete
ology. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. New
York 1959.
1-10
-------
Height
(Kilometers)
2.0
1 5
1.0
0.5
Surface
\
\
Adiabatic Lapse Rate
Maximum Mixing Height
•~fy0tey^Night«ffme /-
Surf^ Inveri i on y^oyf j.
Typical \
Day-Time \
Lapse Rate
\
\
\
\
i
Daily Maximum
Temperature —w-
Calculation Of Maximum Mixing Height
.
"
'-I
:
-------
Adiabatic Diagram
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Adiabatic Diagram
600
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Figurr 2- Temperature Sounding For a Relatively Clear Day
Dayton, Ohio, 2 July 1961, 0000 GCT.
(1900 EST 1 July).
1-13
-------
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Figure 3 - Temperature Sounding For a Cloudy Day,
Dayton, Ohio, 6 July 1961, 1200 GCT
(0700 EST).
1-14
-------
Adiabatic Diagram
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Figure 4 - Temperature- Sounding For- a C'loud> Da\,
Dayton, Ohio, 7 July 1961, 0000 GCT,
(1900 EST 6 July).
1-15
-------
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Figure 5- Temperature Sounding For a Day Free of Smog,
Los Angeles, 5 Otober 1962, 1200 GCT.
(0400 PST).
g
1-16
-------
Adiabatic Diagram
600
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Figure (i- Temperature Sounding For a l)a> I'l'ee of Smog,
Los Angeles, (i October !!Hil2. 0000 GC'T
(KiOO PST, 5 Oetober).
1-17
-------
^Adiabatic Diagram
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P'igure 7- Trmporaturo Sounding For a Day With Smog,
Los Angeles, 1 October 1962, 1200 GCT,
(0400 PST).
1-18
-------
Adiabatic Diagram
600
650
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750
800
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1050
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Figure 8- Temperature Sounding For a Day With Smog,
Los Angt-les, 2 October 1962, 0000 GCT
(HJOO PST, 1 October).
1-19
-------
Adiabatic Diagram
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Temperature ( C)
P'igurc 9- Temperature Sounding During an Air Pollution Potential Alert,
Dayton, Ohio, 3 December 1962, 1200 GCT, (0700 EST).
1-20
-------
Adiabatic Diagram
600 '
650
700
750
'2
sure (milliba
\ \
\ \ \
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Figure 10 - T>mpc-raturo Sounding During An Air Pollution Potential Alert,
Da; ton, Ohio, 4 December- 1962, 0000 GCT, (1900 EST, 3 December).
1-21
-------
.i S DE^^RTML'NT OP COMMERCE
PSEUDO-ADiABATiC CHART
. .
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TEMPERATURE
w loo' ncr . i2
-------
SECTION TWO
AIR POLLUTION METEOROLOGY
Effects of Meteorological Parameters on Transport and Diffusion
Pollutant Concentration Variation
Influence of Topography on Transport and Diffusion
Equation of State and Conversion of Concentrations
Meteorological Roses
-------
EFFECTS OF METEOROLOGIC PARAMETERS ON TRANSPORT AND DIFFUSION
D. B. Turner*
The air pollution cycle can be considered to
consist of three phases: the release of air
pollutants at the source, the transport and
diffusion in the atmosphere, and the recep-
tion of air pollutants in reduced concen-
trations by people, plants, animals, or
inanimate objects. The influence of
meteorology is to the greatest extent during
the diffusion and transport phase. The
motions of the atmosphere which may be
highly variable in four dimensions are
responsible for the transport and diffusion
of air pollutants.
Although the distribution with time of a
cloud of pollutant material will depend on
the summation of all motions of all sizes
and periods acting upon the cloud, it is
convenient to first consider some mean
atmospheric motions over periods on the
order of an hour.
•WIND DIRECTION
Wnat effect will the mean wind direction
have on an air pollutant? If the wind direc-
tion is representative of the height at which
the pollutant is released, the mean direction
will be indicative of the direction of travel
of the pollutants. In meteorology it is
conventional to consider the wind direction
as the direction from which the wind blows,
therefore a north-west wind will move
pollutants to the south-east of the source.
WIND SPEED
The effect of wind speed is two-fold. The
wind speed will determine the travel time
from a source to a given receptor, e. g.
if a receptor is located 1000 meters down-
wind from a source and the windspeed is 5
meters /second, it will take 260 seconds
for the pollutants to travel from the source
to the receptor. The other effect of wind
speed is a dilution in the downwind direction.
If a continuous source is emitting a certain
pollutant at the rate of 10 grams/second
and the wind speed is 1 meter/second then,
•Supervisory Research Meteorologist, NOAA
MeteoroHopy & Assessment Division, EPA
Research Triangle Park, HC ?1T\~L
PA.Mh.ram.14.6.67
in a downwind length of the
^'
"Bincfl L-jpeter of air moves pjasJ_thje_jiOjlUC££ __
eacJLsecon^r~T'ext7™con"si3'er "that the
conditions of emission are the same but
the wind speed is 5 meters /second. In
this case since 5 meters of air moves
past the source each second, each meter
of plume length contains 2 grams of pollu-
tant. Therefore it can be seen that the
dilution of air pollutants released from a
source is proportional to the wind speed.
This may be restated in another form: The
concentration of air pollutants is inversely
proportional to wind speed. —
VARIABILITY OF THE WIND
In the preceding paragraphs consideration
of only the mean speed and direction of
wind has been made. Of course, there are
deviations from this mean velocity. There
are velocity components in all directions so
that there are vertical motions as well as
horizontal ones. These random motions
of widely different scales and periods are
essentially responsible for the movement
and diffusion of pollutants about the mean
downwind path. These motions can be
considered atmospheric turbulence. If
the scale of a turbulent motion i.e. the
size of an eddy, is larger than the size of
the pollutant plume in its vicinity, the eddy
will move that portion of the plume. If an
eddy is smaller than the plume its effect
will be to diffuse or spread out the plume.
This diffusion caused by the eddy motion is
widely variable in the atmosphere but
ty-it is on the
agnitude gr
a.iti
MECHANICAL TURBULENCE
Mechanical turbulence is the induced eddy
structure of the atmosphere due to the
roughness of the surface over which the air
is passing. Therefore the existance of trees,
shrubs, buildings, and terrain features will
2-1
-------
Effects of Meteorologic Parameters on Transport and Diffusion
cause mechanical turbulence. The height
and spacing of the elements causing the
roughness will affect the turbulence. In
general, the higher the roughness elements
the greater the mechanical turbulence. In
addition the mechanical turbulence increases
as wind speed increases.
THERMAL TURBULENCE
Thermal turbulence is that induced by
the stability of the atmosphere. When
the earth's surface is heated by the sun's
radiation, the lower layer of the atmos-
phere becomes unstable and thermal tur-
bulence becomes greater, expecially under
c onditions of light wind. On clear nights
with light winds, heat is radiated from the
earth's surface resulting in cooling of the
ground and air adjacent to it. This results
in extreme stability of the atmosphere near
the earth's surface. Under these con-
ditions turbulence is at a minimum. /
RELATION OF TURBULENCE TO WIND
RECORDS
Attempts to relate different measures of
turbulence of the wind to atmospheric
diffusion have been made for quite some
tims. Lowry (1951) related the distance
of the maximum concentration to the
standard deviation of wind direction over
10 to 15 minute periods. Smith (1951) has
used a classification of wind trace types
using wind vane records as an indication
of atmospheric stability. Hay and Pasquill
(1957, 1059), Cramer (1958), and Islitzer
(19(il) have all compared diffusion experi-
ment results with statistics of wind direc-
Uon fluctuations in both the horizontal and
vertical. Direct methods of relating wind
statistics to estimates of dispersion
(Pasquill, 1961, 1962) show promise and
attempts at developing suitable instru-
mentation to yield the necessary wind
statistics directly have been made (Jones
and Pasquill. 1959).
RELATION OF TURBULENCE TO ATMOS-
PHERIC STABILITY
Relations of a more qualitative type have
been noted between atmospheric diffusion
and the stability of the atmosphere. Measure-
ment of atmospheric stability by temperature
difference measurements on a tower are
frequently utilized as an indirect measure
of turbulence, particularly where clima-
tological estimates of turbulence are desired.
Under strong lapse or super-adiabatic
conditions of temperature change with
height, strong vertical and horizontal
mixing takes place in the atmosphere con-
trasted to inversion conditions with slight
horizontal mixing but extremsly limited
vertical mixing. (See the section on The
Influence of Vertical Temperature Structure
Upon Stack Effluents)
VARIATIONS OF WIND SPEED AND DIREC-
TION WITH HEIGHT
Wind speed is generally found to increase
with height above the ground and wind direc-
tion to veer (turn clockwise) with height (in
the northern hemisphere at extratropical
latitudes) due to the effects of friction with
the earth's surface. The amount of these
increases in speed and veering in direction
are widely variable ;ind to a gr^at dc^rco
related to the roughness of the surface and
the stability of the atmosphere.
EFFECT OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Consider the surface wind as measured at 10
meters compared to the wind above the in-
fluence of the earth's friction, for example
about 1000 meters. Over smooth terrain
such as the great plains or over the ocean
the speed at the surface is on the order of
0. 9 the upper wind and the degree of veering
with height on the order of 10°. (See Figure 1).
Over average terrain with small changes in
elevation and with some trees and shrubs,
the surface speed is more like 4/5 of the upper
wind and the amount of veering with height
about 15° to 20°. Over rough terrain, quite
hilly or mountaneous or with numerous
buildings and vegetation, the surface speed
may be only half the speed of the upper wind
and the amount of veering with height as much
as 40° to 45°.
2-2
-------
Effects of Meteorologic Parameters on Transport and Diffusion
SMOOTH
TERRAIN
10 MEIER 1
WIND
1000 METER
WIND
order of 1/4 to 1/3 that of the 1000 meter
wind) and the amount of veering with
height may be on the order of 40° to 45°.
Figure 2 shows the diurnal variation of
wind speed at two different levels on a
meteorological tower (Singer and Raynor,
1957).
AVERAGE
TERRAIN
1000 MEIER
WIND
10 METER'
WIND
ROUGH
TERRAIN
1000 METER
WIND
10 METER
WIND
EFFECT OF ROUGHNESS ON
VACATION OF WIN} WITH HEIGHT
FIGURE 1
DIURNAL VARIATION
During the daytime, solar heating causes
turbulence to be at a maximum and ver-
tical motions to be strongest. This causes
the maximum amount of momentum ex-
change between various levels in the at-
mosphere. Because of this, the variation
of wind speed with height is least during
the daytime. Also the amount of veering
with height is least (on the order of 15° to
20O over average terrain). The thickness
of the friction layer will also be greatest
during the day due to the vertical exchange.
At night the vertical motions are least and
the effect of friction is not felt through as
deep as a layer as during the day. The
surface speed over average terrain is much
less than the free atmosphere wind (on the
WIND 5
SPEED
(M/SEC)
SUNKISE MIDDAY SUNSET MIDNIGHT SUNRISE
DIUHNAl VARIATION OF WIND SPEED
Onto from Metsorologicol Tew.I
Braofchavfln Norionol Laboratory
April 1950-Morch 1952
FIGURE 2
FRONTAL TRAPPING
Since frontal systems are accompanied by
inversions, trapping of air pollution beneath
these inversions can occur. These may allow
relatively high concentrations. Frontal
trapping may occur with either warm fronts
or cold fronts. Since warm fronts are usually
slower moving and also the frontal surface
slopes more gradually than that of a cold
front, trapping will generally be more im-
portant with warm fronts. In addition the
low level and surface wind speeds ahead of
a warm front - within the trapped sector -
will usually be lower than the wind speeds
behind a cold front. Because of the orienta-
tion of frontal systems with respect to low
pressure systems in the Northern hemisphere,
most surface winds associated with cold
fronts are from the
qorJJr*and winds associated with warrnfronts
are from the east through south quadrant.
Therefore most warm frontal trapping will
occur to the west through north from a given
source and cold frontal trapping to the east
through south of the source.
2-3
-------
Effects of Meteorologic Parameters on Transport and Diffusion
REFERENCES
Cramer, H.E. ; Record, F.A. ; and Vaughan,
H. C. "The Study of the Diffusion of
Gases or Aerosols in the Lower Atmos-
phere", Final Report, Contract No.
AF 19(604)-1058, 15 May 58, Mass.
Jr.st. of Tech. , Dept. of Meteorol.
Hay, J. S. ; and Pasquill, F. "Diffusion
from a Fixed Source at a Height of a Few
Hundred Feet in the Atmosphere ", J. of
3, 299-310, May, 1957.
Fluid Mech., 2,
Hay, J. S. ; and Pasquill, F. "Diffusion
from a Continuous Source in Relation
to the Spectrum and Scale of Turbulence ",
in Atmospheric Diffusion and Air Pollu-
tion, Frenkiel, F. N. ; and Sheppard, P. A. ,
editors. Academic Press, London, 1959.
Islitzer, Norman F. "Short-Range Atmos-
pheric Dispersion Measurements from
an Elevated Source", J. Meteorol., JU3,
4, 443-450, August 1961.
Jones, J. I. P. ; and Pasquill, F. "An
Experimental System for Directly Re-
cording Statistics of the Intensity of
Atmospheric Turbulence", Quar. J.
of the Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 85. 225-236,
1959.
Lowry, P. H. "Microclimate Factors in
Smoke Pollution From Tall Stacks ",
in: On Atmospheric Pollution. Meteorol.
Mono. 1, 4, 24-29, Nov. 1951.
Pasquill, F. "The Estimation of the Dis-
persion of Windborne Material, " The
Meteorol. Mag., 90, 1063, 33-49,
Feb. 1961.
Pasquill, F. Atmospheric Diffusion. Van
Nostrand, London, 1962.
Singer, LA.; and Raynor, G. S. "Analysis
of Meteorological Tower Data, April
1950 - March 1952, Brookhaven National
Laboratory", AFCRC TR-57-220,
Brookhaven National Laboratory,
June 1957.
Smith, M. E. "The Forecasting of Micro-
meteorological Variables", in: On
Atmospheric Pollution. Meteorol. Mono.,
1. 4, 50-55, Nov. 1951.
2-4
-------
POLLUTANT CONCENTRATION VARIATION
D. B. Turner*
THE INFLUENCE OF VERTICAL TEMPER-
ATURE STRUCTURE UPON STACK EFFLU-
ENTS
The manner in which stack effluents diffuse
is primarily a function of the stability of
the atmosphere. Church (1949) has typed
the behavior of smoke plumes into five classes.
Hewson (1960) has added a sixth class taking
into account inversions aloft.
LOOPING
Looping occurs with a superadiabatic lapse
rate. Large thermal eddies are developed
in the unstable air and high concentrations
may be brought to the ground for short time
intervals. Diffusion is good however when
considering longer time periods. The
superadiabatic conditions causing looping
occurs only with light winds and strong solar
heating. Cloudiness or high winds will
prevent such unstable conditions from forming.
CONING
With vertical temperature gradient between
dry adiabatic and isothermal,slight instability
occurs with both horizontal and vertical
mixing but not as intense as in the looping
situation. The plume tends to be cone shaped
hence the name. The plume reaches the
ground at greater distances than with looping.
Coning is prevalent on cloudy or windy days
or nights. Diffusion equations are more
successful in calculating concentrations for
this type of plume than for any other.
FANNING
If the temperature increases upward the air is
stable and vertical turbulence is suppressed.
Horizontal mixing is not as great as in coning
but still occurs. The plume will therefore
spread horizontally but little if any vertically.
Since the winds are usually light the plume
will also meander in the horizontal. Plume
concentrations are high but little effluent from
elevated sources reaches the ground with this
situation except when the inversion is broken
due to surface heating, or terrain at the
elevation of the plume is encountered.
Clear skies with light winds during the
night are favorable conditions for fanning.
LOFTING
Lofting occurs when there is a
batioJLaj£g.r _
Under this condition diffusion is rapid up-
ward but downward diffusion does not
penetrate the inversion and so is damped
out. With these conditions gases will not
reach the surface but particles with
appreciable settling velocities will drop
through the inversion. Near sunset on a
clear evening in open country is most favor-
able for lofting. Lofting is generally a
transition situation and as the inversion
deepens is replaced by fanning.
FUMIGATION
As solar heating increases the lower layers
are heated and a super-adiabatic lapse rate
occurs through a deeper and deeper layer.
When the layer is deep enough to reach
the fanning plume, thermal turbulence will
bring high concentrations to the ground
along the full length of the plume. This
is favored by clear skies and light winds and
is apt to occur more frequently in summer
due to increased heating.
Another type of fumigation may occur in the
early evening over cities. Heat sources
and mechanical turbulence due to surface
roughness causes a lapse condition in the
Ipwer layers of the stable air moving into
the city from non-urban areas where
radiation inversions are already forming.
This causes a fumigation until the city loses
enough heat so that the lapse condition can
no longer be maintained.
TRAPPING
When an inversion occurs aloft such as a
frontal or subsidence inversion a plume
released beneath the inversion will be trapped
beneath it. Even if the diffusion is good
beneath the inversion such as a coning plume,
* Supervisory Research Meteorologist, NOAA
Meteorology & Assessment Division, EPA
Research Triangle Park, WC
PA.ME.sd.30a.8.62
2-5
-------
Pollutant Concentration Variation
the limit to upward diffusion will increase
concentration in the plume and at ground
level.
The six plume classes are diagrammed in
the accompanying figure.
t
c
c
-
-
-
:
i I
WIGHT
FUMIGATION
rUMUTMf DUTANCI DOWNWIND
', art ADwunc IAM UTI
"f'V TIAMINO
^ LU
Diurnal Variations of Ground-Level Concen
trations from Elevated Urban Sources
The primary maximum around 10 AM is
due to fumigation. The rapid decrease in
concentration following this is due to the
heating of a progressively deeper layer
and mixing of pollutants through this layer.
The increase of concentrations during the
late afternoon are due to the slight increase
in stability after the period of maximum
heating. During this period the lapse
rate is generally changing from strong
lapse to weak lapse.
VARIATION OF POLLUTANT COCKNTRA-
TIONS DUE TO METEOROLGGIC VARIATIONS
An example of the diurnal variation of
pollutant concentrations is given in this
figure. These are the concentrations
some distance down-wind from a contin-
uous elevated urban source on a day when
stability reaches extremes, i.e. , on a
clear day with light winds. This shows
only the variations on the order of an
hour's duration rather that the rapid varia-
tions which may occur a few minutes
duration.
The secondary maximum that occurs in
the evening is a phenomena observed only
in the urban area. During the late afternoon
and early evening a radiation inversion
begins to form at the earth's surface in the
non-urban areas, i. e., the surrounding
countryside. The air over the city, how-
ever, does not have a radiation inversion
in the lower layers due to release of heat
from the buildings and pavings of the city.
However, later in the evening, an inversion
above the weak lapse layer forms above the
city and a mixing of the pollutants in this
layer produces the higher concentrations.
This has been described by Munn and Katz
2-6
-------
Pollutant Concentration Variation
(1959). Hewson (I960) refers to this as a
"Type II Fumigation".
When the base of this inversion aloft lowers
enough so that the elevated emissions are
into the inversion layer the concentrations
decrease and continue to decrease until
after sunrise. Then surface heating is
sufficient to produce mixing beneath the
inversion and pollution previously in the
inversion layer is mixed through the layer
of super-adiabatic lapse rate beneath the
remaining upper portion of the inversion
resulting in high ground level concentrations.
VARIATION IN CONCENTRATION AS
AFFECTED BY SAMPLING TIME
Since the motions of the atmosphere are
not constant with time the concentrations of
pollutants are also variable with time.
Mean concentrations of pollutants measured
over different time periods are not directly
comparable. This is due principally to
the fluctuation of the horizontal wind direc-
tion. If sampling is conducted downwind
from a source a short sample of 3 to 5 minutes
duration will yield a certain concentration but
as the sampling interval is increased to say an
hour , the mean concentration will decrease
due to short periods of time when the wind is
not blowing directly from the sourc'e to the
receptor even though the mean wind throughout
the sampling interval is from source to receptor.
Relations have been experimentally deter-
mined (Stewart, Gale and Crooks, 1958;
Cramer, 1959; and Singer, 1961) relating
the peak short term concentration over
larger sampling intervals. The accompany-
in graph shows some of these findings.
This shows that under neutral conditions
the peak 3 minute concentration over an
hour is about 2 1 /2 times the hourly mean.
Under unstable conditions when the vertical
direction of the wind is also rapidly changing
the peak 3 minute concentration can be ex-
pected to be about 51/2 times the hourly
concentration. It should be remembered
that this graph is applicable to peak centerline
concentration. Off axis concentration would
be higher as the averaging time interval is
lengthened.
20 30 40 50 60 80 100
TIME (MINUTES)
RELATION OF PEAK SHORT TERM CENTERLINE CONCENTRATIONS
TO ONE HOUR MEAN CONCENTRATIONS
2-7
-------
Pollutant Concentration Variation
Where there are multiple sources of *ke ~
measured pollutant the variation of the wind
does not have as large an effect on the changes
of concentration with sampling time. A
study (McCormick and. Xintaras) on carbon
monoxide concentrations in Nashville, Tenn-
ossee has shown, as an example, 3 minute
peak concentration orv the order of 1. 5 times
hourly concentrations.
An empirical mathematical relationship has
bcerL4iro£Osed for relating peak to one-hour
'mean concentrations —.
X peak
3600
t lime in seconds
r 0.65 very unstable (class A)
0.52 unstable (i lass B, C)
0. 35 neutral (class 13)
Additional studies havo analyzed the con-
centration of specific pollutants by averaging
time an'! frequency of occurrence a selected
concentration is exceeded, (/Dimmer and
Larson, 1965; Larson et_ al, 1967). However,
meteorological variations, especially stability
conditions, were not explicitly considered.
The question also arises about inferring what
the concentration ;vciage kill most likely he
over periods longer than one hour up to 24
hours given a one-hourly average. While there
is no substitute for actual data., the follow-
ing table, extracted from Kef. 10, may be used
Averaging Time
1 hour
3 hours
8 hours
24 -hoars
Correction
1.0
0.04
0.8
0.37
The type of source, emission rate variability,
topography, and specific meteorological sit-
uation will usually result in a matrix
for which a set of unique corrections will
likely be required to fit observed data.
REFERENCES
1. Church, P. E. ; "Dilution of Waste Stack
Gases in the Atmosphere", Ind. Eng.
Chem. 41, 12, 2753-2756, Dec. 1949
2. Cramer, Harrison E. ; "Engineering
Estimates of Atmospheric Dispersal
Capacity", Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.,
20, 3, 183-189, June 1959.
3. Hewson, E. W. ; "Meteorological Measuring
Techniques and Methods for Air Pollution
Studies" in Industrial Hygiene an Toxi-
Cology, Vol. 3. L. Silverman (Ed. )
New York, Interscience
4. McCormick, R. A. and Xintarae, C. ;
"Variation of Carbon Monoxide Concentra-
tions as Related to Sampling Interval,
Traffic, and Meteorological Factors".
J. Appl. Meteorol. 1, 2, 237-243, June 1962
5. Munn, R. E. and Katz, M. "Daily and
Seasonal Pollution Cycles in the Detroit
Windsor Area". Int. J. Air Poll.,2.1.
51-76. July 1959.
6. Singer, Irving A. "The Relationship
Between Peak and Mean Concentrations"
J. of APCA, n_, 7, 336 - 341, July 1961.
7. Stewart, N. G. ; Gale, H. J. ; and Crooks,
R. N. "The Atmospheric Diffusion of
Gases Discharged from the Chimney of the
Harwell Reactor BEPO" Int. J. Air Pollu-
tion, 1. 1/2, 87 - 102, October 1958.
8. Zimrm-r, C. E. and Larsen, R.I. "Calcu-
lating Air Quality and its Control. "
JAPCA, 11,12, 565-572. December 1965.
9. Larsen, R. I. , dimmer, C. E. , Lynn,
D. A. , Blcmel, K. G. "Analyzing Air
Pollutant Concentration and Dosage Data."
JAPCA, IT, i, 85-93, February 1967.
10. nPA Guidance for Air Quality Monitoring
Network Design and Instrument Siting.
Guideline Series OAQPS No. 1.2-012 (Rev.)
Supplement B July 1975.
2-8
-------
INFLUENCE OF TOPOGRAPHY ON TRANSPORT AND DIFFUSION
D. P>. Tumor*
J.I,. Dieke*
In many cases the transport and diffusion of
air pollutants is complicated by terrain
features. Most large- urban ureas are located
either in river valleys or ou the shores of
lakes or oceans. Both of these features alter
nifteorologir: conditions.
VALLEY EFFECTS
Channeling
Although the more extreme effects of a
valley locution occurs when the general flow
is light, valleys tend to channel the general
flow along the valley axis resulting in a bi-
directional wind frequency distribution.
Slope and Valley Winds
When the genera) wind Flow is light and skies
art1 clear, the differences in rates of heating
and cooling of various portions of the valley
floor and sides cause; slight density and
pressure differences resulting in small cir-
culations. During the evening hours radiation
of heat from the earth's surface and con-
sequent cooling of the ground and air adjacent
to the ground causes density changes. The
air at point A (Figure 1) is more dense than
at point B since point A is nearer the radiating
surface. Therefore the more dense air at
point A tends to flow in the general direction
of I? and similarly at other points along the
slope. This is the slope wind.
If the slope in Figure I is a side of a valley
as in Figure 2, the cold air moving down
the slopes will tend to drain into the; valley
floor and deepen with time, intensifying the
iMflinl uin inversion that would form even
wilhout the addition of cold air. Any pollutants
that are emitter) into this air, because of the
inversion structure, will have very limited
vertical motion.
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 2
If, in addition, the valley floor has some
slope, the cold air will have a tendency to
move downhill along the valley axis. This is
usually referred to as the valley wind (Sec
Figure 3). Because? of the necessity of some
accumulation of cold air from slope -winds, the
onset of the valley wind usually lags several
hours behind the onset of the slope wind.
i
I
I
1
FIGURE 3
The steeper the slopes of the valley, the
stronger the slope winds can become. Vegeta-
tion will tend to reduce the I'low both due to
impeding the flow and also restricting the
amount of radiation that can take place.
Supervisory Meteorologists, MOM
Meteorology 6 Assessment Division, EPA
PA. ME. el. 4a. G. G7
2-9
-------
Influence of Topography on Transport and Diffusion
On a clear day with light winds, the heating
of the valley may cause upslope and up-
valley winds. However the occurance of
upslope and up valley winds is not as
frequent nor as strong as the down-slope
and down-valley winds, principally due to
the fact that down-slope and down-valley
winds, due to their density, hug the surfaces
over which they travel. Flow in complex
valley systems where several valleys merge
at angles or slopes vary, usually require
special observations to determine flow under
various meteorologic conditions.
Inversions Aloft
The trapping of air pollutants beneath in-
versions aloft is also a problem encountered
in valleys. Two types of inversions^ warm
frontal and subsidence inversions are of
particular concern since they are usually
slow moving. High concentrations may
occur particularly if the layer of air beneath
the inversion becomes unstable enough to
mix pollutants from elevated sources to
jjround level (Hewson et al, 1961).
SHORELINE WINDS
The differences in heating and cooling of
land and water surfaces and the air above
them result in the setting up of circulations
if the general flow is light, and in the
modification of thermal characteristics and
consequently the diffusive abilities of the
lower layers of the atmosphere when a
general flow occurs.
Sea or Lake Breeze
On summer days with clear skies and light
winds the heating of the land surface adjacent
to a large lake or the ocean is much more
rapid than the heating of the body of water.
This results in a temperature difference
and consequently a density and pressure
difference between the air just above the land
surface and the air over the water. Because
of the pressure gradient forces, a local
circulation is set up with wind from the
water toward the land. There is usually
some upward motion over the land and sub-
sidence over the water accompanying the sea
breeze (Estoque, 1961). There may result
a weak transport^from land to water aloft
completing a cettuTaT'structure to the sea
breeze, (See Figure 4).
t T t •-
FIGURE 4
In cases where a strong lake breeze occurs,
air from quite some distance out over the
water may be brought toward the land and
due to Coriolus forces acting over the long
trajectory the resulting flow will become
nearly parallel to the shoreline (Sutton,
1953). This occurs just after the sea breeze
is the strongest and results in decreasing
the flow normal to the coastline and subse-
quent breaking down of the sea breeze.
Land Breeze
At night the rapid radiational cooling of the
land causes lower temperatures above the
land surface than over the water. Thus a
reverse flow, the land breeze, may result.
The land breeze does not usually achieve
as high a velocity as the lake breeze, and J
is usually shallower than the sea or lake
breeze.
Of course, any wind flow due to the large
scale pressure pattern will alter the local
circulation and the flow will be the resul-
tant of the two effects. Usually a light
general flow is enough to overshadow the
effects of land and sea breezes.
MODIFICATION OF THERMAL STRUCTURE
BY BODIES OF WATER
At different seasons of the year and also
different times of day the temperature of
bodies of water and adjacent land surfaces
may be quite different. For example.
2-10
-------
Influence of Topography on Transport and DJffusJon
during the laic spring, large bodies of water
arc; still cold rclativo to adjacent land
surfaces and during mill-afternoon tlii.s
difference is greatest due to the more rapid
heating of tiie land surface. If the general
flow in the area is such that the wind has a
lengthly trajectory over the water and is
blowing toward the shore, an interesting
modification of the temperature structure
takes place. Because of the passage over
the cold water surface, the air will have
an inversion in the lower layer as it reaches
the shoreline. Any air pollutants released
into this inversion will essentially have
the characteristics of a fanning plume. As
the air passes over the warm land, a strong
lapse replaces the inversion near the sur-
face. The depth of this lapse layer becomes
deeper as the air moves over more heated
land surface. At the point where the lapse
layer is deep enough to reach the fanning
effluent from an elevated source, fumigation
will occur. Fumigation of this type may
last considerably longer than the usual
diurnal breakup of nocturnal inversions as this
fumigation will occur as long as the temper-
ature difference between land and water is
maintained and flow from water to land
occurs. At greater distances from the
shoreline the inversion will be eliminated
and looping type of plume behavior will
occur. On the other hand, if the source
is high enough to be above the lake induced
inversion, lofting of the plume would occur
until enough distance and consequently
enough heating takes place to eliminate the
inversion.
Figure 5a Indicates the difference in
vertical temperature structure that occurs
in the above example and Figure 5b indicates
the effect this has on the plume characteris-
tics of an elevated shoreline source.
M001FICAT.ON Of VlttlCAl IIMMIATUH STIOCTUM
DUE TO FLOW OV£« DIFFERENTLY HEATED SU1FACIJ
OF fLOW OVU DlfFEHtNUY HEATED SU» FACES
(LATE SPRING, AFTERNOOM)
FIGURE 5b
At other times when the water is warmer
than the land surface (late fall), offshore
flow will result in fumigation over the water.
INFLUENCE OF HILLS
The influence of hills upon the transport
and diffusion depends upon a number of
factors. Whether the source is on the wind-
ward or lee side of the hill or ridge is
important. A smooth hill will alter the flow
least; one with sharp ridges will cause more
turbulent eddies to form. The stability
of the atmosphere will affect the influence
of hills. During stable conditions, the flow
will tend to flow around obstructions. Under
unstable conditions the tendency is for air
to move over obstructions.
When a source is located upwind of a hill or
ridge, the pollutants may come in contact
with the facing slope, particularly under
stable conditions. If the ridge is quite rough,
Induced turbulence may cause mixing down
to the slope even when the general flow is
over the ridge. Wind tunnel studies or
field trials with constant level balloons may
be desirable to determine the flow under
given circumstances.
For a source downwind from a hill or ridge,
lee eddies will generally cause considerable
downwash of the effluent near the source.
If turbulent flow is induced by the hillside,
diffusion will be increased but high concen-
trations very near the stack will result
periodically due to the downwash.
Several dispersion studies such as those re-
ported by Panofsky and Prasad (1967) in a
Pennsylvania Valley and later by ntart, and Diekaon
and Wendell (1975) through mountainous terrain
of Utah illustrate the wide range of physical
FIGURE 5a
2-11
-------
Influence of Topography on Transport and Diffusion
effects and mechanisms which must be considered
when estimating concentrations under these con-
ditions as opposed to estimates for relatively
level terrain sites. In general much greater
dilution takes place, primarily due to enhanced
mechanical turbulence even when plume impinge-
ment occurs. Increased mechanical turbulence
is produced in at least three ways. First,
the mountain top is an obstacle to the prevail-
ing wind flow aloft and thus produces turbulence,
some of which penetrates into the surrounding
canyons. Second, side or feeder canyons pro-
duce downslope flows which cause turbulent
interchanges with the main downvalley flow.
Third, a form of wake turbulence is produced
due to the flow around and over projecting
cliffs, side walls and other terrain features
present along the main valley or canyon. Plume
impaction on terrain features has been docu-
mented but observed concentrations have gener-
ally been much lower than prior estimates.
This is most likely due to the dilution already
accomplished by the mechanisms previously
listed. For the rough mountainous terrain of
lluntington Canyon, Utah the rates of dilution
under unstable lapse rates were found to be
rather sindlar to open terrain estimates using
the Pasquill stability categories (see p.3-23).
Under neutral stability the canyon dilation
rate was about five times greater, while under
strong inversion situations the rate was about
15 times greater than for level terrain. There-
fore no generalized dispersion parameters for
these situations have been published and extra-
polating results to locations where no field
measurements have been made should be done
very cautiously.
PERSISTENCE OF FOG
The occurrence of fog, together with very
stable atmospheric conditions above the
earth's surface, has been noted in several
air pollution episodes, particularly in Donora,
Pennsylvania, in 1948. Under clear skies
at night the ground loses much heat because
of outgoing radiation and the air in contact
with the ground will cool. If. in such cases
the air is sufficiently humid, the cooling will
bring the air to the saturation point and a fog
will form. This is the mechanism which pro-
duces radiation fog and is quite common in
valley locations. The top of a layer of fog
will radiate essentially as a blackbody and
cool further, thus forming an inversion lay^.r
directly above the fog. As the earth con-
tinues to radiate in the infrared, the fog drop-
lets absorb nearly all this heat since the
droplet size distribution is similar to the
2-12
wavelengths of the radiation. Theory and
observation have shown that when the top of
a fog layer radiates durir.p. the r?tf-t the
interior f1* the layer will becowe rova urstrMe
; it",; tinM. increased vertical jnixin," '.Jill
occur froi.-. l.clow Lut will bo capped by the
ir.versi.or. cinco the air is saturated, :r.
mstaMe rat.* will exist if t>-e t«Tpr?ture
decreases with height is greater than the moist
or pseudo-adiahatic rate of about - 3°?. per
1000 ft., rather than the c'ry adiabatic lapse
rate of - 5./l°F. per 1000 ft.
Thus pollutants that are emitted aloft into an
originally stable layer at night and would not
normally reach the ground until morning may
be contained within a fog layer as the night
progresses and be brought to the ground in
relatively high concentrations.
After daybreak fogs will often persist for
several hours or even the entire day under
full sunlight due to the high reflectivity of the
top layer. The reflectivity or albedo of
thick fogs averages 50% and can be as high
as 85%. This delays and lessens the heating
of the ground and subsequent evaporation of
the fog droplets. An unstable lapse rate may
occur above the fog layer but due to lack of
surface heating an inversion will often occur
within the layer. If high concentrations of
particulate pollutants are present, it may be
difficult to determine just when the fog has
dissipated since particulates scatter and
absorb visible light v.ery well and the visibility
may remain quite restricted.
Figure 6 illustrates how fog can persist in
valley situations and maintain a lid to
vertical dispersion.
An excellent and detailed study of the life f
cycle of valley fog has been reported by Pi lie
et aj. (1975). They describe several fog
formation processes including the role of dew
and radiative cooling; the former in persist-
ence of fog after sunrise and the latter in
propogation of fog downward due to instability
and mixing with saturated air below. Changes
in visibility during the cycle are discussed
in the context of fog drop size distributions
with time and height and cloud condensation
nuclei concentrations. Drop size averages are
near 6um at the beginir.g of the initial visi-
bility decrease, increase rapidly to near 10pm
and then gradually decrease to near Sum through
the mature fog stage and often to dissipation.
-------
Influence of Topography on Transport and Diffusion
SHORT WAVE
RADIATION
VALLEY FOG
NIGHT
VALLEY FOG
DAYTIME
TEMPERATURE-
HEIGHT CURVE
TEMPERATURE-
HEIGHT CURVE
Persistence of Fog and Corresponding Temperature Profiles During the Day and Night
FIGURE 6
2-13
-------
Influence of Topography on Transport and Diffusion
REFERENCES
Estoque, M.A. "The Sea Breeze as a Function of
the Prevailing Synoptic Situation." Meteor-
ology Division, Univ. of Hawaii, Scientific
Report No. 1, Contract No. AF 19(604)-7484,
October, 1961.
Hewson, E.W.; Bierly, E.W.; and Gill, G.C.
"Topographic Influences on the Behavior
of Stack Effluents." Proceedings of the
American Power Conference, 23, 358-370,
1961.
Sutton, O.C. Micrometeorology, New York, McGraw-
Hill p.267, 1953.
Fleagle, R.G., Parrot, W.H., and Barad, M.L.
Theory and Effects of Vertical Temperature
Distribution in Turbid Air. J. Meteorology
9:53-60, Feb. 1952.
Magono, C., Kikuchi, K., Nakaroura, T. An Kx-
periroent on Fog Dispersion by the Use of
Downward Air Current by the Fall of Water
Drops. .1. App. Meteorology 2: 484-493.
Aug. 1963.
Hewson, 1C.W., Olsson, L.E. "Lake Effects on
Air Pollution Dispersion." JAPCA, 17,
11:757-761, November 1967.
Panofsky, I!.A., Prasad, B. "The Effect of
Meteorological Factors on Air Pollution
in a Narrow Valley." J. App. Meteorology
6:4930499, June 1967.
Pilie', R. J., Mack, E. J.» Kocmond, Kf. C.
Rogers, C. W., and Eadie, W. J. The Life
Cycle of Valley Fog. Part I: Micro-
meteorological Characteristics. Part II:
Fog Microphysics J. Appl. Meteor. 14:347-
374. April 1975.
Start, G.C., Dickson, C.R. and Wendell, L.L.
"Diffusion in a Canyon Within Rough
Mountainous Terrain." J.Appl. Meteor.I1':
333-346, April 197S.
Schrenk, H.H., Heimann, H., Clayton, G.D.,
Gafafer, W.M., and Wexler, H. Air Pollution
in Donora, Pa. Public Health Bulletin
No. 306, 1949, 173 pp.
Buettner, K.J.K.; and Thayer, N. "On Valley
and Mountain Winds," Dept. of Meteorology
and Climatology, Univ. of Wash., Contract
No. AF 19 (604) - 2289, Sept. 1959.
Davidson, B. "Valley Wind Phenomena and Air
Pollution Problems," J. of APCA, 11, 8,
364 - 368, 383, Aug. 1961.
Geiger, R. (Translated by Scripta Technica, Inc.)
The Climate Near the Ground. Rev. Ed.
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
1965.
Munn, R.E. Descriptive Micrometeorology,
Academic Press, New York, 1966.
Reiter, E. R. and Rasmussen, J. L. Proceedings
of the Symposium on Mountain Meteorology,
June 1967. Atm. Science Paper #122,
Colorado State University, Ft. Collins,
Colo.
Lyons, W. A. and Olsson, L. E. "Mesoscale
Air Pollution Transport in ths Chicago
Lake Breeze." JAPCA, 22, 11, 876-886,
Nov. 1972.
2-14
-------
THE EQUATION OF STATE
AND CONVERSION OF CONCENTRATIONS
J. L. Dicke*
The atmosphere may be thought of as a
huge thermodynamic engine and meteoro-
logic changes occur through the interaction
of temperature, pressure, and density.
The relationship between pressure, tempera-
ture and volume (thereby density) in gases
was determined by early experiments in
classical physics. Boyle's law states that
when the temperature is held constant the
volume of a given mass of perfect gas
varies inversely as the absolute pressure.
From the law of Gay-Lussac it is known
that at constant pressure the volume of a
given mass of perfect gas varies directly
as the absolute temperature. The equation
of state can thus be written in familiar
terms;
Example I
A certain power plant emits 0.2% SO2
by volume from its stack at a temperature
of 260° F. The flow rate of gases emitted
is 5X105cu. ft./min. What is the
emission rate in units of mass/time
(sec.)?
jn = V PM
t t RT
PV =
m
TvT
RT
let P = 980 mb
M= 64
T = 400°K
— = 2. 36 X102m3/sec
Q = Emission Rate - gm/sec.
where:
2
P = absolute pressure - dynes/ cm
V = volume of a gas - cm3
m = mass of a gas - gm
M = gram- molecular weight/gm-mole
T = absolute temperature - °K
R = universal gas constant -
o •>, x 107 dy"e cm
8'31X1° gm-mole°K
In most meteorological studies the most
useful form of the equation of state or gas
law is to express the pressure in millibars
and the volume in m3.
Thus: 1 mb = 103 dynes cm"2
1 m3 = 106 cm3
R
=8.31X10
-2
.
gm-mole K
•Supervisory Meteorologist, NOAA
Air Pollution Training Institute, EPA
m
980X2. 36X102X2X10'3X64
8. 31 X 1Q-2 X400
= 890 gm/sec.
Q =-31 = 890 gm/sec.
Example II
It is known that the air being sampled for
SC>2 through a bubbler reaches a tempera-
ture of 77°F (Tg) before passing the criti-
cal orifice regulating the flow.
What correction must be applied to give
the true outside concentration if the
temperature is 10°F (TA), assuming the
pressure drop is negligible?
Ts = 77°F = 298°K
TA = 10°F = 261°K
The measured concentration will be given
by
m PM
RTc
2-15
PA.ME.mm.18.5.64
-------
The Kqualion of_ State and Conversion of Concentrations
;m
is 907 mb. What is the volume concen-
tration in parts per hundred million
under these conditions?
REKKRENCKS
1 Byers, H.R. General Meteorology.
New York. McGraw-Hill. 3rd ed. 1952
2 Huschke, R.E. (Editor). Glossary of
Meteorology. Boston, American
Meteorological Society. 1959
3 Smithsonian Meteorological Tables.
6th Ed. Washington, B.C. 1951
2-16
-------
METEOROLOGICAL ROSES
D. B. Turner*
L.E. Truppi*
A wind rose is defined in the Glossary of
Meteorology as, "Any one of a class of dia-
grams designed to show the distribution of
wind direction experienced at a given lo-
cation over a considerable period; it thus
shows the prevailing wind direction. The
most common form consists of a circle from
which eight or sixteen lines emanate, one for
each compass point. The length of each line
is proportional to the frequency of wind from
that direction; and the frequency of calm
conditions is entered in the center. Many
variations exist. Some indicate the range
of wind speeds from each direction; some
relate wind direction with other weather
occurrences." Wind roses may be construct-
ed for data from a given time period such as
a particular month or may be for a particular
time of day or season from a number of years
data. In constructing or interpreting wind
roses it is necessary to keep in mind the
meteorological convention that wind direction
refers to the direction from which the wind is
KI muring, ft lii^e^r bar extending to the north
on a wind rose indicates the trequencauof
not the frequency
Some of
winds blowing from the north
6T Winds blowing t'nwarH th^-
' the specialized wind roses that may be con-
structed are precipitation wind roses, stability
wind roses, and pollution wind roses. The
latter two require additional data than are
generally available at standard National Weather
Service Offices. An informative article on the
history and variants-of wind roses has been •
published by Court.
WIND ROSES - DATA AND PRESENTATION
Prior to January 1964 the surface wind
direction was reported by U. S. Weather
Bureau stations as one of the 16 directional
points corresponding to the mariner's com-
pass card or compass rose, on wh^jch each
direction is equivalent to a 22 1/2 sector of
a 360° circle. Table 1 illustrates a 16-point
wind rose summary in the form of a fre-
quency table of wind direction versus wind
speed groups. It is an example of wind roses
prepared as summaries of hourly observa-
tions published monthly until January 1964 in
the Local Climatological Data (LCD) Supple-
ment. Frequencies are totaled by direction
and wind speed group; a quick look at this
wind rose indicates the highest directional
frequency is from the ENE and the highest
speed frequency is the 8 to 12 mph column.
Average speeds have been computed for each
direction.
When wind roses are employed to summarize
climatological data involving long periods of
record, percentage frequencies are favored
over numerical totals for tabular presentation
since the number of observations in any one
cell can become too large. Moreover, wind
rose diagrams can be drafted directly from
tabular data if percentages are available.
Table 2 presents 10 years of hourly wind
data observed at New Orleans Moisant Inter-
national Airport during January for the years
1951 through 1960, as published in the
''Decennial Census of United States
Climate".'5' This 10-year summary of
meteorological data is compiled for most
U. S. Weather Bureau first order stations.
See Section VII - Sources of Meteorological
Data.
On January 1, 1964 the U.S. Weather Bureau
changed the wind direction reporting proce-
dure from 16 points to 36 - 10° intervals.
Table 3 is the result; a 36-point wind rose.
Since 36 cannot be divided by 16, there is no
way of grouping 36 points into 16 points and
there is no easy way of combining wind data
if wind rose summaries are required that
include both 16-point and 36-point wind
direction observations.
Besides this feature of incompatibility, other
problems have developed with the 36-point
wind system; first, a 36-point system tends
to spread tabulated frequencies and obscure
directional significance; second, a list of
*Supervisory Research Meteorologist, IIOAA
•Meteorologist, NOAA
Meteorology § Assessment Division, EPA
PA.ME.OTn. 17a.6.67
2-17
-------
Meteorological Roses
or WHO MttcnoM AMD awn*
—
"»
•Ml
•C
CM
CM
•V
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•^»
IsW
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MM
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M
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It
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s
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i
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a**
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T
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M
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-
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1
1
*
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-
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-
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-
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41
«4
n
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4*
M
t*
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14
It
M
ft»
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n
MH
lft.t
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».i
*.•
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4^1
4.1
t>.ft
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Table 1 New Orleans, Louisaaa, MOioant
International Airport. January 1963.
Table 2. New Orleans. Louisiana. Moisant
International Airport, 10-Year Summary
January 1951-1960. + indicates more
than 0% but less than 0. 5%.
Table 3 36-point Wind Rose Tabulation
Mew Orleans. Louisiana, Moisant International
Airport. Central Standard Time. January 1964.
fi
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2-18
-------
Meteorological Roses
36 directions is often too lengthy for conven-
ience; lastly, it is almost impossible to con-
struct the standard radial bar-type wind rose
with 36 bars. The bars crowd together at
the center, and variations of radial length,
proportional to directional percentage fre-
quency between given wind directions are
minimized.
The 36-point wind reporting procedure has
been in effect since 1964 and it has been found
that the disadvantages may be offset by using
a 12-point or 30° sector wind rose. Table 4
was constructed from Table 3 by grouping
frequencies into 30° intervals. Directional
discrimination is not as fine as in a 16- or
36-point breakdown, but the tabulation is
concise and a bar diagram can be easily
constructed. Additional discussion together
with conversion and correction techniques are
presented by Lea and Helvey (11).
POLLUTION WIND ROSES
The increasing emphasis on identifying and
abating air pollution problems has resulted
in the establishment of air sampling networks
which determine concentrations of pollutants
on a time scale as short as 5 minutes. Since
transport of pollutants depends in great part
on wind flow, an appropriate wind rose dia-
gram would be very helpful in relating air
pollutant and wind data. Figures 1 and 2
illustrate a type of pollution wind rose devised
for the air pollution abatement study conducted
in the Parkersburg, West Virginia - Marietta,
Ohio region. '•
Figure 1 shows three wind recording and
SO2 gas sampling sites that were installed
at Parkersburg, Vienna, West Virginia and
Marietta, Ohio from October 1965 through
February 1966. TJiebar-type wind roses for
MtlOR S02 SOURCES
£) OUPOHt
0 SHELL CHEMICAL
© UHION
© AMERICH VISCOSE - FMC
PARKERSBURG
VOX
CENTRAL PARRERSBWC
I Meteorological dill slit
Stenrl tn Paik
Figure 1. SO2 Pollution Roses for Concentrations >0. 10 ppm,
October 1965 through February 1966.
2-19
-------
Meteorological Roses
Table 4
New Orleans, Louisiana
Moisant International Airport
DIRECTION
N
35-36-01
NNE
02-03-04
ENE
05-06-07
E
08-09-10
ESE
11-12-13
SSE
14-15-16
S
17-18-19
SSW
20-21-22
WSW
23-24-25
W
26-27-28
WNW
29-30-31
NWW
32-33-34
CALM
Tot.
0-3
10
17
24
9
12
7
3
7
12
7
2
4
53
167
4-7
12
40
69
25
20
22
14
9
5
14
7
12
249
January 1964
12-Point Wind Rose
8-12 13-18 18-24 25-31
11 7
17 1
40 13
23 8
12 1
15 1
16 6
10 12
9 5
9 4
15 26
32 34 1
208 117 2
32-38 74-40 Tot.
40
75
146
65
45
45
39
38
31
34
50
83
53
744
AVSPD
(mph)
7.9
6. 1
7.0
7.6
6.0
7.0
7.9
8.5
6. 7
7.0
11.6
11. 1
7.4
2-20
-------
Meteorological Roses
Milt*
MAJOR PtRTICUUTE SOURCES
(?) DUPONT
© SHELL CHEHICH
@ IOHNS-«»H»ILLE
0 UNION CARBiOE
© WRICAN VISCOSE - FNC'
® ItRIETT* DUMP
N
(OCTOBER 65
.IULT 66>>
(OCTOBER 65 -'<| =
FE8NURT
OHIO
(Y)*eteoroiosic«! dati nation -
Stimtt In Paik
Figure 2. Hourly Wind Roses for 24-hour Periods for Suspended
Particulate Concentrations >200 |j.g/m3 and average
Wind Speed >3 mph.
rnrh *jjtP 1r"~7itim j^rr'""'"*' only winds cojj
pprri^ Winds observed when the SO2
concentration was equal to or less than 0. 10
ppm were ignored in computing percentage
frequencies. Figure 1 graphically identifies x
the major source of high SO2 emissions as J
source 3; the Union Carbide Company plant.
Figure 2 is similiar to Figure 3 except the
pollutant sampled was suspended particulate
matter on a 24-hour basis. Another Hi-vol
Sampler was in operation west of Marietta,
Ohio. Since pollutant sampling was on a
24-hour basis, 24-hourly winds were tabu-
lated, but only for periods when particulate
concentrations were greater than 200/Lfg/m
and when the average wind speed over the 24
hours was greater than 3 mph. Again the
pollutant rose points to the Union Carbide
Company plant, source 4, as the major con-
tributor.
Special wind instruments were installed for
this abatement study, and the investigators
chose to reduce the autographic wind data on
direction to a 16-point tabulation. Because
of this decision, 36-point wind data recorded
at site M, Stewart Air Park, were used only
to determine average wind conditions. It
was also decided to omit the usual wind speed
grouping in the pollution wind roses.
2-21
-------
Meteorological Roses
W
S02 CONCENTRATIONS-pphm
CONC. CONC.
I-5M» 6-10 Ms
CONC.
M-ISdfJ
CONC.
>I6 Ml
SCALE - MEASURED BETWEEN CIRCLE RIMS
COINCIDENT WIND ROSE-CINCINNATI. OHIO, DEC-JAN-FEB, 1964
Figure 3
2-22
-------
Meteorological Roses
A. more detailed pollution wind rose is
displayed in Figure 3. Coincident wind data
and SO2 concentrations (pphm) for the winter
month of 1964 are summarized; hourly wind
data were recorded by the U. S. Weather
Bureau at Greater Cincinnati Airport and
pollutant data by the U. S. Public Health
Service at a downtown Cincinnati location. '*'
Speed groups are denoted by different sized
circles, instead of the usual bar-thickness,
and percentage frequency of each speed group
is indicated by radial distance between circle
rims. Inside each circle are listed pollutant
statistics coicident with the particular direc-
tion and speed group. These are: maximum
SC>2 concentration recorded, the average
concentration, and the number of concentra-
tion values observed. The value of this type
of pollution wind rose is demonstrated in
Figure 3 where the highest maximum and
average 803 concentrations are readily
identified with S or SSW winds of 11 to 15
knots.
REMOVING BIAS IN 16-POINT WIND ROSES
Wind direction, such as for hourly airport
observations where no recorder is used, is
determined by an observer watching the wind
direction indicator dial for one minute and
recording direction to 16 points. It has been
found that one of the eight principal directions
(N, NE, E, etc.) is more frequently recorded
than are the secondary directions (NNE, ENE,
ESE, etc.). Depending upon the purpose of
constructing a wind rose, it may be desir-
able to remove this bias. Removal of the
bias may be by total frequencies of each di-
rection or by wind speed classes. In order to
determine if there is bias, the sums should
be determined separately for the principal
direction frequencies (Ng) and the secondary
direction frequencies (NQ). Bias usually
occurs if one exceeds the other on the order
of J.O-4«-2aS. Assuming that the sum of the
principal frequencies (Ne) exceeds the sum
of the secondary frequencies (N0) the fre-
quencies have the bias removed by subtracting
^ -N\
e o ]
2 N J
•eV2
from the frequency of each primary direction
where ne is the frequency for that direction
and adding
to the frequency of each secondary direction
where n is the frequency for the secondary
direction.
DISTRIBUTION OF CALMS
In some cases, it is also desirable to distri-
bute the calms in the lowest wind speed class
among the 16 directions. It is usually better
to use the frequencies of the lowest two speed
classes (0-7 mph) to distribute the calms in
order to have a more respresentative sample
of light winds. If Nc is the total number of
calms, Nw is the total frequency of winds in
the 0-7 mph range, and nw is the frequency
of winds in the 0-7 mph range for one di-
rection, the number of calms assigned to
this direction is:
n N
w c
N
2-23
-------
Meteorological Roses
Example: Removing Bias in a Wind Rose.
Below is given the wind direction and speed
frequencies for October. 1962, for St. Louis
Mo.
Table 5. WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED OCCURRENCES
_. ,. Hourly observations of wind speed (mph) ._ , ,
Direction Q_3 * 4_? g.12 ^ 1Q_24 Total
N
NNE
NE
ENE
E
ESE
SE
SSE
S
ssw
sw
wsw
w
WNW
NW
NNW
CALM
1
5
7
5
2
3
13
5
15
6
5
. 4 -
8
4
4
0
89
5
10
9
6
4
4
8
19
23
29
44
17
25
15
3
6
11
4
3
8
5
3
17
21
26
19
33
17
13
15
17
18
3
1
1
3
1
1
6
5
6
2
8
8
8
14
30 6
8
20
20
20
22
12
11
44
50
70
56
90
46
54
48
60
32
89
Total 176 227 230 105 6 744
2-24
-------
Meteorological Roses
Problem: To remove the bias by two separate
speed classes: 0-7 mph, and >_ 8 mph.
First remove the bias in the 0-7 mph class.
Determine Ng and NO by adding the primary
and secondary direction frequencies
separately.
Table 6. 0-7 mph FREQUENCIES
Next, remove the bias for the >_ 8 mph class.
Table 8. > 8 mph FREQUENCIES
N
NE
E
SE
S
SW
W
NW
•
Ne "
N
o
6
16
6
21
38
49
33
7
176
2N
e
N - N
e o
2N
o
Table
176
NNE
ENE
ESE
SSE
SSW
WSW
WNW
NNW
N- _
0
- 138
2(176)
176 - 138
15
11
7
24
35
21
19
6
138
= 0,
38
2(138) 276
7. REMOVING BIAS I
0-7 mph CLASS
n - n (0,
e e
N
NE
E
SE
S
SW
W
NW
6
16
6
21
38
49
33
7
- 1
- 2
- 1
- 2
- 4
- 5
- 4
- 1
. 108)
= 5
= 14
= 5
= 19
= 34
= 44
= 29
= 6
1~56
n +
o
NNE
ENE
ESE
SSE
SSW
WSW
WNW
NNW
no
15
11
7
24
35
21
19
6
(0.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
2
2
1
3
5
3
3
1
. 108
= 0. 138
i'OR
138)
= 17
= 13
= 8
= 27
= 40
= 24
= 22
= 7
158
N
NE
E
SE
S
SW
W
NW
TvT - .
e
14
4
6
23
32
41
21
53
194
N - N
e o
2N
e
N - N
e o
2N
o
Table 9.
n
e
N
NE
E
SE
S
SW
W
NW
- n
e
14 -
4 -
6 -
23 -
32 -
41 -
21 -
53 -
-
(0
2
0
1
3
4
5
3
6
194
NNE
ENE
ESE
SSE
SSW
WSW
WNW
NNW
"NT —
5
11
4
26
21
25
29
26
No 147
- 147
2(194)
194 - 147
0.
n
121
i en
2(147) ">iuu
REMOVING BIAS FOR
8 mph
. 121)
= 12
= 4
= 5
= 20
= 28
= 36
= 18
= 47
Tro
CLASS
n +
0
NNE
ENE
ESE
SSE
SSW
WSW
WNW
NNW
n
o
5
11
4
26
21
25
29
26
(0.
+ i
+ 2
+ 1
+ 4
+ 3
+ 4
•t 5
+ 4
160)
= 6
= 13
= 5
= 30
= 24
= 29
= 34
= 30
m"
The debiased wind frequencies are now com-
pleted for the two wind speed classes. It will
depend upon the purpose of the wind rose as to
whether it is necessary to distribute the 0-7
frequencies between the 0-3 mph and 4-7 mph
classes.
2-25
-------
Meteorological Roses
Problem: Distribute the calms (decalm)
for the above wind frequencies.
Table
1 l.WINO WltKCTION AND SI'KKO orfUIMKNCKS.
ST. U>UIS.
N
c
N
w
Table 10
89 Og.
_ 3H i).. a.
. DISTRIBUTION OK
Direction w (dcbiased)
N
NNE
NE
ENE
E
ESE
SIC
SSE
S
SSW
SW
wsw
w
\VMW
NW
NNW
5
17
14
13
5
8
19 =
27
34
40
44
24
29
22 =
6
7
KIAS KKMOVKI)
; (Distributed
CALMS
(0.283)
1
5
4
4
1
2
5
8
10
11
13
7
8
6
2
2
89
DilVeli
N
NNK
NK
UNK
K
liSK
SK
SSK
S
SSW
SW
WSW
w
WNW
NW
NNW
Total
- •--
on 0-3
K 1)
U ( 5)
(i ( 4)
«< 4)
2( 1)
3( 2)
12 ( 5)
-------
^leteorological Roses
Figure- 4
Wind Rose
St. l.ouis October 10(52
Bias Removed and Calms Distributed*
Speed Classes (mph)
'
1 I
0 1234 5 (i 7 il 9 10
Scale (Pi-n cnt)
*Hotc: If the calm observations are not distributed, remember to put the "o Calm Figure in
the center circle of the rose.
2-27
-------
Meteorological Roses
REFERENCES
1. Court, A. Wind Roses. Weather, 18:
106-110. April 1963.
2. Crutcher, H.L. On the Standard Vector
Deviation Wind Rose. J. Meteor. 14:
28-33. 1957.
3.
4.
10.
11
Technical Report: Parkersburg, W. Va.
Marietta, Ohio Atr Pollution Abate-
ment Activity. NCAPC, March 1967.
87 pp.
Truppi, L.E.
Wind Rose.
1967.
Evolution of a Coincident
(ESSA manuscript) NCAPC,
6.
7.
8.
U.S. Weather Bureau. Decennial Census
of U.S. Climate - Summary of Hourly
Observations, New Orleans, La.
1951-1960.
U.S. Weather Bureau. Local Climatologi-
cal Data - Supplement. New Orleans,
La., and St. Louis, Mo. 1963.
Ratner, B. A Method for Eliminating
Directional Bias in Wind Roses.
Monthly Weather Review, 78, 10:185-188,
October 1950.
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. A
Meteorological Survey of the Oak Ridge
Area. Final Report 1948-52, pp. 68-73
and 158, November 1953.
Marsh, K. J., Foster, M. D. An Experi-
mental Study of the Dispersion of the
Emissions from Chimneys in Reading
I. The Study of Long-Term Average
Concentrations of Sulfur Dioxide.
Atmos. Envir. 1, 4:527-550, September
1967.
Truppi, L. E. Bias Introduced by
Anemometer Starting Speeds in Clima-
tological Wind Rose Summaries.
Monthly Weather Review, 9£, 5:325-327,
May 1968.
Lea, D. and Helvey, R.A. A Directional
Bias in Wind Roses Due to Mixed Cowpuss
Formats. J. Appl. Meteor. 10, 5: 1037-
1039, October 1971.
12. Technical Report: Ironton, Ohio-Ashland ,
Kentucky-Iluntington, W. Virginia Air
Pollution Abatement Activity, Pre-
Conference Investigations. NCAPC (F.PA),
1968. 85 pp.
2-28
-------
SECTION THREE
ATMOSPHERIC DIFFUSION
Principles of Turbulence and Diffusion
Introduction to Turbulence and Diffusion Theory
The Generalized Gaussian Diffusion Equation
Atmospheric Diffusion Computations
Effective Stack Height
-------
PRINCIPLES OF TURBULENCE AND DIFFUSION
D. H. Pack* and J. L. Dicke**
When a small concentrated puff of gaseous
pollutant is released into the atmosphere, it
tends to expand in size due to the dynamic
action of the atmosphere. In doing so, the
concentration of the gaseous pollutant is de-
creased because the .same amount of pollutant
is now contained within a larger volume.
This natural process of high concentration
spreading out to lower concentrations is the
process of diffusion.
Atmospheric diffusion is ultimately accom-
plished by the wind movement of pollutants,
but the character of the source of pollution
requires that this action of the wind be taken
into account in different ways.
These sources can be conveniently grouped
into three classes: point sources, line
sources, and area sources. In practice, the
first two classes must be further divided into
instantaneous and continuous sources.
The instantaneous point sourer is essentially
a "puff" of material created or ejected in a
relatively short time, as by a nuclear ex-
plosion, the sudden rupture of a chlorine
tank, or the bursting of a tear-gas shell. The
wind of immediate importance is, of course,
that occurring at the place and time at which
the pollutant is created. Since the wind is
highly variable-, the initial direction of move-
ment of the puff is also variable and difficult
of prediction; a soap-bubble pipe and five
minutes' close observation of the initial travel
of successive bubbles will convincingly de-
monstrate the difficulty of predicting the
exact trajectory of the next bubble. In addi-
tion, dilution of a puff source is a very strong
function of time after its release. At first,
the small-scale fluctuations of the wind
cause it to grow rather slowly and the larger-
scale wind variations simply carry it along
on erratic paths. But as the puff grows,
larger-scale motions can got a "hold" on it
to tear it apart and dilute it more rapidly.
Thus, the unique feature of the instantaneous
point source is its increasing dispersion
rate with time, whence the necessity to
consider successively larger scales of
meteorological phenomena in calculating its
spread.
Continuous point sources (the smoke plume
from a factory chimney, the pall from a
burning dump) are the most familiar, the
most conspicuous, and the most studied of
pollution sources. The meteorology of the
continuous source must take into account
the time changes of the wind at the point of
emission. The behavior of a plume from a
factory chimney is very much like that of
water from a hose being played back and
forth across a lawn. It is evident that if
the hose is steady^the same area will be
continually exposed to the water. But if the
hose (wind) moves back and forth in an arc,
the water (pollution) will be distributed over
a wider area, hence the concentration will
be less. For a truly continuous source there
are other changes of great importance -
primarily the diurnal and seasonal cycles.
The isolated line source is less common and
therefore of less general interest, with two
important exceptions - heavily traveled high-
ways, and the swath of chemicals emitted by
cropdusting apparatus. In both these ex-
amples, if the line of pollutant is uniform
and is long enough, the dispersion of the
pollution must be attained in only two dimen-
sions, along the wind and in the vertical. If
the line source is a continuous one, as might
be the case of a freeway in rush hours,
spreading in the downwind direction becomes
ineffective (at a particular downwind location),
so that only the vertical dimension is left
to provide dilution. This behavior of the
continuous line source has been exploited by
meteorologists in field experiments with
controlled tracers to permit the detailed
study of vertical diffusion, uncomplicated
by effects in the other two coordinates.
*Ttcrtificti Consulting Meteorologist, Mcl.ain, Vn.
**Supervisory Meteorologist, MOM
Air t'ollution Training Institute, ^A
3-1
PA. MK.sd. 30. 1.67
-------
Principles of TurbuU:ne:e and Diffusion
The area source c-.un vary o.normcmsly in size.
Tt may lie distributed over several square
kile>me:ters, as in an industrial park, over
tens or hundreds of square kilometers, as
in a i:ily, or over thousands of square kilo-
meters, exemplified by the almost continuous
strip city (the "megalopolis" or "megapolitan
area") along the eastern seaboard of the
United States. These area sources usually
include combinations of all the single-source
configurations. A large city will include
many thousands of home chimneys, thousands
of factories and shops, hundreds of kilometers
of streets, open dumps, burning leaves,
evaporating fumes from gasoline storage or
from cleaning plants and paint factories, and
everywhere the automobile. The weather
problem of the city area source becomes, in
the aggregate, quite different from that of
a single source. Here we are concerned not
with the increasing rate of wind dispersion
with incrousing scale-, or with the behavior
of wind with time at a single point, but
rather with the replenishment rate of the air
over the city. We must consider the total
movement of a large volume of air as it
"ventilates" the city. Anything that reduces
this ventilation rate, whether it be the con-
fining effect of surrounding mountains or the
reduced velocities of a slow- moving anticy-
clone, is of concern.
In the construction of cities man has modified
the weather. The volume of effluent injected
into the air has reduced the solar radiation.
The absorption characteristics of cement and
asphalt instead of grass and trees create
urban "heal islands." These effects must be
considered in the meteorology of urban air
pollution.
The atmosphere disperses pollutants bc-cause
it is in constant motion, and this motion is
always turbulent to some degree. There is
as yet no fully accepted definition of turbu-
lence, but empirically it can be described
as random (three-dimensional) flow. There
is as yet no complete explanation for the
complexities even of controlled wind-tunnel
turbulence, hence it is not surprising that
the understanding of turbulent diffusion in the
atmosphere has progressed largely through
empirical treatments of controlled tracer
experiments. The current tendency is to deal
with turbulence through statistical concepts
derived from aerodynamics and fluid dyna-
mics. This treatment, with its emphasis
on the detailed properties of the turbulence,
is in contrast to earlier theories which
centered around a virtual-diffusivity concept
based on analogy with molecular diffusion.
In the; practical application of computing
pollution concentrations, it is more usual to
employ the: statistical method for distances
to perhaps 150 kilometers from the source,
and equations based on virtual-diffusivity
("K") theory for longer distances, particu-
larly for calculations on a hemispheric or
global scale.
Vertical Turbulent Diffusion
To all intents and purposes rapid atmospheric
diffusion in the vertical is always bounded:
on the bottom by the surface of the earth and
at the top by the tropopause. The tropopausc -
the demarcation between the troposphere,
where temperature decreases with altitude,
and the stratosphere, where the temperature
is relatively constant or increases with
altitude - is lowest over the poles, at about
8 kilometers, and highest in the tropics,
about 20 kilometers. The detection of radon
products throughout the troposphere is con-
clusive evidence of the eventual availability
of the full depth of the troposphere for vertical
dispersion, since the radon source is ex-
clusively at the earth's surface. Utilisation
of this total vertical dimension can take
place at very different rates, depending on
the thermally driven vertical wind. These
rate's are: intimately related to the- vertical
temperature profile. On the average (and if
we- neiglee:t the- effects of the phase- change of
water in the air), enhanced turbulence- is
associated with a drop in temperature with
height of 10°C per kilometer or greater.
(This is the dry adiabatic rate;.) If the te;m-
perature change with height is at a lesser
rate?, turbulence tenils to be decreased, and
if the temperature ine:reases with height (an
"inversion"), turbulence is very mue-h reduced.
3-2
-------
Principles of Turbulence and Diffusion
The temperature profiles particularly over
land, show a large diurnal variation as seen
in Figure J. Shortly after sunrise the heating
of the land surface by the sun results in rapid,
warming of the air near the surface; the re-
duced density of this air causes it to rise
rapidly. Cooler air from aloft replaces the
rising air "bubble, " to be warmed and rise
in turn. This vigorous vertical interchange
creates a "supcradiabatic" lapse rate - a
temperature decrease' of more than 10°C
per vertical kilometer - and vertical dis-
placements are accelerated. The depth of
this well-mixed layer depends on the intensity
of solar' radiation and the radiation character-
istics of the underlying surface. Over the
deserts this vigorous mixing may extend
well above .'. kilometers, while over forested
lake country the layer may be only one or
two hundred meters thick. Obviously, this
effect is highly dependent on season; in winter
the lesser insolation and unfavorable radia-
tion characteristics of snow cover greatly
inhibit vertical turbulence.
In contrast, with clear or partly cloudy skies
the temperature profile at night is drastically
changed by the rapid radiational cooling of
the ground and the subsequent cooling of the
layers of air near the surface. This creates
an "inversion" of the daytime temperature
profile, since there is now an increase in
temperature with height. In such a situation
the density differences rapidly damp out
vertical motions, tend to reduce vertical
turbulence, and stabilize the atmosphere.
Two other temperature configurations, on
very different scales, have important effects
on vertical turbulence and the dilution of
air pollution. At the smaller end of the seale,
the heat capacity of urban areas and, to a
lesser extent, the heat generated by fuel
consumption act to modify the temperature
profile. The effect is most marked at night,
when the heat stored by day in the buildings
and streets warms the air and prevents the
formation of the surface-based temperature
inversion typical of rural areas. Over cities
it is rare to find inversions in the lowest
100 meters, and the city influence is still
evident 200 to 300 meters above the surface.
The effect is a function of city size and
building density, but not enough observations
are yet available to provide any precise
quantitative relations. Although the effect
even for the largest cities is probably
insignificant above a kilometer, this locally
produced vertical mixing is quite important.
Pollution, instead of being confined to a
narrow layer near the height of emission,
perhaps only 100 meters in thickness, can
be freely diluted in more than double the
volume of air, the concentrations being
reduced by a similar factor.
On a much larger scale the temperature-
profile can be changed over thousands of
square kilometers by the action of large-
scale weather systems. In traveling storm
systems (cyclones) the increased pressure
gradients and resulting high winds, together
with the inflow of air into the storm, create
relatively good vertical mixing conditions.
On the other hand, the flat pressure patterns,
slower movement, and slow outflow of sur-
face air in high-pressure cells (anticyclones)
result in much less favorable vertical
mixing. This is primarily due to the gradual
subsidence of the air aloft as it descends to
replace (mass-continuity requirement) the
outflow at the surface. During this descent
the air warms adiabatically, and eventually
there is created a temperature inversion
aloft inhibiting the upward mixing of pollution
above the inversion level. As the anticyclone
matures and persists, this subsidence inver-
sion may lower to very near the ground and
persist for the duration of the particular
weather pattern.
Horizontal Turbulent Diffusion
The most important difference between the
vertical and horizontal dimensions of
diffusion is that of scale. In the vertical,
rapid diffusion is limited to about 10 kilo-
meters. But in the horizontal, the entire
surface of the globe is eventually available.
Even when the total depth of the troposphere
is considered, the horizontal scale is larger
by at least three orders of magnitude, and
3-3
-------
11
IS
600 r
soo
-400
DC
LkJ
t-
bJ
t-
I
300
ZOO
100
o
-)
254567
TEMPERATURE (t)
10 tl
FIGURE
12
3 A 8 6 T 8
WIND SPEED (m/sec)
10
r
ft
C.
C
tf.
I
Diurnal Variation of Temperatui-e and Wind Speed
-------
Principles of Turbulence and Diffusion
the difference, say during a nocturnal in-
version which might restrict the vertical
diffusion to a few tens of meters, is even
greater since the lateral turbulence is re-
duced less than the vertical component.
Mechanically produced horizontal turbulence
i.s, on a percentage basis, much less im-
portant than the thermal effects; its effects
arc; of about the same order of magnitude
as the vertical mechanical effects.
The thermally produced horizontal turbulence
i.s not so neatly related to horizontal tem-
perature gradients as vertical turbulence is
to the- vertical temperature profile. The
horizontal temperature differences create
horizontal pressure fields, which in turn
drive the horizontal winds. These are acted
upon by the earth's rotation (the Coriolis
effect) and by surface friction, so that there
is no such thing as a truly steady-state wind
near the surface of the earth. Wind speeds
may vary from nearly /.ero near the surface
at night in an anticyclone to 100 meters per
second under the driving force- of the intense
pressure gradient of a hurricane. The im-
portance of this variation, even though in air
pollution we are concerned with much more
modest ranges, is that for continuous sources
the concentration is inversely proportional
to the wind speed.
The variation of turbulence in the lateral
direction is perhaps the most important
factor of all and certainly one of the most
interesting. In practice this can best be
represented by the changes in horizontal
wind direction illustrated in Figure 2. Within
a few minutes, the wind may fluctuate
rapidly through 90 degrees or more. Over
a few hours it may shift, still with much
short-period variability, through 180 degrees,
and in the course of a month it will have
changed through 3(>0 degrees numerous times.
Over the1 seasons, preferred directional
patterns will be established depending upon
latitude and large-scale pressure patterns.
These patterns may be very stable over
many years, and thus establish the wind
climatology of a particular location.
The emitted pollution travels with this ever-
varying wind. The high-frequency fluctua-
tions spread out the pollutant, and the
relatively steady "average" direction
carries it off - for example, toward a
suburb or a business district. A gradual
turning of direction transports material
toward new targets and gives a respite to
the previous ones. Kvery few days the
cycle; is repeated, and over the years the
prevailing winds can create semipermanent
patterns of pollution downwind from factories
or cities.
3-5
-------
Principles of Turbulence and Diffusion
Description of Gustiness Classifications
The original separation of wind gustiness into
typical categories led to the establishment of
four classes - A, B, C, and D - in order of
decreasing amplitude of the azimuthal fluctu-
ation of the wind. Further analysis indicated
the need for a fifth category, and the B class
was subdivided into B1 and B2. The classifi-
cations as developed at Brookhaven and as
applied to wind data in this analysis are
defined below. The types are further ex-
plained by samples of the 500-ft wind records
shown in Figure 2.
Type A: Fluctuations of the wind direction
exceeding 90 degrees.
Type 62: Fluctuations ranging from 45 to
90 degrees.
Type Bj: Similar to A and 62, with fluctu-
ations confined to 15 and 45
degree limits.
Type C: Distinguished by the unbroken
solid core of the trace, through
which a straight line can be drawn
for the entire hour, without touch-
ing "open space. " The fluctuations
must reach 15 degrees, but no
upper limit is imposed.
Type D: The trace approximates a line.
Short-term fluctuations do not
exceed 15 degrees.
Types A and 82 are mainly convective in
nature and are associated with great instabil-
ity. A combination of convective and mech-
anical turbulence is represented in the Bj
gustiness type, which occurs under conditions
of moderate instability. Gustiness class C
is primarily mechanical in origin and is
associated with neutral stability. Type D,
which is found with stable lapse rates, re-
flects little or no turbulence.
CLASS A
CLASS BX
Figure 2. GUSTINESS CLASSIFICATION
3-6
-------
Principles of Turbulence and Diffusion
REFERENCES
1 Batchelor, G.K. The Theory of Homogeneous
Turbulence. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, England, 1956.
2 Hinze, J.O. Turbulence. McGraw-Hill Book
Co., New York. 1959.
3 Magill, P.L. Ed. Air Pollution Handbook.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York 1956.
4 Pack, D.H. Meteorology of Air Pollution.
Science, Vol. 146, No. 3648, pp 1119-
1128, November 27, 1964.
5 Pasquill, F. Atmospheric Diffusion.(2nd
Edition); John Wiley 5 Sons, Inc. 1974.
6 Stern, A.C. Ed. Air Pollution;- (2nd Edition);
Academic Press, New York, 1968.
7 Button, O.G. Micrometeorology, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York, 1953.
8 Meteorology and Atomic Energy 1968 D.H.
Slade, Ed., U.S. Atomic Energy Commis-
sion, Division of Technical Information.
TID-24190, July 1968
9 U.S. Public Health Service, SEC Technical
Report A62.5, Symposium Air Over Cities,
R.A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center,
Cincinnati, Ohio 1962.
10. IUGG-IAMAP-AMS Conference on Planetary
Boundary Layers. Conference Summary.
Bull. AMS, Vol. 51, No. 6, June 1970
pp. 518-527.
Portions of this outline Copyright 1964
American Association for Advancement of
Science (4).
3-7
-------
INTRODUCTION TO TURBULENCE AND DIFFUSION THEORY
D. B. Turner*
I TURBULENCE
Turbulence is defined in the Glossary of
Meteorology as, "a state of fluid flow in
which the instantaneous velocities exhibit
irregular and apparently random fluctuations
so that in practice only statistical properties
can be recognized and subjected to analysis.'.'
Assuming that a mean velocity may be defined
for a given time period, the turbulent velocity
may be considered to be a random fluctuating
motion superimposed upon the mean motion.
Considering a three dimensional coordinate
system with the x and y axis in the horizontal
and z in the vertical the components of the
instantaneous velocity are:
u = u 4- u in the x direction
v = v + v in the y direction and
w = w + w in the z direction
where u, v, and w are the mean velocities
and u', v' and v/ are the deviations from the
mean, the turbulent components or eddy
velocities. Usually, the mean flow is hori-
zontal (w = 0) and the x axis is taken to be
in the direction of the mean flow (v = 0).
In this case, the instantaneous velocity is u
+ u + v + w' This is shown except for w'in
Figure 1.
velocity
edjJv_velQj^eiIi2jr v"2 and ^w^~gVpthp pHriv
energies—The mean of .these eddy energies
indicate thrHjtrtir rnnrgy nf thr motion.
Since the same mean eddy energy, u' , may
result from many different combinations of
eddy velocities, the mean eddy energy does
not specify the turbulence. The ratio of the
square root of the mean eddvenergy to the
mean wind spead \f u'~ /u jfe referred to
X
as the i/itensiti/pi tUl'Bulence of the u
component;
u
and
are the intens.it
two
There are two different systems of hydro-
dynamics used to specify turbulent motions.
In the Eulerian system, the velocities at all
positions in the flow are specified at a given
instant. In the Lagrangian system, the
velocities of a given particle or parcel are
considered at different times as the particle
moves in the flow.
Figure 1. Instantaneous Wind Velocity
Components (In Two Dimensions)
*Supervisory Research Meteorologist. MOAA
Meteorology f, Assessment Division, liPA
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
PA.Ml:. cl . 6a. 7.63
A Theories of Turbulence
1 Prandtl's Mixing Length Theory
According to this theory, the mean path
of an eddy, over which the eddy is
maintained, is the mixing length. The
mixing length is thus analogous to the
mean free path of molecules. This
theory implies a discontinuous motion
of the atmosphere, but provided a way
in which momentum, heat, and matter
could be considered transferred ac-
cording to the respective gradients of
these quantities. (See Sutton, 1953;
-------
Introduction to Turbulence and Diffusion Theory
1'ai, H>57; Pasquill, 1962). Variations of the
mixing length theory were set fourth by Taylor
15)15 ami von Karman.
2. Statistical Theory of Turbulence
The first representation of the atmos-
phere's motion as varying continuously
is due to 0.1. Taylor (1921), who con-
sidered the movement of a given particle
with time (Lagrangian system). This was
followed by a series of papers (Taylor,
l'.)35) describing turbulence in an Euler-
ian frame of reference. Something about
the size of eddies could be determined
by consideration of the variation in
velocity at a given time between two
given points. The velocities at the two
points would be more nearly the same for ,
large eddies, than for small ones (F:igure j
2).
a Space correlation coefficient
A statistical expression of the
tionof the
_---
poinTE. can be obtained by using the
space correlationjcjuȣfie.i.enW This
measures the closeness of the rela-
tionship numerically. The correlation
coefficient may vary between + 1 and
- 1 being + 1 if there is a perfect
relation, -1 if there is a perfect
inverse relation, (i.e., as one velo-
city increases , the other decreases)
and 0 if there is no relation. See
Sutton (1961). Consider the points 1
and 2 that are a distance x apart.
The correlation coefficient R(x) may
hp
<
Figure 2. Comparison of Velocities at Two
Points for Two Different Sizes of
Oddies
where u. is the eddy velocity at
"point 1, u is_the eddy velocity at
point 2, and u'2 is the mean eddy
energy. It is assumed that K (x) anil
\fl are independent of position, i.e.,
the turbulence is homogeneous. As the
dTslfance, x, between—Hle^poiirEs in-
creases, the correlation is expected
to decrease. A graph of R(x) against
x (correlogram) can be made if the
correlations are known for x varying
continuously. The rate of decrease of
U(x) is related to the eddy sizes. A
length, 1, the scale of turbulence,
may be defined by
dx
if this integral converges. Taylor
considered 1 as the average size
of eddies. Similarly, scales of tur-
bulence in the y and z directions may
be defined.
b Autocorrelation coefficient
A time correlation, coefficient, U(t),
(an autocorrelation coefficient) may
be defined by correlating eddy velo-
cities measured at a point at different
times. If the variations in wind speed
at a point are caused by an unchanging
pattern of turbulence passing, then
3-10
-------
Introduction to Turbulence and Diffusion Theory
= R(x)
/(t)
where x = ut
c Spectrum
In 1938, Taylor introduced the rela-
tion between the autocorrelation
coefficient and the spectrum of turbul-
ence. Where n is frequency (cycles per
second).the portion of the total vari-
ance of frequencies between n and n
+ dn is u F(n) dn where
:(n) dn = 1.
The curve formed by plotting I:(n)or n
F(n) against n is the energy spectrum
or power spectrum. The quantity
u l:(n) is the spectral density.
Taylor showed thiit R(t), the auto-
correlation coefficient, and F(n) are
related by :
''This provides a way of calculating the
spectral density and of identifying
the sizes (frequencies) of eddies that
most greatly affect the kinetic energy.
R(.t) = / F(nJ cos 2 n nt dn and K(n)
1 / U(t) cos 2 -n nt dt
related by U = U + 1/2 r Jl
-------
Introduction to Turbulence and Diffusion Theory
since any observation must represent an
average over some small time period, s.
The inertia of the wind sensor will limit
how small s can be. Thus, the sampling
duration, T, and the averaging time, s,
have an important bearing on the values of
the statistical properties. The fraction
of the spectral density corresponding to
each frequency is shown in Figure 3 for a
sampling duration, T, and for consecutive
interval averaging times, s. Thus, only
the portion of the spectrum that appears
through this spectral window is known.
Thus, for a sampling duration of T = 1
hour (3600 seconds) and averaging time
s = 1 second, the fraction of the spec-
tral density is 1.0 between 5.56 x 10'4
cycles per second (2/T) and 5 x 10"2 cyc-
les per second (O.OS/s). Thus, the
fraction of the spectral density is 1.0
for the motions having a cycle of less
than 30 minutes and more than 20 seconds.
1) Statistical Properties of Turbulence
Turbulence is neither homogeneous
(spatial variation) nor stationary
(time variation) due to terrain and
diurnal changes. Therefore, turbu-
lence depends upon the particular
place and time. Neuberger, et al.,
(1956) summarized 'the following 6
statistical properties of turbulence.
1. Turbulent energy is greatest in
unstable air, least in stable air.
2. Vertical turbulent energy is some-
what smaller than horizontal
turbulent energy.
1.0
Figure 3.
The Spectral Window
Dependent on Sampling Time.T, £?
;ind Averaging Time, s 'Jj;
A3
0.5
o
01
Q.
tt-
o
c
o
o
n the order of minutes become im-
portant due to convection.
4. The scale of turbulence increases
with height due to less damping by
the ground. Fluctuations of long-
er periods become more important
^higher in the atmosphere.
5. Turbulent energy increases with
increasing wind speed.
6. Turbulent energy is greater over
rough ground than over smooth
ground.
II DIFFUSION
In the Glossary of Meteorology, diffusion is
defined as, "the exchange of fluid parcels
(and hence, the transport of conservative
properties) between regions in space, in the
apparently random motions of a scale too
small to be treated by the equations of
motion".
A Transfer Theory
Transfer theory is the name given to one
group of early mathematical expressions
describing atmospheric diffusion. One
such formulation still may be applied
very near the ground, within one meter, and
0.1 J_ Jfj 0.01 0.1
Frequency T (cycles/sec)
1
5"
10
3.12
-------
Intro due tion to Turbulence and Diffusion Theory
another maybe used in regard to stratos-
pheric-tropospheric exchange processes.
These theories express a linear relation between
the flux of a quantity and the gradient in
the direction of the flux. For example:
F - - A *JL
P A Sn
F = - p K 4- =
and
o n
where F is the flux, s is the quantity per
unit mass of the diffusing quantity, A is
an exchange or austausch coefficient, and
K is eddy diffusivity. These are equations
for transfer theories. See Priestley et al.
(1958).
The general diffusion equation resulting
from transfer theory is:
dx
dt
If K = PC = K = constant in the above
equation, the resulting diffusion is termed
"Fickian" after Albert Fick, a German
physiologist of the mid 1800's. Frequently,
this equation has been used with the K's,
especially Kz, varying. One form of the
equation for the continuous cross-wind line
source is:
oX
5x
<5z
K
Solutions for this equation have; been worked
out by O. F. T. Roberts and also by F. B.
Smith, (11)57).
B Statistical Theory
G. I. Taylor, in 1921, indicated that the
cross-wind position of a small parcel of
air or a particle of negligible size and
mass that is being transported by the
atmosphere at the time, t, after release
is given by;
y =
v (t) dt
where v are the instantaneous eddy
velocities of the particle in the y direction.
Therefore, these are Lagrangian eddy
velocities. The position of one particle
is of no particular interest, but rather
some statistical property of the entire
ensemble of particles.
If the turbulence is homogeneous and
stationary, i. e., if the average properties
are uniform in space and steady in time,
then:
= 2
dt
where cr is the standard deviation of the
particle in time T, v'^ is the mean square
eddy velocity of the particle, and R ( 5)
is the Lagrangian correlation coefficient
between the velocity of the particle at t
and at t + £. For small time, T, the
Lagrangian autocorrelation R( £ ) is
approximately 1. 0 so that
The spread is linear. For large T, R(
is approximately zero so that
= 2
(for large T)
The spread is parabolic and the term in
the brackets is a constant time scale of
turbulence. It is uncertain as to just what
may be considered small T and large T.
The indication is that one must know the
form of the Lagrangian correlogram or
spectrum in order to determine the diffusion.
3.13
-------
Introduction to Turbulence and Diffusion Theory
Measuring Lagrangian properties of the
atmosphere is extremely difficult.
Button in 1934, suggested a form for the
Lagrangian autocorrelation:
v w
where v is the kinematic viscosity of air.
This results in:
' - 1 C « (u T,2 -
where
. 2
4 v
(1 - n) (2 - n) a
1 -n
Sutton assumed a Gaussian distribution of
concentrations in the diffusing cloud and
that the wind is constant with height. See
Sutton (1953).
This showed that the Lagrangian correlo-
gram falls off more slowly than the corre-
sponding Eulerian value. This certainly
seems reasonable since the Lagrangian
measurement is the velocity of particles
moving in eddies which are being trans-
ported according to the flow, whereas the
Eulerian measurements are the velocities
measured at a fixed point of eddies moving
past that point according to the mean flow.
Hay and Pasquill (1957) came to the con-
clusion that also in the atmosphere the
Lagrangian correlation decreased more
slowly than the autocorrelation at a fixed
point. They (Hay and Pasquill, 1959)
assumed the relation:
R
C) "
R (t) when
E
c -
the L referring to Lagrangian and E to
Eulerian. The resulting relation between
spectral densities is:
n F (n) = p n F (p n)
LJ £•
The assumed relations between the
Eulerian and Lagrangian correlograms
and spectra are shown in Figure 4.
C Relation of Lagrangian to Eulerian
Statistics
Another approach to obtaining estimates of
Lagrangian statistics may be by relating
the Lagrangian correlogram or spectrum
to the Eulerian properties as measured at
a fixed point. Since accurate measurement
of wind velocities may be made at a fixed
point, this approach may be most feasible.
Michelsen (1955) in wind tunnel experiments
found a relation between the Eulerian and
Lagrangian correlograms:
R (x) = -^ R
B
C • 111
Time Lag
when
Figure 4. Hypothetical Scale Relation
Between Lagrangian and Eulerian (fixed point)
Correlograms (above) and Spectra (below)
(From PasquiU, 1962)
3.14
-------
Introduction to Turbulence and Diffusion Theory
The; principal result of this is thai the
dispersion of particles, in the atmosphere
may be approximated by averagingthe eddy
velocity over time intervals of T/(3 over
the period of release, r, where T is the
time of travel. Numerous field experi-
ments to test this possibility are being
made. See Pasquill (1961, 1962).
REFERENCES
1 Batchelor, G. K. The Application of the
Similarity Theory of Turbulence to
Atmospheric Diffusion. Quart. ,T. Roy.
Meteorol. Soc. 76;. 133. 1950.
2 Hay, .1. S. , and Pasquill, F. Diffusion
from a Fixed Source at a Height of a
Few Hundred Feet in the Atmosphere.
.1. Fluid Mech. 2^299. 1957.
3 Hay, ,T. S. , Pasquill, F. Diffusion from a
Continuous Source in Relation to the
Spectrum and Scale of Turbulence.
Advances in Geophysics. 6j 345-356.
Academic Press. New York. 1959.
4 Huschke, R. E. , (Editor). Glossary of
Meteorology. Boston, Amer. Meteorol.
Soc. 638 pp. 1959.
5 Kolmogoroff, A.N. Dissipation of Energy
in Locally Isotropic Turbulence. C.R.
Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S. 31: 538. 3^:16.
1941.
C Mickclsen, W.R. An Experimental
Comparison of the Lagrangian and
Eulerian Correlation Coefficients in
Homogeneous Isotropic Turbulence.
N.A.C.A. Washington, Tech. Note No.
3570. 1955.
7 Neubergor, H. , Panofsky, H. , andSekera, Z.
Physics of the Almosphere. Air Pol-
lution Handbook. New York. McGraw-
Hill. 61 pp. 1956.
8 Pai, Shih-I. Viscous Flow Theory. Turbu-
lent Flow. 2: Princeton, N.J. D. Van
Nostrand. 277 pp. 1957.
9 Pasquill, F. The Estimation of the
Dispersion of Wind-Borne Material.
Meteorol. Mag. 90:33-49. 1961.
10 Pasquill, F. Atmospheric Diffusion.
D. Van Nostrand. London. 297pp.
19G2.
11
Priestley, C.H. B.
and Pasquill, F.
McCormick, R. A. ,
Turbulent Diffusion
12
in the Atmosphere. WMO Technical
Note 24, Geneva, WMO No. 77, TP.
31, 68 pp. 1958.
Smith, F. B. The Diffusion of Smoke
from a Continuous Elevated Point-
Source Into a Turbulent Atmosphere.
,T. Fluid Mech. 2: 49. 1957.
13 Sutton, O.G. Wind Structure and Evapora-
tion in a Turbulent Atmosphere. Proc.
Roy. Soc. A. r46:701. 1934.
14 Sutton, O.G. Micjometeorology. New
Yor k. M cG raw TlIH. 3 sTppT 1953.
15 Sutton, O.G. The Challenge of the Atmos-
phere. Harper and Brothers. New
York. 227 pp. 1961.
16 Taylor, G.I. Eddy Motion in the Atmos-
phere. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., A.
215:1-26. 1915. Reprinted in the
Scientific Papers of Sir Geoffrey
Ingram Taylor. 2\_ Editor: G.K.
Batchelor. Cambridge University
Press, pp 1-23. 1960.
17 Taylor, G.I. Diffusion by Continuous
Movements. Proc. London Math. Soc.
Ser. 2, 20, 196. 1921. Reprinted in
the Scientific Papers of Sir Geoffrey
Ingram Taylor. 2\ Editor: G.K.
Batchelor. Cambridge University-
Press, pp. 172-184. 1960.
18 Taylor, G.I. Statistical Theory of
Turbulence. Pts 1-4. Proc. Roy.
Soc., A. 151:421. 1935. Reprinted
in the Scientific Papers of Sir Geoffrey
Ingram Taylor. 2: Editor: G.K.
Batchelor. Cambridge University
Press, pp. 288-335. 1960.
3.15
-------
Introduction to Turbulence and Diffusion Theory
19 Taylor, G.I. The Spectrum of Turbulence.
Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A. 164: 476-
490. 1938. Reprinted in the Scientific
Papers of Sir Geoffrey Ingram Taylor.
2: Editor: G.K. Batchelor. Cam-
bridge University Press, pp. 453-465.
1960.
20 von Karman, Th. The Fundamentals of
the Statistical Theory of Turbulence.
J. Aero. Sci. 4: 134-138. 1937.
21. Panofsky, H. A. , Prasad, B.
Similarity Theories and Diffusion.
Int. J. Air Wat. Poll. 9-419-430, 1965.
22. Kofoed-Hansen, O. , Wandel, C. F.
On the Relation between Eulerian anil
Lagrangian Averages in the Statistical
Theory of Turbulence, Danish Atomic
Energy Commission Research Establish-
ment Riso. Ris'6 Report No. 50, June
1967.
23. Meteorology and Atomic Energy 1968.
D. H. Slade, Ed. U. S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Tech. Information Div. ,
TID-24190, July 1968.
3.16
-------
THE GENERALIZED GAUSSIAN DIFFUSION EQUATION
The normal or Gaussian frequency curve is
given by:
C(x)
C (x) =
- 2
(x - x)
exp -- 7. --
2*
Where C is the probability density function,
x is the mean and cr is the standard deviation.
(2TT)1'2 makes the area under the curve from
x = - oo tc - + no equal to 1. See Figure 1.
-3o- -2o- -la x la 2a 3a-
2% 16% 50% 84% 9B%
Figure 1. Normal Frequency Curve
Note: exp (-a/b) = e" ^ where e is the
mathematical constant approximately
equal to 2.7183.
When a distribution is binormal in the two
dimensions x and y the probability density
function is:
that the origin is on the ground beneath the
point of emission, x is in the direction of the
mean wind, u, y is crosswind and z is
vertical.
Assume that the diffusion in the crosswind
and vertical dimensions will occur in a
Gaussian manner, that the pollution will move
downwind with the mean speed of the wind, and
that the diffusion in the downwind direction is
negligible compared with the transport.
The concentration, C, at any point (x, y, z)
can be written as:
C (x. y. z) u
Q
exp -
21T
-------
The Generalized Gaussian Diffusion Equation
This is the generalized diffusion equation.
We cannot expect to obtain instantaneous
concentrations from this equation, but con-
centrations averaged over at least a few
minutes time. There are several reasons
why one may expect this equation to be valid
for the atmosphere. This obeys the equation
of continuity, i.e., the conservation of mass.
The mass Q/l second is found between any
two planes perpendicular to the x axis at a
distance u/1 second part. Secondly, diffusion
is a random process and the distribution of
material from such motion may be expected
to be in some statistical form; in this case,
according to the Gaussian curve. There is
one theoretical reason why one would not
expect this equation to apply. Diffusion can
only occur at a finite speed, i. e., the con-
centration of released material should drop
at zero at some distance from the x axis
because it has not diffused to this point.
Assuming a Guassian distribution assumes
the material to be spread from - °° to + °°
cross wind. This is not of practical impor-
tance, however, as the Gaussian distribution
drops off extremely rapidly within a few y.O) u
Q_
IT a
-------
ATMOSPHERIC DIFFUSION COMPUTATIONS
D. B. Turner*
J. L. Dicke*
With the increase in concern for air pollution
both from conventional and radioactive
sources, the need for determining the trans-
port and diffusion of these pollutants in the
atmosphere has become more pressing.
Pasquill (1961, 1962) of the British Meteoro-
logical Office devised a method of computing
dispersion from an elevated or ground-level
source in terms of the height and width of the
plume of airborne material based on diffusion
measurements made during Project Prairie
Grass (Cramer et al. , 1958) and other dif-
fusion studies. This method was also pub-
lished by Meade (1960). Gifford (1961) has
transformed values of Pasquill's parameters
of height and width to the standard deviations
of plume concentration distribution in the
vertical, cr^, and horizontal, o^,.
H
meters
meters
meters
The values of o; and o~, must be in terms of
y z
a downwind distance, •*.. The computation of
concentration, C, is therefore made for
specific downwind distances. C is also the
total dosage in gm-sec/m3 or curies-sec/m3
for the same distance for'the passage of the
entire plume if the total release is Q.
This equation is valid if diffusion in the
downwind direction may be neglected. If the
duration of release is equal to or greater than
the travel time from, the source to the loca-
tion of interest, downwind diffusion may be
assumed absent.
DIFFUSION EQUATION
Assuming that the plume has a Gaussian
distribution in both the horizontal and vertical
dimensions with standard deviations of
plume concentration distribution in the verti-
cal and horizontal of (T7 and
-------
Atmospheric Diffusion Computations
that would be strong with clear skies might
be expected to be reduced to moderate with
broken middle clouds and to slight with
broken low clouds. Night refers to the period
from one hour before sunset to one hour after
sunrise. The neutral category, D, should
be assumed for overcast conditions during
day or night.
ESTIMATION OF VERTICAL AND
HORIZONTAL DISPERSION
Having determined the stability class from
Table 1, the measures of diffusion in the
vertical,
-------
Atmospheric Diffusion Computations
where H is the effective height of the
elevated source.
Values of exp - H /2cf2&are found in Table 3.
A is the ratio of H/o^. and B, the expressions
in the body of the table, is the computed
value of the exponential. The E represents
x 10 to the power indicated by the following
two digits. For example, if A = 3. 55,
the value of the exponential is 0. 183 X 10~2.
It is possible under light wind situations at
night that the plume from an elevated source
will remain aloft with no significant vertical
diffusion, in which case the ground-level
concentrations would be zero. Vertical
spread can then be started at a downwind
position corresponding to the wind speed
and the estimated time for breakdown of the
stable situation.
GRAPHS FOR ESTIMATION OF DIFFUSION
Hilsmeier and Gifford (1962) have presented
graphs of relative concentration times wind
speed (Cu/Q) below the plume centerline
versus downwind distance for various
stability classes. Figure 3 give Cu/Q as a
function of x for a ground-level source
whereas Figures 4-6 are for the indicated
elevated sources.
CALCULATION OF OFF-AXIS
CONCENTRATIONS
Off-axis concentrations may be calculated
from equation 1, or by correcting ground-
level centerline concentrations by the factor;
exp - (y2/2o" 2). This may be obtained
from Table 3 for values of y/
-------
Atmospheric Diffusion Cpmputaticn s
above. The distance downwind of the source
at which the maximum concentration occurs
at ground level is a function of effective
source height and stability. Figure 7 is a
nomogram from which the relative value of
the maximum concentration can be determined
^iven the stability and effective source
hr-ight. If the relative value of that concen-
tration is multiplied by Q/tr, the maximum
concentration for a specific set of conditions
is obtained. The nomogram is designed for
source strength expressed in grams/sec and
wind speed .in meters/sec.
ACCURACY OF COMPUTATIONS
The method will in general give only approxi-
mate estimates of concentrations, especially
if wind fluctuation measurements are not
available and estimates of dispersion are
obtained from Figures 1 and 2. In the un-
stable and stable cases, errors of oz of
several fold may occur for longer travel
be expected to be within a factor of 2. These
are: 1) all stabilites for distances of
travel of a. few hundred meters in open
country; 2) neutral to moderately unstable
conditions for distances of a few kilometers;
and 3) unstable conditions in the first 1000
meters above ground with a marked inversion
thereafter for distances of 10 km or more.
Uncertainties in the estimates of Oy are in
general less than those of o~z except when the
wind field is indefinite. In this case, the
estimate of concentrations from the plume
would be the same except that a wind range
should be allowed for the direction of the
plume, up to 360°. For extremes of stable
and unstable conditions at distances between
50 and 100 km calculated concentrations may
differ from true concentrations by an order
of magnitude. For these distances under
neutral conditions calculated concentrations
should be within a factor of 5 of true
concentrations.
distances. There
cases where CT7 may
EXERCISES WITH DIFFUSION PARAMETERS
1. What stability category would be most
likely to occur when the wind is 6 - 8
m/sec?
2. If the sky is overcast - synonymous
with cloudy - what would the stability
category most likely be?
3. What would the stability category most
likely be on a sunny April afternoon
when the wind is 3 m/sec?
4. If the surface wind at night is 3 m/sec
and there is 5/8 of low clouds, what is
the most likely stability category?
5. What are 0 and o at 150 m from a
source under B stability?
6. How much difference is there in o at
5 km under D and F stability? Z
7. What is the value of a at 20 km under
C stability? Y
8. At 300 m how many times larger is a
under B stability than under D ^
stability?
9. Under E stability how much greater is
the horizontal dispersion factor than
the vertical dispersion factor at
300ra?
10. If the value of H/a is 1.8 what is
the value of exp - Zl/2(H/o )2?
11. The value of exp - l/2(H/a )2 ±B
2.2 x 10-3. What is H/az?z
12. Under D stability and a wind speed of
5 m/sec, a plume is emitted at 100 m
above the ground. What is the value of
C/Q at 4 km?
13. What is the area enclosed by an
isopleth whose CU/Q value is 4 x 10"^
m~2 when the stability category is B?
3-22
-------
Atmospheric Diffusion Computations
TABLE 1. KEY TO STABILITY CATEGORIES
Surface Wind
Speed (at 10 m)
m/sec
< 2
2-3
3-5
5-6
> 6
Insolation
Strong Moderate Slight
A A-B B
A-B B C
B B-C C
C C-D D
C D D
Night
Thinly Overcast
or
^4/8 Low Cloud
-
E
D
D
D
^3/8
Cloud
-
F
E
D
D
The neutral category, D, should be assumed for overcast conditions
during day or night
TABLE 2
y/a exp(y /2ff )
J *f
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.15
3.04
3.72
4.29
1.00
1.01
1.02
1.05
1.08
1.13
1.20
1.28
1.38
1.50
1.65
2.05
2.66
3.08
3.60
5.05
7.39
10
102
103
104
4.80
3-23
-------
10,000
• • ~ ^ i~~ * ' ' ^.., , , ^r"jjiTTT_>.„.] ^.j ttTTTT »*M ~ii'ii
DISTANCE DOWNWIND, km
Horizontal dispersion coefficient as a function of downwind distance from the source.
3-24
-------
1,000
10
DISTANCE DOWNWIND, km
100
Vertical dispersion coefficient as a function of downwind distance from the source.
3-25
-------
Atmospheric Diffusion Computations
TABLE 3
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
B • exp - t (At
U.04 0.01
0.0*
O.OT
0.0*
O.Ot
O.QO
0.10
0.20
0.3o
0.40
0.90
0.40
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.90
1.90
I!TO
1 8O
A • w
1.90
> OO
2.10
2.20
2.90
2.40
2.90
2.40
2.70
2.80
2.9C
3.00
3.10
3.20
sl40
3.90
3.40
3. TO
3.80
3.90
4.00
4.10
4.20
4.«0
4.40
4. SO
4.40
4. TO
4.8«
^0 w
4.90
0.100* 01
0.999E 00
0.98OE OO
C.994E OO
0.423E 00
0.882E 00
0.839E 00
0.789E 00
0.726E 00
0.667E 00
O.ftOTE 00
0.944E 00
0.48TE 00
0.430E 00
0.379E 00
0.329E 00
0.2T8E 00
0.234E 00
0.19BE 00
O.U4E 00
0.135E OO
0.1 10E 00
0.809E«01
0.710E.01
0.961E-01
0.4S9E-01
0.340E.01
0.261E.01
0.198E.01
0.149E-01
O.lllE-01
O.B19E-02
0.998E.02
0.432E-02
0.309E-02
O.Z19E-02
0.153E-02
0.106E-02
O.T32E-09
0.490E-09
o!z2»E-03
0.14BE-03
0.9ME-04
0.4ZSE-04
0.401C-04
0.2&4E.04
o.uoe.04
o!»ne*°9
0.100* 01
0.994E 00
0.9TBE 00
0.993E 00
0.919E 00
O.BT8E 00
O.B30E 00
O.TT7E 00
0.720E 00
0.441E 00
O.»OOE oo
0.940E 00
0.4B1E 00
0.424E 00
0.370E 00
0.320E 00
0.274E 00
0.232E 00
0.194E 00
0.141E 00
0.133E OO
0.10BE 00
ol6»»E-01
0.348E-01
0.42BE-01
0.332E-01
0.:3»E-Ol
0.193E-01
0.143E-01
O.lOBE-01
0.794E-02
0.379E-02
0.418E-02
0.299E-OZ
O.ZllE-OZ
0.148E-02
0.10SE-02
O.T04E-0)
0.3Z2E-03
0.213E-09
0.1*ZE-OS
0.929E.04
0.3ME-04
0.383E-04
oIll2E-04
0.9*ȣ-03
O.lOOfr 01
0.993E 00
0.976E 00
0.990E no
0.914E 00
0.8T4E no
0.823E 00
O.TT2E 00
O.T14E 00
0.499E 00
0.994E 00
0.934E 00
0.47SE 00
0.41IE 00
0.34SE 00
0.3I9E 00
0.249E 00
0.22IE 00
0.191E 00
0.19«E 00
0.130E 00
O.lOtE 00
0.891E-01
0.47IE.01
0.933E-01
0.41IE.01
0.323E.01
0.247E-91
O.IB8E.01
0.141E-01
0.10SE-01
0.769E-02
0.560E-OZ
0.404E»02
0.289E.02
0.204E.02
0.143E-02
oI*7IE-OJ
0.4ME-03
0.310E-03
0.206E>01
0.136E.03
0.884E-04
0.9T2E.04
0.366E.04
0.231E.04
0.141E.04
0.902E.03
O.S94E.09
0.100E- 01
0.992E 00
0.474E 00
0.94TE 00
0.912E 00
0.849F. 00
O.B20F 00
0.746F 00
0.704C 00
0.649E 00
0.9«8E 00
0.92BE 00
Q.469E 00
0.413E 00
0.360C 00
0.310E 00
0.24SE 00
0.224E 00
0.187E 00
0.133E 00
0.127E 00
0.103E 00
O.B32E-01
0.662E.01
0.922E»01
0.407E.01
o!241E-01
0.1B2E-01
0.137E-01
0.101E-01
o!j43E.OZ
0.391E-02
0.279E-OZ
0.l9tE-02
0.138F-OZ
0.9S2E-03
0.693F-03
0.443F-03
0.29TF-03
0.198F«03
0.130E.03
0.849E.04
0.9481.04
0.390E.04
O.ZZ1E.O*
0.139E-04
0.8391.03
0.928E.OI
0.999E 00
0.990E 00
0.97ZF. 00
0.944; 00
0.908E 00
0.844( 00
0.819r 00
0,760? 00
0.703E 00
0.»43E 00
0.982f 00
0.922E 00
0.464E 00
0.40TF 00
0.399E 00
O.J06E 00
0.261E 00
O.Z20E 00
0.1 84F 00
0.192E 00
0.123E 00
0.101E 00
O.B14E-01
0.447E>01
0.397E.01
0.307E.Q1
0.234E.01
0.177E.01
0.133E-01
0.984E-02
0.723E-02
0.323E-02
0.378E-02
O.Z69E-OZ
0.190E-02
0.133r-02
0.918E-03
0.428F-03
0.28tr-03
0.190^-03
0.129E.03
0.813E-04
0.924E.04
0.334E.04
0.211F.04
0.1S2E.04
0.|l9E»09
0.302C-09
0.999E 00
0.989E 00
0.9»9E 00
0.941E 00
0.904E 00
0.860E 00
0.810E 00
0.739E 00
0.497E 00
0.637E 00
O.S74E 00
0.314E 00
0.438E 00
0.402E 00
0.330E 00
0.301E 00
0.236E 00
O.Z14E 00
0.1I1E 00
0.149E 00
0.122E 00
0.991E.01
0.794E.01
0.63ZE.01
0.497E.01
0.387E.01
0.299E.01
0.228E.01
0.172E.01
0.129E.01
0.9SSE.02
0.7QOE.02
O.S09E-02
0.366E.02
O.ISSE.OZ
0.12IE-02
0.»I*E-OJ
0.404£.03
0.409E-03
0.274E.03
0.182E-03
0.120E.03
0.778E.04
0.901E.04
0.320£^>4
0.202E.04
0.124E.04
0.780E.09
0.478E.O}
0.99BE 00
0.987E 00
0.9»7E 00
0.937E 00
0.900E 00
0.899E 00
0.804E 00
0.749E 00
0.491E 00
0.631E 00
0.970E 00-
0.910E 00
0.492E 00
0.397E 00
0.344E 00
0.296E 00
0.292E 00
0.213E 00
0.177E 00
0.146E 00
0.120E 00
0.970E.01
O.T78E-01
oUlJE.Ol
0.377E.01
0.241E>01
0.222E-01
0.167E.01
0.12SE-01
0.926E-02
0.479E»02
0.492E>02
0.334E-02
0.2S1E-02
0.177E-01
0.123E-02
O.B51E-03
0.582E-03
0.393E-03
0.2&3E-03
0.173E-03
ol7*5E-0*
0.4T9E-04
0.309E.04
0.193E»04
0.120E.04
0.743E-09
0.433C-09
0.998E 00
0.9B6E 00
0.944E 00
0.934E 00
O.B99E 00
O.B90E 00
0.799E 00
0.743E 00
0.4B3E OO
0.429E 00
0.964E 00
0.304E 00
0.*4«E 00
0.391E 00
0.339E 00
0.292E 00
0.24BE 00
0.209E 00
0.174E 00
0.144E 00
0.117E 00
0.949E-01
0.760E-01
0.603E-01
0.4T3E-01
0.36BE-01
0.2B3E*01
O.ZUE-01
o.im-oi
0.121E-OI
O.B98E-02
0.4SBE»02
0.477E-02
0.342E-02
0.243E-02
0.171E-02
0.119E-OZ
O.B20E-03
O.S60E-03
0.378C-03
0.293E-03
0.168E-03
0.110E-03
0.7UE.O*
0.498E-04
0.292E.04
0.184E.04
0.11SE-04
O.T08E»09
0.433E»03
0.997E 00
0.9I4E 00
0.9k2E 00
0.930E 00
O.B91E 00
0.849E 00
O.T94E 00
O.T38E 00
0.474E 00
0.419E OOj
0.338E 00
0.498E 00
0.441E 00
0.386E 00
0.3S4E 00
0.2B7E 00
0.244E 00
0.209E 00
0.171E 00
0.141E 00
0.115E 00
0.9Z9E.01
0.743E.01
0.339E.01
0.442E.01
0.3S9E.01
O.Z74E.01
0.210E.01
0.13BE.01
0.11BE.01
0.871E.02
0.437E-02
0.461E.02
0.331E.02
0.239E-02
0.149E-02
0.115E-02
O.TB9E-03
0.33BE-03
0.343E-03
0.243E-03
0.161E-03
0.109E.03
0.683E.04
0.438E.04
0.279E.04
0.179E.04
0.109E.04
0.474E.03
0.412E.09
0.99BE 00
0.912E 00
0.9»9E 00
0.927E 00
O.B37E 00
0.840E 00
O.T8BE 00
O.T32E 00
0.473E 00
0.413E OO
0.992E 00
0.493E 00
0.433E 00
0.3B1E 00
0.330E 00
0.2B3E 00
O.Z40E 00
0.201E 00
0.168E 00
0.13BE 00
0.113E 00
ot7Z7E-01
0.37JE.01
0.430E.01
0.349E.01
0.2ABE-01
0.204E.01
0.194E.01
0.1UE-01
0.845E-02
0.417E-02
0.44*E»02
0.320E-02
0.22TE>02
0.199E-02
0.110E-OZ
0.760E-OS
O.SliE-OS
0.3ME-OS
0.233E-03
0.134£.03
0.101E-03
0.4SJE.04
0.419E-04
0.248E.04
0.147E.04
0.104E-04
0.442E.09
0.39IE.01
3.26
-------
Atmospheric Diffusion Computations
TABLE 3 Con't.
B " exp - 2 (A)
A
5.00
5.10
5.20
5.30
5.40
5.50
5.60
5.70
5.80
5.90
6.00
6.10
6.20
6.30
6.40
6.50
6.60
6.70
6.80
6.90
7.00
7.10
7.20
7.30
7.40
7.50
7.60
7.70
7. BO
7.90
8.00
8.10
8.20
8.30
8.40
8.50
8.60
8.70
8^90
9.PO
9.10
9.20
9.30
9.40
9.50
9.60
9.70
9. HO
9.00
0.00
0.373E-05
0.225E-05
0.134E-05
0.795E-06
C.466E-06
0.270E-06
0.155E-06
O.B81E-07
0.496E-07
0.276E-07
0.152E-07
0.837E-08
0.*50E-OB
0.241E-08
0.128E-08
0.669E-°9
0.348E-09
0.179E-09
0.910E-10
0.459E-10
0.229E.10
0.113E-10
0.553E-11
0.268F-H
0.129F.-H
O.fclOE-12
0.287E-12
0.133E-12
0.615E-13
0.2BOE.13
0.127E-13
0.566E-14
0.251E-U
0.110E-14
0.477E-15
0.205E-15
0.871F-16
0.367E-U
0.153E-16
0.631E-17
0.258C-17
0.104F-17
C.418E-18
0.166E-1S
0.650E-19
0.253E-1"
C.972E-20
0.370E-20
C.140E-2fl
0.522E-21
0.01
0.354E-05
0.214E-0*
0.128E-05
0.754E-06
0.441E-06
0.255E-06
0.147E-06
0.832E-07
0.468E-07
0.2»OE-07
0.143E-07
0.782E-08
0.423E-08
0.226E-08
O.J20F-OB
0.627E-09
0.325E-09
0.167E-09
0.850E-10
0.213E-10
0.105E-10
0.515E-11
0.249E-11
0.119E-H
0.564E-12
0.266E-12
Q.124E-12
0.569E-13
0.239E-13
0. 1176-13
0.522E>14
0.231E.14
O.lOlE-14
0.438E-15
0.188E-15
0.799E-1&
0.336E-16
0.140E-16
0.577E-17
0.235E-17
0.952E-18
0.381E-18
0.151E-18
0.592E-19
0.230E-19
0.883E-20
0.336E-20
O.l2re-20
0.02
0.337E-05
0.203E-OS
0.121E-05
0.715E-06
0.418E-06
0.242E-Ofc
0.139E-0&
0.786E-07
0.441E-07
0.245E-07
0.135E-07
0.736E-OB
0.397E-OB
0.212E-08
O.lUE-08
0.5S7E-09
0.305E-09
0.156E-09
O.T94E-10
0.400E-10
0.199E-10
0.981E-U
0.479E-11
0.232E-11
O.lllF-11
0.525E-12
0.246E-12
0.114E-12
0.526E-13
0.239E-13
0.108E-1*
0.481E-14
0.213E.14
0.930E.15
0.403E-15
0.173E.15
0.733E.16
0.308E-16
0.128E-16
0.528E-17
0.215E-17
0.869E.18
0.347E-16
0.137E-18
0.538E-19
0.209E-19
0.802E-20
0.305E-20
0.115E-20
O.428E-21
J.03
0.321F-05
0.193F-05
0.115E-05
0.678E-06
0.396E-06
0.229E-06
0.131E-06
0.742E-07
0.416E-07
0.231E-07
0.127E-07
0.692E-08
0.373E-08
0.199E-08
0.105F-08
0.550F-09
0.285E-09
0.146E-09
0.742E-10
0.373E-10
0.186E-10
0.9l4E*ll
0.446E-11
0.215F-H
0.103F-11
0.487E-12
0.228E-12
0.106E-12
0.486E-13
0.221E-13
0.996E-14
0.444E-14
0.196E-14
0.856E-1'
0.370E-15
0.159E-15
0.672F.16
0.282E-16
0.117E-16
0.483F-1'
OI793E-18
0.317E-18
0.125E-1
0.490E-1 '
0.140E-19
0.729E-20
".277E-20
".104E-20
'1.387E-21
0.04
0.109E-05
0.643E-06
0.375E-06
0.2V6E'Ob
0.124E-06
fl!393E-07
0.218E-07
0.120E-07
0.651E-08
0.351E-08
0.1B7E-08
0.9S7F-09
0.516F-09
0.267E-09
0.137E-09
0.693F-10
0.348F-10
0.173F-IO
0.851F-11
0.415F-U
0.200F-U
0.955F-12
0.452F-12
0.211E-12
0.980F-13
0.450E-13
0.204F-13
0.919E-14
0.409F-14
o.ieoF-i4
0.787E-15
0.340F-15
0.146^-15
0.617F-16
0.259F-16
0.107E-16
0.441E-17
0.180F-17
0.724E-18
0.289E-18
C.114E-18
0.446F-19
0.173F-19
0.662E-20
0.251F-20
0.943F-21
0.351F-21
0.05
0.290E-05
0.174E-05
0.103E-05
0.609E-06
0.355E.06
0.205E-06
O.H7E-06
0.662E.07
0.370E.07
0.205E.07
0.113E-07
0.612E-08
0.329E-08
0.175E-OB
0.925E-09
0.483E-09
0.250E-09
0.128E.09
0.647E-10
0.325E-10
0.161E-10
0.792E-11
0.366E-11
0.186E-11
0.887E-12
0.419E-12
0.196E-12
0.907E-13
0.416E-13
0.189E-13
O.B4BE.14
0.377E.14
0.166E-14
0.724E.15
0.313E.15
0.134E.15
0.566E.16
0.237E.16
0.983E-17
0.404E-17
0.164E.17
0.661E-19
0.263E-18
0.104E-18
0.406E-19
0.157E-19
0.601E-20
0.228E-20
6.855E-21
0.318E-21
0.06
0.276E-05
0.165E-05
0.982E-06
0.577E-06
0.336E-06
0.19<)E-06
0.111E-06
0.625E-07
0.349E-07
0.193E-07
0.106E-07
0.576E-08
0.309E-08
0.16SE-OB
0.867E-09
0.452E-09
0.234E-09
0.119E-09
0.604E-10
0.303E-10
0.150E-10
0.738E-11
0.3596-11
0.173E-11
O.B23E-12
0.388E-12
0.1B1E-12
0.839E-13
0.384E-13
0.174E-13
0.782E-14
0.348E-14
0.153E-14
0.666E-15
0.2B7E-15
0.123E-15
0.519E-16
0.217E-16
0.900E-17
0.369E-17
0.150E-17
0.603E-18
0.240E-18
0.946E-19
0.3&9E-19
0.143E-19
0.545E-20
0.207E-20
0.775E-21
0.288E-21
0.07
0.262F.-05
0.157E-05
0.932E-06
0.547E-06
0.318E-06
0.183E-06
0.104E-06
0.590E-07
0.329E-07
0.182E-07
0.998E-08
0.541E-08
0.291E-08
0.1S4E-08
0.813E-09
0.»2»E-09
0.218E-09
0.112E.09
0.564E-10
0.262E-10
0.140E-10
0.687E-11
0.334E-11
0.160E-11
0.764E-12
0.360E-12
0.16SE-12
0.777E-13
0.3J5E-13
0.161E-13
0.722E.14
0.320E-14
0. 141E.lt
0.613E-15
0.264E-15
0.113E-15
0.476E-16
0.199E-16
0.823E-17
0.337E-17
0.137E-17
0.550E-18
0.219E-18
0.861E-19
0.336E-19
0.130E-19
0.495E-20
0.187E-20
0.702E-21
0.260E-21
o.oe
0.249E-05
0.149E-05
0.884E-06
0.519E-06
0.301E-06
0.173E-06
0.9B7E-07
5.J56E.07
0.3HE-07
0.1?2E-07
0.509E-08
0.273E-08
0.145E-08
0.762E-09
0.397F-09
0.204E.09
0.104E-09
0.527E-10
0.263E-10
0.130E-10
0.639E-U
0.310E-U
0.149E-11
0.709E-12
0.334E-12
0.156E-12
0.718E-13
0.328E-13
0.149E-13
0.666E-14
0.295E-14
0.130E-14
0.564E.15
0.243E-15
0.103E-1S
0.436E-1&
0.182E-16
0.753E-1''
0.308E-1''
0.125E-17
0.502E-18
0.199E-1B
0.784E-19
0.305E-19
0.11BE-19
0.450E-20
O.lTOE-20
0.636E-21
0.236E-21
0.09
0.237E-05
0.142E-05
0.838E-06
0.491E-06
0.2B5E-06
0.164E-06
0.932E.07
0.525E-07
0.293E.07
0.162E-07
O.BB4E.06
0.478E-08
0.256E-08
0.136E-OB
0.714E-09
0.371E-09
O.I91E.09
0.974E.10
0.492E-10
0.246E-10
0.121E-10
0.595E-11
0.28BE-11
0.138E-11
0.658E-12
0.309E-12
0.144E-12
0.665E-13
0.303E-13
0.137E-13
0.6UE-14
0.272E.14
0.119E'14
0.518E.15
0.223E-15
0.949E-U
0,400E'l6
0.167E-16
0.689E-17
0.282E.17
0.114E.17
0.458E'18
0.182E-1B
0.7UE-19
0.278E>19
0.107E-19
0.408E-20
0.154E-20
0.576E-21
0.213E-21
-------
Atmospheric Diffusion Computations
40
—0
2
10
Cu 9
Q .--2
2
..-4
40
2
—-5
s
s\
SX
Vs
ss
\
\
S
\
s
s
s
\
\
\
\
\
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^
1
S
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'
\
S,
s,
s p
s, ^
1
, S^
•IS
i SS
ss
s
\
\
\
\
V
s
\
s
s
\
\
s
s,
s '*
^s - -
s
11 s,
S K
s
H J
•''Vs
>^NV
X
X
, V
'*, S
V
^^
X,
N
X
I
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e
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S,
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N
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P s
*v
5
i
, ^^^
^^^C
N
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v^
v
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x»
n3 z
Figure 3 *(**tt»»)
3-28
-------
Atmospheric Diffusion Computations
C u
10
3-29
-------
Atmospheric Diffusion Computations
C u
10=
Figure 5
3-30
-------
Atmospheric Diffusion Computations
10
3-31
-------
tJ
200
7
45
)5 2
> w
> •
<.
10
10V
n
H
8
5
« I
n
o
4
5 "
4 »
3 ^
o
o
2 g
n
a
io2 3
n
f
10-7 2345 7 10-6 2 3457 10'' 145 7 10"
Figure 7. DISTANCE FROM SOURCE AND RELATIVE VALUE OF MAXIMUM CONCENTRATIONS FOR
VARIOUS SOURCE HEIGHTS AND STABILITY CLASSES
-------
•
I
I
h
'-
:
'
10"
-------
Atmospheric Diffusion Computations
KXAMPLK DIFFUSION COMPUTATIONS
1 A |,owi-r plant burns 10 tons per hour of
V/i, sulfur coal releasing tin- effluent from a
single slack. On a sunny summer afternoon
the- wind speed at 10 motors is 4 m/sec from
lt><- northeast. The morning radiosonde run
in UK vicinity has indicated that a frontal
inversion aloft will limit the convection to
1500 meters. The 1200 meter wind is from
30° at 5 in/soi-. The effective height of
••mission is 150 meters. "What is the maxi-
mum concentration and where does it occur?
Solution: On a .sunny summer afternoon the
isolation should be strong. From Table I,
strong isolation and 4 m/sec winds yield
B class stability. The amount of sulfur
burned is:
Sulfur
10 Ions x 2000 Ibs.
hour ton
0. (M sullur 600 Ibs/hr.
.Sulfur has a molecular weight of 42 and com-
bines with Oi with a molecular weight of 32;
therefore, for every pound of sulfur burned,
there results two pounds of SO/.
U
— X
600 Ibs. S 453. (> gms/lb.
3600 sec/hr
I SI urns. SO^/sec.
The maximum concentration may be found
by using Figure 7. tlivi-n stability class 13
and effective source height of 150 m. , enter
the nomogram and read the CQ value of
K x l()-^' from the abscissa. Solve for the
maximum concentration, ^imax)> US1I1H
the wind speed, u, of 4 m/sec and the source
strength, Q, of 151 gms. SO,j/soc.
'(max)
8 x I0 (' x jj1 gm.s/sec 3 x l()'4 gm/m
4 m/sec
The distance from the power plant at which
the maximum concentration occurs under
these meteorological condition can be read
from the ordinate in Figure 7. The distance
is 1000m.
Jl Using the conditions in the above problem,
draw a graph of centerline sulfur dioxide-
concentrations beneath the plume with dis-
tance from 100 meters to 100 km.
Solution: Since the frontal inversion limits
the convection to h) - 1500 meters, the distan<
where
-------
Atmospheric Diffusion Computations
TABLE 4
Col.
a
X
(km)
0. 3
0.5
0.8
1
2.8
5.5
11
100
Col.
b
u
(m/sec)
4
4
4
4
4.5
4.5
4.5
' 4.5
Col.
c
-------
Atmospheric Diffusion Computations
Concentration
S02
gms/m
-
.
Distance (Km. )
Figure 9 - Concentration of SO2(gm«/m3) as a Function of Distance
(km). (Problem 2)
-
2. x 10
so2
Concentration
gm/m
10-"
10-
-400 -300 -ZOO -100 0 100 ZOO 300 400
y Diatanct- (Meters)
Kigurc 10 - Concentration of SO2 (gmB.m*) Across Wind at a Distance of 800 Meters.
(Problem 3)
3-36
-------
Atmospheric Diffusion Computations
REFERENCES
1. Cramer, H. E., Record, F. A. and
Vaughan, H. C. The Study of the
Diffusion of Gases or Aerosols in
the Lower Atmosphere. Final Report,
Contract No. AF 19 (604) - 1058.
Mass. Inst. of Tech. Department of
Meteorol. 1958.
2. Gifford, F. A., Jr. Uses of Routine
Meteorological Observations for
Estimating Atmospheric Dispersion.
Nuclear Safety. 2:4. 1961.
3. Hilsmeier, W. F., and Gifford, F. A.,
Jr. Graphs for Estimating Atmospheric
Diffusion, ORO-545 Atomic Energy
Commission. Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
4. List, R. J. Smithsonian Meteorological
Tables. Sixth Revised Edition.
497-505. Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D. C. 1951.
5. Martin, D. 0. An Evaluation of the
Meteorological Potential for Air
Pollution at Muskegon, Michigan.
Unpub. Report to Muskegon County
Health Dept. from Tech. Assist.
Branch, DAP, SEC, 1966.
6. Mead, P. J. Meteorological Aspects of
the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy,
Part 1. Tech. Note No. 33. World
Meteorological Organization. Geneva,
33 pp. 1960.
7. Pasquill, F. Atmospheric Diffusion.
(2nd Edition) John Wiley 6 Sons, Inc.
London, 1974
8. Pasquill, F. The Estimation of the
Dispersion of Windborne Material.
The Meteorological Magazine. 90:
1063. 33-49. 1961.
9. Turner, D. B. - Workbook of Atmos-
pheric Dispersion Estimates. U.S.
Public Health Service Pub. No. 999-
AP-26, 1967.
10. Meteorology and Atomic Energy 1968.
D. H. Slade, Ed. U. S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Tech. Information Div.,
TID-24190, July 1968.
11. Recommended Guide for the Prediction
of the Dispersion of Airborne
Effluents. M. E. Smith, Ed. The
Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs. United
Engineering Center. 345 E. 47th
Street, New York, H.Y. 10017, May
1968.
12. Slade, D. H. Estimates of Dispersion
from Pollutant Releases of a Few
Seconds to 8 Hours in Duration.
ESSA Air Resources Laboratory Tech.
Note 39-ARL-3. April 1966.
13. Pasquill, F. Atmospheric Dispersion
of Pollution, QJRMS, 97; 414, 369-
395, October 1971.
Answers to Exercise (Page 3-22)
10~6 sec/'m3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
D
D
B-C
D-E
28,15
55m
1450
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
2
8.5
0.198
3.5
1.4 x
10 ^m2
3-37
-------
EFFECTIVE
J.L. Dicke
In any consideration of concentrations down-
wind from a source, It Is desirable to esti-
mate the effective stack height, the height
at which the plume becomes level. Rarely
will this height correspond to the physical
height of the stack.
A high velocity of emission of the effluents
and a temperature higher than that of the
atmosphere at the top of the stack will act
to increase the effective stack height above
the height of the actual stack. The effect
of aerodynamic downwash, eddies caused by
the flow around buildings or the stack, and
also the evaporative cooling of moisture
droplets in the effluent may cause lowering
of the plume to the extent that it may be
lower than the physical stack height.
EFFECT OF EXIT VELOCITY AND STACK GAS
TEMPERATURE
A number of investigators have proposed
formulas for the estimation of effective
stack height under given conditions:
Davidson (1949), Sutton (1950), Bosanquet
et al. (1950), Holland (1953), Priestley
(1956) .
A recent comparison of actual plume heights
and calculations using six of the available
formulas was made by Moses and Strom (1961).
The formulas used were Davidson-Bryant,
Holland, Scorer, Sutton, Bosanquet-Carey-
Halton, and Bosanquet (1957). They found
that "There is no one formula which is out-
standing in all respects." The formulas
Davidson-Bryant, Holland, Bosanquet-Carey-
Halton, and Bosanquet (1957) appear to give
satisfactory results for many purposes. It
must be pointed out that the experimental
tests made by Moses and Strom used stack gas
exit velocities less than 15 m/sec and that
temperatures of the effluent were not more
than 35°C higher than that of the ambient
air. Moses and Strom expect to make field
tests using higher temperatures and higher
stack velocities.
Supervisory Meteorologist, NOAA
Meteorology § Assessment Division, EPA
Stewart, Gale, and Crooks (1958) compared
effective stack heights for the Harwell
reactor emitting radioactive Argon with
computations using the formula of Bosanquet
et al. (1950). The temperature of the
gases was 50°C above that of the ambient
air and stack gas velocity was 10 m/sec.
At low wind speeds, agreement between
formula and plume height were quite good.
At wind speeds greater than 6 m/sec and
distances greater than 600 meters from the
stack the formula underestimates effective
stack height.
Two of the formulas for estimation of effec-
tive stack height are given below. Both
the Davidson-Bryant formula and Holland's
formula frequently underestimate the effec-
tive stack height. Therefore, a slight
safety factor is frequently made by using
these formulas.
The Davidson-Bryant formula is:
1 +
AH - d u
(1)
Hhere:
AH -
d -
s
u
AT
the rise of the plume above the
stack
the inside stack diameter
stack gas velocity
- wind speed
• the stack gas temperature minus
the ambient air temperature (°K)
T - the stack gas temperature (°K)
3-39
PA.ME.sd.31e.9.71
-------
Effective Stack Height
Any consistent system of units for AH, d, vg,
and u may be used. It is recommended that
v and u be in meters/sec and d in meters
which will give AH in meters.
The Holland stack rise equation is:
AH -
Where:
Where:
max
ct «
Q -
effective rise above the top of
the stack (feet)
a variable affected by lapse rate
and topography (ft2 MW-lA sec~l)
the rate of heat emission from the
stack in megawatts (MW)
u • the wind speed (ft/sec)
AH -
v •
d •
AT
the rise of the plume above the
stack (meters)
stack gas velocity (m/aec)
the inside stack diameter (meters)
wind speed (in/sec)
atmospheric pressure (mb)
stack gas temperature (°K)
as in equation (1) and
2.68 X 10~3 is a constant having
units of (m-1 mb~l) .
It is recommended that the result from the
above equation be used for neutral conditions.
For unstable conditions a value between 1.1
and 1.2 times that from the equation should
be used for AH. For stable conditions a
value between 0.8 and 0.9 times that from
the equation should be used for AH.
Since the plume rise from a stack occurs
through some finite distance downwind,
these formulas should not be applied when
considering effects near the stack. Note
that these formulas do not consider
the stability of the atmospheric but only
the ambient air temperature. Actually,
stability should have some effect upon the
plume rise.
Lucas et al., 1963, have tested Priestley's
theory on stack rise at two power stations.
These investigators write the formula for
stack rise as:
(3)
They determined a to be 4900 and 6200 for
the 2 power stations under neutral conditions.
Clarke (1968) states that If the exit
velocity at the stack gases exceeds 2000 fpm
(23mph), no rain will enter the stack. As
an example, he found from a ten year summary
of U.S. Weather Bureau wind data for Chicago
that 98Z of the days had a maximum wind
velocity < 20 mph.
EFFECT OF EVAPORATIVE COOLING
In the washing of effluent gases to absorb
certain gases before release to the atmos-
phere, the gases are cooled and become
saturated with water vapor. Upon release
from the absorption tower further cooling
is likely due to contact with cold surfaces
of ductwork or stack. This causes condensa-
tion of water droplets in the gas stream.
Upon release from the stack, the water
droplets evaporate withdrawing the latent
heat of vaporization from the air and con-
sequently cooling the plume, causing it to
have negative buoyancy, thereby reducing
the stack height. (Scorer 1959).
The practice of washing power plant flue
gases to remove sulfur dioxide is practiced
at Battersea and Bankside power stations in
London, where frequent lowering of the
plumes to ground level is observed.
EFFECT OF AERODYNAMIC DOWNWASH
The influence of the mechanical turbulence
around a building or stack may significantly
alter the effective stack height. This is
especially true under high wind conditions
when the beneficial effect of high stack
gas velocity is at a minimum and the plume
is emitted nearly horizontally. The region
3-40
-------
Effective Stack Height
of disturbed flow surrounds a building
generally to twice its height and 5 to 10
times its height downwind. Most of the
knowledge about the turbulent wakes around
stacks and buildings have been gained
through wind tunnel studies. Sherlock
and Stalker (1940), (1941), Rouse (1951),
Sherlock (1951), Sherlock and Lesher (1954),
(1955), Strom (1955-1956), Strom et al.
(1957), and Halitsky (1961), (1962) ,(1963) .
By using models of building shapes and
stacks the wind speeds required to cause
downwash for various wind directions may
be determined.
In the use of a wind tunnel the meteorological
variables that may most easily be taken into
account are the wind speed and the wind
direction (by rotation of the model within
the tunnel) . The plant factors that may
be taken into consideration are the size
and shape of the plant building, the shape,
height, and diameter of the stack, the
amount of emission, the stack gas velocity,
and perhaps the density of the emitted
effluent. The study of the released plume
from the model stack has been done by
photography (Sherlock and Lesher, 1954),
decrease in light beam intensity (Strom,
1955), and measurement of concentrations
of a tracer gas (Strom et al., 1957,
Halitsky, 1963).
By determining the critical wind speeds
that will cause downwash from various
directions for a given set of plant factors,
the average number of hours of downwash
annually can then be calculated by
determining the frequency of wind speeds
greater than the critical speeds for each
direction (Sherlock and Lesher, 1954). It
is assumed that climatological data,
representative of the site considered,
are available.
It is of interest to note that the maximum
downwash about a rectangular structure
occurs when the direction of the wind is
at an angle of 45 degrees from the major
axis of the structure and that minimum
downwash occurs with wind flow parallel
to the major axis of the structure
(Sherlock and Lesher, 1954).
It has been shown by Halitsky (1961) , (1963)
that the effluent from flush openings on
flat roofs frequently flows in a direction
opposite to that of the free atmosphere
wind due to counter-flow along the roof
in the turbulent wake above the building.
In addition to the effect of aerodynamic
downwash upon the release of air pollutants
from stacks and buildings, It is also
necessary to consider aerodynamic down-
wash when exposing meteorological instru-
ments near or upon buildings so that re-
presentative measurements are assured.
In cases where the pollution is emitted
from a vent or opening on a building and
is immediately influenced by the turbulent
wake of the building, the pollution is
quite rapidly distributed within this
turbulent wake. An initial distribution
may be assumed at the source with horizontal
and vertical variances of 5y2 and 6* in the
form of a binormal distribution of concen-
trations. These variances are related to
the building width and height.
The resulting equation for concentrations
from this source has (cr 2 + & 2)h in
f\ f\ i
place of a and (o + 6^ )^ in place
of a in tKe point source equations.
z
EFFECT OF VERY LARGE POWER PLANTS
A power generating plant in the range of
1000-5000 megawatt capacity emits heat to
such an extent that its own circulation.
pattern will be set up in the air surrounding
the plant. It is doubtful that extrapola-
tion of dispersion estimates from existing
smaller sources can be applied to these
large plants. Fortunately, the effluent
plume will rise far above the ground and
surface concentrations of pollutants
downwind will increase by only a rather
small amount most of the time. Such large
plants will usually be engineered to
minimize the effects of the two preceding
topics. The "2 1/2" rule will tend to
eliminate downwash and the "4/3V rule
for stack gas velocity will tend to
eliminate entrainment of the effluent into
the wake of the stack. (Pooler, 1965)
Three weather conditions, however, can
still bring ground level fumigations:
high winds, inversion breakup, and a limited
mixing layer with light winds. The
climatology of these conditions will deter-
mine the magnitude and frequency of the
pollution problem. Pooler (1965) has
presented nomograms for estimating ground-
level S02 concentrations for these three
3-41
-------
Effective Stack Height
situations together with effective stack
height formulas. Briggs (1965) has also
presented a plume rise model which has
been compared with data from various TVA
power plants. Pooler (1967) introduced
a slight modification to one of Briggs's
equations and suggests this latter equation
be substituted for the Pooler (1965) in-
version breakup fumigation equation. Thus
the basic equation for this important
weather condition is:
AH
2.31
1/3
(4)
Where: u
r
TA
d9
dz
wind speed (m/sec)
inside stack radium (m)
ambient air temperature (»K)
potential temperature lapse
rate
Other symbols are defined as in equation
(2) above.
A correction term for the additive effect
of multiple-stack sources is also presented
in Pooler (1967). Briggs (1975) has also
proposed a calculation technique, however
his experience indicates the auditive effect
is usually 5-15% and rarely exceeds ?0%.
Other industries are also utilizing tall
stacks for pollutant dispersion and
anticipate results similar to the low
measured ground level concentrations found
near tall British power plant stacks.
A case in point is the 1250 foot stack
constructed in 1971 at a cost of $5.5
million to serve the Inco Copper Cliff
smelter in the Sudbury district of Ontario,
Canada. This gigantic stack is 116 feet
in diameter at the base, tapering to just
under 52 feet in diameter at the top.
The interior diameter is 45 feet. A recent
article in Environmental Science (, Technology
(1975) discusses interesting construction
aspects of tall stacks.
STATE OF THE ART
Considerable research is being conducted
to further quantify the dilution effects of
tali stacks end to develc-p better models
for predicting the dispersion of power
plant effluent in complex terrain and
meteorological regimes. An extensive
series of field experiments is being con-
ducted, called the Large Power Plant
Effluent Study (LAPPES), near Indiana,
Pennsylvania and reports have been published
bv Schierweier and Niemeyer (196FO (1967 and
1969)' (1970). Field measurements include de-
termining plume geometry by laser-radar, in-
plume and ground level Sf)^ concentrations,
vegetation damage wnd meteorological condi-
tions during the experiments.
A summary of recent European studies deal-
ing with plume rise and stack effluent dis-
persion is contained in the July 1967 issue
of the journal Atmospheric Environment.
In addition another recent publication
which contains a specific chapter on
calculating effective stack height is the
ASME Recommended Guide for the Prediction
of the Dispersion of Airborne Effluents
(1968), and revised (1973).
A comprehensive literature survey in this
field was conducted by NAPCA and incorpor-
ated into an annotated bibliography of
over 200 references. The publication,
"Tall Stacks, Various Atmospheric
Phenomena and Related Aspects" (1969),
includes articles published through
mid-1963.
A recent series of EPA publications
deal with air pollution aspects of emission
sources. Of particular interest is OAP
Pub. No. AP-96, "Electric Power Production
- A Bibliography with Abstracts". Section
D on air quality measurements and Section
E on atmospheric interactions contain many
specific references to plume rise deter-
mination, plume behavior, and pollutant
concentrations associated with this class
of sources.
Briggs in his recent publication, Plume
Rise (1969), has presented both a critical
review of the subject and a series of
equations applicable to a wide range of
atmospheric and emission conditions. These
equations are being employed by an in-
creasing number of meteorologists and are
used almost exclusively within EPA. An
important result of this study is that
the rise of buoyant plumes from fossil-
fuel plants with a heat emission of 20
megawatts (MW) - 4.7 x 10^ cal/sec - or
3-42
-------
Effective Stack Height
mean velocity profile
potential
flow
primary
wake
Typical flow pattern around a cube with one face normal to the wind.
Figure 1.
3-43
-------
Effective Stack Height
more can be calculated from the following
equations under neutral and unstable con-
ditions.
AH
- 1.6 F1'3 u-1 x 2'3
(5)
Beyond this point the plume levels off at
about
AH - 2.1
1/3
(10)
AH - 1.6 F 1/3 u'1 (10 hg)2/3 (6)
where:
AH - plume rise
F - buoyancy flux
u - average wind at stack level
x - horixonal distance downwind
of the stack
h - physical stack height
Equation (5) should be applied out to a
distance of 10 h from the stack; equation
(6) at further distances.
The buoyancy flux term, F, may be calculated
from:
* 3.7 x 10
where:
g- gravitational acceleration
Q - heat emission from the stack, cal/sec
c - specific heat of air at constant
P pressure
p» average density of ambient air
T- average temperature of ambient air
Alternatively, if the stack gases have
nearly the same specific heat and molecular
weight as air, the buoyancy flux may be
determined from:
F=
AT
(8)
where the notation has been previously
defined.
In stable stratification with wind equation
(5) holds approximately to a distance
x - 2.4 u a-1/2 where:
-i. JUL
T dt
, a stability parameter
(9)
= lapse rate of potential
temperature
However, if the wind Is so light that the
plume rises vertically, the final rise can
be calculated from:
H - 5.0
F1"
-3/8
(ID
For other buoyant sources, emitting less
than 20 MW of heat, a conservative
estimate will be given by equation (5) up
to a distance of:
3X
(12)
where:
x • 0.52 I sec
L ft
6/51
Te/TJ
F2'5^,3'5
(13)
is the distance at which atmospheric turbu-
lence begins to dominate entiainmfrot.
Anyone who is responsible for making plume
rise estimates should familiarize himself
thoroughly with Briggs* work. The Air Pollu-
tion TTiuji.L>ig institute has prepared a pack-
aged, correspondence course, SI-406 Effective
Stack Height/Plume Rise, requiring 8-10 hours
to complete which may be purchased for $30.
from the National Audiovisual Center, Wash-
ington, D. C. 20409.
Singer and Frankenberger (1975) have studied
the changes in ambient SO. concentrations at
4 monitoring sites before and after twin 250 m
(800 ft) stacks were built for a power plant
on the Muskingum River. Over an 18 month
period with 90% valid data collection, the
NMQS have not been exceeded at the 4 sites
despite using 51 S coal with no stack gas re-
moval equipment. A one hour concentration
*0.1 ppm occur more than once a month only
between the hours of 11 a.m. and 7 p.m.,
illustrating the effect of unstable lapse rate?
and "looping" plume conditions.
COOLING TOWERS
Over the past few years concern has been
voiced over the possible environmental effects
of cooling towers utilized by more power plants
to minimize cooling water requirements and to
avoid significant thermal discharges to water
supplies. Two major symposia have been held,
3-44
-------
Effective Stack Vteight
one in England in March 1973 as reported in
the journal Atmospheric Environment, the other
at the University of Maryland in March 1974
as published by the U, S. Nuclear Regulatory
Commission in 1975. Fourteen papers were
published at the British meeting and thirty
at the College Park, MD, meeting. The gen-
eral consensus of the latter symposium is that
modeling efforts have been carried as far as
possible in the light of field experiments
and that detailed verification/validation
data are sorely needed.
1. Bosatvqvket, C. tt., Catey, W. 7. sad
Halton, E. M. Dust Deposition from
Chimney Stacks. Proc. Inst. Mech.
Eng. 162:355-367. 1950.
2. Bosanquet, C. tt.
Waste Gas Plume.
322-328. 1957.
The Rise of a. Hot
J, In«. Fuel. 30:197.
3. Davidson, W. P. The Dispersion and
Spreading of Gases and Dust from Chimneys.
Trans. Conf. on Ind. Wastes. 14 Annual
Meeting, Industrial Hygiene Found. Amer.
38-55. November 18, 1949.
4. Gifford, F. A., Jr. Atmospheric Dispersion
Calculations Using the Generalized '.-.
Catalan Plume Model. Nuclear Safety.
2:56-59. December, 1960.
5. Halitsky, James. Diffusion of Vented
Gas Around Buildings. J. of APCA..
12:2. 74-80. February, 1962.
6. Halitsky, James. Wind Tunnel Model
Test of Exhaust Gas Reclrculation at
the 8IH Clinical Center. New York
Oniv. Tech. Report No. 785.1. 1961.
7. Halitsky, James. Some Aspects of
Atmospheric Diffusion in Urban Areas.
Air Over Citieg. Robert A. Taft
Sanitary Engineering Center Technical
Report A 62-5. 1962.
8. Halitsky, James, Gordon, Jack, Halpern,
Paul, and Wu, Paul. Wind Tunnel Tests
of Gas Diffusion Yroa a Leak in the
Shell of a Nuclear Power Reactor and
From a Nearby Stack. New York Univ.
Geophysical Sciences Laboratory Report
No. 63-2. 1963.
9. Halttsky, James. Gas Diffusion Near
Buildings, Theoretical Concepts and
Wind Tunnel Model Experiments with
Prismatic Building Shapes. New York
Univ. Geophysical Sciences Laboratory
Report Ho. 63-3. 1963.
10. Holland, J. Z. A Meteorological Survey
of the Oak Ridge Area. AEC, Washington,
Raport OS.0-99. 55^-559, 1953.
11. Lucas, D. H., Moore, 0. J., and Spurr,
G. The Rise of Hot Plumes from
Chimneys. Int. J. Air Wat. Poll.
7:473-500. 1963,
12. Moses, Harry, and Strom, Gordon H.
A Comparison of Observed Plume
Ri<>es with Values Cfctained from
Well-Known Formulas. J. APCA.
11:10. 455-466. October, 1961.
13. Priestley, C^ H» B. A Working Theory
of the Bent Over Plume of Hot Gas.
Quart. J. Roy, Mat. Soc, 82:352,
165-176. 1956.
14. Rouse, Hunter. Air-Tunnel Studies of
Diffusion in Urban Areas. On
Atmospheric Pollution. Meteorol.
Moflogr. 1:4 „ 39-41. November, 1951.
15. Scorer, R. S. Natural Aerodynamics.
Pergamon. London. 186-217. 1958.
16. Scorer, R. S. The Behavior of Chimney
Plumes, Int. J. of Air Poll. 1:3.
198-220. January, 1959-
17. Sherlock, R. H., and Stalker, E. A.
The Control of Gases in the Wake of
Smokestacks. Mech. Eng. 62:455. 1940.
18. Sherlock, R. H., and Stalker, E. A.
A Study of Flow Phenomena in the Wake
of Smokestacks. Univ. of Mich. Eng.
Res. fcuUftttn. 29s 1941. 49 pp.
19. Sherlock, R. H. Analyzing Winds for
Frequency and Duration. On
Atmospheric Pollution. Meteorol.
Mbnogr. 1:4. 42. 1951.
20. Sherlock, R. H., and Leaner, E. J.
Role of Chimney Design in Dispersion
of Waste Gases. Air Repair. 4:2.
1-10. August 1954.
3-45
-------
Effective Stack Height
21. Sherlock, R. H., and Lesher, E. J.
Design of Chimneys to Control Down-
wash of Gases. Trans. Amer. Soc.
Mech. Engrs. 77:1. 1955.
22. Stewart, N. G., Gale, H. J., and
Crooks, R. N. The Atmospheric
Diffusion of Gases Discharged from
the Chimney of the Harwell Reactor
BEPO. Int. J. Air Foil. 1: 1/2.
87-102. 1958.
23. Strom, G. H. Wind Tunnel Scale Model
Studies of Air Pollution from
Industrial Plants. Ind. Wastes.
September - October 1955, November-
December 1955, January - February
1956.
24. Strom, G. H., Hackman, M., and Kaplin,
E. J. Atmospheric Dispersal of
Industrial Stack Gases Determined by
Concentration Measurements in Scale
Model Wind Tunnel Experiments.
.1. APCA. 7:3 November, 1957.
25. Sutton, 0. G. The Dispersion of Hot
Gases in the Atmosphere. J. Meteorol.
7:307-312. 1950.
26. Briggs, G. A. A Plume Rise Model
Compared with Observations. J. APCA
11:9. 433-438. 1965.
27. Pooler, F., Jr. Potential Dispersion
of Plumes from Large Power Plants,
PHS Publication No. 99-AP-16. 1965.
28. Pooler, F., Jr. Derivation of Inversion
Breakup Ground Level Concentration
Frequencies from Large Elevated
Sources. Air Resources Field
Research Office, ESSA, NCAPC,
Cincinnati, Ohio, 1967. (Unpublished
Manuscript)
29. Symposium on Plume Behavior. Air
and Water Pollut. Int. J. Vol. 10 Nos.
6/7, 393-409. 1966.
30. Moore, D. J. Physical Aspects of
Plume Models. Air and Water Pollut.
Int. J. Vol. 10 Nos. 6/7, 411-417.
1966.
31. Nonhebel, G. British Charts for
Heights of Industrial Chimneys Air
and Water Pollut. Int. J. Vol. 10
No. 3, 183-189.
32. Gartrell, F. E., Thomas, F. W., and
Carpenter, S. B. Full-Scale Study of
Dispersion of Stack Gases - A Summary
Report. Chattanooga, Tennessee,
1964. (Reprinted by the U.S. Dept.
HEW, Public Health Service.)
33. Carson, J. E. and Moses, Harry.
Calculation of Effective Stack Height.
Presented at 47th Annual Meeting,
Amer. Meteor. Soc. New York, January
23, 1967.
34. Culkowski, W. M. Estimating the
Effect of Buildings on Plumes from
Short Stacks. Nuclear Safety. 8:
257-259. Spring 1967.
35. Symposium on Chimney Plume Rise
and Dispersion. Atmos. Environ.
1:351-440. July 1967.
36. Recommended Guide for the Prediction
of the Dispersion of Airborne
Effluents. Ch. 3, M.E. Smith, Ed.
ASME, 345 E. 47th St. New York, N.Y.
10017, May 1968, and revised 1973.
37. Clarke, John H. Effective Stack
Design in Air Pollution Control,
Heating, Piping and Air Condition.
125-133, March 1968.
38. Tall Stacks, Various Atmospheric
Phenomena and Related Aspects.
National Air Pollution Control
Administration, Pub. No. APTD
69-12, May 1969.
39. Briggs, G. A.Plume Rise AEC Critical
Review Series. W69. Avail, as TID-
25075 from CFSTI, NBS, U.S. Department
Commerce, Springfield, Virginia 22151.
$6.00
40. Fay, J. A., Escudier, M., Hoult, D. P.
A Correlation of Field Observations of
Plume Rise, JAFCA Vol. 20, No. 5, pp.
391-397, June 1970.
41. TVA. Report on Full-Scale Study of
Inversion Breakup at Large Power
Plants. Div. of Env. R&D Muscle
Shoales, Alabama. March 1970.
3-46
-------
Effective Stack Height
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
•19.
50.
51.
Schiermeier, F. A., Niemeyer, L. E.
Large Power Plant Effluent Study
(LAPPES) Vol. 1 (1968). NAPCA
Pub. No. APTD 70-2, June 1970; Vol.2
(1967 and 1969) APTD 0589, November
1970; Vol. 3 (1970) APTD- 0735, January
1972.
Air Pollution Aspects of Emission
Sources: Electric Power Production
A Bibliography with Abstracts. EPA,
Office of Air Programs, Pub. No.
AP-96, May 1971.
Moses, Harry and Kraimer, M. R.
Plume Rise Determination - A
New Technique Without Equations.
JAPCA Vol.22, No. 8, pp. 621-
630, August 1972.
Bowman, W. A. and Biggs, W. G.
Meteorological Aspects of Large
Cooling Towers. Paper 72-128
pres. APCA, June 1972.
Briggs, G. A. Some Recent
Analyses of Plume Rise Observa-
tions, pp. 1029-1032 in Pro-
ceedings of the Second Interna-
tional Clean Air Congress. Ed.
by H. M. Englund and W. T. Berry.
Academic Press, New York. 1971
Briggs, G. A. Discussion on
Chimney Plumes in Neutral and
Stable Surroundings. Atmos.
Environ. 6:507-510, July 1972.
Weil, J. G. The Rise of Moist-Buoyant
Plumes. J. App. Meteor. Vol. 13 No.4:
435-443. June 1974
Briggs, G. A. Plume Rise from Multiple
Sources. Proceedings "Cooling Towers
P.nvironment 1974." U. S. Nuclear
Regulations Commission CONF 740302.
NTIS, Springfield, VA. 1975.
Miller, S. Special Report: The Building
of Tall (and not so tall) Stacks. Env.
Science § Tech. Vol. 10, No. 6: 522-
527, June 1975.
Smith, M. E. and Frankenberg, T. T.
Improvement of Ambient Sulfur Dioxide
Concentrations by Conversion from Low
to Tall Stacks. JAPCA. Vol. 25, Mo. 6:
595-601, June 1975.
52. Environmental Effects of Cooling Towers
Proceedings of a Symposium held at
Central Electricity Research Laboratories
Leatherhead Survey 27-28 March 1973.
Atmospheric Environment. Vol. 8 No. 4:
305-440, April 1974.
53. U. S. Nuclear Regulary Commission and
University of Maryland. Cooling Towers
Environment - 1974. Proceedings of a
Sumposium at College Park, M. D. 4-6
March 1974. Available as CONF 740302
NTIS, Springfield, VA 22151
54. U.S. EPA, The World's Air Quality Manage-
ment Standards. Vol. 1 pp 219-241 lists
effective stack height requirements/
regulations for 15 nations. HPA-650/
a-75-001 , October 1P74.
3-47
-------
SECTION POUR
AIR POLLUTION CLIMATOLOGY
-------
AIR POLLUTION CLIMATOLOGY
.1.1,. IMrke*
INTRODUCTION
II is obvious that. me'le:orole>gy is very
important in UK: l.ran.spe>rl. iinil dispersie>n
stages of the air ]K>llulioil cycle:. Mul.cor-
ologieiil laclors a re also .related le> the- e:inis-
siou and re:c.epiion stages. Since- no region
ol' I lie country is immune lo air pollution
problems, especially considering Ihc iucre-as-
inj) population and inehisl rial arras, meteor-
ologists have turned to broad scale or synop-
tic climatology lo discover similarities and
dirtereiices wliieh may mean two locations
hundreds or thousands of miles apart may
have pollution problems arising From Hie
same elimatological influence;*.
jn past years considerable research and
cLimalological study were done on low
pressure or cyclonic eirculalions. The
.seven- weather changes, storms, aviation
problems were associated wil.li low at mospheric
pressure systems and high pressure or anti-
cyclones were greeted as breathers between
storms, good Dying weather, or at worst a
hot spell. The harmful effects of stagnating
air masses, very low wind speeds, clear
skies and subsidence have been brought lo
(he fore in recent, years, unforl uiialely due
l.o the sickness, death, properly damage
caused by high air pollution episodes.
Two factors which tend to increase air pollu-
tion concentrations are: light winds and
stability of the atmosphere. Light winds
cause only slight dilution of pollutants due to
wind speed. Stability of the atmosphere limits
the vertical dispersion of pollutants. High
pressure systems or anticyclones are
characterised by both of the above features:
light winds and atmospheric: stability.
SUBTROPICAL ANTICYCLONES
There are several nrcas of high pressure
over the oceans that are quite permanent
features of the general circulation. The
Pacific anticyclone, centered in the region
between Hawaii and the west coast of North
America, and the A/.ores anticyclone cen-
tered over the A/.ores in the Atlantic, both
affect, areas in the U.S. In the western
portions of these: highs, convergence and
ascending motions are more prevalent than
in the eastern portions where subsidence;
produce's strong inversions. Although the-
Azores antii:ye:lone extewls westwarel
occasionally enough te> affect the; South-
eastern pe>rtion of the- U.S. , the influence
of the- Pacific, anticyclone- on the; we-st coast
is more: important since the eastern portion
e>f the: anticyclone is affecting the- region and
the centi:r of the high is nearer the' affected
area. This combined with the' topography of
the Leis Ange-les basin cemtributc greatly to
the- exte-nt of the- air pollution problem in
that area.
TRACKS 01-' CYCLONIC AND ANTICYCLONIC
SYSTKMS
Storm tracks have be:cn e:ompiled for-
mally ye-ars, particularly hurricane's and
tropical .storms. The first general climatology
of both e:ycle>nos and antie-ye-lonus was published
by Klein in 15)57 for the northern hemisphere.
Visher in 1!>54 e:e>mi)iled the tracks of cycle>ne'S
and antie:yeleme.s shown in Kigure:s 1 and 2
where the: width of the I rack indicates
approximate: frequency of occurrence:.
Migrating anlie-.yclone-s are; generally of two
lype:s: I hose lhal original e in middle latitudes
and me>vc mainly e:aslward or those that
originate at high latitudes and move southward.
The continuity e>f pain and Jong life of these
relatively slable syste:ms are of particular
importance because the peillutanls e;milte-el
within a source region or along the track
^Supervisory Meteorologist^
Meteorology !i Assessment Pivisior, EPA
i'A.Mi:.e1.7c.0.75
4-1
-------
Air Pollution Climatology
may easily have a trajectory similar to the
track of the system and may finally be
deposited great distances from their sources.
Cyclones are generated in a much more
diverse manner, particularly in different
seasons. Low pressure areas tend to
develop and track further north in summer,
further south in winter. Source regions
for cyclonic systems are quite numerous
which means a high pressure area may
be displaced from any one of the several
directions indicated by the cyclonic tracks.
STAGNATING ANTICYCLONES
Climatological study has shown that the
major air pollution episodes are usually
related to the incidence of stagnating anti-
cyclones, ospcci.nl ly those lingering 4 dr.ys
or more. During such periods surface
wind speeds may be very low, subsidence
inversions may severely limit vertical
mixing in spite of warm daytime temperatures
and the clear skies at night which often occur
also restrict dispersion of pollutants through
a small volume.
Korshovcr in 1957 studied the climatology
of stagnating anticyclones cast of the
Rocky Mountains. Ky determining the number
of stagnation cases (4 or more days) he
prepared charts which delineate areas where
stagnation occurred most frequently and
found October in the southern Appalachians
to have the highest frequency of occurrence
with a secondary maximum in June. This is
undoubtedly due in part to the extension of
the Azores anticyclone into this region.
Figure 3 illustrates the total number of
stagnation days east of the Rockies during
1936-1956.
An experimental forecast program to recog-
nize and forecast conditions of high air
pollution potential was instituted in 1957.
Results for certain periods have been re-
ported (Niemeyer, 1960; Bocttger, 1961;
Miller and Niemeyer, 1963)
A comparable study by months is not avail-
able for the western United States; however,
Holzworth in 1962 studied frequencies of the
location of high pressure centers in the west.
Figure 4 depicts the frequency of anticyclonic
centers which occurred with a warm ridge
aloft from 1949-1956. The majority of
centers were in the Great Basin, bounded
by 40-45N latitude and 110-120W longitude.
The heavy lines on the figure are normal
sea level isobars for November, December
and January in millibars. The highest
frequency of occurrence of quasi-stationary
anticyclones coincides exactly. Holzworth
also found that 90% of the days with quasi-
stationary anticyclones occurred during
October through February. This is in
sharp contrast to the eastern United States
where Korshover found only about 20% of
the cases 4 or more days stagnation occurred
from November through March.
INVERSION FREQUENCY
Atmospheric dilution of pollutants is a
function of temperature gradient both in
the vertical and horizontal as well as with
time. Pollutants arc dispersed very slowly
when a stable stratified layer of air exists
near the earth's surface. Hosier in 1961
presented a climatological study of the
frequency of low-level stability which can
be used to evaluate pollution potential for
a given region. The tabulations he presented
arc for percent frequency of inversion and
isothermal conditions at or below 500 feet
above station elevation computed during a
two-year period.
Two general areas of maximum inversion
frequency predominate: one in the great
basin areas of the western states, and one
in the area of Eastern Tennessee, Northern.
Georgia, and the Carolinas.
4-Z
-------
Air Pollution Climatology
Figure 1. AVERAGE TRACKS OF CYCLONES
Figure 2. AVERAGE TRACKS OF ANTICYCLONES
4-3
-------
Air Pollution Climatology
Figure 3. TOTAL STAGNATION DAYS
(1936-1956)
Inversion frequency data must be tempered
by regional and local considerations based
on geography. Coastal stations reflect
marine influences primarily resulting from
advection whereas inland stations have
inversions caused by radiation processes.
Ocean temperature and land-sea tempera-
ture differentials are reflected in frequen-
cies from most coastal locations. Inland
stations are most often in valleys in the
Rocky Mountain and Appalachian regions
and consequently higher inversion frequen-
cies would be expected. Urban-rural
influences must also be considered when
interpreting the data for a large city since
most Weather Bureau radiosonde stations
are located in semi-rural, suburban locations.
With these climatic-geographic distinctions
in mind. Hosier evaluated 8 general areas of
the country and on an annual basis found the in-
version frequencies listed in Table 1.
Also included in Table 1 is the annual average
wind speed as compiled by Visher in 1954.
For a more specific discussion of inversion
frequencies by season for various areas
refer to the original paper by Hosier.
(020
Figure 4. FREQUENCIES OF ANTICYCLONE
CENTERS (1949-56)
MAXIMUM MIXING DEPTH
The concept and calculation of mixing depths
was presented in Meteorologic Fundamentals.
Continuing the discussion on temperature
structure in the vertical, Holzworth in 1964
has prepared estimates of the mean maximum
mixing depths for each month based on Weather
Bureau radiosonde observations. Since
Hosier has shown that marked stability at
low levels is generally the rule at night
outside of large urban complexes, it is
important to know what mixing in the vertical
can be expected in the daytime to alleviate
possible air pollution episodes.
The major assumption of the mixing depth
method is that vertical mixing is a function
only of the vertical temperature structure
at the time of the sounding and surface
maximum temperature. Thus, it is evident
that MMD's are not overall indices of
potential pollution but must be used in con-
junction with several other tools.
4-4
-------
Air Pollution Climatology
TABU; 1
Ann'jul average*
Keg ion wind speed
(mi Ics per hour)
Atlantic Coast
Appalachian Mountains
Croat Lakes
Cu]f Coast
Central Plains'
Kocky Mountains
Northwest Pacific Coast
West Coast
10-15
7-11
<)-15
D-12
8-15
5-11
(,- '.)
5- '.)
Annual low- level**
inversion frequency
fnerccnt of total hours)
10-35
30-45
20-30
10-35
25-40
35-50
25-30
35-40
*l;rom Vishcr, (l'.)54)
**l:roin Hosier, (l'.)dl)
Since the highest temperature observed between
noon ;nnl /I p.m. is often used instead of the
daily maximum temperature, the term "afternoon
mixing depth" may he used synonymous with
MMIi although this is not strictly true.
Mean HMD's are Jess than 1500 meters over the
entire • ountry duri ng Or-tober through I'ebruary
except Tor southern l-'lorida. Cenerally they
are less than half this height in December and
January. Along the middle Atlantic and New
lingland coasts MMD's are quite shallow during
the entire year. Relatively moderate wind
speeds ami frequent storms offset the effect
of lower mixing depths.
During March through September, Molzworth found
that MMD's were practically unlimited over
the Uockics and IMorida. Otherwise, most
areas, MMD's are less than 1500 meters and,
in late summer along the Pacific Coast, MMD's
arc less than 5()o meters. Coastal regions in
general, including the C.rcat Lakes, show only
small variations throughout the year.
WIND SPIilill
Wind speed and mixing depth are tlie parameters
commonly used in studying pollution potential
as they determine the volume through which pol-
Iu1;m1'. arc mixed and diluted. Wind speed varies
markedly throughout the country, throughout
the day and throughout the area over a given
location. Referring hack to Table 1, the
gross features arc seen across the country by
geographic regions. The West Coast generally
has the lowest average annual wind speeds due
to stratification of the air aloft from the
semi-permanent anticyclone in the Pacific-
while increased storm passage and offshore
wind flow have the opposite effect on the
Atlantic Coast.
An extensive compilation of average daily
wind speeds for the western United States was
made by llolzworth in HH>2. Using a definition
of 5 mph or less daily average wind speed and
no precipitation as being a light wird day
he typed 48 western cities according to the
frequency of occurrence of those days.
Most cities could be classified as: a) prac-
tically zero in all seasons (5); b) high in
winter, low in summer (27); and c) high in
fall, low in sunnier (10) while only 6 had
double classifications. The Pacific North-
west has the lowest frequency of light wird
days in winter because storms most often enter
the United States along the Washington-Oregon
coast. Light wind days generally occur most
often i;i winter and fall and least often in
summer.
4-5
-------
Air I'll lint i on Clim.-itoloj'.y
WIND imtirnoN I'I-.KSISTI.NCI:
C.-ili-ul.-itions of short-term concent rat Jons
from a point source m;iy l>o developed into
:in average dispersion climatology by expand-
int tlu- evaluation in time through summation
of successive periods, 'lliis will take, into
account the variability of wind direction,
Kind speed and dispersion conditions. In at-
mospheric ill Hits ion modeling, for time periods
at least as Ion)- as a season, the equations
are often t nl eg rated over an appropriate
•. -.osswiiKi .'-Mil an1 sumiiied. The persistence
of the wind ill red ion within various sectors
gives guidanc'1 for appropriate t i UK- and space
iiiti->'.ra1 ion int ei vals.
'techniques for calculating the steadiness of
tin wind Tor various time periods have been
|iri-.«-ntfil liy Singer (!'.)(.7). Tin- results of
such ;i >. I iiiiat oloj'.y, together with a probability
st ateiii'-nl , ean be used to determine which
area-, will be highly affected and what the
expected dosage will lie for various time
periods during which an air pollulant is rc-
leus.-d. In addition those meteoroloj'.ical
conditions .'ssiiciated with a high steadiness
value can be compiled anil used in air pollution
episode plalin i ng.
Van dcr llovi-ii (I'.K.o) has also investigated
wind persistence probability using wind
direction a loin-. The study was based on f>
>ears of data for 61 U.S. Weather Hun-Jin
stations throughout the United States, lie
found a correlation of about O.!l between wind
direction frequency and wind direction per-
sistence. Wind roses that favor a particular
sector also lend to persist in that sector.
As a general rule the higher the wind speed
the more persistent the wind direction will
remain, finally, the probability that the
wind will remain within a 22 I/-' decree sector
for .'4 hour-- or more was less than 1"« for all
slat ions in this study.
I KO.MTAI. TRAIT I N(,
Since frontal systems are accomp:uiied by in-
versions, trapping of air pollution beneath
these inversions can occur. These may allow
relatively high concentrations, l-'rontal trap-
ping may occur with either warm fronts or
cold fronts. Since warm fronts are usually
slower moving and also the frontal surface
slopes more gradually than that of a cold
front, trapping will generally ''<•• ">°rc '"'-
portant witli warm fronts. Hie surface winds
ahead of an advancing warm front, i.e., in
the region of the retreating cold air m.iss,
will usually be much lighter than the surface
wind behind an advancing cold front, at least
in the sectors affected by trapping. Ik-cause
of the orientation of frontal systems with
respect to low pressure systems in the North-
ern hemisphere most surface winds associated
with cold ironts arc from the quadrant west
through north and winds associated with warm
fronts are from the east through south. Thus
warn frontal trapping would occur to the west
and north from a given source and cold frontal
trapping to the east through south of the
source.
ATMOSl'llliKlC AULAS
Ilie federal Register (l!KiH) contains tin-
codified definition of atmospheric areas based
on conditions which affect the interchange anil
diffusion of air pollutants. l;i gure T> shows
the boundaries of these areas for the contiguous
U.S., which are naturally broad since average
annual conditions were considered. Table 2
lists the primary characteristics of each
area's air pollution climatology based on
topographic features as well as low level
inversion frequency, maximum mixing depth and
frequency of low wind speeds as presented
earlier in this Section.
ATmsrniiim: STACNATION CLIMATOI.OCY
Miller (8) has published a method of IVu-e-
casting afternoon mixing depths and trans-
port wind speeds through the mixing depth
based on data from (>7 rawinsondc stations
in the contiguous U.S. 'Iliis mehtod is
utilized primarily in the National Air
Pollution Weather l-'orecast Program.
llolzwortli f3) has presented results of an air
pollution climatology study which combine
estimates of morning and afternoon i"!*'"!1.
depths with average wind speeds through the
mixing layer into an urban diffusion model
for forecasting relative pollutant concen-
trations. 'Hie estimates of mixing depths
and wind speeds were made for seven locations
typical of several climatic regions in the
United States. Diffusion model calculations
were presented for four cities - New YorV, St.
Louis, Salt Lake City, and l.os Angeles - in
the form of annual cumulative frequency
curves which are a function of the size of the
city. Highest relative concentration in the
morning occurred at l.os Angeles, followed by
Salt Lake City, St. Louis, ami New York.
Afternoon relative concentration, followed
the same order. However, calculations based
on the assumption that all four cities were
-------
WASHINGTON &
COASTAL
AREA
CALIFORNIA i
OREGON
COASTAL
AREA
ATMOSPHERIC AREAS OF THE UNITED STATES
(Section 107 (a) (1), Clean Air Act, as amended)
GR&AT LAKES-NORT
ROCKY IWOUNTAI
AREA
GREAT RLAINS
ARE
MID-ATLANTIC
COASTAL
AREA
SOUTH FLORIDA
AREA
:
<
.
Y ...
f
:
:
'
;
:-
-------
Air Pollution Climatology
TABU; 2
INSCRIPTION 01= ATMOSPIII-RIC ARI-AS AND TIH-IR CHARACTERISTICS,
A1U QUALITY ACT OF 1967
Atmospheric Area
Ca I i forn i a-Orcgon coastal
area.
Washington coastaJ area
Kocky Mutuitain area
Croat Plains area
Croat Uikes-Northcast
a rca
Appalachian area
Mid-Atlantic area
Southern Florida-Caribbean
area
Characteristic Air Pollution Climatology
Maritime air penetration, prevailing shallow
vertical mixing depths; topographic restraints
on ventilation in coastal valleys and basins.
Precipitation, cloudiness, and relatively high
winds are dominant features of the climate
which distinguishes this area from the adjacent
areas. Storm activity is frequent, particularly
during winter and spring seasons; the frequent
storm passages result in a low occurrence of
persistent, stagnation.
Topographic restriction, channeling of winds,
particularly frequent surfacchascd inversions
at night, and relatively deep mixing depth
during the afternoon arc prevalent features
of the dilution climate of the area.
Relatively flat terrain, which strcches from the
Canadian border to the Gulf of Mexico, charac-
terizes the topography. The dilution climate
is characterized by negligible persistent
atmospheric stagnation and the frequent occurrence
of relatively high winds with rapidly changing
meteorological conditions.
The meteorology is characterized by frequent storm
passages with attendant high winds and generally
good dilution conditions. During the spring and
early summer months, winds blowing from over the
cold waters of the Great Lakes and Atlantic Ocean
enhance low-level stability in regions adjacent
to these bodies of water.
Dominant features of the dilution climate include
light wind speeds and the most frequent stagnation
conditions of any region cast of the Rocky Mountains
Shallow mixing depths, less frequent low-level
stability and higher wind speeds arc features of
the dilution climate that distinguish this coastal
area from those adjacent.
The climate of this ;,rwi is prc-r'niiri mm i ty tropical-mar !
ine in nature. Atmospheric staj'.i'.ntiou is prjicl i c.al lyj
nonexistent; there i :'• a small (T'.'i|iK'iicy <>(" low level j
_:itaLility; a"(.l relatively yood yqrti'"it minim' nri.uQ^»«
A-K
-------
Air Pollution Climatology
TABLE 3
Frequency of occurrence of the month in which most of the period of
a slowest dilution episode occurred for stations East (E) and West
(W) of the 95th meridian, and all (A) 62 stations together.
JAN
FEE
MAR
APR
MAY
JUN
JUL
AUG
SEP
OCT
NOV
DEC
Duration
1-Day
E
4
3
r\
0
0
0
2
0
0
4
8
8
W
12
5
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
11
A
16
8
3
0
1
0
2
0
0
4
9
19
2-Day
E
9
4
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
10
w
11
3
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
3- Day 4- Day
A E
20
7
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
7
13 23
1
1 1
6
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
10
12
w
9
2
A
15
3
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
2
15
2
0
0
0
0
0
E
5
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
1 0
2
12
4
9
27 ilO
W
9
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
11
A
14
6
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
5- Day
E
8
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
1
5
15 J5
21
9
W
11
1
0
0
0
0
2
1
1
0
3
12
j : 111
A
19
1
1
0
2
0
2
1
2
5
8
21
4-9
-------
.•
I
1 '•'
I SP
>»
* * V>
:?»?u Y y
I • L V^ S?
\ I
I \ 13^42
»
NOTE ISOPLETMS FOR DATA AT SAN DIEGO. CALIFORNIA
ARE INCOMPLETE FOR CLARITY
Isopleths of total number of episode-days in 5 years with mixing heights £.1500 m. wind speeds ^. 4.0 m sec*1,
Fiture $ anc* no s'9n'*'cant precipitation (see text) --for episodes lasting at least 2 days. Numerals on left and right
give total number of episodes and episode-days, respectively. Season with greatest number of episode-days in-
dicated as W (winter), SP (spring), SU (summer), or A (autumn).
-------
Air Pollution Cl jmatology
the same size as Los Angeles show that the
highest relative concentration at the 50
percent!Ic frequency in the morning would occur
at Salt Lake City, followed by l.os Angeles,
St. l.ouis and New York. In the afternoon the
order is l.os Angeles, Salt Lake City, St.Louis
and New York with only slight differences
between cities.
This study has now been expanded to other
cities to provide an air pollution climato-
logy for the contiguous United States,
(llolzworth, 11)71). Mixing height and wind
speed data from 62 stations were calculated
and tabulated by the National Climatic Center
(NCC) based primarily on the five year period
1960 tlirough 15)6'!. Using a simple mathematical
model of urban diffusion, normalized pollutant
concentrations averaged over a city as a
function of mixing height, wind speed and city
size were calculated. Frequencies of normal-
ized pollutant concentration for different
city sizes were also prepared. Finally,
episode-day maps of high meteorological
potential are presented based on specified
combinations of mixing height and wind speed.
The criteria of mixing 11*. 1500 m and wind speed
II < 4 m .,o(- ~ are pai-t i cularly important since
they have been incorporated in the National
Air Pollution Weather forecasting program.
Figure 6 illustrates that the meteorological
potential for episodes is much greater in the
West than in the Hast with barely 100 episode
days at one eastern station and over 100
episode days at most western stations.
l-o 11 owing this, llolzworth (1974) used these
data to determine episodes of slowest dilu-
tion lasting 1,2,3,4, and f. days based on the
product of llxll. An episode is defined as a
continuous period during which:
I. All values of ii, ami 'I rc-sporti v !y,
were less than or equal to
II =21,0,500,750, 1000,1500,2000, or 3000 in
11,-.?.0,4.0,6.0 or Hm/scc. and HjXtJj was a
mini ilium
2. The episode average of individual
morning and afternoon values of llxll (i.e.,
HSTT Jwas smallest
3. No significant precipitation
The dates and meteorological data arc
given for each episode, the 62 stations
arc ranked by their values of Kx\] and
maps are presented showing isoploths of
slowest dilution values. Table 3 presents
frequency of occurrence of the month during
which slowest dilution episodes occurred
during the period of record, 1960-1964. Note
that with only one exception December is the
month during which most slow dilution episodes
occurred. Stations having the lowest HxU
values for 1-5 day episodes include Lrndcy
WY, Mcdford, OR, Rapid City, SO, and Winncmucca,
NV. Stations having the highest llxll values
include Oklahoma City, OR, Brownsville, TX,
Jacksonville, FL, San Antonio, TX and Miami,
FL.
Finally, llolzworth (1974) has developed an
objective system for analyzing temperature
inversions and lapse conditions in the lowest
3km from the twice-daily NWS rawinsonde ascents.
Ten classes of AT/AZ are used to classify those
loose rates which may occur on a given temper-
ature profile. Percent frequency tables have
been prepared relating inversion thickness to
inversion base height for each of the four
seasons and both mornings and afternoons.
Solar elevation is also given so the influence
of surface heating or cooling may be inferred.
'Iliesc -lata are to be included in a climato-
logical summary of rawinsonde measurements
now being prepared.
RHFHUHNCHS
1. llolzworth, G. C. A Study of Air Pollution
Potential for the Western United States.
J. Applied Meteorology. 1:366-382. September 1972
2. llolzworth, C. C. l-stimates of Mean Maximum
Mixing Depths in the Contiguous United
States. Monthly Weather Review. 92:235-242.
May 1964.
3. llolzworth, G. C. Mixing Depths, Wind Speeds
and Air Pollution Potential for Selected
Locations in the United States. .). Applied
Meteorology 6:103'.)-1044, December, 1967.
4.
6.
7.
Hosier, Charles R. Low-Level Inversion
Frequency in the Contiguous United States.
Monthly Weather Review. 89:319-33!).
Klein, William II. Principal Tracks and
Mean Frequencies of Cyclones and Anti-
cyclones in the Northern Hemisphere. U.S.
Weather Hurcau Research Paper No. 40. l'.)57.
Korshover, J. Synoptic Climatology of Stagna-
ting Anticyclones Hast of the Rocky Mountains
in the United States for the Period 193(>-
1956. Tech. Rep. A60-7 SHC. 1960. 15 pp.
Korshover, .1. Climatology of Stagnating
Anticyclones Hast of the Rocky Mountains
1936-1965. Public Health Service Pub.
No. 999-AP-34. 1967.
4-11
-------
Air Pollution Climatology
8. Miller, :i. K. Forecasting Afternoon
Mixing Depths and Transport Wind
Speeds. Monthly Weather Review. 95:
35-45. January 1967.
'>. Visher, Stephan S. Climatic Atlas of the
United States. Harvard University Press.
Cambridge, Massachusetts. 1958. ^8.10.
10. Singer, t. A. Steadiness of the Wind.
.!. Aonlied Meteorology 6:1033-1038, Doc.
1967.
11. Mnedfall, U. O. and Linsky, B. A. ito.so-
<-1 Lmatological Classification System
for Air Pollution Engineers, .!*PCA 19,
•il 1-513, .Tulv 1969.
12. Orton, Robert. The Meteorological
Potential for Air Pollution in Texas.
Trxas Business Review. 42; 1-6,
• vtolx-r 1068.
13. Van dor lloven 1. 'Jnd Persistence Pro-
bability. KSSA Research Laboratories
Tech. Homo. r.RLTM-ARLTD, February
1969.
14. llolworth, <:. C. Mixing Heights, 'Hud
V-iwds, ™id Potential for Urban Air
I'ollutlon Througliout the Contiguous
United States. <>AP, Publication
No. AI'-lOl, January 1972.
15. U.S. Ik-pt. Ml-:w. Definition of Atmosplicri c
Art-as. l-'eik-ral Register, Vol. 33, No.
!0, Tuesday, January 16, 1!>(>8 anil also
No. 221, Wednesday, November 13, l'.>68.
!<•• McCormick, K.A. Air Pollution Climatology.
Vol. I, Ch. !> in Air Pollution. 2nd
IxlitJon, A. i:. Stern (F.d.) Academic
Press, 1968.
17. llolzworth, C. C. Meteorological Episodes
of Slowest Dilution in ('.outiguous U.S.
I,PA-650/'1-7<1-(>02, Pcliruary 1D7-1.
18. U.S. IJ'A Guidance for Air Quality Moni-
tor i"R Network l>esif>n and Instrument
Siting (Revised.) OAQPS No. 1.2-012,
July H)7S.
1!>. llolzworth, C.. C. Climate logical Data on
Atmospheric Stability in the II. S.
Paper presented ArfrT. Meteorological
Society Symposium on Atmospheric
Diffusion and Air Pollution, Santa
Barbara, CA, September 1!>74.
-1-12
-------
SECTION FIVii
INTERRELATIONSHIPS-METEOROLOGY
AND AIR POLLUTION
Urban Effect Upon Meteorologic Parameters
Atmospheric Turbidity
Atmospheric Chemistry of Air Pollution
Natural Removal Processes in the Atmosphere
Analysis of Air Quality Cycles
-------
URBAN EFFECT UPON METEOROLOGIC PARAMETERS
There is hardly any meteorologic element that
can be named that is not influenced to some
extent by cities. It is, however, difficult
to separate urban effects from microclimatologic
effects since very few measurements have
been made with the specific aim of comparing
urban and non-urban measurements. There are
several causes for the differences between
urban and open country climates. One of these
is the alteration of the surface, the change
from meadow, forest or swamp to buildings
and streets of concrete, brick, steel, and
asphalt. Not only does this cause changes
in reception and reflection of solar radi-
ation, and evaporation but changes the
roughness of the surface over which the wind
moves. Another is the production of a sizable
quantity of heat due to combustion processes
carried on in the city. Another cause is the
addition of material to the atmosphere in
the form of dusts, gases, and vapors such as
to change the atmosphere's composition in
the vicinity of cities.
TEMPERATURE
The comparison of temperatures within cities
with those outside reveal that city tempera-
tures, especially at time of minimum, are
higher (Mitchell, 1961). Also during the
period right after sunset the city tempera-
ture does not cool as rapidly as does the
country air due to heat content of buildings
and radiation toward each other rather than
toward the sky. Between sunrise and noon
urban and non-urban temperatures are nearly
the same. (Landsberg, 1956). The influence
of the city extends in the vertical on the
order of three times the height of the
buildings (Duckworth and Sandberg, 1954).
The average heat island effect over New York
City extends to 300 meters and has been ob-
served as high as 500 meters (Bernstein, 1968)
Also, the change of temperature with height
is quite different over the city especially
at night. In the open country radiation in-
versions form frequently whereas in the city
weak lapse conditions frequently exist through
the night with a radiation inversion layer
above the lapse conditions, (DeMarrais, 1961).
Urban-rural daily minimum temperature differ-
ences for 31 U. S. Cities have been summarized,
fDeMarrais. 19751 The heat island intensities
1) showed large day-to-day changes, 2) varied
over a large range, and 3) frequently showed
seasonal variations.
Variations between city and country tempera-
PA.MF..15c.9.75
tures are extremely noticeable at northern
latitudes when the countryside is covered
with snow but has melted in the city.
HUMIDITY
There are lower relative humidities in cities
partly due to higher temperatures but there
is also lower absolute humidity. Although
little is available in the way of measure-
ments, it is felt that lower absolute
humidities are due to the rapid runoff of
precipitation in the cities. Also the exist-
ance of little vegetation in the city reduces
moisture received from evapotranspiration
processes. (Landsberg, 1956).
PRECIPITATION
Precipitation is one of the most widely
variable meteorological elements and because
of this it is difficult to establish signifi-
cant differences between urban and non-urban
areas. However, numerous studies have been
made which show either greater precipitation
amounts and/or greater frequency of precipi-
tation within cities. Schmauss, in 1927
showed 11 per cent increase of days with small
amounts of precipitation occurring in Munich
compared to stations outside the city.
Bolgolepow, in 1928, reported an increase of
10 per cent in total amount in Moscow com-
pared to a country station for 17 years of
record. Ashworth noted in 1929 the increase
of average annual precipitation over 3 decades
amounting to 13 per cent. He also noted less
increase for Sundays than for weekdays.
Wiegel, in 1938, using a 35 year record, noted
a 5 per cent increase in precipitation, as
well as a 12 to 18 per cent increase in the
number of days with precipitation for the
Ruhr area of Germany. These are all reported
in Landsberg (1956). Landsberg also reports
a study for Tulsa where topographical effects
are at a minimum and the urban area is con-
fined to a rather definite area. In addition
to an increase within the city over a 70 year
period, there was an increase of 7 per cent
in the city compared to surroundings for a
14 year period.
An eight city study for the period 1955-70
(Huff and Chagnon, 1973) showed warm season
rainfall increases of 9-17% in six areas:St.
Louis, Chicago, Cleveland, Washington-Balti-
more, Houston and New Orleans. Results for
Indianapolis were indeterminate and Tulsa
showed no urban influence.
5-1
-------
Urban Effect Upon Meteorologic Parameters
The principal suspected causes of the increase
of precipitation over cities is the increase
of condensation nuclei over cities due to air
pollutants and the increased turbulence over
the city due to both increased roughness of
the surface and release of heat from the city.
Although water vapor is added to the air from
combustion sources this is not expected to
add significant precipitable water to have a
major effect.
SNOW
Precipitation in the form of snow indicates
to some extent the influence of temperature
in the urban area. Kossner in 1917 and
Maurain in 1947 indicated greater frequencies
of snowfall outside as compared to within
Berlin and Paris respectively. On the other
hand, Kratzer in Munich in 1937 reported
occurrences of snow within the city when
none occurred in the surroundings, and Kienle
in Mannheim, a heavy industry location, re-
ported that snow fell from a fog and stratus
layer on two successive days in January 1949
while none fell outside the urban area. It is
probable that this was due to air pollutants
furnishing condensation nuclei for supercooled
water vapor. Landsberg (1968) estimates a 5%
average decrease in snowfall for urban areas.
CLOUDINESS
From climatological records there seems to
have been a slight increase in cloudiness
over the years but this has been so slight
(less than 1/10 of mean sky cover) that for
so subjective a measure as sky cover this
may not be significant. Any increase may be
primarily due to city fogs, as increases in
early morning cloud cover seems to be greatest.
Nearly all large cities show a decrease in
the number of clear days over that observed
in adjacent rural areas. The primary effects
may be expected to be due to addition of con-
densation nuclei by air pollution and the re-
lease of additional water vapor. Viratzer in
Munich indicated in 1937 an 8 per cent in-
crease in summer cloudiness compared to a 3
per cent increase in winter cloudiness over
the city (Landsberg, 1956). This may indicate
that surface roughness increasing turbulence
may play a part in the formation of cumulus
type summer clouds. Cloud formations due to
urban pollutant sources are often seen on
satellite photos, (Detwiler, 1974).
WIND
Because of the increases generally of the
size of the roughness elements in the city
over that in the rural areas, wirid speeds
5-2
are decreased within the city. Also the
frequency of calms is increased on the order
of 5 to 20 per cent (Landsberg, 1956). Re-
cently Pooler (1961) has shown that under
conditions of light stable flow that an in-
flow of air toward the center of the city of
Louisville occurs (heat island effect). In
addition to the decrease of wind speed in
cities, there is of course channeling of the
wind in the canyons formed by alternating
streets and groups of buildings.
RADIATION
The decrease of solar radiation within cities
as compared to rural areas is on the order of
15 to 20 per cent. This is due to the absorp-
tion, reflection, and scattering of oarticles
in the atmosphere, and the absorption of gases.
These particles and gases are primarily the
result of air pollution. The radiation most
affected is that of the ultraviolet with the
infra-red least affected. This is of import-
ance due to the bactericidal effect of ultra-
violet radiation.
Many groups, McCormick (1960), are now measuring
the attenuation of the solar beam at 0.5 microi
wave length in order to have an objective measure
Of the entire pollution layer. In terms of
duration of sunshine, Landsberg (1968), presents
a range of 5-15% as the decrease of this parameter
in urban areas. Randerson (1970) attributed
ST. ?A™?Tsl.n!<5 23!c loss in. intensity nf l.i.ont. to
pollution in Houston, TX and Rouse (1973) fourd
a 12?i loss in Hamilton, "ntario -.
VISUAL RANGE
The decrease of visibility in urban areas
is probably the most noticeable of meteoro-
logical differences between urban and rural
areas. The increase of fogs in cities has
already been mentioned under cloudiness. Com-
parisons between hourly observations of
visibility at city locations and at rural
locations (Landsberg, 1956) have shown higher
frequencies of fog, smoke, and low visibilities
than in neighboring rural areas.
Holzworth and Maga (1960) analyzed visibility
measurements from California locations to
determine if trends were noticeable which
might be caused by increases in air pollution.
Results indicated that several cities showed
trends toward lowering visibilities. Another
showed lowering visibilities until efforts
at controlling certain pollutants were made
after which no trend was discernible.
-------
Urban Effect Upon Mcteorologic Parameters
URBAN EFFECT EXPERIMENTS
Meteorological and air quality data for most
large urban areas as well as medium and small
localities have been gathered and studied to
determine relationships, correlations, synor-
g:stic effects ar.il secular trcmls. Biometeor-
°Jfiy> epiilcmioJogy, ecology, regional planning
and other interdisciplinary fields require
basic d;ita on the city and its environment to
make1 interpretations, verify cause/effect
relationships and develop projections for the
future. From those studies models of varying
degrees of sophistication have been developed,
although generalization with good validation
is still lacking. (Munn, 1973) (Summers, 1«.)65)
The "urban plume" (Clarke, l:?6!>) has been well
documented, (Haagertsoii a?id Morris, 1974) and
C:i.nm;>fer and Anderson, 19751. llrl>nn heat
i.sliind dynamics are becoming better understood
through studios such as for Montreal anil
Vancouver in Canada (OXe and Maxwell, l'.)75)
and the continuing results derived from Project
METROMEX, begun in 1971 in the greater St.
Louis region of Illinois-Missouri and .sched-
uled to terminate in 1!>7(>. Since MliTKOMEX
(Metropolitan Meteorological Experiment) is
becoming a "household" scientific word, there
are three ma j or areas of potential applications.
The first is physical meteorology, .•-. c-lnurl
physics and process modification, aerosols
and radiant heat exchange tho rol^ ~v t!"?sT in
climate modifications. The second area is
air pollution meteorology; remote monitoring
of the boundary layer and the rolo of convection
in injecting pollutants into large scale cir-
culations. The third area is regional plan-
ning and urban design; the atmospheric role
in energy exchange and climate modification
within urban boundaries. An excellent
review of projects, early results and dis-
cussions by METROMEX scientists is contained
in .1 -Id-page article appearing in the February,
1, I960.
8 Mitchell, J. Murray, Jr. "The Temperature
of Cities", Wcatherwise, J_4,f>, ^24-229,
December 1961.
9 Pooler, Francis, Jr. "Stable Airflow Patterns
at Louisville, Ky.", Presented at joint
meeting of Amer. Gcophy. Union Amcr.
Meteorol. Soc., Wash., II. C., April 18-21,
1961.
10 Ludwig, F. I,., Urban Climatological Studies
Standford Hesearch Institute Interim Report
No. 1, February, 1966.
5-3
-------
Urban F.ffcct Upon Meteorologic Parameters
11 Bernstein, R. I)., Observations of the Ur-
ban Heat Island liffcct in New York City.
J. Appl. Meteor. 7, 4:575-582, Aug., 1968.
12 Landsbcrg, II. li. Climate and Urban Planning
I'rcs. WMO Symposium of Urban Climates and
Building Climatology, Brussels, October
1 9, l'.)6R.
13 l;luor Products Co., Inc. Evaluated Weather
Hat.a for Cooling liquipment, Design Adden-
dum No. 1. Winter and Summer Data. 1964.
14 Peterson, J. 'I. The Climate of" Cities:
A Survey of Recent Literature. National
Air Pollution Control Administration
Publication No. AP-53, October 19M).
15 Kopec, K..I., l-'urther Observations of the
Urban Meat Island in a Small City. Hull.
AMS, 5J^, 7:602-006, July 1970.
]<> I'rcston-Wliytc, R. A., A Spatial Model of
an Urban Meat Island. J. Appl. Mcteoro.,
9_, 1:57l-57S, Aug., 1970.
17 Randerson, I). , A Comparison of Spectral
Distribution of Solar Radiation in a
Polluted and a Clear Air Mass. JAPCA,
20_,H: 546-548, Aug., 1970.
IS Mitchell, .1. M. , Jr. The liffcct of Atmos-
pheric Aerosols on Climate with Special
Reference to Temperature near the liarth's
Surface. J. Appl. Meteor. 10:4, pp. 703-
714, August 1971.
19 DcMarrais, (i. A. Nocturnal llcat Island
Intensities and Kelavancc to Forecasts
of Mixing Heights. Monthly Weather
Review, IPS, 3; 235-245, March, 1975.
20 Huff, F. A. and Chagnon, S. A., Jr. Pre-
cipitation Modification by Major Urban
Areas. Bull. AMS. 5£, 10:1220- 12S2,
December, 1973.
21 Detwiler, A. Urban Influence on Cumulus
Formation. Bull. AMS. 5S_, 10:1240-1241
October, 1974.
22 Rouse, W. R., Noad, D. and McCutcheon, J.
Radiation, Temperature and Atmospheric
l-missivitics in a Polluted Urban Atmos-
phere at Hamilton Ontario, J. Appl.
Meteor. 12., 5: 798-807. August 1973.
23 Munn, R. li. Urban Meteorology: Some
Selected Topics. Bull. AMS. 5£, 2:90-93.
February 1973.
24
Summers, P. W. An Urban Heat Island Model
Its Role in Air Pollution Problems with
Applications to Montreal. Paper pres.
First Canadian Conference on Micromcteoror
Toronto, April, 1965.
25 Clarke, J. F. Nocturnal Urban Boundary
I.nyer over Cincinnati, Ohio. Monthly
Weather Review, 97, 8:582-589, August,
1969.
26 llaagcnson, P. I., and Morris, A. I..
Forecasting the Behavior of the St. Louis,
Missouri, Pollutant Plume. J. Appl. Meteor.
_13, 8:901-909.
27 Ktamf for, J. F. Jr. and Anderson, J. A.
Locating the St. Louis Urban Plume at
80 and 120 km. and Some of its Character-
istics. Atmos. F.nv. 9_,3:301-313, March
1975.
28 Okc, T. R. and Maxwell, G. B. Urban Heat
Island Dynamics in Montreal and Vancouver.
Atmos. l-!nv. 9_, 2:191-200, February 1975.
29 Project MF.TROMI-X: A Review of Results.
Bull. AMS. 55_, 2:86-121, February 1974.
30 RAPS: Unwrapping the Largest Air Monitoring
Program Fwr, in St. Louis, linv. Science f,
Tcchn. 7_, 7:598-599. July 1973.
31 Pooler, F. Jr. Network Requirements for
the St. Louis Regional Air Pollution
Study .JAPCA, 24, 3: 228-231, March 1974.
5-4
-------
ATMOSPHERIC TURBIDITY
J.L. Dicke
INTRODUCTION:
Fine particulates, dust, and various aerosols
produce haze, reduce visibility. The reduced
visibility may be used, in a qualitative sense,
to judge the degree of particulate air pollu-
tion present over a given location. Often,
this is the only way by which the average per-
son recognizes and is aware of the presence of
air pollution. Particulates have specific op-
tical properties which can be used to determine
their spatial and temporal variation, particu-
larly over urban areas. The presence of parti-
culates characterized almost exclusively a
property of the atmosphere termed "turbidity",
ospeot.iJ.ly at the- wavelength of 0.5 micron.
Turbidity generally means the degree of trans-
parency of a cloud-free atmosphere to visible
radi a tion. The vertical distribution of
a'erosol materials up to 2000 ft. is the basis
for considerable researcli effort and pre-
1iminary results in this country have been
published by McCormick and Baulch (1962).
THEORY:
The transmission of solar radiation through
tlie atmosphere depends primarily on Rayleigh
scattering (molecules), scattering and ab-
sorption by dusts and aerosols, and selective
absorption by gases. At a given wavelength,
X, the transmission through the atmosphere
can be written, following McCormick and Baulch
above:
KX)
( X ) e
-OM
where
I (X )
(X )
M
a
()
intensity of incident radiation
extraterrestrial radiation value
optical path length of air mass
attenuation coefficient
transmissivity
At 0.5 micron the attenuation is due almost
entirely to Rayleigh scattering and the scat-
tering and absorption by dusts and aerosols.
Volz's work (1959) led McCormick and Baulch
to develop a working equation.
ii--^-* B) M
where
F = reduction factor for mean solar dis-
tance
a = atmospheric extinction coefficient of
pure air including ozone
K = factor to allow for differences be-
tween optical path length of the at-
mosphere for air, haze and ozone.
P,Po = ambient and sea level pressure
B » extinction coefficient for dust, haze,
etc. The turbidity.
M = relative optical path length or air
mass
Thus, by observing I, B values can be de-
termined from a nomogram since all the terms
can be obtained independently or approximated.
B is directly related to the amount of the
atmospheric particulate and can serve at
least as an index of pollution, even if it is
not exactly quantitative. Values of B are
obtained under clear skies, or at least with
no clouds between the observer and the sun,
in a relatively easy manner. The data can be
used to evaluate aerosol and dust loadings
over the observation point.
NOAA
Air Pollution Training Institute,
LF'A
5-5
PA.ME.28c.3.70
-------
Atmospheric Turbidity
late loading may be approximated by the
relation:
m«10 B
where
1'igure 1. SUN PHOTOMETER
MEASUREMENT :
The instrument u.sed, KiRurc I, is called a
sun photometer and is mock; lod fairly closely
Lo th.it First developed by Volz. The small
wooden box contains a filter, photoelectric
cell, microammeter and level. The movable
diopter mounted on a pivot Js used to deter-
mine optical path length (relative air mass
M) . The Kodak Wratten 65 f ilter-photocell com-
bination results in an instrument sensitive
to essentially monochromatic light at X = 0.5
micron. The observations must be made where
there are no obstructions between the instru-
ment and the sun aithough very thin cirrus
clouds arc allowable. The optical air mass M
must be determined for every incident radia-
tion observation. Then, using a nomogram, B
can be read directly. Values of B generally
r. i nre I rum 0.02 In very clean air to more
than O.fiO in d i rtv air.
RESULTS:
in Cincinnati, Ohio, a large number of vertical
observations of turbidity have been made, both
from a helicopter and from roofs of tall build-
ings. At the same time vertical temperature
soundings were made and the transmissivity
compared to the lapse rate. The effects of
temperature stratification can easily be
demons t ra ted . McCormick and Baulch have shown
that very often more than one-half of the
soTaV~radiation incident at 2000 ft. _(.heij^lTt_
of hel icopter sounding) is attenuated by the
1 000 J t ._ closest to _t he ground during t ime s__
of. high air pollution. From surface observa-
tTons of
i.e., IS , an idea of the particu-
m = mass loading in raicrograms per cubic
meter
B = turbidity at ground level
o
If must be kept in mind, however, that the
photometer "sees" only the aerosols in tile
0.1 - 1.0 micron radius size range. Under
high relative humidity conditions, the lO^B,,
factor will result In calculated mass load-
Ings that are too high when compared to actual
Hi-vol samples. Erroneous estimates of mass
loading at ground level will also occur if
there is a significant haze layer aloft.
An early summary of the atmospheric turbidity
program in the San Francisco Bay Area has
been presented by Bell (1963). Results of
research experiments on the vertical diffu-
sion of aerosols over a city have been
published by McCormick and Kurfis (1966).
Two recent papers which deal with the effects
on climate of observed increasing turbidity
values with time have been written by McCormick
(1967) and McCormick and Ludwig (1967).
NETWORK:
Turbidity observations are being made at about
!••(> locations around the United States and at
aimtn 75 locations throughout the world, as
p.'iri of a continuing program (see Figure 2).
H.nc'i month observational forms from cacii station
arc inaileJ to tlir I at ionnl Climatic Tenter In
•'»s!ivillc. The main objective of this program
'<-•.'• tc olnuin a climatology of bac'-c.rcuiKl rettil-
iiigr. of the principal air masses anil synoptic
situations affect ing each location. An exam;-It-
is shown in Figure 3 for continental polar air
nass in tlic fall, liach quarter a summary list.; up.
of :ill obsei-vat ions is prepared and a copy sent
to each contributor. After sufficient informa-
tion is assembled nncl "normal" monthly frequency
distributions are established, a relatively
quick appraisal of the air pollution env.-lopc
over a given area may be possible.
Analyses of 5 years of turbidity measurements
made with Volz sunphotometers at a network of
stations in the United States by Flowers, et
ol, (1969), have produced the following con-
clusions:
-------
Figure 2 Turbidity Network (January 1970)
FigureS Turbidity, Continental Polar-Winter
-------
Atmospheric Turbidity
1) On an annual basis, lowest turbidity is
observed over the Rocky Mountain area, and
highest in the eastern United States.
2) Mean monthly turbidity values for all
stations indicate higher turbidity in summer
than in winter.
3) 'ITic minimum turbidity observed at sea
level is near 0.020.
4) On the average, lowest turbidities are
observed in polar continental air masses in
winter and highest in maritime tropical air
masses in summer.
T>) Turbidity values are usually lower immed-
iately after the passage of a cold front.
{>) Precipitation in itself docs not appear
to have a noticeable effect in lowering tur-
bidity.
CURRENT STATUS:
The network of stations is now administered
by Mr. l:.. C. Flowers, Air Resources Labora-
tory RB-3, Boulder, Colorado 80302 and in-
struments are also recalibrated and distri-
buted by his office. The National Climatic
Center receives observed data, generally month-
ly, from each station, performs quality con-
trol, archives and then publishes the data
on an annual basis (Kef. 12).
Instruments arc available from two sources.
The r.pplcy Laboratory, Inc. Newport, Rhode
Island manufactures a dual wavelength sun-
photometer which consists of a photovoltaic
cell and two narrow bandpass interference
filters with peak transmission centers at 380
and SOOnm. Thus a measure of ultraviolet ex-
tinction can be obtained in addition to a
more precise value of B than with the orig-
inal 195'.) Volz sunphotomcter mentioned above.
A three-wavelength sunphotometcr is manufac-
tured by I-'. Volz, 24 Tyler Road, Lexington,
Massachusetts which measures incoming solar
radiation at 500nm and '.)40nm. The 940nm
wavelength was selected because of water
vapor absorption while at SSOnm, there is essen-
tially none. By subtraction, then, the amount
of water vapor present can be calculated. Tur-
bidity is, of course still calculated from
observations at SOOnm.
KEEEKENCES
1 Angstrom, Anders. Techniques of Determining
the Turbidity of the Atmosphere . Tcllus,
13:3, p.214. 1061.
2 Hell, O.B. Applications of the Volz Solar
Photometer. Presented at the Fifth Con-
ference of Air Pollution Methods, l-os
Angeles, California, January 18,1963.
3 McCormick, R.A. and Baulch, D.M. The Varia-
tion with Height of the Dust Loading
Over a City as Determined from the
Atmospheric Turbidity. J. Air Pollution
Control Association, Vol. 12, No. 10. October
1962.
4 McCormick, R.A. and Kurfis, K.R. Vertical
Diffusion of Aerosols Over a City. Quar.
J. Royal Meteorol. Soc. 02:393 pp 392-
396. July 1066.
5 McCormick, R.A. Atmospheric Turbidity.
Pros, at 60th Annual Meeting, APCA. June,
1967.
6 McCormick, R.A. and Ludwig, J. II. Climate
Modification by Atmospheric Aerosols.
Science, 1967. 156:3789 pp 1358-1350,
June 1967.
7 Sun Photometer for the Determination of
Haze Extinction at = 0.5 Micron, Instruc-
tions for Measurement and Evaluation.
(Mimeographed Booklet. 1963).
8 Gates, D.M. , Spectral Distribution of
Solar Radiation at the Earth's Surface.
Science, 151:3710 pp 523-529. February
1066.
9 Flowers, E.C., McCormick, R.A., and Kurfis,
K.R. Atmospheric Turbidity over the United
States, 1061-1066. J. Appl. Meteor. 8:955-
962, December, 1060.
10 Bach, W. Variation of Solar Attenuation
with Height over an Urbanized Area.
21:10. pp 621-628, October 1071.
11
12
Atmospheric Turbidity and Precipitation
Chemistry Data for the World- 1972. Pre-
pared by NOAA Environmental Data Service
National Climatic Center, Federal BIdg.
Asheville, N.C. 28801, January 1974 $2.75
Part I -Atmospheric Turbidity
Part II-Prccipitation Chemistry
Part Ill-Delayed Data
World Meteorological Organization: WMO
Operations Manual for Sampling and
Analysis Techniques for Chemical Con-
stituents in Air and Precipitation:
WMO-No. 209, 1971.
13 Volz,F. Economical Multi-Spectral Sunphoto-
mcter for Measurements of Aerosol Ex-
tinction from 440nm to 1600 nm and
Precipitable Water, J. Applied Optics,
13:8 p. 1732, August 1974.
5-8
-------
ATMOSPHERICi CHEMISTRY OF AIR POLLUTION
The solution of many air pollution problems
involves ulili/.iiifj" knowledge of I he chemistry
of !he al mosphere when it may be termed
"(•lean" and when it is "dirty." Also, the
nature of I he air- pollutants as they read as
a whole inusl l>e determined. 111 general the two
elasses of polluted Kinoes are called either
I he London lypo - a reducing smog where con-
taminants I'orm nuclei Tor condensation of
water vapor Jnlo fogs -- or I he Ijos Angeles
type - an oxidi/.ing smog where contaminants
are phololysed to irrilanls.
AHSORBKRS
NON-AKSOIIMERS
RCIIO
RCO
RCOO
I'nrticulales
SO, I.
RCH
RCOIl
RC(X)I1
El OX Yd UN
The most important photochemical reactions
involve the very reaetive single- oxygen atom.
I SOI, All RADIATION
The sun approaches a per fee. I blaekbody
radiator most closely in the region of (>()00°K.
Us maximum energy per wavelength occurs at
4f>OOA, while its maximum photon emission
occurs at (iOOO/V Pholons produce many
chemical and energy changes in matter at tin:
molecular level upon absorption by upsetting;
v i liv.-il ional . rotational and eleel ronie balance.
VibraliouaJ and rotational changes occur main-
ly in Hie infra reel region while elecl ronic:
shifl s need the higher i:nei'j4.y of the ultra-
violet ranu1'.
II IMIOTOCIIKMK'Al, RI'IACTIONS
. ,Sev(M'al !• raiments
o + so
These atoms are produced by two main
road ions:
+ hv-»-NO + O
+ O
O., + hv—s-
Major frafjinenls
of pholoclmmical
r<'ai:l ion in the
atmosphere.
There are four main steps in a photochemical
reaction which occur in time sequence:
(I) Radiation, (2) Absorption, (','>) Primary
lleael ions, and ('1) Secondary reactions.
We are mainly interested in substances which
absorb photons in the :!()00 7000 X spectral
Ar.SOHP.KRS
NO
I'NO-i -
NON -AMSORHKRS
c:o
co2
NO
^Supervisory Metcorolof.ist, ;COA/,
Mi-tc-cjroJoj'.y I", Assessment liivision, lil'A
Oxygen atoms are produced al the rate of
I .SO pphm hr , but because of (heir rcacliv
ily, Ihei?1 stationary concentration in air
usually is only 1 -2 ppht (juirts per Imndi'C'd
trillion).
IV O/.ONK
Oiione is very important as a reactant in
photochemical type smofj. It is produced
through the photolysis of nitrogen dioxide and
the reaetive oxygen atom.
NO.. + hv.
• NO + O
5-9
-------
Atmospheric Chemistry of Air Pollution
O +
are among the usual products of combustion,
especially from oil base fuels.
Ozone is a strong oxidizer and its main
atmospheric reactions are:
90%
Equal Rate
NO~»-NO
O,, + Olefins—>-Free
radicals, other organic
fragments
V SULFUR DIOXIDE
Sulfur dioxide is the major sulfur containing
compound formed during fuel combustion.
Hydrogen sulfide is easily oxidized to sulfur
dioxide in air especially in sunlight. In sun-
light sulfur dioxide reacts with either atomic
or molecular oxygen to form an aerosol
particularly if water vapor is present. This
aerosol is dilute sulfuric acid when uncon-
taminated with the particulates, etc., which
are found in reducing type smogs. Sulfur Di-
oxide also reacts with organics to form various
sulfonic acids which are also irritants. Rela-
tive humidity plays the most important role
in photochemical reactions of sulfur dioxide
by determining participate -aerosol forma-
tion.
VI ORGANIC COMPOUND REACTIONS
The range of classes of organic compounds
emitted from various processes and industries
is very wide. Most of the higher molecular
weight products settle rapidly, but short
carbon chain molecules tend to be more
reactive as ionic character outweighs the
usual covalent nature of organic materials
and they are very important as irritant
progenitors. Absorption of photons often
leads to dissociation into free radicals -
short fragments with extra electrons which
are extremely reactive. Olefins, aldehydes,
ketones, peroxides, are classes which easily
absorb photons and form free radicals and
VII NITROGEN OXIDE REACTIONS
Oxides of nitrogen are formed in practically
all combustion processes in air, but the
diurnal peaks and valleys of concentration
are a matter of concern in air pollution
studies due to the high buildup in the morn-
ing hours within urban areas as vehicular
traffic reaches a peak. The sequence of
reactions
NO- + hv-^-NO + O
A
NO + On
is the fastest, most important, and results
in the highest concentrations of actual and
potential irritant producing compounds in
air pollution - atmospheric chemistry.
Second in importance, photochemically, is .
olefin photolysis and ozone-organic molecule
interaction. Other nitrogen oxide reactions
of less importance are:
NO
N2°5+
°3-
N0r
N0
2 HNOfl
VHI NON-PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS
A secondary reaction following photo-
chemical reaction which is very important
is;
O, + Olefins—>-free radical fragments
O
Olefins are the most important beginning
class of organic compounds for production
of irritants and phytotoxicants.
Reaction with water vapor:
5-10
-------
_ Atmospheric C'hetni.sl ry pt Air Pollution
NO + II..O— l-IINO.. - UNO.,
x 2 2 .i
SO., + I !./)
•
l SO
LJ "t
Oilier inorganic and organic classes of com-
pounds are also emitted l.o the nl mosphore
such a.s: fluorides which quickly read, with
various surface's, ammonia which forms
acids, hydrogen sulfidc wliicli rcai:ts with
organies and forms suj fates, carbon monoxide
which slowly oxidizes l.o carlxxi dioxide and
organic amines which oxidi/.e l.o acids. The
above reactions arc generally not of impor-
tance except in small loc:ili/.ed areas.
IX I'AKTirtlLATK MATKKIAI, UK ACTIONS
I'arl iculalo mailer in of an entirely different
si/.e category Ihan we have examined thus far,
A:; such, il provides reactive surfaces anil
can a el as a third body and calaJysl. Interac-
tion with a parliciilale surface can cause
either an energy level change: or a complete
chemical change.
Kxamples of Hie former are:
Change in absorp-
tion
X KINKTLCStN AT MOSIMIKUIC CM ICMISTRY
Without, becoming involved in the rigors of
kinetic theory, a few elenHHxtary dcfinitioivs
should bo stated. The basis for determining
the importance of any photochemical reac-
tion, stationary concentralion, rale of reac-
tion, etc., is the: Slark-Kinstein Law which
states ilia I. one photon must be absorbed to
initiate photolysis. Krom I.his is defined
the important equation:
1
Where k., is Hie specific absorption rale,
l.t is the rate of absorption, ,j is a conversion
factor, and c is the concentration of the
absorbing substance, k. represents the
average fraction of absorbing molecules
wliich receive photons per unit time. Primary
quantum yield is very important as il tells
us what percent of molecules that absorb
photons will actually road to the absorbed
energy via a specific process. Absorption,
of a photon may result cither in energy
level change, shown by fluorescence, or
chemical change, shown by dissociation or
direct reaction. The rate of formation of
excited molecules A' is given by:
('II., I M—»-('!!., + IVI Termination of
free radical
Kxamplcs of Ihe laller are;
/,nO(M)l II..O vapor-^-+- II 0+ M
£ & M
Calaly/.ed by photons
SO.. + II..O drop —»- II SO., drop
^ & £i •*
ll.ySO • ll.,0 drop + CaCO.,—»- CaSO4 +
('O.; + 11./) C.'hangf' in parttculate
t - - J ( = kt (A) = krc wliece
(A) = c the c.oncentratioii of the absorber.
l''or secondary photochemical, nsid.ions
rate constant, is important. Kor ;i bimol.eeul.ar
reaction A + l5-*-C! + IJ the deer-ease in
concentration (jT A will bt:-.
d(A)
df
k (A) (M) where k is the rate:
constant of the reaction, in general, the
larger the: rale constant, the more probable
and more1 important part the reaction plays
in the atmosphere.
5-11
-------
Atmospheric Chemistry of Air Pollution
XI SUMMARY
Thus, a knowledge of what general reactions
take place in the atmosphere under different
meteorological conditions can help answer
questions concerning relative importance of
contaminating substances. Krom a meteoro-
logical point of view, relative humidity and
percent possible; sunshine are the most im-
portant parameters to consider. This is
because nitrogen dioxide-olefin photolysis
and the reactions whiUi follow are sunshine
dependent, and the sulfur dioxide-particulate
reactions arc largely humidity dependent.
Next to consider is precipitation which func-
tions as a removal method and low wind speed
which causes the atmosphere to function as
a stable reaction vessel. Extremes of
temperature either help catalyze photo-
chemical reactions, as in Los Angeles, or
enhance fog formation - particulate - SC>2
reactions, as in London.
The -state of knowledge of atmospheric
chemical reactions and interactions leaves
a good bit to be- desired as the subject is very
complex. Kxperiments in all the areas
diseu.ssfd are increasing our knowledge and
the loial im.-i.ure is slowly emerging.
KKl-'KRKNCKS
1 Altshuller, A.P. Reactivity of Organic
Substances in Atmospheric Photooxida-
tion Reactions. PHS Pub. No. 999-AP-
14, July 1965.
2 Haagen-Smit, A.J. and Wayne, L.G. Atmos-
pheric Relations and Scavenging Processes.
Air Pollution 2 Ed. Vol. 1. Ed. A.C.
Stern. New York Academic Press, 694 pp
1968
3 Hangebrauck, R.P., vonLehaden, D.J. and
Meeker, J.E. Sources of Polynuclear
Hydrocarbons in the Atmosphere. Public
Health Service Publication No. 999 -
AP-33, 1967.
4 Johnson, John C. Physical Meteorology, Ch.
4. Technology Press of M.I.T. 393 pages.
1954.
5 Letgliton, Philip A. Photochemistry of Air
Pollution. New York, Academic Press.
300 pages. 1961.
6 Magill, Paul L., Holden, F.R., Ackley, C.
Air Pollution Handbook. Section 3. New
York. McCraw Hill. 1956.
5-12
• 7 Meetham, A.R. The Behavior of Sulfur Dioxide
in the Atmosphere. Atmospheric Chemistry
of Chlorine and Sulfur Compounds. Geo-
physical Monograph No. 3. American Geo-
physical Union. 115-121. 1959.
8 Swearengin, R.D. Hydrocarbon Reactivity
Search. General Motors Research Lab-
oratories. Vol. 1 No. 3, May-June 1966.
9 Proceedings of the CACR Symposium.Tellus,
Vol. 18, Nos. 2-3, 1966.
10 Friedlander, S.K. and Seinfeld, J. H. A
Dynamic Model of Photochemical Smog.
Environmental Science and Technology.
Vol. 3. No. 11, 1175-1181. November 1969.
11. Altshuller, A.?., Bufalini, J.J. Photo-
chemical Aspects of Air Pollution; A Review,
Environmental Science and Technology, Vol.
5. No. 1, 39-64. January 1971.
12. Hydrocarbons and Air Pollution; An Annotated
Bibliography. Parts 1 and 2. NAPCA Pub. No.
AP-75, Jan. 1971.
13. Photochemical Oxidants and Air Pollution;
An Annotated Bibliography. Parts 1 and 2.
UPA. APCO Pub. No. AP-88, March 1971.
14 Bufalini, J.J. Oxidation of Sulfur Dioxide
in Polluted Atmospheres- A Review Envir-
onmental Science & Technology. Vol. 5.
No. 8, 685-700. August 1971.
15. Hecht, T.A. and Seinfeld, J.H. Develop-
ment and Validation of a. Generalized
Mechanism for Photochemical Smog. Env.
Sc.&Tech. Vol. 6, No. 1, 47-57, Jan. 1972.
16 Workshop on Mathematical Modeling
of Photochemical Smog: Summary
of the Proceedings. Ed. M.C. Dodge.
EPA-R4-73-010 avail, from APTIC,
RTF, N.C. 27711, 11)73.
17 Stasiuk, W. N. Jr. and Coffey, P. 1-. Rural
and Urban Ozone Relationships in New York
State. JAI'CA, Vol. 24, No. f>, 564-568,
June 1974.
IS Coffey, P. I-. and Stasiuk, W. N. Evidence
of Atmospheric Transport of Ozone into
Urban Areas, linv. Science (1 Technology
Vol. !>, No. 1, 59-62, January 1975.
1!) U.S. iiPA. Investigation of Rural Oxidant
1-cvcJs as Related to Urban Hydrocarbon
Control Strategies. l:.PA-450/3-7B-076,
March 1975.
20 U. S. F.PA. Control of Photochemical Oxidants
Technical Basis and Implications of Uecent
Findings. l-PA-450/2-75-005, July 1975.
-------
NATURAL REMOVAL PROCESSES IN THE ATMOSPHERE
J. J. Fuquay*
I INTRODUCTION
All too often, atmospheric removal processes
are considered to result in aggravating con-
sequences such as depositions of fly ash,
soiling of clothing and painted surfaces, and
creating a general nuisance. However, these
are the processes by which impurities are
removed from the air such that the pollutant
concentrations do not continually increase.
Without such mechanisms, the atmosphere
would ultimately become untenable. Table 3.
The removal of material from the atmosphere
may occur in a number of different ways.
Particles large enough and heavy enough will
settle to the ground due to the action of
gravity. Some gaseous material may be
removed by adsorption upon particulate
matter in the atmosphere or by chemical
reactions changing the material into a new
compound. Adsorption may also take place
at the: ground by the earth's surface or by
vegetation. Impaction of particles onto
buildings and vegetation and turbulent impac-
tion upon the earth's surface are very signi-
ficant removal processes. Precipitation also
removes material from the atmosphere by
interception of particulates by falling rain-
drops (washout) or by raindrop formation
within clouds and subsequent falling as
precipitation (rainoul).
A Gravitational Settling
A freely falling particle within the size
range found in dusts, smokes, and mists
rapidly attains a constant or terminal
velocity when the aerodynamic drag on
the particle is equal to the weight of the
particle. When the particle is of a size
comparable with the mean free path of the
gas molecules, bombardment by the
molecules results in a random or Brownian.
motion which is superimposed on its down-
ward motion. In considering falling speed,
it is desirable to take the simplest case of
a rigid spherical particle falling indepen-
dently of other particles and not so large
*Batelle-Northwest, Pacific Northwest Laboratory,
Richland, Washington
PA.MI!.20c.9.71
as to cause inertia effects from the
displaced gas to arise, then Stokes' law
applies. A spherical particle of density D
falling through a medium of density p
is accelerated under the action of gravity
with a force:
f = I IT (D - p) r g
(1)
Equation (1) represents the difference
between the unimpeded fall of the particle
4 3
(— ir D r g), and the buoyant force of the
4 3
air (^ IT p r g). r is the radius of the
o
particle and g the acceleration of gravity.
The accelerating force is opposed by a
frictional force arising from the viscosity
of the air and the turbulence induced in
the air by the passage of the drop. A
measure of the turbulence is given by a
dimensionless parameter, the Reynold's
number, that enters in the theory of the
flow of fluids. The Reynold's number is
defined as:
R
2 p r v
H-
(2)
where v is the relative velocity of the
particle to the air of density P and
viscosity jj.. 2 r is the principal cross-
sectional dimension of the particle.
The ratio:
is called the kinematic viscosity and has
dimensions of cm2 sec"1. The generalized
resisting force on spheres has been found
to be of the form:
fr =
6ir p. rv (-
(3)
5-13
-------
Natural Removal Processes in the Atmosphere
Cr> is called the drag, coefficient and is the
constant of proportionality between the
measured force fr and the physical
quantities in the equation. For low
Reynold's numbers, Rg < 1, CD Rg/24 = 1,
and equation 3 becomes:
f =
Sir n r v
(4)
Equation 4 is called Stokes1 Law.
CD is not a constant but is a function of the
Reynold's number. However, since CD
varies only slowly with r and v, it is
useful to use equation 2 to write equation 3.
(5)
Thus, over a limited range of r and v, an
average value of CD may be selected.
Freely falling particles accelerated by a
force given by equation 1 are opposed by
a constantly resisting force given by
equation 3. A point is reached where the
two forces balance one another and
equilibrium exists. At this point, the
velocity reaches a maximum, called the
terminal velocity. By equating equation
1 and 3, the terminal velocity v-j. becomes:
2 (D - P)
24
CDRe
(6)
For most of our applications, D»p so
that D - p = D to all practical limits.
When Stokes1 Law is followed (valid for
unit density particles in air for
r < 40 microns) equation 6 becomes:
v - 1 Dg_ 2
T " 9 u
1 Dg
= 18 a
(7)
Calculation of vp by equation 7 is straight-
forward. Once Stokes' Law has become
invalid, the calculation of vip from equa-
tion 6 becomes tedious because v-p is
explicit in the definition of R and implicit
in the definition of Cj> Table 1 gives
values of a, Rg, andv-p for unit density
spheres at sea level pressure.
Table 1.* A Short Table of Terminal Velocities,
Reynold's Number, and Correction Terms
to Stokes1 Law for Unit Density Spheres
Diameter
(microns)
20
50
80
200
400
800
1200
2000
CDRe
24
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.68
2.98
5.94
9.41
18.7
VT
(cm/sec)
1.24
7.72
20.
72
162
327
464
649
Re
0.017
0.268
1.11
9.61
43.2
175
372
866
^Physical Meteorology - J.C. Johnson,
Wiley and Sons 1954. Page 230.
Thus, particles large enough or dense
enough to have appreciable terminal
velocities will fall to the ground within
rather short travel distances, depending
on their height of release. This process
constitutes a significant removal process
for very large particles, of fly ash or
dusts from cement plants. Because of
the inertia of these particles, their
reaction to the turbulence in the atmos-
phere is retarded. Also, because of
their settling, they are in motion relative
to specific eddies. Therefore, the action
of settling actually changes the diffusion
of these particles relative to what would
occur with gases.
The concentrations in air of an effluent
released from a single source can be
expressed in the Gaussian form:
X =
Q
IT
-------
Natural Removal Processes in the Atmosphere
Where:
X represents the concentration in
gm/m3
Q represents the source strength in
gm/sec
u represents the mean wind speed in
m/sec
y represents the distance crosswind
from the plume axis in meters
H represents the source height in
meters
2 2
o- er represents dispersion coefficients
y z . 9
•* in mi
This equation describes the distribution of
concentration only when there are no
processes depleting the cloud. One
method used for correcting this equation
for deposition amounts to permitting the
diffusing plume to settle at the average
terminal velocity of the particles as the
material travels downwind (see p. 93,
Meteorology and Atomic Energy). Thus,
the height of emission is decreased with
distance according to the settling velocity.
The corrected emission height is then
substituted into the diffusion equation.
The corrected height of emission, H1, is
given by the following equation:
H' (meters) r H (meters) -
v (m/sec) x (m)
u (m/sec)
(9)
Where H is the effective stack height of
the source, v is the settling velocity
determined by Stokes' Law, x is the
distance downwind, and a is the mean
wind speed. Van der Hoven (1962) used
a deposition model of the tilted plume type
to estimate the deposition from ground
tested nuclear engines. As explained by
Csanady (1957), the tilted plume model
should have a further correction for the
source strength term for loss by
deposition.
B Diffusion to the Surface and Impaction
Generally, only particles in the size
range greater than 10 microns have
appreciable gravitational settling velocity.
However, recent studies (Simpson 1961:
Islitzer and Dumbauld, 1962) indicate
deposition of micron and submicron
particles upon the ground and vegetation
may be considerable. Accounting for
deposition of these smaller particles
requires extension beyond the simple
gravitational settling model.
Using the concepts presented by Chamberlain
(1953) along with extensions reported by
Healy (1957), a reasonable model can be
developed. For these small participates,
deposition from the cloud to the ground
is conceived as a process limited by
meteorological diffusion and processes
of impaction and sticking to oojects on the
ground rather than the settling of particles
through the influence of gravity. It is
visualized that the particles are brought
through the boundary layer to the ground
by the turbulent diffusion process. They
then deposit on vegetation or other objects
by inertia! impaction and diffusion and
stick by electrostatic forces, chemical
attraction or other means. Investigations
of this process in the neutral atmospheric
condition assuming that the transfer
coefficients for mass and momentum are
equal indicates that the velocity of deposi-
tion should vary with wind speed. There
is also evidence that the velocity of deposi-
tion changes with atmospheric stability.
Data on the velocity of deposition of
Iodine-131 at Hanford and from experi-
ments conducted by the English have indicate
indicated a value of about 2. 7 cm/sec.
Calculations based on the equivalence of
mass and momentum transfer coefficients
during neutral conditions yield about the
same value. Measurements of the velocity
of deposition of fission products from arc
burned uranium have indicated that the
velocity of deposition of these particles is
considerably lower, on the order of
0.1 cm/sec.
Gifford and Pack (1962) recently published
an evaluation of most of the experimental
data obtained to date on deposition veloci-
ties of interest in nuclear safety studies.
5-15
-------
Natural Removal Processes in the Atmosphere
Major conclusions were that the deposi-
tion velocities for active materials such
as Iodine-131, sulfur dioxide, and
ruthenium on flat plates or bare soil is
less than 1 cm/sec and is between 1 and
3 cm/ sec for deposition on vegetation.
Also, it was concluded that the average
deposition velocity of inert materials such
as Cesium-137 and Strontium-90 on flat
plates and vegetation is less than 0.1 and
0.1-0. 2 cm/sec, respectively. These
results are quite consistent, indicating
that for particles of diameter less than
10-15 microns, the relative effects of
impaction, diffusion, and absorption are
more important than the widely varying
gravitational settling velocities.
It is postulated that the particles are
brought to the ground by turbulent
diffusion where the iodine reacts with the
vegetation to absorb strongly on the surface.
The small smoke particles must depend
on impaction or some other process to
stick. Thus, although the rate of transfer
of both materials to the ground was the
same, the velocity of deposition was
different because of the difference in
retention.
Chamberlain (1953) bypasses these effects,
and simplifies the problem by defining a
deposition velocity Vg, as:
2
amount deposited/cm per sec
g ~ volumetric concentration above the surface
(10)
This definition may be expressed in the
integral form as:
2
total deposition/cm . ..
V - n ill/
* dosage/cm
Thus, the deposition becomes;
w(x,y) = X V
g
(12)
To account for depletion of material from
the cloud, the equation must satisfy mass
continuity principles such that:
XV dydx = Q (13)
g
This equation is analytic in the first
integration, but the resulting equation
from combining (13) and (8):
exp - j
can be solved analytically if
-------
Natural Removal Processes in the Atmosphere
Our present, knowledge is still inadequate
to provide anything beyond a suggestion
of the scavenging processes in the atmos-
phere for such finely divided material as
radioactive debris. Evidence from world-
wide fallout studies suggests that the very
small fission products become attached
to the natural aerosol particles and then
have a history in the atmosphere similar
to that of the host. The time required
for such a coalition to near completion is
not known, but one would expect it to be
as rapid as the coagulation with larger
water droplets because of the relative
differences in mean free paths. Junge
(1958) suggests that the predominant
cause of the modification in size-distribu-
tion of the stratospheric aerosols on the
way down through the troposphere is the
repeated cycle of condensation and evapora-
tion of clouds, a process requiring con-
siderable time. Thus, the scavenging
mechanism for small particles is envi-
sioned as cloud-droplet-scavenging coupled
with later scavenging of the cloud drop-
lets by larger raindrops. The amount of
activity that will fall out as rain will
depend upon the time of mixing of the
contaminant and the cloud elements and
the rate at which the cloud elements are
swept from the cloud by larger raindrops.
Barad, Haugen, and Fuquay (1960) made
estimates of some of these scavenging
parameters. The effective scavenging
constants, that is, the time required for
the number of particles to decrease to 1/e
of the initial value, for the contaminant
activity in the presence of cloud droplets
characteristic of stratus and cumulus
cloud conditions were computed from
Greenfield's curves, assuming that the
activity was proportional to the volume
of the particle. The cloud characteristics
used by Greenfield compared favorably
with later data reported by aufm Kampe
and Weickman (1957) and were not altered.
The calculated times required for one-
half the activity from the air to enter the
cloud droplets, that is, the scavenging
constant i, is shown in Table 2.
The amount of activity that will fall out
as rain will depend upon the time of
mixing of the contaminant cloud elements
and the rate at which the cloud droplets
are swept from the cloud by larger rain-
drops. This latter aspect was studied
by Chamberlain using Langmuir's theory
(1948) of the formation of raindrops by
coalescence with smaller raindrops and
Best's (1950) relationship between rain-
drop size and rainfall rate. Results of
Chamberlain's study applicable to this
type of scavenging are also summarized
in Table 2. The scavenging of materials
by clouds can only occur at heights at
which clouds form. The heights of the
various types of clouds vary within wide
limits. However, scavenging by stratus
clouds should be limited to 5000 feet and
below, whereas scavenging by cumuliform
clouds can occur at any height between
2000 feet and the tropopause.
Table 2. Parameters for Cloud-Droplet Scavenging of Particulate
Cloud and Precipitation Scavenging of Cloud Droplets
Height interval
500- 5,000 feet
5,000-35,000 feet
Cloud type
Stratus
Cumulus
Rainfall rate
(mm/hr)
0.5
3.5
Scavenging constant, $
(sec'1)
5 X 10"6
6 X 10"5
Elimination constant,
(sec'1)
2 X 10"4
1 X 10"3
5-17
-------
Natural Removal Processes in the Atmosphere
D Removal by Rainfall - Washout
Calculations for precipitation scavenging
of materials released into the lower
atmosphere usually consider only the
interaction between the falling raindrop
and the contaminant particles. However,
the computed values correspond only
approximately to the actual conditions,
as the size of raindrops always show a
spectral distribution. Best's curves
contain mean values. Large deviations
from this curve are found in individual
rains with the extreme range in rainfall
rate for a given mean drop size about a
factor of two. In addition, the Langmuir
theory is applicable to coalescence of
waterdrops, with certain restrictions,
and particle interception could be quite
different, depending on the physical and
chemical nature of the particle.
In an effort to clarify the scavenging
processes in the lower layers of the
atmosphere, a part of the total scavenging
problem, Hanford meteorologists have
been dispersing zinc sulfide into the air
and measuring the amounts scavenged by
both natural and artificial rain. Results
thus far indicate a peak scavenging effi-
ciency for raindrops of about 0.4 mm
diameter and suggest a minimum scaveng-
ing efficiency for raindrops of 0.7-1.0 mm
diameter for this material. This devia-
tion from currently used theoretical
calculations which predict a rather flat
peak in efficiency for drops larger than
1.0 mm suggests that rainfall intensity
as now related to rainfall type may not
have as great an effect on washout values
as previously thought.
In order to account for washout in the
dispersion equations, we can write:
x =
is affected uniformly rather than preferen-
tially near the ground, and the shape of
the cloud distribution function is not
altered. In this case, the concentration
from a ground level source becomes;
Q
Qr r Q exp (-
(16)
where Qr is the source strength correction
for the scavenged material. Since rain
removes material from the whole cloud
depth, the process can be likened to
radioactive decay in that the entire cloud
ir u
-------
Natural Removal Processes in the Atmosphere
compounds, coal distillates, or aldehydes.
Other materials, no doubt, present in
the smog include sulphuric acid, carbon
monoxide, hydrochloric acid, fluorides,
and excess carbon dioxide. Consequently,
the smog was greatly different in chemical
composition from a relatively clear fog.
Meetham considered an area of 450 square
miles in the London Basin containing
about 8 million people. The fog covered
the entire area to a height of about 500 feet.
The temperature was near freezing so that
the mass of air in this volume was
226 million tons. Material could diffuse
from this volume upward at only a very
slow rate because of the capping inversion
above the fog. He estimated that the light
and variable winds could have produced
no more than one air change in about four
days. Thus, he considered the region as
a closed system in which to make estimates.
The air contained about 2,000,000 tons of
liquid water as fog and 750, 000 tons as
vapor. The film of water on the ground,
vegetation, and other objects was esti-
mated to weigh 500,000 tons. The air
also contained 380 tons of free smoke and
370 tons of free sulfur dioxide, not includ-
ing any that was attached to or dissolved
in fog droplets, or any other sulfur
dioxide attached to smoke. The other
impurities were not accounted for in the
estimates.
About 70, 000 tons of coal were burned
each day in the region; releasing 1000 tons
of smoke particles, 2000 tons of carbon
dioxide, 140 tons of hydrochloric acid,
and about 14 tons of fluorine compounds.
Imperfect combustion of coal and motor
vehicle exhaust contributed 8000 tons per
day of carbon monoxide. In addition,
200,000 tons of carbon dioxide were
emitted per day to be added to the
90,000 tons originally present.
Now, let us look at the heat balance.
Essentially all of the heat from burning
70,000 tons of coal went into the fog
volume and the heat equivalent of another
1400 tons of coal was added from the earth
and surrounding air, which was warmer
than the fog. This incoming heat was
sufficient to warm the whole volume by
10°C per day, yet the temperature over
the five days remained essentially
constant. Fog behaves in the opposite
way to a greenhouse so that radiation
permitted this heat loss from the fog.
If it had warmed up, the fog would have
dissipated.
Another paradox is in the water balance.
As in most persistent fogs, droplets of
water are continually falling to the ground,
and yet there is no reduction in the number
of droplets in the air. In the London fog,
the droplets had to fall through saturated
air an average distance of 250 feet to
reach the ground, a process would take
about 6 hours. Thus, an estimated
800, 000 tons of water per day left the
fog and someway an equal amount
replaced it.
Combustion of coal added some 35,000 tons
per day and humans an additional 2000 tons.
The remaining 763, 000 tons per day, must
have been evolved from evaporation from
the ground. The heat coming up from the
ground was sufficient to evaporate
18 million tons of water per day, so that
it appears reasonable to assume that 4. 3%
of this heat was used for the evapoartion
of water, which utlimately replenished
the fog.
Thus, we have a somewhat plausible
explanation of how fogs can persist in
spite of apparently losing water and
gaining heat.
Now let us examine the smoke balance.
Smoke particles entered the fog at the rate of
1000 tons per day, and must have left at the
same rate because a fairly steady equilibrium
was maintained at 2. 2 mg/m , or 380 tons
in the whole region. The average smoke
particles must have remained in the air
for 380/1000 of a day or about 10 hours.
Smoke particles are far too small to fall
of their own weight as much as 250 feet
in 10 hours. Meetham calculated that any
smoke particle must collide with a fog
droplet every couple of minutes or so
and could have stuck to the droplet after
5-19
-------
Natural Removal Processes in the Atmosphere
some 4-10 hours. There was considerable
dirt on the pavement which may have been
smoke originally.
In the sulfur balance calculation, he
assumed a rate of 2000 tons of sulfur
dioxide per day entering the; fog, and left
at the same ratr, maintaining a fairly
steady equilibrium of 370 tons in the air.
The average free life of a sulfur dioxide
molecule would, therefore, be 370/2000
of a day or 4.5 hours. He considers that
a few sulfur dioxide molecules were
dissolved in the water on ground, vegeta-
tion, etc., but most of them were
removed by the fog droplets, whose total
surface area was about 170,000 km^
compared with only 1160 km^ of ground.
The average sulfur dioxide molecule
spent, perhaps, 0.05%of its time dissolved
in fog droplets, moving freely in and out
of them. Eventually, after a free life
of 4.5 hours, during which about 8 seconds
were spent within droplets, it became
oxidized within a droplet, and remained
fixed there as sulphuric acid. Six hours
later, on the average, the droplet fell
to the ground. If these calculations are
correct, the mass of sulphuric acid in
equilibrium in the fog must have been
800 tons. Its concentration was 4.5 mg/m3
in the air, and, on the average, the fog
droplets were a 0.4% solution of sulphuric
acid.
Chlorine from coal entered the air in the
form of hydrochloric acid at a rate of
140 tons per day. It was quickly dissolved
in the fog droplets, remaining in the air
an average of 6 hours. Its concentration
was 0. 2 mg/m3 in the air or 0.02% in the
fog droplets. Fluorine was present in
about one-tenth of these amounts.
Oxides of carbon are not scavenged effec-
tively and probably increased steadily
throughout the period of fog. It was
calculated that carbon dioxide reached a
maximum concentration in the air of
0.4% by weight, or ten times its natural
concentration. The concentration of
carbon monoxide was calculated to be
180 mg/m3 or 0.07% by weight.
REFERENCES
1 aufm Kampe, H. J. and Weickmann, H.K.
Physics of Clouds. Met. Monographs.
3:182-225. No. 18. 1957.
2 Barad, M.L., Haugen, D. A., and
Fuquay, J.J. A Diffusion-Deposition
Model for In-Flight Release of Fission
Fragments. Air Force Surveys in
Geophysics. No. 123. June 1960.
(TN-60-60-400)
3 feest, A.C. The Size Distribution of
Raindrops. Quart. Journ. Roy. Met.
Soc. 76:16-36. 1950.
4 Chamberlain, A. C. Aspects of Travel
and Deposition of Aerosol and Vapor
Clouds. A.E.R.E., HP/R 1261
H.M.S.O. 1953.
5 Csanady, G.T. Dispersal of Dust Particles
from Elevated Sources. Aust. J.
Phys. 10. 559. 1957.
6 Gifford, F.A., and Pack, D.H. Surface
Deposition of Airborne Material.
Nuclear Safety. 3:76-80. June 1962.
7 Greenfield, S. M. Rain Scavenging of
Radioactive Particulate Matter from
the Atmosphere. Journ. of Meteor.
14:115-125. No. 2. 1957.
8 Healy, J.W. Calculations on Environmental
Consequences of Reactor Accidents.
HW-54128. December, 1957.
9 Islitzer, N.F., and Dumbauld, R. K.
Atmospheric Diffusion-Deposition
Studies Over Flat Terrain. Presented
at the National Meeting of the American
Meteorological Society. Jan. 22-26.
New York, New York. 1962.
10 Junge, C.E. Advances in Geophysics.
4: Ch. I. 1958.
11 Langmuir, I. The Production of Rain by a
Chain Reaction in Cumulus Clouds at
Temperatures Above Freezing. Journ.
of Meteor. 5:175-192. 1948.
5-20
-------
Natural Removal Processes in the Atmosphere
12 Mcethani, A. K. Atmospheric Pollution.
Pcrgamon Press. 266-272. 1956.
13 Simpson, C.I,. Some Measurements of the
Deposition of Matter and Its Relation
to Hiffusion from a Continuous Point
Source in a Stable Atmosphere. IIW-
69292 RliV. Rich land, Washington. 1961.
26p
14 Meteorology ami Atomic linorgy 1968.
D. II. Slndc, lid., U.S. Atomic lincrgy
Commission, Division of Technical
Information. T1D-24190, .July 1968.
15 V;m clcr llovcn, I. A Diffusion-Deposition
Model for Particulate liffluents from
Ground-Tested Nuclear lingincs.Presented
at the Fourth Conference on Applied
Meteorology. American Meteorological
Society. Sept. 10-14. Hampton, Virginia
15)62.
16 ll.-ilps, .). M., Thorp, J. M., Wolf, M. A.
Theory ami Field Measurements of Sulfur
Dioxide Washout from an lilcvatcd PlumcT
Conference on Air Pollution Meteorology,
Raleigh, N. C., ApriJ 5-9, 1971.
17 lingelinann, K. J. Scavenging Prediction
Using Ratios of Concentrations in Air
ami Precipitation, Journal of Applied
Meteorology. Vol. 10. No. 3, 193-497,
June, 1971.
18 Males. .!. M. Fundamentals of the Theory
of das Scavenging l>y Hain. Atmos.
"linvironmcnt Vol. <>, No. 9, pp. 635-
660. September 1972.
19 Dana, fl. I'., Males, .1. M. , Slinn, W.C.N.
and Wolf, M. A. Natural Precipitation
Washout of Sulfur Compounds from Plumes.
li.P.A. R-3-73-047, .lime 1973.
20 Dingle, A. N. and Ice, Y. An Analysis of
In-Cloiid Scavenging. .J. Appl. Meteor.
Vol. 12, No. 8; 1295-1302, December
1973.
21 Hales, J. M. Wolf, M. A. and Dana, M. T.
A Linear Model for Predicting the
Washout of Pollutant Cases from
Industrial Plumes. AlCl.li Journal,
Vol. 1!), No. 2:292-297, March 1973.
22 llutcheson, M. R. and Mall, F. P. Jr.
Sul fate Washout from a Coal Fired
Power Plant Plume. Atmos. iinv. Vol. R
No. 1:23-28, January 1974.
23 Owers, M. J. and Powell, A. W. Deposition
Velocity of Sulfur Dioxide on Land and
Water Surfaces Using a JS Tracer
Method. Atmos. linv. Vol. 8, No. 1:63-67,
January 1974.
24 Shepherd, J. G. Measurements of the Direct
Deposition of Sulfur Dioxide Onto Crass
and Water by the Profile Method .Atmos.
linv. Vol.8, No. 1:69-74, January 1974.
25 Garland, J. A., Atkins, D.II.F. Headings
C. J. and Caughcy, S. J. Deposition
of Caseous Sulfur Dioxide to the Ground.
Atmos. linv. Vol.8, No. 1:75-79, January
1974.
26 Slinn, W, C. N. The Redistribution of a
Gas Plume Caused by Reversible Washout.
Atmos. P.nv. Vol. 8, No. 3: 233-239,
March 1974.
27. U.S. l-l'A Sources and Natural Removal
Processes for Some Atmospheric Pollutants.
P.PA-650/4-74-032, June 1974.
28. llogstrom II. Wet Fallout of Sulfurous Pollutants
limittcd from a City During Rain or Snow.
Atmos. linv. Vol. 8, No. 12:1291-1303.
29 Israel, G. W. Deposition Velocity of Caseous
Flouridcs on Alfalfa. Atmos. linv. Vol. 8
No. 12:1329-1330, December 1974.
30.
Scrivcn, It. A. and IMshcr, K.'i.A. 'Hie
Range Transport of Airborne Material
and its Removal by Deposition ami
Washout - I. Gcner;il Considerations
II. The Hffcct of Turbulent Diffusion.
Atmos. l-nv. Vol.9, No. 1:49-68, January
1975.
31 Forland, li. J. And Gjessing, Y. T. Snow
Contamination from Washout, Rainout
and Dry Deposition. Atmos. linv. Vol. 9
No. 3:339-352, March 1975.
32 l.i, T-A., and Landsberg, II. P.. Rainwater
pi I Close to a Major Power Plant. Atmos.
Hnv. Vol. 9, No. 1, 81-88, January 1975.
5-21
-------
Table 3. SUMMARY OF SOURCES, ANNUAL EMISSION, BACKGROUND CONCENTRATION AND MAJOR SINKS OF ATMOSPHERIC GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
Pollutant
so2
H2S
N20
NO
. :-:o.
NH3
CO
0.
J
Non-Reactive
hydrocarbons
Reactive
hydrocarbons
Major Source
Anthropogenic
Combustion of
coal and oil
Chemical
processes;
Sewage treat-
ment
None
Combustion
Combustion
Coal burning;
fertiliser;
waste treatment
\uto exhaust
and other com-
mstion process
None
Auto exhaust;
Combustion of
oil
Auto exhaust;
Combustion of
ail
Natural
Volcanoes
Vol canoes;
Biological
decay
Biological
decav
Bacterial ac-
tion in soil;
Photodissocia-
tion of N.,0
and N0? "
Bacterial ac-
tion in soil;
Oxidation of NO
3iological
decay
)xidation of
nethane; Photo
lissociation of
10.,; Forest
Tropospheri :
reactions and
transport from
stratosphere
Biological
processes in
swamps
Biological
processes in
forests
Estimated Emission, Kilogram
65 x 109
3 x 109
None
53 x 109
Combined
with NC,
4 x 109
360 x 109
71 x 10"'
27 x 1.1?
2 x 109
100 x 109
590 x 109
76S x 109
170 x 109
3000 x 109
(?)
(?)
500 x 109
17S x 10?
Background
1-4
0,3
460-490
0.25-2.5
1.9-2.6
4
100
20-60
CH,=1000
4
non CH4 <1
<1
Mai or
Identified Sinks
Scavenging; Chemical reactions;
soil and surface water absorption;
Dry deposition
Oxidation to SO,
Photodissociation in stratosphere;
Surface water and soil absorption
Oxidation to NO,,
Photochemical reactions; Oxidation
to nitrate; Scavenging
Reaction with SO,; Oxidation to
nitrate; Scavenging
Soil absorption; Chemical oxidation
Photochemical reactions; Absorption
by land surfaces (soil and vegetation)
and surface water
Biological action
Photochemical oxidation
-------
ANALYSIS OF AIR QUALITY CYCLES
James L. IHcke*
There arc several important factors to be
considered in evaluating a time sequence
of atmospheric: pollutant rom-entr.itions. The
periodic recurrence of similar pollutant levels
may result in a rather smooth curve with time
anil be termed cyclic or the concentration
levels may appear to be random. In either
cane it i.s- important to h.-ivo enouyh background
data to an.i lys-.o the types of cycles which may
exist. This background information should
consist of data on the following items:
I. Source variables
2. Meteorological variables
'3. Atmospheric- reactions and removal
mechanisms
4. Ceowctry of sources ami samplers
I TYi'KS 0V CYCLES
The first two areas arc most important in
determining air quality cycles. In general
the most important types of cycles are the
daily and annual. Together these cycles re-
present the day to day variations and the
Ions term, 20-30 year, averages of pollutant
levels. The day to day variations arc princi-
pally due to meteorological variables, if the
weekday to weekend variation in industrial
activity is excluded. The long term varia-
tions in pollutant concentration can be
attributed to source variables since the
climatology of an area will remain relatively
constant.
Figure 1 represents a generalized daily
cycle. The two assumptions inherent in this
figure should be remembered: continuous
emission and elevated source. The curve
represents the effects of two stability regimes
L
_L
_L
_L
_L
J L
J L
J
00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Figure 1. DAILY VARIATION OF CROtlND-UCVlil,
CONCENTRATIONS FROM ELEVATED SOURCES
ory !f(.-t(.H>roli>;;ist , .",'OAA
, .ViiiCSSMcnt I'ivision, i.l'A
-------
Analysis of Air Quality Cycles
in the lower atmosphere: stable conditions
at night and unstable conditions in the after-
noon. However, the cycles of many pollutants
do not resemble each other as illustrated in
Figure 2 for NO2 and oxidant in California/17)
The difference in daily curves between pollu-
tants can best be understood by knowing the
atmospheric reactions, methods of decay or
half-life, and natural removal processes of
the pollutants. Irregularities or peculiarities
in pollutant cycles for specific locations can
often be explained by being thoroughly familiar
with both the meteorology and human activities
of the community.
Annual or seasonal cycles of air quality also
illustrate the inter-relationship of source and
meteorological variables as shown in Figure 3.
25
~ 20
C
15
e
_o
r 10
o
o
• N02
x Oxidant
4 68 10 12 2468
AM NOON PM
Figure 2. CONCENTRATION CYCLE OF NO
AND OXIDANT
0.30
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN
Figure 3. ANNUAL CYCLE OF SO AND OXIDANT
5-24
-------
Analysis of Air Quality Cycles
If SO, emissions from industrial processes
are considered fairly constant during the
year, the annual curve of SO,, concentration
may be explained in terms 01 temperature or
heating degree days.t12) Monthly averages
of daily maximum oxidant concentration in
California are primarily dependent on the
amount and duration of sunshine and also
high temperatures.(11) The annual cycle of
maximum mixing depth in the atmosphere,
wind speed, frequency of temperature in-
versions, and temperature will usually pro-
vide valuable information on interpreting the
annual cycle of air quality in a community.
Annual or seasonal cycles of air quality are
more likely to be influenced by the geometry
of the sampling network than are daily cycles.
In most regions this is a function of
meteorology, too, because the seasonal
wind regimes may change by 180°.
II SAMPLING TIME
When planning an air pollution survey or
pollutant sampling program, it is important
to decide which of the two types of cycles,
or both, is most important. Is the long-
term effect of pollution being studied or are
short-time peaks, e.g., 5 minutes, in con-
centration important? The answer will aid
in determining both the sampling time and
equipment to be used.
Short-time or spot sampling generally will
not reveal pollutant cycles but may be used
to determine the source of a particular pol-
lutant or the contribution of a specific source
to the general pollution level of the area.
Continuous sampling at fixed locations is best
when the purpose of a study is to:
1 Determine the general level of pollution.
2 Determine improvement achieved by
control measures.
Determine correlations between
weather and different pollution levels.
Determine cycles of air pollutants with
respect to the specific city.
IH AVERAGING TIME
Another very important decision to be made
concerns averaging time. This is the time
duration over which either single air pol-
lution samples are measured or a series of
samples are grouped together to obtain a
single measurement. Daily cycles, of course,
cannot be ascertained from two, 12 hour
samples, and compiling an annual curve from
20 minute samples is tedious and time con-
suming. Averaging time for samplers should
be determined by:
1 Objectives of the study
2 Equipment limitations
3 Analytical threshold values
4 Facilities and manpower for analysis
Starting and ending time of samples becomes
important when averaging times are more
than two hours. Figure 4 illustrates the dif-
ference in average concentration when com-
parable length samples are taken beginning
at different times of the day. A knowledge
of pollutant variation may enable the averaging
time to be lengthened from 5 to 20 minutes or
20 minutes to an hour depending or whether or
not very short time peaks of concentration are
important.
The effect of averaging time on measured
SO2 concentrations for several cities (one
sampling station per city) is shown in Figure
5, as taken from reference 19. Relationships
for other pollutants will vary, depending on
source distribution and reactions in the
atmosphere.
5-25
-------
0 02 04 06 08 io~~i2iV^le"18 20 22 24 00 O2 O4 06 08 10 12 14 16 18 2O 22 24
0 02 04 06 08 ,0 ,2 ,4 ,6 ,8 20 22 24 00 02 04 06 O8 ,0 ,2 ,4 .. .. EO ^^
n
o
Figure 4. DAILY VARIATION OF GROUND-LEVEL CONCENTRATIONS FROM ELEVATED SOURCES -
PROBABLE EFFECT OF SAMPLING DURATION AND START/END TIME.
-------
Analysis of Air Quality Cycles
2.0
~- 1.0
I 8
3 .6
.4
5
IU
o
O .
10
.04
.02
01
A CHICAGO
o PHILADELPHIA
0 CINCINNATI
A WASHINGTON, DC
I I I I I I
10 15 20 30
MINUTES
I
468
HOURS
12
24
AVERAGING TIME
MAXIMUM SULFUR DIOXIDE
CONCENTRATION FOR SELECTED
AVERAGING TIMES
DECEMBER 1962-JANUARY 1963
FIGURE $
5-27
-------
Analysis of Air Quality Cycles
IV METHODS OF ANALYSIS
The methods of analysis used to evaluate and
interpret data depend primarily on the aim
of the pollution study. Three main consider-
ations are:
1 Amount and type of data available.
2 Representativeness of the number of
samples taken.
3 Required accuracy of the results.
Evaluation of data can be divided into two
broad, and not mutually exclusive categories:
1 Comparative
2 Statistical
Examples of the first method are surveys
during different periods of the year, improve-
ment due to process changes or corrective
measures, and comparisons of one locality
with another to illustrate relative degrees
of pollution. Sophisticated statistical
methods would not be required in these cases.
Statistical methods are necessary to gain a
deeper understanding of multiple influences
on concentration variations. Statistical
treatment of data aids in the evaluation of
relative influences of a number of parameters, -
the significance of differences in concentra-
tion levels, and the correlation of two or
more series of data.
One of the first steps in analysis should be
to plot the data against time. This will
emphasize any cycles present and also the
length of period or times of daily maximum
and minimum concentration. A few anomalies
in the plot will occur, but for comparative
evaluation these usually are not significant.
Elementary statistical parameters which
characterize the data and can easily be
computed or approximated are the mean; or
average value, the range or amplitude of
values, the median or value which divides
the data into an upper and lower half, and
mode or most frequently observed value.
Other plots of the data versus meteorological
and source variables should be made to
indicate where relationships occur which need
further investigation. Plots which approxi-
mate straight lines are usually best candidates
for future analysis. If short sampling time
data, e.g., 5 minutes, have been averaged
to give hourly values, the ratio of peak 5
minute concentration to the mean hourly value
will give a qualitative idea of atmospheric
stability during the sampling period. Under
neutral stability conditions, 5 minute peak
concentrations about twice the hourly mean
can be expected. Under unstable conditions,
5 minute peak concentrations about four to
five times the hourly mean will occur. If
wind direction data are available, evaluation
should be by frequency distribution in tabular
form. The per cent frequency of a given con-
centration is entered with the corresponding
wind direction that occurred at the time the
samples were taken.
A common form of data representation used in
air pollution work is the "cumulative frequency
distribution" in which the logarithm of pollutant
concentration is plotted as a function of
frequency of occurrence. Frequency of occur-
rence is expressed as "percent of values equal
to or less than a stated concentration". Typical
data is shown in Figure 6.(19)
Cumulative frequency distribution of individual
pollutants will exhibit different characteristics..
This is illustrated by the data of Figure 7,(20)
wherein the frequency scale has been changed to
"percent of values equal to or greater than a
given concentration".
In situations wherein the same pollutant is
emitted from ground-level and elevated sources,
the cumulative frequency distribution curve,
especially for short survey periods, may take
the form shown in Figure 8. (21)
A few of the parameters, in addition to those
mentioned above, which are calculated for a
statistical study include the standard deviation,
variance, correlation and autocorrelation co-
efficients, and regression equation coefficients.
Statistical analysis is best accomplished by
computer methods.
Since measured air quality data are increasingly
compared to air quality standards having
several averaging times, Larsen (1971) has
developed a model which is being used extensively.
Figure 9 is anexample of this technique. EPA
has also published guidelines (1974 a.b.)
which contain techniques for evaluating air
quality data as well as trends in air quality.
These techniques are used to portray and
interpret the observed air quality of the nation
and a report is issued annually (EPA, 1974 c.).
Statistical aspects are discussed in a Symposium
Proceedings (EPA, 1974 d) and a research report
(EPA, 1975).
5-28
-------
Analysis of Air Quality Cycles
2.00
1.00
.80
.70
.60
.50
.40
~ .30
Q.
~ .20
O
i
UJ
O
O
N
.10
.08
.07
.06
.05
.04
.03
.02
.01
1 TT
J L_L
J I L_J LJ L
J.
2 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 85 90 95 98
% OF 5-MINUTE VALUES LESS THAN STATED CONCENTRATION
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF 5-MINUTE
MEASUREMENTS OF SULFUR DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION
CHICAGO, ILL., DECEMBER 1962-JANUARY 1963
FIGURE 4
5-29
-------
Analysis of Air Quality Cycles
i.OOO
SUSPENDED PARTICULATE,ti9/ms
A
SOILING INOEX.Coht/ 1000 fl
0.01
246*10 30 50 70 9O 92 94 96
PERCENT OF VALUES EQUAL TO OR GREATER THAN STATED VALUE
Figure 7. CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF
CONCENTRATIONS OF VARIOUS CONTAMINANTS
5-30
-------
Analysis of Air Quality Cycles
0.12
ID
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
9t 99
Percentage of observed concentrations equal to
or less than indicated concentrations
Figure 8. DISTRIBUTION OF OBSERVED SULFUR
DIOXIDE CONCENTRATION - STATION A
SEPTEMBER 5-13, 1961
5-31
-------
i
..
S5.CONC
AVERAGING TIME
MINUTES HOURS DAYS MONTHS YEARS
5 '015 30 I £ 4 8 12 I 2 4 7 14 I 23 6 I 2345 10
i I I I I I I II I I I
I I I I
CENTURY
1 100
10
0,
z
LJ
O
000 001 O.I i !0 100 1000 10,000 100,000
AVERAGING TIME, hours
001
0001
0 0001
Figure 9. Frequency of various nitrogen oxides concentrations for various
averaging time? in Washington, D.C.. 3/1/62-3/1/63.
-.'
/
JO
n
<
n
-------
Analysis of Air Quality Cycles
KKKKRKNCKS
I I'.aulch, I). M. Relat ion of Gnstiness to
Sulfur Dioxide (Concentration. ,1. of
Air Pollution Control AKSOC. 12:539-
S42. 1962.
2 Uaynton, II. W. Multiple Correlations of
Pa rt ictilate Air Pol lulion with Weather
Factors al Detroit and Winsor. Hull.
Arm-r. Meteorol. Soc. 37: iV*. 1956.
•! Hurl, K. W. A Study of Hie Relation of
Visibility to Air Pollution. Amor. Intl.
llyg. Assoc-. .1. 22:102-108. 1961.
4 Davidson, W. !•'. A Study of Atmospheric
Pollution. Mon. Wea. Rev. 70:10,
22S-2M. I'M/-.
S Davis, I-'. K. , .1 r. The Air Over Phila-
delphia in Air Ov<-r Cities. Tech. Rep.
A62-S. K. A. Tal't Sanitary Kng mooring
Center. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1962. pp
ll'j-126.
(> Dickson, K.K. Meteorological Factors
Affocling Part i< ulafe Air Pollution of
,i City. hull. Airier". Me.teorol. Soc.
.],' :SS{,-S60. 1961.
'( Ililsl, Ci. K., and llryan. ,I.C. Prclimi-
n.try Meteorological Analysis of
National Air Sampling Network Data
Vol. I. Methods and Results. Vol. i.
Comparison and Interpretation tif K<--
sulls. The Trave J--rs Re-search
Center, Inc., Hartford, Conn. I9o2.
K llol/.worth, Ci. C. SotlK- l-a'fei Is of Ai r
I'dilution on Vitiiliility In and Near
Cities in Air Over Cities. Tech.
Hep. An,>-S. K. A. Tall Sanliary
erinn Cent«-r. (Cincinnati, Ohio.
pp f.9-KH.
9 Kanno, S. , KiiUui, S. . Ikeda, II. and Ono,
Y. Atmospheric SO^, Concentration
()l>si-rv«-tl in Keihin-Industrial ('.enter
and Their Relation to Meteorological
Klcmcnls. Int.' .1. Aaj; PolY; \: i, Z34-
.'.40. 19r>9.
10 Larsen. R. I. Determininn Masic Relation-
ships 1'ietwcen Variables Pre-senti-fl at
Symposium oil l'',nvi ronmental Measure-
ments. Cincinnati, Ohio. Sept. 4-o.
11 Market;, K. II. , .Ir. Relationship ol an
Air Quality Measurement to Meteoro-
logical Paratneters. Amcr. Ind. Ilyn.
Assoc. .1. 20:SO-SS. 19S9.
12 Munn, R.IO. , anfl Katx., M.B. Daily and
Seasonal Pollution Cycles in the
Dot roil - Windsor Area. Int. .1. Ai r
Poll. i-\, 57-7n. 19^9.
H Munn, R. 10. , and Ross, C. R. Analysis
of Smoke Observations at Ottawa,
Canada. .1. of Air Pollution Control
As HOC. 11:9. 410-4)6, 443. 19(>l.
14 Summers, P. W. Smoke Concent rat ions
in Montreal Related to Local Meteoro-
logical Factors in Air Over Cities.
Tech. Rep. A^2-r>. R.A. Tal't Sanitary
l''.nnineerinn ('.enter. Cincinnati, Ohio.
1962. pp 89-M.i.
IS MagiH, Paul I,., llolden, K. R., and
Ackley, C. Air Pollution J landbook.
McClraw- I (ill Hook Company, Inc.,
New York, I9r>6. $1S. 00.
16 Stern, Arthur C. Air Pollution. Vol. I.
Academic Press, Inc. . New York.
1962. $IK.OO.
17 l.ci|{hlon, P. A. Photochemistry of Ai r
Pollution. Academic Press, III '~>lh
Street, New York 1, New York. 1961.
$9.90.
1H Los Angeles Air Pollution Cont rol
District. Monthly Reports of Meteor-
ology, Air Pollution Kffects and Con-
taminant Maxima - I960.
19 Larsen, R. 1. . /.imtm-r, C. K. . Lynn,
I). A. , and Hlemel, K. C.. Analy/.inn
Air Pollutant Concentration and Dosage
Data. .IAPCA \7:i, HS-93, 1967.
20 Turner, D. U. Th<- Diurnal an-.!ay Variations of Fuel Usage for
Space Heating in St. Louis, Mo.
Atmos. Knvir. 2,, 4: i 59-iS2, .luly_l96K.
21. Rlppcrton, I..A., Kornrclch, I,, and
Worth, .J..I.H. Nitrogen DJoxltle and
Nitric Oxide In Non-Urban Air. JAI'CA
20:9, 589-592, 1970.
5-S5
-------
Analysis of Air Quality Cycles
22. 1-arsen H. I. A Mathematical Model for
Relating Air Quality Measurements to
Air Quality Standards. OAP Pub. No.
AP-8'J, November 1971.
2x II. S. I-PA. Guidelines for the evaluation
'of Air Quality .Trends. OAQPS No. 1.2-014
Pchruary 1974.
.74. (I. S. I-PA. Guidelines for the evaluation
of Air Quality Data. OAQPS no. 1.2-015,
February 1l.>74.
•>'••, U.S. I-PA. Monitoring and Air Quality Trends
Report, 1!>73. P.PA-450/1-74-007, October
.?(>. II. S. I I'A. I'roccodinjjs of the Symposium on
on Statistical Aspects of Air Quality
Data. r.l*A-f>r.()/4-74-»38, October 1!>74.
J7. ll. S. i;i'A. Studios of Pollutant. Concentra-
tion frequency Distributions. lil'A <>r>0/
Kiili'ii, r. ^>. '!'»« Influence of Annual
Metooro logical Variations on Regional
Air Pollution MwlelinR; A C.iso Study
o!" Alloj'heny County, I'A. JAPCA Vol.
24, No. 4, 34'.)-.-S6, April 15>74.
Knojc, .1. K. :mil Lunge, I'-. Surface Air
Pollutant Concentration Frequency
Distributions: Implications for Urban
Modeling. JAPCA, Vol. 24, No. 1, 48-53,
.Jar.uiiry I '.'74.
5-34
-------
SECTION SIX
METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
General Instrumentation Requirements
Meteorological Instruments
Exposure of Instruments
Exposure of Surface Instruments
Exposure of Instruments on Towers or Stacks
Exposure of Airborne Instruments
-------
General Instrumentation Requirements
Ronald C. Milfiker
"Precision Instruments", "Handsome Walnut
Console", "High Degree of Accuracy",
"Rugged Construction", "lilack Crackle
I'ini.sh", "Corrosion Resistant", and "Ultra-
sensitivity" are among the many descriptive
phrases used in Instrumentation catalogs.
Some of these attributes should be con-
sidered In detail, while others nay be
stereotyped as "window dressing".
The purchase of an instrument requires the
(-out! ider.-il ion of two classes of require-
ment ;::
1. Central Instrumentation
Requirements
2. Specific Objective Oriented
Requi rements
There are many instrumentation requirements
that will obviously depend on the specific
objectives of the study that the instru-
ment is to support. There are, however,
a number of instrument requirements that
should be considered before the purchase
of any instrument. It is the purpose of
this section to describe these general
requirements so that a buyer will be able
to distinguish between the instrumentation
attributes that are important, and those
that are only "window dressing".
UKUAIIIUTY
Reliability is possibly the most important
criterion for an instrument in continuous
use. Regardless of how accurately an
instrument Is calibrated and read, it must
be reliable to give reproducible results.
ACCURACY
Accuracy is defined as the closeness of
the instrument output reading to the true
value of the parameter. The qualifications
of an accurate instrument are as follows:
1. It is properly calibrated under
known conditions
2. it has characteristics that are
unchanging with time
3. The reactions of the instrument
(dynamic response) to changes
in the measured parameter are
known to within the limits of
error requirements
PRECISION
Precision is generally defined as the degree
of closeness of a series of readings of an
unchanging parameter. There often is
confusion between the terms accuracy and
precision. One way of clarifying their
meanings is through the use of the "bulls
eye" analogy. Figure 1 depicts this
analogy.
SENSITIVITY
Sensitivity is defined as the smallest
change in tho measured variable that
causes a detectable change in the output
of the instrument.
i nv i IMIII: i ill a 1 \'.L -'X
oiH-iTtl, '-IA II 17 l_!
iiii' i'eduu>]i>£)', Inc
6-1
-------
General Instrumentation Requirements
Neither accurate Accurate but
nor precise not precise
Precise but
not accurate
Figure 1.
BOTH accurate
and precise
SIMPLICITY
The lack of instrumentation experience
among most observers makes this attribute
a must for most meteorological instrumenta-
tion. The qualifications of a simple
instrument are ns follows:
1. Operational adjustments of the
instrument should be simple
2. A simply written SOP manual should
accompany the instrument
3. Adjustments that are not intended
to be made by the purchaser
should require a special tool
DURABILITY
Obviously, an instrument should be durable
enough to survive vibrations and shock en-
countered in transportation, rough handling,
etc. A meteorological instrument, in
addition, should be able to perform re-
liably in all seasons of the year, and in
a smoggy and corrosive atmosphere.
CONVENIENCE
Convenience of operation is definitely a
must for an operational instrument. As
a general rule, an instrument that is
simple to operate is also convenient to
operate.
Other requirements such as time constants,
damping ratio, etc. are objective
oriented, and will be covered in a later
section.
0-2
-------
METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
Ronald C. Hilfiker
I INTRODUCTION
Measurement of atmospheric variables that
affect the diffusion and transport of air
pollutants is of necessity in nearly every
air pollution investigation. Suitable meas-
urements may be available from existing in-
strumentation at Weather Service city offices,
airport stations, or from universities or
industries with meteorological installations.
Frequently, however, existing instrumentation
does not give detailed enough measurements,
is not representative of the area in question,
or does not measure the variables desired
(such as turbulence) and additional instru-
ments must be operated.
Of primary importance in air pollution meteor-
ology is the measurement of wind, both ve-
locity (direction and speed) and the turbu-
lence of the wind. The stability of the
lower layers of the atmosphere in which the
pollution diffuses is important and may be
determined from an analysis of the turbulence
characteristics of the atmosphere or the tem-
perature lapse rate.
Of secondary importance is the measurement of
humidity (which may affect atmospheric re-
actions), temperature, precipitation (of
importance in washout of pollutants), and
solar radiation (which affects photochemical
reactions in the atmosphere). Particularly
for research studies, it may be desirable to
measure meteorological elements affected by
pollutants, mainly: visibility, solar radia-
tion, and illumination (radiation in the vis-
ible region).
II WIND MEASUREMENTS
A Surface Instrumentation
1 Wind Speed
Generally, wind speed sensors are
broken down into the following cate-
gories :
a Rotational Anemometers
1) Vertical Shaft
2) Horizontal Shaft
Environmental Research and Technology, Inc.
•i'i, MA 017IJ
PA.ME. nun. 126.9. 71
b Pressure Anemometers
1) Flat Plate Type Anemometer
2) Tube Type Anemometer
c Bridled Cup Anemometer
d Special Types
1) Hot Wire Anemometer
2) Sonic Anemometer
3) Bivane
4) UVW Anemometer
Pressure anemometers, hot wire and
sonic anemometers have enjoyed exten-
sive use in research type operations,
but they all have disadvantages which
have prohibited their use in operation-
al type situations such as air pollution
surveys. The rotational type anemometers
are the most common type of wind speed
sensor in use today mainly because they
are the only types that satisfy all of
the following desirable operational
features:
a Essentially linear relationship be-
tween the sensor output and the wind
speed.
b Calibration is unaffected by changes
in the temperature, pressure or hu-
midity of the atmosphere.
c Able to measure a wide range of wind
speeds (<2 to ~ 200 mph [.9 to ~ 90
m/s]).
d Long term calibration stability.
The calibration often is unchanged
after 10 years continuous operation.
e Output of the sensor is easily adap-
ted to remote indication.
f Recording of the wind speed data is
easily adaptable to either analog
or digital form.
6-7,
-------
Climet Inst. Co. (a)
R.M. Young Co. (b) Belfort Inst. Co. (c)
Henry J. Green Co. (d) Electric Speed Indicator Co. (e) Science Associates Inc. (f)
. <-.
f A*
Teledyne-Geotech (Bkmn & Whtly) (g)
Teledyne-Geotech (Bkmn & Whtl.y) (h)
Figure 1 - Cup Anemometers
6-4
-------
Meteorological Instruments
g Generally require extremely little
maintenance.
Types
a Rotational Anemometers
1) Vertical Shaft - a cup anemom-
eter revolving about a vertical
shaft is probably the most com-
monly used anemometer in use to-
day. The most common of the cup
anemometers are the 3-cup types
shown in Figure 1.
Traditionally, anemometers have
only had to yield average wind
speeds for use in the support
of aviation and weather forecast-
ing operations. Sensors such as
those in Figure Ic and le were
developed with durability as the
primary requirement. These cups
are about 10 cm. in diameter,
with a moment arm of about 42 cm.
These anemometers, due to their
large mass, have a relatively
high starting speed (that wind
speed at which the cups first
begin to rotate or reach the
manufacturers accuracy specifi-
cations) of about 3 mph (1.4 m/
sec). This factcr of high mass
combined with a long moment arm
will also produce a high moment
of inertia which tends to cause
the cups to indicate erroneous
wind speeds under gusty condi-
tions. Not only will the instan-
taneous readings be in error,
but because the cups accelerate
faster than they decelerate, the
mean speed indicated may be
slightly higher than the true
speed.
With the advent of environmental
concern, an anemometer was need-
ed that would measure light winds,
which are of great importance in
air pollution meteorology. Also,
to support turbulence and diffu-
sion studies, an anemometer was
needed that would approach giv-
ing an instantaneous response to
wind speed fluctuations. Light-
weight anemometers such as those
in Figure la, Ib, and Ig were
developed for such purposes.
To provide accuracy at low speeds
and greater sensitivity, these
small 3-cup anemometers are light-
weight in construction (plastic or
very thin aluminum) and employ a
relatively short moment arm. In
addition, friction has been reduced
by utilizing miniature ball bearings
and special type transmitters. The
cups are generally 5 cm. in diameter
and have a moment arm of about 7 cm.
The result of these design consid-
erations is more accurate instan-
taneous and average windspeeds.
An attempt at further reducing the
starting speed is shown in Figure
Ih. This cup wheel design, employ-
ing six staggered cups, yields a
greater surface area exposed to the
wind. This factor decreases the
starting threshold from .75 mph
(.35 m/s) for the standard 3-cup
of Figure Ig) to .4 -.5 mph (.2 -
.25 m/s). This design also produces
a more uniform torque around the
entire shaft revolution.
Horizontal Shaft - The second most
commonly used wind speed measuring
system is one that has a propeller
on the end of a horizontal shaft
that is oriented into the wind by
a vane on the opposite end of the
shaft. A propeller anemometer is
shown in Figure 2, and several pro-
Figure 2 - Propeller Anemometer
6-5
-------
Meteorological Instruments
Figure 3 - Propeller-vanes
peller-vanes are shown in Figure 3.
These propellers are usually heli-
coidal in design with the rate of
rotation of the propeller being
linearly proportional to the wind
speed. As with the cup anemometers,
the propeller anemometers generally
fall into two design categories:
1. Those designed with durability
as a prime consideration
(Figure 3c,d)
ii. Those designed with sensi-
tivity as a prime considera-
tion (Figure 2, 3a,b)
The more sensitive propeller ane-
mometers utilize lightweight
aluminum or plastic as blade ma-
terial, and generally employ
either 2 or 4 blades. The 2-blad-
ed propellers (Figure 3b) have
starting speeds of about .4 - .7
mph (.2 - .35 m/s), while the 4-
bladed propellers have a threshold
of about .3 - .5 mph (.15 - .25
m/s).
The more durable propeller ane-
mometers use heavy gauge plastic
or steel in the blade construction.
Sjcause of their relatively heavy
nass, the 3-blade design of Figure
3c, d have higher starting speeds
of about 2.5 - 3 mph (1.2 - 1.5
m/s).
The sensitivity argument develop-
ed earlier for the cup anemometers
also applies to propeller anemome-
ters. Howe-°r, because of the
helicoldal dejign of the blades,
the number ri blades has no effect
on the torque uniformity. The
design prod :.:es a uniform torque
independent 'if the number of pro-
peller blades.
6-6
-------
Meteorological Instruments
b Special Types
1) Propeller Bivane - These anemome-
ters are capable of measuring the
magnitude of the wind vector and
will be discussed more fully in
the wind direction sensor portion
of this section.
2) UVW Anemometer - Another sensor
configuration that yields the wind
vector and its fluctuations ia the
UVW anemometer. Figure 4 shows
one type manufactured by R. M.
Young Company. In this sensor
configuration, a propeller ane-
mometer is mounted in each prin-
cipal axis (thus the name UVW),
and each yields the component
wind vector in that axial direc-
tion. This anemometer has found
limited operational use because
of the sophisticated data reduc-
tion that is necessary to convert
from an output of 3 wind speeds
to a vector magnitude and direc-
tion.
The UVW anemometer has, how-
ever, enjoyed easy application
to those situations where the
3 component vectors are the
only desired output, or where
data reduction is accomplished
through the use of a computer.
As with all sensors of the pro-
peller type, serious error is
introduced during periods of
heavy precipitation, and with
this particular propeller con-
figuration there is some mutual
interference error with certain
wind directions.
2 Wind Speed Measuring Transducers
The most common aerodynamic sensor for
the measurement of wind speed is the
cup or propeller. The wind speed measur-
ing transducer must convert this cup or
propeller rotation to an energy form
that is easily transmittable. The
energy form is usually electric and the
transducer is commonly one of four types.
a D.C. Generator
Small, permanent field generators
are used that have an output that is
linearly proportional to the rate of
turning of the cup or propeller and
Figure 4.- UVW Anemometer
hence is linearly proportional to the
wind speed. The main disadvantage
of D.C. generators is the relatively
high starting or threshold speeds.
The brush and bearing friction com-
bine to produce a lower limit to the
threshold speed of about 1 mph (.5
m/s) on the most sensitive systems.
The brushes on these generators
usually need servicing only about
once a year under continuous use.
On some of the more sensitive sensors
the unit is sealed and it is recom-
mended that the unit be sent to the
factory for servicing or replaced
completely.
Figure 5 illustrates a typical D.C.
generator (brushes not shown) from
the sensor of Figure le. The out-
put from this transducer can be re-
corded directly on any D.C. galva-
nometer recorder.
b A.C. Generator
In an attempt to lower the threshold
speed by eliminating brush friction,
some manufacturers are using A.C.
generators instead of D.C. generators.
A.C. generators reduce the friction
considerably and eliminate brush
and commutator maintenance. A.C.
generators are available with either
two, four, six or eight-pole perma-
nent magnet rotors. The larger the
number of poles, the more pulses are
available per shaft revolution, pro-
ducing a smoother record.
6-7
-------
Meteorological Instruments
Magneto rotor
Field magnet
Figure 5 - D.C. Tachometer Generator
The largest disadvantage of the A.C.
generator is associated with the
number of pulses per shaft revolution.
These pulses must be rectified by a
modifying transducer (rectifier) in
order to have a suitable energy form
for recording. Low wind speeds
generate a low frequency of A.C.
pulses and normal rectifiers do not
function properly with a low frequen-
cy input. Thus, spurious oscillations
may be produced at low wind speeds.
Therefore, to obtain wind speeds
below about 2 m/sec (4 mph) some
sort of electronic correction is
needed.
This disadvantage defeats the purpose
of reducing the friction and has
therefore resulted in a minimal use
of this type of transducer.
Interrupted Light Beam
Further reduction in friction with
accompanying lower threshold speed
and quicker response can be accom-
plished with the use of an inter-
rupted light beam (light chopper)
transducer. This transducer employs
either a slotted shaft (Figure 6) or
a slotted disc (Figure 7), a light
source and a photocell or photo-diode.
The cup or propeller rotates the
Figure 6 - Slotted Shaft Light Chopper
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Meteorological Instruments
3 cup anemometer
Precision bearings
Lamo
Chopper wheel
Photodiode
Amplifier
Figure 7 - Slotted Disc Light Chopper
slotted shaft or disc and a pulse is
created each time a slot allows light
from the source on one side of the
shaft or disc to fall on the photo-
cell on the other side of the shaft
or disc. The larger the number of
slots in the shaft or disc, the
smoother will be the output, espec-
ially at low wind speeds. The out
put from the transducer is handled
in the same manner as the output
from the A.C. generator. The large
number of slots (about 100) prevent
spurious oscillations in the output
at low wind speeds. The sensors of
Figure la, g utilize this type of
transducer.
d Mechanical - contact type
All of the measuring transducers
mentioned so far produce an analog
signal. There are circumstances
where the desired output might be
total miles of wind passage Instead
of a time plot of wind speed. Under
these circumstances, a mechanical-
contact transducer is used. tn this
type of transducer, the anemometer
shaft is connected through one or
more gears to a cam or similar de-
vice that opens or closes a contact
after the passage of a pre-determin-
ed amount of air. This contact
closure can operate a readout device
such as an event marker pen on a
recorder. Recorders, such as the
one shown in Figure 8 can be fur-
nished with circuitry to provide a
pen actuation for each 10, 100 or
1000 contact closures in the trans-
ducer. If the average wind speed
is desired instead of length of
wind passage, the number of contact
closures are determined for a given
time increment and, knowing the
miles or meters of wind passage for
each contact closure, the average
wind speed over the given time in-
crement is easily determined.
Figure 8 - Event Marker Recorder
3 Wind Direction
a Type
1) Flat Plate Vane
Typical flat plate vanes are
shown in Figure 9a, b, c, d, g,
i, k, and 1. The term flat plate
refers to the tail shape which
is simply a flat plate. The
flat plate can take on a number
of different shapes and be made
out of a number of different
materials.
6-9
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Meteorological Instruments
-
Climet Inst. Co. (a)
R.M. Young Co. (b)
Bel fort Inst. Co. (c)
Science Associates Inc. (g) Epic Co. (h)
Epic Co. (i)
Bendix Co. (m)
Belfort Inst. Co. (n)
Teledyne-Geotech (1)
6-10
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Wong Lab. (d)
Electric Speed Indicator Co. (e) Science Associates Inc. (f)
Teledyne-Geotech (j)
Teledyne-Geotech (k)
Raim Inst. Co. (o)
Figure 9 - Wind Vanes
Epic Co. (p)
6-11
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Melcoro lugica I Instruments
As with wind speed sensors, the
material used in constructing the
wind vane will generally deter-
mine the proper use of the vane.
Vanes made out of heavy gauge
metal or plastic such as in Fig-
ure 9 should be used only for
obtaining average wind direction.
The large mass creates a high
moment of inertia which will give,
under certain conditions, a much
higher indication of wind fluc-
tuations than actually exists.
The lightweight sensitive vanes
of Figure <)a, I), - or molded
expanded polystyrene. The
coiinterwo ights are also close to
Lho center of rotation. This
design creates a highly sensitive
vane that can be suitably used
lor tiirhu I cncc or oilier f ine"
analyses of the wind I race.
2) Splayed Vane
Typical splayed vanes are shown
iu Figure '(e, f, h, and p. In
this type of vane, two flat
plates are joined at a small
angle? (usually about 15") at one
end of the horizontal shaft.
This design caine about through
experimentation that showed that
the spl.-iveil vane followed sinaJl
changes in wind direction better
than the fl.it plate. However,
the increased mas'. Incurred by
two flat plates makes tills type
ul vane unsuitable lor anything
but the measurement ol average
wind dIrecI ion.
The splayed vane of Figure 9 has,
mainly because of its durability
and reliability, found wide-
spread use in its role as the
main wind direction sensor for
the National Weather Service.
Therefore, it should be noted
that wind direction data obtain-
ed from a National Weather Service
should be used only as an indi-
cation of average wind direction.
J) Aerodynamic Shaped Vnne
This type of wind vane is shown
in Figure ')j, m, n, and o. The
aerodynamic shaped vane luis .an
airfoil cross section. This
type of vane has been shown to
produce up to 15% more torque
for certain ranges of attack
angles than a flat plate vane
of similar physical dimensions.
This type of design, as with the
splayed vane, incorporate;; more
mass than the flat plate vane
and therefore produces a higher
moment of inertia, yielding a
poor dynamic performance. An
aerodynamic wind vane that has
found wide-spread use in air
pollution studies is shown in
Figure 'Jin, n. This device Is
commonly called an "aerovane".
It should be remembered that its
dynamic performance is Inferior
to thc> sensitive vanes of figure
<)n, b, d, k, 1, and the use of
the data gathered by the "Aero-
vane" should reflect this fact.
Wind Ulrection Measuring Triinsducers
The measurement of wind direction
consists of converting the angular
position of the wind vane to an energy
form that can be transmitted easily.
The system of Figure 9h has direct
readout obtainable simply by observing
the sensor. This system is, at best,
very crude.
More advanced wind direction systems
usually employ one of 3 types of
measuring transducers.
a l'otent lometer system
b Synchro-motor system
c Commutator system
Types
a Potentiometer System
The most common and inexpensive way
of convening the angular position
of the vane to an electrical signal
is through the use of a potentio
meter system such as the one shown
In Figure. 10.
(• I _'
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Meteorological Instruments
Figure 10 - Potentiometer Transducer System
In this system the shaft of the
vane is attached to the wiper arm
of the potentiometer. The swinging
vane therefore produces a continu-
ously varying voltage that can be
recorded on a recording voltmeter
or dial indicator. With proper
calibration, the recorded voltage
gives a direct reading of the angular
position of the vane.
The biggest drawback to this system
is the unavoidable discontinuity in
the potentiometer. If the wind
direction is oscillating about a
direction corresponding to this gap
(usually north), the voltage output
will oscillate between the maximum
and minimum value producing what is
commonly called "chart painting".
With the recorder pen swinging from
one end of the chart to the other,
the record produced is, at beet,
very confusing.
There are some types of recorder pen
movements available that circumvent
this problem. Double contact poten-
tiometers with dual pen recorders
produce a trace along each edge of
the chart when the wind direction
corresponds to the gap. Figure 11
illustrates a chart record of this
type. In newer recorders, there is
available electronic circuitry and
a 540° chart that can keep the pen
trace in the central portion of the
chart. Figure 12 illustrates a chart
record of this type.
Wire potentiometers present a problem
of excessive wear produced as the
contact moves along the wires. The
life expectancy of wire-wound po-
tentiometers is only about 6 months-
1 year under continuous operation.
Recent advances in this area have
produced a conductive plastic
potentiometer.
The life expectancy of these poten-
tiometers is about 50 x 106 oscilla-
tions, or about 3-5 years, under
continuous operation. The linearity
12N
Figure 11.
Du.il pen recorder chart
6-13
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Meteorological Instruments
Figure 12.
540° Recorder chart
of these devices is about .5%.
The use of micro-potentiometers pro-
duces the lowest movement of inertia
of any of the direction transducers
available today. This fact has led
to their widespread use in the sen-
sitive wind vanes that are noted for
their good dynamic performance.
b Synchro-motor System
This transducer system consists of
two synchronous motors wired as
shown in Figure 13.
They are conmonly known as "Autosyn",
"Selsyn" or "Synchrotie" systems.
Receiver
Figure 13 - Synchro-motor System
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Meteorological Instruments
In this mode, any movement by the
shaft of the transmitter will he
duplicated by the shaft of the re-
ceiver motor usually to an accuracy
(>l about 2°, provided the lead re-
sistance is kept to a maximum of 20i;.
The v.mc shaft is coupled to the
shall dl' the transmitter motor ami
tin- skill i>l the receiver motor if;
coupled In a recorder poll or some
other reail-out indicator. Therefore,
any vane movement is duplicated hy a
movement ol the dial needle, recorder
pen etc., and with proper calibration
anil alignment, a direct indication of
wind direction is obtained. There is
no discontinuity in the movement as
with the potentiometer. This trans-
ducer system is usually coupled with
a r>40" chart recorder system or a
dial indicator to produce an analog
trace of wind direction. The system
also lends itself readily to a dial
indicator display. The only disad-
vantage of this transducer system is
the relatively large movement of in-
ertia of the motor assembly. This
produces a poorer dynamic performnnce
than the micro-potentiometer system
and limits their use to the more
rugged vane types such as the aero-
vaue sensors of I'igure (Jm, n.
Commutntor System
The wind direction transducers dis-
cussed so far produce an analog signal
that can be converted to an analog
chart trace. The commutator trans-
ducer system shown in Figure 14 pro-
duces contact closures which can lie-
used to activate lights, event mark-
er pens et c.
In this system, the vane shaft is
coupled to a unit that has two brush
type contacts, (A and I!), spaced
22 1/2 degrees apart. These brushes
make contact with one or two of the
8 conducting sectors (C) that are
spaced ^5° apart and correspond to
45° of wind direction. When both
brushes contact the same sector, the
direction indicated is one of the 8
compass points, eg., N, NE, E. If
the brushes are contacting two of
the sectors, the indicated direction
corresponds to an intermediate dir-
ection, such as NNE, ENE, ESK, etc.
Therefore, direction indication to
16 points can be obtained with this
system.
Light indicators or event marker pens
Power supply
14 - Commutator Transducer System
0-15
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Meteorological Instruments
Figure 15 - Commutator System Visual Display
„
Figure 16 - Commutator System Chart Record
N NE E SE S SW W NW mi. 1 60 mi.
9PM
8PM
6-16
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Meteorological Instruments
Figure 15 shows a visual display
utilizing lights. An intermediate
direction would be indicated by the
activation of two adjacent lights.
Figure 16 illustrates a chart record
produced by this type of transducer
system. An intermediate direction
would be indicated by the activation
of two adjacent pens.
The friction inherent in the commu-
tator transducer as well as the crude
method of display make this trans-
ducer most applicable to operations
involving only the acquisition of
average wind direction.
Special Types
a Bi-directional Vanes (Bivanes)
This type of instrument Is designed
to rotate around a vertical axis to
measure the aximuth angle of th
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Meteorological Instruments
V PP^^I
Figure 18 - Meteorological Balloons
(L to R - Tetroon, Pilot Balloon, Kytoon)
Figure 19 - Theodolite
The two theodolites are set a known
distance apart (the baseline). Two
types of pilot balloons frequently
used reach 3000 ft. within 5 minutes
and 8 minutes respectively after re-
lease. If detailed structure of
winds with height is to be determined,
readings of azimuth and elevation
angle must be read every 15 or 30
seconds.
2 Rawinsonde
This method of measuring wind velocity
aloft also uses a gas-filled free bal-
loon, but it is tracked either by radio
direction finding apparatus, or by radar.
The former method is the most frequent-
ly used in the U.S. The radio trans-
mitter carried by the free balloon is
usually used to transmit pressure, temp-
erature and humidity information to the
ground (radiosonde). The radio direc-
tion finding equipment determines the
elevation angles and azimuth angles of
the transmitter. The height is deter-
mined by evaluation of the temperature-
pressure sounding. Using radar the
slant range is available for determining
height. Soundings taken with this type
of equipment are made on a routine basis
for supporting forecasting and aviation
activities. The ascension rate of these
balloons is on the order of 1000 feet/
minute, so they do not yield as detailed
information on winds in the lowest part
of the atmosphere as is desired for many
air pollution meteorological purposes.
3 Rocket Smoke Plumes
A system using a cold propellant, re-
coverable rocket to emit a vertical
smoke trail to an altitude of 1200 feet
has been developed. (Gill, Bierly, and
Kerawalla). This smoke trail is photo-
graphed simultaneously at short time
intervals by two cameras 2000 feet from
the launch site and at right angles to
each other. The difference in position
of the smoke trail from two successive
photographs is a measure of one compo-
nent (north-south for example) of the
wind and can be determined at any number
of heights from ground level to 1200 feet.
Another system has been reported by Cooke
(1962).
6-18
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Meteorological Instruments
4 Constant Level Balloons
Unlike the previous airborne sensors for
wind velocity which obtain average meas-
urements through a vertical layer, con-
stant level balloons are used to deter-
mine the trajectory or path of an air
parcel during a given time interval. In
order to maintain a constant altitude
(more accurately to fly along a constant
air density surface) the balloon must
maintain a constant volume. A tetrahedron
shaped balloon (tetroon) of mylar has
been used for this purpose (Figure 18).
These have been tracked visually and by
radar. (Angell & Pack, 1960).
Ill Tl'Ml'KRATURE LAPSE RATE
1'he vertical structure of temperature gives
an indication of the stability and turbulence
of the atmosphere,
A Temperature Difference Measurements
One method of estimating the vertical struc-
ture of temperature is by measuring the
difference in temperature between sensors
mounted at different heights. This, of
course, gives an average condition between
any two particular sensors.
1 Heights of Sensors
Because of the pronounced influence of
the earth's surface on the atmosphere's
temperature, it may be desirable to
measure temperature difference nt closer
intervals near the ground than at higher
levels. Kor example, a 300 foot tower
might have sensors at 5 feet, 25 feet,
!>0 feet, 100 feet, 200 feet, and 300
feet. The height differences at the
upper levels should he nbont equal so
that the height of Inversions may be_
determined. Radio and television towers
arc good supports for temperature dif-
ference sensors (as well as wind sensors)
and stations usually are willing to
allow sensors to be mounted upon their
towers. Of course, sensors must be kept
below the level of the transmitting
antenna.
2 Sensors
Resistance thermometers of copper or
nickel may be used for temperature dif-
ference systems. Thermo-couples of
copper-constantan or iron-constantan
also make reliable sensors. Resistance
thermometers and thermocouples do not
have to be frequently calibrated and
may be expected to provide good service
for 10 to 20 years if properly installed.
Thermistors are not generally recommended
because they may be quite variable from
unit to unit and they may require re-
calibration more frequently than the
other two types of sensors. Rapid re-
sponse is usually not desired in meas-
uring temperature differences. Rather,
averages on the order of 5 minutes are
desired. If the sensors are 1/2 to 5/8
in diameter, they will respond
enough to give an average tem-
perature.
3 Shielding and Ventilating
Guidelines for the exposure of tempera-
ture sensors are covered in the follow-
ing section.
A Recorders
Generally multiple point (10 or 20
points) recorders are used for record-
ing temperature differences. Tims, one
recorder may be used for the entire
system. The recorder is connected to
one sensor for about 30 seconds, prints
and then switches to another level. If
a 6 minute cycle is used (print for each
level every 6 minutes) there will be 10
readings every hour and an hourly aver-
age may easily be obtained by adding the
10 readings and shifting the decimal
point 1 place. The sensors are usually
wired so that the temperature differences
are obtained directly rather than de-
termining the temperature at each level.
B Balloon-borne Sensors
Temperature sensors may be lifted by either
free or captive balloons. By this method,
temperature, not temperature difference,
is measured.
1 Radiosonde
The method of radiosonde (radio-sound-
ings) observations is used routinely
for temperature, pressure and humidity
soundings of the upper air. A free
balloon carries the sensors and a radio
transmitter aloft. Cycling from sensor
to sensor is by means of an aneroid
barometer and consequently is a function
of pressure. Observations are normally
made twice daily at 0000 GCT and 1200
6-1D
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Meteorological Instruments
GCT at approximately 70 stations In the
contiguous U.S. The ascent rate of the
balloon Is about 1000 ft/minute. Gen-
erally only 4 to 6 temperature readings
nre recorded within the lower 3000 feet
so the vertical temperature information
is. not too detailed. It is still of
considerable use when more detailed
information is not available.
2 T-Sonde
This .system consists ot a temperature
sensor and radio transmitter which is
carried aloft by a free rising balloon.
The main difference between this system
and the radiosonde system is that only
temperature is measured. Ten to twelve
measurements are taken within the lower
3000 feet of the atmosphere, thus giving
more detailed structure of temperature
with height.
3 Tethered Kite Balloon
Using a captive balloon system to make
vertical temperature measurements has
the advantages of complete recovery of
all components of the system, and as
detailed a temperature sounding as is
desired may be made by control of the
level of the sensor. A balloon having
fins is much easier to control and gives
greater lift in slight winds than a
spherical balloon. See Figure 18. Most
kite balloons can be used in winds less
than 15 knots. For air pollution mete-
orology purposes, the light wind periods
are of greatest interest anyway. He-
cause of hazards to aircraft, prior
permission from the FAA is required for
flights exceeding 500 feet above ground.
For additional precautions when using
captive balloons, the reader is referred
to the section on "Kxposure of Airborne
Instruments".
Several methods of relaying the observa-
tions to the ground have been used.
a Wiresonde
Using this system, a resistance ther-
mometer is carried aloft by a kite
balloon whose mooring cable contains
wires connecting the sensor with a
wheatstone bridge on the ground which
is used to measure the resistance.
b Modified Radiosonde Transmitter
Another system uses a modified radio-
sonde transmitter to measure temper-
ature and humidity. The signal is
transmitted to the ground receiver
and recording equipment by the same
method used in the radiosonde. Cycl-
ing from one sensor to another is by
a battery driven timing device. The
temperature sensor is shielded from
the sun by the styrofoam plastic and
is aspirated by a small motor driven
fan. The mooring of this system is .
by nylon cable marked at intervals
to indicate the height of the sensor.
C Aircraft Borne Sensors
In some cases, light aircraft or helicopters
have been used for obtaining temperature
lapse rate measurements. Although there
are complete systems commercially available
for this method of temperature lapse rate
measurement, one can use standard temper-
ature sensors (thermisters, resistance
thermometers, etc.) and recorders as long
as the exposure guidelines presented in the
next section are followed.
IV THE MEASUREMENT OF SECONDARY METEOROLOGICAL
PARAMETERS
A Precipitation
Because large particles and water soluble
gases may be removed from the atmosphere
by falling precipitation, measurements of
this element may be needed. Chemical or
radioactive analysis of rain water may
also be desired.
1 Standard Rain Gauge
The standard rain gauge consists of a
metal funnel 8 inches in diameter, a
measuring tube having 1/10 the cross-
sectional area of the funnel, and a
large container of 8 inches diameter
(Figure 20). Normally precipitation is
funneled into the measuring tube. The
depth of water in the tube is measured
using a dip stick having a special scale
(because of the reduction in area).
Measurements with this instrument, since
they are made manually, give only accu-
mulation since the last measurement.
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Meteorological Instruments
Figure 20 - Standard Rain Gauge
2 Recording Rain Gauge
The recording (or weighing) bucket rain
gauge does give detailed time resolu-
tion of occurrence, and amount of preci-
pitation as a strip chart, with one
revolution per day, is used. The gauge
consists of a bucket (to hold the preci-
pitation) on a scale, which weighs the
precipitation and moves the pen arm,
recording the total accumulation on the
chart, calibrated in inches. (Figure 21)
Figure 21 - Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge
3 Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge
This precipitation gauge has a bucket
with two compartments beneath the col-
lecting funnel. (Figure 22). When one
side of the bucket collects a given
amount (usually 0.01 inch) of precipita-
tion, the bucket tips and empties the
precipitation, collecting the next por-
tion in the other side. The bucket
movements are recorded on a chart. The
number of bucket movements and the time
they occur indicate the rainfall amount
and rate. This type instrument is not
suitable for measuring snow.
Figure 22 - Tipping Bucket
A Precipitation Collector
For research purposes, it is desirable
to analyze rainfall as to its chemical
and radioactive constituents. Since it
is desirable to include only precipita-
tion samples, and not material that may
fall into the collector during dry pe-
riods, a collector which opens only dur-
ing periods of precipitation has been
developed. The sensor (Figure 23) has
two sets of adjacent wires. A raindrop
falling between the wires completes an
electrical circuit which removes the
cover from a polyethylene container.
A small heat source dries the sensor so
that the circuit will be broken when
precipitation ceases and also so that
dew will not form and open the collector.
This instrument is illustrated in Figure
24.
6-21
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Meteorological Instruments
Figure 23 - Rain Detector for Automatic
Precipitation Collector
Figure 24 - Automatic Precipitation
Collector (Open)
r
Figure 25 - Hygrothermograph
B Humidity
Because of its influence upon certain
chemical reactions in the atmosphere and
its influence upon visibility, it may be
desirable to measure humidity in connection
with an air pollution investigation. Also,
some air pollutants affect receptors dif-
ferently with different humidities, so
measurement may be of importance in this
respect.
1 Hygrothermograph
This instrument measures both tempera-
ture and humidity, activating pen arms
to give a continuous record of each
element upon a strip chart. The chart
generally can be used for 7 days. The
humidity sensor generally used is human
hairs which lengthen as relative humidi-
ty increases and shorten with humidity
decreases. Temperature measurements
are usually made with a bourdon tube,
a curved metal tube containing an or-
ganic liquid. The system changes
curvature with changes in temperature,
activating the pen arm. A hygro-
thermograph is shown in Figure 25.
2 Psychrometers
Humidity measurement by a psychrometer
involves obtaining a dry bulb tempera-
ture and a wet bulb temperature from a
matched set of thermometers. One
thermometer bulb (wet bulb) is covered
with a muslin wick moistened with dis-
tilled water. There must be enough air
6-22
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Meteorological Instruments
motion to cause cooling of the wet bulb
due to evaporation of the water on the
wick. A motor driven fan may be used
to draw air at a steady rate past the
moistened wick while a reading is taken.
A sling psychrometer has both thermo-
meters mounted on a frame which is
whirled through the air to cause cool-
ing by evaporation. Relative humidity
is determined from the dry and wet bulb
readings through the use of tables.
Continuous measurements of humidity are
not obtained using psychrometers.
C Radiation
The influence of the sun's radiation upon
the turbulence of the atmosphere and upon
certain photochemical reactions is suffi-
cient to make measurements of radiation of
importance. In addition, radiation may be
reduced due to particulute pollution in the
atmosphere. Particularly for research pur-
poses, it may be desirable to measure this
effect by comparisons between urban and
non-urban stations similarly instrumented.
1 Total Radiation
The direct radiation from the sun plus
the diffuse radiation from the sky may
be measured by pyranometers. These
instruments are mounted so that the
sensor is horizontal and can receive the
radiation throughout the hemisphere
defined by the horizon. The instrument
illustrated in Figure 26 is of this type.
2 Direct Solar Radiation
Normal incidence pyrheliometer -
The direct solar radiation may be meas-
ured continuously by using the pyrheli-
ometer shown in Figure 27 mounted upon
an equatorial mount (Figure 28) to keep
it pointed toward the sun. By using
filters, different spectral regions of
radiation may be determined.
3 Net Radiation
The difference between the total in-
coming (solar plus sky) radiation and
the outgoing terrestial radiation may be
Figure 26 - "Black and White" Pyranometer
:
Figure 27 - Pyrheliometer
Figure 28 - Equatorial Mount
6-23
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Meteorological Instruments
Figure 29 - Net Radiometer
useful in determining the stability, and
hence, the turbulent character, of the
lowest portion of the atmosphere. A net
radiometer is shown in Figure 29.
D Visibility
Visibility, in addition to being affected
by precipitation, is affected by humidity
and air pollution. Frequently, visibility
is estimated by human observer. An instr-
ument to measure visibility, called a
transmissometer, measures the transmission
of light over a fixed baseline, usually on
the order of 500 to 750 feet. An intense
light source from the projector is focused
on a photocell in the detector. The amount
of light reaching the photocell over the
constant baseline distance is assumed to be
proportional to visibility. The transmisso-
meter is restricted to estimating visibility
in one direction only.
A transmissometer is also limited in that
the light transmission it detects is af-
fected mainly by liquid droplets in the
air. It does not detect, to any great
efficiency, the particulate matter in the
atmosphere. The projector is shown in
Figure 30 and the detector in Figure 31.
A relatively new instrument, called a neph-
elometer, has been developed that will in-
dicate visibility as it is affected by
particulate matter in the atmosphere. An
integrating nephelometer is shown in Fig-
ure 32.
Figure 30 - Transmissometer Detector
Figure 31 - Transmissometer Receiver
Figure 32 - Integrating Nephelometer
6-24
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Meteorological Instruments
V. KHMOTi: SUN-SING TKCtlNIQUUS
Remote sensing is based on measurements of the
interaction of waves with the medium under
study. Sensing systems make use of acoustic,
radio or optical waves and may he termed passive
using waves of natural origin, or, in greater
use,active using man-wade waves. Seven at-
mospheric parameters ure most often measured
as n function of time, including: wind, temp-
erature,humidity, cloud particles, precipita-
tion, aerosols and gaseous pollutants. Infor-
mation which may be obtained as described by
Little (1972), varies in complexity from the
integrated value of the parameter along a line
through the whole atmosphere, a line integral,
to its full 4 dimensional distribution in
time and space, the flux.
A. Wind .Sensing
1 Lascr/lidar - the scintillation of light
from a laser beam has been used to
measure the transverse component of t?ic
wind across the signal pathlenth. Rela-
tively long pathlcngths (100m to several
km) can be used to obtain an average line
integral of the wind velocity. Somewhat
lower velocities are measured when compared
to anemometer cup readings due to the space
averaging of the laser system (l)ickson,
l'.)7S). Two orthogonal systems would yield
horizontal velocity.
2 Hi static /icons tic I'udar - acoustic energy
is scattered by turbulent fluctuations of
temperature and wind velocity. When two
transmitters are used and one is tilted
22° toward the basic transducer the receiver
picks up the Dopplcr shift in signal scat-
tered bad at lf>8°. Scattering at this
angle is due to small scale velocity
variations which can be translated to wind
velocity components.
3 Kadio/radar - radio waves interact more
weakly in a clear atmosphere than do op-
tical or acoustic waves. The iu'tck scattering
radar cross section is very low although
high power pulsed Soppier radars or I-'M-CW
systems have been used to demonstrate a
feasibility for determining winds. At the
present hydrometeors or artificial chaff
must he present for acceptable results.
Research on CW forward scatter radars is
reported by lUrkemeior, et.nl. (T>73).
li. Temperature Profi les
1 J,aser/lidar - by measuring the ground level
atmospheric pressure at a laser site and
assuming that the hydrostatic equation
can be used to predict pressures aloft,
temperature profiles can be derived from
the Raman !>acl;scatter from nitrogen.
Lidar systems have been used qualitatively
to infer temperature structure, primarily
temperature discontinuities such as
inversion layers, due to local maximum
in ncrosol distributions (Anfossi, et.al.,
H'74).
2 Monostatic Acoustic Radar - when back-
scattered acoustic energy is received
from a co-located source the scattering
due to thermal fluctuations is detected.
Commercial systems generate sound bursts
of about 70 dliA at a frequency of 1600
llz with electrical power input of 35 to
140 W and a repetition rate of one pulse
per 7 seconds when measuring the lowest
500 m layer (Tombach, et. a 1. 1973). The
acoustic system does not directly measure
the temperature profile but the echo
signals represent energy scattered by
turbulent fluctuations; from this data
inferences regarding stahility.turbulence
and inversions arc made.
3 Radio Acoustic Sounding System (UASS)-
this system is a hybrid device which
uses an acoustic transducer to send a
burst of sound upward into the atmosphere
and a Dopplcr radar to track the sound
wave and determine its propogation speed.
Hrrors due to vertical velocities are
overcome by averaging the signals over
several minutes and temperature profiles
up to 3km on a real-time, continuous
basis arc possible (North jvt .nl.,
4 Microwave Radiometers - passive ground-
based radiometers can measure thermal
emission in any frequency band where
gaseous constituents strongly absorb.
One technique is based on detecting
natural thermal radiation of oxygen
molecules in the atmosphere at 54 or 55
Cllz, depending on the upper height de-
sired for the profile. Since a line
profile is obtained, the distribution
of the parameter along a line of known
length,the smoothed record,makes deter-
mination of sharp discontinuities, eg.
inversions, quite difficult (Westwater
and Snider, 1975). Profiles can be
obtained from the surface to about 5km.
C. Mixing Depth
1 Laser/lidar - backscattcrcd laser light
measurements arc very useful in providing
(-25
-------
Meteorological Instruments
continuous records of changes in the
depth of the surface mixed layer. Plumes
from pollution point sources are also
easi ly "traced" by lidar techniques in
stable, neutral and unstable atmospheric
conditions.{Bacci, ct.al. 1974)
2 Acoustic sounder - the depth of the mixed
layer is one of the most easily obtained
outputs from a monostatic system. The
inversion that caps the mixed layer can
be monitored as displayed on a simple
facsimile recorder (Wyckoff, et.al, 1973),
A list of applications for acoustic sounders
is provided by Thomson (1975) together
with an extensive list of references.
3 Radio/radar - FM/CW radars, discussed above
arc very useful in detecting marine in-
version layers. Bcran and Hall (1974)
attribute most of the signal returned to
such radars by changes in refractive index
to humidity discontinutics rather than
temperature.
I), Meteorological Satellite Techniques
There arc several methods for determining
temperature profiles from radiometric
observations on board satellites. 'Ihc
three major atmospheric windows (minimum
molecular absorption) for sensing surface
temperatures and three major absorption
bands due to constituents uniformly
distributed in the atmosphere can be used
to construct vertical temperature profiles.
The three bandwidths used aboard space-
craft are 4.3 pm, 15 pra and 5mm. Smith
(l'.>72) discusses several methods used to
derive temperature profiles from NIMBUS
data. The major drawback is the deep
layer averaging technique which negates
resolution of temperature discontinuities
in the lower few *«• Hopefully, NASA's
next research and development satellite,
NIMBUS G, to be launched in 1978 as
NIMBUS 7.,will incorporate advances to
minimize this drawback. Its primary
Hission is to detect, identify, map and
measure air and ocean pollution, (lleins,
et.al., 1975).
REFERENCES
1 llcwson, I:. W. "Meteorological Measurements"
in Air Pollution. Vol. II New York, Academic
1'ress. pp 329-387.
2 Slade, 1). H., Editor "Meteorology and Atomic
nncrgy-1968" U.S. AliC, Division of Technical
Information, pp 257-300.
3 Middleton, W.E.K., and Spilhaus, A.F.
Meteorological Instruments, Toronto,
University of Toronto Press, pp 141-165.
1953.
4 I/jckhart, T. J. "Bivanes and Direct Turbu-
lence Sensors." Meteorology Research Inc.
MRI 170 Pa 928, June 1970.
5 Stem, A. C., Editor "Air Pollution"
Second Edition Vol. II New York, Academic
Press. 1968. pp 334-347.
6 Docbelin, 1:. 0. "Measurement Systems:
Application and Design. "McGraw-Hill Co.,
New York, Chapter 7.
7 Stein, P. K. "Classification Systems for
Transducers and Measuring Systems."
Symposium on Environmental Measurements,
U.S. Dcpt. HEW, July 1964. pp 65-68.
8 Angel 1, J. K. and Pack, D. II. "Analysis
of Some Preliminary Low-Level Constant
Level Balloon, (Tctroon) Flights." Mon.
Wea. Rev. 88, 7, 235-248. 1960.
9 Ilewson, E. W., and Gill, G. C. In report
submitted to the Trail Smelter Arbitral
Tribunal by R. S. Dean and R. 13. Swain,
U.S. Bur. Mines Bull, 453, 155-160. 1944.
10 Cooke, T. II. "A Smoke-Trail Technique for
Measuring Wind." Quart. J.Roy. Mctcoro].
Soc. 88, 83-88. 1962.
11 George, I). II. and Zeller, K. F. "Visibility
Sensors in Your Air Quality Program." Prcs.
Second Joint Conf. on Sensing of Env.
Pollutants, December, 1973.
12 Monteith, J. L. Survey of Instruments For
Mi rromotAorolopv. IBP Handbook No. 22.
Blackwell Scientific Publications. 1972
Hist, by F. A. Davis Co. 1915 Arch St.
Phila. Pa.
13 Pendergast, M.M. A Cautionary Note Concerning
Aerodynamic Flying of Bivanc Wind Direction
Indicators. J. App. Meteor. Bol. 14, No. 4.
626-627, June 1975.
14 Little, C. G. Status of Remote Sensing of
the Troposphere. Bull. AMS, Vol. 53. No.
10. 936-949, October 1972.
15 Dickson, C. R. Intercomparison of Standard
Anemometry Techniques. NOAA Manuscript
June 1975.
6-26
6-26
-------
Meteorological Instruments
16 Hirkerocier, W. P. etal. Wind Measurements
Us in,, rorwajd-Scatter C.W. Kadar. J. App.
Meteor. Vol. 12, No. 6., 1044-1053, Sept-
ember 1973.
17 Anfossi, I). Bncci P. and Longhetto, A.
An Application of l.idar Technique to the
Study of the Nocturnal Kadi at ion In-
version. Atmos. linv. Vol. H, No. 0,
537-541, Juno 1974.
IK Tomhach, I., Mac (".ready, I', li. anil I'.aboolal,
I.. Use of a Monstatic Acoustic Sounder in
Air Pollution Diffusion listimates. 1'res.
Second Joint C.ouf. -Sens ing of llnviroiimental
Pollutants. December 1973.
1!) North, I:. M. Peterson, A. M. and Parry,
II. I). KASS, a Remote Sensing System for
Measuring Low- Level Temperature Profiles.
Bull. AMS, Vol. 54, No. 9,912-919,
September 1973.
20 IVestwatcr, li. I!., Snider, ./. H. , and
Carlson, A. V. lixpcr imcntal Determination
of Temperature Profiles by ('.round-Based
Microwave Kadi ometry . .1. App. Meteor.
Vol. 11, No. /I, 524-530, .hme 1975.
21 liacci, P. Hlcsci, ('.. and l.onghetto, A.
l.idar Measurements of Plume Rise and
Dispersion at Ostiglia Power Station.
Atmos. linv. Vol.8, No. 11, 1177-H8(.,
November 197.1.
J2 Wyckoft', K. .(..Beran, I). W. and Hall, !•.!•'.,
.Ir. A C.om]iar i son of the l.ow-l.evel
Radiosonde and the Acoustic l-cho Sounder
I'or Monitoring Atmospheric Stability.
.). App. Meteor. Vol. 12, No. 7, 1196-
12(1.1, October 1073.
J3 'Ilioinson, l>- I'. ACDAK Met eorolojty : 'Hie
A]ipl ication and Interpretation of
Atmospheric Acoustic Sounding Measurements.
Pres. Third Symposium on Meteorological
Observations and Instrumentation. AMS.
Washington, (}.('.. I-ebruary 1975.
21 Her;m, D. W. and Mall, !•'. 1. , -'r. Remote
Sensing for Air Pollution Meteorology,
26 ileins, C. F. Johnson, F. 0..Mangold, I-. C.
Spectroscopic Instruments, Satellites,and
Computers: New Directions for Monitoring
the Hnvironmcnt. Hnv. Science (, Tech. Vol.
9, No. 8, 720-725, August 1975.
Hull, AMS, Vol. 55, No.
September, 1974.
1097-1105,
Smith, W. I.. Satellite Techniques for
Observing the Temperature Structure of
the Atmosphere. Bull. AMS, Vol. 53, No. 11,
1071-10K2, November 1972.
6-27
-------
Exposure of Instruments
Ronald ('. Hi ifi ker
Exposure of Surface Instruments
INTRODUCTION
Kxposure of ins trumont.it:ion is un-
ddiihrcdl v one of the most Important steps
In any air pollution study. Tt is absolutely
necessary to locate the Instrumentation in
such a manner that the measurements are
representative of the area in which one is
interested. In some cases, such as street
level measurements in a city, it is desirable
to obtain measurements of extremely local
phenomena, but generally in air pollution
meteorology, measurements that are re-
presentative of a fairly large area are
desired. In this latter case, extreme care
must be taken to ensure that the parameter
being measured is not influenced by nearby
obstacles.
An example of the effect of a building
mi regional wind flow is shown in Figure 1.
Bel fort aerovane
Hendi x anrovane
6ft
I /^'/// /-f/J/l
c la shows two identical aerovanes
mounted on a tower approximately 20 feet south
of a 12 foot high building. The only
difference in exposure between the two
aerovanes Is the 6 foot difference in height.
It can be seen from Figure Ib that when the
wind is blowing from the west, both sensors
arc apparently free of building influence,
with both wind traces indicating typical
mechanical type turbulence. I'owever, when
the wind shifts to the north-west, the
turbulence characteristics change markedly
in the wind flow being sensed by the Bendix
aerovane at the 6 foot level. At the 1
foot level, the Belfort aerovane continues
to indicate typical mechanical type turbulence.
IJhich trace is indicative of the regional
wind flow? It is the purpose of this chapter
to explore the concepts needed to answer this
question.
-—'.'"'"—'-^"-
12ft
Grassy field
Vv
20ft
Building C
la. Location of wind equipment that produced the traces of I Igure II)
Ranald C. Hi Ifiker
Knvironmuntal Research
and Technology, Inc.
Concord, MA 01742
I'A.MK.mm.l )!>.'». /I
6-29
-------
Bendix Aerovane,
6 feet, half of roof height
Belfort Aerovane,
12 feet, at roof level
Wind blowing
over building
Large eddy
turbulence due to |
building effect
Wind direction
change to N.W
Mechanical turbulence
(grassy field)
Wind direction
fromW
Wind blowing
over field
i
i
: -
1
•
:
-------
Kxposure of Instruments
mean velocity profile
I'Inure 2 Tvpie.'il flow pattern around a cube with one face to the wind
ANKMOMCTKRK AND WIND VANI'.S
In recent years, an attempt lias been
mnde af standardizing the height above
(•.round a I which "surface wind" tne.isitrei ient s
••ill he taken. The World Meteorological
Orc.anlzat Ion (WHO) .mil the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) have
anrced on 10 meters for this standard height.
Me illy the measurements would be taken over
level, open terrain, hut very rarely do
these conditions exist in an air pollution
survey area. "hat rules of thumb or
j'uiilel in»s can be followed if obstructions
are present in the vicinity of the spot
whore wind measurements are to be taken?
Figure 2 illustrates a typical flow
pattern around a cube that lias one face
normal to the wind flow. I'rom Figure 2
several things can be noted:
1) The flow is disturbed on the up-
wind and downwind sides of the
obstruction.
2) The flov; i.". disturbed nhnvn Llic
huildin," to a height of about I
to 1 1/2 building heights above
the roof.
3) Very ne.-ir the roof of the. building
:\ reverse flow occurs .
6-31
-------
Kxposure of Instruments
1 heinht
S to 10 heiqhts
l-'igure 1 shows a more extensive view
of l In' disruption in the ambient air flow
around an obstruction. From Figure 3, one
ran formulate1 three rules of rhumb for
I oral in); a wind system around an obstruc-
tion while keeping the sensor located in
I In- amh i«'nt air f low:
I) 'I'lii- sensor must he located a
e located on
the roof of the huildiii); it cnusl
be at least one building hoi fib t
above the roof.
M Tin- sensor must he locatc-d a
distance of 5 lo !(> building
hi'ii;hts in tile downwind diri'ction.
These t'.uidelines would apply most
directly to a cuhic.il obstruction standing
by itself on open, level terrain. A:: the
•ili.-1'H- of the obstruction changes or as
more obstructions become involved, the
;.i
-------
Exposure of Instruments
Motor assembly
Figure 4 - Aspirated solar radiation shield
If a standard thermometer is to be exposed,
the cotton region shelter of Figure 5 will
fulfill requirement (1) above. Ventilation
wllJ he natural and therefore variable in
rate- so the requirement of rule (2) is not
met exactly, but for standard thermometers,
the error or effect is negligible.
If the shelter of Figure 5 is to be used,
care should be taken to orient the door to-
wards the north to eliminate solar heating of
the thermometers while taking a reading. The
thermometers should also be located as close
to the center of the shelter as possible.
Requirement (3) above ensures that ambient
air temperature Is being measured, and not
the temperature of a micro-environment such
as the air very near the south side of a
brick building or near an asphalt roadway or
parking lot.
KF.I.AT1VK HUMIDITY
Since relative humidity is not only a function
of the amount of water vapor In the atmosphere,
but Is also dependent on temperature, exposure
criteria outlined for temperature should also;
be observed for relative humidity.
Shield assembly
Thermometer bulbs
should he at least
3 inches from the
top, bottom, and
sides of shelter
5ft.
NORTH
jFigure 5 - Cotton region type
instrument shelter1
6-33
-------
Kxposurt; of Instruments
IPRKClPITATItW
The previous section describes the design
and operation principles of rain gauges. Care
must he taken In the exposure of a rain gauge
jto ensure that the collection efficiency of
the gauge is not reduced. Wind and its assoc^-
!ated turbulence are the two most important
factors that would tend to change the collec-j
tion efficiency of the gauge. If the wind
blows the rain into the gauge on a slant, the
icollection area is changed and therefore the
efficiency would be changed producing an
'error in the indicated rainfall. If consider-
'ablc turbulence exists around the gauge, the
rainfall itself will be disturbed, again
.producing errors in the indicated rainfall.
These considerations produce the following
guidelines:
I) The gauge .should bo free of over-
hanging obstructions.
2) The gauge should be a sufficient
distance from obstacles to avoid
local eddys.
')) The- gauge- should hi1 sheltered from
the possiblUy of high wind speeds
at the gauge.
Ideally, all three criteria could be met if
the gauge was located in a clearing in a woods
or orchard where the diameter of the clearing
is about equal to the height of the surround-
ing trees. A windshield, such as the one
shown in Figure r>, can also be Installed to
reduce the distortion of ihe air flow around
tin- gauge.
RADIATION
Solar radial Ion measurements require exposure
that will Insure \v> obstructions between tin1
sun and the uonsor during any part of the
year, and In the case ol total solar radia-
tion (direct and diffuse) as clear a view as
possible of the entire sky is necessary.
The measurement of net radiation requires
that the sensor be placed far enough away
from the earth's surface to receive terrest-
ial radiation over a representat I ve area,
yet not far enough from the surface to receive
radiation from a thick air layer above the
surface. Vor net radiation measurements, a
height between 1 and 2 meters (3 to 6 feet)
is generally recommended.
Kigure 6 - Shielded rain gauge
A good discussion of t! c problems resulting
from and so I "t ions for removal of dew :ind
I'rnsl formation may be found in:
Peterson, .1. T., l-'lowcrs, r.. C. and Itnilisill,
.1. II. Hew and l:rost Deposition on Pyranomctcrs.
.1. Applied Meteor. Vol. 12, No. 7: 1231-1233,
October, 1!>73.
-------
Exposure of Instruments
Exposure of Instruments on Towers or Stacks
INTRODUCTION
lii striving to mi-fit the exposure criteria
outlined in the Last section, it is often
necessary to mount meteoro logical sensors on
towers or masts. Unless tlicso sensors are
mounted properly, errors will he introduced
in tin- measurements due to the influence1 of
the tower on the parameter hcing sensed. Tt
is the purpose of this section to set forth
guidelines to eliminate these tower induced
errors.
WfNI) SYSTKMS
If a wind system (anemometer and vane) are
lo he iiiounl ed on top of a tower, little con-
cern is needed as to exposure. If, however,
wind equipment is to he installed on the side
of I lie lower, precautions should he taken to
ensure thai the wind measurements are not
influenced by the tower. An analysis hy (;IIJ
and Olsson (1967) has shown that the turhulence
in the wake of lattice-type towers Is moderate
to severe, and that in the wake of solid
towers anil stacks is extreme, often with re-
versal of flow.
Another study hy Moses and Daubek (]'J61) re-
vealed that the air flow on the lee side of
a tower may be reduced to about one-half its
true value under light wind conditions and
about 252 for higher winds (10-14 mph). The
study also revealed that when the. wind blow-
ing toward the anemometer made an angle of
20 to 40° with respect to the sides of the
tower adjacent to the anemometer, the measured
wind speed exceeded the true wind speed by
about 30%.
These studies illustrate the necessity of
proper exposure.
N
\
\
\
Poor measurements
for this sector
V
Location of
• wind sensors
Accurate wind measurements
for this sector
\
Figure I - Wind sensor exposure on a tower
(»-35
-------
lixposure of Instruments
/
y\
/
N
\
Accurate wind
measurements >
for this sector /
/
Location of
wind sensors
V
/
/
/
/
/
<
Figure 2 - Wind sensor exposure on a stack
Figure I illustrates I lie correct exposure of
;i wind son.sor on an open tower. The following
exposure criteria slicmlil be observed:
1) The tiouin should extend outward from
a rorner of I he tower into the wind
, dime l ion of primary concern.
2) The boom should place the sensor out
from the tower ;i distance not less
than the length ol a side of the tow-
er. (I enj;th I) in Figure 1 )
3) Tin- wind sensors should he located at
heights ol mi n iiiinni lower density, and
above or below horizontal cross mem-
bers.
If the above JMI! do lines are followed, the
following accuracies can be expected:
1) For a boom length of ID, measurements
of wind speed are true within + 10%
for a 310° sector of arc.
2) For a boom length of 21) the wind speed
is accurate within + 107 for a 330°
sector of arc.
3) Kor these two arcs, wind direction is
accurate to within approximately * 5%.
Poor measurements
for this sector
With a boom length of 1 -2D, wind speed and
direction measurements within * 57. can only
be obtained for a 240 - 270° sector of arc.
This is the case illustrated in Figure 1.
It has been found in practice that the maximum
practical boom length is about 20-30 feet. If
the wind sensors are to be mounted on very
large towers (TV towers or fire look-out tow-
ers), the sector of arc. yielding accurate wind
measurements may drop to 180° due to the fact
that the boom length may be less than 11).
In any case, if accurate wind measurements are
required for an arc sector greater than that
produced by the above exposure criteria, it
is recommended that two sets of speed and
direction sensors be placed at ]80° apart in
the manner prescribed in the above guidelines.
KXPOSUR]! OK WIND SENSORS ON CLOSKU TOWF.RS OK
STACKS
Preferably, closed towers or stacks should not
be used to support meteorological sensors. If
a stack must be used, the following exposure
guidelines should be observed:
1) The boom should place the sensor out
from the stack a distance not less
than 2 stack diameters.
-------
Exposure of Instruments
2) Instruments should never be located
within 2-5 stack diameters of the top
of an active stack.
Figure 2 illustrates the correct exposure of
a wind sensor on a stack. If the above guide-
1ines are used one can expect accurate wind
measurements (i 5 to 10% of true value)
through an arc of only 180° as shown in Figure
2. As with towers, if accurate wind measurements
through a full 360° of Azimuth are desired,
it Is recommended that two sets of wind systems
lie used. Those two systems should be located
180" apart, and exposed according to the
above guidelines.
TKMI'F.RATI
SYSTMMS
Temperature sensors should also be exposed on
booms out from the tower structure to assure
that the temperature of the air sampled is
not influenced by thermal radiation from the
tower itself. Temperature sensors should never
be mounted on stacks.
Booms for temperature sensors need not be as
long as for wind sensors, but generally, both
wind and temperature sensors are located on
the same boom at about the same distance from
the tower. The temperature sensors themselves
must be shielded and ventilated as described
in the previous section.
SPAt:iN<: OK WIND AND TF.MPF.KATUKF SYSTKMS
Figure 3 illustrates a typical spacing of wind
and temperature systems on a tower. Wind
sensors are normally spaced at logarithmic
height intervals (10,20,40,80, 160 meters)
because of the normally logarithmic change of
wind speed with height.
Temperature measurements should be made at
close intervals near the ground, and at approx-
imately equal intervals at greater heights
as shown in Figure 3. A logarithmic spacing
is not necessary since temperature profiles
become approximately linear a short distance
from the surface.
With botli wind and temperature, provisions
must be made for swinging or telescoping the
boom in order to service the sensors. Pro-
visions also must be made for orienting the
wind vane correctly when the boom is in the
service position.
W,TD
160 meters
Tl
120 meters
P^. W,TD
80 meters
W,TD 40 meters
W.TD 20 meters
W,TD 10 meters
Figure 3 - Vertical snacing on a tower
0-37
-------
Exposure of Instruments
Exposure of Airbolrne Instruments
INTKOOI'CTION
The measurement of meteorological parameters
aloft may require the use of such devices as
balloons, aircraft, rockets, etc. With many of
these methods, surface-based receiving and re-
cording instrumentation is necessitated.
Then-fore, a discussion of the exposure of air-
borne instruments must also include a discussion
of the exposure of the surface-based support
equipment.
EXPOSURE OF SURFACE BASED SYSTEMS
The measurement of wind aloft by balloon track-
ing may involve the use of radar or radio
direction-finding equipment. Sites for radio
and radar equipment should be on relatively
high ground with the horizon as free from obs-
tructions as possible. Of greatest importance
to free balloon launchings is that there be no
nearby obstructions to hinder the flight of the
balloon. The operation of captive balloons
(wiresondes) should be carried out only in
opt-n areas and never near power lines. Part-
icular <-aro should be taken to properly ground
all captive balloon equipment and operations
should he carried out only during periods of
minimal atmospheric' electrical potential. It
should be nuti-d that KAA author izat ion is
necessary for most i-apt ive balloon operations.
EXPOSURE OK AIRCRAFT MOUNTED SYSTEMS
The main exposure problem associated with
measurements from an aircraft is the fact
that the sensors must be exposed to undis-
turbed air. Fixed wing propeller slip-
streams and helicopter downwash must be
avoided. For temperature measurements, en-
gine and cabin heat must also be avoided,
a ml .1 correction must be made for airspeed.
Vibration of receiving and recording ins-
trumentation in the aircraft may also be
a problem.
The following guidelines are suggested for
exposure of aircraft mounted sensors:
1) On fixed wing aircraft, sensors are
most effectively mounted on the wing-
tips, forward of the wing not less
than two feet.
2) On a helicopter, sensors are most
effectively mounted on the forward
tip of one of the skids, provided a
forward speed of about 15 m/sec is
maintained. This forward speed would
project the downwash behind the sensor.
3) To reduce recorder vibrations, mount-
ings of sponge rubber or plastic
should be used.
KKFKRF.NCF.S:
Exposure of Meteorological Instruments
I) CiU, C..C., Olsson, L.K., Sola, .1.,
and Sudij, M. , "Accuracy of Wind Measure-
ments on Towers or Stacks", bulletin of
the A.M.S., Vol. 48, No. 9, Sept 1967
pp 665-674
2) Moses, II., and Daubek, II.C., "Errors in
Wind Measurements Associated with Tower-
mounted Anemometers", bulletin of the
A.M.S., Vol. 42, No. 3, 1961 pp l'Hl-194
3) ll.iugcn, H.A., Kaimal, J.C., Readings
I"..I., and Rnymont, R. A (lompnri son of
Hal loon-Borne and Tower-Mounted Instru-
mentation for Probing the Atmospheric
Boundary Layer. .1. App. Meteor. Vol. M,
No. 4, 540-545, June 1!>75.
-------
SECTION SEVEN
FURTHER APPLICATIONS
OF METEOROLOGY TO AIR POLLUTION
Air Pollution Weather Forecasts
Air Pollution Surveys
Site Selection for a Pollutant Source
Atmospheric Tracers and Urban Diffusion Experiments
Meteorological Models for Urban Areas
Sources of Meteorological Data
-------
AIR POLLUTION WEATHER FORECASTS
J.L. Dicke
A program to provide air pollution weather
forecasts has been in effect on a year-round
basis since August 1960, for the eastern U.S.
and since October 1963, for the contiguous 48
states. The purpose of the program is to fore-
cast meteorological conditions which are
favorable for the accumulation of contaminants
in the atmosphere. These forecasts are
disseminated to public and private interests
by the National Weather Service, NOAA.
1 DEFINITION
A high potential for community air pollution
has been defined as a set of weather conditions
conducive to the accumulation of atmospheric
pollutants over 36 hours or more and over an
area of about 58,000 nautical mi2 (76,000
statute mi2) or more. Niemeyer, (6) Boettger,
(1) and others have found that such conditions
(e.g., hourly surface wind speeds generally
not exceeding 7kt., winds aloft not exceeding
2Skt., and subsidence below 600mb) occur when
high pressure exists at the surface and there
is a warm-core ridge aloft. This is the basic
synoptic weather situation that the air pollution
forecaster attempts to anticipate. The warm
core ridge aloft is extremely important since
it is indicative of a slow-moving surface
pressure system. If the surface anticyclone
becomes quasi-stationary, as it often does in
such situations, perturbations aloft and at the
surface are forced to move around the system.
V.tiile poor dispersion also occurs during other
types of weather situations, the warm-core
anticyclone is considered the "text book"
model of stagnation.
11 BACKGROUND
HSSA meteorologists assigned to the U. S.
Public Health Service began issuing routine,
operational forecasts of high air pollution
potential for the area east of 105°W longitude
in August, I960. During the first year of
this operation, 12 cases of air pollution
potential occurred; of these,10 were forecast
(Miller and Niemeyer). ™J
In a climatological study of air pollution
potential for the western United States,
Holzworth, C3) also found that the large-
scale synoptic feature most conducive to poor
air quality was the quasi-stationary anticyclone.
This study and the initial success of the fore-
cast program for the eastern United States
*Supervisory Meteorologist , NOAA
Meteorology 6 Assessment Division, EPA
Research Triangle Park, N. C. 27711
PA.ME.as.lOb.9.75
provided the background for a research
program to extend the forecast area to
include the western Tnited States. An
experimental forecasting program for the
western United States was started in September
1961, The program was successful and on
October 1, 1963 the operational forecast
area for air pollution potential advisories was
expanded to include all of the contiguous
United States. Specialized forecast guidance
for Alaska has been provided by the National
Meteorological Center since early 1972.
An isoline analysis of the total number of high
air pollution potential (stagnation advisory)
days forecast from the start of the program
through April 3, 1970 is given in Figure 1.
The area in the eastern half of the United
States with the maximum number of air pollution
potential days is located along the Appalachian
Mountains. The respective area for the western
United States is found over central California.
The initial success of the forecasting program
(prior to 1962) was due mainly to the individual
forecaster's judgement based on experience.
While the necessity for some forecasting judge-
ment has always been required, especially when
fixing the boundaries of high air pollution
potential areas, it was recognized that the
consistency and reliability of the forecasts
could be improved by employing objective
forecasting aids. Such an aid was developed
for the eastern United States by V. D. Urban
(unpublished) and for the western United States
by Miller.C4)
Since these forecasting methods have been
developed, many additional refinements have
been introduced. The forecast program is by
no means in its ultimate form, as continuing
research is directed toward the development
of more useful forecasts and more accurate
forecasting techniques especially at the
National Weather Service Forecast Office (WSFO)
level.
III. GENERAL PROCEDURES AT NMC
A. The Aviation Weather Branch of the Forecast
Division at the National Meteorological
Center (NMC) provides several services in
fulfilling its responsibilities within
the National Weather Service (NWS) Air
Pollution Weather Forecast Program. Forecasters
in Washington, D. C. provide large-scale
meteorological guidance used by field offices
and prepare three major "products."
7-1
-------
Forecasting High Air Pollution Potential
H
10
39 Episodes nest
1 Octo&er 1963 - 3 ADM 1 15/C
75 Eoisodes East
1 August 1960-3 Aoril 1970
-------
Mr Pollution Weather Forcasts
I. Air St;i)'.n;il i on Guidance Charts are
issued once daily in the morning on
I 01-AX as shown in IM/;. 2.
2. Air Stagnation Narratives I-'KUS 2 are
plain language teletypewriter messages
issued several times daily on Service
('. as shown in Fig. 3.
3. Air Stagnation liata FKUS 1 is a computer
produced teletypewriter message issued
once daily on Service C as shown in
Table 1.
1. A log oT Air Stagnation Advisories (ASA")
as issued by each WSl:0 is maintained
at NMC.
The issuance or termination of" an ASA is
not tin- responsibility of NMC but recommendations
and advice are available to WSI-O meteorologists.
It. Forecast Stagnation Charts
The >\ charts in l-'jg. 2 are a "man-machine
mix" product. A computer forecast of
various parameters affecting stagnation
is generated and the patterns are then
mollified by the forecaster as required to
produce the final facsimile product. The
computer evaluates vorticity, 12-hour
vorticity chnnge, 12-hour f.OOO ft. temp-
erature change, TiOOO ft. wind snood and
precipitation probability for each radio-
sonde station. If specific criteria are
met the station is evaluated again, using
more critical criteria. Those stations
remaining after the second evaluation are
printed out and subjectively evaluated
by the forecaster in terms of reliability
of boundary layer wind speed input,
vort i c.i ty prognoses, fore-cast precipi tat ion
areas, frontal location:- and their move-
ment, stability index values, and upper
flow patterns. The final results arc-
transposed to facsimile charts for trans-
mission at K'27 CMT (0727 CST) daily.
Mixing height data are not input to thi;
product .
Air Stagnation Narratives - FKIIS.!
Tin- purpose of these narratives is to
provide the WSI-O's with
1. An explanation of forecast stagnation
patterns stressing areas of probable
deterioration or improvement of
dispersion conditions.
2. Outlooks and guidance for dispersion
problems.
3. NMC: Forecaster estimate' of general
dispersion conditions anil trends in
stagnation areas.
A narrative is issued in the morning
to coincide with the facsimile transmission
and another is transmitted as an update shortly
after noon. The afternoon narrative is filed
as early as possible, between 15(10-153(1 I-;ST,
and also contains a brief summary cf ASA's
that are in effect as received from the WSI-'O's.
II. Air Stagnation Data - I MIS 1
This message is sent by NMC computer on
Service C teletype and contains a list
of mixing height and transport wind data
for selected stations. 'Hie heights are
in decameters, wind speeds in meters per
second. Table 1 is an example partial
listing of the daily transmission at
1720 Z C 122(1 i:ST).
IV. Till; AIR POLLUTION FTFLI) FORECAST INC, I'KOCKAM
A. Weather Service Forecast Offices (WSI-O)
'Ilic 43 WSFO's are responsible for issuing
air pollution weather forecasts covering
their respective areas and have assigned
either a Focal Point or Program Lcaiif. r to
this task. Three basic air pollution pro-
ducts arc issued by the WSFO:
1. Air Stagnation Advisory - (ASA)-I-'KIISI
This is the basic product issued to air
pollution control agencies and the public as
shown in l-'ijyn'' • '. An ASA is issued when locally
established critical values of transport: wind,
mixing height and other parameters are forecast
to be reached and are expected to persist for
at least 3(> hours, causing a probable signifi-
cant decrease in air quality. Most forecasters
use some type of air stagnation check sheet
to assist them in arriving at a decision. Morning
ami afternoon mixing depth and transport wind
speeds are evaluated and forecast, based on
local data and a variety of NMC products.
At night as the atmosphere traverses an
urban area, it usually acquires a significant
amount of beat from urban sources, causing the
temperature of the air over the city to be
somewhat warmer than that upwind of the city.
'Iliis phenomenon is called the urban "heat island".
An important effect of the urban heat island is
(2)
7-3
-------
VT::OO: MGN SEP 8 1975
F074C. 12HR STAGN AREA
FORECAST
VTOOOOZ TUE SEP 9 197S
F07-JC. 24HR STAGN AREA
FORECAST
VTOOOOZ KE3 SEP 10 1975
COMPOSITE STACN 12Z SEPT
TO 002 SEPT 10
\T120C: TUE SEP 9 1975
F07JC. JOHX STAGS AREA
FORECAST
• J
i
FIGURE 2.
Sample Facsimile Transmission from NMC.Hatched Area Over South Oklahoma and NE
is Forecast to Remain Under Stagnation Conditions During All Four
nods (.3onr.j
-------
Air Pollution Weather Forecasts
'I'ahlc 1. Air Stagnation Data and Code
Z CZ C WBC626
FKIIS1 KWBC 191720
ATR STAGNATION DATA
725
725
725
726
726
72(>
726
727
727
727
62
76
07
37
54
62
94
34
64
75
109042
177018
105021
062026
055153
205166
192056
104J02
002] 54
151115
002051
143019
004000
045051
180232
184205
003015
080067
107196
010046
222133
236048
249029
091062
188232
196205
1 13024
075067
132196
241068
77572
72583
72606
72641.
72655
72681
72712
72747
7276X
72785
1 76060
238046
078021
119129
039093
204068
167046
067100
129164
247038
004026
024067
07605R
036028
163156
999999
028031
149094
108127
017031
255037
307069
073058
132337
180156
099999
153074
221 100
1 34 1 39
256059
Explanation of the Code
11i i i MyMyMyWyWyWy MnMnMnWnWnWn MxMxMxWxWxWx
lliii The block number and station number.
MyMyMy The afternoon mixing height for "Yesterday Afternoon" in decameters.
ivyWyWy The average wind speed within the mixing height for "Yesterday Afternoon" in meters per
second and tenths of meters per second.
MnMnMn The morning mixing height for "This Morning" in decameters.
FnWnWn The average wind speed within the mixing height for "This Morning" in meters per second
and tenths of meters per second.
MxMxMx The afternoon mixing height for "This Afternoon" in decameters.
FxWxWx The average wind speed within the mixing height for "This Afternoon" in meters per
second and tenths of meters per second.
FKIIS2 KWHC 1212/1H
A1U STAGNATION NARRATIVE
REFAX FHT74C.
P(X)U DISPERSION CONDS OVR BAY AREA AND INTI-JUOR VLYS OF CAI.IF WITH AFTN D1IIRNAI. IITG IMPROVING
DISPERSION IN VI.YS...
DF.TERTOKATION LIKELY OVU WEST COAST DIIRC, WKIiND AS PAC BLOCK BECOMES BMT1T.R F.STAKU.Simi)...
HIT TRANSPORT WNDS WII.1, Rl-MAIN NOUTIII-RN AI.A THRU SWRN VA UNWiR WK SFC ROG... OTIII-RWISI- GlINIiUALI.Y
ADIiQtlATi: DISI'l-RSION OVR MOST OF U.S. DURING FCST PI-.RSlOn... CI,ITI'i;RO
F'igurc 3 Air Stagnation Narrative August 12, 1975
-------
RWRC
AIR STAGNATION ADVISORY NUMBER ONE
Figure 1. NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE. . .MEMPHIS TENNESSEE
ISSirET) IP NOON THURSDAY SEPTEMBER k 197S
AN AIR STAGNATION ADVISORY IS ISSIfED FOH ATJ, OK ^KNNK ;SRK AND TIFF
COUNTIES OF CRTTTENDICN IN ARKANSAS AMP DKSOTO TM MTSSTSSTPPT.
STAGNANT II mil TRKSSimi'l OVKR TIIK AREA IS HXI'EfTNn TO CONTINUE
V'KIPAY CAUSING GKNKKAT.I.Y I«OOR IHSPERSTON CONDITIONS. T.'IGIIT WIMPS
Mm A STRONG NIGMTIMK TKMI'KRATinfE INVKR: : I ON AHI1! AI.1WTMC S.MOKK. .
PIIST AMP GA;',E:', TO (^nnri'iNTRATE NEAR TIIK finmiNi).
'"KMT'ORARY TMPKOVKMUNT IN AIR QHAr,ITY IS J'lXT'l'X'TKP TUTS AFTI^NOON
".I IT A WnilRM TO STAGNANT COMDTTTONS WTU. OCCinf AGAIN "'OTITGl'T.
TITK 'IVY''. /MiVTSniiY V'TTJ, RK T[:S!TKD RY ? PM FRTT1AY.
l; i (;urc 5.
in
i
MXDP
IKm--
MNDP
IZOOZ RAWINSOMDE TEMPERATURE PROFILE
"Tmm
TEMPERATURE
TmM
Km \OOOFt.
WINDS
ALOFT
I'igurc 0.
FKUS4 RWRC 051700
TERMINATION OF AIR STAGNATION STATEMENT
NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE FORECAST OFFICE MEMPHIS TENNESSEE
ISSUED 12 NOON FRIDAY SEPTEMBER 5 1975
THE AIR STAGNATION ADVISORY FOR TENNESSEE AND THE ADJOINING
COUNTIES OF aiUEHDEH IN ARKANSAS AND DESOTO IN MISSISSIPPI WILL
BE ENDING THIS AFTERNOON.
WINDS WILL d£ I«CREASI«G TODAY AND SHOWERS ARE EXPECTED THIS
AFTERNOON THRU SATURDAY THAI WILL HELP IN CLEANSING THE AIR.
STAGNANT CONDTIONS MAY PERSIST AGAIN SATURDAY MORNING IN PARIS
OF EAST TENNESSEE BUT GOOD DISPERSION CONDITIONS ARE EXPECTED dY
AFTERNOON ALONG WITH THE PROBABILITY OF SHOWERS.
THIS WILL 0E THE LAST STATEMENT FOR THE CURRENT AIR STAGNATION EPISODE.
-------
Air Pollution Weather Forecasts
to establish a lapse rate over the city that
is usually more unstable than the lapse rate
over the rural area upwind of the city. The
net result is a mixing layer over the city at
night that may be as high as several hundred
meters.
To simulate this effect, 5°C is added to tlieair-
•»•»-*.• minimum temperature durinj'. tlie night. Then
the height is determined where the dry adia-
b;itic lapse rate from this surface temperature
intersects the temperature - height profile
observed (by rawinsonde) at 1200 GMT. This
height is called the morning urban mixing
deptli (MNI)I') and represents a rough value of
mixing depth during the morning period over
an iii-ban area (See Figure !>).
To determine the greatest depth of the mixing
layer (MXI)P) that is expected during the day
and the same procedure is repeated using the
forecast maximum surface temperature.
The average wind speed through the mixing
layer for the morning and afternoon periods is
calculated by taking the arithmetic average
through the mixing layer of the wind speeds
aloft, For the morning period the speeds
observed at 1200 GMT arc used, hut for the
afternoon period forecast speeds are used.
A new ASA should be issued at least
every 24 hours under continued stagnation.
When conditions are forecast to improve
sufficiently, and there is a definite indication
of improving air quality a termination state-
ment should be issued, coordinated witli the
local air pollution control agency. (Fig. (>)
Final responsibility for deciding whether to
issue an ASA rests with the forecaster; however,
under certain circumstances, the forecaster may
decide that public issuance of an ASA would
not he in the public interest such as:
a) If the public issuance of an ASA is
liVely to cause confusion. This
might happen when public statements
concerning an episode are issued by
more than one agency.
b) An air stagnation situation exists, or
is forecast but air quality is not
expected to deteriorate sufficiently
to arouse the public.
c) If, after close coordination with the
local control agency, it is determined
that appropriate warnings and control
action will/is being taken.
2. Special Dispersion Statement - (SDS) -FKIJS4
When the forecaster has determined that a
potential air pollution situation exists
but he lias decided not to issue an ASA, a
Special Dispersion Statement will be issued
for the control agency. The main difference
between an ASA and an SDS is that the SDS
is not normally issued to the public.
NMC receives and logs all ASA and SDS
messages.
3. The Dispersion Outlook - FKIJS3
At some WSFO's the Meteorologist-in-Chargc
(M1Q lias determined through consultation
with the local control agency that routine
meteorological information on a daily basis
will be transmitted to the agency. The
format, content and time of issuance arc
specified locally, and are not usually
sent to NMC.
li. NWS Low Level Sounding Program
The special observational units established
by NWS several years ago originally known
as Lnvironmcntal Meteorological Support Units
Units (liMStl), to provide surface and upper
air data in major metropolitan areas have
been curtailed. However, the following
units arc still operational:
LIST OF CURRI-NT NWS LOW I.liVliL SOUNDING PROGRAM
Location Program
New York, New York
Phi 1 adc Iph i a , Pcnnsy 1 vani a
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Charleston, West Virginia
Birmingham, Alabama
louston, Texas
.os Angeles, California
il Monte, California
Afternoon sounding
on-call
All observations
on call
1 per day, Mon.-Fri.
1 per day routine
weekdays, second
observation on-call
1 per day routine,
second observation
on-call
2 per day, Mon.-Fr:i .
2 per day, 7 days a
wecV routine
2 per day routine
Mon.-Fri . except
occasionally omit
afternoon sounding on
well-ventilated
-------
Air Pollution Weather Forecasts
V liPA and Regional Office Activities
'llic lil'A requires that emergency action plans,
prepared by state air pollution control auth-
orities as a part of their implementation plan,
contain, as a criteria to trigger preplanned
episode reduction schemes, definite procedures
for receiving an ASA, or equivalent report
statir.g that a condition of atmospheric stagna-
tion will exist for the next 36 hours. Additional
information is contained in the "Guide for Air
Pollution H-iisodC Avoidance" (1971) and two re-
lated publications (1971). The program responsi-
bilities and organization vary, somewhat, within
e;ich liPA Regional Office and information should
be obtained by direct contact.
RI.FIiRluJGIS
I. Bocttger, C. M. Air Pollution Potential
Last of the Rocky Mountains, Pall 1959
Uullc-tin of the American Meteorological
Society. -12:615-620. No. 9, September,
1961.
2. HcMarrais, G. A. Vertical Temperature
Difference Observed Over an Urban Area.
Bu Hot hi of the American Meteorological
Society? 12: 548-554." Nol8, August, 1961.
llolzworth, G. C. A Study of Air Pollution
Potential for the Western United States.
Journal of Applied Meteorology. 1:366-382.
No. 3, September 1962.
Miller, M. li. Semi-Objective Forecasting
of Atmospheric Stagnation in the Western
United States. Monthly Weather Review.
•J7: •>%.<:, No. 1, .January, 1964.
Miller, M. li. and Niomcycr, I., li. Air
Pol hit inn Potential Forecasts - A Year's
r.xpcricnco. Journal of the Air Pollution
Control Association. 13: 205-210, No. 5.
Niomcycr, 1.. li. Forecasting Air Pollution
Potential. Monthly Weather Review. K8:
88-96. No. 3., March. J9(>().
Miller, M. li. Forecasting Afternoon Mix-
ing Depths and Transport Wind Speeds.
Monthly Weather Review. 95: 35-44. No.l
January, 1967.
NOAA, National Meteorological Center.
Air Pollution/Stagnation Procedures.
Aviation Weather Branch Note. Draft
January 1974.
9. Nudelman, II. 1. and Pri zr.ol;j, I. A. An
Air Pollution Incident Due to a Stationary
Front. JAPCA Vol. 24, No. 2, 140-144,
February 1974.
10. Stephen, )i. U. Chemistry and Meteorology
in an Air Pollution lipisode. JAPCA Vol. 25,
No. 5, 521-524, May 1975.
11. Gross, li. The National Air Pollution
Potential Forecast Program. T.SSA Technical
Memorandom WI5TMNMC 47, May, 1970.
12. Guide for Air Pollution lipisode Avoidance.
liPA, Office of Air Programs I'ubl. No. AP-
70, May, 1971.
13. Guide for Control of Air Pollution lipisodos
in Medium-Sized Urban Areas. lil'A, Office
of Air Programs Pub. No. AP-77, June 1971.
14. Guide for Control of Air Pollution lipisodcs
in Small Urban Areas. liPA, Office of
Air Programs Pub. No. AP-78, June, 1971.
15. National Weather Service Operations Manual.
C-30 "Air Pollution Weather Forecasts".
June 19, 1975.
7-S
-------
AIR POLLUTION SURVEYS
P. A. Humphrey*
J.A. Tikvart*
I DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF AIR
POLLUTION SURVEYS
A An air pollution survey is a critical ex-
amination of a given geographical area
for the purpose of determining the nature,
sources, extent, and effects of air pollu-
tion and their interrelationships. This
includes:
1 Evaluating the character and magnitude
of existing problems.
2 Estimating the potential for future
problems or for the deterioration of a
present problem.
3 Obtaining knowledge and understanding
for the development of abatement and
control measures.
B Brief inspections by enforcement officials
and evaluations of combustion equipment
or air and gas cleaning equipment do not
qualify as surveys.
II TYPE AND SCOPE OF SURVEYS
A Local Source Problems (Determination of
the extent to which a source affects the
local ecology).
1 Large source with voluminous emissions.
2 Small source with emissions especially
noxious or detrimental to the surrounding
area.
B Site Selection Surveys
1 Sites for the construction of new industry.
2 Community planning and zoning
a Impact of a proposed plant or group
of plants.
*Supervisory Meteorologists, NOAA
Meteorology 6 Assessment Division, EPA
Research Triangle Park, N. C. 27711
b Industrial park location.
C Area Surveys. Table 1 lists selected
surveys not included in Tables 1 and 2
of Rossano (1962).
1 Appraisals involving little or no air
sampling using available data.
a Determine current status of air
pollution.
b Estimate future potential.
c Offer recommendations for prevention
or abatement.
2 Small-scale intensive investigations
(Sampling at one or more locations for
a period of one to several weeks).
a Provides order-of-magnitude figures
of levels and fluctuations of pollutant
concentrations.
b Focuses attention of community on
its growing problem and may provide
opportunity for training.
3 Community air pollution surveys (Large-
scale study involving considerable field
and laboratory activities over a period
of one or more years).
D Research Studies
1 Especially designed studies of an ex-
perimental nature.
a Meteorological transport and diffusion.
b Abatement procedures and control
devices.
2 Post air pollution episode investigations.
7-9
-------
Air Pollution Surveys
III THE COMMUNITY AIR POLLUTION
SURVEY
A Planning and Development
1 State the problem
a Human health, animal and/or vegeta-
tion effects, materials deterioration
b Pollutants responsible
c Meteorology and topography effects
on transport
2 Define the depth of the survey
a Geographic area
b Money and personnel
1) "paper" study - one man and
secretary
2) pollutant sampling and analyses
program - interdisciplinary pro-
fessional staff
c Time - short period or long term.
B Operations
1 Air pollutant source measurements
(Emission inventory)
a Paper estimate
b Questionnaire and/or plant visit
c Source sampling
2 Meteorological and topographic studies
a Climatology
b Tracer experiments
c Mathematical diffusion model
3 Ail" sampling and analysis
a Time considerations in sampling
b Geographical (or geometrical)
considerations
1) Wind trajectories
2) Concentric circles
3) Network
4) Mobile stations
5) Three-dimensional measurements
c Design of aerometric stations
4 Measurement of effects
a Biologic
1) Impairment of health
2) Odor nuisance
3) Reduction of solar radiation and
visibility
4) Eye irritation
b Economic
1) Corrosion of metals
2) Deterioration of fabrics
3) Damage to paint
4) Soiling
5) Reduction of solar radiation and
visibility
5 Photographic studies
a Ordinary ground and aerial photography
b Time lapse photography
c New photographic techniques
6 Analysis of data
7 Public relations and information
C Evaluation and Report
1 Interpretation
2 Evaluations, pro and con
3 Presentation of concise, attractive
and easily understood report.
7-10
-------
Air Pollution Surveys
Table 1. Selected List of Air Pollution Appraisals and
Investigations of Limited Scope
DESIGNATION
DATE
RESPONSIBLE
ORGANIZATION
SCOPE
Air Pollution in Maricopa County
(Winter 1959-60) Arizona
1960
Maricopa County Health Dept.
Division of Environmental
Health Sanitation
Bureau of Public Health Engineering
Preliminary Report Air Pollution
Surveillance Study
Tucson, Arizona
1960
University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona
Air Pollution in Greater Elmira,
New York
1960 New York State Air Pollution
Control Board
Albany, New York
A Pilot Study of Air Pollution in
Washington, D. C.
1960 Washington, D. C., Dept. of
Public Health and
U.S. Dept. of HEW
Public Health Service
The Atmosphere Over Philadelphia,
Its Behavior and Contamination
1950 Drexel Institute of Technology
Detailed analysis of 10 years of
weather records for Philadelphia
and discussion of high and low high
volume air sampler and AISI sam-
pler concentrations as related to
meteorological conditions.
Report on Sampling Survey -
Hudson, New York
1960
New York State Dept. of Health
Bureau of Air Pollution
Control Services, in Conjunction with
The Columbia County Health Dept.
Five AISI tape samplers, and two
wind speed and directioa.recording
systems were used to evaluate
levels of soiling contaminants and
to attempt to correlate wind direc-
tions and possible contaminant
sources in and around the survey
area. The sampling period was
approximately 3 months.
Fresno Air Pollution Study
1960
Air and Industrial Hygiene Laboratory
Bureau of Air Sanitation
Dept. of Public Health
State of California
Survey covers two oeriods of one
week duration in ti e months of
September and Di jember. Sam-
pling was done for oxidant, nitric
oxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon
mononide, sulphur dioxide, hydro-
carbons and particulate matter.
Meteorological data including some
temperature soundings are uaed
In evaluating results.
Air Pollution in Lynchburg, Virginia 1961 Public Health Service
(Region 111)
Same as for state-wide air
pollution appraisals.
Denver Metropolitan Area
Air Sampling Survey
1961 Colorado State Dept. of
Public Health
Survey covers 6-month period,
with sampling of airborne particu-
late matter on 50 selected days.
Field equipment included 6 AISI
automatic strip filter paper sam-
plers and 3 high volume filter
paper samplers. Soiling charac-
teristics, weight of suspended
particulate matter and weight of
benzene soluble organic matter
In the suspended particulates was
determined. Four gaseous pol-
lutants were measured at a single
station.
7-11
-------
Air Pollution Surveys
Table 1. (Cont'iO Selected List of Air Pollution Appraisals and
Investigations of Limited Scope
DESIGNATION
DATE
RESPONSIBLE
ORGANIZATION
SCOPE
In Quest of Clean Air for
Berlin. New Hampshire
1962 Field Studies Branch
Division of Air Pollution
U.S. Public Health Service
in cooperation with
State of New Hampshire
Department of Health and
City of Berlin
New Hampshire Health Dept.
A two-month study with 10 instru-
mented air quality stations and
three meteorological stations for
the purpose of appraising nature,
sources, extent, and effects of
air pollution in Berlin, N.H. The
major source of air pollutants is
paper pulping and ancillary opera-
tions, including steam generations,
of a single company.
A Pilot Study of Air Pollution
Providence, Rhode Island
1962 Technical Assistance Branch
Division of Air Pollution
USPHS, in cooperation with
Division of Air Pollution and
Mechanical Equipment and
Installations
City of Providence
Survey covers two equal periods
of 15 sampling days each at one
station. Paniculate pollutant
measurements include soiling
index, total suspended particu-
lates and dustfall and gaseous
pollutants measurements include those
for sulfur dioxide, total cuddants,
nitric oxide-nitrogen dioxide and
carbon monoxide. The normalcy
of the meteorological conditions
during the sampling period is con-
sidered and air pollution potential
for the city is discussed.
Air Pollution Measurement Study In
Richmond. Virginia
1962 Richmond's Bureau of Air
Pollution Control
Virginia's State Dept. of Health and
U.S. Public Health Service
Measurements of participate matter
concentrations by AISI Smoke Sam-
pler, sulfur dioxide and oxidant
levels, for a one-week period in
January. Results are discussed
in terms of wind speed and sun-
shine.
A Qualitative Survey of
Atmospheric Pollution
Potentials in Tiffin. Ohio
1962
Ohio Dept. of Health
Division of Industrial Hygiene
Same as for state-wide air pol-
lution appraisals.
A Pilot Study of Air Pollution in
Binningtn* TOj
1962 Technical Assistance Branch
Division of Air Pollution
U.S. Public Health Service
in cooperation with
Jefferson County Dept. of Health
Alabama
Survey covers two, 3-week periods
during the summer and fall. Air
samples were collected for measure-
ment of dustfall, suspended particu-
lates, smoke shade, sulfur dioxide.
nitrogen oxides, total oxldants,
carbon monoxide and hydrogen sul-
fide. Meteorology Is used in a
discussion of air pollution potential.
A Pilot Study of Air Pollution in
Jacksonville. Florida
1962 Technical Assistance Branch
Division of Air Pollution
U.S. Public Health Service
in cooperation with
Florida State Board of Health
'Emission inventory data, meteoro-
logy and other information were
used to determine if there is a
general air pollution problem. To
aid .in accomplishing the objective
gaseous and participate pollutants
were measured for one week in a
downtown park. Also, there was
an investigation to determine if
fluorides and sulfur dioxide could
be damaging vegetation. To ac-
complish the second objective,
some additional sampling was con-
ducted in the area where vegeta-
tion damage had occurred.
7-12
-------
Air Pollution Surveys
Table 1. (Cont'd) Selected List of Air Pollution Appraisals and
Investigations of Limited Scope
DESIGNATION
DATE
RESPONSIBLE
ORGANIZATION
SCOPE
Management of Dade County's
Air Resources
1962 Technical Assistance Branch
Division of Air Pollution and
Dade County Dept. of Public Health
Existing data on population, agri-
culture, meteorology, sources of
pollutants, present air quality,
and details of a proposed refinery
are used to estimate Dade County's
air resources.
A Study of Denver Air Pollution
1962
Dept. of Atmospheric Science
Colorado State University
This is a continuation and expan-
sion of the above survey. It is
primarily of a meteorological
nature. Wind direction, wind
speed and temperature observations
were made at S special project
stations and similar data was avail-
able from 6 stations maintained
by cooperating agencies. These
observations were supplemented
by ground and aerial photography,
by visual observations and
measurements of turbidity. Obser-
vational results during S air pol-
lution episodes are described.
Air Pollution in the National
Capital Area
U.S. Dept. of HEW
Public Health Service
Maryland State Dept. of Health
Virginia Dept. of Health
Uses available data on topography,
meteorology, sources of pollution
and summarizes information on
air pollution measurements from
1931 to date.
Illinois
1956 Same as in Stern's Book,
Page 591, (Vol. 0
Same as in Stern's Book,
Page 591, (Vol. I)
Colorado
1962
Georgia
1962
South Dakota
1962
Kansas
1962
Air Resources of Utah
1962 Utah Legislative CouncU
Air Pollution Advisory Committee
The Program for Appraisal of the
Air Quality of Maryland
1962 Maryland State Dept. of Health
Appraisal of air pollution potential,
discussion of 8 station air pol-
lution network. Measurements
from high volume samplers, auto-
matic smoke samplers and dust-
fall jars is presented.
7-13
-------
Air Pollution Surveys
REFERFJiCKS
51 Roasano, A« T., Jr. The Air Pollution
Survey in Air Pollution. Vol. I. Editor,
Stern, A.'C. New York. Academic Press.
pp 589-619. 1962.
52 Maricopa County Health Department. Divis-
ion of Environmental Sanitation. Bureau
of Public Health Engineering. AIR
POLLUTION IN MARICOPA COUNTY. Winter
1959-60. '
53 Haas, Quentin M., and Wortman, Robert L.
Preliminary Report Air Pollution Sur-
veillance Study. Bulletin No. 13. Civil
Engineering 'Series No. 6. University
of Arizona. Tucson, Arizona. August,
196Q. .
- F
54 New York State Air Pollution Control
Board. Air Pollution in Greater Elraira.
Albany, &ew York. 1960.
55 Washington,' D.C. Dept. of Public Health.
U.S, Public Health Service. A Pilot
Study of Air Pollution in Washington,
D.C. Washington, D.C. Dec. 1960.
56 Davis, Francis K. The Atmosphere Over
Philadelphia. Its Behavior and Contam-
ination. Drexel Institute of Technology.
Philadelphia 4, Pa. 56 pp. October, 1960.
**
57 Blanchard, G.E. Report on Sampling Survey-
Hudson. New York. New York State Depart-
ment of Health. Bureau of Air Pollution
Control Services, in conjunction with
Che Columbia County Health Department.
29 pp: I960.
L* *"
58 State of California. Dept. of Public
Health. Fresno Air Pollution Study.
Berkeley,'California. July, 1960.
59 Dyksterhouse, G. Dept. of HEW. Public
Health Service. Region III. Charlottes-
vijle, Virginia. Air Pollution in Lynch-
burg, Virginia. Public Health Service.
Washington, D.C. 1961.
M
60 Colorado State Dept. of Public Health.
Denver Metropolitan Areas Air Sampling.
21 pp. Denver 20, Colorado. 1961.
61 Kenline, P.A. In Quest of Clean Air for
Berlin. New Hampshire. Dept. of HEW.
Public Health Servie. State of New
Hampshire Health Dept. City of Berlin.
Robert A.. Taf t Sanitary Engineering
Center, SI pp. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1962.
62 High, M.D., Slater, R.W., and Constantino,
G.G. U.S. Dept. HEW. Public Health
Service and Division of Air Pollution.
City of Providence, R.I. A Pilot Study
of Air Pollution in Providence, Rhode
Island. (SEC TR A62-15). Robert A.
Taft Sanitary Engineering Center. 44 pp.
Cincinnati, Ohio. 1962.
63 Richmond's Bureau of Air Pollution Control.
Virginia's State Dept. of Health and
U.S. DHEW. Public Health Service. Air
Pollution Measurement Study in Richmond,
Virginia. .January 18-24. 1962. 17 pp.
Washington, D.C. 1962.
64 Foris, J. Jr., and Foreman, D.L. A^
Qualitative Survey of Atmospheric Pol-
lution Potentials in Tiffin, Ohio. Ohio
Dept. of Health. Division of Industrial
Hygiene. 42 pp. 1962.
65 Hochheiser, S., Horstman, S.W., and Tate,
G.M. Dept. of HF.W. Public Health Service
and Bureau of Sanitation. Jefferson
County Dept. of Health. A Pilot Study
of Air Pollution in Birmingham. Alabama.
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center.
54 pp. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1962.
66 Sheeny, J.P., et al. Dept. of HEW. Public
Health Service. Florida State Board of
Health. University of Florida. A Pilot
Study of Air Pollution in Jacksonville.
Florida. August - September. 1961. Robt.
A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center.
84 pp. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1962.
67 Mathews, D.S., and Schueneman, J.J. Dept.
of HEW. Public Health Service. Manage-
ment of Dade County's Air Resources.
Robt. A. Taft Sanitary Engineering
Center. Cincinnati, Ohio 39 pp. 1962.
68 Riehl, H., and Crow, L. A Study of Denver
Air Pollution. Technical Paper No. 33.
Dept. of Atmospheric Science. Colorado
State University. Fort Collins, Colorado.
(CER 62 HR 37). 15 pp. 1962.
69 Welsh. G.B. U.S. Dept of HEW. Public
Health Service. Maryland State Dept.
of Health. Virginia Dept. of Health.
Air Pollution in the National Capital
Area. Division of Air Pollution. PHS.,
Washington 25, D.C. 42 pp. 1962.
70 Illinois Dept. of Public Health. Something
in the air—A Report on Air Pollution in
Illinois. Springfield,111. Aug., 1956.
7-14
-------
Air Pollution Surveys
71 Palomba, J., Jr., and Wromble, R.F.
Colorado State Dept. of Public Health.
Dept. of HEW. Public Health Service.
An Appraisal of Air Pollution in Colora-
do. Colorado State Dept. of Public
Health. Denver, Colorado. 27 pp. 1962.
72 Lewis, R.P., et al. State of Georgia.
Dept. of Public Health and U.S. Dept.
of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Public Health Service. Air Pollution
in Georgia. Atlanta, Georgia. 35 pp.
1962.
73 Carl, C.E., and Christensen, G.L. South
Dakota State Department of Health and
U.S. Dept. of HEW. Public Health Service.
Appraisal of Air Pollution in South
Dakota. South Dakota State Dept. of
Health. Pierre, South Dakota. 67pp.
1962.
74 Metzler, D.F., Strella, G.G., and Doughty,
L.C. Kansas State Hoard of Health and
Dept. of HEW, PUS. The Air Resources
of Kansas. Kansas State Board of Health.
Topeka, Kansas. 91 pp. 1962.
75 Utah Legislative Council. Air Pollution
Advisory Committee. Air Resources of
Utah. Salt Lake City, Utah. 32 pp. 1962.
76 Maryland State Dept. of Health. The Pro-
gram for Appraisal of the Air Quality
of Maryland. Div. of Occupational Health.
Bureau of Environmental Hygiene. Mary-
land State Dept. of Health. Baltimore,
Maryland. 12 pp. 1962.
77 Keagy, D.M., and Leavitt, J.M. Dept. HEW
Public Health Service. A Review of the
Air Pollution Problem in Salt Lake
Valley. Utah. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1959.
78 DeMarrais, G.A. Dept. HEW Public Health
Service. Meteorology for Land Develop-
ment Planning in the Tulsa Metropolitan
Area. Cincinnati, Ohio. 1961.
79 Welsh, G.H. Dept. HKW Public Health
Service. An Appraisal of Air Pollution
in Spartanburg, South Carolina.
Cincinnati, Ohio. 1962.
80 Mecham, R.L., Ameen, J.S. and Slater,
R.W. Dept. HEW Public Health Service.
A Pilot Study of Air Quality in Winston-
Salem. North Carolina. Cincinnati, Ohio
1963.
81 Watkins, C.R. and Wunderle, J.A. Ohio Dept.
of Health. An Appraisal of Air Pollution
in Dover. Ohio. Columbus, Ohio.
82 Faith, W.L. and Middleton, W.C. The Air
Resources of Clark County, Nevada. 1963.
83 State of New York, Air Pollution Control
Board. Air Pollution in Erie County,
Albany, New York, 101 pages. 196J.
84 Oregon State Sanitary Authority. Air
Pollution in Portland Metropolitan Area,
Portland, Oregon, 43pages. 1963.
85 Hochheiser, S., Burchett, M., Dunsmore,
H.J. Air Pollution Measurments in
Pittsburgh, January-February, 1963.
Robt. A. Taft Sanitary Engineering
Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, 50 pages,
Nov. 1963.
86 U.S. Public Health Service, Division of
Air Pollution and Indiana Air Pollution
Control Board. The Air Pollution Situa-
tion in Terre Haute, Indiana With Special
Reference to the Hydrogen Sulfide In-
cident of May-June. 1964. Robt. A.
Taft Sanitary Engineering Center, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio. 28 pages. 1964.
87 U.S. Public Health Service, Division of
Air Pollution. A Study of Air Pollution
in the Interstate Region of Lewiston,
Idaho, and Clarkston. Washington. Robt. .
A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center,
Cincinnati, Ohio, 247 pages. 1964.
88 Hochheiser, S. and Wetsel, R.E. Ait
Pollution Measurements in Indianapolis,
June-July. 1963. Robt A. Taft Sanitary
Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio.
64 pp. July, 1964.
89 Welsh, G.B. and Kreichelt, T.E. Clean
Air for Chattanooga. U.S. Public Health
Service, Division of Air Pollution and
Tennessee Dept. of Public Health. Robt.
A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center.
73 pp. July, 1964.
90 Weedfall, R.O. Cllmatological Aspects
of Air Pollution in West Virginia.
Environmental Data Service Technical
Memorandum 3. U.S. Dept. Commerce-
ESSA. 13 pp. January 1967.
For later surveys and related investigations
refer to Section V Air Pollution Publications-
A Selected Bibliography 1963-1966. and Section
IX (a) Air Pollution Publications-A Selected
Bibliography with Abstracts, 1966-1968.
Public Health Service Publication No. 979.
7-15
-------
SITE SELECTION FOR A POLLUTANT 'SOURCE
D. II. Pack*
The question of pollution source siting is
perhaps the most challenging problem in the
entire pollution field because, if done properly,
it can eliminate or very much reduce the
problem before it begins. The scope of
pollution source siting ranges from deter-
mining specific locations of exhaust vents
or air intakes on roofs of buildings to the
design of a model community with its parks,
industrial areas, etc. The conventional
viewpoint, "Here is a large plant - where
shall we put it?" is far too restrictive.
There is something to be gained from the use
of meteorology over the whole gamut of
source location including determining the best
relationship of the meteorology to the effluent
type and the sources of pollution.
One should look into the philosophy of what
we are trying to do. Air pollution is important
only because of people. Air pollution that
does not effect man, his animals and plants
is of very little concern to us. The major
reason for interest in air pollution results
from urbanization and insufficient room for
pollutants to be distributed.
Many of us, the technicians and specifically
the meteorologists, arc too apt to look at a
problem and say, "Here is the solution. "
When presenting this solution to management,
government or whoever is responsible for
making decisions on pollution, we may be
sure it will not be used if it is based solely
on one narrow discipline. Such a solution
may be uneconomical or it may be politically
or psychologically impossible. For these
reasons, it is incumbent on every individual
that, if the data permit, he offer a variety
of solutions and be able to discuss the con-
sequences of adopting any particular one so
that when a decision is made, some rational
use will have been made of the environment to
dilute material. We are not talking about
absolute solutions; there is just too much
involved for that.
Air pollution problems are now so complex
that the air pollution control officer, chemist,
meteorologist, etc., probably cannot know
all the various factors that must be brought
to bear on pollution siting. The astute
individual will go to his counterpart before-
hand for consultation or advice. We must
require ourselves to be flexible and ingenious
in providing advice since we are generally
consultants not management. As a consultant,
we must know as much about the problem as
we can, bring to bear all the tools we can
lay our hands on, and present a series of
alternative answers. Several areas which must
be considered are:
I Can weather be designed out of problem?
II What is the scope for site choice?
A Unlimited
B Restricted to specific large area
(e.g. , size of a state)
C Two or three alternate but fixed locations
D One location
III What is the pollution problem?
A What is the nature of the pollutant?
1 Toxic
a Maximum Allowable Concentration
(MAC)
b Permissible chronic concentrations?
c Method of uptake
Inhalation
Ingestion
Via food chain
*Certified Consulting Meteorologist
McLean, VA.
7-17
-------
Site Selection for a Pollutant Source1
2 Nuisance
a Odors
b Dust (can be more than nuisance)
c Soot
3 Environmental behavior
a Decay with time
Photolysis
Radioactive decay
b Deposition
c Reactions (e. g., SO2 - 112804)
d Synergistic effects in presence of
other materials
3 Vegetation types (sensitive to potential
pollutant?pine trees-802)
4 Animals (milk shed and I131)
F Control Possibilities and Plans
(Evaluation and cost analyses)
1 Full time control
2 Part time
a Operational characteristics - how
much lead time required?
b Hold-up facilities (what is needed?)
3 Meteorological control (generally
considered last resort for commercial
operations) common practice in AEC,
DOD
B Single or Multiple Source
C Area, point, surface, elevated source?
(If elevated how high?)
D Release Characteristics
1 Temperature, velocity, gas, particu-
late size, etc.
2 Seasonally influenced?
3 Continuous or intermittent - If inter-
mittent what are return periods,
hold-up facilities, etc. ?
4 The potential source (i. e., the
accident problem)
Nuclear reactors, chemical storage
areas, etc. (operation chlorine)
E What is "downwind? " (Receptor
characteristics)
1 Permanent populations (e.g., residential
areas)
2 Transient populations (daytime work
force, seasonal populations as at
resorts, etc.)
IV What is the meteorological problem?
A Area Patterns
1 Seasonal changes and variations
2 Synoptic changes and variations
B Local Patterns
1 Terrain controlled anomalies
a Mountain-valley circulations
b Sea and lake shore circulations
c Channelled flow
2 Urban effects (if any)
C Estimation of Effects of Pollution -
Transport and Diffusion Vs. Ventilation
(Volumetric Approach)
1 Single source
a Close in (0-5 miles) in open terrain
transport and diffusion
7-18
-------
Site Selection for a Pollutant Source
b Long distances and in urban areas -
ventilation
c Massive single source - combine T
and D and ventilation
2 Multiple sources
a Transport and diffusion
(e.g., Nashville model, receptor
models) - requires source inventory
b Ventilation -(e.g., Duckworth, Bell
in California)
V METEOROLOGICAL TOOLS
A Area Data
1 Published summaries
Examples - airways atlas, inversion
study, mixing depth study, stagnation
studies, climatologies of particular
places.
2 Special unpublished tabulations -
U.S. Weather Bureau, National Weather
Records Center
B Local Data - Available from Many Sources
1 Summarized and published
a Local climate data - WB
b Station climatologies
2 Special studies
a Reactor hazard studies (particularly
as sources of data)
b Industrial studies
c Military installations
3 Local non-WB observations
a Military
b Commercial (e.g., approximately
100 recording anemometers have
been located between Richmond, Va.
and New York City)
C Special On-Site Studies
1 Short term "scoping" studies
2 Longer term (1-2 year) studies
3 Permanent (or quasi-permanent)
programs
4 Data collection
a Wind
Frequency, fluctuation characteristics,
spatial variations
b Wind and temperature gradient
c Multiple station studies
d Tracer studies
1) Balloons (e.g., Sakagami,
Gifford, Pack at Shippingport, Pa.)
2) ControUed release and sampling
of gases and/or participates
(SO2, FP, Uranine)
3) Sources of opportunity - particu-
larly use of smoke photos
4) Tetroons - for long range
trajectories or major pollution
problems
VI SPECIAL PROBLEMS
A Conspicuous Sources
B Adding Sources to "Saturated" Atmosphere
C Long Range Travel Problems (single
source such as western states smelters)
D Rccirculation of Pollutants
7-19
-------
Site Selection for a Pollutant Source
E Controlled Release - When and How Much
F The Rare or "One-Shot" Pollution Problem
(e. g., Nuclear Reactor Accidents)
VII PROBABILITIES AND PERSISTENCE IN
POLLUTION SOURCE SITING
A Lapse Rate
1 Large area - stagnation episodes
2 Point source - (Hosier's Monthly
Weather Review study)
Inversion Duration Probability (hours)
Hanford, Wash.
Shippingport, Pa.
Middletown, Conn. 14
Idaho Falls, Ida.
B Wind
22 1/2° Sector
Direction Duration Probability (hours)
50%
13
4.5
14
16
10%
17
15
19
19
1%
22
24
27
22
Laredo, Texas
Denver, Colo.
San Diego, Calif.
50%
2.2
2.0
2.7
10%
6.7
6.3
4.0
Max.
36
22
35
50%
4.6
3.6
1.5
10%
40
16
18
Max
300
49
140
112 1/2° Sector
Direction Duration Probability (hours)
Laredo, Texas
Denver, Colo.
San Diego, Calif.
REFERENCES
1 Hosier, C. R., Pack, D. H., and Harris,
T. B. Meteorological Investigation of
Diffusion in a Valley at Shippingport,
Pa. Special Projects Section, OMR,
U. S. Weather Bureau, Washington,
D. C. April, 1959.
2 Landsberg, H. E. Weather-A Factor in
Plant Location. Industrial Development
and Manufacturers Record, Conway
Publishers, Inc., Atlanta, Ga. May
1961.
3 Munn, R. E. The Application of an Air
Pollution Climatology to Town Planning.
Int. J. Air and Water Pollution 1:276-
287. 1959.
4 Pack, D. H. The Air Environment and
Pollution Engineering. Presented at
133rd Meeting AAAS, December 29,
1966.
5 U. S. Navy Weather Research Facility.
Climatology and Low Level Air Pollu-
tion Potential from Ships in Selected
New England Ports. Norfolk, Virginia,
May 1966.
7-20
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ATMOSPHERIC TRACERS
AND URBAN DIFFUSION EXPERIMENTS
J. I... Dicke*
I ATMOSPHERIC TRACERS
Dispersion of pollutants by atmospheric
diffusion and transport processes has re-
ceived considerable theoretical treatment
and there are several operational techniques
available for empirical studies of diffusion
on various distance scales. Figure 1 lists
some of the tracers and the distances over
which they have been used. Another class
of tracer materials now being developed in-
cludes various halogenaled compounds such
as Freon 12, sulfur hexafluoridc (SFfi) and
bromotrifluoromethane. '?'
The suitability of any material for a tracer
may be assessed by its ability to meet a
number of requirements, several of which
have been enumerated by Leightoii.'^'
1 The material must possess a specific
property, not duplicated by any other
substance normally present in the
atmosphere, which will permit its
detection in extremely small amounts.
2 There should be a simple, rapid, sen-
sitive and convenient method for the
quantitative determination of the small
amount of material.
3 The material should be available at
reasonable expense in uniform lots
large enough for the desired use and it
should not deteriorate during storage.
4 The tracer should be readily and
quantitatively dispersible into the
atmosphere at controlled rates.
5 The tracer should be stable while in
the atmosphere and its dispersion by
atmospheric turbulence should be
essentially that of an inert gas.
6 The tracer material should retain its
specific property at least through the
sampling and assessment operations.
7 The tracer should be safe to handle
and non-loxic lo man, aniiiinlK and
plants.
Atmospheric tracers can be used for a
variety of experiments: To prove transport
of material from one location to another such
as in the New York - New Jersey area where
fluorescent particles (FP) and balloons were
used to prove interstate transport of air
pollution.*"' To obtain empirical data on a
practical problem such as penetration of
chemical agents into forests or cities without
I'))
using the actual chemical.'^ To investigate
the actual urban area effects on dispersion
parameters''"' and to evaluate*^ and various
topographic influences. '•*' Recently Nicmeyer
and Mc.Cormick'^' have shown that both SFg
and KP can be used as tracers to obtain quan-
titative diffusion data over ranges in excess
of 100 km, for which precise knowledge of
dispersion is now almost non-existant.
II UK HAN DIFFUSION KXPKRIMKNTS
A St. Louis
Diffusion studies lo provide direct experi-
mental values of dispersion parameters
over urban areas were first conducted in
St. Louis in 1962 and 1963.(C) FP was
disseminated in a series of trials under
a wide range of meteorological conditions
to determine the effects of the urban area
on dispersion. Several sampling arcs
were laid out as in Figure 2 and instru-
mented with rotorod, drum-pulsed, and
membrane filter samplers, Figure 3, to
collect the FP both on a total and sequen-
tial time basis.
*Supervisory Meteorologist , NOAA
Meteorology F, Assessment Division,
PA.ME.19.6.67
7-21
-------
1 HEAT
HI
! SMOKE 1
1
S02
SOAP BUBBLES
1
SMOKE ]
PLANT DOWN, SPORE, POLLENS 1
| FLUORESCENT OYES, PIGMENTS j
1 1
I
RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
| BALLOONS |
i 1
1 OUST
Earth's
Circumference
s -^
1 !
1 cm 1 m 1 km
IO'2 10" ' 10° IO1 IO2 IO3 IO4 IO5 IO6 IO7
108
mospheric Tracers and Urban Diffusion Experiments
Scales Investigated (meters)
Figure 1. TRACERS USED IN ATMOSPHERIC TURBULENCE AND DIFFUSION
-------
Atmospheric Tracers and Urban Diffusion Experiments
Figure 2. ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI, DIFFUSION STUDY MAP
7-23
-------
Atmospheric Tracers and Urban Diffusion Experiments
a) Drum Sequential Sampler
b) Rotorod Sampler
c) Membrane Filter Sampler
Figure 3. FP SAMPLING EQUIPMENT
7-24
-------
Atmospheric Tracers and Urban Diffusion Experiments
Tentative results of this study indicate
that horizontal dispersion ( conducted
over I he rolling terrain of northern Kentucky
and southern Ohio. Meteorological con-
ditions were chosen such that steady
southerly winds would persist for at least
six hours at high enough speeds to move
the tracer cloud across the sampler arcs
before marked diurnal stability changes
occurred. Two or three sampling arcs
were spaced about 30 to 40 kilometers
apart depending on available highways.
The centerline of each arc was determined
by predicting the trajectory of a transponder-
equipped tetroon which was released from
the tracer dissemination site shortly before
the tracers were released and tracked by
radar.
Another objective of these tests has been
to determine the magnitude of non-
meteorological errors. This has been
shown to be as high as 50%. The primary
causes for errors lie in the analytical
techniques, loss of participate tracer
strength, sampling errors and uncer-
tainties in source strength.
The preliminary results indicate that the
horizontal dispersion (
-------
Atmospheric Tracers and Urban Diffusion Experiments
7 Saltzman, B.E., Coleman, A.I., and demons,
C.A.; Halogenated Compounds as Gaseous
Meteorological Tracers. Anal. Chem.
38: 753-758, May 1966.
8 U.S. Public Health Service. Technical
Report. New York-New Jersey Air Pol-
lution Abatement Activity. 1967.
9 Raynor, G.S., Cohen, L.A., Hayes, J.V.
and Ogden, B.C. Dyed Pollen Grains and
Spores as Tracers in Dispersion and
Deposition Studies. J. Appl. Meteor.
5 728-729. October 1966.
10 Morton, J.D. Comments on Raynor et al
paper above. J. Appl. Meteor. 6. 725.
August 1967.
11 Me Elroy, J.L., and F. Pooler, Jr.; St.
Louis Dispersion Study, Vol. I Instru-
mentation, Procedures, and Data Tabula-
tions. National Air Pollution Control
Administration Report APTD-68-12.
August 1968.
12 Friend, J. P. and Charlson, R.J. Double
Tracer Techniques for Studying Air
Pollution. Env. Science and Tech. 3:
1181-1183. November 1969.
13 Nickola, P. W., Ludwick, J. D., and J. V.
Ramsdell, Jr. An Inert Gas Tracer System
for Monitoring the Real-Time History of a
Diffusing Plume or Puff. J. App. Meteor.
Vo".9, No. 4, pp. 621-626 Aug. 1970.
14 Sandberg, J. S., Walker, W. S., and Thuillier,
R. C. Fluorescent Tracer Studies of
Pollutant Transport in the San Francisco
Bay Area. JAPCA 20:9, 593-598, 1970.
15 Angcll, J. K., Iloecker, W. II., Dickson, C. R.
and Pack, D. II. Urban Influence on a
Strong Daytime Air Flow as Determined
from Tetroon Flights. J. App. Meteor.
Vol. 12, No. 4, 924-936, September 1973.
16 Privas, P. J. and Shair, F. II. A Tracer Study
of Pollutant Transport and Dispersion in
the Los Angeles Area. Atmos. Knv. Vol. 8,
No. 11, 1155-1163. November 1974.
17 Raynor, G. S., Smith, H. H., and Singer, T.A.
Temporal and Spatal Variation in SO^
('.cmcentr.itions on Suburban I.onp Island
N. Y. JAI'CA VOL. :>/t. No. S, f.R('.-S!)().
June, 1!)74.
18 Raynor, G. S., Smith, M. E., and Singer,
I. A. Meteorological Effects on SO,
Concentrations on Suburban Long Island
N.Y. Atmos. Env. Vol. 8, No. 12, 1305-1320,
December 1974.
19 Gloria, II. R., Bradburn, G., Reinisch, R. F.,
Pitts, J. N. Behar, J. V., and Zafonte, L.
Airborne Survey of Major Air Basins in
California. JAPCA Vol. 24, No.7, 645-652,
July 1974.
20 Lee, R. E. Jr., Caldwell, J., Akland, G. G.,
jvr>(i cHnHiauser, ft. The Distribution and
Transport of Airborne Pa ticulate Matter
and Inorganic Components in Great Britain.
Atmos. Env. Vol. 8, No. 11, 1095-1109,
November 1974.
21 Breeding, R. J., Kaagenson, P. L., Anderson,
J. A. and Lodge, P. J. Jr. The Urban
Plume as Seen at 80 and 120 km. by Five
Different Sensors. J. App. Meteor. Vol. 14,
No. 2, 204-216, March 1975.
22 Lovcland, W. D., llewson, H. W. and Shum, Y.S.
The Use of Artificial Activable Trace
Elements to Monitor Pollutant Source Strengths
and Dispersal Patterns. Paper #74-70, 67th
Annual Meeting of the APCA, Denver, CO,
June, 1974.
23 Drivas, P. J. and Shair, F. II. Dispersion
of an Instantaneous Cross-wind Line
Source of Tracer Released from an Urban
Highway. Atmos. Env. Vol. 8, No. 5,
475-485, May 1974.
7-26
-------
METEOROLOGICAL MODELS FOR URBAN AREAS
D. B. Tiirnpr
J. L. Dicke
I DEFINITION OF A DISPERSION MODKL
A A dispersion model is a mathematical
description of the meteorological trans-
port and dispersion processes combined
wilh:
1 The necessary meteorological para-
meters during a particular period,
and
2 An inventory of emissions to the- atmos-
phere of the pollutant of interest to
yield,
Kslimal.es of concentrations of the particu-
lar pollutant for specific locations and
I ime periods.
H To verify a model actual concentrations of
the particular atmospheric pollutant must
be measured for comparison with those
calculated.
C Considering the structure of n model:
1 The mathematical description may be
a dispersion equation such as the
Gaussian or bivariate normal equation
with additional provisions for considering
wind direction.
2 The meteorological input parameters
usually include wind direction, wind
speed and stability. The environmental
temperature lapse rale and a vertical
limit to mixing may also be incorporated.
.'5 The1 emission inventory will include the
locations of and amounts emitted from
all source's of the pollutant of interest
for- the time periods needed.
II TYPES AND USES OF MODELS
A Short-time period model (1 hour to 1 day)
1 Diffusion Calculations - Estimate con-
centrations where it is impractical to
sample such as over rivers or lakes
or at distances above the ground.
•'•'2 Control - Determine the amount of de-
crease required for pollutant sources
under particular conditions or the neces-
sary decrease in sources required when
a predetermined alert level has been
reached.
:; 3 Sampling - Location of mobile sampling
teams when a pollution alert occurs.
P> Climalologieal model (long time periods:
months of years, or particular times of
day for each season over a number of
years).
1 Control - Aid in developing emission
standards based on air quality standards.
2 Sampling - Locate permanent samplers
strategically.
3 Planning - Location of sources with
respect to source emission amounts
and potential receptors.
Ill URBAN AIR POLLUTION DIFFUSION
MODELS AND RESULTS
A Pooler - Nashville, Tennessee
Spatial distribution of S
for periods of a month.
concentrations
'Supervisory Meteorologists, NOA/
Meteoroloey & Assessment Division, }''PA
Mesearch Triangle
TIC P7711
1 The Weather Bureau airport wind rose
was used with a diffusion equation
assuming a mean stability.
2 SO2 calculations and observations were
compared at about 120 locations for
five months (600 comparisons).
;A2 and 3 both require forecasts of moso-
meteorological parameters.
7-27
-------
Meteorological Models for Urban Areas
3 50% of the observed concentrations
were between 0. 8 and 1. 25 times those
calculated. 95% were within a factor
of two.
B Turner - Nashville, Tennessee
Spatial distribution of SC>2 concentrations
for 2-hour and 24-hour periods.
1 Mean wind velocity and atmospheric
stability were determined for each
2-hour period.
2 24-hour concentrations were obtained
from averaged 2-hour concentrations and
35 24-hour periods were modeled. SC^
calculations and observations were
compared at 32 locations on a 24-hour
basis and at seven locations on a 2-hour
basis. (1000 24-hour comparisons).
3 58% within Ipphm (error of measure-
ment) 70% within a factor of 2.
C Clarke - Cincinnati, Ohio
Temporal variations of several pollutants
at a single receptor location.
1 Sources over four ranges of distance
from the single receptor location.
2 Solutions obtained by graphical
techniques.
3 Comparison of 24-hour concentrations
Number of Number with in
Pollutant data pairs Correlation a factor of 2
S°2
NO
X
so0
24
If)
19
0.71
0.67
0.81
63%
95%
47%
D Miller and Holzworth - Los Angeles,
Nashville, Washington, D. C.
Average NOX concentrations over Los
Angeles and SO2 concentrations over
Nashville. Point NOX concentrations ;
the Washington, D. C., CAMP station.
1 Minimum (afternoon) and maximum
(morning) average concentrations
over the urban area.
2 Results
Correlation
Afternoon Number coefficient
Los Angeles
Nashville
Washington
Morning
Los Angeles
Nashville
36
31
41
35
31
.88
.84
.83
.80
.84
over
estimated
3 Sequel comparing the statistical and
analytical results for NOX (Miller,
1
-------
Meteorological Models for Urban Areas
The basic formulations of each
modeling approach are summarized in the
table, as are the advantages and dis-
advantages. The definitions of the terms
in the equations are as follows:
c. = mean concentration of chemical
species i
v = vector mean wind
K, ,K = horizontal and vertical eddy
V diffusivities
x,y,z = component directions
Ri = rate of generation of species i by
reactions
S = rate of emission of species i
V = cell volume
v' = vector effective mean transport wind
(includes turbulent transport)
A. The fixed cell, finite difference
models compute concentrations over a grid
of cells in three dimensions, using finite-
difference integration techniques to solve
the classical equations of conservation
of mass, including local change, advection,
diffusion, reactions, and emissions. For
n species or pollutants, there are n
equations coupled through a reaction
term.
B. The moving-cell models use a
Lagrangian approach, in which a moving
"cell" or "parcel" is advected along a
wind trajectory. In this way, advection
disappears from the equations. One
variation of this approach assumes in-
stantaneous uniform mixing within the
parcel and thus neglects vertical
diffusion. Both versions neglect
horizontal diffusion.
C. The particle-in-cell is a novel
approach in which pollutant mass is re-
presented by "particles" which are ad-
vected in accordance with an effective
transport velocity that includes both the
mean and turbulent transports. Concentra-
tions are computed according to the numbers
of particles located in each cell of an
Eulerian, or fixed-coordinate, grid at any
given time.
D. The multiple-box models utilize an
Eulerian array of well-mixed cells that can
be quite large and variable in size to give
spatial resolution only where needed. One
version of this model does include terms for
horizontal diffusion. This type of formulae
tion is a variation of the basic finite-
difference grid formulation and thus also
is influenced by artificial diffusion pro-
duced when the equations are Integrated.
Several of these models are now in ad-
vanced stages of development and evaluation.
The eventual choice of which is the heat
approach for a particular application will
of course depend heavily upon the relative
weight given to resolution and accuracy on
the one hand, and computational efficiency
on the other.
E. Line Source - Transportation Models
The Gaussian equation can be used
to model non-reactive pollutant con-
centrations resulting from mobile sources,
especially carbon monoxide. Stanford
Research Institute researches^ ' have
developed the APRAC-1A Urban Diffusion
Model Computer Program for EPA for deter-
mining hourly averages of this pollutant.
HIWAY is a computer model developed with-
in EPA for calculating non-reactive
pollutant concentrations and is .described
briefly, in F. below. A research project
funded by the Federal Highway Adminis-
tration and performed by the California
Division of Highways has resulted in a
series of eight Air Quality Manuals(36).
Volume IV and its appendix, Mathematical
Approach to Estimating Highway Impact
on Air Quality, include techniques for
calculating carbon monoxide concentrai1
tions without using a computer and is
designed for use in meeting the re-
quirements of Environmental Impact
Statements. The manuals were prepared
as interim reports and the methods
procedures are presently being vali-
dated by extensive field measurements.
Modifications and refinements will be
published in future reports by the
FHWA. The bulk of transportation
generated air quality simulation re-
search and development will be handled
by the Transporation Systems Center of
DOT in Cambridge, Mass. A state of
the art survey has been prepared by
DarlingO?) which is quite comprehen-
sive .
F. User's Network for Applied Modeling of
Air Pollution (UNAMAP)
In May 1973 UNAMAP was developed
so that both EPA and non-EPA users could
utilize current air quality simulation
models. The models involved are all in
the form of computer programs accessible
7-29
-------
Meteorological Models for Urban Areas
from remote terminals connected to a
central computer facility by telephone.
EPA users can access the models through
the IINIVAC computer at RTF. Non-
EPA users may access the models via
Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC)
commercial teleprocessing network,
TNKONET. CSC has a CSA contract for
teleprocessing services and users pay
for their service through a direct agree-
ment with CSC. Those interested in
accessing UNAMAP via INFONET mav contact
Mr. Michael Welsh of CSC hy telephone (<104)
(i3.W»174 for more details.
Currently, UNAMAP consists of the
following models:
1) APRAC - The Stanford Research
Institute APRAC-1A model computes the
hourly averages of carbon monoxide as
a function of extraurban diffusion from
automotive sources in upwind cities,
intraurban diffusion from roadway sources,
and local diffusion within a street canyon.
The model requires an extensive emission
or traffic inventory for the city of
interest. Requirements and technical
details are documented in "User's Manual
for the APRAC-1A Urban Diffusion Model
Computer Program" which is available
from NTIS* (accession number PB-213-091).
2) IIIWAY is an interactive program
which computes the short term (hourly)
concentration of non-reactive pollutants
downwind of roadways. It is applicable
when uniform wind conditions and level
terrain exist. It is best suited for
at-grade highways, but also can be
applied to depressed highways (Cut
sections). NTIS PB 239-9'M
3) Cm - The Climatological Dis-
persion Model (COM) determines long
term (seasonal or annual) quasi-stable
pollutant concentrations at any ground
level receptor using average emission
rates from point and area sources and
a joint frequency distribution of wind
direction, wind speed, and stability
for the same period. This model differs
from the Air Quality Display Model
(AQDM) primarily in the way in which
concentrations are determined from
area sources, the use of Briggs' plume
rise, and the use of an exponential
increase in wind speed with height
dependent upon stability. COM uses a
separate data set for the area of in-
terest. NTIS 1'li 227-.Vt<>-AS
4) PTMAX is an interactive program
which performs an analysis of the
maximum, short-term concentration from
a point source as a function of
stability and wind speed.
3) PTDIS is an interactive program
which computes short-term concentrations
downwind from a point source at distances
specified by the user.
6) PTMTP is an interactive program
which computes, at multiple receptors,
short term concentrations resulting from
multiple point sources.
All the interactive models are documented
as the programs are executed. The COM
model requires a source listing for a
user to understand the data set formats.
Manuals for the PTXXX models are in
preparation.
The models listed in the previous
paragraph are installed on INFONET and
ready for access. Other models will be
added as they are validated. This in-
ventory will eventually include models
in the area of photochemistry, estimat-
ing concentrations in areas of complex
terrain, and estimating concentrations
under stagnation conditions.
-------
Table 1. Principal types of time-dependent air quality simulation models.
A. FIXED-CELL, FINITE-DIFFERENCE MODEL
C. PARTICLE-IN-CELl MODEL
Basic Equation:
3c,
3
TiT
Type: Eulerian (fixed coordinate)
Investigators; Seinfeld et al.
Eschenroeder and Martinez
Advantages: Produces urban-^wide concentration patterns.
Physically more realistic than most.
Disadvantages: Artificial diffusion is inherent.
Chemical computations performed in Eulerian frame.
Computer Time Requirements: Large
B. MOVING-CELL MODEL
Basic Equation:
3c.,
3t
3Vc.j
TT
3 z
K
3Ci
17"
VS
(1) Vertically
inhomogeneous
(2) Vertically
homogeneous
Type: Quasi-Lagrangian (trajectory)
Investigators: Eschenroeder and Martinez
Wayne et al.
Advantages : Traces concentration history along an air trajectory.
Disadvantages : Difficult to obtain urban-wide patterns.
No horizontal diffusion or convergence.
Errors accumulate.
Basic Equation:
"i + V • (v
= R.. +
Type: Moving particles represent pollutant mass
Investigators: Sklarew
Hotchkiss and Hirt
Advantages: No artificial diffusion.
Effective display of concentration pattern.
Disadvantages: Discrete mass represented by each particle limits accuracy.
Large core storage required.
Computer Time Requirements: Large
D. MULTIPLE-BOX MODEL
Basic Equation:
3c
i + v
3t
V Ci - Ri + Si
Type: Well-mixed cell
Investigators: Reiquam
MacCracken et al.
Advantages: Sizes and shapes of cells are variable.
Involves only ordinary differential equations.
Disadvantages: Neglects diffusion (Reiquam)
Neglects vert, diffusion (MacCracken)
Artificial diffusion can be significant.
Computer Time Requirements: Generally modest.
Computer Time Requirements : Modest
-------
Meteorological Models for Urban Areas
2. SCIM- Sampled Chronological Input
Model. This short-term Gaussian steady-
state model estimates concentrations of
stable pollutants from urban point and
area sources for hourly periods. An
estimate of the frequency distribution
of hourly concentrations over a long
period, such as' a year, can be obtained.
This is accomplished by calculating
hourly concentrations for a sample of
hours over the period-not for every
hour. This model was developed by
contract by GEOMET, and CPU requirements
are large. The model is UNIVAC com=-
patible. Distribution of a users*
guide will be made through NTIS when
extensive modifications have been ac-
complished to permit greater versatility.
3. MX24SP- Power Plant Model- This steady^
state Gaussian plume model estimates
the maximum 24-hour concentration of
stable pollutants that occurs during
a year resulting from emissions from a
single plant having one or more stacks.
Estimates of hourly concentrations arc
made at 180 receptors (5 distances by
36 azimuths) using meteorological data
for one year. Concentrations are
averaged, midnight to midnight, each
day. The annual concentration at each
receptor, as well as the maximum 24
hour concentration of all receptors are
included as outputs. A draft users'
guide is being prepared. Improvements
in techniques to estimate hourly
stability and hourly mixing height
will be made before nraking the model
generally available.
4. PAL- Point, Area, Line source model.
This short-term Gaussian steady state
model estimates concentrations of
stable pollutants from point, area,
and line sources. Computations
from area sources include effects of
the edge of the source. This requires
considerable computer time. The model
is not intended for application to
entire urban areas but for smaller
scale analysis of such sources as
shopping centers, airports, and single
plants. Hourly concentrations are
estimated and average concentrations
from 1 hour to 24 hours can be obtained.
No users' guide has been prepared yet.
5. C8M3D- This model treats sources and
receptors in the same basic manner
as AQUM. However, topographic input
with respect to source and receptor
elevations is accepted and utilized
in the computations for stable con-
7-32
ditions. If the source and receptors
are in rural areas, calculations are
made for all six stability categories,
in contrast to AQDM where urban as-
sumptions preclude estimates for stable
conditions. In addition, in C8M3D,
the plume centerline does not approach
closer than 10 m of an elevated receptor
location. Preparation of a user's guide
has only recently begun.
6. SAI- Photochemical Model The SAI model
is a photochemical dispersion model.
It not only considers the transport and
dispersion of pollutants but also the
transformation of HC and NO into
photochemical oxidant pollutants. It
estimates the hourly concentration
variations in these pollutants; CO,
HC, NO, NO , and 0 . The mathematical
formulation for this model is considerably
different from that discussed for the other
dispersion models. This model uses finite
difference techniques over a grid of area
sources to solve the classical equations
of conservation of mass which include
local change, advection, diffusion,
photochemical reaction and emission. To
this date it has only been applied to
areas in California.
This model is one of the better sophis-
ticated photochemical models currently
available. The reliability of this
model is being thoroughly examined and
data from the Regional Air Pollution
Study (RAPS) will be used extensively
in further development.
Photochemical Air Quality Simulation Models
K. L. Denerjian, and G. Smiley. National En-
vironmental Research Center, Research* Triangle
Park, N. C. Meteorology Lab; Feb. 73," 1 feel
mag tape EPA/DF-74/nni St>«ci«y tn^e recording
mode desired: 9 track, 800 or 1600 bpi, odd
parity, EBCDIC: or 7 track, 556 or 800 bpi,
odd or even parity, BCD. Documentation available.
PB-238 823/9WP Mag Tape $97.50: Foreign J122.50
This tape contains tne FORTRAN code and data
for three photochemical air quality models
include: S. D. Reynolds (1973) - Urban Airshed
Photochemical Simulation Model Study. Volume
II: User's Guide and Description of Computer
Programs. EPA Report R4-73-03f. NTIS No. PB-
234978/9WP. July.J.R. Martinez (1972). Users
Guide to Diffusion/Kinetics (DIFKIN)Code.EPA
Report R4-73-012b. Oct.NTIS No.PB-22043/0,A. Kokin.
L.G. Wayne and M. Weisburd (1973)-Controlled
Evaluation of the Reactive Environ. Simulation
Model (REM)-Volume II: User's Guide, EPA Report
R4-73013b, NTIS No.PB-220457/6.
-------
Meteorological Models for Urban Areas
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-------
Meteorological Models for Urban Areas
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40 Carpenter, S. B. et. al. Principal Plume
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JAPCA TL:R pp. 491-495. Aug. 1971.
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42 Sklarew, R. C. , ct. al. Mathematical Modeling
of rhotochemi.cal Smog usins the PICK
Method. JAI'CA 2.2:11 pp. 868-869, Nov. 1972.
43 Johnson, W.li. The Status of Air Quality
Modeling. Proceedings, Intoragency Con-
ference on the Environment, Livermore
Laboratory, Calif., October 1972.
44 Mancuso, R. L. and F. L. Ludwig. User's Manual
for the APRAC-1A Urban Diffusion Model
Computer Program. Stanford Research
Institute, Mcnlo Park, Ca. 94025. Sept.
1972. Available as PB-213-091 from NTIS.
45 Busse, A. D. and Zimmerman, J. R. User's
Guide for Climatological Dispersion
Model. F.PA-K4-73-024. Avail, from NTIS.
Pfl 227-346 AS. December 1973.
46 Zimmerman, J. R. and Thompson, R. • User's
Guide for IIIWAY A Highway Air Pollution
Model. FPA-650/4-74-008. Avail, from
NTIS. PB 239-944, February 1975.
7-34
-------
Meteorological Models for Urban Areas
47 Turner, I). H. and liusse, A. I). User's
Guides to the Interactive Versions
of Throe I'oint Source Dispersion Pro-
grams: PTMAX, PTIHS, ami PTMTP. NOAA
Manuscript, June 1973.
48 II. S. F.PA Guidelines for Air Quality
Maintenance Planning fi Analysis Vol.
12: Applying Atmospheric Simulation
Models to Air Quality Maintenance Areas
i:.PA-.150/'1-74-0!3, September 1974.
49 II. S. lll'A Users Network for Applied Modeling
of Air Pollution (IINAMPAP) Magnetic Tape
Avail, from NT IS as PI! 229-771, $175
domestic, $219 foreign orders.
50 NATO Committee on the Chal lenges to Modern
Society. Proceedings of the Second
Meeting of the Lxpcrt Panel on Air
Pollution Modeling, 1971, IS papers.
Proceedings of the Third Meeting, 1972,
2(1 papers i Proceed ings oF the Fourth
Meeting 1973, 8 papers.Proceedings of the
Fifth Meet in;;, 1974, 34 papers. Documents
avail, from APTTC, lil'A, DTP N.C. 27711.
51 l!rier, G. IV. Statistical Questions Delating
to the Validation of Air Quality
Simulation Models. liPA-650/4-75-010,
March 1975.
52 Pasquill, !•'. Some Topics Relating to Model-
ing of Dispersion in Boundary Layer.
FPA-650/4-75-015, April 1975.
53 Reynolds S. D., Roth, P. M. and Seinfeld,
.]. II. Mathematical Modeling of Photo-
chemical Air Pol Hit ion-I. Formulation
of the Model. Atmos. F.nv. Vol. 7, No.
11, 1033-1061, November 1973.
54 Koth. I'. M. , Roberts P. .1. l.iu, M. K.
Reynolds, S. I). and Seinfeld, .1. 11.
Mathematical Modeling of Photochemical
Air Pollution-I I. A Hoik-1 and Inventory
of Pollutant Emissions. Atmos. Hnv.
Vol. K, No. 2, 97-130, February 1974.
55 Reynolds, •"• . D. l.iu, M. K., llecht, T. A.,
Roth, P. M. and Seinfeld, .1. II. Mathema-
tical Modeling of Photochetni cal Air
Pol lut ion-I IT. F.va luation of the Model.
Atmos. i;nv. Vol. 8, No. (., 563-569,
June 1974.
56. Manna, S. U. A Simple Dispersion Model for
the Analysis of Chemically Reactive
Pollutants. Atmos. P.nv. Vol. 7, No. S,
803-817, August 1973.
57 Ragland, K. w. and Peirce, J. .T. Houndary
i.ayer Model for Air Pollutant Con-
centrations One to Highway Traffic.
JAPCA, V01. 25, No. 1, 48-51, January
1975.
58 Nicholson, S. li. A Pollution Model for
Street-Level Air. Atmos. F.nv. Vol. 9,
No. 1, 19-31, January 1975.
59 Wang, 1. T. and Rote, II. M. A Finite Line
Source Dispersion Model for Mobile
Source Air Pollution JAPCA Vol. 25,
No. 7, 730-733, July 1975.
7-55
-------
SOURCES OF METEOROLOGICAL DATA
D. B. Turner*
J. L. Dicke*
It is necessary In the consideration of most air pollution problems to obtain
meteorological information. Frequently a speci.il observational program must
be initiated. There are also situations where current or past meteorological
records from a Weather Service station will suffice. The following outline
provides a brief insight into the types of observations taken at Weather
Service stations and some of the summaries complied from this data.
I OBSERVATIONS AND RECORDS
A Surface
1 first order stations
There are 200 Weather Bureau stations
where 24 hourly observations are taken
daily. The measurements taken are: dry
bulb temperature and wet bulb tempera-
ture (from which dew point temperature
and relative humidity are calculated),
pressure, wind direction and speed,
cloud cover and visibility. These ob-
servations are transmitted each hour
on weather teletype circuits and are
entered on a form with one day to each
page. The original is sent to the
National Climatic Center (NCC) in
Asheville, North Carolina, and a dupli-
cate maintained in the station files.
Kach station also maintains a climato-
logical record book where certain
tabulations of monthly, daily, and
hourly observations are recorded. (See
Part Two).
2 Second order station.'.
These stations usually take hourly
observations similar to the first order
stations above but not throughout the
entire 24 hours of the day.
) Military observations
Many military installations, especially
Air Force Bases, take hourly observa-
tions. These are transmitted on military
teletype circuits and therefore not
available for general use. No routine
publications of these data is done.
Records of observations are sent to
NCC where special summaries can be
made by use of punched cards.
4 Supplementary airways reporting stations
*Supcrvisory Meteorologist^ NdAA
Meteorology (', Assessment Division, lil'A
These stations are at smaller airports.
The observations are not at regular in-
tervals, usually being taken according
to airline schedules at the airport.
These observations are not published
and not on punched cards. Original re-
cords are sent to NCC,however.
5 Cooperative stations
There are about 10,000 of these stations
manned for the most part by volunteer
observers. The observations are taken
once each day and consist generally of
maximum and minimum temperatures and 24
hour rainfall. Observations are record-
ed on a form with one month to a page.
The original is sent to NCC, a carbon
sent to the state climatologlst, and a
carbon maintained at the station. A few
cooperative stations have additional
data on evaporation and wind. However,
the wind observations are taken at only
a few inches off the ground and are of
use mainly in connection with the eva-
poration measurements.
6 Kire weather service stations
There are a number of special stations
maintained during certain times of the
year in forested regions where measure-
ments of wind, relative humidity, and
cloud cover are taken. These are not
generally on punch cards or summarized,
B Upper Air
There are between 60 and 70 stations in
the contiguous United States where upper
air observations are taken twice daily
(at 0000 GCT and 1200 GCT) by radiosonde
balloon and radio direction-finding equip-
ment. The measurements made are tempera-
ture, pressure, and relative humidity with
height and wind speed and direction. Since
these data are obtained primarily for
knowledge of the large scale meteorological
pattern and have relatively little refine-
7-37
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
incnt In the lower 2 to 3 thousand feet of
the atmosphere, they are of limited use
in air pollution meteorology. These ob-
servations are transmitted by teletype
and original records sent to NCC where
these data are published. (See Part Two).
II CLIMATOLOCICAL DATA
There are a number of routine and special
publications available from the Superintendent
of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C., 20402, that are useful in
air pollution. A number of these are listed
in Price List 48, available from the Superin-
tendent of Documents.
Of principal interest in air pollution are the
elements of wind and stability in relation
to transport and diffusion, degree days in
relation to source emissions from space heat-
ing, solar radiation which affects stability
and atmospheric reactions, and precipitation
affecting removal of pollutants. Following
are listed the publications ot main interest
in air pollution. For more detailed informa-
tion on these and other publications see
"Selective Guide to Published Climatic Data
Sources prepared by U.S. Weather Bureau" pub-
lished in 1969.
A Routinely Prepared Data
1 Daily Weather Maps - Weekly Series
The charts in this 4-page, weekly pub-
lication are a continuation of the
principal charts of the former Weather
Bureau publication. "Daily Weather
Map." All of the charts for 1 day
are arranged on a single page of this
publication. They are copied from
operational weather maps prepared by
the National Meteorological Center,
National Weather Service. The Surface
Weather Map presents station data and
the analysis for 7:00 a.m. EST.
The 500-Millibar Height Contours chart
presents the height contours and
isotherms of the 500-mllllbar surface
at 7:00 a.m. EST.
The Highest and Lowest Temperatures
chart presents the maximum and mini-
mum values for the 24-hour period
ending at 1:00 a.m., EST.
The Precipitation Areas and Amounts
chart indicates by means of shading
areas that had precipitation during
the 24 hours ending at 1:00 a.m., EST.
The publication is for sale by the
Public Documents Department U.S.
(tovernment Printing Office, Washington,
D.C. 20402. Annual subscription $7.50
Domestic airmail $5.20 additional.
Single copy price is 15 cents.
2. Local Climatological Data (LCD)
These data are published individually
for each station and include 3 issues
discussed below. The subscription price
is $1.50 per year for all three issues.
a Monthly Issue LCD
This issue, illustrated in Kigure 1,
gives daily information on a number
of meteorological variables and
monthly means on temperature, heating
degree days, pressure and precipita-
tion. On the reverse side are tabulated
observations at 3-Hourly Intervals;
see Figure 2. Tabulation of observa-
tions for each hour of the dav was
discontinued after December 31, 1964.
This publication is usually available
between the 10th and 15th of the
following month.
b LCD Supplement (monthly)
This issue is available only for
stations having 24 hourly observations
daily until December 31, 1964 when
publication was stopped. It contains
frequency tables illustrated in Fig.
3. For air pollution investigations.
Tables B,E,F, and G would be of
greatest Interest (Frederick, 1964).
The Supplement is usually available
from 20 to 40 days after the end of
the month.
c LCD with Comparative Data (annual)
This Issue, published annually, has
a table of climatological data for
the current year and a table of
normals, means, and extremes for a
longer period of record. This Issue
is usually available between 45 and
60 days after the end of the year.
3 Northern Hemisphere Data Tabulations
This publication, issued daily, contains
approximately 30 pages of surface syno-
ptic observations and upper air observa-
tions. The surface data are for one hour
only (1200 GCT). In this publication
the radiosonde information is of princi-
pal interest in air pollution meteorology.
7-38
-------
Sources of Meteorological Uata__
A portion of.a page of radiosonde data
Is illustrated in Figure 4. The data
are available only In microforms. The
subscription price is $5.00 per month,
separate dally copies 25 cents. This
publication Is usually available 8 to
10 months after the date of the obser-
vations.
4 Climatological Data - National Summary
This publication of approximately 50
pages, issued monthly, contains a
narrative summary of weather conditions,
climatological data (similar to those
given in each station's LCD) in both
English and metric units, mean monthly
radiosonde data, and solar radiation
data. Also included are a number of
maps of the United States showing
spatial distribution of temperature,
precipitation, solar radiation and
winds. The mean radiosonde and solar
radiation data are the main interests
of this publication in air pollution
meteorology. A portion of a page of
mean radiosonde data is illustrated in
Figure 5. An annual issue of this
publication is also available. Subscrip-
tion prices are 20 cents for monthly
and 40 cents for annual Issues; yearly,
including monthly and annual; $2.50.
Monthly issues are available from 4 to
6 months after the month of observation.
5 Climatological Data (by State)
This summary, issued monthly and annual-
ly contains data mainly on temperature
and precipitation. This will only oc-
casionally be of use to the air pollu-
tion meteorologist. Subscription price
is 20 cents per monthly or annual copy
or $2.50 per year for both monthly and
annual issues. This publication is
usually available 2 to 4 months from
the month of observation.
h Rejected climatic maps
This publication consists of 30 U.S.
maps of various meteorological para-
meters such as: maximum and minimum
temperature, heating and cooling degree
days, precipitation, relative humidity,
solar radiation, and surface wind roses
for January and July together with the
annual wind rose. Wind data are pre-
sented for 74 locations within the
contiguous U.S. A list of the basic
Climatic Maps from which the generalized
maps of this publication are taken is
included.
B Summaries
1 Summary of Hourly Observations
This series of publications, Climato-
graphy of the United States, No. 82- ,
Decennial Census of United States Climate,
has been prepared for over 100 Weather
Bureau stations where 24 hourly obser-
vations are recorded each day. One issue
is prepared for each station. Where
records are sufficiently long the ten
year period 1951 - 1960 has been con-
sidered. For others the 5 year period
1956 - 1960 has been summarized. This
series supersedes the series, "Cllmato-
graphy of the United States" No. 30- ,
a 5 year summary published in 1956. A
set of tables similar to tables A through
K in the LCD Supplement are given for
each month (See Figure 6) and for the
entire period (See Figure 7). The price
of this publication is 10 cents per copy
and is prepared separately for each
station. This series was temporarily
discontinued as of May 1, 1965.
2 Climatic Guide
This series of cliraatological publications
contains a wealth of Climatological in-
formation useful to the air pollution
meteorologist fortunate enough to have
had one prepared for his city. Of major
interest to air pollution meteorologists,
are tables of wind frequencies, solar
radiation and degree days.
The guides that have been published and
the year of issue are:
Baltimore, Maryland
New York City
Seattle, Washington
Chicago, Illinois
Houston, Galveston, Texas
1956
1958
1961
1961
1967.
The price of this publication varies
between 30 and 40 cents per copy.
3 Climatic Summary of the United States-
Supplement for 1931 - 1952.
This summary, issued separately by state,
contains tables of monthly and annual
precipitation, snowfall, and temperature
by stations in the state. The price of
this publication ranges from 20 cents
to 70 cents per copy.
4 Terminal Forecasting Reference Manual
Tills manual, published by station, des-
7-39
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
cribcs the weather conditions at the
station, contains information on -local
topography, visibility effects due to
fog and smoke, ceiling, precipitation,
special weather occurrences, and mean
wind and visibility conditions. Numerous
charts are included summarizing the
above elements. Of special interest are
surface wind roses by month and a wind
rose chart related to restricted visi-
bility conditions. A topographic and
smoke, source map for the station is
included. The price per copy is 10 cents.
5 Key to Meteorological Records Documen-
tation
This series of publications was estab-
lished to provide guidance information
to those making use of observed data.
A recent addition to this series No. 4.
11, "Selective Guide to Published
Climatic Data Sources prepared by U.S.
Weather Bureau" (1969) all is extremely
useful to anyone contemplating use of
climatic data. The addresses of the
state climatologists are given inside
the back cover.
V
The series No. 1. 1 title Substation
History and issued by state contains
information regarding history of station
locations, type and exposure of measur-
ing instruments, location of original
meteorological records, where published,
and dates of first and last observations.
The price of this publication per state
is $1.50.
111. NATIONAL CLIMATIC CENTER
The National Climatic Center was
established in Asheville, North Carolina,
in 1951 as the national archives for
weather records. The files at the center
contain 100,000 cubic feet of original
records,more than thirty thousand reels
of magnetic tape, and over 230,000,000
punched cards (Crutcher, 1964). In order
to take a minimum of storage space, some
of the punched cards have been micro-
filmed using FOSDIC (Film Optical Sensing
Device for Input to Computers). This
places the images of 12,000 punched
cards on 100 ft. of 16 mm.film. An optical
reader in combination with a card punch
is used to recover the data. A reader
to transfer data directly to magnetic
tape is under development. For prepara-
tion of summaries, the Climatic Center
has a RCA Spectra 70/45. Original manu-
scripts can be copied by microfilm,
photocopy, xerox, microprints or micro-
cards and furnished to users at the cost
of reproduction. Special summaries are
also prepared at cost for individuals or
companies. A cost estimate for a specific
job will be prepared on request. Inquiries
may be addressed to Director, National
Climatic Center, NOAA, Federal Building,
Asheville, N.C., 28801.
Magnetic tape and punched cards can also
be furnished to users with their own data
processing equipment. Examples of three
types of punched cards, the Hourly Surface
Observation, Type 1; the Summary of the
Day Card, Type 3; and the Winds Aloft
Observations, Type 4 are shown in Figure
8. However, coding procedures for cards
change, such as reporting winds to the
nearest 10° (36 points) on January 1,
1964 and thereafter. Previously, winds
were reported to 16 points of the compass.
If a period of study spans one of these
changes considerable difficulty may be
encountered. A publication indicating
some of the work of the NCC is: Climatology
at Work (1960).
The NCC prepares special tabulations
and summaries including the STAR Program
(STability ARray) which presents wind
distribution by Pasquill stability class.
As of June 1, 1973 the STAR program had
been compiled for 200 U.S. locations. The
data are presented in terms of monthly
seasonal or annual frequencies. Typical
costs are given below:
STAR PROGRAM
One Year
8 obs/day 24 obs/day
Monthly and Annual $75 $100
Seasonal and Annual 50 75
Annual 45 70
Five Years
8 obs/day 24 obs/day
Monthly and Annual $125 $175
Seasonal and Annus 100 150
Annual 90 125
Reproduction costs for Tables already run:
Monthly and Annual $45
Seasonal and Annual 22
Annual 7
STAR tabulations can be furnished on
tapes at a cost of $60 per reel. The
information can then be used in such EPA
dispersion models as AQDM/IPP or CDM.
7-40
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
Inquiries should also be directed to
NCC regarding inversion studies and morning
and afternoon mixing height - transport wind
speed tabulations which have already been
prepared Cor specific locution:). To initiate
r>uch a study b.'ised on n. five year period of
record would cost $500 to *600 per station.
Refer to Holzworth (107)1).
The NCC archives the low level sounding
data, surface to 700 mb. , from all Environ-
mental Meteorological Support Units (HMT.U).
Copies of the Adiabatic Chart.- (WBAN-31D)
and Wind Computation Sheets (WBA?!-.?0) are
available on microfilm. Mandatory, Standard
and Significant Level data are also avail-
able on magnetic tape, as are half-minute
wind observations.
The network originally consisted of the
following stations.
City Site Code Begin
St. Louis, Mo.*
Chicago, 111.*
Washington, D. C.
New York, N. Y. **
Philadelphia, Pa.**
Cleveland, Ohio
Louisville, Ky.
Denver, Colo.
ElMonte, Cal.*
Los Angeles, Cal. *
San Jose, Cal.
Boston, Mass.
Houston, Tex.*
Seattle, Wash.
Pittsburgh, Pa.*
Detroit, Mich.
Charleston, W. Va.*
Birmingham, Ala.*
*stations taking at least one sounding Monday
through Friday as of August 1975.
**3tations tafcinp soundinjrs onlv "on-call" as
of August 1075.
In the past the state climatologist pro-
vided assistance on all matters relating to
climatology and weather records; for interested
parties in the last of ther.c positions. Per-
sons requiring climatological records or sim-
ilar assistance should contact either the
nearest National Weather Service Office or
Regional Headquarters or contact, MCC directly.
Please refer to the material beginning on page
7-52 which describes a NOAA perspective on the
state climatological service:-., especially pre-
pared by Arthur R. Hull, Deputy Director for
Climatology, Environmental Data Service, NOAA.
Please refer to 7-52 for the status of state
climatologicnl services.
WIFRRPINCJIT1.
1.
1,0010
L0020
Lomo
LOO'lO
L0050
L0060
L0070
LOOfiO
L0090
L0100
L0110
L0120
L0130
LOlUO
L0150
L0160
L0170
L0180
Apr. 19h9
Apr. 1969
May 1969
June 19^9
June 19^9
Apr. 1971
Apr. 1971
Apr. 1971
Apr. 1971
May 1971
Aug. 1971
Aug. .1971
Aug. 1971
Sep. 1971
Nov. 3971
Jul. 1072
Jul. 1972
Aug. 1972
Barger, G. L. , Kditor, Climatology at Work
Superintendent of Documents , Government
TYinl.inr: Office, Washington, D. C. , 20l<02
65 cents.
5.
6.
7.
Crutcher, II. L. The National Weather Records
Center. Seminar on Human Biometeorology,
P\ib_lic Health Service Publication No.
909-AP-25. 1967.
Frederick, R. H. Weather Data for Air Pollu-
tion-Available, AnaJyzed and Inexpensive.
J. of Air Pollution Control Assoc. lli:2,
60-65. 1961).
Selective Guide to Climatic Data Sources.
Key to Meteorological Records Documen-
tation Ho. '*. 11. Prepared by Staff, BCC,
Asheville, N. C. Superintendent of
Documents, Government. Printing Office,
Washington, P. C. ?OH02. 1969 $1.00
Superintendent of Documents, Selected
Climatic Maps of the United States. II. S.
Government Printing Office, Washington,
D. C. ?0>*02. 25 cents.
II. S. Superintendent of Documents. Weather
Astronomy, and Meteorology. Price List
H8. Government Printing Office. Washing-
ton, D. C., 20*102.
II. S. Navy, NAVAEF 50-10-53>4. Guide to
Standard Weather Summaries. January
1959 with Change 'To. 1, 15 July I960.
8. U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Weather Bureau.
Inventory of unpublished tabulations.
Washington, P. C. lOS^t.SO cents.
9. Hull, A. R. The Federal Knvironmental Data
System. Bull. Amer. Meteoro. Sec. Vol. 55
No. 7-765. July 197'i.
10. Program and Abstracts: Climatology Conference
and Workshop, October 8-11, 197't, Asheville
N. C. Bull. Amer. Meteorology ^r"'« Vol. 55.
No. 7; 859-P75, July 1P71*.
11. Holzworth, G. C. Summaries of the lower Few
Kilometers of Rawinsonde and Radiosonde
Observations in the United States, Paper
presented at Climatology Conference and
Workshop, Asheville, U. c.. October, 1°7|4.
7-41
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
far
yfL
Casts'
Latitude
I
|
10
11
11
11
u
15
It
IT
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1»
20
11
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37
41
58
61
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IT
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11
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12
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29
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26
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-11
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99
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21
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10
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11
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10
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14
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Degree d
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7
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22
22
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10
26
27
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4O
19
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19
19
19
Total J Dw.
IAU
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JlAJvaUJrvL JJA1A WE»TM CINCINNATI MR«MT
— JODT T. COmrrjR, S»cr«t.rj BOONE COUNTr. KfNTUCIcr
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shown by code
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of occurrence
1 1 1 *• < * i • •
i
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r uarsenuure* at BUBIJI n Jn»in»c trora Borae!
T In col
UMK 9. W. Mri U — d w UN Hnvtr PRnputMn
Pltupiutton
Total
(Water
equiva-
lent)
(In.)
10 _
.01
T
0
0
.91
.17
.23
.10
I. It
.61
T
T
T
0
0
0
0
0
7
T
0
0
0
T
0
.11
.97
.02
0
T
- J.ST.
*%•
o.Tt
Snow
sice!
(In.)
II
.1
T
0
0
0
0
a
0
0
1.0
T
T
T
0
0
0
a
0
0
0
0
0
0
T
0
T
.1
.2
0
T
"Y-..-T
-T76-
Av».
station
pres-
sure
(In.)
Elev.
177
feet
nuJ.
12
29.19
29.34
29.64
29.54
29.29
29.06
21.10
21.17
21.»1
29.09
29.44
29.91
29.35
29. JO
29. JT
2*. 2*
2 .19
2 .04
2 .99
2 .12
2 .96
2 .IT
2 .21
2 .12
2 .14
2 .11
21.14
21.92
29.24
29.09
dr
zmr
Wind
1
13
29
»I
06
11
22
19
20
20
02
01
It
OT
04
24
19
2]
22
IT
19
10
12
02
04
11
29
11
20
26
22
>»
*1
„
ll
14
9.1
10.5
7.5
• .7
10.4
12.4
15.2
16.2
1.7
10.2
1.2
9.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
9.4
10.0
4.3
9.2
10.7
t.l
10.0
14.6
7.9
4.2
4.6
• .3
17.1
7.4
6.5
— TK~»
-2T61
1
|
fl
.
9.
11.
12.
15.
16.
10.
11.
9.
10.
6.
«.
8.
9.
10.
7.
7.
11.
7.
10.
19.
9.
10.
4.
9.
19.
1'.9
7.1
7.9
10.3
'
Greatest in 24 hours and dates
Precipitation j Snow. Sleet
1.16 j 9-10 ! 1.0 i 10
Fastest
mile
It
16
16
19
12
19
17
11
21
29
16
20
14
12
12
13
11
14
17
12
11
11
13
16
20
16
13
14
21
29
14
14
Direction
17
13
27
10
16
22
20
20
20
03
13
13
07
11
29
20
25
24
03
Ib
29
14
01
02
11
10
11
27
27
26
21
Sunshine
I-E
i!
18
[n»Vioilv>~'
Dale: 0» nut
: 1
1-5
19
for
moMti
Sky cover
flenlhs)
Sunrise to
sunset
20
10
10
1
10
10
10
10
9
10
10
10
10
«
9
2
1
7
1
9
10
10
9
10
10
0
1
9
10
9
2
10
fr^—
w-
Av,
TS
Greatest depth on ground of
snow, sleet or ice and date
1 I 11.
2
si
21
10
9
0
7
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
•
8
1
3
i
12
1
2
1
4
9
6
7
1
9
10
11
12
11
14
19
16
4 17
2 11
*
9
10
6
10
7
2
7
«
7
1
9,
^,
nP
Avt
'.t
19
20
21
22
21
24
29
24
27
21
29
10
11
t 7 *>' w AbAwl HMicMw. + AUo (M Ml Offer dMe. or dttei.
HOURLY PRECIPITATION (Liquid in Inches)
1
1
I
t
4
9
6
T
1
9
10
11
12
11
14
19
It
IT
t«
19
20
21
22
11
14
19
It
17
21
29
10
M
»!•
frlMB
itaeri
M -
A-l LHourtsulu.iat ! P MTHourendiniiat
1
7
.01
.01
.04
T
.04
ncota
•4MC* >i
rMiinu
Mnnk.
2 J
7 T
T T
.04 .03
7 7
.01 .M
.10 .01
7
.02 .04
T 7
4 5
7
7 .01
.01 7
.01 .01
.09 .09
.M .04
T 7
7 7
.09 .04
7 7
MMh. 11. t*. 14. .nd 19 w
M wind Mr>«i K«*ottftf era
f-'igwm faf direciHHi* ai* ta
HHlDO •• (aha. WhendKcvu
« 7
.04 .11
7 T
.03 .01
.11 .07
.01 .01
T
7
7 T
.0} ,01
1 9
.09 T
7
.02 .05
.03 .05
.01 .02
7
7
7
7 T
.01 .04
7777
... . -k-_.!.-
w*il nn * (.Nciv*l.tin per ib
rf IMfce *TC*1 SIMI <•? WMH/ d
» .c . t» - i
•r4. P. rnlriei
1 T 2 1
't
i [
r
T
T
.09
T
7
7
7
.07
7
(TV4k W
nerdtl ^
«J*d
^ SM
bar
1
7
.13
7
7
7 7
.07 .02
7
7
7
1
7
7
.04
7
UMHflt
»vilwm
wih. r
taueit
4 5
f
7
7 1
.01
7 7
I
7 1
I
1
7 7
7
7 7
FTC irwiae
mtxrirf
Wen,
)>Kr>«d
7 7
7
••inmi vcwfc. If UK / appear* in Cot IT. nveedi «« •»!*. Any emir* J*f.ttJ will he «>iiecnd tint flwnae' M
•!<•••!> data
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
OBSERVATIONS AT 3-HOUR INTERVALS
fill*
S6!
10 lot
id i!
• UNL
10 12(
Id 61
10 7!
id H
10 6(
d UNL
l| UNL
i UNL
Id 160
iq cm
4 Clf
4 40
t t 21
,..»,] " ~Tj "Is i
I
5 ft-p'sT
^
?
DAY 01
12
1
1
Id 24 84
12 11 49
»S 11 19
3i 10 64
12 31 19
li 21 72
S 2J 21 81
27
21
26
21
21
23
24
1<
1
It
DAY 04
19 141 74
li 141 74
15 H 74
l9 161 77
21 I* 61
111 21 61
32 29 69
wl
_K
24
21
24
28
91
12
11
08| 10
061 10
061 11
11
16
21
22
21
DAY 07
i id iz; i
1 id 2d i
1 10 2q «
3 Id 4 *
3 Id 1
4 iq 11
,
1
9 10 I* li
2 10 21 11
1 Id
^ Id
i 961 991 41
; n 95 9« 46
R 96j 9S| 4!
RF ; S7J 941 43
91 57 41
6U 91 84
tt 18 64
6li 99, 67
54
54
54
55
56
56
56
57
n*v i D
4
4
t 10 4| !
a id ?i
3 10 1 ;
6 id if i
3 id z-i
i id * •
RF 431 431 461 42
RF 41 41| 46{ 40
' ttf 41 411 94 40
R 17 IT] «« 31
i LF • 1) 141 tit 3!
3> ll] 44] 12
> SF 31 12 421 11
SF lij 111 92! 1C
OAY 1)
1, 10 IV 9
4) id id 9
t 10 j 4
d id i> 2
3 4 l»j 3
4 1 CI6J 3
d j Md 1
j id « i
' «. 21 261 64
r. 2* 26) 11
WH 21 241 81
4 (H 21 26| 78
i KM 2* 271 76
KH : 12 3d 79
K !« 29) 68
• K 27! 24 81
11
};
19
"" ^ §1
ills?
6 : 10
4 10
8 i 7
12 : 10
6 ' 10
14 10
7 : 10
:
^
3|
• II 11 V
B[i
WfiAIHE*
3 I
)_
E
3
if.
-''
:
I
J~
M
K
l^
J
»,N,, ; |_
i
li
5
vlu.
HJ
WIAniKft
i]
.£
Q
•
2E
f]
!
=?
r
£
WIND
•1
0«Y 02 i OAT 01
11
79
120
CIO
C1R
40
110
10
19
19
12
12
19
19
LWL »*
6 0 24
7 3 1T
10 a 19
10 : 0
7 0
6 0
6 0
17| 7 : 10
21
21
21
20
20
21
16
20
04
04
15
01
OI
16
12
13
19 i 10
14 : 1(
14 • 1
19 :
16
12 : 1
6 ; 1
11 10
11 10
11 10
4 10
12 10
11 . 10
4 10
7 10
4 10
7
1
1
2
D
4J
|
on
t
\
17
16
15
15
17
11
18
17
16
16
13
IS
16
11
66
71
74
70
66
66
61
14 11
04 92
06 10
071 11
01 27
04 10
04 1C
12 0
11 0
7 ! 0
11 0
n : 6
11 0
7 0
UNL
UNL
UNL
UNL
20
UHL
UNL
19
19
10
1
5
6
1
* ' 1*1 ••! v«t Wl ' . U| unk •
>Y 01
R
39
36
17
16
14
14
39
36
16
19
14
t LF !9| 14t
LF
70
76
64
100
96
96
100
141 19UOd
26
11
14
16
16
11
14
14
KH
KH
i>
1 1
10
II
21
21
H
11
10
04
12
14
14
17
4T
TT
40
60
49
41
48
*•
06
09
09
04
11
11
10
n«
16
04
06
09
10
07
04
All
f
9
REFERENCE NOTES
••"""•" CEILING COLUMN-
: DAY 06
10
29
23
11
21
14
17
11 ; 10
10 I 10
14 ; 9
11 ; to
11 10
B 10
9 10
11
11
15
60
21
18
14
1
6
7
8
8
10
RF
RF
14
4!
4}
50
14
97
57
96
34
41
41
46
92
16
34
94
00
44
00
14
44
80
41
40
14
42
43
46
90
91
92
93
17
11
14
20
20
19
14
14
ceiling.
CIR indicates a cirriform
. cloud ceiling oT unknown
1 height.
I' WEATHER COLUMN-
** • Tornado
IS -r Thunderstorm
1* Q Souall
R Rain
D
2O| 12
23 19
24] 19
21 12
10J 12
29 12
14 12
IY 01 OAY 09 RW Rain showers
RH
60
62
62
65
65
61
62
98
60
60
61
61
60
60
40
87
67
78
76
64
87
97
58
96
96
96
96
96
14
21
21
22
14
14
14
10 10
16 10
17 [ 10
17 ! 10
22 ; 10
16 ; 10
4 : 10
4 I 10
120
6
40
4
1
1
2
6
6
7
1
1
1
Ot
4
RW
RH
RF
RF
F
! LF
RF
6« 96
58 57
56 47
54 94
47^47
461 46
ti] 45
421 42
90
47
100
100
100
100
100
17
97
54
47
46
45
42
21
20
16
01
01
02
02
4 ZR Freezing rain
4 L Drink
8 ZL Freezing drizzle
* S Snow
10 SP Snow pellets
11 1C Ice crystals
12 SW Snow showers
10 SG Snow grains
E Sleet
0«Y 11 i 0«Y 12 A Hail
4 a
120 8
30
16
21
16
20
16
to
10
10
10
10
12
Sf
32 31
32
32
32
32
32
12
11
31
11
31
31
30
30
26
89
84
64
42
69
62
74
78
24
24
24
90
28
27
26
29
91
13
14
02
16
01
01
09
12 i 10
5 ; 10
4 ; 10
4 : 10
6 : 10
4 1 10
4 i 10
6 i 10
14
IS
12
11
14
11
11
12
6
7
7
9
I
1
9
9
S» | 11
SH
SIKH
H
H
24
26
27
27
26
26
27
26
27
29
26
26
26
27
26
74
82
66
69
65
76
78
69
25
23
21
21
23
22
21
2!
09
OS
07
07
07
07
07
06
tO AP Small nail
10 F ,F°«
10 IF Ice fog
7 GF Ground Tog
t SD Blowing (Just
« BN Blowing saml
1 BS Blowing snow
a BY Blowing spray
K Smoke
O.Y 14 ! MY 9 R "«f
21 111 7 . 10 5
24| 04| 6 10 »
It 01. 4 10! 5
22! 041 5 10 1
211 24J 3 101 12
2-
2
2<
t 0 UNU 1C
<, 1 UNU 1C
1 1 UNU 1
i 4; Cl3
1 d W6J 1
4 a uwj i
2
2
2
2
S
llf 4 7^ 100) 7
281 7 id, lool 7!
j 24! 7 ll UNL) T
1 "•
1?
1'
j
26
25
29
24
29
11
11
28
261 42
li 42
29 96
24 46
27 78
2« 76
24J76
IT 69
26
21
24
21
23
29
29
24
21
24
24
29
26
24
21
21
6 : 0 UNL
6 i 0 UNL
10 : 0! UNL
4 . 0 UNL
6 i 0 UNL
7 7 UNL
7 i 0 UNL
5 • 4J UNL
9
5
9
1
7
7
B
1
GF
GF
H
21
24
31
42
46
17
17
29
24
24
24
37
36
11
1)
62
46
62
82
61
46
69
65
21
21
22
26
10
27
26
26
21
20
IB
19
21
IB
9 •* *•""'
6
*•
10 WINDCOLUMNS-
1° Directions are those from
8 which the wind blows, indi-
* cated in tens of degrees
: from true North; i. e., 09
nay IT ; DAY 11 for East. 18 for South. 27
: 341 11: 71| 26; 22) 9 t* UNL 1O!
39t !2 701 2« 22i 6 01 UNLl 101
34| 3i; 71: 2k 22 8 Oi UNL! 8
i 36t 34J 45 2T\ 22> 10 T> *ol 7!
' »« 4ll 94] 32] IV. 10 1
i id 4i 48] 31^ 26J 10 : 1C
! 3d 3S 60] 2§ 221 7
! li 3d 72| 291 22l 5
CIR 8
J CIR, »j
U*t 10|
k| UF*L| 10(
i
14
33
13
40
50
49
45
44
31
31
31
36
42
42
40
39
76
74
79
69
90
94
63
69
27
27
27
24
12
11
11
11
21
21
21
22
24
22
22
22
6 : 0
6 : 2
6 i 0
9 ! 0
15 ! 0
9 i 2
4 : 1
4 ! 7
UNL
UNL
UNL
UML
UNL
UNL
UNL
40
6
1
6
4
6
12
6
e
6FM
41
IT
17
41
51
59
41
17
1
1
1
4,
4
3
1
71
16
41
<4
61
44
79
42
31
11
15
40
11
16
15
12
23
23
23
26
27
27
02
04
• for West. Enlry of 00 in
A Ihe direction column indi-
* cates calm.
A
• Speed is expressed in knots:
T mulliply by US to convert
9 to miles per hour.
3
r,*v 90 ! DAY 21
I T UNL 9) ""if" 3Z 31i 891 26| 09| 9 2; UNL 6~"H"
4 I UNU i 1 GFK ] iJ 3d 89 281 10! 4 7 28 81
i « UNL 5 GFK 29! 26t 84! 261 id 9 10| 44 loj
0 II 4d « RM 1*1 33J 69] Iff 1 11 6i 101 7| 6!
J id 63 Tj | 4C| 3fl 73] 1
6 id 6d 1 42 36^ 71 1
3 id ii3 i H *? 33 7<\ '
3 4| UNII 4i : u All 34 821 1
t 1 60
41 0 UNU
r q UM,
d id 2]
1 10 16
6 Id 331 1
4 10 UNI, 1
i a jiLi i
L 0 UNL, I
4] 0 UNL1 1
1 0 U"5 '
4 d U«Lj
1 t UNU I
II d UNLj 1
j 8 l«Lj 1
L 10 391
« 10 4.
1 Id 1
d 10 6
3 iq 4,
« id is i
j ,3 $. t
H 17| 8 i 101 6^ Id
j It) 6 i 1C- 7| \i>
3 16! « 10, 1| 101
&1 21 B id 4| id
L
40
41
36
19
38
17
37
19
34
34
39
39
19
13
33
li
891 17
7l! 1]
711 30
7o| 10
73
67
61
73
30
27
* 27
27
26
24
30
24
31
12
10
10
6 ! 10J 28
11 : 10 10
10 1 10 80
13 I 10 65
12 i 10 65
12 : 10 50
6 ': l3 55
1 10| 90
10
10
10
6
6
10
;
14
11
12
19
40
42
41
11
12
12
11
11
16
17
16
13
42
65
65
79
68
61
65
76
24
29
21
29
10
10
10
11
00
08
16
14
14
11
08
08
4>
&
9
* ADDITIONAL DATA
* Other observational data con-
6 tained in records on Hie cm
be furnished at cost via micro-
OAY 22 •
, K 361 14{ 62' 11! OK 5 10 C
SF« 111 10 42 291 01 « : 10 0
! 6FK 2« 29 «2| 271 OZ 7 10) C
IH 1« 11 65| 30 )(. 1 10, C
, • 94J 14 741 JO 01 Ilia C
li 11 «.»! 241 OZ 10 IW C
1? 26- (•» 21 O2l 11 101 1 C
i 21, 2" 79 if 02i 10 10! C 6
DAY 25
J IT 16! 7
S 11 IT: 7
17! It. 6
If 20. 7
izt 27! 4
1 2SJ 221 5
< 20| 1« 6
r U 25 4
F; 121 25! 4
M 13j 23{ 4
kl l£ 25 11
) IK 27! 14
> ISi IT 14
1 12 31, 4 •
1 ll! 24! 5
UNl
UNI
UNI
UNL
UNI
UN
oi um
0 UN
1 2R 90 2« 65 24! 14 10 10 2
Iff ' ll! iOf Mi 26 12 10 ID! t
ZRF i 1? 31 42 30j 13; 10 10; 1
»F 14J 3» 421 32! 1* 13 9 1
RF 34 37J ,,! ,» li |2 * 1
4! 4« 861 43^ 221 19 * 2
4«l 4|| id 3« 27< 19 . 0- UN
| 14 lUi 67| J41 271 20 0! UN
DAY 23
10!
lot
10i
10]
'J
K
B> <
t
19
IS
t
10
12
19
19
; 12
•i T
• 10
! 2
2
1 19
Ii 1»
AY 26
)AY 24
sw
26
29
24
24
26
26
29
23
14
li
1!
11
2<
31
21
2
21
21
2
21
21
21
It
24
21
2C
2C
11
2:
2C
1"
III
2-
2
2
1
7)
9!
93
9!
91
93
91
Ue
61
61
8<
74
93
4
5
7
141 0!
11 09
04 04
10 06
10 09
11 02
12 06
111 02
11
04
04
19
14
13
13
1 13
291 66 11
29 63l 11
21 tt\ 14
22l 61 11
24 72 11
29 66 11
2»i 64! 11
24! 64 11
24
00
00
21
28
2«
3
02
21
21
2S
a
u
21
21
25
10 10
12 10
14 1C
19 10
14 4
14 : 10
11 : 1
17 0
CIR
33
40
40
20
26
UNL
UNL
DA
6
8
8
6
7
6
10
10
: D<
4 ! 0 UNL! 19
0 UNLJ 12
: 1 UNLl 7
7 : 8 cm 4
7 i 10 Cl« 7
1 ': 10 60 7
9 : 10 100 6
1 i 101 90| 1
16 i (
20 : (
16 : 1
19 :
19 !
17 (
6
11
UNI
1 UIA
UNL
UNI
UM
UNI
UNI
UNI
01
19
19
12
6
10
10
10
10
Y 24
M
S«
SM
IH
su
Y 27
H
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film or microfiche copies of
* ' the original record1;. Inquiries
* is to availability and
1° costs shouU be adilretsed to:
12 Director
9 National Weather Records Center
5 Federal Building
7 Asheville, N. < 28801
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BOONE COUNTVi KFN7UCKY
KIGTRF 2
7-43
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
II lamuntUHT BT COmalCS.
LOCAL CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA (SUPPLEMENT)
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-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
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7-45
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
RAWINSONDE DATA
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FIGURE 5
7-46
-------
nucimiAii. one
Or*«t*r Cincinnati AP Boon* Co., Ky.
TEMPERATURE AND WIND SPEED-RELATIVE HUMTOITy OCCURRENCES:
PERCENTAGE FREQUENCIES
OF WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED:
WMB
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PKHCENTAQI FREQUENCIES OF
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PERCENTAGE FREQUENCIES OF
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04
06
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09
10
11
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20
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69
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40
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44
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15
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Or«t»r Clacluiti AP IOOM Co.,
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or WIMP DIRECTION AND SPIED:
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C OOCUHMNdS OF PfUBORTATION AMOUNTS:
PERCENTAGE FBEOUENCIIS OF
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I RELATIVE HUMroiTY:
«.cn.t«
'MCI
M « •» »
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It ll| 91
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FMQUCNCV OF OCCUMKNCE FOK EACH HOUR OF THC DAT
A n fauf tMOiMa »t -. * m HOIW tttniG AT
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PKHCENTAOE FREQUENCIES OF
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FIGURE 8
7-49
-------
PART TWO
Climatography of the United States
Series No. 82
This series, Decennial Census of United
States Climate - Summary of Hourly Obser-
vations, is incomplete, although work on it
has been temporarily discontinued. It is
generally based on ten years of data. Similar
summaries, based on five years of record are
contained in Climatography of the United
States, Series No. 30.
It has been issued for the stations listed. The
second part of the series number indicates
the State in which the station presented is
located; for example, all stations in New York
State carry the number 82-30.
The list of numbers and stations is:
82-1 Alabama
Birmingham
Mobile
Montgomery
82-2 Arizona
Phoenix
*Tucson
82-3 Arkansas
Little Rock
82-4 California
*Bakersfield
Burbank
Fresno
Los Angeles
82-5 Colorado
*Colorado Springs
Denver
82-6 Connecticut
*Hartford
82-7 Delaware
Wilmington
Oakland
Sacramento
San Diego
San Francisco
82-8 Florida
Jacksonville
Miami
*Orlando
^Tallahassee
Tampa
*West Palm Beach
82-9 Georgia
Atlanta
Augusta
*Macon
Savannah
82-10 Idaho
Boise
82-11 Illinois
*Chicago (O'Hare)
Chicago (Midway)
Moline
Springfield
j?2-12 Indiana
Evansville
Fort Wayne
Indianapolis
*South Bend
82-13 Iowa
Des Moines
Sioux City
82-14 Kansas
Topeka
Wichita
82-15 Kentucky
*Lexington
Louisville
82-16 Louisiana
Baton Rouge
Lake Charles
New Orleans
Shreveport
82-17 Maine
Portland
82-18 Maryland
Baltimore
82-19 Massachusetts
Boston
82-20 Michigan
Detroit (City AP)
*Flint
Grand Rapids
82-21 Minnesota
Duluth
Minneapolis
82-22 Mississippi
Jackson
82-23 Missouri
Kansas City
St. Louis
Springfield
82-24 Montana
Great Falls
82-25 Nebraska
Omaha
82-26 Nevada
*Las Vegas
*Reno
82-28 New Jersey
Newark
82-29 New Mexico
Albuquerque
*5 Year Summary Only
7-50
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
82-.'<0 New York
Albany New York" (InT'lf
*Binghamton New York (I ,a Guardja)
Buffalo Rochester
Syracuse
82-IU North Carolina
H2-41 Texas
Charlotte Raleigh
Greensboro *Winston-Salem
82-32 North Dakota
Bismarck Kargo
_B2-:«_ Ohjo_
Akron-Canton Columbus
Cincinnati Dayton
Cleveland Voungstown
82-iHt Oklahoma
Oklahoma C'ity
Tulsa
K2-,Hf) Oregon _
Medford Portland
*Pendleton *Salem
*Not Prepared
Philadelphia *Scranton
* ••''i7 th<>do Island
Providence
Charleston C"olumbia
82-:^) South Dakota
Huron
*ilapid C'.ity
(i2-4() Tennessee
Chattanooga ivTemphis
Knoxville Nashville
AmariJlo Gnlvcston
Austin Houston
Brownsville I,a redo
Corpus Christ! *1 ,ubl>ock
Dallas *Midland
Kl Paso San Antonio
*Fort Worth *Waoo
*Witchita Falls
Salt Lake City
«2-43 Vormoiit
*Burlington
J12-44 Virginia _
No~rfoTk *Roanoke
Richmond
jJ2-4.r)_ Washington
S<:atti7r:Ta"eoma~ A P
Spokane
B2-4G _Wt!_st_
*Charleston
82- 47 Wisconsin
*Green Bay Milwaukee
Madison
82- 48 Wyoming
*Cas]>er
JJ2-40 Alaska
*Anehorage
*Cold Bay
* Fairbanks
*King Salmon
_____
"Washington, D. C.
U2--51 llawaii
Honolulu
*Wake Island (Pacific)
K2-52 Puerto Rico
San Juan
*5 Year Summary Only
7-51
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
STATUS OF STATK CLIMATOLOGICAL SERVICES*
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin-
istration (MOM) and most of the States have
taken steps to ensure continuation of basic
climatological services to the user public,
now that NCAA's National Weather Service (NWS)
State Climatologist program has been termina-
ted.
For its part, NOAA has increased the service
capabilities of the Knvironmcntal Data Services'
National Climatic Center (NCC) and has re-
aligned the climatological service function
of NWS. Many States arc providing personnel
and facilities to carry on some or all of the
services previously provided by the State
Climatolo|>ists.
1. The- National Climatic Center
NCC, the collection center and custodian of
all United States weather records, has dev-
eloped special programs to respond to increased
user requests. The recently established Infor-
mation Services Division has been restructured
and equipped with an expanded telephone and
intercom system to make it possible for NCC
climatologists to respond simultaneously to
eight user requests.
NCC, located in the Federal Building, Asheville,
N. C. 28801, has established a toll free tele-
phone line from the Washington, D. C. Area.
'Ihc number is 427-7919. NCC's regular numbers
arc: ITS (704) 254-0683; Commercial (704)
25X-2Sr,n, I-xt. 683.
User requests to NCC should specify the data
required, stations or geographical limits
involved, desired carrier medium (magnetic
tape, punched cards, microforms, hard copy),
and other ]>crtincnt information such us a
description of the problem for which the data
arc required. NCC personnel and the requester
will consult on content and specifications,
but nongovernment users who require assistance
in specifying their needs or applications of
data will be referred to private meteorological
consultants.
In addition to the routine climatological
service, the NCC, in a cooperative effort
with liPA, has developed several computer pro-
grams aimed at helping the air pollution •
engineer or meteorologist. These include
stability arrays for use in the Air Quality
Display Model (AQDM) and the Climatological
Dispersion Model (COM), mixing height studies,
inversion statistics, etc. Tabulations can
be prepared for any station for which there
is sufficient meteorological data available.
All work at NCC is performed on a reimbursable
basis. The requester is provided a cost
estimate before work begins.
2. National Weather Service
NCC has supported the NWS offices by assembling
climatic reference handbooks that arc used
to respond to user requests. One handbook is
located at each of the 300 NWS offices throughout
the SO states. The books contain worldwide,
national, and regional, State, district, and
local climatic data and provide the on-station
NWS meteorologist with reference materials
needed to answer local queries.
In addition to standard climatic data, the hand-
books also contain resort area climatic summaries,
worldwide weather extreme statistics, information
on the use of weather records in litigation,
monthly ocean and lake tempi- .•'uvc averages
for selected stations, and ti.< -UAA fee schedule
for reproduction of weather records. The hand-
books will be updated periodically.
NWS field offices respond to local user requests
for climatological data using the handbooks and
materials in their files. If the requested
materials or information are not available at
the office, the requests are forwurri'i.l to NCC.
If the problem requires analysis or interpreta-
tion of the data, the requester will be referred
to private consultants.
NWS offices prepare storm data and weekly weather
summaries for weekly weather and crop reports
like the Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin
published jountly with the Statistical Reporting
Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
3. The States
lifforts in the States to ensure continuation
of basic climatological services range from
assuming the total State Climatologist program,
to assuming none of it.
Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado,
Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New York,
Texas, Wisconsin, and Utah have assumed res-
ponsibility for the major portion of the
State Climatologists program.
Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana,
Maine, Maryland, Missouri, Nebraska, New
Hampshire, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Rhode
Island, South Dakota, Vermont, and West Virgina
have an agency offering some of the services,
including public services, previously provided
by the State Climatologists.
7-52
-------
Sources of Meteorological Data
Alabama, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii,
Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, Oregon, South Caro-
lina, Tennessee, Virginia, and Wyoming are
receiving some materials previously sent to the
State Climatologists and are making these
materials available to researchers but not the
public.
In many States, climatological files are located
at (and new materials will be sent to) the State
Universities, which will provide service to
requesters. Arizona, for example, has estab-
lished a Laboratory of Climatology at its State
University.
In Arkansas, Idaho, Iowa, Kentucky, Mississippi,
New Mexico, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and
Washington, as well as the Commonwealth of
Puerto Rico, no State action has yet been taken.
NWS offices are receiving all the material
previously sent to the State Climatologists
and arc responding to requests that can be
answered by material available in the Services
Offices.
NOAA hopes that eventually all of the States will
will be able to provide climatological services
to their residents. For States not able to do
this, however, NOAA's NWS field offices and NCC
stand ready to provide basic climatological
data and information services for the user
community.
*This information was provided by Arthur R. Hull,
Deputy Director, Environmental Data Service,
NOAA, in collaboration with W. D. Bartlett,
Richard M. Davis and II. L. Suits as of September,
1975.
7-53
-------
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION
NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE
Silver Spring, Md. 20910
NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE OFFICES AND STATIONS
Eighteenth Edition
January 1978
1.0 General: The purposes of this publication are: to list all first- and
second-order offices and stations operated by, or under the supervision of,
the National Weather Service; to show the type and location of each station;
and, to indicate briefly the nature of the observational program provided by
each station. ("First-order" refers to a station manned by full-time Weather
Service employees; "second-order" refers to all other stations that are
supervised by the National Weather Service.)
2,0 Explanation of Entries: The data provided are extracted from the
"Station Information File," which is maintained by the Resources Management
Staff; the information is supplied by stations on WS Forms Al and A3. The
Resources Management Staff (Wx3) should be advised of any error, by memo-
randum through the Regional Headquarters or by revised WS Forms Al or A3
if the station's file copy indicates an error.
2.1 Station Identification and Location Data:
CODE TYPE OF STATION
10 WSO - Weather Service Office
20 NC - National Center
30 FAA - Federal Aviation Administration
40 WSFO - Weather Service Forecast Office
60 RFC - River Forecast Center
70 WSMO - Weather Service Meteorological Observatory
80 ADMO - Administrative Office
90 CUA - Cooperative Upper-Air Unit
01 AMOS - Automatic Meteorological Observing Station
(including full and partial parameter automatic
stations)
02 SAWRS - Supplementary Aviation Weather Reporting
Station (SAWRS, SR)
Basic Contract Observing Station (Basic, 3C)
Flight Service Station (FSS), FAA
Control Tower/Limited Aviation Weather Reporting
Station (TWR, LAWRS or LWRS), FAA
07 5 - Synoptic Observing Station
08 S/B - Combined Synoptic and Basic Contract Observing
Station
Og CG - Coast Guard or Marine Reporting Station (MARS)
03 B
04 FSS
05 TOR/LAWRS
-------
Examples of some possible combined types are:
11 WSO-AMOS 26
12 WSO-SAWRS 31
13 WSO-BASIC 32
14 WSO-FSS 33
15 WSO-TWR/LAWRS 46
16 WSO-RFC 76
NC/RFC
FSS-AMOS
FSS-SAWRS or TWR/LAWRS-SAWRS
FSS-BASIC or TWR/LAWRS-BASIC
WSFO/RFC
WSMO/RFC
STATION NAME - Where two or more stations are collocated (located in the same
building or stations have the same latitude and longitude) and
the station "Code" does not identify all stations, the "type"
of station is added to the "Name". Example:
Code Station Name
01 Ft. Dodge - AMOS/SAWRS
11 Valentine - BASIC
AIRPORT NAME - The airport name may not always be repeated if it is
identical to the station name.
CALL Letters assigned as location identifiers for Weather Service
Offices and Stations.
NO. Refers to the International Index Number.
LAT. Latitude to the nearest whole minute; North, unless South
is indicated.
LONG. Longitude to the nearest whole minute; West, unless East
is indicated.
ELEV. Elevation to the nearest whole foot.
ELT. Elevation type:
0 = elevation of the station (HP);
1 = elevation of the field (HA), highest usable portion of
the landing area of an airport;
2 = elevation of the ground (H) beneath the instrument
shelter or the observing station.
2.2 Observational Data:
Synoptic Observations
S - Synoptic (6- and 3-hourly)
~~ 0-8 = Number of observations per day
C - Completeness and frequency of reports
~ 1 = Complete all elements coded and reported, daily
2 = Abbreviated, some elements not reported, daily
-------
3 = Complete, seasonal
4 = Abbreviated, seasonal
5 = Complete, encoded from aviation weather report and
supplemental information
6 = Abbreviated, encoded from aviation weather report
Aviation Observations, Observations by Marine Reporting Stations, and
Observations by Automatic Stations
AV - Number of record observations per day
1 - 24 = Number per day
25 = On call only
F - Frequency during period of day
1 = Consecutive hourly
2 = Not consecutive hours
3 = Two-hourly
4 = Three-hourly
5 = Six-hourly
6 = Consecutive hourly, less than 24 hours, plus
2-, 3- or 6-hourly
7 = Every 20 minutes (by full parameter AMOSs)
9 = Irregular schedule
D - Day-to-Day
~ 1 = Daily
2 = Less than 7 days a week
A - Additive data appended to aviation weather
observations at 3- and 6-hourly times
0 - 8 = Number (times) per day
9 = Non-standard format or times
A = Aviation weather reports, not transmitted
on aviation weather circuits
T_ - Time of Transmission
1 = Observation transmitted in regular sequence
collection
2 = Observation transmitted in a scan period
Upper-Ai r
P = Pibal ) 1 - 4 = Number per day
W = Rawin )
U^ = Radiosonde )
L^ = Low-level soundings )
i i
-------
Radar
RR - Radar Observations from:
Code Equipment
XI WSR-1 or 1A
X3 WSR-3
XM WSR-4
XD DECCA
X5 WR-100-5 or MR-782
XP SP1M
XS Special
57 WSR-57
65 WSR-57M
4C WSR-74C
4S WSR-74S
FA FAA-owned
iii
-------
STATION INVENTORY
FIRST- AND SECOND-ORDER STATIONS
REGION
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
TOTAL
WSO
ViSFO
218
52
wsno
0
48
50
51
44
U
10
1
0
12
13
14
9
3
1
C
0
U
16
6
8
1
1
0
n
w
4
5
1
3
1
0
0
NC/.
RFC
n
w
4
5
1
3
1
0
0
WSO/
FSS
0
1
1
1
It
3
0
0
wso/
TWR
0
2
1
1
1
0
1
0
wso/
SAWRS
0
0
0
3
2
0
0
0
wso/
AMOS
P
2
2
1
1
1
0
0
wso/
BASIC
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
15
10
AMOS
63
wsno
AMOS
CUA WS/A
0
3
18
19
1C
13
C
0
P
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
13
0
0
0
0
0
0
19
o
56
•58
65
49
19
8
0
32 255
HOURLY OBSERVATIONS TABLE
24-HRLY
<24-hRLY
167
12
i1 13
0 6
2
C
9
1
2
4
0
2
7
C
0
1
43
17
5
0
0
1
226
17
REGION
0
1
2
3
Notes:
AREA REGION
Central and South America, and Other 4
Eastern 5
Southern (Virgin Islands, San Juan, and Gulf of Mex.) 6
Central 7
AREA
Western
Alaska
Pacific
Mexican, Caribbean, and West Indies
1. WSO/AMOS count includes 2 WSO/AMDS/BASIC stations and 1 WSO/AMOS/LAWRS station.
2. AMOS count Includes 4 AMOS/BASIC stations, 4 AMOS/SAWRS stations, and 1 AMOS/BASIC/SAWRS station.
3. WS/A indicates the number of Weather Service offices (WSOs, WSFOs, WSMOs, RFCs) located at airports.
Hourly Observations Table: (Aviation observations, CG/MARS observations, and observations by AMOSs)
24-HRLY - Number of stations that take observations 24 hours per day.
^24-HRLY * Number of stations that take observations less than 24 hours per day.
(Stations that are "on call" to take observations are not Included.)
-------
STATION INVENTORY
FIRST- AND SECOND-ORDER STATIONS
REGION
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
TOTAL
ss
0
36
52
51
39
11
0
0
TWR
0
2fc
27
22
AC
1
1
0
FSS/
TWR
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
FSS/
WSMO
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
FSS/
AMOS
0
0
2
1
1
4
0
0
FAA/
BASIC
0
0
4
2
3
0
0
0
FAA/
SAWRS
0
5
8
13
5
0
0
0
189
119
31
SAWRS
1
81
42
106
19
12
3
0
264
WSMO/
SAWRS
BASIC
0
6
8
26
46
38
5
0
129
SYNOPTIC
1
7
0
6
2
0
19
3
38
SYNOP/
BASIC
0
1
0
1
0
0
2
0
MARS
0
73
29
?C
65
10
f-
0
US/A
213
HOURLY OBSERVATIONS TABLE
24-HRLY
<24-HRLY
REGION
0
1
2
3
Notes: 1.
2.
3.
4.
172 24 1 0 6 4
17 93 1 0 0 5
AREA
Central and South America, and Other
Eastern
Southern (Virgin Islands, San Juan, and Gulf
Central
FSS/AMOS count includes 1 AMOS/LAWRS station
FAA/BASIC count includes 2 LAWRS/BASIC and 7
1
27
of Mex.)
FSS/BASIC
2 0
142 2
REGION
4
5
6
7
stations.
FAA/SAWRS count includes 6 TWR/SAWRS, 23 LAWRS/SAWRS, and 2 FSS/SAWRS
BASIC count includes 5 BASIC/SAWRS stations.
6000
123 2 4 194
AREA
Western
Alaska
Pacific
Mexican, Caribbean, and West Indies
stations.
0
2
5. WS/A indicates the number of Weather Service offices (WSOs, WSFOs, WSMOs, RFCs) located at airports.
Hourly Observations Table: (Aviation observations, CG/MARS observations, and observations by AMOSs)
24-HRLY = Number of stations that take observations 24 hours per day.
<24-HRLY » Number of stations that take observations less than 24 hours per day.
(Stations that are "on call" to take observations are not included.)
-------
STATION NAME
yEATHER SERVICE OFFICES AND STATIONS
AIRPORT NAME TYPE CALL NO. LAT. LONG. ELEV. ELT. SC AV FD AT PWUL RR
ALABAMA
ANNISTON
AUBURN
AUdURN-ESSC
6IRMINGHAM
BIRMINGHAM
CENTREV ILLE
DO THAI.
GADSDEN
hUNTSVILLc
MOBILE
MOBILE
MOBILE POINT LS
MONTGOMERY
MUSCLE SHOALS
TUSCALOOS«-FSS/BASIC
ALASKA
ALASKAN STAR
ANCHORAGE
ANCHORAGE
ANCHORAGE RH
ANCHORAGE-WSFO/RFC
ANGOON
ANIAK-AKOS/B/SAWRb
ANNETTE
ATTU
BARROW
GARTER ISLAND
BETHEL
SETTLES
BIG DELTA-AMOS/FSS
bib RIVER LAKES
8IORKA ISLAND LN
CAPE DECISION LS
CAPE HINCH1NBROOK LS
CAPE POLE
CAPE SARICHEF LN
ANB/CALHOUN CO
AUBURN-OPELIKA
MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT
MUNICIPAL
HSV-MADISON CO
AEROSPACE
MUN BATES FIELD
DANNELLY FIELD
AIRPORT
MUNICIPAL
DRILLING RIG HELPT
MERRILL FIELD
INTERNATIONAL
AIRPORT
ANNETTE ISLAND
CASCO COVE
W. POST-W. ROGERS
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
4
2
10
70
40
70
4
2
10
2
10
9
10
A
33
2
4
70
80
46
3
1
1C
9
1C
10
10
4
31
3
9
1
1
3
9
ANB
AUO
AUEA1
BHM
BIRA1
CKL
DHN
GAD
HSV
BFM
MOB
8R1
MGM
MSL
TCL
EZR
MRI
ANC
ANCA2
ANC
AGN
ANI
ANN
ATU
BRW
BTI
BET
BTT
BIG
5B1
Z21
CDE
5HN
Z27
CSH
0
0
0
72228
0
72229
0
0
72323
0
72223
0
72226
0
0
a
0
70273
0
0
70383
70232
70398
70409
70026
70086
70219
7C174
70267
a
0
7C388
70279
0
a
3335
3237
3235
3334
3327
3254
•3119
3358
3439
3038
3041
3014
3218
3445
3314
5942
6113
6110
0
6113
5730
6135
5502
5250
7118
7008
6047
6655
6400
6049
5651
5600
6014
5558
5436
8551
8526
8530
8645
8651
8715
8527
8605
8646
8804
8815
8802
8634
8737
8737
14307
14950
15001
C
14957
13435
15932
13134
17311E
15647
14338
16148
15131
14544
15218
13533
13408
14639
13348
16456
618
774
652
630
C
458
353
564
644
261
221
18
202
562
186
63
135
132
0
0
15
86
110
70
13
50
150
643
1274
40
50
50
185
50
175
0
1
0
0
0
0
C
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
"0
0
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
2
C
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
41
00
CO
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
31
00
41
41
41
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
24
25
0
24
0,
0
24
16
24
11
24
4
24
24
24
25
24
24
0
0
10
24
18
8
24
24
24
24
24
14
8
24
24
8
8
11
91
00
11
00
00
11
11
11
11
-11
91
11
11
11
91
11
11
00
00
11
71
11
41
11
11
11
11
71
21
41
71
71
21
41
81
0
r
81
C
C
81
2
81
AO
81
1
81
81
81
C
T
81
C
1
1
51
61
1
81
81
81
81
51
1
1
1
1
1
1
0000
0000
0000
0001
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
GOOD
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0220
0220
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
65
4C
4C
4C
1.
-------
HEATHER
SERVICE
OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT. LONG. ELEV.
ELT,
SC AV FO »T PHUL RR
CAPE SPENCER LS
CAPE ST ELIAS LS
CHANDALAR LAKE
CIRCLE CITY
COLD BAY
CORDOVA
DEADHORSE
DILLINGH'K-AMOS/FSS
DOLLY VA.RD. PLATFORM
DUTCH HA.REOR
ELDRED ROCK
ELFIN COVE
EMMONAK
FAIDBANKS-USFO
FAIRBANKS-HSO
FAREWELL
FIVE FINGER LS
FIVE MILE (CAMP)
FT. YUKON-AMOS/BASIC
FUNTER BAY
GALBRAITH
GAM8ELL
GULKANA-AMOS/FSS
GUSTAVUS
rlAINES
HAPPY VALLEY CAMP
HAYES RIVER
HEALY
HOMER
ILIAMNA-AMOS/FSS
JOHNSTON.E POINT
JUNEAU-WSFO
JUNEAU-W.SO
KAKE
KENAI
KETCHIKAH
KING SALMON
KODIAK
KOTZEBUE
LAZY MOUNTAIN
LEVEL ISLAND
LONELY
MANLEY HOT SPRINGS
MCCARTHY
MCGRATH
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
MILE 13
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
INTERNATIONAL
AIRPORT
FIVE MILE CAMP
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
INTERMEDIATE FD
AIRPORT
HAPPY VALLEY
MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
INTERNATIONAL
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
RALPH UIEN
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
1
1
3
3
1C
4
4
31
V
3
1
3
3
40
1C
4
9
2
1
3
2
2
31
3
3
2
3
3
14
31
3
40
10
3
4
4
10
10
14
3
3
2
3
3
1C
CSP
5CE
UCR
CRC
CDB
CDV
sec
DLG
Z56
OUT
ERO
ELV
2ZO
FAI
FAI
FUL
FIV
FVM
FYU
FNR
GBH
GAM
GKN
GST
Z26
HVY
SHR
SEA
HOM
ILI
JOH
JNU
JNU
KAE
ENA
KTN
AKN
ADQ
OTZ
LVD
LNI
MLY
MXY
MCG
7C365
70360
0
0
7C316
70296
0
70321
0
70489
70364
0
0
0
70261
70248
70385
0
70194
0
0
0
70271
70367
0
0
0
0
70341
70340
0
0
70381
C
70259
70395
70326
70350
70133
0
0
0
70179
0
70231
5812
5948
6730
6551
5512
6030
7012
5903
6048
5354
5856
5812
6246
6450
6449
6230
5716
6556
6634
5815
6829
6346
6209
5825
5914
6910
6159
6353
5938
5945
6029
5818
5822
5658
6034
5521
5841
5745
6652
6138
5628
7055
6500
6126
6258
13638
14436
14829
14405
16243
14530
14828
15831
15138
16632
13513
13640
16431
14742
14752
15353
13337
14950
14516
13454
14929
17145
14527
13544
13526
14850
15205
14901
1513C
15455
14636
13425
13435
13357
15115
13142
15639
15230
16238
14902
13306
15315
15039
14255
15537
88
58
1920
598
1C3
42
60
95
100
12
55
20
10
0
454
1503
35
509
431
5
2661
31
1579
29
31
938
1000
1475
73
160
25
0
24
30
95
96
49
111
16
790
30
22
280
1531
338
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
2
1
0
0
0
2
1
2
2
0
0
2
0
0
2
C
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
1
0
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
11
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
41
41
31
00
00
00
00
00
41
24
24
7
8
24
24
24
24
2
10
24
10
10
0
24
8
10
11
24
8
11
25
24
10
8
11
10
10
24
24
3
0
24
8
24
24
24
24
24
3
8
13
10
13
24
71
71
21
61
11
11
01
71
90
61
71
61
61
00
11
12
21
11
71
21
11
92
71
21
21
11
21
11
11
71
22
OC
11
61
11
11
11
11
11
11
21
11
61
61
11
81
1
?
1
81
81
1
61
0
2
1
1
1
0
81
31
?
1
1
11
2
2
51
1
1
1
1
1
81
31
1
(I
81
1
81
1
81
81
81
11
1
1
1
2-r
81
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000.
0000
0000
0000
0000
PPOO
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
OPOO
0000
0220
0220
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
2.
-------
LEATHER
SERVICE
OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT.
SC AV
AT PWUL RR
MIDDLETON IS
MINCHUMINA
NENANA
NIKOLSKI
NOME
NORTHWAY
OCEAN BOUNTY
OCEAN CAPE LN
OCEAN RANGER
fALKER
PAXSON
PETERSBURG
PHILLIPS PLATFQRI*
PLATFORM DILLON
POINT RETREAT
PORT ALSfclORTH
PORT CLARENCE LN
PROSPECT CREEK
PRUDHOE BAY
PT HEIDEN-AMOS/BASIC
PUNTILLA
RUBY
SAVOONGA
SEWARD
SISTERS ISLAND
SITKA
SKAGWAY
SKUENTNA
SLANA
SNOWSHOE LAKE
ST MARY'S
ST PAUL ISLAND
SUMMIT
SUTTON 2 EAST
TALKEETNA
TAMANA
TOK LN
UMIAT-BASIC/SAWRS
UNALAKLE£T
VALDtZ
VALDEZ
WALES
WHITTIER
WILLOW
WRANGELL
AIRPORT
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT
DRIL. PLATF. HELIPAD
MUNICIPAL
PAXSON FIELD
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
RALPH M CALHOUN MEML
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
1
3
1
1
10
4
2
9
2
4
3
3
9
9
1
3
9
2
2
1
3
3
2
3
3
4
3
3
3
3
2
10
1
3
14
4
9
3
11
10
5
3
3
3
3
MDO
MHM
ENN
IKO
OME
ORT
OBY
50C
OCV
PA9
5PX
PSG
Z69
172
PRT
Z30
KPC
PPC
PUO
PTH
PTI
RBY
SVA
5WD
SSR
SIT
SGY
SKU
5SZ
5SO
KSM
SNP
UMM
TKA
TAL
Z12
DMT
UNK
VUS
VDZ
WAA
5UT
Z22
WRG
70343
70246
70260
70482
702CO
70291
0
0
0
70274
0
70386
0
0
0
0
7C119
0
0
70333
70249
0
0
70277
0
70371
70362
70255
0
0
0
70308
70264
0
70251
70178
0
70162
70207
70275
0
70116
0
0
70387
5926
6354
6433
5257
6430
6258
5951
5931
5931
6136
6302
5648
6104
6044
5825
6012
6515
6649
7015
5657
6206
6445
6342
6007
5810
5704
5928
6158
6242
6202
6204
5709
6320
6143
6218
6510
6319
6922
6353
6108
6108
6537
6046
6145
5629
14620
15216
14905
16851
16526
14156
14217
13946
15239
14905
14530
13257
15057
15131
13457
15418
16652
15039
14820
15837
15245
15529
17028
14927
13515
13521
13518
15112
14359
14640
16318
17013
14908
14850
15006
15206
14243
15208
16048
14621
14615
16803
14841
15003
13222
45
701
360
710
22
1721
75
0
83
232
2700
107
105
0
20
260
18
1099
41
95
1837
200
53
60
35
67
18
158
2191
2410
311
28
2409
500
356
220
1645
265
21
31
111
17
153
220
43
0
0
1
2
0
0
1
c
2
1
2
1
2
0
0
2
0
1
0
1
1
2
1
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
1
2
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
oc
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
22
00
00
00
31
41
00
00
00
00
00
24
12
24
24
24
24
16
25
13
8
10
12
2
2
24
13
8
11
12
24
11
10
25
14
9
24
10
10
16
3
25
24
24
6
13
16
5
15
24
24
9
3
24
12
24
71
21
71
71
11
11
11
91
11
11
61
11
91
91
71
21
21
11
11
71
61
11
92
21
11
11
61
61
11
21
91
11
71
61
61
11
61
21
71
11
11
2i
11
61
11
1
31
1
1
81
81
1
C
1
31
11
1
0
P
0
11
6t
1
1
1
1
1
T
1
1
81
41
11
31
1
0
81
41
22
81
51
21
21
61
81
1
1
21
21
1
0000
onoc
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
OOPO
0000
0000
0000
0000
3.
-------
STATION NAME
YAKATAGA
YAKUTAT
ARIZONA
DEER VALLY-PHOENIX
DOUGLAS
FLAGSTAFF
GOODYEAR
GRAND CANYON-LAWR/SR
KINGMAN
LAKE HAVASU CITY
PAGE-AMOS/SAWRS
PAYSON
PHOENIX
PRESCOTT
SAFFORD
SCOTTSDALE
SHOWLOW
TUCSON
WINSLOW
YUMA
WEATHER SERVICE OFFICES AND STATIONS
AIRPORT NAME TYPE CALL NO. LAT. LONG. ELEV. ELT. SC AV FD AT PWUL RR
INTERMEDIATE
STATE
MUNICIPAL
BISBEC-DUG INTNL
PULLIAM
PHOEMX-LITCHFIELD
NATIONAL PARK
MOJAVE COUNTY
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
SKY HARBOR INTNL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
INTERNATIONAL
MUNICIPAL
INTERNATIONAL
3
10
5
4
10
5
32
1
2
1
3
40
4
3
5
3
10
10
14
CVT
YAK
OVT
DUG
FLG
GYR
GCN
IGM
LHU
PGA
OE4
PHX
PRC
E74
SDL
E03
TUS
INW
YUM
70298
70361
0
0
0
0
0
72370
0
72371
0
72278
0
0
0
0
72274
72374
72280
6005
5931
3341
3128
3508
3325
3557
3516
3427
3656
3414
3326
3439
3249
3337
3415
3207
3501
3239
14230
13940
11205
10936
11140
11223
11209
11357
11422
11127
11120
11201
11226
10941
11155
11002
11056
11044
11436
35
31
1540
4107
7018
968
6621
3389
482
4279
4913
1107
5052
2954
1479
6440
2555
4883
206
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
p
2
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
00 10 61 51 0000
41 24 11 81 0220
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
41
41
31
16
24
24
17
11
24
1
24
7
24
24
5
17
5
24
24
24
11
11
11
11
11
71
00
71
21
11
11
21
11
21
11
11
11
0
81
81
0
1
81
22
2
22
81
81
22
0
2
81
80
81
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0220
0000
AC
ARKANSAS
EL DORADO
FAYETTEVILLE
FT SMITH
HARRISON
HOT SPRINGS
JONESBORO-FSS/BC
LITTLE ROCK
LITTLE ROCK
PINE BLUFF-FSS-LAWRS
TEXARKANA
WEST MEMPHIS
MUNICIPAL
DRAKE
MUNICIPAL
BOONE COUNTY
MEMORIAL
MUNICIPAL
NORTH LITTLE ROCK
ADAHS FIELD
GRIDER FIELD
MUNICIPAL WEBB FIELD
MUNICIPAL
4
4
10
4
5
33
40
4
35
5
5
ELD
FYV
FSM
HRO
HOT
JBR
1M1
LIT
PBF
TXK
AWM
0
0
72344
0
0
0
72340
0
0
0
0
3313
3600
3520
3616
3429
3550
3450
3444
3410
3327
3508
9248
9410
9422
9309
9306
9039
9215
9214
9156
9400
9014
285
1259
463
13S5
555
274
542
257
214
399
212
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
00
00
41
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
24
24
24
24
17
24
C
24
17
24
17
11
11
11
11
11
11
00
11
11
11
11
81
81
81
81
1
81
0
81
11
41
0
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
AC
57
CALIFORNIA
4.
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT.
SC AV FD AT PWUL RR
ANACAPA ISLAND
ARCATA
BAKERSFIELD
BEAUMONT
BISHOP
BLUE CANYON
BLUNTS REEFS
BLYTHE
BODEGA BAY
BURBANK
BURNEY
CABRILLO BEACH
CAMPO
CARLSBAD
CHICO-LAWRS/SAWRS
CHINO
CONCORD
CRESCENT CITY-FSS/BC
DAGGETT
DAVIS POINT
EL MONTE
EL MONTE-EMSU
EUREKA
FARALLON IS LS
FRESNO
FRESNO
FULLERTON
HAWTHORNE
HAYUARD
HERMOSA BEACH
HUNBOLDT BAY
HUNTINGTCN BEACH
IMPERIAL
INYOKERN
LANCASTER
LAVERNE
LIVERMORE
LONG BEACH
LONG BEACH
LOS ANGELES-WSFO
LOS ANGELES-WSO
MAMMOTH LAKES
MARINA DEL KEY
MARYSVILLE
MERCED
AIRPORT
MEADOWS FIELD
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
RIVERSIDE CO
HOLLYWOOD-BUR
PALOMAR
MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT
BUCHANAN FD
MCKAKARA
SAN BERNARDINO CO
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
FCH-CHANDLER DOWNTWN
AIR TERMINAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
AIR TERMINAL
COUNTY
KERN CO NO 6
WM. J. FOX
BRACKETT FIELD
MUNICIPAL
LBARPT-DAUGHERTY
INTERNATIONAL
AIRPORT
YUBA CO
MUNICIPAL
9
4
14
3
12
71
1
4
9
5
3
9
3
5
32
5
5
33
4
9
5
72
10
9
5
10
5
5
5
9
9
9
4
2
4
5
5
10
9
40
10
2
9
4
5
L46
ACV
BFL
BUO
BIH
BLU
840
BLH
926
BUR
BNY
L14
CZZ
CR«
CIC
CNO
CCR
CEC
DAG
528
EMT
EMT
EKA
500
FCH
FAT
FUL
HHR
HUD
4L7
88Q
6L9
IPL
IYK
WJF
POC
LVK
LGB
L97
LAXC1
LAX
MMH
2L6
MYV
MCE
0
0
72384
0
72480
0
0
0
0
0
c
0
0
0
c
0
c
0
0
0
0
74704
72594
0
0
72389
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
a
0
0
72297
0
0
72295
0
0
0
0
3401
4059
3525
3356
3722
3917
4026
3337
3319
3412.
4053
3343
3237
3308
3948
3358
3759
4147
3452
3803
3406
3405
4048
3742
3644
3646
3352
3355
3739
3552
4046
3339
3250
3540
3444
3406
3742
3349
3245
3403
3356
3738
3358
3906
3717
11922
12406
11903
11657
11822
12042
12430
11443
12303
11822
12140
11817
11628
11717
12151
11738
12203
12414
11647
12216
11802
11802
12410
12300
11949
11943
11758
11820
12207
11824
12414
11800
11534
11750
11813
11747
12149
11809
11825
11827
11824
11851
11826
12134
12031
139
225
492
2600
4145
5283
0
392
10
775
3141
25
2630
328
272
692
60
57
1929
60
330
295
60
30
278
327
96
63
47
25
10
118
48
2426
2347
1000
397
40
78
310
104
7128
10
73
153
2
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
00
00
21
.00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
CO
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
82
00
00
00
00
3
24
24
7
14
24
25
24
8
24
1
2
6
16
14
17
17
19
24
25
17
5
0
3
17
24
17
17
17
4
8
2
24
25
24
16
15
24
8
0
24
25
2
24
13
41
11
11
21
11
71
91
11
40
11
91
91
21
11
11
11
11
21
11
90
11
22
00
90
11
11
11
11
11
21
40
31
11
11
11
11
11
11
41
00
11
90
21
11
11
c
81
81
31
51
31
0
81
0
1
2
0
22
0
2
AO
2
81
81
0
AC
10
0
3P
1
81
2
2
2
0
0
0
81
A2
81
AO
2
81
C
0
81
AC
0
81
AO
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
'0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0002
0000
oroo
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
oono
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
POOD
0000
0000
0000
0000
0002
0000
0000
0000
0000
4C
5.
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE
OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT.
SC AV FD AT PWUL
RR
MISSION flEACh
MODESTO-.LAWRS/SAWRS
MONTAGUE
MONTEREY
MOSS LANDING
MT SHASTA
MT WILSON
NAPA
NEEDLES
NEEDLES
NEWPORT BEACH
OAKLAND-UAU
OAKLAND-WSO/FSS
OCEANSIOe HARBOR
ONTARIO
OXNARD
OXNARD (.CHANNEL IS)
PALM SPRINGS
PALMDALE
PALMDALE-RADAR
PALO ALTO
PASO R06LES
PIGEON POINT LS
PILLAR POINT
POINT AR£NA LS
POINT BLUNT LS
POINT BOMTA LS
POINT LOMA
PORT CHICAGO
PT AR6UELLO LN
PT PIEDRAS 8LANCAS
PT. PINOS (REMOTED)
RED BLUFF
REODING-LAWRS/SAWRS
RE0DING-WSO/FU
RIO VISTA
RIVERSIDE
RIVERSIDE-WSO/AG
SACRAMENTO
SACRAMENTO
SACRAMENJO-WSO/RFC
SALINAS
SAN CARLOS
SAN DIEGO
SAN DIEGO
HARRY SHAM FIELD
SISKIYOU CO
MRY PENINSULA
COUNTY
AIRPORT
INTERNATIONAL
METRO? OAK INTNL.
INTERNATIONAL
VENTURA CO
MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
COUNTY
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
METROPOLITAN
EXECUTIVE
MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT
BROWN
INTL UNBERGH FIELD
9
32
4
5
9
11
3
5
4
3
9
70
14
9
4
5
9
5
5
10
5
4
1
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
1
9
14
32
10
9
5
10
5
4
16
4
5
3
10
L58
MOD
SIY
MRY
54Q
MHS
NWS
APC
EED
4ED
3L3
OAK
OAK
L34
ONT
OXR
L79
PSP
PMD
PMD
PAO
PRB
930
53
-------
E K T H E R
SERVICE OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION ^AME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT .
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT.
SC AV FO AT PWUL RR
SAN DIEGC
SAN DIEGO
SAN DIeGJ
SAN FRANCISCO (PBS)
SAN FRANCISCO-ySFO
SAN fRANCISCQ-WSO
SAN JOSE
SAN JOSE
SAN LUIS OBISPO
SAN MATEC IN
SAN PEDRO
SANDBERG
SANTA ANA
SANTA BARBARA
SANTA BARBARA HARBOR
SANTA CATALINA
SANTA CATALINA
SANTA CATALINA IS
SANTA CRUZ
SANTA MARIA
SANTA MONICA
SANTA MONICA PIER
SANTA ROSA
SCRIPPS .PIER
SHELTER .COVE
SOUTH LAKE TAHOE
STOCKTON
SUSANVILLE
TAHOE CI.TY
TERMINAL ISLAND
THERMAL
TORRA-NCE
TRINIDAD HEAD
TRUCKtE
UKIAH
VAN NUYS
VANDENBERG AFB
VENTURA HARBOR
VISALIA
ZUHA BEA.CH
GILLESPIE
MONTGOMERY FIELD
MONTGOMERY FIELD
INTERNATIONAL
REID/HILLVIEW
MUNICIPAL
COUNTY
ORANGE COUNTY
MUNICIPAL
CATALINA
PEE BEACH SEAP BASE
PUBLIC
MUNICIPAL
SONOMA COUNTY
LAKE TAHOE
METROPOLITAN
MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT
MUNICIPAL
TRUCKEE-TAHOE
MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT
MUNICIPAL
5
70
3
9
40
10
5
5
2
9
2
71
5
4
9
3
2
9
9
12
5
9
5
9
3
5
10
3
9
9
4
5
1
3
4
5
70
9
2
9
SEE
MYF
MYF
51Q
RDWC1
SFO
RHV
SJC
SBP
L98
ASP
SDB
SNA
SBA
P44
AVX
LII
L27
85U
SMX
SMO
1L2
STS
L21
087
TVL
SCK
SVE
867
L82
TRM
TOA
96Q
4TA
UKI
VNY
VBG
P43
VIS
OL3
0
72290
0
0
0
72494
0
0
0
0
0
72383
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
72394
0
a
0
0
0
0
72492
0
0
0
0
0
a
0
0
0
72393
0
0
0
3249
3249
3249
3745
3729
3737
3720
3722
3514
3323
3345
3445
3341
3426
3425
3324
3320
3320
3658
3454
3401
3400
3831
3252
4002
3854
3754
4023
3911
3344
3338
3348
4103
3919
3908
3413
3445
3415
3619
3401
11658
11708
11709
12241
12212
12223
12149
12156
12038
11735
11816
11844
11752
11950
11942
11825
11819
11820
12200
12027
11827
11829
12249
11715
12404
12000
12115
12034
12007
11816
11610
11820
12409
12008
12312
11829
12034
11915
11924
11849
437
408
417
15
4
18
133
56
208
76
15
4523
54
20
27
1580
20
10
0
238
175
15
148
15
403
6273
27
4199
6233
33
112
101
358
5897
620
799
325
24
292
20
0
0
1
2
2
0
1
1
1
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
00
41
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
25
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
21
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
16
0
16
8
0
24
17
24
7
8
25
24
18
24
8
4
25
3
3
19
17
3
17
1
4
17
24
5
25
8
24
15
25
5
24
24
0
8
13
3
11
00
11
40
00
11
11
11
91
40
9C
71
11
11
41
21
21
21
40
11
11
41
11
61
21
11
11
21
90
41
11
11
91
21
11
11
00
41
11
41
2
11
AO
0
0
81
AO
1
AO
0
p
31
2
81
0
2
22
0
0
31
2
0
2
0
41
12
81
1
J>
0
80
2
0
2
81
1
0
G
2
0
0000
0?20
0000
0000
oono
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
oooc
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
COLORADO
7.
-------
WEATHER
ERVICE OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION MAKE
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT.
SC AV FO AT PWUL RR
AKRON
ALAHOSA
ASPEN
ASPEN-LAWRS/SAWRS
BROOMFIELD
COLORADO SPRINGS
CORTEZ
CRAIG
DENVER
DURANGO
DURANGO
EA6LE
ENGLEWOOD
FRASER
FT COLLINS
GRANBY
GRAND JUNCTION
GUNNISON
GUNNISON
HAYDEN
LA JUNTA
LAMAR
LAMAR
LEADVILLE
LIMON
MONTROSE
MONTROSE
PUEBLO
RIFLE
SALIDA
STEAMBOAT SPRINGS
STERLING
TRINIDAD
CONNECTICUT
BLOOMFIELD
BRIDGEPORT
CHESTER
DANBURY
EAST HARTFORD
&ROTON-LAWRS/SAWRS
HARTFORD-TWR/SAURS
WASHINGTON COUNTY
MUNICIPAL
SARDY FLD
JEFFERSON COUNTY
MUNICIPAL
MONTEZUMA COUNTY
STAPLETON INTNL
DRO-LA PLATO CO
COUNTY
ARAPAHOE COUNTY
GRAND COUNTY
WALKER FIELD
COUNTY
YAMPA VALLEY
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
COUNTY
MEMORIAL
HARRIET ALEXANDER
MUNICIPAL
CROSSON FIELD
LAS ANIMAS CO
IGOR I SIKORSKY KE*
AIRPORT
MUNICIPAL
RENTSCHLER
TRUHBULL
HARTFGRD-BRAIKARD
4
13
3
32
5
10
2
1
40
3
2
4
5
3
3
2
10
2
3
2
4
3
2
3
70
3
2
10
3
3
2
2
4
60
10
2
5
2
32
32
AKO
ALS
3V9
ASE
BJC
COS
CEZ
2VO
DEN
4V5
DRO
EGE
APA
4FC
FCL
GNB
GJT
GUC
2V9
HDN
LHX
4LJ
LAA
LXV
LIC
6V6
MTJ
PUB
1V1
OV2
SBS
STK
TAD
HFDC3
BDR
3B9
DXR
EHT
GON
HFD
0
72462
0
0
0
72466
Q
72570
72469
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
72476
0
0
0
c
0
0
0
c
0
0
72464
0
0
0
0
0
0
72504
0
0
0
0
c
4010
3727
3917
3913
3954
3849
3718
4030
3945
3717
3709
3939
3934
3957
4035
4005
3907
3833
3833
4030
3803
38C7
3804
3913
3911
3830
383C
3817
3932
3832
4031
4037
3715
4150
4110
4123
4122
4145
4120
4144
10313
10552
10652
10652
10507
10443
10838
10732
1Q452
10752
10745
10655
10450
10550
10505
10555
10832
10655
10656
10715
10331
10236
10241
10618
10342
10754
10753
10431
10748
10603
10652
1C316
1042C
7244
7308
7230
7329
7237
7203
7239
4621
7541
7446
7742
5648
6170
5914
6191
5332
6600
6684
6513
5872
8560
5004
8220
4839
7668
7707
6600
4215
3620
3703
10060
5562
5669
5759
4720
5400
7488
6879
4037
5743
58
17
409
437
88
20
35
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
2
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
p
1
0
2
0
1
1
0
2
0
1
0
0
0
c
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
on
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
24
21
6
16
17
24
15
24
24
5
17
24
17
12
13
25
24
11
9
8
24
8
4
8
8
6
14
24
8
12
25
25
24
0
24
3
17
17
17
17
11
11
41
21
11
11
11
71
11
21
11
11
11
31
31
90
11
11
21
11
11
41
11
41
41
21
11
11
41
31
9D
91
11
00
11
21
11
11
11
10
81
71
20
1
AO
81
2
0
81
2
2
81
2
41
41
AO
81
2
22
2
81
82
A{1
42
82
12
2
81
41
42
AO
0
81
C
41
AO
2
AO
2
1
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0300
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0?20
OPOO
0000
0000
0000
cooo
oooo
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
OOOD
0000
65
8.
-------
A T h E R
SERVICE
OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAMt
T YPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT. SC AV FD AT PWUL RR
HARTFORD-WSO
LITTLE GULL IS LS
"itRIDEN
NEW HAVEN
NE« HAVEN
NEI« LONDON LEDGE LS
OXFORD
STRATFORD
DELAWARE
INDIAN RIVER
• ILMNGTON
FLORIDA
«PALAChICOLA
EAR TOW
CAPE SAN &LA3 LN
CfcDAft KEY
CRESTVIEW
CROSS CITY
DAYTCNA 6EACH
CESTIN
CRY TORTUGAS LS
EoMONT KEY LS
F-T LAUDEKDALE
FT LAUDEROALfc
FT MEYERS FSS
FT MEYERS.-«SO
FT. FIERCE
GAINESVILLE
HOLLYWOOD
ISLANORADA
JACKSONVILLE
JACKSONVILLE
KEY WEST
LAKE WORTH INLET
LAKELAND-WSO/AG
MARATHON
BRADLEY INTNL
MRDN-KARKHAN PUN
TWFED NEU' HAVEN
WATERBbRY-CXFORD
SIKORSKY AIR. HELf-T.
GEORGETOWN
GREATER
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
BOB SIKES
AIRPORT
REGIONAL
EXECUTIVE
FLL-HOLLYWD INTL
PAGE HELD
MUNICIPAL
NORTH PERRY
INTERNATIONAL
CRAIG FIELD
INTERNATIONAL
1C
9
2
9
5
9
C.
2
2
9
n
1 Z
2
9
1
4
1
1C
1
9
o
5
5
4
1C
V
4
5
9
1C
4
1C
9
1C
9
3DL
32N
484
N11
hVN
UN
OXC
JSD
GED
61N
ILG
AQQ
BOW
1 J4
CDKF1
CEW
CTY
DAB
DSTF1
X85
X91
FXE
FLL
FMY
FMY
X&2
GNV
HWO
X84
JAX
CRG
EYW
X81
LAL
x£5
7Z508
0
0
•3
0
0
0
0
0
G
0
72220
0
Q
0
0
72212
0
0
0
0
0
G
0
G
0
0
0
a
7Z206
3
72201
0
a
0
4156
4112
4131
4116
4116
4118
4129
4115
3842
3837
3940
2944
2757
2941
2909
3047
2937
2911
3023
2438
2736
2612
26C4
2635
2639
2728
2941
2600
2457
3030
3020
2433
2646
2802
2443
7241
7206
7250
7254
7253
7205
7308
7305
7522
7504
7536
85C2
8147
8522
8303
8631
83C6
£103
8627
8255
8246
8010
8009
8152
8152
601&
8216
8014
8C35
8142
8131
8145
80G3
8157
81C7
179
20
102
9
13
25
727
P5
51
0
80
20
126
6
5
1£5
42
41
17
4
5
14
10
12
12
25
165
9
5
31
41
21
3
227
0
0
0
0
2
0
c
1
0
c
c
c
0
c
2
2
0
0
c
2
2
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
1
0
2
0
0
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
oc
oc
CO
OP
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
oc
41
00
41
00
00
00
24
8
3
8
19
8
16
10
0
8
24
8
10
8
8
24
24
24
8
8
4
17
24
24
C
8
24
17
8
24
24
24
8
0
8
11
40
21
41
11
4r
11
61
00
40
11
42
11
41
41
11
71
11
41
41
41
11
11
11
00
41
11
11
41
11
11
11
41
02
41
41
C
AO
C
1
0
AO
0
c
0
81
81
2
1
1
1
1
8T
C
C
1
AO
1
81
0
1
81
AC
0
81
M
81
1
0
1
0000
0000
0000
0000
oooc
ocoo
POOC
0000
0000
ocoo
ocoo
0220
rcoo
0000
ocoo
0000
ocoo
0000
0000
0000
oooc
0000
OPOO
oooc
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
9??0
0000
ocoo
0000
4C
57
57
57
9.
-------
WEATHER SERVICE
OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT,
SC AV TO AT PWUL RR
MARATHON
MARCO ISLAND
MELBOURNE
MIAMI
MIAMI
MIAMI
MIAMI-NHC/WSFC
MIAMI-WSKO
NAPLES
ORLANDO
ORLANDO-FSS/LAWRS
PANAMA CITY-LAWRS/SR
PENSACOLA
PENSACOLA
POMPANO bEACh
PONCE DE LEON INLET
PUNTA GGRDA
SANfORD
SANTA RCSA IS
SARASOTA-TWR/SAWRS
SO MELBOURNE BEACH
ST PETERSBURG
ST PETERSBURG
TALLAHASSEE
TAMPA
TAHPA BAY AREA
TITUSVILLE
TURKEY POINT
VENICE LORAN
VERO BEACH
WEST PA1M BEACH
WEST PALM BEACH
GEORGIA
ALBANY
ALMA
ATHENS
ATLANTA
ATLANTA
ATLANTA-WSFO/RFC
AUGUSTA
BRUNSWICK
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
REGIONAL
DADE-COLLIER
NEh TAMIAMI
CPA LOCKA
INTERNATIONAL
MUNICIPAL
INTERNATIONAL
HERNDON
BAY CO
SHERMAN FIELD
REGIONAL
AIRPARK
CHARLOTTE COUNTY
AIRPORT
SRQ BRADENTON
ALBERT WHITTED
PIE-CLEARWATER
MUNICIPAL
INTERNATIONAL
TI-COCOA
MUNICIPAL
PALM BEACH INTNL
SIKORSKY HELIPORT
DOUGHERTY COUNTY
BACON COUNTY
MUNICIPAL
DEKALB-PEACHTREE
CHARLEY BRObN FULTON
BUSH FIELD
MCKINNON
2
2
4
5
4
5
20
7C
2
1C
35
32
10
4
5
9
2
2
9
32
1
5
4
10
70
10
2
1
9
4
10
2
4
4
10
5
4
46
10
4
MTH
X94
MLB
TNT
TMB
OPF
PIAF1
MIA
APF
MCO
ORL
PFN
NPA
PNS
PMP
1J3
PGD
SFB
US
SRQ
MEBF1
SPG
PIE
TLH
TPA
TBW
TIX
TUPF1
X9C
VRB
PBI
ABY
AMG
AHN
PDK
FTY
ATL
AGS
SSI
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
72202
0
72205
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
c
72214
72211
72213
0
0
0
0
72203
0
0
0
72311
0
0
72219
72218
0
2443
2560
2806
2552
2539
2554
2543
2549
2609
2826
2833
3012
302C
3026
2615
2904
2655
2847
3019
2724
2803
2746
2755
3023
2758
2742
2831
2955
2705
2739
2641
2654
3132
3132
3357
3353
3347
3339
3322
3109
8105
8140
8038
8054
8026
8017
8017
8017
8147
8119
8120
8541
8718
8712
8007
£055
8159
8115
8715
8233
8033
£238
8241
8422
8232
8224
8048
8429
8227
8Q25
8007
8019
8411
8231
8319
8418
8431
8425
8158
8123
8
7
27
10
10
9
65
12
8
106
119
20
32
0
20
9
25
5
6
24
18
7
11
68
0
43
35
10
12
28
21
29
193
206
811
1002
844
1034
148
24
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
0
0
2
1
Z
1
1
0
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
CO
00
00
00
41
41
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
41
00
00
41
'41
00
3
3
24
10
24
18
0
24
7
24
24
18
0
24
14
8
13
1?
8
18
8
17
24
24
24
0
14
8
5
24
24
10
24
17
24
17
24
24
24
24
41
21
11
11
11
11
00
11
31
11
11
11
00
11
10
41
11
11
41
11
41
11
11
11
11
00
12
41
41
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
0
0
1
AO
AO
AO
10
81
0
81
1
2
0
81
n
1
2
A1
1
1
0
AO
1
81
81
1
1
1
1
81
81
0
1
61
81
AO
41
81
81
81
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
OOOD
0000
0000
0000
cooo
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
57
57
57
65
4C
4C
10.
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE
OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV. ELT. SC AV fO AT PWUL RR
BRUNSt. ICK-LAwRS/SR
COLUhBUS
MACON
MACOK-WSO/FGRESTRY
MCULTRIE
ROME
SAVANNAH
ST SIMON ISLAND
TYBEE
VALOOSTA
WAYCKOSS
GLYNCO JETPORT
METROPOLITAN
LEUIS B WILSON
MGR-THOMASVILLE
RUSSELL FIELD
MUN AFT TRAVIS F
MUNICIPAL
WARE CO
32
10
10
1C
2
11
10
9
9
4
70
GDL
CSG
MCN
MGR
RMG
SAV
1J1
1J2
VLD
AYS
Q
0
72217
0
0
0
72207
0
0
0
72213
3115
3231
3242
3248
3105
3421
3208
3108
3201
3047
3115
8128
8456
8339
8333
8348
8510
8112
8122
8051
8317
8224
26
394
362
425
290
643
51
5
10
223
152
1
c
0
2
1
0
C
2
2
C
0
00
00
41
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
25
24
24
0
15
24
24
8
8
24
0
92
11
11
DO
11
11
11
41
41
11
00
0
81
81
0
AC
41
81
1
1
1
AO
cooo
POOD
0000
COOO
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
4C
HAWAII
HAINA
HILO
HONOLULU RH
HONOLULU-irfS FO
KAANAFALI
KAHULUI
KAILUA HEIGHTS
KAPOKO
KE-AHCLE
KEAWAKAPU BEACH
KILAUEA POINT
KOKEE
KQLOA LN (HAKAHUENA)
LANAI CITY
LIHUE
MOLOKAI
PAHALA
SOUTH KONA
UPOLU POINT LK
WAIALEE
taAIMEA KOHALA
IDAHO
BOISE
BURLEY
GOQDING
GEN. LYMAN FIELD
INTERNATIONAL
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIR TERM/GOUEN FLD
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
7
10
8G
40
8
15
3
9
5
7
9
7
9
3
10
3
3
7
9
7
3
40
4
3
HAIH1
ITO
PHNL
HFO
PHKP
OGG
6KI
6KB
KOA
KEBH1
OZ5
KOKH1
1Z4
LNY
LIH
MOLH1
P41
SKOH1
1Z2
UAIH1
HUE
BOI
BYI
GNG
91199
91285
0
91182
91189
91190
0
0
0
91191
91164
91161
91166
0
91165
91186
0
91293
91195
91169
0
72681
0
0
2006
1943
0
2120
2056
2054
1936
1930
1945
2042
2214
2209
2152
2048
2159
2109
1912
1906
2015
2141
2000
4334
4232
4255
15528
15504
0
15756
15642
15626
15558
15449
15603
15627
15924
15939
15927
15657
15921
15706
15529
15545
15553
158C2
15540
11613
11346
11446
415
36
0
15
8
67
500
10
54
15
186
4200
52
1308
148
451
900
2650
61
38
2679
2868
4157
3729
2
0
0
0
2
0
2
2
0
2
0
2
2
0
0
0
2
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
22
41
00
41
42
31
00
00
00
31
00
42
£°
1)0
41
00
00
32
12
41
00
41
00
00
0
24
0
24
10
16
3
3
17
0
3
0
4
10
24
11
3
0
3
0
5
24
24
12
00
11
00
11
11
11
51
51
11
00
90
00
51
11
11
11
51
00
51
00
12
11
11
21
C
81
0
8T
1
61
12
30
1
0
30
0
40
11
81
41
2
0
31
0
1
81
81
51
0000
2220
POOO
4000
0000
3000
0000
2000
0000
POOD
0000
0000
00 00
0000
2220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000-
11.
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT.
SC AV TO AT PWUL RR
GRANGEVILLE
hAILEY-BASIC/SAWRS
IDAHO FALLS
LEWISTON-USO/LAWR/SR
MALAO CI.TY
MULLAN
POCATELLC
SALMON
STREVELL
TWIN FALLS
TWIN FALLS-WSO/AS
ALTON
AURORA
BLOOMINGTON-LAWRS/SR
CAIRO
CARBONDALE-LURS/SR
CENTRALIA
CHAMPAIGN
CHICAGO DUNNE CRIB
CHICAGO-D.UPAGE
CHICA60-ME1GS
CHICAGO-MIDWAY
CHICA60-OHARE
CHICAGO-WHEELING
CHICAGO-WSFO
DANV1LLE-LAWRS/SAWRS
DECATUR
DIXON
EAST ST LOUIS
ELGIN
FREEPORT
GALESBURG-TWR/SANRS
KANKAKEE
LANSING
LAWRENCEVILLE
MACOMB
MARION
MARSEILLES
MATTOON
MOLINE
FRIEDMAN MEMORIAL
FANNING FIELD
NEZ PERCE CC
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
JOSLIN
CIVIC MEMORIAL
MUNICIPAL
BMI-NORMAL
SOUTHERN ILLINOIS
MUNICIPAL
UNIV OF ILL-WILLARD
DUPAGE CO
MEIGS
MIDWAY
OHARE INTNL
PALWAUKEE
VERMILION CO
AIRPORT
WALGREEN FIELD
BI-STATE PARKS
AIRPORT
AL8ERTUS MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
GREATER KANKAKEE
MUNICIPAL
LWV-VINCENNES
MUNICIPAL
WILLIAMSON CO
COLES CO MEM
OUAD-CITY
3
3
4
15
3
3
10
3
3
2
10
5
5
32
10
32
2
5
9
4
5
10
10
5
40
32
4
2
5
2
2
32
2
2
2
2
5
71
2
10
S80
SUN
IDA
LWS
MLD
S06
PIH
SMN
4SV
TWF
TWFI1
ALN
ARR
BMI
CIR
MDH
ENL
CMI
DUK
DPA
CGX
MDW
ORD
PWK
CHI
DNV
DEC
C73
CPS
C06
FEP
GBG
3KK
3 HA
LWV
MOB
MWA
MMO
MTO
MLI
0
0
0
72783
0
0
72578
0
0
Q
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
74465
0
0
72534
72530
0
C
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
72544
4555
4330
4331
4623
4210
4728
4255
4507
4201
4229
4233
3853
4146
4029
3700
3747
3831
4002
4147
4155
4152
4147
4159
4207
4160
4012
3950
4150
3834
4204
4215
4056
4104
4132
3846
4031
3745
4122
3929
4127
11606
11418
11204
11701
11219
11548
11236
11353
11315
11429
11421
9003
882*
8857
8910
8915
8905
8817
8732
8815
8737
8745
8754
8754
8753
8736
8852
8927
9009
8817
8935
9026
8751
8732
8736
9039
8900
8841
8817
9031
3304
5315
4744
1436
4495
3317
4478
4055
5290
4150
3922
545
706
875
357
416
534
763
579
767
592
623
674
698
0
695
679
786
413
790
847
803
623
614
428
701
471
733
721
594
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
2
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
2
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
2
1
0
00
00
00
31
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
21
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
4
11
24
20
16
16
24
11
6
16
0
17
13
15
0
13
25
24
9
24
17
24
24
0
0
25
24
25
13
25
25
14
25
25
25
25
16
24
9
24
51
11
11
11
21
21
11
61
21
11
00
11
11
11
00
11
9?
11
21
11
11
11
11
00
00
90
11
90
11
90
90
11
90
90
90
90
61
71
11
11
42
62
81
61
8T
82
81
62
42
1
0
2
0
2
Q
2
AO
1
0
1
1
81
81
0
C
AP
1
AO
2
AO
0
AO
AO
P
AO
AO
AO
42
2
41
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
OOPD
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
GOOD
0000
0000
0000
0001
0000
0000
OOPO
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000 57
0000
0000 4C
12.
-------
LEATHER
SERVICE
OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT. SC AV FD AT PWUL RR
MT VERNON
OLNEY
PEORIA
&UINCY
ROCKFORD
SALEM
SPRINGFI.ELD
STERLING-RCCK FALLS
MT VN-OUTLANO
OLNEY NOBLE
GREATER PtORIA
BALDWIN FIELD
GREATER RFB
LECKRONE
CAPITAL
WHITESIDE COUNTY
2
2
10
it
10
70
1C
2
MVN
OLY
PIA
UIN
RFD
SLO
SPI
SQI
0
0
72532
0
72543
72433
72439
0
3819
3843
4040
3956
4212
3839
395C
4144
8852
S811
8941
9112
8906
8858
8940
8941
479
471
662
766
743
581
613
645
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
00 16 11 2
00 25 90 AO
41 24
00 24
OPOO
0000
11 81 0220
11 81 0000
00 24 11 81 0000
00 C 00 0 0220
41 24 11 41 OCOO
00 17 11 AO 0000
INDIANA
ANDERSON
BLOOMINGTON-LWRS/SR
ELKHART
EVANSVILLE
FT WAYNE
GARY
INDIANAPOLIS
INCIANAPQLIS
KOKOMO
LAFAYETTE-ESSC
MARION
MICHIGAN CITY
MICHIGAN CITY
MUNCIE-LAWRS/SAWRS
SOUTH BEND
TELL CITY
TERRE HAUTE
VALPARAISO
WARSAW
WEST LAFAYETTE
IOWA
BURLINGTCN
CEDAR RAPIDS
CLINTON
DAVENPORT
OES MOIMES
DU61QUE
FORT MADISON
MUNICIPAL
MONROE CO MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
DRESS REGIONAL
BAER FIELD
MUNICIPAL
EAGLE CREEK
INTERNATIONAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT
DEL CO JOHNSON FD
MICHIANA REGIONAL
PERRY COUNTY HUN
HULMIN
PORTER COUNTY MUM
MUNICIPAL
PURDUE UNIVERSITY
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
2
32
2
10
10
2
2
40
2
10
2
2
9
32
10
2
4
2
2
4
4
4
2
2
40
15
2
AID
BMG
EKfl
EVV
FWA
6YY
114
IND
OKK
LFYI3
MZ2
MGC
18C
M1E
SBN
TEL
HUF
VP2
ASW
LAF
BRL
CID
CWI
DVN
DSM
DBQ
K27
C
C
0
72432
72533
0
0
72438
0
0
C
0
0
C
72535
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
72546
72547
0
4006
3908
4143
3803
4100
4137
395C
3944
4032
4028
4Q29
4142
4143
4014
4142
3801
3927
4127
4117
4025
4047
4153
4150
4137
4132
4224
4040
8537
8637
8559
8732
8512
8725
8618
8616
8604
8700
8541
8649
8655
8523
8619
8641
8718
8700
8551
8656
9107
9142
9020
9036
9339
9042
9120
919
847
777
3?8
828
616
820
808
827
0
859
650
579
947
773
659
593
768
842
637
702
871
707
753
963
1080
724
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
2
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
00
00
00
41
41
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
21
00
16
25
25
24
24
25
25
24
25
0
8
25
12
17
24
25
24
25
25
24
24
24
25
25
24
14
25
11
90
90
11
11
90
90
11
91
00
12
90
30
11
11
92
11
90
90
11
11
11
11
90
11
11
90
AO
AO
AO
81
81
AC
AO
81
0
0
AO
AC
0
AC
81
c
T
AD
An
81
1
?1
AC
AC
41
51
AO
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
OCOO
0000
0000
0000
0000
OCOO
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
ODOO
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
57
4C
-------
WEATHER SERVICE OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE CALL
NO.
LAT, LONG. ELEV. ELT. SC AV TO AT PWUL RR
FT. OODSE-AMCS/SAWRS
10UA CITY
KEQKUK
LflMONI
MASON CITY
OTTUMhA
POCAHONTAS
SIOUX CITY
SPENCER
SPENCER
WATERLOO
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
INDUSTRIAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
KANSAS
CHANUTE
CO'NCORDIA
DO«G£ CITY
ELKHART
EMPORIA
GARDEN CITY
GOODLAND
GREAT BEND
HAYS
HILL CITY-FSS/8ASIC
HUTChlNSON-LAWRS/BC
KANSAS CITY
LAWRENCE
LIBERAL
MANHATTAN-FSS/SAWRS
MEDICINE LODGE
OLATHE
PARSONS
RUSSELL
SALINA
TOPEM
TOPEKA
WICHITA
MUNICIPAL
BLOSSER MUN
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
RENNER FIELD
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
FAIRFAX
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
JOHNSON COUNTY
TRI CITY
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
PHILIP BILLARD MUN
FORBfcS FIELD
MID-CONTINENT
1
2
2
3
4
4
2
10
8
2
10
4
10
10
1
4
74
10
2
2
33
33
5
2
2
32
1
5
2
4
4
40
2
10
FOD
IOW
EOK
301
MCW
OTH
OK2
SUX
3SE
SPW
ALO
CNU
CNK
DDC
1K5
EMP
GCK
6LD
GBO
HYS
HLC
HUT
KCK
3LA
LBL
MHK
P28
OJC
PPF
RSL
SLN
TOP
FOE
ICT
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
72557
72650
0
72548
0
72458
72451
72460
0
0
72465
0
0
0
0
0
0
f\
u
0
0
Q
0
0
0
72456
0
72450
4233
4138
4028
4037
4309
4106
4244
4224
4310
4310
4233
3740
3933
3746
3700
3820
3756
3922
3821
3851
3923
3804
3909
3000
3703
3909
3718
3851
3720
3852
3848
3904
3857
3739
9411
9133
9126
9356
9320
9227
9438
9623
9509
9512
9224
9529
9739
9958
10153
9612
10043
10142
9852
9916
9950
9752
9435
9513
10058
9640
9835
9444
9530
9849
9739
9538
9540
9726
1165
661
670
1122
1225
850
1222
1103
1339
0
878
1011
1484
2592
3616
1212
2882
3688
1890
1998
2221
1524
745
83,2
2887
T070
1536
1126
899
1869
1282
885
1064
1340
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
72
00
00
00
41
41
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
41
24
25
25
16
24
24
25
24
19
25
24
24
24
24
24
24
25
24
25
3
19
21
25
25
10
16
24
16
3
24
24
24
25
24
71
90
90
61
11
11
92
11
11
92
11
11
11
11
71
11
90
11
90
91
21
11
90
91
11
11
71
11
91
11
11
11
90.
11
A1
AC
AO
82
81
81
0
41
2
0
81
81
81
81
41
81
AO
81
AC
AO
81
1
AO
0
AO
1
41
AO
AO
81
81
41
0
81
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
ocoo
0000
dooo
ocoo
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
4C
AC
65
4C
4C
57
KENTUCKY
BOULIKG GREEN
BWG WARREN COUNTY
BWG
3658
8626
536
00 24 11 81 0000
14.
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION XAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT. SC AV FD AT PWUL RR
FRANKFORT
LEXINGTOX
LONDON
LOOISVILLE
LOUISVILLE
MMJISONVU.LE
OWENSBORO
PADUCAH
PIKEVILLE
LOUISIANA
ALEXANDRIA FSS
ALEXANDRIA-ySO
BATON ROUGE
BOOTHVIL.LE
CALCASIEU RBS
FORT POLK
GRAND ISLE
HOUMA
INTRACOASTAL CITY
LAFAYETTE
LAKE CHARLES
LEEVILLE
MONROE
NEW IBERIA
NEW ORLEANS
NE4 ORLEANS
NEW ORLEANS-WSFO
SHREVEPORT
SHREVEPOKT
SLIDELL-VSMO/RFC
SOUTHWES.T PASS LS
MAINE
AUBURN
AUGUSTA
BANGOR
BAR HARBCR
BEAR ISLAND LS
CAPITAL CITY
BLUE GRASS FIELD
ROSCOE E MAGEE ME*
STANDIFORO FIELD
BOWMAN FIELD
MUNICIPAL
DAVIESS CO
BARKLEY
ESLER REGIONAL
RYAN MUNICIPAL
USA AIRFIELD
HOUMA-TERREBONNE
AIRPORT
REGIONAL
MUNICIPAL
GULF LEEVILLE HELI.
MUNICIPAL
ACADIANA REGIONAL
INTNL/MOISANT FLD
LAKEFRONT
DOhNTOUN
REGIONAL
AUBURN-LEWISTON HUN
STATE
INTERNATIONAL
AIRPORT
2
10
4
40
4
Z
5
4
3
4
10
1C
70
9
2
9
Z
2
4
10
2
4
2
70
5
40
4
10
76
9
2
4
4
2
9
FFT
LEX
LOZ
SDF
LOU
210
owe
PAH
513
ESF
ESF
BTR
BVE
8R6
POE
8R5
HUM
7R4
LFT
LCH
7R2
HLU
ARA
HSY
NEW
MSYL1
DTN
SHV
SIL
8R3
LEW
AUG
BGR
BHB
985
0
72422
0
72423
0
0
0
0
0
0
C
72230
72232
0
0
0
0
0
0
72240
0
0
0
72231
0
0
0
72248
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3811
3802
3705
3811
3814
3721
3745
3704
3729
3124
C
3032
2920
2947
3103
2916
2934
2947
3012
3007
2913
3231
3002
2959
3002
2957
3231
3228
3017
2855
4403
4419
4448
4427
4417
8455
8436
8405
8544
8540
8724
8710
8846
8231
9218
0
9109
8924
9321
9311
8957
9040
9208
9159
9313
9014
9203
9153
9015
9002
9005
9345
9349
8946
8926
7017
6948
6849
6822
6816
8C4
989
1211
488
556
438
417
413
700
118
78
76
2
5
330
0
11
3
42
32
22
81
25
30
9
177
179
259
17
0
27t
360
.192
84
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
0
1
0
00
41
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
41
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
25
24
24
24
24
25
17
24
7
17
0
24
18
8
15
8
25
13
24
24
25
2
-------
WEATHER SERVICE OFFICES AND STATIONS
STATION KANE
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG. ELEV.
ELT.
SC AV FO AT PHUL RR
BRUNSWICK
CAPE NEDJIICK LS
CARIBOU
DUCK ISLAND LS
EASTPORT
GOAT ISLAND LS
SREENVILLE
HERON NE£K LS
hOULTON
MANAMA ISLAND FSS
MATINICUS ROCK LS
OLD TOWN
PORTLAND HEAD LS
PORTLAND-ySFO
PORTLAND-WSMO
PRESflUE ISLE
ROCKLAND
ROCKLAND
RUMFORD
SEGUIN ISLAND LS
WATERVIL1E
WEST aUODDY HEAD LS
NAVAL AIR STATION
MUNICIPAL
INTERNATIONAL
DEWITT FIELD OLD HUN
INTNL JETPORT
MUNICIPAL
KNCX COUNTY
LAFLEUR
70
9
10
9
7
9
1
9
4
9
9
2
9
40
70
2
9
2
7
9
2
9
NHZ
278
CAR
14B
EPO
009
6B2
16B
riUL
18B
198
OLD
288
PUMM1
PWM
PQI
206
RKD
RUM
23B
WVL
246
74392
0
72712
0
72608
0
72619
0
a
a
0
0
0
0
72606
0
a
0
72618
0
0
0
4354
4310
4652
4409
4455
4320
4528
4402
4608
4346
4347
4457
4337
4339
4339
4642
4406
4404
4432
4343
4432
4448
6956
7036
6801
6815
6700
7024
6935
6852
6747
6920
6851
6840
7012
7016
7019
6803
6906
6906
7032
6946
6940
6657
72
0
628
a
75
0
0
0
476
0
0
126
0
0
63
534
0
55
674
0
332
0
2
0
0
0
n
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
a
i
0
0
1
0
00
00
31
00
31
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
0
5
17
8
Q
5
24
8
24
8
8
25
5
0
24
12
8
6
0
8
4
8
00
40
11
40
00
31
71
41
11
41
40
90
41
00
11
11
41
21
00
41
21
41
0
0
31
Q
0
0
1
0
81
0
0
AC
c
0
41
2
0
AO
0
0
AO
0
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
57
ABERDEEN
ANNAPOLIS
BALTIMORE
CO'VE POINT LS
CRISFIELD ANT
CUMBERLAND
EASTON
GAITHERSBURG
HAGERSTOWN-LAHRS/SR
KENTMORR MARINA
MIDDLE RIVER
OCEAN CITY
OCEAN CITY
PATUXENT RIVER
SALISBURY
STILLPOND
THOMAS POINT LS
WAShlNGTON-NMC/WSFO
PHILLIPS AAF
SAL-WASHINGTON INTNL
MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT
MONTGOMERY CO. AIRPK
REGIONAL
GLENN L MARTIN STATE
AIRPORT
NAVAL AIR STATION
WICOMICO CO
2
9
10
9
9
2
2
2
32
9
2
i
9
70
4
9
9
20
APG
61W
BAL
66W
WQ6
CBE
ESN
GAI
HGR
OU4
MTN
N80
U3C
NHK
SBY
67W
65W
WBC
0
a
72406
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
74595
72404
Q
0
0
0
3928
3855
3911
3823
3759
3936
3849
3909
3941
3855
3920
3820
3820
3817
3820
3920
3854
3851
7610
7628
7640
7623
7552
7846
7605
7710
7744
7622
7625
7505
7505
7625
7530
7606
7626
7656
57
0
155
3
8
790
75
540
704
0
61
12
17
45
60
0
0
289
0
0
0
2
2
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
00
CO
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
54
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
25
5
24
6
5
25
0
25
17
0
25
25
8
0
24
8
8
0
90
41
11
41
41
92
00
90
11
00
91
90
40
00
11
41
41
00
AO
0
41
0
0
AO
0
0
2
0
0
AO
0
0
81
0
0
0
0000
ocoo
oooc
0000
0000
0000
0000
ocoo
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
f-7
16.
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE
OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV. ELT. SC AV TD AT PUUL
MASSACHUSETTS
BEDFORD
BEVERLY
BOSTON
BOSTON LS
BRANT POINT
BUZZARDS BAY ENTR LS
CAPE COD CANAL
CHATHAM
CHATHAM
GLOUCESTER
GREAT BAJtRINGTON
HYANNIS
LAURENCE
MARTHAS VINEYARD
MENEMSHA
MERRIMAC RIVER
MILTON-BLUE HILL
NANTUCKET
NEW BEDFORD
NORWOOD
OCEAN VICTORY
PITTSFIELO
PROVINCETOVN
RACE POINT
SCITUATE
WESTFIELD
UORCESTER-LAURS
L G HANSCOM FIELD
MUNICIPAL
LOGAN INTERNATIONAL
MICHIGAN
ALPENA
ANN ARBOR
ANN ARBOS-WSFO
BAD AXE
6ATTLE CREEK
BELLAIRE
BELLE ISLE
BENTON HARBOR CLWRS)
AIRPORT
BARNSTABLE MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT
MEMORIAL
MUNICIPAL
MEMORIAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
BARNES MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
PHELPS COLLINS FIELD
MUNICIPAL
HURON CO MEMORIAL
KELLOGG
ANTRIM COUNTY
ROSS FIELD
5
5
40
9
9
9
9
9
70
9
2
5
2
2
9
9
70
5
5
5
2
2
2
9
9
5
11
10
5
40
2
5
2
9
32
BED
BVY
BOS
298
45B
33B
JOB
31B
CHH
34B
GBR
HYA
LWM
«VY
32B
35E
ACK
EWB
OWD
PSF
PVC
36B
37B
BAF
ORH
APN
ARB
ARB
760
BTL
ACB
31G
BEH
0
0
72509
0
0
'0
0
0
74494
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
c
0
0
0
0
0
0
Q
0
0
0
72639
0
0
a
0
0
0
0
4228
4235
4222
4219
4117
4123
4147
4140
4140
4235
4211
4140
4243
4124
4121
4249
4213
4115
4141
4211
4051
4226
4204
4205
4212
4210
4216
4504
4213
4216
4347
4218
4459
4220
4208
7131
7055
7102
7053
7005
7102
7030
6957
6958
7040
7324
7017
7107
7036
7046
7052
7107
7004
7058
7111
6729
7318
7013
7012
7043
7243
7152
8334
8345
8344
8259
8514
8512
8258
8626
133
108
29
0
0
0
0
0
53
0
742
52
155
78
0
0
640
12
79
50
70
1169
8
0
'0
273
1017
693
839
0
763
939
640
580
643
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
2
1
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
82
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
16
17
24
8
8
8
8
8
0
8
25
17
3
12
8
8
0
17
17
13
u
4
6
8
8
16
24
24
13
0
25
24
25
12
16
11
11
11
41
40
40
41
41
00
41
90
11
90
11
41
40
00
11
11
11
41
21
2T
41
41
11
11
11
11
00
90
11
90
30
11
2
A1
81
0
0
80
0
0
0
0
c
31
0
2
0
0
0
81
2
1
0
12
AO
0
0
2
61
81
AO
C
AO
1
AC
C
2
0000
0000
00"0
oboo
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
ooco
0000
0000
0000
ococ
cooo
0000
0000
0000
ocoo
0000
0000
0000
oooc
0000
0000
0000
0000
65
4C
4C
17.
-------
HEATHER
SERVICE OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE CALL
NO.
LAT. LONG.
ELEV.
ELT,
SC AV FD »T PWUL RR
CADILLAC
DETOUR VILLAGE
DETROIT
DETROIT
DETROIT RIVER LS
DETROIT-taSO
EA6LE HARBOR LS
ESCANABA
ESCANABA
FLINT
FRANKFORT
GAYLORD
GRAND MAKAIS
GRAND RAPIDS
HOLLAND
HOUGHTON
HOUGHTON LAKE
IRON MOUNTAIN
IRONWOOD
JACKSON
KALAMAZOO
LANSING
LUDINGTON
LUDINGTON LS
MAMSTEE
MANISTIQUE
MANITOU ISLAND LS
MARQUETTE
MARQUETTE
MARQUETTE LS
MENOMINEE
WUSKEGON
MUSKE60N LS
NORTH MANITOU SHOALS
PASSAGE ISLAND LS
PELLSTON
POINT BETSIE LS
PONTIAC-TWR/SAkRS
PORT HURON
PORT HURON
PORTAGE
ROCK OF AGES LS
SAGINAW
SAG INAy RIVER
SAULT STE MARIE
MUNICIPAL
WILLOW RUN
CITY
METROPOLITAN
DELTA COUNTY
BISHOP
OTSEGO COUNTY
KENT CO
TULIP CITY
COUNTY
ROSCOMMON COUNTY
FORD
GOGEBIC CO
REYNOLDS
MUNICIPAL
CAPITAL CITY
MASON COUNTY
MBL-BLACKER
SCHOOLCRAFT COUNTY
M8T COUNTY
COUNTY
COUNTY
EMMET COUNTY
OAKLAND-PONTIAC
ST CLAIR
TRI CITY
CITY-COUNTY
2
1
5
4
9
10
9
7
2
10
9
2
9
1C
2
4
10
2
2
4
5
1C
2
9
2
2
9
10
4
9
2
10
9
9
9
4
9
32
2
9
9
9
4
V
10
CAD
P55
YIP
DET
186
DTK
31Y
ESC
ESC
FNT
14C
GLR
27V
GRR
C19
CMX
HTL
1MT
IWD
JXN
AZO
LAN
LDM
17C
MBL
ISO
33Y
MQUM4
MQT
34Y
MNN
MKG
19C
28Y
35Y
PLN
36Y
PTK
PHN
33G
32Y
37Y
MBS
30G
SSP
0
0
a
0
0
72537
0
73648
0
72637
0
0
0
72635
0
0
72638
0
0
0
a
72539
0
C
0
0
0
72743
0
0
3
7E636
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
72734
4415
4559
4214
4225
4200
4214
4728
4544
4544
4258
4438
4501
4641
4253
4245
4710
4422
4549
4632
4216
4214
4247
4358
4357
4416
4559
4725
4634
4632
4633
4507
4310
4314
4501
4813
4534
4442
4240
4255
4300
4714
4752
4332
4338
4628
8528
8354
8332
8301
8309
8320
8810
8703
8705
8344
8.615
8442
8559
8531
8607
8830
8441
8807
9008
842?
8533
8436
8625
8628
8615
8611
8735
8724
8734
8723
8738
8615
8620
8557
8822
8448
8615
8325
8232
8225
8838
8919
8405
8351
8422
1305
60S
77?
626
571
664
607
612
608
766
572
1335
600
803
680
1079
1160
1174
1246
1020
874
874
642
597
620
684
609
734
1425
644
621
633
598
581
656
715
0
980
648
581
624
602
6/0
580
724
1
2
0
0
2
0
2
0
1
0
2
1
2
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
2
1
1
2
0
0
2
1
0
2
2
2
0
0
1
1
2
2
2
0
2
0
00
00
00
00
00
41
oc
72
00
41
00
00
00
41
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
31
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
25
12
24
24
12
24
12
0
17
24
12
25
12
24
25
24
24
16
16
24
24
24
25
12
16
25
12
0
24
12
16
24
12
12
12
24
5
18
25
12
12
12
24
12
24
90
31
11
11
30
11
30
00
11
11
30
90
30
11
90
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
90
30
11
90
30
00
11
30
11
11
30
30
30
11
30
11
90
30
3C1
30
11
30
11
0
0
1
1
C
81
0
0
2
P1
0
AC
0
81
AC
81
81
2
2
81
1
81
AO
0
2
AC
r
0
81
0
2
81
0
0
0
81
0
2
AP
0
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57
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18.
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE
OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT. SC AV TD AT PWUL RR
SAULT STE MARIE A^4T
SEUL CHOIX POINT
ST CLAIR SHORES
ST IGNACE
ST JOSEPH
STANDARD ROCK
TAWAS POINT LS
THREE RIVERS
THUNDER BAY IS LS
TRAVERSE CITY
»HITEFISH POINT
MINNESOTA
ALEXANDRIA
BEMIDJI
BRAINERD
CLOflUET
DETROIT LAKES
DULUTH
DULUTH HARBOR
ELY
EVELETH
FAIRMONT
GRAND RAPIDS
HIBBING
INTERNATIONAL FALLS
MANKATO
MARSHALL
MINNEAPOLIS
MINNEAPOLIS
MINNEAPOLIS
NEW ULM
ORR
PEQUOT LAKES
REDWOOD FALLS
ROCHESTER
ST CLOUD
ST PAUL
THIEF RIVER FALLS
WARROAD
W1LLMAR
WINONA
MUN DR. HAINES
CHERRY CAPITAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
CROM bING COUNTY
COO-CARLTON
AIRPORT
INTERNATIONAL
MUNICIPAL
EVM-VIRGINIA MUN
MUNICIPAL
ITASCA COUNTY
CHISHOLM HIBBING
FALLS INTERNATIONAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL-RYAN FIELD
MSP-ST PAUL INTNL
CRYSTAL
FLYING CLOUD
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
DOWNTOWN
PUBLIC
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUN-MAX CONRAD
9
1
9
9
9
1
9
2
9
4
1
4
7
2
2
2
10
9
2
2
2
2
4
10
2
2
40
5
5
2
2
1
4
10
10
5
2
1
2
2
44Y
P75
41Y
38Y
20C
S7RH4
39Y
HAI
4GY
TVC
42Y
AXN
BJI
BRD
490
OTL
DLH
30Y
ELO
EVM
FRM
GPZ
HIB
INL
MKT
MML
MSP
MIC
FCM
ULM
ORB
P39
RWF
RST
STC
STP
TVF
D45
ILL
ONA
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
a
0
0
c
0
72755
0
0
0
72745
0
0
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0
0
0
72747
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0
72658
0
0
0
0
a
0
72644
72655
0
0
0
0
0
4630
4555
4228
4551
4207
4710
4415
4158
45C2
4444
4646
4552
473C
4624
4642
4650
4650
4646
4749
4726
4339
4713
4723
4834
4413
4427
4453
4504
4450
4419
4801
4635
4433
4355
4533
4456
4804
4856
4507
4405
842C
8555
8226
8443
8629
8715
8326
8536
8312
8535
8457
9523
9456
9408
9230
9553
9211
9205
9150
9230
9425
9331
9251
9323
9355
9549
9313
9321
9327
9430
9251
9419
9505
9230
9404
9304
9611
9521
95C5
9142
577
618
575
579
579
600
583
830
583
630
604
1431
1377
1226
1278
1396
1417
610
1455
1385
1161
1326
1357
1183
1020
1179
838
869
905
1005
1310
1280
1030
1320
1024
704
1116
1075
1130
656
1
0
2
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0
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00
00
00
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00
00
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82
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00
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41
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00
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00
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41
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41
00
00
00
00
00
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41
31
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12
24
12
12
12
8
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12
24
12
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17
16
25
25
24
12
25
25
14
25
24
24
14
25
24
16
17
25
0
24
24
24
18
16
17
24
25
13
31
71
31
30
30
41
30
91
30
11
21
11
11
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90
90
11
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92
90
11
90
11
11
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71
11
11
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0
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0000
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0000
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0000
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0000
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57
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19.
-------
STATION NAME
WORTHIKGTON
MISSISSIPPI
COLUMBUS
GREENVILLE-LWRS/SR
GREENWOOD
GULFPORT-LAWRS/SAWRS
JACKSON
LAUREL/HATTIESBURG
MCCOMb
MERIDIAN
NATCHEZ
OXFORD
PASCAGOULA
PASCAGOULA
SHIP ISLAND
STONEVILLE-ESSC
TUPELO
V1CKSBURG-WSO/COE
CAPE GIRARDEAU
CHESTERFIELD
CHILICOTHE
COLUMBIA
JEFFERSON CITY
JOPLIN
KAISER
KANSAS CITY
KANSAS CITY
KANSAS CITY RH
KANSAS CTY-NSSfC/RFC
KIRKSVILLE
MALDEN
MONETT
POPLAR BLUFF
POPLAR BLUFF
SPICKARO
SPRlrtGFJ£LD
0 4339 9535 157* 1 00 16 11 2 0000
WEATHER SERVICE OFFICES AND STATIONS
AIRPORT NAME TYPE CALL NO. LAT. LONG. ELEV. ELT. SC AV TO AT PWUL RR
MUNICIPAL 2 OT6
GOLDEN TRIANGLE
INTERNATIONAL
GRNWD'LEFLORE
MUNICIPAL
A. C. THOMPSON FIELD
PINE BELT REG.
PIKE CO
KEY FIELD
NATCHEZ-ADAMS COUNTY
UNIVERSITY
JACKSON COUNTY
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
SPIRIT OF ST. LOUIS
MUNICIPAL
REGIONAL
MEMORIAL
MUNICIPAL
LEE C FINE MEMORIAL
INTERNATIONAL
MUNICIPAL
CLARENCE CANNON MEM
MUNICIPAL
EARL FIELDS MEMORIAL
MUNICIPAL
2
32
4
32
40
2
4
10
2
2
2
9
9
10
2
10
4
5
2
10
2
4
2
70
A
80
26
3
2
70
2
1
1
10
GTR
GLH
GWO
OPT
JAN
PIB
MCB
MEI
HEZ
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PGL
8RO
9R8
STMV6
TUP
CGI
SUS
K48
COU
JEF
JLN
AIZ
MCI
MKC
KACM7
MCIM7
IRK
MAW
UMN
M1S
P02
P35
SGF
0
0
0
0
72235
0
0
72234
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
72445
0
0
0
72446
0
0
0
0
0
72349
0
72330
72540
72440
3327
3329
3330
3024
3219
3128
3111
3220
3137
3423
3023
3022
3015
3325
3416
3221
3714
384C
3947
3849
3836
3710
3806
3917
3907
0
3906
4006
3636
3653
3646
3646
4015
3714
8836
9059
900,5
8904
9005
8920
9028
8845
9117
8933
8830
8834
8858
9055
8846
9053
8934
9039
9330
9213
9210
9430
9233
9443
9436
0
9435
9233
9000
9354
9019
9028
9343
9323
264
131
133
28
331
298
422
310
272
451
16
3
0
127
361
229
352
462
765
898
547
985
869-
1025
750
0
1355
965
295
1435
330
480
888
1270
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
2
0
2
1
2
0
1
2
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
82
00
00
00
41
1.5
17
24
18
24
18
24
24
15
8
3
8
3
0
16
0
24
16
0
24
17
24
25
24
24
0
0-
16
25
0
25
24
24
24
11
11
11
11
11
61
11
11
11
21
91
41
21
00
11
00
11
11
00
11
11
11
90
11
11
00
00
21
92
00
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71
71
11
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81
2
81
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81
81
2
2
0
1
0
0
2
0
81
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0
41
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81
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41
1
0
0
81
0
0
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41
31
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0000
0000
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0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
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0000
0000
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0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
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0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
57
AC
4C
57
65
20.
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT. SC AV FD AT PWUL RR
ST JOSEPH
ST LOUIS-WSFG
ST LOUIS-WSMO
VICHY
WEST PLAINS
MONTANA
BAILEY'S LANDING
BILLINGS
BOZEMAN
BROADUS
BUTTE
CUTBANK
DILLON
DRUMMOND
FORT PECK MARINA
GLASGOW
GLENDIVE
GREAT FALLS-»SFO
GREAT FA1LS-WSMO
HARLOWTON
HAVRE
HELENA
KALISPELL
LEHISTOWN
LIVINGSTON
MILES CIJY
NISSOULA
MONIDA
SIDNEY
THOMPSON FALLS
WEST YELLOWSTONE
WEST YELLOWSTONE
WOLF POINT
NEBRASKA,
ROSECRANS MEM
LAMBERT-STL HiTL
ROLLA NATIONAL
AINSWORTH
ALLIANCE
BEATRICE
LOGAN FIELD
GALLATIN FIELD
B MOONEY SILVER' BOW
MUNICIPAL
BEAVERHEAD COUNTY
INTERNATIONAL
DAWSON COMMUNITY
INTERNATIONAL
CITY COUNTY
AIRPORT
GLACIER PARK INTNL
MUNICIPAL
MISSION
MUNICIPAL
JOHNSON-BELL FIELD
SDY-RICHLAND MUN
YELLOWSTONE
INTERNATIONAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
5
40
70
4
7
9
10
4
3
4
4
3
3
9
10
2
40
70
3
10
10
10
4
4
4
10
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
72
3
STJ
SJOM7
STL
VIH
H63
OSS
BIL
BZN
4B6
BTM
CTB
DLN
3DU
37S
GGW
GDV
GFLM8
GTF
3HT
HVR
HLN
FCA
LHT
LVM
MLS
MSO
Man
SDY
3TH
WYS
WEY
OLF
ANW
AIA
BIE
72449
0
72434
0
0
0
72677
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
72768
Q
0
72775
C
72777
72772
72779
0
0
0
72773
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3946
3848
3845
3808
3644
4804
4548
4547
4526
4557
4836
4515
4640
4759
4813
4708
4730
4729
4626
4833
4636
4818
4703
4542
4626
4655
4434
4743
4736
4441
4439
48C6
4^35
4203
4019
9455
9034
9023
9146
9151
11413
10832
11109
10524
11230
11222
11233
11309
10628
10637
10448
11112
11122
10950
10946
11200
11416
10927
11026
10552
11405
11219
10411
11522
11107
11106
10534
9959
10248
9645
818
545
564
1137
1011
2898
3570
4449
3032
5533
3838
5222
3943
2259
2298
2476
0
3657
4160
2599
3898
2973
4146
4618
2634
3189
6785
1979
2380
6644
6669
1985
2587
3930
1310
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
s
C
2
0
2
1
0
1
1
1
0
00
00
41
00
41
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
41
00
41
41
'41
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
17
0
24
24
0
2
24
24
4
24
24
16
14
25
24
25
0
24
6
24
24
24
24
16
24
24
10
25
6
14
8
7
13
IB
13
11
00
11
11
00
90
11
11
51
11
11
21
11
9P
11
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00
11
21
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
21
9P
21
11
41
11
11
11
11
1
0
81
81
0
0
81
81
42
81
81
81
52
0
81
2
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81
1
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81
81
81
81
81
81
2
2
2
2
82
2
1
1
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0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
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0000
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0000
0000
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0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
cooo
0000
0000
cooo
cooo
0000
57
4C
57
4S
21 .
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE
OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT.
SC AV FD AT PWUL RR
BROKEN BOW
BURWELL
CHADRCN
COLUMBUS
GRAND ISLAND
HASTINGS
IMPERIAL
KEARNEY
LEXINGTON
LINCOLN
MCCOOK-BASIC/SAyRS
MULLEN
NORFOLK
NORTH PLATTE
OMAHA FS.S
OMAHA-WSFO
SCGTTSBLUFF
SIDNEY-AMOS/FSS
VALENTINE-BASIC
NEVADA
AUSTIN
BATTLE MOUNTAIN
CALIENTE
ELKO
ELKO
ELY
LAS VEGAS
LOVELOCK
OWYHEE
PYRAMID LAKE
RENO
TONOPAH
TONOFAH
W INNEMUCCA
YUCCA FLAT
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
HALL COUNTY REGIONAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
KARL STEFAN MEMORIAL
LEE BIRD FIELD
EPPLEY AIRFIELD
NORTH OMAHA
COUNTY
MUNICIPAL
MILLER FIELD
LANDER COUNTY
MUNICIPAL
YELLAND FIELD
MCCARRAN INTNL.
DERBY
INTERNATIONAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
3
3
4
2
10
2
3
2
2
10
3
3
1C
1C
4
40
10
31
11
3
3
1
10
4
10
10
4
3
9
40
4
2
10
70
BBU
K20
CDR
OLD
GRI
HSI
6V1
EAR
LXN
LNK
MCK
MHN
OFK
LBF
OMA
3NO
BFF
SNY
VTN
U31
BAM
P36
EKLN2
EKO
ELY
LAS
LOL
OUY
963
RNO
TPH
TNX
WMC
UCC
0
0
0
0
72552
0
0
Q
0
72551
0
0
72556
72562
7255Q
72553
72566
72561
72567
0
0
72487
0
0
72486
72386
0
0
0
72488
0
0
72583
72385
4126
4147
4250
4126
4058
4Q36
4032
4044
4047
4051
4013
4203
4159
4108
4118
4122
4152
4106
4252
3930
4037
3737
4050
4050
3917
3605
4004
4157
3957
3930
3804
3747
4054
3657
9939
9908
10305
9721
9819
9826
10138
9900
9946
9645
10035
10103
9726
10041
9554
9601
10336
10259
10033
11705
11652
11431
11546
11547
11451
11510
11833
11606
11937
11947
11705
11646
1174B
116C3
2538
21PO
3315
1443
1856
1944
3284
2130
2410
1189
2579
3260
1551
2787
982
1331
3958
4306
2598
6608
4532
4381
5060
5077
6262
2180
3904
5401
3880
44CO
5434
5540
4314
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1
0
0
1
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1
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0
1
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0
0
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0
0
0
0
c
1
0
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0
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0
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0
0
0
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
31
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
41
00
00
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41
25
00
41
00
13
4
24
13
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9
16'
15
25
24
15
12
24
24
24
0
24
24
24
4
13
24
0
24
24
24
24
7
2
24
24
0
24
24
11
21
11
11
11
11
21
11
91
11
11
11
11
11
11
00
11
71
71
21
11
71
00
11
11
11
11
21
90
11
11
91
11
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81
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81
0
81
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0
81
22
12
31
81
41
0
81
61
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41
81
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81
81
81
81
71
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81
81
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81
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0000
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0000
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0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
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0000
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0000
0000
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0000
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0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0220
65
4C
4C
4C
4C
NEW HAMPSHIRE
BERLIN
MUNICIPAL
BMLN3 72616 4435 7111 1158
32 25 10 AC 0000
22.
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE
OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT.
SC AV FD AT PWUL RR
BOON ISLAND LS
CONCORD
ISLES OF SHOALS LS
KEENE
LACONIA
LEBANON
MANCHESTER
NT WASHINGTON
PORTSMOUTH HARBOR
ROCHESTER
WHITEFIELD
WOLFEBORO
MUNICIPAL
DILLANT-HOPKINS
MUNICIPAL
REGIONAL
GRENIER FLD/MHT MUN
SKY HAVEN
REGIONAL
9
10
9
2
2
4
5
8
9
2
2
7
12B
CON
26B
EEN
LCI
LEB
MHT
MUN
2SB
6B1
HIE
WOLN3
0
72605
0
0
0
0
0
72612
0
0
0
72613
4307
4312
4258
4254
4334
4338
4256
4416
4304
4317
4422
4346
7029
7130
7037
7216
7126
7219
7126
7118
7043
7056
7133
7114
0
346
0
487
546
570
233
6267
0
322
1072
720
0
0
0
1
2
0
1
0
G
1
2
0
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
82
00
00
00
21
8
24
8
16
12
24
19
8
8
25
9
0
41
11
41
11
11
11
11
41
40
90
11
00
0
81
0
2
2
81
1
2
0
0
AO
0
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
oocro
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
NEW JERSEY
ATLANTIC CITY
ATLANTIC CITY
ATLANTIC CITY
BARNEGAT LAS
BEACH HAVEN
CAPE MAY
CAPE MAY ANT
FAIRFIELD
FARMIN6DALE
MANASQUAN INLET
MILLVILL1
PCRRISTCUN
NEW BRUNS.UICK-WSO/AG
NEWARK
ROBBINSVILLE
SANDY HOOK
TETER&ORJO
TRENTON
TR£NTON
WILDWOOD
BADER FIELD
NAFEC POMONA
COUNTY
ESSEX COUNTY
MONNOUTH COUNTY
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
INTERNATIONAL
TRENTON-TRA
AIRPORT
FIERCER CO
2
10
9
9
9
2
9
5
2
9
4
5
10
10
2
9
3
10
5
9
AIY
ACY
55N
N78
BEAN4
WUD
N91
CDU
BLM
54N
MIV
nnu
NBKN4
EUR
TRA
56N
TEB
TRTN4
TTN
52N
C
72407
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
72502
0
0
0
0
0
0
3921
3927
3923
3946
3944
3901
3857
4053
4011
4006
3922
4048
4029
4042
4013
4028
4051
4013
4017
3900
7438
7434
7425
7406
7412
7457
7453
7417
7407
7401
7504
7425
7426
7410
7436
7401
7403
7446
7449
7449
11
67
12
5
5
22
5
175
155
0
76
187
0
30
119
15
7
190
213
7
2
0
2
2
2
1
2
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
C
2
1
0
1
2
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
25
24
8
8
1
5
8
9
3
0
24
17
0
24
25
8
24
C
24
25
90
11
40
40
91
11
41
61
21
00
11
11
00
11
90
41
11
00
11
91
AO
41
1
0
0
AO
1
0
AO
0
81
AO
0
81
AO
0
1
0
2
0
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
oooo
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
57
NEW MEXICO
ALAMOGORDO
ALBUQUER6UE-RADAR
ALBUQUEROUE-WSfO
MUNICIPAL
INTERNATIONAL
2 ALM 0 3250 10600 4197 1 00 9 12 A2 0000
70 ZAB 0 3510 10634 5318 2 00 0 00 0 POOO
40 ABO 72365 3503 10637 5314 0 41 24 11 61 2220
FA
23.
-------
WEATHER
S E
VICE
OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION KAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE CALL
NO.
LAT. LONG.
ELEV.
ELT.
SC AV FD AT PWUL RR
CARLSBAD
CHAM*
CLAYTON
CLINES CORNER
CORONA
DEMING
FAKM1NGTON CST
GALLUP
GRANTS
HOB8S
LAS CRUCES
LAS VEGAS
LOS ALAMOS
MORIARTY
ROSWELL
SANTA FE
SILVER CITY
SOCORRO
TAOS
TORREON
TRUTH OR CONSEQUENCE
TUCUMCARI
NEW YORK
ALBANY
AMBROSE LS
ANITYVILLE
BAY SHORE (FIRE IS)
BETHPAGE
BIN&HAMTON
BUFFALO
BUFFALO
CALVERTCN
DANSVILLE
EATONS NECK
ELMIRA
EXECUTION ROCKS LS
FARMINGDALE
GLENS FALLS
ISLIP
ITHACA
JAMESTOWN
CAVERN CITY AIR T
MUNICIPAL
LINCOLN COMPRESS
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
GNT-MILAN HUN
LEA CO
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
INDUSTRIAL AIR CTR
SAF COUNTY MUNICIPAL
SVC-6RANT COUNTY
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
COUNTY
ZAHNS
GPUNMAN
BROOME CO
GRTR BUFFALO INT
PECONIC RIVER
MUNICIPAL
CHEMUNG CO
REPUBLIC
WARREN CO
LONG IS/MACARTHUR
TOMPKINS CO
MUNICIPAL
4
3
11
1
3
4
5
4
3
5
3
4
2
3
14
5
2
3
3
3
31
4
40
9
2
9
2
10
9
40
2
7
9
4
9
5
4
4
2
2
CNM
£33
CAO
P70
4CR
DMN
FMN
GUP
GNT
HOB
LRU
LVS
Q03
4MY
ROW
SAF
SVC
ONM
E23
4SL
TCS
TCC
ALB
N28
AYZ
45N
BPA
BGM
19G
BUF
CTO
DSV
34N
ELM
N84
FRG
GFL
ISP
ITH
JHW
0
0
72360
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
72268
0
0
0
0
0
c
0
72518
74499
0
0
0
72515
0
72528
0
72523
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3220
3654
3627
3455
3406
3215
3645
3531
3510
3241
3217
3539
3553
3459
3318
3537
3238
3404
3625
3548
3314
3511
4245
4027
4042
4038
4044
4213
4253
4256
4055
4234
4057
4210
4053
4044
4321
4047
4229
4209
1C416
10635
10309
10535
10541
10742
10814
10847
10754
10312
10655
10509
10617
10603
10432
10605
10810
10654
10534
10711
10716
10336
7348
7349
7324
7316
7329
7559
7853
7844
7247
7743
7324
7654
7344
7326
7337
7306
7628
7915
3261
7750
4972
6874
6500
4324
5502
6468
6520
3666
4454
6875
7150
6220
3669
6308
5443
4617
6965
6700
4858
4039
292
94
54
15
168
1629
0
706
75
686
0
954
25
134
333
108
1098
1723
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
2
?.
0
0
1
2
2
2
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
41
00
41
00
31
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
24
1
24
8
1
24
24
24
2
17
1
24
24
1
24
17
7
2
1
1
24
24
24
8
10
8
12
24
12
24
9
0
8
24
8
17
24
24
19
18
11
CO
71
41
91
11
11
11
21
11
01
11
11
11
11
11
11
21
01
01
71
11
11
40
11
41
12
11
30
11
12
00
41
11
40
11
11
11
11
11
81
0
31
0
12
81
41
81
2
31
2
81
2
12
81
31
2
12
12
2
31
81
41
0
AO
0
AO
41
0
81
AO
0
0
81
0
2
81
81
AO
2
0000
0000
0000
cooo
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
1000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
4C
45
57
24.
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT,
SC AV FD AT PVUL RR
MASSENA
MONTAUK POINT LS
MONTGOMERY
MONTICELLO
MORICHES
NEW YORK.
NEW YORK
NEW YORK. (FT TOTTEN)
NEW YORK JFK
NEW YORK LGA
NEW YORK RH
NEWBURGH
NIAGAPA
NIAGARA FALLS
OGDENSBURG
ONEONTA
OSWEGC
PLATTSBURG
POUGHKEEPSIE
ROCHESTER
ROCHESTER LS
ROCKAWAY
SARANAC LAKE
SCHENECTAOY
SHORT BEACH
SYRACUSE
UTICA
WATERTOWN
WESTHAMP10N BEACH
WHITE PLAINS
NORTH CAROLINA
ASHEVILLE
CAPE HATTERAS
CAPE LOOKOUT
CHARLOTTE
ELIZABETH CITY
FAYETTEVILLE
FRYING PAN LS
GREENSBORO
GREENVILLE
HICKORY
RICHARDS MUNICIPAL
ORANGE COUNTY
SULLIVAN CTY INTL
PAN AM HELIPORT
KENNEDY INTNL
LAGUARD1A FIELD
STEWART
INTERNATIONAL
INTERNATIONAL
MUNICIPAL
CLINTON CO
DUTCHESS CO
ROC-MCNROE CO
ADIRONDACK
COUNTY
SYR HANCOCK INTNL
ONEIDA CO
INTERNATIONAL
SUFFOLK COUNTY
HESTCHESTER CO
MUNICIPAL
DOUGLAS MUN
CG AIR BASE MUN
MUN GRANNIS FD
GSO HI PT MSTN SALEM
PITT-GREENVILLE
MUNICIPAL
4
9
2
2
9
40
2
70
10
10
80
2
9
5
2
2
9
2
4
10
9
9
2
2
9
1C
4
4
2
3
10
10
9
10
4
5
9
10
2
4
MSS
48N
MGJ
MSV
49N
NYC
JPB
NFTN6
JFK
LGA
GARN6
SWF
13G
IAG
OGS
N66
28G
PLB
POU
ROC
26G
SON
SLK
SCH
51N
SYR
UCA
ART
FOK
HPN
AVL
HAT
77W
CLT
ECG
FAY
46W
GSO
PGV
HKY
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
74486
74486
72503
0
0
a
0
0
74484
a
a
a
72529
C
0
0
0
0
72519
0
a
a
0
72315
72304
a
72314
74694
0
74699
72317
0
0
4456
4104
4130
4142
4047
4051
4045
4047
4039
4046
0
4130
4316
4306
4441
4231
4328
4441
4138
4307
4315
4034
4423
4251
4035
4307
4309
4400
4051
4104
3526
3516
3436
3513
3616
3500
3329
3605
3538
3545
7451
7156
7415
7448
7245
7355
7359
7346
7347
7354
0
7406
7904
7857
7528
7504
7631
7331
7353
7740
7736
7353
7412
7357
7333
7607
7523
7601
7238
7343
8233
7533
7632
8056
7611
7853
7735
7957
7723
8123
208
3
375
1413
4
87
853
26
22
31
0
471
0
590
300
1775
255
371
162
555
0
10
1659
378
2
408
744
333
67
443
2170
11
13
769
13
196
0
886
30
1188
0
2
0
0
2
C
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
C
1
0
0
0
2
1
1
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
oc
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
41
41
00
41
00
00
OC
41
00
00
24
S
25
•14
8
0
25
0
24
24
0
17
12
24
18
25
12
17
24
24
12
?
9
16
8
24
24
24
0
24
24
24
8
24
15
24
8
24
7
24
11
41
90
11
41
00
92
00
11
11
00
11
30
11
12
91
41
11
11
11
41
41
11
11
41
11
11
11
00
11
11
11
40
11
11
11
40
11
11
11
81
0
AO
AO
0
0
p
0
t
81
0
1
0
1
AO
AO
0
AO
81
41
0
0
2
AP
0
81
81
81
0
4T
81
41
0
81
61
1
0
4t
0
81
0000
0000
ooao
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
OOOD
0000
oooc
oono
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
ocoo
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
OOOD
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
57
65
25.
-------
HEATHER SERVICE OFFICES AND STATIONS
STATION MAKE
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV. ELT. SC AV FO AT PWUL RR
HOT SPRIN6S
JACKSONVILLE
KINSTON
NEW BERN
OAK ISLAND
OCftACOUE
ORE60N INLET
RALEIGH
ROCKY HOUNT-WILSON
SOUTHERN PINES
WILMINGTON
WINSTON SALEM (LURS)
WRI6HTSV.ULE BEACH
NORTH DAKOTA
OHIO
BISMARCK
DEVILS LAKE
DEVILS LAKE
DEVILS LAKE
DICKINSON
FARGO
GRAND FORKS
JAMESTOWN
MINOT
R8SE6LEN
WILLISTON
AKRON
AKRON
ASHTABULA LS
CINCINNATI
CINCINNATI-RFC
CINCINNATI-HSHO
CINCINNA.TI-WSQ
CLEVELAND
CLEVELAND
CLEVELAND
COLUMBUS
ALBERT J ELLIS
STALLIN6S
SIMMONS-NOTT
RALEIGH-DURHAM
AIRPORT
PINEHURST-SOPINES
NEW HANOVER CO
SMITH REYNOLDS
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
HECTOR
INTERNATIONAL
MUNICIPAL
INTERNATIONAL
SLOULIN FD INTNL
MUNICIPAL
AKRON CANTON REG
MUN LUNKEN FD
ABBE OBSERVATORY
GR CINCINNATI
CUYAHOGA CO
HOPKINS INTNL
BURKE LAKE FRO NT
PORT COLUMBUS INTL
3
2
2
4
9
9
9
40
4
2
10
32
9
40
2
7
1
4
10
4
4
4
1
10
5
10
9
4
60
70
10
5
40
5
10
HSS
OAJ
ISO
EWN
78V
45U
79H
RDU
RUl
SOP
ILM
INT
1W9
BIS
DVL
DVLN8
P11
DIK
FAR
6FK
JUS
MOT
P24
ISN
AKR
CAK
20G
LUK
CIN01
CNN01
CVG
CGF
CLE
SKL
CMH
0
0
0
0
0
a
0
72306
0
0
0
0
0
72764
0
72757
72758
0
72753
0
0
0
72765
72767
0
72521
0
0
0
0
72421
0
72524
0
72428
3554
3450
3519
3505
3353
3507
3546
3552
3551
3514
3416
3608
3411
4646
4807
4807
4806
4647
4654
4757
4655
4816
4745
4811
4102
4055
4155
3906
3907
3909
3903
4134
4125
4131
4000
8249
7737
7738
7703
7801
7559
7531
7847
7753
7924
7755
8014
7749
10045
9854
9852
9852
10248
9648
9711
9841
10117
10150
10338
8128
8126
8048
8426
8430
8431
8440
8129
8152
8141
8253
1480
94
93
24
0
6
0
441
158
0
38
978
10
1660
1450
1478
1438
2583
899
832
1494
1714
2047
1905
1052
1236
586
497
0
627
877
889
805
584
833
2
1
1
0
0
2
0
C
0
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
c
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
c
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
31
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
41
00
41
00
00
00
00
41
00
41
00
41
7
15
18
24
e
8
8
24
24
10
24
24
25
24
9
0
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
7
24
12-
24
0
0
24
17
24
17
24
11
11
11
11
40
40
20
11
11
11
11
11
90
11
11
00
71
11
11
11
11
11
71
11
11
11
30
11
00
00
11
11
11
11
11
2
AO
AO
81
0
0
2
41
81
0
81
1
0
81
2
0
41
P1
41
81
81
81
41
81
AO
81
0
41
C
0
81
1
41
1
81
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
OPOO
0000
0000
0000
oono
0000
0000
POOD
0000
0000
0000
oono
0000
4C
57
4C
4S
4C
4C
57
4C
4C
26.
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE
OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION .NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT.
SC AV FD AT PWUL RR
COLUMBUS
COLUMBUS
DAYTCN-WSMO
DAYTON-WSO
ELYRIA
FINDLAY
GALION
HAMILTON
JEFFERSON
LIMA
LORAIN
MANSFIELD
MARBLEHEAO LS
MIAMISBURG
OXFORD
TOLEDO
TOLEDO
WILLOUGHBY
YOUNGSTOWN
2ANESVILLE
OKLAHOMA
ARDMORE-LAURS/BASIC
BARTLESVILLE
CLINTON .(BURNS FLAT)
ENID
GAGE
HOBART
LAUTON
MCALESTER
OKLAHOMA CITY
OKLAHOMA CITY
PONCA CI.TY
RICH MOUNTAIN
TULSA
TULSA
TULSA-RFC
BOLTON FIELD
OHIO STATE UNIV.
J K COX DAY MUN
LORAIN COUNTY REG
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
ASHTABULA
ALLEN COUNTY
LAHM MUNICIPAL
DAYTON GENERAL
MIAMI UNIVERSITY
TOL EXPRESS
LOST NATION
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
PHILLIPS
CLINTON SHERMAN
yOODRING FIELD MUN
INTERMEDIATE FLD
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
WILEY POST
WILL ROGERS WORLD
MUNICIPAL
RIVERSIDE
INTERNATIONAL
2
5
70
10
2
4
2
2
2
2
9
15
9
2
2
9
10
2
10
4
33
2
5
2
4
4
2
4
4
40
4
1
5
10
60
214
OSU
DAN01
DAY
22G
FDY
GQQ
HAO
7G2
AOH
27G
MFD
21G
MGY
OXD
24G
TOL
LNN
YNG
ZZV
ADM
BVO
CSK,
UDG
GAG
HBR
LAW
MLC
PWA
OKC
PNC
PGO
RVS
TUL
TUL02
0
0
72429
72429
0
0
0
0
0
p
0
0
0
0
c
0
72536
0
72525
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
72353
0
72341
0
72356
0
3954
4005
3952
3954
4121
4101
4044
3922
4147
4042
4128
4049
4133
3935
3930
4142
4136
4141
4116
3957
3418
3645
3521
3623
3618
3500
3434
3453
3532
3524
3644
3441
3602
3612
3609
8308
8304
8407
8412
8211
8340
8245
8431
8042
8402
8211
8231
8244
8413
8447
8327
8348
8124
8040
8154
9701
9600
9912
9748
9946
9903
9825
9547
9738
9736
9706
9437
9559
9554
9600
952
904
979
1003
794
8P3
1295
674
923
975
580
1312
644
961
1025
0
692
651
1186
902
772
723
1923
1163
2202
1570
1108
770
1299
1304
998
2660
680
676
703
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
2
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0.0
00
41
00
00
00
41
00
17
17
0
24
25
24
25
25
12
15
12
24
12
25
25
12
24
4
24
24
24
12
12
7
24
24
19
24
24
24
24
24
16
24
0
11
11
00
11
90
11
91
90
11
00
30
11
30
9T
90
31
11
21
11
11
11
11
12
91
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
71
11
11
00
AO
AO
0
81
AO
81
0
AO
AO
AC
0
41
0
0
0
0
81
AO
81
81
1
A2
1
AO
81
81
AO
81
A1
81
81
41
AO
81
0
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
OCOD
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
oooo
0000
ocoo
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
57
4C
OREGON
27.
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION DANE
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT.
SC AV FD AT PWUL RR
ASTORIA
BAKER
BONNEVIUE DAM
BROOKINGS
BURNS
CAPE BLANCO LN
CASCADE LOCKS
CHETCO RS
COOS BAY
CORVALLJS-WSO/AG
EUGENE
hILLSBORO
KLAMATH FALLS
LA GRANDE
LAKEVIEW
MEACHAM
MEOFORD
NEWPORT
NORTH faEND
PACIFIC CITY
PENDLETCf
PORTLAND-RFC
PORTLAND-WSFO
PORTLANO-WSO/FW
REDMOND
ROSEBURG-BASIC/SAkRS
SALEM
SALEM-WSO/FW
SEASIDE
SEXTON SUMMIT-BASIC
SIUSLAW RIVER
THE DALLES
TILLAMOOK BAY
TROUTDALe-AMOS/LAWRS
UMPQUA R.IVER
YAQUINA BAY
YOUNGS BAY BRIDGE
PENNSYLVANIA
CLATSOP CO
MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT
MAHLON SWEET FLD
PORTLAND-HLSBORO
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
EMERGENCY
MFR-JACKSON CTY
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
INTERNATIONAL
ROBERTS
MUNICIPAL
MCNARY FIELD
MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT
ALLENTOWN
ALTGONA
BEAVER FALLS
A BETHLEHEM EASTON
RLAIR CO
BEAVER COUNTY
10
4
9
3
70
9
3
9
9
10
10
5
10
2
3
1
10
3
4
9
10
6C
40
10
4
3
10
10
9
71
9
4
9
31
9
9
9
10
4
2
AST
8KE
20S
4BK
4BW
92S
CZK
ass
EUG
HIO
LMT
IGD
4LW
MEN
MFR
JNW
OTH
51S
PDT
PDX03
PDX
RDM
RBG
SLE
SAL03
SXT
85S
DLS
88S
TTD
90S
95S
ABE
AOO
G01
72791
0
0
0
72683
0
0
0
0
0
72693
0
c
0
0
0
72597
C
0
0
72688
0
72698
0
0
0
72694
0
0
0
0
c
0
0
0
0
0
72517
0
0
4609
4450
4538
4203
4335
4250
4541
4209
4321
4438
4407
4532
4209
4518
4213
4531
4222
4438
4325
4512
4541
4532
4536
4531
4416
4314
4455
4455
4560
4237
4400
4537
4534
4533
4341
4.437
4611
4039
4018
4046
12353
11749
12157
12417
11903
12434
12153
1?416
12420
12312
12313
12257
12144
11806
12021
11824
12252
12403
12415
12357
11851
12240
12236
12241
12109
12322
12301
12300
12355
12322
12407
12109
12355
12224
12410
12403
12352
7526
7819
8024
22
3373
60
85
4170
188
158
0
75
225
373
199
4102
2713
4764
3726
1329
159
17
10
1495
0
39
95
3084
510
201
0
0
3841
40
210
50
32
135
0
0
385
1469
1252
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
2
2
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
c
0
0
0
o
0
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
0
0
0
1
41
00
00
00
62
00
00
00
00
00
82
00
DC
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
41
00
41
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
24
24
25
7
16
4
6
6
4
0
24
24
0
4
7
24
24
8
24
1
24
0
24
0
24
13
24
0
25
24
4
17
5
24
5
6
25
24
24
2
11
11
90
21
21
41
31
41
41
00
11
11
00
42
41
71
11.
41
11
01
11
00
11
00
11
11
11
00
90
71
41
11
40
11
40
40
90
11
11
42
81
81
C
7?
62
1C
2
0
0
c
81
1
0
0
72
81
81
1
ft
10
41
C
81
C
81
1
41
Q
C
31
0
61
0
1
0
0
r
81
81
0
POOD
0000
0000
ocoo
0000
cooo
00»JS
cooo
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
ocoo
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
"COO
0000
0220
aooo
0000
0000
cooo
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
HOOD
0000
GOOD
0000
65
4C
28.
-------
HEATHER
SERVICE OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV. ELT. SC AV fO AT PHUL RR
BRADFORD
DUBOIS
ERIE
ERIE HARBOR
FRANKLIN
HARRISBURG
HARRISBURG-WSO/RFC
JOHNSTOHN-FSS/SAWRS
LANCASTER
LA'TROBE
M1DDLETOWN
PHILADELPHIA
PHILADELPHIA EMSU
PHILADELPHIA-AMBLER
PHILADELPHIA-ySFO
PHILADELPHIA-WSO
PHILIPSBURG
PITTSBURGH
PITTSBURGH
PITTSBURGH-MN TWNSHP
PITTSBURGH-WSFO
READING
THOMASVIJ.LE
TOBYHANNA
UNIVERSITY PARK
WILKESBARRE SCRANTON
WILLIAMSI>ORT
RHODE ISLAND
BLOCK ISLAND-BASIC
NEWPORT
POINT JUDITH
PROVIDENCE
SHITHFIELD
WESTERLY
SOUTH CAROLINA
ANDERSON
CHARLESTON
REGIONAL
JEFFERSON CO
INTERNATIONAL
CHESS LAMBERTON
CAPITOL CITY
JST-CAHBIA CO
MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT
HARSBG INTL OLMSTEAD
N PHILADELPHIA
WINGS FIELD
INTERNATIONAL
MID-STATE
ALLEGHENY CO
GREATER PITTS INTL
MUNs GEN SPAATZ FLD
YORK AIRPORT
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
IPT-LYCOMIN6 CO
BID STATE
STATE
T F GREEN STATE
NOTH CENTRAL STATE
STATE
COUNTY
MUNICIPAL
4
4
10
9
2
4
16
32
5
3
5
3
70
2
40
10
4
4
10
70
40
5
2
3
2
10
14
11
2
9
10
2
2
4
10
BFD
DUJ
ERI
25G
FKL
CXY
HRBP1
JST
LNS
LBE
MDT
PNE
PLDP1
N67
PHLP1
PHL
PSB
AGC
PIT
PTBP1
PITF
RDG
THV
7TB
N36
AVP
IPT
BID
2B4
PJI
PVD
SFZ
WST
AND
CHS
0
c
72526
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
72408
0
0
72408
0
0
72520
72520
0
0
0
0
0
72513
72514
0
0
0
72507
0
0
0
72208
4148
4111
4205
4207
4123
4013
4016
4019
4008
4017
4012
4005
3955
4006
3957
3953
4053
4021
4030
4032
4027
4023
3955
4111
4051
4120
4115
4110
4132
4122
4144
4155
4121
3430
3254
7838
7854
8011
8005
7952
7651
7653
7850
7618
7924
7646
7501
7511
7516
7509
7515
7805
7956
8013
8014
8000
7558
7652
7525
7751
7544
7655
7135
7117
7129
7126
7129
7148
8243
8002
2150
1824
737
578
1540
351
0
2294
464
1161
318
119
1
320
35
28
1914
1273
1225
1183
1017
353
486
1920
1220
948
525
118
180
2
62
451
81
773
48
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
CO
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
41
24
24
24
12
13
24
0
16
16
16
24
24
0
25
0
24
24
24
24
0
0
24
25
8
4
?4
24
24
25
0
24
2
10
24
24
11
11
11
11
11
11
00
11
11
11
11
11
00
92
00
11
11
11
11
00
00
11
92
41
22
11
11
71
90
00
11
21
11
11
11
81
81
81
C
2
41
0
1
AC
A1
1
1
C
0
c
81
81
1
81
r
c
1
0
2
AC
81
81
3T
AC
0
81
0
AO
61
81
0000
0000
0000
OOOD
OPOO
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
ocoo
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
4C
4C
65
57
29.
-------
WEATHER SERVICE OFFICES AND STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT. LONG. ELEV.
ELT.
SC AV TD AT PWUL RR
CHARLESTON
CLEMSON-WSO/Ali
COLUMBIA
COLUMBIA
FLORENCE
FOLLY BEACH LN
GEORGETOWN LS
GREENVILLE
GREENVILLE-SPRTNBG
GREENWOOD
HILTON HEAD IS
MYRTLE BEACH NORTH
SPARTANBURG
SOUTH DAKOTA
ABERDEEN
BROOKING.S
CHAMBERLAIN
HURON
LEMMON
MITCHELL
MOBRIDGE
PHILIP
PKKSTOUN
PIERRE
RAPID CITY
REDIG
SIOUX FAILS
UATERTOWN
YANKTON
TENNESSEE
BRISTOL
CHATTANOOGA
CLARKSVILLE
CROSSVILLE
DYERSBURG
JACKSON
KNOXVILLE
METROPOLITAN
OWENS FIELD
CITY-COUNTY
MUNICIPAL DT
GRNV-SPA JET AGE
COUNTY
AIRPORT
AIRPORT
DT MEMORIAL
REGIONAL
MUNICIPAL
REGIONAL
MUNICIPAL
AIRPORT
MUNICIPAL
REGIONAL
FOSS FIELD
MUNICIPAL
GURNEY MUN
TRI-CITY
LOVELL
OUTLAW FIELD
MEMORIAL
MUNICIPAL
MCKELLAR
MCGHEE-TYSON
9
1C
40
2
4
9
9
5
10
2
2
4
5
10
2
1
10
3
2
3
3
7
4
10
1
40
4
2
10
10
2
4
4
4
1C
86J
CLMS1
CAE
CUB
FLO
84J
85J
GMU
GSP
GRO
49J
CRE
SPA
A6R
BKX
CHB
HON
Y22
MHE
Y26
PHP
PKSS2
PIR
RAP
REJ
FSD
ATY
YKN
TRI
CHA
CKV
CSV
DYR
MKL
TYS
0
0
72310
0
0
0
0
0
72312
0
0
0
0
72659
0
0
72654
0
0
0
0
72652
0
72662
72661
72651
0
0
72313
72324
0
0
0
0
72326
3246
3441
3357
3358
3411
3241
3313
3451
3454
3415
3213
3349
3455
4527
4418
4348
4423
4556
4346
4532
4403
4304
4423
4403
4516
4334
4455
4255
3629
3502
3637
3557
3601
3536
3549
7951
8249
8107
8100
7943
7953
7911
8221
8213
8209
8042
7843
8157
9826
9648
9919
9813
10210
9802
10026
10136
9832
10017
10304
10332
9644
9709
9723
8224
8512
8725
8505
8924
8855
8359
9
819
225
210
151
10
0
1040
971
631
20
33
824
1300
1637
1740
1289
2602
1302
1664
2212
1485
1726
3168
3035
1427
1740
1303
1525
688
545
1870
345
422
980
2
2
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
1
2
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
c
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
41
00
41
00
41
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
41
5
P
24
25
24
4
5
17
24
25
25
9
16
24
14
24
24
4
17
8
17
0
24
94
24
24
24
13
24
24
18
24
17
24
24
41
00
11
90
11
40
40
11
11
92
?0
11
11
11
11
71
11
51
11
41
21
00
11
11
71
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
1
0
41
0
81
0
0
AO
41
0
AO
21
AC
81
2
0
8T
42
?
82
81
0
81
81
0
81
81
2
81
81
A2
81
61
81
81
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
00 00
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
oooo
0000
0000
0000
0000
4C
65
4C
4C
65
30.
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE
OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT. SC AV FD »T PWUL RR
KNilXVILLE
MEMPHIS-WSFO
MEMPHIS-WSMO
NASHVILLE-WSP.O
NASHVILL£-WSO
DOWNTOWN ISLAND
INTERNATIONAL
NAVAL AIR STATION
METROPOLITAN
5 DKX 0 3558
4G MEM 72334 3503
70 NQA 0 3521
70 NSHT1 72327 3615
10 BNA 72327 3607
8353
9000
8952
8634
8641
833
284
389
591
605
1
0
0
0
0
00
41
00
00
41
14
24
0
0
24
11
11
00
00
11
AO
81
0
0
81
0000
0000
oooc
0220
0000
65
65
TEXAS
ABILENE
ALICE
AMARILLO
AUSTIN
BROWNSVILLE
BROWNWOOD
CHILDRESS
CLEAR LA.KE CITY
COLLEGE STATION
COLLEGE STATION ESSC
CORPUS CHRISTI
COTULLA-F8S/BASIC
DALHART
DALLAS
DALLAS
DALLAS
DALLAS/F.T. WORTH
DEL RIO
EL PASO
FREEPORT
FT WORTH
FT WORTH RH
FT WORTH-WSFOm C
GALVESTON
GALVESTON-AHOS/FSS
GREENVILLE
GUADALUPE PASS
HARLINGE.N-LAWRS/SR
HONDO
HOUSTON
HOUSTON AREA-WSO
HOUSTON-WSMO
JUNCTION-AMOS/BASIC
KILLEEN
LAKE JACKSON
MUNICIPAL
INTERNATIONAL
AMA AIR TERMINAL
MUNICIPAL
INTERNATIONAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
METRO STOLPORT
EASTERWOOD
INTERNATIONAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
LOVE FIELD
ADDISON
REDBIRD
DAL/FT WORTH REG
INTERNATIONAL
INTERNATIONAL
MEACHAM
SCHOLES FIELD
MAJORS FIELD
INDUSTRIAL AIR PARK
WM P HOBBY
INTERCONTINENTAL
KIHBLE CO
MUNICIPAL
BRAIORIA COUNTY COW
1C
It
10
10
10
2
4
2
4
10
10
33
4
4
5
5
70
10
1C
9
4
80
46
10
31
2
1
32
70
4
1C
70
1
2
2
ABI
ALI
AMA
AUS
BRO
BWD
CDS
CLC
CLL
CLL
CRP
COT
DHT
DAL
ADS
RBD
DFW
DRT
ELP
8R8
FTW
FTRT2
FTWT2
GLS
GLS
GVT
GDP
HRL
HDO
HOU
HOST2
IAH
JCT
ILE
LJN
72266
0
72363
72254
72250
0
0
0
a
a
72251
0
0
72258
0
0
72259
72261
72270
0
0
a
0
72242
0
0
72262
0
0
0
72243
72243
74740
a
0
3225
2744
3514
3018
2554
3148
3426
2933
3035
3036
2746
2827
3601
3251
3258
3241
3254
2922
3148
2857
3249
C
3245
2918
2916
3304
3150
2613
2921
2939
2925
2958
3030
3105
2902
9941
9802
10142
9742
9726
9857
1C017
9508
9622
9620
9730
9913
10233
9651
9650
9652
9702
10055
10624
9518
9721
0
9720
9448
9452
9604
10448
9740
9910
9517
9513
9521
9945
9741
9527
1790
180
3604
621
20
1386
1952
39
328
0
44
479
3997
488
643
660
596
1027
3916
4
706
0
616
54
9
544
5460
35
990
47
42
108
1713
846
12
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
0
C
1
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
41
00
41
41
'41
00
00
00
00
00
41
on
00
00
00
00
41
41
41
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
03
00
00
24
24
24
24
24
8
24
25
24
0
24
24
24
24
17
16
24
24
24
8
24
0
0
0
24
9
24
17
0
24
0
24
24
25
25
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
90
11
00
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
40
11
00
DO
00
71
12
71
11
00
11
00
11
71
90
90
S1
81
81
81
81
2
81
AO
81
0
81
81
81
41
AO
AO
81
81
81
1
1
0
0
0
1
A2
1
AO
0
1
0
81
32
AO
At
POOO
0000
0220
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
nooo
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0001
aooo
0000
0000
0000
4C
57
4C
57
4C
57
65
31.
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE OFFICES
A N 6
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT MANE
TYPE CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG. ELEV.
ELT.
SC AV fD AT PWUL RR
LAREDC-LAWRS/SAhRS
LONGVIEW
LONGVIEW-WSMO
LUBBOCK-WSFO
LUBBOCK-WSO/AG
LUFKIN
MARFA-AMOS/BASIC
nCALLEN
MIDLAND
MINERAL WELLS
NACOGDOCHES
PALACIOS
PARIS
PLAINVIEW
PORT ARAASAS
PORT ARTHUR
PORT ISABEL
PORT O'CONNOR
SABINE (PSS)
SAN ANGEi.0
SAN ANTONIO
SAN ANTONIO
SANDERSON
SEA RIM STATE PARK
STEPHENV.ILLE
TEMPLE
TYLER
VICTORIA
WACO
WICHITA FALLS
WINK
UTAH
BLANDING
BRYCE CANYON-FS$m
BULLFROG MARINA
CEDAR CITY
DELTA
GREEN RIVER
HANKSVILLE
LOGAN
MILFORD
INTERNATIONAL
GREGG CO
REGIONAL
ANGELINA CO
MUNICIPAL
MILLER INTNL
REGIONAL AIR TERM
MUNICIPAL
EAST TEXAS REGIONAL
MUNICIPAL
COX FIELD
HALE CO
JEFFERSON CO
MATHIS
INTERNATIONAL
STINSON FLD MUN
CLARK FIELD
DRAUGHON MILLER
POUNDS FIELD
REGIONAL
MADISON COOPER
MUNICIPAL
WINKLER CO
AIRPORT
MUNICIPAL
LOGAN-CACHE
MUNICIPAL
32
5
70
40
10
4
1
4
10
4
2
4
2
5
9
15
9
9
9
10
40
5
1
9
70
2
5
10
10
10
4
3
33
3
4
3
3
3
2
70
LRD
GGG
GGG
LBB
LBKT2
LFK
NRF
MFE
MAF
MWL
OCH
PSX
PRX
PVW
9R1
BPT
9R3
8R9
8R7
SJT
SAT
SSF
P07
SEP
TPL
TYR
VCT
ACT
SPS
INK
4BL
acE
UI7
CDC
U24
U28
4HV
LGU
MLF
0
0
72247
72267
0
0
72264
0
7226S
0
0
0
0
0
0
72241
0
0
0
72263
72253
0
74730
0
72260
0
0
72255
72256
72351
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2732
3223
3221
3339
3339
3114
3022
2611
3157
3247
3135
2843
3338
3410
2750
2957
2604
2826
2944
3122
2932
2920
3010
2941
3213
3109
3222
2851
3137
3358
3147
3737
3742
3730
3742
3920
3900
3822
4U7
3826
9927
9443
9439
10149
10151
9445
10401
9814
10211
9804
9442
9615
9527
10143
9704
9401
9710
9626
9352
10030
9828
9829
10225
9402
9811
9725
9524
9655
9713
9829
10312
10928
11209
11042
11306
11235
11009
11043
11151
11301
504
373
407
3241
3245
316
4858
, 112
2862
972
372
15
547
3372
4
22
15
10
0
1908
794
577
2838
3
1318
682
551
117
508
1030
2820
6132
7589
3643
5618
4626
4069
4312
4453
5033
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
2
0
2
2
0
0
0
1
0
2
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
41
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
17
24
0
24
0
24
6
24
24
17
25
24
25
17
8
24
8
8
8
24
24
10
24
25
0
18
24
24
24
24
24
8
18
4
12
16
7
12
25
11
11
11
01
11
00
11
71
11
11
11
91
11
91
11
41
11
41
41
40
11
11
11
71
90
00
11
11
11
11
11
11
21
21
21
11
21
61
21
92
11
A1
1
0
81
0
81
52
81
81
61
2
81
2
2
1
51
1
1
0
81
81
AO
41
C
C
1
41
81
81
81
81
81
81
2
41
81
41
82
2
41
0000
0000
0220
OPOO
OOCO
3000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
occo
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
ccoo
:oco
0220
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
9000
0000
0000
0000
ocoo
oooc
4S
4C
65
4C
65
xs
4C
4C
32.
-------
W fc A T H E R
SERVICE
OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION .NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT. SC AV FD AT PWUL RR
OGDEN
PRICt
ROOSEVELT
SALT LAKE CITY RH
SALT LAK6 CITY-RADAR
SALT LAKE-WSFO/RFC
ST GEORGE
VERNAL
WENDOVER
MUNICIPAL
CARBON COUNTY
INTERNATIONAL
INTERNATIONAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
AF AUX FIELD
5
1
3
80
10
46
2
2
1
OGD
PUC
U67
SLCU1
ZLC
SLC
SGU
VEL
ENV
0
72470
0
0
0
72572
0
0
72581
4111
3937
4018
0
4046
4046
3706
4027
4044
11201
11045
10959
0
11157
11158
11336
10931
11402
4455
5901
5106
0
422C
4227
2910
5259
4239
1
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
00
00
00
00
00
41
. 00
00
00
17
24
4
0
0
24
24
10
24
11
11
21
OC
00
11
11
11
71
T
81
1
r
0
41
2
2
31
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
FA
VERMONT
BURLINGTON
MONTPELIER
NEWPORT
NEWPORT
RUTLAND
SPRINGF IELD
ST JOHNSBURY
WILMINGTON
VIRGINIA
CAPE HENRY LS
ChARLOTTESVILLE
CHESAPEAKE LS
DANVILLE
HOT SPRINGS
LYNCHBURC
MANASSAS
MILFORD HAVEN
NEWPORT NEWS
NORFOLK
PARRAMORt BEACH
RICHMOND
ROANOKE
SMITH POINT LS
STAUNTON
VOLENS-RADAR
WALLOPS IS-UAU
WALLOPS STATION
INTERNATIONAL
EDWARD F KNAPP
STATE
STATE
STATE
CHO AL6EMARLE
MUNICIPAL
INGALLS FIELD
MUN PRESTON GLEN FLD
MUNICIPAL
PATRICK HENRY INTL
ORF REGIONAL
R E BYRD INTNL
MUNICIPAL
SHENANDOAH VALLEY
NASA WBSF
10
4
2
7
2
2
1
7
9
5
9
4
2
15
2
9
4
10
9
10
10
1
2
70
70
10
BTV
MPV
EFK
NPTV1
RUT
VSF
STJV1
WMTV1
62U
CHO
W39
DAN
HSP
LYH
W10
63W
PHF
ORF
64W
RIC
ROA
W71
SHD
7VM
WALV2
UAL
72617
0
0
72612
0
0
72614
74483
0
0
74589
0
0
72410
0
0
0
72308
0
72401
72411
0
0
0
72402
0
4428
4412
4453
4456
4332
4320
4425
4353
3656
3808
3654
3634
3757
3720
3844
3729
3708
3654
3732
3730
3719
3753
3816
3657
3751
3756
7309
7234
7214
7212
7257
7231
7201
7253
7600
7827
7543
7920
7949
7912
7731
7619
7630
7612
7537
7720
7958
7611
7851
7859
7529
7528
340
1165
930
766
787
575
711
0
0
640
0
590
3801
937
181
0
51
30
0
177
1176
0
1192
607
9
48
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
2
0
41
00
00
41
00
00
00
21
00
00
00
00
00
31
00
00
00
41
00
41
41
00
00
00
32
00
24
24
5
0
14
3
24
0
8
24
8
16
9
18
25
8
24
24
8
24
24
25
18
0
9
12
11
11
11
00
12
21
71
OC
41
11
41
11
11
11
90
41
11
11
40
11
11
91
11
00
11
12
81
81
AO
0
2
AO
1
0
0
1
80
61
2
41
AO
D
81
41
0
41
41
0
1
C
AO
42
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
oocc
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
oooc
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
oooc
0000
0220
0000
4S
33.
-------
WEATHER SERVICE OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV. ELT. SC AV FO *T PWUL RR
WASHINGTON DULLES
WASHINGTON NATIONAL
•IASHINGTON-UAU
WINCHESTER
WISE
DULLES INTNL
NATIONAL
MUNICIPAL
LONESOME PINE
WASHINGTON
A UK I POINT LS
AUBURN-RADAR
6ELLINGHAH
BREMERTON-BC/SAMRS
CAPE DISAPPOINTMENT
CAPE FLATTERY LS
COLVILLE
EPHRATA
EVERETT
FRIDAY HARBOR
GRAYS HARBOR
HANFORD
HOQUIAM
MOSES LAKE
MUKILTEO LS
NEW DUNGENESS LS
OLYMPIA
OLYMPIA-HSO/Fw
OMAK
PACIFIC HEACH
PASCO-LAURS-SAIuRS
POINT NO POINT LS
POINT ROBINSON LS
POINT WILSON LS
PORT ANGELES
PORT ANGELES AS
PULLMAN
8UILLAYUTE
8UILLAYUTE RIVER
RENTON
RICHLAND
SEATTLE
SEATTLE (TACOMA)-WSO
SEATTLE-WSFO
SHELTON
MUNICIPAL
KITSAP CO
MUNICIPAL
PAINE FIELD
FRIDAY HARBOR
BOHERMAN FIELD
GRANT COUNTY
AIRPORT
TRI-CITIES
FAIRCHILD INTNL
AIR STATION
PUW-MOSCOW
AIRPORT
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
FIELD/KING CO. INTL
INTERNATIONAL
10
10
70
2
2
9
10
4
3
9
9
3
4
5
9
9
7
4
5
9
9
10
10
7
9
32
9
9
9
3
9
2
70
9
5
2
5
10
40
3
IAD
DCA
STNV2
W16
LNP
91S
ZSE
BLI
PUT
azs
93S
63S
EPH
PAE
S19
84S
HNDW1
HQM
MUH
98S
96S
OLM
FOLU1
40M
NIX
PSC
97S
99S
53S
CLM
NOW
PUW
UIL
87S
RNT
RLD
BFI
SEA
SEAW1
SHN
72403
72405
72403
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
72787
0
0
0
0
72784
0
0
0
0
0
0
72789
0
0
0
0
0
0
74201
0
72797
0
o
0
0
72793
3
0
3857
3851
3859
3908
3659
4731
4717
4848
4729
4617
4823
4832
4719
4755
4830
4655
4634
4658
4712
4757
4810
4658
0
4826
4713
4616
4755
4723
4809
4807
4808
4645
4757
4754
4730
4618
4732
4727
4736
4715
7727
7702
7728
7808
8232
12225
12211
12232
12246
12403
12444
11753
11931
12217
12300
12406
11936
12356
11919
12218
12306
12254
0
11932
12412
11907
12232
12222
12245
12330
12324
11707
12433
12438
12213
11918
12218
12218
12220
12JC9
323
65
276
710
2677
0
291
159
443
180
86
1862
1259
647
3
17
733
15
1196
15
15
200
0
1232
60
442
12
10
0
290
29
2551
205
0
29
393
30
450
14
278
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
2
0
0
c
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
2
0
2
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
2
41
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
31
00
00
00
00
00
00
82
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
24
24
0
25
5
25
0
24
10
4
7
4
17
17
25
7
0
24
17
6
6
24
0
8
25
18
6
6
8
12
6
17
24
4
17
13
24
24
0
6
11
11
00
90
91
90
00
11
11
90
40
51
11
11
90
40
00
11
11
41
41
11
00
41
91
11
41
40
40
11
41
11
11
40
11
61
11
11
00
11
41
81
0
AO
0
0
0
81
2
0
0
42
81
1
0
0
0
81
2
0
0
81
0
81
0
1
0
0
0
41
31
12
81
0
AO
0
1
81
0
A1
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
FA
34.
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE OFFICES
A N 0
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE CALL
NO.
LAT. LONG. ELEV. ELT. SC AV FD M PWUL RR
SMITH ISLAND LS
SPOKANE
SPOKANE
STAMPEDE PASS
TACOMA
TOLE00-FSS/BASIC
WALLA WALLA
WALLA UAILA-WSO/AC
WENATCHEf
WENATCHE.E-WSO/AG
WEST POINT LS
WILLAPA BAY LS
YAKINA
WEST VIRGINIA
BECKLEY
BLUEFIELD
CHARLESTON
CHARLESTON EKSU
CLARKSBURG
ELKINS
HUNTINGTON
KEARNEYSVILLE-WSO/AG
LEtilSBURG
MARTINSBURG
MORGANTOWN
PARKERSBURG
PARKERSBURG
WHEELING
WHITE SULPHUR SP
WISCONSIN
APPLETON-TWR/SAWRS
ASHLAND
DEVILS IS LS
EAU CLAIRE
FOND DU .LAC
GREEN BAY
HAYWARD
INTERNATIONAL
FEUTS
INDUSTRIAL
UNLOCK MUNICIPAL
CITY-COUNTY
PANGBORN
AIR TERMINAL
RALEIGH COUNTY HEM
MERCER COUNTY
KANAWHA
BENEDUM FIELD
EKN-RANDOLPH CO
TRI-STATE
GREENBRIER VALLEY
EASTERN WV REGIONAL
MUNI-W L B MART FLD
WOOD COUNTY
HLG OHIO COUNTY
GREENBRIER
OUTAGAMIE CO
JFK MEMORIAL
MUNICIPAL
COUNTY
AUSTIN STRAUBEL
AIRPORT
9
10
4
71
5
33
4
10
4
10
9
9
10
10
4
40
70
5
10
10
10
2
4
4
10
4
5
2
32
2
9
4
2
10
2
86S
GEG
SFF
SMP
TIU
TOO
ALW
WLAW1
EAT
EATW1
43S
89S
YKM
BKW
3LF
CRW
CSTW2
CKB
EKN
HTS
KRYW2
LWB
MRB
MGW
PKB
PKB
HLG
SSU
ATM
ASX
29Y
EAU
FLD
GRB
HYR
0
72785
0
0
0
0
0
72788
0
0
0
0
72781
72412
0
72414
72414
0
72417
72425
0
0
0
0
0
a
0
0
c
0
0
0
c
72645
0
4819
4738
4740
4717
4716
4629
4606
4602
4724
4726
4740
4642
4634
3747
3718
3822
3823
3918
3853
3822
3923
3752
3924
3939
3916
3921
4011
3746
4416
4633
4705
4452
4346
4429
4601
12251
11732
11720
12120
12235
12248
11817
11820
12012
12021
12226
12358
12032
8107
8113
8136
8146
8014
7951
8233
7753
8024
7759
7955
8134
8126
8039
8020
8831
9055
9044
9129
8829
8808
9127
0
2365
1968
3967
292
379
1207
991
1255
800
12
25
1066
2514
2867
951
598
1256
1997
838
550
23C2
534
1253
637
864
1201
1801
918
826
629
895
809
. 702
1213
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
2
0
1
0
1
00
,41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
82
00
41
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
7
24
24
24
9
17
24
0
24
0
6
7
24
24
24
24
0
8
16
24
0
15
24
24
0
24
24
11
17
25
12
24
25
24
25
90
11
11
71
11
11
11
00
11
00
41
40
11
11
11
11
00
11
11
11
00
11
11
11
00
11
11
11
11
90
30
11
90
11
92
0
81
1
61
2
61
81
0
81
0
0
0
81
81
81
81
0
1
51
81
0
2
81
81
0
81
1
2
AO
AO
0
81
AO
81
AO
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
'0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0001
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
nooo
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
4C
35.
-------
WtATHER SERVICE OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION NAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE
CALL
NO.
LAT. LONG. ELEV.
ELT.
SC AV ft) AT PWUL RR
JANESVIUE-LAWRS/SR
KENOSHA
KENOSHA
LACROSSE
LACROSSE
LAND 0 LAKES
LONE ROCX
MADISON
MANITOWOC
MARSHFIELD
MILWAUKEE
MILWAUKEE
MILWAUKEE
MOS1NEE
NEENAH
OSHKOSH-TWR/SAWRS
PARK FALLS
RHINELANDER
SKEBOYGAN
SHEBOYGAK
STEVENS POINT
STURGEON BAY
TWO RIVERS
KAUKESHA
WAUSAU
WEST E.ENX
WISCONSIK RAPIDS
WOODRUFF
WYOMING
BIG PINEY
CASPER
CHEYENNE
COOY-AMOS/SAWRS
DOUGLAS
EVANSTON
SILLETTE-AMOS/SAWRS
JACKSON
LANDER
LARANIE
MOORCROFT
RAWLINS
ROCK COUNTY
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
TRI COUNTY
DANE COUNTY REGIONAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
GEN. MITCHELL FIELD
TIMMERMAN
CENTRAL WISCONSIN
WITTMAN FIELD
ONEIDA CO
SBM COUNTY MEMORIAL
MUNICIPAL
DOOR CO CHERRYLAND
COUNTY
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
ALEXANDER FIELD
LAKELAND
NATRONA CTY INTNL.
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
CITY/COUNTY
MUNICIPAL
HUNT FIELD
GEN BREES
MUNICIPAL
32
2
9
10
4
2
4
10
2
2
9
40
5
2
70
32
7
2
2
9
2
2
9
2
4
2
2
2
1
10
40
1
3
3
1
2
10
4
3
4
JVL
ENW
16C
LCRW3
LSE
LNL
LNR
MSN
MTW
MFI
1SC
MKE
MWC
CWA
FEW
OSH
PKF
RHI
SBM
21C
STE
SUE
UES
AUW
ETB
ISW
ARV
BPI
CPR
CYS
COD
4DG
EVU
GCC
JAC
LND
LAR
4MC
RWL
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
72641
0
0
0
72640
0
0
0
0
72741
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
72569
72564
72670
0
0
72665
0
72576
0
72663
0
4237
4236
4235
4352
4352
4609
4312
4308
4408
4438
4301
4257
4307
4447
4413
4400
4556
4538
4346
4345
4433
4450
4408
4302
4455
4325
4422
4556
4234
4255
41 09
4431
4245
4120
4421
4336
4249
4119
4416
4148
8902
8755
8745
9114
9115
8913
9011
8920
8740
9011
8757
8754
88C3
8940
8833
8834
9027
8927
8751
8742
8932
8725
8733
8814
8937
8808
8950
8944
11006
1C628
10449
10901
10523
11100
10532
11044
10844
10541
10457
10712
808
729
730
0
663
1706
721
866
651
1261
595
693
745
1273
9C7
805
1539
1608
746
631
1110
718
577
90
1196
888
1019
1628
6970
5290
6141
5096
4853
6600
4363
6444
5558
7272
4282
6743
1
1
2
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
2
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
Q
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
00
82
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
41
00
00
00
00
00
41
00
00
00
17
25
12
0
24
25
17
24
15
25
12
24
16
19
0
18
0
15
25
12
20
25
0
9
24
25
25
25
24
24
24
24
16
24
24
12
24
24
4
24
11
90
30
01
11
90
11
11
11
90
30
11
11
11
00
11
00
11
91
30
91
90
00
11
11
90
90
90
71
11
11
71
21
11
71
11
11
11
51
11
2
AO
0
2
81
AO
61
51
2
AO
0
41
2
2
0
2
0
2
AC
0
AO
AC
n
0
8T
AO
AO
Af»
1
81
81
1
82
81
40
2
41
81
42
81
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
oooo7
rooo
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
OPOO
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
0000
X3
65
4C
36.
-------
WEATHER SERVICE OFFICES AND STATIONS
STATION
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT. SC AV TO AT PWUL
RR
RIVERTON
ROCKSPRINGS
SHERIDAN
NORLAND
CARIBBEAN AND WEST INDIES
AGUADILLA
BARBADOS
BASSETERBE/ST KITTS
CAPE SAN JUAN LN
CASTRUS./ST LUCIA
CHARLOTTE AMALIE
CHRISTIANSTED
CURACAO
GRAND CAYMAN
KINGSTON
MAYAGUEZ-LAURS/SAWRS
POINT BORIN6UEN LS
POINT TUNA LS
PONCE
PORT PONCE LAS
ROSEAU/DCMINICA
SAN ANDRES IS
SAN JUAN
SANTO DOMINGO
SINT MAARTEN
ST THOMA.S (LAS)
SWAN ISLAND
TRINIDAD
CENTRAL AMERICA
BLUEFIELDS
GUATEMALA CITY
PUERTO C'BEZAS
SAN JOSE
TEGUCIGALPA
MUNICIPAL
MUNICIPAL
SHERIDAN COUNTY
MUNICIPAL
BORIN8UEN
SEAWELL INTNL
TRUMAN
ALEX HAMILTON
DR. ALBERT PLESMAN
OWEN ROBERTS
NORMAN MANLEY
AIRPORT
MERCIDITA
ISLA VERDE INTNL
JULIANA
PIARCO INTL
LA AURORA
TONCONTIN
2
4
14
4
2
90
7
9
7
5
5
90
90
90
32
9
5
5
9
7
90
40
90
90
9
1C
90
7
90
90
90
90
RIW
RKS
SHR
WRL
BQN
MKPB
MKPK
X93
MKPL
STT
STX
MACC
MKCG
MKJP
MAZ
BQN
X92
PSE
X69
MKPD
MCSP
MJSJ
MDSD
NACM
X70
MHIC
HKPP
MNBL
MGGT
MNPC
MROC
MHTG
0
0
72666
0
C
78954
78857
0
78946
0
0
78988
78384
78397
0
0
C
0
0
789C7
80001
78526
78486
78866
0
78501
78970
78745
78641
78730
78762
78720
4303
4136
4446
4358
1830
1304
1717
1823
1402
1820
1742
1212
1918
1756
1815
1830
1759
1801
1758
1518
1235
1826
1828
1803
1821
1724
1035
1159
1435
14C2
959
1402
10827
10904
10658
10758
6708
5930
6244
6537
6101
6458
6448
6858
8122
7647
6709
6708
6553
6634
6637
6124
8142
6600
6953
6307
6455
8356
6121
8347
9031
8324
8413
871 5
5509
67451
3968
4210
241
153
29
220
181
221
55
27
6
24
29
232
67
49
0
237
0
62
14
10
0
35
31
25
1489
22
939
999
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
2
0
0
00
PO
31
00
00
00
86
00
86
00
00
00
31
00
00
00
00
00
00
36
00
82
00
00
00
62
CO
52
00
52
00
60
13
24
24
24
11
0
0
8
0
16
15
0
15
0
19
4
4
17
3
0
0
24
0
0
2
6
0
0
0
0
C
0
11
11
11
11
11
00
00
41
00
11
11
00
11
00
61
41
41
11
41
00
00
11
00
00
41
11
00
00
00
00
00
00
2
81
51
81
1
0
0
0
C
1
1
80
20
0
1
P
0
1
0
0
0
81
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
9090
0000
0000
C22d
0220
0220
0000
OOOD
0000
0000
0000
0000
0220
0220
0220
0110
0000
0220
0220
0000
P110
2000
0110
0110
XP
OCEAN
37.
-------
STATION NAME
WEATHER SERVICE OFFICES AMD STATIONS
AIRPORT NAME TYPE CALL NO. LAT. LONG. ELEV. ELT. sc AV FD AT PWUL RR
OIL RIG A(ATL OCEAN)
PACIFIC ISLANDS
0 4056 6818
00 25 90 T OCOO
AILINGLAPALAP MI
FR FRIGATE SHOALS LN
GUAM MARIANA IS
JALUIT/JABOR IS MI
JOHNSTON ISLAND
KAPINGAMARANUI ECI
KOROR WCI
KOSRAE (1ELE IS) ECI
KWAJALEIN
MAJURO
MAJURO
MILI MARSHALL IS
NUKUORO ECI
PAGO PAGO
PIN6ELAP ECI
PONAPE ECI
PONAPE ECI
FULUWAT IS ECI
SAIPAN
SAIPAN LN
SATAWAN ECI
TOBI WCI
TRUK ECI
ULITHI/FALALOP I WCI
UTIRIK MARSHALL IS
WAKE ISLAND
WOLEAI WjCI
WOTJE MARSHALL IS
YAP WCI
SOUTH AMERICA
ANTOFA&A^TA
ASUNCION
BOGOTA
BUCHOLZ
MARSHAL IS INTL
INTERNATIONAL
INTERNATIONAL
INTL-ISLEY FIELD
AIRPORT
AF BASE
AIRPORT
CERRO MORENO
ELDORADO
7
9
70
7
10
7
10
7
8
2
1C
7
7
10
7
10
2
7
2
9
7
7
10
7
7
10
7
7
10
90
90
90
1Z6
P6AC
PJON
PTRO
PTSA
PKWA
PKMJ
NSTU
PTPN
PNI
PGSN
2Z4
PTKK
PUAK
PTYA
SCFA
MCBO
91367
91155
91217
91369
91275
91434
91408
91356
91366
0
91376
91378
91425
91765
91353
91348
0
91324
0
91232
91338
91410
91334
91203
91258
91245
91317
91371
91413
85442
86218
80222
716
2352
1333
555
1644
105
720
520
844
704
705
605
351
1420S
613
658
659
721
1507
1508
520
301
728
1002
1114
1917
723
928
929
2325S
2043S
442
16850E
16617
14450E
16939E
16931
15448E
13429E
16302E
16744E
17116E
17123E
17144E
15301E
17043
16042E
15813E
15813E
14912E
14544E
14542E
15344E
13111E
15151E
13948E
16951E
16639E
14355E
17015E
13805E
7028
6155
7409
9
6
365
9
17
13
109
13
26
6
10
14
12
10
14
151
10
15
215
12
15
15
8
16
9
12
12
9
56
449
101
8422
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
41
41
31
41
41
41
31
41
41
00
41
41
41
41
41
31
00
41
00
41
41
41
31
31
41
41
41
41
31
00
00
00
0
0
5
0
24
0
19
0
19
25
19
0
0
24
0
18
15
0
13
0
0
0
20
0
0
24
0
0
19
0
0
0
00
00
21
00
11
00
11
00
11
90
11
00
00
11
00
11
11
00
11
00
00
00
11
00
00
11
00
00
11
00
00
00
n
0
22
o
92
n
70
0
72
AD
70
0
0
81
C
60
0
0
2
0
0
0
70
0
0
82
0
0
70
0
r
0
0000
0000
1220
oono
2220
0000
1110
0000
0110
0000
2110
0000
0000
2220
0000
2110
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
1110
0000
0000
0220
0000
0000
1110
0220
0110
0220
38.
-------
WEATHER
SERVICE OFFICES
AND
STATIONS
STATION AAME
AIRPORT NAME
TYPE CALL
NO.
LAT.
LONG.
ELEV.
ELT. SC AV FD AT PUUL RR
I8UITOS
ISLA DE PASCUA
LA PAZ
LIMA
PUERTO MONTT
QUINTERO
CORONEL FRAN SEC VI6
WATAVERI
J. F. KENNEDY INTL
EL TEPUAL INTNL
CHILEAN AFB
50
90
90
90
90
90
NEIP
SPIN
SCTE
SCER
84377
85469
85201
84628
85799
85543
345S
2710S
1630S
1201S
4126S
3247S
7315
10926
6811
77C2
7307
7132
• o
135
0
442
365
23
0
2
0
0
0
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
0
0
0
0
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
0
0
D
0
c
0110
0110
0110
0110
0220
0220
MEXICO
CHIHUAHUA
EMPALME
6UADALUPE IS
LA PAZ B C
MArtZANILLO
MAZATLAN
MERIDA
MEXICO CITY
MONTERREY
SOCORRO IS
VERACRUZ
GULF OF MEXICO,
AIRPORT
INTERNATIONAL
INTERNATIONAL
GEN MAR. ESCO. INTL
EUGENE ISLAND B-333
GRAND ISLE B95-GULF
HIGH IS i)-A323-GULF
MAIN PASS B6i)-GULF
SO MARSH IS B23-GULF
TENNECO PLATFORM
VERMILION B131-GULF
VERMILION B215-GULF
VERMILIOK B245-GULF
WEST CAMERON B-533
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
9C
90
90
90
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
CUU
GYM
IGP
LAP
MZT
MID
MEX
MTY
VER
VUU
P26
5RO
P21
7R8
POO
P22
P25
9R9
P30
76225
76256
76151
76405
76654
76458
76644
76679
76394
76723
76692
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2S42
2757
2853
2410
1904
2312
2057
1926
2552
1843
1909
2815
2830
2813
2940
2853
2600
2904
2842
2835
2820
10604
11048
11818
11018
10420
10625
8940
9905
10012
11057
9607
9150
9007
9345
8853
9154
9300
9211
9219
9227
9301
4684
36
15
33
2
9
33
r~33i
1476
115
43
C
90
85
0
90
0
75
0
84
EO
2
2
2
2
0
0
2
2
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
8
13
8
13
8
8
8
13
8
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
41
41
11
'41
11
71
41
41
11
4'1
C
0
0
0
0
0
0
Q
0
0
c
1
1
2
1
2
41
1
1
2
1
0220
0220
0220
2000
0110
0220
0220
0220
0220
1110
0220
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
0000
39.
-------
SECTION EIGHT
ASSISTANCE IN
AIR POLLUTION METEOROLOGY
Assistance in Meteorologic Problems
Sources of Air Pollution Literature
-------
ASSISTANCE IN METEORO LOGIC PROBLEMS
J. L. Mcke*
REFERENCES
Abstracts
Air Pollution Abstracts
It. f>. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, N. C. P7731
U. ?. Government Printing Office
Washington, 1), C. 20UO?
Meteorolop.icfi] and Geoastrophyr.ical
Abstracts
American Meteorolopi en] Society
Ij5 Beacon Street
Boston Mass, 02]OR
Public Health Engineering Abstracts
Superintendent of Pocuments
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington , n.C. 20402
Periodicals
Atmospheric Environment (formerly Inter-
national Journal of Air and Water Pollution)
Pergamon Press
Maxwell House, Fairfield Park
Elms ford, N. Y. 1^523
Bulletin of the American Meteorological
Society
American Meteorological Society (See
above)
Journal of Applied Meteorolofy
American Meteorological Society
(See above
Journal of th" Atmospheric Sciences
(formerly Journal o-f Meteorology)
American Meteorological Society
(See above)
journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association
Air Pollution Control Association
hhOO Fifth Ave.
Pittsburgh, PA. 15253
Monthly Weather Review
American Meteorological Society
(See above)
Nuclear Safety. A Quarterly Technical
Progress Renewal Prepared for Division
of Technical Information, URAEC
Superintendent of Documents
1). S. Government. Printing Office
Wachingi.on, P. '?. ^hn:
•upervisory Meteorologist,
quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteor-
ological Society
Royal Meteorological Society
1(9 Cromwell Road
London S. W. 7 England
Public Health Reports
U. S. Department of Health, Education
and Welfare
Public Health Service
Washington, T>. C.
Weather
Royal Meteorological Society
(See above)
Weatherwise
American Meteorological Society
(See above)
Books
NOAA
American Meteorological Society, On
Atmospheric Pollution,
Meteorological Monographs, 1, U,
Nov. 1951.
Byers, H. K. General Meteorology,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 3rd ed. 1959-
Encyclopedia of Instrumentation for In-
dustrial Hygiene
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1956.
Frenkiel, F. N.; and Sheppard, P. A.
editors, Atmospheric Diffusion and Air
Pollution,
Academic Press, Tendon, 1959-
Geiger, R. (Translated by Scripta
Technica Inc.) The Climate Hear the Ground
Rev. ed., Harvard University Press
Cambridge, Mass. 19^5.
Haltiner, G. J.; and Martin, F. L.
nynamical and Physical Meteorology,.
McGraw-Hill, Hew York. 195T
Hess, S. L. Introduction to Theoretical
Meteorology.
Henry Holt, New York, 1959-
Hewson, E. W.: and Longley, R. W.
Meteorology. Theoretical and Applied
Wiley, New York. 19M".
8-1
Meteorology ft Assessment Division, EPA
PA.ME.23 c.'J.T:.
-------
Assistance in Meteorologic Problems
Leighton, P. A. Photochemistry of Air
Pollution.
Academic Press, Hew York. 196l.
Magill, P. L.; Holden, F. R.; and
Ackley, C. editors, Air Pollution Handbook.
McGraw-Hill, Hew York. 1956.
Malone, T. F. editor, Compendium of
Meteorology»
American Meteorological Society
Boston, 1951.
McCabe, L. C. editor. Air.Pollution:
Proceedings of the United States Technical
Conference on Air Pollution.
McGraw-Hill, New York. 1952.
Meade, P. J. Meteorological Aspects of
the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy,
Part 1.
Tech. Note No. 33, World Meteorologi-
cal Organization, Geneva. I960.
ffann, B. E. Descriptive Micrometeorology.
Academic Press, New York. 1966.
Pasquill, F. Atmospheric Diffusion 2nd. Ed.
John Wiley & Sons, London, 1974.
Priestley, G. H. B.rMcCormick, R. A.:
and Pasquill, F. Turbulent Diffusion in the
Atmosphere.
Tech. Note No. 2*4. World Meteorological
Organization, Geneva, 1950.
Priestly, C. H. B. Turbulent Transfer in
the Lower Atmosphere.
TJniversity of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1959.
Scorer, R. S. Natural Aerodynamics.
Pergamon Press. London. 1958.
Munn, R. E. Biometeorological Methods
Academic Press, Inc. New York, 1970.
Corn-
Stern, A. C. editor. Air Pollution. A
prehensive Treatise. 3 Vols.
Academic Press, New York. 1968.
Sutton, 0. G. Micrometeorology.
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1953.
U. C. Atomic Energy Commission,
Handbook on Aerosols,
Govt. Printing Office, Washington, 1950.
U. S. Atomic Energy Commission,
Meteorology and Atomic Energy. 1968
TID-2U19O, HTIS, II. f>. Department
Commerce, Springfield, Virginia 22l6l, $
World Health Organization, Air Pollution.
Columbia University Press
Hew York. 1961.
PROFESSIONAL METEOROLOGICAL CONSULTANTS
Professional meteorologists advertise their
services in the Professional Directory sec-
tion of the Bulletin of the American Meteoro-
logical Society. In the July 1975 Bulletin,
63 such firms and individuals were listed.
The American Meteorological Society has in
the last several years instituted a program
of certifying consulting meteorologists. Of
the 63 professional services listings in the
Bulletin, 1*0 Certified Consulting Meteorolo-
gists are listed. A total of lUO meteorologists
gists are currently certified.
LOCAL U.S. NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE OFFICE
A wealth of meteorological information and
experience is available at the local city
or airport Weather Service Office pertaining
to local climatology, pecularitles in local
micro-meteorological conditions including
topographic effects, and exposure and operat-
ing characteristics of meteorological in-
struments. The Air Stagnation Advisories
are received here by teletype from the
National Meteorological Center. Often the
public telephones the Weather Service with
air pollution complaints which the meteoro-
logists may have traced back to a specific
source by examing local wind circulations.
Through personal contact with the meteoro-
logist-in-charge (MIC) specific, localized
forecasts may be arranged to support a short-
term air pollution investigation or sampling
program.
CONTRACT WORK
Many universities do contract work for private
organizations and for government agencies on
meteorological problems and also on air pollution
surveys.
EPA REGIONAL OFFICES
A contact person has been designated in each
of the ten EPA Regional Offices to provide
technical assistance consultation and special
support services in air pollution meteorology,
at the regional level.
Region I -Mr. V. J. Descamps (Eoston)
Region II -Mr. Ray Warner (New York)
Region III-Dr. Peter L. Finkelstein (Phil.)
&-2
-------
Assistance in Meteorologic Problearc;
Region IV -Mr. Lewis H. Nagler (Atlanta)
Region V -Mr. Edward W. Klappenbach (Chicago)
Region VI -Dr. F. Hall (Dallas)
Region VII -Mr. Keith Tipton (Kansas City)
Region VIII -Mr. Donald Henderson (Denver)
Region IX -Ms. Charlotte J. Hopper (San Fran.)
Region X -Mr. Dean A. Wilson (Seattle)
8-3
-------
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION LITERATURE
Publications Abstracting Air Pollution Literature
1. Air Pollution Abstracts
Air Pollution Technical Information Center
U. S. EPA Research Triangle Park,
N. C. 27711
2. Air Pollution Titles
Center for Air Environment Studies
The Pennsylvania Rt.nt.A Ttn1-wr<=''+.ir
226 Fenske Laboratory
University Park, PA 16802
3. Air/Water Pollution Report
Business Publishers, Tnc.
P. 0. Box 1067
P.ilver Spring, MI). 20910
'j. Applied Science and Technology Index
The II. W. Wilson Company
950 University Avenuo
New York 52., New York
5. Atmosphfric Environment, Microforms
Int'l Marketing Corp. Inc. (Distribxitors)
3«0 Saw Mill River Rd.
Elms ford, N. Y. 10523
6. Chemical Abstracts Service
The Ohio State University
Columbun, OH !i3210
7 . Engineering Index
Engineering Index, Inc.
3^5 East i»7th Street
New York, New York 10017
8. Environment Information ACCHi.S
Environment Information Center, Tnc.
12*1 Enr.t. 3'-'th St.
New York, N. Y. TOOK')
9. Meteorological and Geoantrophysical
Abstracts
American Me1.r-oro1ogi.cal r.octoty
)('> lleacon Street
IVir.ton, Masr.achusett.K 0210/1
10. Monthly Catalog of United States
Government Publications
Superintendent of Documents
U. S. Government Printing Office
Washington, I). C. 20*(02
11. Public Health Engineering Abstracts
Superintendent of Documents
II. S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D. C. 20U02
12. Index Medicus
U. S. Government Printing Office
Washington, B. C. 20^02
13.
lit.
Headers' Guide to Periodical Literature
The H. W. Wilson Company
P'SO University Avenue
Now York, New York 10)i52
Weekly Government Abstracts
Category 6A. Tlnvironmental Pollution
and Control.
15.
16.
17.
52ft5 Port Royal Road
Springfield, Va. 221 ft
Pollution Abstracts
620 S. Fifth St.
Louisville, KY U0202
Government Reports Announcements & Index
National Technical Information Service
Springfield, Va. 22161
Chemica.1 Titles
Chemical Abstracts Service
The Ohio Rtate, University
Columbus OH.
8-4
-------
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION LITERATURE
Periodicals
1. Air Conditioning, Heating & Refrigeration
News
Business News Publishing Company
P. 0. Box 6000
Birmingham, Michigan U8012
2. American City
Berkshire Common
Pittsfield, MA 01201
3. American Industrial Hygiene Association
Journal
66 S. Miller Road
Akron, 01! ^313
1*. American Journal of Public Health and
Nation's Health
American Public Health Association, Inc.
1015 iRth St. N. W.
Washington, I). C. 20036
5. Archives of Environmental Health
American Medical Association
535 N. Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60610
6. Atmospheric Environment
Pergamon Press
Maxwell House, Fairview Park
Elmsford, N. Y. 30513
7. Chemical Engineering
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Inc.
McGraw-Hill Building
1221 Ave. uf the Americas
New York, N. Y. 10020
8. Chemical Engineering Progress
American Institute of Chemical Engineers
3'i5 K. It'fth Street
Mew York, New York 10017
9. Environmental Pollution-An Int'l. Journal
Applied ScJence Publishers Ltd.
Ripple Road, Barking Kxsex
Kngl find
10. Houndtiry Layer Meteorology.
It. E. Munn (Ed.) D. Reidel Pub. Co.
Dordrecht, Holland
11.
12
13.
I'l.
15.
17.
18.
1O.
Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning
Reinhold Publishing Company
6lU Superior Ave. West
Cleveland, OH Mll3
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
American Chemical Society
1155 Sixteenth Street, N. W.
Washington, D. C. 20036
Industrial Hygiene Digest Industrial
Health Foundation
5231 Centre Ave.
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15232
Journal of Environmental
American Society of Agronomy Quality
677 S. Segoe Road
Madison, Wisconsin 53711
Industrial Wastes
Scranton Publishing Company, Inc.
U3'*5 WnbBsh
Chicago, Illinois 60605
Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association
Air Pollution Control Association
1|1*00 Fifth Avenue
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15253
Water, Air, and Soil Pollution
P. fleidel Publishing Company
Dordrecht, Holland
Mechanical Engineering
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
31*5 F. I»7th Street.
New York, New York 10017
The Oil and Gas Journal
P. 0. Box 1260
Tulsa, Oklahoma 7!»101
8-5
-------
20• Public Health Reports
U. S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare
Health Services Administration
Superintendent of Documents
U. S. Governi*nt Printing Office
Washington, D. C. 20U02
21. Pollution Monitor
Wealdon Press, Ltd.
P. 0. Box No. R
Tonbridge, Kent.
TN1105X, England
22. Smokeless Air
National Society for Clean Air
Field House, Breams Building
London E. C. U, England
23. Transactions of the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers
Journal of Engineering for Power (Series
A of the Transactions of the ASMK
Journal of Engineering for Industry
(Scries 11}
Journal of Heat Transfer (Series C)
Journal of Basic Engineering (Series D)
Journal of Applied Mechanics (Series E)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
3145 East h7th Street
New York, New York 10017
2>». Transactions of Institution of Chemical
Engineers
Institution of Chemical Engineers
16 Belgrave Square
London S. W. 1, England
25. Environmental Science and Technology
American Chemical Society
1155 Sixteenth Street N. W.
Washington, D. C. 20036
26. World Meteorological Organization-List
of available publications.
WMO Publications Center
IINIPUB Inc.
P. 0. Box 1*33
New York, New York 10016
Bibliographies
1. Air Pollution Technical Publications of
the U. S. KPA. Listing by Air Pollution
Technical Information Center Research
Trirngle Park, N.C. July 1971* (Reprinted
June 1975). Beginning July 1975 only new
entries will be published semi-annually.
2. Carbon Monoxide - A Bibliography with
Abstracts. IT. :: . Dept. HEW, Public
Health Service. Publication No. 1503.
1966.
3. Sulfur Oxides and other Compounds - A
Bibliography with Abstracts, U. S. Dept.
HEW Public Health Service, Publication
No. 1093. 1965.
U. Nitrogen Oxides: An Annotated Bibliography
NAPCA Pub. No. AP-72, August 1970.
5. Hydrocarbons and Air Pollution: An Annotat-
ed Bibliography. Pub. No. AP-75
(Parts I, II), October 1970.
6. Photochemical Oxidants and Air Pollution:
An Annotated Bibliography. Pub. No. AP-R8
(Parts 1, ?), March 1971.
7. Asbestos and Air Pollution: An Annotated
Bibliography. GPO No. EP 1*.9:82 February 1971
8. Beryllium and Air Pollution: An Annotated
Bibliography. GPO No. EP U.9.83 February 1971
9. Chlorine and Air Pollution; An Annotated
Bibliography GPO Ho. KP ^.9.99 July 1971.
10. Hydrochloric Acid and Air Pollution: An
Annotated Bibliography GPO No.EP 1*.9.105
July 1971.
11. Odors and Air Pollution; An Annotated Biblio-
graphy. GPO No. EP 1».9. 113 October 1972.
12. Mercury and Air Pollution: A Bibliography
with Abstracts. GPO No. EP U.9.11U October
197?.
13. Lead and Air Pollution: A Bibliography
with Abstracts. EPA-U50/1-70-001, January
8-6
-------
APPENDIX
Glossary
Elementary Statistical Description of Data
Index
Units of Measure for Dimensional Systems
Values and Logarithms of Exponential Functions
Conversion Factors
Temperature, Pressure
Length, Area
Volume, Flow
Height, Concentration .
Velocity, Emission Rates
International Atomic Weights
-------
GLOSSARY
Most of the definitions of the following
terms are taken from the "Glossary of
Meteorology" (1959).
actinometer - The general name for any
instrument used to measure the intensity
of radiant energy, particularly that of the
sun.
adiabatic process - A thermodynamic
change of state of a system in which there
is no transfer of heat or mass across the
boundaries of the system.
advection - The process of transport of
an atmospheric property solely by the mass
motion (velocity field) of the atmosphere.
The description of predominantly horizontal
large scale motions of the atmosphere.
aeromclric - Pertaining to the science of
measuring properties of the air.
air drainage- - General term for gravity-
induced, downslope flow of relatively cold
air. Winds thus produced are called
gravity winds.
air mass - A widespread body of air, the
properties of which can be identified as
a) having been established while that air
was situated over a particular region of
the earth's surface (air-mass source
region), and b) undergoing specific modifi-
cations while in transit away from the
source region. An air mass is often de-
fined as a widespread body of air that is
approximately homogeneous in its horizontal
extent, particularly with reference to
temperature and moisture distribution; in
addition, the vertical temperature and
moisture1 variations are approximately the
same over its hor i/.ontal extent. The stag-
nation or long-continued motion of air over
a source region permits the vertical
temperature and moisture distribution of
the air to reach relative equilibrium with
the underlying surface.
air pollution - The presence, in the ambient
atmosphere, of substances put there by the
activities of man in concentrations sufficient
to interfere directly or indirectly with his
health, safety, or comfort, or with the full
use and enjoyment of his property.
air pollution meteorology - The study of
atmospheric phenomena that influence or
are influenced by air pollutants.
albedo - The ratio of the amount of electro-
magnetic radiation reflected by a body to
the amount incident upon it, commonly ex-
pressed as a percentage. The albedo is to
be distinguished from the reflectivity, which
refers to one specific wavelength (monochro-
matic radiation).
anemometer - The general name for instru-
ments designed to measure the speed (or
force) of the wind.
anticyclone - An atmospheric anticyclonic
circulation (clockwise in the northern hemis-
phere), a closed circulation. With respect
to the relative direction of its rotation, it
is the opposite of a cyclone. Because anti-
cyclonic circulation and relative high atmos-
pheric pressure usually coexist, the terms
anticyclone and high are used interchangeably
in common practice.
backing - 1) According to general inter-
nationally accepted usage, a change in wind
direction in a counterclockwise sense (e.g.
south to southeast to east) in either hemis-
phere of the earth; the opposite of veering.
2) According to widespread usage
among U. S. meteorologists, a change in
wind direction in a counterclockwise sense
in the northern hemisphere, clockwise in
the southern hemisphere.
Beaufort wind scale - A system of estimating
and reporting wind speeds, invented in the
early nineteenth century by Admiral Beaufort
of the British Navy. It was originally based
PA. ME. 21b. 5. 64
9-1
-------
Glossary
on the efforts of various wind speeds on the
amount of canvas that a full-rigged frigate
of the period could carry, but has since
been modified and modernized.
bivane - A bi-directional wind vane; a
sensitive wind vuiie used in turbulence
studies to obtain a record of the hori/.ontal
and vertical components of the1 wind. The
instrument consists of two lightweight air-
foil sections mounted orthogonally on the
end of a counter-balanced rod which is free
to rotate in the hori/.onlal and vertical
planes. The positions of the roil may be
recorded by electrical techniques.
bridled-cup aiieniomcter - A combination
cup anemometer and pressure-plate ane-
mometer, consisting of an array of cups
about n vertical axis of rotation, the free
rotation of which is restricted by a suitable
spring arrangement. Ry proper adjustment
of the force constant of the spring, it is
possible; to obtain an angular displacement
which is proportional to wind velocity. A
bridled-cup anemometer is frequently used
to measure high wind speeds.
buoyancy - That property of an object that
enables it to ascend through or remain
freely suspended in a compressible fluid
such as the atmosphere. Quantitatively,
th*.1 ratio of the specific weights of the
fluid and the object.
calm - The absence of apparent motion of
the air.
Campbell-Stokes recorder - A sunshine
recorder which consists of a spherical lens
which burns an image of the sun upon a
specially prepared card. The; depth and
breadth of the trace may be- interpreted in
terms of intensity of the sun.
cascade impactor - A low speed impaction
device for use in sampling both solid and
liquid atmospheric- suspensoids. l^our
pairs of jets and sampling plates work in
series and are designed so that each collects
particles in one size range.
climate - "The synthesis of the weather";
the long-term manifestations of weather,
however they may be expressed. More
rigorously, the- climate of a specified area
is represented by the statistical collective
of its weather conditions during a specified
interval of time (usually several decades).
climatology - The scientific study of cli-
mate, in addition to the presentation of
climatic data, it includes the analysis of
the causes of differences of climate, and
the application of climatic data to the solu-
tion of specific design or operational
problems.
condensation nucleus - A particle, either
liquid or solid, upon which condensation of
water vapor begins in the atmosphere.
convection - As speciali/.ed in meteorology,
atmospheric motions that are predominantly
vertical, resulting in vertical transport and
mixing of atmospheric properties.
corioli s force - A force per unit mass on
moving particles arising solely from the
earth's rotation. It acts as a defleeting
force, normal to the velocity, to the right
of motion in the northern hemisphere and
to the left in the southern hemisphere.
dew point - (or dew point temperature) -
The temperature to which a given parcel of
air must be cooled at constant pressure
and constant water vapor content in order
for saturation to occur.
diffusion - In meteorology, the exchange of
fluid parcels (and hence the transport of
conservative- proper-tics) between regions
in space, in the apparently random motions
of a scale too small to be treated by the
equations of motion.
Dines anemometer - A pressure-tube anemo-
meter in which the pressure head on the
windward end of a weather vane is kept
facing into the wind. Another head develops
suction independent of wind direction. The
pressure difference between the two heads
is proportional to wind speed squared and is
measured by a float manometer.
9-2
-------
Glossary
direct solar radiation - That portion of the
radiant energy received at an instrument
direct from the sun as opposed to diffuse
sky radiation or radiation from any other
source.
dispersion - The process by which radia-
tion is separated into its component wave-
lengths. Dispersion results when an opti-
cal process such as diffraction, refraction,
or scattering varies according to
wavelength.
diurnal - Daily, especially pertaining to
actions which are completed within twenty-
four hours and which recur every twenty-
four hours; thus, most reference is made
to diurnal cycles, variations, ranges, etc.
downwind - The direction toward which the
wind is blowing; with the wind.
dry-adiabatic lapse rate - A special process
lapse rate of temperature, defined as the
rate of decrease of temperature with height
of a parcel of dry air lifted adiabatically
through an atmosphere in hydrostatic equi-
librium, numerically equal to 9. 767°C per
km., or 5. 4°F per thousand feet.
eddy - 1) By analogy with a molecule, a
"glob" of fluid within the fluid mass that
has a certain integrity and life history of
its own; the activities of the bulk fluid being
the net result of the motion of the eddies.
2) Any circulation drawing its
energy from a flow of much larger scale,
and brought about by pressure irregularities
as in the lee of a solid obstacle.
eddy diffusion - (or turbulent diffusion) -
The diffusion of a c-onservative property by
eddies hi a turbulent flow.
Ekman layer_- (sometimes called spiral
layer)" The'Tayer 7)f transition between the
surface boundary, where the shearing
stress is constant, and the free atmosphere
where the atmosphere is treated as an ideal
fluid in approximate geostrophic equilibrium.
Fulerian coordinates - Any system of co-
ordinates in which properties of a fluid arc
assigned to fixed points in space at a given
time without attempting to identify individual
parcels from one time to the next.
exchange coefficients - Coefficients of eddy
flux in turbulent flow. The hypothesis states
that the mean eddy flux per unit area of a
conservative quantity is proportional to the
gradient of the mean value of the quantity.
free atmosphere - (sometimes called free
air) - That portion of the earth's atmosphere,
above the planetary boundary layer, in which
the effect of the earth's surface friction on
the air motion is negligible, and in which the
air is usually treated (dynamically) as an
ideal fluid. The base of the free atmosphere
is usually taken as the geostrophic wind
level.
friction layer - 1)
layer.
Same as planetary boundary
2) Same as surface boundary
layer.
geostrophic wind - That horizontal wind
velocity for which the coriolis acceleration
exactly balances the horizontal pressure
force. The geostrophic wind is thus directed
along the contour lines on a constant pressure
surface (or along the isobars in a geopotential
surface) with low elevations (or low pressure)
to the left in the northern hemisphere and to
the right in the southern hemisphere.
greenhouse effect - The heating effect ex-
erted by the atmosphere upon the earth by
virtue of the fact that the atmosphere (mainly,
its water vapor) absorbs and remits infrared
radiation. In detail: the shorter wavelengths
of isolation are transmitted rather freely
through the atmosphere to be absorbed at
the earth's surface. The earth then re-emits
this long-wave (infrared) terrestrial radiation,
a portion of which is absorbed by the atmos-
phere and again emitted. Some of this is
emitted downward back to the earth's sur-
fact. It is essential, in understanding the
9-3
-------
Glossary
concept of the greenhouse effect, to note
that the important additional warming is
due to the counter-radiation from the
atmosphere. The glass panes of a green-
house function in this manner exactly
analogously to the atmosphere in maintaining
high greenhouse temperatures, hence the
name.
gust - A sudden brief increase in the speed
of the wind. According to the U. S. weather
observing practice, gusts are reported when
the peak wind speed reaches at least 16
knots and the variation in wind speed be-
tween the peaks and lulls is at least 9 knots.
The duration of a gust is usually less than
20 seconds.
haze - Fine dust or salt particles dispersed
through a portion of the atmosphere, a type
of lithometeor. The particles are so small
they cannot be felt or individually seen by
the naked eye.
hot-wire anemometer - An anemometer
which utilizes the principle that the con-
vection of heat from a body is a function of
ventilation. Wind speed is determined by
measuring either the current required to
maintain the hot wire at a constant tempera-
ture or the resistance variation while a
constant current is maintained.
illuminometer - Same as photometer.
instability - A property of the steady state
of a system such that certain disturbances
or perturbations introduced into the steady
state will increase in magnitude.
inversion - A departure from the usual
decrease or increase with altitude of the
value of an atmospheric property; also,
the layer through which this departure
occurs.
inversion, temperature - A layer in which
temperature increases with altitude. The
principal characteristic of an inversion
layer is its marked static stability, so
that very little turbulent exchange can occur
within it. Strong wind shears often occur
across inversion layers, and abrupt changes
in concentrations of atmospheric particu-
lates and atmospheric water vapor may be
encountered on ascending through the
inversion.
isokinetic sampling - A technique for col-
lecting airborne particulate matter in which
the airstream entering the collector has a
velocity equal to the air passing around and
outside the collector.
kytoon - A captive balloon used to maintain
meteorological equipment aloft at an approxi-
mately constant height. It is streamlined
and combines the aerodynamic properties
of a balloon and a kite.
lapse rate - The decrease of atmospheric
temperature with height. The term applies
ambiguously to the environmental lapse-
rate and the process lapse-rate, and the
meaning must often be ascertained from the
context.
lapse rate, environmental - The rate of
decrease of temperature with elevation. The
environmental lapse rate is determined by
the distribution of temperature in the verti-
cal at a given time and place and should be
carefully distinguished from the process
lapse rate, which applies to an individual
air parcel.
lapse rate, process - The rate of decrease
of temperature of an air parcel as it is
lifted. In the atmosphere the process lapse
rate is usually assumed to be either the
dry-adiabatic lapse rate or the saturation-
adiabatic lapse rate.
mesometeorology - That portion of the
science of metoerology concerned with the
study of atmospheric phenomena on a scale
larger than that of micrometeorology, but
smaller than the cyclonic scale.
meteorology - The study dealing with the
phenomena of the atmosphere. This includes
not only the physics, chemistry, and dy-
namics of the atmosphere, but is extended
to include many of the direct effects of the
atmosphere upon the earth's surface, the
oceans, and life in general. The goals
often ascribed to meteorology are the com-
plete understanding, accurate prediction,
and artificial control of atmospheric
phenomena.
9-4
-------
Glossary
micrometeorology - That portion of the
science of meteorology that deals with the
observation and explanation of the smallest-
scale physical and dynamic occurrences
within the atmosphere. So far, studies in
this field are confined to the surface
boundary layer of the atmosphere; that is,
from the earth's surface to an altitude
where the effects of the immediate under-
lying surface upon air motion and composi-
tion become negligible. To date, the bulk
of the work in this field has centered
around the evaluation of low level atmos-
pheric turbulence, diffusion, and heat
transfer.
Mie Theory - A mathematical-physical
theory of scattering of electromagnetic
radiation which is not restricted to scat-
tering by particles small compared to the
wavelength of the scattered radiation but
is valid for all ratios of diameter to
wavelength.
mixing length - A mean length of travel
characteristic of a particular motion over
which an eddy maintains its identity; ana-
logous to the mean free path of a molecule.
photometer - (also called illuminometer) -
An instrument for measuring the intensity
of light or the relative intensity of a pair
of lights. If the instrument is designed to
measure the intensity of light as a function
of wavelength, it is called a spectro-photo-
metcr. Photometers may be divided into
two classes: photoelectric photometers in
which a photoelectric coll is used to com-
pare electr-H ally the intensity of an unknown
light with that of a standard light; and visual
photometers in which the human eye per-
forms the function <>!' a photo cell. A photo-
meter used to measure the intensity of a
distant light is referred to as a tclephoto-
mctcr or- t ran smissomoter .
planetary ^__
friction layor._atnu)sp_npj-ic_b_ourid_ary layer) -
That layer of the atmosphere from the
earth's surface to the geostrophic wind
level including, therefore, the surface
boundary layer and the Ekman layer. Above
this layer lies the free atmosphere.
potential temperature - The temperature a
parcel of dry air would have if brought
adiabatically from its initial state to the
standard pressure of 1000 mb.
prevailing wind - The wind direction most
frequently observed during a given period.
pyrheliometer - General term for the class
of actinometers which measure the intensity
of direct solar radiation.
radiational cooling - The cooling of the earth's
surface and adjacent air, accomplished when-
ever the earth suffers a net loss of heat due
to terrestrial radiation.
radiosonde - A balloon borne instrument for
the simultaneous measurement and trans-
mission of meteorological data. The instru-
ment consists of transducers for the measure-
ment of pressure, temperature and humidity;
a modulator for the conversion of the output
of the transducers to a quantity which controls
a property of the radio frequency signal; a
selector switch which determines the sequence
in which the parameters are to be transmitted;
and a transmitter which generates the radio-
frequency carrier.
Rayleigh scattering - Any scattering process
produced by spherical particles whose radii
are smaller than about one-tenth the wave-
length of the scattered radiation. The
scattering coefficient varies inversely with
the fourth power of the wavelength.
relative humidity - The dimensionless ratio
of the actual vapor pressure of the air to the
saturation vapor pressure.
resultant wind - In climatology, the vectorial
average of all wind directions and speeds for
a given level at a given place for a certain
period, as a month.
saturation-adiabatic lapse rate -A special
case of process lapse rate, defined as the
rate of decrease of temperature with height
of an air parcel lifted in a saturation adia-
batic process through an atmosphere in
hydrostatic equilibrium. Owing to the re-
lease of latent heat, this lapse rate is less
than the dry adiabatic lapse rate.
9-5
-------
Glossary
sheui , wind -The local variation of the wind
vector or any of its components in a given
direction.
streak line - A line within a fluid which, at
a given instant, is formed by those fluid
particles which at some previous instant
have- passed through a specified fixed point
in the fluid.
streamlines - A line whose tangent at any
point in a fluid is parallel to the instantaneous
velocity of the fluid at that point.
subsidencj1 - A descending motion of air in
the atmosphere, usually with the implication
that the condition extends over a rather
broad area.
surface boundary layer - (Also called sur-
face layer, friction layer, atmospheric
boundary layer, ground layer.) - That thin
layer of air adjacent to the earth's surface
extending up to the so-called anemometer
level (the base of the Ekman layer). Within
this layer the wind distribution is determined
largely by the vertical temperature gradient
and the nature and contours of the under-
lying surface-; and shearing stresses are
approximately constant.
synoptic - In meteorology, this term has
become somewhat specialized in referring
to the use of meteorological data obtained
simultaneously over a wide area for the
purpose of presenting a comprehensive and
nearly instantaneous picture of the state
of the atmosphere.
trajectory - A curve in space tracing the
points successively occupied by a particle
in motion, (a path).
turbulence - A state of fluid flow in which
the instantaneous velocities exhibit irregu-
lar and apparently random fluctuations so
that in practice only statistical properties
can be recognized and subjected to analysis.
The satisfactory treatment of this pheno-
mena in the atmosphere is perhaps the
outstanding unsolved problem of theoretical
meteorology.
valley breeze - A wind which ascends a
mountain valley (up-valley wind) during the
day; the daytime component of a mountain
and valley wind system.
veering - 1) According to general inter-
national usage, a change in wind direction in
a clockwise sense (e. g. .jsouth to southwest
to west) in either hemisphere of the earth;
the opposite of backing.
•
2) According to widespread usage
among U. S. meteorologists, a change in
wind direction in a clotJcvviso sense in the
northern hemisphere, counterclockwise in
the southern hemisphere.
wind rose - Any one of a class of diagrams
designed to show the distribution of wind
direction experienced at a given location
over a considerable period. The most com-
mon form consists of a circle from which
sixteen lines emanate, one for each compass
point. The length of each line is proportional
to the frequency of wind from that direction;
and the frequency of calm conditions is
entered in the center.
wind vane - An instrument used to indicate
wind direction.
wiresonde - An atmospheric sounding instru-
ment which is supported by a captive balloon
and used to obtain temperature and humidity
data from the ground level to a height of a
few thousand feet. Height is determined by
means of a sensitive altimeter, or from the
amount of cable released and the angle which
the cable makes with the ground. The in-
formation is telemetered to the ground through
a wire cable.
REFERENCE
Huschke, R. E. , Editor. Glossary of
Meteorology. Amer. Meteorol. Soc.
Boston, Massachusetts. 1959.
9-6
-------
ELEMENTARY STATISTICAL DESCRIPTION OF DATA
I DESCRIPTION OF DATA
Certain terms are used to describe data
obtained in a study.
A Mean
The sum of all the observations divided by
the number of observations it; the mean.
X
where:
N
(D
D Range
The range is the difference between the
smallest and largest observations of a
series.
E Variance
The variance is defined as the sum of the
squares of the deviations of the observations
from their mean, divided by one less than
the total number of observations.
= mean of the observations
£ (X. - X)2
N :1
(4)
X = value of an individual
1 observation
N = number of observations
B Geometric Mean
The Nth root of She product, of all the
observations is the geometric mean.
- _ N
X "
or:
Log X
where:
(X2)...(XN) (2)
(3)
X = geometric mean
C Median
The median is the middle value of any group
of observations. If the data are arranged
from smallest lo largesi. value, the median
\
is tho. -—-—;th term. It can be said of the
median that 50% of the data are equal to or
greater than its value; 50% are equal to or
less than this value.
where:
s = variance
An equivalent formula for s which is
simpler to use for computations is:
2
s =
2
X,
i
N
N - 1
(5)
F Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is defined as the
positive square root of the variance.
(X. - X)'
(6)
N - 1
where:
s = standard deviation or, from equation (5):
X.
N - 1
(7)
Note: The variance and standard deviation
are meaningful measures of variation
only if the data are normally distributed.
PA. MOS. 25.3.65
9-7
-------
Elementary Statistical Description of Data
G Correlation Coefficient
and:
The correlation coefficient is a measure
of ihe linear dependence between two
variables. By mathematical definition the
correlation coefficient can vary in
magnitude from -1 to + 1.
The equation of the correlation coefficient
is given by:
N2X.Y. -2X. SY.
11 11
b =
N£X.Y. - DX.^Y.
i ii i
where:
N
[NSY.2 -
= correlation coefficient
= sum of measurements of
first variable
= sum of measurements of
second variable
= number of measurements
H Linear Regression Line
If the relation between two variable is
significant, a further test is whether the
data can be represented by a straight line
in the form y = a + bx. To solve for the
constants a and b the equations are:
a =
2X. 2Y. - £X. 2X.Y.
i i i 11
NSX.2 - (SX.)2
where:
b = slope of regression line
a = intercept of regression line
REFERENCES
1 Brownlee, K. A. Industrial Experimen-
tation. Chemical Publishing Company. ,
Inc. Brooklyn, New York. 1953.
2 Burington, R. S. and May, D, C. Hand-
book of Probability and Statistics
With Tables. Handbook Publishers,
Inc. Sandusky, Ohio. 1953.
3 Dixon, W. J. and Massey, F. J., Jr.
Introduction to Statistical Analysis.
2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
Inc. New York. 1957.
4 U. S. Public Health Service Publication
No. 978. Air Pollution Measurements
of the National Air Sampling Network,
Analysis of Suspended Particulates
1957-1961. Robt. A. Taft Sanitary
Engineering Center, Cincinnati, Ohio.
1962.
9-8
-------
INDEX
Absorption
by aerosols 5-5
by gases 5-5
Abstracts - air pollution
and meteorology 8-1, 8-5
Actinometer 9-1
Adiabatic diagram 1-9, 1-22
Adiabatic lapse rate 1-4
Adiabatic process 9-1
Advection 9-1
Afternoon mixing depth (MXDP) 7-3
Air drainage
Air mass
Air pollution potential
climatology
criteria
definition of high potential
forecasting
mixing depth calculations
Air quality cycles
analysis methods
annual
averaging time
daily
nitrogen dioxide
oxidant
sampling time
sulfur dioxide
Aircraft-borne sensors
Albedo
fog
Anemometer
bridled cup
cup
propeller
Anticyclone
stagnating
subtropical
tracks
Area conversion factors
Atmospheric chemistry
Atmospheric tracers
Atomic weights
Austausch coefficient
Autocorrelation coefficient
Eulerian
Lagrangian
Average wind speed (AWS)
Averaging time for survey
9-1
1-6, 9-1
1-10, 4-2
4-6, 7-1, 7-3
7-6
7-1
7-1, 7-6
7-6
5-31
5-31
5-27
7-3,
5-23,
5-28,
5-23
5-25,
5-23
5-24
5-24
5-25
6-12, 6-13
1-1, 9-1
2-12
6-1, 6-4,9-1
6-1, 6-7
6-1
6-2,6-3
1-5, 1-6, 9-1
4-2,4-4
4-1
4-1, 4-3
9-28
5-9,5-12
7-31, 7-32
9-36
3-13
3-10, 3-11
3-14
3-13, 3-14
7-3
5-25, 5-27
Backing
Beaufort wind scale
Bibliographies
Bi-directional vane (Bivane)
Booklist - air pollution
meteorology
Boyle's law
Bridled cup anemometer
Buoyancy
Campbell-Stokes recorder
Cascade impactor
Centripetal acceleration
Chemistry, atmospheric
Climate
Climatology
Climatology, air pollution
air pollution potential
anticyclones
stagnating
subtropical
tracks
cyclones
tracks
frontal trapping
Holzworth, G. C.
Hosier, C. R.
inversion frequency
Klein, W. H.
Korshover, J.
maximum mixing depth
Visher, S. S.
wind speed
Cloudiness
urban vs. rural
Clouds
Concentration
conversion factors
Condensation
Condensation nucleus
Coning
Constant level balloon
Consultants
Convection
3-21, 9-1
9-1
8-7
3-19, 6-7,
9-2
8-1, 8-2
2-14
9-2
9-2
9-2
9-2
1-5
5-9, 5-12
9-2
9-2
4-1, 4-6
4-6
4-2, 4-4
4-1
4-1, 4-3
4-1,4-3
4-6
4-2, 4-4, 4-5,
4-6
4-2,4-4
4-2,4-5
4-1
4-2
4-4, 4-5
4-1,4-4
4-5
5-2
1-5,1-6
9-32
1-5, 1-6
1-6,1-7,9-2
2-5,2-6
6-6
8-2
9-2
PA.ME.29a.3.70
9-9
-------
Conversion factors
area
concentration
emission rate
flow
length
pressure
temperature
velocity
volume
weight
Coriolis force;
("or relation coefficient
space
defi ned
Correlogram
Kul t>rian
Ijagrangian
(Crystal lixation
Cumulal ivi' f requeue/
"list ribulion
Cycles
annual
daily
nitrogen dioxide
oxidant
sampling time
sulfur dioxide
Cyclone
tracks
D
9-26 — 9-37
9-28
9-32
9-34
9-30
9-33
9-25
9-26
9-35
9-29
9-31
9-32
1-2, 1-5, 9-2
i-IO
9-K
1-10
3-14
3-14
1-5
5-28
5-23, 5-25
5-23
5-24
5-24
5-25
5-24,5-25
1-5, 1-6
4-2,4-3
Data, meteorological 7-37
National Wcalh.-r
Records Center V-41, 7-42,
7-4-1
observing st.it ions
cooperali vi- 7-37
fire weather 7-37
I'i rst order 7-37
military 7-37
second order 7-37
upper air 7-37
publications
climatological data-
national summary 7-39
climatological data-state 7-39
daily weather map 7-38
local climatological data 7-38
northern hemisphere data
tabulations 7-38
National Weather Service
Offices and Stations 7-53
Davidson-Bryant equation 3-41
Decennial Census of United
States Climate 2-17, 7-50
Dew point 1-5,9-2
Diffusion (also see Turbulence) 2-1, 3-1,
3-36
defined 3-12, 9-2
horizontal turbulent
diffusion 3-3, 3-5
influence of cities 3-3
influence of weather
systems 3-3
vertical turbulent
diffusion 3-2, 3-3
Diffusion computations 3-17, 3-35
accuracy 3-22
areas within concentration
isopleths 3-21
assumptions 3-19
calculation of off-axis
concentrations 3-21
centerline concentration
from ground level source 3-20
continuous point source 3-18
elevated source 3-18, 3-19
estimation by graphical
means 3-21
estimation of vertical and
horizontal dispersion
estimation of wind speed
general equation
3-
3-
3-
3-
3-
3-
3-
ground level concentration
from an elevated source
nomograms
plotting ground-level concen-
tration isopleths 3-
source at ground level 3-
under vertically limited
convection 3-
use of stability categories for
sigma 3
Diffusion experiments, urban
Cincinnati 7-
St. Louis 7
20, 3-24,
3-25
20
13, 3-17,
18, 3-19
18
20, 3-21
28, 3-32
21
18
20
19
25
21 — 7-25
9-10
-------
Diffusion theory (see also Tur-
bulence and diffusion theory)
Fickian 3-13
generalized Gaussian diffu-
sion equation 3-17, 3-18
statistical 3-2, 3-10,
3-13
transfer theory 3-1Z, 3-13
general diffusion equation 3-13
virtual diffusivity ("K"
theory)
Dilution
Dines anemometer
Direct solar radiation
Dispersion
Diurnal
Do wnwash
near building
near stack
Downwind
Dry adiabat
Dry adiabatic lapse rate
3-2
2-1
9-2
9-3
9-3
9-3
3-41
3-40, 3-41
9-3
1-9
9-3
Eddy
Eddy diffusion
Eddy diffusivity
Eddy energy
Eddy velocity
Effective stack height
defined
effect of aerodynamic
do wnwash
9-3
9-3
3-13
3-9,3-10
3-9
3-40,
3-39
3-43
3-40, 3-41
3-43
effect of evaporative cooling 3-40
formulae 3-39, 3-40
corrections and limitation 3-40
Davidson-Bryant
Holland
Lucas
inversion - breakup
fumigation equation
rules-of-thumb
wind tunnel models
Ekman layer
Emission rate
conversion factors
Energy spectrum
Equation of continuity
Equation of state
Eulerian coordinates
Eulerian system
Evaporation
3-39
3-40
3-40
3-42
3-40,
3-41
9-3
3-41
9-34
3-11
3-18
2-14
9-3
3-9, 3-14
1-5
Exchange coefficient
(Austausch)
Exposure of instruments
airborne instruments
stack-mounted instruments
surface instruments
tower instruments
Extinction coefficient
Fanning
Flow
conversion factors
Flux
Fog
London, 1952
radiation
urban vs. rural
Free atmosphere
Friction layer
Frictional flow
Frontal trapping
Fronts
Fumigation
Gay-Lussac's law
Gas constant
Gaussian diffusion equation
General circulation
Palmen1 s model
Geometric mean
Geostrophic wind
Glossary
Gravitational settling
"Greenhouse effect"
Gust
Gust accelerorneter
Gustiness of the wind
H
Haze
Heat of condensation
High pressure area
Holland equation
Hot wire anemometer
Humidity
urban vs. rural
Hygrothermograph
3-13
6-21,6-25
6-24,6-25
6-23,6-24
6-21,6-22
6-22,.6-23
5-5
2-5,2-6
9-30
3-13
2-11, 2-12
5-18-5-20
2-12
3-2,5-3
9-3
9-3
1-5
2-3, 4-6
1-5, 1-6,2-3
2-5, 2-6,
2-11, 3-39
2-14
2-14
3-17
1-2
1-2
9-7
1-5,3-20,
9-3
9-1,9-6
5-13
1-1,9-3
9-4
6-7
3-6
9-4
1-5
1-5,1-6
3-40
9-4
5-1
6-16
9-11
-------
Illuminometer
Impaction
Insolation
Instability
Instruments, meteorological
aircraft-borne sensors
anemometers
bridled cup
cup
propeller
bi-directional vane
(bivane)
constant level balloon
exposure
airborne
stack-mounted
surface
tower
gust accelerometer
hygrothermograph
illuminometer
net radiometer
pilot balloon(pibal)
precipitation collector
psychrometer
pyranometer
pyrheliometer
radiosonde
rain gauges
recording
standard
tipping bucket
rawinsonde
resistance thermometer
rocket
shielding for temperature
sensors
sun photometer
T-sonde
temperature-difference
measurements
tethered balloon
tetroon
thermistor
thermocouple
transmissometer
turbulence measurements
6-15,9-4
5-13,5-15,
5-16
3-19,3-20
9-4
6-1, 6-26
6-12,6-13
6-1,6-4
6-2,6-7
6-1
6-2,6-3
6-7
6-6
6-8, 6-21,
6-25
6-24,6-25
6-23,6-24
6-21, 6-22
6-22.6-23
6-7
6-16
6-15
6-15
6-5
6-18
6-16
6-13,6-14
6-13,6-14
6-11, 6-12
6-17, 6-18
6-17
6-17
6-18
6-5
6-8
6-5
6-8, 6-11
5-6,6-14
6-12
6-8,6-13
6-12, 6-13
6-6
6-8
6-8
6-15
6-6,6-13
wind vanes
aerodynamic shape
flat-plate
splayed
wiresonde
Inversion
above valley
advection
defined
frequency
frontal
radiation
subsidence
urban vs. rural
Inversion breakup
Isobars
Isokinetic sampling
Isotropy
Jet stream
K
Kinematic viscosity
Kytoon
Lagrangian system
Lake breeze
Land breeze
Lapse rate
defined
dry adiabatic
effect on turbulence
environmental
inversion
isothermal
process
pseudoadiabatic
sub- adiabatic
super-adiabatic
urban effect upon
Large power plants
Length
conversion factors
Linear regression line
Local
Climatological Data (LCD)
Supplement
6-4,6-5
6-4
6-4
6-4
6-12
1-2
2-12
1-9
9-4
4-2,4-4
1-9
1-9,1-10
1-9,1-10
5-1
3-39
1-5
9-4
3-11
1-2, 1-5
5-13
9-4
3-9, 3-10,
9-4
2-10
2-10
9-4
1-4,1-9,
2-2
3-2,2-2
1-4, 9-4
1-4,1-9
1-4,2-2
1-4,9-4
1-5
1-4,1-9
1-4,1-9
3-3
3-41
9-33
9-8
7-38, 7-42, 7-43
2-16, 7-44
9-12
-------
Lofting
London smog
Looping
Los Angeles smog
Low pressure area
M
Maximum mixing depth
climatology
Mean
Median
Mesometeorology
Micrometeorology
Mie theory
Millibar
Mixing depth
Mixing length
Mode
Models - meteorological
diffusion
components
examples
Clarke-Cincinnati
Miller and Holzworth
Pooler-Nashville
Turner-Nashville
types
Morning urban mixing depth
(MNDP)
N
National Climatic Center
Natural removal processes
gravitational settling
impaction
rainout
tilted plume model
washout
Net radiometer
Nitrogen dioxide
O
2-5,2-6
5-9
2-5,2-6
5-9
1-5, 1-6
1-10,1-11
4-4, 4-5
5-28,9-7
5-28, 9-7
9-4
9-5
9-5
2-15
1-10,7-3,
7-6
9-5
5-28
4-6, 7-37
7-27
7-27
7-28
7-28
7-27
7-28
7-31
7-3
7-37
7-40
Olefins
Organic compounds
Ozone
5-13, 5-20
5-13
5-13, 5-15,
5-16
5-13, 5-16,
5-17
5-15
5-13,5-18
6-15
5-10
5-10
5-10
5-9, 5-10
Particulates
reactions
"Peak-to-mean" ratio
Periodicals - air pollution
and meteorology
Photochemical reactions
Photometer
Pibal
Pilot balloon
Planck' s law
Planetary boundary layer
Pollution concentration variation
due to meteorological
variations
variation due to sampling
time
Pollution wind rose
Potential temperature
Precipitation
urban vs. rural
Precipitation collector
Pressure
conversion factors
units
Pressure gradient force
Prevailing wind
Psychrometer
Pyranometer
Pyrheliometer
R
Radiation
solar
urban vs. rural
Radiational cooling
Radiosonde
Radon
Rain gauges
recording
standard
tipping bucket
Rainout
Range
Rawinsonde
Rayleigh scattering
Reflectivity
Regression
5-11
2-7
-6, 8-7
8-1,
5-9
5-5, 5-6,
6-14, 9-5
6-5
6-5
l-l
9-5
2-7
2-7
2-18
9-5
1-6, 1-7
5-1
6-18
9-27
2-14
1-5
9-5
6-16
6-13, 6-14
6-13, 6-14,
9-5
1-1
5-9
5-2
9-5
1-9,6-11,
9-5,6-lZ
3-2
6-17, 6-18
6-17
6-17
6-18
5-16, 5-17
5-28, 9-7
6-5
5-5,9-5
1-1
9-8
9-13
-------
Relative humidity 9-5
effect on atmospheric
chemistry 5-10, 5-12
effect on turbidity 5-6
urban vs. rural 5-1
Removal processes 5-13, 5-20
gravitational settling 5-13
impaction 5-13, 5-15,
5-16
rainout 5-13, 5-16,
5-17
tilted plume model 5-15
washout 5-13, 5-18
Resistance thermometer 6-8
Resultant wind 9-5
Reynolds number 5-13, 5-14
Rocket 6-5
Roughness element 2-2, 5-2
Roughness, surface 2-2
Sampling time for survey 5-25
Saturation-adiabatic lapse rate 9-5
Scattering 5-5
Sea breeze 2-10
Secondary pollution 5-9, 5-11
reaction rate 5-11
Selection of sites 7-17
Shear, wind 9-6
Shielding for temperature
sensors 6-8
Sigma 3-13, 3-19
estimation from stability 3-19
measurement 3-19
S ito selection 7-17
Smog
London, 1952 5-18, 5-20
London type 5-9
Los Angeles 5-9
oxidizing 5-9
reducing 5-9
Snow
urban vs. rural 5-2
.Solar radiation
impinging on earth l-l
photochemical effect 5-12
urban vs. rural 5-2,5-3
Sounding 1-9,1-21
Sources
area 3-2
continuous point 3-1
instantaneous point 3-1
isolated line 3-1
virtual "image" 3-17
Spectral density 3-11
Spectrum
energy or power 3-11
Stability, atmospheric 1-3
Stability categories 3-19, 3-23
Stagnating anticyclones 4-2, 4-4
Standard deviation 3-13, 3-19
defined 9-7
measurement 3-19
Stark-Einstein law 5-11
State climatologists 7-34
Statistics 9-7, 9-8
use in analysis of data 5-28
Stokes' law 5-13, 5-14
Stratosphere 1-3
Streak line 9-6
Streamline 9-6
Sublimation 1-5
Subsidence 1-4, 9-6
Sulfur dioxide 5-9, 5-10
Sulfuric acid 5-10
Sun photometer 5-5, 5-6,
6-14
Surface boundary layer 9-6
Surveys 7-9,
area 7-9
local source 7-9
operations 7-10
planning 7-10
purpose 7-9
research 7-9
site selection 7-9
Synoptic 9-6
Synoptic climatology 4-1
T
Temperature
conversion factors 9-24
diurnal variation with
height 3-4
horizontal variation 1-3
urban vs. rural 5-1
variation with height 1-2
Terminal velocity 5-14
Tethered balloon 6-12, 6-13
Tetroon 6-6
Thermistor 6-8
Thermocouple 6-8
Tilted plume model 5-15
Topographic influences on
transport and diffusion 2-9, 2-12
influence of hills and
valleys 2-9,2-11,
2-12
land-water differences 2-10, 2-11
9-14
-------
Tracers, atmospheric
Tracks
anticyclone
cyclone
Trajectory
Transmissivity
Transrmssometer
Trapping
Travel time (T)
Tropopause
Troposphere
T-sondt;
Turbidity
defined
net wo rk
sun photometer
Turbulence
defined
diurnal variation
effects of verticla tem-
perature distribution
Homogeneous
intensity
isotropic
measurements
mechanical
relation to atmospheric
stability
relation to wind records
sampling duration T
sampling periods (statis-
tical theory)
sampling time (s)
stationary
statistical proper! ies
thermal
Turbulence and diffusion theory
Kick, A.
Clifford, F. A.
Hay, .1. S. and Pasquill,
Hilsmcier, W. F. , and
Gifford.F.
Kolmoi-oroff, A. N.
Meade, P. J.
Mickelesen, W. R.
mixing length
Pasquill, F.
Prandtl, L-
Roberts, O. F. T.
sililarity
7-21, 7-22
4-1,4-3
4-2,4-3
9-6
5-5
6-15
2-5, 2-6
2-1, 3-15
1-3
1-2, 1-3
6-12
5-5
5-6,5-7
5-5,5-7
2-1, 3-1,
3-12
3-2,3-9,
9-6
2-3
3-2,3-3
3-10, 3-13
3-9
3-11
6-6,6-13
2-1, 2-2
2-2
2-2
3-12
3-11, 3-12
3-12
3-12, 3-13
3-12
2-2
3-1 i
3-19
F. 3-14
3-21
3-11
3-19
3-14
3-9
3-15,
3-9
3-13
3-11
Smith, F. B.
statistical
Sutton, O. G.
Taylor, G. I.
von Karman, T.
Turbulent (or eddy) velocity
Turbulent wake
U
Units of mcasure.ment
Urban diffusion experiments
Cincinnati
St. l,ouis
Urban dispersion model
components
3-13
3-10, 3-12
3-14
3-10, 3-11,
3-13
3-11
3-9
3-39
9-23
7-25
7-21 •
7-27
7-27
Valley breeze
Valley effects
Variance
Veering
Velocity
conversion factors
Visual range
urban vs. rural
Volume
conversion factors
Vorticity
7-25
types
Urban effect upon
meteorological para-
meters
cloudiness
humidity
radiation
rain
snow
temperature
visual range
wind
I-LI —
5-1, 5-7
5-2
5-1
5-2
5-1
5-2
5-1
5-3
5-2
9-6
2-9,2-10,
9-6
9-7
9-6
9-33
5-3
9-27
7-6
3-19
9-15
-------
w
Washout 5-13,5-18
Water vapor 1-4,1-5
National Weather Service 7-47
Weight
conversion factors 9-31
Wind
backing 3-21
channeling 2-9
climatology of low speeds 4-5
direction 2-1
diurnal variation 3-4, 3-5
fluctuations 3-5, 3-6
gustiness 3-6
persistence 4-6
slope 2-9,2-10
speed 2-1
urban vs. rural 5-2
valley 2-9,2-10
variability 2-1
veering 2-2, 3-21
Wind rose 2-16, 2-27
Bailie 2-26
defined 2-16,9-6
distribution of calms 2-22
removal of bias 2-22
Wind vane 6-4,6-5,
9-6
aerodynamic shape 6-4
flat plate 6-4
splayed 6-4
Wiresonde 6-12, 9-6
9-16
-------
9-17
-------
DIMENSIONAL SYSTEMS AND SELECTED SYSTEMS OF UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Table!. Common Systems of Units of Measurement for the Various Dimensional Systems
MASS-LENGTH-TiME
Symbo1
Definition
Dimensions
(mass)(length)
(time)"?
O) (UmensionltHH j (}) ^2.11™
U) dlmensionU-
(length)
mlversal g
constant
(forceXlength)
(mass-mole)(temp)
(mass){1e ngjh)
(time)2(masS-noU>(temp)
(force)(lenBth)_
rce)(time)2 - mole!(temp)
(length) J
(force)
(mass-mole)(temp)
sec 'gin -mole)°K
8.31X10 dyne-en
7gm " - mole)-°K
weight
(force)(time)'
(naas - mole)
(gm -mole)
dyne_
(rna88)(l_engtti)
(time)"''
"m-tt
2
•iscosity
(force)(time)
{lengthy5
(lengthHtlneJ
kinematic
viscosity
ss!
sec
Column number
9-18
-------
VALUES AND LOGARITHMS OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
Note: If 0 < x < .01 the value d;r c can be found by the use of
(1-x) or the value- for ex can be found by the use of (1 + x).
I
0 00
0 01
0 02
0 03
0 04
0 Ob
0 00
0 07
0.08
0 . 09
0 10
0.11
O.t2
0 13
0.14
0.15
0. 1C
O 17
O 1B
0.1 S
0 20
0 ?1
0 ':'?.
0.23
0.24
0.25
0. 26
0 . 27
0 28
0.29
0 30
O 31
0 . 32
0 33
0.34
0.35
0 36
0.37
0 38
o'39
0 40
0.41
0 42
0^43
0.44
0 45
0 46
047
. ^ /
0.48
0 49
0 50
e*
Value l<"Kio
1 . 0000 . 00000
1 .0101 .00434
1.0202 .00809
1.0.105 .01303
1.0408 .01737
1.0513 .02171
1 OG18 .02606
1.0725 .03040
1.0833 03474
1.0942 03909
1.1052 .043-13
1 1163 .04777
1 . 1275 . 0:/212
1 1388 OHi'16
1.1503 .00030
1 .1618 .Of>514
1 1735 . 0(i'.)49
1 18'j3 .O'.MiU
1 1972 .0/817
1.2092 .OH,">2
1 2?14 .CBGSr,
1 .2337 . O'JU'O
1 ''461 . 09f>'>4
1 2680 .0998')
1.2712 .10423
1 2840 .10857
1 29C9 .11292
1 3100 .11726
1 3?'!1 .12100
1.3364 .12595
1.3499 .13029
1 3634 .13463
1 3771 .13897
1 3910 .14332
1.4049 .14766
1.4191 .15200
1 4333 .15635
1 4477 .16069
1.4673 .16503
1.4770 .16937
1.4918 .17372
1 5(168 .17806
1 5220 .18240
1 5373 .18G7r)
1.5627 .19109
1 5683 .19543
1 5841 .19978
1 6000 .20412
1 6101 .'20846
1.6323 .21280
1.6487 .21715
e *
Value
00000
.99005
.98020
.97045
.96079
.95123
. 94 1 76
.93239
92312
.91393
90481
.89583
, 88692
,87809
.86931,
. 8607 1
.85214
.84366
.83527
.82696
.81873
81058
.80252
.794r-3
.78663
.77880
.77105
.76338
.75578
.74826
74082
.73345
.72615
.71892
.71177
.70469
.69768
.69073
.68386
.67706
.67032
.66365
.6570!)
.65051
.64404
63703
63128
.62500
61878
.01263
.60653
X
0.50
0.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
0.60
0.61
0.62
0.63
0.64
0.65
0.66
0.67
0.68
0.69
0 70
0.71
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.77
0.78
0.79
0.80
0.81
0.82
0.83
0.84
0.85
0.86
0.87
o.se
0.89
0.90
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.95
0.96
0.97
0.98
0.99
1.00
C*
Value Loffio
1.6487 .21715
1.6653 .22149
1 6820 .22583
1.6989 .23018
1.7160 .23452
1.7333 .23886
1.7507 .24320
1.7683 .24755
1.7860 .25189
1.8040 .25623
1.8221 .26058
1.8404 .26492
1 . 8589 . 26926
1.8776 .27361
1 . 8965 . 27795
1 . 91 55 . 28229
1.9348 .28664
1.9542 .29098
1.9739 .29532
1 . 9937 . 29966
2 . 01 38 . 30401
2 . 0340 . 30835
2.0544 .31269
2.0751 ,31703
2.0959 .32138
2.1170 .32572
2.1383 .33006
2.1598 .33441
2.1815 .33875
2.2034 .34309
2.2255 .34744
2.2479 .35178
2 . 2705 . 3561 2
2.2933 .36046
2.3164 .36481
2.3396 .36915
2 . 3632 . 37349
2.3869 .37784
2.4109 .38218
2 . 4351 . 38652
2.4596 .39087
2.4843 .39521
2 . 5093 . 39955
2 . 5345 . 40389
2.5600 .40824
2.5857 .41258
2.6117 .41692
2.6379 .42127
2.6645 .42561
2.6912 .42995
2.7183 .43429
e~*
Value
.60653
.60050
.59452
. 58860
.58275
. 57695
.57121
. 56553
. 55990
. 55433
.54881
.54335
. 53794
.53259
. 52729
. 52205
.51685
.51171
.50662
.50158
.49659
.49164
.48675
.48191
.47711
.47237
.46767
.46301
.45841
.45384
.44933
. 44486
.44043
.43605
.43171
.42741
.42316
.41895
. 41 478
.41066
. 40657
.40252
. 39852
.39455
. 39063
.38674
. 38289
.37908
.37531
.37158
.36788
9-21
-------
VALUES AND LOGARITHMS OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
(continued)
z
1 00
1 01
1 02
1 03
1.04
1 05
1 06
1.07
1 08
1 09
1 10
1 11
1.1?
1.13
1 14
1 15
1.16
1 17
1 18
1.19
1.20
1 21
1.22
1 23
1.24
1.25
1.26
1.27
1 28
1 29
1.30
1.31
1.32
1.33
1.34
1 35
1.36
1.37
1 38
1.39
1 40
1.41
1 42
1.43
1.44
1.45
1.46
1 .47
1 48
1.49
1.50
e*
Value Lnfti r,
2 7183 .43429
2 7456 .43864
2.7732 .44298
2.8011 .44732
2.8292 .15167
2.8577 .45001
2.8804 .46035
2 9154 .40470
2.9447 40904
2.9743 .47338
3 004? .4777?
3 <>()•» 48i'07
.< 00-19 48041
3.0957 .49075
3.12G8 .49510
3 153? .49944
3 1899 .50378
3.???0 .5081?
3 ?544 ,51?47
3.2871 .51681
3.3201 .52115
3 3535 .52550
3.3872 .52984
3.4212 .5.3418
3.4056 .53853
3 4903 .54287
3.5254 .54721
3.5609 .55155
3.5966 .55590
3.6328 .56024
3.6693 .56458
3 7062 .56893
3.7434 .57327
3.7810 .57761
3.8190 .58195
3 8574 .58630
3.8962 .59064
3 9354 .69498
3.9749 .59933
4.0149 .60367
4.0552 .60801
4.0960 .61236
4 1371 .61670
4.1787 .62104
4.2207 .62538
4.2631 .62973
4.3060 .63407
4.3492 .63841
4 3929 .64276
4.4371 .64710
4.4817 .65144
e~*
Value
. 36788
.36422
. 3&060
.35701
.35345
. 34994
.34616
.34301
.33960
. 33G22
.33287
' 3?G28
. 37303
.3198?
.31664
31349
.31037
. 30728
. 30422
.30119
.29820
.29523
.29?29
. 28938
.28650
.28365
.28083
.27804
.27527
.27253
.26982
.26714
.26448
.26185
.25924
.25666
.25411
.25158
.24908
.24660
.24414
.24171
.23931
.23693
.23457
.23224
.22993
.22764
.22537
.22313
X
1.50
.51
.52
.53
.54
55
56
.57
.58
59
1.60
1 61
1 62
1.63
1 64
I 65
1 66
1 67
1 68
1 69
1 70
1 71
1.72
1.73
1.74
1 75
1.76
1.77
1.78
1.79
1.80
1 81
1.82
1.83
1.84
1.85
1.86
1 87
1 .88
1 89
1 90
1.91
1.92
1 93
1.94
1.95
1 96
1 97
1 98
1 99
2.00
e*
Value Logic
4.4817 .65144
4.5267 .65578
4 5722 .66013
4.6182 .66447
4.6646 .66881
4.7115 .67316
4 7588 .67750
4.8066 .68184
4.8550 .68619
4.9037 .69053
4.9530 .69487
5 0028 .69921
5.0531 .70356
5 1039 .70790
5.1552 .71224
5.2070 .71659
5.2593 .72093
5.3122 .72527
5.3656 .72961
5.4195 .73396
5.4739 .73830
5.5290 .74264
5.5845 .74699
5 6407 .75133
5.6973 .75567
5.7546 .76002
5.8124 .76436
5.8709 .76870
5.9299 .77304
5.9895 .77739
6 0496 .78173
6.1104 .78607
6.1719 .79042
6.2339 .79476
6.2965 .79910
6.3598 .80344
6 4237 .80779
6.4883 .81213
6.5535 .81647
6.6194 .82082
6.6859 .82516
6 7531 .82950
6.8210 .83385
6 8895 .83819
6.9588 .84253
7.0287 .84687
7.0993 .85122
7.1707 .85556
7 2427 .85990
7.3155 .36425
7.3891 .86859
e~*
Value
722313
.22091
.21871
.21654
.21438
.21225
.21014
.20805
.20598
.20393
.20190
.19989
.19790
. 1 9593
. 1 9398
.19205
.19014
. 1 8825
.18637
.18452
.18268
.18087
.17907
. 1 7728
.17552
.17377
.17204
. 1 7033
.16864
.16696
.16530
.16365
.16203
.16041
.15882
15724
.15567
.15412
. 1 5259
.15107
.14957
.14808
14661
.14515
. 14370
.14227
.14086
.13946
.13807
.13670
.13534
9-22
-------
VALUES AND LOGARITHMS OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
(continued)
X
2.00
2.01
2.02
2.03
2.04
2.05
2.06
2 07
2. OB
2.09
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.19
2.20
2.21
2.22
2 23
2.24
2.25
2.26
2.27
2.28
2.29
2 30
2 31
2 32
2 33
2.34
2 35
2 36
2 37
2 38
2 39
2 40
2 41
2 42
2 43
2.44
2.45
2.46
2 47
2.48
2.49
2.50
e*
Value Logio
7 . 3891 . 86859
7 . 4633 . 87293
7.5383 .87727
7.6141 .88162
7 . 6906 . 88596
7 . 7679 . 89030
7.8460 .89465
7 9248 .89899
8.0045 .90333
8.0849 .90768
8.1662 .91202
8 2482 .91636
8.3311 .92070
8.4149 .92505
8 . 4994 . 92939
8 . 5849 . 93373
8.6711 .93808
8.7583 .94242
8 8463 .94676
8.9352 .95110
9.0250 .95545
9.1157 .95979
9.2073 .96413
9 . 2999 . 90848
9.3933 .97282
9.4877 .97716
9.5831 .98151
9.6794 .98585
9.7767 .99019
9.8749 .99453
9 9747. .90888
1 0 074 1 . 00322
10 176 1 00756
10 278 1 .01191
10 381 1.01625
10 486 1 .02059
10 591 1 .02493
10.697 1.02928
10 805 1 .03362
10.913 1.03796
11 023 1 .04231
11 . 134 1 .04665
11 .246 1 .05099
1 1 359 1 05534
11.473 1.05968
1 1 588 1 . 06402
1 1 . 705 1 . 06836
11.822 1.07771
11 941 1 .07705
12.061 1 .08139
12.182 1.08574
tr*
Value
.13534
.13399
, 1 3266
.1313'.
.13003
.12873
.12745
.12619
.12493
.12369
.12246
.12124
.12003
. 1 1 884
.11765
.11648
. 1 1 533
.11418
.11304
. 1 1 1 92
.11080
.10970
.10861
.10753
.10646
.10540
.10435
. 10331
. 10228
.10127
.10026
.09926
.09827
.09730
.09633
.09537
. 09442
.09348
. 09255
.09163
.09072
.08982
. 08892
. 08804
.08716
.08629
.08543
.08458
.08374
.08291
. 08208
Z
2.50
2.51
2 52
2.53
2.54
2.55
2.56
2.57
2.58
2.59
2.60
2.61
2.62
2.63
2.64
2.65
2.66
2.67
2.68
2.69
2.70
2.71
2.72
2.73
2.74
2.75
2.76
2.77
2.78
2.79
2.80
2.81
2.82
2.83
2.84
2.85
2.86
2. 87
2.88
2.89
2 90
2.91
2.92
2.93
2.94
2 95
2 96
?.97
2 98
2 99
3.00
«*
Value LOK.»
12.182 1.08574
12.305 1.09008
12.429 1.09442
12.554 1.09877
12.680 1.10311
12.807 1.10745
12.036 1.11179
13.066 1.11614
13.197 1.12048
13.330 1.12482
13 464 1.12917
13.599 1.13351
13.736 1.13785
13.874 1.14219
14.013 1.14654
14.154 1.15088
14.296 1.15522
1 4 . 440 1.1 5957
14 585 1 .16391
14.732 1.16825
14.880 1.17260
15.029 1.17694
15.180 1.18128
15.333 1.18562
15.487 1.18997
15.643 1.19431
1 5 800 1 . 1 9865
15.959 1.20300
16 119 1 .20734
16.281 1.21168
16 445 1.21602
16 610 1 .22037
16.777 1.22471
16.945 1.22905
17.116 1.23340
17.288 1.23774
17 462 1 .24208
17.637 1.24643
17.814 1.25077
17.993 1.25511
18.174 1.25945
18.357 1.26380
18.541 1.26814
18.728 1.27248
18.916 1.27683
19.106 1.28117
19 298 1 .28551
19.492 1.28985
19 688 1 .29420
19.886 1.29854
20.086 1.30288
e~*
Value
.08208
.08127
.08046
.07966
.07887
.07808
.07730
.07654
.07577
.07502
. 07427
.07353
.07280
.07208
.07136
.07065
.06995
.06925
.06856
.06788
.06721
.06654
.06587
. 06522
.06457
.06393
.06329
.06266
.06204
.06142
.0608'
.06020
.05961
05901
.05843
.05784
.05727
.05670
.05613
.05558
.05502
.05448
.05393
.05340
.05287
.05234
.05182
.05130
.05079
.05029
.04979
9-23
-------
VALUES AND LOGARITHMS OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS
(continued)
X
3.00
3.05
3.10
3 15
3 20
3.25
3.30
3,35
3 40
3.49
3. SO
3 55
3 SO
3 65
3.70
3.75
3. BO
3.85
3.90
3.95
4.00
4 10
4.20
4.30
4.40
4.50
4.60
4.70
4.80
4.90
5.00
5.10
5.20
5.30
5.40
5.50
5.60
5.70
5.80
5.90
6.00
6.25
6.50
6.75
7.00
7.50
8.00
8.50
9.00
9.50
10.00
e*
Value
20.086
21.116
22.198
23.336
24.533
25.790
27.113
28.503
29.964
31.500
33.115
34.813
36.598
38.475
40.447
42.521
44.701
46.993
49.402
51.935
54.598
fiO.340
66.686
73.700
81.451
90.017
99.484
109.95
121.51
134.29
148.41
164.02
181 .27
200.34
221 . 41
244 . 69
270.43
298 87
3.10.30
305.04
403.43
518.01
665.14
854.06
1096.6
1808.0
2981.0
4914.8
8103.1
13360.
22026.
Logie
1.30288
1.32460
1.34631
1 . 36803
1.38974
1.41146
1.43317
1.45489
1.47660
1.49832
1 . 52003
1.54175
f . 56346
1.58517
1.60689
1.62860
1 .65032
1.67203
1.69375
1.71546
1.73718
1.78061
1.82404
1.86747
1.91090
1 .95433
1.99775
2.04118
2.08461
2.12804
2.17147
2.21490
2.25833
2.30176
2.34519
T. 38862
2.43205
2.47548
2.51891
2.56234
2 . 60577
2.71434
2.82291
2.93149
3.04006
3.25721
3.47436
3.69150
3.90865
4.12580
4.34294
r*
Value
.04979
.04736
.04505
.04285
.04076
.03877
.03608
.03508
.03337
.03175
.03020
.02872
.02732
.02599
.02472
.02352
.02237
.02128
.02024
.01925
.01832
.01657
.01500
.01357
.01227
.01111
.01005
.00910
.00823
.00745
.00674
.00610
.00552
.00499
.00452
.00409
.00370
.00335
.00303
.00274
.00248
.00193
.00150
.00117
.00091
.00055
.00034
.00020
.00012
.00007
.00005
9-24
-------
CONVERSION FACTORS
Page
TEMPERATURE. 9-26
PRESSURE 9-27
AREA... 9-28
VOLUME 9-29
FLOW 9-30
WEIGHT 9-31
CONCENTRATION 9-32
LENGTH 9-33
EMISSION RATES 9-34
VELOCITY 9-35
LOGARITHMS
10-99 to Base 10 9-36 — 9-37
International
Atomi c Wei ghts 9-38
9-25
PA.ME.30.7.73
-------
CONVERSION FACTORS - TEMPERATURE
\v
Desired
. Units
Given
Units
Degrees
Fahr.
Degrees
Centigrade
Degrees
Rankin
Degrees
Kelvin
°F
1. 8°C 4 32
°R - 460
1. 8(°K-273) + 32
°C
. 5555 x
(°F - 32)
. 5555 x
(°R - 492)
°K - 273
°R
°F + 460
1. 8°C + 492
1. 8(°K-273)+492
°K
.5555 x
(°F-32) + 273
°C + 273
.5555 x
(°R-492) + 273
9-26
-------
CONVERSION FACTORS - PRESSURE
Desire
unit
Given
units
gmm i
cm-sec2
dynes
cm2
#m
ft-sec2
poundals
ft2
grnf
cm2
#f
ft2
hi2
"Atmosphei
I
d !
am ! dynes *m poundals
6 m •
8mf
cm-sec2 cm 2 it- sec* ft2 i cm2
1 i 6.7197 6.7197 1.0197
x 10-2 x 10~2 x 10-3
1 : i 6.7197 . 6.7197 1.0197
x ID"2 | x 10-2 x 10-3
14.882 : 14.882 1 1 L 517;j
: • ; xlO-2
14.882 14.882 i 1 1
i
980.665 980.665 65.898 j 65.898
478.80 478.80 32.174 32.174
i j
6.8948 6.8948 4.6331 4.6331
x 104 x 104 x 103 x 103
es" 1.0133 1.0133 6.8087 6.8087
x 106 x 106 x 104 x 104
1.5175 ;
xlO-2 ;
1
4.88E4
x 10-1
70. 307
1. 0332
x 103
"f :
ft2
2. 0885
x 10-3
2. 0885
x lO-3 ,
3.io8i ;
x 10- 2
3.1081
x lO'2
2. 0482
1
144. 00
2. 1162
x 10 3
"f
"Atmospheres
in2
1. 4504
x 10-5
1.4504
x 10-5
2.1584
xlO'4
2.1584
x lO-4
1.4223
xlO-2
6. 9444
x 10-3
14. 696
9. 8692
x 10-7
9.8692
x 10-7
1.4687
x 10-5
1. 4687
x 10-5
9. 6784
x 10-4
4.7254
x 10-4
6. 8046
x 10-2
1
To convert a value from a given unit to a desired unit, multiply the given value by the factor opposite the given units
and beneath the desired units.
vo
-------
VO
to
00
CONVERSION FACTORS - AREA
Desired
Units
Given
Units
Square
Inch
Square
Feet
Square
Yard
Square
Mile
Acre
Square
Centimeter
Square oquare
Decimeter Meter
Square
'"" meter
Square
Inch !
Square
Foot
Square 1
Yard
Square
Mile
Acre
Square
Centimeter
Squa.re
Decimeter
Square
Meter
Square
Kilometer
1
144
1296
40. 144
x 108
62.73
xlO7
15. 5 x ID"2
15. 5
15. 5 x 10*
15. 5 x 108
6. 9444
x 1
-------
CONVERSION FACTORS - VOLUME
^XDe.sirt ,:
GivenS^L'nits
Units ^V^
Cub; .
Yard
Cubic
Foot
Cubic
Inch
Cubic
Meter
Cubic
Decimeter
Cubic
Centimeter
Liter
Cubic
Yard
i
3. 7037
xio-2
2. 143347
X io"°
1. 30794
1.3079
xio-3
1. 3079
XHf6'
1. 3080
XKf3
Cubic
Foot
'^ i
1
5.78704
x io"4
35. 314445
3.5314
X 10~2
3.5314
x io~5
3. 5316
x io"2
Cubic
Inch
4. 6655
xio4
1728
1
6. 1023
x io4
61.023
6. 1023
x io"2
61.025
Cubic
Meter
0. 764553
2. 8317
_o
X 10 "
'.63372
x io"D
i
0.001
i x io"6
1,000027
x i
-------
CONVERSION FACTORS - FLOW
N\Desired
\[- nits
°- ". \
.Ml
sec
."I
min
jii
hour
jtl
se.-
a3
rr.in
j,!
r.^ur
L
dVC
[.
.,, 3
St .
3
cm
mm
M3
sec
1
0.0167
2.778
< 1C'3
23.317
-------
CONVERSION FACTORS WEIGHT
Desired
Units
Given
Micro-
gram
Milli-
gram
gram
Kilogram
grain
Ounce
(avdp)
Pound
(avdp)
Micro-
gram
1
1 x 103
1 x 106
1 x 109
64.799
x 103
28.349
x 106
453.59
x 106
Ton 905.185
(U.S. short) x 109
Multi-
gram
1 x 10"3
1
1 x 103
1 x 106
64.799
28.349
x 103
453.59
x 103
907.185
x 106
Kile-
gram gram
1 x 10~6 1 x 10~9
1 x 10~3 1 x 10~6
1 1 x 10~3
1 x 103 1
64.799 64.799
x 10~3 x 10~6
28.349 28.349
x 10-3
453. 59 453.59
x 10-3
907.185 907.185
x 103
grain
15.4124
x 10-6
15.4324
x ID"3
15.4324
15. 4324
x 103
1
437.5
7000
14 x 106
Ounce
(avdp)
3.5274
x 10-8
3.5274
x 10-5
3.5274
x 10-2
35.274
22.857
x 10~4
1
16
x'lO4
Pound
(avdp)
2.2046
x 10-9
2.2046
x 10-6
2.2046
x 10-3
2.2046
1.4286
x 10-4
62.5
x 10~3
1
2000
Ton
(U:S. short)
1.1023
x 10-12
1.1023
x 10-9
1.1023
x 10~6
1.3.023
x 10-3
7.143
x 10-8
3.125
x lO-5
5 x 10~4
1
Tonne
(metric)
ix 10-12
1 x 10-9
Ix ID'6
1 x 10-3
64.799
x 10-9
28.349
x lO"6
453.59
x 10~6
0.907185
Tonne 1 x 1012
(metric)
1 x
1 x 106 1 x 103
1.543 x 107 3.5274
x 104
2204.62
1.10231
-------
CONVERSION FACTORS - CONCENTRATION
\Desired
NUnits
GivenS.
Units Ny
E&
3
M
.irJli
M3
M
L
oz
ft.3
Ibs.
ft.3
grams
ft.3
Ibs.
1000 ft.
grains
ft.3
v
M3
1
-3
1 x 10
.999973
1.00115
xlO6
1.602
x 10?
3.531
xlO4
1.602
x 104
2.288
xlO3
M3
1000
1
9.99973
xlO2
1.00115
xlO9
1.602
xlO10
3.531
xlO7
1.602
xlO7
2.288
xlO6
yg
L
1.000027
1.000027
xlO-3
1
1.00118
xlO6
1.602
xlO7
3.531
xlO4
1.602
x 104
2.288
xlO3
oz
ft.3
9.989
x 10"7
9.989
x ID'10
9.988
x 10'7
1
16
3.5274
xlO-2
1.6
x 10"2
2.2857
3
x 10
Ibs.
ft.3
6.243
x 10"8
6.243
x ID'11
6.242
x 10"8
62.5
x 10"3
1
2.20462
x 10"3
IxlO"3
1.4286
x 10"4
grams
ft.3
2.8317
x ID'5
2.8317
x 1Q-8
2.8316
x 10"5
28.349
453.59
1
453.59
x 10"3
6.4799
xlO-2
Ibs.
1000 ft^
6.243
x 10"5
6.243
x 10"8
6.242
x 10"5
62.5
3
1x10
2.2046
1
14.286
grains
ft.3
4.37
xlO-4
4.37
x 10-7
4.37
x 10"4
4.375
x 102
3
7x10
15.43
7
1
To convert a value from a given unit to a desired unit, multiply the given value by
the factor opposite the given units and beneath the desired unit.
9-32
-------
CONVERSION FACTORS - LENGTH
Desired
Units
Given
Units
Inch
Foot
Yard
Mile
Micron
Millimete r
Centimeter
Meter
Kilometer
Inch
1
12
36
6. 3360
xlO4
3.937
x 10-5
3. 937
x ID'2
3. 937
x 10"1
39.37
3. 937
xlO4
Foot
83.33
x ID"3
1
3
5280
32.808
x 10~7
32508
xlO-4
32.808
x 10'3
32.808
x 10-1
32.808
x 102
Yard
27.778
x 10'3
3333
1
1760
10. 94
x 10-7
10. 94
x 10-4
10. 94
x 10-3
10. 94
x 10'1
10. 94
x 102
Mile
1.578
x 10-5
1.894
x 10-4
5. 682
x ID"4
1
62.137
x ID"11
62.137
x UT8
62.137
x 10'7
62.137
x 10'5
62.137
x 10~2
Micron
2. 54
x 104
30.48
x 104
91.44
x 104
1.6094
xlo9
1
Ix 103
IxlO4
Ix 106
Ix 109
Millimeter
25.4
304.8
914.4
1. 6094
x 106
1 x 10'3
1
10
1 x 103
Ix 106
Centimete
2. 54
1
30.48
91.44
1. 6094
x 105
1 x 10'4
0.1
1
1 x 102
1 x 105
r Meter
2. 54
x ID'2
30.48
x 10"2
91. 44
x 10-2
1. 6094
x 103
1 x 10'6
1 x 10-3
1 x 10-2
1
1 x 103
Kilometer
2. 54
x lO"5
30. 48
x 10~5
91. 44
x 10-5
1.6094
1 x 10-9
IxlO-6
1 x 10-5
1 x 10~3
1
To convert a value from a given unit to a desired unit, multiply the given value by the factor opposite the given
units and beneath the desired units.
vo
I
CO
u>
-------
V0
CONVERSION FACTORS - EMISSION RATES
n
0
It
H
Desired
units
Given
units
gms/sec
gms/min
kg/hr
kg /day
Ibs/min
lbs/hr
Ibs/day
tons/hr
tons /day
tons/yr
gms/sec
1.0
1.6667
x io-2
2. 7778
X 10"1
1.1574
X ID"2
7. 5598
1. 2600
x io-1
5.2499
x io-3
2.5199
X IO2
1. 0500
X 10
2.8766
x io-2
J
gms/min
60. 0
1. 0
16.667
6. 9444
x 10-1
4. 5359
X IO2
7. 5598
3.1499
x io-1
1. 5120
X104
6.2999
X IO2
1. 7260
kg/hr
3.6
6.0
X IO-2
1.0
4. 1667
x io-2
2. 7215
X 10
4.5359
X lO'1
1. 8900
x io-2
9.0718
X IO2
3. 7799
X 10
1.0356
x io-1
kg /day
8. 640
X 10
1.4400
2.4000
X 10
1. 0
6. 5317
X IO2
1.0886
X 10
4. 5359
x io-1
2.1772
X104
9. 0718
X IO2
2. 4854
Ibs/min
1. 3228
x io-1
2. 2046
x io-3
3. 6744
x io-2
1. 5310
x io-3
1. 0
1.6667
x io-2
6. 9444
x io-4
3. 3333
X 10
1. 3889
3.805?
X IO-3
Ibs/hr
7.9367
1.3228
x io-1
2.2046
9. 1860
x io-2
60.0
1. 0
4.1667
X 1Q-2
2. 0
X 1Q3
8. 3333
X 10
2. 2831
X 10"1
Ibs/day
1.9048
X IO2
3.1747
5.2911
X 10
2.2046
1.44
X IO3
24.0
1.0
4.8000
X104
2.0
X IO3
5.4795
tons/hr
3.9683
x io-3
6.6139
x io-5
1. 1023
X ID' 3
4. 5930
X ID'5
3.000
x io-2
5.0000
x io-4
2.0833
X IO-5
1.0
4.1667
x io-2
1.1416
X ID'4
tons /day
9. 5240
X ID'2
1. 5873
x io-3
2.6456
xio-2
1.1023
x io-3
7.2000
x io-1
1. 2000
x io-2
5.0000
xio-4
24.0
1. 0
2. 7397
X 10'3
tons/yr
3.4763
X 10
5.7938
x io-1
9.6563
4.0235
x io-1
2. 6280
X IO2
4. 3800
1. 8250
X lO'1
8.7600
X IO3
365. 0
1.0
To convert a value from a given unit to a desired unit, multiply the given value by the factor opposite the given units
and beneath the desired units.
-------
CONVERSION FACTORS - VELOCITY
Desi
un
Given
units
m/ sec
ft/sec
ft/min
km/hr
mi/hr
knots
mi/day
red
its
m/sec
1.0
3.0480
X 10"1
5. 0080
X 10'3
2.7778
X ID'1
4. 4707
X 10-1
5.1479
X 10-1
1.8627
X ID'2
ft /sec
3.2808
1.0
1.6667
X 10"Z
9.1134
X 10"1
1.4667
1. 6890
6.1111
X 10'2
ft/min
1.9685
X 102
60
1.0
5.4681
X 10
88.0
1.0134
X 102
3.6667
km/hr
3.6
1.0973
1.8288
X 10'2
1.0
1.6093
1. 8533
6. 7056
X IO"2
mi/hr
2. 2369
6. 8182
X 10'1
1.1364
X ID'2
6.2137
X 10"1
1.0
1.1516
4. 1667
X ID"2
knots
1. 9425
5. 9209
X 10-1
9. 8681
x io-3
5. 3959
x io-1
8.6839
x io-1
1.0
3. 6183
x io-2
mi/day
5. 3687
X 10
1. 6364
X 10
2. 7273
X 1Q-1
1.4913
X 10
24
2. 7637
X 10
1. 0
To convert a value from a given unit to a desired unit, multiply the given value by the factor opposite the
given units and beneath the desired units
o
o
3
W
01
-------
Conversion Factors
LOGARITHMS TO BASE 10
N
!•
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Zt
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
10
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
4*
41
42
43
44
45
40
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
N
01234
0000 0043 0086 0128 0170
0414 0453 0492 0531 0569
0792 0828 0864 0899 0934
1139 1173 1206 1239 1271
1461 1492 1523 1553 1584
1781 1790 1818 1847 1875
2041 2068 2095 2122 2148
2304 2330 2355 2380 2405
2553 2577 2601 2625 2648
2788 2810 2833 2856 2878
3010 3032 3054 3075 3096
3222 3243 32G3 3284 3304
3424 3444 3464 3483 3502
3617 3G36 3655 3674 3092
3802 3820 3838 3856 3874
3979 3997 4014 4031 4048
4150 4166 4183 4200 4216
4314 4330 4346 4362 4378
4472 4487 4502 4518 4533
4624 4639 4654 4669 4683
4771 4786 4800 4814 4829
4914 4928 4942 4955 4969
5051 5065 5079 5092 5105
5185 5198 5211 5224 5237
5315 5328 5340 5353 5366
5441 5453 5465 5478 5490
5563 5575 5587 5599 5611
5682 5694 5705 5717 5729
5798 5809 5821 5832 5843
5911 5922 5933 5944 5955
6021 6031 6042 6053 6064
6128 8138 6149 6160 6170
6232 6243 6253 6263 6274
6335 6345 6355 6365 6375
6435 6444 6454 6464 6474
6532 6542 6551 6561 6571
6628 6637 6646 6656 0065
6721 6730 8739 6749 6758
8812 (ML- 1 68.10 U839 0848
8902 0911 6U20 (i£->8 6937
6990 8998 7007 7016 7024
7070 7084 7093 7101 7110
7180 7168 7177 7IH.1 71<):i
7243 7251 7'J.',9 7M7 7275
7324 7331 7340 7348 73.VI
01234
56789
0212 0253 0294 0334 0374
0607 0646 0682 0719 0755
0969 1004 1038 1072 1106
1303 1335 1367 1399 1430
1614 1644 1673 li 03 1732
1903 1931 1969 1987 2014
2175 2201 2227 2253 2279
2430 2455 2480 2504 2529
2672 2695 2718 2742 2765
2900 2923 2945 2967 2989
3118 3139 3160 3181 3201
3324 3345 3365 3385 3404
3522 3541 3560 3579 3598
3711 3729 3747 3766 3784
3892 3909 3927 3945 3962
4065 4082 4O99 4116 4133
4232 4249 4265 4281 4298
4393 4409 4425 4440 4456
4548 45G4 4579 4594 4609
4698 4713 4728 4742 4757
4843 4857 4871 4886 4900
4983 4997 5011 5024 5038
5119 5132 5145 5159 5172
5250 5263 5276 5289 5302
5378 5391 5403 5416 5428
5502 5514 5527 5539 5551
5623 5635 5647 5658 5670
5740 5752 5763 5775 5786
5855 5866 5877 5888 5899
5966 5977 5988 5999 6010
6075 6085 6096 6107 6fl7
6180 6ini 6201 0212 6222
6284 6294 63O4 6314 6325
6385 6395 6405 6415 642.1
6484 6493 6503 6513 6522
6580 0590 6599 6609 60 18
GG75 6684 6693 8702 6712
6767 «776 6785 0794 6803
6857 68UO 0875 0884 68U3
6946 6955 6904 6972 61)81
7033 7042 7050 7059 7067
7118 7126 7IX'> 7143 7152
72f« 7210 7218 7220 7235
7284 7292 7300 7308 7316
7304 7372 7380 7388 73'.MJ
56789
Proportional Part*
123456789
4 8 12 17 21 25 29 33 37
4 8 11 15 19 23 26 30 34
3 7 10 14 17 21 24 28 31
3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26 29
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
3 6 8 11 14 17 20 22 25
3 5 8 11 13 16 18 21 24
2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22
2 5 7 9 12 14 16 19 21
2 4 7 9 11 13 16 18 20
2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17 19
2 4 8 8 10 12 14 18 18
2 4 8 8 10 12 14 15 17
2 4 S 7 9 11 13 15 17
2 4 5 7 9 11 12 14 16
2 3 5 7 8 10 12 14 IB
2 3 5 7 8 10 11 13 IS
2 3 5 8 8 9 11 13 14
2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14
1 3 4 8 7 9 10 12 13
3 4 6 7 9 10 11 13
3 4 8 7 8 10 11 12
3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
3 4 6 6 8 9 10 12
3 4 5 8 8 9 10 11
2 4 5 8 7 9 10 11
2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11
2356789 10
2356789 10
23 457S910
2345689 10
23456789
23456789
23456789
23456789
23458789
23458778
23455878
23445678
23446678
23345678
23345878
22345677
23345067
22345667
123456789
Tiie proportional parts are stated in full for every tenth at the right-hand side.
The logarithm of any number of four significant figures can be read directly by
adding the proportional part corresponding to the fourth figure to the tabular
number corresponding to the first three figures. There rnay be an error of 1 in
the last place.
9-36
-------
LOGARITHMS TO BASE 10
(conlinued)
N
55
56
57
58
59
6*
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
M
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
•0
91
92
93
04
95
96
97
98
99
N
01234
7404 7412 7419 7427 7435
7482 7490 7407 7505 7513
7559 75CO 7574 7582 7589
7634 7042 7049 7657 7664
7709 7710 7723 7731 7738
7782 7789 7796 7803 7810
7853 786O 7868 7875 7882
7924 7931 7938 7945 7952
7993 8000 8007 8014 8021
8062 8069 8075 8082 8089
8129 8136 8142 8149 8156
8195 8202 8209 8215 8222
82B1 8207 8274 8280 8287
8325 8331 8338 8344 8351
8388 8395 8401 8407 8414
8451 8457 8463 8470 8476
85 13 a519 8525 8531 8537
8573 8579 8585 8591 8597
8033 8639 8645 8651 8657
8892 8698 8704 8710 8716
8751 8756 8762 8768 8774
8808 8814 K820 8825 8831
8865 8871 8K76 8882 8887
8921 8927 8932 8938 8943
8976 8982 8987 8993 8998
9031 9036 9042 9047 9053
9085 9090 9096 9101 9106
9138 9143 9149 9154 9159
9191 9196 9201 9206 9212
9243 9248 9253 9258 9203
9294 9299 9304 93O9 9315
9145 93.50 9355 9360 9365
9395 9400 9405 9410 9415
9445 9450 9455 94fiO 9465
9494 9499 9504 9509 9513
't',42 9547 :).'<••>- 8557 9562
•JVM ''595 9600 9OO5 96O9
9038 9043 WH7 9052 9657
9085 9689 9694 9f>90 9703
«731 9736 9741 W745 9750
9777 9782 9786 9791 8795
9823 9827 9832 9836 9841
98C.8 987'J 0877 9R81 r of 1 ,„
the last place.
9.37
-------
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC WEIGHTS
BASED ON CARBON - 12
Actinium
Aluminum
Americium
Antimony
Argon
Arsenic
Astatine
Barium
Berkelium
Beryllium
Bismuth
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Calcium
Californium
Carbon
Cerium
Cerium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Cunum
Dysprosium
Einsteinium
Erbium
Europium
Fermium
Fluorine
Francium
Gadolinium
Gallium
Germanium
Gold
Hafnium
Helium
Holmium
Hydrogen
Indium
Iodine
Indium
Iron
Krypton
Lanthanum
Lead
Lithium
Lutetiura
Magnesium
Manganese
Mencklevium
Sym-
bol
Ac
Al
Am
Sb
Ar
Aa
At
Ba
Bk
Be
Bi
B
Br
Cd
Ca
Cf
c
Ce
Cs
Cl
Cr
Co
Cu
Cm
Dy
Es
Er
Eu
Fm
F
Fr
Gd
Ga
Ge
Au
Hf
He
Ho
H
In
I
Ir
Fe
Kr
La
Pb
Li
Lu
Mg
Mn
Md
Atomic
Number
89
13
95
51
18
33
85
56
87
4
83
5
35
48
20
98
6
58
55
17
24
27
29
96
66
99
68
63
100
9
87
64
31
32
79
72
2
67
1
49
53
77
26
30
57
82
3
71
12
25
101
Atomic
Wright
[227) *
20.9815
|243] *
J21.75
39.948
74.9216
|210| *
137.34
1249) *
0.0122
20S.980
10.811-
79.909*
112.40
40.08
I251J*
12.01115*
140.12
132.905
35.453*
61.996 *
58.9332
63.54
1247|*
162.50
I254J*
167.26
151.96
(253)*
18.9984
1223]*
157.25
69.72
72.59
196.967
178.49
4.0026
164.930
1. 00797 •
114.82
126.9044
192.2
55-847*
83.80
138.91
207.19
6.939
174.97
24.312
54.9380
1256]*
Mercury
Molybdenum
Neodymium
Neon
Neptunium
Nickel
Niobium
Nitrogen
Nobelium
Osmium
Oxygen
Palladium
Phosphorus
Platinum
Plutonium
Polonium
Potassium
Praseodymium
Promethium
Protactinium
Radium
Radon
Rhenium
Rhodium
Rubidium
Ruthenium
Samarium
Scandium
Selenium
Silicon
Silver
Sodium
Strontium
Sulfur
Tantalum
Technetium
Tellurium
Terbium
Thallium
Thorium
Thulium
Tin
Titanium
Tungsten
Uranium
Vanadium
Xenon
Ytterbium
Yttrium
Zinc
Zirconium
Sym-
bol
Hg
Mo
Nd
Ne
Np
Ni
Nb
N
No
Os
0
Pd
P
Pt
Pu
Po
K
Pr
Pm
Pa
Ra
Rn
Re
Rh
Rb
Ru
Sm
Sc
Se
Si
Ag
Na
Sr
S
Ta
To
Te
Tb
Tl
Th
Tm
Sn
Ti
W
U
V
Xo
Yb
Y
Zn
Zr
Atomic
Number
Atomic
Weight
80 200.59
42 95.94
60 144.24
10 20.183
93 [237| *
28 58.71
41
7
92.906
14.0067
102 [254] *
76 190.2
8 15.9994 «
46
15
78
10b.4
30.9738
195.09
94 [2421 *
84 [210| *
19
59
61
91
88
86
75
45
37
44
62
21
34
14
47
11
38
16
73
43
52
65
81
90
69
50
22
74
92
23
54
70
39
30
40
39.102
140.907
147 *
231 *
226 *
222 *
186.2
102.905
85.47
101.07
150.35
44.956
78.96
28.086*
107.870 *
22.9898
87.62
32.064*
180.948
[99|*
127.60
158.924
204.37
232.038
168.934
118.69
47.90
1S3.85
238.03
50.942
131.30
173.04
88.905
65.37
9132
• Value In bnekeu denotes the man number ol the Isotope <>f loncest known halt life (or a better known on*
lor Bk, Cf. Po. Pm. and Tc).
* AUMBle weight varies became of natural variation In teotople composition: B. ±0.003; C. ±0.00005:
R.. ±0.00001: O. ±0.0001: SL ±0.001: 8. ±0.003.
* Atonic wetaht la believed to have toHowlni etprrltoental uncertainty :Br. ±0.002: Cl. ±0.001: Cr. ±0.001:
Ve. ±0.003: A«. ±0.003. For other element*, the last dlqll ctven for the atomic weight la believed reliable to
±0.5. Lawrendum. Lw. has been proponed as the name lor .•Icinent No. 103. nurlldle mass about 257.
9.38
------- |